3

Quaternary Volcanoes and Widespread Tephrasof the World
Hiroshi MACHIDA
Professor emeritus, Tokyo Metropolitan University
machida@andes.metro-u.ac.jp/QYP04721@nifty.ne.jp

Abstract
It is the two contrasting volcanic products, flood basalt and silicic ignimbrite, that represent thelargest known volcanism in the earth history. The former is a product of effusive eruption at hot spots
and divergent plate margins, forming extensive lava plains and shield volcanoes. On the other hand
the ignimbrite is usually associated with large calderas on the conversion boundary and continental rift,
forming ignimbrite sheets and co-ignimbrite volcanic tephras. Many extraordinarily large tephras havebeen recognized not only on land but also from abyssal sediments. This paper particularly focuses on
the significance of Quaternary widespread tephras. A catalogue of the large volume tephras of the
Quaternary around the world is tentatively listed, because they are very powerful tools for correlating
stratigraphic sequences and landforms extensively, particularly for land-sea correlation. Continual
revision and supplement action for compilation of the tephra catalogue will be a task for future studies.
Key words: co-ignimbrite ash, flood basalt, ignimbrite, plate tectonics, Quaternary, tephra catalogue,
widespread tephra

1. Volcanoes of the World
The theory of plate tectonics is a well supported
model and one which is able to describe the distribution of volcanoes of different types on the surfaceof the earth. Figure 1 shows the distribution of volcanoes in association with plate boundaries. The
plate boundaries are classified into three types: divergent, transform and convergent. Divergent boundaries are mid-ocean ridges where new crust is being
formed, and continental rifts like those of East Africa
formed by active volcanism. Transform boundaries
are typified by the San Andreas Fault in California andrepresent areas in which plates move past each other.
They are not associated with volcanism but withdevastating earthquakes. Convergent boundaries arecomplex areas forming linear mountain chains,metamorphic belts and volcanic chains. There aremany distinct styles of plate collision and theseproduce various forms of volcanic activity anddeposits.
1.1

Intra-plate volcanoes
Intra-plate volcanic activity is driven by mantle
plumes that create volcanoes at hot spots on the
Earth’s surface. Activity occurs within both oceanicand continental plates.
Active and inactive volcanic islands and seamounts are features of intra-plate oceanic volcanoes in

the Pacific, Indian and Atlantic Oceans. Examples
include the Hawaiian islands, the Maldive Islands andothers. Volcanic islands of this type are chielfly
composed of basaltic lavas with small volumes ofsilica-rich materials. They form large shield volcanoes of the Hawaiian type. Therefore, tephras including scoria and hyaloclastic materials can be seen
in very limited areas.
The principal expression of continental intra-plate
volcanism is the eruption of extensive flood basalt insuch regions as the Columbia plateau (USA), Deccan(India), South Africa, etc. Although volcanic activity
is mainly effusive, producing lava flows with small
tephra (pyroclastic and volcanic ash) layers, there
sometimes occur explosive eruptions with voluminous
silica-rich tephra deposits. Examples include theBaegdusan volcano on the border between China andNorth Korea and the Yellowstone volcanic complexes(USA). These suggest that silicic continental crust
may have been melted by intrusion of basaltic magma.
1.2 Volcanism at divergent plate margins
Volcanic activity is associated with two categories
of divergent plate boundary, mid-ocean ridge activity
and continental rift ones. The former is generally
characterized by effusive volcanic activity, producing
large amounts of basaltic lava flows on the deep sea
bottom. One exception occurs in Iceland where the
Mid-Atlantic Ocean ridge has met a hot spot and,

Fig. 1 Distribution of Quaternary volcanoes of the world. (Otsuka and Katsui (1976), revised)

4
H. MACHIDA

Quaternary Volcanoes and Widespread Tephras of the World

therefore, extraordinarily large amounts of volcanic
products are being produced. The volcanic productsvary greatly from lava flows to pyroclastic ejecta, and,
consequently, large amounts of tephra occur in Icelandand the adjacent seas.
Continental rift volcanism is well studied in the
East African rifts and the Basin and Range region of
the USA. The East African narrow rift is a place ofswarms of volcanoes of many different types. Volcanic products generated in those rifts are much morevariable than those of mid-ocean ridges. Lava flows
and a variety of pyroclastic materials, including ignimbrites commonly occur. Compositions range frombasalts to silica-rich trachytes and rhyolites and are
generally more alkaline.
1.3 Volcanism at convergent plate margins
It is estimated that about 80% of the active
volcanoes occur above subduction zones in the convergent plate margins. The circum-Pacific volcaniczone is known a place of high magnitude and frequentdevastation wrought by eruptions. Magmas range
from basalt to dacite and rhyolite. Consequently
type of volcanic landforms and products vary fromlava flows to ignimbrite plateaus around calderas, andfrom local ash soil to widespread sheet of ignimbrite
and/or co-ignimbrite ash, respectively. These volcanic areas supply major tephra deposits extensively
as shown in Fig. 2.
Volcanoes found in these convergent plate margins
may be divided into two categories: 1) those occurringat continental margins such as the Andes, and 2) thoserelated to island arcs.
The nature and style of volcanoes and their products may be controlled by many factors such as
thickness of the crust, tectonic stress, geometry andage of plate subduction, etc. The Late Cenozoic volcanism of the Andes is characterized by infrequent butvery large ignimbrite forming eruptions in central
areas where thick continental crust evolved. On theother hand, frequent eruptions of lava and pyroclastic
materials alternately occur forming stratovolcanoes
and volcanic ash soil in southern areas with relatively
thin and young continental crust.
The main difference between young arc volcanism
and that found in areas of evolved island arcs such as
Japan, Indonesia and New Zealand is related to thenature of the magmas produced. Whereas in theformer case they are predominantly silica-poor andconsequently effusive, in the latter, silica-rich andesites and dacites are associated with explosive volcanism together with eruptions of various types.

2. Major Widespread Tephras of the WorldIn highly volcanic areas, thick volcanic sequencescomprising tephra and soil layers commonly occur at
the foot of andesitic or/and basaltic volcanoes andadjacent areas. Most of them are the products of5plinian and sub-plinian eruptions and commonly occur
in elongated fallout areas. Volcanic ash soil or andosol is usually a product of tephra of this kind.
Many tephra layers play important roles as time
markers in establishing a chronology for the Quaternary, because they occur within very short intervals oftime over wide areas. Individual tephras, however,vary significantly and are restricted spatially by suchfactors as the magnitude and direction of prevailingwind, particle size of the tephra, etc. Consequently it
had been said that tephra is only useful for local andregional stratigraphy.
Progress in characterization techniques for identification and dating methods has made possible along-distance correlation between tephras and, therefore, placed local tephra studies on a more solid
framework since the early 1970s. Details in Japan
will be described in the next chapter, “Volcanoes andTephras in the Japan Area”.
The discovery of the co-ignimbrite ash is one of
the major results of recent tephra studies. They are
predominantly fine-grained vitric fallout tephras
ejected at the same time as large-scale pyroclastic
flows (Machida and Arai, 1976; Sparks and Walker,
1977). The volume of co-ignimbrite tephra often
approximates or exceeds that of the ignimbrite itself.
These eruption-types are closely associated withgigantic caldera collapses.
Many extraordinarily large tephras have beenrecognized not only on land but also from abyssal
sediments. They are very powerful tools for correlating stratigraphic sequences and landforms extensively,
particularly for land-sea correlation. In addition, suchlarge-scale eruptions have a serious impact on humansocieties as well as ecosystems over wide areas andconsequently have been recognized as one of the triggers for global changes, as will be discussed in theother papers of this volume.
Such widespread co-ignimbrite and large plinian
tephra layers occurring in various places of the worldclearly indicate extraordinary explosive eruptions with
Volcanic Explosivity Indices of 7 or 8 (total volume
on the order of 102~103 km3; Newhall and Self, 1982)
in those regions. Examples include the Aira-Tn ash,
Aso-4 ash and other tephras in Japan as shown in thenext chapter. Studies in North America disclosed thewidespread Mazama tephra, product of the ~7,600
cal.yBP Mt. Mazama volcano (Crater Lake caldera)
first described about 60 years ago (e.g., Williams,
1942). The volume of the eruptive product was
about 78 km3, and has been identified about 1,700 km
from the source. In addition, the three on-land
Yellowstone tephras, the Lava Creek, Mesa Falls, andHuckleberry Ridge Tuffs (e.g., Christiansen and Blank,1979) and the Bishop Tuff erupted from Long Valley(e.g., Izett et al., 1970) have been identified extensively in North America. They are far larger in volume
than the Mazama tephra.
Studies of deep-sea cores have helped to describeFig. 2 Main regions of remarkable tephra layers around the world and approximate outer limits of identified marker-tephras.

6
H. MACHIDA

0

Quaternary Volcanoes and Widespread Tephras of the World

other widespread tephra layers from many places of
the world. Examples are the Youngest Toba tephrafrom Sumatra in the Indian Ocean, the largest known
from the Quaternary (e.g., Ninkovitch et al., 1978a),
the Campanian tephra from Italy in the East
Mediterranean Sea (e.g., Thunell et al., 1978), the Los
Chocoyos tephra from Guatemala in the three Seasaround Central America (e.g., Rose et al., 1981) andthe Old Crow tephra in Alaska and Canada (e.g.,
Westgate et al., 1985). All of them are products oflarge caldera volcanoes. Major approximate fallout
areas of each are shown in Fig. 2. Solid lines aretentative outer limits of previously identified
marker-tephras. Such occurrences should becomelarger in extent with the progress in field mapping andfingerprinting of fine-grained volcanic glass shards inmarine and ice cores. In fact, the Mazama tephra hasrecently been identified from the GISP2 core,
Greenland ~5,500 km from the source (Zdanowicz
et al., 1999). Such identification is essential not only
for determination of the magnitude of eruption but
also high-resolution dating of the eruption.
Consequently we have to improve identification
techniques for fine-grained volcanic glass shards fromcores. In addition, we must have plenty of information about tephra deposits from all over the world. In
fact, there remain many volcanic areas and deposits
unknown in remote districts, marine and lacustrine
sequences, and ice cores.
The Commission of Tephra Studies, one of the
INQUA (International Quaternary Association) Commissions, is preparing to create a catalogue of large
tephra deposits around the world for correlation andidentification and for promoting research of widespread tephra.
A catalogue of the large volume tephras of the
Quaternary around the world is tentatively listed inTable 1 (Machida and Arai, 1992; Machida andOkumura, 1996).
Such widespread tephra catalogue should play animportant role in many aspects:
1) Standard characterization of individual
marker-tephra layers will be essential for their long
distance correlation and identification, resulting in theestablishment of a chronostratigraphical network overextensive areas. It is clear that much progress on
identification of tephra in abyssal sediment and ice
cores will occur successfully.
2) A mapping of distribution of tephra provides
fundamental information not only on physical volcanology but also on paleo-environmental studies.
3) Tephra database works will clearly indicate
what is lacking now and what should be done further.
In principle, it will mainly consist of large explosive volcanism with VEI 7-8 class tephras as well as
well-known tephras of VEI 6 and 5 classes. This
does not mean the exclusion of smaller and older
eruptions. It is clear that some more frequent andsmaller Holocene and historic tephras and eruptions

7

are important for discussion of environmental andclimatic effects of explosive volcanism.
We must emphasize at first, however, that the database presented here is clearly incomplete because ourdata collection is still insufficient and also there arestill many places in the world where many tephra
layers are unrecorded. The style and media will be
discussed and improved in the near future. This kindof database will keep growing as it obtains detailed
information particularly on distal tephra layers.
Continual revision and supplement action will be atask for future studies.
Acknowledgements
I thank my colleagues, Drs. K. Okumura, H.
Moriwaki, B. Narcisi, S. Nagaoka, Y. Hayakawa, K.
Yamagata, T. Suzuki for their cooperation.

Campi Flegrei (IT) 12-14 (C) [MIS1-2]
Etna (IT)
14(C)
Campi Flegrei
36-37 (AA) [MIS3]Campi Flegrei
Campi Flegrei?
Mt.Epomeo?
Kos (GR)

Neapolitan Yellow (C-2)
Biancavilla-Montalto (Y-1, Et-1)
Campanian (CI,Y-5)

C-13 (Citare)
C-18 (Y-7)

SE Iceland, Greenland, British
Isles [1000]
Iceland, N [>300]
NNE Iceland [>350]
C-N Iceland, British Isles [>350]
Iceland, N.Atlantic, Norway,
North Sea [ice rafting, S1800]
S.Iceland, N.Atlantic, Greenland[ice rafting, S1800]

Occurrence area
[Max. distance, km or area, km2]

40 (C,KA) [MIS3]
60 (18O) [MIS3-4]

12.5 (V), 12.9 (AA)pfl, afa
pfl, afa

pfa, pfl
sfa, pfl
pfl, afa

pfa, ps

central Mediterranean
central Mediterranean, widespread[NE:300][N:600, SE:600][E:>2000][NE:1100, S:600, SW:100][E:1300][SSE:>70][SE:1200]

500

16

>40

<40

2
12
9
VEI6?

10

Bulk volume{DRE}

trachyte
trachyte

phonolite-tephrite
leucite &melanite-tephrite
rhyodacite,
SiO2 71-72%
phonolite,
SiO2 56-58%
latite-alkali trachyteNa-basalt
latite-alkali
phononite

daciterhyolite to basalt
rhyolite to basalt
rhyoliterhyoliteRock type

Remarks

1-3）

Reference

useful for
paleoceanography andarcheology in east
Mediterraneana part of Citare tuff
a part of Green tuff

impact on Minoan
civilization
useful for west
European archeology

7)
7)

11)
1,17)
1,5,6,12,13,17)

4,10)

2,3,16)8)
1,9,15)145 (KA), 161 (AA)afa, pfl
east Mediterranean
alkali rhyolite
14)[MIS6]
1) Keller et al. (1978), 2) Watkins et al. (1978), 3) Sparks et al. (1983), 4) Bogaard & Scmincke (1983), 5) Thunell et al. (1978), 6) Rosi et al. (1983), 7) Paterne et al. (1991), 8) Civetta et al. (1993), 9) Rolandi et al. (1993),
10) Baales et al. (2002) (1997), 11) Scarpati et al. (1993), 12) Fischer et al. (1993), 13) Fedale (2002), 14) Smith et al. (1996), 15) Vogel et al. (1990), 16) Manning (1990), 17) Narcisi & Vezzoli (1999)
IT, Italy; GR, Greece; GM, Germany

Kos plateau (X-3)

Laacher See (GM)Laacher See

pfa, pfl
pfa, afa

afa, pfa
pfa
pfa
pfa, afa

pfa

16th-17th cent. BC (C,A) pfa, afa, ps, pfl

Santorini (GR)Minoan (Z-2)

AD79
17th cent. BC (C)Vesuvius (IT)
Vesuvius (IT)EuropePompeian
Avellino (Z-1)

AD1104
2.8 or 1159BC (C, Ice)
3.8 (C)
11.0-11.1 (C)AD1362

Eruptionsequence

4-6)
useful for neoglaciation 4,6)
3,4,6,7)
useful for
8-10)
paleoceanographyafa, pfl
rhyolite (75%) to
Fe-hedenbergite,
9,12-17)
Tindfjallajokull
57.3-57.5 (18O)
basaltfayalite, illmenite, cgt,
bearing
Ash Zone 3 (Z3)
Krafa or Hofsjokull 305 (18O)
pfl, afa?
Iceland, N.Atlantic [ice rafting,rhyolite (low alkali) useful for
9,14)
S 1800]
paleoceanography
1) Thorarinsson (1958), 2) Thorarinsson et al.(1960), 3) Pilcher et al. (1996), 4) Larsen & Thorarinsson (1977), 5) Sigvaldason (1974), 6) Pilcher et al.(1995), 7) Thorarinsson (1976), 8) Lacasse et al.(1995), 9) Lacasse etal. (1996), 10) Bard et al. (1994), 11) Ruddiman & Glover (1975), 12) Jorgensen (1981), 13) Jorgensen (1987), 14) Ruddiman & Glover (1972), 15) Gronvold et al. (1995), 16) Ram et al. (1996), 17) Ruddiman & McIntyre(1984)

Hekla
Hekla
Hekla
Katla

Oraefajokull

IcelandOraefajokull AD1362

Hekla 1 (H1)
Hekla 3 (H3)
Hekla 4 (H4)Solheimar (Ash Zone 1(Z1), Skogar,
Vedde)
Thorsmork (THI) (Ash Zone 2(Z2),
Dye3)

Source volcano

Tephra name (symbol)

Reliable average age(ka) (method)[MIS, Geomagnetism]

Table 1 A list of representative widespread tephra layers of the Quaternary around the world.
(Machida and Arai (1992); Machida and Okumura (1996), revised.)8
H. MACHIDA

Main Etiopian Rift? 740 (KA)Main Etiopian Rift? 740±10 (KA)

East Africa
Kale

Silbo

Eruptionsequence
NE & NW of Lake Turkana[E>1200]
N & S of L. Turkana & Gulf ofAden & W. Indian Ocean [1500]

Occurrence area
[Max. distance, km or area, km2]
Bulk volume{DRE}
Rock type

Toba (INDN)

Manijau (INDN)
Toba (INDN)

Toba (INDN)

Youngest Toba (YTT)

Manijau
Middle Toba (MTT)

Oldest Toba (OTT)

840 [R]

280 (KA)
501 [N]
pfl

pfl
pfl

pfl,afa

70 (KA, AA, 18O)
[MIS5a-4]

18-21
rhyodacite
150, 50 (DRE) trachyte
VEI 6-7
px-dacite SiO2
62-66%[WNW>3000], Bengal bay, Indian
2500-3000
rhyodacite; qt-latite
penisula, Indian Ocean, Sunda sea
rhyolite SiO2
68-76%
100-250
rhyolite, andesite
60 (DRE)rhyolite SiO2
72-76%
500 (DRE) rhyodacite, qt-latite
SiO2 61-74%
35 (DRE)
dacite SiO2 63-65%
rhyoliteafa, pfa, pfl, afa [WNW1000]
pfl

AD1883.8.27
AD1815.4.10
26 (C)

very widespread; thelargest Quaternary
tephra in the world

Remarks

9,10)

6-8)
9,10)

9-12,17-19)

15,16)
3,4)
5)

4-6)
1,5,7)
3,6)
3,5,6)
3,5,6)

2,3)

1)

Reference

Haramggoal (HDT)
Bulsan9,10)Toba (INDN)
1200 (FT) [R]pfl
Bulsan (Irosin)>36 (C)pfl
13)[PHIL]
Dakatau
Dakatau (PNG)
1.1-1.2 (C)afa, pfa, pfl
central-west New Britain
VEI 5-6
andesite
14)
RabaulRabaul (PNG)
1.4 (C)pfa, pfl
east New Britain
VEI 5-6
rhyodacite
1,2)
Witori-Kimbe2 (W-K2)
Witori (PNG)
3.3 (C)afa, pfa, pfl
central-west New Britain
VEI 6
dacite14)
RaluanRabaul (PNG)
3.5 (C)sfa, pfl
east New Britain
VEI 6
rhyolite,(basalt)
1,2,14)
Malaguna
Rabaul (PNG)
1000 (AA)pfa, pfl
east New Britain
VEI 6
dacite, andesite
1,14)1) Nairn et al. (1989), 2) Walker et al. (1981a), 3) Sigurdsson & Carey (1989), 4) Self et al. (1984), 5) Wheller & Varne (1986), 6) Leo et al. (1980), 7) Nishimura (1980), 8) Purbo-Hadiwidjoyo et al. (1979), 9) Chesner &Rose (1991), 10) Chesner et al.(1991), 11) Ninkovich et al. (1978a), 12) Ninkovich et al. (1978b), 13) Philippine Inst. Volcanol. Seismol. (1984), 14) Machida et al. (1996), 15) Simkin & Fiske (1983), 16) Sigurdsson et al.
(1991), 17) Rampino & Self (1992), 18) Acharyya & Basu (1993), 19) Schulz & Emeis (2002)
INDN, Indonesia; PHIL, Philippines; PNG, Papua New Guinea

Krakatau (INDN)
Tambora (INDN)
Batur (INDN)

Southeast Asia
Krakatau
Tambora
Batur

Gale (ET-28)
Awasa-Corbetti?
1250±20; 960±100 (KA)Nariokotome (ET-29b)
Awasa-Corbetti?
1330±20; 1100±100 (KA)Chari
1390±20 (KA)Malbe (ET-29e)
Awasa-Corbetti?
1860±20; 1850±100 (KA)trachyte
KBS (ET-54, Wagebeta-Omo R.
1880±20; 1900±90 (KA)
Canyon)1) Harris et al. (1988), 2) Brown et al. (1992), 3) Cerling & Brown (1982), 4) Feibel et al. (1989), 5) Wolde Gabriel et al. (1990), 6) McDougall (1985), 7) Brown et al. (1985)

Source volcano

Reliable average age(ka) (method)[MIS, Geomagnetism]

Tephra name(symbol)

Table 1 (continued)

Quaternary Volcanoes and Widespread Tephras of the World
9TaupoOkataina
Taupo

Haroharo, Okataina 64(KA)

Taupo
Maroa
Maroa
Maroa
Rotorua

Waimihia (Wm)Rerewhakaaitu (Rk)
Kawakawa (Kk, Oruanui, Aokautere)

Rotoiti (Rotoehu, Matahi)

Pre-Oruanui
OrakonuiAtiamuri
Korotai
Mamaku (Kutarere)

[N]
[N]
[N]
[N]
220,230 (ITFT)[MIS7.3, N]
230 [MIS8, N]
270 [N][N]
280,340 [MIS9, N][N]
340-345 [MIS10, N]

14.7 (C)26.5 (C)3.28±0.02 (C)Occurrence area
[Max. distance, km or area, km2]

pfa, pfl

pfa, pfl, afa

pfa, afa, pfl

pfa, pfl[>500][>1370][>560]

pfa, afa, pfa, pfl [>660]

Eruptionsequence
Rock type100-300
30-10030-100100-300
30-100300-1000

120
rhyolite(pfa50+pfl70)
27
rhyolite(pfa22+pfl5)
14>750
rhyolite(pfa430+pfl320)
240
rhyolite(pfa90+pfl150)
30-10030-10030-10030-100>300
rhyolite

Bulk volume{DRE}

4,6,7,8,9,10)1-8)Reference

20)
20)
20)
20)
17,20,24)

4,8,10,11,26)
very widespread around 4,8,10,12-15,
N.Z.
30)
4,7,16-20)

Remarks

20)
20)
20)
pfa, pfl
17,20,29)
20)
pfl, afa
widespread [>3000]
rhyolitevery widespread around 21,22)
N.Z.
Waiotapu
Kapenga
710 [N]pfl
100-300
20)
Tikorangi
Kapenga
890 (KA) [R]pfl
30-10020)
Kaukatea (upper Te Munga)
870±50 (ITFT) [R]
27,29)
MarshallMangakino
950 (AA) [R]pfl>50
20,23)
Potaka (lower Te Munga)
Mangakino
1000±30 (ITFT) [MIS28,[>2500]rhyolitevery widespread around 28,29)
N, top of Jaramillo]
N.Z.
Rocky Hill
Mangakino
1000 (AA)pfl>300?
20,23)
Unit E
Mangakino
970 (AA) [N]
afa,pfl>300?
20,23)
AhuroaMangakino1180 (AA) [N-R]pfl
100-300
20,23)
Unit D
Mangakino
1200 (AA)afa,pfl
100-300
20,23)
Ongatiti
Mangakino
1210 (AA) [R]pfl>300
rhyolite
20,23)
Unit C
Mangakino
1680 (AA)pfl
30-10020,23)
Unit A
Mangakino
1550 (KA) [R]pfl
100-300
20)1) Baumgart (1954), 2) Healy (1964), 3) Froggatt (1981), 4) Pullar & Birrell (1973), 5) Pullar et al. (1977), 6) Wilson (1993), 7) Froggatt & Lowe (1990), 8) Carter et al. (1995), 9) Walker (1981), 10) Vucetich & Pullar(1964), 11) Lowe (1988a), 12) Vucetich & Howorth (1976), 13) Cambell (1986), 14) Wilson et al. (1988), 15) Pillans et al. (1993), 16) Vucetich & Pullar (1969), 17) Wilson et al. (1984), 18) Wilson et al. (1992), 19) Lowe
& Hogg (1995), 20) Houghton et al. (1995), 21) Kohn et al. (1992), 22) Pillans et al. (1996), 23) Briggs et al. (1993), 24) Shane et al. (1994), 25) Froggatt (1983), 26) Stokes et al. (1992), 27) Seward (1976), 28) Shane(1994), 29) Shane et al. (1995), 30) Wilson (2001)

Kaingaroa
Reporoa
Ohakuri
Kapenga
Pokai
Reporoa
Matahina
Okataina
Chimpanzee
Kapenga
Rangitawa (Whakamaru, Mt.Curl, etc.) Whakamaru

Taupo

New ZealandTaupo (Tp)
1.85 (C)

Source volcano

Reliable average age(ka) (method)[MIS, Geomagnetism]

Tephra name (symbol)

Table 1 (continued)

10
H. MACHIDA

Source volcano

Reliable average age(ka) (method)[MIS, Geomagnetism]
Eruptionsequence

Occurrence area
[Max. distance, km or area, km2]

Bulk volume{DRE}
Rock type

Remarks

Reference

Novarupta (ALS)AD1912

pfa, pfl[E>1000]

pfa20, pfl11-15, dacite
15 DRE)>50
andesite
35 (DRE)
dacite>50
dacite-andesite>50
andesite>50
dacite>300
px-rhyodacite

Crater Lake (OR)Brokeoff? (CA)Yellowstone III(WY)Long Valley (CA)759 (AA) [N]

7.63 (GISP2)
614 (AA) [MIS15]660 (AA) [MIS16]
pfa, ps, pfl, afa

pfa, pfl, afa
pfa, pfl, afa
pfl, afa[E1800][1700][conc.>400][ES>2000]500 (DRE)

rhyolite

pfa38, pfl40 opx, ho dacite>80
ho, opx rhyolite>=1000 (DRE) rhyolite

very widespreaduseful widespreadmarker in Alaska

useful for archeology

useful for archeology

1,2,15)3,13)
4,5,6,13,14)

3)
3,4)
3)
3,5)
3)
3,6,7)

1,2)

just above the B/M
7,8,9,12)
geomagnetic boundary
Upper Bandelier
Valles (NM)1150 (KA,FT)
300 (DRE) rhyolite
10,11)
Mesa Falls
Yellowstone II (ID) 1270 (KA) [R]
pfa, pfl, afa[ES1300]>=280 (DRE) rhyolite
4,5,6)
Lower Bandelier
Valles (NM)
1470 (KA,FT) [R]
300 (DRE) rhyolite
10,11)
Older Valles
Valles (NM)1780 (KA,FT)
10,11)
Huckleberry Ridge
Yellowstone I (WY) 2060 (AA) [N]
pfl, afa[1800]>=2500 (DRE) rhyolite
one of the largest
4,5,6,12)
tephras1) Bacon (1983), 2) Sarna-Wojcicki et al. (1983), 3) Sarna-Wojcicki et al. (1985), 4) Izett & Wilcox (1982), 5) Christiansen (1984), 6) Christiansen & Blank (1979), 7) Bailey et al. (1976), 8) Izett et al. (1970), 9) Izett(1982), 10) Smith (1979), 11) Izett (1981), 12) Sarna-Wojcicki & Pringle (1992), 13) Lanphere et al. (1999), 14) Izett et al. (1992), 15) Zdanowicz et al. (1999)
OR, Oregon; CA, California; WY, Wyoming; NM, New Mexico; ID, Idaho

Bishop

North America
MazamaRocklandLava Creek B

Okmok (ALT)
2.4 (C)
pfl
Aniakchak (ALS) 3.4 (C)pfa, pfl[conc.80]
Venimianof (ALS) 3.7 (C)pfl, pfa[50]
Okmok (ALT)
8.3 (C)pfl, afa?
E
Fisher (ALS)
9.1 (C)pfl, pfa[E>120]
Emmons Lake?
140 (ITPFT)
pfl, afa[NE2000](ALS)
1) Hildreth (1983), 2) Hildreth (1987), 3) Miller & Smith (1987), 4) Hildreth (1981), 5) Black (1975), 6) Westgate et al. (1985), 7) Westgate & Stemper (1990)
ALS, Alaska; ALT, Alutian

Okmok II
Aniakchak II
Venimianof
Okmok I
Fisher
Old Crow

AlaskaKatmai

Opala (Baraniy
1.4-1.5 (C)afa, pfl
10rhyolite
1-3)
Amfiteatr)
Ksudach1
Ksudach1.7-1.8 (C)pfa, pfl
18-19
rhyodacite
1,4)
Ksudach2
Ksudach<6.0 (C)pfa, pfl
9-11
andesite
1,4)
Khanger
Khanger
6.9-7.0 (C)pfa, pfl>10
dacite1,5)
Kurile lake/Ilinsky
Kurile lake/Ilinsky 7.6-7.7 (C)pfa, pfl
120-140
rhyolite
1,6)
KarymskyKarymsky
7.7-7.8 (C)pfa, pfl
13-16
rhyodacite
1,9)
Goreley Khrebet
Goreley Khrebet
33-34 (C)pfl
>120
dacite
1,5,7)
Opala (old)Opala39-40 (C)afa, pfl
30
silicic
1,8,9)Uzon
Uzon<39 (C)pfl
VEI6?
dacite1,5)
Golygin
Kurile Lake
41-42 (C)pfl, afa?
VEI7?
silicic
1,7)1) Braitseva et al. (1995), 2) Krayevaya (1967), 3) Melekestsev et al. (1992), 4) Braitseva et al. (1996), 5) Fedotov & Melekestsev (1991), 6) Braitseva et al. (1992), 7) Erlich (1986), 8) Ponopruzhenko (1988), 9) Braitseva& Melekestsev (1990)

Kurile ~ Kamchatka
Opala

Tephra name (symbol)

Table 1 (continued)

Quaternary Volcanoes and Widespread Tephras of the World
11

Ilopango (ESL)
Roseau (DMN)
Atitlan III (GTM)

Central & South America
Tierra Blanka joven (tbj)
RoseauLos Chocoyos

AD300?
30
84(U,18O) [MIS5]

Reliable average age(ka) (method)[MIS, Geomagnetism]afa, pfl
pfa, pfl
pfa, pfl, afa

Eruptionsequence
Central America [>70][E:700,SSW:300]
conc. [1500]

Occurrence area
[Max. distance, km or area, km2]
Bulk volume{DRE}
Rock type

Remarks

Reference2430≥60(ST)Ross Sea, off the west Antarctica

alkaline, felsic

widespread, multiple

1,2)*A list of tephra layers in the Japan area is shown in Table 1 of the next chapter (p.23).

Reliable average age and method: A, Archaeology; AA, 40Ar-39Ar; C, Radiocarbon; FT, Fission track; H, Historical document; ITPFT, Isothermal Plateau Fission Track; KA, K-Ar; ST, stratigraphy; 18O, 18O chronology.
MIS//Geomag: MIS, Marine isotope stage; Geomag: geomagnetism and/or chron, subchron.
Eruption sequence: p, plinian; ph, phreatomagmatic; i, ignimbrite-forming; c, co-ignimbrite fall; l, lava flow.
Mineral assemblage: af, alkali feldspar; am, amphibole; bt, biotite; cgt, cummingtonite; cpx, clinopyroxenes; ho, hornblende; ilm, ilmenite; lc, leucite; opx, orthopyroxens; pl, plagioclase; px, pyroxenes qt, quartz; sn, sanidine;sph, sphene.
Glass shard: bw, bubble walled; pm, pumiceous.

Southern Pacific & Antarctica
Southern Pacific Tephra Zones
Marie Byrd Land
(Eltanin)1) Huang et al. (1975), 2) Shane & Froggatt (1992)>3.5
rhyodacite
11)>25
rhyodacite1-3)
270-280rhyoliteknown as Y-8 ash in
4-6)[pfa120, pfl160]
marine deposits,useful(DRE)
for paleoceanography
La Primavera B
La Primavera
95(KA) [MIS5]
pfa, pfl, pfa
NE
90 [pfa50;
peralkaline-metalu8,9)(MXC)
pfl40] (DRE) minous rhyolite
Amatitlan T
Amatitlan (GUA) 240±170 (KA)pfa, pfl[NE: 500]>16ho, bi rhyodacite
7)
450 (DRE) rhyolite
10)
Diamantes
Diamantes (CHL) 450±60
pfl
15000 km2
Miravalles
Miravalles (CR)500±150pfl
rhyolite
9)
VEI6-7?
bi, ho dacite
12)
Lower Purico
Purico1300
pfl
800000 km2
UnnamedLaguna Colorado
1700
pflbi, ho13)1) Sigurdsson (1972), 2) Sparks et al. (1980), 3) Carey & Sigurdsson (1980), 4) Rose et al. (1987), 5) Newhall et al. (1987), 6) Rose et al.(1981), 7) Wunderman & Rose (1984), 8) Mahood (1980), 9) Walker et al. (1981c),10) Stern et al. (1984), 11) Harts & Steen-McIntyre (1980), 12) de Silva & Francis (1991), 13) Francis & Baker (1978)
ESL, El Sarvadol; DMN, Dominica; GTM, Guatemara; MXC, Mexico; CHL, Chile; CR, Costa Rica

Source volcano

Tephra name (symbol)

Table 1 (continued)

12
H. MACHIDA

Quaternary Volcanoes and Widespread Tephras of the World

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(Received 28 October 2002, Accepted 20 December 2002)