Enhancing Maritime Security Cooperation between Japanand Sri Lanka in the Indian Ocean: Challenges andOpportunities
KKP Ranaweera* 1

Abstract
The year 2012 marked a significant shift in Japan-Sri Lanka relations, particularly in maritime
security cooperation, driven by both global and domestic changes. While initiatives were taken,
including a Memorandum of Understanding signed in 2019, deeper cooperation remains elusive due
to constraints such as Sri Lanka's domestic political situation as well as Japan's economic limitations
and diplomatic concerns. This study uses a qualitative approach to examine avenues for enhancing
maritime security cooperation between the two nations and identify the existing challenges andfuture opportunities for deeper cooperation. Drawing on the theoretical framework of new levels ofcooperation, this paper explores how asymmetric countries can deepen collaboration based on
mutual principles and pragmatic approaches. Through interviews with government officials,
policymakers, naval personnel, and maritime experts along with analyses of secondary sources, thisstudy identifies challenges and opportunities for Japan and Sri Lanka in maritime cooperation.
Despite Japan's proactive stance in promoting its ‘Free and Open Indo-Pacific’ policy, inherent
collaboration has yet to be accomplished. Research contends that enhanced maritime security
cooperation would serve the mutual interests of both nations, addressing their maritime security
challenges in the Indian Ocean. By focusing on issue-to-issue, event-to-event, and unit-to-unit* Pradeep Ranaweera served as a Junior Research Fellow at The Japan Institute for International Affairs from
September to November 2023. This paper was authored to fulfil part of the fellowship's requirements. The author canbe reached at pradeepranaweera@kdu.ac.lk.

Enhancing Maritime Security Cooperation between
Japan and Sri Lanka in the Indian Ocean:
Challenges and Opportunities

cooperation, this study advocates for a nuanced approach to maritime security that aligns withinternational norms and fosters mutual benefit.
Keywords: Maritime Security, Free and Open Indo-Pacific, New Level of Cooperation, Sea Linesof Communication

1. Introduction
Since the beginning of transnational affairs, maritime relations have served as a vital source ofconnectivity. From the famous Maritime Silk Route to the development of monumental navies,
maritime affairs have played a major role in globalization and interaction among states. In thiscontext, the Indian Ocean has always been focal to maritime affairs, steadily playing a crucial rolein the development of nations and intertwining with their economic, resource, and security interests.
The regional transformation of the Indian Ocean due to the development and integration of various
actors and their interests in the region affects the global as well as regional political landscape. In
this sense, Japan and Sri Lanka have larger interests in partaking in discourse recognizing theIndian Ocean. This cooperation has the capacity to leverage strategic significance, economic
implications, security, stability, sustainability, and diplomatic ties. Sri Lanka could potentially bea hub in the Indian Ocean for the aforementioned areas and alliances could be effectively utilized
for its own development and the creation of a new cooperation model, 2 especially concerning
Japan-Sri Lanka relations.
Japan’s active participation in the Indian Ocean emerged in 2012 under the leadership ofPrime Minister Shinzo Abe, who declared Japan’s interest in engaging the Indo-Pacific region. 3‘Sri Lanka’s Role in the Indian Ocean and the Changing Global Dynamic’ Speech by Dep. Foreign Minister Dr.
Harsha de Silva at the Institute of South Asian Studies – Foreign Ministry – Sri Lanka.” n.d. Ministry of Foreign
Affairs. https://mfa.gov.lk/depfm-isas/22

Enhancing Maritime Security Cooperation between
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His subsequent visit to Sri Lanka in 2014 marked a significant milestone in the maritime relations
between the countries. 4 The visit resulted in the ‘Japan-Sri Lanka Dialogue on Maritime Security
and Oceanic Issues’. 5 The memorandums signed under this initiative and others highlighted themutual interest in enhancing maritime security cooperation between the two nations. 6
Purpose of the Paper
Changing geopolitical landscapes and pragmatic self-interest in international affairs necessitate
pursuing new levels of cooperation to secure the strategic interests of states. This paper aims toprovide insight into the benefits of asymmetric relations between small and global powers. A lackof research conducted on this topic has been identified, and this paper fundamentally hopes to add
to the literature on the challenges and opportunities of maritime cooperation between Japan and
Sri Lanka in the Indian Ocean.
Structure of the Paper
This paper draws a timeline of Japan-Sri Lanka relations to the present day, highlighting thevarious maritime interests of both parties, displaying the power dynamics in the Indian Ocean, andexamining how Japan-Sri Lanka relations will be reiterated based on these and on their national
interests pertaining to the Indian Ocean Region (IOR). The paper will discuss the challenges andopportunities presented by these relations while articulating the nature and future of Japan-Sri
Lanka relations in maritime cooperation in the Indian Ocean.

Abe Shinzō, “Asia’s Democratic Security Diamond | by Abe Shinzō,” Project Syndicate, December 27, 2012,https://www.project-syndicate.org/magazine/a-strategic-alliance-for-japan-and-india-by-shinzoabe?barrier=accesspaylog.
3

Ministry of Foreign Affairs. “Japanese Prime Minister Abe to Visit Sri Lanka – Ministry of Foreign Affairs – Sri
Lanka.” Accessed February 22, 2024. https://mfa.gov.lk/japanese-prime-minister-abe-to-visit-sri-lanka/.

4“Joint Statement between Sri Lanka and Japan: A New Partnership between Maritime Countries.” Ministry ofForeign Affairs of Japan, September 4, 2014. https://www.mofa.go.jp/files/000051016.pdf.
5

Memorandum on Defence Cooperation and Exchanges between the Ministry of Defence of the Democratic
Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka and the Ministry of Defense of Japan
6

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Enhancing Maritime Security Cooperation between
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Methodology
The research mainly focuses on the theoretical approach of ‘new levels of cooperation’. This refers
to how small, middle, and great powers can build cooperation initiatives based on common
principles adhering to the international norms and adopting a pragmatic approach such as ‘issue toissue’, ‘event to event’, ‘unit to unit’ levels of cooperation rather than statist levels of cooperation.
This research adopts a qualitative research approach to collecting and interpreting data fromprimary and secondary data resources. The primary data was collected through focus groupinterviews with relevant stakeholders, including government officials, policymakers, naval
personnel, and maritime experts from both countries. The secondary data from academic journals,
research articles, reports, and policy documents were studied to identify gaps in the research andfill out the literature in the field. This data will be employed to decipher challenges andopportunities for Japan and Sri Lanka in maritime cooperation. This will help in investigating thecurrent conditions in the Indian Ocean and exploring possible areas for enhancing cooperation
between them.
Literature Review
The literature used in this research is twofold:i.

literature associated with maritime terminology, andii.

literature in the field of existing maritime security cooperation in the Indian Ocean
between Japan and Sri Lanka.

The novelty of the subject allows limited research regarding Japan-Sri Lanka maritime security
cooperation. The existing literature predominantly focuses on cooperation among the United States,
India, and China in the Indian Ocean. 7

It has been observed that academic discourse in the field of maritime security predominantly focuses on the dynamics
among the United States, India, and China, with limited attention paid to the maritime security partnership between
Japan and Sri Lanka in the Indian Ocean. This observation underscores a notable gap in scholarly inquiry, wherein thestrategic collaborations and security implications arising from the maritime engagements of Japan and Sri Lanka
remain comparatively underexplored.
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Enhancing Maritime Security Cooperation between
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Christian Bueger's analysis of maritime security is the primary influence on this paper's
understanding of maritime security. 8 The lack of precise definitions for maritime security
cooperation has prompted the embrace of progressive and pragmatic interpretations of the term.
Statistical approaches have also been adopted to define maritime security. However, it is important
to note that such perspectives may hinder comprehension of the implications posed by non-state
actors and global political dynamics on the subject. Therefore, conceptualization in Japan-Sri
Lanka maritime security cooperation has been primarily limited to agreements and joint statements
issued since 2012.
Based on an analysis of the existing literature, the following TABLE 1 presents theconceptual parameters for comprehending the dynamics of maritime security.
Maritime Security
TABLE 1: Conceptual parameters for comprehending the dynamics of maritime security

Terms

Meaning

Maritime
security

Ole Waever and Barry Buzan
explain maritime security
through different levels ofanalysis 9

No accepted definition Statist approach visibleof scope

Security
threatCombination of traditionaland non-traditional threats

Indecisive aboutsituations

Sovereignty Coastal states exercise
jurisdiction over territory

Deficits

Focus/ Scope

Grounds for countries toincrease cooperation

Asymmetric challenges Prioritized national
security

Bueger, Christian. "What is Maritime Security?" Marine Policy 53 (2015): 159-164. doi: 10.1016/j.marpol.
2014.12.05.
8

Buzan, People, States and Fear, esp. pp. 363-368. Buzan uses the term “dimensions of security” in “Is International
Security Possible?” in Booth, New Thinking about Strategy and International Security, pp. 34-39. Buzan, Wæver andde Wilde, Security, pp. 5-7, alternatively employ five levels of analysis: international systems, international
subsystems, units (actors), subunits (groups) and individuals.
95Enhancing Maritime Security Cooperation between
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SLOC

Link up international trade
among states

Highly contested andbuilt around presence
on SLOC

Possible cooperation at
multi- and mini-laterallevelsFreedom of Safety/security of navigation. Increases in nonnavigation
traditional issues andconventional security
concerns

Cooperative approachneededChokepointsVulnerability andstrategic importance

6 choke points identified:
1. Strait of Hormuz: locatedbetween the Persian Gulf
and the Gulf of Oman

Highly pregnable

2. Bab el-Mandeb: situatedbetween the Red Sea andthe Gulf of Aden
3. Strait of Malacca
4. Strait of Hormuz
5. Lombok Strait
6. Mozambique Channel
Transit/Sri Lanka is identified as aprovision of transit point in Indian Ocean
facilities
trade with the Middle East,
Europe to Africa

Lack of strategic vision Contested but increased
and balancing approach interdependency
has hindered Sri Lanka
from being a naval hub
in South Asia

Source: Author’s analysis based on various sources
The literature also identifies available research on the evolution of Sri Lanka’s maritime
partnerships and on geopolitical dynamics in the Indian Ocean. The narrative highlights thesignificance of maritime security cooperation, strategic interests, and geopolitical competition
shaping the Japan-Sri Lanka relationship.
Anne-Léonore Dardenne’s "Japan’s Indo-Pacific Strategy: The Importance of Sri Lanka"
analyses Japan's Indo-Pacific strategy in the context of Sri Lanka, emphasizing Prime Minister
6

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Abe’s proactive engagement with South Asia. 10 The author highlights how Sri Lanka’s location
whets the interest of major powers such as China, Japan, and the US, concentrating on theimportance of bilateral and mini-lateral security cooperation and positioning Japan as a potential
security partner to Sri Lanka.
The above argument is used in support of Sri Lanka’s effort to bring Japan into the region
to balance India-China power dynamics. It also focuses on potential regional turmoil in the context
of Prime Minister Abe's revising of Japan’s pacifist defence policies from a more open stance 11.
The visit of the Japanese defence minister in 2018 marked a pivotal moment in Sri LankaJapan relations, setting the stage for increased maritime collaboration between the two nations.12
The subsequent joint maritime exercise between the Japanese Maritime Self-Defense Force andthe Sri Lanka Navy displayed a shared commitment to addressing challenges in the IOR.
Japan’s interest in maritime ties with Sri Lanka is based on its strategic location in the
Indian Ocean vital sea lines of communication (SLOC). Japan recognizes the importance of
securing these routes for its energy imports. 13
The existing research attempts to reflect Sri Lanka’s interest in regaining and promoting its
historical significance in the region. 14 This is confirmed by Sri Lanka’s decision to be an air andAnne-Léonore Dardenne, “Japan’s Indo-Pacific Strategy : The Importance of Sri Lanka,” IAPS Dialogue andSouth Asia @ LSE, May 1, 2018,https://www.academia.edu/36572800/Japans_Indo_Pacific_strategy_The_importance_of_Sri_Lanka.
10

11

Gallo, William. 2022. “Japan’s Abe Brought Lasting Change to Country’s Defense Approach.” Voice of America.

July 8, 2022. https://www.voanews.com/a/japan-s-abe-brought-lasting-change-to-country-s-defense-approach/6650690.html.
Embassy of Japan in Sri Lanka. " Japanese Defense Minister Onodera to visit Sri Lanka". Accessed September 07,
2023. https://www.lk.emb-japan.go.jp/itpr_en/00_000635.html.
12Anne-Léonore Dardenne, “Japan’s Indo-Pacific Strategy: The Importance of Sri Lanka,” IAPS Dialogue andSouth Asia @ LSE, May 1, 2018,https://www.academia.edu/36572800/Japans_Indo_Pacific_strategy_The_importance_of_Sri_Lanka..
13"The Indian Ocean and Sri Lanka's Emerging Maritime Identity." Accessed February 17, 2024.
https://csep.org/blog/the-indian-ocean-and-sri-lankas-emerging-maritime-identity/.

14

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naval hub in the Indian Ocean. Accordingly, Sri Lanka hosted the Indian Ocean Conference andGalle Dialogue in which Japan was an active member. 15
Dr Pooja Bhat contextualizes various concerns about geopolitical aspirations. The security
threats to trade, combined with the deficit of a common vision, create challenges that require
careful manoeuvring. The Japanese geopolitical approach is to increase its presence in the Indian
Ocean through connectivity with smaller countries. On the other hand, Sri Lanka, in need ofinfrastructural investment, faces the dilemma of navigating the interests of powers such as China,
India, and the US. The research gap identified in this paper is in research pertaining to Sri Lanka's
strategies for navigating its relationships with major powers, particularly research examining its
collaboration with Japan.

3. Historical Evolution of Japan-Sri Lanka Relations
Japan-Sri Lanka relations date back to the 18th century, beginning with the visits that fermented
cultural and religious ties between the two nations. Significant visits from the Imperial Family ofJapan 16 showed the growing nature of Japan-Sri Lanka ties, and the stagnation in relations
throughout the colonial period until the conclusion of the Second World War ended with the postcolonial recognition of Japan by Sri Lanka at the San Francisco Peace Conference in 1951. Leftist
governments in Sri Lanka and their ties to China at various instances distanced Japan-Sri Lanka
relations from time to time. Since the post-war rebuilding of Sri Lanka, this has been especiallyapparent during the Rajapaksa governments.
The unilateral decision by Gotabhaya Rajapaksa to abandon Japan’s $1.5 billion Colombo
Light Rail Project created a heavy rift in Japan-Sri Lanka relations. The pro-China foreign policyof the Rajapaksa governments led critics to believe that the decision was a result of external
influence. President Ranil Wickremesinghe eventually apologized to the Japanese government in"Conference E-booklet 2023." 2023. Accessed September 25, 2023.
https://www.galledialogue.lk/assets/files/2023/ebooklet/conference_ebooklet_2023_10_19.pdf.
15"Information about the Embassy." Embassy of Japan in Sri Lanka. Accessed September 06, 2023.
https://www.lk.emb-japan.go.jp/itpr_en/00_000028.html.
16

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2022 for the unilateral cancellation during his visit to Tokyo on May 25, 2023, 17 explaining the
grounds of the controversial decision made by the previous president.
Examining the above incidents, it can be presumed that leadership, intentions, and interests
primarily determine the relationship between the two nations. The ties being stronger during the
Jayawardena regime and limited during the Rajapaksa era is a testament to the above observation.

4. Present Power Dynamics in the Indian Ocean
The Indian Ocean is a vital ocean connecting the East and the West and contains some of the major
choke points in the world. The power dynamics at play in the region are paramount to the various
players acting for economic and strategic reasons in the IOR.
The IOR has emerged as a focal point for several geopolitical and geoeconomic reasonsfor major powers such as India, China, and the United States. Interaction and possible rivalry
between these major powers within the realm of the Indian Ocean is inevitable.
China's “Belt and Road Initiative” providing financial aid for infrastructural developmentin the region shows China’s geopolitical and geoeconomical interest in the region, while Indian
initiatives such as the SAGAR doctrine 18 aim to enhance maritime security and cooperation as
well as foster sustainable regional development. 19 Finally the American “Indo-Pacific Strategy”
has had significant impacts on the IOR.

Himal Kotelawala, “Sri Lanka President Apologises to Japan for Cancellation of Light Rail Project,”
EconomyNext, May 25, 2023, https://economynext.com/sri-lanka-president-apologises-to-japan-for-cancellation-oflight-rail-project-121471.
17

G. Padmaja, “Revisitng ‘SAGAR’ – India’s Template for Cooperation in the Indian Ocean Region,” National
Maritime Foundation, April 25, 2018, https://maritimeindia.org/revisiting-sagar-indias-template-for-cooperation-inthe-indian-ocean-region/.
18

The United States' active engagement in the Indian Ocean is justified by its Indo-Pacific Strategy, which aims tosafeguard American interests and enhance regional stability. Emphasizing security, economic prosperity, andadherence to international norms, this strategy underscores the importance of sustained American involvement in theregion to address security challenges, ensure freedom of navigation, and promote peace and prosperity in the broader
Indo-Pacific area.
19

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China’s growing naval presence in the Indian Ocean has raised concerns pertaining to Sri Lanka
among many countries, including Japan 20 . Further, India’s multilateral approach of bringing
Australia, Japan and the US into the Indo-Pacific has increased geopolitical and geoeconomic
activities in the region to strategically balance China’s power. Western foreign policies have shifted
their focus from the Middle East to Eurasia and the Indo-Pacific 21 with heavy geoeconomic
implications. Japan itself diverted onto this same path under Abe. The Indian Ocean accounts for
80% of seaborne oil trade and 50% of container traffic per year, making it a promising geoeconomic and geo-strategic location.
The Quadrilateral Security Dialogue, or Quad, emphasizes the vitality of maritime
cooperation and the need for upholding a rules-based order in the IOR, and AUKUS, signifying a
deeper strategic alignment, has created a geopolitical shift within the Indian Ocean in the realm of
defence and technology sharing 22.
TABLE 2 depicts the rise of defence expenditures between 2010 and 2022 among major
competitors in the Indian Ocean (excluding Japan and Sri Lanka), which showcases the potential
for heightened aggression over interests. These trends raise concerns regarding the possibility ofintensified rivalries and security competition in the area. The defence expenditure increments ofthe selected countries in 2010 and 2022 respectively are visualized in Figure 1.
TABLE 2. Military Spending 2010 and 2022

Country

20

Year

Difference2010 ($B)

2022 ($B)

Japan

54

46.0

-14.8

US

778.0

877.0

12.7

China

105

292.0

178.1

Premaratne, S.P, and Asha Thrishali. n.d. “Sri Lanka and the Geopolitics of Indo-Pacific: Perceptions, Opportunities

and Challenges.” University of Colombo.
ibid
Air University (AU). n.d. “Future of Maritime Security: Navigating Complex Waters in the Indo-Pacific.”https://www.airuniversity.af.edu/JIPA/Display/Article/3703796/future-of-maritime-security-navigating-complexwaters-in-the-indo-pacific/.
21
22

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Enhancing Maritime Security Cooperation between
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India

46

81.4

77.0

Russia

58

86.4

49.0

South Korea

28.18

46.0

63.2

Sri Lanka

1.53

1.5

-2.0

Source: https://www.sipri.org/sites/default/files/2023-04/2304_fs_milex_2022.pdf

Military Spending of 2010 and 2022
1000
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0

Japan

US

China
2010 $B

India

RussiaSouth Korea Sri Lanka

2022 $B

Figure 1: Author complied from World Bank Data and SIPIRI website

Resource exploitation and exploration take non-cooperative approaches, especially forfishing, minerals, oil, and gas. Self-interest and unsustainable maritime activities pose severe
threats such as resource depletion, environmental damage, and conflicts. The disorder and lack of
coordination in these resources have clear economic implications that require coordination toensure the smooth functioning of the IOR.
Figure 2 clearly illustrates that Japan’s dependency on fossil fuels has gradually decreased
from 94% to 87.4% over the years. Even though oil dependency has decreased, the usage of coaland oil in Japan increased from 2010 (Figure 3) to 2021 (Figure 4). Figure 5 shows that Japan11

Enhancing Maritime Security Cooperation between
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depends on Middle Eastern countries for fuel imports, 40% of which are from Saudi Arabia. The
sea routes through the Indian Ocean become even more significant while importing fuel from theMiddle East. For instance, natural gas supply in Japan in 2022 was 3,454,797 TJ. Between theyears 2000 and 2022, natural gas supply in Japan surged by 26%. The country’s total oil supply in
2022 was 6,339,066 TJ, following a 40% decline in the years between 2000 and 2022. Japan’s total
coal supply in 2022 was 4,491,417 TJ 23 , having risen 11% in the years between 2000 and 2022.

Figure 2 : Trends in Japan’s primary energy supply mix
https://www.enecho.meti.go.jp/en/category/special/shared/img/171_03.png

2010
Coal

23%
40%

Nuclear
Hydro

17%
2%
1%
2% 15%Natural gas

Wind, solar, etc.
Biofuels and waste
Oil

Figure 3: Author’s analysis using data from https://www.iea.org/countries/japan“Japan Oil Security Policy – Analysis,” IEA, August 18, 2022, https://www.iea.org/articles/japan-oil-securitypolicy.
23

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Enhancing Maritime Security Cooperation between
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2021
Coal
Natural gas

39%

26%

22%
4%
3%
2%
4%

NuclearHydro
Wind, solar, etc.
Biofuels and waste
Oil

Figure 4: Author’s analysis using data from https://www.iea.org/countries/japan

Figure 5: Import origins. Author’s analysis using data from https://www.iea.org/countries/japan

The militarization of the Indian Ocean began back in 2007 during pirate attacks in theWestern Indian Ocean. The “Indian Ocean is indeed becoming the home of increased militarization”
due to the ascent of India as a major naval power and the involvement of extra-regional forces
such as the US that are developing foundations in the region. 24 On the other hand, China alsoenhanced its military existence in the region to firm up its Belt and Road Initiative. For instance,
Zeeshan Mahmood, “Indian Ocean: Militarization and Regional Implications,” Global Village Space, April 5,
2018, https://www.globalvillagespace.com/indian-ocean-militarization-and-regional-implications.
24

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555 warships from 29 countries visited Sri Lanka from 2009-2021 25, while more than 20 warships
from India, China, Japan, France, Pakistan, the US, and other countries (Figure 6) made port callsin Sri Lanka in 2023. 26 Moreover, 120-125 warships are on standby in the Indian Ocean.

Figure 6: Warship visits to Sri Lanka in 2023 (compiled from data collected from various sources)

The proliferation of militant Islamic movements has increased threats to SLOC andchokepoints in the Indian Ocean and across the Middle East, East African, and South Asian subregions. Among these choke points are the Mozambique Channel, the Bab el-Mandeb, the Suez
Canal, the Strait of Hormuz, the Malacca Straits, and the Sunda Strait. 27

Admiral Prof. Dr. Jayanath Colombage, “Indian Ocean and Maritime Security - Admiral Prof. Dr. Jayanath
Colombage,” www.youtube.com (NIICE NEPAL, 2022), https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lIkO-aqfLKI.

25

26

Data gathered from the Sri Lanka Navy website. https://www.navy.lk/

David Michel , “Indian Ocean Rising: Maritime Security and Policy Challenges” (Stimson Center, July 2012),
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/327792725_Indian_Ocean_Rising_Maritime_Security_and_Policy_Challe
nges.
27

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Non-conventional security threats are the foundation for collaboration between asymmetrical
powers in the IOR. Climate change, marine pollution, maritime terrorism, piracy, natural disasters,
and arms smuggling are some of the major identified threats. 28
Furthermore, many countries and international organizations now focus on the IOR to leveragebilateral ties.

5. The Emergence of Japan's Interest in the Indian Ocean
Japan's burgeoning interest in the Indian Ocean is directly connected with its Free and Open IndoPacific (FOIP) policy, reflecting a comprehensive approach to regional dynamics. This
commitment revolves around the interconnected fundamental principles and issues shown in
TABLE 3.
TABLE 3

Principles

Issues

1. Limit China’s revisionist behaviour inthe region

1. Protect Japan’s sovereignty
territorial integrity

and

2. Provide Japanese assistance to develop
the Indo-Pacific Region

2. Secure Japan’s geopolitical interests inthe fields of energy and trade

3. Promote and strengthen the liberalinternational order
Source: Analysis by authori.

Limit China’s revisionist behaviour in the region

Japan has expressed concern over the assertive nature of China's efforts in the South China Sea.
This is a major international commerce route and any interruption caused by China may have"Indian Ocean: A Sea of Uncertainty", Defense and Strategic Studies, General Sir John Kotelawala Defence
University. Accessed August 18, 2023. https://fdss.kdu.ac.lk/dss/wpcontent/uploads/2021/08/IndianOceanASeaofUncertainty-.pdf.
28

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serious economic ramifications for Japan. 29 To counterbalance China's influence, Japan has sought
to increase its presence in the Indian Ocean.
The Senkaku Islands, historically under Japanese administration, have become a point ofcontention due to their strategic location for access to natural resources 30, leading China to step up
its maritime incursions into Japanese waters. China's unilateral actions and its growing military
power pose a threat to Japan's sovereignty. Japan's Indo-Pacific policies aim to counter China's
activities and safeguard its interests in the region. 31 Japan is striving to maintain stability in theregion amid escalating tensions caused by China's assertiveness.
Furthermore, China's Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) – which includes vast infrastructure
projects spanning multiple Asian nations – has further stoked Japan's curiosity about the Indian
Ocean. Japan views the BRI as a vehicle via which China hopes to encircle Japan and extend its
sphere of influence by building a strategic corridor throughout Asia. 32 Japan seeks to offset China's
influence in the region by introducing investment alternatives to IOR nations.
Japan's geopolitical objectives of maintaining a rule-based international order andguaranteeing regional stability are consistent with its interest in the Indian Ocean. Professor
Testsuo Kotani has commented that “…revisionist actions by China, such as its growing
militarization of man-made islands in the South China Sea and its contempt for international law,pose a threat to regional stability.”33 Japan’s participation is a way to support a reliable, rule-based
regional order in the Indian Ocean that restrains China's regressive acts.
1. Provide Japanese assistance to develop the Indo-Pacific Region
Japan functions across a large spectrum that encompasses connectivity projects, economic growth,
security cooperation, and regional cooperation in the IOR in hopes of encouraging stability,
29

Eto Naoko, November 9, 2023, based on a lecture/presentation given at The Japan Institute of International Affairs

Interview with Hideshi Tokuchi, November 8, 2023, “Japan’s New National Security Strategy - Background andChallenges,” Research Institute for Peace and Security (RIPS)
31
Ibid.
30

McBride, James, Noah Berman, and Andrew Chatzky. 2023. “China’s Massive Belt and Road Initiative.” Council
on Foreign Relations. February 2, 2023. https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/chinas-massive-belt-and-road-initiative.
32

33

Meeting with Tetsuo Kotani, JIIA, October 27, 2023.
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economic expansion, and prosperity in the area through its efforts. Its contributions to thedevelopment of Indian Ocean states has increased notably over the last decades. 34

Figure 7: Sri Lankan maritime boundary. https://bmkltsly13vb.compat.objectstorage.ap-mumbai1.oraclecloud.com/cdn.ft.lk/ftadmin/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/25221622/DFT-16-011.jpg

Japan has taken the initiative on various connectivity efforts, including the "Asia-Africa
Growth Corridor" that connects Indian Ocean countries. 35 These programs are aimed at improving
connectivity and encouraging economic cooperation among the nations in the area. Japan seeks tobuild a network of infrastructure projects to improve investment, commerce, and interpersonal
interactions.
To maintain stability and protect its interests, Japan has been bolstering its IOR security
alliances. It has participated in capacity-building initiatives, cooperative patrols, and military drills
with nations including the US, Australia, and India. 36

34

Presentation notes for JICA meeting, October 13, 2023.

Ruchitha Beri, “Asia Africa Growth Corridor: Towards a Shared Philosophy | Manohar Parrikar Institute for Defence
Studies and Analyses,” idsa.in, accessed February 22, 2024, https://idsa.in/africatrends/asia-africa-growth-corridor-rberi.
35

Michael Dunford, “China’s Belt and Road Initiative and Its Implications for Global Development ACTA via
SERICA” (ACTA VIA SERICA, August 2021),36

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Challenges and Opportunities

Japan has demonstrated its commitment to regional cooperation by actively participating in venues
such as the Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA) and the Indian Ocean Naval Symposium(IONS). 37 These platforms give littoral states of the Indian Ocean a venue for collaboration. Japan's
participation in these programs demonstrates its ambitions for Indo-Pacific development and its
dedication to regional cooperation.
2. Promote and strengthen the liberal international orderJapan is known as one of the oldest actors in the liberal international order in the Asian region. The
recent focus on India's role and the noticeable decline in the US presence in the IOR 38 underscores
the need for major liberal democracies such as Japan to safeguard the liberal international order.
With China's rise and its implications for global power dynamics, Japan has intensified its
engagement with like-minded liberal nations to bolster international frameworks. China's regional
influence is perceived by Japan as a possible threat to the liberal world order. Japan therefore hopes
to offset China's increasing influence and advance a more equitable and inclusive regional orderby increasing its presence and alliances in the Indian Ocean. 39
Japan has been active in forming partnerships with nations across the Indian Ocean. It hasdeveloped partnerships with nations in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) and ASEAN, as well
as reinforcing its strategic alliances with nations such as Australia and India. 40 These moves ensure
better marine security and encourage regional cooperation by promoting multilateral relationships.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/353971317_China's_Belt_and_Road_Initiative_and_its_Implications_for_
Global_Development_ACTA_VIA_SERICA.
Darshana M. Baruah Greely Nitya Labh, Jessica, “Mapping the Indian Ocean Region,” Carnegie Endowment forInternational Peace, June 15, 2023, https://carnegieendowment.org/2023/06/15/mapping-indian-ocean-region-pub89971.
37

Dr Satoru Nagao, “India Is Set to Play a Key Role in the Indian Ocean” (Institut für Strategie- Politik- Sicherheitsund Wirtschaftsberatung, November 2014), https://www.files.ethz.ch/isn/185366/302_Nagao_final_II.pdf.
38

39

Ibid.

"Japan’s Foreign Policy to Promote National and Worldwide Interests." Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan.
https://www.mofa.go.jp/files/000106463.pdf.
40

18

Enhancing Maritime Security Cooperation between
Japan and Sri Lanka in the Indian Ocean:
Challenges and Opportunities

Figure 8: Analysis by author

Japan has acknowledged the significance of the Indian Ocean for commerce and economic
connections in addition to energy-related factors. The area facilitates the movement of products
among East Asia, Africa, and Europe by housing some of the busiest maritime routes in the world(Figure 8). Japan has been actively engaged in creating infrastructure projects that improveconnectivity and commercial ties with nations such as Sri Lanka. 41
Sri Lanka in particular has acquired relevance in Japan's Indian Ocean strategic considerations
due to its advantageous location at the intersection of important maritime routes. To promoteconnectivity and marine trade, Japan has made investments in Sri Lanka’s ports and airport
infrastructure. 42

6. Japan-Sri Lanka Maritime Cooperation
Japan’s maritime security cooperation with Sri Lanka has used a minimalistic approach despite
desires to foster stronger ties and promote regional stability in the IOR. Sri Lanka's strategic“Trincomalee Port Starts Night Operations with Japan-Funded Navigation System | Daily FT,” www.ft.lk,
accessed February 22, 2024, https://www.ft.lk/shippingaviation/Trincomalee-Port-starts-night-operations-withJapan-funded-navigation-system/21-745494.
41

42

Ibid
19

Enhancing Maritime Security Cooperation between
Japan and Sri Lanka in the Indian Ocean:
Challenges and Opportunities

location has stimulated interest within Japan, indicating a quintessential connection between Japanand Sri Lanka.
Japan’s contemporary relations with Sri Lanka fall within three major frameworks: peace
negotiations, maritime security, and economic cooperation. Acknowledging the strength of Sri
Lanka’s maritime capabilities, Japan has reached a multitude of agreements in recent years, withthe 2014 agreement between the two nations being of particular significance. The joint statement
accompanying that agreement read:“The two leaders noted the strategic geographical location of Sri Lanka ‘in the Indian
Ocean sea lanes straddling Asia and Africa’. It is therefore quite obvious that ‘strategic location’is an important consideration. 43
Sri Lanka with its geographical advantage has been considered a key partner in the Free
and Open Indo-Pacific strategy. In 2018, Japan considered investing in Trincomalee Port with theidea of developing a free and open maritime order in the Indo-Pacific region as an international
public good.
The FOIP vision is to“enhance the connectivity of the Indo-Pacific region, foster the region
into a place that values freedom, the rule of law, free from force or coercion, and make itprosperous.” 44Japan’s vision exemplifies its desire for a secure future through maritime cooperation thatentails actively engaging in capacity-building efforts and balancing security. As one major step inthis approach, “The Japan Coast Guard (JCG) dispatched two members of its Mobile Cooperation
Team (MCT), a special team that provides foreign coast guard agencies with technical support on
maritime safety and security, to provide capacity-building support to the Sri Lanka maritime law
enforcement agencies from 1 July (Sat.) to 9 July (Sun.) 2023, in cooperation with the United
Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC).” 45 Japan thus aims to keep the gates open for
43

Nagao, “India Is Set to Play.”

44“New Plan for a ‘Free and Open Indo-Pacific (FOIP)’,” 2023, https://www.mofa.go.jp/files/100477660.pdf.

JCG dispatched the Mobile Cooperation Team to Sri Lanka. Accessed February 16, 2024.
https://www.kaiho.mlit.go.jp/e/topics_archive/article4227.html.

45

20

Enhancing Maritime Security Cooperation between
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future access in the maritime arena by emphasizing its commitment to a free and open Indo-Pacific,
with Sri Lanka playing a crucial role in this cooperative endeavor.
Japan’s approach towards Sri Lanka has been more open-ended, emphasizing soft power
diplomacy. Sri Lanka's dependence on China has influenced Japan’s approach, steering it towards
maintaining positive relations without strict conditions. Japan understands that Sri Lanka’s
geopolitical position necessitates pragmatic engagement with both China and other regional
powers. Such an open approach allows Sri Lanka to navigate this delicate balance.
A dilemma was created by China-Sri Lanka ties with respect to Sri Lanka’s Port City
project and the use of a Sri Lankan port as a naval base. Japan’s strategic considerations concerning
Hambantota Port have become multifaceted, especially in light of China’s influence, and there
have been peculiar speculations about China establishing a naval base there. A recent news report– “AidData Report Warns of a Chinese Naval Base in Sri Lanka’s Hambantota Port” – hinted that
China had identified Hambantota Port as a top choice in terms of regional maritime security
dynamics. Visits by Chinese surveillance vessels have raised security concerns within Japan aswell as in India and, accordingly, “the development has already sounded the alarm in India, which
has viewed China’s rising influence in the Indian Ocean with suspicion. Analysts say the Yuan
Wang’s moves will also be closely monitored by the US and Western allies as they have long
criticised Beijing’s dealings with Sri Lanka.” 46
In 2019 a treaty was concluded between Japan and Sri Lanka and, “in order to realize afree and open Indo-Pacific, they shared recognition of the need to strengthen the partnership
between Japan and Sri Lanka, an important maritime country at a strategic point on the Indian
Ocean sea lane.” 47 The two parties also signed a memorandum whose purpose “… is to facilitateand develop cooperation and exchanges in the field of defense on the basis of mutual interests.”48
Vincent Ni, “Chinese Navy Vessel Arrives at Sri Lanka Port to Security Concerns from India,” The Guardian,August 16, 2022, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/aug/16/chinese-navy-vessel-arrives-at-sri-lanka-port-tosecurity-concerns-from-india. .
46“Activities: JDF - Japan Defense Focus (No.116).” Japan Ministry of Defense. Accessed February 11, 2024.
https://www.mod.go.jp/en/jdf/no116/activities.html.

47“Memorandum on Defense Cooperation and Exchange between the Ministry of Defense of the Democratic
Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka and the Ministry of Defense of Japan.”48

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Enhancing Maritime Security Cooperation between
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Challenges and Opportunities

The Japan-Sri Lanka Defence Cooperation Dialogue exchanged conventional agreements during
the signing event to arrange regular maritime exercises. The following were included as examplesof wide-ranging exchange: “cooperation between the navies with a focus on training during port
calls, cooperation between the air forces with a focus on unit-to-unit exchange during port calls
and support for capacity building in search and rescue operations, and the possibility of initiating
cooperation and exchange activities between the ground forces.” 49
The Defence Exchange Agreement between Sri Lanka and Japan signifies a milestone intheir bilateral relations and highlights their historical connections. It marks a paradigm shift inJapan’s foreign policy towards Sri Lanka, initiating a new era of engagement and cooperation.
Japan recognizes Sri Lanka's strategic capacity and seeks to deepen collaboration by formalizing
defence ties.
The defence ministers of Japan, the United States, Australia, and the Philippines haveagreed to step up security cooperation to promote a free and open Indo-Pacific amid China’s
growing maritime assertiveness, according to Global Data’s “Japan Defense Market 2023-2028”
report. 50 This assertion interprets Japan’s leniency towards Sri Lanka as reflecting a desire toprevent Sri Lanka from being exclusively tied to China and thereby ensuring more balanced
bilateral connections.
The maritime security domain presents numerous opportunities for mutual benefit andcooperation between Japan and Sri Lanka. Being strategically positioned, both countries cancollaborate on maritime security measures for peace and stability. The risk factors of transnational
threats may be countered through maritime support by sharing intelligence, joint patrols, andcoordinated responses. As per the 2018 discussions, “the two sides also discussed augmented
cooperation in multilateral frameworks including the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) and theRegional Cooperation Agreement on Combating Piracy and Armed Robbery against Ships in Asia

“Activities: JDF - Japan Defense Focus (No.116).” Japan Ministry of Defense. Accessed February 11, 2024.
https://www.mod.go.jp/en/jdf/no116/activities.html

49

Harry McNeil, “Japan-Sri Lanka Goodwill Exercise Strengthens Indo-Pacific Cooperation,” Naval Technology,
August 4, 2023, https://www.naval-technology.com/news/japan-sri-lanka-goodwill-exercise-strengthens-indopacific-cooperation/?cf-view.
50

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Enhancing Maritime Security Cooperation between
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Challenges and Opportunities(ReCAAP) recognizing the importance of increased engagement.” 51 These measures emphasizedstrong bilateral support that would augment Japan-Sri Lanka relations.
Further, the capacity-building approach may give rise to tactical approaches in future
relations between Japan and Sri Lanka, with one or both of the parties organising workshops on
maritime law enforcement, disaster management, and cyber security that include crisis
management exercises and boarding procedures that enhance their mutual maritime security. These
would be in addition to sharing surveillance technology and introducing information mechanisms
to detect security threats by fostering intelligence cooperation.
Apart from the aforementioned developments, the two nations have focused on theireconomic interests regarding trade routes, as both nations rely on maritime trade.
“According to Global Data’s report “Sri Lankan Defense Market – Attractiveness, Competitive
Landscape and Forecasts to 2024”, Japan and Sri Lanka are strengthening their bilateral
cooperation regarding maritime security to fight against piracy and other concerns, along withefforts to establish an Economic Partnership Agreement (EPA).” 52
Sri Lanka’s decision to welcome maritime cooperation with Japan stems from delicate
geopolitical dynamics. By prioritizing Japan as a strategic partner, Sri Lanka aims to foster the
economic strength and the commitment to regional stability needed to generate an ally.
Sri Lanka received better exposure for its cooperation with Japan, allowing it to sidestep
criticism or confrontation with major powers like India, China or the United States. Japan’s
engagement is less likely to trigger intense criticism or power rivalry, making it beneficial for Sri
Lanka in avoiding geopolitical tensions.
Moreover, Japan and Sri Lanka possess unique strengths in naval capabilities andtechnology infrastructure. A shared vision on upgrading bilateral ties as well as Japan’s vision of“The 3rd Sri Lanka-Japan Dialogue on Maritime Security, Safety and Oceanic Issues Concludes Successfully in
Colombo – Ministry of Foreign Affairs – Sri Lanka,” Ministry of Foreign Affairs, accessed February 22, 2024,
https://mfa.gov.lk/sl-jpn-maritime-eng.
51

Harry McNeil, “Japan-Sri Lanka Goodwill Exercise Strengthens Indo-Pacific Cooperation,” Naval Technology,
August 4, 2023, https://www.naval-technology.com/news/japan-sri-lanka-goodwill-exercise-strengthens-indopacific-cooperation/?cf-view.
52

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Enhancing Maritime Security Cooperation between
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a free and open Indo-Pacific region aligns with Sri Lanka's aspiration for maritime growth. Japanand Sri Lanka can thus forge a positive and well-balanced partnership for rational solutions andcommon goals.
The existing maritime security cooperation between Japan and Sri Lanka mainly covers
the following areas:
1. Freedom and safety of navigation
2. Port development
3. Maritime capacity building
4. Maritime law enforcement, search and rescue, disaster risk reduction andenvironmental protection

7. Challenges and Opportunities
Economic and Security Challenges in Japan-Sri Lanka Maritime Security Cooperation
Maritime cooperation between Japan and Sri Lanka faces challenges attributable to their inherent
differences and to external pressures. Japan established historic ties with Sri Lanka by serving as
a mediator to facilitate the country’s peace process and by offering extensive support for post-war
recovery and economic reconstruction, stimulating economic growth within Sri Lanka.
Japan took the initiative in providing yen loans comprising fourteen yen loan agreementsthat included various infrastructure projects, namely, the expansion of Colombo Port, thedevelopment of irrigation infrastructure, the construction of Bandaranaike Memorial International
Conference Hall, the development of the Mahaveli River basin and many other such projects. The
aforementioned agreements have faced the significant challenges presented by the early signing ofa Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) on debt restructuring between the Official Creditor
Committee and the Sri Lankan government, and by the need to ensure transparency andcomparability in agreements with creditors outside the Official Creditor Committee. 53

53“Japan-Sri Lanka Economic Cooperation Economic Cooperation Policy Dialogue.” Ministry of Foreign Affairs ofJapan. Accessed April 3, 2024. https://www.mofa.go.jp/press/release/pressite_000001_00084.html.
24

Enhancing Maritime Security Cooperation between
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As previously mentioned, Sri Lanka halted a Japanese-funded light rail project during
President Gotabaya Rajapaksa's tenure without providing clear justification. Analysts havesuggested that this decision may have been influenced by the Rajapaksa administration’s close ties
with China. A comprehensive examination, including a national audit report, has yet to yielddefinitive reasons for the project's suspension. 54 Such incidents not only undermine Japan-Sri
Lanka cooperation but also strain their bilateral relations. These complexities highlight the intricate
dynamics at play within maritime cooperation, underscoring the need for comprehensive
diplomatic engagement in addressing tensions.
The ongoing financial crisis in Sri Lanka calls for constraints on maritime infrastructuredevelopment. The significant costs associated with these development projects, coupled with its
own financial constraints, make it difficult for Japan as well to boost maritime security cooperation
with Sri Lanka. Moreover, Japan perceives the geographical distance separating the countries as amajor hurdle in justifying broader investment initiatives in Sri Lanka. 55 These factors impede
efforts to deepen Japan’s and Sri Lanka’s maritime security collaboration, highlighting theinterplay between economic constraints, strategic priorities, and geographic considerations inshaping bilateral engagements.
This paper has identified the influence of global political dynamics on Japan's approach toenhancing relations with Sri Lanka. Japan's decision-making processes often align closely withthose of its key allies, particularly the United States and other Western nations as well as India.
However, Sri Lanka's increasingly close ties with China over the past few decades have led to a
decline in Western influence and support both economically and politically. These shifting
geopolitical alignments pose challenges to Japan’s and Sri Lanka’s maritime security cooperation.

Auditor General's Office of Sri Lanka. Final Report on Light Rail Transit. p.129; accessed September 28, 2023.
http://auditorgeneral.gov.lk/web/images/audit-reports/upload/2022/special/Light-Rail-Transit/Final-Report-LRT.pdf.
54

Through discussions with experts conducted alongside the fellowship program, the author has observed that oneof Japan's dilemmas pertains to Sri Lanka's geographical remoteness in comparison to East Asian nations.
55

25

Enhancing Maritime Security Cooperation between
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Additionally, Sri Lanka's imposition of import restrictions amidst its financial crisis has directly
impacted trade between Japan and Sri Lanka, 56 particularly in the automobile sector where themajority of Japanese imports are concentrated.
TABLE 4: Central bank reports on Sri Lanka and JapanYear

Total Trade Turnover (US$ Million)

2018

1809.8420191156.852020 (January- June)

435.95

2021

675

2022

429.352023

36.3

Source: Central bank reports on Sri Lanka and Japan from official websites
https://www.mofa.go.jp/region/asia-paci/srilanka/data.html andhttps://www.slembassyjapan.com/sri_lanka_japan_trade“The Effects of Import Controls on Sri Lanka’s Exports and the Economy | Institute of Policy Studies Sri Lanka.”
2021. www.ips.lk. June 10, 2021. https://www.ips.lk/the-effects-of-import-controls-on-sri-lankas-exports-and-theeconomy/.
57

26

Enhancing Maritime Security Cooperation between
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Figure 9: Details of the negative impacts of the economic crisis. https://economynext.com/sri-lankasjapanese-firms-hit-most-badly-by-fuel-shortages-currency-depreciation-in-crisis-survey-146266/

These developments have heightened concerns in Japan over the feasibility of enhancing
avenues for maritime security cooperation. Among recent developments, the Japan-Sri Lanka
economic cooperation policy dialogue held in 2024 to exchange views on matters pertaining to theJapanese-funded project portfolio, explore future developments, and consider prospective
economic cooperation between Japan and Sri Lanka going forward 57 offered insights on theprevailing challenges inherent in bilateral relations amid economic constraints.
These security challenges foreshadow regional geopolitical competition, and China’s
growing role in regional development and its unilateral actions imply a threat to relations between
Japan and Sri Lanka. One such instance occurred on August 16, 2022, when the Chinesesurveillance ship Yuan Wang 5 arrived at Hambantota Port for a scheduled five-day visit, despite

57“Japan-Sri Lanka Economic Cooperation Policy Dialogue - 2024.” n.d. Www.erd.gov.lk. Accessed April 5, 2024.

https://www.erd.gov.lk/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=282:japan-sri-lanka-economiccooperation-policy-dialogue-2024&catid=29:press-releases&Itemid=226&lang=en.

27

Enhancing Maritime Security Cooperation between
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Sri Lanka's request to postpone the visit amidst security concerns expressed by the United Statesand India 58 . This drew widespread criticism, especially considering Sri Lanka's significant
indebtedness to China, fueling speculation regarding China's debt-trap diplomacy and its impact
on Sri Lanka's economic and political stability.59
Another significant challenge highlighted is Japan's strategic dilemma regarding distance.
Commander Keitaro Ushirogata, currently a faculty member at the MSDF Staff College, hasemphasized the importance of Japan's strategic boundaries, cautioning against the risks ofoverreach. 60 To ensure the durability and effectiveness of cooperation, constraints must be
carefully considered in strategic planning. Drawing upon the wisdom of B.H. Liddell Hart, it
becomes evident that aligning strategic objectives with available resources is essential to avoid
overstretching. 61 There are thus concerns over strategic overextension in Sri Lanka's relationshipwith Japan, and understanding China's influence on the country is crucial for strong cooperation.

Opportunities for Japan-Sri Lanka Maritime Security Cooperation
Japan and Sri Lanka have strengthened their maritime security since 2012 and, through its Free
and Open Indo-Pacific policy, Japan has proactively engaged with the international community on“Chinese High-Tech Ship Leaves Sri Lanka’s Hambantota Port,” The Economic Times, August 22, 2022,
https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/international/world-news/chinese-high-tech-ship-leaves-sri-lankashambantotaport/articleshow/93710614.cms?utm_source=contentofinterest&utm_medium=text&utm_campaign=cppst.
58

59

It was noted during a meeting held with Dr. Eldridge that Japan is concerned about Sri Lanka's potential lack offull autonomy in shaping its foreign policy decisions due to its increasing dependence on China. This apprehension
highlights broader geopolitical considerations and prompts scrutiny of Sri Lanka's ability to maintain its sovereignty
and independence in contemporary international relations.

David Brewster, “Indo-Pacific Maritime Security: Challenges and Cooperation” (Commonwealth Government
and The Australian National University, July 2016),
https://nsc.crawford.anu.edu.au/sites/default/files/publication/nsc_crawford_anu_edu_au/2017-05/indopacific_maritime_security_-_challenges_cooperation_-_final.pdf.
60Mark Bridges, “Liddell Hart’s 8 Maxims of Strategy,” flevyblog, May 4, 2023, https://flevy.com/blog/liddellharts-8-maxims-of-strategy/.
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sovereignty, territorial integrity, and political independence. Sri Lanka, which has historicallymaintained relations with Japan, has consistently supported Japan's territorial rights, notably
during the post-war San Francisco Peace Treaty. 62 However, Japan faces escalating challenges to
its sovereignty and territorial integrity, particularly concerning Takeshima Island, the Senkaku
Islands, and the Northern Territories. 63 Japan seeks international support through rule-based
governance and international law. Maritime security cooperation enables Japan to articulate anddefend its maritime interests, facilitating diplomatic lobbying and garnering broader support forresolving territorial disputes.
Sri Lanka's strategic location in the Indian Ocean offers significant potential to support
Japan's SLOC and ensure secure maritime services (TABLE 5). Japan's reliance on the Indian
Ocean for trade and energy underscores the importance of Sri Lanka as a transit hub for energy
resources destined for Japan. As of 2022, Japan's daily oil consumption stood at approximately
3,337,000 barrels, 64 with crude oil imports amounting to about three million barrels per day. A
Very Large Crude Carrier (VLCC) can only satisfy Japan's oil demand for roughly 16 hours,
necessitating 1.5 fully loaded VLCCs each day to meet its energy requirements. With the current
route from the Middle East to Japan spanning 12,000 kilometres over a 45- to 50-day voyage,
including loading and discharging operations, transit times and costs could be reduced by utilizing
Sri Lanka's Trincomalee Oil Tank Farm. 65 Simulation studies conducted by the author, utilizing
resources such as Ports.com, demonstrate that the voyage from Trincomalee takes just 19 days toJapan's Chiba Port and 20 days to Osaka. With only 10 days required from the Middle East to
Trincomalee, the journey time can be significantly reduced.

“J.R. Jayewardene’s momentous speech that changed world history”, Daily News
http://archives1.dailynews.lk/2021/09/03/features/258337/jr-jayewardene%E2%80%99s-momentous-speechchanged-world-history
62

63

Professor Fukamachi, JIIA, November 2023

"Oil Consumption in Japan." CEIC Data, Accessed URL: https://www.ceicdata.com/en/indicator/japan/oilconsumption
64

65"Sea Route Information." Ports.com, URL: http://ports.com/sea-route/29

Enhancing Maritime Security Cooperation between
Japan and Sri Lanka in the Indian Ocean:
Challenges and Opportunities

TABLE 5Port

Distance

Speed (Knots)

Days at Sea

Port of Ras Tanura
toPort of Trincomalee

2726 nm11

10.35372 nm11205013 nm1119Port of TrincomaleetoPort of Shiba
Port of Ras Tanura
toPort of Osaka

Source: Analysis by author (http://ports.com/sea-route/)
Sri Lanka's role as a strategic intermediary for Japan's energy needs is reinforced byprojections of major oil production in the Middle East and Africa (Figure 11), emphasizing theimportance of optimizing sea routes.

Figure 10: https://globalenergymonitor.org/projects/global-oil-gas-extraction-tracker/tracker-map/

Japan's economic strategy involves diversifying oil imports, with Africa as a key partner
and with the Indian Ocean gaining importance due to Japan's SLOC. Colombo and Trincomalee
ports offer dual-use capabilities for trade with India and Africa, while Hambantota port presents
30Enhancing Maritime Security Cooperation between
Japan and Sri Lanka in the Indian Ocean:
Challenges and Opportunities

opportunities for Japan's maritime interests. Leveraging Sri Lanka's strategic position is crucial for
Japan to secure its energy supplies while dependent on Middle East oil imports.

Crude oil net imports in Japan countries wise
2020
4%7%
9%
8%

42%

30%

Saudi Arabia

UAE

Qatar

KuwaitRussiaOthersFigure 11: Crude oil net imports into Japan and other countries in 2020 (https://www.iea.org/data-andstatistics/charts/crude-oil-net-imports-in-japan-2000-2020
https://www.iea.org/articles/japan-oil-security-policy 66)

Food security could be enhanced by tapping into sea resources. Despite both nations' status
as major seafood consumers, they lack joint fisheries agreements for sustainable fishing. With its
advanced fisheries management technology, Japan could assist Sri Lanka in developing better
monitoring and management systems. This collaboration is promising for putting in placesustainable practices, safeguarding marine ecosystems, and ensuring stable food supplies.
TABLE 6 illustrates the scope of Illegal, Unreported, and Unregulated (IUU) fishing,providing insight into various forms of malpractice within the fishing industry.

“Indian Ocean and the Safety of Sea Lines of Communication.” n.d. Ciaotest.cc.columbia.edu.
https://ciaotest.cc.columbia.edu/olj/sa/sa_aug01sav01.html.
66

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Enhancing Maritime Security Cooperation between
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TABLE 6: Scope of Illegal, Unreported, and Unregulated (IUU) Fishing

IllegalUnreported

Unregulated

i. Fishing in a state's waters
without permission or in
violation of laws

i. Fishing activities that go
unreported or misreported
to the national authority,
and are in violation ofnational laws

i. Vessels without
nationality that fish in anarea managed by a regional
fisheries management
organization, and vessels
flying the flags of a statethat fish in RFMO waters
to which that state is not a
party

ii. Fishing by vessels ofstates in a regional
fisheries management
organization that do notfollow conservation
measures or relevantinternational lawiii. Fishing that breaks
national laws orinternational obligations,
including agreements
within regional fisheries
management
organizations

ii. Fishing activities within
the jurisdiction of aregional fisheries
management organizationthat are not properly
reported or misreported,
contrary to theorganization's reporting
procedures

ii. Vessels that fish in areas
outside the purview of any
conservation or
management measures inplace

Source: FAO in Sri Lanka | Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

Findings indicate that Indian and Chinese vessels engage in hazardous fishing practices.
However, there has been insufficient focus on Chinese fishing activities in the IOR, and thisoverlooking of crimes could be due to close diplomatic ties with China. A 2016 National Maritime
Research Foundation report 67 reveals that 114 such cases regarding illegal fishing by China havebeen reported from different areas of the IOR. Japan's advanced monitoring technology could offer
advantages in addressing this issue as a maritime security cooperation effort. Japanesemanagement initiatives and monitoring methods could also enhance the quality and value of the
IOR's fishing industry.
Under the 2015 Memorandum of Understanding between China and Sri Lanka, Sri Lanka
banned several Chinese vessels from fishing in the region due to violations of the agreed conditions
National Maritime Research Foundation, “ANNUAL PERFORMANCE REPORT 2015-2016,” maritimeindia.org,
2016, https://maritimeindia.org/View%20Profile/636267828619675070.pdf.
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Enhancing Maritime Security Cooperation between
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Challenges and Opportunitiesof the MOU 68. It has to be noted here that the responses to China’s infringements change according
to the governments in power.
Japan is a pioneer in the field of deep-sea mining technology in Asia, where it focuses onrare earth minerals. Conversely, Sri Lanka has yet to develop a comprehensive map of its deep-sea
mining potential, suggesting untapped seabed resources. Furthermore, Sri Lanka is poised toreceive a significantly expanded maritime territory under the UN Convention on the Law of the
Sea (UNCLOS) demarcation in 2025.69 In this context, Japan can offer expertise, technology, andinvestment for sustainable seabed minerals exploration and gain access to energy resources.
Collaborative efforts between Japan and Sri Lanka could moreover involve joint naval and coast
guard exercises enhancing maritime security in the region, thereby ensuring safe access toresources 70 . Given Sri Lanka's limited capacities, Japan's assistance could lend greater
sophistication to Sri Lanka's capabilities in deep-sea mining and maritime security, leading tomutual benefits for both countries.
Environmental, maritime, natural, and man-made threats should also be considered in this
dialogue. The X-Press Pearl incident is a recent and devastating event affecting the entire IOR that
occurred despite environmental concerns. It is imperative to understand that Sri Lanka by virtue
of its central location will always be at risk of such environmental threats. 71
This incident exposed Sri Lanka's lack of technology for evaluating the magnitude ofdamage and its inadequate marine data for conducting precise assessments to restore damaged
marine environments effectively. Various allegations and refused claims often result for the
aforementioned reasons. Japan faced a similar situation in 1997 (the Nakhodka oil spill) andS. Rubatheesan, “Govt. Cancels Fishing Licences of Eight Chinese Companies | The Sunday Times Sri Lanka,”
The Sunday Times, March 1, 2015, https://www.sundaytimes.lk/150301/news/govt-cancels-fishing-licences-of-eightchinese-companies-138453.html.
68"Colombo awaits UN approval to seize 25-fold larger extent of sea than its landmass." TamilNet, November 24,
2018. URL: https://www.tamilnet.com/art.html?catid=79&artid=39261
69"Japan successfully undertakes large-scale deep-sea mineral extraction." The Japan Times, September 26, 2017.
URL: https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2017/09/26/national/japan-successfully-undertakes-large-scale-deep-seamineral-extraction/
70“Ministry of Defence - Sri Lanka,” www.defence.lk (Institute of National Security Studies), accessed February 22,2024, https://www.defence.lk/Article/view_article/27052.

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Japan and Sri Lanka in the Indian Ocean:
Challenges and Opportunities

subsequently suffered 82 oil spills from 2011 to 2021. Japan's technological superiority enables it
to facilitate reparation and rebuilding procedures, making it a valuable partner for addressing
various environmental threats.
As Japan advances its blue economy agenda, combating maritime pollution andsafeguarding marine ecosystems becomes critical for both nations. 72 Active involvement inpollution control and marine conservation enhances Japan's presence in the IOR. Collaboration
between coastguards demonstrates a tangible commitment to aiding maritime law enforcement,
search and rescue operations and environmental protection.
Nearly 90% of the world's goods are being transported through sea routes due to limitations
in air cargo capacity and cost-effectiveness. However, maritime crimes such as piracy, armed
robbery, terrorism, human trafficking, and drug smuggling pose threats to international security,
impacting freedom of navigation and world trade 73. Japan's expertise in addressing these issues,particularly through high standards for preventing piracy and fisheries sector crimes, presents
opportunities for enhanced cooperation with Sri Lanka. Japan's assistance through knowledge
sharing and technology transfer could benefit Sri Lanka in combating maritime crimes and alignit with Japan's Free and Open Indo-Pacific policy, which emphasizes freedom and security of theseas. Sri Lanka's agreement to host a center for sharing regional intelligence on transnationalorganized crime in 2018 demonstrates the country's commitment to addressing these challenges.
Recent incidents such as seizures of heroin and other illicit substances highlight the pressing needto strengthen responses to maritime crimes in the IOR (Figure 12). Collaboration between Japanand Sri Lanka through technological and intelligence-sharing initiatives can significantly enhancemaritime security and combat transnational organized crime.

Monika Chansoria. "Blue Economies of the Indian Ocean Region: Japan’s Role in Transition to Sustainable
Development and Growth." Policy Brief, August 24, 2020. URL: https://www.jiiajic.jp/en/policybrief/pdf/PolicyBrief_Chansoria_200824.pdf
72

Jun Honna. "ASEAN-Japan Cooperation on Maritime Non-Traditional Security Issues: Toward a New Paradigm."
In Rethinking Asian Security: A Case for Cooperative Security Governance, edited by Evelyn Goh and See Seng
Tan, 149-172. Singapore: ISEAS–Yusof Ishak Institute, 2018
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Enhancing Maritime Security Cooperation between
Japan and Sri Lanka in the Indian Ocean:
Challenges and Opportunities

Figure 12: Main heroin trafficking flows, 2012-2016. UNODC, 2018, p 15

8. Proposed Policy Recommendations
Japan• Embrace the Free and Open Indo-Pacific (FOIP) vision as the principal guide to engaging
with Sri Lanka and adopting Asian ways of decision-making to implement policies•

Advocate for partnerships aimed at mitigating vulnerability, overcoming geographicaldistances, and promoting mini-lateralism•

Serve as a bridge connecting the West and the emerging liberal order•

Intensify efforts to address maritime security issues and leverage advantages to garnersupport from countries concerned about China's regional presence•

Prioritize technical cooperation over competition in the financing sector to address thechallenges posed by Chinese aid-dumping to developing countries•

Promote interests over a shared vision to make smaller countries more likely to findcompatibility and pursue cooperation with Japan

Sri Lanka
35Enhancing Maritime Security Cooperation between
Japan and Sri Lanka in the Indian Ocean:
Challenges and Opportunities•

Adopt a multifaceted and segmented approach in managing foreign policy, trade, andsecurity strategies to enhance maritime security cooperation with Japan•Engage actively in regional political discourse while maintaining a balanced approach,fostering a more fluid and functional non-aligned policy orientation•

Promote mutual respect for sovereignty and multilateralism, focusing on shared interests
rather than ideological alignment, as a solution to regional geopolitical dynamics; prioritize
mini-lateral and bilateral initiatives to address challenges effectively•

Recognize that narratives of "the West versus the rest" or "democracies versus autocracies"
still hold significance despite complex interdependencies; remain mindful of thesenarratives and their implications in managing relations with global power blocs•

Focus more on addressing issues on a case-by-case, unit-by-unit and event-by-event basis,
allowing for more effective collaboration without negotiating on broader scopes, especiallyconsidering the current conditions where Sri Lanka may face challenges in bargaining withlarger countries

Japan's foreign policy shift towards enhancing maritime security cooperation with Sri
Lanka involves three domains: strategic competition, strategic dilemmas, and strategic
convergence. Strategic competition drives Japan's presence in the Indian Ocean, fueled by its
reliance on the region for resources and markets. Growing relations with African countries
underscore the ocean's significance for Japan, given its heavy reliance on trade routes. Control
over SLOC is vital for Japan's global position. Past Japan-Sri Lanka ties lay the groundwork forestablishing Japan’s presence in the IOR.
Regional instability in the Pacific and Indian oceans concerns Japan, particularly with the
US’ declining influence and China's increasing unilateral behavior. India's potential as a global
power and its response to geopolitical changes also influence Japan's decisions on enhancing
cooperation in South Asia.
Since 2012, Japan has signed multiple bilateral agreements on defense and maritime
security cooperation, emphasizing its commitment to alliances and partnerships in the Indo-Pacificregion. These efforts pursue common goals, mutual benefits, and shared resources, while Japan's
maritime diplomacy and Indo-Pacific policy safeguard its national interests globally.
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Enhancing Maritime Security Cooperation between
Japan and Sri Lanka in the Indian Ocean:
Challenges and Opportunities

Conclusion
Japan's non-superpower, non-hegemonic mentality and its ability to engage with the West appeal
to Sri Lanka, making it a preferred partner for enhancing maritime security cooperation. Given thethriving relations between Japan and India, Sri Lanka's approach to bolstering maritime security
with Japan fosters a conducive environment and avoids zero-sum implications. As it recovers fromits economic crises, Sri Lanka is showing a shift in foreign policy goals aligned with seeking
deeper cooperation with Japan.
However, Japan's limitations and geopolitical concerns pose challenges to proactive
cooperation, requiring Sri Lanka to shoulder more responsibility in convincing Japan of thebenefits of enhanced collaboration.
This paper finds that enhancing maritime security cooperation between Japan and Sri
Lanka is crucial for strengthening the security and stability of the IOR. As the famous saying goes,“Laws alone are not enough to safeguard national interests." Collaborative efforts with othernations become imperative. Japan and Sri Lanka share vital interests in maritime security
cooperation, given their dependency on sea routes for trade and transport. With Sri Lanka's
strategic location in the Indian Ocean, these nations can fortify their efforts to ensure the safety
and integrity of maritime activities, thereby advancing regional security and stability. The
minimalist approach to maritime security adopted by Japan not only mirrors the relationshipbetween the two countries within the maritime domain but also intertwines with economic,
political, and foreign policy decision-making regarding critical issues.

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