3Global Warming and Mountain Environment
Masatoshi YOSHINO
Professor Emeritus, University Tsukuba, Japanand
Senior Programme Advisor (Environment and Sustainable Development), UNU
e-mail: mtoshiyo@poplar.ocn.ne.jp

Abstract
This study first reviews development of mountain research on climate and environment changes
under the influence of global change. International programmes related to mountain climates andenvironments were established in the 1970s, e.g., ‘the High-Altitude Geoecology Commission’ of the
IGU, and ‘MAB-6’ by UNESCO, and in the 1980s, e.g., ‘ALPEX’ of ‘the WCP.’ These, however,were not concerned with the effect of global warming. Since the latter half of the 1980s, an IIASA
programme, global warming has become oen of the main topics. Representative activities incladed‘the WCC’, ‘IPCC’, ‘Mountain Agenda’ and ‘MA (Millennium Assessment)’. It should be pointed outthat global warming was one of the topics discussed at international symposiums, meetings andconferences by experts in the 1980s, but international cooperative studies and programmes have takenplace mainly since the 1990s. Secondly, this discusses recent changes in physical environments fromthe viewpoint of global scale, taking examples from air temperatures, snow accumulation, glaciationand vegetation. Thirdly, this study discusses the possible impacts of global change on a regional scale,taking examples from Temperate Asia. Physical as well as human-sociological systems like tourism,
agricultural land use and forestry, water resource use and other activities are considered and summarized
in a table. The last part of the study discusses changes in daily maximum, minimum and mean air temperature and air temperature lapse rates, taking examples of Mt. Fuji and other mountains in Japan.
The study concludes by presenting, items for future needed studies.
Key words: climate change, global warming, Japan, mountain environment, temperature lapse rate

1. Introduction

2. Global View

Global warming has been evident in recent years.
As has been pointed out, increases in air temperature
are more pronounced in the higher latitudes than in thelower latitudes. It has been not yet discussed, however,whether they are clearer at high altitudes or not.
Studies of changes in mountain environments areimportant to assessing the impacts of climate change
on physical systems and also on human activities inmountain areas (Beniston, 1994; Beniston et al., 1996).
The present paper firstly reviews chronologicaldevelopment of research and international programmes. Recent problems with mountain environments are discussed in the second part of the paper,from the viewpoint of a global scale as well as a regional scale for temperate Asia and on the local scale
for Japan. The secular changes in mean, maximum
and minimum air temperature and their lapse rates inJapanese mountains have been studied for the last
several decades.

2.1 Development of studies
Mountain environments in connection withclimatic conditions have been a subject of observation
among scientists and mountaineers as well as local
governmental officials in charge of inspection andleaders of religion groups for many years. Of course,
the early studies did not consider the impacts of global
warming.
Table 1 lists the main studies discussing mountainclimates and environments. At the end of the 19th
century, Ratzel (1889) discussed altitudinal limits ofsome factors, zonal structure and the effects of slopesin high mountains. In the first half of the 20th
century, comprehensive studies on mountain geography appeared (Peattie, 1936). Climatologists alsobegan to discuss the mountain conditions in the 1930s(Conrad, 1936). After the War, the International Geographical Union (IGU) established the Commission ofHigh-altitude Geoecology to carry out landscapeecology and geoecological studies in high mountains

Global Environmental Research
10(1)/2006: 3-12
printed in Japan©2006 AIRIES

4Masatoshi YOSHINO
Table 1 Development of studies on climates and environments.
Year
1889
1936
1936
1959
1972
1972
1974
1975
1981
1981
1984
1988

Name of researcher
Ratzel, F.
Peattie, R.
Conrad, V.
Troll, C.
Troll, C.
Veyret, P.
Ives, J.D. & Barry, R.G.
Yoshino, M.
Barry, R. G.
Price, L. W.
Uhlig, H. & Haffner, W.
Allan, N. J. R.

1989

Hewitt, K.

1989
1991
1992
1992
1995
1995
1997
1997
1997

Ives, J.D. & Messerli,B.
Nilsson, S. & Pitt, D.
Allan, N. J. R.
Stone, B.
Hewitt, K.
Price, M. F.
Diaz, H. F.
Messerli, B. & Ives, J.D.
Price, M.F. & Barry, R.G.

2002

Watanabe, T.

2005
2005

Greenland, D.
MacCracken, M. C.

Theme
Altitudinal limits or zones of high mountains in European AlpsBook on mountain geography, including climates and environment
Topography and climates of mountains
Landscape ecology of high mountains in tropics
Geoecology of high mountains in Eurasia
Description of Eurasian Alps. Model devoid of the deterministic implications
Mountain ecosystems and climates
Book on climates and environments on local and micro-scales in mountain regions
Book on mountain weather and climate
Book on mountains and man
Comparative geography and geoecosystems of high mountains
Human impact on mountains
Hazards, water resources, geomorphic processes from the viewpoint of humanecologyBook on dilemma in the Himalayan mountains
IIASA activities on mountain researchSpecial Issue of ‘GeoJournal’ on mountain environments
State of the world’s mountains
Risk in mountains
Results of MAB mountain research in Europe
Climate change on mountains
Mountains of the world
Climate change on mountains of the world
Special Issue of ‘Global Environmental Research’ on ‘Global warming andsustainable use of mountain resources in Asia’
Mountain climates
Climate change and global warming

under the leadership of C. Troll, who engaged in tropical mountain studies intensively (Troll, 1959). He
published summaries of the studies of his groups inEurasia (Troll, 1972). Some aspects of models, ecosystems and climates of mountains were described in
the first half of the 1970s (Veyret, 1972; Ives & Barry,1974). Yoshino (1975) discussed local and smallscale climatic conditions comprehensively, taking into
consideration examples from around the world. Figure
1 shows a picture taken of the IGU Commission’s
High-altitude Geoecology activities in the Caucasus in
1976, when C. Troll (the former chairman) and J. D.
Ives (the new chairman) both attended.
In the 1980s, vertical zone structure, weather, climates and human impacts were reviewed andsummarized from the standpoint of human geography,
climatology vegetation science, etc. The main
contributors included, among others, (in alphabeticalorder) N. J. R. Allan, R. G. Barry, H. Ellenberg, J. D.
Ives, K. Hewitt, W. Lauer, B. Messerli, L. W. Price, M.
F. Price, H. Uhlig, M. Yoshino.
2.2 Development of international programmes
and conferences
Global warming has gradually taken its place
among the topics at international programmes andconferences since the 1980s, but there was talk of it
before this.

Fig. 1 Lunch time on the field excursion at the Jancuat(Dzhankuat) glacier observation station (2,700 m a.s.l.)in the Northern Caucasus, organized by the ‘Highaltitude Geoecology Commission’ of the IGU on 24
July, 1976. Fourth (with silver hair) on the right-handside is Prof. C. Troll and fourth (with sun glasses) on theleft-hand side is Prof. J.D.Ives.
(photographed by M. Yoshino)

UNESCO initiated a fourteen-phase programme, ina sense a follow-on to the International Biological
Programme (IBP), in 1972. One of the fourteen
phases was Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Project 6
entitled: The impact of human activities on mountainecosystems.
In early 1973, a panel of experts meeting was held

Global Warming and Mountain Environment

in Salzburg, Austria. Development of mountainstudies among the MAB was presented in a book
(Price, 1995). The research was directed mainly atvegetation, tourism, shi-areas, forestry, agriculture,modeling and their relation to climatic influences.
They produced lots of valuable results, but there wasno consideration of the impact of global warming.
From the standpoint of atmospheric sciences, theAlpine Experiment (ALPEX) was a noteworthy earlyinternational programme in the 1980s. The humanimpact on mountain environments has been thoroughly studied summarizing the previous results(Allan et al., 1988). The ‘Mountain Agenda’ wascreated for consideration at UNCED 1992 in Rio deJaneiro after the 1972 Stockholm Conference on theenvironment. Status reports were presented again ina special issue of GeoJournal Volume 27, No.1 (Allan,
1992). Because the results mentioned were producedin the 1970s and 1980s, they contained almost no discussion of the relationship to climatic change or
global warming.
2.3 Consideration of global warming
Human-induced ‘global warming’ has been a more
popular topic since the early 1960s, but more rapidly
and strongly mentioned at international conferences in
the 1980s. It was made a first goal for action at thesecond World Climate Conference in 1990. Of particular importance was an international scientificassessment prepared by the Intergovernmental Panelon Climate Change (IPCC), which was established in1990 under the auspices of the United Nations.
The International Institute for Applied System
Analysis (IIASA) prepared a report on the impact of
global warming on agricultural production worldwide
in order to contribute to the IPPC (Nilsson et al.,1991). The report discusssed water supplies, water
quality, hydropower, flood protection, navigation,
tourism and health in the case of doubling of CO2
levels. As seen in Table 2, consideration for global
warming started during the 1980s.
Studies on mountain environments in relation to5climate change have been carried out by Barry (1981),
Beniston (1994), Beniston et al. (1996), Diaz et al.
(1997), and Ives and Barry (1974). The recent statusof the results of research is given by Price and Barry(1997), Greenland (2005) and MacCracken (2005).
It should be stressed that, as seen in Tables 1 and 2,
the scientific community was aware of global warming and its impact in the 1980s, but studies have taken
them up as topics mainly since the 1990s.

3. Recent Changes in the Physical Environment as Seen on a Global Scale
3.1 Increasing rate of air temperature rise during
the last decades
Diaz et al. (1997) studied the relationship between
altitude and air temperature change in the mountainsof Europe and Asia showing a clear increase. An
analysis of the records observed at about 5,400
stations worldwide since 1950 has shown that themonthly mean daily maximum temperature is increasing at a rate of 0.88°C/century; the monthly mean
daily minimum temperature, 1.86°C/century; and thedaily range of temperature, 0.84°C/century.
Omasa et al. (2001) presented the secular change
in air temperature at the top of Mt. Fuji during the last
several decades. They observed some cyclic changes
among a long-term increasing trend, which was similar to the change in free atmosphere at 3,000 m(700 hPa) altitude over Wajima, located near Mt. Fuji.
Natori (2005) analyzed a series of observed air temperature data from 1961 to 1990, and showed that therate of increase on Mt. Fuji was much greater than the
average rate of increase at the ground surface level
worldwide. The secular change in air temperature at
the top and foot of Mt. Fuji and other mountains inJapan will be discussed in detail in Section 5.1.
Du (2001), using various statistics, studied air temperature changes on the Tibetan Plateau. An increasing trend at most stations is clear in autumn and winter.
The increase in daily minimum temperatures is more

Table 2 Establishment of international programmes, conferences, and cooperative activities related to climates andenvironments of mountains.
Year
Programme, conference, or
Scope or notecooperative activity
1972
Commission on the ‘High-altitude
Mountain geoecology and landscapes.
geoecology’ of the IGU
1972
MAB-6 of UNESCO
Impact of human activities on mountain ecosystems.
1980s ALPEXMountain meteorology in European Alps.
1980s IIASA
Impact of global warming.
1990
WCC (II World Climate Conference) Second meeting of international conference by experts andpolicy makers.
1991
IPCC (Inter-governmental Panel on
Internationally, the most authorized summaries. The fourth
Climate Change)
issue is now (2006) under review.
1992
UNCED-92, Mountain Agenda
The most effective agenda.
2005
MA (Millennium Assessment)
The best summaries at present on climates and environments inthe chapter on mountains.

6

Masatoshi YOSHINO

than that of maximum temperatures. An increasing
in daily maximum temperature occurs in summer incontrast to that in daily minimum temperature in winter. The linear trend in warming of annual mean air
temperatures is 0.23°C/decade in the altitude zone
above 4,000 m a.s.l., but relatively small, 0.11°C/
decade below 3,000 m a.s.l. So that, it can be said
that the increase in annual mean temperatures has
been more striking in the zone above 4,000 m a.s.l. in
the Tibetan Plateau during the last 40 years. Studies on
the temperature change in South China made clear
similar results (He et al., 2005).
3.2 Snow accumulation
The impacts of changes in snow accumulation on
wild animals and vegetation are very big. Therefore
studies of changes in snow accumulation under the
influence of global warming will be indispensable.
Inoue and Yokoyama (1989) estimated changes usinga regional climate model. The percentage of solid
precipitation to total precipitation, in the case of 2°C
warming, will decrease by 16% in high mountains.
When the snowfall fraction, number of days withsnowfall and snow cover duration are expressed bylinear relations in terms of altitude (Conrad, 1935;
Konček, 1959; Yoshino, 1975; Lauscher et al., 19781980; Barry, 1981), we can estimate changes occurring in the case of global warming.
3.3 Glacier or ice cover changes
During the meeting of PAGES at Davos,
Switzerland, on 25-28 June, 2001, one topic of discussion was quantifying and understanding the ongoingretreat of mountain glaciers worldwide, as exemplified
by the case of Kilimanjaro (Editorial PAGES News,
2001). Namely, the extent of ice cover on Mt.
Kilimanjaro decreased by 81% between 1912 and2000. It was reported that the debate on the retreat
centered around whether this indicated increasing
local ambient temperatures and increased long-wave
radiation from the dark caldera’s surface (higher melt
rates) or increased short-wave radiation leading toenhanced sublimation, one possible explanation forthe special perpendicular inward facing walls of theseice fields. There have been lots of discussions on
glacial retreat in the mountains, but they are omitted
due to limitation of space.
Anomalous expansions in Karakoram have been
confined to the highest relief glaciers and have appeared suddenly and sporadically (Hewitt, 2005).
This suggests a need to explore distinctive responsesof snow and ice to high-altitude warming bringing
thermal changes to thermally complex glaciers.
Warming and greater transport of moisture to higher
altitudes may explain the growth of these glaciers.
3.4 Vegetation changes
Changes in high mountain ecosystems can be expected as consequence of global warming (Harasawa

et al., 1999). Warming poses a serious threat toalpine flora. The sensitivity of plants to climatic
factors and water stress in the summit region of Mt.
Kinabaru, Borneo, the highest mountain in SE Asia,
has been studied (Kitayama, 1996; Daimaru et al.,
1996; Ohsawa et al., 1998). They concluded thatpeat buried in soil layers under snow patches wasformed as a result of shrinkage of the snowpatch areaand development of grassland vegetation during themedieval warming period around the 10th century. It
is one good example of how vegetation has changed
as caused by snow accumulation changes in themountains in the historical period.

4. Possible Impacts of Global Warming
4.1 In temperate Asia: an example on a regionalscale
Possible impacts of global warming on various aspects in the mountain regions of Temperate Asia areshown in Table 3 (Yoshino et al., 1998). They aresummarized by physical system and socio-economic
system separately. The former is concerned withhydrology, the cryosphere, abnormal weather, topographical processes and the biological world or vegetation. The latter comprises mountain agriculture, hydrological power, forestry, tourism and transportation.
It has been indicated that in the mountain regionsof Temperate Asia, glaciers will provide extra runoff
when the ice disappears. In general, the extra runoff
may persist for a few decades and in areas with verylarge glaciers, it may last for a century or more. It isprojected that in 2050, the volume of runoff from glaciers in Central Asia will increase threefold. However, glacial runoff will eventually taper off or evencease. The projected glacial runoff in 2100 is about
69 km3/year, compared with the present value of
98 km3/year (Yoshino et al., 1998).
4.2 In Japan: an example on the local scale
Fujiwara and Box (1999) came to the conclusionthat evergreen broad-leaved forests in warmer regions
will invade deciduous forests in cooler climatic regions. On the other hand, wild grass will invade
evergreen broad-leaved forests, sustained by the faster
shifting ability of wild grasses. As has been madeclear in studies on distribution of plant communities in
the mountains of Hokkaido, snow accumulation plays
a basic role in their local differences (Yoshioka et al.,1963). Tanaka and Taoda (1996) estimated changes in
distribution areas of beech (Fagus crenata) in the caseof changing air temperature and snow accumulation
under the condition of global warming. The vertical
distribution zone and degree of domination of beech
differ between the Pacific side and the Japan Sea sideof Honshu, Japan, due mainly to different snow accumulation resulting from opposite situations, windwardor lee side relative to the winter monsoon.
On the Japan Sea side, snow accumulation will de-Global Warming and Mountain Environment

crease, due to weakening of the winter monsoon underglobal warming, and this will result in shrinkage ofupper altitudinal zones and decreasing domination of
beech forests. On the contrary, on the Pacific side,snow accumulation will increase due to increasingly
frequent visitation of cyclones, which, together withthe warming effect, will result in widening as well as
elevating the altitudinal zones and increasing domination of beech forests. Detailed reviews have been
given elsewhere (Nishioka et al., 1997; Omasa et al.,2001). On the other hand, Kojima (1996) considered
the effect of an increase in annual mean air temperature of 3°C (3.5°C in winter and 2.5°C in summer) on
vegetation area in the mountains of Toyama Prefecture,
central Japan. He showed that the area of creeping
pine (Pinus pumila) distribution will decrease to 9%of the present area.
The impacts of global warming on natural ecosystems in the Japanese mountains have been classified
into three groups: (a) a group sensitive to temperature

7changes such as Abies, in particular, Abies Mariesii,(b) a group sensitive to snow accumulation as well as
temperature changes, such as Sasa kuriensis, Camellia
japonica, C rusticana, Fagus crenata, and (c) a groupsensitive to topography and soil rather than temperature changes, such as creeping pine (Pinus pumila),
Tsuga diversifolia, and Thuja standishii.
The distribution of dwarf bamboo in Japan sharply
reflects snow accumulation. The maximum height,
resistance to snow cover and low temperatures, recovery after damage to above-ground organs and theirrelation to winter climate, particularly, duration anddepth of snow accumulation are clear (Yoshino, 1978),so that changes in snow as caused by global warming
can be detected by dwarf-bamboo conditions (Tanaka,
2002).
In Table 4, possible impacts of global warming on
vegetation (grasslands, shrubs and plant communities)
in the high mountains mainly in Japan are summarized
for the cases of 2°C increase, decrease in daily range,

Table 3 Possible impacts of global warming on mountain regions in Temperate Asia.
Field
Physical
SystemHydrology
Cryosphere
Abnormal
Weather
TopographicalProcess
Biological
World/
Vegetation

SocioEconomic
SystemMountain
Agriculture
Hydrological
Power
Forestry
TourismTransportation

a)
b)
c)
a)
b)
a)
b)
a)
b)
a)
b)
c)
a)
b)
a)
b)
a)
b)
a)
b)
a)
b)

Impacts
Increase in air temperature and decrease in precipitation in summer
Increase in rate of rainfall/snow and decrease in depth and duration of snow accumulation
Upward shift of maximum precipitation zone on mountain slopes
Direct effect of elevated temperature
Increasing density of snow accumulation and longer snow-free duration
Significant increase in frequency of strong winds and torrential rains
Warm and dry spring and summer, causing increased fire risk
Increase in precipitation maximum over mountain slopes, causing increased landslides, mud flow,
soil erosion, groundwater pressure, etc.
Thawing of permafrost, causing increased grade and frequency of landslides
Changes in main species of mountain plants and animals, causing increased stress on mountainecosystems
Easier upward shift of main species of mountain plants, due to short shift distance and less stress ofadaptation to light conditions within shift elevation
Effects of changing snow accumulation on plants and animals
Decrease in existing crops
Changes in cultivation calender along mountain slopes
Changes in available water power due to seasonal changes in hydrology
Increased demand for electric power in summer and decreased demand in winterChanges in economically predominant species
Increased damage by wildlife, pests, viruses, diseases, etc.
Changes in elements dominating mountain landscape
Decreased length of skiing season
Increased accessibility due to reduced amount and period of snow accumulation in winterPossibility of accidents and damage by freezing for traffic and transmission systems

Table 4 Possible impacts of global warming on vegetation (plant communities) in high mountains in various cases.
2°C increase inann. mean air
temp.

Decrease in daily
range of air temp.

Increased altitude oflower limits on the
Decrease
mountain slopes*.
Decrease in diversity*

Grasslandcommunity inwindy area

Decrease

Shrub community
in windy area

Increased altitude Area will becomeof upper and lower narrow*
limits on slopes

In the case of
Increase inprecip. amountand intensity

Increase in max.
(min.) air temp.

Develop

Earlier
Increase in tropicalphenological
cyclone freq. andchanges in spring intensity

Increase indiversity

Increase indiversity

Development oferosion on slopes

Develop

Invasion of talltrees

Area will become
narrow*

Plant community
Invasion of otherin snow patch area species

Area will become
narrow*

Invasion ofther
speciesAlmost no effect*

Plant community
in stony area

Increasing diversity,
due to short snow
(Same as on left)
accumu. period anddepth

No change*

No change*

Development

Widening

Slight decrease

Development

Increasing grazing
Increasing grazing Increasing
Others (animals)?
?
?
damage by animals
damage by animals grazing damage
by animals
Notes: Original table was made by T. Masuzawa. Revised by a Committee at the Ministry of the Environment, Japan, 1998-1999, chaired by
M. Yoshino. Translated by M. Yoshino in June, 2006. Mark* means ‘Questionable in some cases.’8

Masatoshi YOSHINO

increase in maximum temperature, precipitation
changes, etc. Changes in phenological dates andtyphoon frequency and intensity (Omasa et al., 1996)
were also taken into consideration.

5. Long-term Trend in Air Temperatures in
the Japanese Mountains
5.1 Secular variation of air temperatures
Table 5 shows the rate of increase, as calculated bylinear regression equation, in the long-term trend inmean air temperature in winter (December, January
and February) and summer (June, July and August) on
six Japanese mountains during 1971-2000. One cansee from this Table that (a) an increase is clear without
exception, (b) the rate of increase on high mountains
above 3,000 m (Mt. Fuji) was small, and (c) the
largest rate of increase was found in winter at Mts.
Ibuki, Kawaguchi and Nikko, which are located incentral Japan, crossed by a strong winter monsoon (inother words, on the mountains in Shikoku and Kyushu,
SW Japan, the rate was smaller than those in thecentral part of Japan), (d) in summer, the rate ofincrease was the smallest on Mt. Fuji, and (e) the rateof increase was smaller in summer than in winter, withthe exception of on Mt. Tsurugi. The reason, it was
as exception, is not clear at present, but the local
climatic phenomena (Yoshino, 2005) must influencestrongly on the conditions of these mountains.
As mentioned above, the higher mountains in
Europe and Asia have shown a clear increasing trend
in daily mean air temperatures (Diaz et al., 1997).
Comparing the rates they obtained, we may conclude
that the Japanese mountains, as far as the data
analyzed show, also the same increasing tendency, but

the rate of increase is relatively greater than that inEurope and Asia in general. The reason is thought tooriginate from the winter monsoon blowing as part ofthe middle latitude westerlies, which develop moststrongly over Japan as compared with the rest of thenorthern hemisphere. This winter monsoon has been
weakening in accordance with global warming.
The same analysis was made, but for the period
from the beginning of the observations to 2000, andthe results are given in Table 6. Because of thedifferent period analyzed, the results cannot becompared mountain to mountain, but the rate has been
generally observed to be larger in winter than insummer at all mountains with the exception of Mt.
Tsurugi. It is also interesting to note that the annual
mean rate of increase has been relatively smaller at Mt.
Fuji.
Secular variations in air temperature at the mountain top and foot from the initial year of theobservations to 2000 are shown in Figs. 2, 3 and 4.
One can clearly see that the inter-annual fluctuation isgreater in winter than in summer and slightly greateron the top than at the foot of the mountains.
5.2 Secular variation of air temperature lapse rate
The air temperature lapse rate is calculated fromthe differences in air temperature and altitude between
mountain top stations and nearby foot stations foreach year for the two periods, 1971-2000 and
beginning of observatinos to 2000. The results areshown in Table 7.
It can be concluded that there is a long-term
increasing trend in air temperature lapse rate. One of
the reasons may be the heat island effect on themountain foot stations, but that needs further study.

Table 5 Trends (°C/year) in mean air temperature in winter (DJF) and summer (JJA) at Japanese mountainobservatories during 1971-2000. [Positive indicates an increase]
Rate of increase (°C/year)
Name ofAltitude a.s.l.
Difference betw.
observatory
WinterSummerwinter and summer
Mt. Fuji
3,775.0 m
0.017
0.013
0.003
Mt. Tsurugi
1,944.8 m
0.024
0.029
– 0.005
Mt. Ibuki
1,375.8 m
0.037
0.026
0.010
Nikko
1,291.9 m
0.030
0.024
0.006
Mt. Aso
1,142.8 m
0.026
0.013
0.013
Kawaguchiko859.8 m
0.039
0.034
0.005
Table 6 Long-term trends (°C/year) in winter, summer and annual mean air temperature at Japanese mountainobservatories.
Rate of increase (°C/year)
Name ofObservation
Difference
Altitude a.s.l.
observatory
periodWinterSummerAnnualbetw. winterand summer
Mt. Fuji
3,775.0 m
0.017
0.002
0.010
0.015
1935 - 2000
Mt. Tsurugi
1,944.8 m
0.000
0.009
0.009
– 0.008
1944 - 2000
Mt. Ibuki
1,375.8 m
0.019
0.007
0.015
0.012
1919 - 2000
Nikko
1,291.9 m
0.013
0.011
0.014
0.002
1944 - 2000
Mt. Aso
1,142.8 m
0.014
0.008
0.012
0.006
1933 - 2000
Kawaguchiko859.8 m
0.028
0.014
0.022
0.014
1933 - 2000

Global Warming and Mountain Environment
MT. FUJI(3,775.0m)
FUJI(3775.0m)
MT.

KAWAGUCHIKO(859.8m)

1025

y = 0.0022x + 3.7062
2

R

y = 0.014x + 19.268
2= 0.0056

R5= 0.1751

20SUMMER

0

SUMMERy = 0.01x - 6.8665
215

y = 0.0223x + 9.1954= 0.0911

R

2

-5

R

= 0.4667

10

ANNUAL-10

5-15

ANNUAL0-20
y = 0.0173x - 18.186

2

1998

1993

1988

1983

1968

1958

1953

1948

1943

1978

= 0.2159

R

1973

WINTER
1933

2000

1995

1990

1985

1980

1975

1970

1965

1960

1955

1950

-5

1945

1940

1935

-25

y = 0.0285x - 1.1251= 0.0387

1938

2

R

WINTER

1963

MEAN AIR TEMPRATURE(°C)

9Fig. 2 Secular changes in air temperatures at the top and foot of Mt. Fuji.
MT. IBUKI(1,375.8m)
IBUKI(1375.8m)
MT.
20

30

y = 0.0074x + 15.828
2

R

HIKONE(87.3m)
y = 0.0079x + 23.866= 0.0925

2

MEAN AIR TEMPRATURE(°C)

R= 0.077825

15SUMMER

102

SUMMER20

y = 0.0148x + 5.3841

y = 0.0131x + 13.496= 0.3136

R2

R= 0.3114

15

5

ANNUAL

0

ANNUAL10

y = 0.0136x + 3.4779= 0.1144

1959

-5

1954

2

R
5
y = 0.0193x - 5.3909

1984

1989

1994

1999

1984

1989

1994

1999

1979

1974

1969

1964

1949

1944

1939

1934

1929

1919

1999

1994

1989

1984

1924

WINTER

0
1979

1974

= 0.128
1969

R

1964

1954

1949

1944

1939

1934

1929

1924

1919

-10

1959

2

WINTER

Fig. 3 Secular changes in air temperatures at the top and foot of Mt. Ibuki.
MT. ASO(1,142.8m)
ASO(1142.8m)
MT.

KUMAMOTO(37.7m)
30

25

y = 0.0148x + 24.957
2

MEAN AIR TEMPRATURE(°C)

y = 0.0084x + 18.326
2

R

20

R

= 0.1086

SUMMER

SUMMER

20

15

y = 0.02x + 15.157

y = 0.0121x + 9.0141
2

R

2

R

= 0.2169= 0.5387

15

10

ANNUAL5= 0.2913

25

ANNUAL10
y = 0.0141x - 1.1602
2

R= 0.0393
50

y = 0.0191x + 5.1608

1979

1974

1969

= 0.1489
1964

1949

1944

1939

Fig. 4 Secular changes in air temperatures at the top and foot of Mt. Aso.

1954

R
1934

1929

1924

1919

1998

1993

1988

1983

1978

1973

1968

1963

1958

1953

0
1948

1943

1938

1933

WINTER

1959

2

-5

WINTER

10

Masatoshi YOSHINO

5.3 Vertical distributions of some climaticelements as seen from diurnal changes
One of the noteworthy features of high mountainclimates is diurnal change patterns, which differ fromthose at low altitudes.
The diurnal temperature range is small in highmountains, as shown by an example observed at the
top of Mt. Fuji (Huzimura, 1971; Yoshino, 1975).
There is no clear boundary between the high mountainpattern and the low mountains, because we have no
detailed observations along the slopes, but based on
the results of a temporal observation in January 1951,
the low-mountain pattern of diurnal temperaturechange was found at up to 1,300 m a.s.l. A transitional pattern of diurnal change can be recognized at
up to 2,000 m a.s.l. The high mountain pattern appears at altitudes higher than 2,100 m a.s.l. (Owada etal., 1972).
In the case that the year-to-year rate of increase in
air temperature in winter continues similarly to thelast 30 years, air temperatures at 1,300-2,000 m a.s.l.
on the slope of Mt. Fuji will warm by roughly 1.5°C
and on the top, by 0.8°C by 2050, as estimated from
Table 5 and Fig. 2. These warming values can beinterpreted to mean that the boundary on the slope will
become 150-200 m higher in 2050 than at present, if
we do not take into consideration the effects of condensation levels (cloud or fog layers) on the diurnalchange in air temperatures on mountain slopes.
Humidity is determined by air temperature and theamount of water vapour. The water vapour content
decreases rapidly with altitude, due to the rapid decrease in air temperature. In the free atmosphere, theamount of water vapour decreases by half at about

1,500 m above the ground. The vertical distribution
is as follows: the maximum of relative humidity on
mountains appears at 1,500-2,000 m in both winter andsummer. In August, the minimum relative humidity isseen at 400-500 m. This vertical distribution corresponds approximately to the vertical distribution of
the number of foggy days on the slope (Yoshino,1975).
The diurnal changes in water vapour pressure andrelative humidity at the summit of Mt. Fuji differ fromthose on lower parts of the slope. It is said that thewind velocity at the top of Mt. Fuji is the highest
among those at mountain observatories around theworld (Price, 1981). In particular, strong winds are
predominant in cold-half years. The diurnal change
in wind velocity on high mountains differs from thatin lower areas. In general, the maximum appears atnight and the minimum, in the daytime in the mountains. In winter, these daily changes are obscured
because of the strong winter monsoon, which prevails
regardless of diurnal changes in the vertical exchangeof atmosphere between the higher and lower layers.
In the case of global warming, the boundary of diurnal change patterns in wind velocity between thehigher and the lower parts of mountain slopes will
shift to a higher altitude because of increasing verticalexchange in the atmospheric layer near the slope.
However, this estimate should also be re-examined bytaking into consideration changing frequencies ofsynoptic weather patterns.
5.4 Summary for the mountains of Japan
Summarizing the facts mentioned above, I haveattempted to compile them in Table 8. Classifying

Table 7 Trends in air temperature lapse rate (°C/100m) at several mountains in Japan. [Positive indicates an increase]
Trend of lapse rate (°C/100m/100year)
Mt. Top station
InitialDifference
year of
Annual mean
WinterSummerofaltitudeFoot station
obs.
1971-2000 Start-2000 1971-2000 Start-2000 1971-2000 Start-2000
Mt. Fuji
0.044
0.039
0.077
0.036
0.071
0.044
1935
Kawaguchiko 2,915.2 m
Mt. Tsurugi
1,943.2 m
0.044
0.087
0.087
0.099
0.039
0.071
1944
Tokushima
Mt. Ibuki
1,288.5 m– 0.053– 0.013– 0.039– 0.044
0.024
0.004
1919
HikoneNikko
1,172.5 m
0.183
0.122
0.261
0.177
0.098
0.031
1944
Utsunomiya
Mt. Aso
1,105.1 m
0.174
0.094
0.206
0.068
0.142
0.069
1933
Kumamoto
Table 8 Impacts of global warming on climates on Japanese mountains.
Top of Mt. Fuji (3,776 m)
Air temperature increase, 1971-2000 (°C/year)

0.02 (winter)0.01 (summer)

Air temperature lapse rate increase, 1971-2000(°C/100m/year)
Estimated temp. warming (°C) by 2050
Interpreted vertical shift of boundary betw.
high and low mountains
Diurnal change pattern of temperature
Diurnal change wind velosity
Maximum zone of precipitation, cloudiness,
number of foggy days

0.08 (winter)0.07 (summer)
1.5 (winter)
shifting 150-250 m higher
shifting slightly higher
shifting higher

Other lower mountaines or slopes(1,100-2,000 m)
0.03-0.04 (winter, C-Japan)
0.02-0.03 (winter, SW-Japan)
0.01-0.03 (summer, C-, SW-Japan)
0.09-0.26 (winter)
0.02-0.18 (summer)
0.8 (winter)

Global Warming and Mountain Environment

altitudes into two zones, the top of Mt. Fuji (3,776 m)
and the mountain slopes or relatively lower mountains(1,100-2,000 m), it shows air temperature increases
and increases in air temperature lapse rate in winterand summer. The temperature in 2050 is estimatedto be 1.5°C warmer at the top of Mt. Fuji in winter,but 0.8°C warmer in the lower mountains of Japan.
The interpreted vertical shift of the boundary between the high and low mountains will be 150-200 m
higher for the diurnal change pattern in air temperatures, and slightly higher for wind velocity and for thezones of maximum precipitation, cloudiness and number of foggy days.

6. Conclusion
It is clear that the global warming impact on mountain environments will affect vegetation change,
glacial retreat, etc. The disappearance of significant
portions of mountain glaciers and shortages in watersupplies in Temperate Asia are of importance forconsideration regarding the future environment.
Strong effects on warming on air temperatures havebeen observed in the mountains. However, the degree of effects differs regionally and locally frommountain to mountain, because the locations and altitudes differ with regard to upper atmospheric circulation conditions on global scale, which change seasonally. Further studies are needed on these points.
Also, studies of the interactive effects of factors
such as tourism, agriculture, forestry and other industries should be carried on urgently.

Acknowledgement
I thank Mr. Gou Shimizu, IDEA Consultant Inc.,Tokyo, Japan for computation and arrangement ofobserved data at the mountain stations in Japan.
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