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No. +*., p. / +, ,**0
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TDR 
*ῌῐ*Calibration of Column-attaching TDR Probe Based on Dielectric Mixing Model
Hideki MIYAMOTO* and Jiro CHIKUSHI*
Biotron Institute, Kyushu University, 0῍+*῍+ Hakozaki, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka 2+,῍2/2+, Japan
Abstract
A column-attaching TDR probe (CA probe) was designed to minimize the e#ect of disturbanceon soil matrix during soil-water measurement, and was calibrated using sand for various watercontents (q).

Relative dielectric constant for sand increased with water content, and ﬁnallyreached to +,.1 at saturated condition. Compared with estimate by Topp equation (Topp et al.,+32*), smaller relative dielectric constants were observed at all water contents in case for the CAprobe.

The relative dielectric constants measured by the CA probe should be composite relative

dielectric constant (eT) of , components in sampling volume : medium (em) and acrylic part (eac).
To evaluate the e#ect of acrylic part on eT, contribution of both components was investigatedwith data sets of relative dielectric constant for ethanol having various concentrations, based ondielectric mixing model (eT wema(+w) eaca +/a ; where w and a are parameters).

Combined

Topp equation, substituting em in the equation by the estimate from the mixing model, relatively
agreed with observed eT at various q.

The determination of mixing model parameters (w and a)with ethanol could make it possible to calibrate eT vs. q easier than that with soil.
Key words : Time domain reﬂectometry (TDR), Relative dielectric constant, Volumetric watercontent, Topp equation, Dielectric mixing model+,"- tuk῍_"vwx῍$ {+    

Topp et al. U+32*V |}~(./IO"-῎
 !"#$῎%!"&'()*+,"- %./"0123$456+78

q..-+* 0 em- /./+* . em,,.3,+* , em/.-+* ,ῌ+,"&' 9:;<+=>?@A%(BCTopp ~$ ?[x  !"+,"&'(D9/- &EFGHI JKLMN$/( UMiyamoto et al., ,**+V ?[ /OPQ῏RST^ +.-῍+vwx῍!"&'(+UTime

DomainReﬂectometry,

TDRV W'XYO"%W(Z[\.NO]#^/"-

" UTopp et al., +32*VTDR W$  o1o

TDR W_"%`/^$ Noborio U,**+Vabc/- TDR W$defghi3

 , ~9$ - ~hi3j(?[./IO"- %56$ ./"mno( /¡¢jklmnopq mnors>6HINO

9hi3j(£/¡¢4/- &E TDR W"¤9q |.¥¦§'^ hi3j78

tuk῍ em _ vwx῍ q !"yz* ¨© ª«¬­®¯01°3 ±2+,῍2/2+ ²³´µ¶·¸ 0῍+*῍+ : PQ῏RST UTDRV tuk῍ vwx῍ Topp ~ uk¹º»n7rs t +*. ¼ ,**0

6

 +GHz  / cm  Malicki et al., +33, ,*GHz  ,./ cm  

"!Kelly et al., +33/ # $%&' ()!*+ ,-!./0

1# 2 345 (Nissen etal., +332 ; Selker et al., +33- 6 789/: TDR  ;<#+ # &=<> TDR 789  ? @ AB


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 .E( 6 789/:F
GHIJKL!
O

#> IJMN!P 35  &1=1CA ! - EUJUK

Schematic diagram of CA probe and --wireprobe.

2 3QR ,-& #>.4 (&#'1 Topp U(?
ῌ+Fig. +!"#S$%T!)

Selker et al., +33- V#> '*!

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1#

C1#1c= 3d2ef'*!

S-!

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23

YZ[\]^_.# VWX

. ?g YZ[\]^_3 Y yZ=1#Xy uv y!A

h44i j5& &V  6kl MNO1#778
9&8m#> no[9pqr%s
:;1# Selker et al. +33- d2-!1[ T&  *.**+. kg- kg¡- \¢] ,.0, Mg m¡- &y!^_&£¤` ¥?1 a¦¥? bfd.§1#!*+ &8cx&8cHe1#¨d CA 

no[<t=789 >0?@:;1#  f] +./ Mg m¡- !

uv CA !A wB1# V1 $%A1#d$%T&# q  * [  *.**, *.*.

T&#x*.*3 *.+. *.+2 *.,- *.,1 *.,3 *.-- *.-. *.-1 *.-3

y'* CA z !"#m !!4 {|}C~ !"#

*CA1#*..* *..- m- m¡- &

F*D0"]\]^_*+ +/*,C -| Tektronix © .!" 1# # - EUR¨dA1# CA "ªgf V

4FG !"h«ii3j1# i3¬k­®¯ῌWinTDR!!4 gH= CA 
YZ[\

]^_3RI1#

, 
,+

CA 

Or et al., +332  j1#i3=°=bN La l±1 La !/²N L    

6kl.# , W+ TDR JUKK

mn e³LaῌL, = !"#l±1#
# ^_& DW ´µ {|} ¶·1#{|} ic8# : *., *.. *.0 *.2 kg kg¡+ '1
4 CA z !"#1#CA 

 / cm,  0 cm, .( - cm no[ o¸ #> - EUF

<t=789 (  >0LM N

4F p$ !"#1 a¦ 1( +/ cm, O *., cm, ( *.**2 cm ?@ *.,#ῌ+ zcm  :;1 CA wB1# ,,    _\P1?@Q0!F:

TDR  TD

R1 _\P!F:RM:;

ef ºqp$»MN(

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C

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¹"Nº»?@uAP TDR bDcd¼dgch

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around TDR probes.

5q)Khῌ(,H5tt ;! K 8<

 van Genuchten +32* 8930῎

T00h =8 H >8+' ??3 80 x*y ,13 8@%0?A ῎ $BCD 83F

qEh)

E

G3.?A H  h "H.IJ K 8LM38<8<Kq)KsqE+ῌ,+*+*qE+ῌ,m,

K 

q E)

῍5 h 6 5 h῏)*
῎5x, 5y,ῐ,ῐa, n, m 89c qE  m Ks H.IJ?%3. #$NO"

43.

++6ahnm

q*qr
qs*qr

m)+*

+
n

ῑ

,

῏

Ks

῏ $ ῍ $!P Laplace 3: qs 8qr 38

3Q LM'" ῐ $"$3QR 80"#S,"-T12U#$

V$"%WX0'?%3. ?Y&'Z- qE+ '0 KqKs & %4/3Q?3 38-Nm~'1]c qs)+ qr)* a)+.* +**+- n)+.***+ 5¡

 =8 8< ($"6 ??3 ,*¢ 8(   2* Nob-

orio, ,**+ 7£¤"~("H.IJ[J?"NR \) 8



,.,¥

ῌ*]9^_"`a HYDRUS-,D-., 3Q (  ¦§ 0J Ks  8

SÀimůnek et al., +330  TDR bDcd¨©ª« 362efgchijkῒ,  - l$bDcd-Nm CA bDcd,"-,.,¥-., !

8" +~"(,.1 "«' *.*-. ¬

0JT2efgch+$k3Q 0- nobDcd"0J­®¯° HYDRUS-,DbDcdpqcdrst ,octluv

30J± ² ¯°A Constant pressure

bDcd+' w +* cm, x +* cm "#Sy!

0J ³%´i'nopqcdrst

z" - l$-Nm CA bDcd%{|= +

Dcd}"8- l$b

CA bDcd}"8~-%{|'[J ./ f&,o3+ct8 * µ²bDcdª« 3 7¶"0J­®¯°" Knight et al. +331 
9!:" bDcdA¶%·";-R??3 HYDRUS-,D 2efgch¶<i'l %CD '0¶"-T

iO2 ^_30J1]892 #¸#%CD[J ' Noº» K +*. ¼ j,**0k

8flux 



Topp fJ" GHI? TDR #J !" #$Vl(_V`3a6b" cd#(%&'()*[g <(% 2" Selker et al.
j+33-k V- 
-+ - ef>¡J" +,a )V Topp f{|[$b[^?%_V¢a(% cd CA [" Selker etCA +, -. TDR /0123"al. g <(%_23"+ Topp

456$7 q8*.**," *.*3" *.,-" *.--" *..- m- m9- f£aJ" ¤¥?0EF TDR ¦§S.#6:%/0;῍- #<= >?@ABCD¨ 3a%

EFGHI? TDR J" KLMN23K-,OPQRSTUV<=W2:X La J"©῍+ J" - ef6$7 CA {|

CA 



q YZ[#\]^?%_V`3a6b" c45" ª« jCk ¬?%­®¯°" ±²) d - ef[g hi<L%(?(k Lj;J<

" CA [ - efg

CA {|a -³) J" ±²´]" - efµ¶«#" q Vl(.mn L a J\]^?%hiVo3aj;῍-kq Vp^?%" KLMNKOPQRSqPQrstuv wVo3a V" _ wJ"
KOPQRSxyz La {|#J}~?2
;῍. J" - ef CA  TDR /0
23{|

-.)



5

% ?6" ;῍. #J" ῌ f e 
I?% - ef
#" Tq rGH+J ῌ f+#=% Topp f R, J *.322 

#l^" - efJ Topp f# V3aCA #6([" l5

3F]Jo3a%[" q Vl(.mn{|
a%)  V\]^?b" 5 jq8*..-kJ +,.1 #_V" -.V< ) J" - ef+,a $b^" T "

ῌ.

)



5

q r

Fig. .

Volumetric water content q for relative dielectric constant.

ῌ+- ef6$7 CA +, 45jDWk"±²" ª«¬?%­®¯°) q YZ#=%)  YZ[(Table +

Relative dielectric constant of distilled water (DW), air, and ethanol having di#erent
concentration measured by --wire probe
and CA probe.
Relative dielectric constant9+ῌFig. -CA +,
·¸¹ TDR /0

56$75¬?%TDR waveforms for water and sands having various water contents using CA probe.

C (kg kg )--wire probe

CA probe

DW
*4,
*4.
*40
*42
+4*
Air

2+4*
014/04.+40
,340
+34*
+4/

-04.
-*4/
,/42
+340
+.4/
+*4*
-4+

῏² : ³´µN(A- ¡¶D·¸¹ TDR  ºM_ »L¼K

 - 

 2+.* 

9kZ($ OPQ=de fghkZ(@ Noborio, ,**+  !" #$rst*-RS*u3 yOPQ$%&'(ῌ)*+,!"

 D(]^_N`aV-34 #$ yy4#-./01- 23

CA  5 3

6&78

9:;<13=>?1-
HYDRUS-,D;<

+,6&789:;< ῌ+ @ABTopp   Uῌ. ./01-

3 - @AB CA 

n3

CA  |K_K}&~

CD(@E-FGHIJKLMN@ABFGOPQ *.+ cm OPQ$0C

RSTUῌ/ (5V *@ghTijZ[

RSUWX- cm Y\ ]^_N`aV-bcT5V - 



kZ

r de

f

3x *.,*.- cm z{./01-

RT 3T CA  ( FGHIJKLMNde fghT(T+ 334 +,13

ij 3klGmRST5

n3 OPQ o

%&'*R῍T 3./0(de fghpq(@rst*u3 OPQ

1-



s῎v

de

78A¢*£(wQxyz{ -  |K_K}

fghTij

3kl *.0 cm&~./01-
WZ ¡CD(G rW*RRST¤¥T¦§¨©ªs34 CAW*RRST78«¬­ ®¯°n

./01-CA  FGHIJKLMNRS ῌῌ/Fig. /- @AB CA ±X a FGHIJKLMN@AB b FGOPQ(a) Relative electric potential and (b) relative electric ﬁeld intensity around --wireprobe and CA probe.

*º"{ » +*. ¼ (,**0)10-- 

+ 

      e+  e, 





 ! "#$  eT %&'(RotheT*+we+a,(+-w)e,a.+ῌa a

῍



4'5  Nissen et al. (+332)/"0123 

 6789:;<=3>'?@
/ CA <=3>_*..+, Xq Fw

NOPrst'RIm  mm  u w
 + dI<=3>vwxyq Topp &zw {Jyq mJK" |4}3~ A/I ῎ &b01234/@"   <=3>Vz{/@

et al., +33*)

w

EF


8

l" F'  '5 EF-.  Topp '  CA <=3> - T&<=3>/8
A?@ 
CA <=3>'?@

 !

" AAB CD EF8

NOP /l" m'R8 Bm' ῎GHIJ CA <=3>K"/ ?

&/ em I" B / ῌ &!" @LM'5

 ANOP 

%&



EF ῍ & e+ /?@ A em, e, /NOP eac QRSF  %&eT*+wema ,(+-w)eaca .+ῌa

ῌ + e a- +-w e a῎-ῌa
ac
῍w T
῏
w

q*..-+*-0῎

ῌ + e a- +-w e a῎,ῌa
ac
῍w T
῏
w

-/./+*-.

B ῑ+ ?@ - T&<=3>K"ῌ + e a- +-w e a῎+ῌa-/.-+*-,
ac
῍w T
῏
w

,,.3,+*-,/ A6U em, NOP
eac / ,.1 EF TVWXY01234 w

 a WZ/[\8 ]ῑ0eT  em `a' ]b ^ A_eT*em cTTV

WXY'8defTJgI 
WZ8 w*..+, aiQῐ &  ῏

eT*em cThNOP

'l8 A&/
]ῑ. #T'g8

AjkXl I m  n8 NOPopI Topp & # m CA <=3>'?@rs/D8 #'5  m

+.*1  defT eT*(*..+, em+.*1,*./22 eac+.*1)+ῌ+.*1

ῐ
῏

 w

CA <=3>/I?8$
Topp &

\8 (]ῑ.) 

8 ?L"

Topp & { %&8 (R,**.3+2) mm  /

!<=3> w  a /@" CA <=3>'

/

m

V/¡ TDR <=3>IJ Topp &¢('5 m/KI 
ῐ & #  Topp &
8£ ῏¤¥/¦_§I'I EF8¨ )*z©

/ªq«*L 'RI¢({yI B8*IJ +¬;<=3>'?
@

8~o& ῎ &/

#

m

ῐ &, ' V<=3> 8&
 ῏
ῌ0

A em L"8  eT

CA <=3>'?@Fig. 0Composite relative dielectric constant eTmeasured by CA probe for relative dielectric constant of media em.

/ m'R EF m8-./E/"  ,­*L?@ 8~o&/®q¯'R ¢({5 °±P>²3³´µ0¶·¸/8¹RIEF#$ : )*+,#- F@AB% MNO TDR /012345



  ῐ ῕ ῔ ῑ ! "#$%&'( )*+,#-%.(/012345

11

Kelly, S.F., Selker, J.S. and Green, J.L. (+33/) : Using

67%8(9:;< =>short soil moisture probe with high-bandwidth.ῌ ῎ ῍ ῏time domain reﬂectometry measurements. Soil
Sci. Soc. Am. J., /3 : 31ῌ+*,.

?@ABCDE!FGH 7IJ%

Knight, J.H., Ferré, P.A., Rudolph, D.L. and Kach-

KL(  @ABMNO TDR % PCA 

anoski, R.G. (+331) : A numerical analysis of theQ %RS( T%UV /012345%WXL

e#ects of coatings and gaps upon relative dielec-L"  Ytric permittivity measurement with time domain

CZ[\ U< Topp \]+7%^_> ` a )b3cd2345

reﬂectometry. Water Resour. Res., -- : +.//ῌ+.0*.

L eEfgh$i-jk%UVL( )Malicki, M.A., Plagge, R., Renger, M. and Walczak, R.

 Fl CA )m7%:;(>T. (+33,) : Application of time-domain reﬂecto-

CA n T )  oKg

metry (TDR) soil moisture miniprobe for the de-

TDR = - p\Lq r'sC

termination of unsaturated soil water character-tuvwx9gyI z


~<

)

 Topp \{> ({( |}`Fln9 Topp \]+7"{ P ῌ.Q> C h$i- jkgv  rU(

istics from undisturbed soil cores, Irri. Sci., +- :0/ῌ1,.
Miyamoto, T., Kobayashi, R., Annaka, T. and Chiku-" CA shi (,**+) : Applicability of multiple length TDR

 ~< )  - p\EL

probes measure water distributions in an andisoln{ Pῌ+Q> L  )under di#erent tillage systems in Japan. Soil &71- Fl 515r')b l L P ῌ/Q>

Tillage Res., 0* : 3+ῌ33.
Nissen, H.H., Moldrup, P. and Henriksen, K. (+332) :CA n  ) % r!F

High-resolution time domain reﬂectometry coilG1-+ ) L)*+,#-%

probe for measuring soil water content. Soil Sci.

( - p\ ~< ) %r

Soc. Am. J., 0, : +,*-ῌ+,++.

 ) Lzg( rL1-%A

Noborio, K. (,**+) : Measurement of soil water con-$L( K ( P ῌ0Q>  CA

tent and electrical conductivity by time domain ~<+ )

reﬂectometry : a review. Computers and elec-U(  1- xgL  { g>1-6%n  ) {tronics in agriculture, -+ : ,+-ῌ,-1.

¡ <Or, D., Fisher, B., Hubscher, R. A. and Wraith, J. (+332) :g¢£)*+,#-L Topp \%¤z+¢¥,#

WinTDR 32 V...*, Users guide. Utah States Uni-

- Fl + ) ¦r'sC %§(Lversity.

¨ H U< Topp \]+7 K IJ(
>  i-©r%" h$m7%<L

Roth, K., Schulin, R., Flühler, H. and Attinger, W.
(+33*) : Calibration of time domain reﬂectometry

F

for water content measurement using a compos-l CA %L(mª !

ite dielectric approach. Water Resour. Res., ,0 :

 " Topp \ F]«gr'sC  ¬
L

>

ΐ

ῒ

H­ =l ®5A#¯3d!°w±
M.A. Mojid "²,,01ῌ,,1-.
Selker, J.S., Gra#, L. and Steenhuis, T. (+33-) : Non-³´gµ¶·%¸¹º> »( ¼¶%<>invasive time domain reﬂectometry soil moisture measurement probe. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., /1 :3-.ῌ3-0.
Àimůnek,SJ., Àejna,S
M. and van Genuchten, M. Th.
(+330) : The HYDRUS-,D software package forsimulating water ﬂow and solute transport in
two-dimensional variably saturated media. U.S.

 ;  +*.  ,**0

12Salinity Laboratory.

van Genuchten, M. Th. (+32*) : A closed-form equa-Topp, G.C., Davis, J.L. and Annan, A.P. (+32*) : Elec-tion for predicting the hydraulic conductivity oftromagnetic determination of soil water content :unsaturated soils. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., .. : 23,ῌ

measurements in coaxial transmission lines.

232.

Water Resour. Res., +0 : /1.ῌ/2,.

῍

ῌ   TDR  CA   !"#$%&' ()*+%,-$%&' ./0123456789 CA
:;6<=> CA ? @)AB#CDE34F*+GH3IFJKL5=
M NO0PQ3RS 712RT*UVWXYZ5:[\] ^=

7_`=R

T*Uῌ2abUcd3eZ5 Topp fgh;?ijk=> j T*lhmnC Topp f
ophqr

7_`=RT*UjsAB#Ctuvwx=yz 8 {3eZ5 Toppfgh;J|}~ Z5yJsj30k=> : ,**0  ,  ,1   : ,**0  0  -* ῐ
J. Jpn. Soc. Soil Phys.
ῐ῎῍ῑῒ῏
No. +*., p. +-ῌ,0 ῍,**0῎

Microbial Transformation of Nitrogen in Cattle Slurryas Applied to an Andisol Grassland
Chitoshi MIZOTA*, Yoko YAMAGUCHI** and Kosuke NOBORIO****, ** Faculty of Agriculture, Iwate University, Ueda -ῌ+2ῌ2, Morioka, Iwate *,*ῌ2//**** School of Agriculture, Meiji University, Kawaski, Kanagawa, Japan
Abstract
Organic nitrogen compounds in the animal waste once applied to soil is followed by chemical
modiﬁcation. Microbial transformation of nitrogen in cattle slurry applied to an Andisol grassland with no-cattle grazing over ,* years in northeastern Japan was analyzed with a focus on
temporal changes in chemical composition (ammonium- and nitrate-nitrogen) and the naturalabundance of nitrogen isotopes, d +/N. Most urea and related metabolites, which were majororganic constituents of nitrogen in cattle excreta, were hydrolyzed into ammonium-nitrogen
during storage in an underground closed tank. Nitriﬁcation of the ammonium-nitrogen waslargely delayed under lower soil temperature conditions with average air temperature (.ῌ+.ῌ),
whereas rapid nitriﬁcation occurred under higher air temperature conditions (+1ῌ,1ῌ). A coupledprocess of denitriﬁcation followed by nitriﬁcation was evidenced by a rapid decrease in the nitratecontent with a simultaneous increase in the d +/N values of the residual. Such a process was
facilitated by a combination of the high water retention property of the Andisol with an ample
supply of organic matter.
Key words : cattle slurry, volatilization of NH-, nitriﬁcation, denitriﬁcation, fractionation of nitrogen isotopes

Dairy farming is one of the most important
agricultural industries in the intra-mountainous regions of northeastern Japan, where
Andisol predominates. Cattles have been fed
under housing in a narrow space. In order tosave costly labor, cattle slurry originating fromcattle housing has periodically applied to farmland. Our current concern is the fate of theslurry nitrogen, in particular with respect tothe nitrate contamination of local groundwater.
After the application onto the soil surface,urea, organic metabolites and sometimes ammonium, the major constituents of the slurry,
are subjected to volatilization, mineralization,
nitriﬁcation, denitriﬁcation and ﬁnally leaching, depending on the prevailing soil condi-

tions (Stevenson, +32, ; Aulakh et al., +33,).
Natural variation of d +/N values (and d +2O ofnitrate) in combination with changes in theconcentration of mineral nitrogen would provide direct evidence of a relevant process insoil where diverse microorganisms are involved (Robinson and Conroy, +333). A numberof studies have been conducted on searching
the origin of nitrate in groundwater using
stable isotope technology (Fukada et al., ,**-,and herein references). Nevertheless, detailed
information on the process of microbial transformation that proceeds the formation of nitrate in soil is very limited. Such data are a
prerequisite for elucidating the origin of nitrate in local groundwater.
In humid and cool-to-temperate climatic con-

* Corresponding author : Phone-Fax : *+3ῌ0,+ῌ0+,0, e-mail : mizota@iwate-u.ac.jp῏  +*.

14

ditions, as common in northeastern Japan, thesoil surface is subjected to seasonal ﬂuctuations of temperature and moisture. Such ﬂuctuations would control the fate of slurry nitrogen applied to soil. The objective of the present study is to elucidate the detailed mechanisms involved in the microbial transformation of nitrogen in an Andisol ﬁeld appliedwith cattle slurry, using stable nitrogen isotopic signatures as a tracer.
+.

Materials and Methods+. + Experimental design
A trial ﬁeld (-3.2ῌN, +.+*0ῌE, from -+*ῌ-,*m above sea level), which had a history ofcontinuous application of cattle slurry (exact
rate of nitrogen application could not be estimated due to many variable factors) since+312, was selected from an Andisol located on
the eastern foot slope of Mt. Iwate, Iwate,
northeastern Japan. An outline of the ﬁeld isdocumented by Noborio et al. (,**,). The experimental ﬁeld is a managed pasture. There
has been no cattle-grazing for years. From late
December to late March the soil and vegetation
are covered by deep snow, up to *./ m deep.

Fig. +,**0

The soils are derived from weathering of cumulative pyroclastic deposits ejected from Mt.
Iwate during the Holocene, and are characterized by the predominance of allophone, imogolite, and aluminum-humus complex.
To separate the coarse fecal fragments, amixture of urine and dung deposited on the
housing ﬂoor is mechanically squeezed before
transporting to storage. The resulting cattle
slurry (separated ﬂuid) collected in the underground tank, together with the relatively fresh
urine in the drain channel was periodicallysampled and analyzed for both concentrationand d +/N values of ammonium- and total nitrogen.
Six sampling wells (diameter : 1* mm) were
installed by a hand-auger down to the level ofgroundwater. The geometric layout of thesampling wells is shown in Fig. +. Water ﬂows
constantly from a spring located at the lower
end of the trial ﬁeld. Water samples from thegroundwater and from the spring were periodically collected and analyzed. To obtain areference of natural nitrate derived from precipitation, a sample of spring water virtually
free of human-inﬂuence was collected on Au-

Location map. Numbers indicate the location of sampling wells.

῍ῌ : Microbial Transformation of Nitrogen in Cattle Slurry as Applied to an Andisol Grassland 15

gust -*, ,**. at the crater rim of Mt. Iwate(elevation : +,12* m above the sea-level), andsimilarly analyzed.
Reed canary grass (Phalaris arundinacea) was
the predominant vegetation in the trial ﬁeld.
The matured above-ground parts (leaves together with stem) are cut down three times a
year, in June, August and October, and airdried in situ to make hay. In early spring andafter harvesting each hay, cattle slurry fromthe underground storage tank is applied by amanure sprayer, as is common in elsewhere(Sommer and Hutchings, ,**+). Since excretion, the cattle slurry has been stored in theunderground tanks for at least two months
before application. Samples of the slurry to beanalyzed for chemical characterization werecollected just before application.
Soil temperature and moisture that control
the fate of nitrogen applied to the soil ﬂu-

Fig. ,

ctuated during the year, since the trial ﬁeld
was located at the mid-latitude of the Northern
Hemisphere where slightly cool to temperate
climates alternated. The mean daily ﬂuctuation of air temperature and precipitation during the relevant period of the ﬁeld trial in ,**.
is shown in Fig. ,. Soil temperature conditions
were categorized into two major groups : alower soil temperature period in April and October/November, and a higher temperature
period in June and August (Fig. ,).
+. , Sampling surface soils after applying
cattle slurry
Seven replicates of soil sampling in the ﬁeld
were made after April ,**., covering middle tolower portions of the slope in the trial ﬁeld (Fig.
+). After removing the decaying plant residues,
surface soil samples including the dense root
mat of reed canary grass from * to / cm deep
were collected around the trial wells in the ﬁeld

Daily precipitation and average air temperature in relation to the application of cattle slurry and subsequent sampling of surface soil.

16



(Fig. +). Temporal stagnation of the surface
water was not observed during soil sampling.
The samples were brought back to a laboratory
within + h of sampling, and passed through a ,mm sieve to eliminate grass root by gentle
crushing and sieving.
+. - Sampling grain corn and fresh urine
Grain corn, which is imported from theUnited States of America, constitutes major
feed for housing cattle in Japan. A composite
sample of dry grain corn imported in +323 wascrush and subjected to d +/N analysis. Freshurine samples were collected by syringe fromhousing ﬂoor approximately within two hours
after excrement and placed in a cool container
and then quickly brought to laboratory forchemical analysis.
+. . Analysis of feed, soil, water, and slurry samples
The analytical procedures for determinationand preparation for d +/N determination formineral nitrogen (ammonium and nitrate) weredeveloped in the present study. Fifty g of the
fresh soil sample was shaken with +,/ ml of , M
KCl solution for -* min at +/ and stood overnight at /. Clear supernatant solution was
obtained by centrifugation (.,*** rpm, -* min).
The concentration of ammonium- and nitratenitrogen in the soil extract was determined bysemi-micro Kjeldahl distillation apparatus.
Both ammonium- and nitrate-nitrogen were
ﬁnally converted into ammonium-tetraphenylborate derivates, and the +/N/ +.N ratios were
determined using a continuous-ﬂow mass spectrometer (DELTA plus, Thermoquest Ltd.).
The nitrogen isotopic composition was shownby common d +/N notation, as per mil variation
relative to atmospheric dinitrogen (d +/N*).
Analytical precision during the overall process
is better than*.,. The analytical accuracy
during the isolation of sample nitrogen andsubsequent mass spectrometry was repeatedly
monitored using reagent grade NH.Cl and
KNO-.
Soil moisture was determined gravimetrically by drying in an oven with constant tem-+*.

,**0

perature (+*/) and expressed as a percentageof the maximum water holding capacity (ῌ).
Water samples were passed through a membrane ﬁlter (Toyo Roshi Co., Ltd.) with a pore
diameter of *., mm and concentrated to about/* ml on an electric heater. Concentration andpreparation of borate derivatives for d +/N determinations of the nitrate- and ammoniumnitrogen was carried out in the same way as
described above for soil extracts.
Total nitrogen in samples of cattle slurry andrelatively fresh urine was converted into ammonium-nitrogen with a procedure of Kjeldahl
digestion. Ammonium-nitrogen in the extract,
together with that in cattle slurry and urine
samples was determined by the same procedure as described above.
,.

Results and Discussion

Concentration and d +/N values of nitrogen in cattle slurry
Two fresh urine samples within two h after
excrement contained 1,0** to 2,.3* mg L+ and
00* to +,,** mg L+ of total and ammoniumnitrogen (Table +), respectively. The analyticalresults indicated that the major form of nitrogen in relatively fresh urine was organic, probably in form of urea (Kreitler, +31/).
The concentration of ammonium-nitrogen in
analyzed samples of the cattle slurry ranged
from -,+.* to 1,30* mg L+, whereas that of
total-nitrogen ranged from -,-,* to 1,/** mg L+(Table +). Urea is the major nitrogen constituent in metabolic excreta of higher animals, including cattle. Except for one slurry sample
collected on May ++, ,**., the concentration ofammonium-nitrogen was nearly the same as
total nitrogen, indicating microbial hydrolysis
of urea excreted from cattle occurred during
the storage, as commonly observed in elsewhere (Sommer and Hutchings, ,**+). Cattle
slurry was stored for two months or more
before application and most of the excreted
urea would be hydrolyzed to ammoniumnitrogen, since the slurry used in the present
study was transparent without virtually solid,. +ΐῒ : Microbial Transformation of Nitrogen in Cattle Slurry as Applied to an Andisol Grassland 17

Table +

Concentration and nitrogen isotopic composition of ammonium- and total-nitrogen in samples of cattle slurry and urine

Date of sampling

Concentration
NH.-nitrogen
Total nitrogen

d +/N
NH.-nitrogen
Total nitrogen

October ,2, ,**May ++, ,**.
July +., ,**.
July ,3, ,**.
October +-, ,**.
November ,,, ,**.
January +/, ,**/
February ,, ,**/ῐ
February 2, ,**/
February 2, ,**/ῐ῍῍῍῍ N-mg L῎+ ῍῍῍῍
NDῑ
.52.*
-5+.*
15/**
/5-2*
/500*
.501*
.50**
-5/,*
-5-,*
/530*
/510*
15+0*
051**
+5,**
150**
1530*
0530*
00*
25.3*

῍῍῍῍ ῏ ῍῍῍῍
NDῑ
῍,4.
῍*4,
῍*4+
NDῑ
῍*40
NDῑ
῍+4,
῎*42
NDῑ
ῑ
ND
NDῑ
ῑ
ND
῎+4*
῍+4.
῍+4/
NDῑ
῎+4.
NDῑ
῎,40

ῐ

Relatively fresh urine samples collected from a drain gutter.
Not determined.
pH of the cattle slurry : 3.,ῌ+*.+.
ῑ

constituents. The ammonium-nitrogen content of the slurry samples collected in January,
October, and November exceeded that of totalnitrogen, reﬂecting the analytical errors associated with the heterogeneous nature of theslurry. The low rate of mineralization of urea
into ammonium-nitrogen of a sample collected
on May ++, ,**. was probably resulted from a
relatively lower temperature (from late December to April) during the storage of the cattle
slurry in the underground tank.
The d +/N values of total nitrogen in relatively fresh urine and cattle slurry ﬂuctuatedwithin fairly narrow ranges from ῎,.0 to ῍,..
῏ (Table +). As it is well known, the major partof the current high performance feeds for cattle
housing in the Japanese dairy farming system
is imported grain corn produced in the central
northeast United States. The d +/N values of theanhydrous ammonia and urea, which are major
chemical forms of nitrogen fertilizers in thearea, range from ῎/ to ῍-῏ (Panno et al.,,**+). The d +/N value of a composite grain corn
imported from the U.S.A. in +323 was ῍..3῏.
Incorporation, digestion, and subsequent excretion of urea and related metabolite nitrogenby cows are accompanied by negative nitrogenisotopic fractionation of up to -῏ (Koyama etal., +32/). The observed d +/N values of cattle
slurry were in reasonable ranges in the view of
the isotopic mass balance.
For one slurry sample collected on May ++,,**., there was no discernible di#erence in the
d +/N value between ammonium- and totalnitrogen. It suggests a very limited nitrogenisotopic fractionation associated with the hydrolysis of urea in cattle excreta, as in the casesof NH.῍ production from organic matter decomposition (ammoniﬁcation) (* to /῏) as reviewed by Robinson (,**+).
Reﬂecting the high proportion of ammonium-nitrogen in the cattle slurry, the pH
values were high, ranging from 3.* to 3.0.
Applying the slurry with such high pH values
would be expected to cause marked volatilization. Yang et al. (,**-) observed an emission
loss of up to 0*ῌ of the applied slurry nitrogen
during ﬁve-day periods after application on an
Andisol in southern Kyushu, Japan. Volatilization of NH- into the free atmosphere could be
conﬁrmed by distinct d +/N values of residual
ammonium-nitrogen in soils, as described later.



18

Table ,+*.

,**0

Temporal variation of moisture content of surface soils from the trial ﬁeld
Moisture content relative to the maximum water holding capacity

Date of sampling

,

-

.

April ,-, ,**.
June +/, ,**.
June +2, ,**.
August 0, ,**.
August ++, ,**.
October ,1, ,**.
October -+, ,**.
November /, ,**.

1,
2,
11
23
1,
31
31
23

00
2/
11
31
1/
32
+**
23

031
20
+*20
+*0
+*/
+*,



Sampling site No.
/

0

1

2

῍῍῍῍ ῌ ῍῍῍῍
ND
ND
23
+*,
1.
2+*3
23
23.
+*,
++,
+*0
+*+*+*0

03
20
3,
32
2,
++,
+**
32

ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
+*,
+*0
3+

Not determined.

Soil moisture status during the ﬁeld
trial
Ammonium-nitrogen together with urea
once applied to soil is subjected to volatilization, nitriﬁcation, denitriﬁcation, and leaching,according to the relevant soil conditions.
Table , shows the moisture content of the surface soil during the present ﬁeld trial in ,**..
All the soil samples were characterized byfairly high moisture content in the ﬁeld conditions, as shown by relative values with the
maximum water holding capacity, ranging
from 0- to +*0ῌ (Table ,). Such high water
retention may have been attributed to the presence of allophane, imogolite, and aluminumhumus complex, by which the unique physicalproperty of Andisols is imparted (Maeda et al.,+311). Aulakh et al. (+33,) reviewed the environmental conditions that control the fate ofmineral nitrogen applied to common soils, andemphasized the primary importance of the soil
moisture status, ambient temperature, and concentration of NH. in the soil solution. Depending on the water holding capacity of soils, thecommon optimal status for nitriﬁcation is in arange from 0* to 1/ῌ, under which the nitriﬁcation is retarded, whereas marked denitriﬁcation prevails over the range of 0/ to 1/ῌ. According to the criteria, the soil examined in thepresent study was in an optimal range for,. ,denitriﬁcation, but not for nitriﬁcation.
,. - Temporal changes in the chemical
forms and d +/N values of nitrogen derived from cattle slurry as applied tosoil
Surface application of cattle slurry results ina large kinetic nitrogen isotope fractionationthat is often associated with the microbial
transformation of the chemical species involved in the slurry. The relevant nitrogenisotope fractionation factors are summarized inTable -. Normally a heavy isotope, +/N tends toenrich in a residual phase.
Temporal changes in the chemical forms together with d +/N values of mineral nitrogen
derived from cattle slurry as applied to soils
are shown in Figs. -a, and -b. Fairly highspatial variations could be seen in both concentration and d +/N values of ammonium- andnitrate-nitrogen. It is evident that the chemical
status of the mineral nitrogen in soil as applied
after cattle slurry is strongly a#ected by soil
temperatures. As a whole, the concentration ofammonium-nitrogen in soil at a certain duration after slurry application is higher than thatof nitrate during the trial periods of April(mean air temperature : 3 to +,) and October/
November (mean air temperature : / to +.)when cooler air temperatures prevail. As withmost biological processes, the nitriﬁcation rateΐῒ : Microbial Transformation of Nitrogen in Cattle Slurry as Applied to an Andisol Grassland 19

Table -

Estimates of nitrogen isotope enrichment factors (eN) for major nitrogen cycle processes in soils

Process

Setting

TemperatureeNῐ
Undescribedῑ
῍/ to *

Mineralization of
Microbial transformation
organic nitrogen
under laboratory condition
NH- volatilization

Nitriﬁcation

Denitriﬁcation

Theoretical calculation for,/.+
῍-/equilibrium fractionation
Experimental,/
῍-.
Experimenta : barnyard soils
Undescribed ῍,+40 to ῍,+4*Experimental : decay of agrocybe Undescribed῍.* to ῍-*

Reference

Handley et al. (+333)

Urey (+3.1)
Kirshenbaum et al.(+3.1)
Kreitler (+31/)
Handley et al. (+330)

Pure culture of Nitrosomonas
europaea
Soils : central Illinois
Pure culture of Nitrosomonas
europaea
Pure culture of Nitrosomonas
europaea

Undescribed

῍,04*

Undescribed,2

῍+/
῍-.41῎,4/Feigin et al. (+31.)
Mariotti et al. (+32+),2

῍-- to ῍,/

Yoshida (+322)

Pure culture of Pseudomonas
denitriﬁcans
Soil culture

Undescribed

῍+14-

,*
-*
+*
,*
-*
Diverse῍,34.῎,4.
῍,.40῎*43
῍,/4.
῍,*4/, ῍+34*
῍+/
῍.* to ῍/Submerged soils

Diverseincreases with increasing temperature until an
optimum is reached above which it decreases(Malhi and McGill, +32,).
Soil moisture status is another importantfactor for controlling the transformation ofmineral nitrogen in soils. Optimum moisture
conditions for nitriﬁcation and denitriﬁcation
are known to be around 0*ῌ and more than
2*ῌ, relative to maximum water-holding capacity of soils, respectively (Aulakh et al., +33,).
,. . Chemical and isotopic status of mineral nitrogen in soil under lower temperature conditions (April and October/
November)
The concentration of ammonium-nitrogen insamples collected from sites , and - (2- and +-/mg-N kg῍+ (dry soil)) on six days after slurry
application in April was evidently higher thanthat in samples from sites . and 1 (Fig. -a).

Delwiche and Steyn (+31*)

Delwiche and Steyn (+31*)
Mariotti et al. (+32+)
Mariotti et al. (+32,)

Lehmann et al. (,**-)

Very low concentrations of ammonium-nitrogen in soil from sites . and 1 indicate that theapplication of cattle slurry may not be uniformly applied around the two sample sites.
The d +/N values of ammonium-nitrogen in soil
ranged from ῌ+0.+ to ῌ,+.1ῑ. These values
were clearly higher than those obtained fornitrogen in the cattle slurry (d +/N῏῍*.2 to ῌ,..
ῑ, Table +) and even common organic nitrogenin Japanese arable Andisols (d +/N῏ῌ..1 to ῌ2..
ῑ, Yoneyama, +321). Such an increase in the
d +/N values as observed here is interpreted asindicating a nitrogen isotopic fractionation
associated with the prompt volatilization of
NH-, i.e. selective removal of light +.N relative
to heavy +/N during the application and subsequent deposition of nitrogen onto soil. The
fractionation factors for volatilization of NHobtained under the laboratory conditions are

20

Fig. -+*.

,**0

Temporal changes in the concentration and the d +/ N values of mineral nitrogen soil as
a#ected by application of cattle slurry : a) for April and October/November period underlower air temperature conditions, b) for June and August under higher air temperature
conditions.

reported to be around .* to 0* (Handley et al.,+333). Similarly high d +/N signatures of ammonium-nitrogen in soil, which are resulted fromthe emission of NH-, have been documented forsoil during the microbial decomposition of uricacid deposits derived from seabird’s excreta(Mizutani et al., +32/, +320).
The d +/N signatures of two soil nitrates (sites, and -) collected on six days after slurry application in April showed an identical value of+.1. The apparent nitrogen isotopic fractionations during the nitriﬁcation (nitrogenῑῐ : Microbial Transformation of Nitrogen in Cattle Slurry as Applied to an Andisol Grassland 21

isotopic di#erence between ammonium- andassociated nitrate-nitrogen) observed in thepresent trial ﬁeld was lower than those of previous measurements (-/ to 0*῏, Handley et al.,+333). The sum total of mineral nitrogen decreased to less than +* mg-N kg-dry-soil῍+ inless than two weeks after slurry application(data not shown).
A comparable trend had also been observed
for the status of mineral nitrogen in soil collected in October-November with similarly low soil
temperature regimes (/ to +.῎, Figs. ,, and -a).
The concentration of ammonium-nitrogen insoils was higher, relative to those collected on
the other days. Soil samples collected fromsites ., 0, 1, and 2 one day after slurry application showed very high concentration of ammonium-nitrogen (+,+-* to +,.-* mg kg῍+ (drysoil)), which was one order higher than theother samples. This may be resulted from thelower air temperature (3῎) at the time of
applying cattle slurry and hence limited volatilization of the applied ammonium-nitrogen,or heterogeneous nature of the applied slurry.
It has been well documented that higher air
temperatures promote greater ammonia volatilization (Sommer and Hutchings, ,**+ ; Huijsmans et al., ,**-).
The rate of nitriﬁcation of ammonium-nitrogen applied in October-November underlower air temperature was slow, as seen fromlow content of nitrate-nitrogen, even ten days
after slurry application. The trend was comparable to that of April (Fig. -a). Appreciable
amounts of precipitation (++ mm and .- mm)occurred on ﬁve and ten days after slurry application, respectively. Lower concentrationsof mineral nitrogen as observed for soil samples taken ten days after slurry application
may be due to leaching from the soil system.
Very high concentration of added ammonium-nitrogen in soil as observed for sites ., 0,1, and 2 would suppress subsequent nitriﬁcation (Harada and Kai, +302). The calculated
concentration of the ammonium-nitrogen insoil solution of the soil ranged from /*- mg L῍+for site . soil to /3. mg L῍+ for site 2, which ishigher than those reported as the critical concentration of the inhibitory e#ect for nitriﬁcation, more than ,** mg L῍+ of ammoniumnitrogen (Harada and Kai, +302). A lower rateof nitriﬁcation as observed in October would
be resulted from such an inhibitory e#ect, in
addition to lower ambient temperature.
The d +/N values of ammonium in soil samples after slurry application on OctoberNovember apparently increased from one day
after application (ῌ2.1 to ῌ3.3῏) to ﬁve days
after (ῌ+../ to ῌ,,.2῏) and then ten days after(ῌ,-.0 to ῌ--.,῏), reﬂecting the advance ofnitriﬁcation (Fig. -a). The d +/N values of theassociated nitrate in soil samples ranged from῍+.+ to ῌ-.0῏ on one day, and then decreasedto ῍1.* to ῍/..῏ on ﬁve days after slurry
application. Ten days after slurry application,
the d +/N values of soil nitrate had increased toῌ2.* to ῌ+/..῏. Since there was no discernible
increase in soil nitrate after application of
cattle slurry in October/November, such a nitrogen isotopic trend indicates coupling of nitriﬁcation and subsequent denitriﬁcation insoil. The e#ects of ambient temperature on thenitrogen isotopic fractionation associated withmineralization, nitriﬁcation, and denitriﬁcationof urea and potassium nitrate added to an
Andisol under laboratory conditions will bereported elsewhere.
,. / Chemical and isotopic status of mineral nitrogen in soil under higher temperature conditions (June and August)Relative to April and October-November, theperiod of lower air temperature conditions,chemical processes involving the transformation of mineral nitrogen in soil applied in Junegave unique trends (Fig. -b). Concentration of
nitrate-nitrogen of the soil clearly increased incomparison with the soil obtained in April andOctober-November. There was no precipitation during the ﬁeld trial in June. The marked
trend observed here was that nitriﬁcation insoil from June onwards was accelerated by therise in soil temperatures (average air tempera-

22



ture : +1 to +3). The concentration of ammonium-nitrogen in soil three days after application of cattle slurry ranged from .* to ,1* mg-N
kg+ (dry soil), whereas those of the associatednitrate were from 3* to +1* mg-N kg+ (dry soil).
The concentrations of nitrate in three soil
samples collected from sites -, 0, and 1 werehigher than those of the associated ammonium-nitrogen. The d +/N values of ammoniumnitrogen were high, ranging from +2 to -*.
The observed high d +/N values were resulted
from the marked nitrogen isotopic fractionation associated with the prompt volatilizationof ammonium-nitrogen under higher air temperature at the time of slurry application (airtemperature : ,*), in addition to subsequent
active nitriﬁcation. The d +/N values of nitrateassociated with the ammonium-nitrogen wereclassiﬁed into two major groups, according to
the relevant nitrogen isotopic signatures. The
ﬁrst group is characterized by distinctly lower
isotopic values with negative signature (d +/N
1 to ,) for four sample soils (sites ,, -, .,and /), and the second group by those withhigher, positive values (d +/N0 to 1) for
two other soil samples (sites 0 and 1). Thosedi#erences relate to the relative proportion ofmineral nitrogen in soil samples. The rate ofnitriﬁcation in soil from sites ,, -, . and / wasslower than the other two soils (sites 0 and 1),
probably reﬂecting the micro-scale di#erencein the soil environments.
The concentration of ammonium-nitrogen insoils collected after six days of application on
June decreased relative to that after threedays. The decrease reﬂected the continued
nitriﬁcation. As ammonium-nitrogen content
decreased, the d +/N values increased up to-0, which reﬂected nitrogen isotopic fractionation due to +/N enrichment in the residual
ammonium-nitrogen during the nitriﬁcation.
The d +/N values of the nitrate (d +/N+ to1) increased compared with those collected
after three days of slurry application (d +/N
0.1 to 1), reﬂecting the simultaneous denitriﬁcation of the nitrate formed under high+*.  ,**0

soil moisture conditions (Table ,). The coupledoccurrence of nitriﬁcation and denitriﬁcation
in soil associated with nitrogen fertilization
has been suggested for soils with stagnogleyfeatures in the United Kingdom (Nielsen et al.,+330 ; Abbasi and Adams, +332).
Denitriﬁcationan anaerobic process isstimulated by hypoxia. Denitriﬁcation in theﬁeld is episodic and localized, being restricted
to times when and places where NO- andcarbon are readily available and O, is not (Robinson and Conroy, +333). The soil conditions
under dense rhizome from reed canary grass (acarbon source), and ample supply of nitrate
derived from repeated application of cattle
slurry (nitrate supply), in addition to very highretention of water (oxygen deﬁciency), provide
the conditions for active denitriﬁcation.
Denitriﬁcation of nitrate results in gas formation of dinitrogen together with nitrous
oxide, which escapes from the soil system,
causing marked nitrogen isotopic fractionation.
The nitrogen isotopic fractionation
during denitriﬁcation is reported to be ,2 to-- (Handley and Raven, +33,). The overall
process indicated rapid nitriﬁcation followedby active denitriﬁcation under higher soil temperature regimes as observed in the present
study.
Nearing August, when the average air temperature rose to ,1 (Fig. ,), the comparable
ﬁgure for microbial transformation of slurry
nitrogen in soils was observed (Fig. -b). There
was no precipitation for four days after slurry
application. The concentration of ammoniumnitrogen varied from ++* to -+* mg-N kg+ (drysoil), whereas that of the associated nitrate
ranged from -* to 3* mg-N kg+ (dry soil). The
d +/N values of ammonium-nitrogen were again
high, in a range from ,, to -+. The d +/Nvalues of the associated nitrate showed valuesof + to ++.
Very heavy daily precipitation, amounting
to +*0 mm, occurred just after the ﬁrst soil
sample collection (four days after slurry application) in August. Nitrogen loss may be causedῐ῏ : Microbial Transformation of Nitrogen in Cattle Slurry as Applied to an Andisol Grassland 23

by surface run o# together with percolatingwater. The concentrations of both ammoniumand nitrate-nitrogen in soil ten days afterslurry application were signiﬁcantly low,
showing fairly homogeneous values of ,* to 0*
mg and +** to +1* mg-N kg῍+ (dry soil), respectively, that reﬂected the advanced stage of nitriﬁcation under higher soil temperature conditions. The d +/N values of mineral nitrogenwere in a range from ῌ+* to ῌ,-῎ that tended
to be lower than those four days after theapplication. A somewhat lower d +/N value ofammonium-nitrogen observed for soil sample (ῌ+*.*῎) may be derived from the mineralization of intrinsic organic nitrogen under ahigher temperature condition.
,. 0 Temporal changes in concentration andd +/N values of ammonium- and nitratenitrogen in groundwater
The concentration and d +/N values of miner-

Fig. .

al nitrogen in groundwater samples collectedfrom ﬁve sampling wells and one spring wereperiodically monitored from October to December, ,**. (Fig. .). The ﬁgure contrasts with adistinctly low concentration of nitrate-nitrogen (*.03 mg L῍+) in addition to negative d +/Nvalue (῍2.-῎) for nitrate in one spring at anarea of high elevation (Mt. Iwate) where theonly possible source of nitrate is meteoric in
origin. Major mineral nitrogen in the trial
wells would be derived from local sources, probably from migration of slurry-derived nitrogen.
Nitrate was a major form of mineral nitrogenin the groundwater from the trial wells, whereas two wells (sites . and 0) contained appreciable amounts of ammonium-nitrogen. It is evident that each well has its own chemical together with isotopic characteristics. Well sites, and - and the spring were characterized byTemporal changes in the concentration and the d +/ N values of mineral nitrogen in groundwater samples.



24

an almost constant concentration of nitrateand d +/N values. Two additional samples of thespring water collected on May ++ and June +,,**. showed nearly comparable values (concentration of nitrate-N ; ..0 and ..1 mg L+, d +/N
/.2 and 1.-, respectively). Well sites .
and 0 often contained nitrate-nitrogen characterized by high d +/N values of +. and +0
which were collected on ,2 June. Such highd +/N values were derived from residual nitrate
after denitriﬁcation, as commonly observed foranimal excreta (Wassenaar, +33/). Well 1 wascharacterized by an almost constant concentration of nitrate (.., to ..1 mg L+) and low d +/Nvalues (+.0 to +.1). A comparable d +/Nvalue between residual soil nitrate formed
after certain periods (more than two weeks) of
slurry application and those in the current
groundwater may indicate possible migrationof the local origin of nitrate. For more information on the origin of nitrate in the groundwater, measurement of oxygen isotopic composition (d +2O) of nitrate is required (Silva et al.,,**,). A technical problem would be the isolation of valid nitrate from Andisols where theconcentration of humic substances together
with soluble silica is often high. No successful
protocols are available for the d +2O value measurement of nitrate in such type of soils.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to Dr. H. Doi (Tohoku University), Mr. Y. Konno (Iwate University), andDr. T. Yamanaka (Kyushu University) for providing technical assistance during the measurement of nitrogen isotope composition of thesample materials. Quantitative determinationof ammonium- and nitrate-nitrogen in groundwater was made by Dr. N. Satta (Iwate University). This research was supported in part by
the Grant-in-Aid for Scientiﬁc Research (B) (No.
+/-2*+0*) and (C) (No. +1/2**/*) of the Japan
Society for the Promotion of Science. The trial
ﬁeld was provided and maintained by Mr. M.
Yokota.

+*.

,**0

References
Abbasi, M.K. and Adams, W.A. (+332) : Loss of nitrogen in compacted grassland soil by simultaneous nitriﬁcation and denitriﬁcation. Plant
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Soils. Agronomy no. ,,, American Society ofAgronomy. Madison, WI. +ῌ3.*.
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of isotopic substances. J. Chem. Soc., /0,ῌ/2+.
Wassennar, L.I. (+33/) : Evaluation of the origin
and fate of nitrate in the Abbotsford Aquifer
using the isotopes of +/N and +2O in NO-῍. Appl.
Geochem., +* : -3+ῌ.*/.
Yang, Z., Niimi, H., Kanda, K-I. and Suga, Y. (,**-) :Measurement of ammonia volatilization froma ﬁeld, in upland Japan, spread with cattle
slurry. Environ. Pollu., +,+ : .0-ῌ.01.
Yoneyama, T. (+321) : Natural abundance of +-C, +/N,
+2
O, D and -.S in soils and plant : Variations,
implication and utilization. Jap. J. Soil Sci.
Plant Nutr., /2 : ,/,ῌ,02 (in Japanese).
Yoshida, N. (+323) : +/N depleted N,O as a product ofnitriﬁcation. Nature, --/ : /,2ῌ/,3.

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ῐJ. Jpn. Soc. Soil Phys.
ΐῑῐ῔῕ῒ
No. +*., p. ,1ῌ.* ῍,**0῎Soil Salinity Assessment by Some Destructive and
Non Destructive Methods in Calcareous Soils
AHMED Al-Busaidi*, Tahei YAMAMOTO*, Charles BAKHEIT** and Peter COOKSON**** Arid Land Research Center, Tottori University, +-3* Hamasaka, Tottori 02*ῌ***+, Japan** Department of Mathematics and Statistics, College of Science*** Department of Soil and Water Sciences, College of Agriculture, Sultan Qaboos University,
PO Box -. Al-Khod +,-, Sultanate of Oman
Abstract
Salinity is a major problem limiting plant growth throughout the world. Various methods havebeen used to measure soil salinity. The destructive (standard) method involves soil sampling
followed by laboratory measurement of electrical conductivity (EC) in saturated paste extracts, + :+, and + : / soil and water suspensions. Whereas, a non destructive (Sigma probe) method give a
direct measurement of soil pore water salinity. Various methods for measuring salinity arecommonly correlated in similar soils. The objective of this study was to determine the relationships between salinity readings obtained from standard methods and Sigma probe in calcareous
soils of di#erent texture and salinity. Results from the laboratory methods (saturated paste
extracts, + : +, and + : / soil/water ratios) were generally highly correlated (R,῏*.32). Moreover,present of many salts in the soil were a#ecting linearity of the relationship between saturated
paste extracts and + : / ratio in which the best correlation was found when the EC of saturated
paste extract was less than ,* dS m῎+. Sigma probe was successfully correlated with standard
methods. Its readings were relatively a#ected by soil salts and water content, in which the best
correlation was found between Sigma probe reading and EC measured at saturated paste extracts
values, at low water content with EC less than +* dS m῎+. Many salts (ex. Na῍, Ca,῍, Mg,῍ ῌetc.)
were interfering the correlation equations between methods and as soil water increased more salts
were dissolved and gave weak correlation factor (R,). Using Sigma probe removes the need forsoil sampling prior to salinity measurements and should allow in situ soil salinity measurements
to be taken that could be related to standard methods. Moreover, readings of Sigma probe at low
water content, which is around ﬁeld capacity considered as the best measuring conditions.
However, more researches with gradient increase in soil salinity and water content need to be
done. Finally, soil properties and measuring conditions should be considered before applying any
published method or equation for soil and water salinity evaluation. However, if the equations
found in this study are suitable for certain soils, salinity measurements could be done in shorttime by Sigma probe and related to the standard methods.
Key words : Electrical conductivity, Sigma probe, saturated paste extract, soil/solution ratios+.

Introduction

Plant response is more related to the salt
concentration of the soil solution than to thetotal salt content of the soil, on a weight basis(U.S. Salinity Laboratory Sta#, +3/.). Soil salinity can be assessed from the electrical conductivity (EC) measurements of soil water suspensions representative of the soil solution.
Methods are based on the principle that the

῏

28



amount of electrical current transmitted by asalt solution under standardized conditions
will increase as the salt concentration of thesolution is increased (Rowell, +33.).
Salinity of the soil solution can also be estimated from the EC obtained from water extract of the soil. In general, the higher thewater content, the easier it will be to obtain theextract, but the less representative the extracted solution will be the solution to whichplant roots are exposed in the soil. Conductivity of the saturation extract is recommended asa general method for appraising soil salinity inrelation to plant growth. The advantage ofthis method is that the saturation percentage isdirectly related to the ﬁeld water content
range. In addition, it is an easy and accurate
method. Salinity estimates based on conductivity of + : + and + : / extracts are convenient
for rapid determinations, particularly if theamount of soil sample is limited, or when repeated samplings is to be made in the same soil
(Page et al., +32,). Methods of saturation extract and soil/water ratios are destructive,money and time consuming especially if alarge area should be sampled. Thus, there is agreat demand for a new method.
Many sensors (ex. EC probe, four electrode,
Sigma probe and TDR) were invented for easy
and in situ measurements of soil salinity. The
latest invention was time domain reﬂectometer(TDR) meter. It is a famous method for watercontent and salinity determinations based on
detecting reﬂected signals as a function oftime. This method required long time forcalibrations and the initial costs are relatively
high compared to other methods (Hamed et al.,,**-). The other method that was used in thisstudy is Sigma probe. It is a non-destructive
method for a direct measurement of soil salinity. It is an easy method for measuring soil
salinity based on measuring accurately thepermittivity and conductivity of the bulk soil.
Its measures the soil pore water EC independently from soil water content and degree ofcontact between probe electrodes and the soil+*.

,**0(Hamed et al., ,**- and Hilhorst, ,***). For
mapping large areas, evaluating lands for agricultural purposes and monitoring changes insoil salinity over time, Sigma probe is fasterand involves less labor than standard methods.
It is a new device in the ﬁeld of science and its
advantages and limitations need to be evaluated and clariﬁed to the other users. Doing
this study could also help in evaluating theaccuracy of Sigma probe when it was used in
di#erent soil water content in calcareous soils
compared with other standard methods.
Standard methods are well-known and good
indicators for soil salinity but their limitations
directed researchers to look for other methods
and search for correlations between them. The
objective of this study was to determine relationships between methods for measuring soil
salinity, speciﬁcally results from Sigma probe
verse standard methods.
,.

Materials and Methods,. + Sigma probe
Sigma probe (type EC+, Delta T Devices,
Cambridge, U.K) is a portable device (weightῌ
/** g) measures pore water conductivity independently from both soil moisture content andthe degree of contact between the probe andsoil (Fig. +). The measurement is made possible
by use of an integrated circuit to measure accurately the permittivity and conductivity of thebulk soil. This circuit is running inside Sigmaprobe and producing a continuous electricalﬁeld (voltage) around the sensor with frequency of -* MHz (input signals). The ions (salts)
around the electrical ﬁeld will carry the energy(polarization) and the energy lost will be considered as the ions concentrations in the porewater (i.e. reduction in the output signals will
be converted to salinity unit, dS m+). The
conductivity of the pore water (sp) is calculatedusing the following equation :spep*sbῌebe*

ῌWhere ep Permittivity of pore water ; sb
Conductivity of bulk soil ; ebPermittivity ofῒῑ : Soil Salinity Assessment by Some Destructive and Non Destructive Methods in Calcareous Soils 29

bulk soil ; and e*῍Permittivity of dry soil materials.
Sigma probe program eliminates the need forsoil speciﬁc calibration and makes the readings
insensitive to the degree of contact between
probe and soil. The probe tip is speciallydesigned both for ease of insertion into the soil
and to enable local measurements of permittivity and conductivity. It is the combinationof these features, which enables the pore water
conductivity to be calculated reliably from thedielectric readings. The software provided
with Sigma probe processes the dielectric datafrom the probe, calculates and displays thepore water conductivity and temperature.
Readings usually stored electronically in a
Psion Workabout sheet (Fig. +). This sheet contains readings of EC, temperature, date, time,sample number, ﬁle name and note space.
Measurements usually performed by turningon the device, write the date, time and ﬁlename. Inserting the probe in the soil and press
enter for EC measurement. The device takes +*seconds to read and store one reading (UserFig. +

manual for Sigma probe, ,***, Hamed et al.,,**- and Hilhorst, ,***).
This sensor was updated to W.E.T. sensor
that working under same principles but it canmeasure soil water content in addition to thesoil salinity and temperature (WET sensor,,**.).
,. , Soil sampling and preparations
Thirty soil samples from surface (*ῌ+* cm)and subsurface (+*ῌ,* cm) were obtained from+/ cultivated lands of Oman (,,῎-*῏N /-῎-*῏E).
Soils were selected from agricultural areas (ex.
date palm, alfalfa, barley, tomato, ῌetc) that
had a wide range of salinity and textures. All
samples were air dried at ,/ῐ and passed
through a ,-mm sieve (Tan, +33/). All soil
samples were analyzed following chart in Fig.
,. Soil initial conditions (pH, cation exchange
capacity, calcium carbonate, gypsum and clay
percentage) were measured by following soil
analysis methods (Tan, +33/ and Page et al.,+32,). Moreover, the end results were presented in Table +.

Sigma probe (type EC+, Delta T Devices, Cambridge, U.K).



30

,. - Soil salinity determination
For each soil sample, salinity was determined from electrical conductivity (EC) measurements in soil/water suspensions at threesoil : water ratios, and measurements of soil
pore water using a Sigma probe. Electricalconductivity (EC) of soil/water suspensions
was measured by using distilled water in soil
saturated paste extract, + : +, and + : / ratios.
After mixing, soil saturated pastes were left tostand for over night (,*) before ﬁltration
under vacuum. Soil/water suspensions wereshaken automatically for + hour and thenﬁltered through *.++ mm Whatman ﬁlter paper(Page et al., +32,). EC extracts (ECsat. paste) andsuspensions (EC+ : +, + : /) were measured by using a calibrated conductivity meter (Jenway,
Conductivity Meter .*,*, UK) connected to an
EC electrode. Soil pore water salinity wasmeasured using Sigma probe. It was inserted
into either saturated soils, soils at ,/ῌ or +/ῌ
water content (volume/mass basis) preparedby mixing soil and water (bulk density+., gcm-) to reach required percentage. In thepaper, these water contents are referred tohigh, medium and low, respectively. EC read-Fig. ,+*.  ,**0

ings by Sigma probe were stored electronicallyand the average of three readings per sample
was taken.
Soluble ions (Na, Ca, and Mg,) and soil
adsorption ratio (SAR) were measured in saturated paste extract by using PYE UNICAM SP
3 Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (Tan,+33/ and Page et al., +32,).
Results of soil salinity from di#erent methods of assessment were compared by regression analysis, using statistical software (Statistical Package for Social Science, version 0,
Coakes and Lyndall, +331).
-.

Results and Discussion-. + Standard methods
Table + details the properties of the soil studied. It includes estimates of soil parametersthat interfere with soil salinity measurements.
The collection of soils exhibited a range of physical and chemical properties, and the range ofsalinities covered that are found in agriculturally cultivated soils. Moreover, water holding capacity of the studied soils were estimatedby the study done by Israelsen and Hansen(+30,) in which he estimated ﬁeld capacity (FC)General ﬂowchart of soil analysis.

ῒῑ : Soil Salinity Assessment by Some Destructive and Non Destructive Methods in Calcareous Soils 31

Table +

Physical and chemical properties of the soil
Soil properties

Soil
No.
A+
A,
B+
B,
C+
C,
D+
D,
E+
E,
F+
F,
G+
G,
H+
H,
I+
I,
G+
G,
K+
K,
L+
L,
M+
M,
N+
N,
O+
O,

Sampling
EC῍si῎ atdepth
EC῍+ : +῎
EC῍+ : /῎ EC῍sat. paste῎ Low WC
ῐ+
ῐ+
ῐ+
(cm)
(dS m ) (dS m ) (dS m ) (dS mῐ+)
*ῌ+*
+*ῌ,*
*ῌ+*
+*ῌ,*
*ῌ+*
+*ῌ,*
*ῌ+*
+*ῌ,*
*ῌ+*
+*ῌ,*
*ῌ+*
+*ῌ,*
*ῌ+*
+*ῌ,*
*ῌ+*
+*ῌ,*
*ῌ+*
+*ῌ,*
*ῌ+*
+*ῌ,*
*ῌ+*
+*ῌ,*
*ῌ+*
+*ῌ,*
*ῌ+*
+*ῌ,*
*ῌ+*
+*ῌ,*
*ῌ+*
+*ῌ,*

*4,3
*41+
*4-.
*4.2
+4*3
*431
+4-*
*41/
+4*,
+4,*
+14.
+4,+
,4+/
,4-*
.4/+
,4*/
14,1
-4*1
24.0
-4*0
/4,1
-4*2
+34/
1403
24/+
+.4+
+/40
,.42
,/43
-.42

*4+/
*4,/
*4+0
*4,*
*4-0
*4-*4-1
*4,/
*4-/
*4-.
-433
*4-3
*4/3
*40+
+4*1
*4/*
+4-*410+422*41+4+3*41.
.4.+410
+430
-4+*
-4-2
04+.
14.0
34.,

*401
+4/,
*411
*43*
+412
+4/+
.4,/
+422
+42,
,41.
-+4.
+40-41
.4*+
+,40
04*3
++4,
/4,1
+1404//
+-40
1410
/-4.
,-42
,*41
-+40
-34+
/340
0341
2042

+4+,
+41+
*432
+4,2
,4+,
+43
-4+1
+430
+43+
,4/+
ῌ
,4++
-4+*
,430
+*4.4*+
04-,
-40+
+-4,
.4/34-+
/4/1
ῌ
+-4*
+34.
ῌ
ῌ
ῌ
ῌ
ῌ

and permanent welting point (PWP) of eachsoil depending on soil texture of the soil. Generally the studied soils were calcareous, alkaline and mostly light in texture. Present of all
this variations in soils properties can give good
reﬂections for di#erent possibilities, interactions and ﬁnally more reliable equations andconclusions for di#erent soils, in which theconcluded equation can be generalized and applied to many di#erent soils.
Table , presents linear regression equations

Na
Ca
Mg
SAR (mmol῍῏῎ Lῐ+) (mmol῍῏῎ Lῐ+) (mmol῍῏῎ Lῐ+)
,400
.410
.4,+
,400
/4-/4-24.,
1433
1433
34/+/4*1433
24*/+.4+140
24/.
+/42
+*42
,-41
+142
+.40
+-42
-,4/
14-+
,-41
,+4/
+342
.+40
-*4+
/,4+

/4..
+*43
/4..
/4..
+*43
+*43
,14,
+04+04,+41+-*4.
+04,+41
-,40
104+
-,40
214*
-24*
+-*4.
/.4.
214*
/.4.
-.142
104+
+.+4+1-43
,+14.
-.142
-.142
/0/4,

04,/
04,/
+4,/
04,/
04,/
04,/
+,4/
04,/
04,/
04,/
0242
04,/
04,/
04,/
+,4/
+,4/
-+4+,4/
+242
+,4/
,/4*
+,4/
0,4/
/*4*
,/4*
/041/4*/04+**4*
0242

,4*2
.4+1
,4*2
,4*2
,4*2
,4*2
24-,4*2,4*2.4+1
2-4,4*2
24-.4+1
,/4*
+041
,341
+,4/
.+41
+,4/
./42
+242
+0041
+0041
./42
1/4*
+0041
2-4+0041+0041

relating di#erent standard methods of soil salinity determination, with R, values (i.e. theproportion of variance accounted for by theequation). For example, from the relationshipbetween EC῍+ : /῎ and EC῍sat. paste῎, it is necessary
to multiply by 3.1 to convert EC῍+ : /῎ toEC῍sat. paste῎ data. This ﬁnding was also clariﬁed by Fig. -, in which it can be seen that approximately a linear relationship was connecting those two di#erent methods. It is shownthat higher correlation was occurred when



32

+*.  ,**0

Table +(Continue)

Soil properties
a

b

Soil
No.

pH
(+ : ,./)

CaCO(g g+)

CaSO.
(cmolc kg+)CEC(cmolc kg+)

Clay
(ῌ)

Texture

FC
(ῌ)

A+
A,
B+
B,
C+
C,
D+
D,
E+
E,
F+
F,
G+
G,
H+
H,
I+
I,
G+
G,
K+
K,
L+
L,
M+
M,
N+
N,
O+
O,

34*,
241+
34,/
2410
242/
2402
2410
34*0
243.
24324+*
2420
2401
242+
2403
2413
24-24.*
24-+2430
24-24.*
24,24*1
24-24,,
24+3
24.,
24*24-*

*4-.
*4.3
*40*
*4-*4.,
*4.,
*4.1
*4/*
*4.*4.*4-/
*4.+
*4.,
*4-3
*4-2
*4/2
*4-3
*4.,
*4.,
*4.1
*4..
*4.3
*4.,
*4,2
*4.0
*4-0
*4.,
*4.+
*4.*
*4-/

+40*
+40*
+40*
+40*
+40*
+40*
+40*
+40*
+40*
+40*
+40*
+40*
+40*
+40*
+40*
+40*
/4**
+40*
+40*
+40*
+40*
+40*
+40*
+40*
+40*
+40*
+40*
+40*
040*
+*4*

.4-/
+*43
+430
241*
+*43
+04,4+1
,4+1
+*43
.4-/
+*43
+04+04,+41
,4-3
,4-3
+04,+41+*43+0404/,
241*
.4-/
.4-/
241*
+*43
04/,
04/,
04/,
241*

04*34++
0411+04,+41
,.43
.4*,
+*4,
+142
+*4*
-*4*
-/4.
+34.
+343
/4+.4,,*4+
,*4,
3410
+,42
04*/411
.4*+
.4*.
++42
+.4*
342/
++41
+*4*
+/43

LS
LS
S
SL
L
L
LS
LS
SL
SL
CL
CL
L
L
S
S
L
L
SL
SL
LS
LS
LS
LS
SL
SL
SL
SL
SL
SL

+*ῌ+2
+*ῌ+2
0ῌ+,
+*ῌ+2
+2ῌ,0
+2ῌ,0
+*ῌ+2
+*ῌ+2
+*ῌ+2
+*ῌ+2
,-ῌ-+
,-ῌ-+
+2ῌ,0
+2ῌ,0
0ῌ+,
0ῌ+,
+2ῌ,0
+2ῌ,0
+*ῌ+2
+*ῌ+2
+*ῌ+2
+*ῌ+2
+*ῌ+2
+*ῌ+2
+*ῌ+2
+*ῌ+2
+*ῌ+2
+*ῌ+2
+*ῌ+2
+*ῌ+2

c

PWP
(ῌ)

.ῌ 2
.ῌ 2
,ῌ 0
.ῌ 2
2ῌ+,
2ῌ+,
.ῌ 2
.ῌ 2
.ῌ 2
.ῌ 2
++ῌ+/
++ῌ+/
2ῌ+,
2ῌ+,
,ῌ 0
,ῌ 0
2ῌ+,
2ῌ+,
.ῌ 2
.ῌ 2
.ῌ 2
.ῌ 2
.ῌ 2
.ῌ 2
.ῌ 2
.ῌ 2
.ῌ 2
.ῌ 2
.ῌ 2
.ῌ 2

a
Where L, S, LS, SL and CL are loam, sand, loamy sand, sandy loam and clay loam textures, respectively, b FCField Capacity with ,ῌ, c PWPPermanent Wilting Point with +ῌ.

ECsat. paste values were less than ,* dS m+ andafter that this relationship was a#ected byhigh values of soil salinity. Moreover, when
the EC values were less than +* dS m+, therelationship was much stronger and the regression line was approximately connecting all
points of EC values (Fig. -). Generally equations for this conversion have been developedby many researchers using other soils (Landon,+32., Hernandez Bastida et al., ,**., Rhoades etal., +323 and Elprince, +32/), and it was concluded that no one equation is suitable for all
soil types. For other conversions other thansaturated paste extract and + : / ratio were nothighly studied by di#erent researches because
the most needed method for soil evaluation issaturated paste extract but the most easy wayof getting the extract is by + : / ratio. In thisstudy all methods were highly correlated(Table ,) with R, values of *.32 and conversion

ΐῒ : Soil Salinity Assessment by Some Destructive and Non Destructive Methods in Calcareous Soils 33

Table ,

Fig. -

Relationships between salinity standard methods

Method comparison

Relationship

R,

EC(+ : /), EC(sat. paste)
EC(+ : +), EC(sat. paste)
EC(+ : /), EC(+ : +)EC῍sat. paste῎ῑ3.1** EC῍+ : /῎EC῍sat. paste῎ῑ,./** EC῍+ : +῎
EC῍+ : +῎ῑ-.2** EC῍+ : /῎

*.32
*.32
*.32

Relationship between electrical conductivity (EC) measured by saturated past extract
and + : / ratio.

factors within acceptable level as comparedwith published equations.
Landon (+32.) reported that the EC in saturated paste extract is higher by factors of 0..
and ,., for EC῍+ : /῎ and EC῍+ : +῎ respectively. He
established the following equations :EC῍satῌ paste῎ῑ0..*EC῍+ : /῎ῌEC῍satῌ paste῎ῑ,.,*EC῍+ : +῎῍

In other side, Elprince (+32/) correlated EC῍+ : -῎values with saturated paste and converted
values to (+ : /) basis, and found approximately
same relationship as Landon (+32.) but withlower values of R,. The reported equation was
as follows :EC῍satῌ paste῎ῑ-.2+*EC῍+ : -῎῍R,ῑ*.11῎῎When EC῍+ : /῎ values exceed 0 dS mῐ+, Elpince(+32/) predicted that soil solutions would beover-saturated with respect to gypsum, and heconcluded that this was the main reason forfactor converting EC in the saturated paste
extract to that in extracts of higher dilution to
exceed the value 0...
Various causes for the di#erences in conver-sion factors between soils have been suggested.
One of the causes may be the presence of carbonates and gypsum in soil, especially when inhigh amounts. Di#erences in soil salinity canalso cause deviations in the conversion factor.
Hernandez Bastida et al. (,**.) reported thatthe measurement of EC in saturation extract
was a good saline content indicator only when
the salt content was low but less suitable in thepresence of high Clῐ or Na῏ concentrations.
The behavior of the ions in the + : + soil solution extract was the same. Increasing of EC
above + S mῐ+ result in a great dispersion of thepoints and a corresponding loss in linearity
between the di#erent parameters. The best
correlation model between the EC value measured saturation and + : + extracts was a thirdorder polynomial, although good results wereobtained with linear and quadratic models(Hernandez Bastida et al., ,**.).
Any dilution above ﬁeld conditions introduces errors in the interpretation of soil salinity data. The higher the dilution, the greater
will be the deviation between ionic ratios in thesample and the soil solution under ﬁeld conditions. These errors are associated with mineraldissolution, ion hydrolysis, and changes in exchangeable cation ratios. The ionic strength ofsoil solution in soils containing gypsum deviate more than other soils because the calcium
and sulfate concentrations remain nearly constant with sample dilution, while the concentrations of other ions decrease with dilution(Tanji, +33*). As a consequence the uniformityof relationships between EC in extracts andthe conditions of the soil solution for di#erent
soils is lost with increasing sample dilution.
Rhoades et al. (+323) reported that the water



34

content of a saturate paste is about twice theﬁeld capacity for most soils. However, exceptions included sandy soils, organic soils, andsoils containing gypsum. After taking into
account these exceptions, the advantage of thesaturated paste technique was that the procedure enabled the development of crop tolerance tables that could be interpreted across soil
texture classes (U.S. Salinity Laboratory Sta#,+3/.). In general, there were no great variationin the behavior of the di#erent ions between
the + : + and soil saturation extract, except incase of Ca,, which showed the greatest propensity to form ionic pairs, which might inﬂuence EC because of the lower ionic activity ofthe elements in the extract (Hernandez Bastida
et al., ,**.).
All reviewers in this ﬁnding are relaying
di#erences in EC equations are due to di#erent
association with mineral dissolution, ion hydrolysis, and changes in exchangeable cation
ratios. Some of them are relaying on NaCl,
Ca, or gypsum in playing a main rule in these
di#erences. Soil salinity usually has a strong
relationship with many salts in the soil. From
Fig. ., it is clear that studied soils had a good
relationship with Na, Ca, and Mg, (R,*.33), so it is expected that any variations intheir concentration will a#ect soil salinity andpredicted equation. Soil Na, which usuallyconnected with Cl was participating by 1/ῌ
in evaluating soil salinity measured by saturat-

Fig. .

+*.

,**0

ed paste extract methods and followed by Ca,and Mg, using standardized data by standard
regression coe$cient. This high percent ofNa can play one of the main rules in controlling soil salinity and di#erent conversion
factors. In addition, the studied soils are calcareous soils and present of calcium ions andother salts (Table +) could be the major reasonsfor interfering di#erences in equations between di#erent methods. From other side,
more water added to each soil as a dilution
factor (ex. from + : + to + : / ratio) could give
more chance for other salts to be dissolved anda#ect some physical (surface area) or chemical(pH) reactions. Whereas having a common
criterion between soils (calcareous) could help
in directing EC reactions and giving good relationships between methods (Table ,).
-. , Evaluation of Sigma probe
In the present study, the actual values ofSigma probe readings (ECsi) at di#erent soil
water content and standard methods were correlated (Table -). It can be seen that the highest correlation (R,) among all equations waswith Sigma probe readings at low water content and saturated paste extract. However all
standers methods were giving the best correlation factors (*.2/, *.3*, *.3+) with low water content of Sigma probe readings. It seems thatmedium and high water contents were nothighly preferable because under these conditions more water will di#use salts away fromInﬂuence of soil soluble ions on soil salinity (ECsat. paste) values.

ῑῐ : Soil Salinity Assessment by Some Destructive and Non Destructive Methods in Calcareous Soils 35

Table -

Relationships between salinity standard methods and Sigmaprobe readings

Method comparison

RelationshipR,

S.I. (low WC), EC (sat. paste)
S.I. (low WC), EC (+ : /)S.I. (low WC), EC (+ : +)S.I. (medium WC), EC (sat. paste)
S.I. (medium WC), EC (+ : /)S.I. (medium WC), EC (+ : +)S.I. (high WC), EC (sat. paste)
S.I. (high WC), EC (+ : /)S.I. (high WC), EC (+ : +)ECῌsat. paste῍῏+.-** ECῌsi῍ECῌ+ : /῍῏*.++* ECῌsi῍
EC+ : +῏*./,* ECῌsi῍ECῌsat. paste)῏+..1* ECῌsi῍ECῌ+ : /῍῏*.+,* ECῌsi῍ECῌ+ : +῍῏*./1* ECῌsi῍ECῌsat. paste῍῏*.,.* ECῌsi῍ECῌ+ : /῍῏*.*,* ECῌsi῍ECῌ+ : +῍῏*.+** ECῌsi῍

*43+
*43*
*42/
*421
*420
*42+
*4.+
*4./
*4.*

WC is soil water content, where high, medium and low refer to saturated
soils, ,/ῌ and +/ῌ (v/m basis), respectively ; S.I. refers to Sigma probe.

the probe and give inaccurate readings.
Whereas low water content is like a ﬁeld capacity conditions which give more actual values
and representing salts concentration in the soil
solution extract. Sigma probe readings at low
water content are around ﬁeld capacity rang
for most soils in Table + in which it can berecommended to use Sigma probe when thewater content in the ﬁeld is around ﬁeld capacity.
Fig. / shows the best ﬁtting line between
measured values of Sigma probe and saturated
paste extracts. Generally it isn’t a linear relationship. It was started with linear relationship when soil salinity was low but as soil
salinity getting higher many salts were interfering this relationship and the correlation line
smoothly went down. However, the most reliable readings of Sigma probe were approximately up to +* dS m῎+ of saturated paste extractand it was di$cult for the probe to detectsalinity when the salinity of saturated paste
extract exceed ,* dS m῎+. In addition, the maximum value of the EC that can be measured by
Sigma probe is up to ,* dS m῎+ (Table +) andabove that, it is di$cult for the probe to detectsoil salinity. This limitation was due to manufacturing design and calibration line, which ismainly controlled by the manufacturers. In
addition, present of many salts could a#ect

Fig. /

Relationship between electrical conductivity (EC) measured by saturated past extract
and Sigma probe at low water content.

calibration model and the reading will be out ofdesigned range (*ῌ,* dS m῎+).
For other concern of this study, the readingsof Sigma probe were compared to the standard
saturated paste extract (ECῌsat. paste῍) method,with the aim of generating a set of calibration
formulas to convert a reading from the probe
to that of the recommended standard method.
The latter method is time consuming andhence expensive to perform. Most calibration
studies use pre-selected values of the independent variable (Sche#é, +31-). However, in thisstudy, both independent and dependent variables are subject to error. The aim was to compare the methods and investigate their relationship under the conditions in which theprobe will normally be used. But because of
the accuracy with which the values of36ECsat. paste were measured, it is reasonable toassume that they have negligible variability.
A logarithmic transformation of both pairs ofdata was found to achieve reasonably linear
predictor-response relationships. The standard
linear regression techniques were used to ﬁt
the transformed data, the results of which werethen converted to the original units of measurement. Table . gives the calibration models
ﬁnally adopted, together with the corresponding 3/ῑ conﬁdence interval equations. All
three equations with high (sat.), medium (,/ῑ)
and low (+/ῑ) water content were found highly
signiﬁcant, and the coe$cient of determinations (R,) is *.31, *.30 and *.33, respectively. The
residual analysis of all three models indicated agood ﬁt. Only the regression line of the readings for the low soil water content had a zerointercept. In addition, the coe$cient of variations of all three values of the slope of theregression lines were less than *.*/, indicatingthat this particular parameter was accurately
determined for each model. The conﬁdence
interval equations should therefore provide
good approximations of the exact intervals.
Equations in Table . can be applied to the ﬁeld

Table .

 +*.  ,**0

conditions by justifying soil water content indicated by ﬁeld capacity condition or water
holding capacity of the soil. In this study, thebest readings of Sigma probe were found to be
at low water content (+/ῑ) in which it is nearor around the range of the ﬁeld capacity of
most studied soils (Table +).
Hamed et al. (,**-) reported that Sigmaprobe gives fairly good results in the sandy soil
but as the clay content increases, the correlation factor between Sigma probe readings andsoil water salinity decreases, especially at low
soil water salinity. In average, Sigma probe
measured soil water salinity was within ,*ῑ ofthe correct value for all soil types when soil
water salinity + dS m+. This study was also
conﬁrming this ﬁnding and that can bee seenin equations between Sigma probe readings
and soil texture (Table /). It is clear that coarse
texture, which contains clay particlesῐ+*ῑ,
give better correlation (R,*./*) than ﬁne soils(R,*.,,). Usually clay soils contain more elements than sandy soils in which they area#ecting or deviating EC values. From Table/, it can be seen also that ECsi with low watercontent gave a good relationship (R,*.31)

Calibration equations and the corresponding 3/ῌ conﬁdence region equations of the probereadings for the three soil water contents

Soil water content

EquationHigh (sat.)Ln «x*.-.+.-2 lny

Medium (,/ῑ)

Ln «x*.-,+../ lny

Low (+/ῑ)xy+.+2«

3/ῑ Conﬁdence interval equations(R,)ῌln y+.,0 ῎
῍
῏
+-.0

*.31

ῌln y+.+3+ ῎
῍
῏
+-.0

*.30

(y+.+,, y+.,.)

*.33

,

+/,

ln «
x*.-3

,

+/,

ln «
x*..-

Where «
x and y are EC (saturated paste extract) and EC (Sigma probe) values, respectively.

Table /

Inﬂuence of soil texture and ions on soil salinity measured by Sigma probe(low water content)

Soil factor

RelationshipR,

Fine soils (Clay+*ῑ)
Coarse soils (Clayῐ+*ῑ)Ions

ECsi*.+- Clay (ῑ)0.*.
ECsi+.-2 Clay (ῑ)+..,ECsi+.+,*.+, Na*.,* Ca,*.*2 Mg,

*4,,
*4/*
*431

ῒῑ : Soil Salinity Assessment by Some Destructive and Non Destructive Methods in Calcareous Soils 37

with soil ions (Na῎, Ca,῎ and Mg,῎) which meanthat Sigma probe is like any meter that can bea#ected by salt concentration in the soil.
To assess the appropriateness of each model,
some values of ECῌsi῍ were used to obtain thecorresponding ECῌsat. paste῍ values by the formulas in Table .. Table 0 shows the estimatedvalues of ECῌsat. paste῍ together with their 3/ῌ
conﬁdence intervals. While lower readings ofECῌsi῍ appeared to give good estimates ofECῌsat. paste῍, high values of ECῌsi῍ gave unacceptably high estimates when high and medium
soil water contents formulas were used. Judging by the conﬁdence widths of the estimates,
the power function obtained from the low soil
water content readings gave the best results,
while medium soil water based formula,having the widest conﬁdence widths had theworst results. For instance, for ECῌsi῍ῐ+*.*, we
get the estimate of ECῌsat. paste῍ as +1.* (++.-, ,/.0),,*.. (+,.3, -,.-) and +/.+ (+-.+, +1./) using theequations for high, medium and low soil watercontents, respectively. It is clear that the conﬁdence interval width is least for the last estimate, indication that it is also the best estimateof the three. Auerswald et al. (,**+) found thatelectrical conductivity of the soil depend
highly on water content, when it was low, EC

Table 0changed little but when water content wasaround ﬁeld capacity the changes becomelarger. There is little di#erence among thethree models for small values of ECῌsi῍. To illustrate this we estimated ECῌsat. paste῍ for ECῌsi῍ῐ,.*, and obtained +.2/ (+.,., ,.11), +.33 (+.,1, -.+*),
and ,.,0 (,.+1, ,.-1), respectively. The last model
still had the smallest conﬁdence interval widthof *.,* compared to +./- and +.2- for the models
from high and medium soil water contents,
respectively.
The soil liquid and solid fractions both contribute to the total soil EC. The contribution of
the solid fraction depends on the number of theexchangeable ions adsorbed to the surfaces ofclay and organic matter (Nadler and Frenkel,+32*). This contribution tend to depend on thewater content (Rhoades et al., +323) because areduction in water content results in increased
Coulomb interactions, due to attractions between free ions and the solid particles. Polarization, dispersion, and the arrangement ofwater molecules close to the clay surface(Cremers et al., +300) have inﬂuence on the ECof the solids. The combined e#ects of theseinteractions make the contribution of the solid
fraction to EC complex (Amente et al., ,***).
Bottraud and Rhoades (+32/) reported that

Applications of the calibration equations for selected values of Sigma probe readings(Nῌ,- soils)

Sigma probereading (dS m῏+)

Soil water content

Estimate ofEC (sat. paste)
value (dS m῏+)

3/ῌ Conﬁdence
intervalConﬁdence width,4*High (sat.)
Medium (,/ῌ)
Low (+/ῌ)High (sat.)
Medium (,/ῌ)
Low (+/ῌ)High (sat.)
Medium (,/ῌ)
Low (+/ῌ)High (sat.)
Medium (,/ῌ)
Low (+/ῌ)

+42/
+433
,4,0
04//
14.2
0402
+14*
,*4.
+/4+
,341
-041
,.4.

ῌ+4,., ,411῍ῌ+4,1, -4+*῍
ῌ,4+1, ,4-1῍
ῌ.4.*, 341/῍
ῌ.42*, ++41῍
ῌ04*., 14.*῍ῌ++4-, ,/40῍ῌ+,43, -,4-῍
ῌ+-4+, +14/῍ῌ+34., ./4.῍ῌ,,42, /243῍ῌ,*40, ,34*῍+4/+42*4,*
/4-/
043*
+4-0
+.4+34.
.4.*
,04*
-04+
24.*

/4*

+*4*

+/4*

38



volumetric water content, soil water EC, apparent EC of the solid phase and transmission
coe$cient have high relation to the soil EC. It
is possible that some other expressions or parameters would be better than those describedabove, either in general or for speciﬁc situations and uses. In all cases, the prediction
value for each calculation depends on prediction technique, calculation model and EC measurement methods (Rhoades et al., +33*). Since
this study tries to generalize a common idea or
equation so generally all those opinions andexpectation are applicable. Adding more water
to the soil will help in dissolving more salt andcomplicating soil reaction, which leads ﬁnallyto a weak correlation coe$cient (R,). Whileless water content keep the soil simple, easy tocontrol and produce a good relationship between methods (Table -). In addition to thatinteractions between measured values andchoosing the appropriate model helped a lot in
ﬁnalizing each equation (Tables . & 0). If thisstudy was done in one kind of soil, the variations between parameters will be small andlead to better understanding of soil system,measured values and predicted equations, but
the ﬁnal ﬁndings can not be applied or
generalized to di#erent soils. In this study,
di#erent soils were used so di#erent parameters were a#ected measured values and the
expected or ﬁnal equation could be applicablefor many soils.
Hamed et al. (,**-) concluded that Sigmaprobe was relatively in expensive, easy tohandle and can be used for di#erent soil types
without calibration. Variations between soils,
methods and meters can lead to di#erent equations and models. If those variables can be
speciﬁed, many parameters that interfering
plant growth can be predicted. Each soil salinity method has its own limitation that can besolved by other methods. Sigma probe andstandard methods are still in use until today
and those equations that were predicted in thisstudy can help in correlating many methods
with each other. Sigma probe is an easy device+*.

,**0

for pore water salinity measurements but it
was seen that this device was relatively a#ected by soil water content. In addition, the accuracy of measured value was also a#ected bysoil salinity in which the best range was foundto be between *ῌ+* dS m+ of EC saturated
paste extract and maximum values was up to,* dS m+. Generally, each EC meter has its
own advantages and limitations but soil is acomplex system and deciding the right meteror equation for each soil or di#erent soils need
many e#orts and researches. Finally, generalizing a certain equation in any ﬁeld need
many conﬁrmations by many scientists andresearchers and those information’s found in
this study could help in progressing scienceand be useful for many users.
..

Conclusion

The measurement of electrical conductivity
in mixtures of soil and water is a convenientmethod for assessing soil salinity. However,diluting soils with increasing amounts of water
not only reduces the electrical conductivity of
the resulting suspensions but also changes theconversion factor required when soil salinity
has been determined using di#erent soil towater ratios. For calcareous soils from Oman,
the relationships between ECsat. paste, EC+ : +and EC+ : / were statistically reliable, with R,values equal to *.32. Moreover, the presence ofsoluble calcium and other salts in the soils,
probably contributed to the high factors required for converting between ECsat. paste andEC+ : + or EC+ : /, i.e. ,./ and 3.1 respectively,
compared to the literature values of ,., and 0...
The use of Sigma probe to estimate soil porewater salinity was rapid, requiring only about+* seconds from probe insertion into the soil totaking a reading. Results from Sigma probe
were signiﬁcantly linearly related to the other
EC methods under study (soil saturated paste
extract, + : +, and + : / soil/water ratios), moreclosely associated when data were transformed
to a power function. The use of power functions to relate Sigma probe readings toῑῐ : Soil Salinity Assessment by Some Destructive and Non Destructive Methods in Calcareous Soils 39

EC῍sat. paste῎ values at soil water contents varying
from +/ῌ to saturation resulted in R, values
exceeding *.30. Sigma probe readings fromsoils low in water content had the highest correlation with EC῍sat. paste῎ values. The calibration
equation obtained from these readings had theleast conﬁdence widths compared to the ones
from either saturated soils or at moisture contents of ,/ῌ.
It is concluded that the most reliable readings of Sigma probe were obtained when theEC῍sat. paste῎ value was less than +* dS m῏+, corresponding to low and moderate salinity. Sigmaprobe readings from increasingly saline soils
provided progressively less reliable estimatesof EC῍sat. paste῎ values. Moreover, Sigma probereadings gave the best correlations with othermethods when soil water content was at lower
value (+/ῌ), which is near or around ﬁeld capacity condition. Further experiences with theprobe need to be examined, especially withhighly saline soils and gradual increment ofsoil water content to determine the yield response of di#erent crops to salinity at prescribed soil pore water salinity, as measured
using Sigma probe. Moreover, relationships
between studied and published methods (destructive and non destructive) were highly dependent on soil properties and measuring conditions in which those speciﬁcations should beconsidered before applying any of thosemethods or correlated equations.
References
Amente, G., Baker, J.M. and Reece, C.F. (,***) : Estimation of soil electrical conductivity frombulk soil electrical conductivity in sandy soils.
Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 0. : +3-+ῌ+3-3.
Auerswald, K., Simon, S. and Stanjek, H. (,**+) :Inﬂuence of soil properties on electrical conductivity under humid water regimes. Soil Sci.,+00 : -2,ῌ-3*.
Bottraud, J.C. and Rhoades, J.D. (+32/) : Referencing water content e#ects on soil electrical conductivity ῌ salinity calibrations. Soil Sci. Soc.
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Coakes, S. J. and Lyndall, G.S. (+331) : Statistical
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John Wiley and Sons, New York.
Cremers, A., Loon, J.V. and Laudelout, H. (+300) :Geometry e#ects for speciﬁc electrical conductance in clays soils. Proc. +.th Nat. Conf.
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Elprince, A.M. (+32/) : Model for the soil solution
composition of an oasis. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J.,.3 : ++,+ῌ++,2.
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Am. J., .. : +,+0ῌ+,,+.
Page, A.L., Miller, R.H. and Keeney, D.R. (+32,) :Methods of soil analysis, chemical and microbiological properties. Ed. ,. Madison, Wisconsin, USA.
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Rhoades, J.D., Shouse, P. J., Alves, W. J., Manteghi,
N.A. and Lesch, S.M. (+33*) : Determining soil
salinity from electrical conductivity using
di#erent models and estimates. Soil Sci. Soc.
Am. J., /. : .0ῌ/..
Rowell, D.L. (+33.) : Soil science, methods and applications. Salinity and sodicity. Longman,
London, p. ,22.
Sche#é, H. (+31-) : A statistical theory of calibration. The Annals of Statistics, + : +ῌ-1.
Tan, H.K. (+33/) : Soil sampling, preparation andanalysis. Marcel Dekker, New York.
Tanji, K.K. (+33*) : Agriculture salinity assessmentand management. Sampling, monitoring andmeasurements. American society of civil engineers, New York, pp. ,*-ῌ,*..
User manual for Sigma probe (,***) : Type EC+.

/3 9x » +*. ¼ T,**0U

40

Delta-T Devices Ltd. Burwell, UK.
U.S. Salinity Laboratory Sta# (+3/.) : Diagnosis
and improvement of saline and alkali soils.
USDA Hand Book. 0*. U.S. Gov. Print. O$ce,
 

Washington, DC.
WET sensor (,**.) : Delta-T Devices Ltd, Burwell,UK.

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
J. Jpn. Soc. Soil Phys.
?S
No. +*., p. .+ .3 ,**0 
 *ῌ **ῌ

*ῌ

***

E#ects of No-tillage Practice on Nitrate Leaching in Sugar Cane Fields
in Sub-tropic Area
Kei ASADA*, Akira HOSHIKAWA**, Makoto KATO* and Taku NISHIMURA**** Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology** JIRCAS Okinawa Subtropical Station*** Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, University of Tokyo
Abstract
No-tillage cropping (NT) is considered as a better onsite counter measure to reduce runo# andsoil loss than the soil conservation techniques in sub-tropic area in Japan. In this paper chemicaland physical soil analysis and ﬁeld survey have been conducted to clarify e#ects of NT on
retention and leaching of soil nutrients at sugarcane ﬁeld.
Sugar cane ﬁelds under conventional tillage (CT) and the NT were the studied sites in Ishigaki,
Japan. Shimajiri mahji soil, having clay content of more than /*῍, covers the study site.

Anobservation ditch of +** cm in width and 1* cm deep was prepared at the boundary of the CT andNT ﬁelds.

Soil samples for chemical and physical analysis were taken and PVC cores containing

ion exchange resins to trap leaching ions were inserted at both side wall of the ditch. Also,
observation of sugar cane root distribution was conducted.

After the survey, the observation

ditch was ﬁlled up by the original soil.
The CT had shallow and sparse root distribution while the NT showed denser and deeper root
distribution. It corresponded to higher saturated hydraulic conductivity of the NT soil. At thesame time the NT showed lower dry bulk density and penetration resistance at the layer of +/ῌ,/cm where the NT had more roots than the CT.

The NT had greater nutrient ﬂux at *ῌ,* cm deep

layer, however it rapidly decreased along the depth and reached the similar rate to the CT at .*cm deep layer.

Much of the nutrients in the NT could be soaked up by sugar cane roots.

Development of roots may reduce the negative e#ects of the NT that may enhance leaching of
nutrients by bio-macro pores.
Key word : No-tillage, Conventional tillage, Nutrient leaching, Simajiri mahji+    345, !6789:,-;<=>6?@AB
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L]=K

-dLF!efJ-g !-I h N\
RAJ-I!

892ab5-c ,,*** mmyG$% £¡¤!¥d¢:

AJAi-KQ !-6 dThierfelder et al.,b5¥ e ¦§x¨£4¤DI G 0* cm,**/e dN\fj  8 kEL.Yῑ-AJl

©q"§¡-' J

HC dª :2ab5c bc !DJ&AiKQ b/.ῌ ¥:5 : ,.ῌ 6 : ,,ῌe D «?ª¦. 4c dDao, +33- ; Dick et al., +323 ; Sugahara et al.,j§a¨5῎2©a¨50ª¬¦. ¨a¨5&,**+ ; Tebrügge and Düring, +333e 7 mY¢~31¦. d­«® +33-e DI ¯°±Dghi dGish et al., +332e jjkn.

ª²ῌ-|- !¬o ­῏-[H-lno dEdwards et al., +33* ; Tebrügge andN\®-¯ Düring, +333 ; Trojan and Linden, +332e -Q@$p

,, 

& ABB Aipq g^B+,-$%9³

I!FG"  "dN\fj

89r


..+ a DI$%´ / ῎§[N\° d±Q CTe ´ - ῎§dN\° d±Q NTe+q-m !D 89pq KQB+,)% CT & NT µ¶²°D  +321 " +331

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vRAJ-I! wxUV.V-gqr yG
PmQ@$AB

Q&sz!t{J-|}  dDevitt and Smith, ,**, ; Dick et al.,+323 ; Edwards et al., +33* ; Jones et al., +33/ ;Tebrügge and Düring, +333e

UVPQ

N\fj +331 "
CT D  ,**,  2 µ·¶¸5a2·4DG ,/cm 7D¸aN\=¹ º¹=^_Z»>_ º 3 µ·¶¸©4·34NE>
 G ,* cm ©q=9N\
=R 5

-G»% º +, µ´ª§&©4·¯° : ""¼±²³´)IJ+.%uv

 +/ cm 



43

 

_ /* cmG/* cm <=-  )5   +/* cm .rs?1%* <db{ 
NT  ,**,

'tu + +* cm vqw]

2 ! " # $% & 

3 ! ()

* +,#- . <

x ;yB'1L wWz{$%|i
}



n

RSsmt3L]^_`aRS'~-  NT  /0 1213

SqT a

4 *% 5 [L +33* ; Wu et al., +330 $12 RS . g !"#$%

67&'()* NPK8+2ῌ+*ῌ+.

%&'9% :&+.;

,**,



++

<~ ,/* ml *m,**-. ! +/ ,- , .

 A]

/&<=>=01?

+ +-* kg ha@+, +/* kg ha@+H* +)B8'?

 A&' CT  +/cm 203BAC NT 45

 `aAY]^_~ + mol L@+ k_itI pH 1 ~ [wTGH,- 
,**,]^_`aP. ,/* ml  pH H,O ?  EC  + : /
GH





+ mol L@+ h6st +** mL P. 0?

! . ,- + ./&?1%*$%]^_H*)B

+, ! CT-NT DEF+6 +** cmG7

 /** cmG 1* cm 8HIJ9

!K



1 01* NC-ANALYZER 67
E

Z^ NC-2*AUTO ¡¢^£ ?Mk:;<=-  AA +/ῌ,/ cm, -/ῌ./¡ki(%./ῌ// cm  - >3L?@A)B 4% +¤¥tb~HTGcm,

3MC8'N O A - >P.+ *ῌ+* cm

3L67A)B 43MC8'N OH *'GHg( 61U?)¦DEQR% + *ῌ0* cm O / cm F §¨dT?T*QGH

cm- ©jXN

S>TIJ
4



KUL011V67?MNO$%

WXYZ  [L+33* ; Pampolino et al.,,*** ; Qian and Schoenau, ,**, ; P+33- ; Wu et al.,+330 Q\]^_`aRSTN%]_cdefV USb KUL01+GH Oªi Ks «TGH

3MC<+*/  ¬ +¬¡*GH¬¡`F*o0­¢®4 - !£¯¤R%,**.

Wg 1.2 cm,  , cm h6+°#¤8H

Reynolds and Elrick +33+ qT°#ªi)jX Y]^_ Rohm & Haas Z k_li®4  GH ±²?³´µ)¥m] IR+,*B nop]^_`aRS Rohm & Haas]£¯¤R Nishimura et al., ,**- ¦%Z k_lm] IRA.+* qr +[\`aRSsmt]^]^_l¶§ g ,* cm ³´µl CT, NT < ,*`a·+¨8H

8HIuvB%w-£¯¤RGH

cm, .* cm, /* cm F ++**3MC8'



>?@A¸$%

nx1 *y B_ +/ cm z,J' RSsm

³GH$%tU S`a$%*,b{

3L +** cm- ©jX 3MC8'Nz,c'|dC1 *e} 1LR©?5qT¬¡` 0­¢F*oªi

Ssmty~ w f=Ks ®4 

smtghi / 3L 2 9% j1LoRSsmt
f= 8HIf4k
 _ +*!. ,**,!0f=

IJ+, !3L ,**-

3 !O

67?MNO


,**-

-

 RSsmt

+B

3 ! o5lm8HIJ9

RSsªῌ+  ,**-NT F*o CT F-%)59% CT q*'¹§q«
13«

+ %;pH

2 $%q 

3 !GHmtn jF*o NT ? CT )5j
NT, CT "#oU-+  )5j

4 CT F*o NT  *ῌ/ cm ,* cm ¬7x q

NT §q*'¹qTCT )5?º+ ,*ῌ.* cm

F-%«»­9

 NT ®]

FGI » +*. ¼ $,**0%

44

ῌ+

Fig. +

NT $% (8E CT $%   'FGN" ¡ '¢£¤J& >(¥¦§¨©2¢£¤ * cm ª'«¬2 +** cm, [\ ­J&&

Root distribution of sugar cane ﬁeld under No-tillage (left) and Conventional tillage (right)

ῌ+ NT (8E CT ®FGN"'(H>FG]I
Table +

Physical properties of the sugar cane ﬁeld soil under No-tillage andConventional tillage

FGN"
$cm%

STU
$Mg m¯-%W$῍%°±¢²­,*³ $cm sec¯+%

l5´µ¶
$NT%

*ῌ/
+/ῌ,/
-/ῌ./
./ῌ//

+4.*
+4,**
+4,3
+4-+

.140
//40*
/-4*
/-4.

,40·+*¯,4+·+*¯-*
24+·+*¯.*,4,·+*¯-

5´µ¶
$CT%

*ῌ/
+/ῌ,/
-/ῌ./
./ῌ//

+4-2
+4-0
+4-+4,2.340/+4/,40/.40040·+*¯-4.·+*¯.
-4+·+*¯.
.4,·+*¯-* : NT, CT ®¸Gq¹N"W'(

  +῍ ¢ºM jk[\

GM2 CT 8\e NT MSTU1V  !

  

"#

!"#

et al., ,**. ; Meek et al., +33* ; Osunbitan et al., ,**/ ; $Rasse and Smucker, +332%& NT '( $Chassot et al., ,**+ ; Dao, +33- ; Eynard)*"# +,-./012 +,-.'

fg= +333 ; Tebrügge and Düring, +333%& h3 4 567'89 :;<=#>bcM2 iW' j>k>h9& Z D^?@A"#'(lh? m nFo)*Me CT  NT FBC=#&-, 

G2 p#eqrU " s"M[9& 567tD ῌ+ ' NT (8E CT '(FGH>I
J& KLM2 N" *ῌ/ cm (8E ./ῌ// cm '(NT FG CT 'OP

QRSTU1V?

KLZM - uvW CT 2w7xyz{M[9&W' |}F~FGM[yFGM2 567'89 D^F

UM

WX" Y.J& Z N" +/ cmῌ./ cm



'(

\ S\'8ῌ'89 ST

2 CT 'OPNT STUX"?>

Y.[\ ]'N" +/ῌ,/ cm ^'(y] '8Z_`M

U $Mullins et al., +33*% NT qrUST

[9& abcd?M N" +* cm ZMD^F

U'>9eBC=#& FGN" *ῌ+* cm  Ks

-. : _·_·"¸/¹STUVW0112º!l»¼

   NT 

( ῌ-  ,**.  - mno45-2#'./

,/ῌ./ cm  Ks  CT   +/ῌ,/NT 0 CT pqrstu$vTwxyfcm  + 

z{|}~t23 vTwxyfz{|}~" *   

 NT  !" CT #$%&kPa DE'#stu"*.- kPa  ' NT  CT   *.- kPa Q(ῌ, )*+,- './ NT 0 CT

vTwxyfz{|}~#' NT $ CT  1,23 1,4567 8 stu23   vTwxyfz

9{|}~"

+ ':;"<"=>$ ,*.- kPa n

o

-2#?@=>A#' 1,!

 CT  NT #$BC'#$23'# Z #r"'# DOsunbi-

tan et al., ,**/ ;   +333 ; Tebrügge and Düring, *ῌ/ cm GH$$
#$2%' vTwxyfz{|}~*.-+333E   F#8GH$ =>B< IJ"BC '#=>

!8"" NT AkPa Q stu  !

 CT $ NT FC *ῌ+/ cm 1,KLM

 !" '#$23'# #"#p *p" FC ,* cm #' NT "NC1,23   NT FC ,* cms"&a$"A ¡¢1£sOGHPQ$%&'# NT ¤ $ NT 

CT $R'FC ,* cm STUVWX"

 !8"so 2¥¦ p'§s&aY2(¨$kl

 D(ῌ+E Z1[\] CT 

NT #'12A\] 

$



--   NT  ^_` abXbc!8def

ῌ,  NT 0 CT 1©ª«2g"hiC j FC ,* cm OGH0

3 CT 0 NT FC +/ῌ// cm  pH "¡

1,"NC#$kl



1

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* : NT, CT ³1 FC #'/ῌ s´ ** : +ῌ s´ (*µ¶ : +´,Fig. ,

Distribution of soil hardness by Yamanaka penetrometer at the sugar cane
ﬁeld under No-tillage and ConventionaltillageῌFig. -

 DNaidu et al., +330E Z NT 

NT 0 CT qrstu
Hydraulic conductivity of the surface
soil at sugar cane ﬁeld under No-tillage
and Conventional tillage

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46

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Table ,

Chemical properties of the sugar cane ﬁeld soil under No-tillage and Conventional tillage

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Fig. .

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47

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48



pact of roots on ground water quality. Plant andSoil, ,** : .1ῌ/..

῏

῎



 H+.ῌ+0 Q]^_ῌ`[aῌ   !

 +33* : bc2de

fghiOPjk lbc2 mnU
Qopq .* : +3ῌ,/.

B+-//0*-0  "# $ %&'()*+, -,

Jones, O.R., Smith, S. J., Southwick, L.M. and Shar-. /0 FS 123 JIRCAS 4 56 7 

pley, A.N. (+33/) : Environmental impacts of dry-

89 : ;<( =% >?(@-A, BB

land residue management systems in the south-

CA(DE<,A-F

ern high plains. Journal of Environ. Qual., ,. :./-ῌ.0*.

ῌ ῑ ῐ ῍GHῌIJKL +32+ : 4

Lal, R. (+310) : No-tillage e#ects on soil properties

MFN

under di#erent crops in western Nigeria. Soil Sci.

OP QRSTU VW XYZ[ \ 0* :+ῌ-/.

Soc. Am. J., .* : 10,ῌ102.

rKstῌuKvῌwxyῌz] ,**, {|}~Chassot, A., Stamp, P. and Richner, W. (,**+) : Rootl! " "

distribution and morphology of maize seedlingsh# $U OP"p%

as a#ected by tillage and fertilizer placement.

 .2 : +,-.

Plant and Soil, ,-+ : +,-ῌ+-/.

Meek, B.D., DeTar, W.R., Rolph, D., Rechel, E.R. andDao, T.H. (+33-) : Tillage and Winter wheat residue

Carter, L.M. (+33*) : Inﬁltration rate as a#ected

management e#ects on water inﬁltration andby an Alfalfa and No-till cotton cropping system.

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soil chemical properties of a Rhodic Ferralsol inSoils : Behavior, Occurrence, and Management.

southern Brazil. Soil & Tillage Research, /+ : 1+ῌ

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XῌU pp. /,ῌ/.  .Ucrop rotation combinations on soil enzyme ac-

Nishimura, T., Irshad, U., Kato, M. and Inoue, M. (,**-) :Dick, W.A., Roseberg, R. J., McCoy, E.L., Edwards, W.

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"' ( +33. : OP  ¡U OP"
pq 0/ : .0-ῌ.1+.

Edwards, W.M., Shipitalo, M. J., Owens, L.B. and
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¥¦§¨

)©e

ris L. Burrows on hydrology of continuous no-till«¬ ­®¯ °QU pp. 00ῌ++0

corn ﬁelds. Geoderma, .0 : 1-ῌ2..

.U

Eynard, A., Schumacher, T.E., Lindstrom, M. J. and4

M

XYZ[²OP,³*ª+±´ ,**- : 4

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49*+,

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Rasse, D.P. and Smucker, J.M. (+332) : Root recoloni-

IJKL +33- : M!NOP

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PQR

ST" UV PWX# -1 , : 33ῌ

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!

agement. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 0, : +021ῌ+03,.

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# 2, : //ῌ0/.

c" d# +/ , : 32ῌ++*.
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9# NT $a+t%() ,* cm }t CT Q& . '(9# Q}t(c"9o t# |l89 / )d*|9*01Q
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J. Jpn. Soc. Soil Phys.
¨©oNo. +*., p. /+ 0* ,**0Profile Probe 

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Monitoring Soil Water Content for Kuroboku and Tachikawa-Loam Soils with
Proﬁle Probe type PR+ : Laboratory Calibration and Field Tests
Hiromi IMOTO*, Akihiko KAMOSHITA**, Yoichiro KATO**, ***,
Takeshi TOKIDA**, **** and Tsuyoshi MIYAZAKI** Department of Biological and Environmental Engineering, Graduate School of
Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo** Field Production Science Center, Graduate School of Agricultural andLife Sciences, The University of Tokyo***, **** JSPS Research Fellow
Abstract
In order to understand the soil moisture conditions in ﬁelds, many soil moisture sensors havebeen developed in recent years.

In this study, the range of inﬂuence of Proﬁle Probe type PR+ soil

moisture sensor (hereafter referred to as “PR+”, Delta-T Devices, Ltd) was measured and speciﬁccalibration equations were established for Kuroboku and Tachikawa Loam soils. The range ofinﬂuence of PR+ was estimated to be +* cm in both horizontal and vertical directions. Standard
calibration equations (“Mineral equation”, proposed for mineral soil and the “Organic equation”,
proposed for organic-matter rich soil) provided by the manufacturer were found to be invalid for
Kuroboku soil. For Tachikawa Loam soil, the Mineral equation was found to be applicable. For
precise water content determinations, however, we found that speciﬁc calibrations for each of thePR+ sensor may be required.

A long-term ﬁeld measurement indicates that PR+ may be a usefuldevice for proﬁling soil water content and measuring changes in water content after rainfall
events.
Key words : Proﬁle Probe, soil moisture sensor, calibration, Kuroboku soil, Tachikawa Loam+      !"#$%&'() *+Delta-T Devices TUVW[)*\[;AG0;]& Profile Probe 04^5678&9 _V `,**,a W
Bb/cKdAef gZXY TDR ,-./ CS0+/,-./012)345678&9 :) `Campbell Ta ECH,O, h/cijkl/H mn&,

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d BbuvwidH 1 xy,-./"z8

P Q R S - T U V W X Y Z  ECH,O Probe 0{6V,-./"z8&K])W|)}&~0*   ++-ῌ20/1  +ῌ+ῌ+**   +22ῌ***, M +ῌ+ῌ+*** : DC ` a**** : DC ` a : BbuvwiBb/c ,-./ Cc/ ¡- ¢£¤ ¥¦b/§; ¼ +*. ^ ,**052 

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TDR %& ,***a'()* TDRK; 7'

)+,-./ -0120.3 +/*,B  4

*g{5067'8 ¥w,(¦*-  {@* + ¡* ¢£,¤Delta-T 39 Proﬁle Probe PR+ :;<m!"{ 76 :;<LK

=> PR+ ?@;§.*8C ,/ mm

 Fig. + a A@B

D /W LK

; 7'K¨,*8

D +** cm =EFG**H{I

IJ .-;K.9:;<L;M + NOP

PR+   . &©

.W  0 &© 0

QRRSHT U V W W gVg +)*0W © |D +* ,** -* .* 0* +** cm 

Fig. +aX I Y0:.

Z[\ +** MHz ]^_ `_DW
ab@ Gaskin and Miller +330,ῌ ῑ῔῍῏῎ῑῐΐH Y0:.Z[cdef

0ª«¬1¬­2®¬ ¡®3¯41'.6abg_DW* Wdhi<;L;M LK;°± jklm n:;<L;Mf '*768

LK;opq _brsJt HH, uv

5 450  IB²³ 6&´

w/rsBxyDW  WB8  8z{|D} dhi  3 · / 8$*g*H: 8~ TDR  ECH,O Probe   PR+ _@!"g{Q + 8 + ¸ ¹9+

PR+ :;<¢£,¤º

WµW,**, 7 2 · ++ 8

 m#$%ῒῌ+Fig. +

7'*¶Q»

Schematic diagram showing how to determine the range of inﬂuence of PR+ sensor.

µ¶·¸ : Profile Probe--+ 

A¹ºJ;0»R¼9"; *  !" H

PR+ 
  

f9;+.' _ O8[  9P s 9

y'



    !"#$ % & '() *+,

- -* cm, .' +,* cm, / + cm 012345
8 9:;<=:#$ %>? @  ABCD@ 5 99 E FG9;

H IJKLM <= ?N O8*P

PR+ QRS?'( IJKLM

5TUPVW:TXY[ TU\ 61]3 7
 `+;Z'(

^8_abcdB ^+  +A5#$

e fA ghT CD

AB 9:#$

%

i



y',_ cd 9-y' +* cm ; ,KQHf9;+.';4,) ++, 0 )H ,*cm 

8CD @  -, 



Fig. , 6a7

PR+_e9 Z'( D@¡35; PR+\,) PR+ TUh8p ¢8 _[ £¤ ' / cm h;FG¥  '+* cm h;+N,F;¦f$r

p  6Fig.

, 6a77  9P,)h§ TU +* cm >hh§#$ .¨,©+;ªT
Fig. , 6b7@ <=: ^~#$ %

¡9-y',)

^« 9?

) -* cm _q¬s@

6b7 <=:#$ %j- / 1 +* +- +/ cm ; *hh9-

q+; 

6a7 9:#$ %Fig. + 6a7

 +4,KK, 9AB )

PR+ 

6Fig. + 6a7753

 klmn ! +;op !

9""#q<=:$r

 *s PR+ 

,tuv9wxq y':%z$) 9-y * cm ,);© _e .*.* mV ,) ­®P,/Uh_e-..1]-2.* mV ;FG+e,) 6Fig. , 6b77 *

r 6klmn{9"$r7 #$ |p}~&

 PR+.8 9:~, p <=:#$°; _e .2.].3* mV ; B $r±U% CD+;q ,)<=:#$

%

h

9

j

 PR+p

[ ?S'( 9-y +* cm¯ +;© sTU9-8 -*cm @_e;qj² >

[ 9P s+; ACD PR+  +TU <=:#$ %KQ³´;+ +* cm ,)+;ªT' +* cm (,',?

KQ)s!h8 6Fig. + 6b77 ++,?KQ

*



)

ῌ,
Fig. ,

PR+ #$%Range of inﬂuence of PR+ sensor.

!  +*.  ,**0

54.  PR+  .+ 

 Fig.

-   *.* cm    .*+** cm!"#$%&Q , !

RS1TU@?VC?W2 , mm X1Y

Z2MRS1ABCDE%FG?[

2\2M

>?@%]^_`!abcde) fghi'jk


ABCDE%FG?1HIJK8( L!MN OP'() +** cm *+,'-.

/ , !01/2
92:;/!' <34536/78
=2 PR+ >?@%!

ῌFig. -+* cm lm nohi'p+ +* cm lm!

RS8

JK'(O 8qrsM!' Fig. . !eI/ tk-* cm, *+ -* cm, up + cm !vwx!3yz{|}&1[ABCDE%FG?1HsM z{|}&!
~k ,.2 cm !>

ABCDE%FG?[RS!

Proﬁle of physical properties of soil used for calibration.

ῌ.

PR+ ABCDE%FG?[|}&

Fig. .

Schematic of calibration box.

%D1b2Mº»¼/¤ : Profile Probe JH()*  -./ PR+ 







   / mm : 

55

F ' +  +  9/ 0 ZH +' 9/\   !" #$%&' ()* +`=kGHJ[' PR+*.0* g cm,-'

/ LM > ' +,*-./+ *./ g cm,- +01

23456/789' %' > ?@A =%&>E' 

 PR+

F

:

;<

=

BC  D
GHIJKLM

 NOPQRST UG
ῌ ()*  -./῏:%\e'  i'' >VWV 

#$%HI+' ., 

: _ `\ / cm RHJ[

Rab cdR\efeg  OJi + jk D,.

j

¡¢

-./

]H(|)\CR]¬rfe 

H Organic ­ D

=%& :  BC=%R\eyvzGH' r{|+ }M῎JH :  BC' ~ +HIJM& w PR+F  ! +: !"abj &'
=% uJ PR+

ῌ/Fig. /()*']23456/789-./ §¨+H Delta-T ©feª«=V&
Mineral ­ DF s tM Ru' +vHw x

 & 

Fig. /' 0 UG .£¤ ¥()* ' ¦  lRGE I ab mnop&' Nq
PR+ LM  &feBC

()* 'K \heg

./5JK : Kw'  &' !"

 \VR]J[^ ]
01?'

: 

O"=%' 9#=%& - F $lMX= ,/ cm Y+Z  RHJ[01 
῍

PR+

T©

:*z#[]$VH

E' (|)\] :*z#[]$VE ®¯U ()* + Delta-

Mineral ­' Organic ­ °±e®§¨²

RfM\'-./ + Mineral ­\§¨

fRK³fM]V®

&\X]´°Fµ¨\XfM

 f' ()* + & /*ῌ N'+ 1*ῌ NRHuH PR+ 9/-./

&XzRH¶·¸¹

Calibration curve for PR+ output (mV) vs. volumetric water content (ῌ) for Kuroboku soil.

F:'G¶ » +*. ¼ A,**0B

56  / 

  
  ! " # $%&'/+ ( )*+,-'./0()123" 4  5( ).* +,)_-./_6 '8)9*ῌ )"7'./" :;<56=>+( Fig. 1 7T=j7 .- m S +, 7
0'1*(" 8 .2$

 '?@39" A ,**/B 83'1

3[ 1453

*CDED$%&7F *GH'IJKLMNB ) B A6!B ' 7 87$%&)z(* PR+ nRDe'9

O

7PQRMSD$%&'T

 $%&PRMSD7U "VW)

2

 + 6 + y7z8 (X .** mV Y +* cm RMSD)

 0*ῌ )Z[" ,* cm RMSD'z8/*ῌ )Z[AFig. 0B   * '\] A A#

+

PR+ H:¡!$7;,**, < 2 ¢ ++ 6 £3 ¢ / 6 + ¤¢¥H 0¦>§>¨¥'z( , ¤¢ ++ ¢ 1 67 ©=nRDe7 PR+

%^7H"9"_`7 0 ]RM'-ª«:'H

SDa7]*bcdefDghM'ij(*nRDe7>¬9"8)

AbBB ¯[@°7 +** cm 4 +** cc ±SMr²D

k lmn TDR op& AqKr&B )s ()t*!

Au3 A+332B  v A,***bB w! A,**.BB xy PR+ 7z(*+ Organic &G

H=> '{ "|*(AFig. /B #v}D~ Mineral &$% s  &'&$ #)123"ῌ0Fig. 08)! 77z­®'?> AFig. 1

A³B:SMrdMN'i( C´D 'µ# ) PR+ H)'i7

7z":EF)'G¶' Fig. 1 AaB 7T
/,

Fig. 2 7 A, B  PR+ H«§>)·¸'T H¨¥ + ¤¢)I¨¥9 ·¸7=#v}D~7z"P PR+ RMSD$%¹ºCalibration curve for PR+ output (mV) vs. volumetric water content (ῌ) for Tachikawa Loam.

¡¢£  : Profile Probe +* ,* -* cm N%`abc"def gcUl¤ 

57

 m$= /no & !<0 def gp   !" #$%&

q Y`abcr4Z'()*+,-./012  34 & 

67@ABxyq"z{<*% j"|};0* cm5+** cm /0'(67089:;<)$=
  .* cm 0 +* cm5-* cm >?/0)* '(67@AB CD &`abcU stuvw<%& ?~; *5.* cm /,*5.*ῌ "3  .* cm /0 0*52*ῌ "w )=* & .* cm /qp"4qpUS

EFGHI JKLM N=O;< PQR/S

 & !<0q`abc"4qdef gUT UV@ WX A YFig. 3 YaZZ WX B-.*@N*%& 9  qp Y *5[*\<]<^_& `abc de.* cmZ /) :;<%  '("YFig. 3 YbZZ

fgchi .* cm

Mineral R@80j:[*0 Organic R

+, N%67/S 

Organic Rk%& !N)S .* cm 9//8 .* cm 

ῌῌ1Fig. 1

Go"c

Location of sampling pits and soil physical properties.

ῌῌ2
Fig. 2Ll

PR+ S Y,**,  2  ++53  /Z

Changes in PR+ output at various depths (++ August to / September, ,**,).

j"|};<

:; ¹ºi » +*. ¼ O,**0P

58



z" n'*JKL',

PR+  ῍ !" #$%&

ῌ{|`}`Lr , ~Ag &'()*+', -'./012345 6

lm A B h PR+ *.V"_,:;

78"%9:;*<=>? @A%BC
DE%FGH",I*JKL', MN O,**.P
QRS O,***bP ?'T TDR  "UVW45
XY8 ZL[\ :; ]^"_`- _a@A

O῏ P



  OFig. +*P .V

p q   ῍    PR +G

OMineral U_ Organic P "_,pq῍ O*o.* cm  Organic 

0* cm  Mineral P%BC b'%#$cd*,-*efg, N

04*"& :;IG OFig.

 hT./012345*:;* <=i"9jk/g% lm A

0P " ¡¢gpq῍h£, ¤¥¦§

n -*o.* cm "U pq῍gG"_,¨¢pq῍%©!*ª«¬g

OqP %r +2ῌ Lr .*ῌ *s\tuvg OFig. 3

 ­®U_ 2* cm h¯° ?'%±

OaPP .* cm n"U./012345*:;*L'% -'­®h./012345*:;<=i%9ht w῎DE)+xpq῍%y²³%F9´µ¶i%  2* cm h

ῌῌ3Fig. 3

PR+ 04LIpq῍· O,**,. 2o,**,. 3P

Vertical distribution of soil water content determined by PR+ (++ August to / September, ,**,).

ῌῌ+*
Fig. +*

PR+ U_῏

"_,¸:;pq῍©! O,**,. ++. 1P

Depth proﬁle of soil water content as determined by PR+ and the gravimetric method atupland ﬁeld (1 November ,**,).

vw¼f : Profile Probe g$ab 

ῌ+ #$%&'(Table +

PR+  01

E#ect of void space around the access tube on PR+ outputs
Output (mV)
-31
-33
-31
»

,* cm ¹º89[;
HBC J

-0*
-1+
-03
-0/

@

-32

@

-00

 Fig. / 0 

 +* cm z& }WUa6M +* cm z&X~"K+Y)-  


Output (mV),* cm ¹º89[;
HBCEJ


59

!

EF>

)*! c|[ %UqL
CZ[;\EF-]" >

/- 
PR+   "#$%&'(

,J

+* cm

F %Uq-

PR+ ]M)*!

* 0 L+L* )* + ,-M  ^+-:_`;" 0 L/

. /01-2*!   #$%&'(3 _`-<=F+,"> 6

-456-7)*89:; /97 !

 -<=*>? @ -32 mV  )*!

#$%&'(A!"BC 9*#D$EF #$%&'(C%G&'(-Jg$ abL" PR+ _c- |<=*!
.J

Z#R>

xy jkd

H&I +.. mm, AI ,.2 mmJ K'-LMN -e fgh i- =*>? @L -00 mV )* HTable +J! B

9*!

C (O*9 )P *MQ)*>  #$%&'(C

RSTU (O*5;  )P *MQ+, V*WM

>

.M

*! >>

/J

Z# PR+ -J" #$%&'(j

 #$%

&'(/L0123X-Y; #$%&'( 4"5 ;67
>)*! 8 Z#L [9\X-]

n<<o(pvwqrsto#uUqa *= 4=b-7"!

6Q~b-;"!

c >;?\F#$%&'(@L

E<ic|})*! >>   dSTU-"  M eTfgfhABCi

0

v wxyz¡ ¢b wz¡ £¤{ wz¡L

[^FQ:;9LX_I <9Q`jk DE-l Fm> GE!

 $hkbl-mE*!

Gaskin, G. J. and Miller, J.D. (+330) : Measurement ofsoil water content using a simpliﬁed impedance 

measuring technique. Journal of Agricultural

Delta-T HI Proﬁle Probe PR+ Engineering Research, 0- : +/-ῌ+0*.

-J -K+EF LMGC"no-¥¦§ H,**-J : Y)¨p= -K+E*dSq(rst-.)
*! >
ST-

NOuP-QFZ# HR>J E*! 'vwxy z[N{



)*!
+J

PR+ L |cF UaVI©ª"«01 ¬ ./ ­s®¯°7± .*ῌ.+.
'²³ῌ


´ῌZῌ¥¦§ H,**,J : c;| TDR Cµ o¶{¬ +. <¬·¸7± ,1.ῌ » +*. ¼ ,**0

60

,1/.

+/.

 ,**- :  TDR

ῌ

 3- : /1ῌ0/.

 ,**/ : ,* GHz-TDR >?@AῌBCDEFῌGHIJῌHKLM +332 :NOPQRST UVWX TDR!"#$%&'

() *+,- .. : 31ῌ+*,.

!"#Y8

Z[\ῌ]^_ `a bc-de
03 : 0--ῌ0-/.

./012 ,***a : 345 6789:;

fagh ,**. : TDR

UiX < jk

lm .2 : +1ῌ,,.

 2- : .+ῌ.0.
./012 ,***b : TDR < 78=  -, : +*ῌ῍ῌ

no 78p q; rstX#uU Cv wxyz{|}~X
aZ  Profile Probe
345 =0z

wxyz PR+ U wxyz  PR+ zx "# 78UV PR+. "# wxyz Z +* cm, Z +* cm = "# 345 Z
Delta-T ¡¢£X Mineral ¤ ¥¦§ ¨© Uª  Organic ¤ ¥¦©{C

Uª  =«U2¬ ­"# 0z Z

Mineral ¤{®=n­"# PR+ 

wxyz¯°±¤²³ ´µ­U# 78UV« ¶·UiX=¸{
~#
¹ºok` : ,**0 o 1 k ,. `¹ok` : ,**0 o 3 k +3 `ῐ῏ῑΐῒ
J. Jpn. Soc. Soil Phys.
4
No. +*., p. 0+ῌ0, ῍,**0῎ ῌ    *) ~http : //www.pc-progress.cz/Fr_Hydrus,D.

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69

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3 N?"q¥#k #¸¹P hi`X/** cm$º

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71

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+V, BWX1 %Y'ZY[\$')BV !"#$!ῌ%&'()*% +Las Cruces]^_`Xabc1 d Trench Site, Wierenga et al., +33*, -./01 2

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Wierenga et al. ++33+,+ef +.2, cm

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D¤¥ῌE¦ F §Gk ¨HYI E©ªEching, S.O., Hopmans, J.W. and Wendroth, O. (+33.) :ῌ+.

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Unsaturated hydraulic conductivity from transient multistep outﬂow and soil water pressuredata. Soil Science Society of America Journal,/2 : 021ῌ03/.



Fayer, M. J. (,***) : UNSAT-H version -.* : Unsaturated soil water and heat ﬂow model. Theory,0      user manual, and examples. Paciﬁc Northwest



National Laboratory, Richland, WA.

    Feddes, R.A., Bresler E. and Neuman, S.P. (+31.) :  !" "  

Field test of a modiﬁed numerical model for#$

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water uptake by root systems. Water Resour.
Res., +* : ++33ῌ+,*0.
Hopmans, J.W. and Stricker, J.N.M. (+323) : Stochastic analysis of soil water regime in a watershed.

  7

J. Hydrol., +*/ : /1ῌ2..

8 7978Inoue, M., Àimůnek,
S
J., Hopmans, J.W. and Claus-, $ !:; "8

nitzer, V. (+332) : In situ estimation of soil hy-<"=>?#@A$BC% D

draulic functions using a multistep soil-water

9

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Jury, W.A. and Horton, R. j,**0k : «%¬
ῌJῌ­Hῌ®%¯#K¬ jZ

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Q3¶ῌRS·¸Gk T&U E©ª RS cdef*A
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McCord, J.T. (+33+) : Application of second-type
Resour. Res., ,1 : -,/1ῌ-,0*.

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Philip, J.R., and de Vries, D.A. (+3/1) : Moisture move-%0rst3rs0uv wAx 2yment in porous media under temperature gradi-z{|_}{~([ 'f3
:; @3  

ents. Eos Trans. AGU, -2 (,) : ,,,ῌ,-,.

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Pruess, K. (,**.) : The TOUGH Codes-A family of 6 '" 1o7:;

simulation tools for multiphase ﬂow and trans-*B    

port processes in permeable media. Vadose Zone

3

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J., - : 1-2ῌ1.0.
Rassam, SD., Àimůnek,S
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73

van Dam, J.C., Stricker, J.N.M. and Groogers, P. (+33.) : ῌ  

Inverse method to determine soil hydraulic func-!"#$% HYDRUS &'() *+,tions from multiple outﬂow experiments. Soil

Saito, H., Àimůnek,S
J. and Mohanty, B.P. (,**0) : Nu-

Sci. Soc. Am. J., /2 : 0.1ῌ0/,.

merical analysis of coupled water, vapor andvan Dam, J.C., Huygen, J., Wesseling, J.G., Feddes, R.

heat transport in the vadose zone, Vadose Zone

A., Kabat, P., van Walsum, P.E.V., Groenendijk, P.
and van Diepen, C.A. (+331) : Theory of SWAP

J., / : 12.ῌ2**.

- .ῌ ,**0 : /0123 : J.R. Philip

version ,.*, Report 1+, Dept. of Water Resour.,and D.A. de Vries 4 56789:;<=>?

Wageningen Agricultural University, Wagenin-@ABCDEFGH 

!"I +*- :gen, the Netherlands.
Wierenga, P. J., Hudson, D.B., Hills, R.G., Porro, I.,+*/ῌ++,.
Àimůnek,SJ., van Genuchten, M.Th. and Sejna M.

Kirkland, M.R. and Vinson, J. (+33*) : Flow and(,**/) : The HYDRUS-+D software package forTransport at the Las Cruces Trench Site : Exper-

simulating the movement of water, heat, andiments + and ,. NUREG/CR-/0*1. U.S. Nuclear

multiple solutes in variably saturated media.

Regulatory Commission.

Version -.*. HYDRUS Software Series +, Dep. of

Wierenga, P. J., Hills, R.G. and Hudson, D.B. (+33+) :Environmental Sciences, Univ. of California Riv-

The Las Cruces Trench site : Characterization,

erside, Riverside, CA.

experimental results, and one-dimensional ﬂow

J-KL ῌ MN

O +33+ : PQBRSTUVW

predictions. Water Resour. Res., ,1 : ,03/ῌ,1*/.

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Brenner, H. (+30,) : The di#usion model of longitudinal mixing in beds of ﬁnite length. Numerical values. Chem. Eng. Sci., +1 : ,,3῏,.-.
Danckwerts, P.V. (+3/-) : Continuous ﬂow systems.
Chem. Eng. Sci., , : +῏+-.
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porous media using analytical solutions of con-Jury, W.A. and Horton, R. ,**0 : 

vection-dispersion equation. Versions ,.*, Inter-ῌῌῌ !"#$ %

national Ground Water Modeling Center, Colo-&' ( )*+,ῌ-. /ῌ01 2ῌ3456ῌ789:

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rado School of Mines, Golden, Colorado.

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ing of the dispersion equation and its solutions

Toride, N., Leij, F.J. and van Genuchten, M. Th. (+33-) :for di#erent initial and boundary conditions.

Flux-averaged concentrations for transport in

Chem. Eng. Sci. -- : +.1+ῌ+.2*.

soils having nonuniform initial solute distribu-

Leij, F.J., Dane, J.H. and van Genuchten, M. Th. (+33+) :tions, Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., /1 : +.*0ῌ+.*3.

Mathematical analysis of one-dimensional solute

Toride, N., Leij, F.J. and van Genuchten, M. Th. (+33/) :transport in a layered soil proﬁle. Soil Sci. Soc.

The CXTFIT code for estimating transport pa-

Am. J., // : 3..ῌ3/-.

rameters from laboratory or ﬁeld tracer experi-

Nielsen, D.R. and Biggar, J.W. (+30,) : Miscible displacement : III. Theoretical considerations. Soil
Sci. Soc. Am. Pro., ,0 : ,+0ῌ,,+.
Parker, J.C. and van Genuchten, M. Th. (+32.) : Fluxaveraged and volume-averaged concentrations
in continuum approaches to solute transport.
Water Resour. Res., ,* : 200ῌ21,.
Parlange, J.-Y., Starr, J.L., van Genuchten, M. Th.

ments. U.S. Salinity Laboratory Research Report+-1, +ῌ+,+, Riverside CA.
Toride, N., Inoue, M. and. Leij, F. J. (,**-) : Hydrodynamic dispersion in an unsaturated dune
sand, Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. , 01 : 1*-ῌ1+,.
van Genuchten, M. Th. and Alves, W. J. (+32,) :Analytical solutions of the one-dimensional convective-dispersive solute transport equation.

Barry, D.A. and Parker. J.C. (+33,) : Exit condi-

USDA Tech. Bull. +00+. U.S. Gov. Print. O$ce,

tion for miscible displacement experiments. Soil

Washington, DC.

Sci., +/- : +0/ῌ+1+.

van Genuchten, M. Th., and Parker, J.C. (+32.) :Àimůnek,SJ., van Genuchten, M. Th. and Sejna, M.

Boundary conditions for displacement experi-(,**/) : The HYDRUS-+D software package forments through short laboratory soil columns.

simulating the movement of water, heat, andSoil Sci. Soc. Am. J., .2 : 1*-ῌ1*2.

multiple solutes in variably saturated media.

van Genuchten, M. Th. and Parker, J.C. (+33.) : Reply

Version -.*. HYDRUS Software Series +, Dep. of

to “Comments on ‘Boundary conditions for dis-

Environmental Sciences, Univ. of California Riv-

placement experiments through short laborato-

erside, Riverside, CA.

ry soil columns’ ”. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., /2 : 33+ῌÀimůnek,SJ., van Genuchten, M. Th., Sejna, M., Toride

33-.

and Leij, F. J. (+333) : The STANMOD computer

Wehner, J.F. and Wilhelm, R.H. (+3/0) : Boundary con-software for evaluating solute transport inditions of ﬂow reactor. Chem. Eng. Sci., 0 : 23ῌ3-.

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sessment of methane emissions from wetlands.

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Matthews, E. and Fung, I. (+321) : Methane emission

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P. J. (+330) : Fluxes of nitrous oxide from boreal

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peatlands as a#ected by peatland type, watertable and nitriﬁcation. Biogeochemistry, -/ : .*+ῌstone aquifers. J. Hydrol., ,++ : +,0ῌ+-3
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solved methane deep in the Lake Agassiz Peat-

Murayama, S. and Bakar, Z.A. (+330b) : Decompositionof tropical peat soils ,. Estimation of in situ decomposition by measurement of CO, ﬂux. Japanlands, Minnesota. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 3 :+31ῌ,+,.
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of Sasa invasion on CO,, CH. and N,O ﬂuxes in

Nagata, O., Takakai, F. and Hatano, R. (,**/) : E#ect

Sphagunum cominated poor fen in Bibai, Hok-of Sasa invasion on global warming potential in
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Tokita, T., Miyazaki, T. and Mizoguchi, M. (,**/) :Ebullition of methane from peat with falling at-

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Carbon accumulation in West Siberian mires,

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Johansson, G., Lagerlof, J., Lindberg, T., Petters-

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ma %_ ,-. *,**,+ `  cde)nopqMrs]%7 f matqMrs]%iu§!HI14  !"#$  `<)HI1%)¨ X?% 0"#$©qMrs I1% `<))¨
Zῌ- Zῌ, ^7 0 OHI1

780"#$vjwxῌyrzLo{]|0 OI1 %§®? 

= 

1

!123%7 0123

!

1%0?% iIh B /. D

cde`<

!? UVM *rand,

: 23

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l%

  #$ 2356 `:HI1
A /. F HI1µ4DE7¶·Fig. ,PGQª«_ *() +331+ ¬H () *+331+ `­ }o~{]%. ma+.- m `: 

| 780123ooῌ{cde%7 f# 0123 `<!
0?% iIha I1 %!jX 0123

 

:0123 X< !"#$ K4  J

I+.- m ¯° Qgh B, C, D O`<I

0123!

I1`<!jX  2 ²H³
XiIh 

±++ ²)³ ®

a Icde4´] *() +331 ; ,-. ,**, `<[\+

Ground water level and distribution of plant communities at a cross-section of
Bekanbeushi Mire (Inoue, +331 ; Sato et al., ,**,).
AῌF : the setting points of a ground water level logger.

»¼ : dno

101

ῌ-

:¢ £ ,(-> 
X7 +331Y
A : ¤¥¦§ B : FCGH X Y C :   
D : ¨¨©ªῌ«¬©­®t& X Y E : ¯¥°¤±§§¬ῌ²³´µ¶t&
XY F : DEFCGH X Y·
\¸ῌ, ¹ºFig. -

Fluctuation of ground water level and river level at Bekanbeushi Mire (Inoue, +331).
A : Toraibetsu River, B : Alder forest (rich fen), C : water level of the small stream
on the fen zone, D : Myrica gale var. tomentosa-Carex lasiocarpa var. occultans
community (poor fen), E : Ledum palustre ssp. diversipilosumSphagnum fuscum
community (bog), F : Alder forest near the hill side (rich fen). See Fig. ,.

 B, C, D 

 B

 D  

!"#  $ C 
 %&' B, D ()  *  

%&+,(-./0  B, D 

 !"#    123  456 # E  %&(789:;<=  >?  @ABC$ DEFC
GHI  F   J Ki %jk \5)> 
L< @ABClm LUZ[L6 &
=a

= QVW XY

=( nop5  9Sq
irsSt&'( uU6Q/ 

/+ 

)v*wx M yz{+ 3 |,}`~L6 =

U -:

L  %&()MN=78  %&:O<=.( +33* /:0)v*P   1 |# QR  STN

 X12 +331Y 

DE=UVW XY Z[L6 =\W]/]_,) zS]( ^_R$ R lmno xJ <&` VW XY ()v*3=U45vE)5 

a 6bca d a#!"e  lm XH<Y 

M6 #&(f L6& dQ #e
S6

gh$6

 X12 ῌ 7 ,**/ ; 12ῌ +332 ; 12ῌ72 ,**, ; 12U ,**- ; ῌ~ ,**. ; ῌ 8 +32* ; 72 ,*** ; ¡9

U»VWX Y +*. ¼ ,**0

102+3,2 ;  +322 


 

 2  ?y34?5

  

67 R  ))X 2s^tuy+

ῌ!" ,**/ ; #  +3,2wx^o5`S89X 9

+3,2 %&'ῌ!" ,**/

$  # ῌ ,**, ( /, 

 )*+,-./012),| ,**.  +332

345 426

:M ,**+ :

 Fῌ



;M -3+ 20h<78))9:;9 < == >.&? TWINSPAN 2Y`?=

=>8?@

75 b -* ]:=&5 C&DE0!5  AB+ῌ ,**, ;ῌF +332 ;  ,***

+31* :@2D]   +310 ; FῌA +32*

B c-duQ)ῌA|.+ &'9

Ofg&: c- ,D^ lawn :  y))(NOPQ) RST U)2V

c- 2C)5Ofg&Dy ¡ E

5OPQ)  *2+W2X 5 

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G" #HI$JKLM%



2YZ[ZR5]D^_`Sab c-,\yyGH2duQ)ῌ¦Ofg&:5`SduQ)

deOfg

X

&:M:;7_ F

Fῌ ,**. S Fῌ©

+331 7`S%./|; , J& + 2K=ªC 

0h2Y   2ij4Sklmgn^

SI5:/§`S=¨5,*** ),+310 2K:=B5 «¬ (]dopῌdeOfg&q:rMῌs^tuq­:r;7_v5 S deOfg&:**t{Eῌ²+:Lq:r³±pE¢ῌ

2+wx^oy&s^tu ppxz t{A|²+q:rMN´ G" (­  --X C 12+wx^oX 5}xw®¯°||±ῌ: -duQ)=O`S:MN=/45~5 %  2Y22=¨5 Fῌ935ST   0h2

2M),| 27P·¸B=ªC 

5 ¹),|

c- Z[Z9ῌ.
Fig. .

 ,**. µ¶ -* :­

 c-

 (­

),| duQ)QMNR LAI Z[º Z[ SMMZ[M T4=¨9

Relationship between the leaf area index (LAI) of Sasa palmata and ground waterlevel at Sarobetsu Mire.
The ground water level indicates the depth of water table from the ground surface.

 :  Yῌῌ/fg ,*** h +, ijC ,**, h - ik - l0Am"^
up'b^v wxy0)" z{|ῌ}~ ,**/9%
Fig. /

103

nopqrFst

Ground water level ﬂuctuations and precipitation at three points in
Shinoro Mire from December ,*** to March ,**,.
Missing data is due to instrument problem. (Fujita and Inoue, ,**/)

  Ru¤lle (n),  :  !"#$% & '()*+,(-./01 2" 345678 +33,99 :0;

"<=>(?@ A* #BC>DEF GH0)
IJ<=0K*LM !N> !OB PQ<=
+RSTUVWX !" >YZ["%VV \]^ _`0a! b cῌdeµ B?» C +*. ¼ ,**0

104

 Q~ %  .{    

A8/|  60 Q&I +320   !"# $%

& +322  '()*+,-./&*+0  1 23"4 !56  1

{A8"# z 8]6I 8"f60 YQA 8QR!"# $e878 !"# 9ῌ.  '()*+85:"

B6 "q+Q"8A//&  ;-. <=> 3?9@ %8YQ& Jz8A

B" CDEFGH +33-# <=>

Y  !"  *J128 <I8B"J< KLB"# MN

&!" !"# 9ῌ0  *d

8OPA QR%S /& T34] ! !"rstuῌvwxyq+  UN8 O  <=>;-.5'ῌ'()*+ vwxy 6

VWX Y !B"# 

"o*+ ;  ¡7& ,**.

/ZY[\] P ,*83 %A B"# '() o*+ $1" ^ _!" ,* cm ¢89$R!" 88  l(*cm  +* cm/Q6`# ^ !P +/ cm ]6 +* cm a#8 1

!Q

#

 ^ Oo ¥¦4§¨8&"^bc88]R!1 d$e !"*+ %CD \ ]f8@rstuῌvwxyq+: .* cm 8£¤YQ; !"# z<S Y

!"

*

ghf/# 9ῌ/  i&j'k;-.B" )m,**/# l(*d $e*" )m ῌnI ,**/#   P­ 

ῌ nI

 %²³¦1   °´± *+ o*+d

!"# - ,A8 -z <{|O[}\ῌ0®¯; °±}l(_p 0 q+8@ !"# 9ῌ/ q+ r
stuq+ rstuῌvwxyq+©="# l(*  ª«¬-.8]" >­ *ῌ*./ mµ ! ^ A¶4@·!" !"#/-  & +32- 8]¸  ?¹º»8Z!

,**+ z l(*rstuῌvwxyq+'()*+vwxy6q+85:"@ * "28@8A %#Fig. 0Ground water level ﬂuctuations at a Moliniopsis japonica-Sphagnum community
in Shinoro Mire and a Sphagnum bog in Sarobetsu Mire.
Elavation of water table is converted into water depth from the ground surface.

»¼ : ()*5,3`aKL     



105

uX $+3/2% +*() +* |}() 1 

   .**ῌ+,***῍ 9 ,ῌ+3   ,*ῌ32῍ " l `a !5KL7^ *  !" # $+33+% &'  ()*+,&-. /& 012,345 6789 :

0"  f 5~|} $% 7B + qr 55 f ~7> bbKL7
MN9 C  D 5"kHi MNcd7.&e;< 034='>?@&AB C+D 5 5kHi&

T/7 "  7l>#7!" 97 ()53&EB

F

GHIJKL5MN()535 65&O
EPQRBC+9 7

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5qr7>>J5S5

 KL5MN7 C7s." &+T/7UV " Wῌ1 +XYῌZ[ $% 7

Wῌ2 +$%5GHIJ|&' $kNῌm,% qrN \]()*5^_`abKLcd5eN9 $῍% 5EPs95 (+)5E()* f]`aJghijhk9lm()5

PsB" KL5MN7e |&'7>

3&EB Fno5!p ()qr $῍% qr7.>"  $῍% 5EPs95 " Wt5 f +5'!&`a7 ¡&'. *¢muX $+3/2% 7vw9ῌ x yz7¢95 *£IHh7 69B  K

 "  +{&EP& " 9L7MNB ¤+ > ()5551235

J9 +|} $% &' 69 f 5~+

ῌῌ1

Fig. 1

67¥C 5 "\]()*'¦f]`a5()5qr $῍%   $῍% 5EP
f + ῌ x yz $uX +3/2%§ ()5+|} $% &' 69 f 5~+*() +* |}() 1 " $uX +3/2%" B : l `a
!5KL7^ *5()¨+ $©ª«¬ῌ­®¯°±²"% ; C & D : bbKL7M
N9*5()¨+ $¬ª³´ῌ©ª«¬" ¬ª³´ῌ©ª«¬ῌµª¶·g"% ; 5 : ¸&MNcd7e"§ $XYῌZ[ GHI'¹º%"Relationship between natural water content (ῌ) and ignition loss (ῌ) of peat in Ishikari
Peatlands and Shizukari Mire.
Factor ‘f’ indicated the ratio of natural water content to the ignition loss of peat. As
natural water content of peat defers by its compression history, the ‘f’ value of virgin peat
is about +* whereas compressed peat may have value of around 1 (Miyagawa, +3/2). B :Moliniopsis japonica-Sphagnum papillosum community ; C & D : Rhus trichocarpa-Moliniopsis
japonica community, Rhus trichocarpa-Moliniopsis japonica and Sasa palmata community ;Others : communities with greater retrogressive succession (from Kawabata and Kamiya,unpublished data).

st106

ΐῌ2

a +*. ¼ Y,**0Ze]^j#kH]^<f Y῍Z ¡g¢h£i YkNῌm,Z J¤
B : jk 'A]^¥l Y¦§¨©ῌª«¬­®¯mZ ; C & D : 55
'-]^¥l Y©§°±²ῌ¦§¨©¯m ©§°±²ῌ¦§¨©ῌ³§´µt¯mZ ; Mn : ¶-6·'8¸¹¯m& YZoῌpq )rº»#8y&Z

Fig. 2 Relationship between natural water content (ῌ) and consolidation yield stress (kN/m,)of peat in Ishikari Peatlands and Shizukari Mire.
B : Moliniopsis japonica-Sphagnum papillosum community ; C & D : Rhus trichocarpaMoliniopsis japonica community, Rhus trichocarpa-Moliniopsis japonica and Sasa
palmata community ; Others : communities with greater retrogressive succession(from Kawabata and Kamiya, unpublished data).

n ,, : ++-ῌ+--.

0ῌ ῍ ῐ ῏ ῎


+W,-Xῌo>pqῌ1ers Y,**-Z : ftuvw
    !" #$%& '(  )*+,"" -.'/0.
& 123#$45678
9:;<=(' >?@$&xH?tt@ABy&ttCD.] .
zFG{% - : .-ῌ/*.
+W,-Xῌ|}tX Y+332Z : ~EF

G

H6I\] lmn +/ :1ῌ+1.

+W,-Xῌ,Jῌ`XKL Y+331Z : .[/\] ^23

_&K` +33.ῌ

 : AB =ῌ=C!D:+33/ 4FG_&5ab .[/6\EBFG ""HI#J

0I7c :8BBc pp. -ῌ+.]K$FG'L% 12M &N:'OP
5Q(RS'T)" U:V*&_&K` 9d]

3O,Pz^2Q ,* 4GR=ῑ ῕ ῔ ῒ.[/ YSeTῌ|}tXUZ pp +/-ῌ+0*] .

+W,-X Y+331Z : .[/\01] ^2
3

+W,-XῌM,N Y,**,Z : ] ^2

_&K` +33.ῌ+33/ 4FG_&5[/lBb-m g:]
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:8BBc pp. ,-+ῌ,-1] 

5 0+, : -ῌ,*.

_&K` 9d]+W,-Xῌef.[/]^FGm Y+33,Z : ]^_ `a ,d Y,**/Z : g:hi;

j#k<=\0

;] lmb] ῌ g:].[/T)c Y+30-Z : .[/T)]^d5a]e¼ :nBC

pp. -+/   +331 : 

107

pq/U ,**, : BC|& \?R]+^ ,* wx_`g  

[Bd yzc +33.ῌ+33/   

!" # $%&%

#



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3-!. +33- : 6 .,+ g CjK9C

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+33/   !

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C

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 +33.ῌ+33/   +1*  

pq/Uῌ@ +32* : /012BkCj

!"#$%&%B/ Bῌ[B[BBs - : 1-῎+-..

# pp. .3῎/1  C>

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w?£x ,*** : yMS
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SCkVWBBk{B¤|5` }*y Sakaguchi, Y. (+30+) : Paleogeographical studies ofpeat bogs in northern Japan. J. Fac. Sci. Tokyo
Univ., Sec. ,, +, : .,+῎/+-.

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J. Jpn. Soc. Soil Phys.
?4
No. +*., p. +*3++1 ,**0

   *Changes and Issues of Consolidation Techniques of Peaty
Arable Land in Hokkaido
Teruo ISHIWATA** Civil Engineering Research Institute for Cold Region, Hiragishi +῏-῏+῏-.,
Toyohira-ku, Sapporo, *0,῏20*,, Japan

% +3+* P ; V #+3,0 PW% +3+3 P ; X+    

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,* cm ῌ  ῍ /* cm   ,/ cm   

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U<

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110

ῌῌ+
Table +
"S£¤¥¦>§¨Chemical properties of soils of peaty un-reclaimed land in Sarobetu

pH

©ª9

«?¬

@­

CEC

1®¯&
Ca

Mg

K

Na

¯&
AB9

°±ª
;V

cm

H,O

KCl

y+

g g+g g+

cmolc kg+

cmolc kg+῍mgῌ+** g

&m

*#-,
-,#//
//#1/
1/#

.4-3
/41.423
.42*

-420
/4.+
.4.+
.4*1

+01
12
+0,
13

*4,/
*4+/
*4+/
*41+

*4*++
*4*,,
*4*,*4*+*

/340
014+
1,41
/*41

++41
,/40
++4+
24*

242
,+4+04/
++4-

*42
*4.
*4/
*42

+42
-4,
-4.
+43

-3
1/
..-

-3*
+/+*
+,.*
++0*

%$

*#,0
,0#/*
/*#01
01#3*
3*#+,+,-#-42/.4,.4,1
.4-2
.40*
.401

,43-4-,-4.3-4/-401
-41.

-0,
,+,
,1,
,,0
+00
+-3

*4*/
*4*3
*4*3
*4+2
*4-*400*4*+*4***4*+1
*4*,+
*4*,,
*4*+,

3/4*
/242
1-41-40/43
0+43

+*4/
/4.
/4,
.4+
,4+
+40

34/4.
.40
/4-4.4*

*41
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*4.
*4*4,
*4.

-4*
,43
-4,
,4*
+4.
+4,

,/
,.
+2
+0
++
++

*
*
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0**
+*2*
+00*

²m

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,/#.1
.1#1/
1/#

.4+*
.4,.4..4/,

-4-0
-4-1
-4.-4.+

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,0.
,/*

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*4*1
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104/
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++43
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,42

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0

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+*
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³´µC >Dῌῌ,
Table ,£¤¥¦>§ 2 [3T\+]4!

Physical properties of soils of peaty
un-reclaimed land in Sarobetu

-g cm 
&m
%$
²m

*4+./
*4++0
*4*21

¹¸

º¸
cm- cm-

*4*30
*4*21
*4*0/

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3#+2 m NH9? 2   b! Cc"def#? &' () g

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S

56 *

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.





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mῌ&m  =m =n! +

 %

? 

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    ?    u  /"C/0 +310 +31*   

@9m1 /* cm =/0 2  1* cm <=! " *.2#+., m, $% +,#+2 m

? 2  &'

 +310

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GHI

JK

! ,*#-* cm 'LM"NE

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V TU

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}9!:

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I ῍



 +,#+2 m> ' ? 2 

D : mm d+  ^:V k : cm s+ AF +313  *

H : cm GH6  9 ῎   ¡¢+

,-./-&'-.

 : E bcN  

῍ῌTable -

N&O

111

NPEQRST

E#ects of underground water table on soil temperature$+3/+ U' $V'
0X

1X

2X

W/O

N&O
$cm'

YZ

[Z

Z

YZ

[Z

Z

YZ

[Z

N\/

,*
0*

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,-4,.4-,.4,.42

,*4.
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,/4+
,/4,

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,,40
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,-4/
,.4,

+* cm NP

,*
0*

+.43
+04*

+043
+24.

+242
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+24/
+34-

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,,40
,,42

$]^ῌ_` +303'
῍ῌ.
Table .
gaObc<&d

ef&ghiEQRST

E#ect of the interval distances and depths of open ditches on the yield in
peaty paddy ﬁeld
$kg/+* a'

$cm'

0*

3*

$m'

,1

-0

./

/.

,1

-0

./

/.

+3,3
+3-*
+3-+
+3-,

.+40
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0+41
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/24,+041
1/4+
,34*

.042
,+.41
034.
-142

-14.
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0+4.
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,240
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0.4+
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+224/+43-243. kUDlhi
mM*

3*4+
3/

3.42
+**

3+43
31

2043+

2/41
3*

2042
3,

204+
3+

124.
2-

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mM* : pqhi=r?!g

0* cmῌ

-0 m 

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Uj

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Fig. +uv

st

N&OEQRwx

E#ects of cutting ditches within peaty soil on the depths of underground water table.
yz* $+303' {|}~



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112 kS,HkῌD*20..+ῌ,,- 
+3// 

 A :     B :#$"%

!"% &'%  % '

% ( )*+,-)% +313   % ./0123456789,
:;<, ,***  
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Fig. ,

8,% " o p9q (+_L8<
-·`".pe8=¸_¹ºE#ects of di#erent tube drainages on thedepths of underground water table.
{| ,**, ^r »

r:*`1Ps;% tu% Hv7`w K)%(+_k¢ Ka% ££302lWm+8`

% x@1PQ)Ap_yB)Ka% L

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^r% ¨©ª^6t ««?

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K&' 8x_bA )z8< rz% 3

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ῌ/
Table /

113

E:LVE*±²&³´
E#ects of the depths of soil dressing
on rice yield.

E >cm@

*

-

.4/

0

3

+,

g:VEµ¶*

+**

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+,.

+,2

+,/

+,3

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*12,*# ῎ X,)*#$=-;

 =*QR*

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R*>? +310@ +30- )abc56d

7e*8f  0F+, cm 9 -*῍ 
g:Vh">;ῒ/ ijῌkl >+303@@:*ANmn op*"<:+=q:L*>= > T$=?Q

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 v" E/*L  @rIw

MN  :uHxM1 =*QR*
ῌFig. -«

¬­q:RQq:E:Amounts of drained water and water
quality from di#erent tube drainages.

 10N " =Py " zC

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Fig. +

Flocculation of alkali-dispersed (left) andacid-dispersed (right) clay fractions of Uemura sample in + mol Lῌ+ NaCl. Reproduced with a permission of Japanese Society of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition.

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j7

X-ray di#raction patterns of alkali-dispersed clay fractions of the Uemura, Choyo and
Kawanishi samples (up) and those of acid-dispersed fractions (bottom). Reproduced witha permission of Japanese Society of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition.

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Fig. -

Electron micrographs of acid-dispersed clay
fractions of the Uemura (A), Choyo (B) and
Kawanishi (C) samples. Reproduced with apermission of Japanese Society of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition.

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124

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Properties of imogolite revealed by the
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the tubular structural unit of imogolite (up).
Conﬁguration of monosilicate anion on the
gibbisite-sheet.

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rivatives for the study of silicate sturucture. Pt. , !"#$%&'

Orthosilicate, pyrosilicate, and ring structures. J.

῏

Chem. Soc. A., 020ῌ022.

῍

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W[+3/3\ : abc`Oklmn`oh `p q + : ,+-ῌ,--.
Miyauchi, N. and Aomine, S. (+300) : mineralogy ofOP:QRST$U'

gel like substance in the pumice bed in Kanumaῌ ῒ ῐ ῎+21ῌ+3*.

and Kitakami districts. Soil Sci. Plant Nutr., +, :Aomine, S. and Jackson, M.L. (+3/3) : Allophane determination in Ando soils by cation-exchange
capacity delta value. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. Proc., ,- :Rich, C.I. and Thomas, G.W. (+30*) : Advan. Agron.,+, : +ῌ-3.
Ross, C.S. and Kerr, P.F. (+3-.) : Halloysite and allophane. USGS Prof. Pap., +2/-G : +-/ῌ+.2.

,+*ῌ,+..
Aomine, S. and Yoshinaga, N. (+3//) : Clay mineralogy

Tamura, K. and Kawamura, K. (,**,) : Molecular dy-

of some well-drained volcanic ash soils in Japan.

namics modeling of tubular aluminum silicate :Soil Sci., 13 : -.3ῌ-/2.

Imogolite. J. Phys. Chem., B +*0 : ,1+ῌ,12.

Cradwick, P.D.G., Farmer, V.C., Russel, J.D., Masson,

Wada, S.-I. and Wada, K. (+32*) : Formation, composi-

C.R., Wada, K. and Yoshinaga, N. (+31,) : Imoglite,

tion and structure of hydroxyl-aluminosilicate

a hydrated aluminium silicate of tubular struc-ions. J. Soil Sci., -+ : ./1ῌ.01.

ture. Nature, ,.* : +21ῌ+23.

Wada, K. and Yoshinaga, N. (+303) : The structure of

Farmer, V.C., Fraser, A.R. and Tait, J.M. (+311) : Synthesis of imogolite. J. Chem. Soc. Chem. Commun.,+- : .0,ῌ.0-.

and Aida, S. (+31*) : High resolution electron mi-Götz, J. and Masson, C.R. (+31+) : Trimethylsilyl de-ΐ2345267r

imogolite. Am. Mineral., /. : /*ῌ1+.
Wada, K., Yoshinaga, N., Yotsumoto, H. and Ibe, K.
crographs of imogolite. Clay Miner., 2 : .21ῌ.23.

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tially Scaled Hydraulic Properties. Water Resour.
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the Similar Media Concept of Capillary Flow ; ῍.

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Flow System Data. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. Proc., ,, :Reichardt, K., Nielsen, D.R. and Bigger, J.W. (+31,) :,12῎,2+.

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nious Soils. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. Proc., -0 : ,.,῎,./.

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Reichardt, K., Libardi P.L. and Nielsen, D.R. (+31/) :Hydraulic Properties : An Approach of Non-simi-

Unsaturated Hydraulic Conductivity Determina-

lar Media Concept. Advances in Geoecology, -, :tion by a Scaling Technique. Soil Sci., +,* (-) :+..῎+/-.
Zhuang, J., Yan, J. and Miyazaki, T. (,**+) : Estimat-+0/῎+02.
Russo, D. and Bresler, E. (+32*) : Scaling Soil Hydrau-

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Soc. Am. J., .. : 02+῎02*.

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Introduction

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Basic concepts : soil morphology

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Basic concepts : soil horizonation

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Basic concepts : soil physics

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0.

Basic concepts : soil organisms

1.

Soil classiﬁcation, mapping and maps

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+Iq3 T/47dJ.Ri/6 jk ! ,Part II Soil genesis : from parent material to soil

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2.

Soil parent materials

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144

++.

Models and concepts of soil formation+,.

Soil genesis and proﬁle di#erentiation

Part III Soil geomorphology+-.

Soil geomorphology and hydrology+..

Soil development and surface exposure dating+/.

Soils, paleosols and paleoenvironmental recon-

struction+0.

Conclusions and Perspectives   : ,**0  3  +,  : ,**0  3  +, ῎῏

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Journal of the Japanese Societyof
Soil Physics
November ῍ῌῌ῎

No. +*.
Contents

Foreword ῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌS. SIBUSAWAῌ +Original Papers
Calibration of Column-attaching TDR Probe Based on Dielectric Mixing ModelῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌH. MIYAMOTO and J. CHIKUSHIῌ /Microbial Transformation of Nitrogen in Cattle Slurry as Applied to an Andisol
Grassland ῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌC. MIZOTA, Y. YAMAGUCHI and K. NOBORIOῌ +Soil Salinity Assessment by Some Destructive and Non Destructive Methods in Calcareous Soils ῌῌῌῌῌῌA. AL-BUSAIDI, T. YAMAMOTO, C. BAKHEIT and P. COOKSONῌ ,1
E#ects of No-Tillage Practice on Nitrate Leaching in Sugar Cane Fields in Sub-Tropic
Area ῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌK. ASADA, A. HOSHIKAWA, M. KATO and T. NISHIMURAῌ .+Notes
Monitoring Soil Water Content for Kuroboku and Tachikawa-Loam Soils with Proﬁle Probe type PR+ : Laboratory Calibration and Field TestsῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌH. IMOTO, A. KAMOSHITA, Y. KATO, T. TOKIDA and T. MIYAZAKIῌ /+Special Reports
Water Flow and Solute Transport models in Soils
Introduction ῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌN. TORIDEῌ 0+
Boundary Conditions for Numerical Analysis of Variably-saturated Water Flow inSoils ῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌH. SAITO, M. SAKAI, J. À
SIMUÕNEK and N. TORIDEῌ 0Boundary Conditions for the Convective-dispersive Solute Transport in Soils
ῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌN. TORIDE, M. SAKAI and H. SAITOῌ 1/
Lectures
Characteristics of Peat-land, Relations with Soil Physical Properties
Greenhouse Gases in Peatlands and Wetlands ῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌO. NAGATAῌ 2/
Lectures on Features of Peatland and Mire Vegetation ῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌH. FUJITAῌ 31
Changes and Issues of Consolidation Techniques of Peaty Arable Land in HokkaidoῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌT. ISHIWATAῌ+*3
Reading of Classical Study Series“Allophane in some Ando soils” By N. Yoshinaga and S. Aomine and “Imogolite insome Ando soils” By N. Yoshinaga and S. Aomine ῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌS. WADAῌ++3
Physical Theory for Capillary Flow Phenomena” By E.E. Miller and R.D. MillerῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌT. MIYAZAKIῌ+,1
Readers’ column ῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌK. KATOῌ+.+Book review ῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌJ. KASHIWAGIῌ+.H. NARIOKAῌ+./
Announcements ῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌ+.1
Editor’s Postscript ῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌ+/*Japanese Society of Soil Physics
Division of Environmental Resources
Graduate School of Agriculture, Hokkaido University
Sapporo, *0*ῌ2/23 Japan