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Detection of Plant Adaptation Responses to Saline Environment
in Rhizosphere Using Microwave Sensing
Takashi SHIMOMACHI*, Chiaki KOBASHIKAWA**, Hiroaki TANIGAWA** and Emi OMODA*** Faculty of Environmental Studies, Nagasaki University,+ῌ+. Bunkyo-machi, Nagasaki 2/,ῌ2/,+, Japan** Graduate School of Science and Technology, Nagasaki University,+ῌ+. Bunkyo-machi, Nagasaki 2/,ῌ2/,+, Japan
Abstract
The physiological adaptation responses in plants to environmental stress, such as water stressand salt stress induce changes in physicochemical conditions of the plant, since formation ofosmotic-regulatory substances can be formed during the environmental adaptation responses.
Strong electrolytes, amino acids, proteins and saccharides are well-known as osmoregulatory
substances.

Since these substances are ionic conductors and their molecules are electricallydipolar, it can be considered that these substances cause changes in the dielectric properties of theplant, which can be detected by microwave sensing.

The dielectric properties (*.- to - GHz),

water content and water potential of plant leaves which reﬂect the physiological condition of theplant under salt stress were measured and analyzed. Experimental results showed the potentialof the microwave sensing as a method for monitoring adaptation responses in plants under saline
environment and that suggested the saline environment in rhizosphere can be detected noninvasively and quantitatively by the microwave sensing which detects the changes in complex
dielectric properties of the plant.
Key words : plant, adaptation response, salt stress, complex permittivity, microwave

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Dielectric properties of plant leaves andpure water.
(Water content of Suaeda japonica andCucurbita pepo was 23.2ῌ and 23./ῌ respectively.)7ῑῌ-e῍  e!
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mn CMl= j62' *.->- GHzop6qmn +#,-Application Note +,+1ῌ+, +33, = ?' @AB NaCl

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perimental observations. IEEE Trans. on Geosci-.     ! 9ence and Remote Sensing, Vol. GE-,/, No. /, Sep-"#  $%&tember : /.+῏/.3.

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materials.

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Kraszewski, A.W. (+32*) : Microwave aquametry  areview. J. Microwave Power, (+/) . : ,*3῏,,*.
Kraszewski, A.W. (+33+) : Microwave aquametry-needs
and perspectives. IEEE Trans. on Microwaveῌ deῌ

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Theory and Techniques, -3 (/), May : 2,2῏2-/.
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of microwave techniques in agricultural research.
SBMO/IEEE MTT-S IMOC ‘3/ Proc. : ++1῏+,0.

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Nelson, S.O. (+33,) : Measurement and applications of

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dielectric properties of agricultural products. IEEE% pq%<r%hTrans. on Instrumentation and Measurement, .+ !Lst<GHZuv&wxy!<(+), February : ++0῏+,,.

rzu"z_mn {Pethig, R. (+32.) : Dielectric properties of biological

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materials : biophysical and medical applications.

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No. /, October : ./-῏.1..

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Schilz, W. and Schiek, B. (+32.) : Microwave systemC LTH  vsGM ja%for industrial measurements. Advances in Elec-iE  C\ KcC j~TM~

tronics and Electron Physics, // : -,+῏-,/.

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Shimomachi, T., Okamura, N., Takemasa, T. and Taka-j$' .3 j$ kura, T. (,**+) : Nondestructive detection of water|#=TH{j$}Y iM 

stress in tomato plants by microwave sensing.

~\=iHTHKL=()*+¡ ,(¢£¤¥¡ ¦§-.¡ ( /Environ. Control in Biol., -3 : +1῏,/.
Shimomachi, T., Takemasa, T., Kurata, K. and Taka-¨¡ ©0ª¡ «1¬­¡®¯°2<±kura, T., (,**.) : Nondestructive detection of waterTH²¡3¯bp³iHT\stress in tomato plants by microwave sensing (,).

1s ´45µ!W)ῌ3 ¶ '´4·_
6¸ */B. *0B. *1B. ·_=M¹FQcH ºT
M³»=g\Environ. Control in Biol., ., : 2-῏3*.
Shimomachi, T., Ou, S., Ichimaru, Y., Cho, S., Takemasa, T., Yamazaki, S. and Takakura, T. (,**/) :Nondestructive Detection of Salt Stress in Tomato
Plants using Microwave Sensing, Environ. Con-

El-Rayes, M.A. and Ulaby, F.T. (+321) : Microwave
dielectric spectrum of vegetation Part + : Ex-trol in Biol., .- : --῏.+.

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J. Jpn. Soc. Soil Phys.

No. +*2, p. +++1 ,**2

§ ¨ © ª*Field Determination of Soil Hydraulic Properties by Using Soil Water Content
Measured from Dielectric Properties of Unsaturated Soils
Yuji TAKESHITA** Graduate School of Environmental Science, Okayama University,+ῌ+, Naka --chome, Tsushima, Okayama, 1**ῌ2/-*, Japan
Abstract
Some new ﬁeld techniques for measuring unsaturated soil hydraulic properties by using soil
water content measured from dielectric properties of unsaturated soils are proposed.

Firstly

in-situ permeability tests for unsaturated soils are developed. The constant head inﬁltration test
and the gravity drainage test were performed continuously. The transient soil water content
data during these tests were measured by a portable soil moisture device.

The vertical soil

moisture proﬁles during the drainage test were used to determine the unsaturated hydraulicconductivity. The inverse solution of unsaturated soil hydraulic functions was applied toindependently measured transient water content for wetting and drying process to consider
hysteresis phenomenon of unsaturated soil hydraulic properties.

Secondly surface ground-penetrating radar (GPR) system is employed to estimate the average soil water content proﬁles inthe survey region as a function of the dielectric constant measured by electromagnetic wave
velocities. GPR o#ers a simple and nondestructive approach for in-situ determination of soil
water content. The utilities of proposed methods are demonstrated by using ﬁeld experimental
data for unsaturated dune sands.
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ductivity values from moisture yield and tension$ +1  3.4$ +2  'P@QR ST

measurements on soil columns, Soil Sci. Soc. Am.

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tromagnetic determination of soil water content :(+321) : Parameter estimation for unsaturated ﬂow

Measurement in coaxial transmission lines, Waterand transport models

Resources Research, +0 (-) : /1.῍/2,.

A review , J. Hydrolo-gy, 3+ : ,//῍,3-.

van Genuchten, M. Th (+32*) : A closed-form equa-

Rassam, D., Simunek, J. and van Genuchten M. Th.

tion for predicting the hydraulic conductivity of(,**-) : Modelling Variably Saturated Flow With

unsaturated soils, Soil Sci. Soc. of Am. J, .. : 23,῍HYDRUS-,D, International Ground-water Mod-

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J. Jpn. Soc. Soil Phys.

No. +*2, p. +3,2 ,**2
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 !"#$%&'«¬ ­*ῌ ®¯°**ῌ ±²***ῌ³´µ***Inﬂuence Area of Stem Flow on a Soil of Deciduous Forest Floor
by Electric Resistivity Survey and the Evaluation of
Groundwater Recharge through Stem Flow
Jun SHIMADA*, Kyoko OHSUMI**, Kazuhiko OHBA*** and Atsushi MARUYAMA**** Graduate school of Science and Technology, Kumamoto Univ., Kumamoto, 20*ῌ2///, Japan** Ashisuto, Co. Ltd. Tokyo, +*,ῌ2+*3, Japan*** Agricultural Meteorology laboratory, National Agricultural Research Center
for Kyushu- Okinawa region, Kumamoto, 20+ῌ++3,, Japan
Abstract
The stem ﬂow is volumetrically much less than through fall and it was believed to be less wetaround a tree stem than the other part of the forest ﬂoor because of rainfall resistance of a tree
canopy and little contribution of stem ﬂow.

In the present study, the continuous resistivity

survey was conducted at the experimental deciduous forest along the one selected line for about+./ years’ intervals to observe the seasonal change of soil water content under the tree canopy.
The observation results were applied to evaluate the e#ect of the stem ﬂow on the shallow soil
water content around the selected trees.

The results clearly show that the downward soil waterﬂux under the tree canopy is ,., times larger than that of the no tree area in the study forest.

Byusing this downward ﬂux data with tree density in the study forest, the groundwater recharge
rate was calculated. The groundwater recharge through the stem ﬂow is nearly -3.+῍ in the
total groundwater recharge in the study forest, which is completely larger than the tree densityof the study forest (*.++/ m,/m, (+.+/῍)).

This result clearly supports the e#ect of stem ﬂow on

the groundwater recharge in the forested area.
Key words : stem ﬂow, soil water content, groundwater recharge, resistivity survey

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8

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22

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pF





Fig. , (a) Two dimensional of pF soil moisture distribution on leafed season in ,**-.

 :  !"#$%&'()#*+,-./012 345678

῎ῌ, ῌb῍,**- 

pF

 

Fig. , (b) Two dimensional of pF soil moisture distribution on leafed season in ,**- (continued).

23

24

  +*2  ,**2

῎ῌ, ῌc῍ ,**. 

pF





Fig. , (c) Two dimensional of pF soil moisture distribution on leaﬂess season in ,**..

 :  !"#$%& '()*+,-./ 012345

῎ῌ, ῌd῍,**. 

pF





Fig. , (d) Two dimensional of pF soil moisture distribution on leafed season in ,**..

25

 $%& ' +*2 ( ,**2

26

ῑῌ- 
Fig. -

ῌ *./ m  +./ m 



!

Seasonal ﬂuctuation of soil water ﬂux between *./ m and +./ m depths for under-trunk
tree forest ﬂoor area and for under-no-trunk tree forest ﬂoor area.

11.,ῌ )*+, " -../# . 01<+, -. , /=>+?ῌ/ @A

23+.+/ῌ 456 " +7+689# :;B CDE 23,,.2ῌ )*FG+# HI 0*+.- mmῌy #  JK+,:;B LM N῎OP+,C#

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/C

?"

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/C /++., m-ῌy DE  dN῎OP

]^

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I

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,-./ : 0123456789:;<=>?@ ABCDEFῌῌ.


a 
 !"#$%&'()* b +Fig. .

Seasonal variation of Gross rainfall (a), and monthly total upward and downward
soil water ﬂux (b) for under trunk tree forest ﬂoor area and under no trunk tree
forest ﬂoor area.

27   +*2  ,**2

28

῏ῌ/ 





Fig. / Groundwater recharge evaluation area in the study forest and the estimateddistribution of representative stemﬂow inﬁltration contribution area.

 !



"#$%&'(+,Herwitz, S.R. (+320) : Episodic stemﬂow inputs of magnesium and potassium to a tropical forest ﬂoorῌ ῑ ῐ ῍during heavy rainfall events, Oecologia, 1* (-) :-./0 ,**/ : 1234"56789:;<=> ?@>

A BC

D /2 : ,+,ῌ,+/.
) *.,-ῌ.,/.
Teramoto, M., Yonesaka, T. and Shimada, J. (,**-) :Inﬁltration process and groundwater recharge

EῌFGῌHIJ +33/ :!KLM" ,*0p. NOPQ *

rate in the pyroclastic ﬂow deposits revealed byenvironmental tritium and stable isotopes. Proc.

D #<RSTU ,**1 : D #< p. +2 D$

ῒof IUGG/IAHS Sapporo ,**-. A./῎

D+VW XYZ[\ V]$ ^_%`&a &bD+(c'V
d efghi (Ljklm( )*nop VZ[\7q +\Y

VrstuvY

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" v7x 8  VG"9vY |vYm rs¡¢[£¤,67  vY\[\ +Vrs¥:¦]+ | p V;§>¨+|[\?©&a7  wx"!Kª« x"(? " ¬vYv7x s­ ®q ¯_V*°V±²³ +῍ <=o´[\ "µ>v7p  ¶· ®q¯_V .*῍ ([m ¸\wx,?©&a7 : ,**1  +,  ,  : ,**2  ,  +- 

J. Jpn. Soc. Soil Phys.
῍
No. +*2, p. ,3-0 ,**2

 CSMT 
´ µ





¶*

Application of the High-frequency CSMT Method to Surveys
in Shallow Subsurface Regions
Shun HANDA** Faculty of Agricultural Science, Saga University, Honjo machi +, Saga, 2.*῏2/*,, Japan
Abstract
The surveys using the high-frequency CSMT system were carried out to make clear the electrical conductivity structures in the landslide area in Izumi and in the test-ﬁeld of Shirasu banks
in Satuma-sendai.
Although the survey in Izumi was conducted along a short line in a narrow ﬂat area, relatively
good data were obtained because of the short span of electrodes in this system.

The ,-D re-sistivity model indicates that a high-conductive layer possibly highly satisﬁed with water lies justupon impermeable tu# breccia.

Beneath the test-ﬁeld of Shirasu banks, it is found that the deep

layers on March are rather dry than those on January after rainfall test.

These results indicatethat the high-frequency CSMT method is relatively e#ective to survey shallow subsurface structures.
Key words : High frequency CSMT, Electrical conductivity, ,-D model, Groundwater, Landslide/0) 1234῏506 weῌsῌ*./+*+*ῌrfῌeῌe**++7/8 eῌe*++* r++ῌs++** Wm 7507 f 3 ,*MT ,Magnetotelluric : 9:῏"ῐ- 6 9MHz ;<#=8>0) ?@ ABCD3EFGH

9:4I7:4IJ8>0K LMNOPMQ ,Z-R:S ῍ ῎ T6 H, E UVWXYZG;T73 [ ,f- 7AB ,s- \[8>01]0) 17/ ^_3 +ῌe U]0`aQbM cQ

7aῌdeX "#Ifagh50G8,d- 7ij3 1 d 6 /*- ,rῌf- m 7]0 ,@ke e>0 ,Kaufman and Keller, +32+ ; ῍lm n

6opq[r-) MT 86 12astlm` ,s+333-) 1 Z adWX uvJwx ,ra- 6 ra+Z,ῌ

l`- yz7eXW0),wm- 8{|}20) @ke E+ZH 8>~ w 6[ m 69῎8>0)

QbM cQh} 9[aCD
017U ~ `}?8lm3st7]01

Maxwell G;T6 : ,E- 79: ,H- 3=U\

50\[:S73U῍8/0) 71886 "ῐ6[UJῒ50@U]~ ῑ] O

rot,E-+jwmH

῍

rot,H-+sEjweE

῎a0@U6W38>0) ee ῒ|QbM

cQ3[ +* km 7]0[ +** "

9CadW@`lm8 6 /* .

7 ¡0) @ke e 6¢῎ j 6£[¤¥8>0) +** m ;8>0) 117} MT 6 sl`3

 MT 86 dW}20[6W¦W +* kHzU§¨50lm7J©eX KU`

<#8>08 ῎ Tª«¬ , ­¢ῐ6®¯8

lmU°±8>0173I0) ?@ ²³ ,-*  2.*῏2/+, +
 :  CSMT   ,  ! "#$ %&'(   +*2 / ,**2

30

/(01&234

!5

&

"6#71&389)*&
$  /:3;+%$& ;< ,6',< ῌ+CSMT>) +** kHz ?

MT ,/:$-A. Controlled Source 6',&/,6 0$ CSMT ,3EF,& 2 /,+ Hz- kHz6!'J& (K45&()$9N O:N;.P(<=& > (91Q5  ?<R'?S6TU<VWXY$Z,b(& c2d 2*% , + k+/* kHz?S

7(OD5 CSMT >6j;;< *+@> ,**, ; Fq@> ,**/ 2 ?S O HI C9i9 JKs( +** WmL(= ) + kHz+0 & *+@> ,**,

BC , m 3; .D . m BC

GH+& ;< <I;U LM(

ῌ+

CD

$

12$3'F 2 6 7(85>H<.[ 

\ ]@^A( 7_`$aef6ghJ23(%QB)*+,& C9i ; Vogelsang, +33/ klmnEo*+p  klmn

Gr( 7$efJ&OD(,23>) $
MNtuJ&&( 2 

7vw

x yz{y(O +-+-* m &  P|;5>H<  Q}$~,+2 %5wA(

' v' ,HI$RSJ&

5Q . m?S6%&23$% .N

 %$>

7 XY(OD35& 8 Z,

6',& CSMT , %

%$9\5)>(<=H< ;>;$%&.

. DBC T (>+O D H<  3 ;>; )*<U

7VWH+p) [5{3,,(<, ?<  GH  ?

]( .0./ m 3^ $5&@_([Q5&<V 
.NJ >~..` m" a(OD35& ?< 74 .LI(91,<Vb,.DBC
6'1

7D_ %3c$dI e5 S$4f(OD35& )$ MT ,gS{6',& (hi&( bB$jQ ( 71&, Sk 7B4b1& c <V8

MT  +

$ ,* 6lI<=H< 7B( +./ 6lI$5&$mn 2

 CSMT ,6',<gy op $~,+¡¢ c*) _` 6q>) 2 /, r | s$~,+£t6¤9&- 

+332 u 1 ¥ +* v ¦§w¨ %x $% 9\5yx(;z; x ©(915{ª60«<  yx¬ª|­}®¯°± ,**+ ,**, u ++ ¥$ ;<$\?*<ῌ+~,²*< CD :,* m g  GH : c +0 m  

S)>$J&<V$ 

CSMT. ³ I ^ A 6

6vw;<  ´ µ $ 

66B&23(¶=& T_,.³
I6·~  2

$%H+)*&.³

I^A 22 ´µ $¶=5

ῌ +    

CD, GH          CSMT     AB
!"#$%&'()*+,& -ῌ. +332
Fig. + The survey lines in the landslide areain Izumi. An open circle and closed
circles indicate a horizontal loop antenna and the observation sites in thehigh-frequency CSMT survey, respectively. The geological cross section
along AB is obtained by Yakabe andKobayashi (+332).

: '(! CSMT "#$)*%+&',- (.)*/012+,ῌ3-

31

45.

6/017/8ῒῑ῏῍ῌ῎109:;2,< 3 ῌ= >9?@A=2,BCD 49:;EFG HI  GH D

3 9:;=

 +JKL=56-MNO >9?@A PQ

DI<R2, 7S$)D89= MT "30BC :T=(U;V 7
W XYZ(!

[\]9^[_/0<=>?@8<,NDI<V 109:;/0A67
3NO=  `]a:bc]def0/
>9?@A-BCMN 11  D(.QE
IFgCG"=KN , hi`]a:bc]=Kj 
>9?kHI Ilm : Ogawa, +321
JK?:^n]op q:rSLst 2,NM$ῐῌ, +  CD    F   ῌ
 +332     cd :    An :   Tb :  !

Fig. ,The resistivity cross section along theline CD shown in Fig. +. Numbers inthe ﬁgure are the site name. The stripelines indicate the slope covered withconcrete blocks. cd : landslide deposits,
An : pyroxene andesite Tb : tu# breccia, F : fault.

)Nu n]op/07r! [\]9^[* /O2U5. v!D7j wnxy:?z K!{U=PQN MT "|R}"2,N
DS~7-TN 11D/0 CSMT $)
UV7,ῌ3-45.6/-WCD7N I/I1

$)   CD X5. 1- m

K!

-PQNX x :xy:?z YI<,
7,O 109:;>9?@A=2,NNu
f0/ZA-BCD7N wnxy:?zZA [\/ ,**1 - hiV"2, ;@AI<,N M1wnxy:?zZAO=  ,ῌ34 - hik]2,7m707,- abMN 1 JK?:^n]op=KN -* ^  F DI<_  _ ."2 `+"- 'D7N1D-V

Wm S(@A/0307N rNP/N c)  deMNfg=7

V;2,< 9:;v!h/0K!h*

N-WViN U=ajJ&k wnxy:?zZA 8!-ViN- ῌ+  F DI<(`]a:bc]=K8<30>9?ῌ,k]-7N1D/0 11-MNDQl0= El= MT "FgCG"2,>9?

<,N ῌ +332 ῌ+  AB =8 -@A  U 7N rNPVDV=UVM¡:¢]£/0(-  <¤j ῌ, =,D{N 1X [\]9^[ - O2+Y

I(k]  1$)X(.=8<K

NO U <= ./* m =, I/I¥mIVMN 10PQ=ND D

1- m D,L',,ῌ3- 45.QEND <=` DQl0N- F Kj_ ¦,< §n-7,O  <= ,/ m XI."2 <= +* m o¨p7`  f

 ῌ- =  BCD 4=¦,< 9:; #D !+=Mj qJDQl= © l > 9 ? @ A    $ V  I  > 9 ? 

0N :ªc) 

xy¬­[ ®rs,-N (4=¦,<  Ilm+ KL= ;D@A;-S~W7N( V

MN 7¤ 9:;=I- ,±V F /0D«

/0tu0J-6v

<,N 11D/0 ¯°=¦,<  %Dῌ!=²X³wx*yj

WJ =K8<´ <,NJ ῌ (UJ=z{=µ¶I<,N& ῌ

1/0 D-`MN1D +* m <=X +332 D· |

<,N ¸¹ $ ) } 0/=

!"# $ +*2 % ,**2

32

ῌ- , 

    

Fig. - Apparent resistivities and phase calculated in the ,D modeling and obtainedby the survey, which are indicated by open squares and closed circles, respectively.

&'()*+,-./01234 567
E FGHI J&K 1 0 567 .

sXE4  ?:1(D LmYBLfg=@A .BCD

'LMNOCB(PAQR ++, STUAV
(NW AX&YB( Z Z[Z\] ^_`abcde-fg=hi1j4
.kl6- mn


v!wxy-zZ {Z Z6 |}S 4~E
F

89:;<=>?

opcqrstuAS(N A = !"AXiYBL
 .BC1( AAh 1L PAl1k(!"A

.kl6- `ῌ.

6   + ¬ +* ! - ¬ ,3 ! , ­ ®¯" CSMT

j4 §  ¨©D ªD «

DT  °±C®Y - m lD1i ,**/+, ¬ 3 ! +- S±C +0 ! +1 S´6T6 +,/** mm

(N¡¢£¤¥1¦²³1k( ²³c-`ῌ.
 Test bank 1µ¶4

j4 §  MOD, # L+ L,  ª «( :  CSMT  )*

33

+%$,-./012345

675%5

1
8.9: !"#; .9: !"#<=
5> ? @A9.B<5 CD!-: !"EF<#1G H6%-9IJ$KL%&
MG$F
.9:

?

!"#

@A9.BNOGP
S'(T

QR 8

12'(UVQ)*W$ ,**1 '( 1QXY+,%&ML+ , !"#-.4QZ/[\]^4Q

_ 0`a 42 0* Wm <4Q 5  b1 c.

῍/῍2L,

f9g2-.3QR
ῌ.



 CSMT L+ , -   !
"#$%&Fig. .

The high frequency CSMT-survey linesof L+, L, and L- in the test-ﬁeld of the
Shirasu banks in Satuma-sendai.
Closed circles with numbers indicate
observation sites. The directions of
the antenna are shown by arrows.

 d!eGh45$VQ iQ L-

 -9I5j56k$%lm78i4Q +/* kHz 9-9I :nG+o1

;<$%p1Q H -9IYG5q
51

!"#_$%  Gq5

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KL%&

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+ ; L-  -.&

P>   L+ , G /*
, 9

U

1~6J ,m P 
 L-  -/P  5  L+Lt66M +./ PVQ 

L+ , 1~6

J$1KL%&M0Gh  4$4 HS5,zv  S, Ek,-./0

IJ pGKP , 

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T4&

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CSMT



& & <T4&5"./'Ek5 675%51G JX41 L,

῍/* , JHXZ[421  5  =ῌw> C L+ ,  +,*+./ m, L-  ++* m P> 1Q  , kHz+/* kHz  +0  P

 +* $%5> D!-:aU42VW
./* m <4Q <ῌ0L+

 + }< - }V"-* m i%&MA1 Y,-.<JF\XY5%&M:]GK%6  H6t%q!9!J,z  NOG9 p
o2151QRP < 6  5  <^_>`zB¡9!¢Pc.



H%&M,-.$% £G9aJ XY ¤1 bKL%&McdJ

H<G:$  Dx7 + }¥e¦X0 f§Q + }< - }%&M¨©A1<P  , ª<ῌ/  ¥«Gg 0  V" ,*-* m  +** Wῌm +g -

uv ¬­,z 
J

Sq©2

>

S NOpq<9h°G51H<G:$ H<  G$1W³VWiTi ·©J %&MA1H< 5  4$4.  .+. m  +,* Wῌm P> t®«¯1

4$4 + - }± g / <g 0 ²P"  W<´³9,* m VF%&M²µGj¶ S

Kx  kS  Hg 0 kS>¸¸

Dx7kG%&M<$%&M, @¹$%&M5 HH ,FGj¶ KG

JtkV"=5V2 > lm nV":]1  +*2  ,**2

34

ῌ/

+ -  - 

Fig. /The resistivity pseudo-sections along three lines of L+, L, and L-, which observed on
January and March. The cross sections of the banks are also shown.

  L+ ,  L- 

+  - 

  ῌ/ *+'(, -  .!/0),12 )345

9 - :-;<! =>?@A
OP(), 

:%&#L- QRS:TUJ(),:

1( V1! ῌ0 

WXY-Z [\]

+  ++* Wῌm !c# -  +./ Wῌm ,`N?@(,)$) @n BC D5EF!

 !"#$%&'( )678GHI:J(,KL(MNJ(^_ +,/** mm ,P `5*D2ab:
dAefghi:j? keklkm

%6o0p qr 1@A0:/09s12t!u#OP

G!=O8Bb,KLOP vw^xy +*b,z{|OP( ^_}~Nb ty 5*ῌkeX* #b}p!{|b: .!0c+'(, +  0 mm, -  ,3 mm  "#$ - @{|OP@P w12 :P  ,* y*+#O] Q|| ,* 1- mm

῍/* 0P, )RS! A@P vw¥¦] + ,§JA @A - ¥/09s0b A*o"¨g@©

ª G:`NP}pJ( )),12 - «:V¬Nb ,)$:
P - ]ZWXY 5Q|­®

¯2C +* m E





L+ 

Z:¡¢'(,£¤]WXY])) , m EZ + - :?@=b), ^_¥!`0:t!|°±²³´: ,/ yµ¶¥ +  !



ῌ0
Fig. 0: 

CSMT   L+  + - 

35

The resistivity models along the survey line of L+, using the data on January andMarch. Triangles indicate the observation sites.

 !"#$% - &'%()*+,-./001./234&'2 (56 78 9

:;<5(=&32=>?@/2

A6#B'CD2 (E/  CSMT 

OPQRS Tῌ+ &<534&UR

CSMT



F'D2.@&GHI  JKL&32MN
JV=>?@/278;+WX./

&Y/5Z[\]Q]^ _`/EA6

5 (/@ab#c'deD2 Tῌ, f@ @f

MJg!2"#'h$D2iED'34& 8j , m D2+ +* m NE%k2

l=2m&no+
% 

CSMT



p&WXF#$+NE_J'(,)

CSMT &32 + "2(=+(f2 5\q; Z[_*A

OPQRSr Q+QGHIKLs&,

8j-+ &c_ t &".D2+X/5 uv0wxw123yz{|}#(=E<#_2 47& ~5 * 6_&32ED2 ((&N7< 58

2(=f@ 9ῌ8&32*

+ :;  <=F_56 de-+><_=?@ 8

E @f&'"5¢#A5 Q+QGHIKL £B¤C¥Q



CSMT

 ~5

*

6_2

56 -78+_(=+F'G + ©D2
((=f@ H +** m, -8j , m Q+QG
HIE -78+M +./ 78=78 +9)='"5 °± Mm&  M9²;=s& N³ ´+O' - µ¶m&+·¡5'+Q]QiDe&$¦E&'"5 F§#¨7<, IJIKª«L  ¬­®&"¯D"5

36  /2 : +.1ῌ+//.

ῌ ῐ ῏ ῍Kaufman, A.A. and Keller, G.V. (+32+) : The magnet- +333 :   p. --/.


ῌ

%


!ῌ"

# ,**, : $CSMT &' (   // : +33ῌ,*0.

ῌ)*+ῌ"# ,**1 : ,-.

- 89:;<= >?@

DEFGH pp,,/.
%

Ogawa, Y. (+321) : Two-dimensional resistivity modeling based on regional magnetotelluric survey
in the Northern Tohoku district, NortheasternJapan, J. Geomag. Geoelectr., -3, -.3ῌ-00.
Vogelsang, D. (+33/) : Environmental Geophysics, p.

DEFGHIJK ,**+ : ABC)*+ῌ

otelluric sounding method, p./2-, Elsevier, New
York.

ῌ

/01234567
ABC +*2  ,**2

,-, Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg.

L* ῌM +332 : +331  1  +* NOPῌQRῌ"# ,**/ : $CSMT &'[\]./012367ῑ^W[_`a]$%hijkClV7 mnop

STUV DEFWX Y Z p/,.

῎

CSMT &'[\b NOPSTUVABCcd efgW[qra] ABC7s eftuv!wxy]" ,* mz #[$ab[qra]{ :|}~{ . m `\`tuv %3{ &`2{xy] xy]3x fe7 'U

(tU`xy%{` [ )¡tsxy\`{*xt¢] `s ef £ ¤*t¥+¦[,§¨ 7© ª] , « ClCmnop 7 W%¬x ­U®- -./ Lts¯°[±$%6{²³`{*xt¢]´µs\¶y¨ $%

CSMT

yx

^t¡.· [±¨ 7© : ,**1  +,  ,  : ,**2  ,  +/ 

J. Jpn. Soc. Soil Phys.

No. +*2, p. -1./ ,**2ῌ
  °A±²*ῌB³CD*ῌ´ µ¶*Measurement of Water Level, Electrical Conductivity, and Sediment
Surface Level Using Time Domain Reﬂectometry
Hideki MIYAMOTO*, Jiro CHIKUSHI* and Taek-Keun OH** Biotron Institute, Kyushu University, 0ῌ+*ῌ+ Hakozaki, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka 2+,ῌ2/2+, Japan
Abstract
Time domain reﬂectometry (TDR) has been drawing a lot more attention as a way to identify
the interfaces in between di#erent dielectric media. To monitor water level (hw) with electricalconductivity (sw) and sediment surface level (hsed) in river by applying TDR, we developed amathematical model to evaluate these properties and veriﬁed its e#ectiveness by measuring thedielectric constant of conductive ﬂuid media and a soil material (sand) using TDR probes with
di#erent lengths. Although the determination of hw in extremely high-conductive media wastechnically incompleted, we could successfully determine hw, sw, and hsed with a probe in moderateconductive media. Judging from the relatively good agreement between properties evaluatedfrom the model and observed data, we concluded the TDR measurement could be useful toevaluate hw, sw, and hsed with su$cient accuracy for practical use within an appropriate conductive range. In actual application of TDR to a river monitoring, the calibration of the probe usedmust be required to conduct accurate measurement based of the model.
Key words : Time domain reﬂectometry, Microwave, Dielectric constant, Water level, Electricalconductivity, Sediment surface level+()*+', -./0(1234
56789:;# <=>?@AB'CDE;F

GHI'=J-.7K/E;L /'=;MN7

O', -P(/0QROFS?TUVWQX

YZ9-.Q[\E;]7^_` a(bacdE;<L7 9:;# `e` f!(GHI?g+hi7jekl;<L7:;# c+mn"oῌp'=;q9 -./0(MNrsQ#t'*o%uQv$E;FO', -.vwdx% y&`&;z ,{'kl|}~ ?CD7k(()5?g'=;5 ' vwQl|n;#*E;<L7 9:;# LJ MN'+>

 (/, #-.9, /-}=

/0', 1/!Q3L`FTUVW'%&'  

 -. Q2`-P3Q12E;<L

ﬂectometry, TDR$ 74kl|n;7 5 <789:;# F 5 67n:;n TDR   8Q4`F %&79,;kl|n;# TDR '=; %&, <¥ ¡¢}= £L`| -.QROF/:¤¦/§87¨{=kl|n;# /: © ¢Xª> "«¬*  2+,ῌ2/2+  0ῌ+*ῌ+ :          !

"Time Domain Re-

L­®$ ?#t@'}n| ¯

%&'( ) +*2 A ,**2

38

7B%0

*+ C>D7 +331 ,

E%F Krohne - EndressHauser - Vega -GH .IJK. L/>7 TDR 0 M
N.11O1245 34PO5Q>+7 1
RNS16T7J,6U7C VW
MN. L/=78X 16$O +.2 Y9>D5Z [\11]^:>7
456+7 ;_ ,**-
TDR

MN.1+7<=>+ B%0

?@S`@ W7 AWa AWBCSb
9cH5DBdE%efQgh45
+ i TDR D FG &jk j   !"# $

%&'() *+, -./"

ῌ+

TDR
 TDR

Fig. +




Schematic diagram of a TDR waveform
in inserting a probe partly into a dielectric material.

0123456+7 Cataldo
et al., ,**0 ; Thomsen et al., ,*** ; H ,**- %&IJ

KDIlmJK> Bn'#oDLM
1 pN%&BOPQRL/ DBSTO B $ eB A3U78X

q % r U s V 1  t  Cuv,6+7

W t* XW t, wx A-B MN. t+ >*+O

Thomsen et al., ,*** ; Yu and Yu, ,**0 ; YZ +330[ y8M>*+z= r OA3\{=7  Av ]^ TDR 1|S}$#~&7O_`IJK B # /j$ eeff > >"jBj 0

d=7B%0a=bc=7

J A> /+, <><hg1Oi>D7

9 t,  t* 

4H @j " > Wek@ 1>7
CA<>D7
Y 9 J <l : TDR

 =7

ῌcts῎,῍,L῏J5v>q/"tῌ> c ? -.*+*2 m s+@0 B%0>?!>7

eeff D8 D mnoOp>7
i(O+ G \efg ts = TDR#=Wj e:r"fQH5+ D8Os\

f=7t>Deu(esj{=7vI 7Wek@w¡0x 1+ 6¢y457 O£¤> zxB%0

7 O>7

RN{ %r|.8w¡0xm=7/§yO¨>D7
i >ª> ]^ TDR «}A`@O¥~=7 }A`@¦k(+f vef©>D7

j¬/



6­,D8 Wek@ DBI 7%r|.

O{+fA3 igh*+  WI 7*+z= rf ®57

£' ¯=7  A IJK B #

819:+6; <1=7 TDR/jWek@ eeff  2k:>°(i:RN:+6±²7# v

 D8Wek@hg1IJK%r|.8
w¡³j # =7³j:X(:+6CL

,

s
t
RRc

῍

R  TDR >1457%"´TDR 

$IJKWek@OU7 A IJK B 
XWGHhB m v> 8XH57B%0
῎+ #=  A $ eAµ" s IJ

·z= R c «

/ GH
qW

ST {4 L m  TDR
@"

seff

K t ¶  ,+  

 TDR

 Heimovaara et al. +33/  >?!>7

j¬

qWv>%"´ µ">D4¸7

J,6?!>7 

 ,**-,, ῌ



῎ + # , D¹

MH57#

/j$ eeff 0q :  ! "#$% +,-./0-1$ Topp et al., +32, ; Rob-//- nA &#' nB

sw





           




exp


32425 A &#' B 67

. /  ,8%&#'95:;<

=> .  , ?@"A.$ eff 

hw
L hw
 w
 a
L
L

0D2$ ew &#' ea
 hw m

39

2$

inson et al., ,**-b eff nA  A nB  B&#' ()*







 3242&#'8%



 ,BCDEF 0G".$HI"
&JF KLM  N"G"OP.$
%

QR.$S"  hw  seff  TQR

. /  ,X.$ Y Z[.$!"0U$ TDR

bc. Moret et al. ,**. ,0D2$ ,\]^_ Z a &#' b 0`aR-1$S 

hwL

 

 

 

 

U$"  de
T#$



VW-Q

-%%

"QR-1$/"f$,- 

e& seff gh'6%ijF.

/0-1$ )op-  Yu and Yu ,**0 0q

0kl"(mn- \ ("CD h sed m r-

+vwxy[z{ seff +,-R|
nAsbBnAsBb
sbeff
L} ~ "&$!, TDRX0)*2$ 3 (@"g  ,A
.$ + Yu and Yu ,**0 ,0D2$

S m+

sA &#' sB 5 A &#' B %-U  b)op-" *-X]^_ Z-U$ 8%&#'%st"u * .$3242 sa * eff //- esedhsed
Lhsed sed  w
LL 7 (q.  ,\&#' sw F  ,8% , ?@"A7 ("JFg  ,A esed  (.$

es 32D67 .f? qs

sbeff

bF.

hw b
L h w b h w b
sw
sa
sw
L
L
L

 sed +qs  w qs  sf$ /2X.$ +,0D2$

f$ /  ,  ,"*.$hw+ῌbs
L w

seff

//- b+ -U$ eeff?j%".$hseddf7-.D2$/

L  
qs 

 



 



"f$ /0 >.$#  8% , 

0D2$  ,CDEF / hsed

@"&$ b&}e+b-.D2$/%!geRj-.D2 "O.$/00DC"f 3/- )op-  b 0%"O.$]^- _ Z-U$  ,-+  balnswb ,\ a &#' bT1 ?

 -QR2$/0C$_ ZF +b-NG".D2$¡

eeff 

§ 

"O.$]^,"*.$alnsw,balnsefflnsw ln

hw/L
*
seff

)op!X)*"  TDR+** ¢ [
£WZ+**

Campbell Scientific ¤¥ ¦ TDR  ¨ *.,/ V ][W 1 +. ms $ 0-** ps =©ª« W£¬ ][W2­® 32

f  /2 sw "JF9 ¶G"+,0D¯°.$±²W³T3´)*®-U$ W£¬ ][W":r2$°µ¶·GHz ¸ -U$ Robinson et al., ,**-a+.1/&   +*2 ' ,**2

40

()*+ ,* mm ,-./012
3# +.* m4 56 7 89:  ; *.+ m ,-!<#= >?@;"89: #A%B1C $%& *..2 m ' /012"DEF( G H
8 L*.31 m '/012) %I*+"J?HK

LMNA%I*+"DE *..2 m '/012 O PQ$%
-- 

,-

;./

R) *..2 m '/0128

9: *.31 m '/012 >$S$3# *./, m 89:
ῌ , 





56

+. * mFig. , Schematic diagram of experimental stu#.

T+ +/

01

U%! *..2 m '/012)

VWJK  T -/F 34 3X-,  ;./

7 >2 H8 *.31 m '/01260῍, NA L*..2 m, 5Y .

)Z 6Y! *.+*/*./3 mm7Z

()*+ +* mm ,-8J.

9[\]^ U% _$ 89:`: a; 0bcde12 f1c1 <;=>?@ghA?Bi jkF lm

e12C1DE >? DE1FGno

ZFA @/0126 pmm,

qfrs.A%_F9h , Ht8J/012u !4v2IJwIxZKyLM

N _ /0120Y *.*1 m, 3# *./, m|}O >? ,-R)a "6HQz{~N56 8P 7 6QXQ:R9h ZS;!!<A%T8%

T+ +/

TDR 

;8%B1C

 DW   TW %I*+

H% CaCl, U sw*.**2 *.*+0 *.*.* *.*2,

" @S$%&  H8 Z }OVF6 GW

*.++, *.,** S m+; *.*/ m ,-KyL!

/012QpZ}O 8.X&Y<#= H8 Z

[ %I*+ +2 

DE *..2 m ' /012  ! *./+ m-+[]ῌ +32+ U%!

m- *.31 m '/012 ! *./- m- m- U

8\! *.*++ S m

  >$^_%3*%UO"#. $%&'(F ;!H% ` 8%@ G

TDR 



TDR+** e12(C1" TDR+** a) bBῌPCTDR B1C %I*+ 




.++ !

TDR "#*..2 m '/012 TDR ; hw*.,/ m 8%@G  ῍- NA !"#$% PCTDR

O%I*+!c DW #A%  /

dS#$%e Bzf)? _012gQ

 XQij kl A%_F!m 9G8?O ? "Q$ /*bcf1B¡h¢£ ¤I

 _$o+" F :§lXQ % kl

X_FNA p  p1Fh h1q ,  ¨©5H«lXQ/012gQ8%

 >? _

kl



kl v,\ ῌ tdrA%_F9h ¤I῍

XQ       .+  , X²#A%B1C

$%&p l t,t, 8?gHh hN <Fn t , \!"Q$"  % I*+!¥¦H,mª$h h 3%I

*+ U¬­®¯XH%°±!£Q$ HX
O O%I*+!3 *.,** S m+ U h h1"A%_F!³ pl t, Os
H ;!µQcO "´t

/012' ^¶9%;89:%I*+"·9h l t, ij¸¹HX > K¥¦¸uA%K L*.31 m 5Y / mm*.,** S m+ U#A%$%& "Pv

,

:;

ῌ-

: <= > ?!$(ῌ @ABC#$%DE *..2 m   *.,/ m !
#'( TDR )ῌ/" *..2 m #$% *.31 m

41



&

῍ ῌeff      hw  *  ῍ + ,-./

Fig. - TDR waveforms measured with a *..2-mlong probe in di#erent conductive solutions.

Fig. / Water level (hw) for the square root of
dielectric constant (῍ ῌeff ) measured witha *..2-m long probe and a *.31-m longprobe in di#erent solutions. Brokenlines in the ﬁgure indicate theoreticalvalues estimated from eq. (/).

0 FG t+

H& IJK3L!MN"OPQ

5QR5STU0 VWX0 G t,  YZ-P-H&/(30 [Q\K-]^(
_`UO(1.+,  ῌ.

*..2 m  2  
hw 345(678!#'( TDR )

Fig. . TDR waveforms measured with a *..2-mlong probe in di#erent levels (hw) of
distilled water.

a ῎ / 0 *..2 m #$% *.31 m ) G t, TUH& eeff h w ῍ ῌeffTDRb(1 5#0 G t , -H&^5

Tc *.,** S m+ !#'(῍ ῌeff .PQ5Q1 de!$Of0 +/9   2,.,0 /5ghi3jk!b(lm῍ ῌeff  3.*1 b(1 R ,!#'(< n ,-o/(45(67!#'() pP0 *..2 m 0  ῍ ῌeff  3.*1 $qr"Tc1 2  )-a῎. !./1 5#0

R  , 0  stu3v!w^

a῎. x 8y z0 {y z

Q+0 |!#'( ?G-./1 2 ῍ ῌeffhw 3[Q S0

G t+ ) !0 !G t, !/(3UO1 

!`0 *.32 m -lm!0 !G t+ #$%G t,

YZ3£¤"O1Kb(}~i3

 ! _`UO(1hw 3 *.+ m 8 |670  ?!)3!5cR3G t ,!5q0 :&3

 ῍ ῌ eff w^5¡¢-c1 T¥67-¦'f0 ῍ ῌeff {"!/(§@   + b(+0 R @ABC wr!$U¨0 hw

, t *  t + =<=¢- ῌ !¬­P®UO©1 ῍ ῌeff  ¯$`UO0 ¥( L TU0 -%°/(R3^(1 T3!$cP45(R0 ῍ 3$`

0 G t, !±0 !Y/(G t+&²'3r"QR©!ªp«#((³ p´PQ(1 ῍  µmK-]¶/(

+

42

,

ῌ0

 *..2 m   seff  hw   ῍  !" #$%&'(Fig. 0Electrical conductivity (se#) measured
with a *..2-m long probe for water level(hw) in di#erent ﬂuid media. Fitting
functions of eq. (2) for experimental dataplots are expressed by broken lines.

+*2 - ,**2

ῌ1Fig. 1 sw  b 

A parameter b for electrical conductivity of ﬂuid media (sw).

" #$%&) .ῑ0/ 01 * .ῑ1 )

2 b  sw  34* b )  
56789:;<=* >?@/ ῎ &

 !" #$1A  a BCD b )E/) F/G 

2 eeff &) J K & + LM) ῌ NO῍ ῌeff hw
&VW1A.ῑ/ /01 * ῌ ) 2

H I*.+,, BCD *.3-*

3= *,. , P QR CS/) TU ) /῏ &
&X1 YZ [1A) ῐ  \G /(4] ^1A74

_1 * .ῑ2 ) ^]`NO>NO) abcZ,6&d (4>5 :ῐ /!"1) /(4e hwῌL῏a BCD b &*fg) ehi /(4 sw &[1 .

jk/&l#(4m/) $/(4n

34* <B) . ) 2  34*&d%(4 E/) oONp& &jkqr/w(4'(534* ]` xyzc{5Ge5s7tu) abcNOvE| 5:N= * )^G

sw 

) 

/}~&*M CS/) qr  /}~5+,1A

+1<7&*M4 -,534* C=A) ῌ /7A&E) >> | abc 34LMO

[(4YZ/) jkqr /w1 g) ^

4* 1N1) e56;<489s;<4.J \X / &G5O ) *./ m m+ f

1) > &abc/*M4>/C) G 

s7* 1^ jk &&.4'(534LMO 4*

GW|0)F/G (4YZ/) <;.NO23.+- 

5/X(4tu 45J1756 4*

 G ?@^71A) *..2 m C=A) jkl#m/) 8  4BCD G 1

seff  hw &.ῑ0 /'(* <B) :/(4G /¢ 3=E) .ῑ0 NO

+,& ¡/L91A) BCDHl##&£(4'(534*¤¥1 *  56789) seff  hw .+.

/:;¦§1 * J ) ;¨© *MO*..2 m /C4^]`?@C .ῑ-)) H©5 /C=Aª<= *.) 6 89) c«¬-n­®

h w  seff /¯°(B(4E/) TU

 sw }~&

³1

῍ &]

/



5<1;) .=±>? t, @5²A/<
4>5d * >CD)´E56

 !" #$) ῍   b µ&

7 TDR /C4 +G 5]¶ :<;<4CD

·=

1A)

* <B) µ  12 b /  (4!

F A74* ^G) Hjk <= : >?@AB%2ῌ

ῌ2 hwῌL 

CD  -.

 sw 



43

!"#$%&'()
Fig. 2Estimated electrical conductivities of ﬂuid media (sw) for relative water level (hw/L).
lines in the ﬁgure indicate actual electrical conductivity of each ﬂuid medium.

 +2*
0JK+

BrokenE" *.*++ S m+ FGῌHI+ +32+

#$%&'KLMN

KOP, 'M'+ QRST'UFVWX
UY@Z /[+ \]%9P3456 )2^_
`)2+ 3456 789%)2abRc0
J2,
Dalton and van Genuchten +320 "+ TDR 0

-.R#d0123456
e5fg  789 LMAX m + h'ijk0

',
LMAX:

l

ῐ k%+
῏

    

ῐ
῏

ῌ3

-.%/0123456 789 L  hwῌL  MAX

mn0o' ῌ k+ ῍ k+ ῎ kpFig. 3

q)2+


 
 


LMAX:*.**0++   

  

῏
ῑ

Maximum probe length (LMAX) being
applicable to relative water level (hw/L)
measurement.

rstu"+ cv'Lw xy 3456%z {{/012"7|NP, }~N789  %

῏ k% *..2 m 934560 aR|2, ῒ3 "+ ῑ"+ ; b +LMAX )2cRJ2,  '+ 3456 x *.**/+ *.*+++ *.*,*+

῏ kM|
34560 a  b '+ ῑ*.*/*+ *.+**+ *.,** S m+ %)2 LMAX  [cN 4%+ #'L 0J2, LMAX "+ V

%3456UF%)2^_%"+ -.UF%NK+ { L%h
h%O)2PrstuR|,EN

2Q >T'i+ N
7KP3456 )2lR{'P,

Q UF *.*++ S m+ %Pi+ R +.* %N., 

2

¢£

¡-.78^_

L MAX " ..2- m 0J2, )N§¨+ ..2- m © 34560Jª+

E

NUF -.%/012­®2,©° 789%)2ab"+D¤¥%¦1%*..2 m 934560-. TDR «x¬ῒ+* %(), N+ Z ¯" + °Z ¯

mn0&' *..2"3456±²%2AB³´(), hsed RVP

m 93456%µPi L 0J2, z + ll0¡+ ´ t+ ´ t, "L%¶%', QR  +*2 S ,**2

44

῏ῌ+*
Fig. +*

 *..2 m  hsed   
 TDR !



TDR waveforms measured with a *..2m long probe in di#erent thickness ofsoil sediment.

῏ῌ++

Fig. ++



Sediment thickness (hsed) for the squareroot of dielectric constant (῍ ῌeff ) measured with a *..2-m long probe and a*.31-m long probe. Solid lines in theﬁgure in the ﬁgure indicate theoreticalvalues estimated from eq. (+.).

T *.+* m m+ UV) t, W)X
. Y5UZCD '. [)\ ;/ ] ^'. *.32 m  *..2 m  *.31 m   ῍ ῌeff   ῌ () hsed "#$ %&' ῍* +,-$+_ )

J`a5/
b

 t,

cd

4῍ ῌ eff  h sed "#+P῎++ ),-/ *..2 m  ῍ ῌeff '.

e. fg!)6h ^-<" 5ij)#

hsed klJ)$&!)mn/ <$&"#'

o. TDR )pqrst%u*.31 m oM/ z. ){|)M}~ ')d5)Jw&. Yx''(;yoM. *(+E

X/<< . *..2 m *./+ m- m-.

+,y-_g23' +)#-%uR\.E. ij/+5 -/0 06' 1*./oMy<1 voM/v/ . *.31 m *./- m- m-.

v<+,_g23'/ῌ ῐ

5 +/0 06' 1,.2
+ . g2]3 TDR )ij6TA)#- eeff  hsed456 78T %uR+\-). 

vX/ <5d )l.
῍ (cdbo. ῌ

ΐ"#+. P῎++ )%& 9/ %&%῍ ('%;)e. ῌ+y ¡oM<=c/

A456 CaCl, :78TCD)Mo. A456R+<O.
Y. << ,?@'06¢  v. £A῎6>3¤%¥)Mo. )%¥%¥CD'A456©ª4@«6)KLM<.

p¢^+~/ 6T

78' ῍ ῌeff )'. ij6

A456)d¦$&"#§!)¨?. <$&
cdA8+¬64-< ;/ 6T-HI )JKLM<+NO P῎

=B5CD '. 6TA456g 

-/ Xo. P῎++ %­C v/ z. TDR ) ¬6E ­C

῍ (J. 6h ῌij)J ;d5/

'. ij6A456E®D¯°)±y²E-U³?@cd. ){|)e. TDR ) 78T ij6A456)·¸5M<.
1

. 23. 

456῍ (+ ;<=78955:. ῌ5/ <>?@'. ABCDE6FG)

. ´\.Yµ¶F v

d5/῍ ῒ ῑ ῎Cataldo, A., Tarricone, L., Attivissimo, F. and Trotta,

#$% : &'()*+,-./ῌ012345,6789/:;45

A. (,**0) : Simultaneous measurement of dielec-

Friedman, S.P. (,**-a) : A review of advances intric properties and levels of liquids using a TDR

dielectric and electrical conductivity measure-method. J. Hydrology, in press and available atment in soils using time domain reﬂectometry.

doi : +*.+*+0/j.measurement.,**0.++.**0.

Vadose Zone J., , : ...ῌ.1/.

<=> +330 : TDR +,-?@AB:CD

EF

7GH%$ +2, +0-ῌ+0..

Robinson, D.A., Schaap, M., Jones, S.B., Friedman, S.P.
and Gardner, C.M.K. (,**-b) : Considerations for

Dalton, F.N. and van Genuchten, M.Th. (+320) : The

improving the accuracy of permittivity measure-time-domain reﬂectometry method for measur-

ment using time domain reﬂectometry : Air-water

ing soil water content and salinity. Geoderma, -2 :calibration, e#ects of cable length. Soil Sci. Soc.

,-1ῌ,/*.

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Heimovaara, T. J., Focke, A.G., Bouten, W. and Verstraten,

IJK> ,**- : L 5,6M:;NOPQ in J.M. (+33.) : Assessing temporal variations in soil
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Topp, G.C., Davis, J.L. and Annan, A.P. (+32,) : Electromagnetic determination of soil water content

Moret, D., López, M.V. and Arrúe, J.L. (,**.) : TDR

using TDR : I. Application to wetting fronts andapplication for automated water level measure-steep gradients. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., .0 : 01,ῌ012.

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inﬁltrometers. J. Hydrology, ,31 : ,,3ῌ,-/.

scour by time domain reﬂectometry, Proc. TDR

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J. Jpn. Soc. Soil Phys.

No. +*2, p. /-ῌ0/ ῍,**2῎

Evaluating Inﬂuence of Di#erent Cover Materials on
Runo# and Sediment Loss from Bare Upland
Soil Using Laboratory Rainfall Simulator
Taisuke ONISHI*, Makoto KATO* and Taku NISHIMURA*** United Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology,-ῌ/ῌ2 Saiwai-cho, Fuchu-shi, Tokyo +2-ῌ2/*3 Japan** Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Science, University of Tokyo,+ῌ+ῌ+ Yayoi, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo ++-ῌ20/1 Japan
Abstract
The use of composted organic matter as soil surface cover is recently viewed as a potential
application for erosion control similarly to straw cover. However, limited information on thee#ect of these cover materials on erosion from bare soil is available. This study evaluates twocover materials, rice straw and cattle manure compost, with a focus on the relationship between
soil surface coverage (expressed in arealῌ) and soil loss from bare upland ﬁeld. A clay loam
Andisol was packed into a +., m *.-/ m *.+, m soil box with a slope of +.ῌ and subjected tosimulated rainfall of ./.+ mm hr+ for +** minutes. The soil surface was either left bare or wascovered with rice straw (Oryza Sativa L.) or cattle manure compost at a surface coverage of -* areal
ῌ for straw, -/ arealῌ for compost, and 0* arealῌ for both materials. During the simulated
rainfall, surface runo# was periodically collected to determine sediment concentration andinﬁltration rate. As the coverage rate increased from -* or -/ to 0* arealῌ, the straw and compost
covers acted to signiﬁcantly reduce the sediment concentration. The observed reduction in
sediment loss from the covered soils resulted from the direct interception of raindrops andtrapping of sediment by the cover ; however, neither cover material was able to reduce the runo#
rate. The total runo# volume was higher for compost-covered soils than for bare or straw-coveredsoils. This result may reﬂect the development of a depositional crust over the soil surface. Suchcrusts formed in sediment-trap areas close to pieces of the covering material.
Key words : Cattle manure compost, Surface coverage, Runo#, Erosion, Surface crust+.

Introduction

Soil erosion occurs where the bare soil surface is exposed to rainfall. Plant residues suchas rice straw have been conventionally used
for erosion control and soil conservation insloping upland ﬁelds in Japan (Yamamoto etal., +33/). However, in recent times, rice straws
are chopped and spread over the paddy soil byusing a harvesting machine while the amountof land for rice paddies has been decreasing,and biomass-energy use of the straw is consid-

ering. Under this situation, the use of straw asan organic resource for upland ﬁeld soil conservation has become limited. It is therefore necessary to investigate more e#ective and lesslabor-intensive soil conservation measures using alternative materials (Nakao et al., ,**,).
Livestock manure compost has been traditionally applied to agricultural ﬁelds in Japanas an organic fertilizer or soil amendment. Recently, its application is accelerated as a renewable use of organic waste for sustainable farming (MAFF, ,**,, Shimizu, ,**/). Many studies

῏

54



were focused on the nutrient release performance of livestock manure compost in the soil
and/or on the improvement of soil physicochemical properties (e.g. Nishida et al., +33/ ;Kawata et al., +330 ; Kato and Yoneda, ,**+),
however, few studies have focused on the application of livestock manure compost and its
e#ect on soil erosion upon sloping uplandﬁelds in Japan (Watanabe and Kawabata, +32*).
From this perspective, an investigation of theuse of animal waste compost for soil conservation as an alternative to rice straw would bevaluable in Japan.
Some studies showed the performance of organic materials in minimizing sediment loss
and runo# (Foltz and Dooley, ,**- ; Benik etal., ,**-). Foltz and Dooley (,**-) showed agreater reduction in both sediment loss andruno# with a cover of wood strand (thin rectangular wood piece) than for a straw cover forthe same surface coverage, 1* areal῍. Other
than plant residues, Agassi et al. (+332) showeda reduction in surface runo# rate with highapplication rates (0*, +,*, and +2* t ha+ in dry
weight) of composted municipal solid waste.
Faucette et al. (,**.) demonstrated reductions
in runo# and sediment loss by covering the soil
with a / cm thick layer of aged poultry litter,composted poultry litter, biosolids, and yard
waste. They found reduction in runo# andsediment loss by covering with these composts
except for the application of the poultry litter.
Previous studies have also documented thee#ects of surface-applied livestock compost on
runo# and soil loss from ﬁeld plots (Gilley andEghball, +332) and laboratory soil boxes (Vadas
et al., ,**.) under simulated rainfall. Gilley andEghball (+332) applied simulated rainfall of 0.
mm hr+ for + hour to no-till ﬁeld plots where
beef cattle compost was spread over a sorghum
residue at a cover rate of ,-῍. The application
rates (dry weight basis) for the compost were
either ,..1 t ha+ to satisfy corn phosphorus requirement or +,0 t ha+ for that of nitrogen.
They reported no signiﬁcant di#erence in runo# rate and soil loss following the application+*2

,**2

of compost under the no-till conditions.
In the above-cited studies, the composts wereapplied to soil surface with huge amount (ῌ0*t ha+) (Agassi et al., +332) or to form grossly
thick surface compost-layer above soil (Faucette et al., ,**.). Too much compost application, however, might cause a risk of nitrate pollution of ground water and may create anaerobic condition following rainfall event (Faucette et al., ,**/) which is harmful to plant seedgermination. And in Japan, some studies pointed out that too much compost application may
cause the problem of excess potassium andphosphorous application to soil (i.e. Goto andEguchi, +331 ; Nanzyo and Yamada, ,**/), which
diminishes plant growth. Also, too much application of composts may rise risk of groundwater pollution by leaching of compost derived
chemicals. From this point of view, compost
application should be limited and a surface
cover rate might be less than +**῍. It is therefore important to evaluate the relationship between soil surface coverage by livestock manure compost and erosion rates in sloping upland ﬁelds in Japan. Investigations of the e#ectiveness of various surface coverages in termsof minimizing soil loss may help farmers to
adopt more e#ective practices, especially forsoil conservation purpose, of surface mulching.
Previous studies have reported reductions insoil loss with increasing soil surface coverage(Singer and Blackard, +311 ; Greene et al., ,**.),
however, the single e#ect of compost applied
at relatively low rate (i.e. low coverage rate) on
runo# and soil loss from bare soil remains
unclear. Also, the relationship between surface coverage and changes in surface runo#
and inﬁltration rate is still not fully understoodand requires further study (Ruan et al., ,**+ ;Greene et al., ,**.).
The objective of the present study is to evaluate two cover materials, cattle manure compost and rice straw in relatively small amounts,
from the relationship between soil surface coverage, runo# and sediment loss from bare upland soil. We also discuss changes in funda- : Evaluating Inﬂuence of Di#erent Cover Materials on Runo# and Sediment Loss from
Bare Upland Soil using Laboratory Rainfall Simulator

mental soil surface hydrological properties following the application of cattle manure compost.
Furthermore, soil erosion is complicated phenomenon, and many factors, such as antecedent soil moisture content and timing and intensity of rainfall, a#ect soil loss. In this study, we
employed laboratory experiment under simulated rainfall to control experimental condition
for precise discussion on interrill erosion as interacted by surface treatments. Also in evaluating surface coverage, a grid sampling method(Singer and Blackard, +311 ; Foltz and Dooley,,**-), similar to the photographic method(Laﬂen et al., +32+), has often been employed.
However, it can involve operator-induced andsystematic errors in determining surface coverage and be less accurate (Han and Hayes, +33*).
It is necessary to adopt precise evaluation ofcoverage to consider relations among extent ofsoil surface coverage, surface cover materialand soil loss. Recent image analysis technique
can help to improve accuracy of surface coverage evaluation and was employed in this study.
,.

Materials and Methods,. + Soil and soil-box preparation
In the present study, we used a clay loam
Andisol (.2.3ῌ sand, --.3ῌ silt, and +1.,ῌ clay)
as a typical sloped upland soil in Japan. The
soil was sampled from an upland ﬁeld of theField Science Center of the Tokyo Universityof Agriculture and Technology (TUAT). Soilpassed through a - mm mesh screen was pack-55

ed into a soil box of +., m in length, *.-/ m inwidth, and *.+, m in depth (Fig. +) at a bulk
density of *.0, Mg m-. The soil was packed at
a mass wetness of 1/ῌ using a wooden soil
tamper at an increment of +./ cm layers to forma 0 cm thick soil layer upon a / cm thick gravel
layer. A cotton cloth was inserted at the boundary of the soil and gravel layers to support
the soil structure. Discontinuities between thefour +./ cm thick layers were minimized by
disturbing the surface of each layer (Singer
and Walker, +32-) using a sharp metal rod prior
to packing the overlying layer. The box had aslope of +.ῌ (2), which is an upper-limit of thestandard slope for reclaimed upland ﬁelds inmountainous areas of Japan (MAFF, ,**0). A
metal ﬂume at the lower end of the box anddrainage outlets (f+/ mm) at the lower frontof the box were connected to collect surface
water and percolated water. In this study the
packed soil represents a ﬂat surface such as
seed bed, which is particularly vulnerable toerosion (Kleinman et al., ,**.), especially under
the high rainfall intensity. However, it is ourintention to evaluate di#erent contributes ofcover materials to runo# generation or sediment transport under such an erosive condition.
,. , Rainfall simulation
Simulated rainfall was applied using a nozzleoscillating-type rainfall simulator (Niebling etal., +32+) from +.2 m above the soil surface. We
used two veejet 2*+** nozzles (Spraying System CO., USA). The rainfall was set at an av-

Fig. + Schematic of the soil box used in this experiment.

56



erage of ./.+ mm hr+ for +** minutes. The rain
intensity had a coe$cient of variance of *.*within the +., *.-/ m rainfall area, as determined from 0/ small rain gauges with a crosssectional area of approximately +3.0 cm,. Meyerand Harmon (+313) reported this rainfall simulator can represent raindrop size distribution
and rainfall energy of gentle natural rainfall insouthern part of USA with operating waterpressure of .+ KN m, and water drop hight of,.. m. In this study, we selected water operating water pressure of -../ KN m, instead of .+KN m,, since former number could give us
more even distribution of rainfall intensity.
Also, height of the rainfall simulator was +.2m
due to dimension of the experimental room.
Thus, expected rainfall energy was a little bit
lower than the natural rainfall. For the simulated rainfall, we used tap water with a meanelectrical conductivity of *., dS m+.
Runo# and subsurface drainage were collected at /-minute intervals during the simulated
rainfall. Samples of surface discharge werecollected and weighed to determine the runo#
rate and sediment concentration. To determine the inﬁltration rate, the runo# rate wassubtracted from the rain intensity. The steadystate was determined as the ﬁnal ,* minutes of
the total +**-minute rainfall event according tothe observed changes in runo# hydrographs
for ﬁve surface conditions. Four replicates weremade for bare soil, three for applied straw, andtwo for applied compost.
The surface cover materials were applied byhand to obtain the desired surface coverage (*,-* or -/, and 0* arealῌ). This was done immediately prior to the start of the rainfall. Several
hours following the half of rainfall period
when rapid drainage from the soil had ceased,
undisturbed soil samples (n+*) were takenfrom the box using a stainless steel cylinder, /.+cm in diameter and /.* cm in length, to measure
the saturated hydraulic conductivity of thesurface soil by the falling head method (Kluteand Dirksen, +320).

+*2

,. -

,**2

Cover materials and determination of
the coverage rate
Rice straw (Oryza Sativa L.) and cattle manure compost that had been composed for six
months were obtained from the Field Science
Center of TUAT. Wood shavings and chips
were mixed with the cattle manure to control
moisture content. The carbon/nitrogen ratioof the soil was ++.- while that of the compost
was +*.- as determined by using a CN coder(MT-1**Mark,, Yanaco CO., Kyoto, Japan).
Dried rice straw was cut into lengths of +*ῌ+/
cm prior to application. The carbon/nitrogenratio of the dry rice straw was not determinedin this study. It is typically much higher thanthat of the cattle manure compost, and about/* (Nishida et al., +33/), or in some case morethan 1* (Fujiwara, ,**-).
Prior to the experiment, two di#erent methods to determine the soil surface coverage,
image analysis using ImageJ software version+.,.o, which is public domain software produced by the National Institute of Health, USA(Reinking, ,**+), and conventional grid sampling method (Foltz and Dooley, ,**-) werecompared and evaluated. Surface photographs
consisting of covered and uncovered regions
were used for image analysis. The separationof these two area-types was made using an
automated binarization routine implemented
to the ImageJ software. The threshold adjustment is similar to that described by Chen et al.
(,**.). For calibration, we took sample photographs of straw cover within *.., m, quadrate
frames installed at the soil surface. In the grid
sampling method (GS), a clear gridded screen
was projected onto a photograph of the straw
cover. The surface coverage is then determined by dividing the number of grids that
contain straw bodies by the total number ofgrids (Singer and Blackard, +311).
Figure , shows the relationship between application rate in dry weight and surface coverage rate. The plotted surface coverage, as afunction of application rate for both compost
and rice straw, is ﬁtted by a power equation (Y : Evaluating Inﬂuence of Di#erent Cover Materials on Runo# and Sediment Loss from
Bare Upland Soil using Laboratory Rainfall Simulator

aXb, where Y is the surface coverage, X is theapplication rate, and a and b are constants).
The dry mass weight of the cover materials
applied to the soil surface prior to the rainfall
experiment and corresponding coverage rates
are summarized in Table +. The error of the GS
in the obtained surface coverage is demonstrated by changes in the coverage rate ofstraw as determined by using two di#erent
grid sizes, +,+ and -0 grid points for the same
area (Fig. ,). The surface coverage rate of theFig. , Relationship between mass application
rate of cover materials (dry rice straw
and dry cattle manure compost) andsoil surface coverage. For rice straw,
the data were determined by image
analysis (IA) and grid sampling (GS)with two total grid point numbers (-0,+,+), measured at nine di#erent locations over the test area. The data presented by Singer and Blackard (+311)
with the GS (/,3 grid points) is also
shown (vertical bars denote standard
deviation).

GS with +,+ grid points are greater than that of
the GS with -0 grid points for each application
rate of the rice straw. The total number of grid
points was changed from +,+ to -0 by doubling
the grid interval after determining the coverage with +,+ points. The GS with +,+ grid
points showed similar result to the result ofSinger and Blackard (+311) that employed thesame grid interval as the GS with +,+ grid
points in this study. To achieve a more consistent determination method, image analysis wasused to determining the coverage rate of applied compost in the present study.
,. . Data analysis
We analyzed saturated hydraulic conductivity, steady-state runo#, and inﬁltration rates
among the di#erent surface conditions (baresoil, coverage of -* or -/, and 0* arealῌ for thetwo materials) using the non-parametric MannWhitney U-Test to identify signiﬁcant di#erences (P*.*/ or *.*+). In this study, saturated
hydraulic conductivity after rainfall had a nonparametric distribution for all surface conditions. For the runo# rate, a series of measured
data collected at /-minute intervals during thesteady-state was averaged among replicates ofeach surface condition and paired among all
the conditions to analyze the measured di#erences. Only the average values of steady-state
runo# and inﬁltration rates are reported foreach condition.
-.

Results and Discussion

Patterns of runo#, sediment concentration, and soil loss
The packed soil had a high saturated hy--. +Table + Dry weight of each cover material with given surface coverage applied on a soil box.
Cover materials and surface coverage as determined by image analysis

Dry weight (t ha+)
g m,

57

Rice straw-* areal ῌ(SC -* areal ῌ)

Rice straw
0* areal ῌ(SC 0* areal ῌ)

Cattle manurecompost-/ areal ῌ(CC -/ areal ῌ)

Cattle manurecompost0* areal ῌ(CC 0* areal ῌ)

+4/
+/*

-4/
-/*

-4*
-**

04*
0**

58



draulic conductivity (1.., mm hr+) that wasmuch greater than the rainfall intensity of theexperiment (./.+ mm hr+). Despite this, runo#
occurred during the simulated rainfall for all
the surface treatments (Fig. -). Runo# rates
during the +** minutes of the rain event are
shown in Fig. -. Vertical bars in the ﬁgure show
the standard deviations of replicates. The runo# rate for compost-applied soil exceeded thatfor bare soil. This result is contrary to thegeneral concept that surface contact cover may
reduce surface runo# if the cover is su$ciently
close to soil surface and not be carried away by
the runo# (Marshall et al., +330). All soil surface conditions showed near steady-state run-+*2

,**2

o# when cumulative rainfall of approximately-* mm was applied.
Figure . shows changes in sediment concentration during the rainfall event for each surface condition. Sediment concentrations were
calculated as the mass of transported solid
particles per unit volume of runo# water, i.e.,grams per liter of runo#. Sampled sediments
contained both soil particles and particles
derived from composted material. Very few
coarse compost materials were transported
into bed of the ﬂume, while ﬁner particles fromthe compost were mostly suspended in runo#
water. It was easy to identify the color of runo# water from the soils with and without ap-

Fig. - Runo# from Andisol with di#erent surface coverage and mulching material. Rain intensity
was ./.+ mm hrῌ+ (vertical bars denote standard deviation).

Fig. . Changes in sediment concentration of Andisol with di#erent surface coverage and mulching material. Rain intensity was ./.+ mm hrῌ+ (vertical bars denote standard deviation).

 : Evaluating Inﬂuence of Di#erent Cover Materials on Runo# and Sediment Loss from
Bare Upland Soil using Laboratory Rainfall Simulator

plied compost during the rainfall simulation.
In all conditions, the sediment concentration
decreased slightly with increased rainfall duration.
Progressive changes in cumulative sedimentloss for each surface condition during the +**minutes of rainfall are compared in Fig. /. Sediment loss from covered soils was signiﬁcantly
less (approximately /*ῌ) than that lost frombare soil, even with just -* (for straw) or -/ (forcompost) arealῌ surface coverage.
Sediment loss was greatly reduced when thesoil surface was covered at a surface coverageof 0* arealῌ. This held true for applications ofboth rice straw and cattle manure compost.
For straw-covered soil, we observed the directinterception of raindrops by pieces of straw.
This mechanism acted to reduce soil detachment by raindrop impact, and accordingly led
to a reduction in soil loss (Singer and Walker,+32-). As reported previously, straw lying across-slope can capture transported soil particles as a microsediment pond (Meyer et al., +31* ;Singer and Walker, +32-). We also observed theinterception of raindrops and capture of sediments by applied compost material. Fibers ofwaste wood mixed into the cattle manure compost contributed to the interception of raindrops. During the runo# event, some solid
composted matter was disintegrated by rain-

59

drop impact, while a portion of the waste wood
fraction was displaced from its original position by raindrop impact.
The relationship between the average steadystate runo# rate of each surface condition
during the ﬁnal ,* minute of rainfall and soil
surface coverage rates is shown in Fig. 0. The
observed changes in steady state runo# rates
were not signiﬁcantly di#erent (P*.*/) between the various surface conditions except
for the application of compost at a surface
coverage of 0* arealῌ, which showed greater
steady-state runo# than the other covered conditions and bare soil (Fig. 0). Cumulative sediment loss at the end of rainfall event for all
surface conditions and varying surface coverage rates are plotted in Fig. 1. Sediment loss
was reduced with increasing surface coveragefor both covering materials (Fig. 1). However,extent of the reduction in sediment loss may
have been smaller for the compost cover thanthat of the straw covers.
-. , Changes in soil surface permeability
The hydraulic conductivity of the uppermost / cm layer of soil decreased signiﬁcantly
during the rainfall event. The saturated hydraulic conductivity of the surface soil prior to
rainfall was 1.., mm hr+, decreasing to +1.-ῌ,1.* mm hr+ following rainfall. However, there
was no signiﬁcant di#erence (P*.*+) in theFig. / Cumulative sediment loss of Andisol with di#erent surface coverage and mulching material. Rain intensity was ./.+ mm hrῌ+ (vertical bars denote standard deviation).

60

 +*2  ,**2

saturated hydraulic conductivity of soil samples among uncovered, straw-covered, and compost-covered conditions (Table ,). A signiﬁcant di#erence (P*.*+) was only observed forsoils with compost application at -/ and 0*
arealῌ. Cover materials that remained on thesurface of the soil were carefully removed prior
to taking undisturbed soil core samples to alleviate breaking soil structure upon inserting

Fig. 0 Relationship between steady-state runo# rate (during 2* to +** min. period ofrain event) and soil surface coverage.
Data with the same letter are not signiﬁcantly di#erent at P*.*/. Rain intensity was ./.+ mm hr+ (vertical bars
denote standard deviation).

the steel cylinder. This could have enhanced
the saturated hydraulic conductivity of the undisturbed soil. The removal of covering material, both compost and straw, that acts as animpermeable media potentially enhanced hydraulic conductivity.
McIntyre (+3/2) reported a decrease in saturated hydraulic conductivity related to the formation of a surface seal. In this study, weFig. 1

Relationship between cumulative sediment loss (for +** min.) of Andisol with
di#erent surface coverage and mulching material. Rain intensity was ./.+
mm hrῌ+ (vertical bars denote standard
deviation).

Table , Comparison of steady-state inﬁltration rate and saturated hydraulic conductivity ofwhole core soil after rain and that of surface crust part. Average inﬁltration rate of eachcondition at the steady-state, 2* min to +** min of runo# event, is shown. Standard
deviation in parentheses.
Surface
Condition
Bare Soil
SC -* areal ῌ
SC 0* areal ῌ
CC -/ areal ῌ
CC 0* areal ῌ

Steady-State
Inﬁltration
Rate (mm hr+)*,*4+ a *4/
+34/ a *40
+34- a *42
+34. a +4*
+04+ b *40

Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity after Rainfall
Whole Soil Core (mm hr+)**Surface Seal Layer (mm hr+),+4. a ++41
+342 a  24+,-4- a +/42
,14* ab +143
+14- ac  24+Average : ,+42
 -41

+413 -43ND
*43/++4+,*43* .4+2
*43+ 2412

Mean values that have the same letters are not signiﬁcantly di#erent at ;* the *.*/ probability level,** the *.*+ probability level.
ND, no data.

 : Evaluating Inﬂuence of Di#erent Cover Materials on Runo# and Sediment Loss from
Bare Upland Soil using Laboratory Rainfall Simulator

observed the development of a seal at the surface of covered soils. Visual observation indicated that state of the surface seal development was di#erent between the bare soil andthe covered soils. Only the bare soil surface
showed the seal development over the entire
area of it. The saturated hydraulic conductivity of the seal layer was calculated using asimilar method to that presented by McIntyre(+3/2) :LtotῌKtotlcῌkcluῌku
where Ktot is the saturated hydraulic conductivity of the entire soil column, kc is the saturated
hydraulic conductivity of the surface seal
layer, ku is the saturated hydraulic conductivity of the layer beneath the seal, lc is the thickness of the seal, lu is the thickness of the underlain layer, and the total depth of the soilcolumn was / cm (Ltotlclu). The thicknessof the surface seal layer, lc, was assumed to be*., cm, as a distinct boundary observed between the thin dense layer at the surface andthe subsoil underneath. The surface *., cm
thick layer was easy to remove and separate
from the sub-layer. For each coverage condition, one sample for every replicate was used todetermine the saturate hydraulic conductivityof the seal layer. Due to this limitation in thenumber of available soil core samples for measuring the hydraulic conductivity of the seal,
we did not undertake a statistical comparisonof di#erences in the permeability of seal layers
among di#erent conditions. No data could beobtained for the soil with -* arealῌ cover bystraw due to structural disturbance of the surface seal that occurred when collecting undisturbed core samples.
The surface seal layer showed signiﬁcantly
low saturated hydraulic conductivity, withvalues ranging from approximately + to +* mm
hr+ in the bare soil and the three covered soils(Table ,). The considerable low saturated hydraulic conductivity of the surface seal resulted in reducing the soil surface permeability. However, this function of the surface seal

61

could be more signiﬁcant in the bare soil surface than that in the covered soils where theseal formation is limited to partial area of thesoil surface.
The steady-state inﬁltration rates and saturated hydraulic conductivities of core samples
are summarized in Table ,. For bare soil, thesteady-state inﬁltration rate was close to thesaturated hydraulic conductivity of the undisturbed core soil sample. There was no signiﬁcant di#erence between steady-state inﬁltration rates (P*.*/) and the saturated hydraulicconductivities (P*.*+) of the soil under all
covering conditions except the 0* arealῌ compost cover for the inﬁltration rate. The di#erence between the average inﬁltration rate
under 0* arealῌ compost cover and the average hydraulic conductivity of all ﬁve conditions was /.1 mm hr+. This is greater than thedi#erence between the average inﬁltration rate(+3.0 mm hr+) for all other conditions and theaverage hydraulic conductivity of all ﬁve conditions (,+.2 mm hr+, Table ,). Our observations indicated that wet compost clumps acted
to seal the soil surface and provided obstacles
to inﬁltration of surface water. The presence ofcompost clumps as an additional seal appears
to explain the low degree of inﬁltration observed for a compost cover of 0* arealῌ.
-. - E#ects of surface cover on surface hydrological processes and sedimenttransport-. -. + Sediment concentration - inﬁltration
relation
Figure 2 shows the relationship between inﬁltration rate and sediment concentration at /minute sampling intervals during the +**minute rainfall event for all soil surface treatments. Di#erent trends were observed for thecovered and uncovered soil. The uncovered
bare soil showed a decline in inﬁltration ratewith increasing sediment concentration, while
covered soils showed a sharp fall in inﬁltration
rate at lower sediment concentrations relative
to bare soil. For bare soil, only eroded anddeposited ﬁne soil particles were considered to

62



+*2

,**2

Fig. 2 Trends of inﬁltration rate with sediment concentration for each treatment. Dash-dot line
indicates average inﬁltration rate of all treatments at steady-state. Mean rain intensity was./.+ mm hrῌ+.

reduce the inﬁltration rate of the soil by clogging pores and developing seal. At the sametime, some of the deposited ﬁne particles werere-detached by raindrop impact or runo# water. Steady-state inﬁltration rates were similar
for covered and uncovered soils, with average
rates of +2.0 and ,*.+ mm hr+, respectively. For
average steady-state inﬁltration of all the treatment, as indicated by the dash-dot line in Fig.
2, the sediment concentration of soil with acoverage rate of 0* arealῌ was approximately,/ῌ that of uncovered soil. If the ﬁne soil
particles transported in runo# is a main cause
for soil pore clogging and thus for the decrease
in inﬁltration rate, the sediment concentrationof the covered soil should be as high as that of
the bare soil since both soil showed similar
reduction in permeability. However, the soils
covered by straw or compost showed rather
low sediment concentration (Fig. .). As mentioned above, some of the detached ﬁner soil
particles in the covered soil were transported
by runo#, trapped by surface cover, and deposited on the soil surface. In this way, soil loss
could be reduced, and trapped soil particles
locally form depositional crust that could re-Fig. 3 Morphological feature of soil surface
with compost application after rainfall.
Arrows indicate where transported particles are deposited to form surface seal(relatively smooth area).

duce inﬁltration rate. The depositional crust
was developed mostly in sediment-trap areas
close to the covering material fractions. Fig. 3
shows compost applied to the soil surface. The
photograph shows the partial formation of asurface seal, which is visible as the relatively
smooth area in the photograph.

 : Evaluating Inﬂuence of Di#erent Cover Materials on Runo# and Sediment Loss from
Bare Upland Soil using Laboratory Rainfall Simulator-. -. ,

E#ects of cover-material on runo#
generation
A decrease in inﬁltration rate under surfacecovered condition can be attributed not only tosealing but also to runo#-generation process
induced by the characteristics of the cover material. As stated previously, we observed suspended compost particles in runo# water forthe case with applied compost. These ﬁne particles may also have clogged surface soil poresand thereby acted to reduce the inﬁltration
rate. Barrington and Madramootoo (+323) investigated changes in inﬁltration rate for aclay loam soil under water-ponding conditions
by pouring sterilized manure solution onto thesoil surface. They found that a decrease in inﬁltration rate resulted from the trapping bysoil pores of particles derived from the manure.
Moreover, they reported that retention of manure-derived solids by pores was inﬂuenced by
the adsorption of manure-derived organic particles by clay components of the soil.
In the present study, the straw-covered soil
showed a decrease in inﬁltration rate with alesser increase in sediment concentration thanthat recorded for bare soil (Fig. 2). The lower
concentration of sediment was due to the trapping of sediment by straws, as the microsediment pond. Under rainfall, the microsedimentpond was puddled by raindrop impact. Particles were displaced and sorted according toparticle size during the puddling that formed adepositional crust (Le Bissonnais et al., ,**/) inthe vicinity of pieces of straw. Therefore, thestraw-covered soil showed a decrease in inﬁltration rate and increased runo# with lower
sediment concentrations (Fig. 2).
..

Conclusions

Two soil cover materials with di#erent surface coverage, rice straw as conventional
mulching material and cattle manure compost
as an alternative, were applied to a clay loam
Andisol with a slope of +.ῌ. Under simulated
rainfall, soil loss was signiﬁcantly reduced bysurface cover even with low soil surface cover-63

age. The compost cover at -/ arealῌ whichcorresponds to the application rate of - t ha+ in
dry weight could reduce the cumulative sediment loss less than /*ῌ of that from the baresoil. However, surface runo# from the soils
covered with rice straw or cattle manure compost was not reduced at coverage rates of -* or-/, and 0* arealῌ. Trends in soil loss describedin the present study involve a decrease withincreasing surface coverage rate, however,runo# behavior varied more with the nature of
the surface-covering material than with coverage rate.
The results of this laboratory study showed
an adverse impact of the surface cover, whichis generally considered to improve rain inﬁltration thus reduce runo#, on surface runo#. In
this study, a decrease in inﬁltration and related
runo# increase were observed for soil with acompost cover at 0* arealῌ (0 t ha+ in dry
weight). The increased runo# could be a major
factor to transport ﬁne compost particles into
downward slope, and then utility of the compost as organic resource could be degraded.
Regarding the e#ects of slope, rain intensity,and soil type used in this study on simulated
runo#, soil conservation beneﬁt is not assured
for the compost cover at 0* arealῌ. Further
investigations on the transport of ﬁne solids
and nutrients in runo# from surface appliedcompost under di#erent experimental conditions (i.e., slope, rain intensity) would be needed.
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J. Jpn. Soc. Soil Phys.

No. +*2, p. 012* ,**2



¶ 4

·*

Investigation of Leakage for a Small Earth Dam
by Underground Temperature Survey
Hiroshi YOSHISAKO** National Institute for Rural Engineering, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization,,ῌ+ῌ0 Kan-nondai, Tsukuba-shi, Ibaraki -*/ῌ20*3, Japan
Abstract
To establish a method to investigate leakage from small earth dams by measuring groundtemperature at a depth of one meter, its daily range and seasonal variation and the surface
temperature of the small earth dam body were measured at the Aoike Irrigation Pond in Kagawa
Prefecture.

The relationship between the ground temperature at a depth of one meter and theconditions of the small earth dam body surfaces, leakage paths and seepage surfaces was investigated through simulation. The results indicate that ground temperature anomalies causedby partial leakage from a low-height small earth dam can be detected by the measurement of theground temperature at a depth of one meter on the crest of the small earth dam during summer
or winter, when ground temperature di#erences are more likely to occur.

A method to set leak-age paths, seepage surfaces and ﬁxed temperature boundaries for simulation is also presented.
From the simulation of ground temperature at a depth of one meter, the width and depth ofleakage paths can be estimated by determining the conditions of leakage paths and seepage
surfaces that are concordant with the measured temperature values.
Key words : irrigation pond, small earth dam, underground temperature, leakage-./+

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ῌFig. -  ῌMeasurement line and points (Aoike : Center of dam crest)+ m  Result of ground temperature measurement at a depth of + m (Aoike)!"#$%&'()#*+,-"./ +m 89:;<=;> +  -/ ?@8ABC!

01234 + m &56# 7&56D53EFGEHI>JKL1M

M + "34NOPP# ,+.0 ".M8,,-  + m

Q3 RS8ABCM , "34NOPP

4G# ,*.0 R>J RS\]^ !_`"#aP
NOKefICMJ12 RSgh#aPip8qMrst2CM
,,,  + m

4G

!8TUM + m V<WXYZ[M4G8  8T>E + m Xbcd834
jῌ- 8T>Eklm;Xno ,2-+ R
S".M -2.,  + m  uvD54G8
jῌ+ , 8w34 , 8TUMxyz{|}~N

!8TUM + m &56XYZ[MOPP8o>E +332 V 2  1 &+333 V 1  ,+4G8  8T>E + m &<WX[M&@8T>Ebcd834  ,2-+ r8 D54G87&<WX34
jῌ- 8T>Eklm;Xno -/ RS".M -3 8T>E + m X 

12 -1* m

C47e8T>E7X34 +333 V 2
 -* &dXjῌ. 8w[jῌ. 12 7&56# 1.1 ".M8Q3 + m
&56#r *.+ ".M E kl  -2., @8T>E kl r 6.M  6 uv
 , PXjῌ/ 8w[jῌ/ 12  + m @8# +332 V 2
 1 & " +..  +333 V +  ,3 & 8# +.-  6KG2CM JC8Q3  6#HI> E + m #  6

 :  

71

ῌ. + m 
Fig. .

Daily change of ground temperature at a depth of + m (Aoike)Fig. /

Annual change of ground temperature at a depth of + m (Aoike)ῌ/ + m  !"#$%&'$()*+,-./

0+12345& 6789:;<=>?

,,. 

@A./*+BC ,**/

 45GHIJK LM45I

4N 4O *., m PQRS 5O45

TUPVW2 45IPQRS^_ῌ`a +31. &bcd efgh+
SY kJK&lm9*++nNonPp
uSY"

&v , m +w"*+BC 

X"Y& ,**/

3 D 1 2 EF

3 D 2 Z[\]45IJK

5BC ,.1 m i%.45j P
QRS *;CqrPsῌ0 1 t2sῌ0 BC

0+1234N&TU/45IQR&bcd ghx9efo*+yB z{Y  EFG"Y|

n:;+}~C;PX

289+? VW&T 

  1 m,  22 m G"Y({UJ:" + m QR*+ 

72

ῌ0Fig. 0







+,-./01 23456$7/ &')* *./ m 8" 9: ;<=> ?@-ABCD$
M4 N

 

 

Daily change of temperature of a bank body surface (underwater, Rokudoike)"#$ %ῌ1 &'   ()* *./m

Daily change of temperature of a bank body surface (crest, Rokudoike)ῌ1Fig. 1+*2 ! ,**2:(O,-  + m 

,-+   , . ,. , E

FGHI JK( + m )+L

M4PQRS1T$7/4U&

V4WK1XRT7/&' Y:ZD$[\]($ 8J ^_:ZT1()M `(MHIa"bcde fg:H$hi[jklm Yno[60#I 7 a4p/01Y:qrs$7/:/01tu 8J vw0Jxy

H|1+5i an 4PQRS$7/4U&$ [jk-}h/01t|1T$7/ [jk~/
:s$ + m )z{f"(6(67/&' :q&'n  [jk(}

 :

!"#

   

73$ #%&' ()%  *+ ,**- ,-.% A. Casagrande + m / 0123456789: # ;< D E =%8 > ;?7 " @A +33/<BCDEFG3)%#

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(,T
(,T
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, 
, 
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(y
(z,

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 # ;< D E M%8 JK a 8 bc'deD5f( )g Nhi # ;< D 8*g

῍2 ,F;<# "T#Ujk8+ +, moMpqrDs#%f῍ - ,#lm]n, -# . ,* t-DLMuv, JwD ;< E 8H;< #%f῍+xy^z{m|}#UD%#Uῌt-D> #,#~c-= + m ( )/-t-aa8 01=% X 

g  +333 2 1  ,+ 3c  D> # JK+** cm, Y 4 +,./ cm-/ cm, Z H- # 7a7at-D> #"N # ;< D E

b + m /Dhi;<> DEFhi8

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( )g hi;<F + m /9 ( :F ::gῌ)F : )g ,J;<V0D9Eb "= ( :g 8 ;< A E

N G3)%#

1FJKo1-. E=)%8 # .;<b01-.7 + m /hi;< 0ῌOjk D(῍+ 7,#+ m / 2

D  b(῍+ 7;< A C 2F + m /  jk  hi;<8(῍+ ,F / ;< # "= 

8 o JK(O¡8

 56 > ?18hi #¢ £¤¥¦" V3o § ;< C D o;< A C =%8 @PJKDLMNJK0¡N¢ £¤¥¦"# JK8 )~D ,.* m#%A ¨B©ª ;< D E oJK  a(>j«¬ ­C *+ ,**0c ®¯A)g ¡N¢¨B©ªj°>j5±ῌ>j ²_ ³´µ ¶·¸²_

V3o

ῑῌ2



 Fig. 2 Section of the bank body using simulation (Aoike)£¤¥¦"῍  +*2  ,**2

74

ῒῌ+  +  + m  
Table + Calculation condition (+) and calculation value of ground temperature
at a depth of + m 

 A

 B

 C

 D

 E


!"
'%(
 )* +,-.
  '% /0
+,-.

+,12
+,3  456
'%6
+ m  +,-. : 

#$
,4* m
+4/ m
+340
,+40
,.4,
,04*

,.4*

#$
,4* m
+4/ m
+140
,+40
,041
,04*

,.4*

#$
,4* m
+4/ m
,+40
,+40
,+40
,04*

,.4+

%&
,4* m
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,+40
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%&
,4* m
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,+40
,+40
,+40
,04*
,14-

,.4*

,.4+

 +,7&89: ;<=>?@ABCDEῒῌ,  ,
Table , Calculation condition (,)

 

 F

 G

 H

 I

 J

 K

 L

 M

 N

῏%F῎ !"'%(
῏%F῎)*
῏%F῎G*
῏%F῎H +,&89:
῏%F῎
+,3  456

'%6

<9!
-4* m
+4/ m
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,14-

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<9!
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+42 m
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IJK LMNK !"O+,7PQ9:=

RS=  ODE?@TUT ῏%F῎=VT@O>?@W?TCXV&

?@YZ[?@DE\<9!] ? ^_ `aLMNK+,7PQ9:b 

=VT@c deOfg?UT!"hdeijO + m =klCmn*U\Uop; =qr@sBUCDE\b +,3 TtuKJb v ῏%F῎O+,7PQ9: ;< 456ῌ'%6 c 456 '%6wJxJ=>?

=oRr@W?TG*NVdeCXRUTP9,

@sBUCDE\b yR 

O+,z=D}?R~  % %NK +,3O456 '%6wJxJ 0v 3
h+,3% c?OIJKC\b?R ῏%F῎CXV+,] O{ῌ3 =|\ + m 
O+,-.=T@+,7&89:= *./ m vSR LMO{ῌ+* +- =|\{ῌ+* NK ῏%F῎G* jT=bOC=DE\b  fg\b3h+UT \Uop῏%F῎G* O ῌUT,3

I¡oNb IJ=>? {ῌ++ NK ῏%F῎H j%=VT@O&sWC Tb,ῌ-ῌ- ῔῏῎ΐ῍ῐῑ¤¥¦§¤¨vRS©+,

T=r@¢£U¡bI¡oNb {ῌ+,+ m CSb­ ῏%F῎ DE9®C`a\b+- NK ῏%F῎ ¡ªUb«¬῏%F῎)*¡ªUb«¬=O T¯Jc¢£U¡bI¡`a=°Rr@O 3ῌ, =|\ 3 =VT@ {ῌ2oNb+,C T@¤¥¦§¤¨C8rR ²? ῏%z Cb³´O {ῌ+, =T@O K J

F῎¡ + m =µubklC¢£=¶ubyR 0 * m 0

+ m  *./ ±v0 - m +* m 0  L v0 -./ m 3./ m :  !

ῌ3
Fig. 3ῌ+*Fig. +*"
Leakage paths in the bank + m 

Relations of depth of leakage paths and ground temperature at a depth of + m

# $῎+- %&'( - )*+,-# - m+* m ./012# 34. 56' + m  789:;,. <(

E@FGH8IJK=>?1@A BCD

&/012/F@ 
LM= NOP8QRST U% VWX6'(

GH2@

=0YZ

[\

( cde^fghi#+ m  jik,-k0p\Tqr=8sK't

uvwxtyz8e& {|8}~z/
4 io]T75r= N0 4(]^4_`4a/8bRTῌ lmnioῌi#8g + m 8i
῍ + m  iGH2@



8N

   +*2  ,**2

76

ῌῌ++ 

+mFig. ++ Relations of width of leakage paths and ground temperature at a depth of + m

ῌῌ+, 





+m

Fig. +, Relations of temperature of leakage paths and ground temperature at a depth of + m

῎  

!"#$%&'()

ῑ  

01*23  456  *7,῏ 9: ;7<=>?7@AB !"C6  DῒNOῌPO *Q,ῐ

A. Casagrande.U>&'()0VW

7,%7cd 456 *Q,

῍ῑ

B +m
X

*+,- ." -/*8,ΐῌῒ

EF@GH3/IJKL'IM)@A*RST
YZ*[\- ]^_`a1-3 b

efTAg@eTh%ij*kBlm :ῌ+Fig. +-

῎

ῌ῍

!

 + m

Relations of thickness of leakage paths and ground temperature at a depth of + m

ῌ- "#$% -&'()*+,-./012 

Table - Calculation condition (-)

 3 4567&'8-77

-+ 

?@ABC,DEF- G῏ - C, + mL7&'5M-NO PQ 
5ST
Z[\]^Z_`M- 4ab$%c + m

9:

;

<=> 4
 4
 H> 4 IJK H> 4 RKU VWXY
<=> 4 VWXY

,+40
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L7d1SeL7;+5M- 
cG῏ - C8

2 , PQf^g`hijk<n   o <=> 4cdp 2 + 

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Table . Speciﬁcations of leakage paths(Aoike) H> RK

>u + m

2 ,9:; 4 VWXY3  ~Sw

+41 m
-4* m

UcG῏+ C8UL72PQL7;, <=>4cv;5M-N A. Casagrande

wxAy z  H> 4 IJK c ?{ J|}
LP-N + m

L7d1

1  +/   ,3 }L;5M- n



Hu *., m+33-

5 vY5H῏ - C

8Y + m

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78

ῒῌ+. 



+ m

 : 

Fig. +. Comparison of a calculation value and actual survey value (ground temperature
at a depth of + m : Aoike)ῒῌ+/ 
Fig. +/! 

Velocity vector and main leakage paths+,-,." ,/ 0123 45678
FG@HI@#/19 5: ;<=>?@" ABCD,E+.1 m JK@#

+LM

N1

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79 ,+2 : +,1ῐ+-1.
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1}~l KE,|k0`a8;&'* + m J

Fm Kn,o CgT)'*
.(f)JK'2'g'E*  + m J qrsquv *z{.(|

KX'gJ  ] K&'qrsquv
U m*

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64 +32-a :  &' > pp. .0ῐ/* @[ I\64 +32-b :  &' >ῑ pp. /3ῐ0. @[ I\* ^*64ῌῌ>{ +33* : /ῌa/OZxHN!*/HN

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jVW/Xkhi bc p. .0 */+0

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J. Jpn. Soc. Soil Phys.

No. +*2, p. 2+ῌ3* ῍,**2῎Amendment of Soil Physical and Biological Properties
Using Rice Husk and Tapioca Wastes
KOMARIAH*, Kengo ITO**, Masateru SENGE**,John Tawiah ADOMAKO** and AFANDI**** Graduate School of Agriculture, Gifu University, Yanagido +ῌ+, Gifu City, Japan** Faculty of Applied Biological Science, Gifu University, Yanagido +ῌ+, Gifu City, Japan*** Soil Science Department of Lampung University, Jl. Sumantri
Brojonegoro No. + , Bandar Lampung, Indonesia
Abstract
A ﬁeld experiment in a pineapple plantation at Lampung Province of Indonesia was conducted
for +/ months to investigate the e#ect of rice husk and tapioca wastes (cassava bagasse andcassava peel) used as organic amendments, on soil physical and biological properties. The
treatments included control, rice husk mulch, cassava bagasse mulch, cassava peel mulch, cassava
peel-soil mixture and black polyethylene ﬁlm mulch. The organic materials were applied
manually at a rate of -* kg m,. The soil physical and biological properties at the initial and ﬁnal
stages of the experiment were measured and compared. The results showed that the moderate
rate of rice husk’s decomposition process slightly increased SOM of surface layer that may had led
to somewhat decreased particle density and available water content enhancement. On the other
hand, cassava bagasse mulch decomposed within very short period after application and thus its
roles especially in soil physical properties were no more noticeable in +/ months after its
application. Due to the slow decomposition rate, +/ months was probably too short for cassava
peel to contribute in SOM enhancement as well as other soil physical properties. However, theapplication of investigated organic materials for soil amendment resulted in the more abundance
earthworm populations, bulk density decreasing, and the increases of macro pores and WSA in
general. The existence of earthworms in the soil is certainly contributed positive e#ects in the soil
properties, especially physical soil properties. But which soil properties that were most a#ected by
the earthworm activities cannot be concluded, since other factors such as soil microorganisms
could also play a role in promoting soil properties enhancement.
Key words : Indonesia, soil organic matter, Red-Yellow Podzolic, organic mulch, tapioca wastes,
earthworm+.

Introduction

Soil deterioration is an important problem inpineapple plantation areas, such as Indonesia,
due to the long period of pineapple life cycle
and the tropical monsoon climate. The ﬁrst
harvest time could take about +/ to +2 months
from seedlings, and optimum production could
still be obtained at the third harvest time, which

could take about three years. Long culture
period, high annual rainfall and high mean
temperature all year long in tropical monsoon
climatic countries result in decreasing of soil
physical, chemical and biological properties.
Erenstein (,**-) stated that soil degradation
process could be arrested by the application oforganic mulching. Organic mulching also gradually improves the soil physical and biological

῏

82



properties. Crop residues have also been widely used for organic mulching studies. Straw
mulches contributed organic matter to the soil,
hence increasing inﬁltration and reducing mechanical impedance (Tindall et al., +33+). Furthermore, Lal et al. (+32*) showed that applying+., kg m, straw mulch was e#ective in suppressing soil erosion up to *ῌ after deforestation. Application of plant residues as mulch in
the tropics is known to improve the soil microclimate, besides providing food for earthworms(Tian et al., +33-). Many studies have shown
the importance of worm activity to soil productivity and thereby to plant growth.
Organic mulching materials could be obtained not only from the crop residues of postharvest, but also from the waste of agriculturalindustries. For example, cassava peel and cassava bagasse wastes are generated in the tapioca industries during tapioca production process. Generally, in the tapioca production, +,***
kg of cassava would produce about ,** kg tapioca and almost 2** kg solid wastes (Trade andIndustry Dept. of Indonesia, ,**-). Meanwhile,
the area for cassava cultivation in Lampung
province, Indonesia in ,**. was ,00,/20 ha, andthe total cassava production was ..01 +*3 kg(Lukita G., ,**/). It means that there are abundant tapioca wastes, which sometimes evoke
environmental problem by spreading o#ensive
smell in the surroundings. The daily production of tapioca wastes is relatively high but
their utilization for industries and livestock
feed is limited. Therefore, the utilization of
those wastes for environmental conservationmust be developed, especially to improve soil
properties as soil amendment.
The studies and investigations of industrial
wastes amendment as alternatives for wastes
disposal and environment enhancement havebeen widely conducted. The application of waste
paper product by Brauer and Aiken (,**0) for
soil amendment near Booneville (USA) to decrease the risk of phosphorus (P) transport tosurface water showed an increase of soil
carbon content (i.e. organic matter) and the+*2

,**2

decreasing of soil bulk density, but had noe#ect on soil test P value. Seth et al. (,**/)
utilized +/ t ha+ of composted sugar industry
waste (pressmud) in a sodic soil to evaluate thesoil properties and rice growth and found thatthe pressmud and its di#erent composts signiﬁcantly increased the plant height, grain andyield. Zheljazkov (,**/) investigated that wool
and hair wastes decompose slowly under bothof ﬁeld and greenhouse conditions, and theirapplication of only -.- g kg+ for soil amendment may support crop yield, which became
double to ﬁve times bigger and would improvesoil biological and chemical characteristics.
Foley and Cooperband (,**,) found that amending soil with paper mill residuals signiﬁcantly
increased total soil C and increased plantavailable water by / to ./ῌ. The experiment
by Mantovi, P. et al. (,**/) using composted
sewage sludge for long-term application on soil
resulted in the increasing of organic matter,
total N and available P in the soil. Signiﬁcant
increases in total organic carbon and aggregatestability were observed in the plots amended
with two-phase olive-mill waste on degradedagricultural soil (Lopez-Pineiro et al., ,**1).
The researches about the utilization of various organic materials mentioned above, including industrial wastes for soil amendment resulted in di#erent e#ects. But, in spite of theabundance of tapioca production in South-East
Asia, especially Indonesia, the application oftapioca wastes as an alternative for soil amendment and their e#ects on soil physical andbiological properties are not covered in literatures. Therefore, the aim of this experiment
was to investigate the inﬂuence of crop residue(rice husk) and tapioca wastes (cassava peeland cassava bagasse) in particular, on the amendment of soil physical and biological properties.
,.

Materials and methods

The experimental ﬁeld was located in a pineapple plantation owned by Great Giant Pineapple Company (GGPC) in Lampung province ofIndonesia, lying on latitude ./3῍ S and longi- : Amendment of Soil Physical and Biological Properties Using Rice Husk and Tapioca Wastes

tude +*/+-῎ E. The site consisted of Red-Yellow
Podzolic soil with predominantly sandy loam
texture. The site used had previously beencultivated with pineapple for three continuous
years followed by one-year cassava cultivation.
The investigation was conducted from July,**+ to September ,**,. The experiment waslaid out in a randomized complete block design
with three replications. Each plot consisted of
two beds, measuring *.0 m+/ m, and a heightof *.+/ῌ*., m. Each bed was planted with 0*
smooth cayenne pineapple seedlings in two rows.
The experimental treatments were : control,
rice husk mulch, cassava bagasse mulch, cassava peel mulch, cassava peel-soil mixture andblack polyethylene ﬁlm mulch. The typicalsize of rice husk used in the experiment was 2ῌ
+* mm in length, ,ῌ- mm in width and about *.,mm in thickness. Cassava bagasse was in granular form with the diameter of bigger than *.2.
mm. Cassava peel was chopped in irregularshape with *.,ῌ*.- mm in thickness and /ῌ,*mm in diameter. The rice husk, cassava bagasse and cassava peel mulches were manuallyapplied by hand at a rate of -* kg m, based on
wet basis, and this resulted in mulch height of,ῌ/ cm. The rate of -* kg m, of application
was adjustable to the abundant availability oforganic amendments in the surounding. Regarding the cassava peel-soil mixture, cassava
peel was thoroughly mixed with the soil toapproximately -* cm depth in the middle ofJune ,**+. The seedlings were transplanted inlate June ,**+ and mulching was completely
applied on soil surface in late July ,**+. Pineapple fruits were harvested in September ,**,.
Total rainfall was ,,22- mm and total evaporation from evaporation pan class A was +,12,mm during +/ months of experiment period.
Maximum air temperature was ./.2 and thisoccurred on January -+st ,**,, while the minimum air temperature of +1.+ was observed on
August +/th ,**,.
Initial soil sampling was performed to obtain
the disturbed and undisturbed samples in late
July ,**+, just after mulching application ac-

83

complished. The ﬁnal soil sampling was conducted in the early of October ,**,, soon after
the pineapples were harvested. Soil sampling
was taken in the depths of *ῌ/ cm, /ῌ+* cm, +*ῌ
+/ cm and +/ῌ,/ cm with three samples for each
depth of each treatment. Undisturbed soil
samples were performed with +** cc soil coresto determine bulk density and soil water potentials, and disturbed soil samples were taken to
determine particle size distribution especiallyclay fraction distribution, particle density, totalsoil organic matter (SOM) content and waterstable aggregate (WSA).
The soil water retention curve at +*, -*,+**, -** and +,/** kPa was determinedusing a centrifuge apparatus (Kokusan H-,***B). Based on the standard methods of soil
physical analysis described in JSSMFE (+33+),
particle density and particle size distribution
were determined using pycnometer and thehydrometer methods, respectively. Clay fraction distribution with the particle size of*.**,
mm was classiﬁed according to the International Soil Science System (Foth, +32.). WSA wasdetermined using a set of wet-sieving cylinder
having , mm, + mm, /** mm, ,/* mm and +** mmmesh sieves arranged in that order. The WSA
was expressed as the percentage of soil mass
with the aggregate fraction of ῌ*.,/ mm. The
loss on ignition method was used to determine
the SOM content (JSSMFE, +33+). The physicalsoil properties mentioned above were analyzed
statistically using Mann-Whitney U-Test at 3/῍probability level.
Soil temperatures were measured using thesilver-copper thermocouple cords at the depthof *ῌ,/ cm, and soil moistures were measured
at *ῌ-* cm of depth with the Time Domain
Reﬂectometer (TDR) probes. Both of soil temperature and soil moisture measurements wereconnected to a CR,-X data logger and recorded
every ten minutes, the data were taken only at
one point at each treatment.
Soil biological property observed was earthworm population at each rainy and dry season.
Soil pits of *.- m*.- m size were dug in each



84

Table +

Treatment

Control(No mulch)

Changes of soil physical properties under various treatments

Clay Fraction
SOM
Particle Density
Depth
initial ﬁnal initial ﬁnal
initial
ﬁnal
(cm)
,
+
+
+* kg kg
+* kg kg
+* kg m-

initial

*ῌ /
/ῌ+*
+*ῌ+/
+/ῌ,/

+4+.
+4+1
+4+1
+4,-

,*4*
,*4*
,*4*
+04*

Signiﬁcance within treat4

Rice husk
mulch

*ῌ /
/ῌ+*
+*ῌ+/
+/ῌ,/

*ῌ /
/ῌ+*
+*ῌ+/
+/ῌ,/

04,
+/4*
+*42
+,4*

*ῌ /
/ῌ+*
+*ῌ+/
+/ῌ,/

*ῌ /
/ῌ+*
+*ῌ+/
+/ῌ,/

Signiﬁcance within treat4

-+
-,
-,
-+

//
.+
-0
-3
S

,4/+,
,4/.2
,4.-3
,4//1

*4,3
*4-*
*4-0
*4-/

*4/*4.3
*4.1
*4.S

+4+/
+4+.
+4,3
+4-*

+4*+4++4-*
+4-.

*4/.
*4/.
*4/.
*4/,
S

+4*2
+4*1
+4++4,-

+4**
+4+0
+4.,
+4-,

*4-0
*4.0
*4.*4..

*4.1*4-/*4-*4-+

*4-.
*4,1
*4,1
*4+.

NS
,400.
,4010
,4003
,4002

S

*4-/
*4-1
*4-2
*4-,

S
,401/
,41+*
,4002
,401.

*4-*4.3
*4.1
*4..

S
+4*+
+4*2
+4,2
+4,/

+4++4+3
+4-/
+4-1

NS
-+
,2
,3
--

*4,2
*4-.
*4-*
*4,3
S

+4*.
+4+*
+4*.
+4-*

+4+/
+4+2
+4,+4+2

ﬁnal

kg kg+

NS
,401+
,402*
,4003
,400.

,40/,4011
,40/.
,402*

S
+*4*
342
04+*4.

+4*0
+4,,
+4-,
+4-1

S
,1
,1
,2
,1

initialS,401,401+
,4013
,402-

,40/,40/,
,40.3
,40/,

+4+*
+4+/
+4,.
+4-,

WSA

NS
,401+
,402*
,4010
,403*

,400,
,4003
,4003
,400,

-

+* kg m

S
,1
,2
,3
,2

-,
-,
-,
-,

S

S

-+
,1
,1
,0

ﬁnal

-

NS

S
.4*
.4*
14+
04.

+34*
,*4*
,*4*
,*4*

,4021
,403*
,402.
,402-

S
.4,
04*
14.
14.

,4021
,403,
,4022
,4022

Bulk Density

S
-0
,3
-,3

--.
-/
--

S

Signiﬁcance within treat4

Cassava peel-soil
mixture

--/
-.
-.

S

+.41
+*4+
+.4/
140

,401*
,4012
,4023
,4023

NS
.43
042
+-4+
++4-

+/4*
+,4*
+/4*
+24*

,2
,2
,3
-*
S

.4*
/4+
34*
34*

,*4*
+,4/
,.4*
,*4*

Signiﬁcance within treat4
*ῌ /
Black
/ῌ+*
polyethylene ﬁlm
+*ῌ+/
mulch
+/ῌ,/

-.
-.
-/
-+

S

Signiﬁcance within treat4

Cassava bagasse
mulch

24.
.4,
/4*
/42
S

Signiﬁcance within treat4

Cassava peelmulch+*2  ,**2

*4.0
*4.*
*4.0
*4/,
S

*41+
+4*.
+4,3
+4-,

*4-*
*4,.
*4,/
*4-+

NS

*4/2
*40*
*4/2
*4/3
S

Note : Initial sampling : July ,**+ ; Final sampling : October ,**,
*S : Signiﬁcant di#erent at Pῌ*4*/ using Mann-Whitney U-Test ; n++, ; n,+,

treatment and the earthworm population (individual m,) at depths of *ῌ+/, +/ῌ-* and -*ῌ./cm with three replications were sampled andobserved using hand-sorting method (Svendsen,+3//). The earthworm population was thenanalyzed statistically using ANOVA followedby Duncan’s Least Signiﬁcant Di#erence (LSD)
test at 3/῍ probability level.
-.

Results and discussion-. + Clay Fraction Distribution
The clay fraction changes at *ῌ/, /ῌ+*, +*ῌ+/῕῔ : Amendment of Soil Physical and Biological Properties Using Rice Husk and Tapioca Wastes

Fig. +

85

Clay fraction change at *-,/ cm depth for +/ months(Initial sampling : July ,**+ ; Final sampling : October ,**,)and +/ῌ,/ cm of depths in Table + shows thatclay fractions decreased in all treatments at all
depths. From Table +, it is di$cult to informthe decreasing trend of clay fraction at each
depth between treatments since they do notshow a particular tendency in detail. Therefore, Fig. + that shows the percentage of clay
fraction at *ῌ,/ cm depth at initial and +/months later, is also presented to simply understand the changes. It is shown that the clay
fractions signiﬁcantly decreased in all treatments at *ῌ,/ cm of soil depth. It was assumed
that the clay was leached into deeper soil
layers. Water inﬁltration through the soil surface during rainy days may have caused theﬁne particles dispersion, therefore clay fractions leached into deeper layers through cracks
and soil pores. This clay leaching had caused
texture change from sandy loam to loamy sandsoil in the whole treatments. The degradationof soil physicochemical properties due to clay
particle leaching has been an inherent big problem in and around the study site. Due to thefragile nature of the soil, deep plowing is usually undertaken before the next plantation cycle
to bring the clay particles up to surface andthus improve soil physical properties. The

practice of amending the soil with organic materials at the experiment site was also aimed atpreventing clay-leaching problem. But, it has
been shown distinctly that irrespective of thetreatments applied, the clay content signiﬁcantly decreased in all treatments. Vinyl mulchthat completely protected soil surface fromwater inﬁltration during precipitation shouldhave prevented clay from leaching into deeper
layer. But the vinyl mulch, just as the organic
mulches, in this study could not prevent theclay loss because water dripping through theopen spaces of plant stands during rainfalls
transported the ﬁne particles from surface into
deeper layer.
The rates of clay content decreases especially under rice husk mulch were smaller thancassava peel, yet the organic amendment materials investigated could not play any betterrole in preventing clay leaching in this study.
Therefore, further study of other methods would
be required to overcome the clay-leaching problem during pineapple cultivation in the experiment site.
-. , Soil Organic Matter (SOM)
Organic materials are the main source of soilorganic matter (SOM), hence one of the aims of

86



organic amendment is to increase the SOM,
which will improve soil physical, chemical andbiological properties. But Table + shows thatwith the exception of rice husk mulching especially at *ῌ/ cm depth, SOM signiﬁcantly decreased in all the soil layers under the various
treatments. The rate of decomposition and theamount of organic materials are the keys todetermining the availability of SOM in the soil.
Fifteen months after application, the cassava
peel-soil mixture and cassava peel mulch treatments had not undergone decomposition andcould be seen physically in its original form
with the naked eyes. This indicates that +/months was probably too short for cassava
peel to decompose to contribute to the enhancement of SOM.
On the other hand, there was a speedy decomposition of cassava bagasse within a very
short period after application. In that case, thedecomposed SOM had already been mineralized
into nutrients and used by the plants, hence
SOM decreased at the end of the observation
period.
In the meantime, +/ months after its application, the rice husks had been partially decomposed with the remnant still covering soil
surface. Although insigniﬁcant, the partiallydecomposed rice husk may have slightly increased SOM at the upper layer (*ῌ/ cm). It is
expected that the remaining rice husks would
continue to decompose beyond the +/ months
study period to enhance SOM at the sub-layers.
According to the period and the rate ofdecomposition of each organic material andtheir role in SOM enhancement discussed above,rice husk can be recommended for use as organic amendment with a moderate decomposition rate.
-. - Particle Density and Bulk Density
It is shown in Table + that particle density
insigniﬁcantly decreased under rice husk mulching, while it signiﬁcantly increased in the othertreatments as well as the control, which experienced a negligible decrease at +*ῌ,/ cm depth.
However, the slight increase in the SOM at+*2

,**2

surface layer (*-/ cm) under rice husk mulching
had somehow improved the soil physical properties and consequently decreased the particle density. On the other hand, the increased
particle density under control and the othertreatments was accordingly due to the decrease of SOM.
It is also shown that bulk density signiﬁcantly decreased in rice husk mulch and cassava bagasse mulch. However, despite insigniﬁcant, bulk density in other treatments also generally decreased. That is probably due to soil
cracks that occurred during the dry season(low rainfall) when soil moisture was extremely low. Also, the decreased bulk density could
be the result of earthworms burrowing activities. Beside the burrows formation, earthworm casts could also played a role in thesigniﬁcant general increase of water-stable aggregate (WSA), as shown in Table +. Thus, thedecrease of bulk density and the increase of
WSA could be the results of earthworms burrowing activities.
-. . Soil Gravitational Water and Available Water Content (AWC)
Table , shows that the total soil water contents from saturation (* kPa) to ﬁeld capacity( +* kPa) at ﬁnal stage were generally higher
compared to the initial stage. The total soil
water content from * to+* kPa positively
relates to the soil macro pores. Macro porescause gravitational water to drain quickly andthe total soil water content within * to +* kPa
is called the gravitational water.
Except under rice husk mulch, there were no
signiﬁcant di#erences in gravitational water
increasing in all treatments. The general increase of gravitational water nevertheless showthat soil macro pores also increased in all thetreatments, which was probably due to thegeneral decline of bulk density and the increaseof WSA. Especially in the organic amendment
treatments, the di#erences of macro pores atinitial to ﬁnal stage were bigger at all layers
than the other treatments. Among all the organic amendments investigated, rice husk : Amendment of Soil Physical and Biological Properties Using Rice Husk and Tapioca Wastes

Table ,

87

Changes of Soil Gravitational and Available Water Content
Soil water content (m- m-)Treatment

Control

Soil
depth
(cm)
*῏ /
/῏+*
+*῏+/
+/῏,/

ῌ
* kPa

῍
+* kPa῎
+/** kPaῌ῏῍῍῏῎Gravitational Water Available Water

Initialﬁnal

Initialﬁnal

Initialﬁnal

Initialﬁnal

Initial

ﬁnal

*4/1
*4/0
*4/0
*4/.

*4/3
*4/1
*4/.
*4/+

*4-.
*4.*
*4-3
*4.+

*4-,
*4-3
*4.*
*4.,

*4,/
*4,3
*4,2
*4,3

*4,*4-**4-+*4-,*4,*4+0
*4+2
*4+-

*4,1
*4+3
*4+.
*4*3

*4*3
*4++
*4++
*4+-

*4*3
*4*3
*4*3
*4+*

Signiﬁcance within treat4

Rice husk mulch

*῏ /
/῏+*
+*῏+/
+/῏,/

*40+
*4/.
*4/+
*4.3

*40+
*4/3
*40+
*4/,

*4-1
*4..
*4.,
*4.0

NS

*4.*
*4-0
*4-,
*4.-

*4,*4,0
*4-*
*4-.

*4,+
*4,0
*4,,
*4-,

*4,.
*4++
*4*3
*4*-

Signiﬁcance within treat4

Cassava peel
mulch

*῏ /
/῏+*
+*῏+/
+/῏,/

*4/1
*4/0
*4/.
*4/0

*40,
*40*
*4/,
*4/-

*4-.
*4-0
*4-3
*4-2

*῏ /
/῏+*
+*῏+/
+/῏,/

*4/1
*4//
*4.3
*4.2

*40*
*40*
*4/2
*4/.

*4-.
*4-.
*4..
*4.-

*4-.
*4-,
*4.+
*4-1

*4,.
*4,0
*4,2
*4,0

*4,.
*4,.
*4-+
*4,1

*4,*4,*
*4+/
*4+2

*῏ /
/῏+*
+*῏+/
+/῏,/

*40,
*4/1
*4.0
*4/+

*4/1
*4/2
*4/,
*4/+

*4-+
*4-1
*4.*4.-

*4-,
*4-+
*4-/
*4-0

*4,0
*4,/
*4-*4--*4,*4,/
*4,/
*4,0

*῏ /
/῏+*
+*῏+/
+/῏,/

*4/3
*4/0
*4.1
*4.2

*40+
*4/2
*4//
*4/+

*4-+
*4-.
*4-,
*4-+

*4,+
*4,1
*4-*4--*4,0*4,/*4-*4-**4,1*4,3*4,*4+2*4-+*4,**4**4*1

*4,,
*4,.
*4,2
*4,1

*4+2
*4,,
*4-+
*4-*

*4*3
*4*3
*4++
*4+*

*4*3
*4*3
*4*3
*4+*
NS

*4,+
*4,.
*4+*
*4++

*4,2
*4,+
*4+/
*4+1

*4+*
*4*2
*4*3
*4+*
NS

*4+*
*4*3
*4+*
*4++

NS

*4,3
*4-,
*4.,
*4.,

Signiﬁcance within treat4

*4+*
*4+*
*4+,
*4+,

NS

*4-0
*4-.
*4.,
*4.*

*4+3
*4*3
*4+*
*4+*
NS

*4,2
*4,2
*4+,
*4+0

*4,*4,+*4*/*4*/

Signiﬁcance within treat4

Cassava peel-soil
mixture

*4+.
*4+2
*4+,
*4+,

NS

Signiﬁcance within treat4Blackpolyethylene
mulch

*4,+
*4,.
*4,3
*4*3
S

Signiﬁcance within treat4

Cassava bagasse
mulch

S

*4+*
*4*3
*4*3
*4++
NS

*4-,
*4,1
*4+*4*3
NS

*4+*
*4++
*4*.
*4*.

*4++
*4*3
*4++
*4+,
S

Note : Initial sampling : July ,**+ ; Final sampling : October ,**,
*S : Signiﬁcantly di#erent at Pῌ*4*/ using Mann-Whitney U-Test ; n++, ; n,+,mulch resulted in signiﬁcantly more macropores than cassava bagasse and cassava peel
application treatments.
The available water contents (AWC) decreased
or stable in general, except at the surface layerof rice husk mulching and in the deeper layerof cassava peel-soil mixture treatment. The
increased AWC at surface layer of rice husk
mulching is assumed due to the slight SOM
increasing. It is generally shown that the in-

88

Fig. ,+*2

,**2Population of earthworms at each season(nῌ3 ; rainy season sampling ; February ,**, ; dry season sampling : July, ,**, ;a,b,c,d : Means with di#erent letters in the same depth for earthworm population
are signiﬁcantly di#erent with Duncan’s statistical test at Pῌ*.*/)

vestigated organic amendments, especially forsoil mulching insigniﬁcantly a#ected AWC.
However, the current results show that amending cassava peel by mixing it into soil greatly
enhanced the AWC especially at deeper layers.
-. / Water-Stable Aggregate (WSA) and
Earthworms Population
The percentage of soil mass with the aggregate fraction ῌ*.,/mm (water-stable aggregate/
WSA) signiﬁcantly increased in all the treatments including control and black polyethylene ﬁlm mulch as shown in Table +. Since
WSA is also derived from earthworm casts, thesigniﬁcant general WSA increase in the present study somehow related to the earthworm
activities (Fig. ,).
Figure , shows the earthworm populations
in each treatment at three depths (*ῌ+/, +/ῌ-*,-*ῌ./ cm) during the rainy season and dry
season, respectively. Soil moisture and soil
temperature (Table -) are the soil properties
that might be most a#ected by the seasons.
But it is shown that those of the properties do
not correlate well to that of the earthworm
populations. However, earthworm populations
were signiﬁcantly higher in the organic : Amendment of Soil Physical and Biological Properties Using Rice Husk and Tapioca Wastes

89

Table - Mean Soil Moisture and Soil Temperature During Each Season
Soil moisture (m- m-)Treatment
Control (No mulch)
Rice husk mulch
Cassava peel mulch
Cassava bagasse mulchBlack polyethylene mulch
Cassava peel-soil mixture

Soil temperature ()Rainy season

Dry season

Rainy season

Dry season

*4-.3
*4-./
*4--.
*4-1*
*4--1
*4-.+

*4-+*4-,0
*4-*3
*4-+,
*4-*,
*4-++

,04,
,040
,041
,040
,14,04-,04,04+
,04/
,04,
,043
,/43

Note : Soil moisture was measured at *ῌ-* cm depth ; soil temperature was measured
at *ῌ,/ cm depth4
Rainy season is Feb4 ,**, ; dry season is Jul4 ,**,

amendment treatments within *ῌ+/ cm depth
during rainy season. The earthworm populations were also rather higher in the organic
amendment treatments during dry season although insigniﬁcant. The higher earthworm
populations in both seasons in organic amendment treatments showed that organic amendments provided food source for earthworms.
The abundance of earthworms in general positively a#ected soil physical properties.
..

Conclusions

Each investigated organic material for soil
amendment resulted in di#erent e#ects on soil
properties +/ months after their application in
the experimental ﬁeld. Speciﬁcally, the moderate rate of rice husk’s decomposition processslightly increased SOM of surface layer that
may had led to somewhat decreased particle
density and available water content enhancement. On the other hand, cassava bagassemulch decomposed within very short period
after application, and thus its roles especiallyin soil physical properties were no more noticeable in +/ months after its application. Due tothe slow decomposition rate, +/ months wasprobably too short for cassava peel to contribute in SOM enhancement as well as other soil
physical properties. However, the applicationof investigated organic materials for soil
amendment resulted in the more abundance
earthworm populations, bulk density decreas-ing, and the increases of macro pores and WSA
in general.
Organic amendments provided food sourcefor earthworms, and thus the earthworm populations were rather higher in those treatments.
The existence and activities of earthworms inthe soil certainly contributed positive e#ects inthe soil properties, especially soil physical properties enhancement.
References
Brauer, D. and Aiken, G. (,**0) : E#ects of a waste
paper product on soil phosphorus, carbon andbulk density. J. Environ Qual., -/ (-) : 232ῌ3*,.
Erenstein, O. (,**-) : Small holder conservation farming in the tropics and sub-tropics : a guide to
the development and dissemination of mulching with crop residues and cover crops. Agriculture Ecosystems and Environment, +** :+1ῌ-1.
Foley, B. J. and Cooperband, L.R. (,**,) : Paper millresidual and compost e#ects on soil carbon
and physical properties. J Environ Qual., -+ (0) :,*20ῌ3/.
Foth, H. D. (+32.) : Fundamentals of Soil Science.
John Wiley and Sons. United States of America.
JSSMFE. (+33+) : Practice book for soil experiment(in Japanese). Japan Society of Soil Mechanics
and Foundation Engineering. Japan.
Lal, R., De Vleeschauwer, D. and Nganje. R.M. (+32*) :Changes in properties of a newly cleared tropical Alﬁsol as a#ected by mulching. Soil Sci.
Soc. Am. J., .. : 2,1ῌ2--.
Lopez-Pineiro, A., Murillo, S., Barreto, C., Munoz, A.,
Rato, J.M., Albarran, A. and Garcia, A. (,**1) :  +*2  ,**2

90

Changes in organic matter and residual e#ectof amendment with two-phase olive-mill waste
on degraded agricultural soils. Sci Total Environ., -12 (+ῌ,) : 2.ῌ23.
Lukita G, BM. (,**/) : Work hard for - months life :The life of the cassava farmers is colonizedby poverty (in Indonesian). Kompas Newspaper, September +0th, ,**/.
Mantovi, P., Baldoni, G. and Toderi, G. (,**/) : Reuseof liquid, dewatered, and composted sewage
sludge on agricultural land : e#ects of longterm application on soil and crop. Water Res.,-3 (,ῌ-) : ,23ῌ30.
Seth, R., Chandra, R., Kumar, N. and Tyagi, A.K.
(,**/) : Utilization of composted sugar industry waste (pressmud) to improve properties ofsodic soil for rice cultivation. J Environ Sci
Eng., .1 (-) : ,+,ῌ1.
Svendsen, J.A. (+3//) : Earthworm populations stud-

ies : a comparison of sampling methods. Nature,+1/ : 20..
Tian, G.., Brussaard, L. and Kang, B.T. (+33-) : Biological e#ects of plant residues with contrasting chemical compositions under humid tropical conditions : E#ects on soil fauna. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, ,/ : 1-+ῌ1-1.
Tindall, J. A., Beverly, R.B. and Radcli#e, D.E. (+33+) :Mulch e#ect on soil properties and tomato
growth using micro-irrigation. Agronomy Journal, 2- : +*,2ῌ+*-..
Trade and Industry Dept. (,**-) : The study of implementation case on sanitary production infood industry (in Indonesian). The Directorate
General of Small-Medium Trade and Industry,
Trade and Industry Dept. of Indonesia.
Zheljazkov, V. D. (,**/) : Assessment of wool waste
and hair waste as soil amendment and nutrient source. J Environ Qual., -. : ,-+*ῌ,-+1.

ῌ

Komariah*ῌ²³´µ**ῌ¶·¸Y**ῌJohn Tawiah Adomako**ῌAfandi**** ¦§ ¨ῐ`$¨©ª« ¥/*+ῌ++3- ¦§¬­® +ῌ+** ¦§ ¨¯AD¨° ¥/*+ῌ++3- ¦§¬­® +ῌ+*** ± ¨$¨° Jl. Sumantri Brojonegoro No. +,Bandar Lampung, Indonesia !"#$%&'()*+ ,-./0123ῑ 45!678
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45!67892^<=&A*BVTWZX STgh:e +/ Oj ey&> Zf:B *:*fye evw?UAX )rl+&z{ K &~P¡¢£ῌ&z{B )rl+X

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J. Jpn. Soc. Soil Phys.

No. +*2, p. 3+32 ,**2

´µ¶·*ῌ¸¹º**
Measurement of Soil Heat Flux Using a Thermo-module
Toshihiko MOMOSE* and Tatsuaki KASUBUCHI*** Division of Engineering, Saint Mary’s University, Halifax, B-H-C-, Canada** Faculty of Agriculture, Yamagata University, Tsuruoka, 331ῌ2///, Japan
Abstract
Measurement of soil heat ﬂux using a thermo-module was examined. The measuring principle
is almost the same to a traditional heat ﬂux plate method, however, the measurement accuracy of
the temperature di#erence of the thermo-module is much higher than that of the traditional
thermo-pile. It was considered that the utilization of thermo-module allowed to measure the soil
heat ﬂux accurately even under the soil layer of small temperature gradients.

Relation between

the thermo-module output and one-dimensional steady heat ﬂux was examined in agar-gel. As aresult, the thermo-module output was proportional to the heat ﬂux in a wide range.
relation, the soil heat ﬂux in a ﬁeld was determined.

Using thisIn order to conﬁrm the reliability of thethermo-module method, the heat storage ﬂux in soil layer was compared between the thermomodule method and the calorimetric method. Both results corresponded closely. These showedthat the thermo-module method was e#ective as the heat ﬂux meter.
Key words : thermo-module, heat ﬂux plate method, soil heat ﬂux, ﬁeld measurement}~ e_`; OlGB+,,-./+7/ 8 : Q0ve [K>AU V1

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Fig. + Apparatus for calibration of thermo-module as a heat ﬂux sensor

 :  !"#$%&'()*+,-./

93

ῌ+ 01 2341(5 67
Table +

Temperatures at the upper and bottom
water bath for each experiment
Temperature at the Temperature at theupper water bath bottom water bathῌῌExp. +
Exp. ,
Exp. Exp. .
Exp. /
Exp. 0Exp. 1
Exp. 2

,0
,2
-,
-.
-0
-2
.*
./

-*
-*
-*
-*
-*
-*
-*
-*
ῌ,
Fig. ,

ῌ, 8%&9
Table ,:;<=%>?@

Volumetric solid content and soil
particle density for each soil layer

Soil layerVsῌm- m-rs
ῌkg m-+*῍,* cm,*῍-* cm-*῍.* cm*4-/
*4.*4./

,0-*
,0-*
,0-*

J +῍ ()KL<M -* 
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

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Table -

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X YZ[\]^_B`abc` dῌ]^efgh_Temperature distribution under steadystate condition

CD EF ;GHI

The values of gradient, intercept, andcorrelation coe$cient for each experiment
Gradient
ῌ cm+Intercept
ῌCorrelation
coe$cient

*413
*4-0
*4.2
*423
+4-.
+412
,4+/
-4,/

,34,
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-+4*
-+4/

*4333
*433,
*4332
*4331
*4333
*4333
*4333
*4333

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Exp. ,
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96

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Fig. 1 (b) Heat storage ﬂuxes estimated by thermo-module method and calorimetric method (,*ῌ-* cm). -.. W m, +*ῌ,* cm -./ W m, ,*ῌ-* cm -.0- -()*+, -'- . -/0'(1  MN  'O0PQ)*+
43

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Soil Science Society of America, Madison, WI.
Liley, P.E. (+32/) : Thermophysical properties.In :Handbook of heat transfer fundamentals, ,ndedn. (eds. W.M. Rohsenow, J.P. Hartnett, and E.N.
Ganic),Chapter -. McGaw-Hill, New York.
Weaver, H.L. and Campbell, G.S. (+32/) : Use of peltiercoolers as soil heat ﬂux transducers.Soil Science
Society of America Journal, .3 : +*0/ῌ+*01.

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J. Jpn. Soc. Soil Phys.

No. +*2, p. 33+*/ ,**2

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G.C. Topp, J.L. Davis and A.P. Annan  :  

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µ > ¶ ·*
Reviewing classical studies in soil physics“Electromagnetic Determination of Soil Water Content :Measurements in Coaxial Transmission Lines”
By G.C. Topp, J.L. Davis and A.P. Annan
Water Resources Research, Vol. +0, /1.ῌ/2, (+32*)
Teruhito MIYAMOTO** National Institute for Rural Engineering, Kannondai ,ῌ+ῌ0, Tsukuba -*/ῌ20*3, Japan
Key words : Time Domain Reﬂectometry (TDR), soil moisture, dielectric permittivity, measurement method +

TDR ! "#$ ῌ%#&'() 01*234 78 9( !:;8<"=  >? * @    !=CD";8E0

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3<"!wG#D( +32*

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3'() L# Geological Survey of Canada  Davis " Annan* -*/ῌ20*3  ,ῌ+ῌ0 : Time Domain Reﬂectometry TDR      +*2

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67% +320 Topp %pqO Topp %    89/ / cm   + cm  :3

Fig. +  & ,<- =>

ῌ? 0  +31* ()/BP TDR &,- +ῌ w@ABx . Fig. ,/C . Hoekstra and Delaney, +31. ;+310 (/yP z:pq{| Do XE?

Davis and Chubodiak, +31/ Davis and Chubodiak

d  } h#F~B. GBX 

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nan, +311 A- nF% Topp ! Davis, Annan

Ka rs,x 45 QP ^$  +310 ( Davis &

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Topp et al., ,**- ; Topp,,**0 -F- +32* (/ ® hg/i2rs

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Water Resources Research /¶·.

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Topp %& Davis and Chubodiak +31/
TDR /¹º,»a-  ,mn-ῌ+Topp      / cm   + cm    Topp et al. +32*, Figure ,Fig. + Diagram of the coaxial transmission line soilcolumn, showing the position relationship ofthe ceramic-capped cups. (Topp et al. +32*,
Figure ,) : G.C. Topp, J.L. Davis and A.P. Annan  

ῐῌ,  
Figure -

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Fig. , Diagram of the water input and removal
procedure. (Topp et al. +32*, Figure -)=>?@A>BCDEFG)HIJ+,

K
Fig. - ' L1MNO *0῍   qv
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W_ G%7!`' qvKa "#'QBYZ*a+b\]-./ῐῌ-&"cdKFig. . ' , #d4ef>gTh L

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MNO

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jklfmn qvKa "#' qv;*.+ wx'Poq.      ! qv  Ka "#$   %&'%()*+, -./& &'
 01  2 *.*,/ 3  456  +, /&$%78' Topp et al. +32*  Table , 9:$ Topp et al. +32*, Figure .

Fig. - The measured relationship between Ka andqv for the four mineral soils. The solid lineis the empirical best-ﬁt equation and thedashed lines are shifted ῍*.*,/ in qv. The
experimental numbers refer to those usedin Table ,. (Topp et al. +32*, Figure .)y NOH qv;*.+ wr' qv z{*&_ Ka z{
'' Bef>gThWq#d|NKG)*(
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Fig. / ' qv ; *.-,. STUC+*-0< [6 $K  '¯&pῌDµ©

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Fig. . The measured relationship between Ka andqv for the mineral soils, -* mm glass beads,
ground vermiculite, and an organic soil. The
area between the dashed lines is the same
region as between the dashed lines in Figure.. (Topp et al. +32*, Figure 0)

῎ῌ/

qv*.-,.  Bainsville  +*-0  
  !"# $%+ &' Topp et al. +32*, Figure 1

Fig. /

Ka versus temperature from experiment 0
with Bainsville clay loam soil at qv῍*.-,..
The vertical bar at T῍,* is ῌ+ in Ka and represents the measurement precision. (Toppet al. +32*, Figure 1)

 Topp et al., +32* ; Herkelrath et al., +33+ ; Roth etal., +33, N OP) Dasberg and Hopman,+33, QRS) Weitz et al., +331 ; Tomer et al.,+333 ; T ῌUV ,*** ; Regalado et al., ,**- ; Stenger et al., ,**1 $!W$XYPZ [\O]

)$! Topp ^ZW_$`abcZdD<F[7 Topp ^! TDR $)Be'afg^cP;<ahijYkF l Topp ^c )mncoPpPpYqr$67PaF [ZW$XYP)jsPturvwxP 5AyYP)j8'az{|w)

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=>^t& G

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QRS)¢£^! Topp ^c!#tZ67;

῏ ^HF<¤¥ T ῌUV ,*** l ¦§Z¨Yktqv/.-J+*,I,.3,J+*,Ka/./J+*.Ka,I..-J+*0Ka-

t"kPa7 Z qv

Ka 89j῍b<;=>^Zª«h]¬;<a Topp ^$`aF
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Topp - Foundation Instruments G

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`(M(a$2)4  + IRAMS Instrument for Reﬂectometry Analysis of Moisture in Soil

%&[ Soil Science Society of America !b'c(d[&eV(fKBgLhi  * Foundation Instruments Wj ) kl * m +  Campbell
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 IRAMS no- Soil-

moisture Equipment G(=4$  <
ῌ0*.*+N  CaSO.  ,,*** ppm  NaCl      Rubicon   qv Topp et al. +32*, Figure 2
Ka 

Fig. 0 The measured relationship between Ka andqv for the Rubicon soil, where the water solution (*.*+ N CaSO.) for experiment , wasreplaced by ,,*** ppm NaCl in experiment.. (Topp et al. +32*, Figure 2)

TRASE(qFrE<&'()4

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Topp - TDR

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Topp et al. +32* 458s 'w:(

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EE Fuv59([H<\<&=3 Topp -(%&uv Topp et al.,+322 ,*** !(->?@A7BE TDR (2)3(C;&D(%&45

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Miyamoto, T., T. Annaka and J. Chikushi (,**-) : Soilaggregate structure e#ects on dielectric permittivity of an Andisol measured by time domain
reﬂectometry. Vadose Zone J., , : 3*ῌ31.
Miyamoto, T., T. Annaka and J. Chikushi (,**/) : Ex-ῌ ῑ ῐ ῍
Dalton, F.N., W.H. Herkelrath, D.S. Rawlins and J.D.

tended dual composite sphere model for determining dielectric permittivity of Andisols, Soil
Sci. Soc. Am. J., 03 : ,-ῌ,3.

Rhoades (+32.) : Time domain reﬂectometry : Si-

Mualem, Y. (+310) : A new model for predicting themultaneous measurement of soil water content

hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated porous me-

and electrical conductivity with a single probe.
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Dasberg, S. and J.W. Hopman (+33,) : Time domaindia. Water Resour. Res., +, : /+-ῌ/,,.
Or, D. and J.M. Wraith (+333) : Temperature e#ects on
soil bulk dielectric permittivity measured by time

reﬂectometry calibration for uniformly and non-domain reﬂectometry : A physical model. Water

uniformly wetted sandy and clayey soils. Soil

Resour. Res., -/ : -1+ῌ-2-.

Sci. Soc. Am. J., /0 : +-.+ῌ+-./.
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Regalado, C.M., R. Munoz Carpena, A.R. Socorro and
J.M. Hernández Moreno. (,**-) : Time domain re-determination of soil moisture : progress reportﬂectometry models as a tool to understand theI. Can. J. Remote Sensing, - : 10ῌ20.

dielectric response of volcanic soils. Geoderma,

Davis, J.L. and W. J. Chudobiak (+31/) : In-site meterfor measuring relative permittivity of soils. Geol.
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Dirksen, C. and S. Dasberg (+33-) : Improved calibra-++1 : -+-ῌ--*.
Roth, C.H., M.A. Malicki and R. Plagge (+33,) : Empirical evaluation of the relationship between soil
dielectric constant and volumetric water content

tion of time domain reﬂectometry soil water con-as the basis for calibrating soil moisture meas-

tent measurements. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., /1 : 00*ῌurements. J. Soil Sci., .- : +ῌ+-.

001.
Fellner-Feldegg, H. (+303) : The measurement of die-

Selig, E.T. and S. Mansukhani (+31/) : Relationship ofsoil moisture to the dielectric property. J. Geo-

lectrics in the time domain. J. phys. Chem., 1- :tech. Eng. Div. Amer. Soc. Civil. Eng., GT 2 : 1//ῌ

0+0ῌ0,-.

11*.

Herkelrath, W.N., S.P. Hamburg and F. Murphy (+33+) :Stenger, R., Wöhling, T., Barkle, G.F. and Wall, A.

Automatic real time monitoring of soil moisture(,**1) : Relationship between dielectric permitti-

in a remote ﬁeld with time domain reﬂectometry.

vity and water content for vadose zone materials

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of volcanic origin, Australian Journal of Soil Re-

Hoekstra, P. and A. Delaney (+31.) : Dielectric properties of soils at UHF and microwave frequencies.
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Koutsoyiannis, D. and Z.W. Kundzewicz (,**1) : Quan-

search, ./ : ,33ῌ-*3.
Tomer, M.D., B.E. Clothier, I. Vogeler and S. Green(+333) : A dielectric - water content relationshipfor volcanic soils in New Zealand. Soil Sci. Soc.

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Am. J., 0- : 111ῌ12+.

105

Topp, G.C., M. Yanuka, W.D. Zebchuk and S. J. Zege-

Topp, G.C. (+303) : Soil-water hysteresis measured inlin (+322) : The determination of electrical con-a sandy loam and compared with the hysteretic

ductivity using TDR : Soil and water experiments

domain model. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. Proc., -- : 0./ῌ0/+.

in coaxial lines. Water Resour. Res., ,. : 3./ῌ3/,.
Topp, G.C., S. J. Zegelin and I. White (,***) : Impact ofTopp, G.C. (+31+) : Soil water hysteresis in silt loam

the real and imaginary components of relativeand clay loam soils. Water Resour. Res., 1 : 3+.ῌ

permittivity on TDR measurements in soils. Soil

3,*.

Sci. Soc. Am. J., 0. : +,..ῌ+,/,.

Topp, G.C., J.L. Davis and A.P. Annan (+32*) : Electro-

Topp, G.C., J.L. Davis and A.P. Annan (,**-) : The ear-magnetic determination of soil water content :ly development of TDR for soil measurements.

Measurements in coaxial transmission lines. Water Resour. Res., +0 : /1.ῌ/2,.

Vadose Zone J., , : .3,ῌ.33.
Topp, G.C. (,**0) : Evening lecture : TDR Reﬂections :Topp, G.C. and J.L. Davis (+32+) : Detecting inﬁltra-

My thoughts and experiences on TDR. Proc. TDRtion of water through soil cracks by time-domain,**0, Purdue University, West Lafayette, USA,reﬂectometry. Geoderma, ,0 : +-ῌ,-.

Sept. ,**0, Paper ID B+, 1p., https : //engineering.

Topp, G.C., J.L. Davis and A.P. Annan (+32,a) : Elec-purdue.edu/TDR/Papers.

tromagnetic determination of soil water content

Weitz, A.M., W.T. Grauel, M. Keller and E. Veldkamp

using TDR : I. Application to wetting fronts and(+331) : Calibration of time domain reﬂectometry

steep gradients. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., .0 : 01,ῌ012.

technique using undisturbed soil samples from

Topp, G.C., J.L. Davis and A.P. Annan (+32,b) : Electromagnetic determination of soil water content

humid tropical soils of volcanic origin. Water Resour. Res., -- : +,.+ῌ+,.3.

using TDR : II. Evaluation of installation and con-

Wraith, J.M. and D. Or (+333) : Temperature e#ects on

ﬁguration of parallel transmission lines. Soil Sci.

soil bulk dielectric permittivity measured by time

Soc. Am. J., .0 : 012ῌ02..

domain reﬂectometry : Experimental evidence andTopp, G.C. and J.L. Davis (+32/a) : Measurement ofsoil water content using time-domain reﬂectometry (TDR) : A ﬁeld evaluation. Soil Sci. Soc.
Am. J., .3 : +3ῌ,..

hypothesis development. Water Resour. Res., -/ :-0+ῌ-03.
Yanuka, M., G.C. Topp, S. J. Zegelin and W.D. Zebchuk (+322) : Multiple reﬂection and attenuation

Topp, G.C. and J.L. Davis (+32/b) : Time-domain re-of TDR pulse : Theoretical considerations for ap-

ﬂectometry (TDR) and its application to irriga-

plication to soil water. Water Resour. Res., ,. :tion scheduling, In advances in Irrigation (Ed. D.

3-3ῌ3...

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++0ῌ**++ OPQª«S¬­® 1+,+0/¡/Journal of the Japanese Societyof
Soil Physics
March ῍ῌῌ῎

No. +*2
Contents

Foreword ῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌM. KATOῌ +Special Reports
Current Technology Based on EM Waves for Soil Physical Measurement
Detection of Plant Adaptation Responses to Saline Environment in Rhizosphere Using
Microwave Sensing ῎T. SHIMOMACHI, C. KOBASHIKAWA, H. TANIGAWA and E. OMODA῎ /Field Determination of Soil Hydraulic Properties by Using Soil Water Content
Measured from Dielectric Properties of Unsaturated Soils ῎῎῎῎῎Y. TAKESHITA῎ ++Inﬂuence Area of Stem Flow on a Soil of Deciduous Forest Floor by Electric Resistivity
Survey and the Evaluation of Groundwater Recharge through Stem Flow῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎J. SHIMADA, K. OHSUMI, K. OHBA and A. MARUYAMA῎ +3Application of the High-frequency CSMT Method to Surveys in Shallow Subsurface
Regions ῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎S. HANDA῎ ,3Measurement of Water Level, Electrical Conductivity, and Sediment Surface Level
Using Time Domain Reﬂectometry ῎῎῎῎H. MIYAMOTO, J. CHIKUSHI and T.K. OH῎ -1
Miscellaneous
Discussion at the .3th Symposium on Current Technology Based on Electromagnetic
Waves for Soil Physical Measurement, JSSP ῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎H. CHO῎ .1
Original Papers
Evaluating Inﬂuence of Di#erent Cover Materials on Runo# and Sediment Loss from
Bare Upland Soil Using Laboratory Rainfall Simulator῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎T. ONISHI, M. KATO and T. NISHIMURA῎ /Investigation of Leakage for a Small Earth Dam by Underground Temperature Survey
῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎H. YOSHISAKO῎ 01
Amendment of Soil Physical and Biological Properties Using Rice Husk and Tapioca
Wastes ῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎KOMARIAH, K. ITO, M. SENGE, J.T. ADOMAKO and AFANDI῎ 2+
Notes
Measurement of Soil Heat Flux Using a Thermo-module῎T. MOMOSE and T. KASUBUCHI῎ 3+
Lectures
Reading of Classical Study Series“Electromagnetic Determination of Soil Water Content : Measurements in Coaxial
Transmission Lines” By G.C. Topp, J.L. Davis and A.P. Annan ῎῎῎T. MIYAMOTO῎ 33
Readers’ column ῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌH. MOCHIZUKIῌ+*1
Announcements ῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌ+*3
Editor’s Postscript ῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎῎++*Japanese Society of Soil Physics
Department of Environmental Sciences
Faculty of Agriculture, Saga University+ Honjo-machi, Saga, 2.*ῌ2/*, Japan