2.9 Nepal
1 | Country Information
Table 2.9.1 Basic indicators
Land Area (km2)

147,181*

Total Population

30.16 million**
31.83 billion (2020)***GDP (current USD)
GDP per capita (current USD)

1,085 (2020)***

Average Precipitation (mm/year)

1,530 (2014)

Total Renewable Water Resources (km3)

210.2 (2014)

Total Annual Freshwater Withdrawals(billion m3)

29.31 (2017)

Annual Freshwater
Withdrawals
by Sector

Agriculture

98.26% (2017)

Industry

1.7% (2017)

Municipal(including domestic)

0.03% (2017)* The country’s official land area is being updated with reference to the
new country map approved by the parliament in 2020
(Source: **NPC 2020 (2020 projection), ***GoN 2019, WEPA 2018)

There are about 6,000 rivers in Nepal, with a totaldrainage area of 191,000 km2, 74% of which lies in Nepal.
Three categories of river systems predominate, based on
their origin. The ﬁrst comprises four main river systems
from east to west, respectively: Koshi, Gandaki, Karnali,
and Mahakali river systems, all of which originate fromglaciers or snow-fed lakes in the Himalayas. River systems
in the second category originate in the Mahabharat
range in the mid-hills, and include Babai, West Rapti,
Bagmati, Kamala, Kankai and Mechi river systems. Riversystems in the third category include streams or rivulets
from the Chure hills bordering the Terai plain region insouth Nepal, the streams and rivulets of which generally
cause flash-flood during monsoon rains and remain dry
or with very low flow during the dry season.
An assessment has identiﬁed 5,358 wetlands in
Nepal including high altitude glacier lakes in the
Himalayas, natural lakes as well as ponds, dams andother small wetlands (NLCDC 2009). Of these, 329 lakes(including ponds, small wetlands) up to 3,000 m elevation
are roughly evenly distributed across seven provinces of
Nepal, except in the far west where there are only 21
lakes (Table 2.9.2) (NLCDC 2018).
Table2.9.2 Distribution of lakes in seven provinces in Nepal
Province

Figure 2.9.1 Trishuli River in Nepal

Total Lakes

Province No. 1

73

Province No. 2

86

Bagmati Province

36

Gandaki Province

61

Lumbini Province

52

Karnali Province

14

Sudurpashim Province

2 | State of Water Resources
Nepal has abundant water resources. Average annual
precipitation is around 1,500 mm, ranging from over
6,000 mm along the southern slopes of the Annapurna
Range in central Nepal to less than 250 mm in the northcentral portion near the Tibetan plateau. About 10% of
total precipitation in Nepal falls as snow, mostly in the
23% of Nepal’s total area that lies above the permanentsnowline of 5,000 m. There are 3,252 glaciers covering
an area of 5,323 km2 (or 3.6% of Nepal’s total area), withan estimated ice reserve of 481 km3, and 2,323 glaciallakes, covering an area of 75 km 2. The snow-capped
Himalayas is the main source of rivers in the country,
especially during the dry season.

94

Total

7
329
(Source: NLCDC 2018)

The annual rechargeable groundwater reserve is 8.8
billion m3, of which less than 2 billion m3 is currently
extracted, mostly for groundwater irrigation in thesouthern Terai region (WECS 2011). Usually, people livingin the Terai (lowland), inner valleys in the hills andmountains extract groundwater for domestic as well as
industrial uses.

3 | State of Ambient Water Quality
Water quality of public water bodies is generally
considered good. However, urban areas, especiallyChapter 2: Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

DO(mg/L)

BOD(mg/L)

Mechi

8.3

30

8.9

1.8

Kankai

7.7

60

8.7

2

Arun

6.2

200

9.1

2.1

3.1 Rivers

East Rapti (Sauraha)

7.8

213

8.7

2.5

Seti (Ramghat)

8.2

222

9.3

2

Bheri (Chatagaon)

7.8

208

9.3

1.1

Karnali (Chisapani)

7.8

264

10.5

1.5

Mahakali (Pancheswor)
Desired value

8.8

110

5

2

6.5–8.5*<1000*>5.0<30* NDWQS : National Drinking Water Standard(Source: Department of Hydrology and Meteorology 2018)

Table 2.9.3 State of water quality in selected rivers across Nepal shown for upstream-downstream sections (2016)

Desired Value>5

6.6– 14.8–
7.4** 1.2

<30

<250

<1000* <1500*

<1.5*

<50*

-

-

<500* <100*

<0.3*

0*

0*

9.6–
90.5

24.8–
192

380–
810

460–
970

10–
70

0.1–
0.3

0.1–
0.1

6.8–
30

140–
90

21.1–
10.6

0.5–
3.9

500–
900

40–
50

187–
1360

90–
90

0.5–
0.5

0.2–
0.1

22.6–
34.6

160–
130

24.5–
43.7

0.5–
5.7

900–
1600

110–
170

Nakhu - Saibu

8–
8.1

2.1–
7.1

40.5–
5.4

78–
15.9

120–
920

650–
300

90–
30

0.5–
0.2

0.13–
<0.1

12.1–
3.6

100–
120

12.3–
24.7

4.2 –
2.8

1600–
900

110–
70

Hanumante(SallaghariThimi)

8.5–
7.3

1.8–
15.1

33.0–
48.9

120–
90.7

1530–
1290

1800–
1600

160–
180

2.4–
2.7

0.2–
0.1

45.6–
26.7

80–
120

9.8–
10.2

6.4–
6.5

1600–
1600

120–
90

Manahara(Pepsikola Balkumari)

7.4–
7.6

7.0–
3.9

14.5–
23.8

23.7–
40.5

620–
980

870–
1450

60–
60

2.3–
2.0

0.2–
0.2

4.5–
12.8

60–
80

7.8–
11.8

4.9–
6.1

1600–
500

140–
40

Seti Pokhara(Mardi - Dobila)

7.4–
7.6

8.1–
8.7

1.2–
1.3

2.4–
2.6

110–
150

130–
170

1.5–
2.8

0.13–
0.1

0.05–
0.01

2.0–
2.0

120–
170

9.8–
6.9

0.3–
3.8

500–
500

50–
40

Narayani(Bridge Devghat mixed)

7.3–
7.1

11.2–
9.7

0.88–
1.5

2.5–
3.5

170–
160

200–
180

2.0–
1.1

3.5–
3.9

0.1 –
0.1

2.0–
5.0

340–
180

25.6–
22.9

0.2–
0.3

900–
900

60–
70

Sirsiya(Parwanipur- Ghadiharwa
Pokhara)

6.5–
6.6

1.1–
1.1

87.3–
88.6

123.1–
78

390–
750

410–
710

80.0–
90.0

8.9–
3.6

0.1 –
0.2

23.0–
33.0

300–
240

24.6–
25.9

3.9–
3.7

1600–
900

170–
110

Tinau
(Jhumsa bridge - 7.2–
Radhakrishna
7.5
Tole)

10.4–
9.5

1.6–
1.5

2.6–
3.9

200–
220

220–
220

0.9–
1.0

0.5–
0.5

0.02–
0.01

4.0–
4.0

200–
200

14.5–
9.8

0.1–
0.1

900–
500

70–
30

* NDWQS : National Drinking Water Standard** corresponds to upstream and downstream sections of the rivers shown in the table.

(Source: GoN 2016)

Viet Nam

120–
920

Thailand

36.7–
178

Sri Lanka

15.4–
167

Philippines

12.5–
0.9

Nepal

Bishnumati
7–(Budhanilkantha 7.5
Teku Dovan)

MyanmarBagmati(Sundarijal Khokana**)

6.5–
8.5*

MalaysiaTC
E-coli
DO
BOD
COD
TDS
EC
NH 3-N NO 3-N NO 2-N TOC
TH
Mg
Fe (MPN/
pH (mg/L)(MPN/(mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (µS/cm) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) 100ml)
100ml)

Lao PDR

Table 2.9.3 and 2.9.4 summarizes the state of water
quality in some key locations. Pollution of rivers in urban
areas, soil erosion in rural areas, mining of sand and rocks
are the three main factors impacting river water quality.
Sedimentation in rivers is prominent in the rainy season
due to soil erosion and runoff. Development activities
such as sand mining, encroachment of river banks andimproper river bank protection works have also caused

Republic of Korea

TDS(mg/L)

Japan

pH

Location / River

Indonesia

Table 2.9.4 State of water quality in selected river system

China

serious sedimentation issues. Over the last decade
increased mining of sands, stones by small and mediumsized crusher enterprises have resulted in increased
sedimentation in the rivers, with serious turbidity andecological impacts (such as changing courses of rivers
and river bank erosion).

Cambodia

Kathmandu Valley and Pokhara, suﬀer from degradation
due to direct disposal of huge volumes of untreated or
insuﬃciently treated domestic and industrial wastewater.
Solid waste dumped directly into rivers and lakes also
negatively contribute to state of water environment.
Increased use of fertilizers and pesticides also impact
water quality of surface and groundwater, especially, in
peri-urban areas where commercial farming (such as
vegetables) is extensive. During the rainy season there
are increased incidences of water borne diseases due tounsafe drinking water and sanitation, especially, in rural
areas.

95

3.2 Lakes and Reservoirs

in Kathmandu and the other in Pokhara. In the Phewa
Lake, which a major tourist attraction in Pokhara, there
are several hotels and residents established along thelake. Disposal of wastewater into the lake often causes
eutrophication and algal bloom at several locations.

Lake water in the country is generally good. However,some lakes are under pressure from economic
development, tourism activities, and population. Table
2.9.5 shows the state of water quality in two lakes, one

Table 2.9.5 State of water quality in the Phewa Lake (Pokhara) and Taudaha (Kathmandu) (2016)
TC
E-coli
DO
BOD
COD
TDS
EC
NH 3-N NO 3-N NO 2-N TOC
TH
Mg
Fe
pH (mg/L)(MPN/(mg/L) (mg/L (mg/L) (µS/cm) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (MPN/
100m) 100m)
Desired Value

6.5–
8.5*

>5

<30

<250 <1000* <1500* <1.5*

<50*

-

Phewa Lake
(Halanchowk- Dam site),
Pokhara

7.5–
7.6

7.9–
8.0

2.5–
2.1

5.7–
5.7

50–
50

50–
60

1.6–
1.6

0.11–
0.16

Taudaha8.2–(Locations 1-3),
8.1
Kathmandu

8.9–
8.9

17.1–
25.9

24.5–
33.8

90–
85

175–
167

50–
37.8

0.3–
1.0

-

<500* <100* <0.3*

0*

0*

0.07–
5–4
0.07

120–
120

6.7–
11.1

0.1–
0.1

900–
900

70–
70

0.1–
0.1

160–
130

12.8–
19.4

0.9–
0.8

900–
500

70–
40

10.1–
13.8

(Source: GoN 2016)* NDWQS : National Drinking Water Standard

3.3 Groundwaterrural areas. In Kathmandu Valley, long-term deteriorationof groundwater quality is continuously being reported
such as nitrogen contamination in shallow wells (Shakya
et al. 2019). Table 2.9.6 shows groundwater quality at
key locations.

Groundwater contamination in Nepal is caused bypathogenic bacteria, pesticides, nitrate and effluentsfrom industrial and domestic sources. Unplanned urban
development and insufficient waste management
facilities are the main causes of groundwater pollution in
Table 2.9.6 State of groundwater quality in selected locations
Temp.
(°C )
Desired value

-

pH

Total
Fe
EC
Turbidity HardnessCl
As
F(µS/cm) (NTU)(mg/L)(mg/L) Alkalinity(mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L)

6.5–8.5* <1500*

<500*

<500*

-

<0.3*

<0.05* 0.5–1.5*

Shallow Well

18.6

7.1

874.5

45.9

230.7

81.8

366.0

1.47

0.004

0.43

Tube Well

17.9

7.0

576.8

54.8

218.8

61.1

258.0

1.90

0.003

0.27

Deep Tube Well

20.3

7.0

704.2

33.2

251.2

59.0

302.7

1.80

0.009

0.74

East Terai(Jhapa, Morang
and Sunsari)(2018)**

Groundwater

27

6.9

445

12.7

191.6

17

197.6

1.83

0.005

0.235

Far west
Terai (Kailali)(2014)***

Groundwater

25.6

6.96

838.25

22.13

323

24.88

-

2.01

0.01

0.25

Kathmandu
Valley* NDWQS : National Drinking Water Standard

4 | State of Wastewater Treatment
Discharge of untreated wastewaters and dumping of
septic sludge from on-site sanitation systems into rivers
is common due to lack of adequate facilities to treat
wastewater. An estimated 876 million liters per day (MLD)of domestic wastewater is generated in Nepal, as shown

96

<5*

(Source: **Mahato et al. 2018, ***Gurung et al. 2015)

in Figure 2.9.2 About 70% of this comes from on-site
sanitation (faecal sludge) and only 30% of wastewater
is collected through sewer networks. However, ofthe collected wastewater, only around 7% is treated
while 93% (i.e. 268 MLD) is disposed of untreated. An
estimated 20.1 MLD of wastewater is treated either incentralized WWTP or DEWATS systems.

Chapter 2: Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Sewer Network(Wastewater)= 288 MLD

7%

70%

On-site Sanita�on(Faecal Sludge)= 579 MLD

Treated Wastwater= 20.1 MLD

Unsafe Disposal
without treatment= 267.9 MLD

86%

Cambodia

Domes�c WW
genera�on = 876 MLD

93%

30%

Centralized WWTP
= 17.3 MLD

China

14%
DEWATS = 2.8 MLD

5 | Frameworks for Water
Environmental Management
5.1 Legislation

Republic of Korea
Lao PDR
Malaysia
Myanmar

Nepal has enacted various acts and regulations related
to the environment and water since the 1980s such as
the Water Resource Act (1992), Drinking Water Rules(1998), Water Resource Strategy (2002), Drinking Water
Quality Standards (2005). After Nepal become a federal
republic comprising three layers of government (local,
provincial and state), the new Constitution of Nepal 2015
(2072 BS) guaranteed the rights to a clean environment,
healthcare and conservation, management and useof natural resources. The constitution also ensures
the right of access to basic clean drinking water andsanitation services. Several articles of the constitution
have provisions on water and the environment, while
the government is either revising or in the process of
finalizing new acts and regulations as part of legal or
institutional reform under the new federal administration(Table 2.9.7). The Environment Protection Act (2019),

Japan

Septic tanks and pit latrines in urban localities have
posed the risk of ground water pollution. Rapid, unplanned
urban growth and the lack of adequate investment are
responsible for the current poor state of wastewater
management in Nepal, especially Kathmandu Valley.
Management of industrial wastewater is largely
unknown due to lack of reported data, while theDepartment of Environment lacks the resources andcapacity (human resources for monitoring/sampling andanalysis labs) to enforce compliance with existing eﬄuent
standards. Industries, especially small and medium-sizedenterprises, are unable to invest in costly treatment
facilities as relevant acts and regulations on effluent
discharge came into eﬀect several years after theseindustries were established.
The tariff for wastewater in Nepal is based on water
consumption either metered (block tariffs) or unmetered(flat rate) according to pipe size. Kathmandu Upatyaka
Khanepani Limited (KUKL) tariff for sewer connection(and wastewater treatment, if available) is 50% of thewater consumption fee (KUKL 2021).

Indonesia

Figure 2.9.2 Domestic wastewater (WW) management in Nepal as of 2017 (Source: GoN 2018)

Table 2.9.7 Key provisions related to water environment in the new constitution and recent acts and policy documents

Constitution of Nepal

Year

Purpose/arrangements

Constitution

2015

Every citizen shall have the right to live in a clean and healthy environment; victimsof environmental pollution shall be entitled the right to compensation from thepolluter; right of access to basic clean drinking water and sanitation services;
conservation and multiple uses of water resources; use of forests and water
resources and management of environment

Act

2019

The umbrella Act governing over all environmental protection issues of the country.

National Climate Change
Policy, 2019

Policy2019

Utilizes opportunities for various types of assistance through the framework of
conventions for the purpose of climate change management in line with the national
priority and local needs while complying with international provisions.

National Environment Policy
2019

Policy2019

Guides the implementation of environment related laws and other thematiclaws, realizes international commitments and enables collaboration between
all concerned government agencies and non-government organizations onenvironmental management actions.

National Water Resources
PolicyPolicy2020

The policy aims to cover all aspects of water resources development andmanagement based on the Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM)
principle and newly restructured three tiers of government.

Environment Protection Rules

Rule

2020

This Rule is based on the new Environment Protection Act 2019.

Water Supply and Sanitation
Act

Act

Under
This Act governs all water supply and sanitation protection of the country.
Parliament

Water Resources Act (Draft)

Act

Under
drafting

The draft Act will be the new water resources act for the execution of new policy
which covers all aspects of water resources development and management.

Viet Nam

2019

ThailandAct

Sri Lanka

Forest Act

This Act governs all forest and related resources focusing on forest management,
while contributing to the conservation of wildlife, environment, and water resources.

Philippines

Environment Protection Act

Category

Nepal

Name

97

National Environment Policy (2019), National Climate
Change Policy (2019), and Integrated National Water
Resources Policy (2020) are prominent acts/policies
issued since adoption of the new constitution. The Water
Supply and Sanitation Act is currently awaiting approvalin the parliament while the Integrated National Water
Resources Act is in the final stage of drafting.

5.2 Institutional Arrangement
The Ministry of Forests and Environment is responsible
for environmental protection through managing andcoordinating the country’s environmental protection
policies and measures. The Department of Hydrology
and Meteorology (DHM) under Ministry of Energy, Water
Resources and Irrigation (MOEWRI) implements andcoordinates the monitoring of river hydrology, climate,agro-meteorology, sediment, air quality, water quality,
limnology, snow hydrology, glaciology, and wind and solar
energy. The Groundwater Resources Development Board
monitors the quality of underground as well as surface
water. The Water and Energy Commission Secretariat(WECS) has assumed the role of apex body for national
planning related to water and energy through theformulation and provision of assistance to water andenergy-related policy and strategy development. WECS
is also mandated to ensure sustainability by integrating
environmental agenda into development policies. Various
ministries and line agencies at the national level promotewater and environmental management, requiring theseministries to coordinate the work between them (Table
2.9.8).

Table 2.9.8 Key institutions and mandated areas relevant to water environment
Name of the Institution

Level

Mandated Working Area

CentralOverall Energy, Hydropower, Irrigation and Water Resources developmentof the country.

Department of Water Resources andIrrigation

CentralDepartment of Water Resources and Irrigation is responsible for planning,developing, implementing and monitoring of various central level surface
and groundwater irrigation systems by utilizing available surface andground water resources.

Department of Hydrology andMeteorology (DHM)

Central

DHM is responsible for collecting, processing, publishing and disseminatinghydrological and meteorological data and monitoring river hydrology, water
quality, sediment, limnology, snow hydrology, glaciology, weather, climate,agro-meteorology, air quality and solar energy in the country.

Water and Energy Commission Secretariat(WECS)

Central

Policy and planning regarding energy and water resources development
and management covering all sectors. Advisory role on critical issues
related to large water resources projects.

Ministry of Water Supply (MWS)

Central

Water supply, sanitation and hygiene development and management of thecountry.

Department of Water Supply and
Sewerage Management (DWSSM)

CentralThe Department of Water Supply and Sewerage Management (DWSSM)
is responsible for planning, implementing, operating and maintenance ofwater supply and sanitation systems throughout the country.

Nepal Water Supply Corporation(NWSC)

National
Corporation

NWSC is a public utility organization and autonomous government body,and provides drinking water supply services to the 20 cities within the
country.

Ministry of Forests and Environment(MOFE)

CentralForest resources and environmental development, with a mandate covering
environmental management and enforcement.

Department of Environment

CentralResponsible for the implementation and compliance of Environmental
Protection Act, and Rule (EPR), and pollution control standard aspromulgated by the Government of Nepal.

Ministry of Urban Development

CentralOverall urban planning, development and Management for thedevelopment of municipalities in the country.

Ministry of Physical Infrastructure
Development

Provincial

Provincial level policy planning formulation and development of various
physical infrastructure, and their environmental management.

Ministries of Industry, Tourism, andForests and Environment

Provincial

Provincial level policy planning formulation and development related toforests, environment, conservation of biodiversity, adaptation to climatechange and science and technology.

Kathmandu Upatyaka Khanepani
Limited (KUKL)

Kathmandu
ValleyKUKL is responsible for the operation and management of water andwastewater services in the Valley, and will assume responsibility for
infrastructure built by the Melamchi Water Supply Project.

Local Units

Local

Local level planning and development in close coordination with theprovince.

Ministry of Energy, Water Resources
and Irrigation (MOEWRI)

98

Chapter 2: Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Ambient water quality standards

Japan

Systematic ambient water quality monitoring is not yet
conducted in public water bodies in the country,
although water quality is monitored by different
ministries and agencies for different purposes. For

Indonesia

Monitoring framework

China

There are separate standards and guidelines for different
uses (drinking water, irrigation, aquaculture, livestock,
and recreation) in addition to Nepal Water Quality
Guidelines for the Protection of Aquatic Ecosystem(2008).

instance, regular monitoring of the water quality of the
Bagmati River in the Kathmandu Valley area is conductedby the High Powered Committee for the Integrated
Development of the Baghmati Civilization, which started
publishing data for the general public in February 2014.
Department of Hydrology and Meteorology under the
MOEWRI monitors river and lake water quality. For
drinking water, water supply providers are required tomonitor different water quality parameters under thesurveillance of concerned agencies under the Ministry of
Population and Health (Table 2.9.9). Figure 2.9.3 shows
the institutional framework of Water Quality Surveillance.

Cambodia

5.3 Water Quality Standards

Table 2.9.9 Drinking water quality parameters used in monitoring
Category

1

Monitoring
Frequency

Parameters

EC

Monthly

3

TDS

Quarterly

4

Residual Chlorine

Daily

Ammonia, Chloride, Nitrate, Total Hardness, Calcium

Monthly

Iron, Manganese, Sulphate, Arsenic, Cadmium, Copper,
Fluoride, Cyanide, Lead, Chromium, Zinc, Mercury, Aluminum

YearlyE. coli, Total coliform

Monthly2

5PhysicalChemical

67

Microbiological

Water Supply
Providers

Ministry of
Population and
Health and its
line agencies(Source: GoN/MoHP 2018)

Water Quality Standard
Surveillance Commi�ee (WQSS)
Coordinator Epidemiology andDisease Control Division (EDCD)

Department of Water
Supply and Sewerage
Management (DWSSM)

Rural Health Center(Water Supply
Project Approval)

Thailand

Unmanaged Sources(Each Community)

Sri Lanka

Rural Water
Supply Project(Project wise)Ins�tu�onal Unit

District Public Health Oﬃce
(Direct, Indirect Evalua�on,
Inspec�on and Examina�on of
Water Supply Project
Variﬁca�on and Registra�on)

Philippines

Division Oﬃce of Water
Supply and Sanita�on

Nepal

The Ministry of Urban
Development (MoUD)

Myanmar

The Ministry of Health andPopulaton (MoHP)

Malaysia

Daily

Surveillance
AgencyLao PDR

Turbidity, pH, Colour, Taste and Odour

Monitoring
Institution

Republic of Korea

No.

Small and Large
Urban Water Supply
Projects(Project wise)

Viet Nam

Water Supply Security Plan Helpand Monitoring

Figure 2.9.3 Institutional framework of national drinking water quality surveillance (Source: GoN/MoHP 2018)99

5.4 Effluent Standards
Effluent standards

Eﬄuent standards for diﬀerent pollution sources are also
set up under the EPA as follows:• Tolerance limits for industrial eﬄuent discharged
into inland surface waters (generic)• Tolerance limits for specific industrial effluent

discharged into inland surface waters (tanning, wool
processing, fermentation, vegetable ghee and oil,paper and pulp, dairy products, sugar milling, cotton
textiles, non-alcoholic beverages, pharmaceuticals,soap, paints, etc.)• Tolerance limits for industrial eﬄuent discharged
into public sewers• Tolerance limits for wastewater discharged into

inland surface waters from combined wastewater
treatment plants

Effluent inspection procedure
Inspection mechanisms and procedures are guided by
the water quality monitoring framework, guidelines
and responsibilities under relevant line ministries ordepartments dealing with drinking water, industry, andagro-farms.

Measures against non-compliance
Penalties are imposed for non-compliance, although
enforcement is sporadic due to gaps in monitoring
capacity of the concerned agencies. Instances ofenforcement have taken place, such as the MOFE
decision in 2019 requesting penalties for non-complying
medical institutes.

6 | Recent Developments inWater Environmental Management
The government has substantially strengthened
environment-related legislations, acts, policies, andguidelines related to the water environment. Under
its federal structure, the government is also revisingor drafting acts and legislations and establishing new
institutional structures at federal, provincial, and local
levels. The establishment of Ministry of Water Supply
reflects the government’s national and international
commitments and increasing prioritization of the water,
sanitation and hygiene (WASH) sector together with
relevant goals and targets, especially the Sustainable

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Development Goal on water and sanitation. Nepal has
set its national indicators for WASH-related targets, suchas ensuring access to piped water supply and improved
sanitation by 2030 for 95% of the population.

7 | Challenges and Future Plans
A major challenge for water environment governancein Nepal is the actual implementation of acts, policies,and guidelines to ensure effective monitoring andenforcement at federal, provincial, and local levels.
Coordination among line institutes such as water
resources (MOEWRI), water supply (MWS), andenvironment (MOFE) at different levels is a big challenge
due to overlapping mandates, resource constraints,
multiple sector priorities, and lack of technical expertiseor capacity. Although the federal structure grants
autonomy regarding power and decision making down
to local levels, institutional establishment, allocationof trained staffs, and establishment of monitoring andassessment facilities are still in their infancy.
Nepal is aiming to rapidly develop and transition
from Least Developed to Developed status such as
through investments in industrialization, construction,
tourism, and modernization of agriculture. For instance,
rivers in Nepal are under pressure from mining industries(formal and informal), contributing to high levels of
sedimentation due to high demand for construction
materials. It is thus evident that the water environment
will come under greater pressures going forward,
meaning the level of water governance capacity of theconcerned agencies as well as stakeholders needs to be
substantially improved.