Outlook on

Water
Environmental
Managementin Asia2018

Water Environmental Partnership in Asia (WEPA)
Ministry of the Environment, Japan
Institute for Global Environmental Strategies (IGES)

Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2018
Copyright © 2018 Ministry of the Environment, Japan. All rights reserved.

No parts of this publica on may be reproduced or transmi ed in any form or by any means, electronic ormechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any informa on storage and retrieval system, without priorpermission in wri ng from Ministry of the Environment Japan through the Ins tute for Global Environment
Strategies (IGES), which serves as the WEPA Secretariat.

ISBN: 978-4-88788-201-0
This publica on is created as a part of the Water Environmental Partnership in Asia (WEPA) and published by theIns tute for Global Environmental Strategies (IGES). Although every eﬀort is made to ensure objec vity andbalance, the publica on of study results does not imply WEPA partner country’s endorsement or acquiescencewith its conclusions.

Ministry of the Environment, Japan
1-2-2 Kasumigaseki, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 100-8795 Japan
Tel: +81-(0)3-3581-3351
h p://www.env.go.jp/en/

Ins tute for Global Environmental Strategies (IGES)
2108-11 Kamiyamaguchi, Hayama, Kanagawa 240-0115 Japan
Tel: +81-(0)46-855-3700
h p://www.iges.or.jp/

The team for WEPA Outlook 2018 includes the following IGES members:[Dra ing team]
Tetsuo Kuyama, Manager (Water Resource Management), Natural Resources and Ecosystem Services
Bijon Kumer Mitra, Senior Policy Researcher, Natural Resources and Ecosystem Services
Pham Ngoc Bao, Senior Policy Researcher, Natural Resources and Ecosystem Services
Binaya Raj Shivako , Senior Water and Adapta on Specialist, Natural Resources and Ecosystem Services
Tomoko Minowa, Water and Disaster Risk Reduc on Specialist, Natural Resources and Ecosystem Services[Suppor ng team]Ai Takahashi, Programme Coordinator, Strategic Management Oﬃce
Saeko Kadoshima, Programme Coordinator, Natural Rescores and Ecosystem Services
Emma Fushimi, Edi ng Coordinator, Strategic Management Oﬃce
Togo Uchida, Programme Manager, City Taskforce
Sarah Heck, Intern, Regional Centre in Bangkok

Printed in Japan

Table of Contents
Background to the Publication ...................................................................................................................................................................................................

5

Message from the Water Environmental Partnership in Asia (WEPA ) ...............................................................

6

Acknowledgements .........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

8

Abbreviations .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

9[ Chapter 1] Outlook on Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries ........................ 11[ Chapter 2] Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries
2.1

Cambodia .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

36

2.2

China ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

42

2.3

Indonesia ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

48

2.4

Japan ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

54

2.5

Republic of Korea ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

62

2.6

Lao PDR .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

68

2.7

Malaysia ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

76

2.8

Myanmar ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

84

2.9

Nepal ...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

90

2.10 Philippines ..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

96

2.11 Sri Lanka ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 104
2.12 Thailand ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 112
2.13 Viet Nam ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 122

References ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 135

Background to the Publication
Asia comprises 30% of the worlds’ land area and 30% of the worlds’ freshwater resources, which isshared among 60% of the worlds’ popula on. This share of the water resources, es mated at avg.
3,400m 3/year/person, is continuously dropping as the population and economy expand.
Understandably, Asian countries continue to face serious water pollution problems, leading todegrada on of the living environment, decrease in available water, and loss of aqua c ecosystemservices. Under these circumstances, an ini a ve called the Water Environmental Partnership in
Asia (WEPA) was proposed by the Ministry of the Environment, Japan at the 3rd World Water Forumin 2003, aiming to solve the water pollu on issues in terms of governance.
Since 2004, WEPA has conducted capacity development of stakeholders as well as sharing of
informa on and knowledge for ﬁnding solu ons to water environmental issues under the partnershipof 13 Asian countries, namely Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Japan, Republic of Korea, Lao PDR,
Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand and Viet Nam.
Considering the importance of a common understanding among stakeholders to solve water
quality issues in the region, the “WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management” has been
prepared by utilising accumulated information and knowledge, as well as the human network
developed under this initiative. The report aims to provide the most up-to-date and useful
information on the water environment and its management in Asia, with a target audience ofpolicymakers, experts and others in the water sector of the region. Three former edi ons of the
Outlook were launched in 2009, 2012, and 2015 respec vely during the World Water Forums in
Istanbul, Marseille, and Daegu-Gyeongbuk.
This report is the fourth edi on of the series, and consists of two main chapters: Chapter 1 “Outlook on Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries” and Chapter 2 - “Country
Proﬁles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries”. The ﬁrst chapter presents theresults of analysis on ins tu onal frameworks for water environmental management in each country.
The second chapter provides updated country proﬁles on water environmental management in the
WEPA partner countries. Directly following this foreword readers will also find WEPA’s key
recommendations describing WEPA’s commitments to sustainable water environmental
management, made through discussions held in WEPA annual mee ngs and workshops.
WEPA Outlook 2018 is being launched at the 8th World Water Forum held in Brasilia, Brazil in
March, 2018. It is to be hoped that this report, together with the three former edi ons, will serve asa useful tool and reference for those who are involved in relevant issues in Asia and other regions of
the world, and will contribute to sustainable water environment management.

March 2018
Ministry of the Environment, Japan
Ins tute for Global Environmental Strategies (WEPA Secretariat)

5

Message fromthe Water Environment Partnership in Asia ( WEPA )Achieving the UN Sustainable Development Goal
for Water and Sanitation in Asia

1

2

Universal access to clean, safe and adequate freshwater and improved sanita on is crucial for human wellbeing, elimina on of poverty, minimising detrimental impacts on human health, promo ng sustainablesocio-economic development, and improving the quality of ambient freshwater resources and ecosystems.
The central role of water and sanita on in the global sustainable development agenda is clearly reﬂectedin the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.
The Asian region is con nuing to experience rapid popula on
growth, urbaniza on, industrializa on and changing
consump on pa erns, including shi ing diets toward highly
water-intensive foods such as meat, and severe impacts fromclimate change, which have led to signiﬁcant challenges forwater resources and water infrastructure in the region,
especially as regards the rapidly growing water demand.
Consequently, the volume of wastewater emi ed and thepollu on loads discharged into the environment are constantly
increasing, deteriora ng water quality across the region.

3

Building upon the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6 onwater and sanita on is considered a comprehensive goal which stresses the importance of the en re water
cycle, including management of water, wastewater and ecosystem resources, rather than sole emphasis ononsite sanita on facili es. SDG 6 has strong
interlinkages with other SDGs, especially with food
(SDG 2) and energy (SDG 7). As the majority ofinterlinkages between the targets under SDG 6 withother SDGs targets are mutually reinforcing,achieving the water goal is essen al, not only forhuman health, food and energy security, sustainableeconomic development, social progress, soundecosystems, but also in ensuring the expected
results and co-beneﬁts are achieved for other SDGs.

4

Based on our 13 years of accumulated experience under the Water Environment Partnership in Asia, WEPA
partner countries share the following common view in addressing the above challenges as well as infacilita ng the achievement of SDG 6 in Asia:

a. Reliable and mely data on water quality and volume, targe ng both freshwater and wastewater, plays
an essen al role in evidence-based decision-making to ensure good water governance, and consequently
facilitates eﬀec ve monitoring of SDG targets on water and sanita on. However, comprehensive
assessments of water cannot be carried out in many countries within the region due to the pervasivelack of reliable monitoring data, caused by poor monitoring facili es and underdeveloped humanresources. Therefore, it is crucial to boost the ‘hardware’ and ‘so ware’ aspects of technical capacity ofwater monitoring and repor ng, as well as ensure monitoring results are made widely and easily available
to all relevant stakeholders such as via digital pla orming.

6

b. There is no “one size ﬁts all” solu on to solve the challenges across the region, thus appropriate
solu ons need to be based on local contexts – and in most cases a cyclical approach that balances
economic development and environmental sustainability should be adopted in order to minimize or
prevent pollu on at source while maximizing the eﬀec ve and eﬃcient reuse and recycling of water
throughout its life cycle.

c. It is essen al to improve wastewater treatment eﬃciency in order to reduce pollutant loads in water
bodies, as well as raise rates of water reuse and recovery of useful by-products such as nutrients, inorder to achieve SDG 6 targets. Realiza on of such requires providing an environment conducive tochange, including crea on of eﬀec ve water quality legisla ve frameworks via improved wastewaterand sludge management, enhanced human and ins tu onal capacity, and the poli cal will to enforce
regula ons and penal es.

d. Selec on of wastewater treatment technologies
should be based on site-speciﬁc contexts that
account for natural and socioeconomic condi ons
and level of development. Appropriate low-cost,environmentally sound and socially acceptable
technologies that are simple to use and maintainshould be priori zed over conven onal, high-cost
approaches.

e. Scien ﬁc evidence-based knowledge in formula ng eﬀec ve policies and regula ons should be u lised,
including promo on of dialogue among policymakers and researchers, to improve water environmental
management.

f . Ensuring ﬁnancial sustainability in wastewater and sludge management through innova ve andeﬀec ve ﬁnancing and incen ve mechanisms as well as appropriate business models, such as PublicPrivate Partnerships (PPP), should be further encouraged.

g. The involvement and coordina on of a range of stakeholders, including private sector and local
communi es in water environmental management, should be promoted.

h. Enforcement of legal frameworks, regula ons and detailed rules or guidelines regarding industrial
wastewater management, including eﬄuent monitoring procedures and analy cal methods, should
further be strengthened.

5

WEPA partner countries commit to contribute to the successful implementa on of the 2030 Agenda for
Sustainable Development through an ongoing focus on raising the level of water environmental
management in the region.

6

With the above in mind, WEPA con nues to facilitate the exchange of lessons and knowledge among thepartner countries through exis ng schemes such as the WEPA database, policy dialogues and workshops.
In addi on, a scheme to promote ac ons within WEPA partner countries was launched in 2015, with theaim of addressing cri cal barriers of implementa on. Under this scheme, WEPA supports implementa onof small but meaningful a empts to solve speciﬁc bo lenecks in the planning and implementa on of water
environment policy and management. Prac cal lessons learned and knowledge accumulated from theac on programs are shared not only among partner countries but also wider audiences through the WEPA
database. WEPA intends to strengthen interac ons with other like-minded networks, interna onalorganiza ons and donor agencies to explore opportuni es to maximize the impacts of WEPA ac vi es.

7

Envisaging the wellbeing of popula ons and sustainable development in the region, the WEPA partners
hereby commit to improving the world’s water environment via enhancing coopera on, sharing knowledge,
and taking ac on in areas of conserva on and protec on. We believe such eﬀorts will also contribute toimproved water environmental governance, capacity building of the relevant stakeholders, and smooth
implementa on of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.

7

Acknowledgements
The WEPA secretariat is grateful to the focal persons and the collaborators of the following WEPA partner countries fortheir contribu ons and construc ve input, as well as their support in the prepara on of this publica on. We also extend
our apprecia on to the WEPA advisory commi ee for their guidance and invaluable input.
* Focal Person

Cambodia
Sokha Chrin*, Deputy Director General, General Directorate of
Administra on and Finance, Ministry of Environment
Rady Phin, Director, Department of Water Quality Management,
General Directorate of Environmental Protec on,
Ministry of Environment

Philippines

Vinarin Sour, Chief Oﬃce, Department of Science and Technology,
General Secretariat of Na onal Council for Sustainable Development,
Ministry of Environment

Erlinda A. Gonzales*, Technical Oﬃcer as Environmental
Consultant Environmental Management Bureau, Department ofEnvironment and Natural Resources (DENR)

China

Sri Lanka

Li Liping*, Senior Engineer, Deputy Division Director,
Ins tute for Interna onal Environmental Policy, Policy ResearchCentre for Environment and Economy (PRCEE),
Ministry of Environmental Protec on

Indonesia
Budi Kuruniawan*, Head of Sub Directorate of Inventory and
Pollu on Load Alloca on, Directorate of Water Pollu on Control,
Ministry of Environment and Forestry

Lao PDR
Phengkamla Phonvisai, Deputy Director General, Department of
Pollu on Control, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment

Japan
Yasumasa Watanabe, Director, Water Environment Division,
Environmental Management Bureau, Ministry of the Environment
Hiroki Hasegawa*, Deputy Director, Water Environment Division,
Environment Management Bureau, Ministry of the Environment

Republic of Korea
Kyunghyun Kim*, Division Head, Water Quality Assessment Research
Division, Na onal Ins tute of Environmental Research (NIER)

MyanmarKhon Ra*, Director, Hydrology Branch, Irriga on and Water
U liza on Management Department, Ministry of Agriculture,
Livestock and Irriga on (MoALI)
Mu Mu Than, Assistant Director, Irriga on and Water U liza on
Management Department, Ministry of Agriculture,
Livestock and Irriga on (MoALI)

Malaysia
Ahmad Jamalluddin bin Shaaban*, Director General, Na onal
Hydraulic Research Ins tute of Malaysia (NAHRIM),
Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment
Ang Shin Ying, Water Quality and Environment Research Centre,
Na onal Hydraulic Research Ins tute of Malaysia (NAHRIM),
Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment

Nepal
Madhav Dev Acharya*, Senior Divisional Engineering Geologist,
Water Resource Division, Water and Energy Commission Secretariat(WECS)

8

Dinakar Khanal, Senior Divisional Engineer, Social, Economic andEnvironment Division, Water and Energy Commission Secretariat(WECS)
Vincente B. Tuddao Jr.*, Director for Governance and Enforcement,
Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR)

R.M.S.K. Ratnayake*, Director (Environmental Pollu on Control),Central Environmental Authority
Himali Karunaweera, Assistant Director (Environmental Pollu on
Control), Central Environmental Authority
Siriwardhana Liyanage Nadeeka Niroshanie, Senior EnvironmentalOﬃcer, Environmental Pollu on Control Unit, Central
Environmental Authority

Thailand
Chao Nokyoo*, Director of Inland Water Division, Water Quality
Management Bureau Pollu on Control Department,
Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (MoNRE)
Wijarn Simachaya, Permanent Secretary, Ministry of Natural
Resources and Environment

Viet Nam
Nguyen Minh Cuong*, Deputy Director - Department ofInterna onal Coopera on and Science, Technology (ISD),
Vietnam Environment Administra on, Ministry of Natural
Resources and Environment (MONRE)
Nguyen Quynh Huong, Deputy Head - Division of Environmental
Science and Technology, Environmental Science Ins tute,Vietnam Environmental Administra on, Ministry of Natural
Resources and Environment (MONRE)WEPA Advisory Commi ee Members
Motoyuki Suzuki, Professor emeritus at the University of Tokyo
Mitsumasa Okada, Professor, the Open University of Japan
Koichi Fujie, Visi ng Professor, Ins tute of Advanced Sciences,
Yokohama Na onal University
Kensuke Fukushi, Professor, Integrated Research System for
Sustainability Science, the University of Tokyo
So Kazama, Professor, Graduate School of Engineering,Tohoku University
Yoshitaka Ebie, Senior Researcher, Centre for Material Cycles andWaste Management Research, Na onal Ins tute for Environmental
Studies
Ikuro Kasuga, Associate Professor, Graduate School of Engineering,
the University of Tokyo

Abbreviations
ADB

Asian Development Bank

EVN

Viet Nam Electricity Corpora on

AMDAL

Environmental Impact Assessment Statements(Indonesia)

FAO

Food and Agriculture Organiza on

FCB

Faecal Coliform BacteriaAN

Ammonium Nitrogen

FMB

Forest Management Bureau

ASM

Academy of Sciences Malaysia

FOG

Fat(s), Oil(s), and Grease

BOD

Biochemical Oxygen DemandGB

Chinese Na onal Standards

BOI

Board of Investment

GB/T

Recommended Standards

B.E.

Buddhist Era (Thailand)

GDP

Gross Domes c Product

BFAR

Bureau of Fisheries and Aqua c Resources

ICIMOD

BPP

Beneﬁciary Pays Principle

Interna onal Centre for Integrated Mountain
Development

BSWM

Bureau of Soil and Water Management

ID

Irriga on Department

CBS

Central Bureau of Sta s cs

IETS

Industrial Eﬄuent Treatment Systems

CDC

Council of Development of Cambodia

IGES

Ins tute for Global Environmental Strategies

CEA

Central Environment Authority

IMF

Interna onal Monetary Fund

CEM

Centre of Environmental Monitoring

ISES

Industry-Speciﬁc Eﬄuent Standards

CNMC

Cambodia Na onal Mekong Commi ee

ISOInterna onal Organiza on for Standardiza on

COD

Chemical Oxygen Demand

IWK

Indah Water Konsor um (Malaysia)

CRMP

Coastal Resource Management Project

IWRM

Integrated Water Resources Management

CSDGs

Cambodia’s Sustainable Development Goals

KeTTHA

CWTPs

Combined Wastewater Treatment Plants

Ministry of Water Energy, Green Technology, and
Water

DAO

DENR Administra ve Order

LAO

Local Administra ve Organisa on

Department of Agriculture

LGUs

Local Government Units

DDA

Department of Development Aﬀairs

LKR

Sri Lankan Rupee(s)DDCsDistrict Development Commi ees

LLDA

Laguna Lake Development Authority

DENR

Department of Environment and Natural Resources

LSGA

Local Self Governance Act

Decentralized Wastewater Treatment System

LWUA

Local Water U li es Administra on

DHM

Department of Hydrology and Meteorology

MARD

Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development

DILG

Department of Inferior and Local Government

MBAS

Methylene Blue Ac ve Substances

Special Capital City District

MENR

Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources

Dissolved Oxygen

MEP

Ministry of Environmental Protec on

DoE

Department of Environment

MEPA

Marine Environment Protec on Authority

DoEPC

Department of Environmental Pollu on Control

MLIT

DoH

Department of Health

Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport andTourism of Japan

DoNRE

Department of Natural Resources and Environment

MoAIMD

Ministry of Agriculture, Irriga on and Mahaweli
Development

DPWH

Department of Public Works and Highways

MoC

Ministry of Construc on

DWQM

Department of Water Quality Management

MoCT

Ministry of Construc on and Transporta on

DWSS

Department of Water Supply and Sewerage

MoE

Ministry of Environment

EHS

Environmental Health Service

MoECAF

Ministry of Environmental Conserva on and Forestry

EIA

Environmental Impact Assessments

MoEJ

Ministry of the Environment, Japan

EMB

Environmental Management Bureau

MoF

Ministry of Finance

ENRC

MoH

Ministry of Health

EPA

Environment and Natural Resources Code ofCambodia
Environment Protec on Act

MoHA

Ministry of Home Aﬀairs

EPL

Environmental Protec on Law

MoITMinistry of Industry and Trade

EPLs

Environmental protec on licenses

MoNRE

Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment

EQA

Environmental Quality Act

MoST

Ministry of Science and Technology

EQS

Environmental Quality Standards

MoSTI

Ministry of Science, Technology and Innova on

ESC-BORDA

Environmental Sanita on Cambodia-Bremen
Overseas Research and Development Associa on

MoT

Ministry of Transport

MoU

Memorandum of Understanding

ESSO

Environmental and Social Services Oﬃce

MoWRAM

Ministry of Water Resources and Meteorology

DA

DEWATS

DKI
DO

9

MPI

Ministry of Planning and Investment

SCP

Sustainable Consump on and Produc on

MPWT

Ministry of Public Works and Transporta on

SDA

Sustainable Development Agenda 2015 – 2030

MRC

Mekong River Commission

SDGs

Sustainable Development Goals

MWQCS

Marine Water Quality Criteria and Standards

SEPA

State Environmental Protec on Administra on, China

MWQI

Marine Water Quality Index

SLS

Sri Lanka Standards (test method)

MWR

Ministry of Water Resources

SMEs

Small and Medium Enterprises

MWSS

Metropolitan Water Works and Sewerage System

SOEs

State Owned Enterprises

NA

Na onal AssemblySS

Suspended Solids

NAA

Non-A ainment Areas

SSD

Sewerage Service Department

NCEA

Na onal Commission for Environmental Aﬀairs

TCB

Total Coliform Bacteria

NCSD

Na onal Council for Sustainable Development

TCE

Trichloroethylene

NDWQS

Na onal Drinking Water Quality Standards

TCVN

Na onal Environmental Standards

NEA

Na onal Environmental Act

TDS

Total Dissolved Solids

NEAP

Na onal Environmental Ac on Plan

TKN

Total Kjehldahl Nitrogen

NEB

Na onal Environmental Board

TMDLs

Total Maximum Daily Load System

NEDA

Na onal Economic and Development Authority

TMS

Tele-Monitoring system

NEQA

Na onal Environmental Quality Act

TN

Total Nitrogen

NESAP

Na onal Environment Strategy and Ac on Plan

TOC

Total Organic CarbonNGO

Non Governmental Organiza on

TP

Total Phosphorus

NIA

Na onal Irriga on Administra on

TPLCs

Total Pollutant Load Control SystemNIS

Na onal Ins tute of Sta s cs

TSA

Tonle Sap Authority

NLCDC

Na onal Lake Conserva on Development Commi ee

TSL

Tonle Sap Lake

NLMA

Na onal Land Management Authority

TSS

Total Suspended Solids

NPC

Na onal Power Corpora on

UKL-UPL

NRE

Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment

Environmental Management Eﬀort andEnvironmental Monitoring Eﬀorts

NSDW

Na onal Standards for Drinking Water

UNDESANSO

Na onal Sta s cs Oﬃce

United Na ons Department of Economic and Social
AﬀairsNTNC

Na onal Trust for Nature Conserva on

UNDP

United Na ons Development Programme

NWP

Na onal Water PlanUN
United Na ons Environment Programme
Environment

NWQS

Na onal Water Quality Standards

UNESCONWRB

Na onal Water Resources Board

NWS&DB

Na onal Water Supply and Drainage Board

UNICEF

United Na ons Educa onal, Scien ﬁc and Cultural
Organiza on
United Na ons Children’s Fund

ONEP

Oﬃce of Natural Resources and Environmental Policy
and Planning

USD

United States Dollars

VAT

Value Added Tax

PC

City of Provincial People’s Commi ee

VDCs

Village Development Commi ees

PCAs

Pollu on Control Areas

VEA

Viet Nam Environment Administra on

PCB

Polychlorinated Biphenyl

VOC

Vola le Organic Compounds

PCD

Pollu on Control Department

WATSAN

Water and Sanita on

PCE

Perchloroethylene

WCP

Wastewater Charge ProgrammePD

Presiden al Decree

WDI

World Development Indicators

pH

Power of Hydrogen (hydrogen-ion concentra on)

WECS

Water and Energy Commission Secretariat

PNSDW

Philippines Na onal Standards for Drinking Water

WEPA

Water Environment Partnership in Asia

PP

Phnom Penh

WHO

World Health Organisa on

PPP

Polluter Pays Principal

WQC

Water Quality Criteria

PPP

Public-Private Partnership

WQI

Water Quality Index

PPSDAL

WQMA

Water Quality Management Areas

PRC

Research Centre for Natural Resources andEnvironment
People’s Republic of China

WQMAP

Water Quality Management Ac on PlanRA

Republic Act

WREA

Water Resources and Environment Administra on

RBIMSRiver Basin Integrated Informa on Management
Systems
Republic of Korea

WRUD

Water Resources U liza on Department

WWF

World Wide Fund for Nature

WWTS

Wastewater Treatment System

YCDC

Yangon City Development Commi ee (Myanmar)

ROK

10

PROPER

Pollu on Control Evalua on and Ra ng (Indonesia)

PU

Ministry of Public WorksChapter

1

Outlook on
Water Environmental
Managementin WEPA Countries

11Outlook on Water Environmental
Management in WEPA Countries
The Water Environment Partnership in Asia (WEPA)
was formed to address issues related to the water
environment in 13 partner countries by improving water
environmental governance. For this purpose, WEPA aims
to promote knowledge sharing among partner coun es toﬁnd solu ons. Because each WEPA partner country faces
diﬀerent water-related environmental problems due todiﬀering natural and socioeconomic condi ons, each hasdeveloped unique policies and measures designed totackle these problems. Providing a review of the above,
therefore, was deemed useful in order to bring to lightany differences and commonalities, as well as issues
in the water environmental management framework
among the WEPA partner countries, and promote deeper
discussion based on a common understanding.
To this end, this chapter summarizes the state ofwater environmental management in WEPA partnercountries based on the country proﬁles in the following
chapter and a empts to iden fy common challenges.
This chapter also gives a snapshot of the current
water environmental management frameworks in thepartner countries from the following three perspec ves:
1) Objectives of water environmental management
including legal frameworks and ambient water quality
standards;
2) Monitoring of water environment;
3) Measures to ensure implementa on and compliance,
focusing on wastewater management.

Given that the problems faced by each country differ
in both type and scale, we set out to solely provide a
country-based overview of the progress made in thepolicies and measures related to the water environment,
and tried to avoid any inter-country comparisons or
evalua ons of progress.

1 | Objectives of Water
Environmental Management
1.1 Legal Framework
Most WEPA countries have established a basic
environmental law s pula ng protec on of human health,ensuring a safe human environment and protection of
the environment as a basis for sustainable development,
and these objec ves also apply for water environmental
management.
Myanmar drafted “The Environmental Conservation
Law (The Pyidaungsu Hluttaw Law No.9/2012)” in
March 2012 and enacted the law in April 2012.
The final draft of the Environment and Natural
Resources Code of Cambodia (ENRC) was completed in2017 which streamlines pre-existing legislative
arrangements on environment and natural resources
into one code.
More detailed definitions of water environmental
management objectives are laid out in laws or acts
speciﬁc to water pollu on control in some countries.

Table1.1. Basic environmental laws and laws or acts speciﬁc to pollu on control in WEPA countries
Country

12

Basic Environmental Law

Law or Act specific Pollution Control

Cambodia

Law on Environmental Protec on andNatural Resources Management• Sub-Decree on Water Pollu on Control (No.27)

China

Environmental Protec on Law• Law on Preven on and Control of Water Pollu on• Marine Environmental Protec on Law

Indonesia

Law concerning Environmental Protec onand Management (Law No.32/2009)

Japan

Basic Environmental Law• Water Pollu on Control Law• Law Concerning Special Measures of Lake Water Quality• Law Concerning Special Measures for Conserva on of the Seto Inland Sea• Law Concerning Special Measures for the Restora on of the Ariake andYatsuhiro Seas
• Law Concerning Special Measures for the Protec on of Water Quality inWater Resources Areas for the Purpose of Preven ng Speciﬁc TroubleChapter1 Outlook on Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Republic of Korea

Framework Act on Environmental Policy

Lao PDR

Environmental Protec on Law

Malaysia

Environmental Quality Act

MyanmarEnvironmental Conserva on Law

Nepal

Environmental Protec on Act 2053

Water Quality and Ecosystem Conserva on Act
Act Rela ng to Han River Water Quality Improvement and Community
SupportAct on Nakdong River Watershed Management and Community Support
Act on Geum River Watershed Management and Community Support
Act on Yeongsan and Sumjin River Watershed Management andCommunity Support
Preven on of Marine Pollu on Act

Selangor Waters Management Authority Enactment
Kedah Water Resources Enactment
Sabah Conserva on of the Environment Enactment
Sabah Water Resources Enactment
Na onal resources and Environment Ordinance Sarawak

Philippines

PA 9275 Clean Water Act
DAO 2005-10 PCWA Implemen ng Rules and Regula ons

Sri Lanka

Na onal Environmental Act No.47(amended as Act No.53)

Marine Pollu on Preven on Act of No. 35
Coast Conserva on Act No.57 of 1984 as amended by Act No. 64

ThailandEnhancement and Conserva on on Na onal
Environmental Quality Act, B.E. 2535

Groundwater Act

Viet Nam

Law on Environmental Protec on

1.2 Ambient water quality standards
as the administrative target

surface water was proposed by the Central
Environmental Authority and is currently in the processof being approved.

With the excep on of Sri Lanka and Myanmar, all WEPA
countries issue ambient water quality standards.

In Myanmar, the Environmental Conservation Law
enacted in 2012 mentions the establishment of
ambient water quality standards for surface water,
marine water and groundwater, and discussions on
establishing the standard have now begun.

Compared to countries with ambient water quality
standards for surface water, few countries have suchstandards for groundwater.
In Sri Lanka, the ambient water quality standard forTable1.2. Ambient water quality standards in WEPA countries
Country

Surface Water

Groundwater

Marine Water

SourcesCambodia

Water Quality
Standards in Public
Water Areas

Water Quality
Standards in Public
Water Areas

Water Quality
Standards in Public
Water Areas• Sub-Decree on Water Pollu on Control(No.27, 1999)

China

Environmental Quality
Standards for Surface
Water

Quality Standard for
Ground Water

Sea Water Quality
Standard• Environmental Quality Standards for Surface
Water (GB3838-2002)• Quality Standard for Ground Water(GB/T 14848-9)• Sea Water Quality Standard (GB3097-1997)

Indonesia

Water Quality Criteria

Water Quality Criteria

Standard Quality of
Seawater• Government Regula on Number 82 (2001)• Decree of the State Minister of theEnvironment Number 51 (2004)

Japan

Environmental Quality
Standards for Water
Pollu onEnvironmental Water
Quality Standards ofGroundwater

Environmental Quality
Standards for Water
Pollu on• Environmental Quality Standards for Water
Pollu on (1971, latest amended in 2016)• Environmental Water Quality Standards ofGroundwater (1998, latest amended in 2012)

Republic of
Korea

Environmental
Standards for Water
Quality and Aqua c
Ecosystem

Environmental
Standards for Water
Quality and Aqua c
Ecosystem*

Environmental
Standards for Water
Quality and Aqua c
Ecosystem

President Decree under Framework Act on
Environmental Policy (1990)

Lao PDR

Surface Water Quality
Standard

Groundwater Quality
Standard*• The Agreement of Na onal Standards ofEnvironment in Laos (2009)13

Malaysia

Na onal Water Quality
Standards**

Marine Water Quality
Criteria and Standard• Na onal Water Quality Standards for Malaysia• Marine Water Quality Criteria and Standard

Nepal

***

***

***

• Nepal Gaze e (No.10, 16 June 2008)

Philippines

Water Quality
Guidelines and General
Eﬄuent Standards of
2016

Water Quality
Guidelines and General
Eﬄuent Standards of
2016

Water Quality• Water Quality Guidelines and General Eﬄuent
Guidelines and General Standards of 2016
Eﬄuent Standards of2016

ThailandSurface Water Quality
Standards

Groundwater Quality
Standards*

Marine Water Quality
Standard• No ﬁca on of the Na onal Environmental
Board, No. 8, B.E. 2537 (1994)• No ﬁca on of the Na onal Environmental
Board, No. 20, B.E. 2543 (2000)

Viet Nam

Na onal TechnicalRegula on on Surface
Water Quality

Na onal TechnicalRegula on on Ground
Water Quality

Na onal TechnicalRegula on on Coastal
Water Quality• No. QCVN 08:MT2015/BTNMT Na onal
Technical Regula on on Surface Water Quality• No. QCVN 09:MT2015/BTNMT Na onal
Technical Regula on on Ground Water Quality• No. QCVN 10:MT2015/BTNMT Na onal
Technical Regula on on Coastal Water Quality

Myanmar

Sri Lanka* For groundwater used for drinking, the groundwater quality standard for drinking is applied.
** Although no water quality standard is established, groundwater quality status is determined based on Na onal Guidelines For Raw Drinking Water
Quality from the Ministry of Health (Revised December 2000) as the benchmark in Malaysia.
*** Nepal sets diﬀerent water quality standards according to objec ve (for drinking water, irriga on water, livestock watering, and industry).

Classiﬁca onClassification of water bodies is mostly based on therequired quality for water use (ambient water quality
standard) in WEPA countries, with the number of classes
varying according to country. For example, the Philippines
categorises water bodies into ﬁve classes (Class AA, A,
B, C and D) for freshwater and four classes (Class SA,
SB, SC and SD) for marine water based on water use.
Class AA for surface water is intended primarily for waterwith watersheds which are uninhabited and otherwise
protected, and which require only approved disinfec on
1020

in order to meet the National Standards for Drinking
Water (NSDW) of the Philippines.
Indicators
Regarding indicators, the total number and theparameters vary by country, but all standards include
physical, metal, organic nutrient and microbiologicalindicators. The numbers of parameters used for ambient
water quality standards for surface water are shown in
the following ﬁgure.

30

40

50

60

70

80

Physical Indicator

Cambodia (rives)
Cambodia (lakes and reservoirs)
China
Indonesia

Chemical Indicator(Organic)
Chemical Indicator(Metal)Japan (rivers)
Japan (lakes)
Republic of Korea (rivers and streams)

Chemical Indicator(PesƟcide)

Republic of Korea (Lakes)

Chemical Indicator(Other)Lao PDR

Biological Indicator

Malaysia
Nepal (for recreaƟon)RadioacƟve Indicator

Nepal (for the protecƟon of aquaƟc ecosystem)
Phillippines

Other Indicators

Thailand
Viet Nam

Figure 1.1. Number of indicators in ambient water quality standards for surface water

14

Chapter1 Outlook on Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

2 | Monitoring of Water Environment
2.1 Monitoring System
for Ambient Water Quality
Of the 11 Asian countries that issue ambient water
quality standards, nine conduct regular ambient water
quality monitoring for public water bodies (Lao PDR
and Nepal do not).
In Lao PDR, no structured regular monitoring of water
quality takes place. Instead, monitoring carried out onan ad-hoc basis together with laboratory analysis bysome agencies, as necessary.

In Nepal, although water quality is monitored by
diﬀerent ministries and agencies, systema c ambient
water quality monitoring is not conducted for public
water bodies. Regular monitoring of the water qualityof the Bagma River is being done by the High Powered
Committee for the Integrated Development of theBaghma Civiliza on, which has also started to publish
the data for the general public since 2014.
Na onal or local governments conduct ambient water
quality monitoring of public water bodies periodicallyin the other nine countries, while the number ofmonitoring stations, frequency, and number ofindicators diﬀer (see Table1.3).

Table1.3. Status of ambient water quality monitoring for public water bodies in selected WEPA countries
Country

No. of Monitoring Stations

Indicator

Responsible Intuitions

Year

Cambodia

14

BOD, DO, pH, Temperature,
TSS, Coliform, TP, TN, Cr6+

Ministry of Environment

2017

China

2,424 sec ons (rivers)
343 monitoring sites (lakes and reservoir)
6,124 wells (Groundwater)
147,940 km2 (Spring season: marine
water), 135,520 km2 (Summer season:
marine water)

Indicators s pulated in
Environmental Quality
Standard

Local government (Ministry ofEnvironmental Protec on)

2016

Indonesia

598 points

Unknown

Local government (Ministry ofEnvironment and Forestry)

2016

Japan

Indicators for human health protec on:
3,934 (rivers), 401 (lakes and reservoirs),
1,060 (sea)Indicators for the living environment:
4,578 (rivers), 477 (lakes and reservoirs),
2,054 (sea)Indicators for aqua cbiodiversity: 1783 (rivers), 168 (lakes andreservoirs) 293(sea)water:
3,278 (outline survey)

Indicators s pulated in
Environmental Standards

Local government (Ministry of
the Environment)

2016

Republic of Korea

2,188 loca ons

Indicators s pulated in
Environmental Standards

Water Quality Monitoring
Network

2013

Malaysia

904 (in 477 rivers)(manual: 891 sta ons, 13 con nuous
water quality monitoring sta ons)
105 (groundwater)
151 (coastal)
76 (estuary)
90 (inland)

Indicators s pulated in
Na onal Water Quality
Standards (river)
VOCs, pes cides, heavy
metals, anions, bacteria(coliform), phenolic
compounds, total hardness,
TDS, pH, temperature,
conduc vity, DO(groundwater)
DO, NO3 , PO4 , NH3 , Fecal
Coliform, Oil and Grease, TSS(coastal, estuary, inland,)

Department of Environment(MoNRE)2015

Philippines

238 water bodies

Parameters indicated in DAO Environmental Management
34 as amended by DAO 16-08 Bureau (DENR)

20012016

Thailand

620 general monitoring sta ons and 39
automa c monitoring sta ons in 48 mainrivers170 (marine waters)
620 sta ons (groundwater)

23 indicators in Surface Water Pollu on Control
2017
Quality Standard
Department, Department of(River(rivers and lakes)
Groundwater Resources (MoNRE) Water)
unknown (ground water and2012
marine water)(Others)

Viet Nam

248 (116 for surface water)

BOD, COD, DO, TSS, N,P andmetalsCenter for Environmental
Monitoring under Viet Nam
Environmental Administra on,
MoNRE* Heavy metals are not regularly monitored by Environmental Management Bureau (EMB) except where mining,
electropla ng, tanning, or other similar ac vi es take place.

2007(source: See References)15

2.2 Evaluation of Monitoring Results
WEPA countries conducting regular monitoring,evaluate results of national ambient water quality

monitoring for public water bodies. Table 1.4. provides
a summary of the evalua on methodology.

Table1.4. Evalua on methodology for water quality monitoring in the selected Asian countries
Country

Evaluation Methodology

China

Classiﬁca on of monitoring sta on based on results of monitoring and Environmental Quality Standard (Surface
water, marine water and groundwater)Indonesia

Achievement rate of environmental standard for water in public water zones(Surface water)

Japan

Achievement rate of environmental standard for water in public water zones(Surface water, marine water and groundwater)

Republic of Korea

Achievement rate of environmental standard for water in public water zones (surface water and groundwater)

Malaysia

Classiﬁca on of monitoring sta on based on monitoring results and Water Quality Index (WQI)(calculated by monitoring results of 6 indicators: DO, BOD, COD, NH3-N, SS, pH) (Surface water and marine water)
Percentage of samples exceeding the na onal guideline for raw drinking water quality (groundwater)

Philippines

Achievement rate of environmental standard for water in public water bodies and ra ng based on the achievement
rate of each water body
(Surface water and marine water)

ThailandClassiﬁca on of monitoring sta on based on monitoring results and Water Quality Index (WQI)(calculated by monitoring results of 5 indicators: DO, BOD, Total Coliforms Bacteria, Fecal Coliforms Bacteria, NH3-N)(Surface water and marine water)

Viet Nam

Comparison of monitoring result with ambient water quality standard (surface water and marine water)

The evaluation methodologies applied in thesecountries can be roughly divided into two types. The
ﬁrst involves se ng classes of water bodies in advance,
as practiced in Japan, Republic of Korea, and thePhilippines. In this method, based on the results ofwater quality monitoring, governments determine
whether each water body sa sﬁes the Environmental
Quality Standard or not, which is used to express theoverall water environmental standard for thesecountries as a percentage. By using this evaluation
method, whether the water body is suitable for thewater use determined in advance can be evaluated.
The second type involves categorizing monitoringsta ons based on the results of water quality monitoring
and classification in the Environmental Quality
Standard. For example, in China, river sections are
categorised into six classes (I, II, III, IV, V and worse thanV) based on the classification stipulated in its
Environmental Quality Standard. Based on thisevaluation, whether the water use designated for a16

water body under inves ga on is suitable or not can beiden ﬁed at the monitoring sta ons. The Ministry ofEnvironmental Protection of the Republic of China
indicates how many monitoring sta ons are categorised
into each category in the annual report.
In Malaysia and Thailand, the same concept forevalua on is applied, but they use the Water Quality
Index (WQI) instead of the classification within theEnvironmental Quality Standard. WQI is calculated byformulas developed in these countries (see Box 1.1).
Both governments also provide results of national
water quality monitoring using this index on an annual
basis.
In Viet Nam, results of water quality monitoring are
simply compared with the ambient water quality
standard.
Results of water quality monitoring shown in monitoring
reports of selected WEPA partner countries areillustrated in Figure 1.2.

Chapter1 Outlook on Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Box 1.1. Water Quality Index used in Malaysia
In Malaysia, sub-index values are calculated by the formula for the 6 indicators DO, BOD, COD, NH3-N, SS and pH, thensummed with weigh ng factors speciﬁc to each sub-index, as shown in the following formula.
WQI = (0.22* SIDO) + (0.19* SIBOD) + (0.16* SICOD) + (0.15* SIAN) + (0.16* SISS) + (0.12* SIpH)
where:
SIDO = Subindex DO (% satura on)
SIBOD = Subindex BOD
SICOD = Subindex COD
SIAN = Subindex NH3-N
SISS = Subindex SS
SIpH = Subindex pH
0<=WQI<=100
DoE Water Quality Classiﬁca on based on WQI
Clean: 81-100, Slightly Polluted: 60-80, Polluted: 0-59
(Source: Department of Environment, Malaysia 2012)

2.3 Disclosure of Ambient Water Quality
Monitoring Results
The results of monitoring are evaluated annually inmany countries for information disclosure and policy
evalua on.
The state of water quality is mainly reported to thegeneral public via annually published environmental
quality reports, and the following countries enable thepublic to access environmental reports giving
comprehensive assessments of water quality on
websites: China, Japan, Republic of Korea, Malaysia,
Thailand, and Viet Nam.
In some countries, such as China, Republic of Korea,
Thailand and Viet Nam, the public can view real- me
monitoring data on a website, which is uploaded fromcon nuous monitoring sta ons. Other countries such
as Japan also u lize a website to publish results.

17

China
100%

100%
80%

80%

>V

>V

60%

IV,V

60%

IV,V

40%

I-III

40%

I-III

20%

20%
0%

0%
2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Year

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Year

Lake Water

Surface water

Thailand

100%

>IV

80%

100%

Highly Deteriorated

80%

Deteriorated

60%

III

Fair

40%

II

Good

20%

I

60%

Excellent

40%

IV

0%
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013

20%

Year

Coastal Water
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016

0%

Surface water
100%

Highly Deteriorated

80%

Deteriorated
Fair

60%

Good

40%

Excellent

20%

Japan

0%
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016

China

Marine water

Republic of Korea

Nepal

Cambodia
Myanmar

BOD (mg/L)
7

Lao PDRMK River Upstream (Chrouy Changvar)
MK River Downstream (Kien Svay)
Bassac River (Ta Khmao)
PP Port (Tonle Sap River)

6
5

Viet Nam
Thailand

4

Philippines

Cambodia

Sri Lanka

3

Malaysia210Standard: 1-10 (mg/L)

Indonesia
2004

2006

2008

2010

Malaysia
100%

100%

80%

80%

60%

Polluted

Poor

60%

Moderate

Slightly Polluted
40%

Clean

40%

Good
Excellent

20%

20%

0%

0%
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Surface water

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

Figure1.2. Situa on of water quality in surface water or marine water of selected WEPA countries

18

2015

Marine water(Source: See References)

Chapter1 Outlook on Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Japan

Indonesia

100
100%
90%
80%

Heavily
Polluted

70%

60

443

309

60%

438

407

420

Moderately
Polluted

50%

40

Lightly
Polluted

10%

93

80

0%

7

19

21

40

39

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2016

Coastal areas
2014

20%

2012

30%

2010

Rivers

2006

2004

2002

2000

1998

1996

1994

1992

1990

1988

1986

1984

1982

1980

1978

1976

1974

40%

Lakes and reservoirs

200Overall

2008

Compliance RaƟo (%)

80

Class II
Compliant

154

109

80

Year

River, Lakes and Marine Water

Republic of Korea

Philippines
100

BOD (mg/L)
380
Han River2

Nakdon River
Geum River

1.5

Percentage

2.5%Failed60%Passed40

Yeongsan River
1

20

0.5
0

0
2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

DO BOD

DO BOD

DO BOD

DO BOD

2013

2014

2015

2016

Year

Four Major River Waters

River Waters

Viet Nam(mg/L)
8

2013

2012

2014

2015

QCVN 08-MT:2015 (A1)2016

QCVN 08-MT:2015 (B1)

7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0

Tha LaBridgeTong Le
Chan
BridgeDau
Tieng Lake

Dau Tieng
BridgeBen Suc
BridgePhu Hoa
PumpingƚĂƟŽŶ

Upstream(mg/L)
45

2012

2013

Binh
Trieu
BridgeCombined Ba Son Shipwith
Building
Chiec ditch
Company
Ho Chi Minh City
Special Urban Centre2015

Phu Cuong
BridgeThu Dau Mot city
Urban Centre- Type II

QCVN 08-MT:2015 (A1)2016

Thu Dau
Mot city

Phu Long
Thuan
An Town
Urban Centre- Type IIIZŝǀĞƌƐĞĐƟŽŶƐ͕ǁŚŝĐŚŇŽǁƚŚƌŽƵŐŚƵƌďĂŶĂƌĞĂƐ

River Water (BOD)2014

Tan Thuan
Port

QCVN 08-MT:2015 (B1)

40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0

Bay Mau West Lake West Lake An Bien
Lake(shore) (middle)
Lake
Hanoi
Special Urban Centre

Phuong Du Hang
Luu LakeLake
Hai Phong

Sen
Lake

Tam Bac Bau Tram
Lake
Lake
Da Nang

Thanh
Lake
Thanh
Hoa

Urban Centre- Type I

Goong
Lake
Vinh

Tinh Tam Phu Hoa
Lake
Lake
Hue
Quy
Nhon

Thanh
Lake
Bac
Ninh

Dam Vac
Lake
Vinh
Yen

Center
Lake
Hai
Duong

Urban Centre- Type II

Phai Loan
Lake
Lang
Son
Urban
Centre- Type III

Lake Water (BOD)19

3 | Wastewater Management
3.1 Status of Wastewater Generation
The following table shows shi s in the amount of water
withdrawal in WEPA countries.
First, it is evident that the amount of water withdrawal
is diﬀerent depending on the country, which may be due
to diﬀerences in popula on, level of industrializa on,
and size of agricultural land.

Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Republic of Korea, Lao
DPR, Sri Lanka exhibit a rising trend. Other WEPA
countries such as Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines,
Thailand and Viet Nam have only recently shown stable
trends in water withdrawal, while others showed such
trends from the 1980s to 2000s. Water withdrawal in
Nepal and Japan has shown a continuous decreasesince 1992.
Wastewater discharge from each country usuallyfollows the same trend as water withdrawal.

Water withdrawal rates vary among WEPA countries:
Table 1.5. Change in water withdrawal in WEPA countries
Country

Total Annual Freshwater
Withdrawals in1980-1990’s
billion m 3

Cambodia

Total Annual Freshwater
Withdrawals in 2000’s
billion m 3

YearTotal Annual Freshwater
Withdrawals in 2010’s
billion m 3

Year

Year

0.5

1987

2.2

2006

-

-

China

500.0

1990

554.1

2005

610.3

2015

Indonesia

74.3

1990

113.3

2000

175.0

2016

Japan

91.4

1992

90

2001

80.0

2014

Republic of Korea

23.7

1994

25.5

2002

37.2

2014

Lao PDR

1.0

1987

3.5

2005

-

-

Malaysia

10.1

1990

11.2

2005

11.2

2014

Myanmar

28.3

1987

33.2

2000

33.2

2014

Nepal

29.0

1994

9.5

2006

-

-

Philippines

55.4

1995

81.6

2009

81.6

2014

Sri Lanka

9.8

1990

13.0

2005

-

-

Thailand

30.1

1990

57.3

2007

57.3

2014

Viet Nam

45.3

1985

82.0

2005

82.0

2014

(Source: See References)

3.2 Identification of Pollution Source
Out of the 13 WEPA countries, eight countries have
tried to implement an inventory survey for diﬀerent
sectors in order to quan ta vely iden fy the source ofpollution. Indonesia and Viet Nam are now making
par cular eﬀorts to improve the current system for theinventory survey because it is not seen as eﬀec ve by
the na onal government.
Although the World Bank conducted a survey in Viet
Nam in 2006 aiming to iden fy the pollu on sources of
the Cau River, Nhue-Day River and Dong Nai River, they
did not calculate the pollution load from different
sectors. According to the Na onal State of Environment
2010, the pollu on load from the industrial sector and20

that of the domes c sector were calculated separately,
but they were not evaluated in an integrated way.
Moreover, the pollu on load from the livestock industry
was not calculated, even though this sector isrecognized as a major source of pollu on in Viet Nam.
Currently, the na onal government is trying to improve
its system by focusing on Cau River and Dong Nai River
under a JICA project, namely “ The Project forStrengthening Capacity of Water Environmental
Management in River Basin”.
Table 1.6 summarizes the details of pollution load
survey in selected WEPA countries. According to thetable, frequency, targeted area/basin and indicators
diﬀer depending on the countries. Countries such as

Chapter1 Outlook on Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

China, Philippines, and Thailand calculate the pollu on
load generated from the whole country, while othercountries including Japan, Indonesia and Republic ofKorea evaluate the pollution load discharged totargeted rivers or lakes.
As shown in Figure 1.3, the domes c sector is a major
BOD/COD pollu on source in the surveyed countries orbasins except in China and Seto Inland Bay of Japan.

However, if we add the pollu on load from industry
with the load from livestock/agro industry as a pollu on
source to be regulated by effluent standard, thepercentage of pollu on load accounts for 20% to 60%of the total, except for the Cilliwung River Basin ofIndonesia, which is higher than the loads for thedomes c sector in some countries or basins.

Table1.6. Detail of Pollu on Load Inves ga on in Selected WEPA countries
Country

Responsible
Institute

Starting Year

Frequency

Target Area/Basin

Indicator

Source

China

Ministry ofEnvironmental
Protec on

1997(Report on theState of China’s
Environment)
2006-2009(Na onal Census of
Pollu on Source)

AnnualWhole country

COD
NH3(Report on theState of China’s
Environment)- Report on theState of China’s
Environment- 1st Na onal
Census of
Pollu on Source

Indonesia

Ministry of Forestry
and Environment

2001(the year
regula on wasestablished)

Annual(as regula on)

Priority river and
lake

BOD
COD
TSS

- Ministry ofForestry andEnvironment

Japan

Ministry of theEnvironment

1978(Total Pollutant
Load Control
System)1985(Pollu on Control
system under the
Law Concerning
Special Measures
for Conserva onof Lake Water
Quality)
1977(Na on Census ofwater pollu on
source)About once ﬁve
year(Total Pollutant
Load Control
System)Tokyo Bay, Ise Bay,
Seto Inland Bay(Total Pollutant
Load Control
System)Targeted Lakes(Pollu on Control
system under the
Law Concerning
Special Measures
for Conserva onof Lake Water
Quality)

COD
TN
TP

- Total Pollutant
Load Control
System- Pollu on Control
system under the
Law Concerning
Special Measures
for Conserva onof Lake Water
Quality- Na on Census ofwater pollu on
sourceRepublic of
Korea

Ministry ofEnvironment--

Four Major Rivers

BOD- Na onal Ins tutefor Environmental
Studies

Philippines

Environmental
Management
Bureau/DENR

2005

-

Whole Country

BOD- Na onal Water
Quality Status
ReportMalaysia

DOE/MONRE-

AnnualWhole Country/
Selected River
Basin

BOD
NH3
SS

- Environmental
Quality Report

Thailand

PCD/MONRE

2006, 2015-

Whole Country

BOD- State of Pollu on
ReportViet Nam

VEA/MONRE

The framework of pollu on load inves ga on is now under establishment.

- JICA(Source: See References)

21

DomesƟc

China

0%(COD, 2015)

Malaysia(BOD, 2012)

Thailand(BOD,2016)20%

Industrial
40%

Agricultural
60%

Others80%100%(BOD,2005)

Philippines

Tokyo Bay (COD, 2009)
Ise Bay (COD, 2009)

Tokyo Bay

Seto Bay (COD, 2009)
Citarum River (BOD, 2015)
Cilliwung River (BOD, 2015)
Musi River (BOD, 2012)

Indonesia

Barantas River (BOD, 2015)
Brito River (BOD)

Figure1.3. Pollu on Source by Sector in Selected WEPA Countries

3.3 Wastewater Quality Control(Effluent Standard)
Quality Control is a basic approach for management ofdomes c and industrial wastewater in WEPA countries.
All countries except Myanmar set national effluent
standards for domes c and industrial wastewater.
In Myanmar, na onal eﬄuent standards are now underconsideration. Yangon city has a provincial effluent
standard.

3.4 Domestic Wastewater Treatment– Current Situation and Issues

Sewerage Treatment Coverage (%)

For domes c wastewater treatment, centralized aerobic
treatment at sewerage plants and individual anaerobic
treatment via septic tanks are mainly used in Asian
countries, par cularly in urban areas.

Re

Centralized approach
Aerobic sewerage treatment is the typical approachfor domestic wastewater treatment, particularly inurban areas of Asian countries. Figure 1.4 shows thelatest sewerage treatment coverage rates for domes c
wastewater in WEPA countries. As a result of investment,
the sewerage treatment coverage in the Republicof Korea, Japan, and urban area of China currently
exceeds 80%; the rate in Malaysia (peninsular Malaysia
and municipali es only) falls in the 60–70% range andThailand’s coverage rate falls in the vicinity of 20%. In
comparison, the coverage rate of sewerage treatment
facili es in other WEPA countries is s ll less than 5%.
However, it must be stressed that the coverage ra oalone cannot be used as the basis for comparing diﬀerent
countries because calculation methodologies vary
according to the country.

80

Sewerage Treatment Coverage(Black Water and Grey Water)

60

40

20

0

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of
lic
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10
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10
10
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15 (201
20
20
10
20
20
20 r (20
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20
(
(
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(
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0
20
l
(
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a
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an
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nd
s ia
dia
pa
am
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ina
*Chinese data is only for urban areanm
Jap aysia haila iet N lippi
Ne done mbo Lao P ri La
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ya
l
i
T
a
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**Except in Sabah and Sawawak province
a
V
h
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C
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Country (Year)

20

Figure1.4. Service coverage rates of sewerage treatment in WEPA countries

22(Source: See References)(Source: See References)

Chapter1 Outlook on Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

On-site treatment (sep c tank)
In areas without access to sewerage treatment services,
on-site treatment using individual septic tanks iscommon, especially in urban areas. Table 1.7 illustrates
the coverage rate in selected countries and ci es. Whiledata is not complete for all countries in general, it
can be seen that in countries where coverage rates ofsewerage treatment are low, the coverage rate for sep ctanks is par cularly high in urban areas. Treatment using
individual sep c tanks brings up several challenges withrespect to prevention of water pollution. One issue isthe BOD removal rate for sep c tank treatment, whichis 30%–60% based on results from several studies, a rate
lower than that for sewerage removal using aera on. In
addi on, sep c tanks in some Asian countries treat only
black water; grey water, which has a high BOD pollu on
load, is discharged untreated.

Country

Year

Area

Coverage Rate (%)

Cambodia

2008

Na onal Average

43

Na onal Average

41

Urban Area

79

Rural Area

26

Na onal Average

21

Na onal Average

60

Jakarta

93

Manila71

2008

Malaysia

2010

Indonesia

2011

Philippines

2010

100
Republic of Korea
80

Japan
China*
Malaysia**

60

40
Thailand20
Philippines, Indonesia, Viet Nam, Cambodia, Lao PDR,
Myanmmer, Nepal, Sri Lanka
0

10,00020,00030,00040,000GDP per Capita (curent-USD)

50,000* ^ĞǁĞƌĂŐĞƚƌĞĂƚŵĞŶƚƌĂƟŽŽĨŚŝŶĂŝƐŽŶůǇĨŽƌƵƌďĂŶĂƌĞĂ**^ĞǁĞƌĂŐĞƚƌĞĂƚŵĞŶƚƌĂƟŽŽĨDĂůĂǇƐŝĂŝƐĞǆĐĞƉƚĨŽƌ^ĂďĂŚĂŶĚ^ĂǁĂǁĂŬƉƌŽǀŝŶĐĞ

Figure1.5. Rela onship between sewerage treatment
coverage ra o and GDP per capita in WEPA countries(Source: See References)

Table1.7. Sep c Tank Coverage Rate in Selected
WEPA Countries, by Area

Viet Nam^ĞǁĞƌĂŐĞdƌĞĂƚŵĞŶƚƌĂƟŽ(%)(Source: See References)

Issues concerning construc on of domes c
wastewater treatment facili es
In order to mitigate and prevent water pollution,
domestic wastewater (both grey and black) should be
adequately treated using high-performance treatment
processes with high rates of pollu on removal, especiallyin areas without access to sewerage treatment. However,according to UN data (UNDP 2006), the construc on of
sewage treatment plants is two to three mes more costly
than the installa on of sep c tanks. In fact, examining
the rela onship between the coverage ra o for seweragetreatment in WEPA countries and per capita GDP (seeFigure 1.5) reveals a certain posi ve correla on. In mostAsian countries where the coverage ra o for seweragetreatment is s ll low, the per capita GDP remains below
USD4,000, thus the construc on of large-scale sewage
treatment plants, which are more costly than sep c tanks,
is not an economically feasible op on in these countries.

Issues regarding opera on of domes c wastewater
treatment facili es
Some Asian countries have reported opera onal issues
at sewerage treatment plants following construc on anda er the launch of opera ons. Cases have been observed
where residents not wishing to pay sewage fees do notconnect to the service despite living in the coverage area.
Accordingly, inﬂow falls short of the treatment capacity.
Moreover, the inability to collect sewage treatment feesfrom most treatment plant users in Thailand has resulted
in the use of public ﬁnances from local governments tocover opera onal costs. In recent years, more regional
governments have called for more to be done in order tocollect sewage treatment fees, and central governments
are working on setting regulations for this problem.
Nevertheless, many difficulties remain in actual fee
collec on.

3.5 Industrial Wastewater Regulation– Current Situation and Issues
Industrial wastewater has been identified as one of
the major causes of water pollu on in WEPA countries,
although its load on water bodies diﬀers from country tocountry. With the aim of preventing or mitigating such
water pollution, all WEPA countries have establishedmanagement systems in an eﬀort to enable control overwastewater discharged from industry. However, challenges
remain in implementa on for many of the countries.
Industrial wastewater in the region
The industrial sector is not always the largest contributor interms of organic pollu on load in WEPA partner countries

23such as China, Philippines, Malaysia and Thailand as alreadydiscussed. This is partly because these countries tackledindustrial wastewater from the late 1970s and early 80s,
ensuring that wastewater from factories – especially large
scale factories and those in industrial zones – was treated
to comply with pollu on control regula ons. However,industrial wastewater remains a major source of waterpollu on in certain industrial wastewater managementbasins, where inadequately treated wastewater is
emi ed. In addi on to organic pollutants, toxic substances
contained in industrial wastewater are of high concern topolicymakers in the region.
Laws and regula ons
To prevent or mitigate pollution from untreated or
partly treated industrial wastewater, all WEPA partnercountries have legislation in place, and all countries
except Myanmar have set up eﬄuent standards that theindustrial sector must comply with.
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a tool used
to avoid pollu on before the start of opera ons. For
example, all industries are required to obtain an
Environmental Compliance Cer ﬁcate, which is issued
under the Decree of Environment Impact Assessment(No.112/PM) for their operations. Cambodia’s SubDecree on Environmental Impact Assessment also
requests all development ac vi es and investmentsthat require approval from the Council of Developmentof Cambodia (CDC) and industries that have obtained
the cer ﬁcate to follow the monitoring and repor ng
requirement of the EIA related guidelines. For cases of
non-compliance, all countries have already introduced
systems for inspection, governmental guidance andpenalties to correct them. However, such measuresagainst non-compliance are not always effectively
implemented for various reasons, including but notlimited to delays caused by procedural deﬁciencies,
uncooperative companies, and weak penalties. To
overcome such deﬁciencies in current non-compliancemeasures, Indonesia, Japan and Viet Nam recently
revised their laws or regula ons.
Eﬄuent Standards
Quality control is a major policy for industrial wastewater
regulation in all WEPA countries. Table 1.8 shows the
purpose, targeted industry and structure of the standard
in each country. As can be seen, for quality control,eﬄuent standards are established for industrial eﬄuent
in all WEPA countries except Myanmar, albeit with
diﬀerent details depending on the countries.
In some countries such as Cambodia, Indonesia, Lao
PDR and Philippines, all industries should be subjected24

to eﬄuent standard regardless of the size or type of theindustry. On the other hand, countries such as Malaysia
and Japan have exceptions based on the volume ofdischarged wastewater. For example, in Malaysia,
industrial eﬄuent standards do not apply for industries
that produce industrial effluent or mixed effluent ofless than 60 m3/day.
All WEPA countries with industrial eﬄuent standards
have a general standard for all types of industries orindustries without speciﬁc standards. In some countries,
standard values are categorized into diﬀerent categories
based on the type of receiving bodies and the size ofthe industry. In addi on to the general standard, somecountries have speciﬁc standards (stricter or looser) for
speciﬁc types of industry. For example, China has 63
speciﬁc standards based on the type of industry, andIndonesia has 44 such standards. Moreover, China,
Japan and Republic of Korea have provincial standards
based on the condi on of the local water environment.
Ins tu onal arrangements
In general, the environmental line agency (environment
ministry) is in charge of pollu on control. However, theresponsibility to control industrial wastewater is also
vested in industrial and economic development sector
agencies in some countries, and this leads to overlapping
responsibili es. For industrial zones or special economic
zones containing agglomera ons of factories, diﬀerent
laws and regula ons are o en applied, and instalment ofcentralized wastewater treatment facili es is mandated
under such laws or regula ons. Diﬀerent agencies, suchas industrial estate authori es, handle water pollu on
control in such special zones in many countries. In mostcountries, industries are required to provide no ﬁca on
to designated authori es (at the na onal or local level)
or to apply for approval or permits therefrom before
commencing operations that discharge effluent, therequirements for which vary by type and size of industry.
Eﬄuent monitoring
Monitoring of effluent quality is a key tool to checkcompliance with eﬄuent standards in factories. Table1.9
summarizes the responsibility for monitoring of eﬄuentquality, repor ng of the monitoring results and inspec on
in WEPA countries. In principle, all owners of pollu on
sources are obligated to monitor effluent quality andreport the result of monitoring to the government or
public authori es throughout the WEPA partner countries
except in some countries. In these countries, governmentsor public authorities request the owners of pollution
sources to report the results of monitoring periodically aswell as conduct on-site inspec on if necessary.

Chapter1 Outlook on Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Table1.8. Industrial eﬄuent standard in WEPA countries
Country

PurposeTargeted Industry

Structure of Standard

SourceCambodia

To regulate the water pollu on
control in order to prevent andreduce the water pollu on of
the public water areas so that
protec on of human health andthe conserva on of bio-diversity
should be ensured.

Any source of pollu on• Standard value for 2
diﬀerent type of receiving
bodies (Protected public
water area/Public waterarea and sewer)

Sub-Decree on Water
Pollu onChina

• To control water pollu on• To protect rivers and lakes Canalchannels Reservoirs and oceans
and other surface and groundwater quality• To protect human health andmaintain the ecological balance• To promote the development of
na onal economy and urban andrural development

Any pollu on source(category I pollutants)• 1 integrated standard• 63 speciﬁc standards basedon type of industry• Provincial standard

Integrated wastewater
discharge Standard(GB 8978 1996) etc

Indonesia

a. to protect the territory of the
Republic of Indonesia from
pollu on and /or damage of theenvironment;b. to ensure the safety, health, andlife of humans;c. to guarantee the con nuity of
the life of living creatures andthe preserva on of ecosystems;
d. to preserve the environmental
func ons;
e. to achieve harmony,
synchroniza on, and balance ofenvironment;
f. to guarantee jus ce (fairness)for the sake of the present andfuturegenera ons;
g. to ensure the compliance withand the protec on of rights toenvironment as part of humanrights;h. to control the use of natural
resources on a wise basis;i . to realize a sustainable
development; andj. to an cipate any of global issues
on environment.

All industry• Quality standard ofwastewater for business
and/or ac vi es thathave not owned thespeciﬁc quality standardof wastewater (Standard
values for 2 diﬀerent typeof industry class)• Speciﬁc quality standard for
44 industry

Regula on of the Minister ofEnvironment (No.5/2014)

Japan

To prevent the pollu on of water(including deteriora on of thecondi on of water in ways otherthan of its quality; the same
applies hereina er) in areas of
public waters and in groundwaterby regula ng eﬄuent discharged
by factories and workplaces
into areas of public waters andthe permea on of Eﬄuent
underground, and promo ng
domes c wastewater measuresand other related measures,
thereby protec ng public healthand preserving living condi ons,
and protec ng injured par es by
providing the liability of businesses
for compensa ng for loss ordamage where public health isnega vely aﬀected by polluted
water or wastewater discharged
from factories and workplaces run
by those businesses• Na onal standard• All industry(for hazardous• Prefectural stringent
pollutant)standard• Industry with the• Provisional standard forcapacity of more thanspeciﬁc industry
50 m3/day (for otherpollutants)

Water Pollu on Preven on
Act

25

Republic of
Korea

To prevent harm to ci zens’
health and environmental hazards
due to water pollu on andto appropriately manage andpreserve water quality and aqua cecosystems of public waters,
including rivers, lakes and marshes,in order to enable ci zens toenjoy beneﬁts accruing from suchendeavors, and leave such beneﬁts
to future genera ons

Wastewater
discharging facili esprescribed by
Enforcement Decreeof the Water Quality
and Aqua c Ecosystem
Conserva on Act• Na onal Standard
Standard values for 4
diﬀerent receiving bodies
and 2 diﬀerent discharging
capacity (for BOD, COD, SS)
Standard values for diﬀerent
receiving bodies (for otherpollutants)• Strict standard considering
receiving bodies and local
condi on.

• Water Quality and Aqua c
Ecosystem Conserva on Act• Enforcement Decree of
Water Quality and Aqua c
Ecosystem Conserva on Act

Lao PDR-

All industry, regardlessof size and type ofindustry• General Standard• Speciﬁc standard for livestockindustry

Na onal Environmental
Standard, 2017

Malaysia

Preven on, abatement control
of pollu on and enhancement of
the environment, and for purpose
connected therewith

Environmental Quality(Industrial Eﬄuent)
Regula on 2009
deﬁnes the list ofpremises to whichthese regula ons do
not apply*• Environmental Quality• Environmental Quality Act,
(Industrial Eﬄuent) Regula on 1974
2009
• Environmental Quality(Industrial Eﬄuent)• Environmental Quality (Crude
Palm Oil ) Regula on 1997
Regula on 2009
• Environmental Quality• Environmental Quality (Raw
(Crude Palm Oil) Regula on
Natural Rubber) Regula on
1997
1978
• Enviornmental Quality (Raw
Natural Rubber) Regula on
1978

Nepal

-

-

• Generic Standard• Generic Standards(Standard value for 2 diﬀerent Part 1: Tolerance limits
type of receiving bodies)for industrial eﬄuent
to be discharged into
• Speciﬁc Industrial Eﬄuent
inland surface waters
Standards for 9 industries(2058/01/07) 30-04-2001
Part II: Tolerance limits
for industrial eﬄuent tobe discharged into publicsewers (2060/03/09) 23-062003• Speciﬁc Industrial
Standards

Philippine

Protec on, preserva on andrevival of the quality of our ﬂesh,
blackish and marine water

All point sources ofpollu on, regardless ofvolume, that discharge
to receiving body ofwater or land andindustry category• Eﬄuent Standard (DAO
2016-8)(Standard values for
4 diﬀerent type of receiving
bodies)• Signiﬁcant Eﬄuent Quality
Parameter for 13 industries

Water Quality Guideline andGeneral Eﬄuent Standardsof 2016

Sri Lanka

For the protec on andmanagement of the environment
and for ma ers connected
therewith or incidental thereto

Prescribed ac vi es
for which a license isrequired• Na onal Discharge andEmission Standard• Wastewater DischargeStandard for 3 industry• Na onal Environmental Act,
No.47 of 1980
• Na onal Environmental(Protec on and Quality)
Regula ons, No.1 of2008EnThailandTo meet the Environmental Quality
Standards set by the Act for the
purpose of the conserva on ofenvironmental quality

Industry regulated
by Factory Law andIndustrial Estate Law• General Eﬄuent Standard• Speciﬁc Eﬄuent Standard for
6 industry• Water Recycle Standard

Promo on and Conserva onof Na onal Environmental
Quality Act B.E. 2535

Viet Nam-

Organiza on andindividual carrying out
ac vi es related to theopera on of industry
wastewater eﬄuent
into receiving bodies• Na onal Technical Regula onon Industrial Wastewater(Standard value for 2
diﬀerent type of receiving
bodies)• Na onal technical Regula on
speciﬁc for 10 industries

Na onal Technical Regula onon Industrial Wastewater etc*the list of premises is as following;
1. Processing of oil-palm fruit or oil-palm fresh fruit bunches into crude palm oil, whether as an intermediate or ﬁnal product2. Processing of natural rubber in technically speciﬁed form, latex form including prevulcanised or the form of modiﬁed and special purpose rubber,conven onal sheet, skim, crepe or scrap rubber
3. Mining ac vi es
4. Processing, manufacturing, washing or servicing of any other products or goods that produce industrial eﬄuent or mixed eﬄuent of less than 60
cubic meters per day
5. Processing, manufacturing, washing or servicing of any other products or goods that produce industrial eﬄuent or mixed eﬄuent of which does
not contain oil and grease or those contaminants listed as parameters (v) to (xv) in the ﬁrst column of the Fi h Schedule
6. Processing, manufacturing, washing or servicing of any other products or goods where the total load of biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5 at
20°C) or suspended solids or both, shall not exceed 6 kilogrammes per day (concentra on of 100 milligrammes per litre)26

Chapter1 Outlook on Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Table1.9. Responsibility for eﬄuent monitoring
Country

Responsibility of industry/government for effluent monitoring

Cambodia

Government has responsibility for implementa on of industrial eﬄuent monitoring. Local government
monitors the eﬄuent of non-chemical industry and na onal government for chemical industry.

China

Na onal and local governments have responsibility for supervising the implementa on of integrated
wastewater discharge standard.

Indonesia

Industry has responsibility for implementa on of industrial eﬄuent monitoring and repor ng results to local
government. Local government has right to conduct inspec on of industry.

Japan

Industry has responsibility for implementa on of monitoring, recording and storing the result of themonitoring of eﬄuent. Local government has right to request industry to report the results and to conduct
inspec on.

Republic of Korea

Every business operator or operator of preven on facili es shall record and keep the opera ng status of
the relevant discharging facili es and preven on facili es as they are, as prescribed by Ordinance of the
Ministry of Environment when opera ng discharging facili es and preven on facili es. The Minister ofEnvironment or a Mayor/Do Governor may require business operators or operators of preven on facili es
to submit the necessary reports or materials in order to verify whether such facili es meet the standards
for eﬄuent water quality. Public oﬃcials appointed by Minister of Environment have right to conduct
inspec ons.

Lao PDR

Industry has responsibility for implementa on of industrial eﬄuent monitoring and repor ng results to local
government. Local government has right to conduct inspec ons of industry.

Malaysia

An owner or occupier of a premises shall conduct performance monitoring of the components of theeﬄuent treatment system in a manner speciﬁed in the Guidance issued by Department of Environment.
An owner or occupier of a premises equipped with the industrial eﬄuent treatment system shall maintainrecords of the manufacturing processes, opera on, maintenance and performance monitoring of theindustrial eﬄuent treatment system. Records shall be made available for inspec on by the authorizedoﬃcer.

Nepal

Industry has no authoriza on for eﬄuent monitoring. Some industries conduct monitoring but results are
considered as reference. Public en es have responsibility for monitoring.

Philippines

The EMB-DENR monitors the quality of eﬄuent through the discharge permi ng system even as theindustries are encouraged to undertake self-monitoring of the quality of discharge.

Sri Lanka

Industry has responsibility for implementa on of industrial eﬄuent monitoring. Local oﬃces of central
environmental agency have right to conduct inspec ons of industry.

ThailandIndustry has responsibility for implementa on of industrial eﬄuent monitoring and repor ng result todiﬀerent ministries. Ministry of Industry and Ministry of Natural Resource and Environment have right toconduct inspec ons of industry.

Viet Nam

Industry has responsibility for implementa on of industrial eﬄuent monitoring and repor ng its result to
DONRE. DONRE has right to conduct inspec ons of industry.

27

assess neither the state of compliance nor theeﬀec veness of any measures taken. Keeping records
of monitoring results was not an obliga on placed on
business en es in Japan un l a revision to the Water
Pollu on Control Law in 2010 mandated the recording
and storing of results, with penalties applied in theevent of non-compliance.

In Cambodia, only the government has responsibility
for implementa on of industrial eﬄuent monitoring. In
Nepal, public entities have responsibility to monitor
industrial effluent. Industry has no authorization forcarry out eﬄuent monitoring. Some industries conduct
monitoring but results are considered as reference. In
the Philippines, the EMB-DENR monitors the quality ofeﬄuent through the discharge permi ng system while
industries are encouraged to undertake self-monitoringof the quality of discharges.

Result of the monitoring
Based on the result of monitoring/inspection by
government or self-monitoring by industry, national
governments in some WEPA countries evaluate thecompliance status of industrial wastewater standards.
Figure 1.6. shows the result of evaluation in selected
WEPA countries and iden ﬁes that evalua on methods
are diﬀerent from country to country. According to theﬁgure, the compliance ra o in China, Republic of Korea,
Malaysia and Japan exceeds 90%.

In Republic of Korea and Thailand, on-line monitoringof eﬄuent was introduced for pollu on sources withcertain volumes of effluents. On the other hand,monitoring is not always conducted by the owners or
managers despite their obliga on to do so, and results
are not always stored for easy access or do not reachthe intended authori es. This means authori es canRepublic of Korea
Inspec on and Administra ve Measures for Wastewater Discharging Facili es
Year

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

No of Inspected Facility

63,96861,934

59,91457,03857,675

41,14140,78537,456

39,66235,546

Viola ng Facility

2,874

2,857

2,685

2,413

2,135

1,721

2,019

1,994

2,280

2,818

Viola on Ra o

4.5

4.6

4.5

4.2

3.7

4.2

5.0

5.3

5.7

7.9

Total

2,789

2,779

2,576

2,316

2,085

1,687

1,976

1,947

2,245

2,776

Order of Repair

1,267

1,193

1,171

1,002

1,019

849

809

830

921

975

Administra ve Temporary Suspension
Measures
Ban

364

319

280

300

253

236

339

245

232

170

249

210

156

163

130

101

87

122

84

221

Abolish

230

304

282

241

212

131

184

120

121

118

Warning & Others

679

753

687

610

471

370

557

630

887

1,292

85

78

109

97

50

34

43

47

35

42

Inpec onAccusa on

Japan
Enforcement status of water pollu on control law
Year

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

271,242

266,860

271,168

269,847

267,328

33,96433,52933,06732,58932,381

Ar cle 5 (Establishment of Speciﬁed facili es)

5,307

4,989

6,598

5,786

6,026

Ar cle 7 (Structure changes etc.)

3,539

3,924

4,427

4,105

5,006

Ar cle 8 (Order to change plans)

0

0

0

0

0

41,26038,882

43,13539,49041,110

588

587

491

465

510

No. of speciﬁed establishments
average eﬄuent more than 50m3/day

No of establishments inspected (Ar cle 22.1)
inspec on during night

Figure1.6. Result of eﬄuent monitoring in selected WEPA countries

28(Source: See References)

Chapter1 Outlook on Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Order for Improvement (Ar cle 13)

16

12

14

11

8

Order to suspend opera on (Ar cle 13)

0

0

1

0

3

Order to purify groundwater (Ar cle 14.3)

0

0

0

0

0

in wri ng

2,880

2,761

2,650

2,503

2,556

Oral

5,095

4,826

5,432

4,753

4,981

Total

7,975

7,587

8,082

7,256

7,537

Installa on or improvement ofwastewater treatment facili es

2,206

2,474

2,145

1,946

2,192

Temporary suppression of eﬄuent

28

30

16

7

20

Others

6,010

5,432

6,169

5,613

5,651

Total

8,244

7,846

8,330

7,566

7,863

Viola on of eﬄuent standards (Ar cle 31.1.1)

11

8

6

4

4

Viola on of order for improvement (Ar cle 30)

0

0

0

0

0

Viola on of water pollu on control law (others)

0

0

0

0

0

433

504

540

565

557

2001

2002

2003

2004

Measures to be taken in case of an accident

China
Compliance rate to industrial eﬄuent standards in China
Year

1996

Compliance Ra o (%)

1997

41.1

1998

54.4

65.3

2000
82

85.6

Malaysia

ThailandCompliance status of Industry

Compliance ra o

Year

2012

2013

2014

No of Inspec on

6,590

7,201

11,410Compliance (%)

98

99

99

88.3

89.2

90.7

2005
91.2

Indonesia
Compliance Ra o of Industrial Wastewater EﬄuentStandard under PROPPER
Year

2015

2016

Number of Par cipa ng
companies

2,157

1,930

Factory that comply witheﬄuent standard

Compliance Ra o (%)

76.9

78.2

Factory that does not comply
with eﬄuent standard

Sri LankaCompliance Ra o of Industrial Wastewater EﬄuentStandard
Type ofIndustry
Total Numberof Industry
ComplianceRa o (%)

High Polluting
Industry

MediumPollutingIndustry

Philippines

Low Polluting
Industry

10,02010,41022,501

71.5

80.9

46.2

Of the total industries in the Manila Bay Region
that have been monitored from 2011 to 2015,
45.4% are complying with the DENR Standards orhave been issued Wastewater Discharge Permit.

29

Encouraging industry to comply with regula ons
Penal systems are sometimes ineffective in promoting
compliance; instead, governments attempt to do thisusing other measures:
One of these measures is the PROPER program(Corporate Environmental Performance Rating
Program) in Indonesia, which encourages industries tocomply with environmental regula ons by publishing
their environmental performance, including whether
they meet designated eﬄuent quali es or not.
Japan has introduced provisional eﬄuent standards oflower severity for speciﬁc types of industry that do notcurrently meet the original standards, in order toencourage technical improvements over certain
periods of me.
Malaysia also has rules to exempt the immediate needfor compliance with eﬄuent standards for treatment
facili es under construc on or being upgraded.
Common challenges
Through surveys and interviews, the following common
challenges among many countries were iden ﬁed, withpar cular focus on the stage of implementa on aﬀected.
Figure 1.7 below also shows the challenges iden ﬁed bypartner countries in the procedures to regulate industrial
wastewater.
Deficiency of laws, lack of detailed rules for
implementation: In some cases, different laws andregulations related to industrial wastewater
management have diﬀerent obliga ons, which can leadto confusion on the ground. Some countries needdetailed rules or guidelines for implementation; forexample, if there are no guidelines and industry uses
diﬀerent eﬄuent monitoring procedures and analy cal
methods that make the assessment of eﬄuent quality
data less reliable and less compara ve, this will create
problems in proving noncompliance.
Weak coordina on among agencies: There are at least
two ministries (covering environmental and industrial
sectors) at the national level related to industrial
wastewater management, which creates overlapping
responsibilities, weak coordination and conflicts ofinterest (i.e., industrial development vs. environment
conservation) and this may negatively affectimplementa on in some countries.
Availability of informa on: Informa on on industries
and their wastewater – not only number and type ofindustry but also wastewater volume and quality data
– is insuﬃcient in partner countries, especially in termsof ins tu onal arrangements covering pollu on control

30

only recently formulated or in countries with as-yet low
levels of industrial ac vity. In par cular, informa on on
small and medium-sized industries is diﬃcult to obtain
despite the high likelihood that they pollute local water
bodies. The lack of systema cally organised and stored
inventory data may prevent effective or strategicplanning and implementa on of control measures.
Accessibility of informa on: Lack of willingness to share
informa on, as well as lack of informa on itself are also
barriers for planning and implementa on due to thesensitivity surrounding industrial wastewater
management, as witnessed by the WEPA secretariat in
its industry sector interviews. There is a sense of
mistrust and paranoia concerning how data will be
used, i.e., a worry that data thought conﬁden al may
be used to ‘name and shame.’ Further, data-sharing
between governmental agencies takes place, which
illustrates weak coordina on and can also complicate
data collection by WEPA Focal Points in partnercountries, as they have to go through separate sectoral
ministries to obtain the data.
Reliability of data: Low reliability of data for quality ofeﬄuent etc. is also pointed out as a problem by some
WEPA countries. This is likely to be due to many reasons
such as laboratory capacity, lack of standardized
method for sampling and analysis.
Lack of human resources: Partner countries o en cite alack of human resources in national and local
government as a barrier to enforce regulations, notonly in terms of staﬃng levels but also implementa onal
capacity.
Lack of ﬁnances: In par cular, ﬁnances are needed toestablish databases and inventories, as well as toconduct eﬄuent or ambient water monitoring to checkon the state of compliance.

3.6 Efforts toward Strengthening ofWastewater Management
China, Japan, and Republic of Korea apply the Total
Pollutant Load Control (TPLC) system to the wholecountry or speciﬁc water bodies in addi on to eﬄuentcontrol via wastewater quality control, as shown in thefollowing table.
Table1.10. Situa on of TOLC system in selected countries
Country
China
Japan
Republic of Korea

Targeted Area
Whole Country
Tokyo Bay, Ise Bay,
Seto Inland Sea
Nakdong River,Geum River,Yeongsan River

Targeted Pollutant
COD, NH3
COD (Mn), TP, TN
BOD, TPChapter1 Outlook on Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries>ŽǁĂǁĂƌĞŶĞƐƐŽŶĞŶǀŝƌŽŶŵĞŶƚĂů
ĐŽŶƐĞƌǀĂƟŽŶŽĨŝŶĚƵƐƚƌŝĞƐͬůŽĐĂůƉĞŽƉůĞ

ƵƉůŝĐĂƟŽŶŽĨůĂǁƐĂŶĚƌĞŐƵůĂƟŽŶƐͬŶŽĚĞƚĂŝůĞĚƌƵůĞƐͬǁĞĂŬƉƵŶŝƐŚŵĞŶƚƐǇƐƚĞŵ
ĂŐĂŝŶƐƚŶŽŶͲĐŽŵƉůŝĂŶĐĞ

WeakƉƵŶŝƐŚŵĞŶƚƐ
ĂƉĂĐŝƚǇŽĨƉĞƌƐŽŶŝŶĐŚĂƌŐĞŝŶŝŶĚƵƐƚƌŝĂůĞƐƚĂƚĞƐͬĞĐŽŶŽŵŝĐǌŽŶĞƐƐŽŵĞƟŵĞƐĚĞůĂǇƐŽƌƐƚĂůůƐƉƌŽŐƌĞƐƐ

WeakĐŽŽƌĚŝŶĂƟŽŶ
ďĞƚǁĞĞŶ
ĂŐĞŶĐŝĞƐŝŶĚŝīĞƌĞŶƚƐĞĐƚŽƌƐ

/ŶƐƵĸĐŝĞŶƚŶƵŵďĞƌ
ĂŶĚĐĂƉĂĐŝƚǇŽĨƉĞƌƐŽŶƐŝŶĐŚĂƌŐĞ

>ŽǁƌĞůŝĂďŝůŝƚǇ
of data/ŶƐƵĸĐŝĞŶƚŶƵŵďĞƌ
ŽĨƐƚĂī͕ƚĞĐŚŶŝĐĂů
ŬŶŽǁůĞĚŐĞŽĨƐƚĂī͕ŽƌŵŽŶŝƚŽƌŝŶŐ
ĨĂĐŝůŝƟĞƐ

EŽƐƚĂŶĚĂƌĚƐͬŽĸĐŝĂůŵĞƚŚŽĚƐƚŽŵŽŶŝƚŽƌͬŵĞĂƐƵƌĞ

WƵŶŝƐŚŵĞŶƚ

>ĂǁƐĂŶĚ
ƌĞŐƵůĂƟŽŶƐ
EŽŵŽŶŝƚŽƌŝŶŐ͕ŶŽƌĞƉŽƌƟŶŐ

EŽƟĮĐĂƟŽŶͬZĞŐŝƐƚƌĂƟŽŶͬZĞƋƵĞƐƚƐĨŽƌƉĞƌŵŝƚƐŽƌůŝĐĞŶĐĞƐ

ŝĸĐƵůƚƚŽŬŶŽǁǁŚĞƚŚĞƌĂůůƚĂƌŐĞƚĞĚ
ŝŶĚƵƐƚƌŝĞƐĂƌĞƌĞŐŝƐƚĞƌĞĚ;ĞƐƉ͘^DƐͿZĞĐĞŝǀĞ
ĚŽĐƵŵĞŶƚͬƉƉƌŽǀĂů

DĂŝŶƚĂŝŶ
ĂŶĚrecord theŝŶĨŽƌŵĂƟŽŶͬdataDŽŶŝƚŽƌŝŶŐ
ĂŶĚƌĞƉŽƌƟŶŐ

DĂŝŶƚĂŝŶorrecord theŝŶĨŽƌŵĂƟŽŶ

ŚĞĐŬͬ
ǀĞƌŝĮĐĂƟŽŶ
ofƌĞƉŽƌƚͬĞŋƵĞŶƚ

EŽƐǇƐƚĞŵĂƟĐ
ƌĞĐŽƌĚŝŶŐŽĨƚŚĞŝŶĨŽƌŵĂƟŽŶ

DĂŝŶƚĂŝŶorrecord theŝŶĨŽƌŵĂƟŽŶ

/ŵƉƌŽǀĞŵĞŶƚ
ƉůĂŶ'ƵŝĚĂŶĐĞ
forŶŽŶͲĐŽŵƉůŝĂŶĐĞ

Lack ofĐŽŽƉĞƌĂƟŽŶ
ĂƚĐŽŵƉĂŶǇ

/ŶƐƉĞĐƟŽŶ
/ŶƐƵĸĐŝĞŶƚ
ƐƚĂīĐƟŽŶďǇŐŽǀĞƌŶŵĞŶƚ

EŽƐǇƐƚĞŵĂƟĐ
ƌĞĐŽƌĚƐŽƌĚĂƚĂďĂƐĞ

ŽŵƉůĂŝŶƚƐĨƌŽŵůŽĐĂůƉĞŽƉůĞ

ĐƟŽŶďǇŝŶĚƵƐƚƌŝĞƐ

ƵƉůŝĐĂƟŽŶŽĨƌĞƐƉŽŶƐŝďŝůŝƟĞƐ͕ǁĞĂŬĐŽŽƌĚŝŶĂƟŽŶ͕ĞƚĐ͘ZĞŐƵůĂƚŽƌǇƵƚŚŽƌŝƟĞƐ;ŐŽǀĞƌŶŵĞŶƚƐͿ

Figure1.7. Challenges in industrial wastewater management based on interviews and literature review

31

4 | Moving Forward:
From Millennium Development Goals to
Sustainable Development Goals
In September 2000, United Nations Millennium
Declara on was adopted by world leaders, commi ng
to a new global partnership to reduce extreme poverty
and setting out a series of time-bound targets, witha deadline of 2015 with 1990 chosen as the baseline
year. Those targets became known as the Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs). MDGs include 8 goals,
18 targets and 48 indicators. Goal 7 of the MDGs is toensure environmental sustainability, included a target(7C) that challenged the global community to halve thepropor on of people without sustainable access to safe
drinking water and basic sanitation by 2015. Despiteenormous progress having been made in the 15 years of
implemen ng MDGs, many gaps s ll remain in diﬀerent
areas. It is estimated that 2.3 billion people still lacka basic sanitation service, and 892 million people still
defecated in the open in 2015, particularly in Southand East Asia (WHO and UNICEF, 2017). In addition,
the MDG targets on improved sanitation have merely
focused on the increased propor on of the popula on
using improved toilet facilities. Far less attention has
been paid to ensuring that the eﬄuents from these toilet
facili es (both wastewater and septage) are adequately
collected and treated before being discharged into the

GOAL

Mutually reinforcingŽƌƉŽƐŝƟǀĞ
interdependenciesWŽƚĞŶƟĂůĐŽŶŇŝĐƟŶŐ

16
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
-1 0
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
-7
-8
-9
-10
-11
-12
-13
-14
-15
-16

environment. Consequently, there has not been signiﬁcant
improvements to wastewater and septage management
over the last 15 years, especially in developing countries.
After 15 years of implementing the MDGs, world
leaders once again gathered at the historic United Na ons
Sustainable Development Summit on 25 September
2015, and adopted the new 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Development, including 17 Sustainable Development
Goals (SDGs) with 169 targets and more than 230
indicators. This 2030 agenda, which aimed to go further
to end all forms of poverty and address the unﬁnishedbusiness of MDGs, is also referred as “a universal,
integrated and transforma ve vision for a be er world”.
Sustainable Development Goal 6 on water andsanita on is built upon the MDG-7C, but is consideredmuch more comprehensive. SDG6 stresses the importanceof holistic management by looking at the entire water
cycle from source to end, rather than just emphasizing
on-site sanita on facili es. This includes cri cal aspects ofwater such as wastewater and excreta/septage
management, integrated resource management, water
use eﬃciency, conserva on and ecosystem. In the 2030
Agenda for Sustainable Development, the water andsanita on goal has been placed at the core of sustainable
development, which has strong linkages with other SDGs.
Thus, achieving the water goal is essen al, not only
for human health, food and energy security, sustainableeconomic development, social progress, and soundTarget

13.1
11.3
11.1
10.1
8.9
8.5
8.1
5.4
5.2
4.7
4.2
3.9
3.1
2.2
1.2 1.4
1.1

11.6
10.3
10.2
9.1
8.8
8.2

3.8
3.3
3.2

5.5
5.1
4.5
4.3
4.1
2.1

1

Target 6.1

2

Target 6.2

3

Target 6.3

4

Target 6.4

Target 6.55

6

Target 6.6

Figure1.8. Type and nature of interlinkages between water targets and other SDGs’ targets(Source: Prepared by the authors, based on informa on from UN-Water, 2016)

Note: Numbers showed on the x-axis indicate target 6.1 (1) …target 6.6 (6). Numbers showed on the y-axis indicate goal 1 (1), goal 2 (2)…,while nega ve value indicate that these targets may have some poten al conﬂicts with relevant targets in SDG-6.

32

Chapter1 Outlook on Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

ecosystems, but it is also important for ensuring that
expected results and co-benefits can be achieved formany of the targets across the other SDGs.
As presented in Figure 1.8, the majority of targetlevel linkages between goal 6 and the other SDGs are
posi ve. So by implemen ng the targets for SDG6, a large
number of other targets are also supported, and viceversa. Examples of synergies that can be harnessed
include increasing access to water supply, sanita on andhygiene (targets 6.1, 6.2) in homes, and healthcare
facilities, schools, workplaces, complemented byappropriate wastewater treatment and safe reuse (target
6.3), as a way to reduce risks of water-borne disease(targets 3.1-3.3, 3.9) and malnutrition (target 2.2);
suppor ng agriculture in general (SDG2) and educa on(targets 4.1-4.5); securing energy needs in general (SDG7)
and ensuring a produc ve workforce (targets 8.5, 8.8); as
well as addressing poverty (targets 1.1, 1.2, 1.4), genderinequality (targets 5.1, 5.2, 5.4, 5.5) and other inequality(targets 10.1-10.3). Figure 1.8 shows the nature ofinterlinkages between water targets and other targets
under different goals, some of which are mutually
reinforcing/posi ve interdependencies and others which
are poten ally conﬂic ng.
As part of its follow-up mechanisms, the 2030 Agenda
for Sustainable Development encourages member statesto “conduct regular and inclusive reviews of progress at
the na onal and sub-na onal levels, which are countryled and country-driven”. These voluntary na onal reviews(VNRs) will facilitate the sharing of experiences, including
successes, challenges and lessons learned, with a view toaccelerating the implementation of the 2030 Agenda.
The VNRs also seek to strengthen policies and ins tu onsof governments and to mobilize multi-stakeholder
support and partnerships for the implementa on of the
Sustainable Development Goals (United Na ons, 2017).
As of January 2018, it has been reported that most WEPA
countries have already completed or are going to ﬁnalize
their VNRs by 2018, the excep ons being Cambodia and
Myanmar (Table 1.11).

Table1.11. List of WEPA countries completed VNRs and incorporated SDGs in their Na onal Ac on/Development PlanCountry

Voluntary
National Reviews(Year completed)

National Action/Development Plan or
National Plan or National Frameworkon the Implementation of SDGs

Cambodia

-

-

China

(2016)

China will advance the implementa on of the 2030
Agenda in an incremental way through seven approaches:( i ) synergy of strategies,(ii) ins tu onal guarantee, (iii) social mobiliza on,(iv) resource input, (v) risk management,(vi) interna onal coopera on, (vii) oversight and review

Indonesia(2017)

Main messages conveyed in the VNR include:
1) crea ng na onal ownership through an inclusive
and par cipatory process, 2) systema c framework of
the SDGs implementa on in Indonesia; 3) Indonesia’s
development achievements in line with the current themeof the HLPF that covers seven interconnected sectors,4) enabling environment of the SDGs implementa on,5) and the way forward.

Japan(2017)

Japan aims to become a role model for the world in
the implementa on of measures to achieve the SDGs.
The country will make eﬀorts both domes cally and incoopera on with other countries to achieve sustainable
socie es worldwide where no one is le behind.

(The SDGs Implementa on
Guiding Principles)

Lao PDR

Remarks or some key messages conveyed
in the VNR
Localiza on of SDGs into the local context is being
implemented in Cambodia(2018)(SDGs to be incorporated into na onal
socio-economic development planand sectoral development plans)

Malaysia(2017)

The 11th Malaysia Plan (11MP) is aligned to most of the
global Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Therefore,
Malaysia is not star ng anew on its pathway to sustainable
development, but it will move forward to implement the2030 Agenda under the framework of 11MP

33

Myanmar

-

-

Nepal

(2017)The Government of Nepal clearly recognizes that SDGs
are interconnected and the achievement of one goal has
a synerge c eﬀect on others. It has been suggested thatthese integrated challenges need a matching response interms of ﬁscal, managerial and ins tu onal capaci es

Philippines(2016)The Philippines stressed the need to mainstream the SDGs
in the country’s medium and long-term development plan
as well as in the sectoral plans

Republic of
Korea(2016)The Third Na onal Basic Plan for Sustainable Development
provides a basic pla orm to implement the Agenda 2030
in the Republic of Korea

Sri Lanka(2018)

SDGs are in line with Sri Lanka’s Na onal Ac on Planfor Haritha (Green) Lanka, which has been developed
to address the environmental issues in economic
development in Sri Lanka.

Thailand(2017)

Suﬃciency Economy Philosophy (SEP) and SDGs have been
integrated in the 20 Year Na onal Strategy Framework andthe 12th Na onal Economic and Social Development Plan
(2017 – 2021)

Viet Nam(2018)Na onal Ac on Plan for the implementa on of the 2030
Agenda has recently been promulgated under the Decision
633/QD-TTg dated 10 May 2017 of the Prime Minister. It
shows the Government’s commi ed eﬀort to implement
the SDGs in Viet Nam.

In addition, the implementation of SDGs is very muchin line with the national development agendas in all
WEPA countries. Consequently, most WEPA countries
have already either mainstreamed the SDGs into their
new Na onal Ac on/Development Plan or have moved
forward to implement the 2030 Agenda under the exis ng
frameworks, which are aligned to most of the SDGs
(e.g. Malaysia, Sri Lanka). Many countries have clearly
assigned key ministries, stakeholders and organiza ons
responsible for the implementa on of SDGs For example,
in Viet Nam, MONRE (Ministry of Natural Resources andEnvironment), MARD (Ministry of Agriculture and Rural
Development), MoC (Ministry of Construc on) and MoF(Ministry of Finance) have been considered the mostimportant in ensuring the successful implementa on of
the water and sanitation-related goal (SDG6). Amongthese ministries, MONRE has been assigned as the leadorganization in implementing targets 6.1d, 6.3b, 6.4,
6.5, and 6.6; meanwhile MoC is responsible for 6.1a,
6.2, and 6.3a; MARD is responsible for 6.1b; and MoF is
responsible for 6.1c, 6.3c.
The results of reviewing all available VNRs reports
showed that many WEPA countries reported on theirprogress towards access to safe drinking water andimproved sanita on and hygiene, as well as their eﬀorts
to enhance water use eﬃciency (e.g. Thailand). Compe ng
water demands among diﬀerent sectors, together with
the impact of climate change, natural disasters andexcessive groundwater consumption, meant that34

potential problems with water availability in the near
future were also identified as challenges for ensuring
water security in the WEPA countries. The interlinkages
between water and other sectors/areas such as terrestrial
ecosystems and biodiversity was also highlighted. At thesame me, challenges in ensuring be er water quality
and wastewater treatment were also commonly reported
by many countries. A number of other common issues
and concerns related to data have also been highlighted
in these reports, including unavailability of data, lack of
disaggregated data (e.g. by sex, gender, disaggregateddata at local level, etc.), weak capacity in data collec onand management, and insuﬃcient ﬁnancial and technicalsupports.
Despite all of these challenges, WEPA countries aswell as many other Asian countries have decided to takevarious measures to strengthen their sta s cal systems,
including: (i) the establishment of a clear implementa on
roadmap for SDGs, including governance structures fordata and monitoring; (ii) further refining the SDG
indicators according to their relevance to national
priorities and availability of disaggregated data; (iii)
encouraging more stakeholders to participate in theprocess; and (iv) strengthen the capaci es of local leadersand communities, as well as statistical agencies andconcerned institutions with respect to data collection,
analysis and repor ng, in order to improve monitoring
and tracking of the SDGs.

Chapter

2

Country Profiles ofWater Environmental
Managementin WEPA Countries2.1 Cambodia
1 | Country information
Table 2.1.1. Basic indicators
Land Area (km2)

181,035* (2013)

Total Population

15,762,370 (2016)

GDP (current USD)

11.2 billion (2010)

GDP per capita (current USD)

1,435 (2017)

Average Precipitation (mm/year)

1,904 (2014 )3

Total Renewable Water Resources (km )

489.1* (2014 )Total Annual Freshwater Withdrawals(billion m3)
Annual Freshwater
Withdrawal
by Sectors

2.2 (2006)

Agriculture

94% (2006)

Industry

1.15% (2006)

Municipal(including domestic)

4.48% (2006)*Es mated(Source: See References)

2 | Major Water Bodies in Cambodia
Lao PDR

ThailandTonle Sap
Grate Lake
Tonle Sap
River
Phnom Penh

MekongRiver
VietnamBassac River
Gulf of Thailand

Figure 2.1.1. Major rivers in Cambodia

for the aqua c ecosystem and agriculture. Mekong-TSL
is one of the world’s unique aqua c ecosystems in theworld. The high ﬂow condi on of the Mekong River in thewet season induces reverse ﬂow through the Tonle Sap
River into the TSL, which as well as runoﬀ from tributaries
around the TSL enlarges it by six times on average toapproximately 13,000 km2 with an average depth of 8–10
m. In the subsequent dry season, water draining out of
the TSL is crucial for the overall flow condition in thedownstream part of the Mekong Delta. The Bassac River
forks from the mainstream Mekong River and further
splits into numerous channels, forming a wedge shapeddelta in Vietnam. The Mekong Delta is a major grainbasket for both Cambodia and Vietnam, and its dis nc vehydrological cycle and associated sediment and nutrient
regime is vital for aqua c biodiversity, including migra ng
ﬁsh as well as for about 40% of Cambodia’s popula on.
Cambodia has ample supply of water, mainly from
the Mekong River, Tonle Sap River, Bassac River and othertributaries, but most of the country encounters water
shortages during the dry season, especially for domes cand irriga on uses. Water remains regulated only in part,
resul ng in an overabundance in the rainy season andshortage in the dry season.
Groundwater availability is es mated to be 17.6
billion m3, and is primarily used for household watersupply and irriga on. A major emerging player ingroundwater extrac on is the industrial sector, locatedon the outskirts of the capital and provinces (Sokha
2005). The alluvial deposits of the Tonle Sap and Mekong
ﬂoodplain and delta are believed to be excellent shallow
aquifers with high recharge rates. Data and informa on
on groundwater and its u liza on is s ll insuﬃcient, but
use of shallow wells is es mated to cover 48,000 km2 of
the country (Sokha 2005).

4 | State of Water Quality
3 | State of Water Resources
Cambodia is located in the middle reach of the Lower
Mekong Basin, with 86% of its area, including the Tonle
Sap Lake (TSL), draining into the Mekong River. The
ﬂoodplains, the TSL, and the Mekong Delta are the major
sinks of sediments and nutrients, which are essential

36

In general, surface water in Cambodia meets the na onal
ambient water quality standards, i.e., it is not polluted.
However, water quality has been under threat in someareas, especially during the dry season due to the inﬂow
of untreated effluents into public water bodies fromurban activities, agricultural run-off, navigation, etc.
Other causes are development ac vi es – for example,

Chapter 2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

4.4 Groundwater

Republic of Korea

In Cambodia, groundwater is also recognized as a major
source among surface water and rainwater, especiallyin rural and remote areas. In the dry season it plays acrucial role as a major source of drinking water and watersupply with around 53% households using it for drinking.
It is commonly of good quality; however, high levels ofarsenic, iron, manganese, ﬂuoride, and total dissolved
solids (salinity) are observed in some areas, and many
shallow wells are contaminated by fecal coliforms(IWMI 2013). Arsenic contamina on was also iden ﬁedby a na onal drinking water quality assessment in 2000
in some provinces located in Mekong, Bassac and Tonle
Sap River basins (Arsenic Center of Cambodia 2010).
No data on groundwater exploita on exists in
Cambodia. About 270,000 tube-wells with hand pumps
are used for drinking water (Sok Sophally).
Besides the above concern over naturally occurring
chemical components, over-discharge of untreatedindustrial wastes, which is uncontrolled and will
deteriorate groundwater quality, as well as overexploita on of groundwater are iden ﬁed as serious
concerns requiring appropriate ac on to be taken.

Lao PDR
Malaysia
Myanmar
Nepal
Philippines

5 | State of Wastewater Treatment
Sri Lanka

Sewerage and sanitation treatment in Cambodia are
not well developed, with exis ng infrastructure da ng
back to the colonial period, meaning ci es like Phnom
Penh o en experience ﬂooding in the wet season. Sewer
coverage progressed marginally from 7% in 2011 to 11%
in 2015. Rural areas have the lowest coverage of 3%,
while coverage in urban areas rose to 44% in 2015 (WHOand UNICEF 2017). The sewer systems are used to divert
wastewater, especially from domes c sources and urban

Thailand
Viet Nam

Based on annual water quality testing conducted in2017 on public water areas, streams (called “Stung”)
such as Stung Sen, Stung Chinit, Stung SiemReap, Stung
Sangkae, and Stung Pursat were found to mainly comply
with standards of some parameters such pH, TSS, BOD,
COD, and Cr+6 either in the rainy or dry season. Someparameters of TN and TP exceeded the standard in therainy season, which was caused by untreated wastewater
discharged from households and residen al areas, as wellas nutri on loads from surrounding agricultural lands.
In short, as with river water quality, the Environmental
Annual Conference – 2017 evaluated the water qualityof several monitored lakes as good for any water use
purpose.

Japan

4.2 Lakes and reservoirs

Cambodia’s coastal shoreline is 435 km long on the
Gulf of Thailand, and the seaward boundary of thecoastal zone designates the extent of the country’s
exclusive economic zone, an area of 55,600 km2. The
landward boundary of the coastal zone, although not
clearly defined, is currently considered to be about 5km from the shore. Coastal zones are found in the four
provinces of Koh Kong, Kampot, Sihanoukville and Kep,
where the water is considered to be of fairly good quality.
Development activities such as in economic zones
and seaports may negatively impact on coastal waterand coastal ecosystems if the solid and liquid wastes
generated from such ac vi es is not properly managed.

Indonesia

According to Cambodia’s Annual Environmental Report
2017, the water quality in public waters has been assessed
as good overall and water pollution is not considered
to be a signiﬁcant problem (MoE 2017). Oﬃcers of theDept. of Water Quality Management (DWQM) of MoE
take monthly water samples at designated sta ons in the
Mekong River, Tonle Bassac River, Tonle Sap River and TSL
for analysis and evalua on.
Generally, water quality of the monitored public
water areas is good when based on the Standards of the
Sub-decree on Water Pollu on Control. The results ofwater quality tes ng in Tonle Sap River, Mekong River,
Basac River, and Tonle Sap River showed that the fourparameters of pH, BOD, COD and Cr+6 agreed with thestandard either in the rainy or dry season. However, someparameters were found to slightly exceed the standard,e.g., TSS, TN and TP in some areas in TSL in the dry season(such as: Kampong Loung, Chnok Tru and Psar Krom) due
to busy traﬃc, high density of ﬂoa ng houses or villages
and on-water businesses, debris, nutrients fromsurrounding agricultural areas and the like.

4.3 Coastal water

China

4.1 Rivers

Cambodia

agricultural run-oﬀ containing agrochemical residues due
to conversion of wetlands and forest to agricultural lands(MoE 2009) – as well poten al sources, such as untreatedor improperly treated wastewater from manufacturingand mining, services, slaughterhouses and livestock
farms, due to lax implementa on of exis ng legisla on.
The MoE, via the Dept. of Water Quality Management,is seeking appropriate mechanisms to deal with suchpollu on sources through relevant line agencies, in orderto protect water quality and minimize any cases of water
quality emergency.

37

centers, either directly to natural waterways or after
natural treatment in reten on ponds or wetlands before
being discharged to natural water courses.
Centralized wastewater treatments are very limited
in number in Cambodia, and Phnom Penh has natural
lagoons that receive wastewater from the drainage
system. Under such circumstances, Cambodia has
priori zed development of its sewerage system andcentralized wastewater treatment in several loca ons.
The Ministry of Public Works and Transport (MPWT)
wastewater management plan involves focusing on thegrowth poles of the country, i.e., Phnom Penh, Kandal,
Sihanoukville, and Siem Reap (ﬁrst priority), Kampong
Cham and Ba ambang (second priority), and Stung
Treng, Banteay Meanchay, and Koh Kong (third priority)(UNESCAP 2015). Further, sewerage system andwastewater treatment plants have been constructed orare being developed in Seam Reap, Kampong Cham,
Ba ambang, and Sihanoukville. Supplemen ng thecentralized systems are non-governmental organiza ons
such as ESC-BORDA, which promote decentralized
wastewater treatment solu ons in schools, communi es,
hospitals, and small-medium enterprises, and which todate have implemented 23 DEWATS across Cambodia.
Considering the country’s very limited wastewater
treatment capacity, water reuse, nutrient recovery, andenergy produc on from wastewater are insuﬃciently
priori zed and prac ced in Cambodia.

6 | Frameworks for
Water Environmental Management
6.1 Legislation
The protec on and promo on of environmental quality
and public health is the objective of natural resource
management, which includes water (Article 1, Law
on Environmental Protection and Natural Resource
Management). The Law on Water Resources andManagement (2007) includes aspects of water quality
management, such as requiring wastewater discharge
licenses or permission for activities that could havenegative impacts on water quality and human andecosystem health (Article 22), as well as designations
for dangerous or restricted zones for water use where
the water quality, quantity and ecological balance areendangered (Ar cle 23). It also addresses extractors ofgroundwater for any exploita on or occupa on purpose38

in amounts exceeding allowed rates – which necessitates
permission or a license.
The two sub-decrees, “Sub-decree on Garbage andSolid Waste Management at Urban areas – 27/08/15”
and “Sub-decree on Sewerage System Management at
Urban Areas,” are also both relevant to maintaining andprotec ng the quality of surface and ground waters,
through the delega on of responsibility and ownershipto local authori es (via a decentraliza on and deconcentra on program).
Details on water environmental conserva on
measures are explained in the Sub-decree on Water
Pollu on Control, which was established in 1999 under
the Law on Environmental Protec on and Natural
Resources Management. The sub-decree aims to regulate
various ac vi es that could or have already polluted
public water areas (e.g., rivers, lakes, groundwater, sea
water), and sets standards for ambient water quality forhuman health and bio-diversity (Ar cle 7) and eﬄuent
standards for pollu on sources (Ar cle 4). Other elementsof the sub-decree include monitoring of pollu on sources
and their eﬄuents (Chapter 4), monitoring of public
water areas (Chapter 5), and inspec on rules (Chapter 6).
Other sub-decrees under the Law on Environmental
Protec on and Natural Resources Management, such as
the Sub-decree on Solid Wastes and the Sub-decree on
Environmental Impact Assessment Process, also containar cles related to water environmental conserva on.
The Law on Water Resources Management in
Kingdom of Cambodia (Ar cle 4) focuses on thedevelopment in rela on to water and water resources
based on the concept of integrated water resourcesmanagement (IWRM)Furthermore, Ar cle 12 of the law
aims to manage water resource extrac on and use inindustrial and agricultural sectors, and requires users to
obtain permission or a license.
The ﬁnal dra of the Environment and Natural
Resources Code of Cambodia (ENRC) was completed in2017, which streamlines pre-exis ng legisla vearrangements on environment and natural resources into
one code. Under this new code, Book 6, covering waste
and pollu on management, consists of 12 main tles,
including Title 6 on Water Pollu on Control, which has
seven chapters and a total of 27 ar cles. Table 2
summarizes the contents of each chapter and associatedar cles.

Chapter 2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Cambodia

Table 2.1.2. Chapter Summary of Title 6 (Water Pollu on Control) under Book 6 of the Environment and Natural Resources
Code of Cambodia (Final Dra 2017)
Chapter

ArticlesMajor contents

Chapter 2: Water Pollu on Point Source Control

6–10

Responsibility for treatment and discharge, discharge permits
and their requirements, addi onal condi ons and standard limits

Chapter 3: Water Pollu on Nonpoint Source Control

11,12Categories, best management prac ces and responsibili es for
implemen ng best land use management prac ces

Chapter 4: Monitoring

13–20

Monitoring responsibility for a point source discharge permit,
sampling, cer ﬁca on, orders, surface water and groundwater
monitoring and their sampling, analysis and inspec ons.

Chapter 5: Treatment and Reuse of Wastewater and Remains

21,22

Sludge and bio-solids, wastewater reuse

Chapter 6: Operator Cer ﬁca on

23,24

Criteria and cer ﬁca on for the operator of point sources

Chapter 7: Marine Pollu on Control

25–28

Sources of marine pollu on from inland discharges, sea andships, implementa on of interna onal agreements

Major policy responses in Cambodia are the legisla ve
responses in the form of pollu on-related decrees andlaws, establishment of ins tu onal framework especially
under MOE and MoRAM, and introduc on of monitoringand enforcement. The Cambodia Na onal Environmental
Ac on Plan (NEAP) 1998–2002 is the ﬁrst environmental
ac on plan ini ated by MOE to develop and implement
guidelines that integrate environmental concerns into
national policies and decision-making processes ofvarious stakeholders. NEAP is involved with issues
related to the water environment from the viewpoint ofﬁsheries, Tonle Sap Lake, wetland, public health (water
borne diseases), and minimizing environmental impacts
from energy industries (hydropower, oil and gas).

Malaysia
Myanmar
Nepal

6.4 Ambient water quality standards
Ambient water quality standards for public water areas
are set by the Sub-decree on Water Pollu on Control.
There are two kinds of water quality standards – the ﬁrst
is for biodiversity conserva on, designated for rivers (ﬁveparameters), lakes and reservoirs (seven parameters),
and coastal waters (seven parameters), respec vely; andthe second is for public health, which designates standard
values for 25 parameters with harmful eﬀects on humanhealth. There are no ambient quality standards forgroundwater, which is assessed by standards designatedfor speciﬁc uses such as na onal drinking water quality
standards.

Philippines
Sri Lanka
Thailand

MoE is responsible for protec on and management of theenvironment and natural resources in the country basedon the Law on Environmental Protection and Natural
Resource Management (Article 9). Under the nation’senvironmental legisla on, MoE issues orders to factories
utilizing chemical substances and other pollutants for
produc on to treat their wastewater prior to discharge
into receiving waters (MoE 2009). Local authori es suchas provincial and municipal environmental departments
are in charge of water environmental management,such as water quality monitoring. Establishment ofTonle Sap Authority (TSA), a national institution, in2009 is another major institutional response by the
Cambodian Government to coordinate the management,
conservation, and development in the Tonle Sap area
and relevant areas. TSA is also an ins tu on conduc ng
research, inves ga on, and evalua on of the poten al of
economy, social aﬀairs, and natural resources in the Tonle
Sap area and relevant areas with the aim of crea ng a
guide map (master plan), vision, policy, and strategy tosubmit to the government for approval.

6.3 Policies

Lao PDR

6.2 Institutional arrangements

Republic of Korea

In addi on to Title 6, Title 2 (Environmental Quality
Standards and Eﬄuent), Title 3 (Environmental Pollu on
Check and Inspec on), Title 4 (Management of Hazardous
Substances) and Title 5 (Waste Management) are also
relevant to water environment under Book 6.

JapanProhibi on of discharge of point source pollutants

Indonesia

1–5

China

Chapter 1: Measures to Prevent Water Pollu on

Viet Nam

39

6.5 Monitoring of ambient water quality
in public water bodies
MoE is responsible for the regular control and monitoringof water pollution in public water areas throughout
Cambodia. The details of parameters monitored areshown in Table 3. Although decentraliza on has led to
local governments and departments handling various
tasks, the main constraint to this process is a lack ofexperienced oﬃcials and laboratories for water quality
analysis. Therefore, central oﬃcials of MoE con nue tocarry out these tasks in conjunc on with local capacity
building and ins tu onal capacity development.
Table 2.1.3. Current status of water quality monitoring
by MoE
Parameters
monitored

BOD, DO, pH, Temperature, TSS, Coliform, TP,
TN, Cr.+6

Sampling sites

PP Port, Chroy Changva, Ta Khmoa, Kien Svay,
Stoung Chenit, Stoung Sen, Stoung Siem Reap,
Stoung Sangke, TSL, Stoung Pursat, Kampong
Loung, Chhnok Trou, SESAN River, SEKONG
River, Kampong Chhnang and Kampong Cham

Frequency

Once a month

Under the Water Quality Monitoring Network(Mekong River Commission (MRC) Program) andaccording to the Law on Water Resources Managementin Kingdom of Cambodia, MoWRM also takes water
samples monthly at designated sta ons in rivers andrelevant tributaries for analysis and evalua on of exis ng
water quality and its trend. The parameters monitored
are temperature, pH, TSS, Conduc vity, Ca, Mg, Na, K,
Alk, Cl, SO4 , Tot- Fe, Si, DO, COD, Mn, NO3-N, NH4-N,
PO4-P, and Tot-P, and results are made public via databaseand upon request.
Water quality samples are taken on an ad-hoc basis
to check that groundwater quality sa sﬁes standards fordrinking water and household use, as the country does
not yet have a regular groundwater quality monitoring
system in place.

6.6 Effluent Standards
Aiming at managing eﬄuents discharged from pollu on
sources, the Effluent Standard for Pollution Sources
Discharging Wastewater to Public Water Areas of Sewers
was established under the Sub-decree on Water Pollu on
Control. Standard values are set for 52 parameters, suchas temperature, pH, BOD, heavy metals, agriculturalchemicals, and organic solvents. In principle, thestandards are applied to all industries and other pollu on
sources designated by the sub-standards. For areas which40

require special treatment for protec on of human healthand biodiversity, MoE can establish eﬄuent standards
for pollu on speciﬁc to such areas (Ar cle 5 of the subdecree).

6.7 Effluent Monitoring
Under the Sub-decree on Water Pollu on Control, themonitoring on the discharge or transporta on eﬄuent
from any sources of pollution is the responsibility of
MoE. MoE shall take sample at every discharge pointof pollu on source. The owner or responsible person ofpollu on source shall collaborate with and facilitate theenvironmental oﬃcial to take sample while carrying out
their technical task.

6.8 Non-compliance Measures
When a violation of effluent standards is found, MoE
issues a written order to the relevant industry to takeac on. Industries are ﬁned and punished for viola ons
in monitoring, repor ng, and compliance as s pulated
under the Sub-decree on Water Pollu on Control if they
do not respond to orders issued by MoE.

7 | Recent Developments inWater Environment Management
There are several developments in government policies
that will have signiﬁcant impact on water environment
management, as follows. One is the localiza on of the
UN Sustainable Development Goals into Cambodia’s
Sustainable Development Goal (CSDG), including
integration of SDGs into national plans. Cambodia has
also established the National Council for Sustainable
Development (NCSD), one of the mandates of which is
to mainstream sustainable development into policies,
strategies, plans, programs and legisla ons. The country
is also developing the Cambodia Na onal Strategy andAc on Plan 2015–2023 (NESAP) as required by the Law
on Environmental Protection and Natural Resources
Management. After NEAP1998–2002, NESAP will be
the second environmental strategy and action plan toguide government ministries and other stakeholders
to mainstream environmental considerations intodevelopment policies, plans, and investments. Similarly,
Cambodia has developed the Dra of the Environment
and Natural Resources Code of Cambodia 2017, which
consolidates several exis ng legisla ve arrangements forthe protec on of environment and conserva on of natural
resources, including provisions for waste and pollu on
control as well as for the implementa on of SDGs.

Chapter 2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Cambodia

8 | Existing and Future Challenges

China

Based on the current state of water quality managementin Cambodia, several key management challenges areiden ﬁed, as follows:Indonesia

1. Improvement of human resources and ins tu onal
capacity, especially MoE, in order to implement
CSDGs, NESAP and the Environmental Code.

Japan

2. Dealing with impacts on Mekong River and TSL due tochanges in ﬂows and sedimenta on/nutrients due toconstruction of hydro-dams upstream, climatechange, and land-use changes.

Republic of Korea

3. Development of sewers and wastewater treatment todeal with drainage problems and pollu on of water
bodies. Sewerage and drainage sector master plans
for towns/countryside are also needed.
4. Weak legal framework such as lack of water quality
standards for speciﬁc beneﬁcial uses such as humanhealth and recrea on.

Lao PDR

5. Insuﬃcient equipment for laboratory and ﬁeld tes ng
which are barriers to appropriate management ofwater quality.

Malaysia

6. Shortage of technical oﬃcers with exper se to carryout water quality management at both na onal andlocal levels.

Myanmar

7. Budget limitations of government, especially forcapacity improvement of laboratories in terms offacility infrastructure/equipment and humanresources.

Nepal
Philippines
Sri Lanka
Thailand
Viet Nam

41

2.2 China
1 | Country information
Table 2.2.1. Basic indicators
Land Area (km2)

9,478,000 (2015)

Total Population

1,374 million (2015)

GDP (current USD)

11,199 billion (2016)

GDP per capita (current USD)

8, 123 (2016)

Long-average precipitation (mm/year)

645 (2014)

Total amount of Water Resources (km3)

2,796 (2015)

Total Water Use (km3)

610.3 (2015)

Annual Freshwater
Withdrawal
by Sectors

4 | State of Water Quality

Songhua River

According to the State of Environment Report 2016
published by the Ministry of Environmental Protec on(MEP) of the People’s Republic of China (PRC), surface
water across the country is slightly polluted; however,pollu on in some parts of urban rivers remains serious(MEP 2017a). The state of surface water quality isevaluated and expressed in grades for environmental
standards for surface water, ranging from Grade I to V
(Table 2.2.2). The state of sea water and groundwater
are evaluated and expressed in grades for sea water
quality standards and environmental quality standards
for groundwater, respec vely (Table 2.2.3 and 2.2.4).

Liaohe River

4.1 River water

Agriculture63.1 % (2015)

Industry

21.9 % (2015)

Consumption

13.0 % (2015)

Ecological Protection

2.0 % (2015)(Source: See References)

2 | Seven Major River Basins in China

Beijing

Yellow River

Haihe River
Huaihe River

Yangtze River
Pearl River

Figure 2.2.1. Seven major river basins in China

3 | State of Water Resources
The total volume of water resources in China ranks sixthof countries in the world; however, its per capita volume
is low at one-ﬁ h the world average, or around 2,100

42

cubic meters (World Development Indicator) because of
its large popula on. Further, the country’s resources are
unevenly distributed – plen ful in the south and poorin the north (MWR 2011) – and around two-thirds of its
ci es are short of water, over 110 of which are in a diresituation (MWR 2011). Megacities such as Beijing andTianjin are also facing serious water shortages (WorldBank 2008).

Based on the results of national monitoring, water
quality of the 10 major watersheds (Yangtze River,
Yellow River, Pearl River, Songhua River, Huaihe River,
Haihe River, Liaohe River, rivers in Zhejiang Province andFujian Province, rivers in Northwest China and rivers inSouthwest China) categorized as Grade I to III was 71.2%,
that of Grade IV to V was 19.7%, and that worse than
Grade V was 9.1% (MEP 2017a). Compared with ﬁguresfor 2013, the water quality has significantly improved(Table 2.2.5). Figure 2.2.2 gives details of the state of the
10 major rivers in 2016. Speciﬁcally, the water qualityof the Yangtze River, the Pearl River, rivers in Zhejiang
Province and Fujian Province, in Northwest China andrivers in Southwest China was good or fair. The qualityof the Yellow River, Songhua River, the Huaihe River andLiaohe River was slightly polluted and that of the Haihe
River was moderately polluted.

4.2 Lakes and reservoirs
In 2016, of the 112 major lakes (reservoirs) across thecountry, 8 (or 7.1%) (reservoirs) met Grade I standard;
28 (25%) met Grade II standard; 38 (33.9%) met GradeChapter 2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Table 2.2.4. Grades for Groundwater Quality Standards
Grade
I

II

Mainly for drinking water resources in ﬁrst-class protectedareas, protected areas for precious ﬁsh, and spawningareas for ﬁsh and shrimp.

II

III

Mainly for drinking water resources in second-classprotected areas, protected areas for ﬁsh, and swimmingareas.

III(Source: Environmental Quality Standard for Surface Water)IV
V

Reﬂects the background contents of the nature chemicalcomponents of groundwater. It is applicable to various
purposes.
Based on the benchmark value of human health.
It is primarily applicable to concentra ve drinking water
sources and industrial and agricultural use water.
Based on industrial and agricultural use waterrequirements. It is primarily applicable to industrial waterand par al agricultural use water. A er it is properly
processed, it is applicable to drinking water.
Not applicable to drinking water. The selec on of such
category of water depends on other purposes.

Indonesia

V

Mainly for industrial water resources and recrea onal use
in which people do not contact water.
Mainly for agricultural water resources and water areas
required for landscape.

Description
Reﬂects the background low contents of nature chemicalcomponents of groundwater.

China

Grade
Description
I
Mainly for headstream and the na onal nature preserves.

IV

Cambodia

Table 2.2.2. Grades for Environmental Quality Standards
for Surface Water

Japan(Source: UNEP 2010)

Table 2.2.3. Grades for Sea Water Quality Standards
Grade
I
II

Suitable for marine cul va on, bathing, marine sport orrecrea on ac vi es involving direct human contact withmarine water, and for sources of industrial use of water
related to human consump on.

III

Suitable for water resources for general industrial use.

IV

Suitable only for harbors and ocean development ac vi es.

Table 2.2.5. Water Quality of 10 major watersheds,
2013–2016
Year

Grade I-III

Grade IV-V

Worse than Grade V

2013

71.7%

19.3%

9.0%

2016

71.2%

19.7%

9.1%

Republic of Korea

Description
Suitable for marine ﬁshing, marine nature preserves andprotected areas for rare or endangered marine organisms.

Lao PDR(Source: MEP 2014a, 2017a)(Source: MEP 2007)

100

Malaysia

80
I-III
60

IV, V

40

Myanmarworse than V

20
0

Yellow
River

Pearl
River

SonghuaRiver

Hualihe
River

Haihe
River

LiaoheRiver

River inRiver inRiver inZhejiang Northwest Sourthwest
and Fujian
China
China
RegionFigure 2.2.2. State of river water quality of 10 largest water systems in 2016

4.4 Groundwater
The results of groundwater quality monitoring in 2016
show that 56.2% of the 6,124 monitoring points wereassessed as “poor” in quality and 19.8% as “very poor”(MEP 2017a) (Figure 2.2.4). The major pollu on indiceswere total hardness, total dissolved solids, manganese,iron and ﬂuoride.
In addi on, the “three kinds of nitrogen” pollu on
was rela vely heavy, and pollu on of heavy metals andtoxic organic pollutants was also found in some regions(MEP 2017a).

Thailand
Viet Nam

The overall water quality of near-shore marine waters isgood. Of the 417 near-shore marine water monitoringsites under the national monitoring program, 32.4%
met Grade I water quality standard; 41.0% met Grade II
standard; 10.3% met Grade III standard; 3.1% met Grade

IV standard; and 13.2% failed to meet Grade IV standard(Figure 2.2.3). Major pollutants were inorganic nitrogenand ac ve phosphates (MEP 2017a).

Sri Lanka

4.3 Coastal water(Source: MEP 2017a)

Philippines

III standard; 23 (20.5%) met Grade IV standard; 6 (5.4%)
met Grade V standard; and 9 (8%) failed to meet GradeV standard. The main pollu on indicators were TP, COD
and permanganate index. In the 108 lakes (reservoirs)
being monitored for nutri onal status, 10 were underoligotrophic status; 73 were under mesotrophic status;
20 were under slight eutrophica on, and 5 were underintermediate eutrophica on (MEP 2017a).

Nepal

YanztzeRiver

43

Table 2.2.6. Water quality of major lakes (reservoirs) in 2016
Water
quality

Grade Iand II
standard

Grade III
standard

Grade IV
standard
Grade V
standard
Inferior to
Grade V
standard

The threelakes

Major lakes

Major reservoirs

Liangzi Lake, Xiangshan Lake, Bangong Lake,
Hua ng Lake, Qionghai Lake, Zhelin Lake, Sailimu
Lake, Fuxian Lake and Lugu Lake

Laoshan Reservoir, Yinghu Reservoir, Jiefangcun
Reser voir, Yunmeng Lake, Shanmei Reser voir,
Baiguishan Reservoir, Dahuofang Reservoir, Bailianhe
Reservoir, Danghe Reservoir, Miyun Reservoir, Shuangta
Reservoir, Shimen Reservoir, Lishimen Reservoir,
Dalong Reservoir, Huairou Reservoir, Danjiangkou
Reservoir, Geheyan Reservoir, Huanglongtan Reservoir,
Taiping Lake, Daguangba Reservoir, Songtao Reservoir,
Changtan Reservoir, Qiandao Lake, Hunanzhen
Reservoir, Zhanghe Reservoir, Dongjiang Reservoir and
Xinfengjiang Reservoir

Nanyi Lake, Xiaoxingkai Lake, Gaoyou Lake, Xingkai
Lake, Jiaogang Lake, West Lake, Nansi Lake,
Shengjin Lake, Selin lake, Dongping Lake, Wabu
Lake, Luoma Lake, Futou Lake, Hengshui Lake,
Caizi Lake, Wuchang Lake, Jingpo Lake, Erhai Lake,
Wanfeng Lake, Yangzonghai Lake and Yamdrok Lake

Hedi Reservoir, Yutan Reservoir, Dongpu Reservoir,
E r wa n g z h u a n g Re s e r vo i r, X i a s h a n Re s e r vo i r,
Hongyashan Reser voir, Mopanshan Reser voir,
Xiaolangdi Reservoir, Zhaopingtai Reservoir, Wangyao
Reservoir, Fushui Reservoir, Nanwan Reservoir, Gaozhou
Reservoir, Longyangxia Reservoir, Nianyushan Reservoir,Tongshanyuan Reservoir and Yazidang Reservoir

Baima Lake, Longgan Lake, Yangcheng Lake,
Taihu Lake, Dongqian Lake, Dongting Lake, Poyang Lake,
Chaohu Lake Huangda Lake, Baihua Lake, Hongfeng Lake, Xiannv
Lake, Honghu Lake, Bosten Lake and Gaotang Lake

Yuqiao Reservoir, Sanmenxia Reservoir, Songhuahu
Lake, Luban Reservoir, Lianhua Reservoir, Cha ersen
Reservoir, Longyantan Reservoir and Shuifeng Lake––

Dianchi

Qilu Lake, Dianshan Lake, Baiyangdian Lake, Hongze
Lake and Ulasuhai Nur––

Yilong Lake, Hulum Lake, Xingyun Lake, Shahu
Lake, Datong Lake, Chenghai Lake, Wulungu Lake,
Namtso Lake and Ebinur Lake (the last four lakes
due to rela vely high natural background value)–(Source: MEP 2017a)

Liaoning

Excellent

Hebei

good

Bohai Sea

Poor
Very poor

Shandong
Yellow Sea

Figure 2.2.4. Groundwater Quality Monitoring Results(Source: MEP 2017a)
in 2016

JiangsuShanghai

Anhui

LegendGrade I
Grade II
Grade III
Grade IV
worse than Grade V

4.5 Wastewater and major pollutants

Zhejiang
Jiangxi

East China Sea
Huangweiyu

FujianData for Hong Kong,
Macao and Taiwan
province unavailable

Chiweiyu

Diaoyu Island

TaiwanGuangdong
Guangxi
Hong Kong
Macao

HainanSouth China Sea

South China Sea
Islands

Figure 2.2.3. Water quality of nearshore marine waters(Source: MEP 2017a)
of China in 201644

The total discharge of wastewater from industrial
sources, municipal domestic sources in urban areas
and agricultural sources has increased, while COD andammonia nitrogen is on the decline. The total dischargeof wastewater in China in 2015 was 73.53 billion tons
– 19.95 billion tons from industries and 53.52 billion
tons from domestic sources – a figure approximately
10% higher than that of 2013 (69.54 billion tons). Since
2011, the Chinese government has monitored COD andammonia nitrogen discharge from agricultural sources
including planta ons, ﬁshery and livestock farming. The
total discharge of COD was 22.235 million tons, which isa decrease of 11% from 2011 (24.998 million tons); 48%of the COD was discharged from agricultural sources and
58% of ammonia nitrogen was from municipal domes c
wastewater (MEP 2017b).

Chapter 2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

5.1 Legislation

Thailand(Source: MoEJ 2009)

Sri Lanka

Figure 2.2.5. Legisla ve Framework for Water Quality

In 2016, there were 1,940 surface water sec ons (sites)and 417 nearshore marine water monitoring sites
under the na onal monitoring program. In addi on, theNa onal Land and Resource Department had monitored
water quality of groundwater of 6,124 monitoring
wells (sites) (1,000 were national monitoring sites) of
225 administra ve regions at the prefectural level in 31
provinces (autonomous regions or municipali es) (MEP
2016a). The analytical methods for water quality areprovided in each water quality standard (Environmental
Quality Standard for Surface Water (GB3838-2002),
Quality Standard for Groundwater (GB/T14848-93) and
Sea Water Quality Standard (GB3097-1997)).

Philippines– Water Quality Standard for Fisheriesʹ^ƚĂŶĚĂƌĚƐĨŽƌ/ƌƌŝŐĂƟŽŶtĂƚĞƌYƵĂůŝƚǇ

5.5 Monitoring of water quality
in public water bodies

Nepal

Other Water Quality Standards

MyanmarDĂƌŝŶĞŶǀŝƌŽŶŵĞŶƚWƌŽƚĞĐƟŽŶ>Ăǁ

The Environmental Quality Standards for Surface Water
stipulates standard values for 24 basic parameters inthe ﬁve above-men oned grades. The Quality Standard
for Groundwater stipulates standard values for 39
parameters, and 35 parameters in the Sea Water Quality
Standard. Water Quality Standards for Fisheries andStandards for Irriga on Water Quality were establishedas addi onal water quality standards.

Malaysia

Conservation of Water Quality in Sea Water

5.4 Ambient water quality standards

Lao PDR– Environmental Quality Standards for Surface Water– Quality Standard for Groundwater

The national five-year plan for economic and social
development is the country’s principle policy document,
which also includes targets for water environmental
management. In addi on, a na onal ﬁve-year plan forwater pollution prevention and control in major river
basins was established as a key policy document forwater environmental management.

Republic of Korea>ĂǁŽŶWƌĞǀĞŶƟŽŶĂŶĚŽŶƚƌŽůŽĨtĂƚĞƌWŽůůƵƟŽŶ

Water Quality Standards

5.3 Water environmental management policy

Japan

Conservation of Water Quality in
Surface Water and Groundwater

The Ministry of Environment Protection (MEP), which
was upgraded from the State Environmental Protec on
Administration (SEPA) in 2008, has the mission of
preventing and controlling environmental pollution in
the country through overall supervision and coordina onof environmental protection management. Provincial
and municipal governments also play important roles inpollu on control with local legisla on and standards.

IndonesiaŶǀŝƌŽŶŵĞŶƚĂůWƌŽƚĞĐƟŽŶ>Ăǁ

5.2 Institutional arrangements

China

Protection and improvement of both the ecologicaland living environment as well as pollution control
are the responsibility of the state, according to theConstitution of the People’s Republic of China. The
Environmental Protec on Law of the People’s Republicof China s pulates the objec ves of water environmental
preserva on as “to ensure human health, maintain theeﬀec ve use of water resources and the conserva on ofmarine resources, maintain the ecological balance andenhance the development of modern socialism.” Figure
2.2.5 gives an overview of legislation regarding water
quality control in China. The Environmental Protec on
Law of the People’s Republic of China was amended in2014 and put into eﬀect on 1 January 2015. For surface
water and groundwater quality control, the Law of thePeople’s Republic of China on Prevention and Controlof Water Pollu on was amended in 2008, under whichambient surface and groundwater quality standards andwater pollutant discharge standards were established.
For seawater, the Marine Environment Protec on Law of
the People’s Republic of China was established in 1982.
Seawater quality standards were set up under the Marine
Environment Protec on Law. In addi on to these laws,
regula ons and administra ve decrees and rules related
to water pollu on control, such as the Interim Measureson the Collec on of Pollu on Discharge Fee, also exist.

Cambodia

5 | Frameworks for
Water Environmental Management

5.6 Effluent standards

Viet Nam

The effluent quality of domestic wastewater at thedischarge points of urban wastewater treatment plants
is regulated by the Discharge Standard of Pollutantsfor Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants (GB18918-

45

2002). The Integrated Wastewater Discharge Standard(GB 8978-1996) regulates effluent levels for industrial
wastewater. However, for various types of industries
such as iron and steel and meat packing industries,
which are not covered by the above standard, individual
standards were established. Diﬀerent target values for
speciﬁc pollutants are designed for industries established
before 31 December 1997 and after 1 January 1998
in the Integrated Wastewater Discharge Standard (GB8978-1996). Since 2008, over 10 new eﬄuent standards
have been added to the exis ng standards (as of October2011) (MEP 2011c).

6 | Recent Policy Achievements
Protecting Water Environment
The Na onal 12th Five-Year Plan (2011–2015) has set an
obligatory target of reducing COD emissions by 8% andammonium nitrogen emissions by 10% from that of 2010
levels. The urban sewage treatment rate was increased
to 92% in 2015. In addition, a total of 72,000 villages
have taken measures to comprehensively improve theirenvironment, directly beneﬁ ng more than 120 million
rural residents. A total of 61,000 large-scale breeding
farms (districts) have installed waste treatment andrecycling facili es. As a result, during the 12th Five-Year
Plan there was a 12.9% reduc on in COD discharge and
13% reduc on in ammonium nitrogen compared to 2010
levels, thus mee ng the reduc on target (MEP 2016c).

Furthermore, there has also been signiﬁcant
improvement in the water quality of main streams andrivers, with 66% of 1,940 na onal monitoring sec ons
mee ng Grade I-III Standards and only 9.7% worse than
Grade V in 2015 (MEP 2016c).

7 | Existing and Future Challenges
China has strengthened its management of the water
environment, which serves as a basis for the sounddevelopment of the country. During the 12th Five-Year
Plan for Na onal Environmental Protec on (2011–2015)
period, the authorities made efforts to protect theecological environment and improve environmental
quality. Thanks to these efforts, the quality of theenvironmental in China has been signiﬁcantly improved,
and all major targets and tasks set forth in the 12thFive-Year Plan for Environmental Protec on have beenaccomplished. As regards water pollu on, China reduced
its COD discharge by 12% and ammonium nitrogen by
13% over five years (2010–2015). Yet despite all thisprogress, in its 13th Five-Year Plan period, China still
faces serious environmental challenges, and has thus
prioritized improvement in environmental quality
and governance capacity to overcome the weak linkof ecological environment as well as set targets for
improvement in environmental quality by 2020. The
targets for water quality and total pollutants discharge
are shown in Table 2.2.7.

Table 2.2.7. Major Targets of the 13th Five-Year Plan for Protec ng the Ecological Environment
Indicator

Water quality

Reduc on of major
pollutants discharge (%)

2020

Cumulative *1

NaturePercentage of surface water withquality at or be er than Grade III (%)

66

> 70

-

Binding

Percentage of surface water withquality worse than Grade V (%)

9.7

<5

-

Binding

Percentage of major rivers and lakes
a aining water quality standards (%)

70.8

> 80

-

Percentage of groundwater withvery poor quality (%)

15.7*2Around 15-

Percentage of coastal waters withexcellent or good water quality (I, II) (%)

70.5

Around 70

-

COD

-

-

10

Ammonia nitrogen

-

-

10

TN in key region*3

-

-

10

TP in key regions*4

-

-

10

*1: Five-year cumula ve ﬁgure*2: Data of 2013
*3: TN control covers 56 coastal ci es and 29 eutrophic lakes and reservoirs*4: TP control covers excessive TP emissions and related upstream areas

46

2015

An cipated

Binding

An cipated(Source: State Council 2016)

Chapter 2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Cambodia

In order to achieve the targets, the government has prepared the following strategies
in the 13th Five-Year Plan for Protec on of Ecological Environment;

China<For improvement of water quality>- Developing an objec ve-oriented system for water quality management based on control units- Comprehensively controlling the pollu on in river basins- Priori zing protec on of waters of good quality- Comprehensively controlling and preven ng groundwater pollu on- Trea ng urban black and putrid waters- Improving ecological environment quality of estuaries and oﬀshore waters

Indonesia
Japan<For pollutant reduc on>- Conduc ng self-monitoring and informa on disclosure for all industrial pollu on sources- Inves ga ng and releasing lists of below-standard industrial pollu on sources- Se ng a deadline for enterprises in key industries to meet discharge standards- Improving centralized sewage treatment facili es in industrial parks- Improving the total emissions control system- Promo ng pollu on control and emission reduc on projects- Implemen ng total emissions control in river basins or regions exceeding their respec ve
discharge limits on total phosphorus and total nitrogen- Improving urban sewage treatment systems- Promo ng the development of sponge ci es- Comprehensively improving the rural environment- Controlling and preven ng pollu on from livestock and poultry breeding- Comba ng pollu on of agricultural non-point sources

Republic of Korea
Lao PDR(Source: State Council 2016)

Malaysia
Myanmar
Nepal
Philippines
Sri Lanka
Thailand
Viet Nam

47

2.3 Indonesia
1 | Country information

Table 2.3.2. Spa al distribu on of water availability
IslandTable 2.3.1. Basic indicators

Quarter average water availability(million m 3/year)

Land Area (km2)

1,910,931 (2010)

Java

164,000

Total Population (person)

261 million (2016)

Sumatera

840,737

GDP (current USD)

932 billion (2016)

Sulawesi

299,218

Kalimantan

1,314,021

GDP per capita (current USD)

3,570 (2016)

Average Precipitation (mm/year)

2,702 (2009)

Total Renewable Water Resources (km3)
Total Annual Freshwater Withdrawals(billion m3)
Annual Freshwater
Withdrawal
by Sectors

Bali and Nusa Tenggara

49,620

Maluku176,726

2,019 (2009)

Papua

1,062,154

175* (2016)

Total

3,906,476

Agriculture

81.9% (2000)(Source: ADB 2016)

Industry

6.5% (2000)

As of 2014, the total reservoir capacity was 12.6
billion m3 or 49.2 m3 per capita, which is half the capacity
prior to 1945 (105.5 m3 per capita) (ADB 2016). To
enhance water security the government plans to build 49
new reservoirs with a capacity of 3 billion m3 between
2015 and 2019 (Government of Indonesia 2015).

Municipal(including domestic)

11.6% (2000)(Source: World Bank 2017, *ADB 2016)

2 | Major River Basins in Indonesia

4 | State of Water Quality
4.1 Rivers

Mahakam
BaritoKapuasKalimantan
Salo Walanae
Sulawesi

MalukuPapua

KamparIndragiri
BatanghariMusi

Cisadane
Sumatera
Jakarta

Salo Maros

Citarum Brantas Bali&Nusatenggara
Bengawan Solo

Indian Ocean

Australia

Figure 2.3.1. River basins in Indonesia

3 | State of Water Resources
Water resources in Indonesia account for ca. 6% of theworld’s, or ca. 21% of the Asia-Paciﬁc region. Total water
availability is es mated at 690 billion m3/year, whereas
total demand is 175 billion m3/year; however, available
water is unevenly distributed spatially and temporally(Table 2.3.2).

48

There are 5,590 major rivers in Indonesia, divided
into 131 river basin territories. Most large rivers
have experienced pollution due to pressure fromvarious sources. Annual monitoring carried out by thegovernment has revealed that river water quality steadily
deteriorated up to 2014, showed a slight improvementin 2015, and dropped again in 2016. The percentage ofheavily polluted rivers, as deﬁned by the Class II Water
Quality Criteria in Government Regula on 82/2001, wasalready over 60% in 2008 and exceeded 70% in 2016
(Figure 2.3.2). As a result of monitoring 44 large rivers
across Indonesia, it was found that only four met Class II
standards throughout the year (ADB 2016).

4.2 Lakes, reservoirs and coastal water
Similarly to the condition of rivers, there is significant
pressure on the water quality in lakes from various
sources, such as domes c ac vi es, agriculture, livestock,
forestry, and industry. Water quality monitoring of 15
lakes in the government’s priority list revealed that mostfell into the hyper-eutrophic category (ADB 2016).

Chapter 2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Cambodia0%0%Heavily Polluted

0%

Moderately Pollut

0%

309

Lightly Polluted

443
420

438

407

China

0%

Class II Compliant0%

Indonesia* Numbers Indicate
sampling points

0%
0%
0%
0%

80

80

7
2012

19
2013

21
2014

154

109

40

39

2015

2016

Figure 2.3.2. Status of compliance with water quality in Indonesia

Japan

0%

93

(Source: Created by WEPA based on data from MoE 2017)

Heavily Polluted

Polluted

Moderate

Republic of Korea

Indonesia is the largest archipelago in the world with
13,466 islands, ca. 5.8 million km2 of sea area and 81,000
km of coastline. Pollu on threatens the Indonesian seas.

Good(Source: Created by WEPA based on data from MoE 2017)

Table 2.3.3. Regional distribu on of groundwater poten alArea(km 2)

Volume (million m 3/year)
Unconfined Confined

65

272,843

123,5286,551Java and
Madura80

81,14738,851

2,046

Kalimantan

22

181,362

67,963

1,102

Sulawesi

91

37,778

19,694

550

Bali

8

4,381

1,577

21

West Nusa
Tenggara

9

9,475

1,908

107

East Nusa
Tenggara

38

31,9298,229

200

Maluku68

2,583

11,943

1,231

Papua

40

26,287

222,524

9,098

Total

421

907,615496,217

20,906

Thailand

Sumatera

Sri Lanka

Number ofbasinsPhilippines

Region

Nepal(Source: ADB 2016)

Viet Nam

Domestic wastewater contains large amounts of
COD, nutrients, and faecal coliform, and is the largest
contributor to surface water pollution in Indonesia.
Agricultural wastewater contains COD, nutrients, fer liser
such as urea and triple superphosphate, and pes cides
and is a non-point source of pollution. Industrial
wastewater contains a wide variety of pollutants
depending on industrial activities (e.g. Cr in tanning,
Hg in illegal mining, color in tex les, etc.). The prac ceof using wastewater in ﬁshponds, although previously
widespread, is now declining due to health concerns.
Using wastewater to produce ﬁsh feed, like duckweed,oﬀers a safer alterna ve. (UNESCO 2017)

Figure 2.3.3. Provincial distribu on of surface water quality

Myanmar

4.4 Wastewater and major pollutants

Malaysia

Groundwater is an important water source and thepoten al of groundwater basins is promising on several
islands, with a total area of 907,615 km2 and a total basin
capacity of ca. 520 billion m3/year (Table 2.3.3). Decree
416/1990 on the provision and control of water qualitys pulates groundwater quality standards. In Jakarta, 45%of groundwater shows contamina on by faecal coliform
and 80% by E. coli., major sources of which include sep ctank leakage, discharge of untreated domes c wastewater,
landﬁll leachate, and industrial eﬄuent contamina on.
Saltwater intrusion due to overexploita on is common incoastal aquifers (ADB 2016).

Lao PDR

4.3 Groundwater49

5 | State of Wastewater Treatment
5.1 Domestic
In urban areas (population 110 million), ca. 1% of thewastewater is safely collected and treated, whereas inrural areas (popula on 130 million) wastewater is neither
collected nor treated (ADB 2016).

5.2 Industrial
There are ca. 24,000 medium- to large-scale industries
and ca. 3.5 million small-scale industries in Indonesia,
employing a workforce of 14.8 million. Food andbeverages, textiles, vehicles, and petrochemicalindustries have all had a posi ve growth rate based on
GDP in recent years. Industries including cement, pulp
and paper (capacity over 300,000 t-pulp/year), upstream
petrochemicals, industrial estates, shipyards with graving
docks, explosives, and smelting are obliged to obtain
Environmental Impact Assessment (AMDAL) permits to
conduct business according to MoE Decree 5/2012.
There are various frameworks to assist green
industries, such as a government so loan program that
supports investment in waste reduc on and managementtargeted at small- and medium-sized enterprises (assets
lower than 10 billion Indonesian Rp) with a maximum

loan of 5 billion Indonesian Rp.
Green Industry Standards have been laid out in Law
3/2014, under which eight industries have individual
standards: cement, pulp and paper, ceramic les, tex ledyeing, milk powder, crumb rubber, ribbed smoked sheet
rubber, and inorganic fer liser.

6 | Frameworks for
Water Environment Management
6.1 Legislation
The objec ve of environmental management in Indonesia
is to enable environmentally-sustainable development.
Integral water resources management is regulated by
Law 7/2004 on Water Resources, which states thatwater resources must be managed comprehensively andintegrally from an environmental aspect, with the aim ofrealising the beneﬁts of sustainable water resources. The
dra ing of a new water law with deriva ve regula ons
is planned to be completed in 2024 as part of the Grand
Design of the Bureaucra c Reform 2010–2025, a plan ofgovernmental self-improvement in the areas of integrity,
neutrality, competency, and professional performance(ADB 2016).

ĂƐŝĐWƌŝŶĐŝƉůĞƐ

>ĂǁϳͬϮϬϬϰ͗&ƌĂŵĞǁŽƌŬůĂǁƌĞŐĂƌĚŝŶŐǁĂƚĞƌ
>ĂǁϯϮͬϮϬϬϵ͗ŶǀŝƌŽŶŵĞŶƚĂůWƌŽƚĞĐƟŽŶĂŶĚDĂŶĂŐĞŵĞŶƚ
>ĂǁϮϲͬϮϬϬϳ͗^ƉĂƟĂůWůĂŶŶŝŶŐ

ŽŶƐĞƌǀĂƟŽŶŽĨtĂƚĞƌYƵĂůŝƚǇ
ŝŶ/ŶůĂŶĚtĂƚĞƌ

ZĞŐƵůĂƟŽŶϴϮͬϮϬϬϭ͗/ŶůĂŶĚǁĂƚĞƌƋƵĂůŝƚǇĐƌŝƚĞƌŝĂŽŶƐĞƌǀĂƟŽŶŽĨtĂƚĞƌYƵĂůŝƚǇ
ŝŶDĂƌŝŶĞtĂƚĞƌ

Decree 51/2004: Marine water quality criteria>ĞŐŝƐůĂƟŽŶƌĞůĂƚĞĚƚŽǁĂƚĞƌĂŶĚƐĞĂƉŽůůƵƟŽŶ

Decree 52/1995
Decree 113/2003

tĂƐƚĞǁĂƚĞƌƌĞŐƵůĂƟŽŶ

Decree ϭϭϮͬϮϬϬϯ͗^ƚĂŶĚĂƌĚƋƵĂůŝƚǇŽĨǁĂƐƚĞǁĂƚĞƌĨŽƌĐŽŵŵĞƌĐŝĂůĂŶĚͬŽƌĚŽŵĞƐƟĐĂĐƟǀŝƟĞƐ
ĞĐƌĞĞϱͬϮϬϭϰ͗/ŶĚƵƐƚƌŝĂůůŝƋƵŝĚǁĂƐƚĞ

DƵůƟͲƐƚĂŬĞŚŽůĚĞƌƉĂƌƟĐŝƉĂƟŽŶ
ŝŶǁĂƚĞƌƉŽůůƵƟŽŶĐŽŶƚƌŽů

ĐƚϳͬϮϬϬϰ͗tĂƚĞƌZĞƐŽƵƌĐĞƐ
ĞĐƌĞĞϭϵͬϮϬϬϰ͗WƵďůŝĐĐŽŵƉůĂŝŶƚŵĞĐŚĂŶŝƐŵĨŽƌƐƵƐƉŝĐŝŽŶŽĨƉŽůůƵƟŽŶŽƌĞŶǀŝƌŽŶŵĞŶƚĂůĚĂŵĂŐĞ
ĐƚϭϴͬϮϬϬϯ͗^ŽůŝĚtĂƐƚĞŵĂŶĂŐĞŵĞŶƚ>ĞŐŝƐůĂƟŽŶƐƌĞůĂƚĞĚƚŽƉƵďůŝĐͲƉƌŝǀĂƚĞƉĂƌƚŶĞƌƐŚŝƉƐ

WƌĞƐŝĚĞŶƟĂůZĞŐƵůĂƟŽŶϲϳ͗ƉƵďůŝĐͲƉƌŝǀĂƚĞƉĂƌƚŶĞƌƐŚŝƉƉƌŽĐĞƐƐƌĞůĂƚĞĚƚŽǁĂƚĞƌƐƵƉƉůǇ
ĞĐƌĞĞϭϲͬϮϬϬϴ͗ĨĂĐŝůŝƚĂƚĞƐƉƵďůŝĐͲƉƌŝǀĂƚĞƉĂƌƚŶĞƌƐŚŝƉĨŽƌƚŚĞĚĞǀĞůŽƉŵĞŶƚŽĨĚŽŵĞƐƟĐǁĂƐƚĞǁĂƚĞƌŵĂŶĂŐĞŵĞŶƚ
ĞĐƌĞĞϯϴͬϮϬϭϱ͗ŵĞĐŚĂŶŝƐŵĨŽƌƉĞƌĨŽƌŵĂŶĐĞͲďĂƐĞĚĂŶŶƵŝƚǇƐĐŚĞŵĞƐ

Figure 2.3.4. Legisla ve framework for water quality management

50(Source: MoEJ and IGES 2015, ADB 2016)

Chapter 2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Water that can be used as raw water for drinking water,
and/or other usage that requires similar water quality
for such usage.

Class II

Water that can be used for water recrea on,
infrastructure/means, freshwater ﬁsh farming, animalhusbandry, water for irriga on, and/or other usage that
requires similar water quality for such usage.

Class III

Water that can be used for freshwater ﬁsh farming,
animal husbandry, water for irriga on and/or other usagethat requires similar water quality for such usage.

Class IV

Water that can be used for irriga on and/or other usagethat requires similar water quality for such usage.

ThailandClass ISri Lanka

Use

Philippines

Class

Nepal

Analysis of watershed status, and water source
protec on and restora on is to be carried out in fourpriority watersheds (Ciliwung, Citarum, Kapuas and Siak)and vegeta on management is to be conducted in 26
sub-priority watersheds (Government of Indonesia 2015).
Presiden al Regula on 33/2011 lays out the na onal
policy of water resource management from 2011 to 2030.

Myanmar

Table 2.3.4. Classes of inland water quality

Establishment of ﬂood management schemes in 33
river basins
Improved water quality in 15 lakes and 5 rivers

Malaysia

Rehabilita on of 3 million ha and construc on of 1
million ha of irriga on networks

Lao PDR

Increase in community involvement in watershedmanagement through development of Community
Planta on Forest, Community Forest, Village Forest,
development of ecotourism and development ofnon- mber forest products

Republic of Korea

The Long-Term Development Plan 2005–2025 (RPJPN)
presents the main policies and strategies, and provides
direction to the National Medium-Term Development
Plan (RPJMN) 2015–2019, which includes the following
targets regarding conserva on of the water environment:
Rehabilita on of 5.5 million ha of Indonesian ForestJapan

6.3 Policies

Water quality criteria (WQC) were set as the benchmarks
for water quality conserva on under the Managementof Water Quality and Control over Water Pollution
Government Regula on 82/2001, and are the minimum
standards set by the national government. Local
governments are free to set their own, or even stricter
values, using local se ngs as a base, which may include
addi onal parameters not included in na onal criteria.
WQC sets standard values for 45 parameters in fourclasses which are determined based on the type of water
usage (Table 2.3.4). However, rivers have not been fully
categorized into classes, and the state of water quality inthe country is evaluated based upon whether values
comply with values listed in Class II. Regarding coastal
water quality, there are three sets of standards: Marine
water quality standards for ports and harbors (Annex I in
MoE Decree 51/2004), standards for marine recrea on(Annex II) and standards for marine ecosystems (Annex
III). The water quality standards for marine ecosystems
notably has individual standards on clarity, TSS,
temperature and salinity for coral, mangrove, and sea
grass (lamun) (Table 2.3.5).
As with water criteria for surface water, local
governments are permi ed to set stricter standards, one
example of which is the Regula on of the Governor of
DKI Jakarta Province No.93/2006, which applies stricter
standards for capitals of provinces and the special regionof Jakarta (DKI Jakarta Province).

Indonesia

The 2005–2025 long-term vision (Undang-Undang
17/2007) s pulates the role of government as facilitator,
regulator, and development catalyst to increase theeﬀec veness of public services (ADB 2016), and several
governmental ministries deal with water management,such as the Ministry of Environment (MoE), Ministry of
Public Works and Housing (PU) and State Ministry of
Na onal Development (BAPPENAS). MoE is responsible
for water quality management and pollu on, PU deals
with water resource management with a special focus onquan ty and water uses, and BAPPENAS is responsible
for overall na onal development.

6.4 Water quality standards

China

6.2 Institutional arrangements

Cambodia

The Management of Water Quality and Control over
Water Pollu on Government Regula on 82/2001 is theprinciple law for water quality management and focuseson controlling water pollu on. It also deﬁnes water
quality classiﬁca ons.

(Source: MoEJ 2009)

Viet Nam

51

Table 2.3.5. Coastal water quality standards for marine
ecosystems
No.

Parameter

Unit

Coral

Standard value
Mangrove Sea grass

Physical parameters
1

Clarity

2

Odor

3

m

>5

-

-

Normal

Turbidity

NTU

<5

4

TSS

mg/L

5

Refuse-6Temperature°C7

Oil ﬁlm

20

>3

80

20

undetected
28-30

28-32

-

undetected

7.0-8.528-30

Chemical parameters
1

pH

-

2

Salinity

‰

3

DO

mg/L

>5

4

BOD

mg/L

20

5

Free ammonia
mg/L(NH4-N)
Orthophosphate
mg/L(PO4-P)
Nitrate nitrogen
mg/L(NO3-N)

6
7

33-34

34

33-34

0.3
0.015
0.008

8

Cyanide (CN)

mg/L

0.5

9

Sulphides

mg/L

0.01

10

PAHs

mg/L

0.003

11

Phenols

mg/L

0.002

12

PCB

μg/L

0.01

13

Surfactants(MBAS)

mg/L

1

14

Oil and grease

mg/L

1

15

Pes cides

mg/L

0.01

16

Tributyl n (TBT)

μg/L

0.01

mg/L

0.001

Dissolved metals
1

Hg

2

Cr

mg/L

0.005

3

As

mg/L

0.012

4

Cd

mg/L

0.001

5

Cu

mg/L

0.008

6

Pb

mg/L

0.008

7

Zn

mg/L

0.05

8

Ni

mg/L

0.05

6+

Organic parameters
1

Total coliform

2

Pathogens3

Plankton
Radioac ve
substances

No abnormal blooms

Bq/L

4

1,000
undetected(Source: WEPA 2016)

52

Water quality monitoring schemes are determined under
the Management of Water Quality and Control over
Water Pollu on Government Regula on as follows:(1) Monitoring of water sources in the regency/municipal
region is carried out by the regency/municipal
government.
(2) Monitoring of water sources in two or more regency/municipal regions within one province is coordinatedby the provincial government and is carried out by
each regency/municipal government.
(3) Monitoring of water sources in two or more provincial
regions and/or water sources on the border withother countries is observed by the national
government.
Water quality observation is carried out at least once
every six months and results are submitted to theminister, and the mechanisms and procedures used formonitoring are stipulated further in detail through a
ministerial decree.

6.6 Effluent standards
Na onal wastewater quality standards are speciﬁed witha ministerial decree through incorpora on of input from
related government agencies (Management of Water
Quality and Control over Water Pollu on Government
Regulation). As with water quality standards, theprovincial government can specify the same wastewater
quality standards as the national standard, or tighter
standards.
General industrial eﬄuent standards were ﬁrst
created by regula on 20/1990. Under decree 03/1991,
speciﬁc eﬄuent standards were ﬁrst iden ﬁed for 14
industrial ac vi es, which had increased to 21 by Decree
51/1995, and further to 36 by Decree 5/2014. Local
governments such as in DKI Jakarta, West Java andJogjakarta have established ghter wastewater quality
standards than the na onal government.

6.7 Effluent monitoring

MPN/
100mL
nb/
100mL
-

Radioac ve parameters
1

6.5 Monitoring of water quality
in public water bodies

Industries are required to send wastewater samples to aregistered laboratory once a month or more dependingon their ac vi es. The analysis reports are then submi ed
every six months to local authori es and the MoE. Local
and national authorities have the right to access andcollect the eﬄuent at any me.

Chapter 2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

8 | Existing and Future Challenges

Gold

Zero emissions

12

Green

Beyond compliance

172

Blue

ComplianceRed

Failure to reachrequirementsBlack

Non-compliance, andinsigniﬁcant eﬀorts at
improvement
Total

1,422
284

5
1,895

Ensuring implementa on of waste management inriversDeveloping and implemen ng water quality
restora on policy instruments
Improving database and informa on systems, as wellas capacity in laboratories
Introducing spa al regula ons and promo ng
par cipa on of all stakeholders in spa al planning

Lao PDR(Source: MoE 2017)

Crea ng incen ves for industries to comply withexis ng regula ons

Republic of Korea

Number ofcompanies in 2016

Japan

Category

Indonesia

Table 2.3.6. PROPER evalua on levels

According to WHO (2015), the greatest constraining factor
for WASH human resources is the lack of desirability ofliving in Indonesia’s rural areas for skilled workers. To
address this issue, training in rural areas is carried out,
mainly by a na onal community development program.
To achieve and promote be er water environment
management in Indonesia, several ac ons will be
required, such as:

China

The Program for Pollu on Control Evalua on and Ra ng(PROPER) is executed with the purpose of encouraging
companies to comply with applicable rules andregula ons. The results are published as informa on thatreflects the reputation of a company in managing theenvironment. In 2016, a total of 1895 companies wererated under the PROPER program (Table 2.3.6).

Performancelevel

Cambodia

6.8 Compliance management

Malaysia

7 | Recent Developments inWater Environmental Management

Myanmar

Regarding the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs),
the Ministry of the National Development Planning(Bappenas) is assigned to coordinate the en re processof planning, implementation, monitoring as well as
evalua on and repor ng by involving all stakeholders.
Indonesia maintains a working rela onship based on
mutual trust between all stakeholders, consis ng of thegovernment, CSO, philanthropy and business, as well as
academics. All stakeholders are ac vely encouraged totake part, and their mo va on is enhanced throughrepresenta onal inclusion in the Implemen ng Team andWorking Group within the SDGs Na onal Coordina ng
Team, thus they also all help in leading the direc on SDG
implementa on takes. One example of this is the oﬄine
and online public consulta ons in the development of
SDG metadata and guidelines for formula ng Na onal
and Sub-Na onal Ac on Plans (ADB 2016).
The na onal medium-term development plan
(RPJMN) 2015–2019 targets universal access to waterand sanita on by 2019.

Nepal
Philippines
Sri Lanka
Thailand
Viet Nam

53

2.4 Japan
1 | Country information
Table 2.4.1. Basic indicators
Land Area (km2)

377,971 (2015)

Total Population (person)

127.1 million (2015)

GDP (current USD)

4,947.4 billion (2016)

GDP per capita (current USD)

38,968 (2016)

Average Precipitation (mm/year)

1,772 (2016)

Total Renewable Water Resources (km3)

430 (2017)

Total Annual Freshwater Withdrawals(billion m3)

80.0(2014)

Annual Freshwater
Withdrawal
by Sectors

Agriculture

68% (2014)

Industry

14% (2014)

Municipal(including domestic)

2 | Major Water Basins in Japan
Hokkaido

Ishikari River
Mogami River

Tokachi River

Shinano River
Tenryu River

Chikugo River
Ariake Bay

Kitakami River
HonshuTokyo

Shikoku

KyushuLake Kasumigaura
Tone River
Ara RiverTokyo Bay
Tama River
Fuji River
Ise Bay
Shimanto River

Okinawa

Figure 2.4.1. Major public water bodies in Japan

3 | State of Water Resources
Japan is located in the eastern monsoon region of Asiaand is famous for having one of the highest accumula onsof water in the world with annual mean precipita on ofaround 1,720 mm, around 1.6 mes the world annual
mean (inland area, 1,065 mm). On the other hand, thetotal amount of precipita on per capita (calculated by

54

4 | State of Water Quality

19% (2014)(Source: See References)

Kiso River
Lake Biwa
Yodo River
Seto Inland Sea
Gouno River
Ota River

mul plying the annual mean precipita on by the landarea and dividing it by the total population) is around
5,000 m3/person/year. This is one quarter of the global
amount of precipita on per capita, 20,000 m3/person/
year.
In respect of the amount of available water resources
per capita, however, it is around 3,400 m3/person/year,
which is less than half of the world average, around7,500 m3/person/year. Moreover, most of the available
water resource is discharge to the ocean unu lized dueto the country’s steep terrain, very short streams andintensive rainfall in rainy and typhoon seasons.

The main objec ves of protec ng the water environment
in Japan are protecting human health and conserving
the environment. In order to achieve these objec ves,
environmental standards for ambient water quality
were established in the Basic Environment Law as theacceptable water quality levels that should be maintainedin public waters. There are two kinds of Environmental
Quality Standards (EQS) for water – those for humanhealth, which are uniform standards applicable to all
public water bodies throughout the country, and thosefor conservation of the living environment, which areapplied to all public water bodies.

4.1 Rivers, lakes and reservoirs,
and coastal water
In most locations, EQS for human health have beena ained with a 99.2% compliance rate in ﬁscal year 2016.
EQS for conserva on of the living environment have beenachieved with a 90.3% rate of compliance for biochemical
oxygen demand (BOD) or chemical oxygen demand (COD),
the representa ve water quality indicators for organic
contamina on. Compliance rates by type of water bodies
were recorded as 95.2% for rivers, 56.7% for lakes andreservoirs, and 79.8% for coastal waters. Although thecompliance rate for rivers is high, the rate for lakes andreservoirs remains low (Figure 2.4.2).
The compliance rate for total nitrogen and total
phosphorus for lakes and reservoirs was low at 49.6%. In
contrast, the achievement rate for total nitrogen andtotal phosphorus in coastal waters was 90.1%, which ishigher than in previous years.

Chapter 2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

CambodiaCompliance rate (%)
100
90
80
70

China

60
50
40
20

OverallRiversLakes andreservoirs

10

Indonesia

30
Coastal
areas

0
4
197

19

77

19

80

19

83

19

86

19

89

19

92

19

95

19

98

20

01

20

04

20

07

20

10

20

13

20

16

Japan

Fiscal Year

Figure 2.4.2. Shi in environmental standard compliance rate (BOD and COD)

Of the 3,278 wells that were tested in 2016, 200, or
6.1% fell below standards for some EQS. Among others,
values for nitrate nitrogen and nitrite nitrogen showed

Republic of Korea

4.2 Groundwater(Source: MoEJ 2017)

rates below standards (Figure 2.4.3), the main causes ofwhich are considered to be nitrogen load from excessive
fer lizer use, inappropriate livestock excreta treatment
facili es and domes c wastewater.

Lao PDR

Environmental standard excess rate (%)
7

5
4

Malaysia

Nitrate nitrogen and nitrite nitrogen
Arsenic
Flourine
Tetrachloroethylene
Trichloroethylene
Lead

6

3

Myanmar

2
1
0

19

Nepal

89 990 991 992 993 994 995 996 997 998 999 000 001 002 003 004 005 006 007 008 009 010 011 012 013 014 015 016
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
Survey year

Figure 2.4.3. Environmental standard excess rates for groundwater (by item)

Viet Nam

The purpose of the Basic Environmental Law is to “ensure
healthy and cultured living for both the present and future
genera ons of the na on as well as to contribute to thewelfare of mankind” (Ar cle 1 of the Basic Environmental
Law). The EQS for water were established by the Basic
Environmental Law as the administrative targets ofambient water quality.

The Water Pollu on Control Law, enacted in order toprotect human health and preserve the living
environment, sets provisions for water quality
conserva on such as regula ons for eﬄuent fromfactories and business establishments, con nuous
monitoring of water quality and the total pollutant load
control system. Other laws related to conserva on of
public water bodies are shown in Figure 2.4.4.
As a measure for domes c wastewater management,
the Sewerage Law was enacted in order to constructsewerage systems. In addi on, the Johkasou Law, or on-

Thailand

5.1 Legislation(Source: MoEJ 2017)

Sri Lanka

5 | Framework for Water Environment
Management

Philippines

Note 1. Wells measured in general survey diﬀer by year.
Note 2. Environmental standards related to groundwater contamina on were established in 1997. Standards preceding this year are consideredevalua on criteria. In addi on, the evalua on criteria for arsenic was revised from “under 0.05 mg/L” to “under 0.01 mg/L,” and for leadfrom “under 0.1 mg/L” to “under 0.01 mg/L” in 1993, and for trichloroethylene from “under 0.03 mg/L” to “less than 0.01 mg/L” in 2014.
Note 3. Nitrate nitrogen, nitrite nitrogen and ﬂuorine were added to environmental standard items in 1999.

55

site packaged household wastewater treatment plant forareas without access to sewerage treatment, wasestablished to deﬁne the regula ons for their installa on,
inspec on, desludging and manufacture.

ŽŶƐĞƌǀĂƟŽŶŽĨtĂƚĞƌ
YƵĂůŝƚǇŝŶWƵďůŝĐtĂƚĞƌ
'ĞŶĞƌĂůDĞĂƐƵƌĞƐ

Basic Environment Law
ŶǀŝƌŽŶŵĞŶƚĂůYƵĂůŝƚǇ^ƚĂŶĚĂƌĚƐĨŽƌ
Water PollutantstĂƚĞƌWŽůůƵƟŽŶŽŶƚƌŽů>Ăǁ
&ĂĐƚŽƌǇĞŋƵĞŶƚĐŽŶƚƌŽů͕ŶŽƟĮĐĂƟŽŶŽĨĨĂĐƚŽƌǇĞƐƚĂďůŝƐŚŵĞŶƚ͕ŵŽŶŝƚŽƌŝŶŐŽƌĚĞƌƐ͕ĐŽŶƟŶƵŽƵƐŵŽŶŝƚŽƌŝŶŐ͘DĞĂƐƵƌĞƐĨŽƌŚŽƵƐĞŚŽůĚǁĂƐƚĞǁĂƚĞƌ
^ĞǁĞƌĂŐĞ>ĂǁŽŶƐƚƌƵĐƟŽŶŽĨƐĞǁĞƌĂŐĞ
Johkasou Law/ŶƐƚĂůůĂƟŽŶŽĨJohkasou͕ƌĞŐƵůĂƟŽŶŽĨĚĞƐůƵĚŐŝŶŐĂŶĚƉƌŽĚƵĐƟŽŶ͕ƌĞŐŝƐƚƌĂƟŽŶƐǇƐƚĞŵŽĨJohkasouŝŶƐƚĂůůĂƟŽŶǁŽƌŬĞƌ͕ůŝĐĞŶĐĞƐǇƐƚĞŵŽĨ
JohkasouĚĞƐůƵĚŐŝŶŐƚĞĐŚŶŝĐŝĂŶ͕ĞƚĐ^ƉĞĐŝĂůDĞĂƐƵƌĞƐŝŶŶĐůŽƐĞĚtĂƚĞƌŽĚŝĞƐ
>ĂŬĞƐĂŶĚZĞƐĞƌǀŽŝƌƐ

Estuaries>ĂǁŽŶĐĞƌŶŝŶŐ^ƉĞĐŝĂůDĞĂƐƵƌĞƐĨŽƌWƌĞƐĞƌǀĂƟŽŶŽĨ>ĂŬĞtĂƚĞƌYƵĂůŝƚǇ
WůĂŶŶŝŶŐŽĨWůĂŶĨŽƌƚŚĞWƌĞƐĞƌǀĂƟŽŶŽĨ>ĂŬĞtĂƚĞƌYƵĂůŝƚǇ͕^ƉĞĐŝĂůZĞŐƵůĂƟŽŶƐ
tĂƚĞƌWŽůůƵƟŽŶŽŶƚƌŽů>ĂǁŽŶƚƌŽůŽĨƚŽƚĂůƉŽůůƵƚĂŶƚůŽĂĚ͕ĂŶĚĐŽƵŶƚĞƌŵĞĂƐƵƌĞƐĂŐĂŝŶƐƚĞƵƚƌŽƉŚŝĐĂƟŽŶ

^ĞƚŽ/ŶůĂŶĚ^ĞĂdŚĞ>ĂǁŽŶĐĞƌŶŝŶŐ^ƉĞĐŝĂůDĞĂƐƵƌĞƐĨŽƌŽŶƐĞƌǀĂƟŽŶŽĨƚŚĞ^ĞƚŽ/ŶůĂŶĚ^ĞĂƌŝĂŬĞ^ĞĂͬzĂƚƐƵƐŚŝƌŽ^ĞĂdŚĞ>ĂǁŽŶĐĞƌŶŝŶŐ^ƉĞĐŝĂůDĞĂƐƵƌĞƐĨŽƌƚŚĞZĞƐƚŽƌĂƟŽŶŽĨƚŚĞƌŝĂŬĞĂŶĚzĂƚƐƵƐŚŝƌŽƐĞĂƐ

related to the conservation of the living environment(living environment items) include environmental
standards for 13 items, such as BOD, COD, and DO.
Total nitrogen and total phosphorus are also includedin the living environment items due to prevention ofeutrophica on in lakes and coastal waters.
Moreover, as indicators of ambient water quality
standards for the conserva on of aqua c living resources,
total zinc, nonylphenol and linear alkylbenzene sulfonicacid and its salt were registered in 2003, 2012 and 2013,
respec vely.
Monitoring of public water bodies and groundwater
According to the Water Control Law, prefectural governors
are required to conduct regular monitoring of public water
bodies and groundwater, and report to MoE as well as
inform the public of the state of water pollu on in public
water bodies and groundwater. Prefectural governments
prepare monitoring plans and carry out regular water
quality monitoring in coopera on with relevant na onal
government organiza ons based on monitoring methods
speciﬁed by MoE. Monitoring results at approximately
7,000 locations in public water bodies nationwide are
publicly released on the MoE website (Figure 2.4.5).

ŝǁĂ>ĂŬĞ
dŚĞ>ĂǁŽŶĐĞƌŶŝŶŐ^ƉĞĐŝĂůDĞĂƐƵƌĞƐĨŽƌƚŚĞZĞƐƚŽƌĂƟŽŶŽĨƚŚĞŝǁĂ>ĂŬĞ
WŽƚĂďůĞtĂƚĞƌ^ŽƵƌĐĞƐ
>ĂǁŽŶĐĞƌŶŝŶŐ^ƉĞĐŝĂůDĞĂƐƵƌĞƐĨŽƌƚŚĞWƌŽƚĞĐƟŽŶŽĨtĂƚĞƌ
YƵĂůŝƚǇŝŶtĂƚĞƌZĞƐŽƵƌĐĞƐƌĞĂƐĨŽƌƚŚĞWƵƌƉŽƐĞŽĨWƌĞǀĞŶƟŶŐ
^ƉĞĐŝĮĐdƌŽƵďůĞ
'ƌŽƵŶĚǁĂƚĞƌYƵĂůŝƚǇ
ŽŶƐĞƌǀĂƟŽŶ
'ĞŶĞƌĂůDĞĂƐƵƌĞƐ

Basic Environment Law
ŶǀŝƌŽŶŵĞŶƚĂůYƵĂůŝƚǇ^ƚĂŶĚĂƌĚƐĨŽƌ'ƌŽƵŶĚǁĂƚĞƌ
tĂƚĞƌWŽůůƵƟŽŶŽŶƚƌŽů>Ăǁ
ZĞŐƵůĂƟŽŶƐĨŽƌƚŽǆŝĐƐƵďƐƚĂŶĐĞƐĨƌŽŵĨĂĐƚŽƌŝĞƐ͕ƉƵƌŝĨǇŝŶŐŽƌĚĞƌƐĨŽƌƉŽůůƵƚĞĚ
ŐƌŽƵŶĚǁĂƚĞƌ͕ĂŶĚĐŽŶƟŶƵŽƵƐŵŽŶŝƚŽƌŝŶŐ

^ŽƵŶĚtĂƚĞƌǇĐůĞĂƐŝĐ>ĂǁŽŶtĂƚĞƌǇĐůĞ,ŽůŝƐƟĐĂŶĚŝŶƚĞŐƌĂƚĞĚŝŵƉůĞŵĞŶƚĂƟŽŶŽĨƉŽůŝĐŝĞƐŽŶǁĂƚĞƌĐǇĐůĞ

KƚŚĞƌ>ĂǁƐZĞůĂƚĞĚƚŽtĂƚĞƌŶǀŝƌŽŶŵĞŶƚ
>ĂǁŽŶĐĞƌŶŝŶŐ^ƉĞĐŝĂůDĞĂƐƵƌĞƐĂŐĂŝŶƐƚŝŽǆŝŶƐ
River LawƌŝŶŬŝŶŐtĂƚĞƌ^ŽƵƌĐĞƐ>Ăǁ
tĂƚĞƌ^ƵƉƉůǇ>Ăǁ
>ĂǁZƌĞůĂƟŶŐƚŽƚŚĞWƌĞǀĞŶƟŽŶŽĨDĂƌŝŶĞWŽůůƵƟŽŶĂŶĚDĂƌŝƟŵĞŝƐĂƐƚĞƌ

Figure 2.4.4. Legal system schemes for water environmental(Source: MoEJ 2009)
management in Japan

5.2 Ambient water quality standards
Nationwide uniform standard values were set for 27
items as the EQS for water related to protection ofhuman health (environmental items). The EQS for water
were established in 1971. Meanwhile, the EQS for water

56

Figure 2.4.5. Website providing comprehensive
informa on on the water environment(Source: MoEJ 2017)

5.3 Effluent standards
Based on the Water Pollution Control Law, uniform
effluent standards were established for 28 items
related to protection of human health, which areapplicable to factories and business establishments.
Meanwhile, effluent standards for 15 items related to
the living environment target only factories and businessestablishments with daily effluent volumes exceeding
50m 3 per day. Local governments (prefectures andordinance-designated cities) may establish stricter
eﬄuent standards than na onal uniform standards when
the na onal standards are considered to be insuﬃcientto achieve water quality targets.
The Water Pollu on Control Law s pulatesmonitoring and recording of the quality of eﬄuent fromfactories and business establishments. Those located inChapter 2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

coastal waters, namely Tokyo Bay, Ise Bay, and the Seto
Inland Sea where because they are both populated andindustrialized areas it is diﬃcult to achieve EQS for waterby regula ng discharge based on only concentra ons ofregulated substances. Under the system, the na onal
government sets targets for pollutant loads and periods,
and relevant prefectures s pulate the actual methods
needed to meet the targets.
To date, COD loads have been steadily reduced intarget water bodies since 1979 (Figure 2.4.6). Figure 2.4.7
shows how COD concentra ons have improved in Tokyo
Bay, for example. Nitrogen and phosphorus loads havealso been reduced since being added as designated items
under the system in 2001. In September 2016, Japan set
forth its basic policy of the 8th phase total reduc on, thetarget year of which is 2019.

China
Indonesia
Japan
Republic of Korea

Total Pollutant load control system (TPLCs)
The total pollutant load control system is a discharge
control mechanism to improve water quality by reducing
total pollutant loads ﬂowing into the selected enclosed

Cambodia

total pollutant load control target areas are required tomeasure and record pollu on loads in discharged
wastewater. Governors of prefectures and mayors ofordinance-designated ci es can require reports to besubmi ed and conduct inspec ons of factories andbusiness establishments on wastewater treatment
methods and the quality and amount of wastewater inorder to prevent viola ons. They are also authorised totake administra ve measures in the event that viola ons
are found, such as issuing orders for improvements
according to the outcomes of reports and inspec ons.

COD generated loads (tons/day)
1,012

1,000

95

ŽŵĞƐƟĐ

Industrial

838

89

82

746

561
55

356
477
38 413
115 40 355
83 36 28676 30
59
324 290243
197

Ise Bay309

468 472
54 56

286

247
28 211 183 177
52 25 23 2242 36
36167 144 124
119

307 286
37 35 272 246
221
34
119 101 97 29 27 186 158
146
83 76 22
19
65 20
57 56
151 150 141 134 118
99 81 71

4
9 84 9 4 0 5 9
197 19 198 199 200 200 200 201 et)
g
r
a
(t

4
9 84 9 4 0 5 9
197 19 198 199 200 200 200 201 et)
g
r
a
(t

245
193 215

Osaka Bay261 221201

144
118 116
10
9
10
32 26
26
102 83 80

9 4 89 94 00 05 09 14
197 198 19 19 20 20 20 20 et)
rg
(ta

4
5 9
200 200 201 t)
ge
r
a
(t

488 444400 365

319

Myanmar

0

Seto Inland Sea

Malaysia

200

672
67

367

Tokyo Bay

400

Ise Bay

72

429

600

Tokyo Bay

Lao PDR

Others800

Osaka Bay

Seto Inland Sea

900

Fiscal year

Note: Figures for 1979-2009 are actual. Figures for 2014 is the reduc on target

Figure 2.4.6. Challenges in pollu on load and target values (in terms of COD)

(Source: provided by MoEJ)

Nepal

Tokyo

Kanagawa

2.3

2.7

2.5

Legend(mg/L)

2.2

Figure 2.4.7. COD concentra on in Tokyo Bay

1.7

1.5 - 2.0
2.0 - 2.5
2.5 - 3.0
3.0 - 3.5
3.5 - 4.0
4.0 - 4.5
4.5 - 5.0
5.0 - 6.0
6.0 <Viet Nam

1982 - 1984 (average)

2.2

Thailand1.5 - 2.0
2.0 - 2.5
2.5 - 3.0
3.0 - 3.5
3.5 - 4.0
4.0 - 4.5
4.5 - 5.0
5.0 - 6.0
6.0 <

Chiba

2.4

2.9

Legend(mg/L)

2.4

2.7

Sri Lanka

4.3

3.7

3.1

3.5
4.3 3.4 3.3
3.5
3.3
2.8
5.2 4.1 3.8
3.3 3.4 3.2
4.0
3.4
3.0
2.9
3.3
2.9
3.1

Philippines

Kanagawa

Tokyo

6.1

5.2 5.4 4.5
4.8
5.0
3.9
6.2 5.2 4.4
7.3
4.6 3.9
5.3
3.6
3.8
4.4
4.5
4.1
4.2
4.0
Chiba
3.8
3.7

2006 - 2008 (average)(Source: provided by MoEJ)

57

5.4 Domestic Wastewater Treatment andInstallation of JohkasouWĞƌĐĞŶƚĂŐĞŽĨƉĞŽƉůĞǁŝƚŚĂĐĐĞƐƐƚŽĚŽŵĞƐƟĐǁĂƐƚĞǁĂƚĞƌƚƌĞĂƚŵĞŶƚĨĂĐŝůŝƟĞƐ;йͿThe percentage of people with access to domestic
wastewater treatment facili es*1 was 90.4% at the endof FY 2016 in Japan (except in Fukushima, where somemunicipali es where not available for the survey due tothe Great East Japan Earthquake).
As shown in Figure 2.4.8, the percentage of people
with access to domes c wastewater treatment facili es is
low in the municipali es with small popula ons. In
addi on, Johkasou*2 is suitable mainly for low density
areas. Considering these circumstances, the installa onof Johkasou would appear to be more important indomes c wastewater treatment in the near future ofJapan. Moreover, considering the country’s social
landscape in the near future, which includes low birthrates, longevity, and popula on decrease , it is inevitablethat installa on of new Johkasou as well as eﬀec ve
conversion of tandokushori Johkasou*3 into gappei-shori100

Johkasou*3 will be promoted.
The MoEJ oﬀers several subsidy programs for the
installa on of Johkasou – the “Johkasou Installa on
Promo on Program,” in which municipali es provide
ﬁnancial support to homeowners installing Johkasou; the“Municipal Johkasou Installa on Program,” in which thegovernment oﬀers subsidies to municipali es installing
Johkasou – as well as ﬁnancial assistance for the removalof tandoku-shori Johkasou to promote the conversion of
tandoku-shori Johkasou to gappei-shori Johkasou.
With regards to sewerage treatment systems, rural
sewerage systems, and the Johkasou system, it isimportant not only to develop domes c wastewater
treatment facili es eﬀec vely and appropriately,
corresponding to the changing social condi ons, but also
to renovate, renew and operate the exis ng facili es
eﬀec vely, considering technological and ﬁnancial
aspects of these systems for the sustainable managementof domes c wastewater treatment facili es.

At the End of FY 2016

99.6%
94.0%

93.1%

S:87.4%

S:84.4%90

S:99.2%90.0%
S:77.8%80

84.8%
S:64.7%78.3%
S:50.2%70

ŽŵĞƐƟĐtĂƐƚĞǁĂƚĞƌ
dƌĞĂƚŵĞŶƚ^ǇƐƚĞŵ;dŽƚĂůͿ

60
50

Percentage of people
with access toĚŽŵĞƐƟĐǁĂƐƚĞǁĂƚĞƌƚƌĞĂƚŵĞŶƚĨĂĐŝůŝƟĞƐ
EĂƟŽŶĂůǀĞƌĂŐĞ͗
90.4%

40
30

R:8.2%

20

R:4.5%

100WŽƉƵůĂƟŽŶ

R:0.5%
J: 0.3%More than
1 million

J:5.6%
0.5-1
million

R:1.0%

R:2.5%

J:7.6%

J:9.5%

0.3-0.5
million0.1-0.3
millionJ:14.7%

J:19.5%50-100thousands

Under 50thousands*S: Sewerage system, C: Community sewage treatment system, R: Rural sewerage systems, J: Johkasou system

Figure 2.4.8. Percentage of people with access to domes c wastewater treatment facili es by size of municipality(Source: MoEJ 2017)*1: The domes c wastewater treatment facili es do not include facili es that treat only black water and discharge grey water into the environment
without treatment.
*2: A decentralised domes c wastewater treatment system widely used in rural areas of Japan. It can treat both black water and grey water andobtain a high quality of eﬄuent with aera on (less than BOD 20mg/L according to the structural standard). The advanced type of Johkasou, which
can remove nitrogen or phosphorus is recently widely prevalent. The Johkasou Law modiﬁed in 2005 deﬁnes the eﬄuent water quality standard
for Johkasou.
*3: Tandoku-shori Johkasou is an old type of Johkasou trea ng only black water. Because this type does not treat grey water, Johkasou means gappeishori Johkasou that treats both black water and grey water, and tandoku-shori Johkasou is deemed as Johkasou. As the tandoku-shori Johkasou
does not treat grey water, the removal rate is low and the pollu on load is eight mes as much as the gappei-shori Johkasou. Therefore, newinstalla ons of the tandoku-shori Johkasou were forbidden based on the modiﬁed Johkasou Law of 2000. Although the number of tandoku-shori
Johkasou is now decreasing, there are s ll about four million one hundred twenty thousand facili es in Japan at the end of FY 2015. The issue of
how to convert tandoku-shori Johkasou into gappei-shori Johkasou is very urgent.

58

Chapter 2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries(2011 revision of the Water Pollution Control Law)

Nepal
Philippines

7.2 Improvement of water quality of lakes

Sri Lanka

Although the water quality of lakes is gradually improving,
the actual achievement rate of environmental standards
is low at around 50%. Many issues have emerged suchas low oxygenation at lake beds, occurrence of water
plants, fewer na ve species and a decline in hauls of ﬁsh
due to changes in ecosystems, as well as a weakeningof the relationship between people and lakes due todecreased contact. In March 2016, DO at the bottom
layer and coastal transparency were added as items to
the ambient water quality standard as simple indicators
people could easily understand. In the future, new water

Thailand
Viet Nam

Owing to the accident at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear
Power Plant, which produced serious environmental
pollution caused by radioactive materials during theGreat East Japan Earthquake on March, 2011, monitoringof radioactive materials in public water bodies andgroundwater was started, results of which are disclosed
periodically by appropriate authori es.

Myanmar(2013 revision of the Water Pollution Control Law)

Because the issues rela ng to water conserva on andaqua c life preserva on in recent years have diversiﬁed
in each region and water body, cases have occurredin which responses to the needs of conservation of
aquatic organisms merely by complying with water
quality environmental standards aimed at nationwide
preserva on of aqua c organisms and eﬄuent standards
based on the Water Pollution Control Law have been
inadequate. In such cases, as a method voluntarily
adopted by the business operator, if the operator can
reduce the environmental burden of chemical substancesdischarged from industry into the surrounding water
environment by use of the ecotoxicity test utilizing
biological response for industrial wastewater as well as
by evalua ng holis cally the impact of various chemicalmaterials on aqua c organisms, it is thought that such
system complements eﬀorts to comply with regula ons
such as eﬄuent standards.
With regard to how this biological response for water
environmental conserva on is used, Japan plans topromote an understanding among stakeholders while
proceeding with veriﬁca on of technical issues in the
future.

Malaysia

6.2 Monitoring of radioactive materials

7.1 Use of biological response for water
environment conservation

Lao PDR(Source: provided by MoEJ)

7 | Existing and Future Challenges

Republic of Korea

Figure 2.4.9. Underground inﬁltra on of hazardous
substances from produc on facili es

The Basic Law on Water Cycle was enacted in 2014 asa new law in order to advance policies related to water
recycling in comprehensive and integrated manners. In
2015, based on this law, a master plan for actions on
the water cycle was prepared. In the master plan, “Riverbasin management” was established as one possible
direction to ensure a healthy water cycle, in which
diﬀerent stakeholders in a river basin collaborate witheach other towards this goal.

Japan

In general, groundwater is widely used as a valuable
freshwater resource in Japan due to its high water
quality and low change in water temperature. However,groundwater pollu on cases due to leakage of harmful
substances such as trichlorethylene from factories andbusiness sites occur on every year, which is caused byaging produc on facili es and storage facili es as well asleaks of harmful substances due to opera onal mishaps
during produc on.
Considering these circumstances, in order to
eﬀec vely prevent groundwater contamina on, an
obliga on of not only repor ng on establishment offacili es storing hazardous substances but also complying
with structural standards as well as monitoring andrecording periodic inspec ons of facili es that u lize andstore hazardous substances (Figure 2.4.9) was imposed.

(2014)

Indonesia

6.1 Proactive measures to prevent
groundwater pollution

6.3 Enactment of the Basic Law on Water Cycle

China

Various revisions of the laws related to water
environmental management have taken place according
to the times and demands of society, and recent
developments are summarized below.

Cambodia

6 | Recent Developments inWater Environment Management59

quality indicators that respond to the actual needs ofthe country’s residents, as well as targets that reflect
the natural condi ons and purpose of each water bodyshould be examined further. It is important to promotemeasures for both lakes themselves and catchment areasthat u lize a natural puriﬁca on mechanism, following
eﬀorts to elucidate contamina on mechanisms of lakes
and reservoirs.

7.3 Creation of “sato-umi”
A sato-umi, or “local seaside” is a coastal area where not
only the circula on func on of materials is appropriately
maintained but also rich and diverse ecosystems andnatural environments are conserved due to adopting
human-based integrated comprehensive managementof land and coastal zones. Such areas are importantdue to their prolonged support not only of marine anddistribution industries, but also of local cultures andexchanges with other areas. Healthy sato-umi, which
preserve rich and diverse ecosystems and naturalenvironments, provide the country with a wonderfullegacy, and therefore have become a focal point in water
environment protec on.

7.4 Initiatives in global water issues
Japan has experienced and overcome cases of serious
water pollu on. It is believed, therefore, that it has theability to contribute to the preserva on and improvementof water environments of other countries including
developing countries. As such, Japan intends to u lize
its technologies and knowledge to promote ini a ves ininterna onal coopera on and partnerships, such as inins tu onal transfers and technological support.
In considera on of the above, the government intends
to continue conducting the “Water Environmental
Partnership in Asia (WEPA)” as well as public-private
partnerships in order to promote Japan’s wastewater
treatment technologies in other countries.

60

Chapter 2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Cambodia

China

Indonesia

Japan

Republic of Korea

Lao PDR

Malaysia

Myanmar

Nepal

Philippines

Sri Lanka

Thailand

Viet Nam

61

2.5 Republic of Korea
1 | Country information
Table 2.5.1. Basic indicators
Land Area (km2)

100,341 (2015)

Total Population

51 million (2016)

GDP (current USD)

1,411 billion (2016)

GDP per capita (current USD)

27,539 (2016)

Average Precipitation (mm/year)

1,274 (2009)

Total Renewable Water Resources (km3)

69.7 (2009)

Total Annual Freshwater Withdrawals(billion m3)

37.2 (2014)

Agriculture
Annual Freshwater Industry
Withdrawal(including maintenance)by Sectors
Municipal(including domestic)

41% (2014)
39% (2014)
20% (2014)(Source: See References)

2 | Major Water Bodies in Republic of Korea

Seoul

Han River

Paldang Lake

InchonGeum River

Youngsan River

Nakdong River

Sumjin River

Kwangyang Bay

Figure 2.5.1. Major water bodies in Republic of Korea

3 | State of Water Resources
The Republic of Korea is a thirsty country – its per capita
water availability is around 540 m3 (MoCT 2007), far lower
than the world average and southern and eastern Asia,
which are around 6,400 m3 and 3,100 m3, respec vely
(FAO 2012). Due to population and economic growth,
total water use in 2003 was 6.6 mes that of 1965 (MoE2011). Seasonal variations in water availability alsopresent challenges for water management, as around62

two-thirds of the annual precipita on falls during Juneand September. Flood events during the rainy season anddroughts in months with less rain, especially the spring,are critical issues facing the country. The trend overthe past century shows an increase in the ﬂuctua onsof annual precipita on and intensiﬁca on of ﬂoods anddrought events (MoCT 2007). There are four major river
basins in Korea, the Han, Geum, Nakdong and YoungsanSeomjin. Most of the lakes and reservoirs are man-made.
The poten al of groundwater resources of the country isapproximately 11.7 billion m3/year, and the total amountof groundwater use is around 4.0 billion m3/year, mainly
for agricultural (50%) and domes c (44%) purposes (MoE2014).

4 | State of Water Quality
4.1 Rivers
All streams nationwide are classified into 115 sectors
and water quality targets have been established foreach. The water quality in the country has improved
overall since the late 1990s, trends of which can beseen in Figure 2.5.2 from selected points in four majorriver systems – (Paldang (Han), Mulgeum (Nakdong),
Daecheong (Geum), and Juam (Youngsan-Seomjin)) interms of biochemical oxygen demand (BOD). While thetrend in BOD value shows an improvement, chemical
oxygen demand (COD) values have not significantly
improved (Figure 2.5.3), which has been attributed to
an increase in non-degradable organic pollutants from
non-point sources and chemical compounds (MoE 2016).
Total phosphorus (TP) also increased, which causes algae
blooms (MoE 2016).
A survey on aqua c ecosystem health was started in2007 covering the four major rivers and other major rivers.
The rivers are categorized into four diﬀerent grades –op mum, fair, average, and poor) according to an index
using six elements, namely a ached algae, ﬁsh, benthic
macro-invertebrates, inhabita on/waterside environment,
and organism habitat.

4.2 Lakes and reservoirs
Similar to the river water quality, the COD value
concentra ons also show an increasing trend in recent
years in lakes and reservoirs. Figures 2.5.4 and 2.5.5
show water quality trends in terms of COD and TP inChapter 2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Box 2.5.1. Some facts on pollu on sources(Source: MoE 2016)

10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0

Republic of Korea

Han (Paldang)
Nakdong (Mulgeum)
Geum (Daecheong)Youngsan-Seomjin (Juam)

14

15(Source: MoE 2006, 2011, 2016)

20

13

20

12

20

11

20

10

20

09

20

08

20

20

06

07

20

05

20

04

20

03

20

02

20

01

20

00

20

20

98

99

19

97

19

19

19

96

Figure 2.5.2. Changes in BOD values
in the four major basins (1996-2015)

Lao PDR

10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0

MalaysiaHan (Paldang)
Nakdong (Mulgeum)
Geum (Daecheong)Youngsan-Seomjin (Juam)

MyanmarFigure 2.5.3. Changes in COD values
in the four major basins (1996-2015)
15

14

20

13

20

20

11

12

20

20

09

10

20

08

20

20

07

06

20

05

20

20

03

04

20

20

01

02

20

00

20

20

99

98

19

97

19

19

19

96

(Source: MoE 2006, 2011, 2016)

5

0.08

Nepal

COD

0.06
0.05

3

0.03
0.02

1

Figure 2.5.4. Change in water quality
in Paldang Dam 2

0.01

0
15
20

14
20

12

13
20

20

10

09

08

11
20

20

20

20

07
20

06
20

05
20

03

02

01

04
20

20

20

20

(Source: MoE 2011 and MoE 2016)

Sri Lanka

00

0
20

Philippines

0.04

T-P

2

T-P (mg/L)

0.07

4

5

0.08

4

0.07
0.06

3

0.05

2

0.03

0.04
0.02
0.01

0

(Source: MoE 2011 and MoE 2016)

02
20
03
20
04
20
05
20
06
20
07
20
08
20
09
20
10
20
11
20
12
20
13
20
14
20
15

01

Figure 2.5.5. Change in water quality
in Daecheong Dam 1

20

20

20

00

0

Viet Nam

T-P

1

Thailand

COD

T-P (mg/L)

COD (mg/L)

Japan

COD (mg/L)

The daily amount of animal manure accounts for
118,000 tons. Only 1% of the total wastewater
volume comes from animal manure, but it
contributed to 37% of the total pollu on loads.

Indonesia

BOD (mg/L)

The survey conducted in 2015 showed 8.5% of thesamples failed to meet groundwater quality standards
out of a total of 6,900 samples. The major parameters
failing compliance are total coliform, nitrate nitrogen,
TCE and PCE, which were detected in industrial and urban
residence areas (MoE 2016).

China

In 2015, daily industrial wastewater discharge
amounted to 5,495 tons, which was generated
from 50,973 units of discharging facili es.

4.3 Groundwater

COD (mg/L)

Cambodiaselected reservoirs. Green Algae is one of the criticalenvironmental issues the country faces.

63

5 | Framework for Water Environment
Management
The basic law for the environmental management policyof the country is the Framework Act on Environmental
Policy, under which environment quality standards are
established. The major objec ves of water environmental
management in Korea under the Water Quality andEcosystem Conserva on Act are the protec on of people’s

health and the environment, as well as the preserva onof clean water and aqua c ecosystems. The act outlines
the framework for water environmental management of
the country. Speciﬁc acts have been established for thefour major rivers, which form the basis of the country’s
restora on project for these rivers. Figure 2.5.6 shows
the legisla ve framework related to water environmental
management in the country.

&ƌĂŵĞǁŽƌŬĐƚŽŶŶǀŝƌŽŶŵĞŶƚĂůWŽůŝĐǇ
ŽŶƐĞƌǀĂƟŽŶŽĨtĂƚĞƌYƵĂůŝƚǇŝŶ/ŶůĂŶĚtĂƚĞƌ
'ĞŶĞƌĂůDĞĂƐƵƌĞƐ
tĂƚĞƌYƵĂůŝƚǇĂŶĚĐŽƐǇƐƚĞŵŽŶƐĞƌǀĂƟŽŶĐƚ^ƉĞĐŝĂůDĞĂƐƵƌĞƐŝŶ^ƉĞĐŝĮĐZŝǀĞƌƐ

ŶǀŝƌŽŶŵĞŶƚĂů^ƚĂŶĚĂƌĚƐĨŽƌtĂƚĞƌYƵĂůŝƚǇƋƵĂƟĐĐŽƐǇƐƚĞŵ
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ĐƚZĞůĂƟŶŐƚŽ,ĂŶZŝǀĞƌtĂƚĞƌYƵĂůŝƚǇ/ŵƉƌŽǀĞŵĞŶƚΘŽŵŵƵŶŝƚǇ^ƵƉƉŽƌƚ
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DĂƌŝŶĞŶǀŝƌŽŶŵĞŶƚDĂŶĂŐĞŵĞŶƚĐƚŽĂƐƚĂůtĂƚĞƌYƵĂůŝƚǇ^ƚĂŶĚĂƌĚƐ
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Ͳ^ƚĂŶĚĂƌĚƐĨŽƌĐŽŶƐĞƌǀĂƟŽŶŽĨƚŚĞůŝǀŝŶŐĞŶǀŝƌŽŶŵĞŶƚ

KƚŚĞƌ>ĂǁƐZĞůĂƚĞĚƚŽtĂƚĞƌŶǀŝƌŽŶŵĞŶƚ
tĂƚĞƌ^ƵƉƉůǇΘtĂƚĞƌǁŽƌŬƐ/ŶƐƚĂůůĂƟŽŶĐƚtĂƚĞƌ^ƵƉƉůǇĂŶĚtĂƚĞƌǁŽƌŬƐ/ŶƐƚĂůůĂƟŽŶĐƚ^ĞǁĞƌĂŐĞĐƚDĂŶĂŐĞŵĞŶƚŽĨƌŝŶŬŝŶŐtĂƚĞƌĐƚĐƚŽŶƚŚĞDĂŶĂŐĞŵĞŶƚĂŶĚhƐĞŽĨ>ŝǀĞƐƚŽĐŬDĂŶƵƌĞ

Figure 2.5.6. Legisla ve chart for water quality management

5.1 Basic policy direction of thewater environmental management
The recent policy direction of the country included
the following principles (Yu 2010): Creation of an
ecologically healthy water environment; Protection ofwater quality against harmful substances; Applicationof advanced water quality standards and assessment
methods; Reinforcing the national water quality
policy for lakes, coastal areas and estuaries; Full-scale
implementa on of the total pollu on load management
system; Focus on the management of non-point sources
and pollutants from livestock farms; Improvement of
the func ons of the water cycle and reinforcing water
demand management, and; Ra onalizing investment inenvironmental infrastructure and eﬃcient investment.
The Ministry of Environment has set up objec ves and64(Source: MoEJ 2009 modiﬁed)

targets for the period of 2006–2015 under the Water
Environment Management Master Plan. This master
plan, which has as its objec ve to “create a clean water
environment where our children can swim with aqua clife,” includes the following indicators (Yu 2010): Increasewater quality improvement (compliance ra o) from 76%
to 85%; Increase sewerage treatment coverage from 81%
to 90%; Restore 25% of non-natural streams to natural
streams; Increase basic criteria of water quality from 9 to
30 parameters, and; Conserve 30% of buﬀer zones whichwere purchased in the upper stream as the Riverine
Ecobelt. The Ministry of Environment is responsible
for water quality and ecosystem management at thecentral level, and also develops and implements plans fordrinking water supply and wastewater treatment, as wellas river restora on.

Chapter 2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Cambodia

Table 2.5.2. Key Water Environment Management Policies in Korea

Comprehensive measures for supplying clean water

Packaged water management measures including water quality, drinking watersupply and other elements of water source conserva on.

Comprehensive Water Quality Improvement
Measures on Four Major Rivers

Packaged measures to improve the status of water in four major rivers, which
includes total water pollu on load management systems, designated riparianbuﬀer zones, water user charge and watershed management funds.

Master plan for water environment management

Follow-up ac ons of the Comprehensive Water Quality Improvement Measures
on Four Major Rivers, which includes sub-river basin management systems.

Indonesia

Contents and policy measures

China

Name

(source: MoE 2013)

5.2 Ambient water quality standards

Republic of Korea
Lao PDR

5.3 Effluent standards
Effluent standards are set by the Ordinance of the
Ministry of Environment based on the Water Quality andEcosystem Conserva on Act (Ar cle 32), and currently
cover domestic sewage, industrial wastewater, andlivestock excreta. The permissible pollution levels forindustrial wastewater are established on a grade basis
depending on the discharge quan ty and the receiving
water body. Receiving water bodies are divided into
four classes, with “Clean” regions being subjected tothe strictest eﬄuent standards, followed by “A” regions(normal), “B” regions (lax), and special case areas.
Eﬄuent standards for livestock excreta apply on a gradedbasis depending on the size and region of the livestock
facility and are being progressively strengthened inconsideration of increased levels of pollution andadvancements in environmental technology. Similarly
to environmental standards, provinces, or “Do”, may put
into eﬀect local eﬄuent standards where necessary. A er
2012, the standard for TP was strengthened to address
eutrophica on.

Malaysia
Myanmar
Nepal
Philippines
Sri Lanka
ThailandEﬄuent monitoring
In principle, effluent quality should be monitored by
the party needing to comply with the related effluent
standards. With this in mind, a network called the TeleMonitoring System (TMS) was set up in order to transmit

Viet Nam

Monitoring of water quality
in public water bodies and groundwater
Water quality is monitored through a nationwide
monitoring network based on 26 category items forrivers, 30 for lakes and marshes, and 20 for groundwater.
In par cular, there are 70 automa c opera ng monitoring
stations for surface waters. The measuring involves
tes ng for ﬁve common items such as DO, TOC, pH and
17 op onal items, including VOC. To make inspec ons
more eﬃcient, monitoring spots are classiﬁed according
to usage: river water, lake water, drinking water, irriga on
water, industrial water and river water ﬂowing throughci es.

For groundwater, there are na onal monitoring
networks managed by four line ministries and a local
network managed by local en es including ci es,
provinces and local environmental agencies.
In order to have more eﬀec ve control over waterpollu on, a water quality forecas ng system wasintroduced in 2012 at 16 weirs on four major rivers, which
provides chlorophyll-a concentra ons and watertemperature readings over seven days. This enables thewater management agencies to make short-term (oneweek) and three-month forecasts, and take ac on
accordingly (MoE 2013b).

Japan

There are two kinds of water quality standards forsurface water, the ﬁrst is standards for the protec on ofhuman health (20 parameters such as Cd, As, and PCB),
which is applied to both rivers and lakes, and the second
is standards for the living environment (residential
environment criteria) that were set out for rivers andlakes/mashes, respec vely. The standards for the living
environment for rivers include nine parameters; those forlakes/marshes include 10 parameters in seven categories(MoE 2017a). The number of parameters has increased in
response to concerns over hazardous chemicals.
For groundwater, diﬀerent standards are applied
according to water usage purpose. Drinking water
standards established under the Drinking Water
Management Act are applied for drinking water use with
51 parameters. For other purposes such as domes c,
farming and ﬁsheries and industrial uses, groundwater
standards are used to evaluate the groundwater quality.
The standards contain 14 to 19 parameters, dependingon the type of usage (MoE 2017b).
Special metropolitan ci es, provinces (or “Do”) canestablish more stringent or expanded environmental
standards than na onal standards where necessary, in
considera on of local environmental condi ons (Ar cle
10 (3) Framework Act on Environmental Policy).

65

eﬄuent monitoring measurement data from wastewater
treatment facili es and speciﬁc wastewater discharging
facilities, enabling real-time data to be captured. Thisdata provides the basis for the wastewater discharge fee(MoE 2013b). Whilst only 4.3% of facilities have beenﬁ ed with TMS, this provides 95% coverage of the total
discharge volume of wastewater. TMS also covers 98%
of public wastewater treatment facili es and is used in
73% of the public sector, and has contributed to reduced
pollu on loads (Figure 2.5.7).

T-P (ton)T-N (ton)2008
SS (ton)

2009
2010

COD (ton)

2011

BOD (ton)0

20,00040,000 60,000 80,000ƉŽůůƵƟŽŶůŽĂĚƐ;ƚŽŶƐͿ

100,000

Figure 2.5.7. Reduc ons in Pollu on Loads at Facili es
with TMS(source: MoE 2013)

If non-compliance of eﬄuent standards is discovered,
the Minister of Environment issues an improvement
warning to the business establishment, and if the issue is
not rec ﬁed this leads to suspension of opera ons andpenal es.
Total maximum daily load system (TMDLs)
The total maximum daily load system contributes toimproved ambient water quality by setting reduction
targets for pollutant loads, in addi on to conven onal
concentration-based regulations. Under the system,

designated pollu on sources must keep pollutant loads
within a “total maximum daily allowable load,” which is
decided based on empirical facts and in considera onof local conditions of all target areas, such as specificbeneficial water use. Since 2004, TMDLs have been
applied to three major rivers, namely the Nakdong,Geum, and Yeongsan. The current target parameter isBOD, with T-P to be added in the near future. TMDLs
were enforced in the Hang River from 2013 (Yu 2011).
Measures for non-point source pollu on
It is projected that the contribu on ra o of non-point
sources to water pollution will exceed that of point
sources and reach 68–75% by 2020 (MoE 2012). To copewith non-point sources, the Comprehensive Measuresfor Non-point Source Pollution Management in the
Four Major Rivers was established in 2004, under theleadership of the Prime Minister’s Oﬃce in coopera onwith related ministries. They cover three major policy
fields: policy system improvements, pilot projects on
the construc on and management of non-point source
pollution treatment facilities, and research and publicrela ons. Under the measures, areas highly vulnerable
to non-point sources are designated as non-point source
control districts, and include Soyang Lake, Doam Lake,
Imha Lake, and Gwangju metropolitan city (Yu 2011).
The ﬁrst phase (2004–2005) focused on policy system
improvement and pilot projects, and the second phase(2006–2011) focused on best-ﬁt management projects
for major river basins of the four major rivers. As of
March 2011, 43 non-point source reduction facilities
had been installed on a pilot basis for different land
use types, including urban areas, farmland and parking
lots (Yu 2011). Following on from the eﬀorts to address
non-point source pollu on, the second Comprehensive
Measures for Non-point Source Pollu on Management(2012–2020) was established.

Box 2.5.2. Sewage systems in Korea
In 2011, the volume of generated wastewater was around
6.8 billion tons. The Water Circula on Use Master Plan in2007 set a target to reuse 1.24 billion tons of wastewater
per year by 2016. To ensure proper ac ons for wastewaterreuse, a “Guidebook on Reuse of Treated Wastewater”
was published in 2007, which provides guidance onwater reuse planning, implementation, operation andmanagement, which was backed up by enforcement of the“Promo on and Support for Waste Reuse Act” in 2011.
As of 2011, 90.9% of the popula on was covered bysewer systems. Their total capacity is 2,522,800 m3/day
through 505 public sewage treatment facili es of 500 m3/

66

day or more capacity and 2,858 facili es of less than 500
m3/day capacity.
Special measures are taken to ensure sources of water:
Between 2004 and 2011, 1.17 trillion KRW of national
budget was invested to conserve multi-purpose dams
located in 28 cities, and 434 public sewage treatment
facilities were constructed in 2011. Under the 2012
amended Sewage Act, Watershed-Sewage Maintenance
Plans are required to ensure eﬃciency of construc on andmaintenance of sewage systems, and 30 watershed plans
were targeted by 2015.
(Source: MoE 2013b)

Chapter 2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

6 | Existing and Future Challenges
Korea has been dealing with water pollution issues
through a variety of measures, from improvement
measures and projects conducted under the Four Major
Rivers Restoration Project to related policies aimed atmaintaining water quality. Reduc on in pollu on loads,
especially of nitrogen and phosphorous in reservoirs,
and the implementation of comprehensive water
environmental management measures at the basin andsub-basin level are major issues water environmental
management policies need to address in terms of surface
water. Issues in the socio-economic environment, such as
an increasingly aging society and ongoing urbanisa on,
have also been considered in water environmental
management, and a comprehensive, integrated approachhas been taken not only through bolstered policy
measures but also encouragement of participation by
the public in the management.

Japan
Republic of Korea
Lao PDR
Malaysia

Algal bloom is one of the major pollu on issues in Korea,
and efforts to address nutrients such as nitrogen andphosphorous from point and non-point sources havebeen made, such as in providing more wastewater
facili es to treat T-P and enforcing stricter eﬄuent T-P
standards. The amended Water Quality and Ecosystem
Conserva on Act states that “reservoirs need intensive
management”, i.e., that reservoirs with a capacity ofmore than 10 million m3 or reservoirs for agriculture ofwhich the quality status is “slightly poor” (Grade IV), or
other reservoirs worse than “average” (Grade III) require
better management. The government requested thatIndonesia

5.5 Measures to address algal bloom

measures be taken to improve the water quality of thesereservoirs, which led to introduc on of the water quality
forecas ng system men oned above, as well as an algae
alert system (established in 1998). This system, equipped
at 22 lakes, is expected to enable governments and local
stakeholders to take appropriate preventative actions
against outbreaks of algae bloom (MoE 2013b).

China

The basin management approach has been promoted in
the country such as through water quality improvement
projects in the four major river basins. To promote theapproach, “Riparian Buffer Zones” are designated tocontrol the construc on of new facili es causing waterpollution, such as restaurants, lodgings, public baths,
factories and livestock barns. A water use charge wasintroduced to the end-users of raw water and municipal
water supply systems based on the amount of water
they used, and the fees collected were used to establish
the Watershed Management Fund at the basin level, topromote water environment projects and ac ons.

Cambodia

5.4 Water environmental management
at the basin level

MyanmarBox. 2.5.3. Environmental Policy Direc on 2015
The following water environment related agenda comes from the Ministry of Environment’s 2015 policy direc on.

Green Algae

PolicyActionRestora on of upper streamsof small rivers• Crea on of ar ﬁcial washland to reduce the inﬂow of waterpollutants aﬀec ng algae genera on in the Four Major rivers.

Nepal

Issue

Philippines• Improvement of algae monitoring system such as real- me
monitoring and 3D automa c measurement.
• Facilita on of communica on with ci zens.
• Expansion of the algae bloom warning system from streams
and lakes to rivers.

Industrial
Waste Water & Sludge

Zero Marine and Ocean
Discharges

Sri Lanka• Supply of water treated with advanced puriﬁca on technology
to 1.24 million ci zens.
• Facilita on of in-land waste treatment by providing funds for
waste treatment facili es.

Environmental
Management(Licensing System)

Thailand• U liza on of recycled resources exchange (in collabora onwith the Ministry of Oceans and Fisheries).

Viet Nam• Integra on of nine Licensing Systems into one.
• Provision of tailored management services.
• Enactment of the ‘Act on Integrated Management ofEnvironmental Pollu on Facili es’ to simplify licensing system.
(Source: MoE 2015)67

2.6 Lao PDR
1 | Country information
Table 2.6.1. Basic indicators
Land Area (km2)

236,800

Total Population

6.8 million (2016)

GDP (current USD)

15.9 billion (2016)

GDP per capita (current USD)

2,373 (2016)

Average Precipitation (mm/year)

1,834 (2009)

Total Renewable Water Resources (km3)

333.5* (2009)

Total Annual Freshwater Withdrawals(billion m3)

4.3* (2005)

Annual Freshwater
Withdrawal
by sectors

Agriculture

93%* (2005)

Industry

4%* (2005)

Municipal(including domestic)

3.1%* (2005)*Es mated(Source: See References)

2 | Major Water Basins in Lao PDR

4 | State of Water Quality

Nam ThaNam OuNan Suang

Gulf ofTongking

Nam MaNam KhanNam NgumNam KadingsŝĞŶƟĂŶĞ

Sebangfay

Nam Ngiep
Sebanghieng
Mekong River
ThailandSedoneSekongFigure 2.6.1. Water basins in Lao PDR

3 | State of Water Resources
Lao PDR has rich water resources. Average annual
rainfall at higher eleva ons in the southern part of thecountry is around 4,000 mm and in the northern valleys
is around 1,300 mm. With a popula on of approximately

68

6.7 million, per capita annual water availability is around
50,982 m3, the highest of the WEPA partner countries.
Despite this, water supply capacity is limited due to thecountry’s inadequately developed water infrastructure.
As with other Southeast Asian countries, seasonal
distribu on of water resources is uneven in Lao PDR –about 80% of annual precipita on occurs during the rainyseason (May to October) and 20% in the dry season(November to April). In the dry season, ﬂows of the Se
Bang Fai, Se Bang Hieng and Se Done rivers that run
through the central and southern parts of the country
drop to 10–15% of the annual average.
There are 12 main river basins in Lao PDR (Figure
2.6.1), a country which lies almost en rely within the
Mekong River basin. Its tributaries contribute theequivalent of 35% of the average annual ﬂow and accountfor 25% of the catchment area of the basin (MRC 2005).
In 2015, 71% of the popula on was using improved
sanita on while 76% had access to improved drinking
water sources (WHO 2017).

Surface water quality in Lao PDR is considered good,
although deterioration is observed in the rivers andtributaries in urban areas due to a rise in untreatedor insufficiently treated wastewater and wastes. No
urban center, including the capital Vientiane, has acomprehensive piped sewerage system nor wastewatercollection, treatment and disposal system. At the
Mekong River downstream from Vien ane, for example,
low concentra ons of dissolved oxygen (DO) have been
observed (MRC 2010).
Mining ac vi es and hydropower genera on are themajor sources of degrada on especially in terms of
sedimenta on. Wastewater and water run-oﬀ fromagricultural ac vi es are also poten al sources of highnutrients and toxic chemicals origina ng from fer lizer
and pes cide use (MRC 2010).
Inadequate management of solid waste in urban
areas is another cause of concern for water quality,
especially in the rainy season (MONRE 2012). Hazardous
and infec ous wastes are disposed of in the same places
as other wastes, but landﬁll sites are not monitored for the
impact of leachate on groundwater quality and runoﬀ into
surface water (river and lakes) during the rainy season.

Chapter 2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

2500

16000
14000
12000
10000

1500

8000
1000

6000

ŝƐĐŚĂƌŐĞ;ŵ3s1Ϳ

2000

Indonesia

4000

500
0
Jan Feb mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Japan^ƵƐƉĞŶĚĞĚƐĞĚŝŵĞŶƚĐŽŶĐĞŶƚƌĂƟŽŶ;ŵŐͬ>Ϳ

Sediment is the primary quality problem in the
country, especially in the wet season. Figure 2.6.2 shows
seasonal changes in sedimenta on observed in Luang
Prabang in the north region of the country.

China

2000
0

Figure 2.6.2. Seasonal varia on in water and sediment
discharge of the Mekong at Luang Prabang, Lao PDR

Republic of Korea

River water quality in Lao PDR is good in principle,
although human impacts on the river water quality
are increasing (Table 2.6.2). The results of periodic
and longitudinal monitoring conducted from 2009
to 2010 in the mainstream of the Mak Hiao River andits major tributaries, the Hong Ke and Hong XengRivers in Vien ane province, show biochemical oxygen
demand (BOD) ﬁgures ranging from 10 mg/L to 35 mg/L
(Phonvisai 2011). Results of monitoring by the MekongRiver Commission (MRC) show that water quality ispolluted in urban areas. At the monitoring points near
Vientiane, nutrients and phosphorus levels, as well as
ammonium levels, increased between 2000 and 2008
(MRC 2010). The report from the MRC (2010) pointed
out that pollu on levels may worsen if human ac vi es
upstream (e.g., dam opera ons and irriga on projects)
reduce river water ﬂows.

Cambodia

4.1 Rivers(Source: MRC 2010)

Monitoring sites

Human impacts on water quality
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011

2007

Lao PDR

Table 2.6.2. Levels of human impacts on water quality and water quality class for the protec on of
aqua c life 2007–2011 at the Mekong, Lao PDR water quality monitoring sta ons
Water quality class for the protection of aquatic life
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014

B

B

C

B

A

A

A

A

A

B

B

B

Luang Prabang

B

C

B

C

B

A

A

A

B

A

A

B

B

Vien ane

C

C

B

C

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

B

B

Savannakhet

C

C

C

B

C

A

A

A

A

A

A

B

B

Pakse

B

B

B

C

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

B

B

MyanmarC

Malaysia

Houa Khong

Notes: Impacts (A: Not impacted; B: Slightly impacted; C: Impacted; D: Severely impacted)/
Water quality for aqua c life (A: Excellent quality; B: Good quality; C: Moderate quality; D: Poor quality)(Source: Y.& L.2012, Kingmeng and Larsen 2016)

B.Phone Khan
Nam Muay
B.Phone Keo
B.Phone thong
B.Houay XayHhan
B.Vleng Keo

ST-2

ST-4

B.NaTou

ST-3

Nam MoNam Ngun

Huay Dokmal

Huay Kal

Huay Pamom

Naw NgumThailandST-5

NN2 Dam Site
Nam Bak

ST-6tĂƚĞƌ^ĂŵƉůŝŶŐ^ƚĂƟŽŶ

Sri Lanka

B.Pha Yaeng Tai
B.Pha Yaeng Neua
B.Lak 37
B.Lak 33
Nam Tong
Nam Koung
B.Lak 24

ST-1

B.Phone Xay Neua
B.Phone Xay Kang
B.Phone Xay Tai
B.Koua Lek
Nam Ngun
B.KomeeB.NaLuang

Philippines

ST-7

Viet Nam

Perennial ponds, marshes and oxbow lakes are fairly
common in the lowland floodplains of Lao PDR, which
are usually shallow and vary greatly in size during the year
and serve as habitats for many types of aqua c plants,molluscs, crustaceans, amphibians and rep les. Currently,
data on the water environment in lakes and reservoirs
is available only on a project basis; for example, water
quality monitoring was conducted in the reservoirs of the
Nam Ngum dams (Nam Ngum 2 and Nam Ngum1) from2006–2011 as part of a hydropower development project.
The results of monitoring at the nine stations (Figure
2.6.3) illustrates that dissolved oxygen (DO) levels insome sta ons show a decreasing trend (standard if below
6 mg/L) (Figure 2.6.4). Total phosphorus levels in somesta ons in 2009 also highly exceeded the na onal standard(0.05mg/L). Fer lizers and detergents are suspected as
the poten al sources of pollu on (Figure 2.6.5).

Nepal

4.2 Lakes and reservoirs

ST-8
NN1 dAM sITE

ST-9

Figure 2.6.3. Monitoring sta ons of the Nam Ngum Dams
(Source: Komany 2011)69

DO (mg/L)
10.0

5.0

KĂƚƐƚĂƟŽŶϭͲϵ0.0

Jul Sep Nov Jan Mar May Jul Sep Nov Jan Mar May Jul Sep Nov Jan Mar May Jul Sep Nov Jan Mar May Jul Sep Nov Jan
06 06 06 07 07 07 07 07 07 08 08 08 08 08 08 09 09 09 09 09 09 10 10 10 10 10 10 11StaƟon 1StaƟon 2StaƟon 3StaƟon 4StaƟon 5StaƟon 6StaƟon 7StaƟon 8StaƟon 9

During Period

Figure 2.6.4. DO levels at monitoring sta ons at the Nam Ngum Dams

(Source: Komany 2011)

Total P (mg/L)
1.00
0.80
0.60
0.40

dŽƚĂůWĂƚƐƚĂƟŽŶϭͲϵ

0.20
0.00
Jul Sep Nov Jan Mar May Jul Sep Nov Jan Mar May Jul Sep Nov Jan Mar May Jul Sep Nov Jan Mar May Jul Sep Nov Jan
06 06 06 07 07 07 07 07 07 08 08 08 08 08 08 09 09 09 09 09 09 10 10 10 10 10 10 11StaƟon 1StaƟon 2StaƟon 3StaƟon 4StaƟon 5StaƟon 6StaƟon 7StaƟon 8StaƟon 9

During Period

Figure 2.6.5. TP levels at monitoring sta ons at the Nam Ngum Dams

4.3 Groundwater
Groundwater informa on, including resource poten al,uses and quality is very limited in the country. Since
surface water is abundant for supply, groundwater
is regarded as a source only when and where surface
water is not available (Chanthavong 2011). However,groundwater is an important source for domes c water,
small-scale irriga on and small-scale industry. It is also
used as a source for urban water supply, although
covering only around 5% of the total water produc on
volume (if spring water is included in this definition,
about 20% of the total water produc on is covered bysubsurface water) (Chanthavong 2011). According to the
Lao Social Indicator Survey (MoH and LSB 2012), around
32% of Lao households use groundwater or springs fordrinking purposes. As for quality, arsenic contamina on
has been detected near the border of China (MRC 2010)
and in A apeu province.

5 | Frameworks for Water Environment
Management
5.1 Legislation
The Environmental Protection Law (EPL) Amendment
2012 is the cornerstone to Lao PDR’s environmental
legislation. Containing measures for the protection,
mitigation and restoration of the environment as wellas guidelines for environmental management and70(Source: Komany 2011)

monitoring, it is speciﬁcally aimed at protec ng nature,human health, richness of the country’s resources andfacilitating the process of sustainable development.
According to EPL, the Ministry of Natural Resources andEnvironment (MONRE) is responsible for coordinating
diﬀerent line agencies in establishing rules and regula ons
pertaining to the management of the environment,
conducting research and development related topollu on control technologies and science, and also for
overall management and pollu on control.
EPL-2012 grants MONRE monitoring and enforcement
authority to inspect and issue administra ve and civil
ac ons against regulated point sources within its
jurisdic on. In the end though, EPL-2012 does not go far
enough in terms of gran ng enforcement powers to
MONRE or its environmental and natural resources
agencies, such as PCD, over industrial pollu on sources(Ar cle, 33 EPL 2012). Instead, the Industrial Processing
Law (IPL) Amendment No 026/NA, dated December 27,
2013 authorized by the Ministry of Industrial andCommerce (MOIC) acts as primary enforcement authority
over most factories, including in imposing eﬄuent andemission standards as part of certain opera ng permits,requiring self-monitoring reports from certain factories,
conduc ng inspec ons, taking samples, shu ng down
factory opera ons, and issuing administra ve, civil, andcriminal ac ons or penal es (Ar cle 62, EPL 2013). As aresult of overlapping and fragmented legisla ve bodies,Chapter 2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Assembly in November 2009. However, as most of itss pula ons focused on water supply services, provisions
for sanita on and sewerage, which it lacked, are planned
to be added by decree. To reﬂect these changes, arevision of the Water and Water Resources Law is now
underway with the assistance from the Asian Development
Bank (ADB).
The dra Amendment Law on Water Resource wasadopted by the Na onal Assembly on 11 May 2017and iscurrently under commi ee review. This amendment aims
to develop water resources in an environmentally soundand sustainable manner and in accordance with theinterna onal best prac ce to ensure water resources andIndonesia
Japan
Republic of KoreaDĂŶĂŐĞŵĞŶƚ/ŶƐƚƌƵŵĞŶƚƐ

ChinaWŽůŝĐǇ&ƌĂŵĞǁŽƌŬ

Cambodiano single ministry is responsible for overall environmental
compliance and enforcement of pollu on sources in Lao
PDR (Ar cle, 83 EPL 2012).
The Law on Water and Water Resources, promulgatedin 1996, s pulates the principles of management,u liza on and development of water. Its purpose is tosecure the quan ty and quality of water by mee ng the
popula on’s needs as well as ensuring environmental
sustainability, but lacks clarity on the issue of watersupply and wastewater. In response to this, a new “Water
Supply Law” was dra ed by the Ministry of Public Works
and Transporta on (MPWT) with the assistance of theWorld Bank, which was approved by the Na onal^ƵƉƉŽƌƟŶŐdŽŽůƐ

ŽŶƐƟƚƵƟŽŶ
WĂƚĞƌĂŶĚWĂƚĞƌZĞƐŽƵƌĐĞƐ>Ăǁ
WƌŝŵĞDŝŶŝƐƚĞƌŝĂůĞĐƌĞĞŽŶƚŚĞ/ŵƉůĞŵĞŶƚĂƟŽŶŽĨƚŚĞtĂƚĞƌĂŶĚtĂƚĞƌZĞƐŽƵƌĐĞƐ>Ăǁ

EĂƟŽŶĂůtĂƚĞƌ^ĞĐƚŽƌ^ƚƌĂƚĞŐǇ
ĂŶĚĐƟŽŶWůĂŶ

Lao PDRŶǀŝƌŽŶŵĞŶƚWƌŽƚĞĐƟŽŶ>Ăǁ
WƌŝŵĞDŝŶŝƐƚĞƌŝĂůĞĐƌĞĞŽŶƚŚĞ/ŵƉůĞŵĞŶƚĂƟŽŶŽĨƚŚĞŶǀŝƌŽŶŵĞŶƚWƌŽƚĞĐƟŽŶ>Ăǁ

MalaysiaEĂƟŽŶĂůŶǀŝƌŽŶŵĞŶƚ^ƚƌĂƚĞŐǇ
ĂŶĚĐƟŽŶWůĂŶ͖/ZĞŐƵůĂƟŽŶ͖ZĞŐƵůĂƟŽŶƐŽŶƚŚĞDŽŶŝƚŽƌŝŶŐ
ĂŶĚŽŶƚƌŽůŽĨtĂƐƚĞǁĂƚĞƌ
ŝƐĐŚĂƌŐĞŶǀŝƌŽŶŵĞŶƚ^ƚĂŶĚĂƌĚ

&ŽƌĞƐƚƌǇ>Ăǁ
WƌŝŵĞDŝŶŝƐƚĞƌŝĂůĞĐƌĞĞŽŶƚŚĞ/ŵƉůĞŵĞŶƚĂƟŽŶŽĨƚŚĞ&ŽƌĞƐƚƌǇ>Ăǁ

ZĞŐƵůĂƟŽŶƐƌĞůĂƚĞĚƚŽĨŽƌĞƐƚƌǇ
ĂŶĚďŝŽĚŝǀĞƌƐŝƚǇ͗EĂƟŽŶĂů
ŝŽĚŝǀĞƌƐŝƚǇŽŶƐĞƌǀĂƟŽŶƌĞĂƐĂŶĚƋƵĂƟĐZĞƐŽƵƌĐĞƐ

ĞĐƌĞĞŽŶƚŚĞ/ŵƉůĞŵĞŶƚĂƟŽŶŽĨ>ĂŶĚ>Ăǁ

ZĞŐƵůĂƟŽŶƐƌĞůĂƚĞĚƚŽǁĞƚůĂŶĚƐ͕ůĂŶĚƵƐĞƐĂŶĚƟƚůĞƐ

ŐƌŝĐƵůƚƵƌĞ>Ăǁ
ZĞŐƵůĂƟŽŶƐƌĞůĂƚĞĚƚŽŐƌŝĐƵůƚƵƌĞ
ǆƚĞŶƐŝŽŶ͕>ŝǀĞƐƚŽĐŬĂŶĚ&ŝƐŚĞƌŝĞƐ

ͻEĂƟŽŶĂůtĂƚĞƌ^ĞĐƚŽƌ
WƌŽĮůĞ
ͻ>ĂŽŶǀŝƌŽŶŵĞŶƚDŽŶŝƚŽƌ
ͻKƚŚĞƌZĞůĞǀĂŶƚĂƚĞĂŶĚ /ŶĨŽƌŵĂƟŽŶ
ͻZĞůĞǀĂŶƚdƌĂŝŶŝŶŐĂŶĚ ǁĂƌĞŶĞƐƐWƌŽŐƌĂŵ

NepalWƌŝŵĞDŝŶŝƐƚĞƌŝĂůĞĐƌĞĞŽŶƚŚĞ/ŵƉůĞŵĞŶƚĂƟŽŶŽĨƚŚĞŐƌŝĐƵůƚƵƌĞ
>Ăǁ

Myanmar>ĂŶĚ>Ăǁ

DŝŶŝŶŐ>Ăǁ

ZĞŐƵůĂƟŽŶƐƌĞůĂƚĞĚƚŽDŝŶŝŶŐ
ǆƚƌĂĐƟŽŶĂŶĚDĂŶĂŐĞŵĞŶƚ

ůĞĐƚƌŝĐŝƚǇ>Ăǁ

ŶǀŝƌŽŶŵĞŶƚĂůDĂŶĂŐĞŵĞŶƚ
^ƚĂŶĚĂƌĚĨŽƌůĞĐƚƌŝĐŝƚǇWƌŽũĞĐƚƐ

,ǇŐŝĞŶĞĂŶĚŝƐĞĂƐĞWƌĞǀĞŶƟŽŶ>ĂǁƌŝŶŬŝŶŐtĂƚĞƌ^ƚĂŶĚĂƌĚ

ThailandZĞŐƵůĂƟŽŶƐĂŶĚƐƚĂŶĚĂƌĚ
ƌĞůĂƚĞĚƚŽǁĂƐƚĞǁĂƚĞƌĚŝƐĐŚĂƌŐĞĚ
ĨƌŽŵŝŶĚƵƐƚƌǇĂŶĚŚĂŶĚŝĐƌĂŌƐ

Sri Lanka/ŶĚƵƐƚƌŝĂůWƌŽĐĞƐƐŝŶŐ>Ăǁ

PhilippinesZĞŐƵůĂƟŽŶƐƌĞůĂƚĞĚƚŽtĂƚĞƌ
hƐĞƌ͛ƐƐƐŽĐŝĂƟŽŶ͕ůƌƌŝŐĂƟŽŶ
KΘD͕^ƵƉƉůǇĂŶĚƌĂŝŶĂŐĞ͕ĞƚĐ͘tĂƚĞƌƐƵƉƉůǇĂŶĚ^ĂŶŝƚĂƟŽŶ͕ĂŶĚ^ƚĂŶĚĂƌĚ
ZĞŐƵůĂƟŽŶƌĞůĂƚĞĚƚŽhƌďĂŶ
WůĂŶŶŝŶŐ͕,ŽƵƐŝŶŐ͕ŽŵĞƐƟĐ
ƌĂŝŶĂŐĞ^ǇƐƚĞŵĂŶĚĞƐŝŐŶƐ

Figure 2.6.6. Legisla on system on water environmental management in Lao PDR

Viet NamhƌďĂŶWůĂŶŶŝŶŐ>Ăǁ

(Source: MoEJ 2009)71

ecosystems are protected. New provisions have been
added on water rights and use, including wastewater
discharge permits, wetland and water resource
protec on, groundwater management, and reservoir
management. Addi onally, the Law expands on the terms
and condi ons of large, medium and small-scale use andincludes an ar cle on environmental ﬂows of hydropower
as well as a s pula on on irriga on use. The Law also
grants greater responsibility to MONRE to develop andimplement management plans of river basins throughthe country.
Another promising addi on is the requirement to set
minimum water ﬂows as minimum thresholds for all
water resources in order to meet the basic needs of those
whose livelihoods rely on them as well as sustainability ofthe ecosystem within the aﬀected area.
Other laws, such as the Forest Law and Mining Law
are also relevant to water environmental management asshown in Figure 2.6.6.

Table 2.6.3. Drinking Water Quality
Indicator

Parameter

Standard

Unit

Color

no

10 Pla num-Cobalt(Pt-Co)

Taste

no

no

none

Odor

no

no

none

none

15

NTU

Poten al of HydrogenpH

6.5-8.5

none

Total Solid

TS

1000

mg/L

Turbidity

Aluminum

Al

0.2

mg/L

5.2 Institutional arrangements

Ammonia

NH3

1.5

mg/L

The functions and responsibilities of the Ministry of
Natural Resources and Environment (MONRE) wererevised in accordance with Prime Minister’s Decree No.
145/PM of 8 July 2017. MONRE has broad responsibili es,
including protection of the nation’s natural resources
such as land and water resources, and protec on andrestora on of the environment. Within it sits the Pollu on
Control Department (PCD), in charge of water pollu on
management policies and plans, pollution aspects ofenvironmental quality management plans, ac on plans
for the reduction and elimination of water pollution,and emergency response plans. It is involved with andcoordinates work to control, resolve and remediatecontaminated water bodies and assess environmental
damage from water pollution by recommending andimplemen ng standards, measures, criteria and methods
for monitoring and management. Its responsibili es also
include formula ng the water pollu on sec on of Laos’s
state of pollu on report, developing systems, criteria,
and codes of prac ce and methods for preven ng waterpollu on.

Iron

Fe

1.0

mg/L

Manganese

Mn

0.5

mg/L

Sodium

Na

250

mg/L

5.3 Ambient water quality standards
To improve on certain parameters, the PCD revised
the National Environmental Standards of 7 December
2009 through comparison of updated data on the
country’s environmental quality with the standards
set by interna onal organiza ons as well as economic
development of certain other countries. This led to anamendment of the National Environmental Standard,
which was adopted by Prime Minister Decree No. 81/PM

72

on 21 February 2017, that enforced regula ons on air,noise, soil and waste quality for assessing and managing
contaminants released into air, water and soil to protect
human health and the environment.
The drinking water quality standard is shown in Table
2.6.3. The ambient water quality standards are comprisedof surface water quality standards and groundwater
quality standards, as shown in Table 2.6.4.

Iron and Manganese
CopperFe & Mn

1.0

mg/L

Cu

1.5

mg/L

Zinc

Zn

15

mg/L

Calcium

Ca

150

mg/L

Magnesium

Mg

100

mg/L

Sulphate

SO42-

250

mg/L

Hydrogen Sulﬁde

H2S

0.1

mg/L

Sodium Chloride

NaCl
Cl -

320

mg/L

Chloride

250

mg/L

FNO3-

1.0

mg/L

45

mg/L

C18H29NaO3S

1.0

mg/L

C6H6O

0.002

mg/L

Mercury

Hg

0.001

mg/L

Lead

Pb

0.01

mg/L

Arsenic

As

0.01

mg/L

Selenium

Se

0.01

mg/L

Chromium Hexavalent

Cr
CN-

0.05

mg/L

Cyanide

0.07

mg/L

Cadmium

Cd

0.003

mg/L

Barium

Ba

1.0

mg/L

Resident Chlorine(Disinfec on)

Cl2

>0.2

mg/L

SPC Bacteria (Standard
Plate Count Method)

none

500

Colonies/cm3

Coliform bacteria

none

< 2.2

MPN/100 cm3

E.coli Bacteria

none

no

MPN/100 cm3

Fluoride
NitrateAlkylbenzenesulfonate
Phenol compound+6Chapter 2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Cambodia

Table 2.6.4. Surface Water Quality
Indicator

Parameter1

2

Level of Water
3
4

5

Unit

Analysis
none

no

no

no

no

none

Temperature

t°C

no

no

no

no

None

°C

Thermometer

Poten al of Hydrogen

pH

6-8

6-8

5-9

5-9

no

no

Electrometric pH Meter

Dissolved Oxygen

DO

<7

6.0

4.0

2.0

>2

mg/L

Azide Modiﬁca on

Electro-conduc vity

Ec

<500

>1000

>2000

> 4000

<4000

μS/cm

Ec meterchemical oxygen demand

COD

>5

5-7

7-10

10-12

< 12

mg/L

Potassium Dichromate Diges on;
Open Reﬂux or Closed Reﬂux

Total coliform bacteria

none

n

5,000

20,000none

none

MPN/100 ml

Mul ple Tube Fermenta on
TechniqueFecal coliform bacteria

none

n

1,000

4,000

none

none

MPN/100 ml

Mul ple Tube Fermenta on
Technique

Total Suspended Solids

TSS

>10

>25

>40

>60

<60

mg/L

Glass Fiber Filter Disc

PO4

> 0.1

0.5

1

2

<2

mg/L

Ammonium ion

NH4+

> 0.5

>1.5

>3

>4

<4

mg/L

Kjeldahl

Nitrate-Nitrogen

NO3-N

n

none

mg/L

Cadmium Reduc on

5.0

NH3-N

n

0.5

none

mg/L

Dis lla on Nessleriza on

C6H5OH

n

0.005

none

mg/L

Dis lla on,4-Amino an pyrene

Copper

Cu

n

1.5

none

mg/L

Nickel

Ni

n

0.1

none

mg/L

Manganese

Mn

n

1.0

none

mg/L

Zinc

Zn

n

1.0

none

mg/L

Lao PDR

Ammonia-Nitrogen
Phenol

AA-Direct Aspira on

Cd

n

0.003

none

mg/L

Chromium Hexavalent

Cr+6

n

0.05

none

mg/L

Lead

Pb

n

0.01

none

mg/L

Mercury

Hg

n

0.001

none

mg/L

AA-Cold Vapour Technique

Malaysia

Cadmium

As

n

0.01

none

mg/L

Cyanide

CN-

n

0.07

none

mg/L

Pyridine-Barbituric Acid

Radioac ve

Radioac ve
-α
-β

n

0.1
1.0

none

Becqurel/L

n

0.05

none

mg/L

MyanmarAsenicAA -Direct Aspira on, ICP

GC
n

1.0

none

μg/L

n

0.02

none

μg/L

Dieldrin

C12H8Cl6O

n

0.1

none

μg/L

AldrinC12H8Cl6

n

0.1

none

μg/L

heptachlor andheptachlor epoxide

C10H5Cl7And
C10H5Cl7O

n

0.2

none

μg/L

EndrinC12H8Cl6O

n

no

none

μg/L

systems, mostly from streams (surface water), but also
from springs (groundwater), although this tends to belimited to remote communi es. According to a Lao PDRMONRE Report (2012), water quality is considered good,
although deterioration is observed in the rivers andtributaries in urban areas due to increasing untreatedor insuﬃciently treated wastewater and wastes. Mining
activities and hydropower generation are the major

Thailand
Viet Nam

Monitoring of water quality in public water bodies
In Lao PDR, surface water is the major water source forurban water supply, while groundwater is usually the main
source for rural popula ons in lowland areas, par cularlyin the central and southern parts of the country where
the groundwater table is suﬃciently high and of suﬃcientquality. In upland areas, par cularly the north and eastof the country, water is usually supplied by gravity ﬂow

GC

Sri Lanka

DDT
α -BHC(C6H6Cl6)

Philippines

Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethanealpha- Benzene
hexachloride

Nepal

Organochlorine pes cide

Republic of Korea

Phosphate

Ascorbic acid

Japan

no

Indonesia

none

China

Color, Odor and Taste73

sources of degrada on, especially sedimenta on. Water
runoﬀ from agricultural ac vi es could become a sourceof high nutrients and toxic chemicals due to fertilizer
and pes cide use. Li er, dust and dirt, oil and grease,particles of rubber compounds from tires, particles ofmetal, glass and plas c from vehicles, and lead are thecommonly found pollutants. Urban drains also act as

secondary sewers carrying industrial discharges, sep ctank seepage and overﬂows into the system.
Currently, no structured regular monitoring of water
quality takes place in Lao PDR, which is instead carriedout on an ad-hoc basis together with laboratory analysis
by some agencies, as necessary (Table 2.6.5).

Table 2.6.5. Public Agencies Conduc ng Water Quality Monitoring
Institution

Type of Sample

Parameters Monitored

Dept. of Irriga on, Ministry ofAgriculture and Forestry

Surface water GroundwaterIndustrial wastewater

23 Ad hoc tes ng
in 17 provinces

14 parameters (DO, dissolved salts,
nutrients, and organic ma er)(Plans for As, Hg, Cd, and Pb)

Ministry of Public Health

Surface water

Ad hoc tes ng

24 parameters(Organic compounds and pes cides)

Ministry of Energy and Mines

Surface water from
Hydropower dams

Ad hoc sampling

8 parameters(temperature, pH, DO, COD, etc.)

Ministry of Natural Resources
and Environment, (MONRE)

Wastewater(urban/industrial)

11 in Vien ane
municipality

4 parameters(TSS, TDS, BOD, and pH)

Ministry of Industry
and Commerce (MIC)

Industrial eﬄuent
Samples collected

Ad hoc sampling

Parameters related to industrial
wastewater

Ministry of Public Health

Rural water supply

Ad hoc tes ng for supply

7 parameters(Fe, Cu, Ba, pH, Ec, TDS, NO3)

Water quality monitoring is an important part ofenvironmental monitoring under the Mekong River
Commission (MRCs) Environmental Program andconcerns agencies including public and private enterprises(Table 2.6.6).
Table 2.6.6. Water Quality Monitoring Sta ons
No

Name of Station

Station ID

Name of River

1

Luang Prabang
province

H011200

Mekong River

2

Vien ane capital

H011901

Nam Nguen River

3

Khammoune
province

H013401

Nam Xebang Fai River

4Champasackprovince

H013900

Nam Xe Done River(Sources: MRCs Water Quality Monitoring Report 2013)

5.4 Effluent standards
The eﬄuent standards are s pulated under the Na onal
Environmental Standards issued in February 2017, thedata of which is assessed against the MRC Water Quality
Guidelines for the Protec on of Human Health and theProtec on of Aqua c Life.
For standards of wastewater discharged from urban
areas, buildings such as hotels, dormitories or hospitals
are classiﬁed according to the number of rooms and74

Number of Stations

volume of discharged wastewater. Buildings such as
residences, temples, schools, oﬃces, markets andrestaurants are also classiﬁed according to ﬂoor area. For
the wastewater treatment standards for public areas,classiﬁca ons are in place for areas such as historicalsites, public parks, water parks, and marshes and ponds.
The Na onal Environmental Standard is enforced by
Ar cle 27 and 32 of the Environment Protec on Law, andcovers:1. Ground water quality
2. Drinking water quality
3. Eﬄuent standards
a. Eﬄuent from general factories;
b. Eﬄuent from community households;
c. Eﬄuent from general toilets;
d. Eﬄuent from public canals;
e. Eﬄuent from pig farms;
f . Eﬄuent from car washes and gas sta ons.

5.5 Effluent Monitoring
According to the Regula on on Wastewater Discharge
from Industrial Processing Factories issued in 2005
by the Ministry of Industry and Handicrafts (currently
the Ministry of Industry and Commerce), all industrial
factories are required to install wastewater treatment
systems and the necessary facilities to monitor andChapter 2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Indonesia
Japan
Republic of Korea
Lao PDR
Malaysia

If violations are found by the industry department,
cer ﬁca on for wastewater discharge is suspended andwastewater discharge is suspended or terminated un l
improvement and compliance is confirmed. Penalties
for regulation violations are as follows: (1) first stage:
warning, suspension of import/export, suspension of
production, (2) second stage: fine of five to 10 times
the certification fee, and (3) third stage: fine of 10-15
mes the cer ﬁca on fee as well as penal es for noncompliance with other relevant regula ons. Currently,
PCD is responsible for environmental quality monitoring
and compliance enforcement and preparation for Lao
PDR’s state of pollu on report and provides data on air
quality, noise levels, water quality, solid waste, hazardous
substances and pollution problems throughout thecountry. Monitoring of environmental quality is intended
to provide a grasp of the current ambient environment aswell as to monitor the emissions and impacts of speciﬁc
discharges.

The government of Lao PDR has been developing andrevising environmental management frameworks such as
through the revision of relevant laws – however,challenges remain in their implementa on. For example,
various ministries and departments carry out water
quality management such as monitoring and analysis
independently and do not share results. Laws also overlap;
for example, Regula on on the Wastewater Discharged
from Industrial Processing Factories, EPL, EIA regula ons
and the Decree on EIA for the Industrial Sector overlap inrequiring environmental compliance cer ﬁcates, andsubmission or approval of environmental management
plans for factories that discharge wastewater. It has also
been reported that the wastewater discharge cer ﬁca on
system is currently not in opera on and that inspec on isconducted according to each regula on (Phonvisai 2011).
Further, capacity and systema c coordina on procedures
need to be established among responsible agencies foroverall water quality monitoring and management. To
help deal with the above issues, MONRE has recently
undergone an organiza onal restructure, which is
expected to promote and strengthen water environmental
management in Lao PDR.

China

5.6 Compliance Management

Cambodia

analyze water samples. The monitoring report results
are then submitted to the Director of the Industry
Department of the Ministry or respec ve province. The
industry department may dispatch factory environmental
inspectors, who are permi ed to enter all areas withinfactories to inspect, observe, measure, sample andmonitor wastewater discharged into public water bodies.

Myanmar6 | Recent Developments inWater Environmental Management

Nepal

Law on Environmental Protec on 2012;
Law on Water resources 2017;
Na onal Environmental Standard 2017;
Pollu on Control Decision(Final dra submit to Minister for approval);
Na onal Strategy on Water Resources Management(dra ed by Water Resources Department, MONRE).

Philippines
Sri Lanka

7 | Existing and Future Challenges

Thailand

Although water quality is generally in good condition
throughout the country, it has deteriorated in majorurban areas. No urban center, including the capital
Vien ane, has a comprehensive piped sewerage systemor wastewater collec on, treatment and disposal system.
The water quality of urban rivers may further deterioratein the near future due to inﬂows of increasing volumes of
untreated wastewater resul ng from urban growth.

Viet Nam75

2.7 Malaysia
1 | Country information
Table 2.7.1. Basic indicators
Land Area (km2)

330,336 (2013)

Total Population

31.18 million (2016)

GDP (current USD)

296.5 billion (2016)

GDP per capita (current USD)

9,860 (2016)

Average Precipitation (mm/year)

2,496* (2014)

Total Renewable Water Resources (km3)

580 (2014)

Total Annual Freshwater Withdrawals(billion m3)

11.2 (2014)

Annual Freshwater
Withdrawal
by Sectors

Agriculture

22% (2014)

Industry

43% (2014)

Municipal(including domestic)

35% (2014)(Source: World Bank 2017)*Sabah and Sarawak receive 2,560 mm and 3,640 mm respec vely (ASM 2014)

2 | Major Water Bodies in Malaysia

Kinabatangan River

Perak River
Kelantan River

South China Sea

BruneiBaram River

Pahang River
Kuala
LumpurRajang River

Bernam River
Singapore
Indonesia

Figure 2.7.1. Major rivers in Malaysia(ASM 2014). Malaysia’s climate is influenced by two
monsoon regimes, the Southwest Monsoon from late
May to September, and the Northeast Monsoon from
November to March. The Northeast Monsoon brings
heavy rains, particularly to the east coast states ofpeninsular Malaysia and western Sarawak, whereas theSouthwest Monsoon normally signifies relatively drier
weather (MoSTI 2010). Surface water, mainly from rivers,
lakes, wetlands and reservoirs is heavily relied on forthe country’s water supply, and cons tutes 98% of total
water supply for domes c, industrial and agricultural use.
The remaining 2% is from groundwater. About 80% of
the water withdrawn from the river system is used for
irriga on purposes. In the future, the percentage of waterused for domes c and industrial purposes is expected tocommand a bigger share of the water withdrawn fromsurface water sources. Potable water supply coverage
extends to most areas throughout the country with the
excep on of a few isolated spots too challenging for thewater supply network due to physical or geographicalfactors. Groundwater wells or rural water supply scheme
systems are provided in such loca ons.
According to ASM (2014), the present water
consump on is about 12.5 billion m3/yr or less than 3% of
the available runoﬀ. This demand is expected to rise atabout 5% per year due to accelera ng popula on andindustrial growth. By 2020, es mated total demand is30.4 billion m3/yr, rising to 60.8 billion by 2040, and 121.6
billion by 2060. Irriga on will con nue to be the largest
water user, un l it becomes outpaced by rising demands
in domes c and industrial consump on.

4 | State of Water Quality
4.1 Rivers

3 | State of Water Resources
Malaysia is a rich water resource country thanks to its highrainfall – a record high was reached in 2016 with Kuchingsta on’s ﬁgure of 5,423.0 mm, 877.5 mm more than theprevious year. Meanwhile, the lowest annual rainfall wasrecorded at Temerloh sta on, with 1,397.8 mm in 2016
(DOSM 2017). In terms of volume, its rainfall equates to972.8 billion m3. Of this, 495.71 billion is surface runoﬀ,
64 billion goes to ground water and the remainder isreturned to the atmosphere through evapotranspira on

76

The Water Quality Index (WQI) is used to evaluate thestatus of river water quality and corresponding suitability
in terms of water uses according to the Na onal Water
Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQS). The WQI forrivers is calculated using the values of six parameters: DO,
BOD, COD, NH3-N, SS, and pH (DoE 2012), and according
to the index the status of water quality is classiﬁed into
three categories: clean, slightly polluted, and polluted.
Figure 2.7.2 shows the trend in river water quality from2005 to 2015. Figures 2.7.3 and Figure 2.7.4 speciﬁcallyshow the trend in river water quality based on BOD andChapter 2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Number of rivers

306

293

275

278

275

276
244

166

180

197

217

203

164

58

50
2005

2006

74

54

48

2007

2008

2009

Clean

Slighly Polluted

2010

39

38

29

2011

2012

2013

47

2014

238

266

255

100

122
102

117

109

104

103

87

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

Clean

Slighly Polluted

44

36

2011

2012

2

2

2013

2014

128

Philippines

2005

171

154

152

50
0

194

187
156

281

270

211

200
158
134

349

320

302

Nepal

Number of rivers

366

Myanmar

376

250

150

(Source: DOE 2015)

349

350

2015

Polluted

Figure 2.7.2. Trend in river water quality in Malaysia (2005-2015)
400

33

Malaysia48

168

Lao PDR

90

100

186

173

161

150

150

300

Republic of Korea

334

335

250

0

Japan

368
338

300

200

Indonesia

350

In 2015, river water quality was assessed based on
5,469 samples from 891 manual monitoring sta ons
covering 477 rivers. The sta ons comprised 801 ambientand baseline sta ons, 55 located upstream of selectedwater intakes, and 35 sta ons for the River of Life (ROL)
project. Water quality was also assessed from 13
con nuous water quality monitoring sta ons. Of the 477
rivers monitored, 276 (58%) were found to have cleanwater quality, 168 (35%) slightly polluted and 33 (7%)
polluted (DOE 2015).
River pollu on is s ll a major issue in Malaysia
despite substan al investment and eﬀort to improve andconserve river quality. Both point and non-point pollu on

China

400

Cambodia

Ammoniacal Nitrogen (NH3-N) sub-index (2005–2013).
Compared with values prior to 2013, the ratio of“polluted” rivers in terms of BOD increased signiﬁcantly,
but was slightly less than those of 2014. Meanwhile, interms of NH3-N, the values slightly decreased compared
to 2014, and returned to levels seen in previous years.
Heavy metals have also been analysed for Mercury (Hg),
Arsenic (As), Cadmium (Cd), Chromium (Cr), Lead (Pb),and Zinc (Zn), with results indica ng that all of the water
samples exhibit concentra ons of Cd, Pb, and Zn within
the Class II limit. About 99.87% of the water samples
showed concentra ons of Cr within Class II, followed by
Hg (99.45%) and As (98.63%) (DOE 2015).

2015

Polluted

Figure 2.7.3. Trend in river water quality in Malaysia based on BOD sub-index (2005-2015)(Source: DOE 2015)

Sri Lanka

300

282

250
200

208 207179

204
180189150227

213 203
164

160
137

167

183

205

218

147

174 167202

183
147 147

174 164

2012

2013

123

ThailandNumber of rivers

350

139

171
155 151

139

136

100

0

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

Clean

Slighly Polluted

2010

2011

2014

Viet Nam

50
2015

Polluted

Figure 2.7.4. Trend in river water quality in Malaysia based AN sub-index (2005-2015)(Source: DOE 2015)77

sources are signiﬁcant contributors to water pollu on.
Speciﬁcally, the Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD),
Ammoniacal Nitrogen (NH3-N) and Suspended Solids (SS)in the monitoring samples were signiﬁcant. High BOD isa ributed to inadequate treatment of sewage or eﬄuent
from agro-based and manufacturing industries.
Meanwhile, the major sources of NH3-N were expected
to derive from animal farming and domes c sewage.
Main sources for SS were from improper earthworks andland clearing ac vi es. Managing water pollu on is
forecast to become more challenging in the future due tothe rise of micro-pollutants and newly emerging
pollutants (NEPs) owing to excessive use of pharmaceu cal
and personal care products. Some of these NEPs are
endocrine disruptors.

4.2 Lakes and reservoirs
Since lakes and reservoirs are managed by different
authori es, including owners and operators of each lake/reservoir, comprehensive water quality monitoring has
not been conducted by the DoE nor are water quality
inventories available for lakes and reservoirs. According
to a study on the water quality of lakes and reservoirs
conducted by the Institute of Environment and Water
Resource Management and Teknologi Malaysia, water
is in a state of eutrophication in 62% of the lakes andreservoirs studied (Sharifuddin 2011).

4.3 Coastal water
In 2015, 151 coastal, 76 estuary and 90 island sta ons
were monitored, with 590 samples from coastal, 401
samples from estuary and 353 samples from island
monitoring sta ons collected for analysis and reported
based on the Marine Water Quality Index (MWQI). The
index was developed based on seven main parameters:
Dissolved Oxygen (DO), Nitrate (NO3 ), Phosphate (PO4),
Unionized Ammonia (NH 3), Faecal Coliform, Oil andGrease (O&G) and Total Suspended Solids (TSS). The
resul ng MWQI, on a scale of 0 to 100, determines thecategory of the marine water quality, and ranges from“Excellent” to “Poor.” The monitoring results indicated
9 sta ons (6%) as Excellent, 54 sta ons (36%) as Good,
86 stations (57%) as Moderate and 2 stations (1%) as
Poor. The trend in terms of Marine Water Quality Index(MWQI) for 2013 to 2015 is as shown in Figure 2.7.5.
The numbers of Good, Moderate and Poor water quality
sta ons showed an increase, while for Excellent sta ons
showed a decrease compared to the previous year.

4.4 Groundwater
According to ASM (2014), groundwater resource iscurrently s ll underused due to the rela ve expense of
explora on, and is mainly used in the State of Kelantan. In
Sarawak, a number of villages, especially along the coast
obtain their water supply from groundwater due to the
low cost-eﬃcacy in laying pipes from central facili es tothese isolated areas. Groundwater is also an importantsource of water supply in many small islands and is usedin conjunc on with surface runoﬀ and rainwater.
The status of groundwater quality was evaluatedusing the Na onal Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality(NGDWQ) 2000 from the Ministry of Health (revised in
December 2000) as a benchmark. In 2015, 390 water
samples were taken from 105 monitoring wells andanalyzed for vola le organic compounds (VOCs),
pes cides, heavy metals, anions, bacteria (coliform),
phenolic compounds, total hardness, total dissolved
solids (TDS), pH, temperature, conduc vity and dissolved
oxygen (DO), and compared with the above Guidelines todetermine the status of groundwater quality. Results
showed that all sta ons were within the NGDWQ values
except for arsenic (As), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), total
coliform and phenol. In addi on, coliforms were also
found to exceed the NGDWQ standards in all the sta ons,
followed by phenol, Fe, Mn and As. (DOE 2015).

140
125

4.5 Wastewater and its major pollution sources

Number of staƟons

120
100
86
75

80
60

54
45

40

30
15

20

11

4

0

9

2

0
2013

Excellent

2014

Good

2015

Moderate

Poor

Figure 2.7.5. Trend in marine water status for coastal areas
in Malaysia (2013-2015)(Source: DOE 2015)78

In 2015, calculation of pollution loads focused on five
types of pollu on, according to DOE (2015). The pollu on
sources attributed were manufacturing industries,
sewage treatment including individual sep c tanks (IST),
centralized septic tanks (CST), piggeries, agriculturalindustries and wet markets. The composi on of waterpollution sources by sector in 2015 is shown in Table
2.7.2 (Majid 2016).
The three main parameters (that have signiﬁcanteﬀects on water quality) used are Biochemical Oxygen
Demand (BOD), Suspended Solids (SS) and Ammoniacal
Nitrogen (NH3-N). Calcula on of pollu on loads for 2015

Chapter 2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Unit (t/day)
Percentage (%)

Nepal

Wet Markets
8
1%

Sewage378
41%

Figure 2.7.7. Distribu on of pollu on load in terms of SS(Source: DOE 2015)
in 2015
Philippines

Table 2.7.2. Composi on of water pollu on sources
by sector – 2015

Sewage193
83.5%

Type of sources

Number of sources

1

Manufacturing industries

3,258

2

Agro-based industries
i. Rubber mills

64

ii. Palm oil mills

450

3

Piggery

4

Sewage Treatment Plant
i. Public

Unit (t/day)
Percentage (%)

Figure 2.7.8. Distribu on of pollu on load in terms of AN(Source: DOE 2015)
in 2015

5

6,397
11,318iii. Individual sep c tanks

1,273,978

iv. Communal sep c tanks

3,637

Wet markets

Viet Nam

ii. Private

Thailand

Total:231.2(t/day)No

Sri Lanka

Manufacturing Industries
3.7
1.6%

Piggery
26.2
11.3%
Wet Markets
0.3
0.1%

Total:911(t/day)Piggery442
49%

Unit (t/day)
Percentage (%)

Figure 2.7.6. Distribu on of pollu on load in terms of BOD(Source: DOE 2015)
in 2015

Agrobased Industries8
3.5%

Agrobased Industries
28
3%

MyanmarWet Markets
6
1%

Sewage267
51%

Manufacturing Industries
55
6%

Malaysia

Total:525(t/day)Lao PDR

Piggery
213
41%

Republic of Korea

Agrobased Industries
10
2%

Japan

Manufacturing Industries
29
5%

Indonesia

In Malaysia, a specialized organiza on called Indah Water
Konsortium (IWK) has been assigned for wastewater
management and sludge collection and treatment. To
improve opera on and maintenance, IWK has graduallytaken over sewerage systems of various sizes and types.
From 1994 to 2008, more than 8,800 systems have been
made public under IWK’s control, while more than 3,000
systems remain under the direct management of theowners and, thus, are classiﬁed as private systems. IWK
does not own the public facili es but only operates andmaintains them, which gives this organiza on the rightto collect sewerage charges. On average, IWK assumes
control of 300 treatment facili es and 1,000 km of sewer
network yearly. However, in areas where large-scale
sewerage systems are not provided, private developers
usually construct small-scale sewerage systems. IWK’s
involvement as a contractor led to the introduc on of asewerage charging system for individuals and enterprises,
but the system ran into issues with the public, which led
to reduced charges on three occasions (JSC 2011).
IWK’s problems lay in the fact that sewerage charge
remi ances could not cover business expenses, which
threatened insolvency, jeopardizing sewerage provision.
To remedy this, the company was placed under
governmental control in 2000 and has since been
managed as a private company with capital expenditurecontrolled by the government under the Ministry of
Finance. This led to SSD taking on the addi onal
responsibility of ac ng as an implemen ng agency aswell as managing sewerage construc on.

China

5 | Status of Wastewater Treatment

Cambodiaexcludes food services establishments. The results
showed that a total of 525 tons/day pollu on load for
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) were generated.
Sewage remained the largest BOD load generator withtotal load of 267 tons/day (51%), followed by piggeries
with 213 tons/day (41%), while manufacturing Industries
contributed 29 tons/day (5%), agro-based industries 10
tons/day (2%) and wet markets 6 tons/day (1%), as shownin Figure 2.7.6. Similarly, results of es mated pollu on
load for SS and AN are shown in Figure 2.7.7 and 2.7.8(DOE 2015).

888(Source: Majid 2016)79

In 2006, Malaysia’s Parliament passed the Water
Service Industry Act (WSIA), which replaced the Sewerage
Service Act. The former provided the regulatory
framework for sewerage and septage management, andrequired owners and occupants with sep c tanks to takeresponsibility for opera ng and maintaining themappropriately. Under the previous legal arrangement, IWK
had no right to oblige users to pay desludging costs andsewerage charges, or impose ﬁnes. The new act combines
drinking water with sewerage services, a holis c approach
to water management that enables enforcement andcessa on of water supply if bills remain unpaid. The
framework also reinforces SSD’s roles and provided for a
new regulator, SPAN (Suruhanjaya Perkhidmatan Air
Negara or Na onal Water Services Commission).
SSD became a project implementa on agency, incharge of planning for new construc on and upgrades ofsewers and wastewater treatment plants. SPAN operates
in the same way as IWK as regards the monitoring andregula on of sewerage services. To improve the quality of
new systems constructed by the private sector, SPAN
goes one step further and provides guidelines to ensure
new facili es are built according to the standards set andthat the eﬄuent will meet the quality requirements
determined by the Department of Environment.
Accordingly, developers are obliged to only select systems
that have been approved by SPAN.
Table 2.7.3. below shows a classiﬁca on of public andprivate wastewater systems that treat grey and black
water through proper treatment facili es or sep c tanks.
IWK operates and maintains about 5,800 wastewater
treatment facili es all over the country, covering a
popula on equivalent (PE) of 19,500,000 people (2010).
Previously, a communal sep c tank used for an apartment
was regarded as a wastewater treatment plant, but it now
falls under the same category as an individual household
Table 2.7.3. Classiﬁca on of public and private wastewater
systems in Malaysia
Wastewater Treatment
Facilities
Regional Sewage Treatment
Plants (STPs) (Public)
Mul point STPs (Public)
Pumping Sta ons
Private STPs

Quantity/
LengthPopulation
Equivalent (PE)74

5,600,000

5,148

12,300,000

668

3,600,000

3,415

2,000,000

Communal sep c Tanks

3,635

434,000

Individual Sep c Tanks

1,100,000

5,500,000

761,000

3,800,000

40-

14,000-Pour Flush
Sludge Treatment Facili es
Sewer Networks (km)(Source: JSC 2011)

IWK reported the characteris cs of raw wastewater as follows (JSC 2011):
200 mg/L<BOD< 400 mg/L and 200 mg/L < SS < 350 mg/L.

80

sep c tank. In 2010, it was es mated that the number ofsuch tanks stood at 1,255,000, with a popula onequivalent (pe) of 6,3900,000.

6 | Framework for Water Environmental
Management
The ultimate objective of Malaysia’s environmental
management (including water quality management) is
to improve living standards and maintain quality of life
for its ci zens. The Na onal Policy on the Environment,
approved in 2002, stated that “the nation shall
implement environmentally sound and sustainable
development for the continued economic, social andcultural progress and enhancement of the quality of lifeof Malaysia” (Ministry of Science, Technology and theEnvironment, Malaysia 2002). In line with this policy,
the na onal policy set eight principles to integrate theeconomy and environment, namely stewardship of theenvironment; conserva on of the nature’s vitality anddiversity; continuous improvement in the quality ofthe environment; sustainable use of natural resources;
integrated decision making; role of the private sector
commitment and accountability; and ac ve par cipa onin the interna onal community.
The Environmental Quality Act (EQA) 1974
(Amendments 2012) is an act related to the preven on,abatement and control of pollu on, and enhancement of
the environment. The act ordains that the minister, a er
consulta on with the Environmental Quality Council, mayelaborate regula ons for prescribing ambient water
quality and discharge standards, and speciﬁes the
maximum permissible loads that may be discharged byany source into inland waters, with reference either
generally or speciﬁcally to the body of waters concerned.
Other laws and regula ons are also shown in Figure 2.7.9.
As for the na on’s target for water quality improvement,
the 10th Malaysian Plan (2011–2015) includes eﬀorts totackle pollu on in river water, the country’s main water
source, by addressing major pollu on sources. Pollu on
countermeasures men oned in the plan include thefollowing (Sharifuddin 2011; Economic Planning Unit ofPrime Minister’s Department 2010):
To strengthen the enforcement of eﬄuent standards(sewage and industries) in line with Environmental
Quality (Sewage and Industrial Eﬄuents) Regula ons
To assess total maximum daily loads for both point
and non-point sources
To revise the Water Quality Index by incorpora ng
other parameters for more accurate river waterclassiﬁca on
To develop the Na onal Marine Water Quality Index

Chapter 2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Indonesia

The Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (NRE),
established in 2004 through a ministerial restructure, is incharge of environmental conserva on, which includes
water quan ty and quality management. Other ministries
and authorities are also involved in water resource
management, such as the Ministry of Water Energy,
Green Technology and Water (KeTTHA) for public watersupply and sewerage, the Ministry of Science, Technology
and Innova on for water research and development, theMinistry of Health for drinking water quality, and local
governments for water planning and development. For
water pollu on control, the Department of Environment(DoE) under the NRE is mainly engaged in theimplementa on of the Environmental Quality Act 1974.

China

6.1 Institutional arrangements

Cambodia

The Na onal Water Resources Policy (NWRP), which
was launched in March 2012 for the period of 2010 to2050, is aimed at determining the future direc on of thewater resources sector based on a review of na onal
water resources. The formula on of the NWRP for
Malaysia provides clear direc ons and strategies in water
resources management to ensure water security andsustainability for both humankind and nature.

Japan
Republic of Korea

ŽŶƐĞƌǀĂƟŽŶŽĨWĂƚĞƌYƵĂůŝƚǇ
General

Lao PDR

Environmental Quality Act
Environmental Quality Standards for Surface WaterŋƵĞŶƚŝƐĐŚĂƌŐĞ^ƚĂŶĚĂƌĚƐ

^ƉĞĐŝĮĐƌĞĂ^ĂďĂŚtĂƚĞƌZĞƐŽƵƌĐĞƐŶĂĐƚŵĞŶƚ;ϭϵϵϴͿ
EĂƟŽŶĂůƌĞƐŽƵƌĐĞƐĂŶĚŶǀŝƌŽŶŵĞŶƚ
Ordinance Sarawak

Malaysia^ĞůĂŶŐŽƌtĂƚĞƌƐDĂŶĂŐĞŵĞŶƚƵƚŚŽƌŝƚǇŶĂĐƚŵĞŶƚ;ϭϵϵϵͿ
<ĞĚĂŚtĂƚĞƌZĞƐŽƵƌĐĞƐŶĂĐƚŵĞŶƚ;2007Ϳ^ĂďĂŚŽŶƐĞƌǀĂƟŽŶŽĨƚŚĞŶǀŝƌŽŶŵĞŶƚŶĂĐƚŵĞŶƚ

^ƉĞĐŝĮĐ^ĞĐƚŽƌ
^ƚĂƚĞŽĨ^ĂďĂŚĂŶĚ^ĂƌĂǁĂŬ

1. Agriculture/ƌƌŝŐĂƟŽŶƌĞĂƐĐƚ;ϭϵϱϯͿ
ƌĂŝŶĂŐĞtŽƌŬƐĐƚƐ;ϭϵϱϰͿ

1. AgricultureƌĂŝŶĂŐĞĂŶĚ/ƌƌŝŐĂƟŽŶ͕^ĂďĂŚKƌĚŝŶĂĐĞ;ϭϱͬϭϵϱϲͿ
ƌĂŝŶĂŐĞtŽƌŬƐKƌĚŝŶĂŶĐĞ^ĂƌĂǁĂŬ;ϭϵϲϲͿ

2. ForestryEĂƟŽŶĂů&ŽƌĞƐƚƌǇĐƚ;ϭϵϴϰͿ

2. Forestry^ĂďĂŚ&ŽƌĞƐƚŶĂĐƚŵĞŶƚ;ϭϵϲϱͿ
&ŽƌĞƐƚKƌĚŝŶĂŶĐĞ^ĂƌĂǁĂŬ͕ĂƉϭϮϲ

6. MiningDŝŶŝŶŐŶĐƚŵĞŶƚ;ϭϵϯϲͿ

8. Fishery&ŝƐŚĞƌŝĞƐĐƚ;ϭϵϲϯͿ

Figure 2.7.9. Legisla ve chart for water quality management

6. MiningDŝŶŝŶŐŶĂĐƚŵĞŶƚ;ϭϵϲϬ^ĂďĂŚͿDŝŶŝŶŐŶĂĐƚŵĞŶƚ;ϭϵϰϵ^ĂƌĂǁĂŬͿ
7. Local and Regional PlanningdŽǁŶĂŶĚŽƵŶƚƌǇWůĂŶŶŝŶŐ
ŶĂĐƚŵĞŶƚ^ĂďĂŚĂƉϭϰϭdŽǁŶĂŶĚŽƵŶƚƌǇWůĂŶŶŝŶŐ^ĂƌĂǁĂŬĂƉϴϳ
8. Others>ŽĐĂůƵƚŚŽƌŝƚǇŶĂĐƚŵĞŶƚ͕^ĂďĂŚKƌĚŝŶĂŶĐĞ;ϭϭͬϭϵϲϭͿ
>ŽĐĂůƵƚŚŽƌŝƚǇKƌĚŝŶĂŶĐĞ^ĂƌĂǁĂŬĂƉϭϭϳ

Viet Nam

9. Others>ŽĐĂů'ŽǀĞƌŶŵĞŶƚĐƚ;ϭϵϳϲͿ
^ƚƌĞĞƚƌĂŝŶĂŐĞƵŝůĚŝŶŐǇůĂǁ;ϭϵϳϰ͕ϭϵϵϰͲZͿ'ĞŽůŽŐŝĐĂů^ƵƌǀĞǇĐƚDŝŶŝƐƚĞƌŝĂů&ƵŶĐƟŽŶĐƚ;ϭϵϲϵͿ

ϱ͘ŽŵĞƐƟĐtĂƚĞƌ^ƵƉƉůǇ
Water Services Industry Act

Thailand7. Local and Regional PlanningdŽǁŶĂŶĚŽƵŶƚƌǇWůĂŶŶŝŶŐĐƚ;ϭϵϳϲͿ

4. Land Management^ĂďĂŚ>ĂŶĚKƌĚŝŶĂŶĐĞ;ϭϵϯϬͿ
^ĂƌĂǁĂŬ>ĂŶĚŽĚĞ;ϭϵϱϴͿ

Sri Lankaϱ͘ŽŵĞƐƟĐtĂƚĞƌ^ƵƉƉůǇ
Water Service Indutry Act

3. Control of Rivers^ĂƌĂǁĂŬtĂƚĞƌKƌĚŝŶĂŶĐĞ͕^ĂƌĂǁĂŬZŝǀĞƌŝŶĞdƌĂŶƐƉŽƌƚŝůů;ϭϵϵϯͿ

Philippines

4. Land ManagementEĂƟŽŶĂů>ĂŶĚŽĚĞ;ϭϵϲϱͿ
>ĂŶĚŽŶƐĞƌǀĂƟŽŶĐƚ;ϭϵϲϬͿ
ĂƌƚŚǁŽƌŬďǇůĂǁƐNepal

3. Control of RiverstĂƚĞƌĐƚƐ;ϭϵϮϬͿ͕ZĞǀŝĞǁĞĚ;ϭϵϴϵͿ
ZŝǀĞƌZŝŐŚƚƐŶĂĐƚŵĞŶƚŽĨWĞƌĂŬ
<ĞůĂŶƚĂŶZŝǀĞƌdƌĂĸĐŶĂĐƚŵĞŶƚ;ϭϵϱϱͿ
WĂŚĂŶŐZŝǀĞƌ>ĂƵŶĐŚĞƐŶĂĐƚŵĞŶƚϲͬϰϵMyanmarWĞŶŝŶƐƵůĂƌDĂůĂǇƐŝĂ

(Source: MoEJ 2009)81

6.2 Ambient water quality standards
Na onal Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQS),
which are applied to surface waters, set out standard
values for 72 parameters in six water use classes (Table
2.7.4). The goal is not to meet the standards of apar cular water class in all surface waters, but to improvewater quality gradually in order to meet the standards ofa water class higher than the current class.
Table 2.7.4. Water quality classes in the Na onal Water
Quality Standards
Class

Uses

I

Conserva on of natural environment.
Water Supply I – Prac cally no treatment necessary.
Fishery I – Very sensi ve aqua c species.

IIA

Water Supply II – Conven onal treatment required.
Fishery II – Sensi ve aqua c species.

IIB

Recrea onal use with body contact.

III

Water Supply III – Extensive treatment required.
Fishery III – Common, of economic value and tolerant
species; livestock drinking.

IV

Irriga on

V

None of the above.

Meanwhile, the Marine Water Quality Index (MWQI),
which was developed based on seven main parameters– Dissolved Oxygen (DO), Nitrate (NO3 ), Phosphate (PO4 ),Unionized Ammonia (NH3), Faecal Coliform, Oil andGrease (O&G) and Total Suspended Solids (TSS), has beenused to evaluate the status of coastal water quality. The
resul ng MWQI with a scale of 0 to 100 determines thecategory of the marine water quality, ranging from“Excellent” to “Poor.”
Table 2.7.5. Water Quality Monitoring conducted by DoE
in 2015
Number of monitoring stations

Rivers5,469 samples taken from 891 manual monitoringsta ons covering 477 rivers.
The sta ons comprised 801 ambient and baselinesta ons, 55 located upstream of selected water
intakes, and 35 sta ons in the River of Life (ROL)
project.
Water quality was also assessed from 13
con nuous water quality monitoring sta ons.

Groundwater390 water samples were taken from 105
monitoring wells.

Coastalwaters151 coastal, 76 estuary and 90 island sta ons
were monitored.
590 samples from coastal, 401 samples fromestuary and 353 samples from island monitoringsta ons were collected for analysis and reported
based on the Marine Water Quality Index (MWQI)(Source: DoE 2015)

For marine water quality, the Malaysian Marine
Water Quality Index (MWQI) was established with seven
sub-indexes.
Groundwater quality standards for Malaysia have notbeen established, but considering the poten al forgroundwater to act as an alterna ve source of surface
water, the Na onal Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality
is referred to as the benchmark for evalua ng
groundwater quality monitoring results.
Ambient water quality monitoring
The Department of Environment (DoE) of the Ministry of
Natural Resources and Environment (NRE) is responsible
for conducting monitoring programs for rivers, marine
waters and groundwater, and has operated the Na onal
River Water Monitoring Program since 1978 to determine
river water quality status and detect changes over me.
The state of water quality monitoring conducted by the
DOE is shown in Table 2.7.5. Other agencies are also
involved, such as the Ministry of Health, Department of
Irrigation and Drainage (DID), National Water Services
Commission (SPAN), Mineral and Geoscience Department,
and local councils. The DOE is tasked to enforce point
sources that are subject to EQA 1974, such as industries.
The Water Quality Index (WQI) was used to indicate
river water quality status, which was formulated basedon concentra ons of six principal parameters: ( i )Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), (ii) Chemical Oxygen
Demand (COD), (iii) Ammoniacal Nitrogen (NH3-N), (iv)pH, (v) Dissolved Oxygen (DO), (vi) Suspended Solids (SS).

82(Source: DoE 2015)

6.3 Effluent standards
The National Environmental Quality Act 1974 statesthat “no person shall, unless licensed, emit, discharge
or deposit any environmentally hazardous substances,
pollutants or wastes into any inland waters incontravention of the acceptable conditions specified
under Sec on 21” (Sec on 25, Na onal Environmental
Quality Act 1974). Environmental Quality Act 1974
contains several regula ons related to eﬄuent standard,such as: (i) Environmental Quality (Industrial Eﬄuent)
Regulation 2009, (ii) Environmental Quality (Sewage)
Regula on 2009, (iii) Environmental Quality (Control of
Pollu on from Solid Waste Transfer Sta on and Landﬁll)
Regula on 2009, (iv) Environmental Quality (Crude Palm
Oil) Regulations 1977, and (v) Environmental Quality(Raw Natural Rubber) Regula ons 1978.
Eﬄuent monitoring
Monitoring of eﬄuent, and recording and maintenanceof the monitoring results are obliga ons that all premises
are required to fulfill under the new environmental
regula ons on sewage and industrial eﬄuents. Analy cal
methods and parameters to be monitored are designated.
All premises are required to submit monthly effluent
discharge reports to the DoE, which may be submi ed via

Chapter 2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Republic of Korea
Lao PDR

The Environmental Quality Act 1974 was successful in
reducing pollu on to a certain extent with control of point
and non-point sources, and con nuous monitoring andassessment of the water environment. However, many
challenges s ll need to be addressed. The new direc onof water environmental management has already been
incorporated in the 11th Malaysian Plan and draft of
the new Environmental Protection Act. The following
elements are also proposed by DOE to ensure a be er
future for the water environment in the country (Majid
2016): (i) Shi ing the responsibility for pollu on control toindustry by incorpora ng regula on elements is the new
approach taken by the Department in the formula on of
the new regula on for pollu on control; (ii) restrategize
the enforcement programs and continuously improve
compliance monitoring to find better solutions forpollu on preven on and control; (iii) enhancement in ICT
has shown a promising trend towards reducing the costof the enforcement implementa on which could covera larger number of pollu on sources. In line with this,self-regulation approaches to pollution control should
also be further promoted by identifying groundwater
potential for areas where surface water is limited or
unavailable, and achieving be er management of lakes
and reservoirs, in which the roles and responsibility of
relevant stakeholders are clariﬁed. Further studies andappropriate management of data are required to fulﬁll
this target.

Malaysia
Myanmar
Nepal
Philippines
Sri Lanka
Thailand
Viet Nam

The Eleventh Malaysia Plan 2016–2020 is the ﬁnal leg inthe journey towards realizing Vision 2020. Launched in
1991, Vision 2020 envisions Malaysia as a fully developed
country along all dimensions –economically, poli cally,socially, spiritually, psychologically, and culturally –by the year 2020. It represents the Government’s
commitment to fulﬁlling the aspira ons of the people.
The Eleventh Plan is based on the theme “anchoring
growth on people” and has six strategic thrusts and six
game-changers that will transform ideas into reality, andaddress in concert the goals set out in Vision 2020 so
as to catapult Malaysia towards the end state of being
an advanced economy and inclusive nation. “Pursuinggreen growth for sustainability and resilience” is one of
the six strategic thrusts, which is expected to bring about
higher quality growth, strengthened food, water andenergy security, lower environmental risks and ecologicalscarcities, and ultimately better wellbeing and qualityof life for Malaysian people. Another thrust emphasizes“Strengthening infrastructure to support economic
expansion,” in par cular the following areas: ( i ) Raising
the ﬁnancial sustainability of the water services industry
by strengthening the tariﬀ system and implemen ng joint
billing for water and sewerage; (ii) expanding networkand treatment plant capacity through infrastructure
investment and use of efficient technology, throughdeveloping new treatment plants, increasing clean andJapan

8 | Existing and Future Challenges

Indonesia

7 | Recent Developments inWater Environmental Management

China

treated water coverage and expanding connected waterand sewerage services in rural areas; (iii) increasing
efficiency and productivity of water and sewerage
services through implementa on of the Non- Revenue
Water Reduction Program and by rationalizing andupgrading sewage treatment plants; (iv) strengthening
the regulatory framework of the water services industry
with the Na onal Sewerage Master Plan, a water demand
management master plan and promotion of waste to
wealth ini a ves.
Meanwhile, a dra of the new Environmental
Protec on Act has been prepared and is expected tocome into eﬀect in 2018. It has been designed with amore holis c approach to provide more comprehensive
legal safeguards for increased protec on of theenvironment and the country’s natural resources,
according to Clean Malaysia (2017). It will also address
cross-jurisdic onal issues and deal with the complexity ofcurrent environmental problems due to rapid changes inthe economy and emergence of many new pollutants.

Cambodiaan online repor ng system or as hard-copy. Authorised
DoE oﬃcials can carry out inspec ons of all premises,
including surprise inspections, to ensure compliancewith all the provisions in the act. Non-compliance of theregula ons results in immediate penal es to polluters. Asa measure to improve eﬄuent quality, Industrial Eﬄuent
Treatment Systems (IETS) were introduced which aim
to promote the op mal opera on and maintenance ofeﬄuent treatment by enabling preven ve or correc ve
ac ons through monitoring of the treatment performancewith certain parameters. Through IETS, companies canbenefit from the early identification of deficiencies,
identification of proper dosages for chemicals (Keong2008) and increasing opportuni es to iden fy preven ve
ac ons (How 2008). The DoE provides technical guidance
to promote IETS. Within an industry, a competent person
cer ﬁed by the director-general of the DoE is required
to be on duty to supervise IETS. IETS are expected toencourage industries to be more proac vely engaged inpollu on control without the need for strong oversight by
the public sector.

83

2.8 Myanmar
3 | State of Water Resources

1 | Country information
Table 2.8.1. Basic indicators
Land Area (km2)

676,550 (2015)

Total Population

52.89 million* (2016)

GDP (current USD)

63.2 billion* (2016)

GDP per capita (current USD)

1,195.5* (2016)

Average Precipitation (mm/year)

2,091 (2009)

Total Renewable Water Resources (km3)

1,003** (2014)

Total Annual Freshwater Withdrawals(billion m3)
Annual Freshwater
Withdrawal
by Sectors

33.2 (2000)

Agriculture

89% (2000)

Industry

1% (2000)

Municipal(including domestic)

10% (2000)(Source: CSO 2015, * World Bank 2018, **FAO 2014)

2 | Major Water Bodies in Myanmar

Putao

China

4.1 Rivers, Lakes and Reservoirs

Mandalay

Thanlwin(Salween)
River

Inle Lake^ŝƩĂƵŶŐ
River

^ŝƩǁĞ

EĂǇƉǇŝĚĂǁ

Ayeyarwady(Irrawaddy)
River

Yangon(Rangoon)

ThailandBasseinMoulmeinAndaman andNicobar Islands

Figure 2.8.1. Major water bodies in Myanmar

84

4 | State of Water Quality

Mekong River

Chindwin River

Bay of Bengal

Myanmar has an abundance of water resources, which
are distributed unevenly spa ally and temporally. Around
80% of the average annual rainfall of 2,341 mm falls
during the monsoon season (May–October) and 20%
in the dry season. The catchment area of Myanmar’s
eight principal river basins is approximately 737,800
km2, and the country has two major natural lakes, theInle Lake and Indawgyi Lake. In addition, constructed
reservoirs have a capacity of 15.46 km3. The poten alvolume of groundwater resources in the country is 580
km3, of which the es mated total renewable volume is1,046 billion m3. Total water development is 33.2 billion
m3, which represents 3% of the total renewable water
resources in Myanmar.
Approximately 91% of the total water withdrawal
comes from surface water and 9% from groundwater.
Groundwater is mostly used for domes c purposes andthe irriga on of vegetables and other high-value crops(CSO 2015).

Myanmar is heavily dependent on inland surface water
bodies for domestic use, agricultural irrigation andindustrial produc on. Monitoring data for water quality
in the Ayeyarwady and Chindwin Rivers in August 2016
(rainy season) and February 2017 (dry season) revealed
that water in these rivers was suitable for irrigation
purposes (Table 2.8.2). However, the quality wasinadequate for aqua c ecosystems, given high turbidity
in both wet and dry seasons, and low DO during therainy season. High levels of coliform and E. coli were
measured in Inle Lake, indica ng inadequate sanita on in
the surrounding areas (Table 2.8.3).

4.2 GroundwaterWith the rise in popula on and a greater need for waterin economic activities, there is increasing pressure
on groundwater extraction. However, unrestricted
extrac on can result in land subsidence and saltwater
intrusion, thus it needs to be controlled and managed
appropriately. Furthermore, surface water should becomprehensively managed together with groundwaterChapter 2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Cambodia

Table 2.8.2. Average water quality of Ayeyarwady and Chindwin Rivers
Parameter
unit

Hardness Ammonia
mg/L
mg/L

Standard

6.5-9.2

0.3-1.0500

AyeyarwadyRiver

Aug 2016

7.8

0.9

0.2

Feb 2017

7.9

0.4

0.1

ChindwinRiver

Aug 2016

7.5

0.6

0.2

Feb 2017

7.4

0.6

0.1

0.2

Parameters

Value

Remark

7.31 - 7.69

Slightly Alkaline2

Ca (mg/L)

28.1 - 153.1

High

3

Coliform bacteria(MPN/100mL)> 16

Unﬁt for Drinking

4E.Coli (MPN/100 mL)> 16

Unﬁt for Drinking

DO
mg/L

Temperature
°C

1.5

50

1.5

5

≥5

-

0.2

0.1

-

363

3.8

28.3

0.1

0.1

0.3

297

5.6

26.6

0.2

1.4

-

389

3.0

28.2

0.8

0.1

456

5.1

27.27

Lao PDR
Malaysia
Myanmar
Nepal

in order to ensure groundwater aquifers are recharged.
Availability of fresh water is also declining, due to rising
requirements of the country’s rapidly expanding urban
and industrial centers, especially in Yangon City, andcontamina on by pollutants from industrial, municipal
and agricultural effluents (the latter being associatedwith uncontrolled use of pes cides and fer lizers).
A detailed Hydrogeological map for the Central Dry
Zone of Myanmar has been renewed a er 30 years by Dr.
Drury with the support of Irriga on and Water U liza on
Management Department (IWUMD). The Central Dry
Zone includes Sagaing, Mandalay and Magway Regions,covering an expanse of 54,000 km2 and is home to roughlya quarter of Myanmar’s popula on. The map can be foundin the publica on, “Hydrogeology of the Dry Zone – Central
Myanmar”. The publica on also includes ﬁndings on
groundwater systems and indicates the areal spread ofhydrogeological features (aquifer yields, salinity, artesian

Republic of Korea

pH

Turbidity
NTU

Japan

1

Fluoridemg/L

pressure, elevated temperatures, contaminants such asarsenic and ﬂuoride, age, etc). The study includes asummary of hydrogeological characteris cs for various
aquifers within the Dry Zone, es ma on of water storage,
water balance models, sugges ons on groundwater
management, and recommenda ons on futurehydrogeological research (Drury 2017).
IWUMD is also taking measures for sustainable
development of groundwater aquifers of the country. In
this context, a total of nine groundwater monitoringsta ons were established in ﬁscal year 2016-2017 and 16
sta ons are being installed in ﬁscal year 2017-2018.
Groundwater level ﬂuctua on, Electrical Conduc vity (EC)and temperature of groundwater at every sta on is being
recorded by monitoring devices.
Salinity intrusion has been reported in inland areas
along the dal reaches of the Ayeyarwaddy River system,
and monitoring of the Ayeyarwaddy in the dry zoneshows excessive pollu on, par cularly in summer. Salinity
intrusion is a cri cal problem par cularly in the Delta
Region, which is the third most populated area and key
region for rice cul va on. Salinity intrusions in sevenmajor rivers of the Ayeyarwaddy Delta are inves gatedduring the summer season annually to observe salinity 1
ppt front line for irriga on purposes. Figure 2.8.2 shows
the degree of intrusion.

Table 2.8.3. Water quality of Inle lakeNo

Nitratemg/LIndonesia

Iron
mg/L

China

pH
-

Philippines

Yangon River

Rive
r

r
Toe

Rive
pon
Pya

er
Riv
lay
ga
Bo

Yarzudaing River

er
Riv
law
ma
Pya
r

Thailand

Path
ein R

iver

Sri Lanka
Viet Nam

2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017

Figure 2.8.2. Penetra on ofsaline fronts in summer(2012–2017)(Source: Hydrology Branch, IWUMD)

85

4.3 Wastewater and major pollutants
Domes cIn Naypyitaw, 20% of new constructed area are connected
to a sewage treatment plant (STP) via combined sewer
system. The remaining 80% use anaerobic sep c tanks or
pit latrine with slab. General wastewater characteris csof the Naypyitaw STP are as follows.
Raw wastewater: BOD 250mg/L, SS 220mg/L,
TOC 160mg/L, COD 500mg/L
Treated water: BOD 20mg/L, SS 30mg/L, COD 60mg/L
In Mandalay, over 35,000 sep c tanks exist, genera ng

wastewater with a volume of 56.8 m3/day. Wastewaterfrom these sep c tanks are collected, then treated in anoxida on ditch. A wastewater treatment system iscurrently being proposed (Tin 2017).
Industrial
A survey was conducted in 2016 to understand the current
status of industrial wastewater. Of the ca.1,000 factories
exis ng each in Yangon and Mandalay, 100 each (total:200) were selected for a ques onnaire survey. It was foundthat of the 15 factories using over 1.9 m3/day in Mandalay,
12 were food and beverage industries (Fig. 2.8.3).

N

LegendType of Business

0

1

2

3

4km

Food and Beverages Manufacturing'ĂƌŵĞŶƚƐ͕dĞǆƟůĞĂŶĚ>ĞĂƚŚĞƌWƌŽĚƵĐƚƐ
Wood ManufacturingŚĞŵŝĐĂůƐDĂŶƵĨĂĐƚƵƌŝŶŐ
DĂŶƵĨĂĐƚƵƌĞŽĨŽŶƐƚƌƵĐƟŽŶDĂƚĞƌŝĂůƐ
DĞƚĂů͕DĂĐŚŝŶĞƌǇĂŶĚůĞĐƚƌŽŶŝĐƐ

Figure 2.8.3. Map of the 100 surveyed industries in Mandalay

According to the survey, over 70% of the factories inboth Mandalay and Yangon were not aware of the
Na onal Environment Quality Guidelines. 46% were
equipped with wastewater treatment facili es.
Secondly, wastewater samples were taken from 25
factories in Mandalay and analysed for BOD and COD. As aresult, it was found that only 3 out of 25 samples in
Mandalay were compliant against the guidelines of BOD
50 mg/L and COD 250 mg/L. 12 factories were emi ng
highly polluted wastewater with BOD concentra ons over
1,000 mg/L.
Most industries only have primary treatment facili essuch as screens and se ling ponds to remove large
par cles and solid ma er. This is problema c, assome mes heavily polluted wastewater is discharged into
the environment without proper treatment.
Exis ng issues include lack of capacity and funding,high investment costs and diﬃcul es in obtaining fundingor lack of subsidies, limited land in industries, lack ofawareness or unclear regulatory requirements, andunrealis c environmental regula ons.

86

Surface Water
StreamRoad
WǇŝ'ǇĞĞdĂŐŽŶ/
ttdWWŝƉĞůŝŶĞ

(Source: Oo 2017)

Several projects are now ongoing to address theseneeds (Oo 2017):
Capacity development in basic water environmental
management and the EIA system around Hlaing Riverand Doke Hta Waddy River, Myanmar (2015-2018,
funded by JICA)
Treatment of wastewater from dyeing industries in
Wundwin Township, a project funded by Ministry ofEnvironment Japan

5 | Frameworks for
Water Environment Management
5.1 Legislation
Myanmar has no speciﬁc laws to control water pollu onapart from a general provision in Sec on 9 of the Public
Health Law of 1972, which empowers the Ministry of
Health to carry out measures rela ng to environmental
health such as garbage disposal, use of water for
drinking and other purposes, radioactivity, protection

Chapter 2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Cambodiato enact new laws rela ng to pollu on. The dra law onenvironmental protec on is now awai ng approval by thegovernment, and the passage of such is expected to leadto establishment of na onal environmental standards.

China

5.2 Institutional arrangements
Diﬀerent government organiza ons are responsible forwater environmental management within respective
sectors, such as health, irriga on, mining, transport andindustry (see Table 2.8.5.) – for example, the Yangon City
Development Commi ee (YCDC) is responsible for water
quality management in the former capital (Ra 2017). In
September 2011, the Ministry of Forestry was renamed
the Ministry of Environmental Conserva on and Forestry,and has assumed responsibility for implemen ng dra

IndonesiaJapanof atmospheric pollution, and food and drug safety.
However, no detailed provisions to ensure more eﬀec ve
and comprehensive regulation in these fields exist.
Further, there are no provisions for pollution control
in the regulation of hotels and tourism. Although the
Burma Port Act of 1908 contains a paragraph on harbor
pollu on, it is solely focused on its poten al detrimentto navigation. The only control exercised over waterpollu on in the country is through guidelines da ng backto June 1994 by the Myanmar Investment Commission,
which state that new investment projects are to havewastewater treatment systems. River and lake pollu on
from sewage, industrial waste and solid waste disposal
are serious problems in Myanmar, but are not explicitly
regulated by laws, which means there is an urgent need

Republic of Korea

Table 2.8.4. Myanmar’s legal framework related to water environment
No

Legislation (Specific descriptions of water quality control)

Yangon Waterworks Act,1885

3

Canal Act, 1905 (Irriga on Law, 2017)

4

Yangon Port Act, 1905

5

Port Act, 1908

6

City of Yangon Municipal Act, 1922
[Penal es for pollu ng bodies of water within the municipal jurisdic on]

7

Emergency Provisions Act, 1950

8

Factories Act, 1951
[Industries shall provide their own treatment plants to remove or reduce poten al pollu on from wastewater before
discharging eﬄuent]

Malaysia

2

Lao PDR

1

Penal Code, 1860
[Person(s) who voluntarily pollute the water of public springs or reservoirs so as to render it less ﬁt for the purpose forwhich it is intended, shall be punished with imprisonment or be levied a ﬁne for pollu ng bodies of water within themunicipal jurisdic on]

Law Rela ng to the Fishing Rights of Foreign Fishing Vessels, 1989 (Law Amending of 1993)

11

Myanmar Marine Fisheries Law, 1990 (Law Amending of 1993)

12

Aqua - Culture Laws, 1989

13

Fresh Water Fisheries Law, 1991

14

Pes cide Law, 1990

15

Development Commi ees Law, 1993
[Amendment to City of Yangon Municipal Act, 1922 including proper disposal of sewage and pollutant water]

16

Myanmar Hotel and Tourism Law,1993

17

Protec on of Wild Animals, Wild Plants and Preserva on of Natural Areas Laws, 1994
[Restric ons on wildlife sanctuaries and forest reserva ons for controlling water quality in upstream watershed areas]

18

Myanmar Mines Law,1994[Prohibits mining works in upstream watershed areas]

19

Conserva on of Water Resources and River Law, 2006
[Control of water resources, such as surface water and groundwater, and riverine management]

20

Environmental Conserva on Law, 2012
[Regula on of water quality standards of water resources, coastal areas, and wastewater. Conserva on and managementof water resources. Pollu on control of wastewater]

21

Environmental Impacts Assessment (EIA) Procedure, 201522

Na onal Environmental Quality (Emission) Guidelines, 201523

Environmental Policy (Dra )Nepal

Territorial Sea and Con nuous Zone Law, 1977

Myanmar9
10

Philippines
Sri Lanka
Thailand
Viet Nam(Source: 2015, Ra 2017)87

environmental protec on laws (MoECAF 2014). However,clarification of the roles and responsibilities of thevarious ministries may remain a hurdle to promoting
environmental protec on in the country, including waterpollu on control.

5.3 Water quality standards
The main causes of deteriorating water quality are
untreated municipal wastewater, solid waste, andindustrial agrochemical solid and liquid wastes. In
principle, local city development committees are
responsible for the protec on of water quality; however,rapid industrialization has increased pressures on theenvironment in many ci es, such as the former capital
city of Yangon. The direct discharge of untreatedindustrial wastewater into rivers and streams is the major
cause of pollu on, which is exacerbated by untreated or
insuﬃciently treated industrial wastewater discharged
into the municipal sewage system. As a par al solu on to
the problem, the Na onal Commission for Environmental

Aﬀairs (NCEA) together with NGOs has proposed eﬄuent
standards for the proper disposal of wastewater fromfactories, which have yet to be approved. Control of thedisposal of wastewater from residen al, oﬃce buildings
and factories is the responsibility of the Ministryof Environmental Conservation and Forestry. The
government has banned the use of some toxic pes cides,
encouraging instead conventional bio-fertilizers inorder to mitigate agriculture-derived water pollution.
Ministries and departments are currently working tostrengthen water quality management to address thedeteriorating water quality of public waters. National
drinking water quality standards have been developed
but have not been approved as of yet. Currently, water
quality is evaluated based on World Health Organiza on(WHO) and the Food and Agriculture Organiza on (FAO)
standards. Water quality control measures are dealt withon a case by case basis, especially in the produc on ofbottled drinking water. Arsenic and other parameters
have been tested in collaboration with the Water

Table 2.8.5. Exis ng ins tu onal framework for water environment management
Ministry

Agency/Department

Related Responsibilities

Na onal Water Resources Commi ee(NWRC)Na onal Level Commi ee

Draw up and implement an integrated water
management system; develop a na onal
integrated water management strategy,
na onal water resources policy, water
framework direc ve and a water law.

Na onal Level Environmental Conserva on
and Climate Change Central Commi ee

Na onal Level Commi ee

Na onal water quality standards

Ministry of Natural Resources andEnvironmental Conserva on

Environmental Conserva on Department(ECD)

Environmental and Climate Change
management, water environmental
management, formula on of na onal water
quality standards

Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and
Irriga on

Irriga on and Water U liza on
Management Department(IWUMD)

Provision of irriga on water for farmland(ground water and surface water) and
Implementa on of ﬂood preven on measures.

Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and
Irriga on

Department of Rural Development (DRD)

Rural water supply

Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and
Irriga on

Department of Fishery

Food security improvement for the socioeconomic beneﬁt of rural communi es basedon ﬁshery industries.

Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and
Irriga on

Livestock Breeding and Veterinary
Department (LBVD)

Livestock waste management

Ministry of Transporta on andCommunica on

Directorates of Water Resources andImprovement of River System (DWIR)

Naviga on, sediment and bank erosion control

Ministry of Transporta on andCommunica on

Department of Meteorology and Hydrology(DMH)

Hydro-met data collec on and analysis,
weather forecas ng

Ministry of Health

Department of Public Health

Environmental health, water quality assessment
and control

Ministry of Construc on

Department of Building

Domes c water supply and sanita on

Ministry of Construc on

Department of Urban and Housing
Development (DUHD)

Town Planning, domes c water supply andsanita on

City Development Commi ee (Yangon /Mandalay / Napyidaw City)

City Level Management

City water supply and sanita on, water
conserva on and protec on works(source: MoEJ 2015, Ra 2018)

88

Chapter 2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

7 | Existing and Future Challenges
A number of agencies are responsible for implemen ng
water supply and sanitation schemes, which should
ideally be carried out in a more coordinated manner andstrengthened to promote more eﬀec ve management.
Improvement in water use efficiency is important forwater conservation in the irrigation sector, to reduce
both water consumption and pollutant discharge byenterprises (point sources) and farmlands (non-point
sources). The main sources of deteriora ng water quality
are sewage, solid waste, and industrial and agrochemical
waste. While water conserva on through water quality
protec on is undertaken by relevant city development
commi ees, the problem of wastewater control actuallyconcerns both municipalities and industries alike. In
ci es undergoing rapid industrializa on, the municipal
treatment issue is s ll too complex, thus stricter laws tocontrol water quality should be imposed. In the agricultural
sector, the government has banned the import of sometoxic pes cides and encourages the use of conven onal
bio fertilizers as a substitute for chemical fertilizers to
mitigate water quality deterioration. Deforestation incatchment areas and around water resources causes
serious degrada on of water quality and quan ty, and theresul ng topsoil loss and land degrada on due to gully
and sheet erosion leads to excessive levels of turbidity inthe incoming water and to oﬀsite ecological and physicalimpacts due to deposi on in rivers and lakebeds. The silt
and clay frac ons, which carry absorbed chemicals, aretransported by the sediments into the aqua c system.

Malaysia
Myanmar
Nepal
Philippines
Sri Lanka
Thailand
Viet Nam

The Sustainable Water Resources Development Standing
Committee was formed in 2012 for special economic
zones, and the National Water Resources Committee(apex body in Myanmar) was established by presiden al
decree in 2013. Public awareness through community
involvement is a key issue on the subject of wateruse, efficiency and conservation. Social development,
public educa on and informa on programs lead to anincreasingly aware public that wants to be involved ingovernmental decision making. Training in nurturing
forests, producing ﬁrewood subs tutes and distribu ng
leaﬂets on reforesta on technology is provided to inform

Lao PDR

6 | Recent Developments inWater Environmental Management

Republic of Korea

The YCDC convened a meeting in 2001 to introduce
proposed environmental standards for Yangon, including
standards on air, noise, wastewater effluent and toxic
chemicals. Similarly, governmental departments in the
YCDC have set their own standards for environmental
protection areas in which they are fully involved.
The main objective of the National Commission forEnvironmental Aﬀairs is to conserve the environment andprevent its degrada on when u lizing water, land, forest,
mineral, marine and other natural resources. The current
measures men oned above are in line with the Na onal
Environment Policy of Myanmar ini ated by the Na onal
Commission for Environmental Aﬀairs.

Japan

5.5 Effluent standards

Indonesia

Water quality monitoring is conducted by different
governmental agencies in line with their respective
purposes. In 2006, the Irriga on Department ins tuted
water quality monitoring for both irrigation andpotable water at 15 stations in four rivers, namely
the Ayeyarwaddy (8 stations), Chindwin (3 stations),
Thanlwin (2 sta ons) and Si aung (2 sta ons). Sixteen
parameters are monitored seasonally (twice a year): pH,
EC, turbidity, temperature, total hardness, TDS, salinity,
SAR, RSC, Ca2+, Mg2+, K+, CO32-, HCO3-, SO42- and Cl-. The
Irriga on Department also monitors salt water intrusionin the Delta Area during summer.

local communi es of forest conserva on prac ces, andthe government has designated July as the Month ofPlanting Trees for communities nationwide. The YCDC
has enacted Law No. 6/99 to improve water distribu on
systems, including leak detec on, construc on, repair andmaintenance of city water mains, changes in plumbing
codes and prosecution for illegal connections. Someeﬀec ve measures were taken to conserve agricultural
water, such as adjustments to cropping pa erns, watersupply scheduling, improvement of irriga on facili es andmanagement, land leveling, water pricing, canal lining
and proper use of fer lizers and pes cides. Rehabilita on
works for exis ng irriga on facili es were carried out toimprove the eﬃciency of water use instead of resor ng
to building new structures. Programs that promote
irriga on eﬃciency directly equate increased eﬃciency
with savings for farmers (reduced energy, labor or cost)or improved produc vity. Laws and regula ons related
to water resource and environmental management are
reviewed in line with environmental assessments.

China

5.4 Water quality monitoring

Cambodia

Resources U liza on Department (WRUD), Departmentof Development Aﬀairs (DDA), and the United Na ons
Interna onal Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF). The
Environmental and Sanita on Division under the Ministryof Health, together with health ins tu ons have jointly
implemented a program on water supply systems andjointly run a Water Quality Surveillance and Monitoring
System Pilot Project in the former capital city of Yangon.

892.9 Nepal
1 | Country information
Table 2.9.1. Basic indicators
Land Area (km2)

147,181

Total Population

28.0 million (2015)

GDP (current USD)

19.3 billion (2013)

GDP per capita (current USD)

694 (2013)

Average Precipitation (mm/year)

1,530 (2014)

Total Renewable Water Resources (km3)

210.2 (2014)

Total Annual Freshwater Withdrawals(billion m3)

29.31 (2017)

Annual Freshwater
Withdrawal
by Sectors

Agriculture

98.26% (2017)

Industry

1.7 % (2017)

Municipal(including domestic)

0.03% (2017)(Source: See References)

2 | Major Water Bodies in Nepal
Mahakali

KarnalitĞƐƚZĂƉƟ
China

GandakiĂŐŵĂƟ
Koshi
KamalaKankai

Kathmandu

Babai
India

Other Southern Rivers

Figure 2.9.1. Major and minor river basins in Nepal

3 | State of Water Resources
Nepal is rich in water resources. It has a mean annual
precipita on of 1,530 mm, ranging from over 6,000 mm
along the southern slopes of the Annapurna Range incentral Nepal to less than 250 mm in the north-central
portion near the Tibetan plateau. The snow-capped
Himalayas are the main source of rivers in the country,
especially during the dry season (WECS 2000). There areabout 6,000 rivers in Nepal with a total drainage area of

90

191,000 km2, 74% of which lies in Nepal (WECS 2011).
Three types of river systems predominate in Nepal
based on their discharge capacity. The ﬁrst type is the four
major river basins, namely the Mahakali, Karnali, SaptaGandaki and Sapta-Koshi, with their origins in the
Himalayas, which account for around 80% of annual
runoﬀ; the second type consists of medium-sized river
basins, the Babai, West Rap , Bagma , Kamala andKankai, , accoun ng for around 7% of annual runoﬀ; thethird type is the smaller southern river basins – the Bering,
Balan, Khu ya, Pathraiya, Lal Bakaiya, Ratu, Sirsia,
Manusmara and Banganga – which originate in the Siwalik
Hill Range (WECS 2011) and are without water during thedry season. A recent assessment has iden ﬁed 5,358
lakes in Nepal (NLCDC 2009), which include high al tude
glacier lakes in the Himalayas, natural lakes as well as
ponds, dams and other small wetlands. Available surface
water is es mated to be 225 billion m3 (WECS 2011).
Groundwater poten al is high in the country, with anannual extrac on poten al of around 12 billion m3, largely
unexploited. Popula on living in Terai (lowland) and innervalleys in the hills and mountains extract groundwater fordomes c use and limited quan es for irriga on.
Water resources in Nepal can be proﬁtably u lized forhydropower genera on, irriga on, domes c uses,
industrial, tourism, aquaculture and recrea onal ﬁsheries.
Of the above, hydropower development could become areliable source of energy and an a rac ve source ofrevenue with a theore cal poten al of 83,000 MW andeconomically feasible poten al of 45,610 MW (WECS
2017). Under 3% of this huge poten al is currently used.
In 2015, only 46% of the popula on was using
improved sanita on while 92% had access to improved
drinking water sources (WHO/UNICEF 2015).

4 | State of Water Quality
Data on water quality is very limited, but the water
quality of public water bodies is generally consideredgood except in urban areas, especially Kathmandu
Valley, which suﬀer from degrada on due to increasing
volumes of untreated or insuﬃciently treated domes cand industrial wastewater as well as waste dumped
directly into rivers and lakes. Increased use of fer lizer
and pes cide also add cri cal pressure on water quality,
especially in peri-urban areas where commercial farmingChapter 2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

COD (mg/L)
300

9
8

200

250

7

15/10/2014
15/10/2017

5

150

4

100

100

3

50

1
0

al
k
Go

S
Upstream

n
ar

a
Gu

s
he

r
wo

i
g
Til

g
an

a
o
an

r
ha

a

M
Downstream

0
d
un

ij
ar

al
k
Go

S
Upstream

n
ar

a

Gu

s
he

r
wo

i
g
Til

g
an

a
o
an

r
ha

a

M
Downstream

0
d
un

ar

ija

l
k
Go

S
Upstream

ar

na
Gu

s
he

wo

ri
g
Til

an

ga

o
an

ha

ra

M
Downstream

Myanmar

d
un

ij
ar

Malaysia250

Lao PDR

200

6

150

Republic of Korea

Dissolved Oxygen (mg/L)

Japan

Turbidity (NTU)

Indonesia

Soil erosion is one of the main causes of water qualitychanges in the majority of the river systems, which
receive huge volumes of sediment every year during
the wet season. Apart from sediment, most rivers are
generally considered good in quality. However, thoseflowing through cities are becoming polluted due toChinalack of proper waste and wastewater disposal andmanagement, for example the Bagma River, one of themost polluted rivers in Nepal. Figure 2.9.2 shows thestate of water quality in diﬀerent stretches of the Bagma
River. Currently, water in the downstream part of the
Bagma River ﬂowing in the city areas is not suitable fordrinking, recrea on or irriga on, due mainly to untreateddomes c wastewater (accoun ng for around 42% of total
BOD load) (NTNC 2009), as well as dumping of domes cand industrial waste and wastewater from livestock
farming (NTNC 2009). Pollution loads also arise fromothers sectors, for example from development ac vi essuch as sand mining, and encroachment of river banks.
Improper river bank protec on works have also caused
sedimenta on issues.

4.1 Rivers

250

Cambodia(such as vegetables) is extensive. Insuﬃcient access tosanitation facilities also leads to negative impacts onwater quality in both surface and underground waters.
The rainy season leads to increased water-borne
diseases in rural areas due to contamina on from unsafe
sanita on, as well as increased sedimenta on especiallyin rural areas due to soil erosion.

Figure 2.9.2. Water quality at diﬀerent stretches of the Bagma River observed during October of the years 2014 and 2017

Viet Nam

Both shallow and deep groundwater in Nepal is at riskof contamination. Shallow groundwater is polluted bypathogenic bacteria, pesticides, nitrate and effluentsfrom industrial and domestic sources.The pesticides
and nitrate contamination has mostly resulted fromThailand

4.3 Groundwateruse of inorganic fertilizers and pesticide sprays in the
agricultural sector. Unplanned urban development andinsufficient waste management facilities are the maincauses of groundwater pollution in rural areas. Deepgroundwater in Kathmandu and Terai is largely anaerobic
and vulnerable to increased concentrations of iron,manganese, ammonium and arsenic. Deep aquifers in
the Terai become anaerobic due to overlying poorly
permeable thick layers of clayey soil. According to the
Department of Water Supply and Sewerage (DWSS),
arsenic has been detected in tube-wells throughout the
Terai districts – over one million at 0-10 ppb, around58,179 at 11-50 ppb and some 18,799 at above 50 ppb(CBS 2014).

Sri Lanka

Similarly to river water quality, lake water in the country is
generally good, but some lakes are under pressure from
economic development and popula on growth, which
has degraded water quality. For example, eutrophica on
has been observed in the Phewa Lake and otherwetlands in the south Terai region, which has also led todeteriorated local ecosystems.

Philippines

4.2 Lakes and Reservoirs

Nepal(Source: High Powered Commi ee for the Integrated Development of the Baghma Civiliza on website<h p://www.bagma .gov.np/bagma -water-quality-test-report.php>)
The availability of water quality data for other river basins is very limited due to the lack of regular water quality monitoring.

91

5 | State of Wastewater Treatment
Surface water sources, especially in urban areas, havebeen heavily polluted by the discharge of untreatedwastewaters and dumping of sep c sludge from on-site
sanita on systems. Sep c tanks and pit-latrines in urban
localities have been posing the risk of ground waterpollu on. Rapid and unplanned urban growth and lack ofadequate investment are responsible for the current poor
state of wastewater management in Nepal, especially
Kathmandu Valley, and none of the municipali es haveproperly functioning wastewater treatment systems(WWTS) (MWSS 2015). Kathmandu valley has fourmunicipal wastewater treatment plants of which only
one is functional, but running over capacity. Outside
Kathmandu, Hetauda has a WWTS but its functional
state is unknown. Decentralized wastewater treatment
systems (DEWATS) have been promoted across Nepal,
mainly by NGOs and INGOs, and since 1997 over 70
have been established in communi es, hotels, hospitals,
factories, and so on (ENPHO 2017).
The status of wastewater management of industrial
wastewater is largely unknown and unreported. The
Department of Environment, which was establishedrecently in 2013, lacks the resources and capacity (humanresources for monitoring/sampling and analysis labs) to
enforce compliance with exis ng eﬄuent standards.
Monitoring of eﬄuents from selected industries foundthem mostly exceeding the na onal standard (WEPA2017), in par cular tanning (leather), fermenta on(alcohol), dyeing, and non-alcoholic beverages. The main
reasons for non-compliance are the inability of exis ng
industries, especially smaller ones, to invest in expensive
treatment facili es, the fact that the new acts andregula ons came into eﬀect a er the date ofestablishment of these industries, and the government’s
priori za on of development and employment
genera on.

covers the basic principles and measures to counteract
environmental degrada on, such as environment impact
assessments, issuance of pollu on control cer ﬁcates,
environmental inspections, compensation systems foradverse impacts and environment protection areas.
There are also several related acts which could help
reduce environmental impacts on rivers and lakes. In
terms of water environmental management and waterpollu on, there is no one par cular law.

6.2 Institutional arrangements
The Ministry of Popula on and Environment is responsible
for environmental protection through managing andcoordinating the country’s environmental protection
policies and measures. The ministry’s Department ofHydrology and Meteorology (DHM) implements andcoordinates the monitoring of river hydrology, climate,agro-meteorology, sediment, air quality, water quality,
limnology, snow hydrology, glaciology, and wind and solar
energy. The Groundwater Resources Development Board
under the Ministry of Irriga on also monitors the qualityof underground as well as surface water. As for water,
the Water and Energy Commission Secretariat (WECS)
takes on the role as an apex body for na onal planning
related to water and energy through the formulationand provision of assistance to water and energy-related
policy and strategy development. WECS is also mandated
to ensure sustainability by integrating environmental
agenda into development policies. Various ministries andline agencies at the national level promote water andenvironmental management, requiring these ministries
to coordinate the work between them.
The Cons tu on of Nepal 2015 (2072 BS) guarantees
the rights to a clean environment, healthcare andconserva on, management and use of natural resources.
Nepal has become a federal republic and has three layersof government, namely local, provincial and state.

6.3 Policy

6 | Frameworks for
Water Environmental Management
6.1 Legislation
Since the 1980s, various acts related to the environment
and water have been enacted, such as the Water Resource
Act (1992) and Environment Protec on Act (1996). The
objectives of environmental protection in the country
are to prevent adverse impacts on human and natural
ecosystems and conserve natural resources to achievesustainable development (Environment Protection
Act, or EPA 1997). The EPA is an umbrella law which92

Na onal awareness of environmental concerns emergedin the 1980s with the Sixth Five-Year Na onal Plan (1980–85), which oﬃcially stated the need for environmental
protec on. Further, the importance of developing andstrengthening enforcement of environmental protec onrelated regulations and standards was highlighted in
the Na onal Water Resources Strategy (2002) and the
National Wetland Policy (2003). Several policies andstrategies related to land use, building codes, waste
management, and conserva on and protec on of natural
resources and cultural heritage also incorporate water
environment conserva on (Table 2.9.2).

Chapter 2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Cambodia

Table 2.9.2. Na onal policies and strategies related to water environmental conserva on

Other natural resources- Nepal Biodiversity Conserva on Strategy 2002
- Forest Sector Policy 2000
- Na onal Wetland Policy 2003

Wastes- Solid Waste Management Policy 1996

Industries/Services- Industrial Policy 1992
- Tourism Policy 1995
- Hydropower Development Policy 2001

Agriculture- Irriga on Regula on 2000, Irriga on Policy 2003 & 2013

Republic of Korea

Drinking water and Sanita on- Rural Water Supply and Sanita on Na onal Policy 2004
- Na onal Drinking Water Quality Standards 2005 (NDWQS 2005) and
Implementa on Direc ves for NDWQS, 2005
- Urban Water Supply and Sanita on Policy 2009
- Sanita on and Hygiene Master Plan 2011
- Nepal Water Supply, Sanita on and Hygiene Sector Development Plan (2016–2030)

Japan

Water

- Water Resource Act 1992
- Water Resource Regula on 1993
- Na onal Water Supply Sector Policy 1998
- Water Resource Strategy Nepal 2002
- Na onal Water Plan 2005
- Water Induced Disaster Management Policy 2015
- Na onal Water Resources Policy 2017 (Dra )Indonesia- The Na onal Conserva on Strategy 1988

China

Environment (overall)(Source: Sein Aung Min 2014, Khin Ni Ni Thein 2013)(Source: Created by the WEPA Secretariat with inputs from WEPA Focal Point for Nepal)

Eﬄuent standards for diﬀerent pollu on sources are also
set up under EPA as follows:

7 | Recent Developments
in Water Environment Management

Systematic ambient water quality monitoring is notconducted in public water bodies in the country, althoughwater quality is monitored by different ministries andOver the past two decades the Nepalese government has
strengthened legisla on both in water and environmental

Viet Nam

6.6 Effluent and water quality monitoring

Thailand

Tolerance limits for wastewater discharged into inlandsurface waters from combined wastewater treatment
plants (CWTPs)

The Department of Environment is mandated to monitor
compliance. However, due to its relatively recent
establishment in 2013, it lacks adequate capacity andhuman resources to monitor compliance across thecountry. Moreover, current penal es for non-complianceare also very low (around 500 USD for non-complianceof standards and 1,000 USD for non-compliance ofEnvironment Management Plan) (WEPA 2017).

Sri Lanka

Tolerance limits for industrial eﬄuent discharged into
public sewers

6.7 Compliance management

Philippines

Tolerance limits for specific industrial effluent
discharged into inland surface waters (for nine industrial
sectors: tanning, wool processing, fermentation,
vegetable ghee and oil, paper and pulp, dairy products,
sugar milling, co on tex les, and soap)

Nepal

Tolerance limits for industrial eﬄuent discharged into
inland surface waters (generic)Myanmar

6.5 Effluent standards

agencies for different purposes (e.g., water quality
monitoring and surveillance under the Implementa on
Direc ves of the Drinking Water Quality Standards 2005).
Regular monitoring of the water quality of the Bagma
River is conducted by the High Powered Commi ee for
the Integrated Development of the Baghma Civiliza on,which started publishing data for the general public in
February 2014. Development of a water-related databaseis also set out in the ac on plan of the Na onal Water
Plan. The Department of Hydrology and Meteorology
under the Ministry of Population and Environment
monitors river and lake water quality.

Malaysia

Ambient water quality standards were establishedunder EPA (Article 24). There are two standards, eachwith diﬀerent purposes: the Nepal Water Guidelines for
Recrea on, and the Nepal Water Quality Guidelines forProtec on of Aqua c Ecosystems.

Lao PDR

6.4 Ambient water quality standards

93sectors. In water environmental management, both
sectors are closely interlinked but require further
coordina on. Eﬄuent standards have been set up overthe past three years as prescribed in the Na onal Water
Plan. The Government has also appointed environmental
inspectors since 2008 as s pulated in the Environment
Protection Act 1996 and Environment Protection
Regulation 1997, but the numbers of inspectors is
considered inadequate. The Government also establishedthe Department of Environment in 2013, under the
Ministry of Popula on and Environment, as a body formonitoring and enforcing environmental compliance.
Due to Nepal’s recent change of status into a federal
republic, seven federal provinces have been created,which is expected to decentralize decision-making
processes and lead to a new ins tu onal and regulatory
setup for water environment management.
Regarding Kathmandu, a valley-wide river
improvement project called the Bagma River Basin
Improvement Project 2014–2021 is currently underway.
The project, among others, aims at cleaning and beau fying
the river such as through establishing green zones. In
parallel with the project, there are plans to rehabilitate andconstruct sewer lines along the river as well as develop
wastewater treatment facili es (ADB 2013).

8 | Existing and Future Challenges
A framework of management has been set up for water
environmental management in Nepal. The next step to betaken is actual implementa on of the na on’s regula ons
and rules. However, the lack of sub-ordinances
enabling legislation and integration among related
legisla on and policies are major obstacles to achieving
a comprehensive framework for water environmental
management. Further, the lack of regular water quality
monitoring constrains development of a scien ﬁc basis
for policymaking, implementa on and review. There is
therefore a pressing need to coordinate ins tu ons todevelop institutional and human capacity in order topromote water quality monitoring not only in major ci es
but also across major river basins. To improve the present
state of Nepal’s water environment, it will be important toins gate legal instruments, which will bring about a senseof ownership. In addition, an environmental databasemust be developed, together with regular monitoring toenforce legisla on and ensure compliance.
Similarly, a er the 2015 Great Earthquake, it became
clearly apparent that Nepal also requires a strategy forwater environment management to cope with natural
disasters, especially in the provisioning of WASH services
to prevent deteriora on of water quality and public health.

94

Chapter 2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Cambodia

China

Indonesia

Japan

Republic of Korea

Lao PDR

Malaysia

Myanmar

Nepal

Philippines

Sri Lanka

Thailand

Viet Nam

95

2.10 Philippines
1 | Country information
Table 2.10.1. Basic indicators
Land Area (km2)

300,000 (2017)

Total Population

104.9* million (2017)

GDP (current USD)

304.9* billion (2016)

GDP per capita (current USD)

2,951* (2016)

Average Precipitation (mm/year)

2,348 (2014)

Total Renewable Water Resources (km3)479 (2014)

Total Annual Freshwater Withdrawals(billion m3)

81.6 (2014)

Annual Freshwater
Withdrawals
by Sectors

Agriculture

82.23% (2013)

Industry

10.12% (2013)

Municipal(including domestic)*Es mated

7.65% (2013)(Source: See References)

2 | Major River Basins in the Republic of
the Philippines (the Philippines)
AbulugLuzon

Abra

CagayanAgno

Pampanga

Manila Bay

ManilaPasig Laguna

Seven Lakes of
San Pablo

Taal Lake

Bicol

MindoroNaujan Lake

Samar

Panay
PalawanPanay
JalauoSebu

NegrosIlog Hilabangan
Tagoloan
CagayanLake Wood

Layte

Lake Mainit

Bohol

AgusanMindanao

Agus
Lake Lanao

Tagum
Libuganon
Davao
Buayan Malungan
Mindanao

Figure 2.10.1. Major river basins in the Philippines

The country has about 421 principal river basins withmore than 40 square km of drainage area. The 18 biggest
river basins with drainage areas greater than 1,400 square
km are typologically classiﬁed as major river basins andconsidered highly signiﬁcant in terms of contribu ons

96

to socio-economic development and ecological stability.
As a major source of water for agriculture, industry anddomes c needs, the government considers these river
basins as a priority for protec on, conserva on andsustainable use. At the same me, due to theirsuscep bility to major water-related hazards such as riverinunda on, ﬂooding, landslides, soil erosion, and drought,these basins are highly vulnerable to climate change,
making them a priority for rehabilita on and sustainable
management.

3 | State of Water Resources
The Philippines enjoys abundant water resources withwater availability of 5,302m3/year/capita, although this issubject to geographical and seasonal imbalances. There
are 421 principal river basins, of which 18 are consideredmajor, and 79 natural lakes. The coastline is 36,289 kmlong and around 64 out of 79 provinces are located incoastal areas.
Surface water is the main water source of the country
and an important resource for ﬁshing and transport.
Meanwhile, the country also has an extensive groundwater
reservoir with an aggregate area of about 50,000 km2.
Groundwater is also an important source fordomes c and drinking use in some regions, contribu ng
14% to the total water resource poten al, while about
50% of drinking water sources or 86% for piped watersupply systems depend on groundwater.
Due to popula on growth and economic
development, water demand has increased while water
quality has deteriorated, and according to na onal
government monitoring data, access to clean water is an
issue in some areas of the country, including Metro
Manila, Central Luzon, Southern Tagalog and Central
Visayas, especially during the dry season.

4 | State of Water Quality
Water classiﬁca on or reclassiﬁca on is a key componentof water quality management in the Philippines, as it is used
to interpret eﬄuent standards. The waters are classiﬁed
primarily based on the intended beneﬁcial uses that are
expected to last for at least the next ten years. In thePhilippines, the Department of Environment and Natural
Resources (DENR) - Environmental Management Bureau(EMB) undertakes the classiﬁca on or reclassiﬁca on ofChapter 2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Cambodia

wildlife conserva on and aesthe c purposes. The EMB
has classiﬁed 791 water bodies throughout the country.
Of the 421 principal rivers identified by the National
Water Resources Board (NWRB), 307 or 72.9% had beenclassiﬁed as of 2016. Table 2.10.2 shows the number ofclassiﬁed water bodies by region.

China

fresh water, coastal and marine waters according to DENR
DAO 34, series of 1990 as amended by DENR Department
Administrative Order (DAO 16-08). This is to maintainwater quality according to its intended beneﬁcial usage,
such as public water supply, agricultural, aquacultural,commercial, industrial, navigational, recreational,

Region (R)Principal River

Other Rivers

Marine Waters

14

10

1

R-1 (Ilocos Region)

Lakes

Indonesia

Table 2.10.2. Classiﬁed water bodies by region as of 2016
Total
0

25

R-2 (Cagayan Valley)

26

26

0

0

52

R-3 (Central Luzon)

16

43

5

0

64

32

1

2

61

31

27

18

1

77

R-5 (Bicol Region)

29

26

7

4

66

R-6 (Western Visayas)

31

27

15

0

73

R-7 (Central Visayas)

19

14

11

0

44

R-8 (Eastern Visayas)

23

29

9

1

62

27

5

0

49

12

29

3

1

45

R-11 (Davao Region)

17

16

5

0

38

R-12 (SOCCSKSARGEN)

14

28

6

2

50

R-13 (Caraga)

19

13

6

1

39

CAR (Cordillera Administra ve Region)

11

28

0

1

40

NCR (Na onal Capital Region)

2

3

1

0

6

NIR (Negros Island Region)

Malaysia

17

R-10 (Northern Mindanao)

Lao PDR

R-9 (Zamboanga Peninsula)

Republic of Korea

26

R-4B (Mimaropa Region)

Japan

R-4A (Calabarzon)

0

Total

307

378

93

13

791

MyanmarSec on 5 of DENR Administra ve Order No. 2016-08, the Philippines, adopted
in classiﬁca on of water bodies, as shown in Table 2.10.3
Table 2.10.3. Classiﬁca on of water bodies according to intended beneﬁcial use
Water body

Classification

Beneficial use

Public Water Supply Class II- For sources of water supply that will require complete treatment(coagula on, sedimenta on, ﬁltra on and disinfec on) to meet the latest PNSDWClass B

Recrea onal Water Class I- For primary contact recrea on such as bathing, swimming, etc.

Freshwaters- Navigable water

Class SA- Na onal marine parks and reserves established under Presiden al Proclama on 1801,(other exis ng laws), and/or declared as such by appropriate government agency- Fishery Water class I: Waters suitable for harves ng of shellﬁsh for direct human consump on

Class SB

- Fishery Water Class II: Suitable for commercial propaga on of shellﬁsh and spawning areas
for milkﬁsh (Chanos chanos) and similar species- Tourist Zones – For ecotourism and recrea onal ac vi es- Recrea onal Water Class I (Areas regularly used by the public for bathing, swimming, skin diving, etc.)

Class SC

- Fishery Water Class III: suitable for the propaga on and growth of ﬁsh and other aqua c resources
and for commercial and sustenance ﬁshing- Recrea onal Water Class II – For boa ng, ﬁshing and similar ac vi es- Marshy and/or mangrove areas declared as ﬁsh and wildlife sanctuaries

Class SD

- Navigable waters

Marine waters

Viet NamClass D

Thailand- Fishery Water for the propaga on and growth of ﬁsh and other aqua c resources- Recrea onal Water Class II (Boa ng, ﬁshing and similar ac vi es.)
- For agriculture, irriga on and livestock watering

Sri Lanka

Class C

Philippines

Class A

Nepal

Class AA

Public Water Supply Class I- Intended primarily for waters having watersheds, which are uninhabited and otherwise protected,
and which require only approved disinfec on to meet the latest Philippines Na onal Standards for
Drinking Water (PNSDW)(Source: DENR Administra ve Order No. 2016-08)(Source: DENR Administra ve Order No. 2016-08)

97

Major pollu on sources of surface and coastal waters
in terms of biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) load arepoint sources. The type of point source and contribu ng
ra o is shown in Figure 2.10.2. Among non-pollu on
sources, agricultural runoﬀ is the major source at 74% interms of BOD.
EŽŶͲƉŽŝŶƚƐŽƵƌĐĞƐ
11%ŽŵĞƐƟĐ
ƐŽƵƌĐĞƐ
33%/ŶĚƵƐƚƌǇ
27%

ŐƌŝĐƵůƚƵƌĞͲ>ŝǀĞƐƚŽĐŬ
29%

Figure 2.10.2. BOD loads from key poten al pollu on sources(Source: DENR-EMB 2007)

4.1 Rivers
The EMB conducted inland surface water monitoring forrivers and lakes and priori sed 19 rivers for monitoring, of
which only seven passed the water quality guidelines for
DO of 5mg/l: the Imus River in Region IV-A, Sapangdaku
and Luyang Rivers in Region VII, Salog and Balos Rivers in
Region V, Cagayan de Oro River in Region X and Balili Riverin CAR. Figure 2.10.3 shows the percentage of water
bodies that passed or failed DO and BOD from 2013 to2016.

Dam as a main source of potable water in Metro Manila.
Therefore, the rehabilitation and improvement of thewater quality of this lake is a priority for the government.
The main sources of pollu on in the lake are domes c(77%), agriculture (11%) industry (11%) and forestry (1%).
According to the current water quality classiﬁca on, thecentral zone of this lake is suitable for ﬁsheries and thewest bay for irriga on. However, peripheral por ons ofwest bay are heavily contaminated with high sedimentloads and high levels of coliform counts.

4.3 Coastal Water
Coastal and marine waters cover an area of about
266,000 km2 around the country’s 36,289 km coastline –one of the longest coastlines in the world. The coast zone
houses around 54% of municipali es, home to around
62% of the country’s popula on, who directly dependon coastal and marine resources for their livelihood (Naz2013).
The quality of marine and coastal water is rela vely
good, except for Cansaga Bay in Region 7, where DO
levels are lower than 5 mg/L in all monitoring sta ons.
Twenty-six coastal and marine water bodies met thecompliance requirement, of which 54% showed DO
compliance with fair quality, 46% of good quality and 0%
for poor quality (DENR-EMB 2014). In terms of fecal
coliform, 34 of 41 priority bathing beaches met the Class
SB water quality value of 200MPN/100mL (DENR-EMB
2007).

4.4 Groundwater
100
80%Failed%Passed

Percentage

60
40
20
0

DO BOD2013

DO BOD2014

DO BOD2015

DO BOD2016

Figure 2.10.3. DO and BOD compliance percentage ofwater bodies(Source: EMB 2017)

4.2 Lakes and Reservoirs
There are 79 natural lakes in the country, mostly u lised
for fish production. Laguna Lake (Laguna de Bay) is
considered the largest body of water, with a total areaof 3,813.2 km2, as well as most important as it supports
thousands of ﬁshermen residing in Metro Manila. It isalso being considered as an alternative to the Angat

98

The status of groundwater quality is assessed through thePhilippine Na onal Standard for Drinking Water Under
the Tap Watch Program of the EMB, which monitors
88 shallow wells in the country. Of these, only 21 sites
met the potable groundwater quality standard, while 27
failed the fecal coliform standard for drinking water. An
additional 40 sites required further testing to confirm
potability. Nitrate levels were monitored in Metro Cebu
and Central Mindanao, of which not many were foundcontaminated. Studies conducted for salinity levels in
Metro Manila and Metro Cebu showed an increasein salinity in some locations in Metro Manila. Overabstrac on is considered to be the cause.

5 | Frameworks for Water Environment
Management
5.1 Legislation
Figure 2.10.4 shows the evolu on of water quality policies
and legisla on in the Philippines for water environment
management.

Chapter 2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

CambodiaůŝŵĂƚĞ
ŚĂŶŐĞĐƚŽĨϮϬϬϵŝƐĂƐƚĞƌZŝƐŬZĞĚƵĐƟŽŶ
ŶĚDĂŶĂŐĞŵĞŶƚ
ĐƚŽĨϮϬϭϬ

China
IndonesiaJapantĂƚĞƌŽĚĞŽĨ
ƚŚĞWŚŝůŝƉƉŝŶĞƐ;ϭϵϳϲͿ͖WƌĞƐŝĚĞŶƟĂůĞĐƌĞĞϭϬϲϳŽĨϭϵϳϲŶǀŝƌŽŶŵĞŶƚĂů/ŵƉĂĐƚ^ƚĂƚĞŵĞŶƚ^ǇƐƚĞŵ;ϭϵϳϴͿ͖WƌĞƐŝĚĞŶƟĂůĞĐƌĞĞ;W͘ͿϭϱϴϲŽĨϭϵϳϴŶǀŝƌŽŶŵĞŶƚĂůŽĚĞ;ϭϵϵϳͿ
ZĞƉƵďůŝĐĐƚEŽ͘ϳϭϲϬŽĨϭϵϵϭ͕ŬŶŽǁŶĂƐƚŚĞ>ŽĐĂů'ŽǀĞƌŶŵĞŶƚŽĚĞůĞĂŶtĂƚĞƌ
ĐƚŽĨϮϬϬϰ

Republic of Korea^ĂŶŝƚĂƟŽŶŽĚĞŽĨƚŚĞWŚŝůŝƉƉŝŶĞƐ;ϭϵϳϱͿ͖WƌĞƐŝĚĞŶƟĂůĞĐƌĞĞ;W͘͘ͿϴϱϲŽĨϭϵϳϱ

Figure 2.10.4. Evolu on of water quality policies and legisla on in the Philippines

2004 (Figure 2.10.4).
In addi on to the laws/regula ons in Figure 2.10.4,
other legisla on related to water environmental
conserva on, such as the Philippines Environmental
Policy (PD1151) and the Solid Waste Management Act(RA9003) exist. EMB is the governmental agency
responsible for water conserva on and protec on.

Lao PDR
Malaysia

The Philippines has an extensive body of waterrelated legisla on that provides the legal basis for policies
and regula ons concerning water resource managementof the country, including the Sanita on Code 1975, theWater Code 1976, the Environmental Impact Statement
System 1978, the Local Government Code 1991, theEnvironmental Code 1997 and the Clean Water Act ofMyanmarŽŶƐĞƌǀĂƟŽŶŽĨtĂƚĞƌZĞƐŽƵƌĐĞƐ
ŽŶƐĞƌǀĂƟŽŶŽĨtĂƚĞƌYƵĂůŝƚǇ

Nepal

RA 3931;ϭϵϲϰͿĂƐĂŵĞŶĚĞĚďǇWϵϴϰ;ϭϵϳϲͿĂƐƌĞƉůĂĐĞĚďǇ ZϵϮϳϱůĞĂŶtĂƚĞƌĐƚŽĨϮϬϬϰKďũĞĐƟǀĞ͗dŽƉƌŽƚĞĐƚ͕ĂďĂƚĞĂŶĚĐŽŶƚƌŽůƉŽůůƵƟŽŶŽĨǁĂƚĞƌ͕ĂŝƌĂŶĚůĂŶĚ͘

Kϯϱ;ϭϵϵϬͿZĞǀŝƐĞĚŋƵĞŶƚZĞŐƵůĂƟŽŶ
ͲKďũĞĐƟǀĞ͗dŚĞƐĞƌƵůĞƐĂŶĚƌĞŐƵůĂƟŽŶƐƐŚĂůůĂƉƉůǇƚŽĂůůŝŶĚƵƐƚƌŝĂůĂŶĚŵƵŶŝĐŝƉĂůǁĂƐƚĞǁĂƚĞƌĞŋƵĞŶƚ
KϯϰͲZĞǀŝƐĞĚtĂƚĞƌhƐĂŐĞĂŶĚůĂƐƐŝĮĐĂƟŽŶtĂƚĞƌYƵĂůŝƚǇƌŝƚĞƌŝĂ
ͲKďũĞĐƟǀĞ͗^ŚĂůůĐůĂƐƐŝĨǇĂůůďŽĚŝĞƐŽĨǁĂƚĞƌĂŶĚĐŽŵƉůǇǁŝƚŚƚŚĞǁĂƚĞƌƋƵĂůŝƚǇĐƌŝƚĞƌŝĂ

DĂƌŝŶĞtĂƚĞƌZĞƐŽƵƌĐĞƐWƌŽƚĞĐƟŽŶ

ZϰϴϱϬ;ϭϵϲϲͿĂƐĂŵĞŶĚĞĚďǇWϴϭϯ;ϭϵϳϱͿ͕WϵϮϳ;ϭϵϴϯͿ
KďũĞĐƟǀĞ͗dŽƉƌŽŵŽƚĞ͕ĂŶĚĂĐĐĞůĞƌĂƚĞƚŚĞĚĞǀĞůŽƉŵĞŶƚĂŶĚďĂůĂŶĐĞĚŐƌŽǁƚŚŽĨƚŚĞ>ĂŐƵŶĂůĂŬĞĂƌĞĂǁŝƚŚĚƵĞƌĞŐĂƌĚƐĨŽƌĞŶǀŝƌŽŶŵĞŶƚĂůŵĂŶĂŐĞŵĞŶƚĂŶĚĐŽŶƚƌŽů͕ƉƌĞƐĞƌǀĂƟŽŶŽĨƵŶĚƵĞĞĐŽůŽŐŝĐĂůĚŝƐƚƵƌďĂŶĐĞ͕ĚĞƚĞƌŝŽƌĂƟŽŶĂŶĚƉŽůůƵƟŽŶ
WϵϳϵDĂƌŝŶĞWŽůůƵƟŽŶĞĐƌĞĞŽĨϭϵϳϲKďũĞĐƟǀĞ͗dŽĐŽŶƚƌŽůƉŽůůƵƟŽŶĚŝƐĐŚĂƌŐĞĨƌŽŵƐŚŝƉ

Sri LankaŽŶƐĞƌǀĂƟŽŶŽĨtĂƚĞƌZĞƐŽƵƌĐĞƐ
KǁŶĞƌƐŚŝƉ͕ĞǀĞůŽƉŵĞŶƚĂŶĚǆƉůŽŝƚĂƟŽŶ

PhilippinesŽŶƐĞƌǀĂƟŽŶĂŶĚWƌŽƚĞĐƟŽŶŽĨ>ĂŐƵŶĂ>ĂŬĞ

WϭϬϲϳtĂƚĞƌŽĚĞŽŶƐŽůŝĚĂƚĞůĞŐŝƐůĂƟŽŶƌĞůĂƟŶŐƚŽŽǁŶĞƌƐŚŝƉ͕ĚĞǀĞůŽƉŵĞŶƚ͕ĞǆƉůŽŝƚĂƟŽŶĂŶĚĐŽŶƐĞƌǀĂƟŽŶŽĨǁĂƚĞƌƌĞƐŽƵƌĐĞƐ

many water-related laws, but their enforcement is weak
and beset with problems including inadequate resources,
poor databases, and weak coopera on among diﬀerent
agencies and Local Government Units (LGUs).

Viet Nam

The Clean Water Act (RA 9275) and its Implementa on
Rules and Regula ons (DAO 2005-10) provide a framework
for water quality management in the Philippines, andemploy an integrated, holis c, decentralised, par cipatory
approach, as shown in Figure 2.10.5. The Philippines has(Source: EMB 2017)

ThailandFigure 2.10.5. Legisla ve chart of water quality management995.2 Institutional Arrangements
A number of institutions and agencies are involved inoverseeing water governance at all levels, ranging fromlocal, regional, na onal and even global levels, and leadagency for water resource management is the Departmentof Environment and Natural Resources (DENR). The
responsibility for planning and managing water resourcesin the Philippines is shared among several government

departments, bureaus and agencies. In addition, local
government units (LGUs) are required to provide watersupply systems, communal irriga on facili es, implementsocial forestry and local ﬂood control projects under thesupervision and control of DENR (SEPO, 2011).
A number of key na onal government agencies
involved in water environmental management in
Philippines are presented in Table 2.10.4.

Table 2.10.4. Key governmental agencies involved in water environmental management in Philippines
Department

Line Agency

Na onal Economic and Development Authority (NEDA)

Functions
Coordinates the prepara on of na onal/regional/sectoral development policies
and investment programs, including those on sanita on.

Na onal Water Resources
Board (NWRB)

Administers/enforces the Water Code and serves as the lead coordinator forwater resources management programs.

Forest Management Bureau(FMB)

Formulates/implements policies and programs for the protec on, development,
and management of forest lands and watershed areas.

Environmental
Management Bureau (EMB)

Sets and enforces water quality and eﬄuent standards, criteria and guidelines
for all aspects of water quality management.

Na onal Irriga on
Administra on (NIA)

Undertakes water resource projects for agricultural irriga on and otherpurposes, such as ﬂood control and drainage, hydropower development, etc.

Bureau of Soil and Water
Management (BSWM)

Formulates/implements policies and programs for the protec on of exis ng
and poten al sources of soil and water for agricultural development.

Bureau of Fisheries andAqua c Resources (BFAR)

Establishes plans for the proper protec on and management of the country’sﬁsheries and aqua cs resources.

Department of Health(DOH)

Environmental
Health Service (EHS)

Regulates drinking water quality, supervises general sanita on ac vi es andcountrywide surveillance of drinking water sources to protect public health.

Department of
Public Worksand Highways(DPWH)

Environmental
and Social Services Oﬃce
(ESSO)

Designs and manages the Na onal Sewerage and Septage Management
Programs. DPWH is now the lead agency for the urban sanita on sector andis also responsible for planning, design, construc on and maintenance ofinfrastructure facili es (including water resources development systems) andother public works.

Department of Interior andLocal Government (DILG)

Water Supply
and Sanita on Unit

Provides capacity building programs for LGUs in preparing local water supply
and sanita on plans, providing informa on on available sector programs, andfacilita ng access to ﬁnancing for water supply and sanita on projects.

Na onal Power
Corpora on (NPC)

Develops and manages electric genera on facili es including but not limited to hydroelectric dams andundertakes other ac vi es related to watershed management.

Metropolitan Waterworks
and Sewerage System(MWSS)

Regulates water concessionaires’ rates and service standards in Metro Manila and maintains exis ng assets andinfrastructure.

Local Water U li es
Administra on (LWUA)

Promotes/ﬁnances/regulates the construc on and opera on of local water u li es outside Metro Manila.

Department of Environment
and Natural Resources(DENR)

Department of Agriculture(DA)(Source: See References)

5.3 Water Environmental Policy
To maintain water quality and mi gate water pollu on,
various programs have been implemented, which
include the Priority rivers monitoring program, (Ilog
River conserva on and restora on program linked with
LGUs, NGOs and other interested par es); ADOP ESTERO
Program (clean-up program of creeks and esteros in100

partnership with the private sector through MoUs); TAP
Watch Program (monitoring program for drinking water inpoor communi es); Industrial Eco Watch Program (ra ng
program for environmental performance); Recrea onal
water monitoring Program (monitoring of tourist
beaches); and the Philippine Environment Partnership
Program (suppor ng self-regula on eﬀorts in industries).

Chapter 2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Industries

Other Non-Point SourcesJapan

Figure 2.10.6. Conceptual framework of water quality management under the Clean Water Act

MyanmarDesignated WQMAs

Pinacanauan de Tuguegarao (DAO 2013-06)

Naguilian River System (DAO 2016-18)

Marilao-Meycauayan-Obando River System(DAO 2008-07)

Bued River System (DAO 2016-03)

San Juan River System (DAO 2012-04)

Imus- Ylang ylang-Rio Grande Rivers(DAO 2013-02)

Naga River Watershed (DAO 2016-04)

Areas within LLDA JurisdicƟon (RA 9275)

Sabang Bay (DAO 2016-6)

Butuanon River watershed (DAO 2014-05)
Ormoc Bay and its Associated Watersheds(DAO 2013-21)/ůŽͲŝůŽͲĂƟĂŶŽZŝǀĞƌ^ǇƐƚĞŵ;KϮϬϬϵͲϭϭͿCoron Bay (DAO 2016-05)
Jalaur River System (DAO 2014-08)

Tumaga River (DAO 2013-01)

Cagayan de Oro River basin and
Adjacent Rivers (DAO 2013-18)
Taguloan River Basin (DAO 2016-16)
Taguibo River (DAO 2012-11)
Talomo River (DAO 2016-17)

Davao River (DAO 2013-04)

Silway River (DAO 2010-10)

Lake Sebu (DAO 2016-14)

Sarangani Bay (DAO 2009-12)

Figure 2.10.7. Designated water quality management area

Viet Nam

Ayala River (DAO 2016-15)

ThailandTigum-Aganan Watershed (DAO 2006-18)

Sri Lanka

Calapan River (DAO 2013-3)

Lake Buhi Watershed (DAO 2013-16)

Philippines

Sinocalan-Dagupan River System(DAO 2011-14)

Nepal

Balili River (DAO 2013-05)

Cañas-Maalimango Rivers (DAO 2016-19)

Malaysia

Calao-Deliquente-Diadi River System(DAO 2015-13)

Lao PDR

Designa on of Water Quality Management Areas
Water Quality Management Areas (WQMA) are a newfeature of water environmental management introducedby the Philippines Clean Water Act of 2004 or Republic
Act No. 9275, which intends to strengthen and promote
efficient and effective water quality management at
local levels with similar hydrological, hydro-ecological,
meteorological or geographic condi ons (Tuddao 2011).
Governing boards, composed of relevant stakeholders
in each WQMA and chaired by DENR regional offices,
are responsible for the development of strategies tocoordinate policies, regulations/local legislation, andother measures necessary to effectively implement
the Clean Water Act. WQMA applies the concept ofbasin management, which also benefits water quality
management. It takes this approach because of (1) the
manageable size of planning and management areas
with similar physical condi ons, (2) it enables focusedmanagement and actions to address specific issues ineach area, and (3) the ease of monitoring water quality(Tuddao 2011).
As of 2016, the DENR and the NWRB had designated
31 WQMAs throughout the country, numbers of which ineach area can be seen in the Figure below.

Republic of Korea

The following are some examples of key features of
the new water quality management framework.

Indonesia

Households

ChinatĂƚĞƌYƵĂůŝƚǇDĂŶĂŐĞŵĞŶƚĐƟŽŶWůĂŶ(WQMAP)

Cambodia

Integrated Water Quality Management FrameworkĞƐŝŐŶĂƟŽŶŽĨtĂƚĞƌYƵĂůŝƚǇDĂŶĂŐĞŵĞŶƚƌĞĂƐ;tYDͿEŽŶͲƩĂŝŶŵĞŶƚƌĞĂƐ;EͿEĂƚ/͘^ĞǁĞƌĂŐĞĂŶĚ^ĞƉƚĂŐĞDĂŶĂŐĞŵĞŶƚWƌŽŐƌĂŵ
ůĂƐƐŝĮĐĂƟŽŶͬZĞĐůĂƐƐŝĮĐĂƟŽŶ
'ƌŽƵŶĚǁĂƚĞƌsƵůŶĞƌĂďŝůŝƚǇDĂƉƉŝŶŐ
tY'ƵŝĚĞůŝŶĞƐ
ŋƵĞŶƚ^ƚĂŶĚĂƌĚƐ
ĂƚĞŐŽƌŝǌĂƟŽŶŽĨ/ŶĚƵƐƚƌǇ
tĂƐƚĞǁĂƚĞƌŚĂƌŐĞ^ǇƐƚĞŵ
ŝƐĐŚĂƌŐĞWĞƌŵŝƚƐ
&ŝŶĂŶĐŝĂů>ŝĂďŝůŝƚǇ
WƌŽŐƌĂŵŵĂƟĐ/
/ŶĐĞŶƟǀĞƐĂŶĚZĞǁĂƌĚƐ
WƌŽŚŝďŝƟŽŶƐͬ^ĂŶĐƟŽŶƐͬĐƟŽŶƐ

(Source: EMB 2016)

101

Designa on of non-a ainment areas
In cases where speciﬁc pollutants exceed water quality
guidelines, DENR shall designate these areas as “nonattainment areas.” In the designated areas, pollution
control measures are strengthened to comply withstandards; for example, new sources of pollution areprohibited in the non-a ainment areas without plans to
reduce total pollu on loads from a facility not mee ng
guideline values.
Water pollu on permits and wastewater charge system
The wastewater charge formula was established in 2005
(DAO 2005–10) on the basis of payment to the government
for discharging wastewater into water bodies in all water
management areas. The concept behind this was for it toact as an incen ve for those who discharge pollutants to
reduce their pollu on loads, such as through improved
produc on processes and investment in pollu on control
technologies. DENR also issues discharge permits for
wastewater, which include the allowable values of bothquan ty and quality of eﬄuents, compliance scheduleand monitoring requirements.
Incen ves and rewards
For outstanding and innova ve projects, technologies,
processes and techniques, and activities, rewards areprovided to individuals, private organisa ons and otheren es from the Na onal Water Quality Management
Fund. Incen ves for industries are also provided, suchas tax and duty exemptions for industrial wastewater
treatment/collec on facili es.

5.4 Ambient Water Quality Guidelines
The rules and regula ons established in this sec on areintended to maintain and preserve the quality of all water
bodies based on their intended beneﬁcial usage and toprevent and alleviate pollution and contamination toprotect public health, aqua c resources, crops, and otherliving organisms. The water quality guidelines (WQG)
are to be maintained for each water body classiﬁca on,
the parameters of which are categorized as primaryor secondary. Primary parameters are the required
minimum water quality parameters to be monitored foreach water body, and Secondary parameters are thoseused in baseline assessments as part of an environmental
impact assessment and for other water quality monitoring
purposes.
Monitoring of water quality in public water bodies
EMB and its regional offices conduct regular water
quality monitoring throughout the country based on the102

parameters indicated in DAO 34 as amended by DAO 1608. From 2001 to 2016, 238 water bodies were monitored
either for classification or for regular water quality
monitoring, and depending on the resources, monitoringis carried out monthly or quarterly in accordance with
the DENR-EMB Water Quality Monitoring manual (2009).

5.5 General Effluent standards
Sec on 7 of DA) 16-08 provides that discharges from any
point sources shall at all mes meet the eﬄuent standards
set forth to maintain the required water quality per water
body classiﬁca on. The general eﬄuent standard (GES)
is to be used regardless of industry category. Effluent
used for irriga on and other agricultural purposes shallconform to the Department of Agriculture Administra ve
Order 2007-26. The Clean Water Act requires owners or
operators of facili es that discharge regulated eﬄuentsto obtain a discharge permit, which is legal authorisa on
granted by the DENR to discharge wastewater. The
permit needs to specify items such as quantity andquality of eﬄuent, compliance schedule and monitoring
requirements, and can be suspended or revoked if
business en es fall out of compliance with the rules andregula ons and/or permit condi ons.
Eﬄuent monitoring
Eﬄuent monitoring can only be carried out by the subjects
needing to comply with eﬄuent standards themselves, inprinciple. A manual on eﬄuent monitoring was issued by
DENR-EMB in 2009. In order to determine complianceby industrial establishments, a series of surveys andfollow-up inspec ons are conducted by one of DENR’s 16
regional oﬃces.

6 | Recent Developments inWater Environmental Management
The Philippine government now focuses on themi ga on of water quality deteriora on as a priority,
mostly due to domes c and industrial pollu on sources,
in highly urbanised centers, par cularly Metro Manila,
using ecosystem approaches:- The government and the two private Water Service
Utilities/Water Concessionaires (Manila Water
Company and Maynilad Water Services, Inc.) are
now fast-tracking the installation of domestic
wastewater treatment facilities/plants in Metro
Manila to achieve 100% coverage;- Strict monitoring of industry compliance as regards
Clean Water Act on the provision of en re industrial

Chapter 2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Promote and integrate Water Quality Management at
the basin level. Incorporate water quality management
strategies and ac on plans into basin-level local plansand programs consistent with the component ac vi es,
projects and programs identified in the long term
Integrated development and management Plan of river
basins (Master Plan).

Strengthened partnership with the private sector/
business groups in water environmental management:- Principle of Corporate Social Responsibility (shared
responsibility, common vision).

Thailand
Viet NamStrengthen ins tu onal mechanisms and mul -sectoral
par cipa on in water quality management, to promotewater quality management.

Sri Lanka

Improve coordination and basic water environment
data collection system for efficient, effective flow of
informa on.

Philippines

Develop systematised technical and operational
approach to water environment monitoring.

Nepal

Strengthen Water Quality Monitoring System throughcapacity building and establishment of the necessary
infrastructure and equipment support.

MyanmarAugment and improve access to fund availability,
including public and private investment to support theestablishment of water quality improvement facili es
and infrastructures so as to comply with therequirements under the provisions of the Clean Water
Act of 2004.

Malaysia

Various challenges are currently being experienced by
the country regarding water environmental management
and governance, and in order to address these iden ﬁed
challenges and threats, the following measures andac ons are recommended:

Lao PDR

7 | Challenges and Recommended
Intervention Measures

Complete data collection and storage of baseline
informa on on all water resources data, including ofexisting governing policies and institutional
mechanisms. Address threats and risks associated withwater pollu on due to disposal of untreated wastewater,and eﬀects of climate change on water resources andwater security, in consonance with the country’s eﬀorts
to achieve SDG Target 6.3, which s pulates achievementof “by 2030, halving the proportion of untreatedwastewater.”Republic of Korea

Strengthened government monitoring system oncompliance with the Clean Water Act by industry andother stakeholders, through capacity building andprivate and public investment, including theimplementa on of a strict Self-Monitoring System inwater environmental management.

Integrate and link Water Quality management with
Disaster Risk Reduction management plans andmeasures, in view of the an cipated adverse Climate
Change impacts on water resources and communi es.

Japan- Adopt a River/Esteros/Bodies of Water Program(now covers 300 Corporate/Business Groups (BGs)
na onwide commi ed to suppor ng the government
in river clean-up eﬀorts and restora on of at least
one BG per river within a speciﬁc meframe).

Indonesia- Implementation of the Polluter Pays Principle(Developing market-based instruments, payment offees on wastewater discharges).

China

Implement mitigation measures and strategies toprevent, control or reduce water quality decline
through integrated ecosystem approach.

Cambodia

wastewater treatment plants and imposing
immediate sanc ons and penal es to violators of the
law;

103

2.11 Sri Lanka
1 | Country information

3 | State of Water Resources

Table 2.11.1. Basic indicators

There are 103 river basins in Sri Lanka, with a total lengthof ca. 4,500 km (UNESCO and MoAIMD 2006). The largest
river is the Mahaweli River which is 335 km long andcovers an area of 10,448 km2 (MENR and UNEP 2009).
In addi on, there are many reservoirs, including ancientirrigation reservoirs and recently constructed multipurpose reservoirs with a total area of 169,941 ha (Table
2.11.2).

2Land Area (km )62,710 (2016)

Total Population

21.2 million (2016)

GDP (current USD)

81.322 billion (2016)

GDP per capita (current USD)

3,835.4 (2016)

Average Precipitation (mm/year)

1,712 (2014)

Total Renewable Water Resources (km3)

52.8 (2009)

Total Annual Freshwater Withdrawals(billion m3)

13 (2005)

Annual Freshwater
Withdrawal
by Sectors

Table 2.11.2. Es mated reservoir areas in Sri Lanka
Type of Reservoir

NumberArea(ha)

Percentage(%)

Agriculture

87.3% (2005)

Industry

6.4% (2005)

Major irriga on reservoirs (ancient)73

70,85041.7

Municipal(including domestic)

6.2% (2005)

Medium scale reservoirs (ancient)160

17,001

10>10,000

39,271

23.1

N/A

4,049

2.4

7

8,097

4.8

Mahaweli mul purpose system ofreservoirs

13,6508.0

Other

17,023

10

Total area

169,941

100(Source: Annual Report Central Bank 2016)

Minor scale reservoirs (ancient)
Flood plain lakes

2 | Major Water Bodies in Sri Lanka

Bay of Bengal

Upland hydroelectric reservoirs(recent)(Source: MENR and UNEP 2009)
Ma OyaPadawiya Tank

Kala Oya

Mahaweli Ganga

Kaudulla Tank

RajanganaReservoir
Mundal Lagoon

Kala Wera
Minneriya Tank
Parakrama
SamudraChilaw Lagoon

Maha Oya
Negombo Lagoon
Lunawa Lagoon
Bolgoda Lake

Madura Oya

Kelani
Ganga

Madura Oya
Reservoir
Victoria Reservoir

Randenigala
Reservoir

Rantambe
Reservoir

Kalu Ganga Uda Walawe
Reservoir

Sri Jayewardenepura
Gin Ganga
Kotte

NilwalaGanga

WalaweGanga

Figure 2.11.1. Major water bodies in Sri Lanka

104

Groundwater resources in the country are es matedat ca. 7,800 million m3/year (IGES 2007; MENR and UNEP
2009; Nandalal 2010). Groundwater is the major sourceof water especially in rural areas, and it is es mated thatca. 72% of the rural popula on relies on groundwater fordomes c use (Nandalal 2010).

4 | State of Water Quality
Groundwater and surface water pollu on by industrial
wastewater con nues to be a problem in Sri Lanka. The
popula on coverage of the central wastewater treatment
facili es is less than 5%, and commonly comprises onsite
sep c tanks among urban dwellings.

4.1 Rivers
The main cause of water pollution in urban areas is
dumping of domes c and industrial wastes and untreatedwastewater into waterways. Water quality in the Kelani
River, one of the major water sources for Colombo, isChapter 2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Lao PDR
Malaysia
Myanmar
Nepal
Philippines
Sri Lanka
Thailand
Viet Nam

TN and TP from agricultural non-point sources cons tutea large problem. It is es mated that the annual averageuse of synthe c fer lizer in Sri Lanka is 77 kg/ha, which is
2-8 mes higher than average for other Asian countries(CCCRM 2016). Fertilizer consumption per hectare
in Sri Lanka was quite high in 2008 (311.8 kg/ha) andgradually decreased during 2008–2013 to 161.6 kg/ha
in 2013. However, it rose again in 2014 to 245.2 kg/ha,
and represents one of the major issues of water pollu on
in Sri Lanka (World Bank 2017). On the other hand, inurban areas, haphazard wastewater disposal and lackof awareness by inhabitants contribute to nutrient
enrichment of surface water.

Republic of Korea

Water pollu on in coastal water bodies has grown over the
past few decades due to rapid development ac vi es andhuman se lements both in and outside coastal areas,establishment of new industries and development of
tourism. It is es mated that 61.6 % of industrial units
reside in Sri Lanka’s coastal zone (CCCRM 2016). There areover 30 coastal divisions with industrial units, most ofwhich are clustered in the coastal districts of Colombo andGampaha. This has been a major reason for the coastal
pollu on over the last three to four decades. The Coastal
Resource Management Project (CRMP), implemented by

4.5 Wastewater and Major PollutantsJapan

4.3 Coastal water

A common groundwater quality problem in the country
is pathogenic pollu on, which is mainly caused by poor
sanita on systems such as pit latrines (MENR and UNEP
2009; Nandalal 2010). Nitrate is also iden ﬁed in coastal
aquifers such as in Jaﬀna and Kalp ya because of excessive
fer lizer use and untreated wastewater (Nandalal 2010).
High salinity is also an issue especially in coastal zones,
which is exacerbated by excessive groundwater use.
Naturally occurring ﬂuoride and arsenic were iden ﬁed insome areas of the country (Nandalal 2010). Over the past
decade there has been a signiﬁcant increase of pa ents
admitted with Chronic Kidney Disease of Unknown
Etiology, or CKDu (Weragoda & Kawakami 2016). In
addi on, contamina on of shallow groundwater, whichis the major source of drinking water in some regions, has
become a social issue that is suspected as being caused
by industrial wastewater. The CEA reports ongoing court
cases of groundwater pollu on by improper discharge of
waste oil in Chunnakam (CEA 2016). Results from studies
estimating the magnitude of pollution in surrounding
areas showed that 80% of the wells were polluted with
waste oil ranging from 0.3 to 19.4 mg/l (SLS limit 0.2mg/l
to 1.0 mg/l) in 2013; a further research showed 109 (73%)
wells having higher oil levels than standard, while seven(4%) wells were under the limit and 34 wells (23%) were
not contaminated with oil or grease (NWS&DB 2012).

Indonesia

In general, the water quality in lakes and reservoirs is
considered good. A study at the Boralesgamuwa Lake inthe suburban area of Colombo conducted from April toJuly 2012 showed that the mean value of COD ranged from15 mg/L to 112 mg/L and that of BOD5 from 3.0 mg/L to
6.8 mg/L. Another study on Kala Wewa (reservoir) from2010 to 2011 revealed mean value data on the following
parameters of water quality: BOD 3.2 mg/L, DO 6.3 mg/L,
conduc vity 1.05 μS/cm, nitrate 1.3 mg/L, phosphate 0.8
mg/L and sulphate 5.3 mg/L. These results show that theparameters at most monitoring points exceeded the
proposed ambient standards of the CEA for drinking
purposes. Various factors are considered to contribute tothis such, as the dumping of wastes, eﬄuents from sep ctanks and sewage, as well as draining of canals andindustrial discharges (Herath 2014).

4.4 Groundwater

China

4.2 Lakes and reservoirs

the Ministry of Fisheries and Ocean Resources, reported
that organic pollu on in seawater of the Beruwala andUnawatuna areas led to high BOD values throughout theyear (MENR and UNEP2009). The Sri Lankan Coast Guard
works for the preven on, reduc on, control andmanagement of pollu on arising from ship-based ac vi es
and shore-based mari me related ac vi es.

Cambodiaconsidered to be threatened by untreated or insuﬃciently
treated wastewater (Ratnayake 2010) and solid waste.
Although the proposed standard ambient water quality
levels have not been exceeded in most of the parametersof the Kelani, it is more heavily polluted compared toother rivers. Average values for water quality parameters
analysed by the CEA laboratory over the period ofJanuary to June 2016 were: pH 7.1, conduc vity 0.07 μS/
cm, turbidity 81.1 NTU, DO 5.3 mg/L, BOD 3.8 mg/L, COD
11.6 mg/L, chloride 11.5 mg/L, nitrate 0.45 mg/L, total
coliform 9066 MPN/100mL. Average values for water
quality parameters analysed from November 2013 to
September 2014 of Ma Oya were: pH 7.5, conduc vity
0.94 μS/cm, turbidity 92.7 NTU, DO 6.9 mg/L, COD
12.7 mg/L, BOD 2.1 mg/L, chloride 286.6 mg/L, nitrate
0.73 mg/L, phosphate 0.04 mg/L, total coliform 9395
MPN/100mL, Faecal coliform 3452 CFU/100mL (CEA
2016). Expansion of sand mining ac vi es also aﬀects
the river water quality such as in increased turbidity,
decreased water ﬂow and accelerated saltwater intrusion.

105

5 | State of Wastewater Treatment
5.1 Domes c
As of 2015, 93.0% of the popula on had access to basic
sanita on. Of the systems used, sep c tanks and Ven lated
Improved Pit Latrines (VIPs) comprise the majority, andsewage systems comprised 2.5% as of 2010. The country isaiming to increase the rate of connec ons to sewage
systems to 7% by 2020.

5.2 Industrial
Most factories in industrial zones are connected tocentralized wastewater treatment systems. Of 100
samples taken over the period of 2014–2016 fromdecentralized systems, over half were non-compliant
regarding regulatory BOD3 levels of 30 mg/L. MoratuwaRatmalana Biological Nutrient Removal Plant commenced
opera ons in 2013 and is the ﬁrst plant in Sri Lanka to treat
industrial wastewater with the Anaerobic/Anoxic/Oxic(A2O) system. In a preliminary study published in 2016,
Total Nitrogen (TN) and Total Phosphorus (TP) removal
rates were over 80%. In a study conducted in 2013, 92%
of 61 large hotels (with 50 or more rooms), and 17% of
215 medium and small hotels (with 49 rooms or less)had wastewater treatment systems. Tourism expansion
in Hikkaduwa, Beruwela and Unawatuna areas has led towater quality degrada on as well as visual pollu on ofbeaches (CCCRM 2016).

6 | Framework for
Water Environment Management
The Constitution of Sri Lanka states that protection,
preservation and improvement of the environment forŶǀŝƌŽŶŵĞŶƚĂůŽŶƐĞƌǀĂƟŽŶ(Overall)

the beneﬁt of the community is the responsibility of thestate (Ar cle 27/14) and that every person in the country
has a duty to “protect nature and conserve its riches”(Article28). Surface water resources – rivers, streams
and lakes – are controlled by the government, under the
Crown Lands Ordinance and the Cons tu on. The Haritha
Lanka Program, approved in June 2008, is the current basic
na onal policy document for environmental conserva on,
and aims to promote sound environmental management
in Sri Lanka by balancing the needs of social and economic
development and environmental integrity. The “Na onal
Ac on Plan for Haritha Lanka Program” was prepared in
the same year, based on the program, and includes steps tobe implemented during 2009–2016 under the supervisionof the National Council for Sustainable Development(NCSD 2009). The plan’s proposed strategies and ac ons
are a concerted effort of all relevant ministries andstakeholder ins tu ons. As for the environment pollu on
control domain, the Central Environment Authority (CEA)
prepares ﬁve-year ac on plans.

6.1 Legislation
The National Environmental Act (NEA) No.47 of 1980
(amended as Act No.53 of 2000) is the country’s basic
law protec ng the environment in the country. Under theAct, Na onal Environmental Regula ons were set up tos pulate wastewater quality standards to protect water
quality in public water bodies. Environmental impact
assessments (EIAs) are also regulated. Other acts andordinances related to water environmental management
are illustrated in Figure 2.11.2.

6.2 Institutional arrangements
The Ministry of Mahaweli Development and Environment

Marine and costal water qualityͲŽŶƐƟƚƵƟŽŶŽĨƚŚĞĞŵŽĐƌĂƟĐ^ŽĐŝĂůŝƐƚZĞƉƵďůŝĐŽĨ^ƌŝ>ĂŶŬĂͲEĂƟŽŶĂůŶǀŝƌŽŶŵĞŶƚĐƚEŽ͘ϰϳŽĨϭϵϴϬĂƐĂŵĞŶĚĞĚďǇEŽ͘ϱϲŽĨϭϵϴϴĂŶĚEŽ͘ϱϯŽĨϮϬϬϬDĂƌŝŶĞWŽůůƵƟŽŶWƌĞǀĞŶƟŽŶĐƚŽĨEŽ͘ϯϱŽĨϮϬϬϴŽĂƐƚŽŶƐĞƌǀĂƟŽŶĐƚEŽ͘ϱϳŽĨϭϵϴϰĂƐĂŵĞŶĚĞĚ
ďǇĐƚEŽ͘ϲϰŽĨϭϵϴϴͲŋƵĞŶƚƐĚŝƐĐŚĂƌŐĞƐƚĂŶĚĂƌĚƐ'ĂǌĞƩĞEŽ͘ϭϱϯϰͬϭϴĂŶĚƚŚĞƉƌĞƐĐƌŝďĞĚĂĐƟǀŝƟĞƐĨŽƌǁŚŝĐŚĂůŝĐĞŶƐĞŝƐƌĞƋƵŝƌĞĚŝŶ'ĂǌĞƩĞEŽ͘ϭϱϯϯͬϭϲ

Water resource development /management- WƌĞƐĐƌŝďĞĚƉƌŽũĞĐƚƐŝŶ'ĂǌĞƩĞEŽ͘ϳϳϮͬϮϮǁŚŝĐŚĂƉƉůǇƚŚĞ/ƉƌŽĐĞƐƐ
- WͲŶǀŝƌŽŶŵĞŶƚWƌŽƚĞĐƟŽŶƌĞĂƐĚĞĐůĂƌĞĚƵŶĚĞƌƚŚĞƐĞĐƟŽŶƐϮϰĂŶĚϮϰŽĨƚŚĞEĂƟŽŶĂůŶǀŝƌŽŶŵĞŶƚĂůĐƚEŽ͘ϰϳŽĨϭϵϴϬ

Ͳ>ŽĐĂůƵƚŚŽƌŝƟĞƐĐƚ;ĨŽƌŵƵŶŝĐŝƉĂůĂŶĚƵƌďĂŶĐŽƵŶĐŝůƐĂŶĚWƌĂĚĞƐŚŝǇĂ^ĂďĂŚͿDĂŶĂŐĞŵĞŶƚŽĨƐƉĞĐŝĮĐĂƌĞĂƐ

Ͳ/ƌƌŝŐĂƟŽŶKƌĚŝŶĂŶĐĞŚĂƉƚĞƌϰϱϯͲEĂƟŽŶĂůtĂƚĞƌ^ƵƉƉůǇΘƌĂŝŶĂŐĞŽĂƌĚĐƚEŽ͘ϮŽĨϭϵϳϰͲtĂƚĞƌZĞƐŽƵƌĐĞƐŽĂƌĚĐƚEŽ͘ϮϵŽĨϭϵϲϰ

Other acts related to water environmental managementͲhƌďĂŶĞǀĞůŽƉŵĞŶƚƵƚŚŽƌŝƚǇĐƚEŽ͘ϰϭŽĨϭϵϳϴĂƐĂŵĞŶĚĞĚ
ĨƌŽŵƟŵĞƚŽƟŵĞ
Ͳ'ƌĞĂƚĞƌŽůŽŵďŽĐŽŶŽŵŝĐŽŵŵŝƐƐŝŽŶ>ĂǁEŽ͘ϰŽĨϭϵϳϴĂƐĂŵĞŶĚĞĚďǇĐƚEŽ͘ϰϵŽĨϭϵϵϮͲDĂŚĂǁĞůŝƵƚŚŽƌŝƚǇĐƚEŽ͘ϮϯŽĨϭϵϳϵͲEŽƌƚŚtĞƐƚĞƌŶWƌŽǀŝŶĐŝĂůŶǀŝƌŽŶŵĞŶƚĂů^ƚĂƚƵƚĞ
EŽ͘ϭϮŽĨϭϵϵϬ

Figure 2.11.2. Laws and regula ons related to water environmental management

106(Source: created based on informa on from CEA)

Chapter 2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Tolerance limit values for the discharge of wastewateror eﬄuent (industrial / domes c) from a prescribedac vity into inland surface water.

Thailand
Viet Nam

Non-compliance results in ﬁnes or imprisonment basedon the Na onal Environmental Act (CEA2013).
Tolerance limit values exist for the discharge of

Sri Lanka

Tolerance limit values for the discharge of wastewateror eﬄuent from a prescribed ac vity into the publicsewer network, connected either to a common
treatment plant or a sea ou all or a combina on ofboth.

Philippines

Tolerance limit values for the discharge of leachates
from prescribed activity in respect of either solid
waste or hazardous waste landﬁll into either inlandsurface water, coastal water or both.

Nepal

Tolerance limit values for the discharge of wastewateror effluent from a prescribed activity in respect oftanning industries into either inland surface water,
coastal water or both.

MyanmarTolerance limit values for the discharge of wastewateror effluent from a prescribed activity in respect oftex le and apparel sector industries into either inlandsurface water, coastal water or both.

Malaysia

Tolerance limit values for the discharge of wastewateror effluent from a prescribed activity in respect ofrubber manufacturing, processing or modifying
industries into either inland surface water, coastal
water or both.

Lao PDR

Tolerance limit values for the discharge of wastewateror eﬄuent (industrial / domes c) from a prescribedac vity on land for irriga on purposes.

Republic of Korea

There is no regular monitoring of surface and groundwater
quality except for that of water intake quality, which is
conducted by the Na onal Water Supply and Drainage
Board. The CEA has ambient water quality monitoring
projects for diﬀerent river basins such as the Kelani River.
The Irriga on Department and other governmental
en es such as the Mahaweli Authority monitor water
quality under their own programs.

Tolerance limit values for the discharge of wastewaters
or eﬄuent (industrial / domes c) from a prescribedac vity into coastal water.

Japan

6.4 Monitoring of water quality
in public water bodies

Tolerance limit values for the discharge of wastewateror effluent (industrial and/or domestic) from aprescribed ac vity into the marine water.

Indonesia

Sri Lanka’s ﬁrst ambient water quality standards andclassiﬁca ons have been approved and are in the processof publica on as of February 2018 (table 2.11.3). Surface
water quality is evaluated by potable water standards(SLS614).

A revision of exis ng Eﬄuent Discharge Standards(Regula on No.1534/18 of 2008) was proposed due tosocio-economic and environmental condi ons as well as
implementa on problems. As a result, a series of
stakeholder consulta ons were held which resulted in
the revision of standards and introduc on of new
standards. Proposed eﬄuent discharge standards areapplied based on the point of discharge and the type ofeﬄuent iden ﬁed by the Environmental Pollu on Control
Unit of EPC Division as follows.

China

6.3 Ambient water quality standards

6.5 Effluent standards

Cambodiais the na onal authority for formula ng policies andguidelines for conserva on of the environment andnatural resources in Sri Lanka. Under the ministry are six
agencies responsible for policy implementa on, including
the CEA and the Marine Environment Protec on Authority(MEPA). The CEA was established in 1981 as the authority
with regulatory powers for ac vi es with adverse impacts
on the environment under Na onal Environment(Amendment) Acts No.56 of 1988 and No.53 of 2000.
Industrial water pollu on control is regulated under theprovisions of the NEA by the CEA. Diﬀerent governmental
agencies control diﬀerent areas of water environment
management: MEPA is in charge of the coastal and marine
environment, the Na onal Water Supply and Drainage
Board (NWS & DB) is responsible for water supply as well
as sewerage treatment and management, and otherorganisa ons responsible mainly for water resource
management include the Department of Irriga on, Water
Resources Board, and the Mahaweli Development
Authority. Governmental organisa ons related toconstruc on, engineering services, housing and common
ameni es such as the Condominium Management
Authority, Na onal Housing Development Authority, andthe Board of Investment (BOI) of Sri Lanka are not directly
related to water environmental management, but doregulate development and industrial ac vi es that aﬀect
the condi on of water quality. Local governments also
play an important role in water environmental
management in regula ng low-impact industries andac vi es prescribed by orders issued under the Na onal
Environmental Act, as well as in controlling on-site
sanita on systems such as pit latrines and sep c tanks,
tasks which are handled by public health inspectors.

107

Table 2.11.3. Final dra of Ambient Water Standards and Categories

Other

Nutrient

GeneralNo.

Parameter

Unit

Category A
Category B
Bathing
Water source
and contact
for simple
recreational
treatmentwater

Category C
Fish andAquatic Life
Water

Category D
Water sourcefor generaltreatment

Category E
Irrigation &Agriculture

Category F
Minimum
Water
Quality

1Colour

PTmg/l

20

-

-

100

-

-

2

Conductivity

μS/cm

-

-

-

-

700

-

3

Turbidity

NTU

5

-

-

-

-

4

mg/l

40

1,500

2,100

-

mg/l

-

-

-

-

-

-

25
250 des
600 max
6.0-8.5-

6

TSS
Total Hardness(as CaCO 3)pH

6.0-9.0

6.0-8.5

6.0-9.0

6.0-8.5

5.5-9.0

7

DO at 25°C

mg/l

6

5

5

4

3

3

8

BOD 5 at 20°C

mg/l

3

4

4

5

12

15

9

COD

mg/l

10

10

15

30

-

40

10

NO 3-N

mg/l

10

10

10

10

-

10

5

NH 3-NpH 7.5
11

pH7.5≤pH<8.5

-

-

0.94

-

-

9.1

mg/l

-

-

0.59

-

-

4.9

-

-

0.22

-

-

1.6

12

PO4-P

8.5≤pH
mg/l

0.7

0.7

0.4

0.7

-

-

13

Chloride (Cl)

mg/l

250

-

-

250

600

-

14

CN

mg/l

0.05

0.05

0.05

0.05

0.05

0.05

15

F

mg/l

1.5

-

-

1.5

-

-

16

SO -

mg/l

250

-

-

250

1,000

-

17

Cd

μg/l

5

-

5

5

-

5

18

Cr

μg/l

50

-

20

50

-

50

19

Cu

μg/l

-

100

-

-

100

20

Fe

μg/l

300 des
1,000 max

-

-

2,000

-

-

-

-

-

1,000

1,000

1,000

2
4

Pb
Hardness<120
21
Metal

120≤Hardness<180

μg/l

50

-

180≤Hardness
22

Micro Organism Organic Micro Pollutant

2

Mn

3
4

μg/l

1,000

1,000

1,000

23

Hg

μg/l

1

1

1

1

2

2

24

Ni

μg/l

70

100

100

100

200

100

25

Se

μg/l

10

10

5

10

-

-

26

Zn

μg/l

1,000

-

1,000

1,000

2,000

24,000

27

B

μg/l

-

-

-

-

500

-

28

As

μg/l

50

50

50

50

50

50

29

Al

μg/l

200

-

-

-

5,000

5,000

30

Phenolic compounds

μg/l

2

5

2

5

5

5

31

μg/l

100

-

100

100

-

300

μg/l

1,000

1,000

1,000

1,000

1,000

1,000

33

Oil/Grease
Anionic surfactants
as MBS
MCPA

μg/l

2

-

-

20

-

-

34

Pendimethalin

μg/l

2

-

-

20

-

-

35

Total Coliform

MPN/ 100ml

10,00010,000-10,000--36

Fecal Coliform

MPN/ 100ml

500 des1000 max

500 des1000 max

-

-

-

-

32

*For further details regarding the proposed water quality standards, please refer to the WEPA website (www.wepa-db.net).

108

Chapter 2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

66

Legal

20

Complaints

83

Monitoring

239

Commercial eﬄuent

745

Other

210

Total

1,363
(Source: CEA Annual Report 2016)

80 high pollu on ac vi esCategory B

33 medium pollu on ac vi esCategory C

25 low pollu on ac vi es

Provincial Oﬃcesof the CEA
Local Authority*The BOI has the authority to grant EPLs for the ac vi es registeredunder the BOI Act.

New strategies for industrial pollution control
New strategies have been implemented for 2018 toensure the zero discharge of wastewater by factories andprovide ﬁnancial assistance under a loan scheme named“E friend credit facility,” a collaboration between theViet Nam

Category A

Implementing
body*

ThailandActivities

Sri Lanka

Category

Philippines

Table 2.11.5. Categories of Environmental protec on
licenses and implementa on body

During the period of 2015–2017, water quality monitoring
was strengthened under a technical coopera on project
assisted by JICA. Water quality was previously monitored
at 12 locations on the Kelani River, the main drinking
water sources for the Colombo metropolitan area. A er
implementation of the project, five more monitoring
points were identified, and starting from 2016, water
quality monitoring has been carried out at 17 loca ons.
The Kelani River was categorized based on water userclasses (according to the proposed Ambient Water Quality
Standards) as a pilot program, the main aim of which is toprotect and manage river water by coopera ng with otherstate agencies such as local government authori es, theDepartment of Irriga on and the Na onal Water Supply& Drainage Board.
Establishment of a water quality monitoring sta on isin progress, and resulted from a pioneering project
ini ated by the Central Environmental Authority. It
represents Sri Lanka’s ﬁrst real- me water quality
monitoring of surface water. The monitoring sta on is tobe located at the water intake point at the Ambatale
Water Treatment Plant, and is planned to automa callymonitor parameters such as DO, Ammonia, pH, EC,
Turbidity, and TOC & Oil in water.

Nepal

Environmental protec on licenses (EPLs) are required forall en es in the country which discharge wastes into theenvironment, as prescribed by a regula on publishedunder the Na onal Environmental Act. EPLs are issued by
the CEA based on the Na onal Environmental Regula on
No.1533/16 and No.1534/18 of 2008. In total, 138
ac vi es are mandated to obtain EPLs by governmental
no ﬁca on (Gaze e No.1533/16, 2008). A revision to thelist of ac vi es in 2012 gave the CEA authority to issue
EPLs for the majority of industrial licenses (CEA 2013).
These ac vi es are divided into three categories according
to pollu on load level, as shown in Table 2.11.5.

River water quality monitoring & categorization

Myanmar

6.7 Compliance Management

7 | Recent Developments inWater Environmental Management

Malaysia

Environmental Protec on License (EPL)

Lao PDR

Number of Samples

Republic of Korea

PurposeJapan

Table 2.11.4. Industrial eﬄuent samples collected in 2016
by the CEA Laboratory

Indonesia

In principle, effluent quality is self-monitored by
the discharging industry concerned. However, not
all industries have monitoring facilities and the CEA
occasionally monitors effluents discharged fromindustries or activities that are suspected of noncompliance, and also inves gates eﬄuent quality issues
based on complaints received from the general public.

China

6.6 Effluent monitoring

In principle, EPLs are issued for water discharging
ac vi es that comply with na onal eﬄuent standards(Ratnayake 2010).
In 2016, 1,447 new EPLs were issued and 2,899 wererenewed by the CEA. In addi on, 40 new EPLs were
issued and 337 were issued by the BOI (CEA 2016 annual
report). In the event of public complaints, the CEA
inves gates industries in terms of their pollu on control
systems, and in 2016 a total of 2,802 complaints werereceived, of which 1,473 were resolved. Measures weretaken based on the results of the inves ga ons, one ofwhich was “The Na onal Green Award Program,”established in 2012. Its objec ve is to evaluate andencourage greener approaches and performance inenvironmental enhancement in industries, schools andlocal authori es or other ins tu ons (CEA 2016).

Cambodia

wastewater or eﬄuent (industrial or domes c) fromprescribed ac vi es into coastal waters, inland surface
waters, land for irriga on purposes, and so on. Revised
tolerance limits are announced through the CEA website(h p://www.cea.lk/web/en/).

109

Ministry of Finance, Ministry of Industries and commerce
and the Central Environmental Authority. In this scheme,loans up to 30 million Sri Lankan Rupees (LKR) are granted
to pollu on control projects in iden ﬁed industries a er
being evaluated by government agencies, including theCentral Environmental Authority (CEA).
The Marine Environmental Protec on Authority(MEPA) has ini ated a new project in collabora on with
the Central Environmental Authority. In this project, theNa onal Water Supply & Drainage Board and several
other government organisa ons will survey, iden fy andimplement strategies to control and monitor industrial
eﬄuent directly discharged into the Kelani River andother coastal areas near the Kelani River Basin.

8 | Existing and Future Challenges
Progress has been made in developing a management
framework for water quality over recent decades, suchas empowerment of the CEA in terms of pollu on control
and environmental management. On the other hand,water pollu on issues were iden ﬁed in some areas andvarious challenges remain to ensuring implementa on ofwater pollu on control measures.
( i ) Ins tu onal arrangements: Water resources both interms of quality and quantity are managed bydifferent agencies. Coordination among relevant
agencies needs to be strengthened to ensure morecomprehensive and eﬀec ve water management in
the country.
(ii) Strengthening legislation: Ambient water quality
standards and classiﬁca on of water bodies shouldbe established to strengthen water pollu on control.
Dra ambient water quality standards and revised
effluent standards are now awaiting publication.
Whilst the EPL system was reviewed and revised tostrengthen it, its implementa on also needs to bestrengthened.
(iii) Scien ﬁc evidence: Lack of baseline data is one of
the critical challenges in promoting water quality
management. The availability of as well as
accessibility to data stored in diﬀerent ins tu ons is
also an issue. Financial and ins tu onal arrangements
should be improved to establish systematic datacollec on and periodic analysis.

110

9 | Challenges to address
groundwater pollution
In the WEPA workshop on wastewater treatment
conducted in February 2015, par cipants from Sri Lankaconcluded that unclear ownership resul ng in unclear
managerial responsibility is a major policy challenge
in addressing groundwater pollution. The following
challenges were iden ﬁed:
Groundwater is not clearly defined in existinglegisla on.
Responsibility for inves ga on into and development
and regulation of groundwater is not formallyassigned to any agency (50 legislative enactments
and 42 ins tu ons).
There is neither a coordinated groundwater
information program nor proper groundwaterplanning system.
While a considerable body of informa on on seasonal
behavior and quality is available, there is no
institutional authority to control or regulate theresource.
There is no legal basis for groundwater alloca on.
No public information or awareness programs
regarding groundwater exist.

Chapter 2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Cambodia

China

Indonesia

Japan

Republic of Korea

Lao PDR

Malaysia

Myanmar

Nepal

Philippines

Sri Lanka

Thailand

Viet Nam

111

2.12 Thailand
1 | Country information
Table 2.12.1. Basic indicators
Land Area (km2)

510,890 (2016)

Total Population

68.863 million (2016)

GDP (current USD)

406.84 billion (2016)

GDP per capita (current USD)

5,640 (2016)

Average Precipitation (mm/year)

1,718.1* (2016)

Total Renewable Water Resources (km3)

225 (2014)

Total Annual Freshwater Withdrawals(billion m3)

57.3 (2014)

Annual Freshwater
Withdrawals
by Sector

Agriculture

90% (2014)

Industry

5% (2014)

Municipal(including domestic)

5% (2014)(Sources: World Bank 2017, * TMD 2016)

2 | Major Water Bodies in Thailand
Khong

Kok

Nan
Wang

Yom
Khong

Salween

Chi

Ping
Sakae Krang

Pasak

4 | State of Water Quality

Mun

4.1 Surface Water (rivers, lakes, reservoirs)

Tha ChinChao Phraya
Mae Klong
Phetchaburi

Bangkok

Prachinburi
Tonele Sap
Eastern Coast

Western Coast
Bang PakongSouth-East Coast
TapiSouth-West
Coast
Songkhla LakeWĂƩĂŶŝ

Figure 2.12.1. Map of major river basins in Thailand

3 | State of Water Resources
Based on geographical characteristics, Thailand canbe divided into 25 river basins (Figure 2.12.1). The

112

total volume of water from rainfall in all river basins is
es mated to exceed 800,000 million m3, of which 75%
is lost through evaporation, evapotranspiration andinﬁltra on, and 25% cons tutes the runoﬀ ﬂowing intorivers and streams. The quantity of available water isabout 3,300 m3/capita/year (Office of National Water
Resources Commi ee 2000).
According to ADB (2013), Thailand has abundant
water resources with an es mated 126 billion m3/annum
exploitable, considerably more than the reported na onal
demand for water of around 50–56 billion m3/annum(excluding naviga on and ecosystem requirements). Of
these water resources, groundwater is an importantsource of water supply in Thailand, accoun ng for 20% of
the public water supply and 75% of domes c water. The
groundwater system is mainly recharged by about 40,000
million m3 of rainfall and seepage from rivers. It wases mated from previous hydrological balance studies thatabout 12.5 to 18% of rainfall reaches aquifers. Both thegovernment and the private sector have completed over
200,000 groundwater well projects, with total capacity of
about 7.55 million m3/day (informa on from WEPA Focal
Point 2012).

According to the annual water quality monitoring resultsfor 2016 obtained from the Pollu on Control Departmentof Thailand, which covers 65 significant surface water
sources na onwide, water quality varies to the extent
that 34% is determined as good quality, 46% as fairquality and as 20% poor quality. Compared to 2015, theoverall water quality had improved, with the percentage
of surface water sources judged as fair quality increasingfrom 41 to 46% and poor quality decreasing from 25
to 20% (Figure 2.12.2). In certain river basins such as
the Lower Chap Phraya River, the Lower Tha Chin River,Lopburi River, Lower Rayong River and Lower LamtakongRiver, the monitoring data showed that there had been a
consistent deteriora on in water quality, since these rivers
flow through highly populated urban areas, industrial
areas, and agricultural areas, especially livestock farming
areas, and no eﬀec ve wastewater treatment measures
had been taken (PCD 2017).

Chapter 2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

90

2
17

14

Cambodia

(%)
100

2
14

11

11

14

15

23

12
16

22

15
28

29

25

18

22

22

25

20

80
36
32

38

37

21
45

60

37

China

28

70

45
49

52

35

36

43

49

49

41

46

Poor
Fair
Good

40
30
51

48

44

56

Excellent

60
39

43

32

43

37
26

10
5

1

1

2

32

34

34

28

29

34

34

2

1

Republic of Korea

0

35

Japan

20

53

1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

Figure 2.12.2. Trend of surface water quality for major water resources

Lao PDR

Remarks: “Excellent” to “Highly Deteriorated” correspond to the following:
Excellent: Surface water quality standard Class 1 and Water Quality Index* (WQI) 90–100
Good: Surface water quality standard Class 2 and Water Quality Index (WQI) 71–90
Fair: Surface water quality standard Class 3 and WQI between 61–70
Poor: Surface quality standard Class 4 and WQI between 31–60
Very poor: Surface water quality standard Class 5 and WQI between 0–30

(Source: PCD 2017)

Myanmar2.12.2 for classiﬁca on). Over a quarter of samples could
not meet class 4 due to high BOD and DO (26–36% and25–31% respec vely) .

Malaysia

Note: *Water Quality Index (WQI) indicates the general water quality derived from ﬁve water quality parameters: Dissolved Oxygen (DO),Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), Total Coliform Bacteria (TCB), Faecal Coliform Bacteria (FCB), and Ammonia-Nitrogen (NH3-N). The index is
between 0–100, classifying the quality as excellent (91–100), good (71–90), fair (61–70), poor (31–60), and very poor (0–30)

Figure 2.12.3 shoows percentage of the main
parameters which did not meet classes 1– 4 of the surface
water sources classiﬁca on during 2007–2016 (See table

Indonesia

51

50

Very poor
48

40
DO

30

Nepal

35

BOD

25

15

Faecal coliform
bacteria

10

Philippines

Total coliform
bacteria

20

NH3-N
Heavy metals

0
2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

Figure 2.12.3. The trend of analysed parameters falling into class 5 2007-2016

2015

2016

Sri Lanka

5(Source: PCD 2017)

ThailandNortheastern region, Central region, Northern region,and Western region. Meanwhile, in terms of Water
Quality Index (WQI), the Central region showed muchpoorer quality i.e lower WQI than other regions,

Viet Nam

Detailed monitoring results from diﬀerent regions,
including the Northern, Central, Northeastern, Eastern,
Western and Southern region, showed that the Southern
region had the best surface water quality, followed by the113especially in the areas of Lower Chao Phraya river, MidLower Tha Chin river, Lopburi river, and Sakae Krang river,
due to wastewater discharge from urban communi es,Mn
14%

agricultural ac vi es such as livestock farming withimproper waste management, and industrial estates(Figure 2.12.4 and Figure 2.12.5).

Heavy metals
NH3-N

As
57%

88%

12%

Faecal Coliform Bacteria

80%

20%

Total Coliform Bacteria

78%

22%

Hg
29%

BOD

71%

DO
20%

35%
40%

CompliantFigure 2.12.4. Ra o of detectedheavy metals exceeding standard in thesurface water sources of the Central Region

29%

65%
0%

60%

80%

100%

Non-compliant

Figure 2.12.5. Compliance of surface water quality in the Central
Region against the surface water quality standard category 3

Over the past 10 years from 2007–2016, water
quality of most of the surface water sources was fair, withno surface water sources of excellent quality found.
However, the trend of surface water quality has slightly
improved, with surface water sources of consistently
good quality being the Upper Tapi River, Trang River, andWelu River. Twelve surface water sources have been
deteriora ng in quality – the Lower Chao Phraya River,
Lower Rayong River, Upper Rayong River, Upper Phang
Rad River, Welu River, Ping River, Bueng Boraphet Lake,
Phong River, Chi River, Lower Lang Suan River, Upper Lang
Suan River, and Kui Buri River. The surface water sources
with consistently deteriora ng water quality andrequiring monitoring and pollu on management
countermeasures are the Lower Chao Phraya River, theLower Tha Chin River, Lopburi River, Lower Rayong River,and Lower Lamtakong River.
For the purposes of water quality monitoring andevalua on, water samples were collected four mes a
year, and analysed in accordance with surface water
quality standards issued under the Enhancement andConserva on of Natural Environmental Quality Act(NEQA) 1992. Twenty-three parameters were analysed,
including temperature, acidity/alkalinity (pH), dissolved
oxygen (DO), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), total
coliform bacteria contamina on (TCB), faecal coliform
bacteria contamina on (FCB), nitrate-nitrogen (NO3–N),
ammonia-nitrogen (NH3-N), heavy metal groups such ascopper (Cu), nickel (Ni), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn),

114

0.40%

99.60%(Source: PCD 2017)

cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), lead (Pb), mercury (Hg),arsenic (As), and chlorinated pes cides such as DDT,
Alpha-BHC, Dieldrin, Aldrin, Endrin, Heptachlor Epoxide(PCD 2014).

4.2 Coastal water
According to the Thailand State of Pollu on Report 2016,
coastal water samples monitored in 2016 generally
showed fair quality, except in Thong Ta Pan Beach (Ko Pha
Ngan) and Surat Thani, where results showed excellent
coastal water quality, as a result of local businesses paying
more attention to environmental quality and treating
wastewater before discharging it into the environment.
Results from coastal water quality monitoring in 2016
along Thailand’s 2,800 km coastline covering the Gulf ofThailand showed that 1% of sampled loca ons indicatedvery good quality, 60% good quality, 30% fair quality, 7%poor quality and 2% very poor quality. This is backed up bytrends over the past two decades (1997–2016) indica ng
a decreasing percentage of coastal water loca ons withpoor and very poor quality and an increase in good andfair quality loca ons.
To evaluate coastal water quality water, samples havebeen collected twice a year and subjected to the Marine
Water Quality Index (MWQI), a tool developed by the
Pollu on Control Department for assessing the marine
water quality. Figure 2.12.6. shows the trend between
1997-2016. In general, the main parameters indica ng
the coastal water quality problems are bacteria (total

Chapter 2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

10

90

13

13

5
13

4

1
6

20

1
9

3
7

25
49

39

33

45

1
2

36

1
6

5
5

5
6

34

34

3
9

1
6

1
13

29

44

4
13

8

2
7

30

23
36
50

60

69
57

50
17

30

52

61

49

48
51

49
39

43
30
25

10
1

5

35

47

Good
Excellent

52
60

43
36

31
24
7

3

3

13

12

15

16
5

8

2

16

11

16
1

Japan

2

72

1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

Remarks: Using a range of 0 –100 (0–25: very poor; 25–50: poor; 50–80: fair; 80–90: good; 90–100: excellent), the MWQI is calculated from coastal
water quality data based on eight parameters: Dissolved Oxygen (DO), Total Coliform Bacteria (TCB), Phosphate – Phosphorus (PO43 - -P), Nitrate –Nitrogen (NO3- – N), Temperature (Temp.), Suspended Solids (SS), Acidity – Alkalinity (pH) and Ammonia – Nitrogen (NH3 -N). However, if the level ofpes cides and toxic elements such as Mercury (Hg), Cadmium (Cd), Total Chromium (Total Cr), Chromium Hexavalent (Cr6+), Lead (Pb), Copper (Cu),Cyanide (CN-) and PCBs are found to exceed the Marine Water Quality Standards, the MWQI automa cally receives a null score of zero.
(Source: PCD 2017)

Nepal
Philippines
Sri Lanka
Thailand
Viet Nam- Upper Central Region: Iron (Fe) and Fluoride (F) were
found to have exceeded the maximum acceptable
range (1.1–110 and 1.1–14 mg/L) in Kamphaeng Phet,
Sukhothai, Tak, Phichit, Phetchabun, and Phitsanulok.

- Eastern Region: Arsenic (As) was found to haveexceeded the maximum acceptable range (0.0028–
0.17 mg/L) in Bang Phra, Si Racha District, Chon Buri,and Map Yang Phon, Pluak Daeng District, Rayong;
Lead (Pb) was found to have exceeded the maximum
acceptable range (0.001–0.02 mg/L) in Khao Khan
Song, Si Racha, Chon Buri, and Pluak Daeng, Pluak
Daeng District, Rayong.

Myanmar- Northern Region: Fluoride (F) was found to haveexceeded the maximum acceptable range (1.1–12mg/L) in Chiang Mai, Phrae, Mae Hong Son, Lampang,and Lamphun.

- Northeastern Region: Lead (Pb) was found to haveexceeded the maximum acceptable range (0.05–0.2mg/L) in Nam Phong District, Khon Kaen; Nitrate(NO3) was found to have exceeded the maximum
acceptable range (46–640 mg/L) in Maha Sarakham,
Khon Kaen, and Kalasin.

Malaysia

Thailand has a total of 27 groundwater reservoirs acrossthe country, and the Department of Groundwater
Resources has 864 groundwater observation stations,comprising 1,524 wells mainly used for monitoringchanges in groundwater level and groundwater quality.
Groundwater quality monitoring and evaluation isconducted on a regional basis.
Major issues found in groundwater from each region
were detected in 2016 as below, according to PCD (2017):- Lower Central Region: The areas in which thegroundwater was found to contain high levels of
Chloride (600–1,000 mg/L) are Samut Songkhram,
Samut Sakhon, Samut Prakan, Nonthaburi, Nakhon
Pathom, Pathum Thani, Phra Nakhon Si Ayu haya,and Bangkok, with some areas showing Chloride
levels higher than 2,000 mg/L.

Lao PDR

4.3 Groundwater- Western Region: Iron (Fe) was found to have exceeded
the maximum acceptable range (1.4–12 mg/L) in
Kanchanaburi, Phetchaburi, and Ratchaburi; Mercury(Hg) and Arsenic (As) were found to have exceeded
the maximum acceptable range (0.0011–0.004 and0.4378–1.5092 mg/L respec vely) in Tak.

Republic of Korea

Figure 2.12.6. Coastal marine water quality na onwide 1997-2016

coliform bacteria, faecal coliform bacteria andEnterococci), as well as chemical contaminants such as
phosphates, i.e., phosphorus and nitrates, i.e., nitrogen,which mostly come from communal and tourist areas aswell as agricultural and industrial ac vi es. The areas
where water quality was found to be poor to very poor
are the Inner Gulf of Thailand and the estuaries of theBang Pakong River, the Chao Phraya River, the Tha ChinRiver, and the Mae Klong River (PCD 2015; PCD 2017).

Indonesia

40

Fair

78

45

HighlyDeteriorated
Deteriorated

China

70

0

4
5

29

80

20

3

Cambodia

100

115

- South Region: Arsenic (As) was found to haveexceeded the maximum acceptable range (0.05–
1.3640 mg/L) in Ron Phibun, Ron Phibun District,
Nakhon Si Thammarat. Meanwhile, in Nakhon Si
Thammarat area, the groundwater aquifer at a depthof 50–200 meters adjacent to the coast covering an
area of approximately 1,130 km2 was found to havebrackish and saline quali es, with a considerably highchloride concentration of >1,000 mg/L. In Hat Yai,Songkhla, the groundwater aquifer at a depth of 20–
60 meters covering an area of 200 km2 from the coast
was found to have a chloride concentra on exceeding
the standard with a maximum value of 4,400 mg/L.

4.4 Major Sources of Water Pollution
The causes of both surface and groundwater pollu on
can be divided into three types, as follows:
1) Domestic wastewater: Much of domestic sewage
generated by the general public is discharged intorivers and other bodies of water after undergoingprimary treatment or no treatment at all. According toa PCD es mate (2015), the total volume of wastewater
generated in Thailand in 2015 was 9,590,367 m3/day,with only 2,580,625 m3/day or 26%, being treated. This
percentage rises to 46% in large ci es, such as Bangkok,
where the ra o of treated wastewater is higher.
2) Industrial wastewater: At present, many industries
are located in high population density areas. There
are over 120,000 industrial establishments of varying
sizes and activities, located across 77 provinces. Laws
and regula ons are being strictly enforced on factories,
industrial plants and industrial estates, which are all
required to have wastewater systems complying with theeﬄuent standards set by the Government of Thailand.
3) Agricultural ac vi es: Agricultural wastewater includes
chemical fer lisers, pes cides as well as animal wastefrom livestock farms. Most of the fer liser used for rice
paddy fields is washed away by irrigation water andﬂows into rivers, estuaries, or other bodies of water. Thisfer lizer causes eutrophica on and encourages growthof water hyacinths, an invasive plant that grows very
quickly over major water surfaces.
As regards complaints from pollu on, oﬃcial sta s cs
from 2016 show there were 10,422 cases, a decrease in
9% from the previous year. Such complaints typicallyconcern air pollu on (bad stench, dust and smoke), noiselevels and vibra on. The highest numbers were received

116

by the Public Service Center, Oﬃce of the Permanent
Secretary, Prime Minister Oﬃce, which concernedmunicipal solid wastes, sewage wastes, and hazardous
wastes (PCD 2016).

5 | Status of Wastewater Treatment
According to PCD (2016), the main wastewater sources
are the industrial sector, at 17.8 million m3/day, domes c
wastewater, at 9.6 million m 3/day, and agricultural
ac vi es, at 3.9 million m3/day. Na onwide, there are
101 municipal wastewater treatment plants, of which
88 are in use and operating, 68 belong to the Local
Administra ve Organiza ons, 8 belong to the Bangkok
Metropolitan Administration, and 25 belong to the
Wastewater Management Authority. The wastewater
treatment technologies chiefly used are stabilization
ponds, aerated lagoons, and ac vated sludge systems.
At present, the total capacity of wastewater
treatment plants na onwide is only about 2.7 million m3/
day, accoun ng for 28% of the total generated
wastewater, due to a lack of Local Administra ve
Organiza on investment budget as well as opera on andmaintenance expenses. Other sources of wastewater
also exist, such as community businesses, industries, andagricultural ac vi es which do not treat their wastewatereﬄuent or comply with regulatory requirements. For
example, many pollu on sources exist along Khlong Saen
Saep. 51,799 pig farms of small and medium size exis ng
na onwide are also major pollu on sources (PCD 2016).

6 | Frameworks for Water Environment
Management
6.1 Legislations
The Cons tu on of Thailand (RTG 2017) s pulates that
the Thai people have a duty to cooperate, support theconserva on and protec on of the environment, natural
resources, biodiversity, and cultural heritage (chapter IV,
sec on 50-8). Meanwhile, the State shall be responsible
to “conserve, protect, maintain, restore, manage, andutilize or arrange for utilization of natural resources,
environment, and biodiversity to attain benefits in abalanced and sustainable manner and shall allow thepeople and communities in the concerned localities
to par cipate in and beneﬁt from the implementa on
herein described as required by the law” (chapter V,
sec on 57-2). The Cons tu on also s pulates that theThai people have the right to use the environment, butthat they also have a duty to conserve and protect it.

Chapter 2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

THE FACTORIES ACTͲZĞŐƵůĂƟŽŶƐŽĨ/ŶĚƵƐƚƌŝĂůWŽůůƵƟŽŶŽŶƚƌŽů&ĂĐŝůŝƟĞƐ
THE PUBLIC HEALTH ACT
THE HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES ACT
THE PUBLIC CLEANSING ACTBUILDING CONTROL ACT

Figure 2.12.7. Legisla ve chart for water quality
management*

6.2 Institutional arrangement
6.3 Ambient Water Quality Standards
i. Surface water quality standards
This standard, established in 1994, was the ﬁrst ambient
water quality standard. Surface water quality standards

Viet Nam

According to the NEQA, the PCD and the Office of
Natural Resources and Environmental Policy and Planning(ONEP) under MoNRE are responsible for wastewater
management by undertaking national and regional

Thailand*Based on informa on from the oﬃcial website of Thailand Pollu on
Control Department: h p://www.pcd.go.th/about/en_ab_mission.html

Sri Lanka

An overview of the legislation related to water
environmental management in Thailand is shown in
Figure 2.12.7.

OTHERS LAWS, REGULATIONS RELATEDTO WATER QUALITY CONSERVATION

Philippines

The ambient water quality standard and classiﬁca on
based on the state of water quality, socio-economic
aspects and availability of treatment technologies.

- Groundwater Quality StandardͲtĂƚĞƌŚĂƌĂĐƚĞƌŝƐƟĐƐŝƐĐŚĂƌŐĞĚŝŶƚŽĞĞƉtĞůůƐ

Nepal

The establishment and application of effluent
standards such as industrial effluent standards,
domes c eﬄuent standards, and eﬄuent standards
for pig farms and ﬁsh/shrimp farms, etc.

GROUNDWATER ACT

Myanmar

The applica on of environmental impact assessments(EIA) to determine the impact and mi ga on plan fordevelopment projects of various types and sizes suchas dams with storage volumes of 100 million m3 or
more, irriga on projects of 12,800 ha or more, hotels
or resorts of 80 rooms or more, thermal power plants
with capaci es of 10 MW or more, mining projects ofall scales, etc.

Ͳ/ŶĚƵƐƚƌŝĂůŋƵĞŶƚ^ƚĂŶĚĂƌĚ
ͲƵŝůĚŝŶŐŋƵĞŶƚ^ƚĂŶĚĂƌĚ
Ͳ,ŽƵƐŝŶŐƐƚĂƚĞƐŋƵĞŶƚ^ƚĂŶĚĂƌĚ
ͲDƵŶŝĐŝƉĂůtĂƐƚĞǁĂƚĞƌdƌĞĂƚŵĞŶƚ^ǇƐƚĞŵ
ŋƵĞŶƚ^ƚĂŶĚĂƌĚ
ͲŋƵĞŶƚ^ƚĂŶĚĂƌĚƐĨŽƌWŝŐ-&ĂƌŵͲ'ĂƐ^ƚĂƟŽŶĂŶĚKŝůdĞƌŵŝŶĂůŋƵĞŶƚ^ƚĂŶĚĂƌĚ
ͲŋƵĞŶƚ^ƚĂŶĚĂƌĚƐĨŽƌŽĂƐƚĂůƋƵĂĐƵůƚƵƌĞ
ͲŋƵĞŶƚ^ƚĂŶĚĂƌĚĨŽƌůĂĐŬŝƐŚƋƵĂĐƵůƚƵƌĞ
ͲŋƵĞŶƚ^ƚĂŶĚĂƌĚĨŽƌ/ŶůĂŶĚƋƵĂĐƵůƚƵƌĞ
ͲtĂƚĞƌŚĂƌĂĐƚĞƌŝƐƟĐƐŝƐĐŚĂƌŐĞĚŝŶƚŽ/ƌƌŝŐĂƟŽŶ^ǇƐƚĞŵ

Malaysia

In order to control and manage water quality problemsin Thailand, the regula ons can be grouped into three,
as follows:

EFFLUENT STANDARDS

Lao PDR

Recogni on of the Polluter Pays Principle.

- Surface Water Quality Standard- Coastal Water Quality Standard- Groundwater Quality Standard

Republic of Korea

Establishment of a multi-agency Pollution Control
Commi ee for pollu on control ma ers, including
enactment of discharge standards.

AMBIENT WATER QUALITY STANDARDSJapan

Provision for the Na onal Environmental Board (NEB)
to declare Pollution Control Areas (PCAs) orConserva on and Environmentally Protected Areas
when jus ﬁed from an environmental point of view.

ENHANCEMENT AND CONSERVATION OF NATURALENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY ACT (NEDA 1992)

Indonesia

Formula on of a Na onal Environmental Management
Plan and du es of government agencies to implement
the plan and for provinces to prepare ac on plans.

CONSERVATION OF WATER QUALITY IN PUBLIC WATERS

China

Establishment of the Environmental Fund, from which
resources will be drawn to resolve environmental
problems in priority areas.

water quality management planning and facilita ng local
authori es in their responsibili es regarding wastewater
management. Under the EQA, the PCD establishes eﬄuent
standards for pollu on control from point sources in order
to meet ambient environmental quality standards.

Cambodia

Meanwhile, deﬁning the authori es andresponsibili es regarding environmental protec on, theEnhancement and Conserva on of the Na onal
Environmental Quality Act (NEQA) was passed in 1992 asa basic law for environmental conserva on. Some key
features of NEQA are as follows:

117were established for 28 items under ﬁve classiﬁca onsof water bodies designated according to water usage,
as shown in Table 2.12.2. The General Water Quality
Index was established as an indicator to promote public

understanding of water quality, and was calculated using
the values of eight parameters (pH, DO, BOD, TS, FCB,
NO3 , TP, SS). These standards represent the national
minimum standards.

Table 2.12.2. Surface water quality standard classiﬁca on
Class

Description/Condition

Beneficial Use

Class 1Natural water resources without
wastewater from any ac vi es

Water is safe for consump on, sani zed, and appropriate
for propaga on and ecosystem conserva on.

Class 2

Very clean fresh surface water resources

Water resources for conserva on, ﬁshery, swimming,
water recrea on and consump on (with basic treatment).

Class 3Medium clean fresh surface water resources

Class 4

Fairly clean fresh surface water resources

Class 5

Sources which are not classiﬁed into classes 1-4

Water resources for agriculture and consump on(with general treatment).
Water resources for industrial work and consump on(with special treatment).
Water resources for transporta on.
(Source: PCD 2015)

ii. Coastal water quality standards
There are 30 parameters designated for coastal water
quality standards in six classes, determined according tousage (6 classifications). Different classifications areapplied for the west coast of Phuket Island.
iii. Groundwater quality standards
The parameters included in groundwater quality
standards are divided into four groups: vola le organic
compounds (15 parameters), heavy metals (10parameters), pesticides (nine parameters) and others(four parameters).

6.4 Monitoring ambient water quality
in public water bodies
Under the EQA, the government conducts monitoringof the receiving water quality to maintain quality. There
are 620 general monitoring sta ons and 39 automa cmonitoring sta ons in 48 main rivers in the country, andwater quality samples are taken three to four mes per
year during the wet and dry seasons. The methods ofwater sampling and analysis used must be in accordancewith the Standard Method for the Examination of
Water and Wastewater 1998 (Yolthantham 2011). The
monitoring results of ambient water quality conductedby the government are summarized and made available
to the public through publica ons and online.

6.5 Effluent standards
Based on the NEQA (Section 32), a series of effluent
standards has been set up as follows:i. Industry
Industrial Eﬄuent Standards
Standards are applied to factory Group II and III categories

118

and all industrial estates under the Factory Act B.E.2535(1992). Standards are designated for 27 parameters
including 12 heavy metals. This standard has been usedsince January 1996, and provides some exemp ons forcertain kinds of industries such as chemical, starch andanimal foods. The exemp ons have been revoked on 6
June 2017, in accordance with the Decree on Industrial
Eﬄuent Control Standard B.E. 2559 (2016), announced
by the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment ofThailand on 6 June 2016. This new standard is comprisedof two main parts – general eﬄuent standards and typespeciﬁc eﬄuent standards, the former of which consistsof 31 parameters including 16 heavy metals.
Regarding eﬄuent quality control, the Regula ons ofIndustrial Pollu on Control Facili es (1982) s pulates
that speciﬁc industrial plants must have dedicatedsupervisors and machine operators for pollu on
preven on. Such industrial plants include those using
heavy metals in produc on processes, discharging
wastewater at higher than 50m3/day with a heavy metal
content at or above designated values.
ii. Domes c and Commercial
Building Eﬄuent Standards
Eﬄuent from each type of building, namely apartments,
hotels, hospitals, schools and academic buildings, public
and private offices, department stores, fresh markets
and restaurants, is regulated under these standards.
Regulated parameters, include pH, BOD, suspended
solids, sulﬁde, TKN, fat, oil, and grease (FOG).
Housing Estate Eﬄuent Standard
These standards regulate eﬄuent from housing estates
which are classiﬁed into two categories: those exceeding
100 units but less than 500, and those with over 500 units.

Chapter 2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Viet Nam(1) High Risk Industry Group: Frequent accidents, such as
in the petrochemical industry, ethanol industry, sugar
industry, and cold storage industry. Possible reasons:( i ) lack of qualified/well-trained safety and

Thailand

Problema c industries, which o en fail to comply withthe eﬄuent standard, are classiﬁed into three categories(Wangcharoenrung 2017):

Sri Lanka- Lack of environmental awareness/honesty offactories; proﬁt is priori zed above all else.

Philippines- Data exchange between government agencies is achallenge and leads to duplica on of eﬀorts.

Nepal- Insuﬃcient monitoring tools: Lack of equipment andlaboratory facili es for monitoring and analysis.

Myanmar- Limited human resources: Approximately 120,000
factories exist in 77 provinces but there are only threeinspection officers per province for Ministry ofIndustry and 40 officers for Pollution Control
Department.

Malaysia

The Natural Environmental Quality Act requires theowner or possessor of point sources of pollution
designated under the act to monitor the quality ofeﬄuent and collect sta s cs and data, as well as submit
notes and reports. The types of eﬄuent to be monitored
are categorised into four: sewage-swine farms; landdevelopment, industrial estates and industrial zones,
and Class A buildings (hotels, hospitals, condominiums,
department stores, markets and restaurants). The point
sources of water pollu on were also monitored in threeriver basins: the Chao Phraya, Tha Chin, and Bang Pakong.
If the capability to treat or dispose of wastewater
fails to meet applicable standards, the owner has theduty of modifying or improving on such in conformity
with the pollu on control oﬃcial’s direc ons. Fees, ﬁnes
and civil liability and penal provisions are applied if
viola ons are found or the owners refuse to comply. It isa promising trend that all sectors are willing to comply
with the standards as it can be advantageous for businessagreements as well as for improved environmental
quality, which is reﬂected on the quality of life.
Meanwhile, the Pollu on Control Department has
authority as the pollu on control oﬃce under the

Lao PDR

6.6 Effluent monitoring

Under the Environmental Army Project (2005–2007),
over 25 universi es across Thailand joined a large survey
to support inspections of around 120,000 factories
throughout the country, which was aimed at building
a wastewater database for improved planning andmanagement of industrial wastewater. The data collected
included: (i) Contact address; (ii) GPS Coordinates; (iii)
Pictures of eﬄuent points; (iv) Boiler’s exhaust opacitywith Ringelmann Scale; and (v) Effluent wastewater
quality.
According to Wangcharoenrung (2017), there has
not been such extensive data collec on regarding
wastewater quality compliance since the Environmental
Army Project. In addi on, a number of challenges inmonitoring have also been pointed out, including:

Republic of Korea

iv. Others
Other water quality standards include:
Eﬄuent Standards for Coastal Aquaculture
Eﬄuent Standards for Brackish Aquaculture
Eﬄuent Standards for Inland Aquaculture
Water Characteris cs Discharged into Irriga on System
Water Characteris cs Discharged into Deep Wells

6.7 Compliance ManagementJapaniii. Agriculture
Eﬄuent Standards for Pig Farms
In considera on of the contribu on of pig farms to waterpollu on such as in the Tha Chin River and Bang PakongRiver, standards were established in 2001. They include
pH, BOD, COD, SS, and TKN, with diﬀerent values applied
to Type A (more than 600 livestock units) and Type B(60–600 livestock units).

Indonesia

Gas Sta on and Oil Terminal Eﬄuent Standard
There are four parameters to this standard, namely pH,
COD, SS, and FOG.

China

Municipal Wastewater Treatment System
Eﬄuent Standard
This is a new standard established in 2010, including pH,
BOD, SS, TN, TP, and FOG.

Na onal Environmental Quality Act B.E. 2535 (1992) toinves gate wastewater eﬄuent from various pollu on
sources. According to the PCD (2015), 1,392 pollu on
sources consis ng of industrial factories, industrial
estates, certain types and sizes of buildings, gas service
sta ons, swine farms, municipal wastewater treatment
systems and allocated lands were under inves ga on, of
which 404 sources did not meet the standards. Whileno ﬁca on to the oﬃcers in the Factory Act was requiredfor industrial factory and industrial estate sources,
administra ve orders were issued to enforce otherpollu on contributors to make improvements in theirpollu on treatment systems to meet the required
standards within a designated meframe.

Cambodia

Regulated parameters include pH, BOD, SS, settleable
solids, TDS, sulﬁde, TKN, and FOG.

119

environmental oﬃcers; (ii) lack of accident-preven on
training.
(2) High Pollu on Industry Group: Has diﬃculty complying
with eﬄuent standards, such as in the starch industry,
tex le, pulp and paper industry and leather tanningindustry. Possible reasons: ( i ) one general effluent
standard cannot cover all types of factories; (ii) only
per nent standard is based on concentra on; (iii) lackof knowledgeable persons in wastewater treatment
plant opera on.
(3) Low Capacity of Environmental Management Group:
Do not treat wastewater, such as in small and medium
enterprises (SMEs) or community factories. The survey
conducted in 2014 iden ﬁed approximately 87,000
small or community factories, contribu ng 6% of BOD
load to main rivers in Thailand. Possible reasons: ( i )factories lack funding for and knowhow in wastewater
treatment; (ii) imprac cal or too diﬃcult for small site
inspec ons.

7 | Recent Developments inWater Environmental Management
The 12th Na onal Economic and Social Development Plan
was approved by the Cabinet On 13 September 2016.
It contains 10 strategies, with two focusing on pollu on
management – (1) strategy on “environmentally-friendly
growth for sustainable development”, and (2) strategy
on “the development of various regions, cities, andeconomic areas, with the goal of conserving and restoring
natural resources and the environment in order to sustain
environmentally-friendly growth and high quality of life.”
Pollu on Management Plan for 2017–2021 period was
prepared by the Ministry of Natural Resources and theEnvironment (MoNRE) and was approved by the Na onal
Environmental Board in September 2016. It contains
four strategies, two related to pollu on management,
one concerning maintainance of the environment toa high standard, including protection, rehabilitation
and restoration, and one which focuses on increasing
the usage efficiency of natural resources as regards
sustainability, in order to ascertain that all stakeholders
u lise natural resources with respect, eﬃciently, and to
mitigate any potential environmental impact, to allow
for economic development on the bases of sustainablebio-resources.

120

20-Year Pollution Management Strategy was
prepared by MoNRE, and was approved by the Na onal
Environmental Board on 28 December 2016. Its 6
concepts and principles are: ( i ) mitigate and control
pollution sources from upstream to end -of -pipe; (ii)manage pollution at community level by prioritisationof the problem; (iii) encourage local administrations
to mainstream wastewater and municipal waste
management in their operations; (iv) apply PPP andeconomic incen ve programs targe ng SCP; (v) develop
unity of pollution management regulations, plans andimplementa on across agencies; (vi) support par cipa on
for all stakeholders including public sector to protect andmanage the pollu on problem at the community level.
Maintenance of the Cleanliness and Orderliness of
the Country Act (No. 2) was developd by the Ministryof Interior and was approved by the Cabinet on 12
January, 2016. It declared that the collec on and disposalof sewage waste and municipal solid waste will comeunder the responsibility of the local administrativeoﬃce in each area. The Minister of Interior is to issue aministerial regula on as follows: ( i ) set up speciﬁc fees
for sewage and municipal solid waste management, (ii)assign responsibility and authority of Local Administra ve
Organiza ons concerning waste collec on, transport anddisposal, (iii) enable the provision of licenses, via the local
administrator, to those wishing to conduct businesses
around sewage and waste collec on, transporta on anddisposal, (iv) set out the duty of the Department of Local
Administration as to propose, advise and support the
Local Administra ve Organiza ons to conduct a plan for
the Waste Management Project to be in-line with theprovincial development plan, set up a budget for local
administrative organization requiring budget support
drawn from the Na onal Budget, state the penalty undercriminal law for those who conduct unauthorized business
operations around waste collection, transportationand disposal, as well as for those who do not abide by
the local law. This Act, announced in the Royal Thai
Government Gaze e No. 134 Sec on 5A on 15 January
B.E. 2560 (2017), came into eﬀect from 16 January B.E.
2560 (2017) (PCD 2016).
Strategy for Water Resource Management Act B.E.
2558–2569 (2015–2036) was drafted by MoNRE, incoopera on with Ministry of Agriculture and Coopera ves,
and approved by the Cabinet on 7 May, 2015. The strategy
laid out a policy framework for uniﬁed and integrated

Chapter 2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Republic of Korea
Lao PDR
Malaysia
Myanmar
Nepal
Philippines
Sri Lanka
Thailand
Viet Nam

Facilitate Local Administra ve Organisa ons to build
either on-site, cluster, or central wastewater
treatment plants based on the appropriateness andactual characteris cs of local wastewater in order toreduce pollutant loads on the environment.

Considera on of imposing a water conserva on fee
on all users by incorpora ng such in the water bill.
These fees will be used for community activities,
agricultural ac vi es, and industrial ac vi es, wherewater is used for beneﬁt and in which wastewater isgenerated by incorpora ng the Polluter Pays Principle(PPP), and the Beneﬁciary Pays Principle (BPP) or “thewater user pays.” Part of the collected fee will be used
towards effective management of water and theenvironment, including the construc on of a central
water treatment system.

Japan

Further promotion of cooperation among Local
Administrative Organisations, communities andrelated organisations for the protection of water
resources and improvement in water quality toachieve “good” and “very good” levels.

Revise and improve water quality standards forcoastal areas to minimise the eﬀects of eutrophica on
caused by contaminants (i.e., phosphates andnitrates) in water resources, and to control thedischarge of these contaminants from the sources.

Indonesia

Water environmental management in Thailand has
been a priority for the country since 1992. Legislative
frameworks have been developed and improved topromote implementation. Over the last 25 years theoverall picture of the country’s state of pollution has
showed some improvements, due to the coopera on ofvarious stakeholders, including governmental and nongovernment actors. However, many issues remain. For
example: water quality in many ci es and areas is steadily
degrading due to the rapid development of communi es(especially those living next to waterways), and impacts
from agricultural and industrial activities. In addition,
many ci es s ll lack appropriate sewage collec on andtreatment systems.
Thus, the following key points have been proposedby the Government of Thailand as men oned in theThailand State of Pollu on Report 2015 & 2016, aimed at
improving water quality management in the country:

Promote the reuse of treated wastewater, includingfrom agriculture or food processing industries by
establishing measures for effective utilisation ofrecycled water without environmental effects on
surrounding areas.

China

8 | Existing and Future Challenges

Investigate the causes and sources of heavy metal
contamina on in surface water resources, especiallyin Northern Thailand, and establish protective
measures to prevent and reduce heavy metal eﬀects
and accumula on in sediment and aqua c animals bydetermina on of land use and mining zones.

Cambodiapreven on of and solu ons to water resource problems,
including water scarcity, ﬂooding and water quality issues.
The vision of the strategy is “Every single village has cleanwater for household consump on as well as for stableproduc on. Damage from ﬂooding is mi gated. Water
quality meets standards. Water resources are sustainably
managed with balanced development and par cipa onof all sectors.” This Strategy consists of 6 sub-strategies
focusing on 6 target areas, namely (i) Strategy for Water
Management for Household Consump on (ii) Strategy
for Creation of the Stable Water Supply in Production
Sector (both agricultural and industrial sectors) (iii)
Strategy for Flooding Management (iv) Strategy for Water
Quality Management (v) Strategy for Conserva on andMi ga on of Impaired Watershed Forest and Preven onof Soil Erosion and (vi) Strategy for Management.

121

2.13 Viet Nam
3 | State of Water Resources

1 | Country information
Table 2.13.1. Basic indicators
Land Area (km2)

310,070 (2016)

Total Population

92.70 million (2016)

GDP (current USD)

202.6 billion (2016)

GDP per capita (current USD)

2,050 (2016)

Average Precipitation (mm/year)

1,950* (2017)

Total Renewable Water Resources (km3)

884 (2017)

Total Annual Freshwater Withdrawals(billion m3)

82 (2014)

Annual Freshwater
Withdrawals
by Sectors

Agriculture

94.8% (2005)

Industry

3.7% (2005)

Municipal(including domestic)

1.5% (2005)(Source: World Bank 2017, *2030 WRG 2017)

2 | Major Water Basins in Viet Nam
China

Cau

Bang Giang-Ky Cung
Hanoi

Red and Thai Binh
Nhue Day

Lao PDR

Ma-ChuCa

Eastern Sea

GianhThach Han
Huong
ThailandThu BonCambodia

Sesan

Tra Khuc

SrepokKone
Ba

Dong Nai-Saigon

Cuu Long
Gulf of Thailand

Figure 2.13.1. Map of major river basins in Viet Nam

122

Viet Nam has a large river and canal network, comprisingover 3,540 rivers and streams within 108 river basins over
10 km long. There are 16 main river basins, of which nine
contribute up to 90% of total river basin area, including
the Red, Thai Binh, Bac Giang-Ky Cung, Ma, Ca, Vu Gia-Thu
Bon, Ba, Dong Nai-Sai Gon, and Mekong river basins. As
a result, the country has an abundance of surface water
resources at over 830 km3/year, but only about 310 km3(37%) of which is within the country, while 520 km3 (63%)
is generated from neighboring countries (MONRE 2015).
Although Viet Nam enjoys abundant surface water
resources in general, unfortunately these surface water
resources are unevenly distributed across the country,
partly due to uneven rainfall distribu on. According to
the State of Environ-mental Report 2011–2015 (MONRE
2015; MONRE 2010), the annual total ﬂow of the MekongRiver is about 500 km3, ac-coun ng for about 57% of thetotal annual ﬂow of all rivers in the country. The total ﬂow
of the Red River is about 126.5 km3 (14.9%) and of the
Dong Nai River is 36.3 km3 (4.3%). It is es mated thatabout 60% of total water ﬂow is distributed in the MekongRiver (or Cuu Long River) delta, home to 20% of thecountry’s popula on. In addi on, rapid urbanisa on anda prolonged dry season cause serious water shortages inmany areas of the country.
The total volume of exploitable water is about 80.6
billion m3, accoun ng for approximately 10% of thecountry’s total water volume. Of this, over 80% of thewater is used for agriculture (about 65 billion m3/year). In
addi on, water is also used for energy produc on, daily
life, aquaculture and industry, tourism and services.
Trends in water use show that it is increasing in industry,ﬁsheries and living. Water for agricultural produc on ishighest in the Mekong Delta and the Red River Delta,
accoun ng for 70% of water use. The catchment areawith the highest industrial water use rate is Hong-ThaiBinh, accoun ng for nearly half of the total water used
for Vietnam’s industry.
It is predicted that Viet Nam will become one of thecountries most vulnerable to climate change and likely toface sig-niﬁcant impacts from it – indeed, according to
the Fourth Assessment of the Intergovernmental Panelon Climate Change, it was characterised as a “hotspot of
key future climate impacts and vulnerabili es in Asia”(Cruz et al. 2007; IFAD 2014). Climate change is consideredChapter 2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

China
Indonesia
Japan
Republic of Korea

central and the central highland plains and more than
300 m for drilled holes in the Mekong delta.
Recently, due to overexploita on of groundwater insome areas such as in Hanoi and in the Mekong delta,
problems of falling water tables, associated land
subsidence and salinity intrusion have been reported.
The main likely cause is agriculture, which although plays
a key role in poverty allevia on and food security as achief sector of the country’s economy contribu ng about
18.1% of its GDP (World Bank 2016), also consumes thelargest amount of water resource. Annual freshwater
withdrawals for agriculture account for up to 95% of total
freshwater withdrawals in Viet Nam. Also, over the last
decade, demands for domes c and industrial water haveincreased, causing deple on in water resources.
Other pressures are the rapid increase in urban
popula on, inadequate solid waste management,
untreated domes c and industrial wastewater, anddeforesta on. Development ac vi es are also factors
aﬀec ng both the quality and quan ty of water resources.

Cambodia

to cause huge impacts on the country’s water resources,
especially surface water resources. The Mekong Delta dry
season is expected to contract (only in the region oforigin) by about 4.8% by 2020 and by about 14.5 % by
2050.
In addi on to surface water, groundwater is also an
important water supply source for domes c, industrial
and agricul-tural ac vi es. According to MONRE (2015),
groundwater is rela vely plen ful due to the heavy
rainfall across the country. Reserves are es mated atabout 172.6 million m3/day. The total volume ofgroundwater exploita on is about 10.53 million m3/day,of which the Northern and Southern delta are the twomost exploited areas with total capaci es of about 5.87
million m3/day, accoun ng for 55.7% of the country’s
exploita on. Two big ci es alone – Hanoi and Ho Chi
Minh City – have exploita on capaci es of 2.63 million
m3/day, accoun ng for nearly 25% of the total exploita on
vol-ume na onwide.
Table 2.13.2. River basins in Viet Nam

Bac Giang-Ky Cung

13,2609.4

Ma28,40018

Ca29,930

23.5

Gianh

4,680

8.14

Thach Han

2,550

4.68

Huong

3,300

5.64

Vu Gia-Thu Bon

10,35020.1

Tra Khuc-Ve-Tra Bong

5,200

6.19

Kon-Ha Thanh- La Tinh

3,640

2.58

Sesan

11,45012.9

Srepok

18,20013.5

Ba13,9009.5

40,29437

Mekong (or Cuu Long)

761,417475

Group of river basins
in southeast region

15,760

9.16(Source: MONRE 2014)

Thailand
Viet Nam

As of June 2015, around 100 water enterprises
existed across the country, managing more than 500
large and small-scale water supply systems in ci es andtowns to supply water to people and industrial ac vi es.
Around 40% of water supplied to urban areas is es matedto derive from groundwater sources and nearly 80% ofwater used for rural purposes is extracted fromgroundwater (MONRE 2016). The average depth ofdrilled wells is less than 100 m for those in the northern,

Sri Lanka

Dong Nai-Sai Gon

Organic pollution from both domestic and industrial
wastewater has affected many rivers and lakes acrossthe country. In some areas it has reached serious levels,
par cularly in the lower sec ons of large rivers as wellas small rivers, ponds, lakes and canals within cities.
However, actual pollu on levels depend on the hydrauliccharacter of the ﬂow, and are highest in the dry season
when the ﬂow in rivers is reduced, and are also greatly
aﬀected by the degree of control exercised over dischargeof waste into surface resources. Currently, most waste
sources released into river basins are uncontrolled, which
results in seriously polluted surface water.
As of May 2017, of the 795 urban centres across thecountry, up to 753, or 94.7%, lacked wastewater treatment
facili es mee ng the prescribed standards. According to
the Ministry of Construc on, as of December 2016, 37
wastewater treatment plants have been opera ng in the
country with a total designed capacity of 890,000 m3/day,and another 45 plants are in the planning or construc onphase with a total design capacity of around 2,000,000
m3/day. The rate of domes c wastewater treatment isabout 12% (compared to designed capacity) and less than
10% (based on actual opera ng capacity), while theremaining wastewater is directly discharged into theenvironment (Vietnammoi 2017). Meanwhile, it is also
es mated that over 1 million m3/day of untreatedindustrial wastewater is discharged directly to receiving
water bodies, accoun ng for about 70% of the totalindustrial eﬄuent discharge (World Bank 2012).

Philippines

135

Nepal

169,020

Myanmar

Red and Thai Binh

4 | State of Water Quality

Malaysia

Total annual flow
(km 3)

Lao PDR

Catchment area
(km 2 )

Names ofmajor river basins1234.1 Rivers and Lakes

no circula on, in eﬀect func oning as mere containers ofwastewater from surrounding areas. Despite
improvement eﬀorts through rehabilita on projects,
surface water pollu on in these areas is s ll a major
problem in most ci es. Most of the monitoring parameterssuch as BOD5 , COD, nutrients (Ammonium) exceeded the
Na onal Technical Regula on on Surface Water Quality
QCVN 08-MT: 2015 / BTNMT (B1).
In the three most polluted river basins, the Cau,
Nhue- Day and Dong Nai, monitoring results show thatthe water quality in certain areas along the basins has
dropped year on year and many water parameters also
failed to meet the Na onal Technical Regula on on
Surface Water Quality 08:2008/BTNMT, type B1 (applicablefor irriga on and agricultural purposes only). For
example, the water quality of Cau river along Bac Giang

In general, the quality of the surface water in river
sections which run through urban areas and centres,
industrial zones and cra villages is greatly lowered a er
it receives untreated waste water from these sources.
Recent monitoring results by MONRE (2015) showed thatmajor rivers in the country such as Nhue-Day, Cau andDong Nai river basin are severely contaminated, mostly byorganic ma er, ammonia and microorganisms, exceeding
per-missible levels, a situation that has prevailed formany years and which seriously aﬀects human lives andsurrounding environments.
Surface water in rivers, lakes, canals, ditches in urban
areas has been heavily polluted due to receiving municipal
and some mes industrial wastewater. Many lakes havebecome reservoirs, with low self-cleaning capacity and

mg/L

2012

2013

2014

2015

QCVN 08-MT:2015 (A1)2016

QCVN 08-MT:2015 (B1)

8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0

Tha LaBridgeTong Le
Chan
BridgeDau
Dau Tieng
Tieng Lake Bridge

Ben Suc
BridgePhu Hoa
Pumping
ƚĂƟŽŶ

Binh
Trieu
BridgeCombined Ba Son Ship Tan Thuan Phu Cuong Thu Dau
with
Building
Port
BridgeMot city
Chiec ditch Company
Thu Dau Mot city
Ho Chi Minh CityhƌďĂŶĞŶƚƌĞ
^ƉĞĐŝĂůhƌďĂŶĞŶƚƌĞ
- Type IIThuan
An TownhƌďĂŶĞŶƚƌĞ
- Type IIIZŝǀĞƌƐĞĐƟŽŶƐ͕ǁŚŝĐŚŇŽǁƚŚƌŽƵŐŚƵƌďĂŶĂƌĞĂƐ

Upstream

Figure 2.13.2. Changes in annual average BOD5 content in Sai Gon river(upstream and river sec on ﬂowing across the urban centres) in the period 2012–2016
mg/L

Phu Long

2012

2013

2014

2015

Ban VuocďŽƌĚĞƌŐĂƚĞ

Lien Mac
drain

Thanh Tri
BridgePhuc Xa2016

QCVN 08-MT:2015 (A1)

(Source: MoNRE 2016)

QCVN 08-MT:2015 (B1)

35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0

Lao CaiHanoi City

UpstreamSpecial Urban CentredĞůĞǀŝƐŝŽŶƐƚĂƟŽŶ Phu Tho town Hoa Binh Bridge Mau A Town dͲ:ƵŶĐƟŽŶďĞƚǁĞĞŶ
- Lao Cai
Red and Dao River
Phu Tho
Lao Cai
Phu ThoHoa Binh
Yen BaiNam Dinh
Urban Centre Urban Centre
Urban Centre- Type I- Type II
Urban Centre- Type III- Type V
Downstream
Viet Tri

Figure 2.13.3. Changes in annual COD content in the Red river (river sec on ﬂowing across urban centres)in the period of 2012–2016(Source: MONRE 2016)

124

Chapter 2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

2013

2014

2015

QCVN 08-MT:2015 (A1)2016

QCVN 08-MT:2015 (B1)3530Indonesia

2012

40

China

mg/L

Viet Nam Environment Administra on, the Nhue-Day
River (areas around Hanoi city) is quite polluted, withexcesses of COD, BOD5 , NH4+ parameters outside the
QCVN 08: 2008/BTNMT, type B1 standard, par cularly
during the dry season (MONRE 2016).

Cambodia

and Bac Ninh province is always poor and polluted due tothe impacts of wastewater discharges from industries
and cra villages along the river (MONRE 2015).
According to the water quality monitoring conductedby the Center for Environmental Monitoring under the

25

Japan

20
15
10

0

Phuc La

Cau To

Cu Da

Chiec
BridgeDong
Quan

Do Kieu Hong Phu Linh Mai Trung Non Nuoc
Bridge Hieu Ha Bridge
BridgePhu LyUrban Centre- Type III

Ha Noi
Special Urban Centre

Do Xa
BridgePhao Kien
Khe Bridge

Thanh
Tan

Viet Trung
CementFactory

Ninh Binh

Phu LyUrban Centre - Type II

Urban Centre- Type III
Day river

Figure 2.13.4. Changes in annual BOD5 content in Nhue-Day river (river sec on ﬂowing across urban centres)in the period of 2012–2016(Source: MONRE 2016)

NHUE-DAY RIVER BASIN

Natural area: 6,030 km2

DONG NAI RIVER BASIN

Natural area: 7,665 km2

Natural area: 37,400 km2
Annual ﬂow: about 36.6 billion m3

Provinces contained:
Bac Can, Thai Nguyen, Vinh Phuc,
Bac Ninh, Bac Giang,
Hai Duong and Hanoi

Provinces contained:
Bac Can, Thai Nguyen,Vinh Phuc, Bac Ninh, Bac Giang,
Hai Duong and Hanoi

Provinces contained:
Dac Nong, Lam Dong, Binh Phuoc,
Dong Nai, Binh Thuan, Ninh Thuan,
Tay Ninh, Binh Duong, HCM City,
Ba Ria – Vung Tau, Long An

Figure 2.13.5. Basic characteris cs of three most polluted river basins in Viet Nam(Source: MONRE 2006)

Sri Lanka
Thailand
Viet Namwater (VACNE 2014).
Besides river systems, natural lakes in Viet Nam
currently play a role in regula ng storm water. Several big
lakes are considered the lungs of the ci es. However, thelake systems have recently been severely contaminatedby organic pollutants from domes c wastewater andsolid waste discharged by those with li le environmental
awareness.
Water in the river sec ons, and lakes located in the
inner ci es as well as major urban areas has beenpolluted, mainly by organic contaminants. Most of thewater quality parameters of the inner lakes inside Hanoi
city have exceeded QCVN 08-MT: 2015/BTNMT, type B1.

Philippines

A number of major pollu on sources in these basins
were iden ﬁed, including industrial waste (mainly mining
industry, metallurgy industry, food processing, paperindustry), domes c wastewater, cra village waste andmedical waste, which have enormously impacted on thewater quality in the river basins as well as public health.
According to sta s cs and an assessment conducted by
the Ministry of Health and Ministry of Natural Resources
and Environment, on average of around 9,000 people dieeach year in Viet Nam due to poor water and sanita on
condi ons. Every year, nearly 200,000 cases of newly
discovered cancers are reported, and one of the main
reasons therefor has been cited as the use of contaminated

Nepal

Annual ﬂow: about 28.8 billion m

3MyanmarAnnual ﬂow: about 4.5 billion m

3

Malaysia

CAU RIVER BASIN

Lao PDR

Nhue river

Hanoi
SpecialUrban
CentreKhanh
Phu

Republic of Korea

5

125

mg/L

2012

2013

2014

2015

QCVN 08-MT:2015 (A1)2016

QCVN 08-MT:2015 (B1)

45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0

Bay Mau West Lake West Lake An Bien Phuong Du Hang
Lake (shore) (middle) Lake Luu Lake Lake
Hanoi

Sen
Lake

Tam Bac Bau Tram Thanh
Lake
Lake
Lake
Da Nang Thanh
Hoa

Hai PhongSpecial Urban Centre

Goong Tinh Tam Phu Hoa Thanh Dam Vac Center Phai Loan
Lake
Lake
Lake
Lake
Lake
Lake
Lake
Vinh

Hue

Quy
Nhon

Bac
Ninh

Urban Centre- Type I

Hai
Duong

Lang
Son

Urban Centre- Type II

Urban
Centre- Type III

Figure 2.13.6. Changes in BOD5 content in some inner lakes in the period of 2012–2016

mg/L

2012

2013

2014

2015

Vinh
Yen

(Source: MONRE 2016)

QCVN 08-MT:2015 (B1 và B2)

2016

25
20
15
10
5
0

To Lich River

Lu RiverSet River

Tau Hu canal- Ben Nghe

Ha NoiTan Hoa canal- Lo Gom

Ba Do canalTham Luong canal

Ho Chi Minh

Figure 2.13.7. Changes in Ammonia content in some inner rivers, canals in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minhin the period of 2012–2016(Source: MONRE 2016)

mg/L

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

Tam Bac River Phu Loc River

Ben Nghu
River
Thua Thien Hue

Nha Le River

Large canal- VedanDong NaiQCVN 08-MT:2015 (B1 và B2)

10
8
6
4
2
0

Hai Phong

Da Nang

Thanh Hoa

Urban Centre - Type I

Ben Dinh canal
Ba Ria- Vung Tau

Bac Hung
Hai River
Hai Duong

Hoai River
Quang Nam

Cau Ong
Danh canal
Binh Duong

30/4 canal
Bac Lieu

Urban Centre- Type II

Figure 2.13.8. Changes in Ammonia content in some inner rivers, canals and drains in other urban centresin the period of 2012–2016(Source: MONRE 2016)

126

Chapter 2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Japan

Table 2.13.3. Classes within surface water quality standards
Class

Indonesia

Meanwhile, in Hue, Tinh Tam lake is now facing a
number of problems such as landslides in many places;
depleted reservoir bed due to deposi on of sediment;
long-term eutrophication; hyacinth-smothered lake
surface; clogged drains and degraded environment due
to disposal of daily garbage. Wastewater surrounding thereservoir has been le untreated. Sewage drains leading
to the lake are congested by waste and wild plant biomass
forms polluted marsh and foul odors, causing severe
environmental deg-rada on.

China

According to a monitoring results and assessment ofwater quality from Hanoi DONRE in the inner city area,
apart from the West Lake and the lakes that have beenrehabilitated (Ngoc Khanh, Xa Dan, Quynh, Hai Ba Trung,
Kim Lien, Van Quan, Vo, Den Lu, Thanh Nhan 1, Thanh
Nhan 2B and Truc Bach Lake are of grade III (used for
irriga on purposes and other similar purposes)), otherinner lakes are in the grade IV (used for naviga on andother similar purposes) and type V (severe pollution,
treatment required).

CambodiaBox 2.13.1. Contamina on of lake water in Hanoi and Hue

Objective of use

Good for domes c water supply and other purposes in A2

A2

Good for domes c water supply, but suitable treatment technology must be applied;conserva on of aqua c life or other purposes in B1 and B2

B1

Good for irriga on and other purposes with demand for similar quality water and other purposes in B2

B2

Good for water transporta on and other purposes with demand for low-quality water

Sri Lanka
Thailand
Viet Nam

Domes c wastewater
Due to rapid popula on growth, improved living standards
and urban lifestyles, volumes of daily wastewater generated in urban areas continue to accelerate. Further,rates of domes c wastewater treatment remain low, anduntreated domes c wastewater is frequently discharged
directly into the environment in urban areas.

Philippines

4.4 Wastewater andits major pollution sources

Nepal

According to MoNRE (2015), in general, whilst subject
to regional variations, groundwater quality across thecountry is considered rela vely good – pH values range
from 6.0–8.0,water is soft (hardness< 1.5 mg/l), andconcentra ons of organic compounds, microorganisms
and heavy metals are often within permissible levels
according to the National Technical Regulation on
Groundwater Quality QCVN 09-MT:2015/BTNMT.
However, instances of groundwater pollu on are on
the rise in certain areas, especially in the Northern delta(e.g., Red river delta). Major pollutants found exceeding
permissible levels are Total Dissolved Solids (TDS),
ammonium, heavy metals (Mn, As, Cd, Pb). Saltwater
intrusion has been reported in some areas, especially inthe three most vulnerable regions – the coastal central
provinces, lower basin of Dong Nai river, and coastal
provinces of the Mekong delta.

MyanmarIn general, the coastal water quality in Vietnam is good,
as most monitoring parameters are within the limitsof the Na onal Technical Regula on on Coastal Water
Quality QCVN 10-MT: 2015 / BTNMT. However, due to theimpacts of increased discharge of untreated wastewaterand solid waste directly into the sea, problems related
to organic pollu on have been on the rise in the coastal
provinces. Values of parameters such as COD, NH4+ in the
period 2011–2015 in most monitored areas are high,exceeding QCVN 10-MT: 2015/BTNMT (aquaculture andbathing), especially in coastal areas in the North andSouth. Tho Quang boat (Da Nang) has become one of thehotspots of marine pollu on in recent years. The level oforganic pollu on in the northern coastal areas is higher
than in the central and southern regions, but decreasedin the 2011–2015 period.
Meanwhile, in the coastal areas in the provinces ofKhanh Hoa, Ninh Thuan, and Binh Thuan, a phenomenon
known as “red de,” caused by algae blooms, has
occurred, with serious impacts on biological andenvironmental resources. Its main cause is the rapid
development of tourism, urbaniza on, agriculture,industry, and so on, which in turn create large volumes oforganic waste and nutrients that are discharged into thewaters, causing eutrophica on. At the same me, theproduc on of aqua c seeds and cage culture of lobsterand grouper also release signiﬁcant volumes of nutrients,
crea ng favorable condi ons for algae (MoNRE 2015).

Malaysia

4.3 Groundwater

Lao PDR

4.2 Coastal Water

Republic of Korea

A1

127

Industrial wastewater
In addition to domestic wastewater, other sources ofwastewater discharges such as from industry, services,trade centers also aﬀect the urban water environment.
In some cities like Hanoi, small-scale production units
can s ll be found in inner city areas, with large industrial
parks close by. These units are mainly households, mostof which have not invested in waste treatment systems.
In addi on to the lack of funds for the construc on of astandardized wastewater treatment system, small andmedium-sized enterprises face diﬃcul es in accessing
new wastewater treatment systems and technologies.
Therefore, the quality of treated wastewater is notguaranteed when discharged into the environment.
Wastewater from industrial sectors o en contains highamounts of heavy metals, grease, and suspended solids.
Other sources (Medical wastewater)
Medical wastewater is wastewater discharged frommedical establishments, including medical examina on
and treatment establishments; Preventive Medicine
Centers; medical and pharmaceutical research andtraining estab-lishments, and drug manufacturing
establishments. Medical wastewater, in addition tocommon pollutants such as organic substances, oils
and greases, also contains speciﬁc mineral and organic
contaminants, pathogenic bacteria, drug prepara ons,
reducing agents, chemical solvents, an bio c residues
and possible radioac ve isotopes used in the diagnosis
and treatment of diseases. Volumes of medical
wastewater generated are increasing annually, andin 2015 the total amount generated requiring special
handling was ca. 125,000 m3/day.

5 | Status of Wastewater Treatment
Domes c wastewater
According to data from the Ministry of Construc on in2015, 52 urban water drainage and wastewater projects
have been implemented, comprised of 77 irrigation
systems with a total designed handling capacity of about
2.4 million m 3/day. Of these, 37 centrally-operated
wastewater treatment plants have been built in urban
areas of type III or higher. However, plant construc on
is still incomplete due to the lack of synchronized
wastewater collection network. As a result, somewastewater plants are not opera ng at full capacity due
to inadequate input wastewater.
Industrial wastewaterIndustrial wastewater consists of discharged wastewaterfrom industrial zones, industrial complexes, small

128

industries and craft villages. Approximately 75% of
operating industrial zones (212/283) have centralised
wastewater treatment systems (60% of total wastewater
discharged by 212 industrial zones is treated). About 5%of opera ng industrial complexes and only a few cra
villages have centralised wastewater treatment systems.

6 | Frameworks for Water Environment
Management
6.1 Legislations
Ar cle 53 of the new Cons tu on 2013 states that “Theland, water resources, mineral resources, wealth lying
underground or from the sea and the air, other natural
resources, and property invested and managed by theState are public proper es, coming under ownership ofthe en re people represented and uniformly managed by
the State.” The Cons tu on is the basis of environmental
and water resources protec on in the country.
In addi on, under the new Law on Water Resources
2012 (Decree No. 17/2012/QH13), which replaces theprevious Law on Water Resources 1998 under Decree No.
08/1998/QH10), issues rela ng to the protec on ofwater resources, including responsibili es for thepreven on of water deteriora on and deple on, andcontrol of water quality, are signiﬁcantly highlighted in
Chapter 3 of the Law. Apart from this law, a new Law on
Environmental Protec on 2014 (No. 55/2014/QH2013)
also provides statutory provisions on environmental
protec on ac vi es; measures and resources used forthe purpose of environmental protec on, including riverwater environmental protec on; and rights, powers,
du es and obliga ons of regulatory bodies, agencies,
organiza ons, households and individuals who are tasked
with the environmental protec on task.
Further, a number of other relevant laws such as
Mineral Law, Land Law and Biodiversity Law, and decrees,de-cisions, circulars and strategies on water resourcesmanagement have been promulgated to complete thena onal legisla on related to water environmental
management in Viet Nam.

6.2 Institutional arrangement
State responsibili es for water resources management of
the government, ministries and ministerial-level agencies,
city and the provincial people’s commi ee, district andcommune people’s commi ee are clearly stated in the
Law on Water Resources 2012 and Law on Environmental
Protection 2014. Accordingly, the government is toperform uniform or overall state management of water
resources.
Meanwhile, the Ministry of Natural Resources andChapter 2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

MONRE

Law No. 17/2012/QH13;ŽͲĐŽŽƌĚŝŶĂƟŶŐ

(No. 55/2014/QH13)

Law No. 55/2014/QH13)(Supported by
DoNREs under PC)

Myanmar

LAW ONENVIRONMENTAL
PROTECTION

Malaysia(Decree No. 36/2017/
ND-CP;

Ͳ^ƚĂƚĞŵĂŶĂŐĞŵĞŶƚŽĨǁĂƚĞƌƌĞƐŽƵƌĐĞƐ͕ĂŶĚƌŝǀĞƌďĂƐŝŶƐŶĂƟŽŶǁŝĚĞ͘- Promulgate and implement legal documents onwater resources.
- WƌŽŵƵůŐĂƚĞƚĞĐŚŶŝĐĂůƌĞŐƵůĂƟŽŶƐ͕ƐƚĂŶĚĂƌĚƐŽŶ
ambient water quality and unit prices onǁĂƚĞƌƌĞƐŽƵƌĐĞƉůĂŶŶŝŶŐ͕ďĂƐŝĐƐƵƌǀĞǇ͕ĞǆƉůŽƌĂƟŽŶ͕ĞǆƉůŽŝƚĂƟŽŶ͕ƵƐĞĂŶĚƉƌŽƚĞĐƟŽŶ͘ͲtĂƚĞƌƋƵĂůŝƚǇŵŽŶŝƚŽƌŝŶŐĨŽƌƉƵďůŝĐǁĂƚĞƌďŽĚŝĞƐ
ŶĂƟŽŶǁŝĚĞ͕ĞƚĐ͘Ͳ^ƚĂŶĚŝŶŐKĸĐĞŽĨsŝĞƚŶĂŵEĂƟŽŶĂůDĞŬŽŶŐ
ŽŵŵŝƩĞĞ

Lao PDR(Amended in 2013)

Republic of Korea

1992
CONSTITUTION

Japan(Law No. 17/2012/QH13)

Overallmanagement ofwater resources

Indonesia

GOVERNMENT OF VIETNAM

Chinaaddi on, MoNRE also acts as the standing body of the
Na onal Council of Water Resources, the Viet Nam
Mekong River Commission and other river basinorganisa ons na onwide.
Furthermore, MoNRE is also responsible forconsistent coordina on of ac vi es of the peoplecommi ees at all levels, including city, provincial, district
and commune, and other relevant ministries andministerial-level agencies to ensure the smooth
implementa on of legal documents and measures toprotect water resources as prescribed by the Law,
including supervision of the exploita on, use andprotec on of water resources and the preven on, control
and remedy of harmful eﬀects caused by water on river
basins, as deﬁned in Ar cle 72, Law on Water Resources
2012.

Cambodia

Environment (MoNRE), established in 2002, bears the
gov-ernmental responsibility for the state managementof water resources, including planning for environmental
protec on, veriﬁca on of reports on strategic
environmental assessments, assis ng the Government indesigning, implemen ng and providing guidelines forresponses to climate change, providing instruc ons onenvironmental
remedia onandimprovement,
implementa on of na onal environmental monitoring,promulga on of technical regula ons, standards onwater quality and obliga on for water quality monitoringof public water bodies, management of river basinsna onwide according to Ar cle 70 of the Law of Water
Resources 2012, Law on Environmental Protec on 2014and Decree No. 36/2017/ND-CP deﬁning the func ons,
tasks, powers and organisa onal structure of MoNRE. InŽͲĐŽŽƌĚŝŶĂƟŶŐ

(Law No. 17/2012/QH13);ƌƟĐůĞϳϭ͕>ĂǁŽŶtĂƚĞƌZĞƐŽƵƌĐĞϮϬϭϮͿ

Other Relevant Ministries, including MARD
(Decree No. 01/2008/ND-CP), MOIT (Decree No. 189/2007/ND-CP),

MOF(Decree No. 118/2008/ND-CP), MPI (Decree No. 116/2008/ND-CP),
MOHA (Decree No. 61/2012/ND-CP), MOST (Decree 20/2013/ND-CP)

Viet Nam

Note: MONRE: Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment; MARD: Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development; MOC: Ministry ofConstruc on; MOHA: Ministry of Home Aﬀairs; MOH: Ministry of Health; MOST: Ministry of Science and Technology; MPI: Ministry of Planning andInvestment; MOF: Ministry of Finance; MOIT: Ministry of Industry and Trade; MOT: Ministry of Transport; PC: City or Provincial People’s Commi ee.

ThailandMOH (Decree No. 188/2007/ND-CP), MOC (Decree No. 17/2008/ND-CP),
MOT (Decree No. 51/2008/ND-CP),

Sri Lanka

Decree No. 201/2013/
ND-CP detailing theŝŵƉůĞŵĞŶƚĂƟŽŶŽĨƐŽŵĞĂƌƟĐůĞƐŝŶƚŚĞ
Water Resources LawŝƐƚƌŝĐƚ͕ŽŵŵƵŶĞͲ>ĞǀĞůWĞŽƉůĞ͛ƐŽŵŵŝƩĞĞ

Philippines

LAW ONWATER RESOURCE
2012

Related Ministries (Decree No.81/2007/ND-CP;
Decree No. 178/2007/ND-CP);ƌƟĐůĞϳϭ͕>ĂǁŽŶtĂƚĞƌZĞƐŽƵƌĐĞϮϬϭϮͿ

NepalŝƚǇ͕WƌŽǀŝŶĐŝĂůͲ>ĞǀĞůWĞŽƉůĞ͛ƐŽŵŵŝƩĞĞ

Figure 2.13.9. State responsibili es for water resources management in Viet Nam(Source: Prepared by IGES based on informa on from the relevant decrees)129

Other ministries that may inﬂuence or eﬀect water
resources management include: the Ministry ofAgriculture and Rural Development, Ministry of Industry
and Trade, Ministry of Health, Ministry of Science andTechnology, Ministry of Construc on, Ministry ofTransport, and Ministry of Finance, Ministry of Planningand Investment, Minis-try of Home Aﬀairs. Roles andresponsibili es of these ministries are brieﬂy described in

Figure 2.13.9 and Table 2.13.4. In implementa on, local
governments play an important role in environmental
management. The Department of Natural Resources andEnvironment (DoNRE) under the city or provincial
people’s commi ee takes a leading role in the promo onof environmental conserva on ac vi es through theimplementa on of environmental regula ons andprovision of guidance.

Table 2.13.4. Responsibili es of other relevant ministries for water resources management
Relevant Ministries

Responsibilities

Ministry of Agriculture andRural Development (MARD)Manages rural water supply and sanita on; manages water for irriga on and aqua c
produc on; ﬂood, storm and disaster preven on; ﬁshery, cul va on land management;
management of hydraulic engineering and dikes.

Ministry of Construc on (MoC)

Manages urban public works; design and construc on of urban water supply, drainage
and urban wastewater works.

Ministry of Health (MoH)Manages drinking water quality; responsible for preparing and supervisingwater quality standards and regula ons (drinking and domes c).

Ministry of Science and Technology (MoST)

Appraises the dra and publicizes the water quality standards prepared by MONRE.

Ministry of Finance (MoF)

Prepares policies on taxes and fees for water resources; allocates state budget.

Ministry of Planning and Investment (MPI)

Checks and provides instruc ons to other ministries and sectors on the prepara on
and implementa on of the strategies on socio-economic development; allocates, plans
and invests; coordinates interna onal rela ons.

Ministry of Transporta on (MoT)Manages and develops transporta on on water; manages aqua c engineering andport systems.

Ministry of Industry and Trade (MoIT)

Develops hydropower via the Viet Nam Electricity Corpora on (EVN).

(Source: Prepared by IGES based on informa on from the relevant decrees deﬁning func ons and responsibili es of each relevant ministry)

6.3 Ambient Water Quality Standards
Ambient water quality standards are established forsurface water, coastal water and groundwater. The Center
for Environmental Monitoring (CEM), under the Viet
Nam Environment Administra on (VEA), was establishedunder Decision No. 188/QD-IDU on 23/3/2010 of the
VEA. The CEM assists the VEA in organizing, implemen ng
tasks of na onal environmental monitoring, construc onand environmental data management, applications of
information technology in environmental monitoring,and building repor ng on environmental quality in thefunc onal framework of the VEA. The CEM is a leading
center in the national environmental monitoring
network, and since 2005 it has carried out a numberof regular monitoring programmes. In 2003, with theaim of improving management efficiency regarding
monitoring data, it developed a so ware tool. This was
further developed and systema zed throughout 2009–2011, under the framework of an investment project, tobuild the informa on network system, in order to meetgrowing needs. The environmental monitoring databasesystem formed by the project, integrates informa on andcommunica on tools to receive online monitoring data,

130

and enables reporting and information sharing via anenvironmental monitoring portal. Users need to sign up
with the VEA to use the system (Figure 2.13.11).

6.4 Monitoring Ambient Water Quality
in Public Water Bodies
Depending on the monitoring program, the following
water parameters have been analysed ini ally (about 20
parameters), including: pH, temperature, SS, turbidity, EC,
ORP, DO, COD, BOD5 , NH4+, NO3-, PO43-, SO42-, Cl-, coliform,
heavy metals (Pb, Ni, Cd, Cr, Hg, As, Mn, Fe), oil, phenol andtrace pes cides. Later on, addi onal pa-rameters wereadded through recommenda ons, including: surfactants,
oil & grease, Aldrin+Dieldrin, Enrin, BHC, DDT (Endosufan(Thiodan), Lindan, Chlordane, Heptachlor), Paration,
Mala on, (2,4D; 2,4,5T; Paraquat), and E.coli (CEM 2014).
According to a recent communica on (Circular 24/2017/
TT-BTNMT: Technical Regulation on Environmental
Monitoring; 1st September 2017; applicable to allorganiza ons and individuals involved in envi-ronmental
monitoring ac vi es in Vietnam), surface water quality
monitoring parameters should include: tem-perature,
pH, DO, EC, TDS, ORP, turbidity, salinity, alkalinity, color,Chapter 2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Cambodia

CONSERVATION OF WATER QUALITYLAW ON ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION 2014

China

LAW ON WATER RESOURCES 2012
AMBIENT WATER QUALITY STANDARDS

Indonesia- YsEϬϴͲDd͗ϮϬϭϱͬdEDdʹEĂƟŽŶĂůdĞĐŚŶŝĐĂůZĞŐƵůĂƟŽŶŽŶ^ƵƌĨĂĐĞtĂƚĞƌYƵĂůŝƚǇ- QCVN 09-MT:2015ͬdEDdʹEĂƟŽŶĂůdĞĐŚŶŝĐĂůZĞŐƵůĂƟŽŶŽŶ'ƌŽƵŶĚǁĂƚĞƌYƵĂůŝƚǇ- QCVN 10-MT:2015ͬdEDdʹEĂƟŽŶĂůdĞĐŚŶŝĐĂůZĞŐƵůĂƟŽŶŽŶŽĂƐƚĂůtĂƚĞƌYƵĂůŝƚǇ
- YsEϯϴ͗ϮϬϭϭͬdEDdʹEĂƟŽŶĂůdĞĐŚŶŝĐĂůZĞŐƵůĂƟŽŶŽŶ^ƵƌĨĂĐĞtĂƚĞƌYƵĂůŝƚǇĨŽƌWƌŽƚĞĐƟŽŶŽĨƋƵĂƟĐ>ŝǀĞƐ
- YsEϯϵ͗ϮϬϭϭͬdEDdʹEĂƟŽŶĂůdĞĐŚŶŝĐĂůZĞŐƵůĂƟŽŶŽŶtĂƚĞƌYƵĂůŝƚǇĨŽƌ/ƌƌŝŐĂƚĞĚŐƌŝĐƵůƚƵƌĞ
- YsEϰϰ͗ϮϬϭϮͬdEDdʹEĂƟŽŶĂůdĞĐŚŶŝĐĂůZĞŐƵůĂƟŽŶŽŶKī-^ŚŽƌĞtĂƚĞƌYƵĂůŝƚǇ

Japan

EFFLUENT STANDARDS

Viet Nam

There are various effluent standards in Viet Nam asshown in Figure 2.13.10, including domes c, industrial
and medical wastewater. In general, industries are
required to carry out environmental impact assessments(EIA) and will have to commit to self-monitoring four
mes a year, in accordance with a circular issued by theThailandtotal hardness, TSS, BOD5 , COD, TOC, NH4+, NO2-, NO3-,
S042-, P043-, CN-, Cl-, F-, S2-, T-N, T-P, Na, K, Ca, Mg, Fe,
Mn, Cu, Zn, Ni, Pb, Cd, As, Hg, Total Crom (Cr), Cr (VI),
coliform, E.Coli, total oil, grease; total phenol, organic
chlorine, organic phosphorus, total alpha ac vity, total

Sri Lanka

6.5 Effluent Standards

Philippines

Figure 2.13.11. Real-Time Environmental Monitoring Portal(Source: CEM 2015)of Nhue-Day River Basin by VEA

Nepal

beta ac vity, total polyclobiphenyl (PCB), total dioxin /furan (PCDD / PCDF), polyclobiphenyl analogs, dioxin-PCB), ﬂoa ng plants, ﬂoa ng animals, benthic animals,
surfactants.
In terms of monitoring frequency, according to
Circular 24/2017/TT-BTNMT: Technical Regula on on
Environ-mental Monitoring, surface water quality ismonitored at least 6 mes/year, 2 months/1 me.
Monitoring data is used to review and revise policies
and measure for water quality conserva on. MoNRE
issues the Na onal State of the Environment Report
every year, in which major data is made public.

Myanmar(Source: Prepared by IGES based on informa on from the relevant Laws, Standards, Decisions, Decrees, Circulars, etc.)

Malaysia

Figure 2.13.10. Relevant laws, standards for conserva on of water quality in Viet Nam

Lao PDR

OTHER RELEVANT LAWS, DECISIONS, DECREES, CIRCULARS, ETC.

Republic of Korea- QCVN 01-MT:2015ͬdEDdʹEĂƟŽŶĂůdĞĐŚŶŝĐĂůZĞŐƵůĂƟŽŶŽŶƚŚĞŋƵĞŶƚŽĨEĂƚƵƌĂůZƵďďĞƌWƌŽĐĞƐƐŝŶŐ/ŶĚƵƐƚƌǇ- QCVN 11-MT:2015ͬdEDdʹEĂƟŽŶĂůdĞĐŚŶŝĐĂůZĞŐƵůĂƟŽŶŽŶƚŚĞŋƵĞŶƚŽĨƋƵĂƟĐWƌŽĚƵĐƚƐWƌŽĐĞƐƐŝŶŐ/ŶĚƵƐƚƌǇ- QCVN 12-MT:2015ͬdEDdʹEĂƟŽŶĂůdĞĐŚŶŝĐĂůZĞŐƵůĂƟŽŶŽŶƚŚĞŋƵĞŶƚŽĨWƵůƉĂŶĚWĂƉĞƌDŝůůƐ- QCVN 13-MT:2015ͬdEDdʹEĂƟŽŶĂůdĞĐŚŶŝĐĂůZĞŐƵůĂƟŽŶŽŶƚŚĞŋƵĞŶƚŽĨdĞǆƟůĞ/ŶĚƵƐƚƌǇ
- YsEϭϰ͗ϮϬϬϴͬdEDdʹEĂƟŽŶĂůdĞĐŚŶŝĐĂůZĞŐƵůĂƟŽŶŽŶŽŵĞƐƟĐtĂƐƚĞǁĂƚĞƌ
- YsEϮϱ͗ϮϬϬϵͬdEDdʹEĂƟŽŶĂůdĞĐŚŶŝĐĂůZĞŐƵůĂƟŽŶŽŶtĂƐƚĞǁĂƚĞƌŽĨ^ŽůŝĚtĂƐƚĞ>ĂŶĚĮůů^ŝƚĞƐ- YsEϮϴ͗ϮϬϭϬͬdEDdʹEĂƟŽŶĂůdĞĐŚŶŝĐĂůZĞŐƵůĂƟŽŶŽŶ,ĞĂůƚŚĂƌĞtĂƐƚĞǁĂƚĞƌ
- YsEϮϵ͗ϮϬϭϬͬdEDdʹEĂƟŽŶĂůdĞĐŚŶŝĐĂůZĞŐƵůĂƟŽŶŽŶƚŚĞŋƵĞŶƚŽĨWĞƚƌŽůĞƵŵdĞƌŵŝŶĂůĂŶĚ^ƚĂƟŽŶƐ
- YsEϯϱ͗ϮϬϭϬͬdEDdʹEĂƟŽŶĂůdĞĐŚŶŝĐĂůZĞŐƵůĂƟŽŶŽŶŝƐĐŚĂƌŐĞĚWƌŽĚƵĐĞĚtĂƚĞƌĨŽƌKīƐŚŽƌĞKŝůĂŶĚ'ĂƐ&ĂĐŝůŝƟĞƐ
- YsEϯϴ͗ϮϬϭϭͬdEDdʹEĂƟŽŶĂůdĞĐŚŶŝĐĂůZĞŐƵůĂƟŽŶŽŶ^ƵƌĨĂĐĞtĂƚĞƌYƵĂůŝƚǇĨŽƌWƌŽƚĞĐƟŽŶŽĨƋƵĂƟĐ>ŝǀĞƐ
- YsEϯϵ͗ϮϬϭϭͬdEDdʹEĂƟŽŶĂůdĞĐŚŶŝĐĂůZĞŐƵůĂƟŽŶŽŶtĂƚĞƌYƵĂůŝƚǇĨŽƌ/ƌƌŝŐĂƚĞĚŐƌŝĐƵůƚƵƌĞ
- YsEϰϬ͗ϮϬϭϭͬdEDdʹEĂƟŽŶĂůdĞĐŚŶŝĐĂůZĞŐƵůĂƟŽŶŽŶ/ŶĚƵƐƚƌŝĂůtĂƐƚĞǁĂƚĞƌ
- YsEϱϮ͗ϮϬϭϯͬdEDdʹEĂƟŽŶĂůdĞĐŚŶŝĐĂůZĞŐƵůĂƟŽŶŽŶtĂƐƚĞǁĂƚĞƌŽĨ^ƚĞĞů/ŶĚƵƐƚƌǇ
- YsEϲϬͲDd͗ϮϬϭϱͬdEDdʹEĂƟŽŶĂůdĞĐŚŶŝĐĂůZĞŐƵůĂƟŽŶŽŶƚŚĞŋƵĞŶƚŽĨŝŽĞƚŚĂŶŽůWƌŽĐĞƐƐŝŶŐ
- YsEϲϮͲDd͗ϮϬϭϲͬdEDdʹEĂƟŽŶĂůdĞĐŚŶŝĐĂůZĞŐƵůĂƟŽŶŽŶƚŚĞŋƵĞŶƚŽĨ>ŝǀĞƐƚŽĐŬ- QCVN 63:ϮϬϬϳͬdEDdʹEĂƟŽŶĂůdĞĐŚŶŝĐĂůZĞŐƵůĂƟŽŶŽŶŋƵĞŶƚŝƐĐŚĂƌŐĞĚĨƌŽŵƚŚĞĂƐƐĂǀĂ^ƚĂƌĐŚWƌŽĐĞƐƐŝŶŐ&ĂĐƚŽƌŝĞƐ

131

national government. Twice a year, MoNRE, VEA or/and DoNRE conduct compliance inspections with theindustrial eﬄuent standards, which are carried out withprior announcement no more than twice a year. If aviola on is suspected, the “environmental police,” under
the Ministry of Public Security, may carry out, without
prior warning, a compulsory inves ga on, raising thechance of iden fying possible non-compliance.
Currently, about 38.6% of industrial zones haveautoma c monitoring systems, but none exist in industrial
complexes, some industries and cra villages.

7 | Recent Developments inWater Environmental Management
Developing the Central Party ’s resolution on
environmental protec on: Resolu on No. 24-NQ/TW
by the Central Executive Committee, Viet Nam
Communist Party issued on 3 June 2013: “Active in
response to climate change, improvement of natural
resource management and environmental protec on.”Accordingly, issues of climate change and theenvironment are global. Therefore, in response to
climate change, environmental protection must beplaced in the global context. Actively responding toclimate change, enhancing resource management andprotec ng the environment are cri cal issues with farreaching eﬀects, close connec ons, interac ons, with
ramiﬁca ons on the sustainable development of thecountry. These are also the founda ons for planningguidelines and policies for economic development that
ensure na onal defense and security, as well as social
security. Strengthening environmental protection
should take place in harmony with nature and inaccordance with the laws of nature, while placing anemphasis on preven on. The combina on of controlling
pollution, improving the environment, nature
conservation and biodiversity all focus on securing
human health as the primary objec ve. The resolu on
on environmental protec on ﬁrmly rejects projects thatcause environmental pollu on and aﬀect public health.
The amended Environmental Protec on Law 2014 wasadopted by the National Assembly (NA) session andtook eﬀect from 1 January 2015. This is considered an
important legal framework for addressing the cur-rent
deﬁciencies in environmental protec on. According tothe Vice-Minister of Natural Resources and Environment
Bui Cach Tuyen, the new law overcame limita ons andshortcomings of previous legisla on, added some newcontent in terms of green growth, climate change andenvironmental security and harmonized regulations

132

with the country’s international commitments (Hop2015). The new law stipulates that all agencies,
organizations, households and individuals are to be
responsible for environmental protection, and also
clarifies the powers and responsibilities among line
ministries, of locali es and departments in controlling
water pollu on in basins and rivers. The amended law
also focuses on environmental protec on principles inharmony with socioeconomic development, social
security, ensuring children’s rights, conserva on anddevelopment and climate change (VEM 2014).
Decree No. 154/2016/ND-CP dated 16/11/2016,
regulating on environmental protection fee on
wastewater. This Decree replaces Decree No. 25/2013/
ND-CP dated 03/29/2013 on environmental protec on
charges for wastewater, and regulates en es liable toenvironmental protec on fee, free cases, fee payers,
rates, declara on, payment and use of environmental
protec on fees regarding wastewater. Under this new
decree, ( i ) For domes c wastewater, environmental
protection charge rates are to be calculated as apercentage (%) of the selling price of 1m3 of cleanwater, specifically 10% of the non-VAT clean water
selling price; which can be increased by provincial
peoples’ committee or city governments; (ii) for
industrial wastewater, the pollution substances orparameters calculated for charging have been increased
from two to six, including chemical oxygen demand(COD), total suspended solids (TSS), Mercury (Hg), Lead
(Pb), Arsenic (As) and Cadmium (Cd). Fixed and variable
fees have been applied and calculated using thefollowing equa on:
F=f+C
Where:
F: Fee of Industrial wastewaterf : Fixed charge (1,500,000 VND/year)
C: Variable charge, calculated based on total volume
of wastewater discharged, concentration of pollutants, and fee rate for each type of pollutant as
men oned in the following table:
Table 2.13.5. Environmental protec on fee on
industrial wastewaterNo

Pollutants subjected to fee

1Fee (VND/kg)

Chemical oxygen demand (COD)

2,000

2

Total suspended solids (TSS)

2,400

3

Mercury (Hg)

20,000,000

4Lead (Pb)

1,000,000

5Arsenic (As)2,000,000

6

Cadmium (Cd).

2,000,000(Source: Government of Vietnam 2016, Decree No. 154/2016/ND-CP)

Chapter 2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Malaysia
Myanmar
Nepal
Philippines
Sri Lanka
Thailand
Viet Nam

Con nue strengthening the system of environmental
observation and warnings in the key economic
regions and areas where many sources of waste areconcentrated.

Lao PDR

Review and evaluate the environmental impacts,
works and environmental protection measures oflarge, high-risk projects which cause environmental
pollu on, especially those located near urban areas
with popula on density or high popula on density,with sensi ve ecosystems.

Republic of Korea

Review and submit to the Government amendments
and supplements to the decrees detailing
implementation of the Law on Environmental
Protection, addressing current inadequacies,
including provisions on tools and measures for state
management, technical control, and supervision ofdischarge ac vi es.

Japan

Continue to review and finalize relevant policies,
documents and regula ons on urban environmental
protec on to ensure uniformity, and further improve
legislative systems, including elimination of
overlapping or uncoordinated provisions in water
resources management, especially among diﬀerent
ministries, sectors and local authori es.

Indonesia

Decision No. 622/QĐ-TTg dated 10th May 2017 by thePrime Minister on the issuance of the Na onal Ac on
Plan for Implementation of the 2030 Sustainable
Development Agenda. Viet Nam’s sustainable
development goals to 2030 consists of 17 goals with115 targets, corresponding to the global sustainable
development goals elaborated in the document“Transforming our world: The 2030 Agenda for
Sustainable Development” adopted by the United
Na ons General Assembly in September 2015. Thesetargets captured all the UN SDG targets with several
modiﬁca ons and adjustments according to the context
of Vietnam. Concerning the water- and sanitationrelated goals, Sustainable Development Goal 6 (SDG 6),
MONRE, MARD, MoC and MoF have been assigned as
the lead organiza ons in implemen ng Vietnam’s SDG
6’s related targets. Specifically, MONRE has been
assigned as the lead organization in implementing
target 6.1d, 6.3b, 6.4, 6.5, and 6.6; meanwhile MoC is
responsible for 6.1a, 6.2, and 6.3a; MARD is responsiblefor 6.1b and MoF is responsible for 6.1c, 6.3c.

In recent years, a number of eﬀorts have been taken byboth central and local governments, as well as donor
agencies to improve the water quality and environmental
landscape of lakes and rivers, especially in big cities
and provinces such as Hanoi, Da Nang and Ho Chi Minh
City. However, surface water pollution in lakes, rivers
and canals is still a prominent issue in some major
provinces and ci es. Surface water quality in many ci es
continues to decline, and the water environment ismainly contaminated with organic substances, nutrientsand microbial contamination, chiefly due to the large
amounts of untreated or improperly treated wastewaterfrom both domes c and industrial sources. Meanwhile,
due to overuse and exploita on, groundwater resources
have tended to diminish in volume, causing land
subsidence in many areas, par cularly urban Northernand Southern delta areas such as Hanoi, Thanh Mien-Hai
Duong, District 12-Ho Chi Minh City, and Soc Trang.
In view of the above problems, the following measures
have been proposed:

China

Decision No. 90/QĐ-TTg: Approval for a Master Plan
for Na onal Natural Resources and Environment Monitoring Networks for 2016–2015, with a Vision to 2030.
Under this new Master Plan, the Government of Vietnam has set up a number of specific targets fordiﬀerent periods (2016–2012, 2021–2025, and a vision
to 2030) to establish na onal natural resources andenvironment monitoring networks to ensure
uniformity, modernity, and breadth; mee ng demands
for basic survey informa on for state administra on
on natural resources of water, soil, sea and islands,hydrometeorology, environmental protection andsocio-economic de-velopment; serving activities offorecasting, warning, preventing and minimizing
damage caused by natural disasters and environment
pollu on, responses to climate change.

8 | Existing and Future Challenges

Cambodia

Circular 24/2017/TT-BTNMT: Technical Regula on on
Environmental Monitoring dated 1st September 2017,
applicable to all organiza ons and individuals involvedin environmental monitoring activities in Vietnam.
Surface water quality monitoring parameters include
all parameters as men oned earlier. Also, according to
the Circular 24/2017/TT-BTNMT: Technical Regula on
on Environmental Monitoring, frequency of surface
water quality monitoring should be at least 6 mes/
year, 2 months/1 me. This new Circular was eﬀec ve
from 15th October 2017.

133

Develop a sound informa on base: Develop reliable
informa on systems of the state of water quality andmanagement, and an inventory database on
pollu on sources.
Take step by step improvements to minimize
pollu on in rivers, lakes and canals especially in innercities by effective measures such as dredging,clearing and increasing the ﬂow capacity of rivers
and canals. Continue to promote appropriatetechnologies under specific local contexts foreﬀec ve opera on of both domes c and industrial
wastewater treatment, and closely monitor toensure proper operation of these wastewater
treatment systems.
Improve the state management capacity and mobilize
resources for urban environmental protec on:- Con nue to improve ins tu onal capacity at
the national and local level to implement
water quality management, especially in theﬁeld of water quality monitoring, control andinves ga on of pollu on sources, method of
imposing sanc ons at the ground level, etc.
- Strengthen training, capacity building forenvironmental managers, promote
eﬀec veness of environmental service delivery
u n i t s a n d e n t e r p r i s e s o p e ra t i n g i nenvironmental protec on.
- Strengthen and re-organize the inspection,
examination and handling of violations andthe preven on, control of pollu on.
- Strengthen mobiliza on and eﬀec ve use ofﬁnancial investment for urban environmental
protection. Promote and diversify financial
resources for urban environmental protec on,with speciﬁc provisions on priority alloca onsuch as investment in the construction of
appropriate wastewater treatment systems,
renovating lakes, ponds, canals and rivers
ﬂowing through urban centres and polluted
residential areas. Focus on perfecting
mechanisms and policies to mobilize resourcesfrom all economic sectors and socializing
environmental protec on ac vi es.
- Principle: polluters and those who benefit
from the environment must pay expenses forhandling and overcoming consequences,renova ng and restoring the environment.

134

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