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Latent Heat Transfer in a Salt-a#ected Nonswelling Clay
Iwao SAKAGUCHI*, Hidetoshi MOCHIZUKI**, Mitsuhiro INOUE** and Shinobu INANAGA*** The United Graduate School of Agricultural Sciences, Iwate University** Arid Land Research Center, Tottori University, +-3* Hamasaka, Tottori 02*ῌ***+, Japan
Abstract
Latent heat transfer (LHT) with phase-change from liquid to gas occurs, when there is atemperature gradient in the porous media. LHT is a characteristic of porous media like soils, butthere are few studies on the relationship between LHT and solutes. Although Philip and de Vries
model was often used to analyze LHT, solutes have never been taken into consideration in themodel. In this study, LHT was analyzed theoretically and experimentally with an assumption thatthe e#ects of temperature and salt concentration on thermal conductivity are caused by LHT.
Thermal conductivities of Kaolin were measured under several conditions of water content, NaCl
concentration and temperature.

The LHT component of thermal conductivity was separated

from the apparent one according to its temperature dependence, and analyzed by the extended
method of Hiraiwa and Kasubuchi to estimate the phenomenological coe$cient which contains
tortuosity factor.
As a result, the phenomenological coe$cient never exceeded unity even at the maximum. The
coe$cient was expected to show a constant value under the ﬁxed water content. However, it
decreased with NaCl concentration. Further research is required on the tortuosity factor andmodiﬁcation of Philip and de Vries model, or introduction of other coe$cients into the model todeal with solutes.
Key words : latent heat transfer, salt-a#ected nonswelling clay, thermal conductivity, water
vapor di#usion, phenomenological coe$cient+      ῌ  !"#$

et al., +3/, ; Jackson et al., +30/u$

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῏/ * " V Dh Da $d %&34 m, s¢+ r $$ +, -/ kg m¢- / ῏ !" $T'V E !<=WXYZD*_`/ O+ " ST'Eu g3t $," c ET'

v.

/"O+

"

 Philip and de Vries $ Eu t"," V0$ E!
<=u 1XYZD7_`$TU /] V
TU$ TE FGHIJ
?D*+h 23 T'¶=/7  < Penman, +3.* ; Rollins et al., +3/.
Jv¡¢taDa£rῐ t $:;34 a $> m- m¢- /
lJF·¸F¹Iº¸ Philip and de Vries, +3/1 $«$ +»"N;­®r $ 8 ¢-r* kg m  >jk hr ?D*+ ῑr¡r*hrhr 

opqrs yw m g3$ 


ῑ

D*+

J : m/0sL)(bc&: 8¼K

5


Mgyw
hrexp RT ῏ M    *.*+2 kg mol +  g  3.2+ m s ,  R  2.-+ J mol + K +  yw   ym m yom

$%& '(

!"#
)*+


ywym,yoῐ῎ ῏ ῐ )-./)0 
Mgym
Mgyo
rr* exp RT exp RT 
Nassar and Horton +331 $2$3 ῍ )0 ῌ )1ῑῑῌ+1 r 0 T, ym, yo

Fig. +% 456 h ῍|}T2c

Soil water retention curve of Kaolin foreach temperature ﬁtted with Eq. (+,).

)1 789:;< =6 ; Philip andde Vries, +3/1 $>?6 bhta Jury and Letey,z{D)(bc&|}~0%L |}+313 0 %& @3$'( )A .+0Q$%L
Fig. + 1 |} T2c 0%L ]Br
Br BymBr ByolvhtaLDa
BT , Bym BT , Byo BT Br
Br BymBr Byo,,BT
Bym BT
Byo BT 

bLDa
 H31j4%L5678)
ΐῒ]4 WP. Decagon  09P& H1yP&nL :  1 Campbell +31.

)

W q 0W; w kg kg + 14EsL /ῑ ῒΐ )-./)0 )09PL
w bymya
wsat

Mgywdr*lvbLDa exp RT  dT
,
,

Byo
r*MgBym
,
T yw
BT 
RT,  BT
Byo
r*MgBym,
RT  BTBT ῕ῒ ya   m  wsat +W῔ῒ; D  b

kg kg +!" ya 0 9:$%L
m/1 _PA<D NaCl 09PL SL῔ ) lvῒ)$CD3$AE

 >

v

1?P!(3

$A ¡¢ FG Abdullaev et al., +332 ; Magome--ῌ ῏῔῍ῐ῎ῒΐdov, +332 *+&P-ῌ, ῐ῎ῒΐ-ῌ+ ῏ ῔

FG HI( 8J1!K1
3LM  N lc

NaCl =O*PQA

T Decagon @c] KD,

09P& )k8 D- £¤¥¦8 A§.

R SL TUVAO*P  !WX1,**- b ]%L ]: ¤¥¦ HB¨ ©

P&Y "Z#A[\ ]$?%XA^A_

ª +« '(_ ¬CY ,« d­nL Shio ]® HB¨A

Q$%&`S%PLM &0a'%L &1(zawa and Campbellbc$)(bcAA de*+f,g

,« 0DsDP!¯°E%& _ KD, 1!]±²

hi- jA)k1l._ *.1m/0

1FGDP$rs.+ ³¤:1 ´

+33*

1!n&opAq$Ars.+LM FG

µH|:¶ 3· .0 mm, [* 0/ mm 09P H

Q$%&tu%\DP 'v01Ss& wx-y

31j4%L¸¹3I1º4%L ] - »;  32  ,**.

6Table +

ῌ+ ./01
Experimental conditionw kg kg+C mol kg+
T K.*+, .*/, .+*, .,*, .-*, ..**.*, *.+, *./, +.*, ,.*, -.*, ..*,12, ,22, ,32, -*2, -+-ῌ,456&Kwxyz789:;

Fig. ,

Thermal conductivity of Kaolin withmass basis water content.

 

ῌ-456&Kwxyz NaCl 9:; w*.+* kg kg+

Fig. -

Thermal conductivity of Kaolin foreach temperature with NaCl concentration at w!*.+* kg kg"+.

ῌ.

456&Kwxyz NaCl 9:; T,32 K

Fig. .

Thermal conductivity of Kaolin foreach mass basis water content with
NaCl concentration at T!,32 K.

-- 

 w  NaCl  C mol kg+  !"# +.,* Mg m- $%&'()*+,  -./012 Table + *3 . 
.+

Fig. , * 456& l 789:; 3  NaCl

*< l 278=>?*@ABCD  l 789:;EF2 NaCl G?HI JKLA M
456& NOP ,**- a *QRB STU2 VWL 3  XY2STU$Z!"#[\$] ^_Y] M`78= $2abcd l 2ef[ CDg2hi

Fig. - * w*.+* kg kg+ *K] l  NaCl 978=$efj \ῌa78=$2VWA XY2:;  b *3  Bb$ l 2 NaCl 

klLmn*oB Hiraiwa and Kasubu-CD*@\  abcdEf2efjLAchi ,*** EF Mp$A l 78 kqr

 C,.* mol kg+ l$ Q ]  OP ,**- aNaClstuv*K]wxyzb{|EF }~+32-` 

.,

NaCl 

MpEF[Y
Fig. . * ,32K *K] l  NaCl 9:;  k

7Q

*3

 w*.*/*.-* kg kg+ $2 NaCl¡¢ : £¤F:;¥¦§¨©ª<=>)*+

ῌ/l>)
mol kg6+B

Fig. /

 AC5*.*

ῌ0

lv of Kaolin without NaCl for eachtemperature with mass basis water content.

Fig. 0lv of Kaolin for each temperature with
NaCl concentration at w*.+* kg kg+.

ῌ1l LDaP qL AC5*.* mol kg6+B

Fig. 1

Calculated LDaP of Kaolin without NaClfor each temperature with mass basis
water content.

 ll>)
5*.+* kg kg6+B

7 NaCl  Aw

 Figs. ,, .   l NaCl 



 !"#$%& '()*+,-. 
/01 2!34 w5*.*/6*.-* kg kg6+ 7

89:;<=>)*+?#"$@;&1".-



NaCl 


Hiraiwa and Kasubuchi A,***B CDEl%& lv FG  ,1- K HI l FJKL$  M
1NO l $JKL$.F
QRS7
1P lv $ 

,12 K 7TU01 l FJKL$  #VWX2" lc VW[0#$$

7 lvlv VWYZ\] ^"_`[0#$ Ja" b de Vries cdeJafghijfklFm Tarnawski et al. A,***B
n opCD7 l %& lv FG " qr01
lv F

Fig. /   lv

xyzF
1

s"tuvLFw

O_`MuvLv{|! #HiraiwaandKasubuchiA,***B

Tarnawski et al. A,***B $ }~  b F| LDaP AP

῍  exp 
ῌF2B  C5*.* mol kg6+ "qLF 

Fig. 0  C5*.* mol kg6+  lv uvLF

 Fig. 1 7s" ##7 r* X2"VW w5*.+* kg kg6+  lv  NaCl F

Campbell A+32/B N ym  lv n l op NaCl Flv x

n & A,**- aB $op&1.. ῍ Fb VWx ῌ

῍
 ῌ

῎ "Hῌ῍  b F|q ym LF ῌ

X2"VW

7H  b

 yo Fqr2"

Lang A+301B N Fig. 1   LDaP7

%&¹ºc » 32 ¼ ,**.

8

῎ῌ2°±²³ LDaP ´µ NaCl >?abc
wD*.+* kg kgE+

Fig. 2

Calculated LDaP of Kaolin for eachtemperature with NaCl concentration atw῍*.+* kg kgῌ+.

῎ῌ+*°±²³·¸῎LU{abc
b of Kaolin for each NaCl concentration with mass basis water content.

Fig. +*

[ JK\]:S  CD*.* mol kgE+

 b :9 R^ Hiraiwa and Kasubuchi ,***:_` b  P?I : lv  NaCl >?abc d O>?QJK\]e?MN:;<$9 b  _ῌF CD*.*

mol kgE+ ![ :f NaCl >?GHg MN

h9 NaCl >?abc

 b D hta i b 

NaCl >?abc h  NaCl >?abc!j9:;<

$9

i  Philip and de Vries klmn῍ op qrs#$9 d n῍ ;tu$ klmvw p klmxn῍56 yzU{| }<9~3 j9:;<$9 NaCl >?F89 b :ῌTU  Fig.
+* 
῎ῌ3

°±²³*+¶: LDaP ´µTU
wD*.+* kg kgE+

Fig. 3

Relationship between lv and calculated
LDaP of Kaolin at w῍*.+* kg kgῌ+.

 ῌIh9 b F lv Fig.

/  _`S

 lv Fig. /  ῌ

   b !"#$ %&'()*+,- %&./0123456
789:;<$9

i  ! b [ + f#2

D*.+* kg kgwF89 LDaP  NaCl >?GHI

JKLMN OPQRS2

Fig. 2 wD*.+* kg kgE+ F89 lv : LDaP

TU  Fig. 3 LDaP Fig. 1 N

d!j9 4:  !%  9: ;<$9 ! $
9%&f %9i#2
?U{ t h9:;<$9 %&'῍ A BC= NaCl >?@  ῌE+

#$  F  b [ + f29 $ lv Fig. /

 %&'()*+,-  b 8$9: ! VP?WXYZ

F)'U{!j9 I
U{:)
F

a f t  #$9

£

$

i  %&¡¢

9 tD*.00 ! a ¤¥

34 %c ¦§¨? ©ª῏«ῌ¬­« ®Q 56 ¯;t#$   R d %&0 : 7 +y0,¶ -



  h    !"#$%&'()* t +,- ./0123,6 !"#7< = -.>?*

De Vries, D.A. (+3/2) : Simultaneous transfer of heatand moisture in porous media. Trans. Amer.
Geophys. Union., -3 (/) : 3*3ῌ3+0.
Gurr, C.G., Marshall, T. J. and Hutton, J.T. (+3/,) :/    
45

9

Movement of water in soil due to a temperature

89 +:;@AB5

gradient. Soil Sci., 1. : --/ῌ-./.

Jackson, R.D., Rose, D.A. and Penman, H.L. (+30/) :6 89 C1*=. DE

Circulation of water in soil under a temperature

FGHI JK+ .$L JKMN*3 OP Hiraiwa and Kasubuchi Q,***R +ST*3

gradient. Nature., +0 : -+.ῌ-+0.
Jury, W.A. and Letey, J., Jr. (+313) : Water vapor
movement in soil : reconciliation of theory andOUV WXYZ.[\] YZ^_

experiment. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., .- (/) : 2,-ῌ2,1.

 `abc + +d0e f? !Hiraiwa, Y. and Kasubuchi, T. (,***) : Temperaturegh  ij*3 O dependence of thermal conductivity of soil over

NaCl!"#$%&' ()*kl +,a wide range of temperature (/ῌ1/¡). European-m. 7 +/ 2 Philip and de Vries n

Journal of Soil Sci., /+ : ,++ῌ,+2.

opqrs mnop7 tu+vw

¢#£$ Q+32-R : 5¤¥ %¦& '§¥+x y0,-m. ,1C.\z3Lang, A.R.G. (+301) : Osmotic coe$cients and waterYZ?{6 |jb-] C Philip andde Vries nop+}* ~6

potentials of sodium solutions from * to .*¡.
Aust. J. Chem., ,* : ,*+1ῌ,*,-.

 b\3 m+s

Magomedov, U.B. (+332) : Thermal conductivity of0 YZ ?{6 |jbinary and multicomponent aqueous solutionsb\2b-]

b-3

of inorganic substances. High Temperature, -0 :..ῌ/*.

(¨©ªῌ«¬"# ,+  COE F

: F

Q!AR +3 * +"3­ῌ)®¯ Q+332R : *°±57 89 ¥ +² +32 : .+ῌ.0.

YZf YZ Q  +-.0*+*.R !

(¨©ªῌ³´ µῌ«¬ ­ Q,**- aR : ,¶ !"#
,¶

-5

 ῌNaCl

89¥ +² ,,/ : //ῌ0+.

(¨©ªῌ·´ ¸ῌ¹gº» Q,**- bR : 45
L?.¼¥ 4/  3- : .1ῌ/*.

Abdullaev, K.M., El’darov, V.S. and Mustafaev, A.M.

Nassar, I.N. and Horton, R. (+331) : Heat, water, and(+332) : Thermal conductivity of aqueous solu-

solute transfer in unsaturated porous media. I-

tions of NaCl-CaCl, system. High Temperature,

Theory development and transport coe$cient-0 : -1/ῌ-12.

evaluation. Trans. in Porous Media., ,1 : +1ῌ-2.

Campbell, G.S. (+31.) : A simple method for determin-

Penman, H.L. (+3.*) : Gas and vapor movements ining unsaturated conductivity from moisture

the soil. I-The di#usion of vapors throughretension data. Soil Sci., ++1 : -++ῌ-+..

porous solids. J, Agric. Sci., -* : .-1ῌ.0,.

Campbell, G.S. (+32/) : Soil Physics with BASIC,
Elsevier, Amsterdam.
Cary, J.W. (+30/) : Water ﬂux in moist soil : Thermal
versus suction gradient. Soil Science., +** : +02ῌ+1/.

Philip, J.R. and de Vries, D.A. (+3/1) : Moisture movement in porous materials under temperature gradients. Trans. Am. Geophys. Union., -2 (,) : ,,,ῌ,-,.
Rollins, R.L., Spangler, M.G. and Kirkham, D. (+3/.) :Cass, A., Campbell, G.S. and Jones, T.L. (+32.) :Movement of soil moisture under a thermal gra-

Enhancement of thermal water vapor di#usion

dient. Highway Research Board Proceedings

in soil. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., .2 : ,/ῌ-,.

Annual Melting., -- : .3,ῌ/*2.

 

10  +33+ :    +ῌ+/.
Shiozawa, S. and Campbell, G.S. (+33*) : Soil thermal
conductivity, Remote Sensing Reviews, / (+) :-*+ῌ-+*.
Tarnawski, V.R., Gori, F., Wagner, B. and Buchan, G.

! 32 " ,**.

D. (,***) : Modelling approaches to predicting
thermal conductivity of soils at high temperatures, Int. J. Energy Res., ,. : .*-ῌ.,-.
 : ,**.  -  /  : ,**.  /  +1 ῐ
J. Jpn. Soc. Soil Phys.
ῒῐ῏ΐ῔ῑ
No. 32, p. ++ῌ+3 ῍,**.῎Analysis of Ground Freezing Process by Unfrozen
Water Content Obtained from TDR Data
in Hetao Irrigation District of China
Liping WANG* and Takeo AKAE*** Graduate School of Natural Science and Technology, Okayama University,-ῌ+ῌ+ Tsushima-naka, Okayama 1**ῌ2/-*, Japan** Faculty of Environmental Science and Technology, Okayama University,-ῌ+ῌ+ Tsushima-naka, Okayama 1**ῌ2/-*, Japan
Abstract
In this paper, the ground temperatures and the unfrozen water contents estimated from Time
Domain Reﬂectometry (TDR) measurements at experimental site A(cultivated land) and C(salinized land) , were applied to analyze the ground freezing in Hetao Irrigation District, Inner
Mongolia of China. Based on the di#erent transportation status of unfrozen water, the frozen soils
were divided into extensively frozen and partially frozen layer. In extensively frozen layer theunfrozen water content is kept as constant without remarkable changes, whereas below this layer,
the unfrozen water content changed abruptly, the layer is referred partially frozen layer. It isfound the isotherms of ῍+., and ῍,.+῎ are the boundary temperatures between extensively andpartially frozen layers at site A and C, respectively.

The estimated unfrozen water content

showed the partially frozen layers still existed in the depth of *.1*ῌ*.3* m at the end of April.
Key word : Unfrozen water content, Ground temperature, Extensively frozen layer, Partiallyfrozen layer+.

Introduction

Inner Mongolia Hetao Irrigation District is atypical arid, cold agricultural area in western
China. Salt and alkali accumulation occurs
every year, especially going through a groundfreezing- thawing course. It is considered thatthe water transportation in freezing-thawing
ground is a signiﬁcant factor on the evolution
and transition of soil salinity and alkalinity.
Although in some theoretical approaches,mass and heat transfer mechanisms are focused on freezing soils as a successive process(Kinosita, +32, ; Chen, et al., +332), the ﬁeld
facts show there exists a transitional freezingzone between frozen and unfrozen layer inﬁnely dispersed media. It is considered thetransportation mechanisms of the dissolved

salts in soil solution are di#erent in the frozen,
freezing and thawing stages. Therefore, to detect the soil freezing stages is essential for the
analysis of salinity in this region.
Some experiments have been done withfrozen soil in Hetao during +32-ῌ+321, it realized that the transportation of the unfrozen
water was a most e#ective factor for salinity
accumulation (Wang, et al., +33-). However,
because of the limitation of experimental techniques, to obtain unfrozen water content was
impossible at that time.
To analyze soil freezing stage, moisturestatus, temperature range, advancement rate is
the purpose of this paper. The measured ground temperatures on experiment spots and theunfrozen water contents which were estimatedfrom TDR data are applied to the analysis.

῏

12,.

Materials and Methods

The experiment sites are located in the ﬁelds
which belong to Shaohaoqu Experiment Station, Hetao Irrigation District of Inner Mongolia. The mean annual air temperature here is0.-1.1, the wind average speed is ,./ms+, but it always gets stronger in spring andthe maximum rate is up to +3.0 ms+. It is coldand has a little snow in winter. Therefore only
single cropping is available round a year. The
ground begins to freeze from the end of November and thaws in the head of May. The
lowest air temperature, which is about ,.during recent years, appears in January. The
coldness sum is calculated as /.*03*ῌday.
The maximum soil frost depth changes in arange of +.**+.-* m.
In Hetao, according to the land utilizationand irrigation status, the lands are separated
into cultivated land with regular irrigation andwaste salinized land without irrigation. For
comparison, site A and C were chosen from thecultivated land and salinized land as the investigation spots, respectively. The location isshown in Fig. +. The soil texture, particle density, speciﬁc surface area, dry bulk density,
EC+ : / and pH values were measured.
The soil volumetric water contents weremonitored by a portable TDR, type of TRIMEFM, P-Z, in each *.+* m layer from surface toFig. +

32,**.

the depth of +.0* m once a week through a year
from +331. The measurements were obtainedby extending the probe along a polyvinyl chloride pipe which was buried into ground beforehand. It had been a di$cult object to measureliquid water in frozen soil till the TDR technique was ensured to be reliable in situ (Steinand Kane, +32- ; Patterson and Smith, +32. ;Spaans and Baker, +33/ ; Derby and Knighton,,**+). The authors combined Birchak model toestimate the liquid water content along the soil
layers and improved its validity (Wang andAkae, ,**-).
Simultaneously, -. meters away from TDR
observation point, the ground temperatures
were surveyed by thermocouples in each *.+* mlayer till ,./* m.
In order to detect the total gravimetric watercontent, dry bulk density and salinity, the soil
sections were excavated artiﬁcially three times
through the freezing-thawing period (for example, initial freezing stage : Dec.++, +331 ; maximum freezing stage ; March -rd, +332 ; thawing
stage : April ,1, +332), the undisturbed soil
samples were taken and investigated in each*.+* m depth till +.0* m.
-.

Result and Discussion-. + The properties of the soils
Table + shows the fundamental properties ofthe soils at site A and C. The soils are classiﬁed

Sketch of the experiment sites.

῏῎ : Analysis of Ground Freezing Process by Unfrozen Water Content Obtained from TDR Data in Hetao Irrigation District of China

Table +

13

The basic properties of soils at site A and C
EC+ : / (mS/cm)

SampleParticle size
distribution (ῌ)

Texture Particle Speciﬁc
density surface
area

Dry
bulk
densityin thawing period(g/cm-)(m,/g)(g/cm-)

top

pH in thawing period

*ῌ+*
cm

averagebelow+*ῌ,**
cm

top
*ῌ+*
cm

averagebelow+*ῌ,**
cm

Clay

Silt

Sand

CultivatedSite A
,34-*

.-4/*

,14,*

Light
Clay

,400

,*41,

+4.,

*43-

*403

143*

24**

Salinized
Site C

-/4/*

.*4**

Clay
Loam

,402

+/4.2

+4./

143

,4-3

24/*

24.*

Fig. ,,.4/*

The soil temperature proﬁles during freezing-thawing period of +331ῌ+332 at site A and C.

into light clay and clay loam at site A and C,
respectively, which are the most common soil
textures in Hetao. The two sites show few
di#erences in physical properties except speciﬁc surface area because of the di#erent fraction of clay component. Moreover, the salinity
and alkalinity at site C are stronger than thoseat site A, especially in the surface layer.
-. , Ground temperature proﬁles
The ground temperatures during freezingthawing period in +331 to ,*** were collected
and analyzed. In Fig. , +331ῌ+332’s data areshown. All of the three years’ data demonstrated that from the end of January to thebeginning of February the surface ground temperature became the lowest. In the same
period, the soils froze up to the depth of *.3*ῌ
+.+* m. Then the soils began to thaw ﬁrstly
from the surface and then both of surface andbottom. The temperatures were found to be
below *῍ in the depth of *.3*ῌ+.+* m till
middle of April. And the frozen soils thawed at
the beginning of May.



14

Fig. -

32

,**.

The liquid water content proﬁles in freezing processes of +331ῌ+332 at site A and C.

-. - Depression of freezing point
The presence of the solute always decreases
the freezing point of the solvent. The following equation is generally used to determine thefreezing point depression Tm of dilute solution (Kubo, et al., +321).
TmiKfm

ῌ

Assuming the equation is also ﬁt for soil water
solution and the main solute is NaCl in thispaper. Where, m (mol kg+) is the gravimetricmolar concentration of the solution ; i is van’t
Ho#’s coe$cient, i, when the main solute is
NaCl ; Kf (Kῌkg mol+) is the molar cryoscopic
constant, Kf+.20 when the solvent is water.
According to Eq. (+), the freezing point depressions in site A and C are calculated to be between *.-* and -.*2 in surface layer of *
+* cm, between *.,1 and *.3- below thesurface layer, respectively.
-. . Liquid water proﬁles in freezing period
The proﬁles of liquid water contents in freezing period in +331+332 are shown in Fig. -.

Some di#erences between site A and C can beobserved. The reason is the original di#erenceof soil structure and initial water content condition. However, with the time, the tendency offreezing advancement took on similar witheach other. In the surface layers, the unfrozen
water content kept unchanged in range of *.*/
*.+ m- m-. These layers developed thicker
downward with time but the unfrozen watercontent did not change signiﬁcantly. Therefore, these layers are considered to be extensively frozen. Below these layers the unfrozen water content became increasing
dramatically up to *.-/*..* m- m- under subzero temperature condition. The thickness of
the layer was about *.-*-*..* m. The big di#erence makes it necessary to decide a borderline
for the analysis and management.
The ground temperature, liquid water andthe water retention curve were plotted in Fig.
.. The points are all not on a single line but
dispersed to some extent. It is partly due to thedi#erent circumstances of the soil water andpartly due to the error in ground temperatureῐ῏ : Analysis of Ground Freezing Process by Unfrozen Water Content Obtained from TDR Data in Hetao Irrigation District of China

Fig. .

15

The soil water retention curves and the liquid water contents vs. soil temperatures at site A and C.

and water content measurements. The directlines are applied to approximate the development of liquid water content vs. ground temperature : Line ῌ represents the unfrozen
stage ; line ῍ : the freezing stage ; line ῎ : thefrozen stage. The intersection points of line ῍
and ῎ at site A and C are (*.*1 m- m῍-, ῍+.,῎)and (*.*2 m- m῍-, ῍,.+῎). According to thewater retention curves, when the unfrozen
water content are *.*1 and *.*2 m- m῍-, the coincident pF values are greater than pF ..,. It is
known that if the pF value is larger than ..,,
the water will be kept in intensively boundstate around the surface of soil particles (Association of Soil Physics, Japan, +313), that means
the movement of the unfrozen water in theextensively frozen layers becomes extremely
di$cult and therefore can be actually neglected. As a result, the unfrozen water contentsof *.*1 m- m῍- and *.*2 m- m῍-, the groundtemperatures of ῍+., and ῍,.+῎ can be regarded as the boundary values between extensively frozen layers and partially frozen
layers. The di#erence of the boundary temperature between site A and C is mainly due to thedi#erence of salt concentration of the two soils.
It is noted that the liquid water contents
decreased at the depth where the temperature
were ῌ*.,/ and ῌ*.,῎ at site A and C, respectively. It is considered that the water in theunfrozen layers just below the freezing front
was strongly absorbed due to the suction
yielded at the freezing front. The same phenomena are also found in some experiments inlaboratory (Mizoguchi, et al., +320 ; Inoue, ,**,)and observations in situ (Stein and Kane, +32- ;Cary, +321). In fact, the line ῌ and ῍ shouldintersect theoretically on the depressed freezing points of ῍*.,1 and ῍*.3-῎ at site A and C,
respectively.
-. / Delimitation of freezing soils
Through the evidences in the liquid watercontent and ground temperature, it reveals
that ῍+.,῎ and ῍,.+῎ can be used as thediscrimination between frozen and freezing forthe site A and C. Here, following deﬁnitions areproposed :+. “extensively frozen layers” : In theselayers, the unfrozen water contents are smaller
than the amount of *.*1 or *.*2 m- m῍- and are

16

Fig. /

32,**.

The comparison of estimated liquid water content and measured total water content in +331
ῌ+332 at site A and C.

kept almost unchanged. The ground temperatures are lower than +., or ,.+ at site A or
C, respectively. The transformation of water to
ice is so small that can be neglected.
,. “partially frozen layers” : In these layers,
the unfrozen water contents increase abruptly
from *.*1 or *.*2 to *.-/*.-0 m- m-. The
ground temperatures are within +.,*.,+
or ,.+*.0- for site A or C, respectively.
The transforming amount of liquid water to ice
is relatively large.
The liquid water contents estimated fromthe TDR data and the total water contents
measured gravimetrically from the soil samples are compared in Fig. /. In thawed soils
which are judged by ground temperature, theestimated liquid water contents are in good
agreement with those measured ones. Whenthe soil freezes, the estimated liquid water content represents the unfrozen water content.
There seems no reason why the estimated unfrozen water contents in frozen soil are notreliable.

Penetration rates of frozen and freezing layers
From the proﬁles of ground temperaturesand liquid water contents in Fig. , and -, thefreezing penetration rates were investigated.
The average rates of extensively partiallyfrozen layers were *.1, cm d+ and *.03 cm d+at site A and C, at the same time they were +.+1
cm d+ and *.30 cm d+ of partially frozen
layers at site A and C, respectively. The frontsof extensively and partially frozen layers are
showed in Fig. 0.
-. 1 Liquid water proﬁles in thawing
periodThe soil started to thaw from the beginningof March. At site A and C, the layers thoseliquid water contents were lower than *.+mm- still existed in the depth of *.-**..* mand *.-**.0* m in the beginning of March(Fig. 1). Such layers disappeared in the end of
March. The layers those temperatures were
below the depression of freezing points were
present in depth of *.1**.3* m till the end of
April. The average thawing rate was +..cmd+ in March and ,.20-./1 cm d+ in April,-. 0῍ῌ : Analysis of Ground Freezing Process by Unfrozen Water Content Obtained from TDR Data in Hetao Irrigation District of China

Fig. 017

The advancement of extensively frozen layers and partially frozen layers in +331ῌ+332 atsite A and C.

Fig. 1The liquid water proﬁles in thawing period in +331ῌ+332 at site A and C.



18

which is estimated corresponding to theground temperature.
..

Conclusion

Through the analysis of ground temperatureand unfrozen water content, the soil freezing
stages and properties are revealed at site A and
C in Hetao. The unfrozen water content of *.*1m- m- and *.*2 m- m-, isotherm of +., and,.+ can be applied to distinguish di#erent
freezing stages, that is helpful for the study ofsalts transportation in this region. The deﬁnitions of “extensively frozen layer” and “partially frozen layer” are proposed and their penetration rates are also evaluated. The thawing rate
was higher than freezing rate and it became
faster in April than in March.
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to express their gratitude to the sta# in Shaohaoqu Experimental
Station, Hetao Irrigation District, Inner Mongolia. This research has been partly supported by
the Core Research for Evolution Science andTechnology (CREST) program of Japan Science and Technology Corporation (JST).
References
Association of Soil Physics, Japan (+313) : Soil
Physics-soil engineering basis, Morikita Press,,,*ῌ,,/.
Cary, J.W. (+321) : A new method for calculating
frost heave including solute e#ects, Water
Resour. Res., ,- : +0,*ῌ+0,..
Chen, X.F., Mitsuno, T., Horino, H. and Maruyama,
T. (+332) : Numerical experiment method of thesoil freezing and thawing by coupled heat and

32

,**.

water transfer model : studies on the analysisof the freezing and thawing process of soils (I),
Journal of the Japanese Soc. of Soil Physics, 12: ,/ῌ-..
Derby, N.E. and Knighton, R.E. (,**+) : Field-scale
preferential transport of water and chloride
tracer by depression-focused rechange, J.
Environmental Quality, -* : +3.ῌ+33.
Inoue, M. (,**,) : A study on the measurements ofsoil water, solute and thermal conductivity infreezing and thawing courses, Master’s Dissertation, Okayama University Graduated School,+0ῌ,,.
Kinosita, S. (+32,) : Physics of frozen ground,Morikita Press, ,+-ῌ,,,.
Mizoguchi, M., Nakano, M. and Shirai, K. (+320) :Simultaneous change of water content, soluteand temperature layers in a partially frozen
unsaturated soil, Trans. JSIDRE, +,, : ++ῌ+1.
Patterson, D.E. and Smith, M.W. (+32.) : Liquidwater content in saline soils : results using
time-domain reﬂectometry, Can. Geotech. J., ,,: 3/ῌ+*+.
Spaans, E. J.A. and Baker, J.M. (+33/) : Examining
the use of time domain reﬂectometry for measuring liquid water content in frozen soil,
Water Resour.Res., -+ : ,3+1ῌ,3,/.
Stein, J. and Kane, D.L. (+32-) : Monitoring theliquid water content of soil and snow using
time domain reﬂectometry, Water Resour.Res.,+3 : +/1-ῌ+/2..
Wang, L.P. and Akae, T. (,**-) : Estimation ofliquid water content by TDR measurements infrozen soils, Trans. of JSIDRE, ,,. : 23ῌ3/.
Wang, L.P., Chen, Y.X. and Zeng, G.F. (+33-) : Irrigation drainage and salinization control in
Neimenggu Hetao Irrigation District, Chinese
Water Resource and Electric Power Press.
Kubo, R., Nagakura, S., Iguchi, H. and Ezawa, H.
(+321) : Handbook of Physics and Chemistry,
Iwanami Press, +,3/.

 : Analysis of Ground Freezing Process by Unfrozen Water Content Obtained from TDR Data in Hetao Irrigation District of China

19

TDR

 *ῌ*****   1**ῌ2/-*   -ῌ+ῌ+  1**ῌ2/-*   -ῌ+ῌ+TDR  !"#$%&'()*+,-./ 0123456789:;( A <=( C 8>?:@ABCDEF8G/HIJ !K L@$BMNOPQR @ASTU VWX@ATY ' V%@ATY 87Z[\!K ](B^_`abcB Site A ' C 8>/H WX@ATUd\e\ *.*1 m- mf-,*.*2 m- mf- ghBL@$%&-ij klhmnCDo:B8p  %@ATUq[ *.-*r*..* m B

ST1L@$%&sd\e\ *.*1 m- mf-, *.*2 m- mf- QR *.-/ m- mf-, *.-0 m- mf- ntu8vwo:xy-z !K ()f+.,{ f,.+{ Ud\e\B^_`abcB VWX@ATY ' V%@ATY B
|8}~H/:'s !K
 ! " : L@$%& () WX@AT %@AT  : ,**-  +,  : ,**.  0

- 
+. 

ῐ
J. Jpn. Soc. Soil Phys.
῏῍ῌῐῑ῎
No. 32, p. ,+ῌ-* ῍,**.῎

Practical Aspects of TDR for Simultaneous Measurementsof Water and Solute in a Dune Sand Field
Hossein DEHGHANISANIJ*, Tahei YAMAMOTO** and Mitsuhiro INOUE*** Agricultural Engineering Research Institute, Karaj, Iran, P.O.Box : -+/2/ῌ2./** Tottori University, Arid Land Research Center, +-3* Hamasaka,
Tottori 02*ῌ***+, Japan
Abstract
Simultaneous measurement of volumetric soil water content (qw) and soil solution electricalconductivity (ECw) was made for dune sand soil using Time Domain Reﬂectometry (TDR). The
best relationship between TDR dielectric constant (Ka) and qw, and that for bulk soil electricalconductivity (ECb) and ECw were deﬁned for dune sand soil and assessed in a dune sand ﬁeld. The
salinity of soil solution showed no e#ect on Ka and consequent qw. The commonly used linear
relation between TDR transmission coe$cient (T) and qw was inaccurate for dune sand soil when
qw was in the range of soil water holding capacity. A polynomial equation was suggested forexpressing the relation between T and qw, with less variation than a power relation. Based onﬁeld assessment, there was a better agreement between qw recorded by TDR and that from soil
sampling than a similar relation for ECw. The relative error (RE) between TDR measured and soil
sampling was ..31ῌ and +*.01ῌ for qw and ECw, respectively.
Key words : TDR, Dune sand soil, Soil water content, Soil solution electrical conductivity+.

Introduction

Simultaneously and non-destructively measuring soil water content (qw) and soil solution
electrical conductivity (ECw) can be a usefulapproach at critical stages of crop growth inﬁelds under irrigation with saline water. The
conventional method for measuring soil salinity is by taking soil samples and determining
the electrical conductivity of the extract of asaturated soil paste (Rhoades, +32,). These
measurements can be converted into the soil
solution salt concentration by correcting forthe soil water content at the time of sampling.
The soil solution can be sampled directly byporous suction cups. This method, however, islimited to a narrow range of soil moisture between (approximately) ﬁeld capacity and saturation and the small sample volume tends tomake the measurement variable (Broadbent,+32+). Soil water content can be measured bydestructive sampling and gravimetric determination or by the in situ neutron scattering
method (Graecen, +32+). The two main limitations of the neutron method are its relatively
large sampling and the radiation hazard involved. The fact that qw and ECw are usuallyobtained from separate samples with di#erent
geometry would introduce an additional error
in soil salinity assessment due to changes
associated with spatial and temporal variations in qw and ECw of soil samples (Dasberg
and Dalton, +32/) ; besides continues measurement is not possible.
The development of Time Domain Reﬂectometry (TDR) as a method for automated insitu measurement of bulk soil electrical conductivity (ECb) o#ers the promise of improved
temporal resolution in tackling solute movement. During the last two decades, TDR
method has become an established method tomeasure both qw (Topp et al. +32,) and ECb as a

῏22  32

nondestructive technique (Dalton et al., +32. ;Nadler et al., +33+ ; Dalton, +33,). The TDR
principle is based on launching a spectrum ofelectromagnetic waves into a waveguide (TDR
probe) embedded in the soil under investigation and measuring the reﬂected signal as afunction of time.
The travel time of the waves in the waveguide is proportional to the qw and the attenuation can be related to ECb. Topp et al. (+32*)
showed a unique equation between the apparent dielectric constant (Ka) and qw of measured
soil for a large range of soil structures fromclay to sandy loam, which is applied globally to
calculate qw from Ka (Drungil et al., +323 ;Grantz et al., +33* ; Pepin et al., +33,). However,there are some potential sources of error thathave received attention : (i) low density soil
(Dirksen and Dasberg, +33- ; Weitz et al., +331),(ii) clay and organic soils which caused a
sharper-than-average curvature of Ka-qw relations (Brisco et al., +33, ; Dasberg and Hopmans,+33, ; Roth et al., +33, ; Weitz et al., +331 ;Nadler et al., +333), and (iii) temperature whose
e#ect on TDR-measured Ka is related to thesoil texture and water content. According toPepin et al. (+33/), the temperature e#ect on
TDR-measured Ka is large in a wetter and ﬁner
textural soil. They speculated that a larger temperature e#ect on wetter and ﬁner-textured
soils dominated by free water might be attributed to bound water, which had a smaller
temperature dependency for Ka than freewater.
The temperature e#ect on TDRmeasured Ka for di#erent textural soils wasinvestigated experimentally and theoreticallyby Or and Wraith (+333). They concluded thatthe amount of bound water restricted, depending on clay minerals, on soil particles was
attributed to the temperature e#ect.
On the basis of TDR measurement in soils
wetted with solutions of a given salt concentration there are conﬂicting reports on the e#ect
of salinity on the Ka and on qw. Some studies
suggest that elevated salinity of the soil solution can cause over-estimation of Ka, resulting,**.

in an over-estimation of qw (Dalton, +33, ;Noborio et al., +33. ; Wyseure et al., +331), whileothers show no e#ect (Mallants et al., +330 ;Dalton and van Genuchten, +320 ; Timlin andPachesky, +330) and some show both underand over-estimation (Borner et al., +330 ; Bridge
et al., +330 ; Gregory et al., +33/).
Salinitya#ects TDR functionality in measuring qw byincreasing the attenuation of the TDR signal,
reducing its accuracy and eventually leading
to its disappearance (Nadler et al., +333). Fromthese results, there is need to explore how tomeasure qw and ECw simultaneously. Moreover, in some exceptional conditions TDR
method is constrained by uncertainty about its
accuracy and their applicability (Kachanoski etal., +33,). Dune sand soil, where the soil waterholding capacity is *.*-ῌ*.*2 cm- cm- and evena small error (*.*+ cm- cm- errorῌ,*῍ of soil
water holding capacity) is very critical forcrops life could be such exception.
Some probes can measure qw and ECw fromsoil samples with di#erent geometry. Inoueand Shiozawa (+33.) calibrated a four-electrodeprobe and tensiometer in dune sand soil formeasuring qw and ECw simultaneously. They
found a relative error (RE) of ,..῍ and /.0῍ for
qw and ECw respectively. However, they used
two di#erent probes for measuring qw and
ECw simultaneously, which were not set up in
the same sampling area. As a result, handmade TDR probes were developed to measureqw, ECb and temperature simultaneously froma soil sample for a given interval of time.
The objectives of this study were (i) to determine Ka-qw relationships and the best modelfor the estimation of ECw from ECb in dunesand soil and (ii) to assess some aspects of TDR
method for the estimation ECw and qw in adune sand ﬁeld.
,.

Theory,. + Relation between Ka and qw
The travel time for a pulsed electromagnetic
signal along a TDR probe is dependent on thevelocity of the signal and the length of theΐῒ : Practical Aspects of TDR for Simultaneous Measurements of Water and Solute in a Dune Sand Field 23

wave-guide. The velocity is dependent on Kaof the material surrounding the wave-guide.
This relation can be expressed by the following
equation (Topp et al., +32*) :La cῑt῎ ῌ῍ ῎῎ῌL,Lwhere La (m) is apparent probe length, L (m) is
the wave-guide length, and c (m s῍+) is thevelocity of the electromagnetic signals in freespace. The dielectric constant of water relative
to other soil constituents is high. Consequently, changes in soil water content (qw) are directly related to the change in the Ka of bulk soilmaterial, qw῎f (Ka) (Topp et al., +32*).
,. , Relation between ECw and ECb
While the velocity of the applied pulse alonga waveguide is dependent on the dielectric constant of the material surrounding the
waveguide, the amplitude of the reﬂected voltage is dependent on electrical conduction of
the applied signal between probe rods. The
presence of free ions in the soil solution will
result in attenuation of the applied signal. The
TDR+** (Campbell Scientiﬁc) was used in thisstudy for measuring both Ka and ECb. The
theory of Giese and Tiemann (+31/) has been
applied to the measurement of soil bulk electrical conductivity in TDR+**. A commonly used
expression is :Kp +῍rECb῎῍
Zc +ῌrwhere Kp is a probe constant, Zc is the cable
impedance, and r is the reﬂection coe$cient.
The reﬂection coe$cient is the ratio of thereﬂected voltage to the applied voltage andranges between plus and minus one.
A two-pathway model (Rhoades et al., +310)
was used in this study to ﬁnd the relation
between ECw and ECb. In a two-pathway
model, electrical conduction is assumed to takeplace along two parallel conducting paths. The
predominant path is through the soil solution,
ECw, also known as pore water electrical conductivity. The contribution of the solid fraction, ECs, takes place along the continuous
ﬁlms of exchangeable cations residing on thesurface of the solid particles. According to thismodel, ECb at constant qw is linearly related toECw :ECb῎ECsῌTqwECw
῎
where T is a transmission coe$cient. The T
can be expressed as a function of qw by a linear(Rhoades et al., +310) or power (Amente et al.,,***) curve and the empirical constant of linear(a qwῌb) or power (aqwb) can be estimated byﬁtting ECb against qw measured under constant ECw. This technique of keeping ECw constant is used in the determination of the twoconstants, a and b. Under ﬁeld conditions, however, ECw is rarely constant because ofchanges in qw due to evaporation, drainage or
inﬁltration. Although originally Rhoades et al.
(+310) reported that ECs was essentially independent of water content, their later model
showed a dependency of the ECs on the qw(Rhoades et al., +323). As a result, the relation
between ECb and ECw is function of qw, for adeﬁned T and ECs as a function of qw.
-.

Materials and Methods

The experiments were conducted at the Arid
Land Research Center (ALRC), Tottori University, Japan (-/῏-,ῌN, +-.῏+-ῌE). The relations
between qw and Ka, and between ECw and ECbin dune sand soil collected from ALRC ﬁeld
was evaluated and quantiﬁed in a controlledtemperature environment (,/ῐ) using TDR
probes. Soil water characteristics curve for thedune sand soil is shown in Fig. + and the physical properties are given in Table +.
The -0 TDR probes (Fig. ,) used as a waveguide, were each connected to the Campbell Co.
TDR+** and SDMX/* multiplexers by ++-meterFujikura RG-/2A cable. The handmade TDR
probes used in this study were designed withsimilar structure as the ThetaProbe (Gaskin
and Miller, +330). It included . rods, - of which
performed as shield rods and one (central rode)as signal rod (Fig. ,). The calibration processes
were examined on dune sand soil columns,
with 2 levels of qw (*.*-+, *.*0-, *.*3., *.+,-, *.+.3,*.,-,, *.,3+, and *.-0- cm- cm῍-) and 2 levels of

24

32

,**.

Table +The physical properties of dune sand soil
Factors

ValuesSand (ῌ)
304+
Silt (ῌ)*4.
Clay (ῌ)-4/
Speciﬁc gravity (ῌ),400Apparent speciﬁc gravity (ῌ)+4/0
Field capacity, FC (cm- cm-)*4*1.
Initial wilting point, IWP (cm- cm-)*4*,/
Permanent wilting point, PWP (cm- cm-)*4*,,
Saturated soil moisture content (cm- cm-) *4.+Fig. +Relationship between matric-potential(Y) and soil water content (qw) in dune
soil.

Fig. ,

Structure diagram of handmade soil-TDR probe.

NaCL (ECw) concentration (*.*, *.0,, +.,,, +.33,,./0, -.+*, -.2- and /.0. dS m+), in a total of 0.
soil column samples. Each column with ,* cm
,/ cm (diameterheight) dimension was
packed with oven-dried soil mixed with theabove NaCl solutions.
The TDR probes were installed in verticaldirection, individually, in each soil column (0.
soil column samples. The gravimetric watercontent was determined by oven drying - soil
samples taken from each column and qw was
calculated using the known bulk density of thesoil (+./0 Mg m-). The ECw of the soil samples
was determined based on the conductivity of +: / extracts (Richards, +3/.) of oven-dried soil :distilled water. Each soil column sample wasshaken and repacked with known bulk density
after measuring qw and ECw by 0 of TDR
probes to minimize the error due to movementof solution during the measurement. The soilcolumn sample was always covered and only
opened shortly during the measurement to prevent evaporation.
The relation between qw and Ka was deﬁned
and statistically compared with Topp et al.
model (+32*) using the root mean square error(RMSE) and regression analyses. The following equation was used for the computation of
the RMSE :ῐ῍ῒ ῏ῑῌ῎῏ῌΐῐwhere ; di is the di#erence between ith predicted by model and ith measured values and n
is number of the data pairs.
The models deﬁned for the relationship between ECw and ECb were compared using therelative errors of measuring soil solution electrical conductivity (ECw*/ECw). Where ECw*
RMSE῔ΐ : Practical Aspects of TDR for Simultaneous Measurements of Water and Solute in a Dune Sand Field 25

shown. The regression equation for the relationship between Ka and qw obtained from ourdata (Fig. -) showed less RMSE than thatreported by Topp et al. (+32*) (Table ,). Obviously, Topp’s model predicted soil water contentῌ*.*, cm- cm῎- less for dune sand soil in
the area between ﬁeld capacity (FC) and nearsaturation condition (Fig. -). However, between ﬁeld capacity (FC) and initial wilting
point (IWP) when qwῑ*.*-῍*.*2 cm- cm῎-, theresults of Topp et al. (+32*) model are very
similar to that from gravimetric determination(Fig. -). Fig. - shows the scattering of datawhen qw῍*.+* cm- cm῎-, which can be attributed to solution movement in the soil column
samples during the experiments. Statisticallythe di#erence between results of calibration
equation and Topp model was not signiﬁcant(Pῒ*.*/). This result is in agreement with theresults of Dalton and van Genuchten (+320) andMallants et al. (+330) for a sandy loam soil withqw in the range of *.+,῍*..* cm- cm῎-, andis soil solution electrical conductivity with ameasurement error of dῑ῏*.*+ cm- cm῎- (qw*
ῑqw῏d) and ECw is the actual soil solution
electrical conductivity.
Finally, the relationship between qw and Ka,
and between ECw and ECb in dune sand soil
was assessed using ﬁeld data. The soil samples
for the ﬁeld data were collected at the end of aﬁeld study on water and solute movement
under drip irrigation system using TDR, where
all the -0 TDR probes were buried in the ﬁeld of
ALRC for - months (DehghaniSanij et al., ,**-).
The Ka and ECb were recorded for each TDR
probe (qTDR and ECTDR). At about the same timesoil samples were collected from the each TDR
probe geometry to determine qw and ECw in
the laboratory (qref and ECref).
Relative error statistical analyses were used
to compare qw and ECw measured by TDR
method (qTDR and ECTDR) with the results of soil
sampling qref and ECref determined by conventional methods as follows :ῐREῑΐ ῕ ῍ ῏ῑ῎῏῕῔ῐ

῏ῒῌ

῍

ῐ+**

ῌ

where ; RE is relative error (῎), i is numberof samples (iῑ+,ῌ, n), n is total number ofsamples, X is qref or ECref, Y is qTDR or ECTDR and
X is average of qref or ECref.
..

Results and Discussion.. + Water content measurement
The relationship between Ka measured with
TDR and the qw obtained by gravimetricmethod for all soil column samples was foundby making a polynomial plot between Ka andqw (Fig. -). The relationship as given by Topp
et al. (+32*) for di#erent soil materials is also

Table ,

Fig. -

Relation between dielectric constant(Ka) and soil water content (qw) in dune
soil.

Regression coe$cients (R,) and root mean square error (RMSE) for the
relationship between dielectric constant (Ka) and soil water content (qw)using equation qwῑa Ka-῍b Ka,῍c Ka῍d and Topp model

Experiment
Topp et al. (+32*)
Experimental data

n

a

b
῎/

/0

*4.-ῐ+*
1ῐ+*῎/c῎*4***// *4*,3,῎*4**-+ *4*//2

d

R,

RMSE

῎*4*/-*
῎*4++02

*433,

*4*+0
*4**3



26

32

Timlin and Pachesky (+330) for loamy sand andsilty clay soils with qw in the range of *.*2ῌ*..cm- cm-. From the soil texture and range of
qw in our study (Fig. -) and the results of otherresearchers, salinity of soil solution showed noe#ect on Ka and consequent qw in a wide rangeof soil water content (*.*-ῌ*..- cm- cm-) andsoil texture (sand to silty clay).
.. , Soil solution electrical conductivity
measurements
To use the TDR method (Eq. /), the T and
ECs must be deﬁned for any individual soil.
Theoretically, the interception of curves of ECb
and qw give ECs (Eq. /). However, arbitrarily
selecting water content values and evaluating
ECb corresponding with di#erent ECw at thesame qw can make better estimation of both T
and ECs (Mallants et al., +330).
According to Eq. (/), the ratio of (ECbECs)/
ECw is equal to Tqw which is plotted vs. qw in

Fig. .

Relation between (bulk soil electricalconductivity (ECb)ῌ apparent electricalconductivity (ECs)/soil solution electrical conductivity (ECw)) vs. soil watercontent (qw), in dune soil.

Table -

Transmission coe$cient (T) of dunesoil expressed as linear, polynomial
and power function of soil watercontent, qw (cm- cm-)Expression

a

b

c

R,

Ta qwb+24,., +4/0.1*433+
Ta qw,b qw  c -14+/ +4-++0 *40*33 *4333
Ta qwb++4/3+,4*1*3*4320

,**.

Fig. /

Variation in ratio of soil electrical conductivity with measurement error of d῎῍*.*+ cm- cmῌ- (ECw*) and actual soil
electrical conductivity (ECw) with soilvolumetric water content (qw).

Fig. .. T can be related to qw using a linear(Rhoades et al., +310), polynomial and power
relation with relatively high correlation (Table-). The polynomial relation showed higher
correlation (R,*.333). The relative errors ofmeasuring soil solution electrical conductivity(ECw*/ECw) were determined for each correlation equation in Table - to reduce the variation
in measuring ECw. The variation in ECw*/ECw
with qw for a d*.*+ cm- cm- are illustrated in Fig. /. The ratio of ECw*/ECw is+.*when d*.*+ and vise versa. The commonlyused linear relation between T and qw, suggested by Rhoades et al. (+310), is inaccurate fordune sand soil when qw is in dune sand soil
water holding capacity and the polynomial relation showed less variation than the power
relationship (Fig. /). Consequently, we suggesta polynomial relation between T and qw fordune sand soil as used in this study.
.. - Soil water content and soil salinity
measurements
The relationship between gravimetric determinations of soil water content from the experimental ﬁeld (qref) compared to values measured
by TDR (qTDR) and those calculated with Topp
et al. (+32*) model (qTopp) is presented in Fig. 0.
The correlation between qrefqTDR and qref
qTopp was almost same (*.3/* and *.3./ respec-ῐ῏ : Practical Aspects of TDR for Simultaneous Measurements of Water and Solute in a Dune Sand Field 27

Fig. 0Relation between volumetric soil watercontent measured by TDR (qTDR) andthat calculated by Topp et al4 (+32*)
model (qTopp) vs. gravimetric determination (qref).

tively). The good agreement between qrefῌqTDR
and qrefῌqTopp where qTDR and qTopp was calculated using di#erent calibration equation can becontributed to applicability of Topp model formeasuring qw in dune sand soil when *.*,῎qw
῎*.*+ cm- cmῌ-, same results was concluded
earlier. The result of relative error (RE) statistical analysis was ..31῍ between qref and qTDR.
These results show that the TDR method isreliable and can be used for measuring qw indune sand ﬁeld. Dasberg and Dalton (+32/), andNadler et al. (+33+) presented a relatively highcorrelation between TDR and gravimetric determination in sandy loam soil (R, ῍*.2.,) andsilty loam soil (R, ῍*.32,) respectively.
The data for soil solution electrical conductivity measured by soil sampling from the experimental ﬁeld (ECref) and that measured by
TDR (ECTDR), and calculated with substitutionof Topp et al. (+32*) model in Eq. / (ECTopp) arepresented in Fig. 1. The percentage of RE for
ECTDR was about +*.01῍, which was higher
than that for qTDR. The percentage of RE washigher than that reported by Inoue andShiozawa (+33.), possibly due to (i) the soil usedin their study was washed dune sand soil,
where the percentage of clay was almost zero,Fig. 1

Relation between soil solution electricalconductivity measured by TDR (ECTDR)
and that calculated by Topp et al4
model (ECTopp) vs. soil sampling determination (ECref).

(ii) they used di#erent type of probes for measuring qw and ECw in soil samples with di#erent geometry.
The correlation between ECrefῌECTDR was
higher than between ECrefῌECTopp (Fig. 1).
This can be ascribed to less estimation of qw by
Topp et al (+32*) model when qref ῌ*.*2 cmcmῌ-. Regardless of the high correlation between the ECTDR and ECref (Fig. 1), many points
are not close to the + : + line. There was a low
scattering for both TDR data and data estimated from Topp et al. (+32*) model when
ECref was low and vice versa, which can lead toless accuracy of TDR method under high salinity. Similar results were reported by Dasberg
and Dalton (+32/) for a sandy loam soil withless scattering of the data, and for a silty loam
soil (Nadler et al., +33+) with much less scattering.
Since the main e#ective factor on soil electrical conductivity is soil water content values,
variation of ECTDR and qTDR simultaneously
plotted in Fig. 2. There was a relatively highnegative agreement between changes in qTDR
and ECTDR (Fig. 2). However, the scattering of
the data was high when qTDR was low. Fromthese results we conclude that the accuracy of

28

32

,**.

dune sand soil when qw was in water holding
capacity range. From our ﬁeld assessment, theRE for measuring ECw using TDR was relatively higher than that for qw. The accuracy of
TDR was less when ECw was high or qw was
low (*.*- cm- cm-). Practically, the TDR canbe used in a dune sand ﬁeld for recording ECw
and qw, when qw ranges between FC and IWP.
References

Fig. 2

Simultaneous variation in soil solution
electrical conductivity (ECTDR) and volumetric soil water content (qTDR) for dunesand ﬁeld.

ECTDR values is low when qwῌ*.*- cm- cmand high when *.*/ῌqwῌ*.*2 cm- cm-. We
conﬁrm the reliability and accuracy of TDR ina dune sand ﬁeld when the irrigation intensity
is high or soil water content is near ﬁeld capacity.
/.

Conclusion

The TDR method was tested for measuring
qw and ECw simultaneously in a dune sandsoil. The preliminary conclusion reached by
Dalton et al. (+32.) that “TDR, in conjunction
with known relations between relative electrical conductivity and soil water conductivity,
provides a new and powerful tool in soil water
research in that a measurement can yield bothqw and ECw” has been conﬁrmed by the data
presented in this paper for dune sand soil. The
volumetric soil water contents were found tobe accurately determined by the TDR methodfor dune sand soil, except in the case of verydry (qw *.*- cm- cm-) or very wet (qw῍*.+*
cm- cm-) dune sand soil. This may be attributed to (i) the di$culty in interpreting the
TDR in dune sand soil where the water holding
capacity is low and not related to the basic
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Borner, T., Johnson, M.G., Rygiewicz, P.T., Tingey,
D.T. and Jarrell, G.D. (+330) : A two-probe
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Bridge, B. J., Sabburg, J., Habash, K.O., Ball, J.A.R.
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῍ῌ : Practical Aspects of TDR for Simultaneous Measurements of Water and Solute in a Dune Sand Field 29

ῌ+-./.
Dasberg, S. and Dalton F.N. (+32/) : Time domain
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Gaskin, G. J. and Miller, J.D. (+330) : Measurementof soil water content using a simpliﬁed impedance measuring technique. Agric. Eng. Res. J.
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Giese, K. and Tiemann R. (+31/) : Determination of
the complex permittivity from thin-sample
time domain reﬂectometry : Improved analysis of the step response waveform. Adv. Mol.
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Greacen, E.L. (+32+) : Soil water assessment by theneutron method. CSIRO, East Melbourn, Victoria, Australia, p. +.*.
Gregory, P. J., Poss, R., Eastham, J. and Micin., S.
(+33/) : Use of time domain reﬂectometry(TDR) to measure the water content of sandy
soils. Aust. J. Soil Res. -- : ,0/ῌ,10.
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jpn. Soc. Soil Phys., 1* : ,-ῌ,2.
Kachanoski, R.G., Pringle, E. and Ward, A. (+33,) :Field measurement of solute travel times
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Mallants, D., Vanclooster, M., Toride, N.,
Vanderborght, J., van Genuchten, M. Th. andFeyen. J. (+330) : Comparison of three methods
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30

 32  &,**.'

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 TDR 

Hossein DEHGHANISANIJῌῌ

 TDR  !"#$% &qw' ()*+,-./012 &ECw' (-34567  TDR -8.% &Ka' ( qw -9: ;<=)*-./012 &ECb' ( ECw -9:
>6 ?@<-9:ABCDEF )*+,-GHI2J Ka KLMN;OPEF QR( qw SKLMN;OPEF qw TUV$W-XYBJ Z[\]@^ TDR -0_:` &T'( qw (-ab9:BJc2Td[ efgTh`9`ZiSjk2TlOPEF mnop^\)qB56c2CDEQR TDR B56E ECw ()*rstZ^ ECw (-9:ZiS TDR B56E qw ()*rstZ^ qw (-9:TZ[uvEF
TDR Z^w6x(\)q(-yz{ &RE' J qw ( ECw 9 ?@|@..31῍ +*.01῍ B}PEF

 : TDR  !"#$% )*+,-./012~ : ,**.  ,  +, ~ : ,**.  1  ,0 
J. Jpn. Soc. Soil Phys.
Ui¼{»
No. 32, p. -+ -3 ,**.

 

*ῌ*ῌ*ῌ  **Changes in the Water Holding Capacity of Abandoned
Terrace Paddy Fields Following A#orestation
Yoshiki SHINOMIYA*, Atsushi TORII*, Yoshiyuki INAGAKI* and Tsuyoshi YAMADA*** Shikoku Research Center, Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute,
Asakuranishimachi, Kochi 12*ῌ2*11** Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute,Matsunosato, Tsukuba -*/ῌ2021
Abstract
Water holding capacity, soil physical properties and organic matter properties in abandoned
terrace paddy ﬁelds were investigated in order to evaluate the e#ect of a#orestation on water
conservation function. We studied +, abandoned terrace paddy ﬁelds where sugi (Cryptomeria
japonica ) or hinoki (Chamaecyparis obtsusa) were planted. The stand ages ranged from +, to -years.

The water holding capacity and permeability of surface soil in abandoned terrace paddy

ﬁelds increased with increasing stand age.

They became almost equal to those in artiﬁcial forestsof sugi or hinoki in mountainous area about -* years after a#orestation. The water holding
capacity correlated with soil carbon content and can be predicted from the stand age and carbon
content at the organic layer by multiple regression analysis. Increase of the stand age indicatesincreases of litterfall, carbon content in mineral soils and activity of soil fauna. As a result, soil
aggregate develops well so that the water holding capacity increases.

Comparing similarly aged

stands, the water holding capacity and carbon content in mineral soils were greater in lower
carbon content at organic layer.

This suggests that decomposition of litterfall is important for

the water holding capacity. These results suggest that water conservation function in soil ofabandoned terrace paddy ﬁelds would be elevated following a#orestation.
Key words : abandoned terrace paddy ﬁelds, a#orestaion, water holding capacity, permeability,
water conservation function+    ijkl"mn3=o IpqῌrR +322 ; rsg +322 ; tg +330 ; ug +331KB vo 9:;   !"#$%<,cwxyz{3=#AL ?Yg|}~&' ()'*+,-. ῌ/012345678

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32

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Table +

33

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Soil proﬁles of a#orested terrace paddy ﬁelds

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S

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

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34

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Distribution of root of a plantation
tree in abandoned terrace paddy ﬁeldsj(}~*<- {(=&&ῌ+
Photo. +}~*<J,*<-!$% ^uv

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C &( BC &8!%<- &E 0EF1

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+,

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35

῎ῌ, 

Results of the water holding capacity, soil physical properties of surface soil ῌA-horizon῍ andsoil organic matter properties in terrace paddy ﬁelds following a#orestation

Table ,
Site

a

b



#$

#$



+,

+-

!"

c

d

#$ %&'
#$
,*
,-

e

f

g

h

i

j

#$

#$

#$

#$

#$

#$

,/

,0

,2

,2

,3*

-*

k

l

#$ %&'
#$
-+*
--

mm"
-*
,/
,2
..
.0
/+
.*
./
-0
/*
.3
0+
AW mm"
,,
+2
,1
,1
,1
..
-,
-.
+3
,,,
-3
BW mm"
2
1
+
+1
+3
1
2
++
+1
,1
,1
,,
KS cmῌs"/41(+*)- .40(+*)- ,4+(+*), 24+(+*)- +43(+*), /4+(+*), +4+(+*), .4,(+*), ,4,(+*), .4*(+*), -4*(+*), -4-(+*),
BD Mgῌm-"
*42.
*433
*42/
*41+
*410
*40.
*403
*40,
*42*40**41*403
LP
*4*.
*4*/
*4*2
*4+2
*4*1
*4,,
*4*1
*4+,
*4*1
*4+0
*4*1
*4+,
MP
*4+,
*4*3
*4*2
*4++
*4+*
*4+.
*4++
*4+.
*4+,
*4+/
*4+*
*4+1
SP
*4*2
*4*0
*4*1
*4*/
*4*2
*4*0
*4+*
*4*3
*4*1
*4*0
*4*1
*4*3
FP
*4..
*4.*4./
*4-1
*4.0
*4-0
*4.0
*4.*
*4.*
*4.*
*4.2
*4-.
FC
*4/,
*4.3
*4/,
*4.,
*4/*4.+
*4/0
*4.3
*4.1
*4.0
*4//
*4.TC tῌha"
-.
,,
/2
//
1,
.*
/1
/3
/3
/,
12
23
SC tῌha"
-.
,*
/,
/02
-+
.2
/,
/*
..
1,
20
OC tῌha"
*4.
,4/43
+42
.4,
240
34041
242
142
/41
-4,
CC gῌkg"
,3
+.
-.
-,
.2
,*
//
.2
,1
.*
/0/
AW, *+ A +" 
; BW, ,+ B +-," ; KS, *+ A +" ./0 12 ;BD, *+ A +"  34 ; LP, *+ A +" 5678 *9)*4. kPa" ; MP, *+ A +" :67
8 )*4.9)04, kPa" ; SP, *+ A +" ;678 )04,9).34+ kPa" ; FP, *+ A +" <67
8 ).34+ kPa -," ; FC *+ A +" =>)04, kPa ?3@ 8" ; TCASCBOC ; SC, C
D+ E -* cm" FGHI ; OC, J3+ Ao +" FGHI ; CC, *+ A +" FG@
8 ; * KLMNOPQR

Table -῎ῌSTU12
Correlation coe$cient between water holding capacity and soil physical and organic matter
properties


BD

LP

MP

SP

mm" *42,** )*42+** *4/3*

*41+*

*4+,

KSV

TC

SC

OC

CC

)*4/, )*4., *41**

*401*

*40.*

*4,,

*40-*

FP

FC

V

** pW*.*+ ; * pW*.*/ ;KS XY2Z[\]^_`abX*ῌ, c_`dSef

Table .

῎ῌ. *+./0 12STU12
Correlation coe$cient between saturated hydraulic conductivity of surface soil and soil
physical and organic matter properties


V

KS

BD

*412** )*41,**
V

LP

MP

SP

FP

FC

TC

SC

OC

CC

*4/-

*4/-

*4*/

)*4--

)*4,2

*4/-

*4.-

*40.*

*4-3

** pW*4*+ ; * pW*4*/ ;KS XY2Z[\]^_`abX*ῌ, c_`dSef

36

ῌῌ,

_

Fig. ,

Change in water holding capacity ofabandoned terrace paddy ﬁelds following afforestation

~,}ῌῌ.
Fig. .

_

32 ¡ L,**.Mῌῌ-_ ~<!XG<,}Fig. -

Change in water holding capacity at
surface and subsurface layer of abandoned terrace paddy ﬁelds following
a#orestation

~!X`,}Change in water holding capacity of middle and small pore of abandoned
terrace paddy ﬁelds following a#orestation at (a) surface and (b) subsurface
layer

  !"#ST8'U) VW d !X l PYZῌ[\]^_ST) [\]SP Ao <3` abT$%&#'() *+,- . 

Lcd) +33/M [\]Nefghijhk l$/0123456&$78' 9:;) mn

Ao <=>?@$*+,-w) +32+ ; xy) ,***M z{|}.z#.' A) B C

DE' FG 345C$H#
YI+.1ῌX+J+.0ῌX,K1.3

LR,I*.13Mopq

rsPt(E

u

Lv

~[\]

$# ) [\]fghPz 6%) 

 E 9

Y,  LmmM ; X+)  LNM ; X,) Ao <=o~  A) SPYZ YZῌ[\]>?@ LtῌhaM^_$ 8'

X+) X,  F OP9Q -+.2 LpR*.**+M) /., LpR*.*/M

kl :

H

 L$37^t4C)*[u;&l56E
vw2/'()
x -* cm H<y6/2

z{n -* =|}*>b~ῌPQ!R?,g2{'(@6/2PQ!@

=b~ῌ n!R?,g2/
 '6/2(@A -* =ef|}&s PQ!R?,HB&'() C#5Dk '

2ECg C q'F.G)ῌ/H ' 8A '9QR(5L$

Fig. /

Change in saturated hydraulic conductivity of surface soil (A-horizon) of
abandoned terrace paddy ﬁelds following a#orestation

2{nH/ I'\*J7-

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;<O\;<OP4.) 8 ,9 'QR(5 ;<OP4.F

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 , 

 

Cg 00 ';<.
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 "#$%&'()*+,

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/0¡&+,. (0!12/

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!d2/ ef 'F/(@C)g2

 *.P¸4-/  '()
Ao 'gh¢£'gh45! PQ!R- 2 i 8 ,/.6BCDEhfi@.F/'()¹-- =9 

Ao 'gh j3kH4!

'gh\.G/»h.G)

 l56E!7m2G.

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  

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 *. &s E!7m&K  8 09 )*EK \*;K. -T c 32 ¼ ,**.

38

UVR '# +330 WXYῌZ( +322 $FG)["#)[KLN\@OP* ]^=W+T,. -T$._N`."# a/  0b@FG)["#c.A0 (1D;RFG)["#DL M

N@OPD





2dRS&T= eRf gh 2d

R> . Wij34kRlm .
n56op  q7@QR>
  e0b@]^ J%RFG)["#D% r>8W o bs .9:t MN@`.@@ῒῌ0

Ao gh
I»

Fig. 0Relationship between carbon content atorganic layer (Ao-horizon) and soil carbon contents

0bu-

;v (wxD$J%@RFG)["#<y  '# +330 $=z{| Bp)*R
FG)["#;  elm )[K +, >} ,* >~MFG)["#D+T.

cmῌs < +*_`. $ +*,cmῌs ?@ *0., kPa *.+0*.,- < *.*3*.++  +T  U  (1lmDL%ABb+T ?@ C
fR )[KDE.0 .FT
WGHI&J(wxD$KD@Rf 9KL

MN= /ῌ ῎ ῍ ῏FG)["#J%BbO&PK

Rf 4ῌJ%RFG)["# . -T .  FT;
R lmN+ %A L J%RFG)["#ῒῌ1
Fig. 1

Ao I»

$

Relationship between carbon content atorganic layer (Ao-horizon) and water
holding capacity  -* >~M4ῌ%QRvD:SR  J%0QFG)["#.LO
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
   


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1 



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 Ao $&'()*(+,-.

/ ῌ 0  12345

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:DTKS&D=QR



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Journal of the Japanese Societyof
Soil Physics
November ῍ῌῌ῎

No. 32
Contents.0th Symposium, Japanese Society of Soil Physics (Program)
Revision about editing rules

Correspondence of JSSP to bankruptcy of Business Center for Academic Societies Japan
Foreword ῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌR. HATANOῌ+

Original Papers
Latent Heat Transfer in a Salt-a#ected Nonswelling ClayῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌI. SAKAGUCHI, H. MOCHIZUKI, M. INOUE and S. INANAGAῌ

-

Analysis of Ground Freezing Process by Unfrozen Water Content Obtained fromTDR Data in Hetao Irrigation District of China ῌῌῌῌῌῌL. WANG and T. AKAEῌ ++Practical Aspects of TDR for Simultaneous Measurements of Water and Solute in a
Dune Sand Field ῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌH. DEHGHANISANIJ, T. YAMAMOTO and M. INOUEῌ ,+Changes in the Water Holding Capacity of Abandoned Terrace Paddy Fields Following A#orestation ῌῌῌῌῌῌῌY. SHINOMIYA, A. TORII, Y. INAGAKI and T. YAMADAῌ -+Readers’ column ῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌY. SHINOMIYAῌ .+Book reviewῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌK. WATANABEῌ .S. HASEGAWAῌ ..
Announcements ῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌ ./Editor’s Postscript ῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌ /-Japanese Society of Soil Physics
Department of Environmental Management Engineering
Faculty of Environmental Science and Technology, Okayama University-ῌ+ῌ+ Tsushimaonaka, Okayama 1**ῌ2/-*, Japan