Journal of International and Advanced Japanese Studies
Vol. 7, March 2015, pp. 111–120
Doctoral Program in International and Advanced Japanese Studies
Graduate School of Humanities and Social Sciences
University of Tsukuba
http://japan.tsukuba.ac.jp/research/

Research Note

Assessing American Attitudes Toward East Asian Countries1
Kenichi ISHII
University of Tsukuba, Faculty of Engineering, Information and Systems, Associate Professor

Muneo KAIGO
University of Tsukuba, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Associate Professor

Leslie TKACH-KAWASAKI
University of Tsukuba, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Associate Professor

Anya HOMMADOVAUniversity of Tsukuba, Graduate School of Humanities and Social Sciences, Master’s Program in International Area Studies

This study aims to identify and analyze the current images of East Asia, namely, Japan, China andSouth Korea, among American people. Although historically Japan was perceived as a ‘threat’ after the endof World War II, today’s image of Japan has changed. The BBC World Service survey (2012) ranked Japanas number one in having a “mainly positive influence” in comparison to 17 other nations. To further
explore American attitudes to Japan and other East Asian countries, we conducted an online survey usinga SurveyMonkey panel in 2013 (N=827). Results indicate that Japan is perceived most favorably among
Asian countries. China’s threat is perceived most strongly for military and economic threats. Males morestrongly perceive China’s threat than females, while females more strongly perceive Japan and South
Korea’s threat than males. With regard to Japan’s whale and dolphin hunting, results demonstrate thatwhile Americans are divided in their opinions about whaling, they have considerably stronger opinions
about dolphin hunting. With regard to Japanese popular culture, animation ranked the highest (38.5%) ininterest, followed by character goods and “cosplay.” In contrast, China is perceived as an economic andmilitary threat and the familiarity of cultural aspects center mostly around food, martial arts, architecture,
heritage, and the arts. South Korea is not viewed as a threat in comparison to China or Japan, however,cultural interest is generally lower compared to China and Japan.
Keywords: National Image, Threat Perception, Japan, China, South Korea, Popular Culture, Cultural Interests,
Prejudice, Nationalism.

1. Background
This study was conceived to identify and analyze the current images of East Asia, namely Japan, the People’s
Republic of China and the Republic of Korea (South Korea) among people in the United States. Although thedata procured through this study lends itself to a contemporary perspective, it also attempts to acknowledge
and supplement an academic lineage that has focused on how national images, especially those of Japan, havebeen created overseas. This study attempts to preserve this existing line of research that has gained prominence
in Japan for over 30 years. Historically viewed both as a “threat” and an “ally” among many nations, Japan is
keenly conscious of the formation of images of East Asian nations in the eyes of other nations, especiallypertaining to negative sentiments such as prejudice towards Asians or positive attitudes demonstrating interest
1 This study was ﬁnancially supported by a Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) KAKENHI Grant (No.
22330051).

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or exoticism felt towards Asians and East Asian nations. Such images of East Asian nations have gone througha gradual transition over the past decades.
Following three decades of economic growth after World War II, the once-diminished perception of Japan as amilitary threat metamorphosed into that of a new “economic threat” to many industrialized nations in North
America and Western Europe in the 1980s. Japan at that time increased exports of industrial products andmanufactured goods, which in turn conﬂicted with the economic interests of industrialized nations in North
America and Western Europe. At the height of the trade imbalance and friction between the U.S. and Japan in
the mid-1980s, Tsujimura et al. (1987) conducted an extensive study to probe Japan’s international image. The
objective behind this study was to investigate the cultural differences and communication gaps that were
occurring among nations interacting with Japan and to provide suggestions on how to avoid unnecessary
friction in the international arena. The study employed a questionnaire survey among seven nations, along witha content analysis of history textbooks among six nations and a ﬁlm viewing experiment in 11 nations. The
results indicated various degrees of interest towards Japan as a nation that was becoming a modern economic
powerhouse, but at the same time, the existence of the study itself also implied how Japan was quite consciousof how it was being viewed in various parts of the world (Tsujimura et al., 1987).
The 1994 Symposium held at the United Nations University by the Executive Committee for a Comparative
Study of United States and Japanese Television News Coverage of the Mansﬁeld Center for Paciﬁc Affairs
illustrated how images of the U.S. and Japan have changed since the end of World War II and how these images
were now being communicated through the various media-especially news coverage and how news images werecreating international understanding and misunderstanding between the two nations (Akuto, 1994; Budner,
1994; Kohno, 1994; Krauss, 1994). Accompanying the slowdown in economic growth, Japan was considered lessof an economic menace, and subsequently, the urgency of assessing Japan’s image declined in the following
decade. Coinciding with this time period, so-called “Japan bashing” receded, however, with an international
policy shift during the Clinton Administration to focus more on China, the sentiment in Japan was that it was
now being disregarded as unimportant, with “Japan bashing” giving way to similarly negative expressions of“Japan passing” and “Japan nothing.” Even during and after this time, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan
continued to measure Japan’s image in Russia (MOFA, 2004), Australia (MOFA, 2006), Italy, France, Germany
and the U.K. (MOFA, 2007), as well as Brazil, the U.S., Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia, the Philippines
and Vietnam in 2008. The results showed a mainly positive image of Japan prevalent among these nations andsome associated these results to rising international recognition of Japan’s creative industries.
During the past decade, the concept of “soft power” conceived by Joseph Nye (2005) has permeated into thevernacular of many industrialized nations, including Japan. Soft power can be perceived as the power of
attraction, in contrast to traditional hard power demonstrated through force or the power of coercion. Alongwith soft power, the convergence of media platforms and spread of digital media has increasingly blurred theboundaries of what is considered to be domestic and what is international. Digital media forms have accelerated
and promoted dissemination and access to different content formats, and through this facilitation, Japan’scultural content has extended to audiences abroad, eager to experience its attractions. The importance of soft
power was slowly recognized in Japan, as the Japanese government initiated a shift to rediscover and reevaluate Japan as being attractive through strategic international promotion of its core cultural industries. Since
June 2010, with cooperation from the Ministry of Education, Sports, Science and Technology and the Ministryof Foreign Affairs, the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry created the “Cool Japan” initiative to promote
Japan by planning further human resource development and accelerating information disseminationinternationally. There are many similarities with the “Korean wave” of South Korea, an earlier initiative of theSouth Korean government to promote the cultural content of South Korea aimed at “nation branding” following
the 1997 Asian ﬁnancial crisis and subsequent South Korean economic crisis. Initially, Cool Japan emphasized
creative industries such as design, animation, fashion, and movies (similar to the Korean wave), however, theinitiative has expanded into a grander “nation branding” strategy following the March 11, 2011 Great East
Japan Earthquake and Fukushima Dai’ichi nuclear disaster.
With Japan slowly recovering from the damage wrought by the Great East Japan Earthquake, the survey
results of the BBC World Service (2012) about national images gained much prominence in Japan, as the results
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indicated Japan was number one having a “mainly positive inﬂuence” in comparison to 17 other nations andregions measured in the survey. The ranking for this item was as follows: 1) Japan, 2) Germany, 3) Canada, 4)
UK, 5) China, 6) France, 7) EU, 8) USA, 9) Brazil 10) India, 11) South Africa, 12) South Korea, 13) Russia, 14)Israel, 15) North Korea, 16) Pakistan, and 17) Iran in last place. Japan’s position in this survey ranking dropped
to 4th in 2013 and 5th in 2014, however still remains the highest among Asian nations, especially in comparison to
declines in the rankings of China (9th in 2013 and 2014) and South Korea (10th in 2013 and 11th in 2014). The
drop in Japan’s position is attributed to negative perceptions indicated among survey respondents in South
Korea and China in the past few years (BBC World Service, 2014).
Among studies comparing the “East” and “West,” one can discover a considerably greater amount of research
focusing on how citizens of East Asian countries view the U.S. (Steinberg 2005; Shiming 2005), however,academic literature is relatively scarce on how American attitudes vary towards countries such as Japan, China,
and Korea. The available research on U.S. perceptions of East Asian countries consists of either stereotypes of“Asians” or images of each country individually. Stereotyping “Asians” in the U.S. refers to prejudice or positive
images of individuals in education, the work force or sports (Yee, 1992; Qin 2010; Wilkins, Chand & Kaiser,2011). Such limited information on U.S. attitudes toward Japan, China, or Korea is often difﬁcult to attain,
outdated, non-academic, or not in the context of comparison. For example, one survey on U.S. attitudes toward
Japan apart from MOFA poll results2 by Masland was conducted more than 60 years ago (Masland, 1941). The
topic of the U.S. outlook on China, on the other hand, has been prominent in the last few years3, with articles
such as “In America, China is Public Enemy #1” 4 and papers presented in academic conferences such as”China’s Rise: Assessing Views from East Asia and the United States.”5 Even prior to China overtaking Japan as
the 2nd largest economy in the world, the image and perception of China in the U.S. was explored in great detailby Li and Hong (1998). However, studies on the perception of South Korea distinctly emphasize foreign policy
and with little reference to Korean culture (Cha & Katz, 2010). Currently, there is limited information available
on the comparison of the U.S. perception of Japan, China, and Korea in the discourse of culture and national
image.
This study is an attempt to reﬂect variance in the U.S. public view toward Japan, China, and Korea in light ofmodern changes and globalization. The rebalance of the power and inﬂuence of East Asian countries is adding
urgency for innovative research in U.S. perceptions toward these countries. Furthermore, “nation branding” isbecoming more crucial as countries are making considerable ﬁnancial investment into promoting positive imagesof their state. As such, U.S. public opinion will be of great importance, as it can play a role in policy formation.
2. Method(1) Online Survey
In October 2013, an online survey was conducted using a SurveyMonkey panel. The survey adopted thequota sampling method and was planned to draw a total pool of 800 respondents living in the U.S. The
respondents were selected according to gender and three age categories (18-29, 30-44, and 45-59). To get
representative data for the U.S. population, age quotas were assigned based on U.S. population statistics (1829=29.0%, 30-44=34.3%, and 45-59=46.7%). For each age group, the number of assigned quotas was identicalfor male and females. However, we could not get the number of respondents as planned above because theresponse rates of the oldest age group (45-59 years) and females is much lower than their counterparts.
Consequently, the resulting age distribution was 18-29=43.1%, 30-44=43.9%, and 45-59=13.0%. Of the
respondents, 433 (52.4%) were males and 394 (47.6%) were females, with an average age of 39.5 years(SD=12.6). Of the respondents who completed the survey (N=827), 67.7% were white, 6.8% were Hispanic,

2 http://www.mofa.go.jp/press/release/press4e_000146.html
3 http://globalpublicsquare.blogs.cnn.com/2012/09/18/how-americans-see-china/
http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/6971dec4-22d3-11e4-8dae-00144feabdc0.html#axzz3ATuwnWq7
http://www.gallup.com/poll/167498/americans-view-china-mostly-unfavorably.aspx
4 http://thediplomat.com/2014/02/in-america-china-is-public-enemy-1/
5 http://www.asianbarometer.org/newenglish/publications/ConferencePapers/2013_3conference/paper1.pdf

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14.1% were black, 4.0% were Asian, and 7% were classiﬁed as “Other.” Twenty-six percent had graduated froma college or a higher-level education institution, 40.2% had completed junior college or some college withoutobtaining a degree, 27% had completed high school, and 7% were classiﬁed as having completed “less thanhigh school degree.”(2) Measures
Familiarity with 14 nations (India, Mexico, Brazil, Russia, Australia, UK, France, Germany, Italy, Spain,
Canada, China, Japan, and South Korea) was measured with 5-point Likert scale (1=’not familiar at all’, 2=’alittle familiar’, 3=’familiar’, 4=’familiar to some extent’, 5=’familiar to a great extent’). Similarly, “liking” these
14 countries was measured with a 7-point Likert scale (1=’like a great deal,’ 2=’like a moderate amount,’ 3=’likea little,’4=’neutral,’ 5=’dislike a little,’ 6=’dislike a moderate amount,’ and 7=’dislike a great deal’). Due to thebroad selection of nations, respondents were requested to indicate responses for only ﬁve nations (China, South
Korea, Japan, and two other countries which were randomly assigned from among 11 countries, namely, India,
Mexico, Brazil, Russia, Australia, UK, France, Germany, Italy, Spain, and Canada).
Because this study focuses on how people in the U.S. view East Asian countries, cultural interest in thesecountries was measured with a multiple-choice question whereby respondents were requested to indicate theirinterest in the cultural aspects of these countries (See Table 3.4.1) and familiarity with Japanese popular culture(See Table 3.5.1). Respondents were also asked whether they had friends or acquaintances from these major
foreign countries and whether they had visited these countries.
The questionnaire also includes questions about nationalistic attitudes, which are measured with a 5-point
Likert scale (ranging from 1=’strongly agree’ to 5=’strongly disagree’). Table 3.2.1 indicates the averages ofthese items. Note that a greater value represents a more negative attitude toward the statement. Similarly, theconsumer ethnocentric tendency scale, which is adapted from Shimp & Sharma (1987), is measured with fourstatements (items 10-13), and patriotism is measured with two statements (items 14-15) with the same 5-point
Likert point scale as other nationalism scales. Attitudes toward electronic products made in the three East
Asian countries are also measured (items 7-9). Lastly, respondents were requested to describe their demographic
characteristics (age, gender, ethnicity, and educational level) as well as media use.
3. Results(1) Liking and familiarity of nations
Consistent with previous polls (BBC World Service, 2014), Japan was perceived most favorably among the
Asian countries. Overall, the highest afﬁnity was toward Australia with a mean of 2.69, and the least popularcountry was Russia (3.95), with the standard deviation ranging from 1.02 to 1.31.
Figure 3.1.1. American (dis)like of foreign countries

The results of Japan having a more positive image than Korea and China are also supported by the numberof respondents wanting to visit Japan (25.4%) more than Korea (9.2%) or China (18.6%). The least popularcountry to visit was South Korea, with only 76 participants out of 827 indicating an interest in visiting thecountry. Survey results on familiarity showed that Americans were the least familiar with South Korea out of
the 14 countries, and out of all the Asian countries, Japan ranked the highest, closely followed by China. The
standard deviation for this question ranged from 0.92 to 1.22.
Among those Americans who indicated familiarity with Asian countries, there is a signiﬁcant difference114

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Assessing American Attitudes Toward East Asian Countries

Figure 3.1.2. American familiarity with foreign countries (from most familiar to least familiar)

among the age groups. The results suggest that younger Americans are more familiar with Asian countries
than older nationals. According to the analysis of variance, there is a signiﬁcant difference in the familiarity of
Asian countries among gender (China F(1,825)=26.3 p<.01, Japan F(1,825)=29.65 p<.01, and Korea F (1,825)=
27.39 p<.01).
Table 3.1.1 Familiarity with Japan, China and South Korea

Overall, across all categories of liking, familiarity, desire to visit, and actually visiting, Japan ranked thehighest among the Asian countries.
(2) Nationalism
Of the three Asian countries, China’s threat is perceived most strongly both for military and economic threats(Table 3.2.1). Lower scores represent stronger nationalism except for items 7-9. Interestingly, gender affects
differently the perceived threat of these three countries. Males more strongly perceive China’s threat thanfemales, while females more strongly perceive threats from Japan and South Korea than males.
Attitudes toward electronic products of these three countries show similar results. Chinese products areevaluated most negatively. Furthermore, a statistically signiﬁcant difference is found among the age groups
with older people showing the most negative attitudes toward Chinese electronic products. Similarly, the oldest
range of respondents indicated the most negative attitude toward Japanese and South Korean products. The
gender difference is signiﬁcant for Japanese and South Korean products: Males are more positive about
Japanese and South Korean products than females.
Consumer ethnocentrism tendency (items 10 to 13) and patriotism (items 14 and 15) are also measured. Table
3.2.1 indicates that older people are more consumer-ethnocentric than younger people, which is consistent withprevious studies (Shimp & Sharma 1987). On the other hand, no age difference is found concerning patriotism.
(3) Prejudice against Asian practices
In the last ﬁve years in the U.S., there has been widespread media coverage and protests against Japanesewhaling and dolphin hunting. Documentaries such as the Cove and the series Whale Wars, depicting cruel andgrotesque scenes of Japanese nationals killing dolphins and whales, are thought to contribute to prejudiceagainst Japan by Western countries. There is a cultural difference in the perception of whales: in Japan, they are
considered to be ﬁsh, and in the U.S., they are thought of more as a mammal (Hirata, 2005). However the resultsof the survey demonstrate that Americans today are more divided in their opinions about whaling than they
were in 1992, when over 48% of Americans indicated that they were opposed to whaling under any
circumstances6. Furthermore the results suggest that Americans have considerably stronger opinions about
6 Milton M. R. Freeman & Stephen R. Kellert, PUBLIC ATTITUDES TO WHALES: RESULTS OF A SIX-COUNTRYSURVEY 4 (1992) http://luna.pos.to/whale/icr_pub_pall.html

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Table 3.2.1 Average of nationalism items

Figure 3.3.1 Perception of whaling, dolphin hunting and Chinese working conditions

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dolphin hunting than about whale hunting.
Another point of criticism of Asian countries in the U.S. is the working conditions in China, which 42.4% ofparticipants indicated should be a cause for concern among Americans.
(4) Cultural interest in Asia
Across all three countries, the main cultural interest was food. Chinese food drew the most cultural interest,
followed by Japanese food, and then Korean food. This is not surprising, as there are twice as many Chinese
restaurants in the U.S. compared to McDonald restaurants7. Following food, the second largest area of interest
was in martial arts, particularly Chinese and Japanese. This is a common stereotype of Asian men in theAmerican ﬁlm industry, with enduring legacies such as Bruce Lee, Jackie Chan, Jet Lee for Chinese martial artsand popular movies such as The Karate Kid trilogy and The Last Samurai for Japanese martial arts that could
explain the cultural interest. Though Tae-kwon-do is well known in the U.S., compared to the interest in Chinese(31.3%) and Japanese (25%) martial arts, relatively few participants showed interest in Korean martial arts
(9.8%). Out of the three countries, the least amount of cultural interest ultimately was South Korea, with 46.9%
of respondents indicating no interest.
Further looking into cultural interest in China, following food and martial arts, 22.7% indicated an interest in
its heritage, followed by an interest in its customs and people. Similarly, in the category of Japanese cultural
aspects, the top ﬁve interests included heritage, people and customs. The only difference was that there wasmore interest in Japanese electronics (25%). In the case of Korea, the only area that had more than 20% interest
was Korean food.
In the differences between the countries across the categories, the largest difference is in the percentage ofTable 3.4.1 Interest in cultural aspects of the three Asian countries (%)

7 http://www.lifeintheusa.com/food/chinese.htm
http://www.crinus.org/index.php?option=com_webﬂow&view=report&layout=dochart&Itemid=50
http://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2013/jul/17/mcdonalds-restaurants-where-are-they117

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people indicating “no interest” in any cultural aspects of the three Asian countries. Following the “no-interest”
category were martial arts, food, tea and animation. Another category that varied greatly was tea: 16.4% of
respondents were interested in Chinese tea culture, while only 12% were interested in the same category forJapan, and a scant 3.4% interested in Korean tea. In the category of animation, Japanese animation was themost popular with 18.3%, followed by Chinese animation at 12.6% and Korean animation at 4.2%. Looking
across all categories among the three countries, Japan has the largest percent of respondents interested invarious aspects of its culture in 16 out of 24 cultural aspects.
(5) Interest in Japanese popular culture
Out of 13 various aspects of Japanese popular culture, animation ranked the highest, with 318 people out of
827 being familiar with Japanese animation. A higher percentage of American males compared to females wasfamiliar with various aspects of Japanese popular culture, including categories such as gaming, hentai (animeand manga pornography), and Japanese AV. The only two items that females were more familiar with werecharacter goods (e.g. Hello Kitty) and “Harajuku style.” The younger age groups overall were signiﬁcantly morefamiliar with Japanese popular culture than the older age groups.
3. Conclusion
The results of respondents having higher levels of familiarity towards Japan, more desire to visit Japan, andactually having visited Japan, when in comparison to South Korea or China, is in alignment with the recent
survey results (BBC World Service, 2014). The results showing China being perceived as the largest threat also
reﬂect recent poll results. This study found that male respondents more strongly perceive China’s threat, whilefemale respondents perceive Japan and South Korea as threats more strongly. Although further research isnecessary to identify the factor(s) for this result, we can suggest that some type of information- or news issuerelated cultivation is more salient among males than females in relation to China, but lacks similar resonance inthe case of Japan or South Korea. The working conditions of Chinese laborers is also an issue of higher concern
among the respondents. This study also conﬁrmed that whaling and dolphin hunting are highly unpopular
practices conducted by Japan; however, on the other hand, cultural interest towards Japan was high and, incomparison to China and South Korea, Japan had a larger percentage of respondents interested in a majority ofthe measured cultural aspects. When focusing on Japan alone, various aspects of Japanese popular culture werealso of interest among the respondents.
This study found that China is perceived as an economic and military threat and the familiarity of cultural
aspects center mostly around food, martial arts, but also architecture, heritage, and the arts. South Korea was
Table: 3.5.1 Familiarity with Japanese popular culture118

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Assessing American Attitudes Toward East Asian Countries

not viewed as a threat in comparison to China or Japan, however, interest was generally low, excluding cultural
aspects such as food, people, customs and heritage. This study also found the perception of Japan as a military
threat low and moderately low economic threat among this U.S. sample, and that a fairly large proportion of the
respondents had a generally positive feeling when considering various aspects about Japan in comparison to
the two other Asian nations, however, some cultural practice related tensions existed and one can suggest that
this may be contributing to lowering the general score.
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