2.5 Republic of Korea
1 | Country Information

major river basins in Korea, namely the Han, Geum,
Nakdong and Yeongsan-Seomjin.

Table 2.5.1 Basic indicators
Land Area (km2)

100,341 (2015)

Total Population

52 million (2019)

GDP (current USD)

1,647 billion (2019)*

GDP per capita (current USD)

31,846 (2019)

Average Precipitation (mm/year)

1283.4 (2019)

Total Renewable Water Resources (km3)

132.3 (2020)**

Total Annual Freshwater Withdrawals(billion m3)

25.1 (2020)

Annual Freshwater
Withdrawals
by Sector

Agriculture

61% (2020)

Industry

9% (2020)

Municipal(including domestic)

30% (2020)(Source: *Korean Statistical Information Service (2020) (1,919 trillion won(seasonally adjusted, current prices)), **Sewage statistics by Korean
Ministry of Environment)

3 | State of Ambient Water Quality
There are 1,936 sampling points for ambient water
quality, which is measured against a composite water
quality index divided into seven levels (Ia: Very good, Ib:
Good, II: Moderately good, III: Moderate, IV: Moderately
bad, V: Bad, VI: Very bad). Water quality is assessed andpublicly disclosed for key sampling points as shown in
Figure 2.5.2 (MOE 2020, NIER MLIT 2020).

Hantangang
Misan

Hwacheon

Inje

Seosang
PocheonSincheon
Uiam
Guri

Han River Basin

Gapyeong
Hungcheon
Wonju
Gyeongancheon
Neungseo
Bokacheon
Gangcheon Pyeongchang
Yeoju
Cheongmicheon

Geum River
Basin

Chungju

Danyang

Bonghwa

Dalcheon

Mihocheon
Pungyang
Nammyun Hyundo
Andongdamharyu
Yugucheon
Daechungho
AndongGongjuHoisang
JanggyeGapcheon
ShinamBuyeo Okcheoncheon
Dogye
Nakdong River
Ewon
Haepyung
Basin
Gumi
ChilgokBonghwangcheon
Waegwan Kangchang
Yongdamho
Dasan
Namcheon
Goryung Sungseo
Jukpo
Okjungho
Chungam
ChangamNamgang
Sangdong
Chilseo
Jinju
Guryu
Seochanggyu
Yongbong Dongbokho
Naju

JuamhoTamjinho

Yeongsan River Basin

Excellent
Good
Fair
Marginal
Poor
Error

Figure 2.5.1 The Han River in Seoul, the Republic of Korea

Figure 2.5.2 Water Quality Index of ambient water in the(Source: Park 2020)
Republic of Korea

2 | State of Water Resources

3.1 Rivers

Alongside exponential growth in GDP, per capita water
use in the Republic of Korea has also grown. However, it
has seen a marked decrease in recent years; per capita
water use is currently 485 m3/year*1, whereas availability
is 1,553 m3/year (Lee et al. 2019). Seasonal variation inwater availability remains a challenge for the country’s
water management, especially in light of water-related
disasters exacerbated by climate change. About twothirds of the annual precipitation falls in the monsoon
season between June and September. There are four

All streams nationwide are classified into 115 sections
and water quality targets have been established foreach. Water quality in the country has steadily improved
overall since the late 1990s, due to increasing public
interest. Figure 2.5.3 shows the trend of water quality
in selected points in four major river systems (Paldang(Han), Mulgeum (Nakdong), Daecheong (Geum), andJuam (Yeongsan-Seomjin)) in terms of BOD. During
2017–2019, average BOD values were stable at 1.2–1.3
mg/L, and average COD values have slightly improved
from 4.2 to 3.9 mg/L (Figure 2.5.4).

*1 Calculated by dividing total water use (25.1 billion m3/year) by population (51.78 million) (Statistics Korea, 2020).

62

RTWQI

Chapter 2: Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Cambodia

BOD (mg/L)
4.0

3.0

1.0

0.0

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

2019

Figure 2.5.3 Changes in BOD values in four major rivers (2008–2019)(Source: MOE 2020)

Japan

COD (mg/L)

6.0

Han river (Paldang)
Nakdong river (Mulgeum)
Geum river (Daecheong)
Yeongsan river (Juam)

4.0

Republic of Korea

8.0

Lao PDR

2.0

0.0

Indonesia

Han river (Paldang)
Nakdong river (Mulgeum)
Geum river (Daecheong)
Yeongsan river (Juam)

China

2.0

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

2019

As with river water quality, that of lakes and reservoirs
also shows a trend of improvement and stabilizationin recent years. Table 2.5.2 shows recent water quality
trends in selected reservoirs.

COD(mg/L)

NO 3-N(mg/L)

PO 4-P
E.coli(mg/L) (CFU/100mL)

Category≤ 23

II (good)

24 – 33
34 – 46
47 – 59

2017

1.2

3.0

1.083

0.005

36

III (moderate)

2018

1.3

3.1

1.041

0.007

17

IV (bad)

2019

1.1

3.1

1.072

0.006

19

V (very bad)

≥ 60
(Source: Ministry of Oceans and Fisheries 2021)

3.3 Coastal Water* WQI=10×[DO]+6×([Chl.a]+

[SD]
[DIP]
)+4×([DIN]+)
2
2

Figures in square brackets [ ] represent scores based on Table 2.5.3b.
DO: Dissolved Oxygen, Chl.a: Chloropyll a, SD: transparency (secchidisc), DIN: dissolved inorganic nitrogen, DIP: dissolved inorganic
phosphorus.

Viet Nam

WQI trends of each sampling area are publicly
disclosed on the NIER website. The example shown in
Figure 2.5.5 is of Incheon Port.

ThailandThe Korean marine environment monitoring network
is composed of port, coastal/offshore, environmental
management waters, and estuaries, and monitoringis carried out seasonally (February, May, August, andNovember) at 417 monitoring stations. Additionally,
automatic continuous monitoring is conducted in Sihwa
Lake, Masan Port, Ulsan Port, Yeosu New Harbor, and thecoastal areas of Busan (MLIT 2020). Coastal water quality
standards were introduced in 2018 (Ministry of Oceans

Sri Lanka(Source: MOE 2020)

Water Quality Index*

I (very good)Philippines

Year

BOD
(mg/L)

Table 2.5.3a WQI calculation method for coastal
water quality

Nepal

Table 2.5.2 Recent annual average water quality values for
Lake Paldang, Andong, Daechong, and Juamand Fisheries, No.10/2018), and the Water Quality Index(WQI), comprising five levels, is calculated as describedin Tables 2.5.3a to c.

Myanmar

3.2 Lakes and Reservoirs(Source: MOE 2020)

Malaysia

Figure 2.5.4 Changes in COD values in four major rivers (2008–2019)63

Table 2.5.3b WQI calculation method for coastal
water quality
Score

Table 2.5.3c WQI calculation method for coastal
water quality

Parameter
Chl.a, DIN, DIP (μg/L)
DO (%), SD (m)Ecological
zone

Chl.a
(μg/L)

DO(%)

Parameter
DIN
DIP(μg/L) (μg/L)

SD
(m)

1

< reference value> reference value2< 110% of reference value> 90% of reference value3< 125% of reference value> 75% of reference valueSouthwest sea

3.7

230

25

0.5

4

< 150% of reference value> 50% of reference value

Central West Sea

2.2

425

30

1.0

5

≥ 150% of reference value≤ 50% of reference value

Jeju

1.6

165

15

8.0

East Sea

2.1

140

20

8.5

Korea Strait

6.3

220

35

2.5

(Source: Ministry of Oceans and Fisheries 2021)

90(Source: Ministry of Oceans and Fisheries 2021)

Reference values vary according to sea area, as shown in Table 2.5.3c.

Category

V

IV
III
II
I

2016-02

2016-082017-022017-082018-022018-082019-022019-08

2020-022020-08

Time (yyyy - mm)

Figure 2.5.5 Trend of WQI in Incheon Port (2016–2020) (Source: NIER MLIT 2020)

3.4 Groundwater
Prior to 2018, groundwater had been managed byvarious acts under the control of different ministries,
namely, Ministry of Environment (MOE), Ministry ofLand, Infrastructure and Transport (MLIT), Ministry ofAgriculture, Food and Rural Affairs (MAFRA), Ministryof the Interior and Safety (MOIS), and Ministry of
National Defense (MND) (Kang et al. 2020). In 2018, thegovernment passed the landmark Framework Act on
Water Management (No.15653/2018), which transferred
all groundwater-related responsibilities to MOE.
According to Korea Environment Corporation (2021),
1,140 monitoring sites have been set up as of 2020, anda total of 3,725 sites are planned to be established by
2030. Kang et al. (2020) observe that strategic scaling
up of groundwater use is essential in climate change
adaptation, especially in light of the increasing frequency
and intensification of droughts.

64

4 | State of Wastewater Treatment
In 2017, 2.16 million m3/day of domestic wastewaterand 4.01 million m3/day of industrial wastewater was
generated, and the treatment rate of both was 100%;
93.6% of domestic wastewater was treated centrally
and 6.4% with decentralized treatment (MOE 2018).
The domestic wastewater tariff is staggered according todischarge volume; for example, in Incheon in 2016 thewastewater tariff was 0.31 USD/m3, 0.48 USD/m3, 0.83
USD/m3 respectively for 15 m3, 50 m3, and 100 m3 (IBNet
2020).
Public awareness regarding wastewater treatment ishigh. In 2017, a decision was made to construct Seung-Gi
Wastewater Treatment Plant of Incheon City
underground to protect the breeding site of the blackfaced spoonbill (Platalea minor). Although numbers aregradually increasing (Sung et al. 2017), the black-facedChapter 2: Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

5.2 Institutional Arrangement

Environmental Impact Assessment Act(No.15662/2018)
Environmental Tes�ng and Inspec�on Act(No.15200/2017)
Water Supply and Waterworks Installa�on Act(No.16082/2018)
Act on Promo�on and Support of Water Reuse(No.16080/2019)
Ballast Water Management Act (No.16160/2019)
Special Act on the U�liza�on of Waterfronts(No.15624/2018)
Water-related Leisure Ac�vi�es Safety Act(No.16567/2019)
Korea Water Resources Corpora�on Act(No.15624/2018)
Development and Management of Deep Sea Water
Act (No.16518/2019)

Figure 2.5.6 Legislative chart for water quality
management(Source: created by IGES based on KLRI 2020, MOE 2020)

Viet Nam

In line with the approach to manage water from an
integrated perspective, responsibilities which werepreviously spread across different ministries (forOther Laws Related to Water Environment

ThailandThe water quality monitoring framework was firstestablished in 1967, with standards first set up in 1978.

Groundwater Act (No.15624/2018)

Sri Lanka

5. Creating economic and cultural value related
water environment

Conserva�on of Water Quality in Groundwater

Philippines

4. Establishing framework for safe water environment

Marine Environment Management Act(No.16520/2019)
Coast Management Act (No.16285/2019)

Nepal

3. Improving the index for aquatic ecosystems

Conserva�on of Water Quality in Coastal Water

Myanmar

2. Securing clean water through integrated basin
management

River Act (No.14722/2017)
Act on the Improvement of Water Quality andsupport for Residents of the Han River Basin(No.15104/2017)
Act on Water Management and Residents support
in the Nakdong River Basin (No.15095/2017)
Act on Water Management and Resident Support
in the Geum River Basin (No.15094/2017)
Act on Water Management and Resident Support
in the Yeongsan and Seomjin River Basins(No.15099/2017)
Small River Maintenance Act (No.16772/2019)

Malaysia

1. Establishing a harmonious water cycle

RiversLao PDR

The Ministry of Environment has established five core
strategies for the period of 2016–2025 under theframework of water environmental management, as
below:Act on the Inves�ga�on, Planning, andManagement of Water Resources(No.16608/2019)

Republic of Korea

Basic policy direction of water environmental
management

Conserva�on of Water Quality in Inland WaterJapan

The basic law for the environmental management policyof the country is the Framework Act on Environmental
Policy, under which environment quality standards are
established. The Framework Act on Water Management
was newly established in 2018 to encompass the concept
of integrated water resources management. This novel
initiative streamlined the previously fragmented waterrelated matters using a more holistic approach, andvarious amendments to other legislations were madeaccompanying this change.
The previous Water Quality and Ecosystem
Conservation Act was expanded in 2018 to encompass
the entire water environment, and was developed into
the Water Environment Conservation Act. Figure 2.5.6
shows the legislative framework related to water
environmental management in the country.

Water Environment Conserva�on Act (No.15832/2018)
Public Waters Management and Reclama�on Act(No.16501/2019)

Indonesia

5.1 Legislation

Framework Act on Water Management (No.15653/2018)
China

5 | Frameworks for Water
Environmental Management

Framework Act on Environmental Policy (No. 10893/2011)

Cambodia

spoonbill is on the endangered list, with 3,941 birds
observed as of January 2017 (BirdLife International
2021).
The number of industries is still climbing in the
country; however, the volume of industrial effluent
discharged is stable, as a result of water reuse andconservation efforts by industries and governments.

65

example, large rivers/streams were under MLIT, small
streams/creeks were under the Ministry of Interior and
Safety, lakes were under Ministry of Agriculture, Foodand Rural Affairs, and sewerage was under the Ministryof Environment) were all restructured for management
under the MOE.
The National Institute for Environmental Research(NIER) conducts monitoring of environmental water
quality.
The following local environmental agencies conduct
monitoring and legal enforcement:• Han River Basin Environmental Agency• Geum River Basin Environmental Agency• Nakdong River Basin Environmental Agency• Yeongsan River Basin Environmental Agency• Daegu Regional Environmental Agency• Wonju Regional Environmental Agency• Jeonju Regional Environmental Agency
These regional environmental agencies, together
with the Water Environment Research Center, ResearchInstitute of Public Health and Environment, K-Water, andthe Korean Rural Community Corporation form a multistakeholder consortium that implements the water
quality monitoring framework.

5.3 Ambient Water Quality Standards
There are two water quality standards for surface
water. The first cover the protection of human healthand apply to both rivers and lakes, for which there are
currently 20 parameters, such as Cd, As, and PCB, withplans to increase parameters to 30 by 2025. The second,
split into two cover the living environment (residential
environment criteria) and rivers and lakes/marshes,
respectively. Standards for the living environment forrivers include pH, BOD, TOC, SS, DO, TP, total coliform,
and fecal coliform; standards for lakes/marshes include
pH, TOC, SS, DO, TP, TN, Chl.a, total coliform, and fecal
coliform.
For groundwater, different standards are applied
according to water usage purpose. Drinking water
standards established under the Drinking Water
Management Act are applied for drinking water use with
51 parameters. For other purposes such as domestic,
farming and fisheries and industrial uses, groundwater
standards are used to evaluate groundwater quality, with
14 to 19 parameters, based on usage.

66

Special metropolitan cities, provinces or “Do” canestablish more stringent or expanded environmental
standards than the national standards where necessary
in consideration of local environmental conditions(Article 10 (3) Framework Act on Environmental Policy).

Monitoring of water quality in public water
bodies and groundwater
Water quality is monitored through a nationwide
monitoring network in accordance with category: 26
items for rivers, 30 for lakes and marshes, and 20 forgroundwater. In particular, there are 70 automatic
operating monitoring stations for surface waters. Water
quality is monitored by measuring five common items
such as DO, TOC, pH and 17 optional items, including
VOC. To raise inspection efficiency, monitoring spots areclassified according to usage: river water, lake water,
groundwater, coastal water, drinking water, irrigationwater, industrial water and river water flowing throughcities.

5.4 Effluent Standards
As of 2019, 58 water pollutants have been identified
under the legal framework, of which seven parameters(BOD, COD/TOC, SS, TN, TP, total coliform, ecotoxicity)
are used for effluent standards, and 32 parameters aremonitored as hazardous pollutants under the permissible
discharge limits.
Industrial facilities are categorized into the following
five levels according to discharge volumes.

• Level I: ≥2,000 t/day• Level II: 700 ≤ discharge < 2,000• Level III: 200 ≤ discharge < 700• Level IV: 50 ≤ discharge < 200• Level V: others
In 2007, ecotoxicity was first included as a parameter
under the permissible discharge limits under the Water
Quality and Ecosystem Conservation Act, and in 2019,
the ecotoxicity management system was expanded tocover 82 types of industrial facilities. Ecotoxicity is
analyzed with water fleas (Daphnia magna).
Since 2020, TOC has been used as a parameter tomonitor organic substances in addition to CODMn , due tothe difficulty of monitoring non-degradable organic
substances, which gives higher values for TOC than COD.

Chapter 2: Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

The annual calendar of monitoring, together withdemarcations, is as follows:

CambodiaEffluent monitoring• By May: Industrial facilities analyze samples, and

Lao PDR
Malaysia
Myanmar
Nepal
Philippines
Sri Lanka
ThailandThe inclusion of integrated water resource management
together with devolution of responsibilities regarding
water environmental management from central tolocal governments has added another dimension to
the challenge of restructuring, which requires a viablestrategy and detailed plan to be rapidly laid out in orderbring about institutional cooperation.
As a result of the restructure, responsibilities andactivities of the Ministry of Environment have expanded
rapidly, which makes it more difficult to prioritize projects
regarding water environment management.
Other technical challenges currently faced include
distortion of the water cycle (due to climate change andother environmental causes), increased non-degradableorganic matter in effluent, difficulty of managing nonpoint pollution sources, and the need to add ecotoxicity
standards based on other aquatic organisms. To combat
these various challenges, a holistic and comprehensive
review of projects is being carried out.

Republic of Korea

7 | Challenges and Future Plans

Japan

Inclusion of the concept of integrated water resource
management as part of the governance of water
management has had a large impact throughout all
aspects of water management in the country. While it has
allotted more responsibilities to MOE, it has also resulted
in a devolution of responsibilities for water environment
management from central to local governments.
Regarding the SDGs, achievement of indicator 6.3.2.,“water bodies having good ambient water quality” isreported at 93% as of 2020.

Indonesia

6 | Recent Developments inWater Environmental Management

China

submit data with justifications• By July: Regional Environmental Agencies review andverify reports, and take/analyze samples• By December: National Institute of Environmental
Research confirms the data and conducts metadata
analysis• By following March: Ministry of Environment
discloses data to the public

Viet Nam

67