Climate Change, Agricultural
Resilience, and Rural Society
Adaptation in the Era of
Rapid ChangeIndonesian Perspectives
Edited by

Fitrio ASHARDIONO

Asia-Japan Research Institute
Ritsumeikan University

Climate Change, Agricultural Resilience, and Rural Society Adaptation in the Eraof Rapid Change

AJI BOOKS

Climate Change, Agricultural Resilience, andRural Society Adaptation in the Era of
Rapid Change: Indonesian Perspectives
EditorFitrio ASHARDIONO

Asia-Japan Research Institute
Ritsumeikan University
ISBN 978-4-9911356-8-2 (Online)
ISBN 978-4-9911356-9-9 (Print)iClimate Change, Agricultural Resilience, and Rural Society Adaptation in the Eraof Rapid Change

Climate Change, Agricultural Resilience and Rural
Society Adaptation in the Era of Rapid Change:
Indonesian Perspectives

AJI Editorial Office
OIC Research Office,Ritsumeikan University Osaka Ibaraki Campus (OIC)
2-150 Iwakura-cho, Ibaraki,
Osaka 567-8570 JAPAN
Email: aji-eb@st.ritsumei.ac.jp

Copyright © 2022 Asia-Japan Research Institute, Ritsumeikan University
Note:
Authors’ names in this publication are ordered according to their preference andtheir surnames are capitalized.

ii

Climate Change, Agricultural Resilience, and Rural Society Adaptation in the Eraof Rapid Change

Contents
Editor’s Preface
Fitrio ASHARDIONO

iv

Contributors

vi

Chapter 1. Solidarity Economy Practices in Rural and Fishing
Communities Across Indonesia
Iqra ANUGRAH

1Chapter 2. Strengthening the Resilience of Rural Agricultural
Societies in Indonesia: Agroecology with a Terroir Approach
Fitrio ASHARDIONO

12

Chapter 3. Towards Smart Farming in Indonesia: Issues,
Challenges, and Opportunities
Corinthias P. M. SIANIPAR

31

Chapter 4. Place, Space, and Community: Spatial Planning for
Rural Development
Rohman Taufiq HIDAYAT

46

Chapter 5. Concluding Remarks and Discussion
Fitrio ASHARDIONO

65

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Climate Change, Agricultural Resilience, and Rural Society Adaptation in the Eraof Rapid Change

Editor’s Preface
As this growing number of human beings face a multitude of threats
from climate change, pollution, viruses and other forms of serious
problems, including each other as we compete for an ever shrinking
piece of the pie, this small book intends to provide hope by giving an
insight into the planning of future developments in agriculture and ruralsociety in an environmentally friendly and economically sustainable way
in the authors’ homeland, Indonesia. It attempts to review the present
conditions from a realistic perspective that does not conveniently forgetto account for the future losses to agriculture incurred by pollution,
overuse, and soil degradation while providing the means to address thesocial and economic losses to rural society as their talented sons anddaughters are lured by lucrative employment prospects to the alreadyoverloaded urban areas.
Can such an ambitious plan succeed? It is up to us to draft aneloquent argument that can persuade those who refuse to see what isperfectly clear to the world’s scientists, that the only way to ensure astable, secure, and prosperous future for future generations is to makesure the human race progress together, and leaves no one behind.
Indonesia’s advancement towards a sustainable future is still a workin progress, very much in the planning stages. As a humble first step I
have called upon my colleagues in related fields to report on the present
situation on the ground, and explain the latest developments in theirrespective fields.
In the first chapter Dr. Iqra Anugrah, a specialist agrarian politics,
gives his report on solidarity practices in rural and fishing communities
across Indonesia. In the Chapter 2, I lay out my proposals forstrengthening the resilience of rural agricultural societies. In Chapter
3, Dr. Corinthias P. M. Sianipar introduces the issues, challenges andiv

Climate Change, Agricultural Resilience, and Rural Society Adaptation in the Eraof Rapid Change

opportunities provided by advances in Smart Farming, and in Chapter
4, AR. Rohman Taufiq Hidayat shows how spatial planning for ruraldevelopment can provide holistic and sustainable solutions for ruralsocieties. In the concluding chapter, I give a summary of a discussion
among my coauthors after sharing their research, and I will draw fromeach contributor and try to see how we can collaborate to better achieve
our goal.
It is my sincere hope that through the insights of these young
specialists, we can work together to guide an increasingly prosperous
Indonesian nation towards a bright future. Due to its diversity ofpioneering endeavors, it is our hope that this will provide a model for
ensuring sustainable growth in the Asian region.
Fitrio Ashardionov

Climate Change, Agricultural Resilience, and Rural Society Adaptation in the Eraof Rapid Change

Contributors
Dr. Iqra ANUGRAH
Chapter 1: Solidarity Economic Practices
in Rural and Fishing Communities AcrossIndonesia
Profile: Ph.D. in Political Science and Southeast
Asian Studies from Northern Illinois University.
JSPS Postdoctoral Fellow, CSEAS Kyoto
University. Research Associate, Institute for
Economic and Social Research, Education,and Information (LP3ES). Indonesia Research
associate at an AKATIGA-S Think Tank in Jakarta, Indonesia.
Area: Comparative Politics, Political Theory, Southeast Asia Studies.
Agrarian politics in the changing context of development and statesociety relations.
Selected Articles: 2021. Limitations to Subnational Authoritarianism:Indonesian Local Government Head Elections in Comparative
Perspective. 2021 Straddling between Different Worlds: Navigating
Diverse Fieldwork Modes. 2020 The Illiberal Turn in Indonesian
Democracy. 2015. Peasant Movements and State Elites in Post-New
Order West Java: A Case Study of Sundanese Peasant Union.

viClimate Change, Agricultural Resilience, and Rural Society Adaptation in the Eraof Rapid Change

Dr. Fitrio ASHARDIONO
Chapter 2: Strengthening the Resilience ofRural Agricultural Societies in Indonesia:
Agroecology with a Terroir Approach
Profile: Ph.D. in Policy Science. AssistantP r o f e s s o r, C o l l e g e o f P o l i c y S c i e n c e ,Ritsumeikan University, Japan. Universitas
Trisakti, Environmental Engineering.
Selected Articles: 2021 From Commodity toSpecialty Products: Three Key Concepts for a Sustainable Tea andCoffee Industry in Indonesia. 2021 Reality and Challenges of Tea
Industry in Asia: The Case of Uji and Nuwara Eliya. 2020 FutureProofing Coffee Cultivation through Terroir-Based Adaptation
Framework: Developing Rural Communities in Indonesia. 2019
Protecting Japanese Tea Growers from the Devastating Effects of
Climate Change: A Terroir Based Ecosystem Approach for Rural
Development. 2019 Application of the Terroir Concept on Traditional
Tea Cultivation in Uji Area: Combating Climate Change by Adaptation.
2019 Climate Change Adaptation for Agro-Forestry -Sustainability
and Potentials in the Tea Industry. 2015 Adapting to Climate Change:
Challenges for Uji Tea Cultivation. 2014 Climate Change Adaptation
for Agroforestry Industries: Sustainability Challenges in Uji Tea
Cultivation.

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Climate Change, Agricultural Resilience, and Rural Society Adaptation in the Eraof Rapid Change

Dr. Corinthias P. M. SIANIPAR
Chapter 3: Towards Smart Farming in Indonesia:
Issues, Challenges, and Opportunities
Profile: Ph.D. in Engineering. AssistantProfessor, Division of Environmental Science &Technology, Researcher, Faculty of Agriculture,
Kyoto University
Selected Articles: 2017 Transforming agricultural
supply-chain through postharvest engineeringand appropriate technology. 2016. Direct information of commodity
market prices: An initiative for social justice through systems
engineering. 2015. Technological solution for vulnerable communities:
Questioning the sustainability of Appropriate Technology. 2014
Design and technological appropriateness: The quest for community
survivability. 2013 Community empowerment through appropriatetechnology: Sustaining the sustainable development. 2013 Seven Pillarsof Survivability: Appropriate Technology with a Human Face. 2013
Design methodology for appropriate technology: Engineering as if
people mattered.

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Climate Change, Agricultural Resilience, and Rural Society Adaptation in the Eraof Rapid Change

AR. Rohman Taufiq HIDAYAT
Chapter 4: Place, Space, and Community:
Spatial Planning for Rural Development
Profile: Lecturer, Regional and Urban Planning,
Universitas Brawijaya, Malang - Indonesia
Selected articles: 2021 Farm Owners’ Perception
toward Farmland Conversion: An Empirical
Study from Indonesian Municipality. 2021 Food
security in the disaster-prone area: an empirical
study from the rural area of Indonesia. 2019 Soil/Land Use Changes
And Urban Sprawl Identification In Pandaan District, Indonesia. 2019
Spatial Pattern of Land Cover Change in The Coastal Area of Gresik
Regency, Indonesia Using Land Change Modeler. 2019 Does ICT
facilitate or impede rural youth migration in Indonesia? 2018 Challenges
for the next level of the digital divide in rural Indonesian communities.
2018 Factors that effect land-use change in Pandaan District.

ix

Climate Change, Agricultural Resilience, and Rural Society Adaptation in the Eraof Rapid ChangexChapter 1
Solidarity Economy Practices in Rural and Fishing Communities Across Indonesia

Chapter 1
Solidarity Economy Practices in Rural and
Fishing Communities Across Indonesia
Iqra ANUGRAH
1. Introduction
Agrarian politics, agrarian studies, issues concerning politics anddevelopment in rural societies in Southeast Asia, particularly Indonesia,
have been the focus of my research for the last two years, and thischapter presents my preliminary thoughts on a project to extend thisresearch focusing on solidarity economy practices.
Why is it important to look at the politics and economy of agriculture?
Because of its resurging or continuing importance in our world today.
This topic was very popular in the 1960s and 1970s in the post-colonial
context, when so many countries in the global south-eastern region gained
their independence and had to deal with issues of rural development, but
it is still important today, even in developed countries, where much of
the support for conservative parties such as the LDP in Japan, and theRepublican party in the USA comes from rural areas or de-industrialized
areas. It is obviously important in countries such as India, which recently
saw a series of mass protests, as well as Indonesia, where agrarian issues
have been prominent in political and cultural discourses in the last coupleof decades. The ongoing issues arising from the reshaping of rural areas
are the main reasons why this topic remains important for us today.
In this project, we will look at how ‘smallholders’, which is just ageneric term for peasants and fisherfolk, respond to agrarian change; or
how they react to the expansion and deepening of market relations and1Climate Change, Agricultural Resilience, and Rural Society Adaptation in the Eraof Rapid Change

forces in rural areas in contemporary Indonesia. In particular, in thisproject, we will look at the connection between society and the market,
focusing mostly on local responses to agrarian change, primarily during
the post-authoritarian period, from 1998 onwards.
Scholarship on agrarian studies as well as Indonesian society anddevelopment has primarily focused upon agrarian conflicts such as land
conflicts, or political actions by farmers and rural activists against land
grabbing and resource dispossession. However, one type of response thatis often overlooked is economic resistance, and alternatives to market
rule. This economic response is also known as Solidarity Economy,
which means correctives and alternatives to market capitalism.
This ideologically is mostly inspired by populist and sometimes
left-leaning ideas, and there are some examples of these practices suchas the self-sufficient, communally oriented Marinaleda village in Spain,
the community housing projects of urban squatters and landless peasantsin Brazil, and the welfare state or social democracy experiments inthe state of Kerala in India. These are some examples of solidarity
economies that already exist in different parts of the world.
This project is an attempt to shift our attention away from theobsession with open agrarian conflicts and political actions by farmers,
fisherfolk, and proactivists, and look at other types of activities andactivism, especially in econometric areas. This area has been understudied, and in particular few studies have looked at Solidarity Economy
experiments among fishing communities. In this author’s opinion, amore comprehensive view of proceeding economic experiments inIndonesia is long overdue.
To put changes in rural politics and economy in Indonesia into
context, the current features of Indonesian rural society anddevelopment are more or less the byproducts of the mode of governanceand development under the previous authoritarian regime, which lasted
2

Chapter 1
Solidarity Economy Practices in Rural and Fishing Communities Across Indonesia

for three decades from the 1960s until the late 1990s. Then in thelate 1970s to 1980s we saw the expansion of state backed large scale
plantations and land grabs that engendered opposition to this expansionof investment and capital into rural areas, leading to a new wave ofprotests by activists as well as peasant communities campaigning forland rights and against eviction. This was exacerbated in the 1980s
by the liberalization of the economy, including the land market inrural areas. This period of economic liberalization also coincidedwith political liberalization. So, even though the region was underauthoritarian control, they were relaxing some rules and politicalspaces and this paved the way for a new wave of peasant activism.
Then through the 1990s, and with the democratization of the country in
1998, we have seen a more vibrant wave of activism by peasants andfisherfolk as well as by rural activists.
At the same time, there was an intensification of market expansion
in rural areas, which led in the early 2000s to the rise of peasant unions
protesting land-titling legalization without land reform. This prompted
several activists and communities to shift their attention to expanding
the focus of their operations by not only looking at politics and culturalresistance, but also looking at the economy. They started to ask whatsort of alternative economic arrangements and experiments they could
undertake to challenge market expansion? According to several activists
whom this author talked to this is a quite recent strategy which started
in 2010, although some of the practices behind this can be traced backall the way to the 1970s or 1980s. However, in the context of recent
developments, this is a pretty recent experiment.

2. Field Findings
In this section I would like to share some illuminating case3

Climate Change, Agricultural Resilience, and Rural Society Adaptation in the Eraof Rapid Change

studies from my fieldwork that showcase these Solidarity Economy
experiments. According to my observation so far, these experiments ofcan be broadly defined into more or less five types. The first is organic
or natural farming. The second is producer cooperatives. The third iscommunity enterprises or community businesses. The fourth is credit
unions, and the fifth is social institutions such as community run schools
and adult education programs. This is based on my past three years
of in-country fieldwork, from 2015 to 2017 and 2018 to 2019 as wellas ongoing conversations with my interlocutors in the field. I cannot
go back to Indonesia yet, but I still maintain communications with
my friends and dialogue partners in the field. These experiments areboth productive and socially reproductive. Socially reproductive refers
to activities that are not directly related to agricultural or economic
production activities, but are nonetheless still important to support theeconomy, such as education.
Currently, there are a number of similar experiments in various
parts of Indonesia but to illustrate the ongoing progress being made inempowering local communities in Indonesia, we will take a few examples
to help deepen our understanding and generate future discussion.
1. Organic Farming

Figure 1. Natural/Organic Farming in Salassae Village
Source: Author
4Chapter 1
Solidarity Economy Practices in Rural and Fishing Communities Across Indonesia

Several peasant unions and community organizers see organic or
natural farming as an alternative to corporate-dependent mainstream
agriculture. For instance, the Indonesian Peasant Union (SPI) promotes
organic farming as a way to improve the autonomy of smallholders
while still participating in the market economy (Edwards, 2013). In
Bulukumba District, South Sulawesi Province, an organization called
the Salassae Rural Self-Governing Community (KSPS) encourages local
peasants to adopt organic farming to lessen their dependence on big
fertilizer companies and increase their political awareness. The idea is to
produce high quality agricultural products and challenge the market by
reducing the dependence of farmers on middlemen and finding a nichemarket that they can sell their products to.
Advocates of this practice prefer to call this natural farming or
pertanian alami, in Indonesian language, because according to them,
organic farming is being corporatized and already big companies haveappropriated the term. So they prefer to use the term ‘natural farming’.
The logic behind this is basically to lessen dependence on big fertilizer
and agricultural companies through organic farming.
2. Producer Cooperatives

Figure 2. Producer Cooperatives in Bengkulu
Source: Author
5Climate Change, Agricultural Resilience, and Rural Society Adaptation in the Eraof Rapid Change

Producer cooperatives are another example of a solidarity economy
that is growing in popularity across Indonesia, and this is a research
focus that the editor of this volume, Fitrio Ashardiono has also beenworking on. These cooperatives are common in both fishing andfarming communities, and some of them have emerged out of yearsof struggle for land rights in different parts of Indonesia in areas
where land conflicts happened. In some places where corporations andstate authorities illegally or forcefully took away land from the local
communities, they fought back and managed to win back some of theirland in the post-authoritarian period.
Producer cooperatives are typically formed as an economic
organization of smallholders. These cooperatives aim to maintainproduction rates, democratically control production activities, and keepsocio-economic inequality among smallholders in check. The results ofthis endeavor vary across contexts. In Bengkulu Province, some peasantunions, such as SPI and the Bengkulu Peasant Union (STaB) have been
struggling to maintain both the production and organizational activitiesof their cooperatives. Others, such as Muara Baimbai Cooperative
fishing community in Serdang Bedagai District, North Sumatra
Province, have been more successful in maintaining their production
activities and selling their products to the market (Anugrah, 2019).
The underlying concept can be expressed as: “We need to maintainthis land. We need to control our production activities so that our land
will not be taken away again, so that we don’t have to depend on big
companies, so that we will not have to sell our land because we haveno money. The best thing we can do is to combine our resources anddevelop a community-based business.” As a result, these communities
have established cooperatives in a number of different agricultural
sectors such as coffee and rubber.
6

Chapter 1
Solidarity Economy Practices in Rural and Fishing Communities Across Indonesia

Some are more successful and others are struggling. In a numberof unions, for example, the Indonesian Peasant Union, and Bengkulu
Peasant Union, it’s been pretty hard for them to sustainably establish
these cooperatives due to a variety of reasons. However, in some othercommunities such as the coffee growers in Rejang Lebong district in
Bengkulu, they have been successful in establishing and running theirown cooperatives as well as branding and selling their products, at least
for the local market.
3. Community Enterprises
Another example of solidarity economy in Indonesia is thecommunity enterprise or community business. A few of the mostsuccessful producer cooperatives have managed to expand theircooperative production activities and build successful businesses. Overthe years, members of Muara Baimbai Cooperative and the local fishingcommunity have expanded their livelihood beyond fishing activities tosuccessfully running a community-based ecotourism business. Afterobtaining their initial capital from a business contest organized by the
British Council in Jakarta, they managed to turn their local initiative
into a profitable enterprise.

Figure 3. Ecotourism Business run by Fishermen in Serdang
Source: Author
7

Climate Change, Agricultural Resilience, and Rural Society Adaptation in the Eraof Rapid Change

In my research, I am focusing on a cooperative of fishermen in
Serdang Bedagai district in North Sumatra province. These fishermen
operate their own beach business, so they manage their own beach, andmangrove forests and run their tourism business. Obviously, this is a
product of years of struggle for fishermen’s rights and years of improving
their capacity, so that they are able to manage a fairly large business. It
has been running for four years, and it’s been quite profitable.
4. Credit Unions

Figure 4. Pawartaku Smallholders Credit Union
Source: Author
Other than community cooperatives and enterprises, a number of
local communities and peasant organizations have formed credit unions
or people’s banks, as alternatives to big banks.
One of the successful examples is Pawartaku Credit Union (CUG
Pawartaku), established by the Aryo Blitar Peasant Association (PPAB) in
Blitar District, East Java Province. PPAB founded the credit union to lessen
the dependence of their members on conventional big banks and to prevent
8

Chapter 1
Solidarity Economy Practices in Rural and Fishing Communities Across Indonesia

the selling of land to those banks by providing cheaper, more accessibleloans managed by their own members. The result has been remarkable. Now,
CUG Pawartaku has a total asset of 3.8 billion IDR, with 70 percent of it (2.4billion IDR) circulating among its members as loans (Hasani, 2019).
Another example is the credit union in Blitar district in East Jaffa,
a farmers-run or peasant-run credit union which is basically a people’sbank. This is a community bank and this is not the same as the big
banks that we currently use in the world today. This credit union wasformed by a peasant union in Blitar, and this particular peasant union
managed to win back their land, which had been illegally grabbed. They
won back their land and as a way to maintain their presence, they havebuilt corporate cooperatives and a credit union. This has been growing
pretty well, and they have amassed total assets of 3.8 billion Indonesian
Rupiah of which roughly around 70% is still circulating as loans amongits members, which means these loans are used for productive household
activities, from education, as well as growing their businesses.
5. Social Institutions

Figure 5. Community-run Vocational Highschool
Source: Author
9Climate Change, Agricultural Resilience, and Rural Society Adaptation in the Eraof Rapid Change

Last but not least, several communities have successfully createdand managed their own social institutions, such as schools and adulteducation programs. I witnessed this on my visit to Garut District inWest Java Province, one of the strongholds of the Sundanese PeasantUnion (SPP). In this district, SPP has been able to run their own school
system with elementary, middle, and vocational high schools. SPP has
also managed to send the children of their members to local universities,
who will then take up community organizing and leadership activities in
the union.
So basically this peasant Union and its members have been able tobuild these schools and run them for a number of years. They have anelementary school, and a middle school, as well as a vocational highschool. And they also manage to send the kids of these union membersof these peasant families into local universities. And once they graduate,
they go back to their communities and work as community organizers or
as teachers at the schools.

3. Conclusion
To conclude, I would like to share some concluding remarks andfurther notes for future research and discussion. The first challenge is:
How do we scale up these experiments? How do we turn them intoanother Marinaleda or Kerala, for example? And how do we make themsustainable? There are two variables that I think are important. First, amajor challenge for advocates and practitioners of these alternatives is
to scale-up their operations beyond their respective localities. Secondly
and relatedly, the expansion of these activities necessitates state support
and technical expertise.
The second challenge is just as important. How do the practitioners
10Chapter 1
Solidarity Economy Practices in Rural and Fishing Communities Across Indonesia

of a solidarity economy experiment address the complexities of today’srural political economy in Indonesia? They're facing the challenge ofan aging rural population, a more urban-oriented rural youth, and theincreasing importance of non-farming and non-fishing income andactivities for rural households. These are issues that the practitioners aswell as scholars should take into consideration in the future.

References

Anugrah, Iqra. 2019. Women among the Fishers. Indonesia at
Melbourne. Available at <https://indonesiaatmelbourne.unimelb.
edu.au/women-among-the-fishers/>, (Accessed on January 28,2021).
Edwards, Nicola. 2013. Values and the Institutionalization of Indonesia’s
Organic Agriculture Movement. In FordMichele (ed.), Social
Activism in Southeast Asia. London: Routledge, 72–88.
Hasani, A. Asip. 2019 (December 31). East Java Farmers form Credit
Union to Break ‘Curse’ of Lifetime Labor. The Jakarta Post.
Available at < https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2019/12/31/
east-java-farmers-form-credit-union-to-break-curse-of-lifetimelabor.html>, (Accessed on January 28, 2021).

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Climate Change, Agricultural Resilience, and Rural Society Adaptation in the Eraof Rapid Change

Chapter 2Strengthening the Resilience of Rural
Agricultural Societies in Indonesia:
Agroecology with a Terroir Approach
Fitrio ASHARDIONO
1. Current Agriculture Outlook
We live in a world where success is measured by profitability
in the short term, and long-term losses are rarely factored into thedecision-making equation. Over the years this has inevitably led to
the widespread adoption of monoculture in agricultural cultivation,
where vast tracks of land are devoted to the production of a single crop.
Agricultural scientists have been warning us that this will be more thanlikely to cause soil degradation and fertility loss. Years later we arereaping the harvest of spreading monoculture, which has created an
imbalance between fertilizer supply and crop offtake, thus leading tosoil erosion and further loss of nutrients. In addition to overproduction,industrial monoculture predisposes farms to pest problems. To keep
up with intensified production, farmers have increased pesticide andfertilizer usage, but these may run off into the waterways causing
further damage to neighboring ecosystems. Additionally, with heavily
mechanized cultivation, almost all the energy consumption throughout
every stage of the agricultural production releases greenhouse gases
which further contribute to global warming. Today, the environmental
issues that commonly arise due to intensified agricultural production
can be observed in water and air pollution, biodiversity loss, and land
12

Chapter 2
Strengthening the Resilience of Rural Agricultural Societies in Indonesia

degradation. Until recently, farmers have ignored the downsides andagricultural production has continued to be optimized for generating
profit, but in the light of the scientists’ warnings, and growing publicawareness, the farming industry is now coming under pressure tomeet the environmental targets set to protect future generations fromextinction.
In modern monoculture cultivation, high-input/high-output isalways geared for profitability, and more often than not a holistic
understanding of plants or animals achieving an optimum response to
inputs is not adequately explored. When the environment is always
treated as secondary, the loss of environmental resources is unlikely
to be included in the costs when calculating the profitability of the
agricultural industry.
It is time to change this paradigm into a more sustainableagricultural production process, to put a price on these environmental
burdens and properly evaluate the resources taken from the ecosystemservices and how these directly affect the whole cultivation process. In
other words, to make agricultural production sustainable it is a necessary
factor in the economic value of the environmental burdens and theresources from ecosystem services.

2. Agroecology and Terroir
In pursuit of sustainable agriculture production, a new approach inagricultural practice known as agroecology has been introduced, andfurthermore in my research I have found another methodology which is
the Terroir Approach.
As generally observed, when economists who are not agriculturalists
perform cost-benefit analysis, they generally refer to the costs that
do not appear in the calculations as indirect or external. These costs
13

Climate Change, Agricultural Resilience, and Rural Society Adaptation in the Eraof Rapid Change

can include environmental burdens, consumption of local ecologicalresources, as well as the valuation of existing ecosystem services. They
are not factored into their calculations.
So, one of the approaches to address environmental and sustainability
issues in agricultural production is to address the social and economic
aspects in a holistic and systemic manner.
This includes understanding the organization, communication, andcoordination among stakeholders in agriculture production as well as
analyzing the farmer consumer relationship and how they affect eachother.
Agroecology researchers in this field are trying to solve thesequestions by employing scientific methods and implementing
ecological principles when designing agriculture management
systems. It is no longer just about cost-benefit analysis, but more about
how agriculture can benefit from the local ecological system and at
the same time, how the agriculture production can give back and helpbalance the ecological system, thus ensuring the sustainability of theecosystem procedures.
And building on agroecology, it is also very important to highlightthe importance of the interconnected nature of local stakeholder
relationships in landscape identity and territorial resources which
are embedded in the local or regional food systems, and in this case,there’s another landscape identity which is a territorial resource.
These things are very much located locally, like the real food system,and so on.
The agroecology territories discuss three major domains (Wezel etal., 2016):
1. Adaptation of agricultural practices.
2. Conservation of biodiversity and natural resources all
3. Development of food systems embedded in the territories.
14

Chapter 2
Strengthening the Resilience of Rural Agricultural Societies in Indonesia

All of these three items refer to a much smaller area of local life.
Building on this, it is clear that agroecology is always aiming at asmaller local space. So, in this case, it’s heavily related to the concept ofTerroir.
Derived from the wine industry the concept of Terroir describes
the relationship between the character of an agricultural product and its
geographical origin (van Leeuwen & Seguin, 2006). Human factors suchas history, socioeconomics, as well as viticultural and or oenological
techniques are also part of Terroir (Seguin, 1986).
The Terroir concept is linked to the unique biophysical properties ofa particular area which contributes to the agricultural products (Berardand Marchenay, 2006); thus it can be argued that the special quality ofan agricultural product is determined by the character of the place theproduct comes from (Gade, 2004).
Put simply, Terroir explains about the relationship between thelocal natural environment and ecosystem characteristics and the local
agriculture knowledge and practices where these two are directly
influencing the characteristics of an agricultural product (Ashardiono,2019).
The diagram depicting the framework of the terroir concept shows
how all aspects are interconnected, and how they affect each other. Any
particular agricultural product is affected by two main elements, which
are the environmental ecosystem, and then the inherent agricultureknowledge and practices in that local area.

15

Climate Change, Agricultural Resilience, and Rural Society Adaptation in the Eraof Rapid Change

Figure 1. The Framework of Terroir Concept
Source: (Ashardiono, 2019)16

Strengthening the Resilience of Rural Agricultural Societies in Indonesia

Chapter 2

Figure 2. Projected Impact on Crop Yields due to Climate Change between Present and 2050
(3oC Warmer World)
Source: World Bank (2010) in World Resource Institute (2013)17

Climate Change, Agricultural Resilience, and Rural Society Adaptation in the Eraof Rapid Change

3. Changing Southeast Asia:
Indonesian Coffee Cultivation
In this era of climate change the tropical regions are among the mostvulnerable. The temperature variability is predicted to increase, and sois the tendency of increasing local temperatures. (Bathiany et al., 2018).
Other research has also found that there a is significant increase in thevariability of precipitation patterns and increasing occurrences of severe
weather events as well as temperature increases (ADB, 2010). The maphighlighting temperatures in temperate and tropical regions shows thatIndonesia is going to be heavily impacted in the near future.
Coffee cultivation in Indonesia began during the Dutch colonial
period in the 17th century. From 2018 up until now, Indonesia is still
the fourth largest coffee producer in the world with the combined
production of both Arabica and Robusta beans totaling 612,000 tonnes.
In the past years, this volume of production has largely been stagnant.
But inside this total, the production of Arabica beans has been slowly
increasing, as there has been a gradual switch among the growers from
Robusta to the higher quality Arabica variety.
Historically, extreme weather events have been occurring in thisregion, and while they had significant impacts the farmers were able
to recover. The current argument is that due to the steady increase inglobal environmental changes, this might not be so anymore, because
the changes will become much more irreversible (Tucker et al., 2010).
This changing climatic behavior means that coffee cultivation might nolonger be beneficial (Gay et al., 2006).
Moreover, increasing climatic variability such as sudden changes
in precipitation patterns and their volumes will directly affect the coffee
production quantity (Schroth et al., 2009; Jaramillo et al., 2013), thus
bringing negative impacts on crop production yields, forest harvest,
18

Chapter 2
Strengthening the Resilience of Rural Agricultural Societies in Indonesia

and biodiversity. Furthermore, under the current COVID-19 pandemic
agricultural communities are facing more economic pressures, and with theeconomic downturn, there is less demand for coffee products internationally(ICO, 2020). Even Starbucks is losing customers, and fewer people buying
coffee means that fewer beans are being sold. At the same time, Indonesia
and Vietnam, two of the biggest producers, are still actively producing
coffee, which is contributing to further imbalance in the supply and demand(ICO, 2020), so there’s going to be more impact on the economic side.

4. Coffee Cultivation in Solok Region
How about the conditions in thecoffee growing regions themselves? I’mgoing to explain one of my case studies,
which is in the Solok region locatedin West Sumatra, Indonesia, which isfamous for good coffees.
Some of the most well-known coffee
products in Indonesia are produced on
the island of Sumatra. I’d say that Aceh
Gayo, Mandheling, Lintong and Solokare the four best coffees from the region,
Figure 3. Arabica Coffee
and the Arabica beans produced in these
Source: Author
regions are regarded as high-quality coffees which have a distinct aroma
and taste characteristic. In the past years, the popularity of Solok coffee
in the domestic market as well as the demand from the international
market has risen significantly. Solok is a kind of rising star, not yet
widely known, but among coffee connoisseurs, it is known already.
The Solok region consists of three separate administrative areas
which are Solok Municipality, Solok Regency and South Solok Regency.
19

Climate Change, Agricultural Resilience, and Rural Society Adaptation in the Eraof Rapid Change

The Arabica coffee varieties are mostly grown in Solok Regency andSouth Solok Regency.
In general this region is well known for its production of rice which
has always been the main agricultural commodity, whereas coffee
production is relatively quite low compared to other commodities.
Historical evidence shows that in this region coffee cultivation
started in the early 18th century and most of the coffee, especially the
Arabica variety is grown in areas with an elevation above 1,500 meters
While the Arabica variety was originally cultivated, it was wipedout by coffee rust disease in the late 18th century. At that time theyswitched to Robusta, which as its name implies, is less vulnerable
to pest and climate issues. So production of the Arabica variety iscomparatively low compared with other well-known coffee producing
regions in Sumatra, but lately, they are trying to switch back to Arabica.
Based on 2019 statistical data, the 2018 total coffee production in the
Solok Region was 4,656.11 tons, and from this total the productionof Arabica variety was 1,010.47 tons (21.7%) and the production of
Robusta variety was 3,645.64 tons (78.3%).

Figure 4. Total Coffee Production in Solok Region (tonnes)
Source: Statistics of West Sumatra, 201920

Chapter 2
Strengthening the Resilience of Rural Agricultural Societies in Indonesia

Figure 5. Production of Arabica Variety in Solok Region (tonnes)
Source: Statistics of West Sumatra, 2019
As seen in the previous graph, the production of the Arabica
varieties is increasing, albeit slowly, and most of the production is in the
Solok Region.

5. Farmers’ Community in Solok Region
Now I would like to discuss the farmers’ community. In the previous
chapter, Dr. Iqra Anugrah has already mentioned about cooperatives,and one of my research subjects is a cooperative.
With the increasing domestic demand for Arabica coffee in the past
few years the Solok Radjo Farmers’ Cooperative was established in2012 to address issues surrounding the coffee production system. The
cooperative consists of coffee farmers, agricultural field advisors, coffee
traders, and coffee enthusiasts. It operates as a post-harvesting processing
center, purchasing coffee cherries from the farmers and marketing theprocessed green beans. Normally, they purchase and process the coffee
cherries, and sell the processed beans to a myriad of buyers.
21

Climate Change, Agricultural Resilience, and Rural Society Adaptation in the Eraof Rapid Change

Currently, the total number of farmers who are members of thecooperative is around 800 whereas the members who have actively
contributed to the coffee production system are only 23 farmers.
Presently, there is relatively low interest from the farmers and the board
members of the cooperative to change from cultivating Robusta to the
Arabica variety.
One of the reasons is because
they are dependent on the economic
benefits, and switching to Arabica
means they will have to use much
more of their precious time incultivation. I saw from direct
observation that the farmers havemostly been caring for plantations
on the same land for generations.
They inherited knowledge about
Figure 6. Solok Radjo Farming
the local climate and the local soil
Cooperativefrom their predecessors. The farmers
Source: Author
mostly focused their daily work on
cash crops such as shallot, tomato, and potato, while work on the coffee
plantation was only conducted a few times a week. In several coffee
plantations, the farmers intercropped the coffee plants with other crops
such as sweet potato and chili pepper, as well as passion fruit.
Based on direct interviews with the farmers (n=5), there are several
reasons why the farmers have a low interest in increasing coffee production:
1. Reluctance to make coffee as their primary crop (n=5).
2. Preference to cultivate multiple different crops (traditional
agriculture knowledge and subsistence agriculture) (n=3).
3. More work and resources are needed to cultivate Arabica
variety (n=5).
22Chapter 2
Strengthening the Resilience of Rural Agricultural Societies in Indonesia

4.

5.
6.

Despite the increased popularity of Solok Coffee, most farmers
have not enjoyed any direct benefits from coffee production(n=4).
Low sales value of coffee cherry (n=4).
Lack of agricultural assistance from the local government (n=5).

So, they tend to just plant it andthey leave it as it is which actually led
to one of the interesting findings that
I made. Most of the farmers think thatclimate change is not very important;
it is there but they don’t thinkthat it is crucial to take any action
immediately. The farmers are aware,
but they are confident that things will
be okay. However, the non-farming
Figure 7. Solok Radjo Coffee
producers from the cooperative that
Laboratory
processes the coffee beans think that
Source: Author
it might be worrying in the future. So
there are some disparities in information here.
The members of the cooperative perceived three climate change
impacts as threats.
1. Extreme wind gusts
2. Longer drought season.
3. Changes in intensity and period of rainfall.
While the farmers (n=5) are aware of the climate change impacts
on the coffee cultivation, they are confident that the coffee plants cansurvive drought and less worried about gust damages and precipitation
changes.
On the other hand, the non-farming members (n=3) expressed their
23

Climate Change, Agricultural Resilience, and Rural Society Adaptation in the Eraof Rapid Change

worries as the incidences of coffee cherry damage from the coffee borer
beetle have been increasing, due to the increasing climatic variability.
Also, from the latest information obtained, due to the impact of
COVID-19, there is a significant drop in the sales price.

6. Towards a Sustainable Coffee Production System
The discussion up to now can be summarized as follows:
1. Coffee products from the Solok Region are perceived to havespecial quality characteristics by coffee experts and coffee
connoisseurs.
2. The farmers have been cultivating coffee for several generations.
3. Coffee cultivation is intercropped with other crops (sweet
potato, passion fruit, chili pepper, etc.).
4. Post-harvest processing is mainly conducted by a farmers’
cooperative.
5. Changing climatic conditions are already observable, although
the impact is still thought to be negligible by the farmers.
6. The farmers have not received significant economic benefits.
7. COVID-19 brought significant changes in the domestic market
demand.
There are many issues as we can see. The economics and social
issues are somehow interconnected, and climatic issues are quite
complicated. How can we approach all of these issues? I argue that itis really important to understand the relationship between the existing
agricultural knowledge and the local environmental ecosystem. This
will be the key to developing a new, more robust, localized approach,and understanding the special characteristics of the coffee products.
Instead of going for a more mass production process, it is more
24

Chapter 2
Strengthening the Resilience of Rural Agricultural Societies in Indonesia

important to focus on producing quality products, and together with
that, by projecting the future climatic conditions we can also understandhow this will impact the quality of the coffee itself.
There are many studies that need to be conducted such as theidentification of important factors in the local environmental ecosystemthrough monitoring and measurement of the Terroir factors, leading
to the development of local bioclimatic indicators, and this might berelated to Dr. Sianipar’s research in the following chapter. Then weneed to make an analysis of the local cultivation methods throughobservation of the cultivation processes as well as conducting focus
group discussions among the farmers, to learn how the local knowledge
is being inherited, how it’s transferred, and how it affects the production
process.
Factors with a direct influence such as local identity and place
attachment, which is also related to the research of Taufiq Hidayat
described in Chapter 4, also need to be clarified, especially in relation
to how it changes the timing and types of cultivation process selectedby the farmers. From the social survey and observation, it was also
observed how the coffee farmers are highly dependent on coffee
processors, and thus vulnerable to price variability.
By complementing their local agricultural knowledge with thebioclimatic indicators, farmers will be able to predict the level ofproductivity as well as further enhance the quality and characteristicsof their agricultural products. The values of bioclimatic indicators
will be a critical source of information regarding the local ecosystemservices and real by biophysical condition of the plants. Bioclimatic
indicators will help farmers to conduct effective and optimal
cultivation processes as well as swiftly adapt to the climate changes
while ensuring the sustainability of coffee cultivation in their region.

25

Climate Change, Agricultural Resilience, and Rural Society Adaptation in the Eraof Rapid Change

Figure 8. Terroir-based Adaptation Framework
Source: (Ashardiono, 2019)26

Chapter 2
Strengthening the Resilience of Rural Agricultural Societies in Indonesia

It is hoped that this will help the farmers to understand more about
the reality of the local climate and soil, as with ongoing climate change
actually happening, things are becoming more and more unpredictable.
Under these circumstances, the farmers’ own intuition might no longer
be enough to avoid the destruction of their crops. Hopefully with thisinformation, then also the farmers should be able to safely adapt to theongoing change and make their cultivation processes more sustainable.
So, to sum up, the Terroir-based adaptation framework can be utilized tocharacterize the environmental potentials of a region, which are strongly linked
with the qualitative potential and characteristics of the agricultural products.
This framework will be the basis for evaluating the quality ofagriculture products leading to the classification and categorization of
products and delineation of terroir boundaries in this case, such as theapplication for GI, (geographical indications). In this diagram, you cansee how the terroir, if it is being used properly, can help with the farmer
and consumers’ direct relationship.
It’s very important to use this framework as there are lots ofinterrelated aspects that can be improved throughout the whole
production system. Research to date has noted the following benefits ofadopting this framework:
1. Optimal and effective use of ecosystem resources
2. product traceability,
3. Direct consumer relationship with farmers
4. increase in product values recognition,
5. economic benefit to the rural community
6. increased community awareness of climate change.
In conclusion, I would like to highlight the following point whichis almost the same as was made by Dr. Iqra Anugrah. In order to sustain
the local economies, and especially for the survival of the smallholders
themselves, it is very important for the local government and agriculture27

Climate Change, Agricultural Resilience, and Rural Society Adaptation in the Eraof Rapid Change

institutions to be involved on the ground and for them to provide
comprehensive support to the coffee farmers in the post-harvesting
period, as well as recognizing the importance of ecosystem services andthe terroir characteristics of the local agriculture production.
Figure 9. Terroir-based Adaptation Framework as a Comprehensive Agricultural Policy
Source: (Ashardiono, 2019)28

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Strengthening the Resilience of Rural Agricultural Societies in Indonesia

References

Asia Development Bank. 2010. Asia Development Bank Annual Report.
Ashardiono, F. 2019. Protecting Japanese Tea Growers from theDevastating Effects of Climate Change: A Terroir Based Ecosystem
Approach for Rural Development. Journal of the Asia-Japan
Research Institute of Ritsumeikan University, 1, 29–4.
Bathiany, S., Dakos, V., Scheffer, M., and Lenton, T. M. 2018. Climate
Models Predict Increasing Temperature Variability in Poor
Countries. Science Advances, 4(5), 1–11.
Berard, L., and Marchenay, P. 2006. Local Products and Geographical
Indications: Taking Account of Local Knowledge and Biodiversity.
International Social Science Journal, 58(187), 109–116. doi:
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2451.2006.00592.x
Gade, D. W. 2004. Tradition, Territory, and Terroir in French Viniculture:
Cassis, France, and Appelation Controlee. Annals of the Associationof American Geographers, 94(4), 848–867.
Gay, C., Estrada, F., Conde, C., Eakin, H., and Villers, L. 2006. Potential
Impacts of Climate Change on Agriculture: A Case of Study ofCoffee Production in Veracruz, Mexico. Climatic Change, 79(3)259–288.
ICO. 2020. Domestic Consumption by all Exporting Countries.
International Coffee Organization.
Jaramillo, C., and Cárdenas, A. 2013. Global Warming and NeotropicalRainforests: A Historical Perspective. Annual Review of Earth andPlanetary Sciences, 41, 741–766. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurevearth-042711-105403
Schroth, G., Laderach, P., Dempewolf, J., Philpott, S., Haggar, J., Eakin, H.,
Castillejos, T., Moreno, J. G., Pinto, L. S., Hernandez, R., Eitzinger,
A., and Ramirez-Villegas, J. 2009. Towards a Climate Change
Adaptation Strategy for Coffee Communities and Ecosystems in
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the Sierra Madre de Chiapas, Mexico. Mitigation and Adaptation
Strategies for Global Change, 14(7), 605–625.
Seguin, G. 1986. Terroirs and Pedology of Vinegrowing. Experientia,
42, 861–873.
Tucker, C. M., Eakin, H., and Castellanos, E. J. 2010. Perceptionsof Risk and Adaptation: Coffee Producers, Market Shocks,
and Extreme Weather in Central America and Mexico. Global
Environmental Change, 20(1), 23–32.
van Leeuwen, C., and Seguin, G. 2006. The Concept of Terroir in
Viticulture. Journal of Wine Research, 17(1), 1–10.
Wezel, A., Brives, H., Casagrande, M., Clément, C., Dufour, A., andVandenbroucke, P. 2016. Agroecology Territories: Places for
Sustainable Agricultural and Food Systems and Biodiversity
Conservation. Agroecology and Sustainable Food Systems, 40(2),132–144.

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Chapter 3
Towards Smart Farming in Indonesia

Chapter 3
Towards Smart Farming in Indonesia:
Issues, Challenges, and Opportunities
Corinthias P. M. SIANIPAR
1. Introduction
In this chapter, I would like to share with you some ideas about
Smart Farming issues. Like all researchers at present, our work at theFaculty of Agricultural Research in Kyoto has been hindered by the
COVID 19 pandemic, especially in relation to our fieldwork, and we arepresently seeking ways to conduct smart farming research in Indonesia
remotely.
I would like to discuss the issues, challenges and opportunities towork on smarter farming in developing countries, not only Indonesia,
but in rural areas in developing countries to be exact. This report isfounded on quite a wide interdisciplinary background from engineering,industrial management, and also factory-based manufacturing,holistically from the perspective of a system modeler.
In my research work I take care of all the factors that are related to
the focus objective and try to solve related problems dynamically as awhole.

2. General Background
First, I would like to highlight the fragile nature of humankind. We
know climate change, rising global population or widening inequality
especially economic equality, and recently the global pandemic has
31

Climate Change, Agricultural Resilience, and Rural Society Adaptation in the Eraof Rapid Changebrought concern about the fragile future of humankind.
Thus, our fragile future is dependent on all those compoundedissues that worsen each other, and are expected to worsen our supporting
system also. It’s not only about the task of dealing with what is in frontof our eyes, but also about what effort we need to make to sustain our
future.
Among critical concerns about our future at the local, regionaland global level, one of them is food security. Food security, including
agriculture as its foundation has become a major issue all over theworld. When we talk about climate change, rising global population,
widening inequality and global pandemics, the root problem of
everything is food security. If we cannot eat, how do we work? How do
we move? How do we think? And if we talk about food security, thenwe talk about agriculture as its foundation. And when we talk about
agriculture, we mostly talk about rural areas, because rural areas are theplace or the location in which most agricultural activities are conducted.
However, rural areas are experiencing numerous critical sustainability
issues. The primary issue is rapid urbanization and the next is the recent
trends concerning the shifting interests of the younger generation. In
the past, the younger generation in rural areas was expected to carryon doing farming activities. Dr. Iqra Anugrah in his chapter mentioned
how they should make a kind of solidarity economy, but then theyounger generation’s interest is shifting from agriculture to non-primaryindustries, and this will also lead to further urbanization. This could
be physical urbanization, or just conceptual urbanization. That is, they
still stay in rural areas, but their minds, their work, and activities are all
focused in urban areas. So, they only stay physically in the countryside,
but everything they do is for the sake of urban areas.
Another important issue is the aging and declining of rural
populations, not only due to urbanization, but also because the average
32

Chapter 3
Towards Smart Farming in Indonesia

age, which is higher in rural areas, is compounded by rapid urbanization,and the movement of younger people to the cities. The resulting averageage in rural areas will be much higher, and so the population will
eventually decrease. It has happened in developed countries already, but
we also expect it to happen in developing countries in the near future.
We know that currently almost half of the global population alreadylives in the worlds large cities and in the next few decades, we expectthat to increase to 70% or 80%. However, when we talk about foodsecurity, we are largely talking about rural areas. So, how do we feed all
those billions of people? If we leave the rural areas and rural agriculture
to somehow run themselves that will not be sustainable.
We know that this is inevitable, but we still keep pursuingurbanization and city development. There is nothing wrong with it, butwhen we do this development we leave rural areas behind, which meansthat we are cutting the very foundation of city sustainability in the
future, which is food security.
So, especially in less developed economies like Indonesia, we
expect stronger challenges compared to rural areas in developed
economies. This is due to the fact that compared to developing
countries, we have a lack of resources and limited knowledge that will
compound each other and produce less sustainability, or we could say
a weaker foundation for a sustainable future, because of the lack ofresources and limited tolerance.
These are the basic facts that we have to deal with and in fact, indeveloped countries the younger generation accounts for the largest
proportion of the population, because life expectancy is much higher
than in developing countries. However, the birthrate in developing
countries is much higher than in developed countries and because thelarge corporations employ the younger generations, and they have beenshifting their interest to non-primary industries, so we have a much
33

Climate Change, Agricultural Resilience, and Rural Society Adaptation in the Eraof Rapid Change

bigger problem than ever.
So we have a workforce, but that workforce does not want to sustain
our rural agriculture. And that’s a much bigger problem, we have to feed
them, but they do not want to produce things that will feed themselves.
Figure 1. Smart Farms: IOT Applications in Agriculture
Source:https://www.insidetelecom.com/the-new-frontier-of-smart-farming-powered-by-5g
34Chapter 3
Towards Smart Farming in Indonesia

Figure 2. Technologies Involved in Smart Farming (Beecham
Research)
Source: https://medium.com/sciforce/smart-farming-or-the-futureof-agriculture-359f0089df69

2. What is Smart Farming?
Recently, Smart Farming, or Digital Agriculture as it is calledin the West, has begun to attract attention from the stakeholders of
rural agriculture, especially because it requires less labor, is able to do
automated scheduling, and can provide us with data-driven decision
making, and so on. We expect smart farming to address the low availabilityof human resources in rural agriculture. We have fewer human resources
for rural agriculture but that is when smart farming can address the issue.
Technically speaking, smart farming combines two things. The firstis the devices, and the second the brain behind the devices. We call thedevices the Internet of Things, or IoT devices, and the brain behind thedevices we call data-driven artificial intelligence.
The combination of these two things can take the form of for
35

Climate Change, Agricultural Resilience, and Rural Society Adaptation in the Eraof Rapid Change

example, automatic farm machinery for fertilizer, like a fertilizing
mechanism that is attached to drones.
In the diagram we can see drones and plant sensors, and there areagricultural robots related to smart tractors that will take care of thelands of the farm and all the data from them is collected and connected
to a weather station so that it will provide us with information for when
we should plan our rice project.
Consequently, if we want to apply smart farming, there are factors
in the agricultural sector that will affect or be affected by smart farming
or smart farming systems in general. So, if we want to understand how
smart farming will affect or be affected by agricultural sectors, we have tounderstand the transformation that it will bring. This transformation may
go beyond technological development. People tend to think that smart
farming is always about technologies, about the technical nature of theIoT devices, etc., but then we have not been able to evaluate the bigger
impact of smart farming on the whole society. My point is that it is notabout farm or farming activities, but that it can bring transformation to thewhole agricultural system and to the whole rural society.
So by understanding this transformation, we can make sure thatsmart farming will bring a sustainable agriculture and also for example
sustainable rural areas.

3. The Perspectives of Understandings
In order to understand the issues, challenges, or opportunities,
which affect or are affected by smarter farming in rural agriculture,
we need an understanding of systems thinking. Theoretically, systems
thinking offers an integrated perspective to understand the complexities
of both transformational requirements and the things that will affectsmart farming and the impact on things that will be affected by smart
36

Chapter 3
Towards Smart Farming in Indonesia

farming in every part of rural agriculture and its related systems such asa societal system or an ecological system or an industrial system aroundthe smart farming, all through a holistic lens.
In that sense, the transformation can be observed through two
different lenses, the first is systemic and the second is systematic.
Systemic transformation refers to changes that happen to almost allcomponents of the observed system and in systemic transformation, we
try to understand changes that have happened to all the components.
So, we have a rural agricultural system, we have a societal system, we
have an ecological system surrounding the smart farming. If we try tounderstand it systemically it means we have to understand the facts
about the whole farming system and other related systems.
Systemic transformations refer to changes that happen to almost
all components of the observed systems. Meanwhile, systematictransformations attempt to discover how smart farming brings changes
that occur in a staged manner from one factor/actor to other relatedparts of the system. So if we talk about systemic transformation, weare talking about how those changes happen gradually, step by step, (a)affecting (b) and so on.

Figure 3. Understanding How an Agricultural System Works
Source: Author
37

Climate Change, Agricultural Resilience, and Rural Society Adaptation in the Eraof Rapid ChangeThis diagram shows how a production system works. This example
is of onion production. If we talk about the production and consumptionof onions, we have to include all these things. So the stock will affectexports, the stock will be affected by imports, consumption will affectthe stock and so on. In the same way, if we want to talk about smart
farming, we have to talk about them all.
So, then, in general, the systemic and systematic transformation tosmart farming can occur at three different levels.
1) Routine level. Here we have to focus on scheduled activities likeroutine farming activities
2) Macro-level. Here, we focus on aggregated structures, what you
can call a helicopter view.
3) Micro-level. Here we focus on heterogenous and autonomous
actors, on some micro-interaction between actors involved in some
smart farming whether they are farmers or non-farmers or the familiesof the farmers or intermediaries and so on. Then, if we want to observe
the impact of smart farming, we have to observe all the those impacts atthree different system levels.

Figure 4. Triple Bottom-Lines of Sustainability
Source: https://www.lshtm.ac.uk/aboutus/introducing/environmental-sustainability/sustainability-resource-centre
38

Chapter 3
Towards Smart Farming in Indonesia

In addition, the systemic and systematic transformations due tosmart farming should be approached from the triple bottom-linesof sustainable development (economic, environmental, social). It is
purposed to ensure the correct perspectives of those transformations in
the fields.

4. Issues, Challenges, and Opportunities
Looking at the perspectives above, probable transformations
triggered by or affecting smart farming implementation in rural areas inless developed countries are provided in Table 1.
System transformations affecting and affected by smart farming
implementation can be divided into three categories.
Table 1.
Transformations
Systems
Level
Economic [E]Environmental [V]Social [S]Routine [1] Investments for[1] Emissions emitted [1] Labor forces[A]
smart farming
by smart farming [2] Community
devices
devicesmeetings[2] Internet connection [2] Emissions emitted
costs
by internet[3] Fuel costs of devices
infrastructures[4] Labor costs[3] Emissions emitted[5] Utility costsby transportations[6] Irrigation[4] Weather forecasts
maintenance costs [5] Animal disruptions[7] Transportation[6] Fertilization
costs for harvested
products[8] Building
maintenance costs[9] Transportation
maintenance costs[10] Maintenance costsof devices

39

Climate Change, Agricultural Resilience, and Rural Society Adaptation in the Eraof Rapid Change
Macro [1] Investments for[1] Emission per mass [1] Projected[B]
recharging facilities
of products
immigration[2] Investments for[2] Projected land
[2] Projected
adequate internet
abandonments
emigration
infrastructure[3] Climate models[3] Effects of[3] Investment for[4] Risks of naturalurbanization
faster postharvest
hazards[4] Projected birth
processing[5] Water control[5] Projected deaths[4] Investment for[6] Plot productivity[6] Regional demands
adequate storage(yield)of products
volume[7] Demands for[5] Aggregated loans
exogenous experts
required[8] Media exposure[6] Liquid savings[9] Disaster recovery[7] Running costs ofplan
smart farming[10] Community
devices
education[8] Return-ofInvestment of smart
farming devices[9] Value depreciationsof smart farming
devices
Micro [1] Negotiation for[1] Farm extensification [1] Projected numbers[C]financing schemes [2] Weather modelsof active farmers[2] Pricing mechanism [3] Emissions emitted [2] Cooperative usages[3] Cooperativeby transportationsof smart farming
investment of smart
for community
devicesfarming devices
meetings[3] Labor demands[4] Price sharing[4] Harvest failures[4] Local demands of
between farmers[5] Plot irrigation
products[5] Financial incentives [6] Soil nutrition[5] Cooperative waterfrom authorities
arrangements[6] Loan payment[6] Indigenous agentsof-change[7] Exogenous experts[8] Disaster response
training

Source: Sianipar, 2021
1. Economic Transformations
Looking at the probable economic transformations at threesystem levels, the biggest expected challenges for rural farmers in less40

Chapter 3
Towards Smart Farming in Indonesia

developed countries are the large investments required for providing
smart-farming devices. As a large-scale technological investment, smart
farming requires a cautious calculation of financial risks for smallerscale farmers. In that sense, there are opportunities to negotiate more
flexible financing schemes, or collaborative investment in smart farming
devices to reduce risks for individual farmers. Besides, meeting therunning costs of sophisticated smart farming systems would expectedly
bring additional challenges to farmers’ financial situation such as
avoiding any default in loan payments. Therefore, shared uses of thedevices can be an alternative way to reduce the running costs, andeventually the maintenance costs.
For example, today smart devices will be used by farmer A and thenext day by farmer B and so on. Then the investment or the runningcosts can be spread. It can be shaped by them and we can relate to what
Dr. Iqra Anugrah mentioned in the first chapter about sustaining all theactivity going on in rural areas by doing it collectively. Shared use will
also lead to reducing maintenance costs for individual farmers, so thenwe go to environmental transformation.
2. Environmental Transformations
Furthermore, environmental transformations at routine, macro, andmicro levels are expected to bring different dimensions to smart farming
implementation. Basically, the primary concern is the added emissions
produced by smart farming devices, including those emitted by fasterpostharvest processing and larger volumes of products being processed.
So it is not only about how we can buy the devices or how we can repay
the loan but we have to deal also with emissions. In fact, the shared usessuggested above may also be useful in reducing prorated emissions permass of agricultural products being traded.
Nevertheless, besides the immediate emissions from the devices,41

Climate Change, Agricultural Resilience, and Rural Society Adaptation in the Eraof Rapid Change

we must consider the things that are taken care of by the device, forexample, fertilization. We know that smart farming can work much faster,and much more precisely, that is why we sometimes call it precision
agriculture, but then it will require more inputs such as fertilizers.
However, more intensive fertilization will add another form ofenvironmental impact, which requires an expanded life-cycle assessmentof the smart farming systems. In fact, farm extensification may help inoffsetting the emissions by producing better yields per farm plot.
Moreover, land abandonments due to existing labor problems before
smart farming implementation will be another issue to address. Land
abandonment may occur because of the aging and declining population
before smart farming was introduced. So, when we apply smart farming
we have to deal with those abandoned lands and make them active
farm plots. Smart farming may also reduce the abandonments due to its
capability to work on a larger size of lands compared to conventional(non-smart) machineries and manual labor.
Then, hazard risks due to animal disruptions, weather conditions,
and/or reduced water levels can possibly be overcome by applying moresensors that can be integrated into the farm-wide smart farming systems.
3. Social Transformations
Social transformations at the three system levels will deliver
additional understanding of the larger impacts of smart farming
implementation to the whole rural society and beyond. At the routine
level, the full/semi-automated principles of smart farming are expected
to reduce the daily labor forces required to run rural agriculture.
In addition, there should be more active community meetings
to ensure the smooth running of the smart farming systems between
farmers and plots. Those meetings should, for example, establish an
agreement on the arrangement of the routing of the devices to avoid
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Towards Smart Farming in Indonesia

any accidents. Farmers need to hold meetings to establish agreementon the arrangement of device routes, where to store the devices in acentralized position, a schedule for use by the farmers and also theroutes taken by those devices. They need to be moved from the storage
to the farm, but this will use for example, public roads. So, by usinga range of scheduled routing, it means we can avoid accidents forexample, because sometimes things that we call ‘smart’ are not so smart,some accidents may still happen, and by thinking ahead we can help toprevent them.
As another example, the community meetings can decide thearrangements for the shared uses of smart farming devices and irrigation
systems. Besides, the rural population is expected to affect and be
affected by smart farming systems due to the significantly reduced
labor demands but also lesser increases in demand for highly-skilled
operators.
In such a situation, younger generations can be attracted to be
the high-skilled operators since they have been growing in today’s
information era. If urbanization virtually diminishes the chances ofrecruiting local young people, exogenous experts can be introduced.
It follows that all the above-mentioned opportunities to installmore sensors for hazards, animals, weather, water, etc., will require
proper planning, training, and education for local people to build theircapacities in responding to the outputs of the sensors and develop datadriven decisions based on the information gathered.

5. Implications and Insights
This brief description of my division’s research has attempted toraise issues, challenges, and opportunities that are expected to affect or
be affected by the application of smart farming systems. By considering
43

Climate Change, Agricultural Resilience, and Rural Society Adaptation in the Eraof Rapid Changethese transformations, we can make a summary of the implications.
If we try to implement smart farming in rural areas in less developed
countries, we can divide the implications into two types; two managerial
implications and four policy implications.
1. Managerial Implications
In terms of managerial implications, smart farming requires
transformed farm management that can apply more data-driven
decision-making processes. In other words data-driven managementthat will make use of big data obtained through smart farming sensors
or devices. So, by doing data preparation and management, we canprecisely analyze what we should do. That’s the first managerial
implication.
The second managerial implication is more active community
meetings to establish the proper arrangements for smart farming systems
that involve multiple farmers working together and also dealing with theimpacts on public facilities such as increased road use and noise levels.
2. Policy Implications
On the other hand, smart farming brings more cautious policy
implications to ensure smooth investment, running, and maintenance ofsmart farming systems. In terms of policy implications, we can consider
the basic financial incentive, but it’s not only about financial incentives.
Other policies may go beyond financial incentives for those issues.
We know that smart farming will help us to produce better yields,
but then, where should we sell the excess production? So, we have tosearch for new markets. Here, for example, the government may takecare of the searches for additional markets to cope with increased yields
due to faster and larger processing scales of smart farming. In this way
the government may act as an intermediary to access those human assets.
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Towards Smart Farming in Indonesia

The third policy implication is about knowledge transfer. We have to
make sure that smart farming will not leave local people behind. So wehave to make sure that local people can take care of at least the basicsof the new smart farming system. Policies may also cover training andeducation for local people to catch up with technological advancesbrought by smart farming, with the possible introduction of exogenous
experts to pass on the necessary knowledge.
Then the last policy implication is offering an incentive for younger
people. We know that younger people have more capabilities in related
works or IP-related control or operation. If we can promote incentives
for the younger generation to get involved as highly skilled operatorsand decision-makers, then we can create an incentive for them to stay inthe villages in rural areas to take care of smart farming. In this way they
can fulfill their capabilities or capacities in highly-skilled operations orjobs, but they are still supporting rural agriculture.
In this chapter I have attempted to instill the understanding that
if we talk about technology, we do not only talk about the technology
by itself, but also about things that will affect the implementationof that technology and be affected by the implementation of thetechnology. For smart technology to be used not just for profit, but as
Dr. Fitrio Ashardiono insisted in his editorial, for the sustainability ofagriculture and rural life, it must be introduced in close collaborationand cooperation with the rural society, with a focus on the younger
generation.

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Climate Change, Agricultural Resilience, and Rural Society Adaptation in the Eraof Rapid Change

Chapter 4
Place, Space, and Community:
Spatial Planning for Rural Development
Rohman Taufiq HIDAYAT
1. Introduction
Spatial planning is usually adopted in urban planning or higher
levels of spatial entities and up to now, the adoption of spatial planningin rural development is still low. However, its implementation will spurrural development as it has the ability to elaborate spatial and nonspatial aspects (social, economic, and environmental), and it supports
the current rural development approaches.
To outline this brief report, I will begin with a brief history of ruraldevelopment in Indonesia, explaining the flow of money and goods, andthen answer the question: Is spatial planning really necessary? Before
I attempt to answer this question I’ll give a fairly brief explanation of
the significance of space and community in rural areas and what spatialplanning is about as these concepts are relatively new, it may be the firsttime for some of you to read this terminology. I will conclude with twocase studies that applied these planning techniques in the rural areas ofJava and Borneo.
1. History of Rural Development in Indonesia
The history of Indonesian rural development can be traced back to
the Kingdom’s Era. The village was led by a lower royal family member
and positioned as a producer for the kingdom, with a responsibility todevelop their own villages, and villages with prominent achievements
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Place, Space, and Community

received a prize from the king.
During the Colonialization Era, the status of rural areas in the state
was relatively similar. “Negarakertagama” — a book of the Majapahit
kingdom, and “Max Havelaar” — a true story-based novel written by a
Dutch officer, illustrated rural development in the old era. Similar to theKingdoms’ Era the Dutch colonial rulers had the authority to redirectrural development, especially that related to agricultural activities(landelijk stelsel and cultuurstelsel). The villagers had to give some of
their agricultural produce to the Dutch company and also to the king.
Then with the coming of the Independent Era conditions forIndonesian rural development began to improve. The government thengave greater attention to developing infrastructure and regulations
related to rural development (Zainal, 2016). After village law became
effective, rural development became part of the national strategy toachieve national development goals, rural areas received equality status
and were granted a limited budget for rural development and village
councils were given limited authority to develop their villages.
Then, during the New Order Era, transmigration programs wereintroduced and basic infrastructures were developed. There was a Dutch
immigration program and during that period the central government
tried to distribute the birthrate more evenly by trying to reduce thepopulation density in Java Island while increasing populations in otherislands. Also during this era, the central government tried to develop
basic infrastructure to enable the flow of goods.
These infrastructures were basic, but started getting better during
the Reformation Era with improved village recognition and community
participation in development.
Then with the Post-Reformation Era villagers had a greater
opportunity to develop their own independence as a part of national
development strategies and were given a special budget allocation.
47

Climate Change, Agricultural Resilience, and Rural Society Adaptation in the Eraof Rapid Change

The rural development objective was mainly based upon agricultural
production and capital and economic development, and then thegovernment tried to improve the social conditions, not only byconsidering how the economic benefit could be achieved, but also by
trying to understand what the community’s needs were.
Presently, the economic, social and environmental conditions are
improving and the government is trying to achieve sustainability.
2. Place and Space
Place and Space are related to each other (Tuan, 1980). A simple
illustration can explain place and space. A person stays in a 20m2 room
inside a house. The room is defined as a Place. The room size represents
the Space. This example follows geographical measurement. It has adifferent meaning from the personal feeling perspective. The room,
whomever the owner is, will give that person a different feeling; forexample, this room is or is not mine. Further discussion will lead toa sense of place theory. As to Space: I may say that this room is too
wide or too narrow for me. As we know, humans are equipped with thespecial ability to understand the place and space around them. Place is alocation. Rural is a place without a firm definition and many researchers
have used economic and social approaches to define it.
Can you guess whoseroom this is? This is the firstpresident’s room, and by using
this picture, the objective isto describe three things, place
space, and the community. The
place is this room itself in thehouse. This is related to the
Figure 1. President’s Roomlocation and space we live in
Source: Author
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Place, Space, and Community

and usually it has a measurement. For example, Y is the volume and soon, and the community represents the people who live in this room.
Basically, place, space and community refer to physical things.
However, if we learn more about the space and community we begin
to understand the social aspect. When we consider space we mainly
consider the physical things. However, there can be non-physical things,
for example, a cyber place, we can think of ourselves as being in a cybercommunity, and then space is not always about the physical but also
about the social aspect.
A rural area is place, space and community. It is a place for villagers
to live and a space for agriculture. To get benefit from the place and thecommunity they need a space where they interact with each other.
3. Community
A community is a group of individuals who live in the sameplace and/or are bound by similar interests. Community participationis required to increase the development success rate and reduce theadverse impacts. Also, the village community has the special ability andknowledge that is beneficial to their living. For example, a villager cango inside the forest within village boundaries without getting lost. They
can describe their village’s special conditions using unique signage,
such as trees, and the natural landscape.

2. Spatial Planning 1
Previously, discussion of rural development in Indonesia mainly
focused on economic activities and providing basic infrastructures suchas education facilities, village markets, and transportation. Nowadays,
rural development addresses quality of life, environmental quality,
advanced technology, climate change, and sustainability. However, less49

Climate Change, Agricultural Resilience, and Rural Society Adaptation in the Eraof Rapid Change

attention been paid to spatial aspects than in urban development, which
has addressed spatial aspects extensively. The spatial development
theory was introduced mainly based on economic activities (Robinson,1969). Before revealing the necessity of a spatial approach in ruraldevelopment, an understanding of the spatial components is necessary.
Spatial planning is a process for arranging the space, land
utilization, and control (UU 26/2007).
The land use diagram illustrates how humans and living creaturesutilize the land. It can be a built-up area or a cultivated area like farmland
or a forest, and the land use has a function. It can be a social function,an economic function, or an ecological function. In a built up area forexample, a building does not always have a single function. It may
have multiple functions and they can be social functions or economic
functions. Another example is the farmland. We can cultivate anything
on the farmland and it may produce an economic function. However,farmers can interact with each other too. They can talk together and havea social interaction on the farmland, so it also has a social function.

Figure 2. Process for Arranging the Space, Land Utilization, andControl (UU 26/2007)
Source: Author
50Chapter 4
Place, Space, and Community

Spatial planning is an approach that combines all development
strategies into a single output document. Regional and urban planning has
adopted spatial planning to direct development and has been developed
over the centuries. In the past, spatial planning addressed technical andgeographical aspects. Then, it incorporated intangible aspects since it
is embedded in human nature. As humans have special abilities andknowledge, place and space are also determined by social aspects.
Therefore, involving social aspects in spatial planning is possible.
Spatial planning covers physical and non-physical aspects. Briefly,
it is constructed of land use planning and non-spatial planning, including
land use and land use functions. Land use planning consists of a land-use
structure plan, or a land use pattern plan. Non-spatial planning consists of asocial and economic activities plan in the case study area. Spatial planningcan be applied at any level (national, provincial, region, town, and rural).

3. Spatial Planning 2

Figure 3. The Conceptual Framework of Land Use Planning
Source: (Zhang et al., 2019)51

Climate Change, Agricultural Resilience, and Rural Society Adaptation in the Eraof Rapid Change

The conceptual classification framework of land use functions(Zhang et al., 2019) in the above consists of:1) Selected interaction among functions based on common patterns.
This is the concept or classification framework of land use
function and every function is interconnected in this figure from
Zang et al.’s research and illustrates a selected interaction among
function pairs based on a common pattern.
2) Tradeoff/synergy among functions
This figure tries to address the threat of instability among thefunctions. If they increase one function how will this affect two otherfunctions for example?
If we use farmland more rapidly or more intensively how will
this affect another function. Maybe we will get more income andmore social benefits. However, if it decreases the ecological function
the farmland will be degraded in the future.
3) Interaction between function and land use
This is another explanation of land use. Figure A shows the land
use of each piece of land and the land use pattern is shown in Figure B.

A
B
Figure 4. The Master Plan of Pujon Kidul Tourism Village
Source: RTRW Kabupaten Malang Tahun, 2011–2031; Bakorsutanal
Tahun, 2011; Survey Primer, 2015
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Chapter 4
Place, Space, and Community► Land use: land use of each piece of land (fig. A), land use pattern(fig. B), Land use structure (center of growth, sub-growth center,and links among them)► Land function (≠ land use) → agricultural land: farmland (landuse) has economic functions► Elaborate on physical and non-physical attributes → forest’s role
in religious practices► Maximizing the potential and overcoming the problems► Drawing the interaction between activities and spatial onto a map
In the Indonesian context, spatial planning has a hierarchy, startingfrom national spatial planning and going down to specific spatial levels
such as a neighborhood. Spatial planning must pass a synchronization
procedure. For example, a lower level of spatial planning must addressa higher level of spatial planning (national > Provincial > municipality> smaller spatial level/neighborhood/village). Spatial planning aims toprovide a foundation and guidance for following development plans andinvolving actors and stakeholders. The main output of spatial planning
is a policy and the concept of development plans. It requires further
detail and an action plan. Otherwise, actors and stakeholders will find it
difficult to employ it.
Under spatial planning law and village law (Government of The
Republic of Indonesia, 2007, 2014), villages are encouraged to establish
spatial planning to spur rural development. However, only a few
villages have done so. They prioritize formulating a village government
work plan since it is mandatory. Further, the village government work
plan focuses on the villages’ physical development, such as the basic
infrastructure development plan. Promoting spatial planning in ruraldevelopment is necessary and useful.
During formulating the spatial planning, multiple actors are53

Climate Change, Agricultural Resilience, and Rural Society Adaptation in the Eraof Rapid Change

involved, including public participation. They discuss various issues, suchas public services, social and economic dynamics, and environmental
issues. Therefore, solutions and planning that are derived from thesocial and cultural approach are relevant. Spatial planning for ruraldevelopment is simpler than others. It employs well-known ruraldevelopment tools (PRA, RRA, social mapping) and combines themwith maps. Spatial discussion is infused in it. The Standard of Basic
Infrastructure is based on community needs because there is no
exact standard for rural development. As facilitators, spatial planners
usually adopt the rural region (consisting of several villages) andurban infrastructure standards (see Indonesia national standard forinfrastructure/ SNI).
Since it involves many actors and stakeholders, spatial planningallows them to communicate and accommodate each other’s needs.
They will decide the common goals, implementation procedure,development priorities, and each actors’ role. In the Indonesian context,
spatial planning also consists of monitoring and evaluation procedureand incentive and punishment regulation.
Developing spatial planning is time-consuming because it involves
many actors with their own needs. Constructing and achieving common
understanding and goals requires time and resources.
Involving the community in the spatial planning process andimplementation is not an easy task. Rural communities may havebetter social capital and strong social ties than urban communities.
However, it is not guaranteed to be a smooth process. Current ruraldevelopment depends on community participation. To some extent, therural community is likely to be less enthusiastic. They often blame local
officials and rely on government action.
To overcome this issue, the role of the facilitator is necessary.
The facilitators educate the community to get involved in the process54Chapter 4
Place, Space, and Community

actively thus bridging the gap among actors and stakeholders. The
facilitator can be an individual from outside the village or a member ofthe community. They cannot be involved in decision-making because it
violates the community participation concept.
During my fieldwork in one of the villages in Indonesia, when I
asked the communities what they knew about their villages and asked
them the location of the problems that existed in the villages and they
tried to make a map and locate the problem on the map. It could beseen that villagers had a sense of spatial ability but they didn’t realize
it. In this sense, spatial planning is very feasible for rural community
development.

4. Spatial Planning Components
I will briefly explain the Indonesian spatial planning system. Spatialplanning, consists of five components, spatial structure, spatial pattern,development concept and program, monitoring and evaluation program,and incentives and disincentives,
1. Spatial Structure
Spatial planning requires an understanding of the spatial structure. If
we want to develop the community in the village, we just need to focus
on one place as our priority. If the place that we prioritize is growing
well, so the surrounding area will also be growing well. It’s like asimple random sampling. If we need to understand all the population wejust pick some people at random, and by asking them we will be able
to understand all things. For example, if we drink a coffee, we don’t
need to drink it all to judge the quality of the coffee. We need just a sipof coffee to judge the coffee itself. So using that idea spatial planningstructure is implemented.
55

Climate Change, Agricultural Resilience, and Rural Society Adaptation in the Eraof Rapid Change

2. Spatial Pattern.
The spatial pattern consists of the pattern of the land use. We don’t
focus on a single-use but the pattern in general.
3. Development Concept and Program.
Spatial planning also consists of a development concept andprogram according to the idea for the community development, andwhat has already been explained by Dr. Fitrio Ashardiono, Dr. Iqra
Anugrah and Dr. Sianipar in the preceding chapters can be included inthis part.
4. Monitoring and Evaluation Program
The most interesting part of spatial planning is the Monitoring and
Evaluation Program. Spatial planning is not always about the plan itself,
but about monitoring to see that the plan is running well and ensuring
quality control of the planning. For these reasons, monitoring andevaluating the program is important.
5. Incentive And Disincentive.
This is related to reward and punishment and to ensure theimprovement of the development itself. For example, if the farmers arefollowing the rules of the spatial planning, we will give some incentive
or reward, and if they break the rules, they will be censured. The aim is
to teach them how to increase their capacity.

5. Spatial Planning Process
The participants in the discussion of this spatial planning usuallyconsist of the key persons in the village, the religious leader, groupleaders and the village officials.
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Place, Space, and Community

The stakeholders are usually the national governments andprovincial governments, and next to the private sector, and then thegroups in the village community. The process is as follows:
1. Data Collection
The spatial planning process involves all the activities done by thecommunities themselves. During the data collection, we’re trying to
identify the community’s needs, then identify the problems and thendefine the community’s resources.
2. Analysis
The analysis is based on the data that is gathered from thecommunity try to identify potential problems and find possible
solutions.
3. Plan Formulation
Once they have identified and solved the important issues they will
make possible development plans and select the best plan.
4. Plan Dissemination
Finally, they hold an open public discussion to disseminate theplan, so that all community members will know what they will be doingin the future. During this process only the community members cangive feedback or a suggestion. For example, if there’s a plan to makea new building for education, but the community members think thatit’s not urgently needed, they can reject that plan and the community
members will discuss whether they need to delete that plan or continue.
Usually, if they face some objection, they will think again and try tofind a solution.

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Climate Change, Agricultural Resilience, and Rural Society Adaptation in the Eraof Rapid Change

6. A Story of Two Villages
This section will describe the story of two villages, Pujon Kidul
village, in Malang regency, and Batoq Kelo Village, in Mahakam Ulu
Regency. I was involved in developing spatial planning in these villages,
and the experiences illustrate spatial planning implementation in ruraldevelopment. The case studies produced unique and distinguishedexperiences. The stories focus on the community initiatives, development
process, and spatial planning results.
In 2015, Pujon Kidul village had the initiative to establish a village
master plan. It was quite rare. Spatial planning and the village masterplan are two different things. Spatial planning can be an approach toestablishing a master plan. After conducting an initial discussion, they
unconsciously employed the spatial method in their village public
discussion. The village communities established a social map andidentified community problems using a spatial approach, even though
they had limited knowledge about spatial planning.
In 2019, we were involved in formulating the Batoq Kelo Village
master plan. We employed a bottom-up approach, which is more
relevant than a top-down approach for rural developments. After
conducting an initial discussion with the village officers and key
persons, we found that the Batoq Kelo community had no idea how todevelop their village. Nevertheless, they wanted a better life and public
services. On this point, the Pujon Kidul community was clearly morecapable than the Batoq Kelo community.
We employed a participatory rural appraisal and spatial approachfor Pujon Kidul village community needs assessment (CNA), and a
spatial planning approach for Batoq Kelo Village (Hidayat & Vidianti,2019). Focus group discussion and spatial mapping were the main tools
to collect the data. Key persons such as the religious leader, public
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Place, Space, and Community

figures, and village officers were actively involved during the process.
As facilitators, we explained how to build the master plan using aspatial planning approach and gave them examples. Then, we started theplanning procedure. The first step was to identify the village’s condition
and then analyze the strengths and issues of the village and find thesolution. We provided capacity-building sessions that helped themthrough the process. Once the masterplan draft was completed, we heldan open community forum to explain the draft and get their feedback. It
took approximately a year to finish. We spent more time at Batoq Kelovillage and gave extra discussion sessions, because their understandingof spatial aspects and development was lower than that of Pujon Kidul
Community.
After a long process, each community agreed to the masterplan. The development concept for Pujon Kidul Village is a tourism
village. Batoq Kelo community agreed to focus on basic infrastructuredevelopment. Both communities planned to establish a village-owned
enterprise to improve their economic capacity.

7. Pujon Kidul Village
Pujon Kidul Village is in Malang Regency, Jawa Timur Province. It
is located approximately three kilometers from Batu city which is one of
the emerging tourism destinations in East Java. The total area is around
324 hectares and the total population is 4,790.
1. Initiative
Initially, Pujon Kidul was an agricultural village but after they
established spatial planning they changed its identity to a tourist village.
I would like to explain each story in three phases. The first part is theinitiative, the second is the process, and the third is the result.
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Climate Change, Agricultural Resilience, and Rural Society Adaptation in the Eraof Rapid Change

The first initiative came from the village community. At that time,the village leader came to my university and told us that they wanted
to have a kind of development plan. As I am in the spatial planningdepartment, I proposed this spatial planning, and they agreed to adopt
this proposal.
They wanted to develop tourism activities because their village isvery close to Batu city which is a tourism destination. They thought that
if the tourists in Batu village felt bored and wanted to see something
different, their village could provide something to attract them, so theyshould become a tourism village.
2. Process
We went to the village and told them about the process. We explainedthat the work would be done by the community, and we would just act as
facilitators and we would supply them with all the information they needed.
The neighborhood had a forum discussion with a focus group
to identify the issues and the potential in their village and how they
could overcome these issues using the village’s potential. Then they
formulated a village development concept and a development program.
They held a village forum discussion and received a lot of feedback
from the community members, after which the focus group revised andfinalized the plan and disseminated it again for the last time
3. Transformation
Pujon Kidul was divided into three hamlets called Krajan, Maron, andTulungrejo. In the plan, each hamlet would have its own particular activity,
and they supported each other. For example, Tulungrejo hamlet would
focus on establishing tourism attractions. Maron Hamlet is predominantly
housing, and several households have small-size enterprises. It has no
tourism potential so producing souvenirs for the tourists and selling them
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Place, Space, and Community

at the sightseeing spots is most profitable activity. We try to synchronize
the activities so Krajan Hamlet was the center of tourism and the otherareas would provide the support. So for example, Maran Hamlet would
produce the souvenirs that are needed by Krajan Hamlet.

Figure 5. Pujon Kudol Village Spatial Planning
Source: RTRW Kabupaten Malang Tahun, 2011–2031; Bakorsutanal,
2011; Hidayat, 2015
These maps show the transformation of the village in the case of
spatial planning. They represent the condition of Pujon Kidul village andwe can see here that the land use is very low. The small shapes are thevillage houses. The villagers identified which part of the village is thecentral business district and identified the yellow part as the center ofgrowth and light yellow as the sub-center. All the development will focus
on the central area and the other area will support the development.

8. Batoq Kelo Village
The second story is of Batoq Kelo Village located in Mahakam ulu
Regency, Kalimatan Timur Province, Kalimantan, East Borneo. This
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Climate Change, Agricultural Resilience, and Rural Society Adaptation in the Eraof Rapid Change

is an agricultural village located three kilometers from the Regency
capital. The total area not including the forest is around 7,846 hectares
and the population is only 843.
The process in Batoq Kelo village was different from the previous
one. I would like to explain the initiative, the process, and the result.
1. Initiatives
Batoq Kelo village community is unique because it is split into
two groups. Some of the villagers moved from the old place to the newplace because of a lack of facilities. So they moved closer to the regency
capital. Then, after a certain number of years, some villagers returned tothe original location because it was closer to the farmland. Some people
stayed in the original place and some people moved to the new placeand never wanted to return again. As a result the Batoq Kelo community
lives in two separate villages. Usually, a tribe lives in one village, andterritorial expansion is possible but not a common practice.
Due to the separation, maintaining rural development was becoming
difficult. The municipal government initiated a process to develop
spatial planning. The process is similar to the first story but the result
is quite different. Every place is entitled to government funding forrural development and the village had already received funds from thegovernment which they split equally between the households who usedthat money to build the necessary facilities or improve their homes
according to their separate ideas. Actually, this practice is against thewishes of the central government which rules that these funds should be
used to implement holistic spatial planning and establish facilities thatare not yet available.
2. Process
During the planning process, the villagers agreed that the development
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should focus on the original location because the new place already had
access to the basic infrastructure of services of the regency capital fromthe neighboring village.
3. Result
As a result of spatial planning, they decided to try to revitalize andrepair the existing infrastructure because they thought it could still be
used if it was repaired. They decided that multiple uses of community
buildings were the most preferable because this area has surplus
buildings that can be used for various activities. Another reason wasthat purchasing materials to make another building would be quite
expensive, and they were trying to reduce their expenses.

9. Conclusion
During the process of adopting spatial planning, these ruralcommunities learned their potential, how to interact with each other andnature, what they needed, and how to resolve their problems. The storiesof these two villages have demonstrated that if a community is open to
spatial planning and understands their village’s spatial attributes andhow to elaborate them with its economic and social aspects, they canwork together to improve their economic conditions.
As researchers who specialize in rural development we learned manythings from these two stories that will be of use in future applicationsof spatial planning. The solutions always depend on the village andcommunity conditions. Educating the community and ensuring community
participation are the most challenging parts and furthermore technicalterminology and procedures need to be explained in a way that can beeasily understood. Moreover, as the villagers spend most of their timeworking, we have set the schedule based on participants’ convenience.
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However, there are undoubtedly benefits to adopting spatialplanning methods to help rural communities to develop the potentialof their villages in a holistic, sustainable way in relation to the naturalfeatures and nearby towns. If the potential of each area can be optimized
in relation to the whole, it can have a positive effect on rural economies
and especially on attracting the younger generations to remain or return
to rural life.

References

Indonesian Central Government, Law (UU) No. 26. 2007. Spatial
Planning. Regulation Details. (In Indonesian)
Hidayat, A and Vidianti, R. 2019. Community Service Facilities andInfrastructure Improvement in Remote Areas of East Kalimantan(Case study: Conflict in Batoq Kelo Village, Mahakam Ulu Regency).
IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science. 328.
DOI: 012032.10.1088 / 1755-1315/328/1/012032.
Robinson, J. 1969. The Theory of Value Reconsidered. Australian
Economic Papers, 8(12), 13–19. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.14678454.1969.tb00214.x
Tuan, Y. 1980. The Significance of the Artifact. Geographical Review,
1980-10-01, 70(4), 462–472.
Zainal, A. 2016. Learning Evaluation (Principles, Techniques, andProcedures). Eighth Printing, Jakarta: Rosda Karya. Arikunto,
Suharsimi. (In Indonesian)Zhang, Y., Long, H., Tu, S., Ge, D., Ma, L., and Wangaf, L. 2019.
Spatial Identification of Land Use Functions and Their
Tradeoffs/Synergies in China: Implications for Sustainable Land
Management. Ecological Indicators, 107, <https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.ecolind.2019.105550>

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Chapter 5Concluding Remarks and Discussion
Fitrio ASHARDIONOAt the outset, I stated that we wanted to address two vulnerabilities
that are hastening the demise of rural communities. The bottom lineis the ability to make a viable living from the land, and this is being
threatened from two directions. The first is the inability of peasantfarmers working individually with hand tools to earn a living fromtheir harvest. The second is the increasingly apparent effects of climatechange which are threatening ecological sustainability and thus further
endangering their livelihoods.
This has caused the younger generations of rural families, especiallythose with a higher education, to seek their fortunes in the urban areas.
However, as the cities expand, and the agricultural land becomes
urbanized, the demand for food increases while productive agriculturalland shrinks.
The popular solution is to develop larger, more efficient,mechanized, or as Corinthias P. M. Sianipar reports, robotizedfarming. However, this has the effect of pushing more farmers off
their smallholdings into cities, while biological diversity is lost to cash
crops, and excessive harvesting is depleting the land’s natural ability torecover. A dependence on chemical fertilizers and insecticides is further
destroying the natural ecology, agrobusinesses are consuming thenatural forests, shrinking the habit of the indigenous flora and fauna, andby extension, threatening insect pollination. In our haste to fulfill the
population’s immediate demands, our nation’s long-term sustainability
is being threatened.
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It is becoming increasingly clear that the present attempts tomaintain a flourishing domestic economy and meet a growing demand
for a more diverse, luxurious cuisine are not sustainable. However,when we read the fascinating reports of the contributors to thesechapters, there is hope. The takeaway is that we do have amongst ouracademicians, scholars with the political, agricultural and technical andvisionary qualities necessary to save the day.
Looking at the reports of my three colleagues, I could claim that
we have done the research. So why then have we not come up withthe solution yet? Regrettably, we also already know the answer to thisquestion. Presently, we are all engaged in our specific fields, advancing
our individual academic careers along parallel but separate lines. To
fulfill the purposes of this book, collaboration is necessary. To fulfill
the stated aim of this book, we must put our heads together. To achieve
the Agricultural resilience and Rural social adaptation necessary for asustainable humanosphere, scientific collaboration beyond borders isessential. So how can we work together?
Rohman Taufiq Hidayat shows us that this is possible in his
chapter on spatial planning, enlightening us with an approach to local
planning that combines the input from experts in a variety of fields, andconsultation with all the actors involved in the designing of the plan andfor its implementation.
In his work bringing the local fishermen and farmers together, Dr.
Iqra Anugrah describes the political skills and strategies necessary to
persuade locals of the importance of learning together the ways to adopt
the efficient methods developed through Rohman Taufiq Hidayat’s
spatial planning.
In addressing the resilience of rural communities, what can bedone to encourage the younger generation not to quit their rural towns?
Employing the more efficient but expensive Smart Farming techniques
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Corinthias P. M. Sianipar described can only be realized by forming
the cooperatives being developed by Dr. Iqra Anugrah. Organizing
cooperatives requires leadership and technical skills, and AI is thedomain of bright young scientists, so there is both a need for and thepromise of worthwhile careers for talented young people who would
like to make a meaningful contribution to society.
Meanwhile all of these changes to the customary social andagricultural patterns should be done gradually with a wholistic visionfrom the seed to the table, as visualized in this editor’s chapter on
agricultural resilience.
As a sequel to the reports contained in the previous chapters, it is
only fitting to outline some highlights from the preliminary discussion
between this editor and my three colleagues.
We began by addressing urban population growth, the proverbial
elephant in the room, and Doctor Sianipar pointed out that the recent
data indicates that recent population flow is not that significant, but thatthe number of regions that do not constitute rural anymore is increasing.
Physically the population may not be moving from rural to urban areas,
but their homes are gradually becoming more urbanized. They may
physically stay in rural areas, but their minds, their words, and theiractivities are all being urbanized. So the use of urbanization terminology
may or may not be actual physical urbanization anymore.
Moreover, while we would like to see more income flowing into
the rural areas, the growing popularity of e-commerce is causing that
wealth to be diverted back to the centers of mass production. As a result
people may live in rural areas, but they get an income from an urban
area, and then they buy things from another urban area, and we cannot
expect this causal effect anymore. Dr. Sianipar argues that if we wantto make residents contribute to rural areas, it is necessary to tie theminto activities that are really going on in those rural areas. So it is not
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only about their needs, but how the needs of rural areas can be fulfilledby their expertise or their capabilities. But on the other side, can theneeds of younger people be fulfilled by things or activities in rural
areas? There are many benefits to making rural areas more appealing to
the younger generation, and here the utilization of the technical skills
required to employ smart farming techniques is a possible source ofappeal to young college graduates.
Dr. Iqra Anugrah further pointed out that we have to understandthe urban/rural distinction in terms such as smallholders, or peasants orrural communities in a more nuanced and comprehensive manner. When
we think about urban-rural interaction, it is not a separate dichotomy
but a continuum, a process, a flow. He stated that it is true that in rural
areas across Indonesia, things have become more urbanized, perhaps
not necessarily physically, but in terms of interactions in terms of thecultural imagination of the young people, in terms of the pattern ofurban development in rural areas. Thus, in recent scholarship on urban
studies, for example, or Indonesian politics, much has been said about
the growth of provincial towns, or a professional middle class, and thisis indicative of a growing trend in a positive direction.
Dr. Iqra Anugrah further explained that when we talk about peasantsor farmers, these people are not the same as their ancestors of 60 years
ago, or even 40 years ago. When we are talking about the peasantsof the 1960s, they were basically the subsistence-oriented peasantsdescribed in a classical, agrarian literature. Today’s peasants are very
different. They are peasants insofar as they engage in small-scale
agricultural activities, they are small holders to put it in more technicaland simple terms, but these rural households engage in a variety ofactivities. Even the peasants themselves in off-farming seasons mightwork as motorcycle drivers in nearby towns, and their wives might
engage in small businesses with customers in urban areas, while their68Chapter 5
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children, the second generation, certainly have a more urban-oriented
outlook than their parents. This trend is not only limited to Indonesia; asimilar pattern is also going on in Thailand, and by extension, must be
occurring elsewhere in Southeast Asia, and perhaps globally.
A lot of literature has been talking about the growth of middleclass farmers in Thailand, and the concern is no longer about land, butconcerns about STEM facilities or subsidies for fertilizers. So it leads toa different political outlook and view as well.
Dr. Iqra added that he was happy that Dr. Sianipar’s report on
Smart Farming answered his concerns, because having worked with
community members as well as community organizers he had found thatas expected, one of the major aspects that they are lacking is technicalexpertise. They might be really good at managing businesses, and they
are pretty creative in obtaining additional capital for businesses or for
their cooperatives, but technology is a major issue, and this is somethingthat could be addressed by redirecting the educated rural youth to suchactivities.
Dr. Iqra also raised the issue of the changing status of young
women in rural areas asking, “What is the most appropriate technology
or approach to smart farming for female farmers, for women working
in rural areas?” This is an important question because typically, theintroduction of new agricultural technologies in rural areas tends tomarginalize women workers. He asked what would be the best typesof technology or the best way to approach integrating smart farming or
integrating technology that at the same time would ensure the interestsof women workers, or women farmers in rural areas?
Dr. Sianipar commented that it is not only about rural women who
are female entrepreneurs or agricultural workers in rural areas, butalso that every technological change will bring impacts to the societal
structures, because technology has a characteristic to push change, to69

Climate Change, Agricultural Resilience, and Rural Society Adaptation in the Eraof Rapid Change

redefine the work we have been doing, or the requirements of the work
we have been doing, who is doing that work, and who needs to do thework.
So, in terms of the most appropriate technology, it will depend on
the type of work. In other words, what is the appropriate technology andwhere or when should it be applied? So when we talk about a certain
location, then we can talk about the most appropriate technology in thatplace and how women can be motivated and employed in these new
sectors.
Dr. Sianipar mentioned that in 2013 he published a methodology
to apply or recycle appropriate technology. He summarized thismethodology by saying that appropriate technology is a democracy
based technology, because appropriate technology should start from thepeople, should be worked on by the people, and should be delivered
to the people. So when we talk about technologies, that is appropriatetechnology, we are also talking about the democratization of technology.
If we need to find the most appropriate approach to deliver anappropriate technology, he said that there should be a gradual change,
not an absolute change, but more about incremental changes between
the type of technology that we will be applying in a certain location.
He told us that in his laboratory there is one new Ph.D. student who
would like to see how smart farming can be applied in a certain locationin Indonesia, and how existing technology in that area or introducedby the government can be gradually upgraded. Basically it will not be
an absolute change, but an incremental change. So the capability or
the knowledge or everything that they are required to have to support
the technology should be developed in parallel with the stages of its
introduction.
At this point this editor, as a social scientist and agricultural
specialist, criticized that after listening to all the arguments, I felt no one
70Chapter 5
Concluding Remarks and Discussion

had touched on the issues of the environment.
While they probably did consider the environment, and they had
just mentioned democratization, the truth is that in certain rural areas
the populace wants new economic benefits, they want to do things, theywant to produce more, but at the cost of the environment.
I asked my colleagues if, as academicians, we should just give them
the technology and tell them to go ahead and cut down all the trees
and make a new land, or tell them that it is destructive, and they had
better not do it. There is a kind of push and pull between economics andenvironmental issues. This really does happen, especially in developing
countries like Indonesia. It is critical because if you tell them not to do it
they will complain that we are not allowing them to develop in terms of
economics.
However, at the same time, I do believe from my research thatthe local knowledge of the environment is an essential resource thatthey need to keep, because sooner or later, once they start changing
everything, they will realize that they have lost everything. In fact there
are some cases where this is already happening, but at the same time,
I think it is really hard to know how to share the right information andhow to deliver the right data.
Then again this is a democratic process. So if the community wants
it, then it must be right. These were just some of the impressions that
this editor has encountered in agricultural and rural studies. When I
asked my colleagues for their comments, Doctor Sianipar admitted that
we had largely missed what we call the nature carrying capacity, thatis the ability of nature to cope with everything we have been doing to
exploit it.
He thought that our approaches were divided into two larger
paradigms, environmental power economics and ecological economics.
He asked us a question. “Should we exploit and then do reappropriation?
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Climate Change, Agricultural Resilience, and Rural Society Adaptation in the Eraof Rapid Change

Or do we need to slow down to make sure that the nature can keep up
with the changes we are making?”
He agreed that the environment is the missing link in every
discussion, because we usually talk about money and people while weforget the environment that has been bringing us to life.
Dr. Sianipar then turned to Dr. Iqra Anugrah, whom he conceded
had much more experience in dealing with people directly, and asked
him whether in his experience he had encountered some rural people
who thought that whatever they had been doing was good for theenvironment, while we know that some of the activities they have been
doing for so long are detrimental to the environment. They have beenusing these practices for hundreds of years, but they are harmful to theenvironment. He wanted to hear Dr. Iqra Anugrah’s opinion on how we
can introduce a new perspective without blatantly confronting what they
have been taught to believe in, how to make sure that when we introduce
a new perspective to conserve the environment, we can persuade themto accept new ideas and change their destructive behavior, but without
triggering their stronger resistance.
Dr. Iqra Anugrah agreed that the environment is the missing link.
In the literature on political ecology, for example, and agrarian studies,and also in recent anthropology, people have been talking about therift between society and nature. He called it an ongoing, fascinating
conversation and agreed with the points that we had both raised. He
thought it was important to mention that the biggest polluters are thebiggest actors, but having said that, as someone who has worked pretty
closely with rural actors, with farmers and with activists in rural areas,
he didn’t want to romanticize their world, as much as he respected them.
He went on to say that there are so many blind spots that they do notrecognize, in terms of the region, in terms of environmental protection,and so on. He said that some of these issues cannot be resolved
72Chapter 5
Concluding Remarks and Discussion

through academic conversations alone. They require us to act within
the community, but at least from anecdotal evidence from observation,
the interaction between rural actors and non-rural actors, should be
democratic and based on dialogues.
For example, there are lots of people with goodwill, middle-classactivists, or researchers, but we all have our own blind spots. So we justneed to listen to our counterparts in rural areas, but our rural friends also
have their own blind spots. So, in research and in community activities,
it is a matter of dialogue and democratic collaboration between thesepeople.
Dr. Iqra Anugrah went on to say that he has had positive experiences
and feels hopeful about the younger generation from rural areas. Whilenone of them seem to be particularly interested in farming they do takeleadership roles in peasant unions. They do take managerial roles inbusinesses like coffee cooperatives, for example. So they pick up theadministrative roles in these community organizations. He told us that
he had met a man who was around his age or slightly older, who was thecurrent headmaster of a vocational high school that he visited, in Garud,
West Java. He is comparatively young, but he knows how to handle
staff, and importantly he knows how to politely challenge the older
generation.
It is clear that there are some very interesting developments in thefield. Some pieces are missing unfortunately, because at present, due tothe pandemic we cannot see them. It does appear that a gradual change
is taking place in the older generation’s potential to accept change andin the younger generation’s willingness to play a part in implementingchange.
As the editor, I would like to conclude this short book by
underlining the need to push for more collaborative exchange between,rural actors and non-actors, scholars and entrepreneurs, and especially73

Climate Change, Agricultural Resilience, and Rural Society Adaptation in the Eraof Rapid Change

to exchange views and establish some grounds for cooperation with therural youth. I would like to thank each contributor for their inspiring
reports, and for their valuable insights in the ensuing discussion.
There are many things that we still need to discuss, and lots ofimportant questions have been left unanswered, and we have only
touched on rural issues, while there is a great need for integration in theplanning of cities, future industrial development, and important social
issues such as wellbeing and education.
This, in fact, is the focus and concern of our sponsor, AsiaJapan Research Organization, which has facilitated and supported the
publication of this work. There is much to be done, and plenty of room
for all of us to collaborate in the future. It is my hope that our readers
will be inspired, wherever they are, to join this important work.

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ONLINE ISBN 978-4-9911356-8-2
PRINT ISBN 978-4-9911356-9-9
Asia-Japan Research Institute, Ritsumeikan University