THE MALDIVE ISLANDERSA STUDY OF THE POPULAR CULTURE OF AN ANCIENTOCEAN KINGDOM

by

Xavier Romero-Frias

NOVA ETHNOGRAPHIA INDICA
1999

NOVA ETHNOGRAPHIA INDICA
ethnoind@hotmail.com

Copyright  Xavier Romero Frias 1999
Photographs and drawings not otherwise credited are by the author.
Cover design by Isabel Corral.
Xavier Romero Frias asserts the moral rightto be identified as the author of this work
ISBN 84 7254 801 5
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in retrievalsystem, nor transmitted in any form or by any means(whether electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise,
including via internet websites), without the prior permission of the
publisher.

“A society, like an individual, reveals the secrets of its inner life only tothose who bring to its study not merely scientific curiosity and a mastery oftechnique, but respect and affection.”
R. H. TAWNEYContents

Foreword .....................................................................................................................

Introduction ................................................................................................................

Part I. An Oceanic Civilization .................................................................................

1.1.1 A SEAFARING NATION ...........................................................................

1.1.2 VILLAGES IN THE OCEAN .....................................................................

1.2.1 THE PROBLEM OF THE MALDIVE PAST...........................................

1.2.2 THE STORY OF KOIMALA .....................................................................

1.2.3 THE CONVERSION TO THE NEW RELIGION ...................................

1.3.1 THE EVIL KING.........................................................................................

1.4.1 THE FIRST MOSQUES .............................................................................

1.4.2 THE STRUGGLE AGAINST MALEVOLENT FORCES ......................

1.5.1 THE LAW OF JEALOUSY ........................................................................

1.5.2 DISPLAY OF ANGER ................................................................................

1.6.1 THE HORROR OF DISEASE....................................................................

1.6.2 IN THE WAKE OF AN EPIDEMIC .........................................................

1.6.3 MASS DEATH .............................................................................................

Part II. The Island Mother ........................................................................................

2.1.1 THE DOUBLE FACE OF FEMININITY .................................................

2.1.2 FROM SWEETNESS TO HORROR ........................................................

2.2.1 SPIRITS AND FEVER ................................................................................

2.2.2 BLOOD SACRIFICES ................................................................................

2.2.3 THE LINK BETWEEN BLOOD AND LIFE ...........................................

2.3.1 THE VILLAGE GODDESS ........................................................................

2.3.2 THE SURVIVAL OF OLD MYTHS .........................................................

2.4.1 THE SORCERER AND THE DEVI ..........................................................

2.4.2 SECRET KNOWLEDGE ...........................................................................

2.5.1 INAUSPICIOUS DEATH ...........................................................................

2.5.2 THE IDEALIZATION OF THE FEMININE ....................................................
2.6.1 THE DANGEROUS SIDE OF WOMEN ...........................................................
2.6.2 THE MYSTERY OF FEMALE POWER ..........................................................
Part III. At the Threshold of the Spirit World .................................................................
3.1.1 ANCIENT SORCERERS: MYTHS OF ORIGIN .............................................
3.1.2 MYTHS OF EXTINCTION.................................................................................
3.1.3 TANTRIC HEROES ............................................................................................
3.2.1 LURKING IN THE DARKNESS ........................................................................
3.2.2 THE SEVEN MOTHERS ....................................................................................
3.3.1 FEAR OF THE BURIAL GROUNDS ................................................................
3.3.2 SPECIAL POWERS .............................................................................................
3.4.1 MONSTERS FROM THE SEA ...........................................................................
Part IV. A Showdown of Doctrines ...................................................................................
4.1.1 TUTELARY SPIRITS ..........................................................................................
4.1.2 THE BIG MAN .....................................................................................................
4.2.1 TRACES OF SYNCRETISM ..............................................................................
4.2.2 FOLK WISDOM...................................................................................................
4.3.1 HONOR AND PRIVILEGE ................................................................................
4.3.2 FOREIGN MASTERS..........................................................................................
4.3.3 UNEQUAL PARTNERS ......................................................................................
4.3.4 A POLICY OF DESTRUCTION ........................................................................
Epilogue - STUCK IN THE SANDS OF ARABIA ..........................................................
Glossary ...............................................................................................................................
Bibliography ........................................................................................................................

Foreword
By Rohan Gunaratna Ph.D. FRSA

I first met Xavier Romero-Frias in 1986 during a visit to the equatorialisland of Fua Mulaku, in the Indian Ocean. Together with my father and agroup of seafarers, I wanted to navigate the deep oceans and experience
for myself the trials and tribulations of earlier generations of travelers.
I had been told that the people of Fua Mulaku were beautiful, and they
were. They ate citrus fruits in abundance and that gave their skin a special
colour. In the officially Muslim nation of the Maldives, these islanders
practiced rituals and kept customs that predated Islam.
I had been also told that the archaeological remains of the ancient
Maldivian Buddhist civilization were still well preserved in Fua Mulaku. I
rejoiced at the sight of stupas, shrines and a monastery dating back to2000 years. The island was an almost inaccessible place. Without aharbour, mooring was difficult and the captain of our boat told us that we
couldn’t stay for very long. Perhaps owing to its remoteness, Fua Mulaku
was the place of the Maldives where islanders had kept many of theirancient traditions, practices and way of life still intact.
In my quest for knowledge, I was not alone in Fua Mulaku. Xavier RomeroFrias was living among the native people. They called him “Shavi”. We met
in the night at the light of an oil lamp. There was no electricity, no runningwater and no modern amenities on the island, but Shavi was at ease,living humbly, without any special privilege, just like the other islanders.
Since he hailed from a wealthy Catalan family and had University
education Xavier Romero-Frias welcomed the opportunity of chatting

with me. This was a chance that, according to him, was rare in thatisolated corner of the world. An island almost lost in the vastness of theCentral Indian Ocean, where islanders were only concerned with theimmediate needs of life. Births, deaths, marriages, bad fishing, the chroniclack of food, dominated their conversations in such a way, that there wasalmost no higher intellectual life. And yet, Xavier was able to appreciate
the harmony of the old Maldivian traditions and how important they were
for the long-term survival of that particular society.
The pace of transformation of the world that we live in has been
unprecedented during the past five decades. Cultures and societies
around the world have changed and continue to change. Populations have
exploded; the youth have ceased to be satisfied with the way of life of
their ancestors and have moved to the cities or have traveled abroad insearch of high-paying jobs. Few young people would be happy to stay in a
mountain village and look after goats, like their own family did forgenerations or live in a remote island and be a fisherman until old age.
There seems to be a longing to live “in the centre of the world”, in theplaces “where things happen”, and to dismiss the ancestral cultural ways
as boring, useless and unattractive. The influence of the world-wide
media and consumerism is now felt in every corner of the earth. The
result is that many ancestral ways of life have disappeared irreversibly
during the last decades and only “strong” cultures have managed tosurvive, although markedly altered by the intensity of the recent changes.
Caught in the middle of these changes, Xavier Romero-Frias took the rightaction. ‘The Maldive Islanders’ provides a priceless testimony of the lastdays of a self-contained society that was imminently poised to change. If
Xavier would have not used his position and his skills to preserve all theinformation contained in this book, it is very likely that precious little ofthe traditions of the ancient Maldivians, of which I only could catch a brief
glimpse, would remain today.
We live in eternal gratitude to Xavier Romero-Frias for his careful
documentation of a disappearing civilization. This book is proof that its

author greatly valued, respected and admired the ancient Maldive
folklore. Working incessantly, he took the necessary steps to make surethat not all got lost. To enrich human civilization, Xavier Romero-Frias
followed in the footsteps of H.C.P. Bell, a great historian, archaeologist
and anthropologist of the previous century.

Professor Rohan Gunaratna, Head, International Centre for Political Violence
and Terrorism Research at the Institute of Defence and Strategic Studies
Singapore, and Senior Fellow, Combating Terrorism Centre, US Military
Academy at West Point, is the author of the international best seller “Inside Al
Qaeda: Global Network of Terror” (Columbia University Press)

Introduction
One or two treasure ships of the Middle Kingdom went there too. They
purchased ambergris, coconuts and other such things. It is but a small country.
(Ma Huan, The Overall Survey of the Ocean’s Shores)

When I visited Maldives for the first time, in June 1979, I used to spend a
lot of time in the Majeedi Library. It was the main one in the capital,
Male’, and it has since been renamed as the National Library. Back then, it
was a very quiet place where there was a pleasant atmosphere andemployees were friendly and helpful. As I wanted to know about the land,
which incidentally is, like Siam, one of the few Asian countries which were
spared foreign colonization, I read all that I could find there, which was
not very much. I remember very clearly that what struck me most at thetime was how few books of substance had been published about theMaldives, and the fact that most of them had been written long ago.
Those few old books dwelt at length on royal genealogies and life in the
Sultan’s court, where the few foreign travelers visiting the country (Ibn
Batuta, Pyrard de Laval) had been entertained. Modern publications were
little more than shallow statistical reports or glossy tourist guides. I feltthat the country had been described but not understood. The Maldivian
people, their way of life and their feelings had never been given a voice.
They seemed to have been dismissed as ‘just a silent presence in the
background,’ like servants in a palace. Thus, vast areas of knowledge
about this island country had still not come to the light.
As years went by, I became fluent in Divehi, the local language, and I
developed a sense of perspective concerning the Maldivian cultural
heritage. However, I was puzzled by the inconsistent Maldivian attitude
towards history. A few gentlemen belonging to the educated elite were
aware of an obscure and distant Buddhist past which, they would know

little about. They claimed that the present country had nothing to do with
it. Years later, a few Maldivians acknowledged a form of what they called‘mysticism’ within the autochthonous culture. However, they treated it as
an isolated, purely local phenomenon of ‘mysterious’ origins.
At a popular level things were even more clouded: most islanders didn’t
want to have anything to do with their Buddhist ancestors. They preferred
to say that other folks had been Buddhist in their country, not them. It
sounded as if the people of the Maldives had always been Muslim andcould not have possibly been anything else. In what looks like a blind formof destructiveness, Maldivians, instead of acknowledging and giving due
honor to their ancestral Buddhist heritage, in which most of their culture
is still rooted, spared no effort to dissociate themselves as much as
possible from their own past.
The Maldivian past is like a misty region, where even events of recent
history seem to be far away in time. To the outsider, this gives theimpression that the actual character of the Maldives is concealed behind amask. At the same time, I could not avoid realizing that the visible face ofthe country was changing rapidly around me. During the 1980’s theMaldive Islands underwent a profound transformation. I witnessed how
the new aggressive Islamization and modernization of the country,
paradoxically happening simultaneously, upset the traditional Island
society, stifling most forms of popular expression. In a scenario where theforces of Islamization and technological consumerism were poised for a
combined onslaught on the Islands, the stresses for the concealed
ancestral cultural heritage were so huge that I wondered whether any
traces of it would survive at all.
The awareness about a whole country losing its true personality, graduallytranslated itself into concern. In the face of the general passivity, I felt
responsible for keeping the fragile legacy of the ancestral Maldivian
expressions alive, which led me to collect clues about the country’s past.
This book is the fruit of many years of observing and collecting samples
not only of tales, but also of the iconography, popular beliefs, festivals,
rituals and customs of the Maldive Islanders. In the end I gathered such avast amount of data that it took me almost as many years to analyze
them, categorize them and evaluate them in the context of the art andtraditions of the Indian Subcontinent. This comparison was necessary
since the Maldivian folkways didn’t just pop ‘mysteriously’ out of the blue
and, certainly, it is not merely an ‘Islamic Country’ as the local authorities
would like us to believe: The present work, by comparing myths and wayof life, tries to establish that the first people settling the Maldives werefisher folk from the nearest maritime regions, the coastlines of South
India and Ceylon. Besides the racial affinity, we will see how below theIslamic veneer the folk culture of the whole area is still very similar.
There are clear indications that sometime in Maldivian antiquity (probably
about two millennia ago) a kingly dynasty from the northern regions of
the Subcontinent established their power in the Maldive Islands without
much local opposition. It is likely that those first ‘noble rulers’ brought the
Buddhist Dharma in their wake, although there are legends that hint at alater conversion to Buddhism. In clear divergence from Sri Lankan myths,
in the Maldives those northern kings perhaps became Buddhist centuries
after beginning their rule over the Maldivian atolls. Next follows ananalysis of the traces of Goddess-worship and the fear of spirits of thedead which are still present in Maldivian popular traditions. The Dravidian
Devi cult and a form of tutelary spirit and ancestor worship are prevalent
among the coastal peoples from the Tulu region of India (Coastal
Karnataka) to the southern shores of Ceylon.
Maldivian archaeological remains and some inscriptions found therein,point to influences from 8th or 9th century Bengal, in the form of
Vajrayāna Buddhist iconography and writing. This work describes theisland world of esoterism and demonstrates how nowadays, to a certain
extent, the Vajrayāna Tantric teachings have endured in the Maldives in a
syncretistic form of occult magical practices, known locally asfaṇḍitaverikan. Thus, the traditions described in this study are not yet athing of the past. Many aspects of the ancient Divehi folkways remain
alive and form a part of the present-day culture of most Maldivian
individuals. This survival has not been easy, and towards the end of thisbook I describe how, since the thirteenth century, there have been quite anumber of kings and ‘holy men’ who tried to make the Maldives more
Islamicized disregarding local cultural needs and values in the process.
I am aware that quite a few aspects of this study may offend somereaders. Folklore is close to the more immediate realities of life, theworries of the common man and woman, young or old. Thus, in the text
there are many explicit references to blood, sex, defecation, disease anddeath. To add to the difficulty, this is a field where nothing seems to beholy, for folkways consistently display a casual lack of respect towards
established religions and government authority. However, instead ofbeing ingenuous and condemn, one must keep in mind that folklore isrooted in emotions and deviations that all human beings manifest. Reality
doesn’t leave much room for idealization, and those who may bedismayed by Maldivian popular culture should remember William Graham
Sumner’s testy dictum that anybody likely to be shocked by reading about
folkways, of whatever sort, had better not read about folkways at all.
Since Maldivians were reluctant to talk about their popular beliefs, it was
initially not easy for me to get to the core of their culture. It took years ofpatient work and living among the average folk, sharing one roof, theirmeals, their preoccupations, their joy and their pain, to finally be able tounderstand their ancestral soul. After spending a great part of my life
among the Divehi people, I came to admire the way in which they haveadapted to their environment. My hope is that this book will help them torecover their pride in their heritage.
Note: For the transcription of the Maldivian language the ISO 15919
transliteration of Indic scripts has been used, save a few exceptions

Acknowledgments
I have to thank all the Maldivian people who told me stories, anecdotes
and even mere hearsay, mostly without thinking that what they weretelling was important at all. I am especially grateful to Aishath Naazneen
for constantly providing valuable advice and guidance in the translation
into English of difficult concepts in Divehi. I also have to thank her for
succeeding in making me grasp certain nuances of her culture which I
would easily have overlooked or misinterpreted.
The foremost of the Maldivian storytellers was the late Magieduruge
Ibrahim Didi of Fua Mulaku, who ended up becoming a very good friendof mine; I cherish the memories of his patience, consideration towards me
and his never-failing sense of humor. I also made many other good friends
in that island, such as ‘Light’ Hamidu and his dad Vaijehēge (Unakeḍege)Ali Didi, whose company I thoroughly enjoyed; Kenerige (Madarusāge)
Muhammadu Saidu, the kindest government officer I have ever met;Nuḍalhī (Mādaḍibeage) Nasīmu, captain of the Funāḍu boat, with whom I
often had the chance to travel to Huvadu and Addu Atolls practicing how
to use a sextant; Daḍimagi Rafigu and his family; Bondorāge Muhammad
Didi the last faṇḍita man in Maldives having performed a ‘Bahuru
Kiyevun’, Muhammadu (Kalhu) Maniku; Hudufinifenmāge Ahumad Didi;
all the people in Karānge, Shabnamvilla, Hittange, Himitige andFinifenmāge; Bēremagi Aliu, and also Tuttu, Mubinu’s dad, who went withme crisscrossing Fua Mulaku convincing the sorcerers to let me copy thesecret drawings in their books.
In Male’ I have to thank Nedunge AliNajibu and Ba who gave me copies ofsome rare old pictures; Ahumadu Shafigu and Hirunduge Donkokko forgenerously sharing information about the old times in the Radun’s palace.
In other islands: Rashidu in Hurā (Male’ Atoll) Ahumadu Saidu and Hasan
Maniku from Gaddu (Huvadu Atoll) whose company was so pleasant; Afifu
in Ratafandu Island (Huvadu Atoll); Kuḍafari Kalēfānu (South
Miladummaḍulu Atoll); Abdul Hādi in Kuḍa Huvadu Island (Nilande Atoll);and Abdurrahim Abdul Majid the former Nilande Atoll Chief, whoprovided me with the opportunity of visiting many islands in Central
Maldives and who taught me Tāna calligraphy.

I extend my thanks to Kambulō Daitā and her family in South
Miladummaḍulu Atoll, Holhudu Island; in Addu Atoll: Saidu and Nasimu in
Fēdu Island, Havvā Diye and Ibrahim Didi in Hitadu Island, Sēbuge Ali Didi
in Mīdu Island; besides a number of families in Haddummati Atoll
Māmendu; Huvadu Atoll Gemanafushi, Kolāmāfushi, Māmendu and
Tinadu islands for their generous hospitality.
I thank also the officials at the Spanish Embassy in New Delhi, especially
Carlos Fernandez Espeso and Isabel, for their generous assistancewhenever I needed something from them between the years 1979 and1999. Next I thank all the people who provided me with jobs which helped
me to survive during the many years I lived in Maldives, among which theforemost are Ewald Kiebert, Pitt Pietersoone, Cos Rousso, Shakeeb in
E.D.C., Muhammad Asim, Eddy & Ursula Drzensla in Hembadu, Ernesto in
Halaveli, Philippe Coigne in Makunudu and several people at Club Med.
I have to give also special thanks to Rohan Gunaratna for providing accessto the Maldivian Section in the National Archives in Colombo; Prof. V.
Sudarsen of the Department of Anthropology, Madras University for his
generous assistance by providing rare books and documents on Minicoyisland; Bernard Koechlin of the C.N.R.S. for encouraging me to study the
Maldive island poetry; R. Ramachandran Nair, the former Vice Chancellorof Sri Sankaracharya Sanskrit University (Trivandrum Branch) for
graciously waiving the proverbial Indian red tape and getting me admitted
as a student without further ado, and the campus director Bernard Fengfor his kind assistance with the problems I always faced as a foreign (in all
the senses) student in India; my classmate S. Neelakanta for his help andalso for his zeal in making sure I did learn Sanskrit.
I thank Edward L. Powe for giving me advice on how to put into writing myknowledge about the Maldivian spirit world; Austin Hale for the fonts I
needed in my computer; Bruce Cain for helping format my text and index;
Kitty Holloway for editing my manuscript; Bob Sluka for making the lastminute corrections; Ali Manikfan and his daughter Amina Manike of
Minicoy for providing me with information about their lonely island; theArchaeological Survey of India for pictures about Buddhist remains inMinicoy; Paul Johnson, from the U.S. Navy, who was based at Diego
Garcia in the 80’s and sent me information and pictures of the littleknown Chagos; Habeeba Husain Habib from the National Library in Male’for allowing me to photocopy certain books and M. Loutfi for giving me
permission to take a few pictures in the Male’ Museum.
Last but not least, I have to thank certain people who provided me withbooks when I was in a very isolated environment. First my friend Manolo
Martinez Marti and his wife Mercedes Sanchez Lodares, who even went
all the way to Paris, to the French National Library, to photocopy a veryrare manuscript, the ‘Voyage de François Pyrard,’ in its original 17th
century French edition. Next Tashi Recordati for providing me with books
about Buddhism in the middle of Maldives, and also Andreas Loetscher,
Roque Romero (my dad), Nina and Rosa Romero (my sisters), Avel-li
Bassols, Massimo Gattuso, Katy Rasera, Jacques Riolacci, Amet Belig,
Elfriede Kopf, ‘Manta’ Hans, and Germana Citterio for sending me books
which were crucial for my studies when I asked for them in similar
circumstances.
I thank also my two fellow countrymen Ramon Faura Cunill and Eduard
Masdeu Jorda whose love for the Maldive Islands and their recollections
from their travels there made this country the main theme of most ourconversations during the 1990’s. Their never-fading interest in my stories
about the Maldives has been a major source of encouragement.
Finally, I have to express my deep gratitude to many Maldivian men andwomen that, unfortunately, I have not mentioned above. Time has passed
and it is impossible now for me to recall all names and faces. However, I
do remember clearly that many people kindly shared their time with me,
putting up with my numerous questions and casually telling me stories
and memories of their childhood, when the Maldives was a very different
place.

Trivandrum, October 1999

Part I. An Oceanic Civilization
We ought to give the whole of our attention to the most insignificant andmost easily mastered facts, and remain a long time in contemplation of them until
we are accustomed to behold the truth clearly and distinctly.
René Descartes

1.1.1 A SEAFARING NATION
Maldives is a nation with a great seafaring tradition. Life in the Maldive
Atolls would be almost impossible without trade. Unfortunately, thecommunication that existed since very ancient times between the larger
inhabited islands and the trading harbors of Ceylon,1 South India andBengal has never been properly documented.2 One of the features of thistrading arrangement was that Maldivians put great common effort inundertaking journeys from their scattered inhabited islands to the main
Ceylonese or South Indian harbors. However, trading vessels from thosecountries rarely, if ever, visited these small islands scattered in the central
Indian Ocean.

1

Since Maldivian old men interviewed were not familiar with the term ‘Sri Lanka′,
the name ′Ceylon′ has been also used according to the context.
2

Except by Bernard Koechlin of the French C.N.R.S. who wrote a short paper on
the oḍi at the end of the 1970′s. ′Notes sur l′histoire et le navire long-courrier odi,
aujourd′hui disparu, des Maldives′, Archipel. Etudes interdisciplinaires sur le Mondeinsulindien, 18, ′Commerces et navires dans les mers du sud′, p. 283-300, 1979
47

The reason foreign traders avoided the Maldive Atolls lies in the relatively
little commercial importance these low and small coral islands had, whencompared to the other large and heavily-populated countries in the area.
Besides, no Maldive island, no matter how far away from the capital, canevade the intense influence of the local administration and there were noplaces to hide for smugglers.
Aware of its grip on the country, the Maldivian monarchy sought tocentralize all non-local trade in the capital and did not allow any foreign
vessels to touch the long archipelago except at Male’. The king, however,
had to tolerate the yearly trips from the individual islands because theheavy-laden local boats found it more hazardous to travel along the longatoll chain, with its many treacherous coral reefs and shallows, than toventure out into the open ocean.
It was certainly much easier for Maldivian traders to sail away from theircountry and land somewhere in the large landmasses of the northeast
after about a week of relaxed navigation, than to hop painfully from atoll
to atoll until they reached the capital.
Even though this commerce has been acknowledged in the few works on
Maldive trade, most authors have highlighted the romantic topic of‘isolation,’ while the fact is that commercial trips to the coast of theneighboring countries were always indispensable for Maldivians as thefollowing verses eloquently express:
Hakurāhaṇḍulā teluṅ / tāṣimuṭṭā fēramuṅ,Bēru ne’ nnama libuṅ/ nete hurihā dati filuṅ.
Our problems are not all solved if we do not get sugar, rice, oil, pottery
and textiles from abroad. (Etere Veṣi, verse 6)

Oḍi koḍamā Takuru bē/ Hāvi nakatu tōfurē
Oḷudū agu ves hevē/ mas boṇḍi āros vikē.
48

Quartermaster (the word Takurubē refers to the person assisting thenavigator or Mālimi) let’s repair the trading boat in order to leave
between the first and the 13th September. In Ceylon prices are interesting
and we can sell our fish and sweets. (Etere Veṣi, verse 26)
Unlike in Polynesia, where there is the custom of eating raw fish,
Maldivians have always cooked everything they caught; therefore they
badly needed cooking pots. Pots had to come necessarily from abroad, for
the Maldive Islands are geologically made up only of coral rock and its
derivatives. There being no clay with which to make pottery and no mines
to obtain metals in their country, Maldive boats used to sail every year to
South India or Ceylon and trade between the Atolls and the closest
foreign harbors was brisk.
The name Oḷudu used in the poem is the now obsolete traditional namefor Ceylon or Sri Lanka in Divehi. It means ‘Tame Island’ and it echoes how
much at home Maldivians felt over there compared to other places. On
the other hand not all harbors on the long South Indian coast werefavorable for Maldivian traders. Magieduruge Ibrāhīm Dīdī of Fua Mulaku
recalled that once the veḍi he was journeying on landed at a place calledKācmāṇḍ and business there was bad.
This yearly trade gave vitality to island life. During the exciting months
close to the departure, womenfolk prepared dried tuna (Maldive fish),sweets and rope. Every tuna was divided into four longitudinal quarters(ari), which could be cut into thick slices (foti) if the specimen was verylarge. These were boiled in salty water and subsequently dried. A certain
fungus covered the fish after drying, preventing it from getting rotten.
Maldive fish was known as ‘umbalakaḍa’ in Ceylon, where it was in great
demand.
Sweets (āros and boṇḍi) were also a common trade item. These sweets
were made by cooking palm sap along with mashed screwpine (kēvaāros); and since the 18th century also breadfruit. Boṇḍi sweets were49

made by cooking tender coconut flesh in palm syrup until it became thickand could be rolled in dry banana leaves. Women also would make ropewith coconut husk fibers, another product in great demand in Ceylon.
Meanwhile the men would repair the oḍi in its shed making it fit for
travel. In the northern atolls, another important trading item was the
cowry shell (Cypraea moneta), which used to be gathered by women inshallow muddy lagoons at low tide.
The oḍi or veḍi was a somewhat heavy bark-type vessel. It was also called‘daturu oḍi’, ‘furadde oḍi’ or ‘baṇḍu oḍi’, meaning ‘traveling vessel’,‘external vessel’ and ‘belly vessel’ respectively. Oḍi is the name in Male’,voḍḍā in Huvadu and veḍi in Aḍḍu Atoll; formerly in the South the term
‘furadde veḍi’ (external vessel) was also widespread. Here the term
‘external’, which can also mean ‘foreign’, refers to the fact that the boat is
outward bound, in contrast to the common fishing vessels which rarely
ventured beyond the nearby waters. The length of an average oḍi wasabout 14 m and it was built entirely of wood. It usually had a main mastand a lesser mast close to the stern. In the North, a different type of twomasted craft known as ‘batteli’ was used for the same purpose.
The trading ships had to be made thoroughly oceanworthy to be able tocover safely with a heavy load of cargo the broad expanses of ocean
between the Maldive atolls ―which become larger as one goes south―
and reach the closest coasts. For this reason the great skill and technologythat went into building these oḍi affected the building of even thesmallest fishing boats to such an extent that crude boats are simply nonexistent in the Maldives.
Ever since the beginning of historical times, all Maldive vessels have beenhighly sophisticated. This is true to such an extent that there is not even amemory of outriggers or hollowed trunks in Maldives, while these
relatively cruder and simpler craft are still widespread in the coasts ofSouth and South-East Asia and other island groups of the Indian Ocean
where the inhabitants lived in greater isolation, such as the Nicobar
50Islands. The only outriggers I saw were in certain toy sailboats used bychildren in Fua Mulaku. These toy boats look like a small replica of theaverage dōni, but with an added outrigger. They sail like a real boat andare rigged in a way that they can be controlled from the beach by meansof long fine ropes or fishing wire. 3
Although small rafts called kandufati (usually made with logs of the kandutree) were used in the Maldives for practical purposes, like unloadingcargo from a ship or short trips between islands on the same reef, they
were never considered proper vessels among Maldivians.
There are indications that in ancient times the planks forming the hull of
Maldive boats were tied together with coconut rope, as is still done in
Kerala and Lakshadweep. In modern Divehi, to refer to boat construction
the verb banuṅ (‘to tie’)4 is still in use even though in Maldives and
Minicoy (Maliku) wooden pegs and brass nails have replaced rope for thelast three centuries. Keen to add new improvements to their alreadyocean worthy craft, Maldivians have carefully observed every detail of theconstruction in the foreign boats happening to anchor in their archipelago
or in the wrecks of the ships that ended up caught in the long andtreacherous coral reefs of their Atoll chain along their history. New
technologies were always welcome and the technique of using nails waslearned from the Portuguese.
Maldivians learned numerous technological skills from the Portuguese.
The heavy metal hammer used to drive in the metallic nails is notdifferent in shape from the wooden hammers (muguru) which had beenused in building boats with rope. However, with the arrival of the new3. Demonstration in 1980 by Tarānage Abdullāhi Dīdī, Fua Mulaku

4

Although other verbs are available in the Divehi language, one always has to say″to tie a boat″ referring to naval construction. Thus, ′dōni bannani′. Information by
Mr. Mūsā Dīdī, Henvēru, Male′.
51technology the new tool received the Portuguese name maruteyo(maruteli in the South). Further proof that there were many
improvements in Maldivian carpentry owing to contact with the ―now
much maligned― Portuguese is furnished by the fact that not only namesof tools, but also Divehi words relating to furniture, like cupboard or tablefor example, are also derived from Portuguese words. As centuries passed
and hegemonies shifted in the Indian Ocean, other improvements inboatbuilding were subsequently learned from the Dutch, the French andthe British.
The day that the oḍi was put in the sea, all the women would go look at
the scene in their best dress. The ship would stay anchored off the island
for a few days until it was fully loaded. The departure towards the NE
would be in the Vihānakaiy (from the first to the 13th September). On the
day the boat left, the women would give to their husbands or lovers apresent of betel leaves in a bundle with sweet-smelling flowers inside.
By and large only the men traveled abroad, although it was not unusual
for a few women to go as well. In those cases Maldivians were aware thatthe other countries were more dangerous for females and they would
adopt certain protective measures. In one instance that a veḍi from Aḍḍustrayed off its course and ended up in a strange coast, the first thing themen did before going ashore was to hide the sex of the only woman on
board. Thus her hair was cropped short and she was given men’s clothes
to put on.5
A number of Maldive folk stories talk about the plight of Maldivians after
their trading ship strayed off its course missing the shores of South Indiaor the island of Ceylon. Following such an event, people could end up in

5This particular case was in the Somali coast. Source: Magieduruge Ibrahīm Dīdī
of Fua Mulaku (1983). Cf. 2.6.2 ′The Mystery of Female Power′ regarding theposition of women in Maldive society compared with other countries in the region.
52

the Andamans, the Burmese coast or Sumatra and they would come backafter facing many hardships.
The Andaman & Nicobar Islands were known by the name ‘Minikā Rājje’(Country of the Cannibals) in the Maldive lore. In ‘Doṅ Beyyā’, a long story
from the 18th century, or earlier, a veḍi from Gan (Huvadū) is said to end
up in the Andamans where everyone is caught and eaten by cannibals
except for the cook. Aside from the ancient Maldivian lore, however,there are no reliable records regarding the various indigenous people of
the Andaman being cannibals.
Missing the relatively conspicuous coasts of South India or Ceylon was not
as bad as missing the Maldives in the return journey. Memories about thestrange places visited, including the habits of the natives in matters offood and clothing and the difficulty of communication, were kept within
the family and guests were entertained with those stories for many years
to come. Occasionally houses were named after a non-descript village on
a foreign coast where a family member had strayed during a trading trip.6
In Fua Mulaku there is a house named ‘Borosali’ after a certain place in
Burma. The father of the family told how the Ceylon-bound veḍi he wastravelling on had ended up there after having gone astray during a storm.
Long ago, when there was no radio communication, the people in theisland would analyze their dreams in search of indications that their folks
had arrived safely in Ceylon or South India. The dream revelation would
be called bavati.
Oḍi gos Karaya vanī/ kamaṣē khabaruṅ, aīKoḷambuge mas kaḍā matī/ tībi huvafenuṅ bavativī.

6

Each Maldivian house has a different name. Formerly homes used to be named
after some person living there or after an ancestor, but names of flowers, countries
and constellations have become commonplace.
53

News arrived that (our) ship (is in) the foreign land, in a dream it has
been revealed that (our folks) were at the fish market in Colombo. (EtereVeṣi, verse 36)

Iruvā kula udarehuṅ /iruvāde ira’ llumuṅ,Bavati vē feni huvafenuṅ / hita’ de haluvamuṅ.
The NE monsoon colors appear twice on the horizon (sunset andsunrise are more colorful in this season), omens (about the departure of
our ships) are seen in dreams and hearts beat (in anticipation) . (EtereVeṣi, verse 63)

In spite of the steady travels, relationship with other countries of the
Indian Ocean rim was limited to trade. There were no settlements of
Maldivians in other places and it was only rarely that a foreigner came to
the Maldives on their trading ships to settle on the islands. This situation
has changed since the late 1980’s. These days, for the first time in the
country’s history, there are relatively large numbers of Maldivians residing
in Colombo, Trivandrum and Singapore.
Traditionally, after anchoring their ship in the harbor, Divehi people wentstraight to the marketplaces to make business. If they had to go to someplace farther away, they usually went in a group. In this manner they
never dispersed, and at dusk they always returned to their ship to sleep.
Although there was not much cultural exchange between Maldivians andthe people of other countries, sometimes the travel became an occasion
to make friendships, as the following story proves:
My Friend the Vedemāhatte“I went many times on a veḍi to Ceylon in the yearly journey from ourisland. As Siṅgaḷa (Sinhalese), is not so different from our island’s
language, I was able to communicate quite well with the local people.
54

On one of my travels, at the beginning of the nineteen-fifties, our veḍi saw
land in the southern end of Ceylon and we anchored at Gāli (Galle) harbor.
Like everyone aboard, I used to go ashore every morning after tea. One
day in the afternoon, while I was strolling through the market area, one
young man stopped me and asked me whether I was from the Maldive
Islands. When I said “Yes,” he seemed very happy and introduced himself.
I looked at him, mistrusting the man at first, because we Maldivians often
meet people who try to take advantage of us in the market streets offoreign harbors. However, this person didn’t look like a crook: he was ahandsome man, clean-shaven, with his hair cut short, wearing a white
shirt with buttons on the shoulder and a white muṇḍu.
This man said he wanted us to be friends. He explained that he was a
Vedemāhatte, a medicine-man in Siṅgaḷa, and that he was very interested
in the Maldive Islands. Then he asked me to show him our ‘hōḍi’, which is
the way they call our veḍis there, and we went together to the harbor.
There we jumped on a bokkurā (dinghy) and rowed to my ship. Before
reaching it, he took pictures of the veḍi with his camera. Once aboard, helooked at every detail and took more photographs, including some of thecrew and traders present there. Then he said: “Let’s go ashore! “He was full of charm and very lively, smiling and chattering all the time. He
greeted a lot of people in the streets of Gāli. Together we entered a noisy
hotel7 where there were a lot of people eating, chatting and smoking. He
called some friends of his and he introduced them to me. Among themwas his kokko (younger brother) who was taller, darker and thinner thanhim, but this man didn’t speak much. Vedemāhatte then invited me to his
table to eat and asked many more questions about our islands. I told him
everything he wanted to know and he seemed genuinely interested.

7

In South Asia, little wayside restaurants are normally called ′hotel,′ pronounced′hoṭā′ or ′foṭā.′55

Time passed quickly and it was getting late. I said I had to go back to myveḍi because it was getting too dark and I wanted to be there soonotherwise it would be difficult for me to find a dinghy. Before we parted hetold me that we were friends now. Then he gave me a packet of cigars anda matchbox (during the following days he would offer me the same
present every evening when it was time for me to leave) and told me tocome back to the same place at eight o’clock in the morning.
The next morning I arrived at the time he told me and the hotel was full ofpeople sitting at the tables drinking tea. The Vedemāhatte recognized mefrom a distance and called me. He immediately ordered breakfast for me.
It was an excellent meal and I noticed that he not only paid the food forabout twenty men sitting there, but also offered them as many cigarettes
as they wanted. After breakfast, we went to a corner of the same hotel
and he showed me eight wooden boxes with little holes. When I asked him
what they contained, he winked at me and smiled: “Yāluminia, you will see
it in a moment! “ (Yāluminia means friend and this is the way the peopleof Ceylon used to address us).
Then he asked his companions to take the boxes outside and they broughtthem to a shady spot close to the street under a large, spreading tree, just
opposite the hotel. As we stood by the boxes, the Vedemāhatte began toshout in Siṅgaḷa and soon many people gathered around us. Neverthelesshe went on yelling until a big crowd surrounded us. When he looked
around and considered that the crowd was large enough, he opened thebox in the middle and took out of it the biggest snake I had ever seen. As
he held it, the snake went around his neck and moved its tongue in front of
his face. Unfazed, Vedemāhatte, smiling happily kept addressing the
public in his very loud voice all the while. When he put that serpent on the
ground, it went alone into its box.
The snake from the second box was smaller, but even so, it was so largethat when it went around my friend’s neck, both its head and tail touched
the ground. The next four boxes contained different snakes, which in turn56

he wove around his body with surprising ease and without showing theslightest fear.
The seventh box was very little compared with the other ones. As soon as
he opened it, a smaller snake with a broad, flat neck shot half of her bodyout and stood menacingly in front of him. But Vedemāhatte coolly patted
her head shouting something in Siṅgaḷa and she returned to the box.
Again, when he yelled something she shot up. He laughed and, mimicking
an angry expression he yelled at her and she curled down again. Finally,
one of his friends came with some dead rats and Vedemāhatte put one ineach box and closed well all the boxes.
The eighth box was a normal metal trunk. He opened it shouting withrenewed fervor and gesticulating towards the onlookers. Inside there were
only pills. Suddenly the crowd became enthusiastic and in the rush that
followed I could not see anyone who was not buying pills. Now
Vedemāhatte and his fellows were very busy selling their medicine andcashing money.
After the crowd dispersed the boxes were brought back to the hotel and I
enquired about the pills. He just said that he made them himself. Then hetold me: “Tonight come back here and we will go to the cinema.” I was
nervous about leaving the veḍi alone in the dark and asked him: “Shall I
come alone? “ He noticed my fear and with a broad smile he answered:“Yāluminia, do as you please. You can bring a friend along. He will bewelcome too.”Thus, that same evening I went to meet my friend with somebody from theveḍi. With his spontaneous generosity, Vedemāhatte paid for our meals,tea, cigarettes, and everything we wished for. Then we went together tothe cinema. That night I asked him about his family. He said that his father
was a very rich man, living in a big house far from Gāli. “Why don’t you livewith him? “ I asked.

57

He replied that he liked to pay all his expenses with his own money. “I getmuch money selling medicines and I like to live like this. I like to share foodand money with many people, because I am happy when I can makeothers happy and everyone is in a good mood around me.” Vedemāhatte
was smiling, but I remained silent. I had never met anyone like him and I
didn’t know what to think. He certainly was followed by many companions
all the time, but I had no way to ascertain whether they were really his
friends. He told me that we should meet again the next morning and we
shook hands.
During the following six days he came every morning to the veḍi to pickme up. He accepted to drink tea aboard with us and he said he liked thefoḷi and mas huni very much.8 Then we left together to the same spot
under the tree to enact his snake-show and his pill-selling frenzy while I
just stood by.
Eventually, every day we were surrounded by crowds. When I asked why
he picked me up every single day, he told me that he liked me and that wewere friends. Nevertheless, with a quick wink of the eye he added that mypresence under the tree was beneficial for his business, because
Maldivians had a good reputation as great magicians and herbal doctors
in Ceylon. I had suspected something like that, but I didn’t mind, because I
really enjoyed watching his skill with the snakes.
On the seventh day the Vedemāhatte didn’t come and, as I had business todo, I didn’t have time to enquire about him. A few days later, when ourveḍi was fully loaded and we were ready for departure, I thought I should
go to see my friend before I left. Thus, on our last afternoon in Gāli thatyear, I went ashore and walked across the market area to the hotel close8Foḷi (Aḍḍu and Mulaku Bas) is the flat chapati bread called roṣi in the rest of theMaldives. Mas huni or masuni is a mixture of grated coconut, chilies, minced tunaand finely chopped onion eaten usually for breakfast.
58

to the big shady tree. I spent a long time looking for him among thecrowd, but I didn’t find him.
At last, after a long time I saw his kokko and asked him: “Where is Bēbe
(older brother)? “ He didn’t seem too happy to see me and just said that
his brother had gone away. He was a sullen man, very different from
Vedemāhatte. I couldn’t get any more details from him and I was feeling
uncomfortable, so I left. That same night we weighed anchor and sailed
away from Ceylon.
The following year, in late September, our veḍi anchored in Gāli too andon my first day ashore I happened to meet Vedemāhatte’s kokko in a busy
market street. I immediately asked him: “Where is Bēbe? “His answer was brief: “Dead.”
I was shocked. I couldn’t take in that such a handsome man, so full of life
was dead. He had been my friend and I had been looking forward to meethim. I felt dizzy. Meanwhile, kokko was still there, staring at me with ablank face. I lost my temper and began to fire questions at him: “Whichsickness killed him? How did he die? “The man simply said: “A snake bit him.” 9After selling their merchandise, Maldivians filled their boats with what
they would need in their island. These goods were mainly rice, oil, ironscraps, white sugar, flour, pots, cloth, firecrackers and diverse utensils.
Usually Divehi traders would spend between two and three months doing
business in the foreign harbor. The return towards Maldives would takeplace in December, when the first gusts of the Northeastern Monsoon
winds begin to blow.

9

Told in 1990 by the late Vaijehēge Alī Dīdī of Dūṇḍigamu, Fua Mulaku.
59

The journey back home was reckoned to be far more hazardous, for it was
fraught with the danger of missing the Maldives altogether. Since they are
an extremely low-lying archipelago, with wide and deep channels
between the atolls, the Maldives could be easily missed from a boat
approaching the area during the night. In such an event, it was hard totack against the prevailing wind and current with an oḍi, a vessel that was
so heavy and unwieldy. Since there is no land for thousands of miles
westwards, the hapless ship going off course could end up very far away.
Occasionally, some oḍis were totally lost, with people, cargo and all andthere would be no news about their fate.
Vessels drifting too far south would have been caught in the powerfulwinds and currents of the Westwind Drift. These ill fated ships would havebeen carried eastwards at great speed and may have ended up sinking in
the icy raging waters of the ‘Roaring Forties’ or smashed against the rocky
coast of some remote island of the vast Subantarctic region of the Indian
Ocean.
On any of those desolate islands ―Kerguelen, Heard, MacDonald, New
Amsterdam, St. Paul, or even distant Macquarie― Maldivian survivors
would have quickly perished owing to the prevailing inhospitableconditions and cold temperatures. Captain F. Hasselborough of the brig
‘Perseverance’, who sighted Macquarie Island in 1810, recorded seeing a
wreck “of ancient design” on the forbidding coast of the island. This
unknown wreck ―subsequent visitors to Macquarie failed to find it―
could possibly have been the tragic remains of a veḍi from Maldives.
Oḍis that reached the Seychelles,10 Madagascar or the East African coast
were relatively luckier. Somehow, from those distant places, the people

10

In the Seychelles it is assumed that the first people who resided in one of theislands, Ile Silhouette, were Maldivian fishermen (sic) towards the year 1,200.
Gilles Fonteneau, ′Les Seychelles′. Unfortunately it is difficult to elucidate further
data about this assumption.
60

aboard managed to travel back to the Maldives. Wherever they landed,
the first thing Maldivians did was to look for the British authorities inorder to negotiate their return home. However, in one recorded instance
one southern veḍi ended up in the Somali coast and the Maldivians werevery surprised to find out that there were no Englishmen ruling there, but
Italians. This particular group ended up being transferred to Aden but
many died of diseases before the party returned home.
The following account shows how ruinous for the traders’ business it waswhen a ship happened to miss the Maldives:11
The Vast Ocean“We left Colombo in December 1951 and were sailing back towards theMaldives with a fully-loaded veḍi. The wind was a strong and steadyNortheasterly, but there were many sudden squalls. One week went by
and we began to worry because we were constantly scanning the horizon
and didn’t see the Atolls. More days passed and we became sure that we
had slipped through one of the broad channels during the night. The
Maldives were now behind us, but our ship was so full of cargo that it
couldn’t tack against the wind. The captain said that we would keep
sailing westwards and wherever we would land we would seek the help of
the British to bring us back home.
Day after day we kept sailing through deep dark blue seas. From sunrise tosunset there was nothing in the horizon. After more than two weeks
without sighting land we were very anxious. Food we didn’t lack. We had a
lot of provisions below deck and there were frequent squalls, so we could

11

Told in 1984 by the late Vaijehēge Alī Dīdī.
61

catch water.12 However, we were nervous because we had been too manydays seeing only the empty ocean and that was bad for our morale.
At last, one day we saw a long submerged coral reef stretching fromhorizon to horizon. It was a broad turquoise blue band, similar to somesubmerged shallow reefs we have in Maldives. We followed it
northwestwards for a long time. Finally, in the late afternoon we saw aflat coral island in the distance and our spirits rose. It looked very much
like one of our islands, but we knew it could not be because we were too
far away from our country. When we threw anchor in the lagoon off thismysterious island the sun had already set. We lit the lamps and decided
that we would disembark the following day.
After dinner, when we were ready to go to sleep, we heard the noise ofoars in the quiet lagoon. There was just a little red light left in the westernhorizon, but we could make out a long rowing boat coming towards us.
We were all scared. We didn’t know what to expect and we all went under
the roof.13 Only our captain stayed outside. Nobody made a noise. Finally
we heard a thud and the sounds of people climbing aboard. The first one
we saw stepping on our deck was an Englishman in neat clothes. He was
wearing shorts, a short-sleeved shirt and a hat. His face was pink and hehad a little moustache. Beside him were two large black African men
wearing only shorts. The Englishman spoke with a kind voice, but no one
among us knew well English, except for a few words and those proved
quite useless. So our conversations with him took a long time as we had tostruggle word by word.

12

In such a situation the lack of firewood for cooking would pose a serious
problem. In extreme cases certain planks from the boat structure itself would be
carefully removed.
13

The veḍis had a deck house thatched with coconut palm leaf, covering thesurface between the main mast and the stern.
62Somehow though, the Englishman understood us when the navigator(mālimi) asked him about the name of the island, and he said:“Providence.”
We asked him whether he could grant us passage to the Maldive Islands
and his reply was that he had to send a message to his superiors and wait
for a reply. Some of us expressed the wish to go ashore to take a bath, so
he allowed us to go ashore on the following morning.
Providence was very much like one of our islands. The sand was whitecoral sand. There were no mountains and it was covered by very tallcoconut trees. In the Maldives, we never let them grow so tall because weare eager to use the wood. The only difference between Providence andour islands was that there were pigs and dogs. The pigs were kept in pens
and the dogs wandered about. The African people lived in a cluster ofhouses. They were much taller and stronger than us and we didn’t know
how to communicate with them because they spoke only French. They
used to laugh very loudly all of a sudden without any apparent reason andwe found that very scary.
The Englishman was staying in a neat bungalow, at a distance from where
the Africans lived. He was the only white person on the island and he lived
alone in his house, which was a bit like the “Island Office” in our islands.
There was a flag and some flowering trees planted close to it. During ourstay there, our captain went every day to visit the Englishman and they
had tea together. He had sent a radio message to his superiors about us
and was awaiting instructions. We asked him for permission to pick somecoconuts, because we had finished ours and we didn’t know how to cook
without them.14 He allowed us to pick as many as we wanted. When hesaw that one of our men was getting ready to climb a palm tree he said:

14

Coconuts are a basic item in Maldive cuisine. It is a well-known fact in the islands
that formerly Maldivian women didn′t know how to cook without coconuts.
63

“We just pick the ones that fall. Only robbers climb trees here.” Then hebrought us to a place where there were many dry coconuts strewn overthe ground.
Having noticed that there were some breadfruit trees on Providence, on
another occasion we asked the Englishman whether we could pick somebreadfruits, a common staple in our island. He was surprised. He didn’tknow that they were edible and holding one of the fruits, he squinted andlooked at it as if it were a bad thing. After asking one of the Africans who
was with him, he told us that they used them as food for the pigs only. He
added that, of course, we were allowed to take as many as we wanted toour ship. After what he had told us, we were apprehensive that thebreadfruits there would taste bad, so we just took a few, but after trying
them and finding out that they were excellent, we returned ashore to pickmany more.
One day a large ship came to pick us up. We were sad to leave our veḍi,but we were at least allowed to take our cargo along with us. One or twodays after leaving Providence, we arrived to the capital island of that
territory, which was the island of Mahe in Seychelles.
Our spirits rose because it was a beautiful island, with nice streets and big
buildings and we were put up in comfortable guest houses. However, it
was quite an expensive place. As we stayed for over a month there, having
to pay for our food and accommodation, we had to sell most of ourmerchandise. The local inhabitants were very friendly. Most of them were
black Africans who knew little about the Maldives, although there werealso a few locals of Indian origin looking very similar to our people. Whatsurprised us most was to find out that not a single person in that place,
ven among the most educated, had even heard about Muhammad Amīn,
the leader of our country.
Finally one day we were informed by the local authorities that we had toboard a ship going to Aden. We were extremely disappointed, for we had
64told them that we wanted to go to Maldives. The English officials werepolite and apologetic saying that there were no boats going to theMaldives from the Seychelles, but they assured us that Aden was a more
important harbor. Thus, we found ourselves again on a large ship thatcarried us to another unknown destination. Our morale was very low, wewere very homesick, our cargo had dwindled to almost nothing and, tomake matters worse, some of us had fallen ill.
When we arrived to Aden, there was a ship bound for Cochin in the harborand we were transferred to that vessel. Fortunately, it weighed anchor
after only two days. Our trip was quite uneventful until we arrived to
Cochin. From there we sailed to the Maldives and, after arriving in Male’,
it took still some weeks until we could find passage on a boat to sailfurther south to our home island.
We had been more than six months away from our island and we arrived
exhausted, with empty hands. Some fireworks for the children and a few
lengths of cloth for my wife was everything that was left from all my
cargo. However, we were very happy to be alive and back home, among
our own people. Some veḍis, after missing the Maldives, get lost at sea
and no one ever returns. The traders and crew probably meet death at sea
in despair and for Maldivians that is a dreadful way to die.
Even nowadays, Maldive boats traveling between Atolls occasionally lose
their course and get lost in the ocean. If the survivors manage to be
rescued, they make the headlines in the local papers when they return to
the Maldives. The stories of their ordeals, often full of grisly details, arewidely circulated because there is always great interest in them. Similarly,
this interest is reflected in popular songs and poems. One of the most
famous songs of Jēmu Doṅkamaṇā, a well-liked Maldivian singer, deals
with the description of the terrible hardships some Maldivians lost at sea
had to face.

65Not only trading boats got lost in the Maldives. The possibility of being
driven away by the wind and currents and ending up lost in the wide
limitless ocean was always present, even on the smallest of journeys
between neighboring islands. About three or four centuries ago a dōnifrom Fua Mulaku, with sixteen people aboard, was driven off course by astrong gale during a journey to Huvadū Atoll and eventually landed on the
Chagos Islands, after being so badly damaged on a reef that it could not
be repaired.
Back then the Chagos were uninhabited and covered by thick jungle. Since
no one in Fua Mulaku could possibly know that their people werelanguishing there, the castaways found an ingenious way to communicate
by tying up messages to the legs of frigate birds, which make their nests in
those islands, before they headed north in their yearly migration. Backthen Fua Mulaku people used to catch frigates for food and one of themessages was found. Subsequently a party was sent to look for them andthe castaways were brought back home.15
Named by Portuguese geographers, the Chagos were settled in 1793 by
the French who established an oil factory and brought African and South
Indian people to work in their coconut plantations. The lepers of Ile deFrance (Mauritius) were also sent there to live. After the Napoleonic wars
the Chagos became British. In time the inhabitants of the Chagos
developed a French-based Creole and an identity of their own and were
known as ‘Ilois.’ Following an agreement between the U.S. and the U.K.,
by which Diego Garcia was leased to the U.S. Military to set up a base, in
1973, all the Ilois were forcefully expelled from the handful of islands they
inhabited (Diego Garcia, Egmore, Boddam, Takamaka, Ile du Coin, Ile
Manoel and Grande Soeur). The about 1,400 Ilois were sent to live in aslum in Mauritius and given no compensation. Most of them long to go

15

Told in 1990 by Katībuge Ibrahīm Saīdu of Diguvāṇḍo, Fua Mulaku.
66back to their islands, but so far have not been successful. The Chagos aremeanwhile uninhabited, except for the U.S. Base.16
In Maldives the Chagos are known as Hoḷḷavai in the South and Fōḷavahi in
the North. Even in the remote and strongly oceanic Southern Maldive
Atolls, knowledge about their neighboring island group was only vague
and fragmentary. Hoḷḷavai, according to Southern Maldivian old men, wasa generic name for all the islands and island groups South and Southwestof the Maldives. These included not only the Chagos, but also Seychelles,
Mauritius & Reunion and Rodrigues, all of which were uninhabited until aslate as the 16th or 17th century.
When pressed for information about Hoḷḷavai, Aḍḍu Atoll ―and also Fua
Mulaku― people claim that their old folks mentioned that there are very
big hermit crabs (coconut crabs) there. Stories about those crabs gave
probably origin to the giant hermit crab so often quoted in Maldivian
folklore. Also there is mention about giant turtles, which do exist in
distant Aldabra ―thousands of miles to the west of the Chagos― as well
as about islands with a great quantity of birds. One well known fact is thatthe frigate birds which come seasonally to their Atoll breed in Hoḷḷavai.
Historically, Maldivians have shown but little interest in those far-flung,
formerly uninhabited, expanses of the Indian Ocean and there was noeffort to exploit the resources of the Chagos from the Maldives. The great
distances involved ―the distance between Gan in Aḍḍu Atoll, thesouthernmost island of the Maldives and Ile Yeye in Peros Banhos Atoll,
the closest island of the Chagos, is about 500 Km; and the distance
between Aḍḍu Atoll and Mahe Island in Seychelles exceeds 2,000 Km―
made a hypothetical journey unappealing. Moreover, the lack of safe
anchorages in between and the meager potential trade benefit fromthose few scattered island groups didn’t justify such a hazardous journey.

16′Diego Garcia Tropical Times′ Vol 2, Nos. 23, 24
67

According to the island lore it is clear that Maldivians only visited thoseremote islands by accident and that they by no means endeavored tosettle there. Thus, the Maldives has remained the only island group in thevast area of the Central Indian Ocean having supported a population witha truly indigenous culture since very ancient times.

681.1.2 VILLAGES IN THE OCEAN
In the low, lush tropical coral islands of the Maldive Atolls, villages werelocated in the middle of the island. Owing to their independent spirit,
Maldivians used to build their homes in a haphazard way about the island.
Thick coconut groves and other vegetation encircled the humansettlements, so that no house would be seen from the sea. The only
constructions with a ‘beach view’ would be makeshift sheds forboatbuilding or boat-repair and lonely ‘ziyāraiy’ shrines. Nowadays, owing
to a very high birth rate and a drastic reduction of the mortality rate,some islands have become overpopulated. Naifaru and Hinnavaru(Fādippoḷu Atoll) and Kandoḷudu (Māḷosmaḍulu Atoll), the latterabandoned after the 2004 tsunami, are examples of islands completely
covered by homesteads.
There are a number of reasons for hiding human settlements.
Traditionally Maldivians didn’t think that it was good for a person to look
too much at the sea, because one’s ‘heart would turn to stone’. Thissentence, in Divehi means that one would lose one’s memory and thecapacity of concentration, becoming absent-minded, finding it difficult toconcentrate on, for example, reading.17 It does not mean that one would
become mercilessFurthermore, many trees didn’t grow well if the salt-spray hit them
directly, only bōshi (Heliotropium foertherianum) with velvety grey-green
leaves and magū or gera (Scaevola taccada) with fresh-looking glossy
yellowish-green leaves; and also larger trees, such as ḷos (Pisonia grandis),diggā (Hibiscus tiliaceus) and kāṇi or kauṇi (Cordia subcordata).18 They arecommon in the shore of every Maldive island and just need sand and17

Source Magieduruge Ibrahīm Dīdī (1982).

18

Magū, bōṣi and ḷos leaves could be used as food in times of famine.
69

seawater to grow. Therefore, the first barrier of resilient bushes growing
close to the waterline and the second barrier of coconut trees would
effectively protect the more salt-sensitive plants growing in the interior of
the island, such as bananas, papayas and breadfruit trees. For the same
reason, paths were narrow and winding, and the point where a path met
the beach was considered an important geographical feature in theMaldivian settlement pattern.
Such points were called fannu in Divehi, the language of the Maldives, andthey were like the ‘gates’ or ‘mouths’ through which the village inside theisland opened to the sea. People went to the waterline with a purpose.
Men would go to the sea to fish, girls would go to the beach to scrub pots,
all people would go regularly to answer calls of nature, and sometimes
boys would go there to play. However, unless there was a necessity to go
there, people would stay as much as possible in their villages inside theisland.
The interior of the islands back then was a green, pleasant and cozy place,admirably described by H.C.P. Bell when he visited the Maldives in 1922:19“A thousand trees towards heaven their summits rear” making of theclean-kept peaceful roads “with leafy hair overgrown”, cool umbrageous“cloisters”, almost continuous in their extension. Houses there are inplenty, but so well embowered and hidden by sheltering fences and skilful
adaptation, as to give the effect of a somewhat close-set rustic village;
with little suggestion of regular streets and habitations ... to mar the
picturesque peaceful tout ensemble. In roads, gardens, houses ―nomatter what or where― “order in most admired disorder” rules.
However, during the nineteen-forties, the self-contained world of theMaldive islanders experienced a terrible shock. Muhammad Amīn

19

H.C.P. Bell′s Monograph, ′The Maldive Islands.′
70Doṣimēna Kilēgefānu, who ruled first as regent (since 1944) of anabsentee Radun (king) and then as President of the first Republic heproclaimed in 1953, the last year of his rule, decided to build new avenues
in the islands. The drive was allegedly to ‘give a modern facade’ to thecountry. Nevertheless, given Muhammad Amīn’s militaristic inclinations, it
was probably a counter-insurgency measure (of preventive character, forthere was no insurgency within the country back then). Having studied inEurope, the new ruler had knowledge of modern warfare and introduced
many reforms in the Maldive military.
Amīn introduced leader-cultism in the islands. He was the first Maldivian
leader wearing a military uniform at public events. His portrait had to be
displayed in every office, public building and school throughout theMaldive Islands. His desire was to have an avenue in every island to stage
parades where he himself would be leading his modernized army. Soldiers
were given khaki uniforms to replace the ancient black-and-white fēliwaistcloth they used to wear.
Under the direct supervision of Muhammad Amīn, the entire Maldivian
population, in every island of the country, was ordered to work in theconstruction of wide, straight streets. These were traced crisscrossing
every island from beach to beach and many valuable trees were sacrificed
in the process. The punishments for any islander shrinking from work
were unduly harsh, for these avenues had to be built in record time.
Special government officers were dispatched to every important island inorder to check that the work was advancing at a fast pace.
Thus, men folk were not allowed to go fishing and spent their days
working hard, felling and uprooting trees, digging and carrying earth fromone place to the other. Since no modern machinery was used in theprocess, conscripted workers had to use their bare hands or rudimentary
small tools. Island people said those were terrible times; that womenfolk
and children went hungry for lack of fish. I met the widow of a man who
was killed, tortured to death, in a punishing cell made especially for those71

who disobeyed government orders and went fishing or to gather coconuts
to feed their families. The number of people who died in thosecircumstances was never recorded.
Islanders failed to understand the rationale behind such broad streets
going literally from nowhere to nowhere and allowing the deadly saltspray to enter right into the heart of the island. Traditionally, the paths
within islands were winding and shady and, according to the islanders it
was a pleasure to walk on them. Those paths were also winding, not only
to avoid the salt-spray, but also to hamper the movements of certain evil
spirits that moved in straight lines, like the malevolent spirits of the deadancestors, known as kaḍḍovi, and the feared vigani as well. This
metaphysical dimension points at the relationship between the layout ofthe village and the need of sanctifying space. In the words of J.C. LeviStrauss: “We have then to recognize that the plan of the village had a still
deeper significance that the one we have ascribed to it from thesociological point of view. 20
More often than not, though, people were sore for having to sacrifice somuch badly needed good soil and the cool shade, and the fruits ofdifferent kinds the trees could offer. All individual islands in the Maldives
are very small (the largest being barely 5 sq/km) and the total land surfaceof the whole archipelago lies around a mere 300 sq/km. Considering that
there is so little of it, it is hardly surprising that land is so precious in theMaldives. Therefore, practically all Maldivians, except for a few staunch
supporters of their charismatic leader, Muhammad Amīn, considered thebroad avenues to be a pointless waste.
The traditional pattern of urbanization was brutally disrupted too.
Maldive villages which had been originally clusters of homesteads ―every
house auspiciously aligned towards the proper orientation determined by

20

J.C. Levi-Strauss,.″ ′Tristes Tropiques.′ Cf. 1.4.1 ′The First Mosques′.
72

the nakatteriyā or astrologer― became long alignments of houses
stretched along the new avenues. All this had ―and is still having―
unforeseen traumatic effects upon the vitality of the Maldive island
society and many of those adverse effects have not even been fathomed,
for the traditional position of the house and the orientation of its door in
relation of the cardinal points had a paramount influence on socialorganization and attitudes.21
The new streets had to be fringed on both sides by coral walls. Thus,
much sand, lime and coral stones were needed. The new homesteads
delimited by walls, increased people’s privacy and did away with thecustom of walking from one house to the other through the spaces
between house proper and kitchen. This area was known as medugōti inmost of the Maldives and as medovatte in the southern end of thecountry. Shaded by plantains, drumstick trees or fruit trees, the medugōti
was where Maldivians, who used to live outdoors sharing the company of
their neighbors, spent most of their lives.
Most men and women in the Atolls claim that the new urban disposition
led to the exacerbation of island rivalries and to the loss of community
life. Many also blame the general growth of pride, demoralization andselfishness among islanders to the privacy and isolation of walled-incompounds. Thus, much of the island social fabric was destroyed by suchan apparently harmless action as building new streets.

21

J.C. Levi-Strauss analyzed this phenomenon among an Amazonian tribe, theBororo. The colonial authorities were aware of this fact and in order to stupefy andneutralize the natives, they moved them to villages where houses were arrayed inparallel lines. ″...Désorientés par rapport aux points cardinaux, prives du plan qui
fournit un argument a leur savoir, les indigènes perdent rapidement le sens destraditions, comme si leurs systèmes social et religieux (nous allons voir qu′ils sontindissociables) étaient trop compliqués pour se passer du schéma rendu patent parle plan du village et dont leurs gestes quotidiens rafraichissent perpétuellement lescontours.″ Op. Cit.
73

After the traditional urbanization pattern was callously disregarded andswept away by Muhammad Amīn, no one has come up with an alternativeidea. This misguided plan is, even now, the only blueprint existing forisland urbanization in the Maldives. Therefore, the local Island and Atoll
Offices throughout the country keep still opening new straight, broad
avenues and enforce the building of walls lining them, exactly as in Amīn’stime. Since the mid-nineteen-nineties, however, some ecological laws
have been implemented to protect the reefs. The indiscriminate quarryingof coral stones has been restricted. Sand and gravel (coral products too)keep being quarried for the construction of walls though.
In 1985, one teacher in Mīdū, Addū Atoll, an island crisscrossed by abroad, desolate and surrealistic looking avenue, glaring white in the harshtropical midday sun, told me that most of his island’s people thought walls
were useless and didn’t see the point in building them. As coral stones
and lime were becoming rare, they were making a sacrifice to build thewalls, considering that some of their own little houses were not evenwalled, but thatched. He concluded by saying that the government“doesn’t realize how poor some people are.”
All these troubles could have been avoided if the common people’s
opinion had been valued or respected. Muhammad Amīn is now
considered to be a great leader in the official Maldive propaganda. He iscalled ‘The Great Modernizer.’ However, his methods were feudal: tobuild his avenues, all able men in each island were recruited to do forcedlabor and were not allowed to attend to their families. Every morning theisland men had to go to the empty space close to the government officeand stand in ranks. Then, at eight o’clock they marched towards the roadbuilding sites.
Anyone who reported late was beaten with a stick. One man said that hehad been given many lashes when he had been very late. If someone
refused to come he would be locked in a small, stinking cell. Even though
the actual republic was proclaimed only in 1953, the last year of74

Muhammad Amīn’s rule, all those years of penury are known as ‘Jumhurī
Duvahi’ ―the days of the republic― in the collective memory of Fua
Mulaku people. According to one islander who lived through thosetimes:22“When we had to open the new avenues in our island, many of thosestreets cut straight through marshy ground. Thus, we had to bring sandand gravel from the beach in baskets to the working sites. We also had touproot the stumps of very large trees. We used iron rods and ropes. Workwas very hard and we came back home exhausted.
If we would have been fishing or climbing coconut palms, we would havebeen exhausted too, but at least we would bring fish or palm-sap home.
Now we were arriving home empty-handed. Many children would die
because of this. We were getting so little food that we were forced to eat
papaya stems, plantain roots and different kinds of leaves.23“The men who worked were given very little and very bad food. Not likethe food you get at home. My neighbor was jailed after he had been
unloading sugar sacks from a veḍi trading ship. He was so hungry hepulled a little bit of sugar from one end of the sack with his finger. He wasseen licking his fingers by a supervisor and was reported. Then he wasbrought to the koṣi (jail) straight away. His wife, an aunt of mine, went toplead to the authorities for his release, but was rudely sent back home
under threats. Prisoners were given almost no food. They couldn’t get thecustomary daily bath and were given no medical treatment. Thus, myneighbor died after a few months.

22

I have chosen to protect this person′s identity.

23

Certain leaves such as digutiyara (Senna occidentalis), muranga (Moringa
oleifera) massāgu (Amaranthus spp.) and kuḷḷafila or gōramfau (Launaea
sarmentosa), among others, were traditionally valued by Maldivians as food,especially when fish was scarce.
75

“When we washed him for burial, we saw that his body was full of horribly
infected, stinking wounds. He was not the only one to suffer that fate
though, for many more people died in that jail. A lot of women andchildren starved to death during those days too, sitting silently in theirhomes. Their husbands were not able to bring any food home and they
were too terrified to complain to the authorities.
“We didn’t know why all this was happening to us. We were not informed
properly of anything. They said that there would be fewer mosquitoes on
the island, but we didn’t understand what all that heavy work had to dowith insects, and anyway there were the same amount of mosquitoes, if
not more, afterwards. Our old people, racking their brains for an
explanation, said: “Muhammad Amīn is the friend of the Englishmen. He
wants to kill us all and give our islands to them, so they will come herewith their cars and lorries. That is why he makes us build those avenues.”
Muhammad Amīn is still a controversial figure in the Maldives and his ten
years of iron-fisted rule disgusted many islanders. The Maldives was thena British protectorate, but Amīn is officially considered a nationalist heroand he had, and still has, a group of fervent supporters. According to Koli
Hasan Maniku, a local historian, his tenure was a ‘one-man-show.’ On the
one hand, he introduced necessary reforms, but on the other hand, hiscontempt for the plight of the common man in hard times earned him
fierce enemies all over the islands. It cannot be denied that he had avision for the future of his country, but he adamantly disregarded advice
and lacked the necessary imagination to adapt development policies tothe needs of the Maldive Islands. Besides, in spite of his ‘modern’ image,
Muhammad Amīn’s private life was rather like that of a feudal despot, as
he maintained a large number of concubines from different islands Thus,
his modernization campaign was perceived by the islanders to be a
brutally carried out implementation of his personal whims and fancies.
Last, but not least, Muhammad Amīn showed the same contempt towards
autochthonous customs that certain rather bumptious Arab ‘holy men’,76exalted to undeserved high positions, had repeatedly displayed
throughout Maldive history. (Cf. 4.3.2 ‘Foreign Masters’) The period of his
rule is remembered as a long and difficult decade by most islanders who
had to live through it. Southerners claim that his harsh and insensitive
policies made them loathe the central government. Therefore, it is notunlikely that the resulting discontentment led, less than one decade later,
to the self-proclamation of the Suvadive government in the threesouthernmost atolls.
The Suvadive secession was then a belated antagonistic reaction,
unprecedented in the history of Maldives, towards Muhammad Amīn’s
excessively centralistic policies. The ancient absolute power of theMaldivian Radun ―which Amīn made not the slightest effort torelinquish― coupled with modern methods of communication andcontrol, translated itself into a centralism that stifled the traditional
economy and the independent and laid-back island way of life.24
The Suvadive state was born out of unresolved historical grievances, forethnically and culturally there was not much justification for a division of
the Maldives. Even though discernible linguistic differences exist between
the North of Maldives, including Minicoy, and the South of thearchipelago ―every one of the three Southern Atolls speaking a markedly
divergent variant of the language―, the Maldivians are a homogeneous
ethnic group. Oddly enough, there is more linguistic homogeneity
between Haddummati Atoll and Minicoy ―even though 700 Km distantfrom each other― than between Huvadu Atoll and Fua Mulaku, which are
only 60 Km apart.
The fact that, even in the wake of extreme hostility towards Male’, thesecessionist Suvadive government adopted the Male’ form of Divehi for
24

Sultān Abdul Majīd was a Maldivian gentleman living in Egypt who had nointerest in going back to his native country. Thus, Muhammad Amīn became the defacto ruler of the country even before he proclaimed the First Republic.
77

official correspondence shows the degree of affinity between thenorthern and southern atolls.
For official purposes and correspondence, the three Southern languages
are considered coarse, the reason being that, stemming from moreegalitarian backgrounds, they lack a courtly or ceremonial language. On
the other hand, Male′ Bas has the ―rather feudal and affected― EmmehMā goiy used formerly to address the aristocracy. This language is still
now in use to address high government officials. Mā goiy, a second-level
ceremonial language is used to address minor officials.
The ‘United Suvadive Islands’ republic was a new country formed by theatolls of Huvadu and Aḍḍu and the island of Fua Mulaku. It was
proclaimed on March 13th 1959 in the evening from its capital island
Hitadū in Aḍḍu Atoll, under the light of kerosene lamps (bigaru). But the
new state of the Suvadive Islands would never be recognized by any othergovernment. The secession ended on November 1st 1963 and its leader,
Abdullah Afīfu, was exiled to the Seychelles with his immediate family
members. He remained there until his death in 1993. President Afīfu’s
local name was Eḷa Dīdīge Alī Dīdīge Afīfu and he belonged to a goodfamily of Hitadū.
The four years of the secessionist Suvadive government are remembered
as times of penury and famine by the people of Southern Maldives. They
couldn’t send their veḍi trading ships to Ceylon for fear that they would
be seized by the local authorities, who took up the cause of thegovernment in Male’ and seized the few Southern veḍis that arrived at
Colombo or Galle in September and October 1959. Those were days of
anguish when people were waiting, anxious at the delay, for boats thatnever arrived.
False rumors spread easily and, in the Southern Atolls, men, women andeven children, kept assuring each other, full of eager anticipation, thatsuch-and-such boat was about to arrive with badly needed goods.
78Ultimately, the arrivals never materialized and those vessels haveremained associated in the popular memory with very long periods of vain
expectancy. Expressions such as ‘Kobā Barubāri bōṭu?’ have been
perpetuated in many tongue-in-cheek local sayings, enriching the island
lore.25
This anxiety with which the trading boats were expected during the daysof the Suvadive state is a good indication of how vital trade with theneighboring continent is. 26 The Maldives is not a place where people canafford to spend their lives “lotus eating”, a myth that some authors,
including serious researchers such as H.C.P. Bell, have propagated andwhich downplays the importance of the fact that the inhabitants of thislong Atoll chain could not survive in isolation.

25′Where is Bārubāri boat?′ Other widely-known Southern popular expressions
connected with trade mock the dishonesty of traders who claimed that merchandise
trusted to them by islanders was rotten or that their chicken died. One of them is:′Mannānu datere e′llikah.′ (Like Mannān′s trip).
26

The short-lived and doomed effort to build a new nation in the central Indian
Ocean inspired a popular British fiction writer to write a thriller based on the desireof a young and adventurous English heir to help the people of the isolated
Suvadive Islands. Hammond Innes, ′The Strode Venturer′791.2.1 THE PROBLEM OF THE MALDIVE PAST
There are very few historical documents throwing light on the past of theMaldivians. Even many documents locally accepted as history are mostly
myth. Archaeological evidence shows that there was a flourishing culturein the islands before the last Buddhist king decided to convert to Islam.
The precise reasons why this monarch decided to abandon his ancestral
Buddhist faith are not known, but edicts written on copper plates(lōmāfānu), make it very clear that the general conversion to Islam wasordered by the king. Some of the oldest lōmāfānu are from the islands ofGan, Isdū and Dambidū in Haddummati Atoll, where there were large
Buddhist monasteries. These royal edicts were etched towards the end of
the twelfth century AD and the Isdū lōmāfānu was issued precisely in theyear AD 1194. However, the conversion of the Maldives to Islam was in
AD 1153 according to the Maldivian ‘Tārikh’ chronicle.
The lōmāfānu were written in the curly Evēla27 form of the Divehi akuru28
or old Maldive alphabet, which has strong similarities with the Tamil
Grantha script of the 7th century Pallava and Paṇḍya dynasties.29

27

The ancient Divehi alphabet. ′Evēla akuru′ was a tentative name given by H.C.P.
Bell to differentiate it from the more recent forms of the same script (divehi akuru)
which were in use between the 12th and the 19th centuries. H.C.P. Bell, ′The
Maldive Islands. Monograph on the History, Archaeology and Epigraphy.′
28

Wilhelm Geiger and H.C.P. Bell in their writings erroneously called this alphabet′Dives akuru′, but the word ′Dives′ is a misspelling. The real name of that alphabet,as quoted by Boḍufenvaḷuge Sīdī in his authoritative work, is ′Divehi akuru′,
meaning ′Island letters′ or ′Maldivian letters.′ Previously Christopher and Young had
referred to this alphabet as ′Divehi Hakaru′. W. Geiger, ′Maldivian Linguistic
Studies.′ H.C.P. Bell ′Excerpta Maldiviana.′ Boḍu Fenvaḷuge Sīdī, ′Divehi Akuru′ Vol
1. Lieut. I.A. Young & W. Christopher, ′Memoirs on the Inhabitants of the Maldive
Islands.′
80

In certain documents, a form of old Nagari or Protobengali script is alsopresent, which shows that there were contacts with the centers of
Buddhist learning of Nalaṇḍa, Ratnagiri and Vikramaśīla. These must havetaken place from the 8th century AD onwards, when Buddhist culture
revived and flourished in Eastern India owing to the patronage of the Pālakings of Bengal.30
The religious and cultural relationship between Maldives and Bengal was
made possible by regular seaborne trade with that region of the
Subcontinent facilitated by favorable winds and currents.31 The large
wooden trunks used by traders in their journeys were known in Divehi as‘baṅgaḷufoṣi’ (Bengali box) and in the Divehi oral tradition there are myths
about the importance of trade with Bengal in the distant past.
“Atirige DonDīdī” is a Maldivian legend referring to Bengali merchantships visiting the Maldives once yearly; its main theme is the opening of
the first trading post (fihāra) in Male’ through the marriage between
DonDīdī , a noble Maldivian lady, and a handsome Bengali trader wholater dies at sea. Their son, who in the story always scrupulously follows
the advice given by his mother, is said to have challenged the ruler ofMale’ and opened the first trading store close to the harbor.

29

Some authors claim that the old Divehi script resembles the medieval Sinhalese
Elu alphabet, but the fact is that the affinities with the Tamil Grantha script and withthe earlier forms of Malayalam script are much greater from a graphic point of view,even though the Divehi language itself is closer to the Sinhala language
30

The Pāla kingdom included Bengal (made up of present-day West Bengal and
Bangladesh), Bihar and part of Orissa (Ganjām).
31

Trade between Sri Lanka and Bengal also flourished during that time. When the
Pāla Kingdom fell, Mahayāna and Vajrayāna influence in Ceylon came to an end.
In time, the Buddhist kingdom of Sri Lanka became practically landlocked.
Nandasena Mudiyanse, ′Mahayana Monuments in Ceylon.′81

The Pāla dynasties were rulers over the last Buddhist coastal kingdom inSouth Asia. In the middle of the 12th century the beleaguered Pala
kingdom was invaded by the Sena dynasty, which promoted theBrahminical religion, followed by the Muslim invasions led by Muhammad
Khilji. The latter culminated with the annihilation of the Pala dinasty andthe plundering and destruction of the Nalaṇḍa and Vikramasila Buddhist
centres of learning. The disappearance of the Pala kingdom led to thedecline of Buddhism in the area formerly under its influence, followed by
the rise of Islam and, in a lesser measure, of Brahminism. The Muslim
armies went on to thoroughly destroy the great centers of Buddhist
learning named above. It is said that the vast seven-storied library ofNalaṇḍa University kept burning for six months and that fifteen thousandmonks were burned to death trapped inside while having their midday
meal. Some of the monks who escaped the massacre took refuge in
Burma, Nepal and Tibet. These events took place in the era of theconversion of the Maldives to Islam.
Even at that time, the actual Maldive archipelago was under the control ofa single king (Radun) or royal family. This king must have been very securein his power to be able to deal with the strains of the country’s massconversion from Buddhism to Islam. In the Dambidū lōmāfānu the Radunaddresses his edict to all islands between Kelā (in Tiladummati Atoll), oneof the northernmost islands of the group, and Aḍḍu (Atoll) in theSouthern end.
It is interesting to note that Maliku (Minicoy), a culturally Maldivian island
under Indian administration is not mentioned in those documents, eventhough it is known that, besides sharing the Buddhist religion, thisisolated atoll already had both ethnic and linguistic affinities with the restof the Maldive Islands at that time.32

32

The area where the Buddhist ruins are located in Minicoy is locally known as‘Salliballu’. Source: Archaeological Survey of India”
82Oral tradition says that in centuries past Minicoy was devastated by acyclone that broke most of the coconut trees. Since their island was thenruled by the Maldive king, Minicoy islanders sent a delegation to Male’
asking for financial assistance. The king, however, told them that he had
not enough money in his treasury; consequently this delegation went
onwards to the Malabar Coast, where they found favor with the king ofCannanore who agreed to help them rebuild their island. Thereafter the
Minicoy people owed allegiance to this kingdom of the SW Indian shore. 33
However few, a number of archaeological remains from the Buddhist
period have survived in many of the most important islands of theMaldives. Thanks to the lōmāfānu it is known that the monasteries in
Haddummati Atoll were of great importance within the Maldive Kingdom.
In other atolls, many islands have mounds or low hills which indicate
where a Buddhist Stupa was located.34 In fact, these remains quite
accurately indicate which islands were inhabited during Buddhist times.
Unfortunately, these mounds have been heavily vandalized, especially inthe recent past when certain ancestral superstitious beliefs were
overcome. According to those beliefs, going near old ruins or interferingin any way with them, like removing stones or earth, would bring disgrace
to the intruder. As an example, in Māḷos (Ari Atoll), a man who had tried
to break a little hemispherical coral block (probably a small Stupa) known
locally as Muḍu, complained that he had horrible nightmares that samenight.35

33

Source: Magieduruge Ibrahīm Dīdī, Fua Mulaku Island

34

Stupas were said to have been built by the Redin. V. Raṣoveṣi: Havittā uhehaudahau, Redin taneke hedī ihau (How tall is the Caitya! A Redin place built in
ancient times). Thor Heyerdahl made much speculation around that word, but it isjust a name that Maldivians used in the first centuries after conversion to refer totheir Buddhist ancestors.
35

Source: Ahumadu Salīmu, Victory House, Māḷos, Ari Atoll.
83

Another cause of heavy destruction during recent years has beenarchaeological excavations on those sites themselves. Regrettably, theseinvestigations were either done carelessly, or left the site unprotected
after excavation. The removal of the sheltering jungle exposed the site tosubsequent vandalism. Often local inhabitants plundered the place in thevain hope of finding gold or other treasures, as soon as the archaeologists
and accompanying government officials left the island.36
Perhaps the fact that most endangers the preservation of ancientarchaeological remnants in the Maldive Islands is that among Maldivians,
save rare exceptions, there is a definite lack of pride in their ancienthistory, especially in what has come to be labeled as ‘pre-Islamic’. Hence,
it is not surprising that disrespect for the ruins of Buddhist monuments isvery common among islanders of all walks of life.
Much of the general disinterest in their ancient cultural heritage lies in the
confusion arising from the lack of definition of Maldive cultural identity. In
every Maldivian mind there is a sharp struggle between inherited customs
and Muslim ideology. Since this conflict remains unresolved, there is a
widespread feeling of guilt and frustration at being unable to adjust theancestral cultural heritage to the Islamic ideological pattern.
After the country’s mass-conversion to Islam in the 12th century AD, theculture of the Maldivians and the Islamic ideals were only overlapping to acertain extent. Large areas of the Maldive cultural heritage had nocompatibility with Islamic ideology (albeit these have been greatly
reduced during the 1980’s and 90s as government-sponsored Arabic
cultural influence grew exponentially). At the same time, all through thepost-Buddhist history of the country there were large areas of Islamic
cultural patterns incompatible with the ancestral ideals of Maldivians.

36

Source: Magieduruge Ibrahīm Dīdī, Fua Mulaku Island84

To illustrate the latter point, when the Moroccan traveler Ibn Batūta had
been appointed as supreme judge by the Maldivian queen and ordered
the hands of people guilty of stealing to be cut off according to Islamic
Sharia’ law, most spectators in the hall fainted.37 Although this event took
place in the 13th century, average Maldivians still privately consider actsof violence, even if committed in the name of the religious law, barbaric.
Paradoxically, these strengths, fruits of an inherited cultural refinementthat the Maldive islanders possess as a nation, have been made to appear
as their weakness by elements propounding greater arabization.
Always suspicious of any type of religious syncretism, the government has
been responsible for the enforcement of religious orthodoxy in the island
communities. This activity has known no respite throughout Maldive
history and, as a result, it has brought about periodical repression of all
type of Divehi cultural expressions deemed un-Islamic. As this has been
the pattern since the 12th century, there was no small amount of
perplexity in far-off islands at the paradox of a sudden official interest inpreserving the remainders of “Kāfir ruins” in recent times, when tourists
and foreign archaeologists have begun to pay regular visits to ancient
Maldive Buddhist sites.
Undoubtedly, the most conspicuous physical destruction happened at thetime when the King ordered the islanders to abandon their ancestralreligious practices. The converted monarch was ruthless in his resolve toerase all traces of the former religion of the Maldivians. According to the
Isdū lōmāfānu, monks from monasteries of the Southern Atoll of
Haddummati were brought to Male’ and beheaded.38

37

Ibn Batūta, ′Travels in Asia and Africa′.

38

H.A. Maniku & G.D. Wijayawardhana, ′Isdhoo Loamaafaanu′.
85

All anthropomorphic and zoomorphic iconography and other important
religious symbols were systematically vandalized. The Gamu lōmāfānu
tells us that Satihirutalu (the Chatravali crowning a Stupa) were broken to
disfigure the numerous Stupas. It tells us also that statues of Vairocana,the transcendent Buddha of the middle world region, were destroyed;
and the destruction was not limited to sculptures.
The wealth of manuscripts ―probably written on screwpine leaves― that
Maldivian monks in their Buddhist monasteries must have produced waseither burnt or otherwise so thoroughly eliminated that it has
disappeared without leaving any trace. Therefore there are no samples ofpaintings from the Maldive Buddhist period itself and also there is norecord of Maldivian Buddhist religious figures.
The only actual remains of the art of those times are a few sculptures andetchings on coral stone. Most of these were preserved in a room at the
National Museum in Male’, where they were destroyed by vandals
following political unrest in February 2012.

861.2.2 THE STORY OF KOIMALA
Koimala’s legend is the oral tradition of the first ‘ruler of noble race’ in theMaldives. It is a very old story and there are many versions of it
throughout the Islands. Most variants stress the fact that certain
aristocratic newcomers from the North ―the Indian Subcontinent―began their rule over the archipelago from certain specific islands before
finally settling in Male’. Since the main theme remains very similar
throughout the narrative, discrepancies between one version and anotherare largely marginal.39
Koimala’s Legend“Long ago, in the northern mainland40 lived a poor couple in a hut deep inthe forest. One day the husband went to hunt and didn’t return. His wife,
who was pregnant with her first child, went to look for her husband,dreading that something had happened to him. While she was walking
through the forest, the woman suddenly felt the pains of childbirth. She
sat under a nikabilissa tree41 and gave birth there alone. While she waslying there exhausted, a tiger jumped out of a bush and devoured thewoman. Since the child was hidden between two roots, the tiger didn’t see
him and went away.

39

This is the abridged version of the story the late Gōnahijje Fatmaifānu from Fua
Mulaku told Meṭa Muhammadu of Miskimmago in the same island. Collected andtranslated in 1990.
40

Uturu Karā, (Northern Coast) the Indian Subcontinent. A few versions have
Ceylon, but since the same mythical ′noble settlers′ of that country were said to hailfrom North India as well, this difference is understandable
41

The Aśoka tree (Saraca indica). This tree is mentioned in many Maldivian
legends and tales for children.
87

A herd of cows arrived after some time at that particular spot and one cow
with a full udder happened to stand right above the child while she wasgrazing. The child felt for the nipple with his lips and sucked the milk. The
cow, whose swollen udders had been hurting, felt relieved and so returned
every day to that spot under the nikabilissa tree. In this manner the baby
grew and as soon as he could crawl he followed the herd of cows.42
Years passed and the child became a handsome boy, but he walked on all
fours and said only “moo” like the cows. Hunters who spotted him in thejungle told the king about this wonder. His interest aroused, the monarch
went out with his court into the jungle. A trap was set and the boy wascaught in a net. He was brought to the palace in a cage. The king invited
all the learned men and doctors of his kingdom to see this amazing
creature. They agreed that the child was not a monster, but a normal
human being. Teachers were appointed for him and soon he learned towalk upright and to talk. The king remarked that he was an exceptionallyhandsome young man and gave him the name Maleffadakoi (the boy likea flower). Soon the monarch discovered that he was very wise and honest
too and trusted him more than anyone else.
One day the king asked Maleffadakoi: “During your life in the wilderness,
what is the greatest wonder you have seen? “Then the young man told the following story: “One day I was walking withthe cows by the coast43 and I saw seven large ships sailing at a distance.
Suddenly an enormous fish came out of the waters, opened its jaws and42

The story of Aputra in the Tamil epic Manimekhalai, tells us that a heavily
pregnant Brahmin pilgrim woman on her way to Kaniyakumari gave birth to a son
and abandoned him in a palm grove. A cow passing nearby, hearing the cries of
the hungry baby, came close, licked its whole body, and then, for seven days, fed itwith her milk, protecting it from all harm. Shattan, ′Manimekhalai.′
43

The Divehi word used here by the storyteller was ′kināri′, a word used only inpoetic speech88swallowed the seven vessels in one gulp. But before the fish could plunge
back into the depths, a huge bird came from the sky and devoured the fish.
However, the bird had flown but a short distance when an immense snake
came out of a hole in a mountain and gulped the bird.”
The king asked in amazement: “Would you be able now to show me thatmountain?” The boy agreed and, as it was in a very distant place, the nextdays were spent preparing for the journey.
After traveling a long distance, the king along with Maleffadakoi and his
retinue, arrived at the mighty mountain. They all stared at the gaping holein awe, as the snake could come out at any moment. The king orderedthat large quantities of wood be thrown into that hole. During the nextdays, thousands of the king’s slaves carried logs of wood and dumped
them into the hole day and night, but it was so deep that it took threewhole months to fill it. Then the king ordered his slaves to set fire to thewood. The pit burned for many days and the whole mountain became so
hot that it took as many days to cool.
Finally, one day they climbed the mountain and stood close to the hole.
There the king ordered that a rope be thrown down and asked his warriors
whether they dared to go into the pit. As no one of them dared,
Maleffadakoi said he would go down himself. As he went on his longdescent, disappearing down into the depths of the mountain, the kingwaited anxiously for Maleffadakoi to come up. A long time passed and, as
the monarch was repenting of having let his trusted friend climb down thehole, the boy reappeared out of the darkness unscathed. He showed the
king a fistful of gold dust and said: “I found it down there.”
The king realized that it was the purest gold he had ever seen and asked:“Is there a lot of it down there? “ and the boy answered that at the bottomof the pit there was nothing else but gold dust. However, he couldn’t telldown to which depth. Then the king ordered all his slaves to bring all thistreasure to the surface and to transport it to his palace. After arduous
89

work and a long journey back, the slaves carried so many basketfuls ofgold dust that the palace vaults were overflowing with it.
The king was very pleased. His kingdom had never been so wealthy. Full ofgratitude, he went to Maleffadakoi to tell him: “I owe my good fortune toyou. Ask me any favour you want and I will grant it to you.”
The young man said: “The only thing I want is a large ship with a crew ofexperienced sailors and a load of gold dust.” The kind monarch readily
agreed, thinking it was a small price to pay for the blessings the boy had
brought upon him and his kingdom. Once Maleffadakoi got his ship, hebade farewell to the king and sailed away from the coast, into the Indian
Ocean.
The reference to the nikabilissa tree at the beginning of the story isparticularly meaningful. This tree with its sagging branches of rich,orange-colored blossoms is one of the most auspicious trees in Indianlore.44 Very ancient legends associate it with young maidens (Skt.
Śālabhanjikās), symbolizing fertility and beauty, and it is also one of thesymbols of Shiva. The Buddha himself is said to have been born under anikabilissa tree.
The cow is a revered animal in Indian tradition and it is both a privilege
and a duty to lead and look after the cows. Stories like the Raghuvamśa
describe how the hero’s valour and selflessness are tested by living alongwith a cow in the wilderness.45 In the Tamil work Periyapuraṇam, saintTirumūlar feels sorry for a herd of cows whose cowherd Mūlan had died.
Using his yogic powers, Tirumūlar enters Mūlan’s body and revives it.46

44

See Shakti M. Gupta, ′Plant Myths and Tradition in India′ and also Naveen
Patnaik, ′The Garden of Life.′
45

Kalidāsa, ′Raghuvamśa′ Canto 2.

46″...the cows were overjoyed by this.″ S. Rajam, ′Periapuranam′
90

Furthermore, the beauty of the boy and the fact that he was leading aherd of cows could be representative of god Shiva (or possibly of
Murugan). In his benevolent aspect Shiva is described as very handsome(Skt. Sundaram), as well as as the ‘Lord of the Cows’ (Skt. Paśupati)47 And
in this context the reference to a snake, one of Shiva’s attributes, hassome relevance too.
The animals swallowing each other in succession appear in one of theversions of the Rāmāyaṇa,48 in which Rāmā, while the monkeys arebuilding a bridge across to Lankā, asks the great Ṛṣi Vālmīki what kind ofcreatures there are in the great ocean. Vālmīki’s answer was that “there isa creature which swallows fish called Timiṅ, there is another whichswallows Timiṅ and still another who swallows the one who swallowsTimiṅ.”
Nevertheless, the snake, the mighty hole, the burning mountain and thegold, are very ancient symbols and they are associated with the Naga cultand Dēvi, or goddess, worship. The identification of both the snake andgoddess cults is very ancient and characteristic of the Indian subcontinent.
The great hole out of which a giant snake had issued forth is akin to
Mahābila, the great hole out of which the Dēvi came out and burned theuniverse to ashes.49 The bounty of gold dust50 is a symbol of the favour ofthe goddess in her benevolent form as provider. The cults of Mānāsa Dēvi

47

H. Zimmer, ′ Myths and Symbols in Indian Art and Civilization′.

48

The great Indian epic. See ′The Story of Rāmā in Tibet′ by J.W. De Jong in′Asian Variations in Rāmayāṇa″, Sahitya Akademi.
49

R. Nagaswami. ′Tantric Cult of South India′. Cf. 2 ′The Island Mother′ forreferences on Devi cult in the Maldives50

Some versions of Koimala′s story have jewels instead. In Indic tradition jewels
are connected with snakes and the Dēvi as well.
91

in Bengal and Jāṅguli in Nepal and Tibet51 arise out of the identification ofsnake and goddess worship. In the ancient tradition of Maldivians, anduntil recent times, snakes were held in reverence and people avoided
killing them. 52
The story of Koimala continues with the arrival of Maleffadakoi to theMaldive Islands from the North and his journey along the Northern Atollsof the archipelago until he reaches the island that would become thecapital:“The ship entered the Maldives from the North at Ihavandū and anchoredthere at sunset.53 On the following day a large white bird came flying andrested on top of the main mast. After squawking loudly, it flew
southwards. This bird came again the next day and did the same thing. On
the third day, Maleffadakoi told his sailors to follow the bird. Sailing south
they finally arrived at an islet where the bird landed. This islet is called
Dūnidū today.54 Then he landed in a large sandbank close by.
This sandbank was where the fishermen of Girāvaru, an island not far
away to the west, used to cut and cook their fish. The sea surrounding thesandbank was always colored red by the abundance of fish blood. Thus its

51

S. Nivedita & A.K. Coomaraswamy, ′The Myths of the Hindus and the Buddhists′

52

Shāhida, Mandūvilla, Male′, casually obtained this information from her
grandmother53

The name means ″the island entered first″. It is located in Ihavandippuḷu Atoll, anatural atoll which was merged with the Northern Tiladummati province foradministrative purposes.
54″Bird island.″ This place now houses a jail.
92

name was Mahalē.55 There was no tree on Mahalē, but the bird wasnowhere to be seen after it had landed there.
Maleffadakoi became friendly with the Girāvaru people. They liked him
and gave him the name ‘Koimala’ and traded goods with him in exchange
for gold dust. They also welcomed him to settle in Mahalē. Koimala built
the first house in Mahalē and planted the first tree, which was a papaya
tree.56 He also built a large warehouse to store his gold dust. After sometime, people from all the atolls gathered in Mahalē and crowned Koimalaking.57 Years passed and many people settled in Mahalē. With time, thename of the island became Māle’.
The Koimala story clearly states that when those who would eventually
become the rulers of the Maldives arrived, they found some indigenous
people already living there. In all probability these native people were
living in every atoll, but in the legend only the people of Girāvaru Island
are mentioned. Although this island is very close to the capital, its

55

Meaning ′fish blood′. However, this is not without controversy. Since Mā, aparticle prefixed to many names of relatively large Maldivian islands, comes in allprobability from Skt. Mahā (great), it could also be ′great blood′. Thus, Male′ could
have originally been a place where important blood sacrifices had been taking
place.
56

At this point of the narrative there is a similarity with Mākumbē, a popular tale ofthe Maldive folk tradition. Mākumbē, the fat and greedy hero, chases his sevenchildren away from his home and they move to a large sandbank. There they begin
planting papaya trees and in time become prosperous.
57

Other variants of this story claim that a number of other islands between the
Northern end of the atoll chain (including Minicoy) and Male′ were temporarily
chosen as capital. Hence, the capital would have been shifted from one island tothe other until the Royal dynasty finally decided to settle in Mahalē. This would
provide an explanation for the names of certain Northern islands being prefixed by′Ras′ (Royal), like Rasgetīmu, Rasmadū and Rasdū
93

inhabitants used to take pride in having customs that differed from thoseof the other islanders. 58
In his book ‘People of the Maldive Islands’, C. Maloney points out that the
Girāvaru people, who are acknowledged to be of Tamil descent, arerepresentative of the older population of the Maldives. This is plausible
because of their emphasis on monogamy and the fact that their widows
do not remarry, which are ancient Tamil traditions. The island of Girāvaru
is described thus by Bell in his Monograph:“This small island, which lies a few miles NW of Male’ on the western reefof North Male’ Atoll, is occupied by a separate colony of some 150
Maldivians (origin unknown) noted for their churlish, but not quarrelsome
independence; who neither court, nor appreciate, intercourse with otherislanders. They inter-marry almost exclusively among themselves; arestrictly monogamist Muslims; and widows do not remarry. To their
headman (Ravveri) they are admirably submissive. Said never to leave theAtoll, they visit even Male’ only to sell fish and procure necessaries.
According to the Koimala legend, these communities welcomed theimmigrants from North India who, in turn, staked a claim to kingship over
the whole island group. The original inhabitants of the archipelago wereapparently fishermen and palm-sap tappers who, owing to their freedomloving spirit and their ‘extreme location’, probably had no strong form ofgovernment of their own.
Their coastal ancestors, the fiercely independent fishermen castes of theSouthern Indian seashore, such as the Mukkuvar and Parava, live on very
long and narrow strips of land. Their close identification with their58

Since their island was heavily eroded, its size greatly reduced and its wells
having become salty, Girāvaru′s inhabitants were moved in mid-century to Huḷule
island. Later on, when an airport was built in Huḷule, they were resettled at thewestern end of the capital. Most of them still live in that neighborhood, but they
have not been able to retain their separate identity
94

geographical location and with the ocean is bound up with theirperception of themselves as ‘fringe-dwellers’,59 that is people who live
spread out in a somewhat dangerous environment, unprotected against
the seasonal fury of the waves and winds, away from the more compact,
mellow and protected agricultural areas.
The kingdoms of the hinterland, whether in India or Ceylon, consideredfishermen to be inferior human beings, coastal barbarians, and left themvery much to themselves. For example, in South India, when a king ofVēnāḍ wanted to sternly punish a nobleman, he had him swiftly executedand ordered that his family be sent to live among the fishermen.60
Nevertheless, their degraded status in caste society gave them, at thesame time, liberties that few communities in South Asia have everexperienced. Albeit somewhat narrow and exposed, they had a territory
they could claim as their own. Barring occasional harassment by royal tax
collectors, the Mukkuvar and Parava people were free from the yoke of
dependency on the higher castes which the landless agricultural lower
castes, like the Pulaya and Pallan, had to bear.
Historically, the coastal fishermen did not have their own kingly dynasties
and merely owed allegiance to their local headmen or chiefs. Thus, they
were relatively unaffected by the rising and falling fortunes of the inland
kingdoms, whose only role in the history of the fishing communities
seemed limited to the taxes they periodically extracted, or sought toextract, from them.
The conclusion of Koimala’s story, dealing with the conversion of thearchipelago to Islam, will be narrated and discussed in the following
section.

59

A term used by Kalpana Ram in ′Mukkuvar Women′.

60

P. Shungoonny Menon, ′A History of Travancore′.
951.2.3 THE CONVERSION TO THE NEW RELIGION
The story of the saint, the sea monster and the conversion to the Islamicfaith is certainly the most widely known legend in all Maldives and has
been recorded in the ‘Tārīkh’.61 It is supposed to be a chronicle on how
the whole archipelago converted to Islam in AD 1153. Usually it isnarrated as a continuation of Koimala’s story. Thus, the arrival of a kingly
dynasty from North India is connected with the arrival of Islam, eventhough in reality both events were almost certainly about 1400 years
apart in time!
According to the Tārīkh, translated by H.C.P. Bell, the legend goes thus:“The almighty God, desiring to free the natives from ignorance, idolatry
and unbelief, leading them into the right path, inspired Maulāna Shaikh
Yūsūf Shams-ud-Dīn of Tabrīz, the most pious saint of the age, ‘whoseknowledge was as deep as the ocean’, to visit the Maldives. After that hedisappeared from his native town, called Tabrīz (in Persia), and appearedat the Maldives.
Once in the Islands, the Shaikh tried to convince the idol-worshipping
islanders to become Muslims. However, until they had been shown great
miracles, not a single man offered to embrace the faith of Islam. One
proof of his miraculous powers was the raising of a colossal giant ‘whose
head almost reached the sky’. By reason of their great fear, the King andall the inhabitants of Male’ became Muhammadans.

61

One of the two autochthonous ″historical″ records, the other being the Rādavali.
This manuscript is written in Arabic and was compiled by three erudite members of
one family (father, nephew and grandson) quite recently: between the end of the
17th century and the beginning of the 19th. It is made up of three volumes, the firstbeing a ′Treatise for Rulers,′ the second a ′Condensed History of the Prophets prior
to Muhammad′ and the third a ′History of the Maldive Sultans or Kings.′
96

Upon the king, who had previously borne the title “Sirī Bavanāditta”,
Tabrīzugefānu bestowed the name “Sultān Muhammad”. Thereafter,
emissaries were sent to the different Atolls, who converted all the
inhabitants without exception, whether willing or unwilling, to the Muslim
faith; so that throughout the Maldives there were none but Muslims.
Upon Tabrīzugefānu’s advice, regulations were instituted for theadministration of the islands, religious laws duly enforced, and knowledgeof the new faith freely disseminated. All traces of idolatry were effaced
and mosques built everywhere.62
The basic structure of this legend and its main points are very similar tothe story of how Padmasambhava, the Indian Buddhist Ācārya, brought
Buddhism to Tibet:“Padmasambhava63 visited the Tibetan kingdom at the invitation of King
Trhisong Detsen. In little time, displaying his great siddhi powers, hemanaged to subdue many mighty demons, making a great impression on
the ruler. Following this, he promoted the building of monasteries and thefirst Tibetans were ordained as Buddhist monks. He stayed in themountain kingdom until the Dharma, the Right Path, was firmly
established through royal edicts. His departure from Tibet was dramatic:
Prince Mutig Tsanpo (Mu-tig btsan-po) accompanied Padmasambhava
over the mountain passes until they reached the border of the kingdom.
There the Ācārya mounted on a winged blue horse and flew towards theSouthwest disappearing in the horizon.64

62

H.C.P. Bell, ′The Maldive Islands′.

63

According to Mahayāna tradition, Padmasambhava was born in Swat valley(Pakistan), one of the main holy sites of Buddhism. This saint is known in Tibet as
Guru Rimpoche
64

H.W. Schumann, ′Buddhistische Bilderwelt′.
97

Most of the regions or ethnic groups in South Asia who earlier had
accepted Buddhism, such as Afghanistan, Gandhara, Bengal and theMaldives, were the ones that became later islamicized.65 However, in a
few places this Islamization was not confined to the time of the Muslim
invasions, but had been going on even earlier through trade contact.
Hence, there is a pattern of confusion relating to conversion myths, as forexample in the legend of the last Chēramān Perumāḷ king of Kerala, where
it is not clear whether he became a Buddhist or a Muslim:“There is a tradition in Malabar that the last of the Chēramān Perumālsbecame a Bauddha and went away somewhere in a ship leaving his
kingdom to a number of his relations and dependents. It is believed by theword Bauddha, which is today applied in Malabar to all avaidika66
religions, is meant Muhammadanism and the land to which Chēramān
Perumāḷ sailed away was Arabia. It is very likely that he actually became a
Bauddha under the influence of the Bauddhist teacher at Mūlavāsam.” 67
Therefore it is very likely that the legend of the pious Arab holy man andthe sea monster that has remained in the Maldives is merely an Islamic
adaptation of a much older story narrating an earlier conversion: Theadvent of an ancient Buddhist Siddha (saint) and the spread of theDharma, preached by him, throughout the Maldive Islands. Siddhas were
Buddhist saints who had developed miraculous powers (siddhi) throughthe practice of rigorous asceticism.

65

Source: Mr. Bhaskaran Nair, history teacher at Sri Sankaracharya Sanskrit
University in Trivandrum
66

Meaning the non-Vedic religions, including the indigenous teachings of
Buddhism and Jainism, as well as the non-indigenous religions of Islam, Judaism
and Christianity
67

T.A. Gopinatha Rao, ′Travancore Archaeological Series Vol. 2.′98

Of particular interest, hence, is the indication that the first converted kingin the Maldive Muslim legend68 ―Koimala himself according to somelegends, but Koimala’s nephew according to the Rādavali69 ― who took
the name Muhammad-ul-Ādil, carries the title Darumavanta70 Rasgefānu,
meaning “the king upholding Dharma”. Accordingly, the Tārīkh mentions
that Sultān Muhammad was:“…A just, impartial and pious ruler, who observed very strictly the laws
religious and secular. He was beloved by his subjects for his saintly
wisdom, kindliness and generosity.
In short, Sultān Muhammad was a monarch following the ‘Rajadharma,’
which are the strict rules of right governance expected to be followed by
all Hindu or Buddhist kings of the Indian subcontinent. Here it issignificant to point out that the Rajadharma and its clear injunctions areof much greater antiquity than Islam. However, there are no great
differences between the standards of the Rajadharma and the behavior
expected from a Muslim ruler of the Maldives, as laid down in the firstpart of the Maldive Tārīkh, under the title ‘Treatise of Advice toSovereigns.’
There are even versions of Koimala’s legend where there is no reference
to any saint. The conversion is just stated in one sentence, without further
elaboration. This is the conclusion of Koimala’s story according to theversion narrated in the previous chapter, ‘The Story of Koimala’:

68

In all the lists of Maldivian Kings the Buddhist dynasties have been omitted. Thus
there is a gap of over thousand years between the first mythical king who camefrom North India (Koimala) and the first local Muslim king69

A minor and, compared to the ′Tārīkh′, curtailed Maldivian historical work written
both in Divehi akuru and in Tāna characters with Arabic sporadically interspersed.
The compilers are unknown and the oldest existing copies date back to the 18th
century.
70

The aspirated ′dh′ disappeared early from Divehi phonetics, being replaced by ′d.′99

“The Islands then became Muslim and Koimala became a Muslim king. Hisname became ‘Darumavanta Rasgefānu’. One day, on the street, coming
out of the mosque after Friday Prayers, the king saw a child drawing a shipon the sand. The monarch thought it was very beautiful and asked the boy
to sell him the ship. The boy said: ‘Majesty, I offer it to you’. Then the kingwent to the palace and ate lunch. After having finished his meal, while hewas washing his hands, the child he had seen before came to him andsaid: ‘The ship is anchored in the harbor’. The king went there and saw alarge ship. The people on it were dressed in white and a small dingy
brought Koimala aboard the mysterious vessel. As soon as the king set
foot on it, the ship flew away and disappeared.
The disappearance of the first Maldive Muslim king is recorded in similarterms in the Tārīkh, where the Sultān, after announcing that he is going to
Mecca, embarks on a vessel without attendants or provisions:“Forthwith the ship passed from sight ‘like lightning flash’ or flight of bird.
This dramatic end ―a flying ship instead of a flying horse and a harbor
instead of a mountain pass― is similar to the end of Padmasambhava’s
story, even though at this point personalities are switched. It is the pious
king who disappears in the air, while the saint dies in Male’ after anunspecified period of time and is buried in a very large raised tomb(ziyāraiy) close to the king’s palace. This grave, called Medu Ziyāraiy was
greatly venerated and had a large white flag on a tall pole at a corner anda number of smaller flags surrounding the tomb.71
H.C.P. Bell, in his authoritative monograph, mentions in a footnote that in
the context of this legend:

71

Owing to Wahhabi influence within the government, the flying of flags over thisimportant Maldivian landmark was discontinued in the late 1980′s
100

“Ibn Batūta, as a native of Tangier, would assign the credit of theconversion to Abū’l Barakāt, the Berber, a Maghrabīn. ... Ibn Batūta callsthe (first) Maldive (Muslim) king “Ahmad Shanurājah.”
Here Bell explicitly puts into question Ibn Batūta’s version and, therefore,
gives more credence to the Tārīkh. However, for some reason, the legendthat has found more ‘official’ favour in contemporary Maldives is Ibn
Batūta’s, being taught in Divehi schools as if it was an important landmark
in the birth of the Maldive nation. This same version has been widely
popularized in the last decades and it is also mentioned in every tourist
guide, highlighting the ‘peaceful’ way in which the Maldives wereconverted to Islam.
It wouldn’t be far-fetched to assume that the linking of the country’s
conversion to a saint hailing from the Persian city of Tabrīz, located in acountry of Shia’ majority, presents more problems for the creation of aSunni-based Maldive nationalistic ideology, than the figure of the
hypothetical non-Shiite Maghrebian saint. Nevertheless, while there ishistorical evidence that a saint Shamsuddīn from Tabrīz existed, the proofof Abu’l Barakāt’s existence rests exclusively upon the veracity of a few
paragraphs in the book of Ibn Batūta’s travels;72 and the fact that the
famous Moroccan traveler’s accounts are often confusing and inaccurate
from a historical point of view should not be overlooked.
Furthermore, the absurdities contained in Ibn Batūta’s book are notconfined to the historical field. Considering that Maldive culture wasclosely connected to the broader Indic tradition, other details narrated by
the Moroccan traveler are difficult to accept from an ethnological72

In the North Indian lore there is mention of a saint called Shams-at-Tabrīz, a fakir
having such great spiritual powers that, for example, the heat of the city of
Abbotabad (pop. 50,000) in Pakistan is attributed to one of his miracles. But it isunlikely that he ever visited Maldives. However, there is no mention of saint Abul
Barakāt ul Barbarī in any other document or tradition of the time other than in ′The
Travels of Ibn Batūta.′101

viewpoint. 73 One of the prominent features of Ibn Batūta’s version of theIslands’ conversion to Islam is the statement that ancient Maldivians used
to make human sacrifices to an evil ‘Jinn’, a spirit that is called Ranna Māriin the Maldive lore.74 Some descriptions claim that it came from the sea
and looked like a boat full of lights. This much publicized part of thefamous mediaeval traveler’s text includes also a rather ‘Thousand and
One Nights’ elaboration of a virgin girl being found raped and dead.
“Abū-’l-Barakat, the Berber, a Maghrabin ... exorcised a Jinni that monthly
demanded toll of a virgin at the islanders’ budkhana (idol temple), bytaking one such victim’s place and reciting the Qurān throughout thenight.75
In its details ―the girl, the emphasis on virginity and defloration
expressing Arab, rather than Maldivian, preoccupations76 ― this humansacrifice has no parallels with the types of ceremonies found in the73

Ibn Batūta didn′t write about his own travels. In H.A.R. Gibb′s introduction to′Travels of Ibn Battuta,′ Gibb, hardly a detractor, acknowledging that there are
errors of exaggeration and misunderstanding in Ibn Batūta′s travel book,comments: ″Ibn Battuta may have taken notes of the places that he visited, but theevidence is rather against it.″ After many years had passed, Ibn Batūta′sadventures were committed to writing on the order of the Sultan of Fez by
Muhammad ibn Juzayy, one of the royal secretaries.
74

Since it is coming from the sea, the name Ranna Māri probably originated in the
Skt. Ratnaka ‘Ocean’, and Māri, the goddess personifying pestilence. But perhaps
it is likely derived from Skt. Ratna ‘Jewel’, since ′Jewel-′ or ′Pearl-′ Mother(Muthialamma) are common titles of Māri, the Dravidian village goddess. H.
Krishna Sastri, ′South Indian Images of Gods and Goddesses.′75

See ′Ibn Battuta, Travels in Asia & Africa 1325-1354′, translated by H.A.R. Gibb.

76

Virginity was never an important factor in Maldivian culture. Even the Maldivian
word ′bikuru′ (virgin) was borrowed from Arabic. This is in sharp contrast with theobsession with female virginity found not only in Arab culture, but even among the
Sinhalese of neighboring Ceylon.
102

Subcontinent, where only men used to be chosen as the victims.77 The
traditional Indic practice of offering only males seems to have been
followed also in Maldives, because in more recent Maldive animal
sacrifices cocks, but never hens, were used as acceptable offerings.
The detail about the girl victim in the story is, in all likelihood, Ibn Batūta’sown fabrication, unless this part of his narrative is a misplaced reference
to the ancient beliefs of the Maldive Islanders, for one of the primordial
myths of the Dravidian village goddess is the story about an innocent,virtuous woman being unjustly mistreated or killed by an abusive male orgroup of males (Cf. 2.5.1 ‘Inauspicious Death.’).
And yet, blood sacrifices, and even human sacrifices,78 were indeed afeature of Dravidian Dēvi-worship. In South India even to this day, bloody
ceremonies including animal sacrifices and nightly processions with lights
are still part of the worship of goddess Māri.79
It is to be expected that Buddhism, upon its arrival in the Maldives, sought
to stop human sacrificial offerings offered to the ancestral Goddess, so
common throughout Dravidian village India. The readiness to offer thesesacrifices has to be traced to the extreme fear Maldivians had of
epidemics and diseases in general. Perhaps in the original legend Ranna
Māri, the demon confronted by the saint, represented the ancient

77″Females are not to be immolated (to the goddess), except on very particularoccasions; the human female never.″ W.J. Wilkins, ′Hindu Mythology′. Among the
Khonds, a Dravidian tribe of Andhra Pradesh ″(In human sacrifices to avert
calamity from sickness...) grown men are the most esteemed (as victims).″ Edgar
Thurston, ′Ethnographic Notes in Southern India.′78″By a human sacrifice, attended by the forms laid down, Dēvi is pleased for a
thousand years; and by the sacrifice of three men, a hundred thousand years.″ Ibid.
(Thurston).
79

H. Whitehead, ′The Village Gods of South India.′
103

Dravidian form of worship, bloody and linked to fear and disease, which
Buddhism sought to replace.
This irrational dread of diseases must have seemed a severe form ofattachment to the first Buddhist saints visiting the Maldives and,
understandably, they sought to put a stop to it. By means of theirscriptures ―note the book symbolism in the Qurān mentioned above―
the Buddhist visitors introduced an alternative to overcome the terrorthat paralyzed and enslaved the minds of Maldive Islanders. Hence, even
Ibn Batūta’s version of the Islands’ conversion to Islam displays strong
affinities with the way in which Buddhist saints spread the Dharma among
the unenlightened.80
A few non-written versions of this latter legend though, blame theMaldive king for the death of the sacrificed girls. Some of these evenclaim that the king himself would rape the girls before killing them. These
seem to be later elaborations, for they are not only incompatible with thepersonality ascribed to the “first king upholding righteousness”, but―unless this king underwent a total change of character afterconversion― they are also in conflict with that particular monarch being
worthy of the title ‘Darumavanta Rasgefānu’.
On the other hand the death of young women in the Maldivian legend
could be an allusion to the ancient custom of sacrificing a number offemale attendants at the death of people of royal lineage. After being
ceremonially killed, the bodies of the servant girls were buried ―orcremated― along with the dead king or queen. This practice was not at all
uncommon in the history of the early South and Southeast Asianmonarchies, where it was deemed that it didn’t befit royalty to go to the
netherworld unaccompanied.

80

Legends of Indian Buddhism, ′Ed. by L. Cranmer-Byng & S.A. Kapadia.
104

Still, the relevance of these elaborations should not be underestimated,
for the ascription of bad qualities to the king is a recurring feature in theMaldive lore. Again, this perhaps reflects a historical attitude, since there
might have been some degree of local resentment against the first kingly
dynasties that came from the Northern Subcontinent to rule the fiercely
independent Maldivian fishermen of yore.
Hence it is not surprising that in many popular Maldive Island stories the
king embodies the role of the villain.81 The story ‘Doṅ Hiyala and Alifuḷu’ inthe next section characteristically portrays the despotic king ruling in
Male’ as a lustful, cruel and ruthless person.

81

Cf. 2.2.3 ′The Link between Blood and Life′ for a better understanding of therelationship between fear of spirits and fear of authority in Divehi folk wisdom1051.3.1 THE EVIL KING
“Don Hiyalā and Alifuḷu” is arguably the most important epic work in
Maldive literature. Formerly it was a long narrative poem that used to berecited by story-tellers, but it has been printed in prose in recent times.82
Although this step has contributed to its preservation, the prose form has
lost much of the rough strength of the original folk poem. The story of
Don Hiyalā and Alifuḷu offers us a rare glimpse into the traditional
courtesy of the Maldivians. Owing to its extreme length, dwelling on
descriptions of islands and topics like jewellery, genealogies and local
activities, I have chosen to present an abridged version: 83
Doṅ Hiyalā and Alifuḷu

“Aisā was a woman from Donfanu island (Māḷosmaḍulu Atoll) living in theisland of Buruni (Koḷumaḍulu Atoll). She was so beautiful that she wasfamous all over the Island Kingdom. Her husband was an affluent trader
called Mūsa Maliku whose native island was Māroṣi (Tiladummati Atoll),in the far North. However, in spite of having been favored with beauty andwealth, disgrace followed this woman closely. None of the six children
born from her womb escaped death at birth.
Years passed and when Aisā became pregnant for the seventh time she
was full of dark forebodings and she couldn’t hide her sadness. When she
felt the pangs of birth, the midwife who had assisted Aisā during her

82

I heard ‘Don Hiyalā & Alifuḷu’ narrated in verse form by Baḍiā Ibrāhīmu of Fua
Mulaku. Unfortunately I was unable to record it. ‘Doṅ Hiyalā āi Alifuḷu’ was rewritten
and published by Abdullah Sādigu. Since most of the traditional storytellers havedied out, this is now accepted as the ‘standard version’. It dates, however, only
from the 1970’s.
83

Told in 1991 by Aishath Naazneen, Gāge, Male’.
106previous six tragic deliveries, happened to be far away from Buruni on
another island. Thus, a younger midwife from the southern end of thevillage was engaged for the occasion.
With her help Aisā gave birth to a girl of such breathtaking beauty that the
new midwife was taken aback. While the mother was still unconscious
from the effort, the midwife, without saying a word, showed the baby to
the father.
It was such an amazingly lovely girl that Mūsa Maliku became frightenedwhen he saw the child. Now it dawned on him that the wicked old midwife
had been killing his six previous daughters, one after the other, and hadburied them in all secrecy. She had commited these heinous crimes
because she was jealous of the prodigious beauty of the baby girls. Awareof the dangers awaiting the newborn baby, Mūsa Maliku took a decision
and whispered to the new midwife: “Don‘t tell anybody about this childand I will give you whatever you wish for.”The woman’s expression was grave. She understood the situation at once
and agreed, asking for a big amount of gold. Mūsa Maliku, without
hesitating, gave it to her. The midwife went out and, in the darkness,looked for a cat, killed it and buried it in complete secrecy. In the morning,
she showed the tiny mound of white sand in the graveyard, close to thebeach, and told everyone that Aisā’s baby was born dead.84 Everybody
mourned the beautiful lady’s tragic fate. They sighed: “Aisā is getting old,her beauty is fading, and all her children have died.”

84

Compare this section with the beginning of the story of Lāvāṇaka: “A merchantfrom Pāṭaliputra (India) had a beautiful wife called called Candraprabhā who
became pregnant. When she gave birth, her daughter was so beautiful that the
moment she came out of the womb she lit up the room with her beauty. ... Whenthe father saw that the midwives were both astonished and a little alarmed, he wasfrightened. ... He hid his daughter inside his house and announced to the world that
she was dead.″ Somadeva, ‘Kathāsaritsāgara.’
107

Mūsa Maliku decided to keep his new born daughter completely hiddenfrom the sight of human eyes and had an underground chamber built
especially for her. A trustworthy old woman kept guard at the door andlooked after the little girl. In the dark room there was a dim oil lamp
always burning. Aisā, the mother, entered it only to give her breast milk tothe baby.
This lonely child was called Doṅ Hiyalā. She grew up completely concealed
within the four walls of her abode where the sun never shone on her.
****
In South Nilande Atoll, not far from Koḷumaḍulu Atoll, there is an island
called Huḷudeli where many people are expert goldsmiths. The richest man
there at that time was Mussandi Ahumadu. He had only one son, Alifuḷu.
His father was so fond of him that he was always eager to fulfill his every
desire. However, Alifuḷu didn’t become a spoiled child. He had a noble
character and as the years passed he grew up into a handsome andintelligent young man.
At the same time the Katību, or island chief, of Huḷudeli had a daughter
called Havvā Fuḷu. She was the most beautiful girl in Nilande Atoll Whilethey were children, she and Alifuḷu had played together. As years went by,
Havvā Fuḷu grew into a lovely, yet somewhat fierce, young woman. She
was also a bright student, learned in sciences and magic. Since heradolescent days, she had fallen deeply in love with Alifuḷu, but her prideforced her to hide her love.
One day Alifuḷu went to visit the island chief to discuss business matters onbehalf of his father.The Katību received the young man with the entire
honor that a man of noble birth deserves. He bade him to sit on the middleof the large swingbed at one end of his cool verandah on a mat from108

Huvadū Atoll85 that had been previously spread especially for him. The
Katību called his daughter and pretty Havvā Fuḷu appeared, walking
proudly, wearing all her jewellery and her best dress.
She was conscious of the impression she was making: a graceful woman
with slightly dusky skin and a perfect body. Havvā Fuḷu’s face was so
charming that many young men all over the Atoll had fallen in love withher. However, she snubbed one man after the other. She had alreadysecretly given her heart only to Alifuḷu, but he didn’t know. Havvā Fuḷu was
too arrogant to tell anybody. She didn’t even tell her heart’s longings to
the girls who were closest to her. Thus when her father told her:
“Daughter, bring something to drink for our guest!”
The girl was very careful to avoid showing any emotion. Obediently, sheleft and came back with a glass of fruit juice she had prepared herself.
When the young woman reached it to Alifuḷu he touched her hand making
sure her father didn’t notice it. As they looked into each other’s eyes she
put on a coy smile, turned and disappeared inside the house.
Thereafter, Alifuḷu felt uneasy while he talked with the Katību aboutbusiness matters, but that was why he was there. When their conversation
was over he felt relieved. While he was leaving the house Alifuḷu found
Havvā Fuḷu waiting for him at the gate. Without hesitation he whispered
to her: “I will send two witnesses tonight,” the girl whispered back: “Iagree.” Then he went home.
That evening Alifuḷu, without telling his parents, paid one gold mohur to
two men to act as his witnesses to settle the engagement (raṅ kiyuṅ).
When they went to Havvā Fuḷu’s home she was lying on the boḍu aṣi.86

85

The best mats of Maldives are woven there, in the island of Gaddū.

86

A raised platform made of masonry and wood formerly common in all island
dwellings
109

The visitors were surprised at her behavior for she turned her back onthem and ignored them. Awkwardly they sat down uninvited and asked
her: “Do you agree to marry Alifuḷu?” and “Please tell us the amount of theengagement.” They went on repeating the same questions over and overagain but the girl looked away and kept stubbornly silent. As they had
been very well paid, the witnesses insisted, but Havvā Fuḷu didn’t respond.
Finally the Island chief came. The two men explained the situation. The
father was puzzled. He decided that he liked Alifuḷu and thought he would
be a good son-in-law. He tried to persuade his daughter to say yes.
However, the young woman obstinately kept her mouth shut. After many
hours of insisting everybody was tired except Havvā Fuḷu. Finally thewitnesses left declaring: “We don’t think Alifuḷu would have sent us here if
the girl hadn’t given him a clear sign,” they were confused and it was verylate in the night.
After such a long wait Alifuḷu was anxious. When at last the witnesses
arrived and told him about their failure he didn’t show any pain on his
face. He courageously swallowed his disappointment with all his strength.
The young man gave one gold mohur to each one of the witnesses andsent them away in the most courteous manner.
The next day Alifuḷu went about his normal life hiding his sadness andpurposefully ignoring Havvā Fuḷu. The days passed as if nothing had
happened. Suddenly one night he had a dream so vivid it felt as if it was
real: a spirit appeared and spoke to him: “Alifuḷu! This is not the island
where you will live your life. You should go to live on the island of Buruni inKoḷumaḍulu, to find the girl you ought to marry.” Then he went on
explaining to Alifuḷu in full detail how to build the ship that would bring
him there, a very unusual sailboat, built not with wood but entirely of110black coral.87 Its name would be Enderi Oḍi. At last the spirit said: “Wakeup! Get up! “
Alifuḷu woke up instantly and couldn’t sleep for the rest of the night. After
sunrise he went to his father saying: “Father, I want to go fishing.”
His father was surprised: “You don’t need to do that kind of work my son.”
Alifuḷu stubbornly insisted until his father agreed. Then the mother, who
had been listening, exclaimed: “You cannot send our son on other people’sboats, the crew might humiliate him. If he goes fishing he must have a
new ship built for him.” So Mussandi Ahumadu arranged to build a boat
made of black coral for his son.
Meanwhile, having great learning in faṇḍita (sorcery); Havvā Fuḷu sensed
that Alifuḷu was going to leave Huḷudeli Island forever. Urgently, she sent a
messenger to him asking for forgiveness and telling Alifuḷu that she was
now ready to marry him. The young man told the messenger: “Tell HavvāFuḷu that it is too late now. I have forgiven her but I don’t intend to marry
her anymore.”Havvā Fuḷu was outraged when she received the news but she was careful
not to show it. In her cool anger she sneaked every night into the shed
where Alifuḷu’s ship was being built and thoroughly tried to destroy thework that had been done during the daytime. Nevertheless, the young
man’s determination was such that the work went ahead and the ship was
finally built by his team of carpenters in the way Alifuḷu had seen in his
dream.
One day the oḍi was put into the sea and Havvā Fuḷu, with a pang in herheart, realized that Alifuḷu was going to leave forever. But she was87

Enderi or black coral (Antipatharia) is not a true coral, but a marine organism
related to the Gorgonids. Instead of calcium carbonate, its skeleton is made of akind of keratin, the same substance as horns or claws.
111

determined to keep him and she used her knowledge of magic to raise astorm. The wind howled and the seas around the island looked sofrightening that Havvā Fuḷu was confident that the man she loved
wouldn’t leave. However, that same night Alifuḷu decided to go fishingwith two companions.
Unable to sleep in her agony of desire for the man who spurned her,Havvā Fuḷu woke up in the darkness before dawn at the time thefishermen usually go to fish. The young woman hurried to the beach andsaw Alifuḷu trying to leave on his boat braving the ferocious storm. She
could see that all her previous efforts had been unsuccessful, but she
wouldn’t give up and used all the force of her magic charms to prevent
Alifuḷu from leaving. The girl was so enraged at being despised in such ahumiliating manner by the young man that she cast a mighty spell andwent home.
Now the men on board realized that, in spite of all their efforts, their ship
couldn’t get away from the island. So far Alifuḷu had tried to build his boatand leave without harming Havvā Fuḷu, but now he saw that to break that
deadly spell he had no choice. He had to cast hahurā, a magic spell,88 tokill her. The young man, reciting magic words, took three coconuts andbroke one. Nothing happened. Then he took another one and broke it in
the same way. Nothing happened either; the storm was still raging aroundthem and the breakers threatened to sink them. However, when he broke
the third coconut the foam from the air vanished and the roaring storm
was gone.
Right at the same time, Havvā Fuḷu felt deathly sick and fell with a loud cry
to the ground. Her parents woke up instantly. Finding their daughter
unconscious on the floor, they brought her carefully to her bed and nursed
her. And yet, even on her deathbed the girl’s fierceness didn’t cool.

88

Black magic. Charms intended to kill an adversary.
112

Panting, she made a solemn oath: “Alifuḷu didn’t marry while I was aliveand he will not marry a woman other than me until my body is buried.”
After saying this Havvā Fuḷu closed her eyes and died.
In the morning, the young woman’s corpse was ready for burial. AllHuḷudeli islanders who went to see her face for the last time were
impressed by the tragic and sudden end of such a lovely girl’s life: “Somuch beauty wasted! “ they mourned.
After finally being able to leave, Alifuḷu instead of fishing sailed
southwards, towards Koḷumaḍulu Atoll. Once they arrived at Buruni,
Alifuḷu went ashore and, after giving many presents to his two crew
members, sternly told them: “Find a boat from this island, sail back toHuḷudeli and tell my parents that I caught a very big fish, but since myarms were strong but my legs were weak, I was thrown overboard
clutching the line.” Thus, his companions sailed away, leaving Alifuḷu alone
on the beach of Buruni with his box.
Having learned the skill in his native island and having carried his tools
with him, Alifuḷu worked in that island as a jeweller.89 Soon thereafter hebecame the best goldsmith in Buruni and settled peacefully in his new
home. As months passed, he saw all the young women of the island, but
he knew none of them could be his future wife, so he ignored them. The
girls, however, liked him very much and were often talking about his greatskill in making ornaments. This news reached Mūsa Maliku’s ears too.
One day Mūsa Maliku sent somebody to invite Alifuḷu to his home. He
received the young craftsman in his verandah with a great display ofcourtesy. Mūsa Maliku called his wife and ordered her to cook the best
food for their guest. After a while Aisā had made the meal ready: Grilled

89

A highly prestigious job in island society at that time, for jewellery was an
essential part of Maldivian female attire. Apparently in the distant pre-Islamic past it
had been even more important than clothing.
113

fish, rice and garudiya,90 bananas, palm syrup. She spread the food on theboḍu aṣi and told the men to come. Alifuḷu mixed a bit of everything in his
plate and put the first morsel in his mouth. Then he got suddenly up, went
to the hand washing basin and spit it out. Mūsa Maliku was surprised:“Alifuḷu, what happened? “ the young man rinsed his mouth and said: “I
can’t eat this, it’s too salty.”
Aisā was very sorry and took away all the plates. After a while she cameback with rice soup, coconut milk, sugar and dried fish. She spread theplates on the boḍu aṣi and called the men again. Alifuḷu mixed a bit ofeverything in his plate put the first morsel in his mouth and then left theaṣi again to spit it in disgust. Mūsā asked “Alifuḷu, what is wrong? “ hisguest replied “It’s not sweet, it hurts my throat. “Mūsa Maliku was upset that the meals his wife had cooked didn’t please
Alifuḷu. At last he went inside the house into the underground room andasked his daughter: “Hiyalā my child, there is a guest in this house andyour mother’s cooking didn’t taste good to him. Please cook something
yourself or shame will fall upon our house.”
Hiyalā, through a crack between two wooden planks had spied Alifuḷu. She
said: “I’ll cook something special for him, father.” The girl was annoyed
and knew that the purpose of Alifuḷu’s visit was to try to catch a glimpse ofher, so when her father left she thought: “He will see what I’ll cook!” Shechose unclean and unwashed rice put some water in it and a whole
handful of salt. Once it was cooked, she put moldy rihākuru91 in a bowl
and stale dry tuna, as hard as wood, on a plate. Then she told her motherthat the lunch for the guest was ready. Aisā brought the plates to the aṣiand put them in front of Alifuḷu. He ate and ate, emptying all the plates,

90

The broth of the boiled tuna, one of the most common Maldivian daily food items

91

Rihākuru is a salty and thick paste made by cooking tuna fish until most of thewater evaporates. This is one of the most important items in Maldive cuisine.
114

and said to Mūsā: “I have never eaten such good food in all my life! “ Afterthat he chewed some betel leaf with arecanut and left.
On the next day Hiyalā told her father: “I am sure that all the girls on thisisland have gold bangles, but my arms are naked.” Her father was sorry
and decided to do something. “I shall go to the best goldsmith, Alifuḷu, andask him to make bangles for you.”
When Hiyalā’s father came to his workshop, Alifuḷu asked: “Which size?”Mūsa Maliku made a circle with his fingers saying “More or less so.” Alifuḷu
made very large bangles and brought them to Mūsa Maliku. When Hiyalā
put them on, they were so big they went all the way up to her shoulders.
She cried: “I won’t wear these bangles! “ Mūsa Maliku took them to Alifuḷu
saying: “Please make them smaller.” Alifuḷu asked: “How much smaller? ““Much more,” said Mūsa Maliku.
This time the bangles didn’t even fit. She cried: “How can I put on suchsmall bangles? “ Her father went back to Alifuḷu and said: “Please makethem a little bigger” The young man replied: “Mūsa Maliku I can’t makethem the right size without seeing the arms of the young lady. Why don’t
you show them to me? “ Mūsa Maliku felt compelled to lie: “Her arms arefull of wounds and she has scabies, that’s why I can’t show them to you.”
But Alifuḷu was adamant: “I can only make the bangles of the right size if I
see the arms, I don’t care if they are ugly or not.” After much discussion
the father finally agreed and left.
Hiyalā’s arms were shown to Alifuḷu through heavy curtains hanging overthe door of her abode. Alifuḷu already suspected they would be beautiful,
but they were so lovely that he couldn’t hide his astonishment. In a daze,
he went back to his workshop and made bangles exactly her size. Mūsa
Maliku brought them home that same evening.
In the dark hours before dawn Hiyalā made betel with nuts ready, putthem in a special wooden tray and secretly sneaked out of the house forthe first time in her life. She went straight to Alifuḷu’s workshop and,115

finding him sleeping, she woke him up. The young man was so surprised
and so overwhelmed by Hiyalā’s beauty, that he thought he was still
dreaming. He had to gasp for air. The girl smiled at him demurely, sat
down and taking the cover off her tray, offered him the betel leaves andarecanuts.
She found him very handsome and her eyes were shining. They felt
awkward for a long while, but finally they managed to talk to each other.
Even though they began shyly, soon their conversation flowed and flowed.
Time passed and they didn’t notice until it was already dawn and thetwilight outside was blue. Hiyalā said: “I must leave now!” Alifuḷu solemnly
promised: “I will tell your father today that I want to marry you.”That day Alifuḷu, confident that he was on friendly terms with her father,went to Hiyalā’s house. He found Mūsa Maliku outside and asked: “Mūsa
Maliku would you give me your daughter in marriage? “ The old man wentinside the house as if he hadn’t heard. He sat on the boḍu aṣi with hishead low. His wife seeing him so depressed asked: “What happened? “ Hebegan to weep: “The treasure we were hiding so carefully has been
discovered. Our times of happiness and peace are over. I don’t know what
will happen to our life now.”
Aisā’s color left her face. “He has seen our daughter’s arm! He is the only
one who knows about her,” after a while she went on in a distraught
voice: “Well, he is a very handsome man, courteous and a hard worker.
Not a bad match for our daughter after all.” Mūsa Maliku remained
speechless.
That same afternoon he went to Alifuḷu’s workshop. He found him there
and spoke gravely: “I give you my consent to marry my daughter. Make
everything ready and come tonight to my house, but the ceremony mustbe performed in secret.” Mūsa Maliku then went home and asked the oldwoman who was looking after Hiyalā to decorate the room with special
marriage decorations and to bathe, perfume, dress and make-up Hiyalā as116

a bride. Aisā was sorry to marry her daughter in such a secret and hurried
way. She would have loved to give a party for all the islanders.
In the evening Alifuḷu came with two witnesses, Mūsa Maliku acted as thejudge and they were married without ceremony. The witnesses were givena great amount of gold to keep their mouths shut and went back to theirhomes without saying a word. Don Hiyalā and Alifuḷu spent their weddingnight and the day that followed in total bliss, unaware that tragedy waslooming in the air.
****Far away in a northern atoll, in the island called Ḷaimagu,92 lived a weakand cunning young man called Fagīru. One night he had a vivid dream inwhich he saw that in the island of Buruni there was a woman living hiddenfrom human sight. She was of the rarest kind of beauty and he was so
astonished when her features became clear to him, that he woke up withhis heart beating fast. During the next days Fagīru was deeply disturbed
by his dream. But slowly, in his dishonest mind, a plan emerged to profit
from the knowledge of the zealously guarded secret that had been
revealed to him.
One day, Fagīru began to act up as if he had become blind. His parents
were very concerned and tried to apply medicines. The loathsome youngman, however, refused to be treated saying that Ḷaimagu’s medicine men
were not good enough. He asked to be allowed to travel to the south toreceive proper treatment. After a few days, he left on a ship and sailed
southwards.
During his journey, as he was approaching Male’, Fagīru convinced thecaptain to sail between the two islands called Baṇḍos and little Baṇḍos.

92

Tiladummati Atoll. In this island there is a low mound in the place where popularfolklore says that Ḷaimagu Fagīru built his boat.
117

This was a forbidden maneuver, as only royal vessels or ships carrying
urgent messages to the king were allowed to sail between those twoislands. After he saw the sail, the Mīrubahāru (royal commodore), sailed
out from Male’ harbor to meet the Ḷaimagu boat.
As soon as he got alongside them, the commodore shouted: “I am coming
to arrest you! You have broken the royal navigation law! “Fagīru answered: “Tell the Radun that I am on my way to Buruni on a very
important mission for his benefit. Be sure that when I come back to Male’,
I will bring very good news for him.”
The Mīrubahāru concluded that, as this young man was claiming to be onsome important errand at the service of the king, he had the right to sailbetween those two islands. However, seeing the unreliable look of Fagīru,
he direly warned the young man that he would be punished if the news he
was telling about was not worth so much trouble.
Ḷaimagu Fagīru’s boat continued its journey towards Koḷumaḍulu Atolland one evening he entered Buruni’s lagoon. It so happened that at the
moment his ship’s crew threw anchor off the island, Alifuḷu arrived on hisoḍi back from fishing. When Ḷaimagu Fagīru saw Alifuḷu he knew thishandsome young man must be Hiyalā’s husband. Acting as if he hadslipped, Fagīru threw himself to the water and, frenzily thrashed thesurface with his arms as if he was drowning. He shouted: “I’m a poor blind
man and I can’t swim, please save me! “ Alifuḷu jumped immediately into
the lagoon and rescued the stranger, pulling him aboard his boat. Once on
the deck, he asked: “Where do you come from? “The fraudulent character answered meekly: “I’m from Ḷaimagu and I’mblind since birth. My father is very rich and knowing that in this island
there are good medicine-men he has sent me here to be treated, but I
don’t have any acquaintance here. Please bring me to your home,”pointing to his vessel, he said: “I will give you the presents I carry in my118

ship.” Moved by the pitiful look of the foreigner, Alifuḷu brought him to his
own home.
Since he thought his guest was harmless owing to his blindness, Alifuḷu let
him sit inside Hiyalā’s secret house on the boḍu aṣi, where no visitor was
ever allowed. Alifuḷu told his wife that he had invited this blind man fromanother island to stay in their home. Hiyalā was surprised. She looked
intently at Ḷaimagu Fagīru’s eyes and became alarmed. She wasn’t fooledby the suspicious man and called her husband aside. Quietly, she led him
to a corner and whispered to him: “Alifuḷu, my love, who have you brought
to this house? I don’t think that man is blind, he only wants to deceive us,”her husband refused to be drawn into her mood: “How can you know? “She looked up in exasperation searching for an answer, but before she
could talk Alifuḷu held her hands saying: “Trust me Hiyalā; I know he isblind; I saw him fall from his boat and saved his life. He has come to
Buruni for treatment. Don’t worry.”
However, during the next weeks, Hiyalā was not happy at all having the
shadowy guest right inside her home. Although Fagīru tried to makehimself helpful, and even went fishing on their boat, she was determined
to chase him out. She doggedly begged her husband to send the blind man
somewhere else, saying: “He is not a harmless person as you think.” But
Alifuḷu refused to acknowledge this and accused his wife of pestering him.
Hence, there was much tension in the house owing to the presence of theblind stranger and the relationship between the loving couple becamemuch stressed. Meanwhile, the obscure visitor kept discreetly in the
background, acting as if he didn’t notice the heated arguments going on
between husband and wife.
One day, Alifuḷu told Hiyalā to grind a special medicinal paste for the
stranger’s eyes. Obediently, the young woman went inside the house togrind the medicine, but as she wasn’t convinced at all of the blind man’s
honesty, she took charcoal, glass and chilies and ground them in thestone, handing the mixture over to her husband. When he smeared the119medicine on the guest’s eyes, Fagīru howled and shook himself in thewildest manner. Alifuḷu, feeling sorry for the man, asked her what went
wrong. Hiyalā calmly replied that the ingredients must have been stale,
but she was very happy seeing the intruder suffer. She hoped theunpleasant guest would now realize he was not welcome. Nevertheless,even after this painful experience, Fagīru continued staying in Alifuḷu’shouse.
One morning Alifuḷu was away in his workshop and Doṅ Hiyalā went totake a bath. At once, while the young woman was in the veyo (pool)behind the house, the stranger sneaked to the thatched kitchen and set it
on fire. The thatch was so dry, that the kitchen was instantly enveloped inflames. As soon as she saw the huge fire the young woman ran in panic
out of the pool across the house, forgetting that she was undressed.
Having carefully concealed himself, Ḷaimagu Fagīru could have a goodlook at nude Hiyalā from where he was standing. He was pleased to seethat Doṅ Hiyalā was a woman fit for the Radun. Her body was flawless.
Upon reaching the main door, Hiyalā realized that she was completely
naked. Suddenly, she felt shy and covered herself in haste. Then she called
the old lady and Mūsa Maliku, who came immediately to help her
extinguish the flames. After a while, they managed to put the fire out, but
the kitchen was ruined. Later in the day, when Alifuḷu came back fromfishing Hiyalā told him what had happened and added: “I’m sure that, forsome reason, that hideous stranger you keep here burned down our
kitchen. Old people say: It is better to be under the sail of a capsized ship
than under the power of a blind man.”As Ḷaimagu Fagīru had seen what he wanted to see, he took leave fromhis hosts and sailed back to Male’ in his oḍi. Alifuḷu told Hiyalā: “Now you
will be relieved.” She threw a very serious look at him and replied: “I amfeeling uneasy. I think he is still able to hurt us.”120

Once in Male’, Ḷaimagu Fagīru went straight to the royal palace. There heasked for an immediate audience with the Radun claiming that he had
information of the highest importance. When he was finally allowed tomeet the king he requested to be left alone with him.
The monarch, looking at the contemptible person in front of him, sternly
warned Fagīru that he would be heavily punished if the news was not
worth the inconvenience of dismissing the nobles present there. When hesaw that the intruder was undaunted, the Radun ordered everybody else
to leave the audience hall. Ḷaimagu Fagīru’s chest swelled with pride
when he and the king were left alone: “Oh Radun! I know a secret nobody
knows: in your kingdom there is now a young lady living in a certain island
far away from here whose beauty is a true wonder.” The king’s face lit up
at once: “In which island?”Ḷaimagu Fagīru lowered his voice: “She’s so extraordinarily beautiful that
she lives completely hidden in her parents’ house in the island of Buruni, inKoḷumaḍulu Atoll. I have clearly seen every detail of that young woman’s
body and I have come to tell you how she is.” The Radun, a lustful man,smiled wickedly. Meanwhile, Fagīru was not in a hurry. He was rather
enjoying the vile way in which he was arousing the king’s interest andlingered on. The monarch, though, was impatient and threatened: “Speakat once or you will be given one hundred lashes!”Fagīru winced and obliged: “O Radun! As I was saying before, I have seen
all the rare charms of that hidden lady with my own eyes. She is a Faymini!
“ 93 The king ordered him to describe her in detail and listened eagerly as
Fagīru made a careful description of Hiyalā’s body. Relishing themonarch’s interest, the despicable character confirmed that each part of
the young woman of Buruni corresponded with the traditional Maldive
canons of highest beauty, using well known poetical imagery. After Fagīru

93

A woman of extraordinary beauty (Skt. Padminī).
121

ended his long and detailed description, the king’s desire reached such apeak that, without wasting any time, he ordered his Naval Commander toprepare his ship at once: “We are sailing immediately southwards, to
Buruni Island!” he declared. Then, turning towards Fagīru, he sternly
admonished him: “If what you have told me is a lie, you will be put todeath as a punishment.”
Two days after, as soon as the royal ship threw anchor off Buruni, the kingwent ashore escorted by his soldiers. He was in no mood for protocol andignored the welcome of the local authorities. Brushing aside the crowds
that had gathered at the beach seeing the great vessel moored in theirlagoon, the Radun went straight to Hiyalā’s house. Finding the beautiful
young woman alone, the vain king, dressed in his costliest regal robes,
tried to impress her by displaying great wit, charm and florid speech.
However, Doṅ Hiyalā totally ignored him and, after a while, the monarch
sat down in a sullen mood.
When Alifuḷu arrived, the Radun ordered him to divorce his wife
immediately. But the young man courageously refused. The monarch flewthen into a rage and ordered the soldiers to take him out and to callhavaru,94 at which command all islanders had to mob and lynch Alifuḷu.
The soldiers pushed the young man very roughly out and threw him into
the hands of the assembled crowd outside. For a long time Alifuḷu wassavagely beaten, scratched and cut by the bloodthirsty jeering mob.
Finally, when they tired and thought he was dead, they left him in a lonely
spot in the jungle.
Meanwhile, the king grabbed Hiyalā, who was pulling away from him,yelling and trying to break loose, and called the Mudīmu, or caretaker of94

An old custom by which mob cruelty was let loose in order to punish offenders
having defied authority or committed certain crimes. This was one of the rare times
when physical violence (beating, slapping, and throwing stinky fish oil, scum, dirt
and even stones) was encouraged by the authorities in the Maldives122the mosque. He ordered him to marry them there and then. The Mudīmu
was in a quandary because the conditions for a valid marriage were notpresent. But the king’s arrogant attitude and angry determination were
frightening to behold, so willy-nilly he gave Hiyalā in marriage to themonarch.95 Hiyalā screamed, shook and cried but she was forcefully takenby the king and his soldiers to the royal ship and, as soon as they set footon board, the anchors were lifted. Some time before sun set, while the ship
was leaving Buruni’s lagoon, a white crow followed it.
The king was gone and calm descended on the island. Mūsa Maliku, Aisāand the old woman went to look for Alifuḷu. After a long search, theyfound him lying in the forest. He looked like a corpse, with bones broken
and many bleeding wounds. Carefully they took him to their home andlooked after him for many months, applying massage and medicinal
ointments until he was completely healed.
As he slowly regained consciousness, Alifuḷu felt miserable because heknew that his wife was gone. In spite of the pain inflicted by his serious
wounds, his biggest woe was that his Hiyalā was far away from him.
During those difficult months, they kept in contact thanks to the whitecrow, which was carrying messages between the lovers. In time, when
Alifuḷu felt strong and could stand on his feet, he decided to repair theEnderi Oḍi, his special ship. He was determined to go to rescue Hiyalā onno other ship than his own. However, it was in such bad shape that it took
him many days to complete the work.
Meanwhile in Male’, the king was proud to have Hiyalā in his palace. He
even had her paraded through the capital, soon after his arrival, so that
his subjects could see what a charming new wife he had found. The

95″Nu kiyā ranaka’, nu dē valīyaka’, mīhegge hagge’ Manikufāna kāivenī ko’ dīfiṅ.″This untranslatable sentence uttered by the humiliated government official during
the marriage ceremony reflects his helplessness at being unable to make the law
prevail when the king wishes to go against it.
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Radun’s other wives were no match for Hiyalā’s incredible beauty andeveryone stared at her in admiration. Try as he might to attract her
attention, she utterly ignored the king and all the presents he brought her.
The young woman had only contempt for him, but still the Radun,
unfazed, nurtured hopes of winning her heart as time passed and he madeit a point of being always courteous to her.
In spite of the great luxury and comfort of her new life, during the longmonths that followed Hiyalā was grieving. She was only thinking of her
Alifuḷu and it wasn’t easy for her to put up a brave front and hide her grief.
Since she knew she was constantly being watched, her only way to get achance to escape was not to let anyone suspect that she was longing toleave the palace. She constantly nurtured the hope that her captors would
one day lower their guard. Meanwhile she communicated with Alifuḷu
sending messages through the white crow.
Many more days passed until Alifuḷu finally repaired his boat. Finally,
when he left Buruni, he didn’t want anybody to come along with him. He
had a plan and, while he was sailing northwards, he sent the white crowwith a message telling his lover to be ready to flee from the royal palace.
He hoped to land in Male’ at the little guarded southwest point.
When the white crow came to Hiyalā’s window, the Radun happened to bewith her. Seeing no way to escape, the young woman looked around indismay. To make matters worse, that day the monarch was in a soremood, complaining: “You have been here for a whole year and still haven’t
said a word to me. If you would have been another person, I would havealready given orders to put you to death long ago. Nothing in my palace
makes me happy anymore and my only hope is that one day you maychange your attitude towards me. There is nothing I would like more thanto eat some dish prepared by you.”
Hiyalā didn’t waist any time when she heard this. Wishing to get rid of the
Radun, she obliged and cooked some food especially for him. The King was124amazed and, when he left to perform a ceremony, he looked immensely
satisfied. As soon as he was gone, the young woman noticed that nobody
was watching her and sneaked out of the royal palace. Hiyalā headed
straight to the southwestern corner of the island, towards the spot where
Alifuḷu had told her to be.
Wading into waist-high water, Hiyalā managed to reach the coral reefedge right at the time that Alifuḷu arrived with his boat. In a highly risky
maneuver, the young man sailed alongside close enough for her to jump
aboard and a sudden gust of wind helped them to leave the King’s Island.
Once in high seas, they tried to put as much distance as they could
between themselves and Male’. Hiyalā was so happy to be with her
handsome Alifuḷu, she couldn’t take her eyes off him while he held therudder.
As soon as the Radun found out that Hiyalā had escaped, he became
speechless with fury. When he came to his senses, he ordered a thoroughsearch. The soldiers carefully looked for her in all the houses in Male’, but
Hiyalā was nowhere to be found.
Finally somebody pointed out that a black boat had been seen sailingaway from the southwestern end of the capital. Instantly, the kingcommanded that his royal ship be made ready to sail as soon as possible.
Once aboard with his soldiers, the monarch gave orders to follow thesmall sail that could be seen in the distance.
Alifuḷu found it difficult to maintain his boat on a steady course in the
midst of the ocean swells and the royal ship was fast catching up withthem. Hiyalā could already make out a big sail in the horizon and she knew
it had to be that evil king, in hot pursuit, to bring her back to the palace.
The Radun was heading towards them at great speed and he vowed that
he would catch them. Meanwhile, Alifuḷu and Hiyalā were anxiously
looking astern. As time passed, the young woman was watching in dismay
how the distance between them and her captors was steadily getting
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shorter and shorter. Soon the king’s ship was so close to Alifuḷu’s Enderi
oḍi that they could clearly see the people on the prow. Sure of his victory,
with his soldiers arrayed behind his back, the wicked Radun was laughingwith contempt and glee.
When the big royal vessel was towering behind their small boat, Hiyalā
was in such a state of despair that she told Alifuḷu: “I will rather die thanlet this cruel demon of a man take me away again! “ Before Alifuḷu could
catch her, Hiyalā jumped into the ocean. All of a sudden, a huge jellyfish(māvaru) rose from the depths; and instead of falling into the water, theyoung woman fell into the middle of the monster. Since her waist was soincredibly slender,96 Hiyalā broke in two with the strength of the impact
and both pieces of her body slipped into the sea.
Alifuḷu let the rudder go and watched helplessly as the two parts of his
lovely wife’s body sank slowly into the ocean leaving wide red trails ofblood. Right then, with a great crashing noise, his black coral boat hit thejellyfish and shattered into pieces. When the young man fell into thewater, he was already dead. Thus, Alifuḷu sank along with his Don Hiyalā’s
broken body until they both were lost in the blue depths.
Don Hiyalā and Alifuḷu, the faithful lovers, were together at last and noone would be able to separate them again. Some say that their bodies
drifted together to a lonely beach and, after burial, a shrine (ziyāraiy) was
erected over their tomb.97
In this long narrative, where the king plays the role of a bad character,one cannot avoid noticing that there are, as the storyteller herself pointed

96

One of the marks of her proverbial beauty.

97

As the sea is no place for a body, the drifting of the corpses to a beach isconsidered extremely auspicious. There are versions, however, in which Doṅ
Hiyalā and Alifuḷu don′t die. Instead, they drift to a certain island where they areproclaimed king and queen.
126

out, many similarities with the Rāmāyaṇa. This well-known Indian epic
strongly influenced the folklore not only of the Subcontinent, but also of
most South-East Asian countries, where it inspired popular celebrations in
the form of theatre, puppetry and shadow-plays. Some of the parallels
between the Divehi story ‘Don Hiyalā and Alifuḷu’ and the Rāmāyaṇa are
striking:
The main plot, which narrates the kidnapping by an evil king of a womanof extraordinary beauty, is basically the same as the Rāmāyaṇa’s.
Sītā , the heroine of the Indian epic, was born supernaturally from theearth when her father King Janaka was plowing, hence her name,meaning “furrow”. In Hiyalā’s story, the girl was kept since birth concealed
in a special room under the earth, which her father had built especially forher. Such a room is an odd place by Maldive standards, for Island houses
are never built underground owing to the shallowness of the watertable.98
Alifuḷu was exiled from his home island Huḷudeli, after seeing a spirit in a
dream that commanded him to do so. In the Indian epic, Rāmā was exiled
from his own kingdom by his father’s order following the wishes of
Kaikeyi, one of his father’s wives.
Havvā Fuḷu’s ardent infatuation with Alifuḷu and her feeling of rage andhumiliation at being snubbed by him, reflect Śūrpaṇakhā’s feelings
towards Rāma, and, in both cases, the consequences are tragic. HavvāFuḷu died and Śūrpaṇakhā ended up being badly disfigured. In both stories
the point is that the hero was not predestined to marry those eager andtreacherous ladies of high birth.

98

In the Siamese and Burmese versions of the Rāmayāṇa, Sīta is concealed in acopper box as a baby and set afloat. The box was later found by peasants in thefields.
127

The part where Ḷaimagu Fagīru describes Hiyalā’s charms to the Radun,and the king’s reaction, is identical with Śūrpaṇakhā’s description of Sīta’sbeautiful features to her brother, king Rāvaṇa.
Alifuḷu valiantly faces the King when he comes to fetch Doṅ Hiyalā byforce, a rare display of courage in a country where fear of rulers isparamount. His personality corresponds with that of Rāmā in the
Rāmāyaṇa, where Rāmā is a fearless hero, undaunted by any obstacle orthreat, from the beginning to the end.
Doṅ Hiyalā and Alifuḷu’s strong and steady love for each other, theirmutual faithfulness and determination to be reunited after separation,and the Radun’s callous flouting of the vows that bind together a man anda woman in marriage, are well within the main argument of the
Rāmāyaṇa.
The attitude of Doṅ Hiyalā during her long captivity at the king’s palace in
Male’, where she contemptuously ignored the Radun’s approaches forsuch a long time, is identical with Sītā’s behavior while she was underRāvaṇa’s power. Similarly, the Radun’s attitude is exactly like kingRāvaṇa’s, as he didn’t try to take Hiyalā forcefully. Instead he put her
under surveillance and hoped to gain her heart with the passing of time.
The faithful white crow messenger has a certain parallel with Jaṭāyu,Rāma’s ally. Jaṭāyu was the son of Garuḍa, having the shape of an eagle orvulture. (A crow is also mentioned in quite another context in an episodeof the Rāmāyaṇa where a crow pestered Rama and Sītā while they wereplaying in the water at a place called Citrakuta. When Rama tried to shoo
the bird away, Sītā’s waistcloth fell off and, her nudity suddenly exposed,
she became angry and shy.) Again here there is a similarity with the part
where, after the mean character Fagīru (not unlike a crow in character)burns the kitchen, Hiyalā runs stark naked out of her bath and suddenly
feels shy.

128

Hiyalā’s readiness to kill herself by jumping from the boat onto themonstrous jellyfish to avoid a life of shame in the court of the kingcorresponds with Sītā’s willingness to jump into the fire99 when her virtue
was questioned upon her return to Ayodhya.
In the end, it is said that, after dying in the sea, Doṅ Hiyalā and Alifuḷu’sbodies drifted to the beach of an island. Thereby the mutually faithful
young couple attained an exalted form of divinity in the eyes of theislanders. The breaking in two of Hiyalā’s body and her subsequent burial
may reflect Sītā’s sufferings (when her behavior in captivity was put into
question) and her return to the earth. Sītā was acknowledged as thedaughter of Mother Earth (Bhumi Dēvi) since she was found in a casket
under the ground. In the end, after having been unjustly treated, she wasgiven sanctuary by the earth goddess. Thus, as the gods watched, theearth opened up and Sītā smoothly descended deep into the earth. In theMaldives the bodies of the lovers reach firm ground after drifting in thesea. Following their burial a shrine (ziyāraiy) was erected over their tomb.
There is a parallel in this case with Rāmā and Sītā being a divine couple in
the original Indian epic.100 The list of parallels is not exhaustive; there may
be other similarities here and there that deserve further study.
No names of the original Rāmāyaṇa characters are identifiable in thisDivehi story and, although the sequence of the connections pointed out
above corresponds to the order of the Rāmāyaṇa, the original narrative
which gave origin to the ‘Doṅ Hiyalā and Alifuḷu’ story has been lost.
Nevertheless, there are still a few hints in the island lore, that the
Rāmāyaṇa must once have been part of the ancient Maldive tradition.

99

Contact with a jellyfish produces a strong burning sensation. In the South certain
type of jellyfishes (Physalia spp.) are known as giniki (‘gini’ meaning ‘heat’).
100

Cf. 2.6.2 ‘The Mystery of Female Power’ and 3.1.3 ‘Tantric Heroes’ tounderstand the significance of the ziyāraiys.
129

One of these, for example, is that the generic name for monkey in the
Divehi language is ‘rāmā makunu’, Rāmā’s monkey.101
Kopī Mohamed Rasheed, a well-known Maldivian writer who made ‘Doṅ
Hiyalā and Alifuḷu’ into a local movie, points out that there many sectionsof the story where inconsistencies mar the flow of the narrative, as if thedifferent parts forming the epic poem had been put together in ahaphazard manner. If we consider that Vālmīki’s epic, the one that is
nowadays popular in the Subcontinent, assumed its present form
between BC 400 and AD 200;102 and if there was, far back in time, a
Maldive version of the Rāmāyaṇa subject to local variations, this is hardly
surprising. The current Doṅ Hiyalā and Alifuḷu legend, after so many
centuries of successive oral transmission, followed by as many centuriesof Islamic bowdlerization, is a highly inconsistent story which barely
retains a flimsy skeleton of the original epic.
Hiyalā’s physical charms are part of the greater Maldivian faiymini legend
which originated in the figure of Padminī, the lotus-lady of ancient
Sanskrit literature.103 A faiymini is a woman of rare beauty possessing
certain features that identify her as such. While in the ancient Sanskrit
texts every part of the ideal Lotus-woman’s body was compared inallegorical fashion to things found in the Subcontinent (for instance, herbody being soft as the Shiras flower, her eyes like those of a fawn, herbody-odor like the fragrance of the lotus, etc.),104 Divehi poets drew
101

There is a difficulty with the translation of the word ‘makunu’ since in Divehi it
may mean ‘monkey’, but also ‘bedbug’ and ‘spider’ (in the two Southernmost Atolls
both bedbug and monkey are ‘makoṇo,’ but spider is ‘makuḍu’).
102

Asian Variations in Ramayana’, Sahitya Akademi.

103

Padminī is a woman of the first of the four classes into which writers of eroticalscience divide women.″ Vaman Shivram Apte, ‘Sanskrit-English Dictionary’104

Detailed descriptions of Padminī’s qualities are found in medieval Sanskrit
works such as Ratī Manjarī, Koka Śastra and Anaṅga Raṅga.
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inspiration from local elements. Thus, in Maldives, the faiymini’s eyes arelong like the kuraṅgi bird’s (a kind of white tern with black markings) andher wrist looks like the section of the body of the giyuḷu (Green jobfish)
where it fans into its tail.
Despite the local adaptations most of the faiymini’s traits are common to
the ancient Indian ideals of feminine beauty. The main ones being: faircomplexion, shiny, smooth abundant jet-black hair, oval face, long eyes,straight and fine nose, delicate lips (larger in the ideal of Maldivians, likethose found in women represented in Maurya and Gupta art), fleshy andsoft limbs (not angular and bony), full round breasts (set close together
and high), three fleshy folds or creases below the ribs,105 a very thin waist,
rounded large hips, small belly and slightly bulging pubic area among
other, mostly more intimate, details.
In Maldives the description of such features in both women and men andtheir hidden significance is the subject of a great amount of secret
literature which is read with glee. Those books are kept concealed but arevery popular, being copied by hand and passed around discreetly. Some ofthis ancient knowledge links with the local astrological tables and lists ofauspicious qualities, times and directions peculiar to nakaiyterikaṅ.106 It is
probable that this interest has its origins in ―and is somehow related to―old Buddhist texts describing the auspicious marks of the Buddha andtheir determining value.
Faiyminis are very rare and their existence is regarded as something of aportent. On a large coral reef, on Tiladummati Atoll’s western rim there is

105

Skt. trivalī, ″the three folds of skin above the navel of a woman″ (one of themarks of supreme beauty according to the ideals of the Subcontinent). V.S. Apte,‘Sanskrit-English Dictionary’106

Astrology. The knowledge of the nakaiy (nakshatra constellations) and theirinfluence upon daily affairs.
131a small island called Rasfuṣi. Though it is tiny and uninhabited, people in
the neighboring island of Nellādū claim that, after many years, Rasfuṣi will
become larger, people will settle it and then, one day, a faiymini will beborn there. This extraordinary uniqueness surrounding a faiymini explains
why the king’s interest was aroused so easily.
Throughout ‘Don Hiyalā and Alifuḷu’, though arrogant, lustful and cruel,the monarch in Male’ is at least considered to be a human being and not ademon, unlike in the Rāmāyaṇa, where Rāvaṇa was a demon-king.
However, in the following legend107 a Maldivian king is portrayed in aneven poorer light. This is one of the versions of a well-known Oḍitān
Kalēge story, highlighting the exploits of the mythical sorcerer, one of thecentral figures of ancient Maldivian folklore (Cf. 2.4.1 and 3.3.1):
Oḍitān Kalēge Unmasks the King“Oḍitān Kalēge, the mighty magician, was staying in Male’, the king’s
island, in a house called Keyoge. He used to always stay in that particularhouse whenever he visited the capital of the kingdom. One day, while thisfamous faṇḍitaveriyā was strolling down the street, the king went with his
retinue through the island. Oḍitān stopped and watched the Radunwalking slowly under the royal umbrella, followed by his court. After theprocession had passed, Oḍitān Kalēge became very anxious. Then, lost inthought, he went back to Keyoge.
Oḍitān didn’t talk much at home and after having lunch he went to rest fora little while. When he got up he took a bath and put new clothes on. In
the afternoon light, Oḍitān walked to the market place by the harbor.
There he began to call the people in a loud voice and soon a crowd

107

Told in 1987 by Bandēri Abdurrahmanu, Male’.
132gathered around him. He told them that he had something very importantto say and they demanded: “Speak, then.”
Then the respected sorcerer said that their king was not a human being.
He was a furēta (demon).
The people around Oḍitān were alarmed and warned him: “How do you
dare to say that? Be careful! The king will be very angry if he hears what
you have said. You will be severely punished.”Oḍitān shouted: “What king? There is no king in this island! I am telling
you he is a monster! I have a plan to catch him and you should help me.
Do you agree? “The people in the crowd were hesitant because they were afraid of theking, but they knew Oḍitān Kalēge well and they had great respect forhim.
The great sorcerer went on: “I cannot prove anything right away, but if
you help me now, by tomorrow morning you will see that I was right.
However, you must work hard, because everything has to be ready before
sunset.”After hearing this, the people reluctantly agreed and asked him: “Whatshould we do? “Oḍitān instructed them to dig a big pit in the middle of the market area.
Then, the great faṇḍita man worked hard to attach a big hook to a hugecoconut-tree log which had been securely fixed at the bottom of the pit.
When the fishing boats began to arrive full of tuna fish he had alreadyfinished his work. As he came out of the great pit he told the fishermen tothrow all the gills and innards of their fish into it and fill it. After cutting all
their fishes, the men in the market came with dripping muḷōṣi (baskets)full of a stinking mixture of fish offal and blood and slowly filled the hugepit. Once it was almost full, Oḍitān Kalēge said that it was time to cover133the pit with sand. When the work was done, the sun was setting and thesorcerer was relieved. Then Oḍitān warned everyone again not to sayanything to the Radun. All the people present there promised to keep
silent and, after having had dinner, everyone went to sleep.
The next morning, everyone went to the fish market at sunrise. There wasan unbearable stench over the whole area and people could see alreadyfrom far away that the pit had been disturbed. When the crowd camecloser, they saw that in the middle of the pit there was a hideous creatureon all fours, with its mouth firmly caught in the hook. As it had bitten thesorcerer’s hook in its voracious greed for fish offal and blood, the monster
was dead. Oḍitān Kalēge explained to the assembled crowd that the hook
he had attached to the log was a powerful magic hook; otherwise thehorrible furēta would not have died. Casting frightened looks at the deadbeast inside the pit, everyone sighed in relief.
The palace was thoroughly searched, but there was no trace of the king.
Finally, close to the pit, among the sand, blood and fish gills and innards,
the stained clothes of the king and his royal turban, were found. Everyone
agreed that Oḍitān Kalēge had been right and all were very pleased withhim. The monster was buried in the large pit itself without ceremony.
Later, the most powerful nobles of Male’ chose a new king and Oḍitān was
invited to the Palace for a special dinner and was given costly presents.
One of the main points of this story is that keeping a secret, even from thehighest authorities themselves, is beneficial not only for the particular
individual, but also for the community at large. It repeats an importantconcept in Maldive story-telling, which probably owes its origin to the fear
and mistrust the ruling elite inspired in the local people since a kingly
dynasty of North Indian origin established itself in the Islands. The
identification between the power of the ruler and demonic power is acommon feature in Maldive folklore and, interestingly, it reverses thepattern of the Vedic legends where Aryan kings are godly and Dravidiankings demonic.
134

Like most feudal lords all over the world, kings in Maldives wereaccustomed to ruling in a ruthless manner. Pyrard de Laval, the French
nobleman stranded in the Maldive Islands at the beginning of the 17th
century, was alarmed at the cruelty of the punishments inflicted on theislanders who had accepted presents from the shipwrecked Frenchsailors.108 Those poor people had disobeyed the harsh royal decrees
stipulating that all merchandise from ships running aground on theMaldive coral reefs belonged exclusively to the king.
Maldivians had no control of their own lives; they lived in a feudal system
in which their well-being depended from their total submission to theking.109 When the royal power felt itself threatened, all otherconsiderations became secondary and even the law, which an angry
Radun could easily override, offered no protection. Since there was noplace to hide in the Maldives, life became impossible for anyone falling introuble with the king, no matter how honest or law-abiding.
Possibly by telling stories like the ones which have been narrated in thischapter, where the Radun is pictured as a despicable villain, common
island people found a way of exorcising some of their deep resentment
against their rulers. Thus, in the Oḍitān Kalēge story above, the monarch’s
sordid character and his greed are emphasized in unequivocal terms andthe end of the tale relishes the king’s public humiliation.110 The great sage
108

This and the following data are taken from ″Voyage de François Pyrard″. The
translation from the French is my own
109

According to Paul A. Webb, a British consultant who became very close to anumber of high government officials during the 1980’s, the methods of theMaldivian ruling class have hardly changed since very ancient times. He underlined
the continuity of the old feudal system despite a few cosmetic changes. (Personalcommunication.)110

In the popular story ‘Mākumbē,’ the greedy and infamous hero, after eating ameal at each of his seven children’s houses, ends with his belly pierced by a spike
used to remove the husk from coconuts spilling out his intestines (gohoru) on the
sand.
135

Vaśiṣṭha often cursed and humbled kings in Indian tradition.111 Hence, thislegend is consistent with the personality of the famous Ṛṣi who gave
origin to the Maldivian tantric hero Oḍitān Kalēge.
The Divehi popular glee at the abasement of the ruler112 is hardly
surprising, given the boundless greed, venality and arrogance which mostMaldivian leaders have displayed towards their subjects throughout thehistory of the islands. King Ibrahim III, who was reigning when François
Pyrard de Laval arrived at the Maldives, behaved in a way not very
different from the king portrayed in “Don Hiyalā and Alifuḷu.” Here are two
accounts of great historical worth taken from the French castaway’s book:“Some years after his father’s death, the king of Maldives fell in love with amarried woman. She was the fairest and most beautiful lady in the wholecountry. ... I have seen many times her arm, which she used to show as agallant act, and it was as fair as the arm of the fairest and most beautiful
ladies of my country. Her husband was a pilot, the best navigation expert
in the kingdom. Besides, he was a very wealthy person too.
The king and this woman were very much in love and he had expressed his
intention to marry her. She tried every day to persuade her husband to
divorce her, but he didn’t want to leave his wife. Hence, this lady was sofull of indignation that she advised the king to put her husband to death.
Having fallen in love with her, the king obliged and resolved to kill him.
Thus, one day he called the unsuspecting husband asking him to come111

In the Puraṇas, Vaśiṣṭha curses the demon-king Rāvaṇa. The Puraṇas are acollection of ancient Indian legends devoted to the glorification of deities compiled
between 900 AD and 1500 AD.
112

As recently as the 1980’s, following a coup attempt, popular street parades,
posters and songs lampooned former president Ibrahīm Nāsir as greedy,
incompetent and cruel. Mostly, these manifestations degenerated into the throwingof mere crude insults. The one most often heard was ‘gohoru’ (intestine) meaning
extreme greed.
136

with a chart of the country to discuss some navigational matters. The pilot
went to the king and, as he was bent over the map, the king stabbed him
with his dagger. He had actually aimed at the man’s stomach, but thepilot, trying to deflect the stroke, received the impact straight in his eye. It
seems this man escaped with just a spoiled eye and received no morewounds, because I saw him many times after his ordeal. He was quite afriendly man. ...
But let’s go back to this woman. She finally succeeded in her efforts andthe king married her. However, after being together for some time, theking fell in love with another woman, who happened to be the queen while
we were there. Thus, the king became quite sick of this former lady, who
was truly of the most shameless kind, for she had casual sexual
relationships with all types of men, including slaves. Nevertheless, this was
not the only reason why the king abandoned her.

In another account by Pyrard, the woman was not even consenting tomarry the covetous king and was snatched from her husband by force,very much like Doṅ Hiyalā in the story further above:“The king had two nephews who were brothers. The elder brother was
married to a young lady who was the wealthiest woman in the islands. She
was the granddaughter of the man who was the governor during
Portuguese rule. ... This lady was noble, young and pretty and this madethe king fall in love with her. The trouble started when her husband didn’t
want to leave her and she didn’t want to divorce him either. Indeed, she
didn’t have any desire to be a queen. She preferred to preserve her
marriage and her freedom.
Knowing the intentions of the king, husband and wife resolved to flee on aboat.... But such was their misfortune that they were caught while trying
to escape and the royal ships brought them back to Male’. There, theunfortunate husband was forced to divorce his wife. This man became so137

distressed that, after a whole year without stepping out of his home, hedied.
The young lady amply showed everyone that she had been marriedagainst her will. During the following years, she never showed any sign ofaffection towards the king, while she openly displayed her friendshiptowards other men. ... The king never divorced her. At the time of hisdeath she was still with him, along with two foreign wives. However, thiswoman always looked back at the loss of her first husband with apersistent feeling of sorrow and regret. He had been a princely man, thelieutenant general of the army, and she missed him all her life.
Ironically, the Maldive royal chronicles or ‘Tārīkh’ don’t make any
reference to these objectionable episodes in the life of king Ibrāhīm III andrefer to this very monarch as a “wise, brave, just, peaceloving and learned
Sultān.” In the light of such statements, even a mere cursory reading ofthe ‘Tārikh’ will help to give an idea of the wide gap that separates theflattering, officially approved ‘historical’ records of the Maldives from thesaucy popular island tales. Both of these extremes underscore theambivalent status quo prevailing in Maldive society to this day concerning
behavior towards high-ranking officers. On the one hand the ruler is the
subject of an excessive open display of vain flattery and praise, but on theother hand there is nothing that Maldivian people secretly enjoy morethan derisive and contemptuous anecdotes about that very person.

1381.4.1 THE FIRST MOSQUESThe first mosques that Maldivians built after the conversion to Islam
incorporated the ancient idea of keeping a space or a surface holy. The
sense of the sacred in Islam and in the ancestral Maldive tradition wasdivergent. Sacralization of space for the Maldive Islanders meant keeping
a demarcated place free from the attacks of evil spirits as we will see inthis chapter.
The Isdū lōmāfānu consists of a series of copper plates by which former
grants to Buddhist monasteries were revoked by the king and new grants
for the building and maintenance of mosques, the temples of the new
religion, were issued. This event took place at the end of the 12th century,
when the whole of the island society was undergoing radical changes
owing to the conversion to Islam.
An old order was overthrown and a new religion was being imposed andestablished. All Maldivians, without exception, were threatened into
abandoning their old beliefs and embracing the new faith. The Maldive
King, who was the center of religious and political power,113 proclaimed
that: “I shall kill the infidels who do not utter saadat.”114 Ancient rituals
and practices were banned. Ancestral worship sites were desecrated.
Stupas and monasteries were destroyed. New buildings called mosques
had to be built instead.
Those were deeply traumatic times for the whole archipelago.
Muhammad Ismāīl Dīdī, leading member of the committee exploring the113

The usual practice among the South Asian monarchy which often gave way tothe phenomenon of the ‘God King’ throughout the Indian Subcontinent andSoutheast Asia.
114

Isdū Lōmāfānu, plate 3. These copper plates were translated from the ancient
Divehi by the late Alī Najību, Nedunge, Male’ and published by H. A. Maniku,
Kolige.
139

Buddhist ruins of Toḍḍu Island in the 1950’s, was amazed at the care withwhich a Buddha statue they found had been buried. His mind wanderedback to the time of forceful conversion and his view was:“Even though the people in Male’ had already become Muslims, (Toḍḍu)islanders were still attached to the Buddhist tradition. However, knowingthat they had to submit to the official religion, they decided to hide theidol they used to worship and did so with utmost care. As fast as they
could, they removed the idol (budu115) from its pedestal and placed it on adepression of the floor of the surrounding temple compound filling it withfine sand. They buried it very respectfully along with other holy
implements and flower garlands, circling the perimeter with stones. They
didn’t destroy the temple building itself, probably because our ancestors of
this island hoped that after a short time, the Buddhist religion would
establish itself again. Then they would be able to reinstate the idol to its
original position.”116
Surrounded by this turmoil, the same skilled craftsmen who had
traditionally been employed to build and decorate Buddhist temples were
now ordered to build Islamic houses of prayer. There is no evidence that
Arab craftsmen ever came to the Maldives to instruct native artisans.
Drawings of mosques being not available, the way a mosque should bebuilt had to be guessed. The only guideline followed by Maldivian
craftsmen at that time was the strict avoidance of any kind ofanthropomorphic and zoomorphic imagery in sculpture and painting.
Trees and other vegetal motifs, like creepers and flowers, so important in
Hindu and Buddhist iconography, continued to be widely represented
until Islamic orthodoxy made deeper inroads into the country. The wealth115

The generic Divehi term for idol, fetish, statue, doll and Buddha. Even though
this noun originated in the figure of the Buddha, in this case it was probably used inreference to a statue of the transcendent Boddhisattva Avalokiteśvara
116

Divehi Tārīkhah Au Alikameh. Chapter 11, page 262.
140

of paintings and carvings found in ancient mosques show that there was acontinuation of the ancient Maldive art, albeit without human and animal
representations, which endured for many centuries after the Islamic
conversion.
The first mosques Maldivians built in their own traditional style werebeautiful buildings, with elaborate woodwork. The ceilings werelacquered in black and red. Even visitors from Muslim countries, like Ibn
Batūta were impressed by those mosques and admired their beauty. The
old Maldive mosques reflected the ancient temple-building tradition tosuch an extent that when two French ships ―the Pensée and the Sacre,
under the Parmentier brothers, that had sailed from Dieppe in 1529―
landed in Fua Mulaku and their captain and crew visited the main
mosque, they were not even sure whether it was a mosque ―a building
French travelers would have recognized― and expressed their surprise at
finding no idol inside after inspecting the building’s innermost enclosure:“In this island was a Temple or Mosque, a very ancient structure,composed of massive stone. The Captain desired to see the inside as wellas the outside, whereupon the chief priest bade them open it and entered
within. The work pleased him greatly, and chiefly a woodwork screen ofancient mouldings, the best he had ever seen, with a balustrade so neatly
turned that our ship’s carpenter was surprised to see the fitness of thework. The Temple had galleries all round, and at the end a secret
enclosure shut off by a wooden screen, like a Sanctum Sanctorum.
The Captain bade them open it to see what was within, and whether there
were any idols there, but he perceived nothing but a lamp formed of thecoconut. The roof or vault of this Temple was round in form, with awainscoted ceiling covered with ancient painting.

141

Hard by the Temple there was a piscina or lavatory, flat-bottomed, andpaved with a black stone like marble,117 finely cut with ancient mouldings,
and having all the appearance of massive workmanship.118
The building the French sailors talk about (along with the adjoining veyo
or tank) has long since been destroyed. However, according to thedescription given above, the mosque they saw at the beginning of the
16th century was not very different from the Friday Mosque in Male’,
which can be seen even now, although its veyo has not been preserved.
The Male’ Friday Mosque does have an inner chamber, much like a
Sanctum Sanctorum, which is never found in mosques anywhere in theworld, but which is a feature of ancient Bengali temples. The Bengali
temple architecture reached its zenith under the Pāla dynasty (AD 770 1196). The Pāla kingdom patronized the finest Buddhist art of the
Subcontinent’s medieval period and its style has been preserved in
Nepal.119
Only approximately from the 19th century onwards, with the increasing
contact with the Arab religious centers, were simpler mosques built
throughout the Maldives. Gradually, the locally developed decorative
Arabic script was replaced by calligraphic styles following the strict
classical Arabic canons (mainly thulūth and naskh).
However, in the building of the old Maldive mosques ancient rules
retained their significance not only in the decorative arts, but also in thelayout of the new holy sites:

117

This stone must have been Porites coral, worn smooth by daily use, with a black
patina given by certain algae growing on it by constant exposure to fresh water.
118

This is the account included in H.C.P. Bell’s Monograph. Unfortunately, I could
not get hold of the original document in French.
119

R.E. Fisher, ‘Buddhist Art and Architecture’142

“When five hundred and eighty two years had elapsed since the noble
Prophet Mahammad’s ascension to heaven, His Majesty King Srī Gaḍana
Aditya, as an act of enlightment to be performed towards God, on an
attractive area endowed with firmness (situated) in the monasterygrounds of Srī Isdū, having driven into the earth structures to exclude
water, caused a mosque to be constructed with stone, timber and diverse
decorative paintings. (His Majesty) marked the direction to face inpraying, placed the pulpit, covered (the mosque) with thatch andcompleted the (construction) work. He gave it the name ‘Dumā’ mosque.
On the four boundaries which existed previously (on the land) where themosque was constructed; (His Majesty) erected walls on the four faces and(established) gateways. (His Majesty also caused the construction of) thelāge (decorative carved and lacquered wooden ceiling structures), thealms-house and the store room, and spread planks for placing theforehead. All the buildings that existed in the present mosque compound
were caused to be transferred as the habitable property of the mosque.
(His Majesty) discontinued the succession of ordained monks in thecommunity of monks. (His Majesty) placed Isdū in the perpetual positionof chief village and established the continuity (of this status), giving it thename “The Chief Village of the Eight Divisions”.
(His Majesty) allowed to reside among the families of this village, those
who had uttered saadat and those who in the past had given atinvat.120(His Majesty also) prohibited those infidels who did not utter saadat fromresiding among the families of the village. (Isdū Lōmāfānu. Plates 3 and 4.)
The oldest type of mosques, as well as the compound surrounding them,had a quadrangular structure. There were four gates, corresponding to
the four cardinal points, to enter the compound. The buildings themselves

120

Shahada is the Muslim statement of faith. The meaning of the word ‘atinvat’ isnot clear143

had four gates too, except that the western one, roughly corresponding to
the mihrab, was blind. The existence of these four boundaries, which
formerly had been the limits of the previous compound, is of such crucial
importance that they deserve some detailed study.
Practically all the architecture of the Indian subcontinent is based upon
written guidelines of sacred knowledge, Āgama. Primitive temples were
circular in form,121 reflecting the shape of the womb and extending it into
a representation of the universe. However, when the Āgama texts began
to look upon the world as being bound by the four directions, they
insisted that the shape of the sanctum must be a square, with its opening
normally facing the East, as in the old Maldive mosques.
This square-shaped compound included, like most temples in South Asia,
an open space with a large rectangular water tank (veyo), because thescriptural texts insisted that water for use in worship must be collectedfrom a place exposed to sunlight and fresh air. The sanctified mosquearea would include a graveyard which would be kept clean and free fromweeds. Small paths inside the compound would be neatly fringed with low
stone borders. Only one or two trees of a few species ―mostly a whitefrangipani (bōlakinkiri) or pink frangipani (gulcampā) tree and a jasmine
bush (huvandumāgas) ― would be allowed to grow in that area.
Inside the building, lamps would be lit every evening at sunset. They were
kept burning all through the night, in order to preserve the holiness of theplace. According to Maldive tradition, the light keeps away darkness andthe malevolent spirits coming along with it. Reading holy books andlighting lamps was meant to ward off evil and it was still important until
quite recently in the Maldive Islands. Children would be made to recite

121

Still, in Kerala, quite a few temples retain the ancient round form while thesurrounding compound has a square perimeter, thus the Maṇḍala shape keeps its
relevant function as a space-sacralizing concept
144

their Qurān122 lessons in the evening by the lamplight at home. Even
nowadays, at least one lamp is kept burning all through the night in every
house and every mosque.123
The Āgama doctrinal approach views the sacred enclosure of the temple
as based on a traditional symbol that is both ancient and enduring: theMaṇḍala (Divehi maḍulu) or pattern of powers. The temple is in fact
regarded as a Maṇḍala. There is a symbolic correspondence between thehuman body as the ‘moving’ (Skt. chara or jaṅgama) Maṇḍala and thetemple as the ‘stationary’ (Skt. achala or ṣṭhavara) Maṇḍala. If the Tantraemphasizes the human Maṇḍala, the Āgama focuses its attention on thetemple as the divine Maṇḍala.124
In the Maṇḍala, the four sides symbolize the four main spatial directions
defined by a human being standing with extended arms: front, back, left
and right. This results in the shape of a cross.125 These points correspondwith the four cardinal points in the geographical sphere, known in old
Divehi as: Uttara (N), Dakusana (S), Fūrubba (E) and Fakusama (W). Now,
the four corners at 45 degrees from each main direction (NE, SE, SW and
NW in the geographical sphere), represent the four mid-directions.
According to the Hindu sacred texts, these eight directions are the Eight
Divisions, quarters or realms of the heavens in the universe and each isprotected by a guardian divinity (Skt. Dīkpāla). The inner quarter

122

Maldivians traditionally pronounced this word ‘Guruvān.’

123

This is a common custom in the Subcontinent: ″And Bengali women go at nightwith a lamp into every room to expel the evil spirits.″ Lal Bihari De, ‘Govinda
Samanta’; quoted by W. Crooke in ‘Popular Religion & Folklore of Northern India.’
124

S.K. Ramachandra Rao, ‘Indian Temple Traditions’ and ‘Art & Architecture ofIndian Temples, vols. I, II & III’. See also Stella Kramrisch, ‘The Hindu Temple,
vols. I & II’
125

Martin Brauen; ‘The Mandala, Sacred Circle in Tibetan Buddhism.
145

symbolizes the creator (Brahma), symbolic of activity. Guarded by theeight Dīkpalas, the Maṇḍala is a symbol of the whole universe.
Another image that enters into the Maṇḍala background of the temple isthe “lay-out of the building site” (Skt. Vastu). Whenever a building issought to be constructed, the area on which it will be erected has to be
ceremonially propitiated. The idea behind this is that the grounddelimited for the construction must be reclaimed from spirits (divinities
and demons) that inhabit that area. These rituals are known as ‘thepacification of the spirit of the site’ (vastu-śāmana). There are two types
of Maṇḍalas used in this procedure: The first is a square divided into nine
smaller squares on each side, altogether making 81(Skt. ekāṣṭi) squares
and the other is a square subdivided on each side into eight smallersquares, in which case the total number of smaller squares would be 64(Skt. chauśaṣṭi).126 In each one of the cells of the Maṇḍala a particularspirit is invoked and propitiated. In either system, the entire Mandala issurrounded by seven Yoginīs or Mātṛkas regarded as attendants of thegods.127 And that particular area becomes hallowed ground once thepropitiation ceremony has been completed. Thus, when a devotee enters
the temple, he is actually entering into a Maṇḍala and therefore
participating in the power-field.
The essence of Buddhist monuments, whether Stupas, Temples or shrines
is that they constituted architectural adaptations of the basic Maṇḍala
design. In the Buddhist tradition, Maṇḍalas are diagrams, normally drawn
or painted on cloth or paper or on the ground with sand or powder ofdifferent colors. A great deal of the systematic philosophy of the126

The numbers 81 and 64 are based on the eight directions counting the center(9), and on the eight directions respectively (8). These in turn correspond to thenumber of Yoginīs. See Vidya Dehejia, ‘Yoginī Cult and Temples’127

Cf. 3.2.1 ‘Lurking in the Darkness’ on how the presence of Yoginīs and Mātṛkās
has endured in the popular Maldivian lore
146

Mahayana and Vajrayāna forms of Buddhism is summarized in theMaṇḍala. In Vajrayāna Buddhism the scheme of a Maṇḍala follows certain
sets of rigid regulations. The primary purpose of those rules is the spatial
division of space in four directions around a central surface. Each of theareas thus defined symbolizes one of the realms of human knowledge
within the cosmic circle. Therefore, owing to the integration of thedirectional and the cosmic elements in one representation, practically allMaṇḍalas incorporate both circular and quadrangular patterns.128

128

G. Tucci, ‘Teoria e Pratica del Mandala’.
147

1.4.2 THE STRUGGLE AGAINST MALEVOLENT FORCESThe Maldive islanders are ever surrounded by the vast, shapeless,amorphous ocean which pervades the country. Thus, in their old culture it
was extremely important for them to have a number of ordered, welldelimited and correctly oriented surfaces on the little firm land they had.
Homesteads, streets and mosque grounds were regularly kept free fromweeds and swept clean by the women to increase their ‘purity’. In thismanner Maldivians felt that they were living in a ‘protected’ hallowed
space.
The cleaning and weeding a place, along with the planting of flags andlighting lamps at night, symbolized life and order, against death andchaos. When an epidemic killed the inhabitants of an island and its
survivors abandoned it, weeds and creepers took over, trees grew and dryleaves covered the dead place. Hence, in traditional Maldivian eyes, there
was no beauty in the jungle: places far from human habitation looked
scary. ‘Unprotected’ places of the island, such as the beach (goṇḍudoṣu)close to the village or the gefili behind a house, in which people would
defecate or throw rubbish, were the spots where one was most exposedto the attack by evil spirits.
As has been briefly outlined before, the origin of this belief is based in theidentification between the earth and ancient temples or holy spaces,
which in turn were identified with a deity. This ‘holy plan’ finds expression
in the Maṇḍala. The relevance of the Maṇḍala in building is that, above
all, it prescribes the limits of the consecrated surface. Adrian Snodgrass, in‘The Symbolism of the Stupa’, refers to the ritual demarcation of the
Stupa plan and stresses the importance of the directional symbolism in
Buddhist sites:“The ritual orients and delimits space and in so doing renders itmeaningful. It creates spatial order from disorder, cosmos out of chaos. It
sacralizes space, establishing a sacred area in the midst of profane148

environs. The periphery of the square separates a formal area, a spacewith form, from an amorphous surrounding; it marks out a defined, andtherefore knowable, space from an indefinite and inconceivable extension;
it specifies a relevant area, a field of ritual operation, from an irrelevant
expanse.”Therefore the importance of the use of a Maṇḍala pattern in the layout ofa building site is to ensure that malignant forces are kept outside of theperimeter of the temple. Furthermore, the insistence in aligning the gatesof the sacred surface according to the correct direction in space, found its
justification in the belief that malefic forces will be less likely to attackfrom a particular angle. The adverse powers (Skt. vighna) that may
destroy the sanctity of any consecrated space are assumed to be demonic
and malevolent.129 The vighna, vigani in modern Divehi, are the dark
forces that threaten the sacred purity of the place within the limits of theMaṇḍala. In the Buddhist Tantric philosophy, vighna means ‘obstacle’,anything that obstructs the path towards enlightment.
The nature of vighna is evil; their Lord is Yama, the God of Death. As in
Indian Buddhist mythology, one of the aspects of Yama is the
personification of evil in man and of his inevitable death.130 The vighna are
assumed to be an amorphous and turbulent mass and, despite theirimportance, in Buddhist iconography they are never represented with asmuch precision as the vighnāntaka. The latter are the awesome guardiansof the gates ―akin to the dvarapāla131 ― which are expected to put an
end to the vighna with their terrifying appearance. The vighnāntaka are a
129

G. Tucci, Op. cit.

130Alex Wayman in Karel Werner, ‘Symbols in Art and Religion, the Indian and theComparative Perspectives’131

There are different types of Dvarapālakas but all look horrible, fierce and often
carry weapons. Some are even feminine (Dvarapālikas). In Tamil they are called
Mannadiyār
149

common feature in Buddhist sculpture and these fearsome looking images
are a frequent feature by the gates of Buddhist holy sites.
A few of the archaeological remains which have reached us from theMaldive Buddhist past, confirm how particular the ancient Maldivians
were about keeping evil spirits away from certain places. In the museumin Male’ there are two large coral ‘stakes’ or ‘nails’ ( Skt. kīla) withfearsome (Skt. krodha) carved faces which are some of the finest
specimens of Maldive sculpture hitherto recovered. The faces on thosekīla represent vighnāntakas132 and the Divehi Evēla akuru inscriptions onthem are mantras deemed powerful enough to keep away and kill any
demons entering the protected precinct.
Auspicious symbols, such as the bow (Skt. dhanu) and the thunderbolt(Skt. vajra)133 reinforce the power of the mantras and the krodha faces.
The function of these kīla was to keep evil spirits away from a certain
important area ―possibly the grave of a king― and they were not meant
to be seen. They were made to be buried and that is the reason why theycannot stand upright and have a rather ‘dagger-like’ shape.
For obvious reasons, the sculpting of the fearsome looking vighnāntakas
was abandoned after the conversion to Islam, although much smaller kīla
made of kuredi (a very hard mangrove wood) with inscriptions are stillused in faṇḍita. These magic stakes are usually buried in a chosen spotwith the purpose of either causing evil or warding off evil (Cf. 2.1.1 ‘Haṇḍi
Don Kamaṇā,’ 3.4.1 ‘The Ocean Side of Kaṭṭarufuṣi,’ and 4.1.1 ‘The Broken
Covenant’).

132

These protective, mostly mustachioed, fearsome guardian faces are still popularin Tamil Nadu, where they are called ‘Śūran’. They are related to Māḍan, theancient and popular guardian spirit of Kerala and Southern Tamil Nāḍu133

W. Schumann, ‘Buddhistische Bilderwelt’.
150

In the ancient Maldive culture there were other ways of making a site
auspicious. One of these included the setting of hollow foundation stones
before the construction of a building. These in turn were related to theidea of correct orientation in space, so important in this seafaring country.
In 1958, during the discovery of Buddhist remains in Toḍḍu (an isolatedisland off Ari Atoll, a few miles to its Northeast), the main Stupa wasleveled and pictures were made of its garbha, the pit inside the Stupa
where sacred objects were kept before its erection. 134 These
photographs, along with the pictures of other remains, were then sent to
Dr. S. Paranavithana, an authority on archaeology in Ceylon at the time.
His comments135 reflect that he believed that ancient Maldivians placed
special emphasis in directional symbolism:“Photograph No. V is taken to be the interior of the stupa, the garbha inwhich the sacred objects were deposited. We have a rectangular pit in thecentre with four similar but smaller pits at the four sides. The arrangement
clearly indicates the centre of the universe and the four directions. In
corresponding positions in Ceylon stupas we have nine, instead of five pits,
four being added at the corners. The arrangement in this Maldivian stupa
is clear evidence that the so-called yantragalas136 in Buddhist stupas
originated as a directional symbolism which is quite obvious here. ...
In that particular case, the hollow pit clearly has the shape of a smallMaṇḍala, or holy plan. This stresses the close relationship between thecustom of placing auspicious objects in the foundation of a building, thedirectional orientation and the hallowing of a particular surface. All these134

The custom of placing a hollow stone with auspicious objects in the foundationof a house was still followed well within the 20th century.
135

Quoted in ″Divehi Tārīkha’ Au Alikame’,″ publ. by the Council for Linguistic andHistorical Research, Male’, Maldives
136

Paranavithana uses the word ‘Yantragala’ derived from the Sanskrit ‘Yantra’(drawing) and roughly homologous with ‘Maṇḍala.’151were of paramount importance in the layout of every house and place ofworship and even boat-building sheds in the Maldive Islands.
The custom of including a hollow stone in the foundation of certain
houses with some auspicious objects in it was still followed within thiscentury in the Maldives. One day in 1983 Magiedurugē Ibrāhīm Dīdī of
Fua Mulaku introduced me to his friend Ahamad Dīdī who had come from
Fiōri Island in Huvadū Atoll for a visit. Then both of them began aconversation and I was surprised to notice that they spoke in the Aḍḍulanguage with each other. After his friend left, Ibrāhīm Dīdī commented:“Ahamad Dīdī was the wealthiest man in Fiōri. He has a very big house inthat island. When the foundation was built, a special ceremony was
performed. A faṇḍita man (sorcerer) laid a hollowed stone shaped like a
box with a lid made of hirigal (Porites coral) among the foundation stones.
Inside the box he put a piece of hard dry fish, a piece of gold, a piece ofsolid palm sugar (karo hakuru), a piece of cloth and I don’t remember
what else. The idea was that the house would prosper and thoseauspicious things would be always available in abundance for the peopleof the household.
Alas! Nobody lives in that big house now. It is empty. Ahamad Dīdī is very
ill and nowadays he is not so rich. He usually lives in Male’ and spends hisdays in a very small room.
In the construction of a Stupa, besides including the necessary relics,
perhaps the greatest importance was to build it in the correct Maṇḍala
shape. Even though in the Maldives Stupas ceased to be built eight
hundred years ago, the Maṇḍala as a decorative symbol in architecture
endured many years after the Buddhist sites were desecrated. The basic
plan of every dwelling place of Maldivians was assumed to have a fourcornered basic Maṇḍala layout and its rectangular design was assumed to
be a square. Before setting the foundations, a house had to be oriented
correctly by the astrologer. The door of the house had to correspond to152

an auspicious direction and it was placed at the centre of the front wall.
Later, added verandahs or rooms made the plan of the house end up
having a rough Maṇḍala shape.
This basic Maṇḍala pattern remained such an important feature inbuilding that mosques built six and seven centuries after the destructionof the last Buddhist places of worship have Maṇḍalas carved and painted
in their ceilings or on their doors. Furthermore, until the mid-nineteennineties, when the custom of decorating the rudders of fishing boats wasabandoned, most fishing boats carried Maṇḍala-based designs etched andpainted on their rudder.
It is not known whether anybody was aware of the significance ofMaṇḍala-type symbols after Islam became the official religion, but it isunderstandable that, among fishermen, there is an obsession with being
correctly oriented geographically. This definitely makes sense in a country
where 99% of the territory is very Deep Ocean. Islands barely rise above
the horizon and are quickly lost, especially during bad weather. The
formless and directionless liquid surface of the Indian Ocean dominates
the landscape of the Maldives. Evil spirits and giant demons wereassumed to dwell in the ocean depths, ever threatening to overwhelm the
few scattered outposts of human presence in the archipelago.
Thus, Maldivians sought as much as possible to create order out of chaos
not only within the few small islands which they inhabited, but also within
the reduced space of their boats, on which fishermen and traders spent agreat part of their lives. Therefore, it is not surprising that four-pointed
and eight-pointed shapes were about 90% more frequent than six-pointed
or five-pointed forms in Maldive boat decorations. There Maṇḍala-likeforms and also Cakra-like (hakurā) shapes, which will be discussed later,
run into and merge with the shape of the wind rose of the modern
compass.

153

In ancient Maldive geography, lacking accurate maps, islanders of certain
atolls assumed that their particular atoll had a perfect geometrical(circular or square) shape. Thus they fancied themselves as living in agreat Maṇḍala whose calm inner lagoon (eterevaru) and the islands
within it were a safe and relatively hallowed ground (eterevaru),
compared with the dark and dangerous waters of the surrounding ocean(fuṭṭaru). Thus it is interesting to observe that Haddummati Atoll isperceived as having eight divisions, like a Maṇḍala. Besides, there arethree natural Atolls: Miladummaḍulu, Māḷosmaḍulu and Koḷumaḍulu,carrying the word ‘maḍulu’, meaning ‘Maṇḍala’ in Divehi, in their names.
This sacralization of geography was and still is very common all over the
Indian Subcontinent.
The need to protect a certain space and to keep it free of evil influences isstill of great importance in Maldive esoterism. To safeguard the perimeterof a house against evil spirits there is the custom of planting a plant calledkandoḷu137 in the four corners of the compound. This plant is rather
nondescript in appearance, having a large, onion-like bulbous root that is
not edible. Its leaves are long and pale green and the flowers are white. In
certain cases, rows of that plant are neatly arrayed on the four sides ofthe surface needing protection. It grows well in sandy soils and isfrequently found in mosque compounds in the south of Maldives.
In case that there is fear of an imminent evil, the faṇḍita man will draw acircle called ana (or aṇu in the South). This circle can be drawn on thesand with the toes or using a stick. Malevolent forces will not be able toenter the perimeter of the magic circle if it has been traced by a goodsorcerer. The importance of the ana lies not in the skill of tracing it, but inthe correct reciting of powerful mantras while it is being drawn.138

137

Kenduḷu in the South. Crinum Asiaticum (Seashore lily).

138

Information by Boṇḍorāge Muhammad Didi, Fua Mulaku.
154

An ana doesn’t need to be circular. It can have different shapes and sizes
according to the place that has to be protected. For example, around ahouse it will be square. If the ana is around an entire island it will have theshape of the island and it will be traced with a stick. If it is around a boat,
it will be traced by the sorcerer with his ritual knife (masdaiyffiohi) and it
will have the shape of the boat. The smallest ana or magic circle is usually
the one the faṇḍita man traces around himself with his toe when he sees
the need of protecting his own person.
Another way to keep the evil spirits away from a holy ground, or evenfrom a homestead, was to fool the spirits. In the Friday Mosque in Male’
there are little false doors, complete with key, carved on the sides of thebuilding. These were meant to mislead the prowling demons. Finallyduring epidemics, which are highly inauspicious times, homesteads used
to be protected against wandering evil spirits by means of low fences
across the island paths made of sticks and woven palm leaves, so thatspirits may be fooled into believing that there is no path. These wereerected during the night on the island paths leading to the house andwere removed at daybreak.
Finally, it was important to have a great tree growing in every island,
usually in its center, close to human habitations. These were usuallynika139 (banyan) or boigas (bo) trees which, besides providing shade,served as an important reference point towering above the coconut andother small island trees. Fishermen badly needed such landmarks in acountry where usually the highest point is the coconut palm and islands
quickly sink below the horizon after a relatively short distance. Most ofthese trees were cut in the nearly vandalistic urbanization policies that did
away with the traditional harmony of homestead, controlled tree
plantation and slightly winding road pattern. During the last decades not

139

Known as kirigehe or kirigas in the Southern atolls
155

only these venerable giants, but also many invaluable ancient mosques,
carved tombstones and other treasures were thoroughly destroyed underthe express orders of high Maldivian government officers.

156

1.5.1 THE LAW OF JEALOUSY
The distance between the Northern and Southern ends of the Maldive
archipelago, About 900 Km between Turākunu at the northern and Gan at
the southern end, is huge compared to the surface of the available dryland.140 Like Chile, it is a long and narrow country aligned north to south.
Its inhabited islands lie scattered in about 23 natural atolls which areoften separated from each other by vast expanses of deepest ocean.
But, despite the great distances, the daily life of Maldivians in theindividual islands shows very few differences all along the length of theAtoll chain. Except for the capital, Male’ (pop. 60,000), the environment inmost islands is dominated by practically the same small number ofingredients: trees of a few types, low houses with small yards, thewaterside always close at hand and almost no dramatic variations in thelandscape.
The Maldives has about 200 inhabited islands. The typical population isabout 300 inhabitants per island, distributed in about fifty households.
Although there are a variety of physical types, Maldivians have neverdivided themselves along racial lines and, in spite of linguistic divisions,they have always tended to regard themselves as a homogeneous group.
The island atmosphere may well appear as extremely dull to an outsider.
Maldive rural life revolves around the same main activities: Men gofishing, boat-building and to climb coconut trees, while womenfolk areusually engaged in looking after the children, cooking and sweeping theisland. Some tasks would be performed by both sexes, such as thatchingroofs, preparing for trade journeys, or exploiting the coconut palm and its
multiple products. Notwithstanding their tediousness and repetitiveness,

140

Counting Minicoy (now under Indian administration), the total distance is over1000 Km
157

all these activities have been traditionally a source of endless interest forislanders.
Maldivians were attracted to the things that were part of their own cozyworld. Not only did they find life in the sameness of their own
communities exciting, but, what is more important, they experienced it as
an organic whole. This idea of wholeness was revered to the extent thatevents like death, love, anger, disease and jealousy, were inseparablefrom their other, more mundane, activities such as fishing and trading.
Divehi people lived in a balanced, self-contained environment, where
external interference was minimal; and whenever the latter occurred, it
was immediately rendered harmless.
Traditionally, Maldivians used to show but little interest in othercountries. Old men who had been on trading journeys to India andCeylon, concentrated their attention on the products in the market theywould bring to their island. I got little from most of them by the way ofdescriptions of landscapes and people in the foreign lands they had
visited. The islanders’ curiosity for foreign things would be mostly
restricted to the inspection of flotsam. Most would scan the beach at
sunrise to see what had drifted to their island with the current and wave
action during the night.
Their hope was to find things that could make a person rich overnight,
such as ambergris, and in ancient times also tavakkāṣi, Coco-de-Mer
drifting from Praslin Island in the Seychelles.141 But commonly what
Maldivian beachcombers found was driftwood of varying sizes,

141

Before the 16th century AD, when the Seychelles were uninhabited and nobody
was picking those coconuts, the tavakkāṣi would fall in the sea and the currents
would carry them to the Maldivian coast. It was an important trading item backthen, along with ambergris (māvaharu) and cowry shells (tuttu boli)
158

containers, glass buoys, pieces of nets, and other floating junk.142 These
items would be brought home where uses would be found for them.
Within their environment Maldive Islanders had a choice to discard or
accept things coming from outside. Thus, what they accepted was readilytaken for granted and integrated into their world.
As Maldivians saw their hallowed little world as being perfect andharmonious, balance was an important concept in their society. Owing tothis importance, anger, hatred and suspicion towards what, according toeach individual’s perception, was upsetting this harmony, was justified.
Thus jealousy was sanctified as a natural impulse. In the following story
from Aḍḍu Atoll, the mistrust of outside influences is well expounded:143
The Sandbank of the Seabirds“Once upon a time, in a certain Atoll there was a large sandbank. It was ina privileged location, far away from the large islands inhabited byhumans, which were barely visible in the horizon. Food was abundant
there. The turquoise-blue lagoon close-by was teeming with schools ofsilvery fish. During low tide, a huge number of small crabs, sea worms andother animals found themselves exposed on the dry coral reef. Hence, alarge number of seabirds felt safe there and used to breed and find rest on
its white sands.

142

This interest can have tragic consequences too. In 1915, in Kuḍarikilu island,Māḷosmaḍulu Atoll, a floating steel mine drifted to the beach. When some islanders
tried to break open the strange object with iron rods (fāntila), it exploded killing not
only the people that were working on it, but a great number of onlookers too.
143

Told in 1986 by Karānge Hasan Dīdī of Fua Mulaku. He said that long ago aman from Aḍḍu (Rekibea) had told him this story.
159

One day, shortly before sunset, a Dīkoi bird144 flew to it and asked for
permission from the seabirds to stay overnight with them. They didn’t
seem very happy, so he pleaded: “Please let me stay! I was flying from one
island to the other and I am very tired. I cannot fly any longer and I mightfall into the sea and die. If you let me stay, I will not bother you and I
promise I will leave tomorrow before sunrise.”
The birds could see he was exhausted and felt sorry for him, so they
allowed the newcomer to stay. The Dīkoi looked for a dry place well above
the waterline, settled comfortably there, and immediately fell asleep.
Later in the night, under the starry sky, the oldest bird made sure that the
Dīkoi was sleeping and then went to the far end of the sandbank. There hegathered the other seabirds around him and spoke thus: “I didn’t say
anything before because I know you birds are very foolish and wouldn’t
have paid attention to my words anyway. However, I am telling you thatyou made a big error by allowing that land bird to sleep here among us. I
am sure that something bad will happen because of him.”
The other birds were annoyed. One of them confronted the old seabird:“The Dīkoi was tired. He had nowhere else to go. We did a good thing!”
The old bird just said: “One day you will know I was right.” After that hewent to sleep. Soon all the other birds fell asleep too.
At dawn, the Dīkoi, refreshed after a good night’s rest, flew away towards
his destination. The seabirds mocked the old bird saying: “You are always
worrying too much. You see, nothing happened.”
But, unnoticed by the other birds, the intruder had left traces on the
sandbank. His droppings carried seeds from berries he had eaten. Welllodged in the sand above the waterline, the steady wind covered themwith a layer of fine sand. After the first rains, one of the seeds germinated
144

The local cuckoo-bird (Culculus saturatus), known as koveli in Male’.
160

and a pale-green bush began to grow. The birds eyed it at first withcuriosity.
Months passed and the old bird, pointing at the big bush told the otherbirds: “Look! Before, this never happened. Soon there will be many bushes
on our sandbank and we will have to move away.” The birds eyed it at firstwith curiosity. Since it was providing some shade and protection, they
thought the bush was all right, and said: “Old bird is always grumbling.”
Soon berries falling from that bush sprouted. As time went by the wholesurface of the sandbank not reached by the tides was covered by lush,
green vegetation.
One day a fisherman landed on the sandbank with his small dōni andinspected it. Back on his island he wrote a letter to the Atoll Chief asking
for the right to use the new islet. As soon as the Atoll chief granted him
permission the man decided to plant coconut trees on it. Thus, a few days
later the man went to the sandbank in the morning carrying small coconut
palms and planted them among the bushes. He also planted other types oftrees, such as diggai and kauṇi,145 which grow well in such poor soil andprovide wood and shade. During the following months he used to go
occasionally to see how his trees were doing.
Years passed and the palm trees produced coconuts. Then the fisherman
built a hut and dug a well in the middle of the island. Now the man went
often to the islet with his wife and children. He used to harvest coconuts
while the woman looked for firewood. The children loved to scare theseabirds and looked for their eggs to eat. Their father caught every now

145

Diggā and kāni in the Male’ form of Divehi (Hibiscus tiliaceus and Cordia
subcordata)
161

and then a seabird and brought it home with its legs tied and its wingtips
cut.146
Finally, one night in the faint starlight, the old seabird gathered his few
and battered surviving companions at the tip of the island. He was now
almost blind and crippled with age and spoke gravely: “I warned you but
you didn’t heed my words. Now this island is not a safe place for us. It
doesn’t belong to us anymore. I told you long ago something bad would
happen. Now we will have to leave.”
And when dawn came, all the birds, giving a last, sorrowful look at theisland they had lost, flew away in search of a safer place to settle.
When islanders felt their community threatened by some dangerous
interference, they tried to destroy it by gossip; and if this didn’t work,
they resorted to secret violent action. Sometimes, what infringed theiridea of harmony could be something hypothetical, like the perceived
damage to their community resulting from a girl being far more pretty
than the average local female. In this case, even though the potential
threat might lie in the far future, it would be taken very seriously. For
example, in the popular Divehi story ‘Don Hiyalā and Alifuḷu’, where
Hiyalā’s mother’s first six baby girls were killed right after birth by the
midwife for being ‘too beautiful’.
Maldivians would police their own community themselves, which is also
connected to the fact that, in their traditional society, there was always akeen interest in the activities of others. This is still true to some extent
today, where the government easily finds individuals who willingly informon the behavior of their neighbors and kin. Therefore, since there is awhole spontaneous network of tattle-telling people all over the country,

146

Maldivians used to like to keep seabirds in their backyards as pets. Left at themercy of the children, their life was often miserable.
162

real friendships, in the sense that one would strive to protect and standfor a friend in trouble, are rare among Divehi people.
Mutual distrust has even worsened with the introduction of puritanicalmeasures (censorship, segregation of sexes, enforcement of Islamic codesof dress and behavior, etc.) since the beginning of the 1980’s. Puritanism
breeds intransigence and, in turn, intransigence breeds denunciation, areadiness to report, to betray and to inform on others’ behavior.
The story that follows is an introduction to the world of island gossip anddeflected aggression. This type of indirect violence occurs when an
islander wants to hurt somebody who has caused him or her something
perceived as an outrage:147
The Man Who Burned the Mosque“Long ago, on an island, lived a man who was known for being prone toanger. One day, he had a grudge against some people living in a certain
part of his island, concerning the ownership of some coconut trees. When
the Nāibu148 ruled in favor of the others and declared that the trees
belonged to them, this man became very angry.
Hiding his wrath, he patiently waited for the night to come. Then he went
to the mosque that was at the other end of the island, in the area where
the people he hated lived. It was midnight and nobody walked the streetsat that time. Upon entering the mosque, he took the little oil lamp,149 went
147

Told by in 1987 by Rafīgu, Daḍimago, Fua Mulaku.

148

The island judge, the official dispensing justice before the government
introduced a system of courts.
149

Lamps were kept burning all night in every mosque in the Maldives. It isconsidered a very bad omen if the lamp in the mosque is blown out. A dark mosquemight be invaded by malevolent spirits lurking close by.
163

outside and after setting fire to the ends of the thatch roofing, he threw
the lamp to the ground. Hurriedly, he left the mosque compound andwalked away as fast as he could. He was glad that he met no one on thedark streets and, as soon as he arrived home he went to bed.
Meanwhile, the roof of the mosque caught fire very fast because it was
the dry season. When the people living close by heard the crackling noises
and noticed the bright flare, they got up at once and hurried to the site of
the conflagration. But it was already too late to save anything, because
the beams had caught fire also. Men, women and children, stood at theedge of the compound and watched helplessly as the mosque wasconsumed by flames.
In the morning, the angry man woke up and went out. Passing close to agroup of women, he overheard the people talking about the mosquehaving been burnt. During the day, as he visited different houses, henoticed that no one was wondering about who had put the mosque on
fire. They didn’t seem to suspect any one of having committed the wicked
deed.
Now, this angry man was an irritable person, lacking in judgment and hegrew very restless. He had the impression that all the people in the island
knew something that they wanted to keep him from knowing. This wasperhaps because, in his fear, he thought he would end up being caught
some day anyway, for there is a Maldive proverb saying that offenders
eventually always end up being brought to justice.150 Hence, try as hemight he couldn’t sleep well that night suspecting that, although thepeople knew it was him, there was a conspiracy not to tell him so.
The following morning he approached the same group of women close tohis home and asked them: “Do people say that it is me who has burned the150″Thousand days a robber, one day under (the power of) the ruler.″164mosque?” They were a bit surprised by his question and also noticed thefear in his face. When they answered “No, nobody said it was you whoburned the mosque!” the women could see that he was clearly relieved
and they grew suspicious.
Then the angry man went on, in the same manner, to the other people hehad been with the previous day and all gave him the same answer. Thus
he went back home, feeling that a weight had been lifted from him andslept soundly that night.
Meanwhile, all the people in the island talked about how anxiously the
angry man had been asking around whether anybody was accusing him ofhaving burned the mosque. This news reached the island authority. The
Nāibu, after pondering about the matter, ordered the sarudāru (towncrier, a petty government officer) to bring the angry man to his home. At
first, when the Nāibu asked him: “Who burned the mosque?” the man was
irritated and lied, claiming that he was sleeping at that time. But, after
having been intensely questioned by the Nāibu, the man finally gave up
and confessed. Immediately, he was arrested and kept confined. Later, asa punishment, he was given a hundred lashes and was banished toanother island.
Nowadays in the Maldives, when someone, possibly moved by guilt, asks
questions trying to find out whether others are talking about some wrong
that he himself (or herself) has done, people would say: “Just like the man
who burned the mosque!”This type of oblique aggression is especially common in the islands among
jilted lovers. Instead of physically attacking the person who won over thefavors of the woman (or man), the embittered individual would rather
choose to inflict damage on objects belonging to or cherished by theoffender. Often groups of girls from other islands on a visit are the targetof vicious indirect attacks by local females, resenting the attention theirown island men folk are giving to the visitors.
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In former times, these somewhat intense rivalries between islands weresometimes mitigated by staging celebrations. One of these was a festival
called Maulūdu, where the local islanders had to build a large, open-sided
pavilion with wooden poles. They would thatch it with coconut-palm
fronds and decorate it with oil lamps and special patchwork draperies.
The day of the event, special food would be prepared and beautifully
displayed for the benefit of a great number of guests coming from theirrival island (or village), in their best dresses, on festively decorated boats.
Here the host islanders had to prove themselves hospitable in the
preparations and accommodation, in order to be able to compare
favorably when it was their own turn to receive hospitality in the rivalisland on a similar occasion.151
Owing to the obsession with harmony, extravagance was not tolerated
and no one was allowed to escape the gregarious instincts of the group.
Hence, nowadays, the sudden influx of money into hitherto poor families
by young men working as seamen is the cause of a great number oftensions in almost all islands. Flaunting one’s wealth creates extreme
resentment, and it never goes ignored. Neighbors would complain
bitterly: “Now those (low) people have become high people too!” or “Theywere nobody before and now they have sent their parents to Hajj!” or“They have become so arrogant (foni), they have built a tall wall aroundtheir new house.”
Paradoxically playing often into the very hands of the people showing off
newly obtained status symbols, there is the traditional, unavoidable andall-pervading curiosity about the new acquisitions and changes in lifestyleof others within the village. This interest in other people’s affairs can besaid to be common to all rural areas of the world, where communities are
small; and villages in the islands are indeed small places, where there is151

Source: Magieduruge Ibrahīm Dīdī. Fua Mulaku Island.
166

literally no physical space to escape each other’s presence. However, theobsessive need to equalize, and the aggressiveness displayed in bringing
everyone down to the same level, cannot be explained away in the samemanner and it is possibly a cultural trait which Maldivians share with thefishing people of the South Indian coasts. This need often expresses itself
in destructive ways, like in the Doṅ Hiyalā story above.
Kalpana Ram, in her lucid study of the Mukkuvar community of Kanya
Kumari district, sees in the jealousy of the Southern Indian fishermen apreoccupation with the absence of harmony in the community. This takes
place after the introduction of elements of disequilibrium, which in turnexcite deep-lying resentments:“The paramount emotion underlying Mukkuvar analysis of psychic andsocial imbalance is the sentiment of porāmai or envy. It refers to theinfinite capacity of human beings to want what cannot be had, a capacity
which turns rancid with frustration. It is therefore a subset of the broader
category of desire, in this case desire full of resentment over the good
fortune of another. It is porāmai which underlies attempts by villagers to
employ sorcery on one another, thus providing the entry point forsupernatural agencies to attack. In a community where even daily food is
an uncertainty, porāmai need not focus on anything extraordinary: eventhe ability of a neighbouring family to feed itself may be sufficient. An old
woman was described as one who was so envious that she would ‘resent
the smoke from a neighbour’s hearth.”152
In the traditional Divehi background, envious sentiments would beallowed to be permanently active as a regulatory force in society and,hence, they would be taken for granted. Even so, it is not less true thatislanders would be, at the same time, keenly aware of the dangers ofdesire as the cause of extreme jealousy. One of the worst ways of152

Kalpana Ram, ‘Mukkuvar Women’.
167insulting somebody would be to refer to that person as ‘dahi’, whichmeans extreme eagerness, covetousness and greediness. Generosity andan elegant detachment from things material are held in high esteem.
Hence in Maldivian popular wisdom, the worst sins are greed, arroganceand anger, thus ‘dahi’, ‘foni’ and ‘ruḷi gada’ are common insults, intended
to dismiss a person as unworthy.

168

1.5.2 DISPLAY OF ANGER
In traditional Divehi society there was practically no private space foranyone. Houses were small and people relaxed and did their daily chores
mostly in the open, under the shade of the trees or in open verandahs
which are known as feṇḍā in the North of the country and nivaidaṣo in
the South. The doors of the house ―there used to be a front door and aback door― were opened at dawn and kept ajar until the evening, whenpeople retired to sleep. Anybody was welcome to enter the houseanytime. People didn’t resent visits, because they considered that a home
visited by many was blessed. There were no separate quarters for womenand for men in the traditional houses of Maldivians and their surrounding
compounds, except that men usually didn’t enter the kitchen. However,this owes rather to a sexual division of labor than of space.153
There is barely elbow room for everyone in such a reduced physicalenvironment. As a consequence, island life places many constraints andstresses on the people living in the community. In their average daily life,
islanders are very calm and quiet people. They usually speak in a mild
voice and avoid gesticulating and showing emotion. Gentleness,refinement, self-control and discretion are highly acclaimed virtues. Direct
violence is very rare and is considered a big crime. If one person hits
another, he or she will be immediately arrested. Often, within this social
scenario, tensions provoked by jealousy run deep, because there is hardly
any way of defusing them.
When anger builds up beyond a certain point, it usually explodes in theform of fierce verbal street fights and I saw such expressions of anger in a
number of islands, North and South. Some people claim that their own

153

Labor divisions were of paramount importance in ancient Maldivian society.
Fishing and climbing the coconut trees were male activities, while the womencooked, fetched water, looked for firewood and tended the taro fields
169island people don’t indulge in such wild behavior, but I had no means ofchecking the truth of such statements. It is likely that if one stays longenough in any island of the Maldives, sooner or later that person will
witness these loud, open-air, verbal street fights between different
families.
People live their lives mostly in full view of others and, in the absence ofprivacy repressed grudges very soon become public matters. When things
get out of hand, women, especially the middle-aged ones, take the lead infights among families. The reason behind this is that their persistence,
fierceness and fury in verbal battles usually make them stronger thanmale opponents.154 In these fights, both contenders begin by facing eachother in an open space, separated by a distance of about 10 m. At thehead, on either end, stands a woman sideways, legs apart, with her headturned towards her opponent. One foot is resolutely set forward and herchin is raised in defiance. She shows her anger by projecting her left handforward, her fingers deftly moving according to the insult or accusation
she is hurling, while her right hand rests on her hip.
Voices aren’t very loud when the quarrel begins. Usually the complaints
are described in detail with a whiny voice. Further on, accusations andinsults follow, the pitch rising as the fight progresses and the supporters,aligned at the back, intervene in the battle. Sometimes a supporter may
temporarily take the lead, if a certain insult particularly offends her, or
him. As the fight reaches its paroxysm, the leaders start making wild
motions, jumping, yelling incoherent words at each other. They do so
beating their flat hand with their fist, making threatening gestures with154

“It is a generally admitted fact in South India that it is the Dravidian women
rather than the men who are adepts in the use of bad language and vigorous termsof defamation. Aryan and Muhammadan influence has somewhat suppressed theDravidian women, yet it is commonly known that these women usually secure theirown way, and that by methods not always pleasant.” W.T. Elmore, “Dravidian Godsin Modern Hinduism.”170

their arms, grotesque grimaces with their face and disheveling their hair.
Relatives, male and female, usually try to intervene at this point of thefight, in a half-hearted, and mostly futile, attempt to calm the participants
down. The fact is that such fierce anger follows its own course, and noamount of threats or good advice can stop it.
Towards the end, within a frenzied display of rhythmic movements andscreams, the contenders seem to be in a trance, oblivious of the crowd. At
this stage, there are cases of women who become so furious, that theytake off their clothes and walk away dragging their libās in one hand andtheir waistcloth in the other. The display of their sexual parts to theiropponent is acknowledged to be the ultimate insult.155 Usually this is thepoint when, among the jeers of spectators, who are sitting or standing at
a prudent distance, the fight is over. It may nevertheless keep simmering
for some hours or even days, until it flares up again.
Though the contenders may reduce the initial distance during the fight,
and practically do look as if they are going to kill each other, they neverresort to direct physical violence. Nevertheless, the sight of the face of anangry Maldivian woman in the heat of a verbal street-fight is, by any
standard, awesome.
The average life-experience of Maldive Islanders provides them with
ample opportunities to experience the horrifying and dangerous side offemininity. People of both sexes and all ages are so familiar with villagefeuds led by women that, even if privately they complain about thosefights, they resign themselves to accepting them as an unavoidable facet

155

Even though generally such behavior would be frowned upon, the boldness
involved in this action commands respect. Women who had removed all theirclothes in public at some point in their lives, didn’t want to talk about theexperience. However, they smiled mischievously and acknowledged the admirationof the people who pointed them out to me (“Mi vara’ varu hurī kerē dattā”) with acertain amount of pride.
171

of female darker nature. Thus, in island communities, both the gentle andthe fierce aspects of women are taken as two sides of the same coin.
Although women engaged in such duels are perfectly normal people
leading average lives, occasionally, a middle-aged woman’s charactersours and she turns into a person who is permanently angry. Thiscondition is considered to be some type of natural disorder not related tospirit or demon possession, which is quite common among island womenand is known as avaluṅ (or as jinni avaluṅ). Islanders have a special awe
for this condition and look at it with respect and fear, because the demon
is deemed to be holding onto the person.
All these symptoms of aberrant behavior are reckoned to be bordering
the state of madness or lunacy which is called duniyēṅ moya vuṅ.156 The
most common signs of this condition include, among attacks of fury,
keeping hair unkempt, being careless about dress and generalappearance, and abandoning of duties. While against demon-possessionfaṇḍita (magic) is deemed effective, madness is reckoned to be a hopelessstate against which there is no cure.
In the Maldives, for some reason, it is practically always women who arelikely to be prone to demon-possession, fits of anger and madness. It is
generally acknowledged that this condition afflicts women only after
puberty, when they are sexually mature, and never during childhood.
Thus, islanders assume that there is a connection between active female
sexuality and madness. The following article from the local press narrates
a recent event involving adolescent girls that took place in Alifuṣi Island,
North Māḷosmaḍulu Atoll:“Girl Students overcome by unexplained force in classrooms in Raa Alifushi/ Islanders believe school may be hexed

156

Duniēṅ Mua vun in the South (Aḍḍu Atoll and Fua Mulaku).
172

Alifushi, Raa Atoll, August 07 1999 (HNS) - for two weeks now strange
incidents have been occurring at Raa Alifushi School involving most of its
female students, Island Chief Abdul Matheen said Saturday.
Halfway through classes girls start crying, after a while fall unconscious to
the floor and on waking up lose their senses and go raving mad, Matheen
said.
Every day 14 girls come under this strange spell and on some days even 20
or more girls. “All this happens in the classrooms of the island school. We
can’t get one girl outside and under control before the same thing starts
happening to others,” Matheen said.
The incidents have been explained to both the Atoll Office and the
Education Ministry in turn and investigation is to start into the cause of
these disturbances to the girls.
According to some islanders Matheen said, this is the work of a “darkspell” placed on the school and it would have to be cleansed to make thespirits go away.
“It could be some physical or mental defect, altogether non-spiritual but
we still haven’t found the reason for this behavior from the girls,”
Matheen said.157
Women who display a tendency towards possession play an importantrole in the folk religion among the Dravidian peoples of the neighboring
Subcontinent. Rituals where girls are possessed by the goddess arecommon in Kerala, especially in tribal areas. In the Tuḷu folk religion, awoman possessed by Siri cannot be scolded nor given stressful work andhas to be looked after.158 Among the Maldive Islanders, women possessed
157

Havīru Newspaper, Male’, August 8th 1999

158

L. Honko, ‘The Siri Epic’, Turku University, Finnland.
173

by spirits are assumed to always speak the truth and are allowed to getaway with any type of offence, no matter how outrageous or shocking.
In many tourist guidebooks about Maldives it is stated that owing to theabsence of violence, the atmosphere of the country is generally pleasantand safe. However, this is rather the romantic perception of an
uninformed outsider. It is true that a foreigner would feel quite safe inany Maldive island, for he would neither fear the local spirits nor the local
magic; possibly the latter has no effect on foreigners, as they arereckoned to be somehow out of the system of island beliefs with theircauses and effects. But strong undercurrents have always stirred theapparent calmness of the society’s surface and, in their own islands
Maldivians are constantly worried about the activity of evil spirits, feuds
between families, tyranny of government officials and sorcery performed
on one another.
In order to understand how the atmosphere of an island feels from thepoint of view of Maldivians themselves, one should become familiar withthe world of secret magic spells and how and when they are used. In thisstory set in Huvadū Atoll a long-repressed grudge and the use of strongfaṇḍita to bring down the Atoll Chief, a person enjoying high status andgood fortune, are portrayed among other important island traits andpreoccupations:
Hiya Ari Ariegga’ Hiya Va’“Long ago, in the island of Vādū,159 lived a handsome middle-aged man
named Kanubē. Although he was blind (kanu =blind), he was never alone.

159

Vādu is an island of Huvadū Atoll famous for good magicians. The South of theMaldives, usually more traditional than the North of the country, is assumed to be“the place where things happen” by Maldivians and most legends come from thatend of the archipelago
174

All the time a boy called Gōtidonfutu served as his eyes and hands. The
young boy cooked, washed, and helped Kanubē in everything he needed.
They were very good friends. No one ever saw them quarrel.
At that time Vādū was the capital of the Atoll.160 The Atoll Chief had his
house, called Vāruge,161 in that island. One day, the Atoll chief decided
that the Atoll needed an oḍi, a big trading ship. Thus, he prepared to build
the Atoll oḍi and gave orders that everybody had to go to the forest to
look for wood. People from all the islands in the atoll had to contribute,
bringing in food, equipment, building supplies, and anything needed forthe construction work. This matter was so important that the day camewhen the Atoll officials came to Gōtidonfutu and told him,” You mustcome too.”
The boy turned to Kanubē and touched him on the arm. After keeping
silent for some time, Kanubē said, “Go!” Gōtidonfutu did so, obediently.
He left, feeling sorry for the blind old man left alone.
The boy worked hard that whole day, that night, and the next morning. He
was only allowed to go back home in the afternoon. Kanubē asked, “Didyou cut sticks?”“Yes. They are the poles for the haruge (an open-sided pavilion).”“What else?”
With bright eyes the boy answered, “So many people brought things to theAtoll house that they had to build a separate warehouse to store them.”

160

A claim made often by storytellers to stress the importance of their own island.
However, it is seldom supported by historical evidence. In this case, the storyteller,from the North of the country, was unlikely to promote his own island though.
161

Vāruge was the residence of the Royal Tax Collector. The atoll chief had theauthority to impose the royal tax (vāru).
175

Kanubē seemed to ponder over what the boy said, and didn’t speak for awhile. After some time, he said abstractedly, “Good, very good!”
They went to sleep early that night because Gōtidonfutu was very tired.
After one month, when all the materials were ready, the construction of
the oḍi started. The people at Vāruge, the Atoll Chief’s house, cooked for azikuru162 celebration and that same night, they recited the zikuru. Many
people came to eat, sing and dance at the pavilion, but not Kanubē, whostayed home with the boy.
Quite late in the night, when the celebration was at its height, Kanubē andthe boy went to the beach. As they silently walked back home from theshore, the man said, “Let’s go to wash our feet at Vāruge’s well!” Whenthey arrived there they could hear the noise of merrymaking in thepavilion and Kanubē said to Gōtidonfutu, “Get me an ilōṣi”163 Then hewent to the trunk of a banana tree and drew a magical figure. He held theilōṣi over one point and said, “Go take a look at the people in the haruge
and tell me how they are doing.”
The boy went to look, and was amazed to see that every man and woman
inside the beautifully lit and decorated pavilion had stopped in the middleof what they were doing. Then he went back to Kanubē and told him what
he had seen.
Kanubē thrust the ilōṣi into the center of the figure and said, “Let’s gohome.” As soon as they arrived home, he took a knife and wrote somemagical signs on it in letters that the boy had never seen. He said to theboy: “Go now and thrust the knife into the center of the figure, then takethe ilōṣi out, break it in two, throw it away, and bring back the knife.”

162

A community festival featuring religious chantiung similar to Maulūdu.

163

The hard stem from the blades of the coconut frond.
176

Gōtidonfutu did so. From the darkness he spied the pavilion lit with many
vo’.164 Around the sides of the haruge were hung white sheets sewn withbeautiful designs of black and red cloth flowers and stripes. Everythingappeared normal. People were talking and eating, as if they had not
noticed that time had stopped.
He went back home thoughtfully. “I have known Kanubē for many years.
But I never knew that he could do those magical things. He never told me
about that.” And yet, he loved Kanubē like a father, so he could not be
afraid of him. But he kept wondering. When he arrived home, he watched
Kanubē sleeping peacefully for a long time.
The next day, Kanubē never mentioned the strange events of the previous
night, and acted as if nothing had happened. While the keel of the oḍi wasbeing built, people talked about some strange feeling they had that nightin the middle of the zikuru. They did not know how to describe it. However,as the construction work went on and everything else seemed normal, themood in the island was happy and carefree.
After some weeks, the Atoll chief sailed to Male’ to visit the Radun.165
When he went to the royal palace to have an audience with him, he began
discussing the affairs in his Atoll. Finally, the chief had a chance to talkabout his oḍi and courteously asked the Radun for a contribution towards
building it. Since they were friends, and were talking informally andprivately, the Radun felt free to tell him bluntly: “I have nothing now, myfriend. These are not very good times economically. But, I have here a very

164

Vo’ (veṣe in Aḍḍu and voṭṭā in Huvadū), round bronze or brass oil lamps withseven wicks and a chain to suspend them from a hook. They were usually imported
from South India and it is said that they produced a pleasant, subdued light165

Or Rasgefānu. Both of these are respectful Divehi words for “king” instorytelling. The official Arabic title ‘Sultān’ is never used in common speech177good banana plant I can give you.” So he ordered that three shoots of thatplant be given to the Atoll Chief.
The Atoll Chief valiantly swallowed his disappointment as is expected froma man of his standing. After bidding farewell to the King, he brought thethree shoots to the boat and sailed back to his island. There he planted thethree shoots close to Vāruge. Soon he forgot about his unfruitful visit, forthere was a lot of activity and the oḍi was to be finished within the month.
During those weeks, Kanubē lived his usual peaceful life. Gōtidonfutu wasimmensely relieved that he did not see him doing anything mysterious
again. Meanwhile, the banana plants grew and gave fruit with amazing
speed. One of the bananas produced a very big bunch: “Hiya ari ariegga’hiya vah.”166 It was so big that even the Radun heard about it.
Gōtidonfutu reported to Kanubē about the progress of the work on the oḍiand he also told him about the bananas. When the oḍi was finished,
Kanubē asked “Is it a nice ship?”“Yes. Soon the Atoll Chief will be sailing on it to Male’.”That same night, after supper, Kanubē said to the boy, “Let’s take a walkto the beach.”
As they strolled along the seashore, Kanubē said, “Let’s go to Vāruge’s
well to wash our feet.” When they were there, washing their feet, theblind man said, “Remember you told me about that big banana bunch?
Where is it? Show it to me.”166

A formidable bunch having ninety-six (hiyā) clusters of ninety-six bananas.
Clearly an exaggeration, as the average bunch has a mere eight clusters of aboutsixteen bananas each
178

The boy brought him there. Touching it admiringly, Kanubē said, “Howbig! So this is it! I am amazed.” He turned to Gōtidonfutu and said, “Gofetch my big knife.”
Gōtidonfutu was shocked, but had to obey. While the blind man waited,
he went home and brought the knife. Then the boy watched Kanubē sever
the huge banana bunch from the stalk with great precision. He didn’t lookat all like an old blind man. He seemed bigger, stronger, and younger.
They carried the banana bunch far away, and wrapped it in big banana
leaves. Then, they dug a pit and buried it. The blind man and the boy
carefully covered over the spot, not leaving a trace. As they had beenworking very hard, they slept soundly that night.
In the morning, the oḍi was launched amidst great rejoicing. Drinking
water, cargo and food were brought aboard. As the Atoll chief proudly
stepped on his ship’s deck, a boy on the stern said, “I heard that we would
bring that big banana bunch to the Radun.”
The Atoll chief exclaimed, “Yes! Yes! How could I forget about it?” Quickly
he sent a group of fourteen men ashore to look for it. However, when theyreached the grove, they just saw the empty stalk. Puzzled, they went backto the Atoll Chief and reported, “There is no banana bunch. Only the stalkis there.”
The Atoll Chief was incensed. He immediately stopped the travel
preparations and shouted: “We are not going to Male’!” Then he went
ashore fuming.
Everyone knew that the Atoll Chief was a big faṇḍita man. But first he told
all the islanders to look for the banana bunch. Everybody looked for it, butthey did not find it. A search party arriving near Kanubē’s house wasdiscussing, “Why should we go there? He’s blind. It’s useless.” However,someone said “But the Atoll Chief said we must look everywhere for thebananas, so we must look here too.” Thus, they went into the house and179respectfully addressed the blind man, “Kanubē, we are looking for abanana bunch. We must search this house also.”
Kanubē asked, “Which banana bunch?”“That big one at Vāruge,” answered the men.
“Oh, I am going around robbing every night, am I?” he said, acting
offended.
Ashamed, they mumbled, “No, no. We are sorry. We are leaving.” In thismanner, they searched the entire island but did not find it.
Seething with anger, the Atoll Chief declared, “Today, this banana bunchmust be found!” However, the night fell, and it was not found.
That same evening, Kanubē said to Gōtidonfutu, “Go to the beach tonight,
and stay there. Catch a few small fishes on the reef, but keep them alive.”
Gōtidonfutu went to the beach in the night to fish. The boy caught threehikā and carried them in a large coconut-shell vessel.167 When he returned
home it was dawn. Kanubē was sleeping. Softly, the boy woke him up.
The man ordered, “Put the hikā in a clean pot of sea water. Don’t let themdie.”Meanwhile, the Atoll chief, after sleeping badly, woke up before daybreakstill full of rage and vowed, “I must make strong magic to find that banana
bunch.” First he ordered all the islanders to gather in front of the empty
stalk. Soon, all the people were there, men and women just roused from167

Wrasses (Coris spp.), small long fishes having a pointed snout living in the
lagoon among the corals close to the surface. Small fish would often be used infaṇḍita, especially the hardy triggerfish (roṇḍu) which survives quite a long timeafter being taken out of the water.
180

their sleep. Many were yawning and scratching their backs; some carriedlamps because it was still dark.
The Atoll Chief took a masdaiyffiohi (knife used in magic) and recited
magic words in a frightening voice. While he was reciting, his legs werebent and the hairs rose on his head. In this manner he walked stiffly
towards the banana tree. The aim of his magic was to kill the person who
had stolen the banana bunch as soon as he thrust the knife into the tree
stalk.
Meanwhile, Kanubē was in front of his home, in the space between thehouse and the kitchen hut. He was reciting magical words too and
Gōtidonfutu was near him, shivering with fear. Kanubē’s countenancelooked terrifying. “Give me one hikā,” he said to Gōtidonfutu. The boy
plunged his hand in the pot, took one of the small fish, and handed it overto Kanubē. The man twisted off the head of the fish and threw it over hisshoulder.
At that moment, one of the Atoll Chief’s legs broke. Undaunted, hecontinued crawling toward the banana tree on all fours.
Again, Kanubē twisted off the head of the second fish.
Instantly, the Atoll Chief’s other leg was broken but he was so full ofdetermination that he resolutely continued pulling himself forward on the
ground using his arms. However, right when he was about to touch thetree, Kanubē twisted off the head of the third fish, and the Atoll Chief
dropped dead.
The boy noticed with relief that Kanubē’s face suddenly relaxed and that
he was looking normal again. Kanubē sighed, “It’s over.” Calmly, he got up
and entered his house.
Meanwhile, all the people in the island were alarmed because of thesudden and unexpected events. Before the sun rose a group of men took181

the corpse of the Atoll Chief and carried it to his home to wash it andprepare it for burial. The death ceremonies took most of the next day.
Kanubē didn’t go to the Atoll Chief’s house. He stayed the whole day athome, but that night, while the boy was sleeping, the man sneaked out of
the house alone. Under the moonlight, he could see his path well. He
walked quickly to the Vāruge and went straight to the Atoll Chief’s
widow’s room, being very careful not to wake up anybody.
The widow was called Doṅ Aisā and she and Kanubē had been madly inlove when they were very young. Unfortunately, she had married the Atoll
Chief because her mother had forced her to do so. Kanubē vividly
remembered the pain in his heart. Doṅ Aisā had been the prettiest girl in
the island back then and now, even if she was past her youth, she was stilla charming and elegant lady.
When Kanubē stealthily entered her room it was dark because the only
light was a very dim oil lamp. The woman was lying on the bed with hereyes half open. He looked at her for a while and felt his heart beating
faster. Softly, Kanubē put his hand on her shoulder.
Doṅ Aisā shuddered, and struck away his hand, angrily exclaiming, “Whois this on the night of my husband’s death?”
He tried to touch her again, but she pushed him away with fierce
determination. Then, as he was not going away, the woman got up
muttering curses, grabbed the ilōṣifati (a broom) and beat him up
savagely. Kanubē was taken off-guard and turned his face away from thedangerous blows, while she, in her fury, beat his back until it bled.
Unable to speak or to cry out, Kanubē had to go away because thewoman’s anger didn’t cool down. The man went back home full of
perplexed thoughts, “We loved each other so much! It cannot be that she
is so angry with me now. She might have not recognized me in the faintlight.” His back was so badly bruised that he had to sleep on his stomach.
182

In the morning when Kanubē awoke, the boy told him, “Kanubē, look at
your back! It looks like somebody has cut a fish for grilling!”
Kanubē lied, “I thought there were some bedbugs on my back, and I
scratched myself with the fōvvaḷi.” (The special scissors to cut arecanut.)
The boy did not say anything, but of course he assumed it was a lie.
Crestfallen, that whole day Kanubē lay on his stomach and Gōtidonfutu
applied medicine to his back.
That night, while the boy slept, Kanubē heard someone unlock the door.
Then, through the darkness, a person came in. As Kanubē, in pain, tried tomake out the shape among the shadows, the intruder was silently inching
forward until she was just above him. He smelt flowers and when helooked up he saw a woman bending over him. It was Doṅ Aisā!
She whispered sweetly “Kanubē! Kanubē!”He hushed her. “Don’t call my name now! Last night you beat me up withall your strength. You almost killed me.”
She opened her eyes wide and her jaw fell in astonishment. “So it was you!
I am so sorry! How could I know? It was dark and I was so confused.”Doṅ Aisā caressed his back very tenderly and sighed “Do you know what? I
endured all these years patiently, thinking always of you and only you.”
At once, Kanubē’s heart filled with warmth. His resentment against her
vanished and he smiled at her. She giggled like a girl now, and exclaimed
full of excitement: “Now our time has come. We must marry!”
Looking into her eyes, he held her hand tightly, “Go home now. I will
arrange it.”183

The next evening there was a full moon. Kanubē sat beside the door. Somepeople passed by on the street, and asked, “What are you doing under thismoonlight?”
Kanubē called them “Come! Come! You must do some thing for me. I want
you to go to Doṅ Aisā. You must perform the raṅ kiyuṅ (a ceremony
preceding marriage) for me.”
They agreed and smiled. Then they went to her and did the raṅ kiyuṅ
ceremony. After finding the necessary witnesses, Doṅ Aisā and Kanubē
married. She went that same night to Kanubē’s house. They spent a nightfull of bliss together. In the morning, Kanubē said to Gōtidonfutu, “You
don’t need to cook for me any more. Datta will cook instead of you.”Something even more surprising happened to Gōtidonfutu. That day herealized that his friend Kanubē was not a blind man after all!
At midday, after lunch was cooked, Kanubē told the boy, “Go to that place
you know, and bring three bananas for us.”The boy did so. When he brought the beautiful bananas, Kanubē looked
out of the corner of his eyes at Doṅ Aisā, to see whether she would sayanything. The woman ate her banana casually, and acted as if nothing had
happened.
One month later, while Kanubē was sitting on the hoḷuasi,168 a dōni arrived
at the island and anchored in its lagoon. When its crew came ashore theywent straight to him and gave him a sealed paper. The sailors said, “This is
the fa’kkoḷu (royal edict or decree) sent to Kanubē by the Radun.”

168

A log platform by the beach under the cool shade of a tree where islanders used
to wait for the fishing or trading boats.
184

Kanubē broke the seal and read that the Radun had named him Atoll
Chief. Later, by virtue of his newly acquired power, Kanubē named
Gōtidonfutu Katību (island chief).
Thus, Kanubē and Doṅ Aisā lived together happily until they died. 169

The magic knife mentioned in this text has great importance in Maldive
sorcery. Masdayffiohi were beautifully crafted knives with a strangelyshaped handle made of a sperm whale tooth (masday). Sperm whales(fāvibō) and other species of whales are abundant in the deep ocean
waters off the Maldive Atolls, but they were not hunted by locals. Hence,
the teeth needed for the knives’ handles were obtained from theoccasional dead whales that drifted carried by the currents and ended up
rotting on beaches of the Maldives. If there happened to be any shortageof sperm whale teeth at any given time, these were obtained at thetrading harbors of South India and Ceylon. The blade of the masdayffiohi
knife is allegedly made of an alloy of seven metals (haylō). All faṇḍita men
owned these knives in the past, and probably most of them still do today.
Owing to the identification between magic and power, men of authority
and learning in the Maldives, like the Atoll Chief (Atoḷuveriyā) in the story,
were often expected to be well-versed in faṇḍita as well. Although in thisinstance the masdayffiohi is used by the chief with the intention to cause
harm and kill ―by means of hāhurā, the same type of magic performed by
Kanubē using other means― these knives were more commonly used toimmobilize evil spirits. Knowing the proper recitations, when themasdayffiohi’s blade is thrust into the ground or onto a tree stump, thedemons submit and obey the sorcerer performing the rite. Other uses ofthis knife include the writing of magic words on leaves or wood, and the169

Told by Aishath Naazneen, Gāge, Male’. She had heard this story from Husēn
Bē, of Miladū Island, Miladummaḍuḷu Atoll.
185

drawing of magic protective circles (ana or aṇu), among other activities.
Since it was such a special tool, the masdayffiohi was traditionally used
only for rituals and not for kitchen or other household purposes.

1861.6.1 THE HORROR OF DISEASE
Broadly speaking, the Maldive Islands have been a peaceful place all along
their history. Except for a fair amount of palace intrigue in the capital,
there was no warfare between island groups or clans. Invasions at thetime of certain Chola kings and, centuries later, harassment by Malabar
Muslim raiders, as well as from Portuguese garrisons in the Southwestern
Indian coast, have been recorded, the northernmost atolls being the mostvulnerable to such attacks. However, the fact is that, owing to the generallack of wealth in the Maldives, these interferences were few and far
between compared to the situation in the neighboring Subcontinent.
There, large areas suffered the most noxious forms of foreign disturbancein the form of successive waves of destructive Muslim invasions, followedby pervasive humiliation and exploitation at the hands of European
powers during the colonial era.
In the absence of warfare, the small size of the islands has often resulted
in overpopulation. Often cursed by their own fertility, Maldivians had noindigenous form of coping with the problem and this trend was checked
naturally by means of severe epidemics. Lethal illnesses struck the islands
periodically with such vicious intensity, that they created a psychology ofterror among the islanders.170 Lacking the means to analyze properly
which were the distinctive symptoms of a deadly disease, the source of
this scourge was perceived to be potentially any sickness.
Thus, there was nothing that struck more horror in the ancient Maldivians
than a general outbreak of illness. The danger that all the people in theisland could be wiped out by an epidemic was always in the back of the

170

The Maldive Atoll chain earned notoriety among ancient mariners for being avery unhealthy place prone to bad illnesses. Even in quite recent editions of ‘The
Indian Ocean Pilot’, Huvadu was mentioned as a disease-ridden Atoll. Perhaps thisbad reputation discouraged settlers from other countries in historical times.
187

islanders’ minds when confronted with even mild forms of sickness. These
were deemed to be the threshold for more deadly diseases.
A very high fever, a malady lasting for a long time, swelling of the body,severe skin diseases, the appearance of bursting pustules and leprosy
were deemed to be exceedingly unwholesome. Once any one of thoseafflictions had set in, the degree of evil and the type of magic to be used
to ward it off were assessed by the faṇḍitaveriyā according to the case.
Often the people afflicted by such diseases were forced to live far awayfrom the community, in another island or, in the case of very large islands,
in a lonely spot in the forest or the beach, at a safe distance from thevillage.
The places where those wretches were kept were considered malevolent(nāmān) spots and were thus feared and avoided by other Maldivians. Not
much pity used to be shown towards those suffering such miserable fate.
Fear stifled every expression of mercy or compassion. The mere sight ofthe diseased was considered grossly offensive and healthy islanders were
horrified by hearing their blood-chilling howls. “After she was brought tothat place she didn’t stop crying.” Or “She cried and cried until she died.”
Or “You could hear her even from a long distance.” Such comments weremade by people not wanting to hear those shrill moans. If they could,
they would have erased those frightening reminders of the presence ofthe terminally diseased from their mind altogether. However, this was not
so easy when they lived in the same island, as the following verses fromthe Raṣo Veṣi poem which describes the coastal perimeter of Fua Mulaku
Island, show:
Miskiffanna’ jjehē/ Māvēde biru ganēE tanā balihā loḍuṅ/ gengos lāti ihuṅMānera’vves damuṅ/ hitu tere kekuḷe sihuṅ
One fears (the spot) called Māvēde, which is close to (a place where apath meets the beach known as) Miskiffanno. In ancient times people
afflicted by disease were left there and (even after having passed that188

fearful spot) going towards Mānere (the main anchorage of the island
during the NE monsoon) one’s heart still aches with fright.
The painful story of a woman from Fua Mulaku called Havvā Dīdī,
completely abandoned by her family and friends, expresses the intense
anguish people in those circumstances went through.171
Havvā Dīdī

“A pretty young woman called Havvā Dīdī was happily married. She was aloving and efficient housewife and the mother of one child. Her husband
liked her very much.
One day, while she was cooking, she removed a boiling pot from the firebare handed. Now, a woman passing through her yard happened toglance in at the kitchen door and saw that Havvā Dīdī did not use anything
to protect her hands from the burning hot metal. She gossiped through thevillage about what she saw. The listeners widened their eyes and felt chills
down their spines, for this was a sign of the most dreaded of diseases.
When the news reached the leaders of the island they met to discuss thismatter seriously. They agreed that if Havvā Dīdī was allowed to roam
freely around, that repugnant disease might spread like oil on water.
Finally they agreed to take her to a little clearing in the middle of thejungle, close to a place in the southern end of Fua Mulaku called
Kuduheraivali.172 This spot was far away from the inhabited parts of theisland. The authorities ordered that a well be dug there and a small hut
built; and this was done after a few weeks.

171

This is the version told by the late Magieduruge Ibrahim Dīdī in 1981.

172

This name indicates that formerly there was a separate little island (Kudu Herā =small islet) in that spot which has now merged with Fua Mulaku’s landmass
189

Meanwhile, Havvā Dīdī noticed a drastic change in people’s attitudes
towards her. Even her kinsmen started avoiding her. Conversation ceased
abruptly as soon as she entered a house. If she walked past a group ofpeople, she heard whispers behind her back. No longer did visitors drop
into her home.
One day, a twelve-year old girl came to her kitchen and stood at thethreshold looking inside. Havvā Dīdī commented, “You have become veryrare lately Sanfā Diye.”173
Not answering, the girl looked away.
“Are you not my friend any more?”
Sighing, Sanfā Diye stared sadly at the ground, saying, “You know I am
your best friend. Why do you ask such a silly question?”Havvā Dīdī avoided her eyes too. She looked at the kitchen floor while she
was scraping coconut and spoke in a whiny voice, “Well, I don’t knowwhat has happened these days. No one talks to me and nobody comes tomy home anymore. You used to come here every day and spend longhours in this kitchen talking to me. But I haven’t seen you for a long timeand I was thinking that you, like the others, wouldn’t come anymore. Now,
after so many days avoiding me, you have come just like that, suddenly. Is
this silly what I say?”
Then, the girl answered, “No, that’s not silly at all. Things have reallychanged.” She longed to tell the news, but feared to hurt her friend.
Havvā Dīdī tenderly appealed to her friend, “Tell me what is wrong. WhenI ask, people become silent. There must be bad news going around theisland, I can feel it. Please tell me. It will be Dharma. “174173

Local way of saying: “You don’t come by very often anymore.”190

Not bearing to look at her friend’s face, Sanfā Diye said: “The bad news
concerns you. I am sorry to be the one to say this, but everyone is sure thatyou have some dreadful disease which cannot be cured. Just by being withyou, others might catch this evil curse. Do you remember the cooked taro
you brought to my home the other day? As soon as you left, my motherthrew them into the fire. She warned me not to tell you anything. When I
heard this news, I was so frightened I didn’t want to come here anymore.”
Attempting a smile, Havvā Dīdī only managed a strange grimace, but hereyes betrayed her shock. So this was why the burns and cuts she
discovered lately on her hands did not hurt. She was a leper! Trying toappear calm, she asked Sanfā Diye, “If you are so afraid of me, like all theothers, why are you here now?”
Aware of the sarcasm in her friend’s voice, Sanfā Diye was close to tears:“Because I feel very sorry, and, some nights I cannot sleep, thinking of how
nice you have always been to me. It is not right that I not see you any
more.” She began to weep as she added: “They say they will put you in alittle house in the middle of the forest. I heard that the well is finished andthey will thatch the roof tomorrow. My brother is going there to work
too.” At this point the girl could hardy control her sobbing: “My parents
will not allow me to meet you there. So, I had to come here now. I don’tknow whether I will see you again!”
Tears streaming down her cheeks, Sanfā Diye watched her friend scrape
coconut for a while. When she left, she covered her face with her hands,
crying aloud.
Inside, Havvā Dīdī was seething. She had grown up in this island alongwith these people. She had been always kind to them; and now they weretreating her this way. Her husband must have known, and even he had not
174

The Sanskrit word ‘Dharmā’ is used in colloquial speech. “darumā venne.”
Meaning ‘It will be the right thing to do”.
191

told her. What kind of people were they? Waves of silent anger were
replaced by suppressed grief. Then she thought, “What is the use of all thisself-pity? I must stop it or I will become mad.”During the next few days, Havvā Dīdī became a stoical, serious woman.
Her eyes held an unearthly look.
One day, her husband arrived home with the island authorities. They
started flattering her, but she stared at them, narrowing her eyes. The
young woman knew what they were going to say and she despised them.
Nervously, one of the men said, “We are sorry, but we must tell you somebad news. You have a very dangerous disease. It would be better for you
to change the place where you are living. We have prepared anotherhouse for you and will provide for all your needs. It is useless to resist. We
would have to use other means, and that would be unpleasant.”
In a docile way, as directed, Havvā Dīdī packed her things. Again she
thought: “What kind of people are these?”
Her husband said, “You must leave your son here. It is better. Otherwise hewill become sick too.”With her eyes like slits, the young woman glared at him. How she longed
for him to stand up to the island chiefs in her defense! But he had not saideven one word. Now she must leave her home and her child. She did nothate her kind husband; she only wished he had been more courageous.
Her head low, Havvā Dīdī picked up her bundle and followed the sarudāru(a minor government official) to the middle of the jungle. She wondered
whether the people were regretting what they had done to her. She ended
up thinking that, probably they were relieved that she was moving faraway.
In the beginning, many friends brought Havvā Dīdī bananas, choice taro,
cakes, fresh fish and other delicacies. Often she had more than she could192

eat. Over time, the special meals dwindled. In the end only the sarudāru
came; and even the food he brought was of lower quality day after day.
Her first nights alone in that place were dreary. As an average islander,
Havvā Dīdī feared the darkness and the strange jungle noises. During
many dark and lonely hours she felt she was having a bad dream. She
thought that at any time a demon would come to devour her and end her
sufferings. She tried not to make any sound which might attract the spirits.
But as time wore on, the young woman forgot about keeping quiet andshe heard herself wailing her loneliness and misery. However, she was far
away from the nearest house and no one heard her heart-rending sobs inthe dark, long, tropical nights. In the morning, Havvā Dīdī, seeing her wet
pillow, was ashamed of her weakness. During the daytime she tried hard
to behave as if nothing bad was happening to her.
Weeks passed and, gradually, Havvā Dīdī became accustomed to thenight. She learned to walk to the beach in the starlight and not fear
looking at the dim sea. Watching the white frothy foam of the waves
breaking against the coral reef protecting the island, suited her mood andfed her soul. For hours she sat very still on the white boulders with her
tresses untied. She liked to feel the salt spray on her face and the ocean
wind thrashing her long black hair.
Some evenings, her husband came secretly to visit her. He kept at a
distance, not wanting to approach her, just wanting to talk. The young
woman grew very cold towards him. In the end she preferred that he notcome. Havvā Dīdī would rather be alone in the darkness, watching the surf
pound furiously against the island under the starry sky. Months later sheheard that, pressured by his family, her husband had divorced her andmarried another woman. By now, she did not even care.
Havvā Dīdī repeatedly tore her clothes to make bandages to protect her
wounded hands and feet, so that every so often she ended up without
dress. Whenever other women in the island heard that she was naked they193

would leave old dresses and worn lengths of fabric close to her hut, butthese did not last a long time.175
Some people say that, as the sickness followed its course, Havvā Dīdī did
not become ugly like the other lepers. Although her members were
deformed, she died before her face became disfigured. She developed an
exalted look about her, completely detached from her actual situation.
Others say that the important people on the island brought her to theRoyal Air Force Base hospital in Gan Island, Aḍḍu Atoll. Thanks to medicalcare there, Havvā Dīdī was cured of her leprosy. She still looked very
beautiful. Many begged her to return to Fua Mulaku, but she refused. She
did not want either to talk or look at anyone from her own island. Instead
she went north. Her eyes dry, Havvā Dīdī boarded the ship, not looking
backwards. She had no tears left for the place of her birth. It is said that
she married a wealthy man in a northern atoll, and lived happily everafter. Some people like to think she is still alive today.
The place where this woman lived is still known as “Havvā Dīdī Bēvi Taṅ”,
the spot where Havvā Dīdī was kept and it lies in a forested area at thesouthern end of Fua Mulaku Island. Nowadays it is fully overgrown withlarge bushes and there are no traces left of the hut, but still one can makeout where the well Havvā Dīdī used was dug. This woman became amythical, almost divine, figure after her trials, for there is a suggestion ofimmortality at the end of the story. The idealization of females who had
undergone difficult tests and ordeals during their life is a recurrent facetof Maldive folklore and the deification of women after a lifetime ofsuffering will be discussed at length further ahead. This feature echoes
the pattern of Dravidian legends, such as the Śilappaḍikāram of Tamil
Nadu and the Siri legend of Tuḷu country.

175

This paragraph was omitted when the story was published in English in‘Finiashi’ (Iru, Male’ 1988).
194

The story that follows is the personal testimony of somebody having
visited a certain island in Huvadū were sick people were banished. Of
special interest here is the rare insight it gives into the conditions in suchplaces. Casual visits to those islands were strictly forbidden by theGovernment. Those unfortunate enough to be exiled there rarely had achance to tell others about themselves, as their families mostly didn’t
even care. Sick people personified horror and they were abandoned there
until death ended their agony.
Vehafullā“Long ago, when I was a child, I was taken on a trading journey acrossHuvadū Atoll. On the dōni there were mostly people from our island. One
afternoon, heavy rain and strong winds made the captain look for shelter
leeward on the closest island. This island was called Vehafullā. It wasn’tvery big and it had thick vegetation, mainly tall coconut trees.
As soon as we threw anchor we could see people on the beach and I
became suddenly overwhelmed by fear. In front of my eyes was the mostabject bunch of human beings I have ever seen. Some were walking likecats, others hobbling like rabbits, but most of them were crawling or
dragging their miserable bodies on the sand. They were waving at us,
calling us to give them something. The laments filling the air and thispathetic sight were enough to leave us paralyzed with terror. However,
our captain remained calm and this was very reassuring considering oursituation. He spoke matter-of-factly: “All the hopelessly sick men of
Huvadū are left to rot in this island. The women are brought to the islandof Funadū, farther away. If they were close by they would swim to meeteach other.”We kept very silent, staring mesmerized at the horrid crowd on the beach.
The captain went on: “It is strictly forbidden by the king to disembark oreven anchor close to these islands, but I need to have a look. I know all the195islands of this large atoll very well except for these two places and I havealways wanted to see the interior of these islands. This is a good chance togo ashore and see by myself.” Then he faced us and his voice became alittle threatening, “I don’t want anybody on board to mention this later. Is
this clear?” Since this captain was a much liked and respected person,
everyone on board assented.
Thus, the captain and three other men disembarked bringing me along.
Wading through the shallow waist-high water they reached the beach. I
was sitting on one of the men’s shoulders and once ashore I walked besidethem. But, as soon as we were near the inhabitants of that island, I wished
I had stayed on board. The deformed and maimed men on the sand wereeven more terrifying seen so close by. It was revolting to look at their
hideous wounds. These were nauseating, without bandages or medicine,
oozing fluids, and their sickly smell filled the air. But the thing that mosthorrified me was to stare at their repulsive faces with no eyes, no lips orno noses. Even so, these wretched people were very kind and considerate,
despite their woeful existence. They kept all the time at a prudent distancefrom us, because they realized we were alarmed if they came too close.
They were very silent while we walked through their island.
The interior of the island was green, lush and gloomy. Big banana clumps
grew here and there. The sick and deformed inhabitants of the place lived
in meek, tumbledown little huts, which were built at a relatively little
distance from each other. The roofs of their shacks, thatched with woven
coconut palm fronds, were no higher than a man’s chest.176 As we set toleave the place to board our dōni, some local men, who had been silently
following us, told us to wait.

176

The usual Maldivian house, no matter how humble, would have a high pointed
roof and its dwellers would be able to stand inside.
196

After a while they returned bringing a freshly cut banana bunch of themāḷoskeu variety (the type that are good for cooking) and they offered it
to us. We were moved because the people who had been banished here
were so poor and wretched, yet they still thought it was important to bekind and courteous. Then our captain spoke to one of the young men of hiscrew who went to our boat coming back with a muḍeiṣi (basket) full ofmangoes. After the sailor deposited it on the beach, we all waded back to
our dōni. Once aboard, we felt lighter.
Presently the sky was clear and in the golden light of the late afternoon we
could see a rainbow in the east.177 The captain said it was alright to pull up
the anchors and leave. When we sailed away from Vehafullā all thepassengers sighed in relief. Nothing in the world could have compelled us
to spend the night close to that lonely, dreary place.178
Those wretches were kept away from the rest of the islanders in an
attempt to keep their terrifying diseases at bay. This insulation had
nothing to do with knowledge of germs and mechanisms of infection.
Instead, it had its source in the proverbial abhorrence Maldivians had
towards diseases. For these were perceived to be the external
manifestation of an intense evil which had the power, if unleashed, todestroy whole communities. It was fear that promoted the crueltreatment of sick people in the islands. Segregation and discrimination
were not common in the Divehi social background, where people of both
sexes and all ages would usually live together. No one was excluded andeven persons with mental diseases or disabilities would be integrated.

177

Detailed descriptions of the weather and the sky are a common feature of
traditional Maldivian seafaring stories
178

Narrated in 1985 by Keḍēre Muhammadu, Fua Mulaku Island. The island henames Vehafullā is probably Voḍamulā, located on one of the eastern reefs fringing
Huvadu Atoll a few miles NW of Funadū, the other island mentioned in this story.
197

However, men and women, who are never segregated in traditional
Maldive society, were strictly kept away from each other in those sadislands, as if to compound their misery. The rationale behind theseparation of male and female sick people was that the evil which caused
the disease should never be allowed to reproduce. The best way to deal
with it was to let it die slowly. Their intense, often irrational, fear madehealthy islanders focus on the malevolent entity producing the disease. In
the process, the humanity of the suffering sick persons was diminished tothe point of being almost erased.

198

1.6.2 IN THE WAKE OF AN EPIDEMIC
When the evil causing disease in one island was considered to be too
overwhelming, the inhabitants would be gripped by an irresistible terror.
The source of this abnormal panic was the feeling that they might be thelast people on the island, that they would be the last horrified witnessesof the extinction of their own community. Historically, among thedifferent types of epidemic diseases, the most feared one was smallpox(kaṣividuru).179 The reason was that smallpox struck suddenly, spread very
fast and was very deadly, affecting anyone, even healthy and stronglooking people. The high fever and oozing boils characteristic of thisdisease were interpreted as some evil that was dwelling inside theaffected person and was struggling to come out.
In extreme cases islands would be abandoned and the whole population
would travel on their boats with a few belongings to settle somewhere
else. The following story is based on a real event. The storyteller claimed
that this took place in his own island about 800 years ago, but no otherhistorical data were provided to ascertain the dating.180 Ayyani Daitā, theheroine, is a middle-aged woman who survived being left alone in theisland for over four months:
Ayyani Daitā“A long, long time ago, a massive epidemic struck Fua Mulaku Island. The
deadly disease hit every household and wrought havoc among thechildren. Soon there were deaths in every family and adults caught the179Kaṣividiḷi in Aḍḍu Bas. Cholera (bēra’ hiṅguṅ) would come in the second placebecause of quick emaciation followed by death.
180

Told in 1990 by Katībuge Ibrahīm Saīdu, of Diguvāṇḍo village, Fua Mulaku
199

affliction too. Faṇḍita men were helpless to contain the calamity. They
made big efforts with their magic, but deaths kept increasing alarmingly.
To make matters worse, an ill-omen appeared. In the still air of thedoldrums, steam that rose from both lakes located in the middle of theisland formed a long ominous-looking cloud stretching from the NW to theSE right above Fua Mulaku. It is said that it had the shape of a marlin andthat its tail was moving slowly.
The most reputed faṇḍita men of the island made magic to “cut” (to cause
it to dissipate) this malevolent fish-shaped cloud but they were
unsuccessful and the deaths continued unabated. The hideousphenomenon kept hovering above the island during those accursed days.
Meanwhile, in every household, men, women and children died one after
the other. Horror and despair overtook everyone when they watched how
the best magic was useless to arrest the number of deaths. The
faṇḍitaveriṅ urgently called a meeting with the Vāroveriya, the royal tax
collector, who was the island’s highest authority at that time, and the dōni
owners. The Vāruge and its verandah were lit by many oil lamps. Manymen, women and children waited anxiously outside. With a grave voice,the island’s best sorcerers informed the chief and the main traders thatthe evil which had gripped Fua Mulaku was too big to be overcome bymagic, at least at this point. They warned that, unless everyone left theisland, the whole community would be wiped out by the disease.
Discussion followed, but fear and death with their ghostly presence
ensured that no one was very much in favor of staying on. At the end of
the meeting, the final decision of abandoning the island was taken
unanimously. Then it was agreed that it would be better if the wholecommunity settled in one place together, otherwise they may become
dispersed. They decided to sail Northwards, past Huvadū, cross thechannel and settle in the island of Gan in Haddummati Atoll. After manyheated arguments, this particular island was chosen by the traders. On
their way back from their yearly journeys to Ceylon, they had often landedin that long island and had made good friends there.
200

Everyone was very sorry to leave their home island, but their fear wasstronger than their sadness, and the news traveled quickly from householdto household. Soon, in every home, men and women worked feverishly
preparing for their journey and for a long absence from Fua Mulaku. Upon
arrival to the new island, they needed to have their own food otherwise
they would be a burden for their hosts and would give them an excuse totalk bad about them. Besides, they needed to bring presents as befits
Maldive custom. Many women forgot for a while their fear while they
were busy preparing sweets.
Ayyani Daitā was thus in her kitchen, preparing fukkaro for the journey.181
She had no immediate family and was living alone in a small house at theedge of a village at the Northern end. She was past her youth, but she was
not yet affected by the infirmities of old age and managed very well livingon her own. She was an active, hard-working woman who was always
cheerful. In the houses close to her home, people were busy packing. The
young men were carrying all the bundles and boxes to the dōnis. Ayyani
Daitā was so absorbed in cooking fukkaro that she didn’t pay muchattention to her neighbors who were calling her to get ready and leave.
Absent-mindedly she muttered: “Yes, yes, I’m coming.”
The dōnis were loaded and there was much confusion as they were being
boarded, so the neighbors forgot about Ayyani Daitā in the midst of theirfrenzied activity. Soon Fua Mulaku’s whole fleet of fishing and tradingboats left the island and sailed northwards. Meanwhile, the woman was
still cooking her fukkaro. “It is getting thick enough,” she thought.
Suddenly she noticed something unfamiliar: She could hear no noises.
Ayyani Daitā felt a sudden fright and went out of the kitchen. Outside
there was complete quietness. She ran to the next house and found it

181

Fukkaro is a sweet solidified mass of palm syrup rolled into banana leaves. To
get the palm sap to become thick enough it has to be kept cooking on low fire for avery long time201

empty. With her heart pounding, she ran across the whole village, but noone was there. All houses were deserted. Some people had left evenvaluable things scattered about because of their hurried departure. Now
Ayyani Daitā ran towards the beach in panic. She went calling all the timeon the way. But in the light of the late afternoon, the island was so
strangely quiet, that it seemed to absorb her loud cries. As she arrived at
the beach her worst fears were confirmed.
Far, far away in the horizon she could see the sails of the dōnis. Ayyani
Daitā screamed, danced and jumped wildly on the beach until she became
tired. Finally, in bitter despair she realized that the sails were so small,that there was no chance that the people on board could see her. Now
Ayyani Daitā was outraged. How could they have left her? She sat on thesand and cried. After a while she looked around and her anger subsided.
Precious possessions lay strewn about the beach: Mats, bundles of betel
leaves, baskets (muḷōṣi) full of coconuts and dried fish, helpless chickens
tied by their legs and many other things. She realized that the people musthave boarded the boats in frenzy and if they hadn’t thought much ofleaving costly things in their haste to leave, how could they haveremembered a poor, lonely woman like her in those moments?
Ayyani Daitā released the chickens and watched them running away andhiding in the bushes. She sighed. She had known pain in life, she had been
through famines and she had seen so many people die in this terrible
epidemic, but she had never been totally alone in those difficult times.
Stunned, she went back home, slowly coming to terms with the fact that
she was all by herself on that big island. Her thoughts were frightening her
so much, that she resolved to stop thinking too much and rememberedthat she hadn’t finished cooking the fukkaro. She started walking at afaster pace deciding that, at least, she wouldn’t let her fukkaro spoil.
The sun was setting as the woman walked through the deserted village.
She was afraid to make much noise, for the whole place was eerily silent
now. No cries of babies, no loud talking of neighbors. All were gone.
202

Ayyani Daitā had been used to live alone in her small home for the past
few years, but she had never known such desolation. She entered her
kitchen. It was filled with the sweet smell of fukkaro. The fire had
consumed itself and Daitā lit it again. She kept stirring the syrup slowly
with the dēfa’ (ladle) squatting in front of the pot. It was becoming thicker
and thicker and this slow movement, the warmth of the kitchen and thesweet smell pervading it, gave some peace to the woman’s troubled heart.
Now that she could think more clearly, she pondered over the helplessnessof her situation, but she realized that there was nothing she could do tochange it.
It was a moonless night and it was very dark outside. Then she heard
noises. Daitā felt her hairs rising and a chill down her spine. She distinctly
could sense a presence behind her, at her kitchen door. It was the ferēta
responsible for the death of so many islanders. The woman had to make agreat effort not to start shaking all over with fear. She tried to keep ascalm as possible and kept slowly stirring the fukkaro. Suddenly the ferēta
asked: “Daitā, what are you doing?”
The poor woman was so terrified she could not talk properly, so out of her
mouth came some nonsense: “Haṇṭa maṇṭani!” This puzzled the ferēta somuch that he kept silent for a while wondering what Daitā meant by“Haṇṭa maṇṭani”.
Meanwhile, the woman felt her hatred towards that detestable being
growing in her. That ferēta had killed so many of her relatives and friends,
and so many children too. It would have killed everyone in the island ifthey hadn’t fled.
Trembling with excitement, Daitā said: “Try some fukkaro!” She didn’t
want to look straight at the loathsome ferēta, but with the corner of her
eye she could see the monster opening his awful jaws full of sharp teeth.
At that moment, Daitā hit the creature hard in the mouth with a ladle fullof boiling fukkaro. With its throat full of the hot, sticky substance, the203

ferēta ran away howling in pain. It fled at great speed into the darkness,heading straight to the beach. Without hesitating the horrible creature
jumped into the water with its jaws wide open and was gone.182
Daitā was still shaking and it took a while before she got up. She put thefire out and anxiously followed the tracks of the monster in the starlight.
They ended in the beach at a point called Ayyani Gal in the Northern endof the Fua Mulaku.183 She looked at the sea, but could not make out any
shape among the breakers. Satisfied that the ferēta had disappeared, thewoman slowly walked back home. Even though it was dark, the island
didn’t look so frightening now and the woman went to sleep. During thefollowing days, she went back to the same spot to check whether there
were any tracks of the monster coming from the ocean, but as the days
passed and she could see no new traces on the white sand, Daitā became
sure that it would never come back again.
The woman knew that it would take “three times forty days”, the period
recommended in faṇḍita to return to an island abandoned after an
epidemic, before the first faṇḍita men would come to see whether theisland was inhabitable again. Thus, she had to depend on her own wits togather food for a long time. In the beginning there were parcels of foodand dry fish strewn about the yards and the beach. Daitā brought home asmuch as she could. But as the days passed most of that food decayed or
was eaten by crabs and other pests. As no one was there to pick them,coconuts were falling from the trees. Fruits like limes, jambu and bananas
were plentiful. In the abandoned fields, there was such an abundance of

182

The encounter of Daitā with the monster is the subject of a short, separate story
having a number of versions. In some, Daita acts as if she eats the burning logs (oras if she is eating knives, by ingesting coconut pieces cut into the shape of knifeblades). The demon lurking outside sees her and thinks: “What will become of me
in the hands of such a woman who eats fire (or iron)?” after which he leaves in fear.
183

This rock is a landmark in Fua Mulaku’s northern shoreline. According to local
people it is unlikely that it is named after the woman.
204kaḷo ala184 that Daitā could pick and choose, and she felt sorry that somany were getting rotten without anybody being there to eat them.
After over a month of eating fruits and tubers, the woman felt the need toeat fresh fish. She tried her luck casting a net on the reef and, after many
unsuccessful attempts she finally learned how to throw the net properly.
One day, at the end of the Southwest monsoon, when a sharp, crisp windbrings large shoals of pelagic fish close to the island and the frigate birds
fly overhead, Ayyani Daitā went to the beach in the morning and saw itstrewn with fluttering flying fish. The hapless fishes, in a vain attempt toescape from being eaten by the numerous tuna and the voracious frigate
birds, ended up landing on the sand.185 Ayyani Daitā was not afraid or
anxious anymore. She was well fed and she looked much healthier andyounger than before. But the days passed slowly and she was tired of somuch solitude. She was missing the other people, especially the children
playing, laughing and singing about the island. Over three months had
passed and Daitā was counting the days. Every morning she climbed to the
top of the Havittā, an ancient Buddhist Stupa at the northernmost point of
Fua Mulaku.
The woman scanned the horizon in the hope that someone might comeearlier, but no sail was to be seen in the empty ocean expanses
surrounding her lonely island. Ayyani Daitā patiently cleaned the path toher home every day. Many other paths in the island were already blockedby vegetation. Most of the yards of the houses were overgrown. The
woman didn’t even think of clearing them all, but they looked frightening
to her.

184

Lit. ‘black taro’, a type of taro Southern Maldivian people used to eat back then.
Most taro fields now are planted with a variety called vilāti ala (foreign taro). This
type of taro was introduced to South Asia by the Portuguese
185Huḷammaha (fuḷaṅgi) lani, a phenomenon happening once yearly according tolocal tradition
205

Finally, five months after Daitā had been left alone, one sail appeared in
the horizon at sunrise. The woman ran to the seashore full of joy andexultation. When the dōni came close enough she could see that there
were twelve people, men and women on it. Daitā was so excited, shestood on the beach smiling and waving at them.186 Once the dōni had
made it past the breakers and entered the shallow water on the coral reef,Daitā was appalled seeing the expressions of fright written on the people’s
faces. They were pointing at her and talked to each other with a worried
look. How foolish she had been! In her excitement she had thought theywould be happy to see her, and now she realized that they were afraid ofher. She shouted at them: “Do you think I am a monster? It’s me! Ayyani
Daitā!”
However, this didn’t help at all to dispel their fear. The people on the boat
didn’t want to step down. They were turning the dōni back oceanwards,
trying to flee from the island again. Then Ayyani Daitā cried out to them inpanic: “You left me already alone all these months! Are you going to leaveme again? Don’t leave! I cannot live alone any longer.” In utter
hopelessness, the woman fell to the ground sobbing bitterly. At that point,
the people on the boat felt sorry for her. They had been eyeing her withalarm while they were waiting for a chance to row past the breakers backinto the ocean. Still, when they turned again towards the beach, they kept
the boat at a prudent distance. Two of the men jumped in the water andwaded until they reached the shore. Cautiously they walked towards her.
Ayyani Daitā asked them in tears: “Why were you leaving me? Why were
you leaving me again? What did I do?”At last, one of the men, an old faṇḍitaveriyā, overcame his mistrust andreplied: “Kāṅlo don’t cry. We were thinking you were an evil spirit. You
186

This implies that she was so happy that she forgot about manners and didn’t
care to look like a fool. The polite thing to do would have been to pretend to be
indifferent, for in Maldivian courtesy the paramount thing is to always appear calmand suppress emotions.
206

look much younger and prettier than before. We were afraid.” Then hemade a sign to the people on the boat and they rowed hard until the keel
softly touched the white sand. Now Ayyani Daitā got up. The other people
disembarked and the women came close to her. Their faces had broad
smiles. She was crying and laughing at once. Life would come back to theisland! She had never been so happy.
In a variant of this story, a man called Diyarehifāṇḍi Beyyā, who was living
at Fua Mulaku’s SE end, had been left alone too. After many days of
exploring farther and farther from their respective homes they bothsuddenly met. At first both thought the other is a spirit, but when they
finally managed to convince each other, they were very happy and Beyyā
went to live to the NW end with Ayyani Daita.
The end of the story mentions the dread of Maldivians upon finding what
they assume is a spirit on an island. In 1556, Manoel Rangel and his
companions, the survivors of the Portuguese ship Conceiçao had a similar
experience. After their vessel ran aground in Peros Banhos Atoll, Chagos
Islands, on 22d August 1555, many months passed and nobody came totheir rescue. The numerous castaways were inevitably dying owing totheir inadequate diet in those uninhabited islands. Manoel Rangel and ahandful of men built a small boat with the planks of their wrecked shipand sailed northwards. After a hazardous journey, they arrived to an
uninhabited island in Maldives (most likely in Huvadu Atoll) in very bad
condition, direly in need of help. But, mistaking them for spirits, theMaldivians who were gathering coconuts there ran away from them andleft on their boats. After waiting for months, seeing that no one wascoming back, Manoel and his companions repaired somehow their
damaged boat and sailed to another island they could see in the horizon.
Once they arrived there, again the Maldivians that came there to harvest
coconuts fled from them. In despair, Manoel swam after them, held tightto their boat and jumped aboard. Realizing that they were afraid of him,
he took a rope and acted as if he was binding himself and began to sob in
despair. When they saw that he was binding himself and crying bitterly,
207they felt sorry for him. Finally they rescued him and his companions andbrought them to the capital of their Atoll (almost certainly Havaru Tinadu)
where they were treated very well. Later they were brought to Male’,
where, according to Manoel Rangel, a Moor (Mouro) was ruling, andeveryone was very kind to them, overwhelming them with presents. From
Male’ the Portuguese took a ship to Cochin, which they reached in
January 1557. 187
The Ayyani Daita story also shows that, among the numerous spirits
inhabiting the island, there is a specific malignant monster or spirit whoroams the place and is responsible for that particular epidemic. This
creature was known as dakō and it appeared always when a disease
attributed to the vigani, the evil force sent by the Lord of Death, struck
one island.188 Thus, in Southern Maldives it is commonly said that thedakō is the permanent companion of the vigani, as it comes along with
it.189 In ancient times, when deadly epidemics struck the islands, if close tohalf the population died, the community faced the frightening prospect of
being obliterated. In that case the faṇḍita man would blame the calamity
on the vigani, the amorphous evil force.
To assess the severity of the situation, the sorcerer would tensely scan thewestern sky right after sunset looking for signs of the vigani’s presence inthe crimson clouds. If the faṇḍita man pointed to a small compact cloud,often shaped like a fish, weirdly glowing like a rainbow he would call thisphenomenon ‘duni eḍani’ (the bow is set).190 This meant that the187

Bernardo Gomes de Brito, “Historia Tragico Maritima”.

188

Skt. Yakśa, Prakrit Yakkhō. In Indian tradition the Lord of Death is Yama. In thestory above, the more common generic Divehi term ‘ferēta’ was used by thestoryteller
189

Source: Finifenmāge Hasan Dīdī, Fua Mulaku

190

Duni aḷani’ in the Male’ or official form of Divehi.
208

epidemic would continue killing people and everyone in the island would
die. Then, in a last-minute attempt to avoid this, he would perform
sorcery to cut this cloud in two. If he had not succeeded by dark, whichwasn’t a long time in the short equatorial twilight, the entire population
would feel compelled to abandon their abode, either moving to anotherside of the island or leaving it altogether to settle in another island.
This explains why in large islands like Fua Mulaku there are ruins ofsettlements in so many different parts of it. Also why in some atolls, like
Huvadū, there are some big, fertile islands with fresh water in the subsoil,
like Gan, close to Gaddū, and Kūḍḍu, close to Viligili, which are still
uninhabited.191 The next story is about such a place, an island which wasnever again resettled after a fierce epidemic decimated most of its
population.
The island of Havoḍḍē in Huvadū Atoll was the last island in that large
Atoll to be completely depopulated according to the pattern describedabove. In 1925, it was abandoned following a virulent epidemic. Aftermoving to another island of the same Atoll, its former inhabitants nevercame back to resettle it. Havoḍḍē has been uninhabited ever since. 192
The Careless Words“In the year 1925, in the island of Havoḍḍē, ten girls came of age at thesame time. Their families agreed to make a big party following theancestral puberty ritual of libās levvuṅ which took place at the time of thefirst menstruation. Like all females in the islands, the young women had
been wearing only a length of black cloth around their waist since

191

Source Ahumadu Saīdu, a government official in Gaddū Island Office.

192

Told by Katībuge Ibrahīm Saīdu, Diguvāṇḍo village, Fua Mulaku.
209

childhood. On this occasion, according to the tradition, their hair wascombed, arranged in a bun and their hands and feet were died dark red
with hīnafaiy (henna).193 Then they were given five new dresses ofdifferent colors.
The libās levvuṅ ceremony would take place inside the house, where eachgirl in turn, had to stand on a hunigoṇḍi194 in the center of the room. Then
she had to put all the dresses on at once, one over the other, helped by her
family. Following this, her head would be covered with a cloth and shewould bend her head looking down while the faṇḍita man walked aroundthe girl seven times reciting mantras.195 At the conclusion of the ritual, thegirl would exit the house from the auspicious door determined by the
astrologer and the cloth covering her head would be removed.
Once all the girls had put on their dresses and their formal rites werecompleted, incense was burned and a salavāfuḷu, a Muslim prayer in theform of a song, was recited. After that, special food and sweet drinks wereserved for everyone present. Following this ceremony, the girls wereconsidered adult women by the society as a whole.
Once their libās levvuṅ celebration was over, the ten pretty young womenof Havoḍḍē went to their houses. Each kept their favorite dress on and put
the other away folded into their boxes. Then they met again under the193

Instead of the complicated floral designs of other cultures, Divehi women used
to dye the palms of their hands and the soles of their feet uniformly, using abundanthenna, in a rich brown color which in time turned to orange. The tips of their fingers
and toes were dyed as well until the fingernails became dark brown
194

A low chair with a serrated metal blade at one end used to grate coconut. In
older times the girl would put her feet on top of two gold sovereigns, placed on asack full of rice instead of the hunigoṇḍi
195

The connection between the number seven and puberty rituals was also
common among the Pulaya or Cheruman of Southwest India. K.A. Iyer, ‘The Tribes& Castes of Cochin.’210

shady trees by the beach. Conscious of the impression they made in their
new shiny dresses, the girls decided to walk around the island to show off.
In the islands not everyone could afford such a ceremony. Those ten girls
were part of the lucky few, for their families were well-to-do. Other
women could only afford one dress, which they kept carefully folded intheir box to be worn only on special occasions. Still, many more were sopoor that they became old without ever having a dress of their own,
wearing only a black cloth around their waist all their lives.
Such an unhappy woman, hacking firewood in the forest, saw the girls
walking towards the beach. She was in her middle age and she had neverworn a dress in her life. Those neatly-dressed young women, swelling withpride and joy in their colorful dresses, giggling, singing and joking were a
provocative sight for her. When they passed close to the sullen woman,they asked playfully, “Is Daitā looking for firewood?”196 The woman had
seen her best years fade away without ever having owned a nice dress likethey had. She could not stand the sight of them and, in a burst of jealousy,
she scoffed with all her venom, “Look how numerous people are getting inthis island! Ten girls are becoming big at the same time!”
The girls laughed and, without looking at her, replied in a loud, mocking
voice for the woman to hear, “Daitā is bitter because she has to walkabout half naked, like a child, although she is so tall.” They didn’t pay
further attention to her and ran away singing. But the ill-disposed woman
stood very still and kept following them with eyes full of resentment until
they disappeared among the trees.
Eventually, Daitā’s wicked words stirred up some evil spirit and from thatvery moment a calamity of disastrous proportions poised itself to wreak
havoc in the hapless island. Events moved very fast. That same evening
196

The third person is commonly used as a mark of respect. In this particular casethere would be a clear implication of mockery as well211

one of the maidens who had undergone the libās ceremony told herparents after dinner that she didn’t feel well. She had been the mostbeautiful and proud girl of the group. Her father was alarmed because she
looked very ill; in fact he had never seen such a sickly expression on his
lovely daughter’s face. The mother arranged the pillows on the swingbed
in the verandah and told her affectionately: “Lay down here my child, thenight air is cool and you will soon feel better.”
As soon as she sat down, the girl complained that she felt sick and, before
her mother could bring a basin, she suddenly bent over herself andvomited messily all over the floor. After her parents brought her to bed,
she spent the night panting with very high fever and throwing up many
more times. The next morning her condition had not improved at all. Her
mother gave her food, but she could not keep it inside. Vomiting andvomiting that girl died miserably after three days of agony.
This tragedy repeated itself in the other nine houses of Havoḍḍē where theremaining girls who had come of age lived. One after the other, all thosecharming young women ended up in the same manner, shaking with
convulsions and fever in their beds and vomiting themselves to death infront of their helpless families. It seems that this vomit was particularly
evil-smelling and that the whole island was reeking of it during that
terrible period.
This swift and lethal sickness spread to the whole population. Men,
women and children were struck by fever, vomited violently, and died in
but a few days. It is said that all along that deadly epidemic, a malevolent
spirit hovered over Havoḍḍē and a continuous buzzing noise like the sound212

of flies, could be heard during the night all over the island.197 In spite of theintense activity of the local sorcerers, who tried all their magic, religious
reading and medicines to ward off the disaster, the situation did not
improve even for a single day. It only grew much worse.
Weeks passed and, as the local faṇḍita men failed to stop the evil disease
from spreading, fear overtook the whole island. People confronted theirfaṇḍita men and wondered what they were doing to keep the disease
away. Knowing that they were losing credit, they gave up trying
desperately to make their sorcery work, and acknowledged that they did
not know the right magic. After a meeting with the island chief, they
resolved to send a dōni to Vādū to bring a good faṇḍita man to Havoḍḍē.
Two days later, the awaited faṇḍita man arrived from Vādū. His name was
Ahumad Dīdī and he was a neatly dressed serious old man. The people ofHavoḍḍē went to welcome him at the beach. They felt relieved andhopeful, for he was a renowned faṇḍita man; and Vādū was an island
famous for its learned men. He was put up in the island’s best house.
Ahumad Dīdī began to work the same day he arrived. He started bydrawing ambalaṅ, magic squares, neatly drawn on fresh, white sand,inscribed with magic words, delimited by four (or eight) eṣi (coconut palm
stems) and with flowers arranged in a pattern. Another written eṣi wasplanted in the middle of the square. He drew those squares at every place197

The mysterious noise is a claim often made, especially in Huvadu Atoll, about
severe epidemics that ravaged islands in ancient times. The type of sound changes
from place to place, i.e. in Kūḍḍu island, which was depopulated a few centuries
ago, the noise that was heard everywhere during the lethal illness, was the soundof cats meowing and it is said that it started from the eastern side of the island.
Similarly the survivors of the Gan epidemic who fled to Gaddū in the late 18th
century claimed that cats could be heard all over their island during the nights thatpeople of all ages fell ill and died. Sources: Zāhiru, operator of the Viligili generator
and Ahumadu Saīdu, Gaddū.
213

where paths were forking (tin aṅgoḷi).198 Also, at every branching path abuṅkeḷe was put.199 These magic lamps, supported by a stick split in threeat the top, were left to burn during the night and sheltered with big taro
leaves against wind and rain. It was a very bad omen if such a lamp wentout.
In the evening, a procession went through the village starting from themosque after the dusk (Ishā) prayer. At the head, two of the local faṇḍita
men, one holding a shoot of a coconut palm with magic words inscribedon it and the other with a kehā also written with magic words, went
reciting mantras. The rest of the procession was made up of the adultmales of the island. Women and children had to stay at home.
Some of the men were blowing into dumari (whistles made of palm leaves)written with magic words. Others, carrying lamps, chanted a special
Muslim religious canticle (takbīr), while the ones who knew, recited verses
from the Qurān aloud. The procession stopped for a while at every tinaṅgoḷi. It also stopped at the shrine (ziyāraiy) where a special fātiha prayer
was recited to the local saint who had been buried there long ago, asking
for his help. At last, it returned to the mosque where ten people had
stayed constantly reciting the Qurān. Late in the night, after more prayers
and chanting of magic words, Ahumad Dīdī, the faṇḍita man of Vādū, who
had organized the procession, finally told everyone to go home. The men
were tired and sleepy. However, no one slept well that night, because an

198

In Southern India, the placing of offerings at the crossing of paths is related to
the worship of the “Seven Little Mothers.” C. Sivaramamurti, ‘Nataraja in Art,
Thought and Literature.’ However, Māri, the goddess of epidemics is considered
superior to them in power and much worse in temper. H. Whitehead, ‘The Village
Gods of South India’.
199

A buṅkeḷe (kāḷivah in Male’ bas) is made with a young coconut (kihah) with the
top cut off and most of the liquid drained away the remaining part being filled withcoconut oil. Magic words were written around it in a spiral and a wick was placed
inside it and lit. Similar devices are used in the propitiation of village goddesses inSouth India; see L.A. Krishna Iyer, ‘Man in Kerala’214eerie noise, exactly like the noise of the procession continued until dawneven though no one was on the road.
The second night the men arrayed themselves in the same manner andwent around the village. Again, the noise of that procession was heard
mysteriously after everyone had gone to sleep, repeated and repeated on
the dark and lonely island paths.
The third night, exactly the same thing happened.200 After the procession
had long stopped, its noise, the monotonous reciting of hundreds of men,like a lament, was heard anew echoing over the dreary empty streets.
Ahumad Dīdī could not explain this portent. He knew that during those
three days there had been no improvement. People had been dying seizedby spasms at the same alarming rate. The stench of vomit from a nearby
house reached his nostrils. Now even the mighty faṇḍita man from Vādūwas frightened. He heard whispers close to his ear that night and he woke
up trembling, bathed in cold sweat. To ward off this unknown evil hestayed awake reciting old mantras and reading the Qurān by the lamp in
his room until dawn. He felt in his bones that the power of theabomination causing the deaths in the island was stronger than any
horror he had known, or even heard of, in his whole lifetime.
In the morning, without breakfast, Ahumad Dīdī packed his box and wentstraight to the beach asking to be brought back to Vādū. Alarmed by the
hasty and undignified departure of the faṇḍitaveriyā the island chief went
to meet him at the beach. A group of islanders, who had gathered there,200

The three consecutive nights are connected with goddess Māri. “I must not omit
to mention that the propagation of smallpox is attributed to Mari Amman...When the
disease breaks out in a village and continues to rage for some time, the inhabitants
seek to propitiate this goddess by means of bloody sacrifices and other offerings,
and also place her image on a car and carry it about with great solemnity throughthe streets for three successive nights.” S. C. Chitty, ‘The Castes, Customs,
Manners and Literature of the Tamils.’
215

seeing the worried expression on the face of the man they had trusted somuch, felt their throats choke with fear. If even such a mighty sorcerer
was deserting them, there was no hope left for them at all. Sorrow floatedover the desolate scene. “Why are you going so soon?” asked the island
chief. Even if he had tried to speak calmly, as befits a person of authority,
the tone of his voice betrayed his intense anxiety.
“The evil is bigger than I expected. I’m sorry, I can’t do anything,” Ahumad
Dīdī spoke hurriedly without looking at the chief’s eyes. He did not want
him to discover that he was afraid too.
The island chief didn’t know what to say. Ahumad Dīdī looked at him now
and was overcome by the sadness in his face. He felt he had been too
harsh and tried to speak in a warmer and friendlier manner. “Look, people
have been dying all the same after I came here. I have done the best magicthat can be done. I have tried very hard, believe me.”
The island chief’s face was full of hopelessness when he asked, “Whatshould we do, then?” Ahumad Dīdī, deadly serious, instructed: “Leave theisland! Go anywhere else. Tell everyone in Havoḍḍē to go away. Don’t stayhere if you care about your life.” His last words were a whisper.
The island chief’s face plainly showed panic. Hysterically he pled, “Ahumad
Dīdī! Don’t leave right now! At least stay with us while we get ready toleave! We will need your magic and your protection.”With a stiff gesture of his hand, Ahumad Dīdī categorically refused. “ByAllah! I am not going to stay another night in this island!” His manner was
brusque now and he almost had become hysterical himself. Forgetting his
dignity, the elderly faṇḍitaveriyā turned rudely away from the island chief,
waded in the knee-deep water, jumped on board the dōni and shouted at
the sailors to punt out of the lagoon.
The boat’s sail was unfurled and caught wind. Ahumad Dīdī felt now
relieved. He looked astern and saw the chief and the men, women and216

children on the beach lit by the morning sun. Their silhouettes became
smaller and smaller. It was a gloomy scene in spite of the light, thebeautiful turquoise color of the lagoon and the lush green trees on theisland. He felt sorry for having been rude. They had treated him so well.
After a while, as the dōni caught speed, Ahumad Dīdī almost couldn’t
make out the figures on the beach. Havoḍḍe looked now just like a long,dark clump of trees over the sea surface. No! Definitely he could not havestayed there another night. Now he remembered that, because of his
haste in leaving he had not even asked for any payment. But he didn’t
regret it at all. He was happy that he was sailing east, towards Vādū.
What can be more important than saving one’s own life (furāna)?201
The chief called all the islanders and told them to gather close to the wallof the mosque, by the graveyard. Pointing at the rows of fresh tombs heannounced in a distressed voice to the men and women assembled therethat they had to leave Havoḍḍē and that there would be no discussion of
the matter, because even such a great faṇḍita man from Vādū had notbeen able to save them. There was no more hope or remedy against theaffliction they had been enduring. Everybody was silent. The cemetery wasfilled with new graves, long, white sand mounds shining bright in the
sunlight.
Following this painful gathering, the people of Havoḍḍē buried their lastdead, of which there were more than four per day, in a hurried manner.
There was almost no time to go through all the traditional death and grief
rituals.202 Everyone took his most precious possessions and loaded their

201

The word used here was ‘furāna’ (Skt. praṇa), which roughly means ‘soul,’ but in
Divehi tradition its meaning is less connected with the spiritual aspect of the soul,than with the breath of life. The breath leaves the body and the body becomes
lifeless. Literally, Ahumad Dīdī said: “To save one’s own life-breath.”
202

When a person dies it is important that as many people as possible go to see
his or her face before burial, a custom known as ‘Mūnu Beluṅ.’217

boats. Since it took some days before all the men, women and children
and old people were ready, more of them died in the midst of the general
confusion. Most of the battelis sailed towards Māmendū which lies on theeastern reefs fringing Huvadū Atoll. But some of them chose to travel tothe capital island, Havaru Tinadū, where they settled. Although they were
well received by the inhabitants of both islands, many people continued
vomiting and dying after arrival. Havoḍḍē is still uninhabited.
This story underlines the consequences of imprudent speech. The jealous
woman’s reckless words brought about the tragedy that eventually tookenormous proportions. Divehi people are usually careful about whichthings must not be said to others. Dark spirits might be lurking unseen
anywhere nearby and, when taunted, may cause some misfortune. For
example, no mother will take as a compliment when somebody says:“How fat your child is!” A malevolent (nāman) spirit might hear this, senda curse (esfinnā) and the child might be afflicted with some serious
disease, become thin or die.
The female puberty rites described in this story were very important in
Maldives back then. Immediately following the menarche, a Maldivian girlwould not be allowed to go out of her house. She was not permitted tosee men not related to her during the week after the first signs of
menstrual activity. The libās levvuṅ celebration itself could take place any
time during the following weeks or months, when families agreed on an
auspicious date and were ready to meet the expenses of the celebration.
In the traditional Divehi environment children had their partners
recommended by their parents, who would favor the offspring of theirclosest friends. In the South the best partner for a girl would be hermother’s brother’s son (Mābeyyāge futā). Normally boys and girls were218

quite free to refuse, in which case they used to choose their own partners
themselves at a very early age and without ceremonials.203
The pre-adolescent age would be the time when teeth would be filed. The
filing of teeth (daiy keṇḍuṅ) had both aesthetic and ritual purposes.
Maldivians used to have aversion towards teeth with jagged edges, since
they look like the fangs of animals (cats, sharks, and crocodiles) or evil
spirits. Hence filing their edges into a straight line was originally meant tohave a refining or ‘purifying’ influence into ushering the children from themore ‘wild’ ways of childhood into the more ‘serious’ and responsible
ways of adulthood.204 Although its ceremonial meaning has been lost, still
the filing of teeth kept having great aesthetic value in the Southern
Maldives during the 1980’s and I found many people who suggested that I
would look more handsome if I would get my own teeth filed. 205
The informal recognition of pre-adolescent couples as future marriage
partners included license to indulge in a sexual relationship.206 When girls
reached puberty, at the libās levvuṅ ritual they were de facto ushered
into full married life with their child partners, without the need of aproper wedding ceremony. This is the reason why traditionally in the203

Nowadays Maldivians speak against this custom claiming that sex at childhood,when both partners were about eight years old or perhaps earlier, caused early
puberty and even early old age. Source: F. Naīma, Gāge, Male’, and others
204

The sand-like teeth filings were not just thrown away. They were spit by the boy
or girl onto a piece of banana leaf which was then stuck inside a crevice of a coralwall. This was also the way of disposing of hairs and nail-clippings, which in nocase should touch the ground nor be thrown into the sea. Source: Magieduruge
Ibrahīm Dīdī, 1983.
205

Among them, Nerivaki Kalō of Miskimmago, Fua Mulaku, persistently made thissuggestion
206

Relative sexual freedom among boys and girls was also widespread among thematrilineal tribes and castes of Southern India. To mention a few of the closest
ones to the Maldivians geographically: Ezhava, Kānikar, Mukkuvar, Nāyar, Pulaya,
Vellāla and Vettuvan. See N.N. Bhattacharyya, ‘Indian Puberty Rites.’219

Maldives no great importance was attached to the wedding ritual itself.
Marriage rites were low-key affairs without relevance in social life. Thiswas in clear contrast with funeral, birth and menarche ceremonies whichwere celebrated with much fanfare amid cooking and feasting. Nowadays
the situation has inverted itself. The traditional puberty ritual haspractically disappeared while wedding parties are assuming increased
importance within Maldive society.

2201.6.3 MASS DEATH
Unfortunately I was not able to gather much information about epidemics
in the North of Maldives, but it would not be right not to mention at least
one of the few narratives I collected from that part of the country.
In Miladummaḍulu Atoll there is an island called Vavati. It was inhabited
until about 1910. However, it never had much population. Only a few
families lived there, totaling about twenty or thirty people, including men,
women and children. In the Maldives it is generally acknowledged thatwhen islands had such a small population, people used to live in very good
harmony with each other.
The coconut trees grew very well in Vavati, thus the island was covered
with tall, lush, and healthy coconut palms. Every family owned a large
group of palm trees and, when they collected the coconuts, they would
have to give half to the king and keep the other half for themselves. This
strange story207 explains the circumstances surrounding the epidemic thatwiped out the population of Vavati:
The Evil Ship

“One time, after the coconuts of the island had been harvested, Ibrahīm
Koyi, a man of Vavati, filled his dōni with the coconuts that had to be
surrendered to the Radun as tax and sailed to Male’. He was bringing
along with him one of his sons. On the way, after sunset, as the dōni ladenwith the king’s tribute had left the atoll and was smoothly sailingsouthwards, Ibrahīm Koyi saw a dark ship ahead, sailing towards his atoll.

207

Told in 1991 by Husein Koyi Bē of Hoḷudū island, South Miladummaḍulu Atoll.
221

They sailed alongside the unknown ship and, in the dusk, they made out afigure aboard. Ibrahīm Koyi called: “Ship Ahoy! Where are you going?”
A spectral voice answered: “We are a government boat! We are sailing to
Vavati Island to put the royal seal on all the coconut trees there!”208
Ibrahīm Koyi had a bad feeling and yelled back: “My name is Ibrahīm Koyi.
Please don’t put any seal on my trees!”
They could barely hear the dark silhouette answering: “All right! Only yourtrees will be saved!” and then the gloomy ship was already too far astern.
Ibrahīm Koyi was relieved when it was lost.
Once in Male’, after bringing the coconuts to the tax-collector, Ibrahīm
Koyi made some business there and, without further delaying his
departure, he set sail back to his own island. He was feeling some anxiety
and wanted to return to Vavati as soon as possible. He had left no man in
his home, only women were there.
They arrived to Vavati two days later in the afternoon and Ibrahīm Koyi
and his son thought that it was strange that no one had come to greet
them at the beach. Usually there would be a couple of old people under
the shady tree by the shore and the girls and boys would come swimming
to the dōni amid much noise and laughter.After throwing anchor theywent ashore. The island was eerily silent. No children came to greet them.
When they reached the village they didn’t see anyone around thehomesteads and no smoke was coming from the kitchens. Ibrahīm Koyi
called the people by their names and, as no one answered, he entered thefirst house close to the path.

208

This meant that since all the coconuts harvested from the trees would
henceforward belong to the king, local people would have no right to the traditional
50% share
222

Immediately a powerful stench hit his nostrils and he was confronted witha gruesome scene. Everyone inside the little house was lying dead on thefloor and their eyes had been gouged out. All the houses had open doors
and they entered one after the other and saw the same grisly sight: men,
women and children lying about in different positions. All were dead andall of their eyes were missing. The evil smell was unbearable. The only
noise was the buzzing of flies.
Full of foreboding Ibrahīm Koyi arrived to his home which was the last one
at the other end of the village. He saw that the door was closed. When hecalled, the door was opened and he saw the frightened face of his eldest
daughter. He was relieved to see that everyone from his family was alive.
His wife and four daughters, with their eyes full of tears, told him that they
did not know exactly what had happened, but the night after he left toMale’, they heard everyone crying. They became so terrified, that they did
not dare to leave the house. In the morning, when they went out they saw
that some evil spirit had killed everyone on the island, sucking the eyes ofthe victims out. Even the old people and the babies had not been spared
the tragic fate. Then they stayed inside their home with their doors closed
until Ibrahīm Koyi arrived.209 Those days had been terrible for them and it
showed in their faces and their wasted bodies.
After this horrible experience, no one from the surviving family wanted tostay in Vavati any longer they were too afraid to stay even a further single
night. Hastily, the frightened men and women packed all their valuables
and loaded the dōni with coconuts. They left that same day before sunset
and settled in another island of the same Atoll, where they recovered andprospered. Thus, Vavati became uninhabited. Even many years after thetragedy had happened, no one from Ibrahīm Koyi’s family wanted to209

As a rule, Maldive Islanders leave the doors of their homes wide open fromdawn to sunset. Privacy is an alien concept in Island tradition.
223

return to their island. Vavati was abandoned for good and was neverresettled.
Although it narrates a relatively recent event, this story is clouded bypuzzling and esoteric features. It is not even sure that it describes an
epidemic, as the people died in too quick succession. Furthermore, thesymbolism of the ship is not clear. The storyteller claimed that the dark
ship represents a deadly spirit coming from the sea which can also takethe shape of a drifting log. This spirit, which will be mentioned again later,
is known as bēri in the local folklore and it is quite well-known in
Miladummaḍulu and Māḷosmaḍulu, two large natural atolls of Northern
Maldives.
The rule in Maldive mythology is that one should never reveal one’s nameto spirits; otherwise they may strike that person with affliction or death.
Oddly, in this story exactly the opposite happens: The person revealing his
name to the evil spirit sees his own life spared, along with the lives of hisson, wife and daughters, in the carnage that left most of Vavati’s
inhabitants dead and eyeless.
The feature of gouged-out eyes appears in many Maldivian stories andeven in the narrative of real events. For example, when a person having
gone to an uninhabited island or to some remote corner of an island alone
doesn’t come back, and, after dying in unknown circumstances, the party
searching for the person finds the corpse, it often has no eyes. Probably itis the crows that have eaten them, but Maldivians traditionally claim that
this is a habit malevolent spirits have.
The story that follows is told in two parts.210 The first section narrates the
tragic events surrounding a sudden and lethal epidemic that struck Fua
Mulaku at the beginning of the 18th century. Apparently, it was the210

Told in 1990 by Katību Ibrahīm Saīdu of Diguvāṇḍo village, Fua Mulaku island
224

deadliest plague in the island history and very few of the original
inhabitants were left. This was the last time that Fua Mulaku’s population
moved to another island en masse.
The Ghastly Fleet“Long ago, during the reign of king Muzhir-ud-Dīn in Male’, there was a
prolonged dry period in Fua Mulaku. The trade winds stopped and theclimate became unbearably hot.211 It is said that, owing to the heat, somepeople fell ill. The disease began slowly at first and it didn’t appear to be
too threatening. The faṇḍita men made magic on behalf of those afflictedby the sickness and they seemed to improve.
However, more days passed and the hot and stifling weather continued.
Suddenly, one day, all over the island people began falling sick and die at
an alarming rate. A full-fledged epidemic was striking the island withunbelievable viciousness. The faṇḍita men worked hard to ward off thedisease, getting involved in complicated rituals that required expensive
ingredients. However, the deaths continued unabated and affected every
household. Every day there were so many death ceremonies that there
was no time for anything else. The graveyards were full to overflowing andpeople had to be buried outside of the mosque enclosure.
The sorcerers couldn’t cope with the number of men and women of allages requiring their services during those dismal days. All over the island
people saw evil spirits roaming around in the night. People built a certain
type of fences with palm leaves in order to hamper the movements of thespirits, and stayed indoors at night. The deaths kept increasing until
people almost despaired of being able to bury all the dead. The faṇḍita

211

Sultān Ibrahīm Muzhir-ud-Dīn reigned from 1701 to 1704.
225

men panicked and declared that the vigani had taken over the island. The
evil force was too big to be counteracted by their magic. 212
One day at dawn, the most respected faṇḍita man gathered all theimportant people of the island led by the Vāroveriyā or chief at theaṣige213 and declared: “We have made our best magic, but to no avail. At
the present rate of deaths, maybe nobody will be left to bury us when we
die. The vigani that has struck this island is a most malevolent one. We
have to leave even now as we are speaking.”
As he became aware of the frightening despair in the sorcerer’s words, theVāroveriya addressed the dōni owners and told them: “Make your boats
ready as soon as possible. Tell the women there will be no time to prepare
presents or cook any food for the trip. Take only what you can carry inyour arms.” Some of the people present tried to argue: “How can we go toanother island without bringing presents to our hosts? This is giving thema reason to criticize us. It will be humiliating for us to stay there!”

212

Compare this and precedent descriptions of deaths with the narrative of asimilar event in a South Indian village: “Never before had any one in Ongole known
what cholera and smallpox were, but now they learned and trembled. The wrath ofMahalakshmi was very fierce. She slew all before her. Twelve died on the first day
after she had begun her work. Many more died during the weeks that followed. No
one could count them all. ... So great was the thirst of Mahalakshmi for blood, thatwhen a man fell sick he died on the spot. She let none escape. Many were numbwith terror. Others said: “If Mahalakshmi must have blood, give her the blood ofbeasts. ... Perhaps she will spare us while she drinks it.” E. RauschenbuschClough; Tales of a Telugu Pariah Tribe. The relationship between epidemics, thevillage-goddess and bloody sacrifices is essential to understand Divehi mythology
and will be explained further ahead in this book213Aṣige were large thatched community huts built with coconut wood beams andscrewpine pillars for village gatherings, celebrations, dances and ‘just to hangaround and chat’. Instead of an earthen floor, like usual buildings, they had a raised
platform made of coconut frond stems, which made them very cool andcomfortable. Apparently, since the 1950s the last ones fell apart and the rulers
discouraged the building of new ones because ‘people used the aṣige to do bad
things’, which may either refer to dances or other celebrations that were considered‘incompatible with Islam’ by the government.
226

But the chief was somber. In other circumstances he might have argued
gently, but now he was not in the mood for discussion: “The dōnis will beready very soon. We will go to Mīdū. We and they are one people. They
are the closest people to us and they might understand why we left in sucha hurry. Now the important thing is to see whether we can even save ourown bodies and souls. It is better if you don’t even go home. Go straight tothe beach. I am going there presently.”
The veḍis (large boats used for the yearly trading journey to Ceylon andSouth India) were left on the island. There was no time to make themready. About three hundred people, all that was left of a population ofover a thousand, squeezed themselves on the eight dōnis that waited at
the beach at a point called Rasgefanno. It was early morning when theysailed away from Fua Mulaku. The journey to Mīdū took about ten hours
and the sickness, made worse by the steamy weather and the glare, took
its toll even while the desperate islanders were trying to flee from it.
When this horrid fleet arrived to Mīdū, the sun was setting and the people
traveling on the boats were exhausted by the heat, shock, sorrow anddisgust. Not all of them survived and on some of the dōnis there were only
corpses. With the help of the local people, the gruesome drifting boats
filled with dead bodies were brought to the shore. Those wretches wereburied in a separate graveyard, close to Mīdū’s main cemetery, which still
stands today.
Mīdū’s inhabitants were shocked. They were not ready for such a sudden
influx of visitors, but they were awed by the dreadful sight of boats
arriving with so many dead bodies and the blood-chilling stories they
heard from the survivors. People in Mīdū always had assumed that Fua
Mulaku was a big, fertile island, a better place to live than their own
island. Hence, they were surprised when they realized that the meager
two hundred odd miserable people that came in despair to their island
were all that was left from Fua Mulaku’s former strong and healthy
inhabitants.
227

Many men and women in Mīdū grieved bitterly, because among thenumerous dead there were close relatives and friends. At first there wassome confusion, as so many people, full of anxiety, asked the survivors fordetails about their relatives and how did they die. But then the important
people of the island told them not to pester their guests, convincing themthat they needed rest. However, thanks to these numerous family
connections, the settling of the survivors from Fua Mulaku was arranged
without problems. Although some of the more weakened people diedduring the following days, the epidemic stopped and nobody fell ill after
arrival to Mīdū.

The second part of this story, introduces Mūnufāhagamudīṅkalēgefānu,
the faṇḍita man whose magical powers made Fua Mulaku island safe
again for human habitation. Mūnufāhaga means ‘mark on the face’, for hehad a purple mark on one side of his face .214
Mūnufāhagamudīṅkalēgefānu“Right at the time of the epidemic that ravaged Fua Mulaku, a bigfaṇḍitaveriyā from that island was in the service of the Radun Sultān
Muzhir-ud-Dīn, in Male’. Since he had a birthmark on his face, he was
known as Mūnufāhagamudīṅkalēgefānu. He was a learned and wise
person and his magic was very powerful. As a result of his good characterand his great magical powers, he was employed by the King to makesorcery against the Malabar vessels. Those Muslim pirates periodicallycame on their ships from their harbors along the Southwestern Indian214

Although this is just a continuation of the first part, both parts are normally told
as separate stories. In this case the same storyteller (Ibrahīm Saīdu) told both
sections in one stretch.
228

coast and raided Male’, looting and destroying the capital and the royalpalaces in it.
Mūnufāhagamudīṅkalēgefānu was in his middle age and was living a
comfortable life in Male’. He was very well paid and he had the prestige
that came from living at the court and being in close contact with the king.
However, when he received the news about the epidemic in his island, he
could not believe what he was hearing. The terrible reports about massive
deaths and the ravages of the disease that had nearly wiped out his nativeisland’s population, made a deep impression on this man. He became
distraught and couldn’t enjoy anymore his good reputation, his riches andthe pleasures of life in the palace anymore.
After that every day he went to the fish market in Male’, making enquiries
of all ships arriving from the South, eager to find out what had happened
in Fua Mulaku. With every piece of news, the magnitude of thecatastrophe that had befallen his home island became clearer to him. He
spent many sleepless nights thinking about the horrifying tales he hadheard. The many deaths, and the tragic reports about boats full of deadbodies drifting to Mīdū, completely overwhelmed him. It was thus that
Mūnufāhagamudīṅkalēgefānu made the decision to sail to Mīdū to help
his island people.
Upon informing king Muzhir-ud-Dīn of his decision, the monarchunderstood his concern. He asked him not to leave in a hurry, but to makethe necessary arrangements concerning his possessions in Male’ and to
appoint his successor to fill his post. Once he had taken care of that,
Mūnufāhagamudīṅkalēgefānu sailed southwards to Mīdū in the first ship
he could find. As soon as he arrived to Mīdū, he went to meet the
wretched survivors of the epidemic. He was glad to speak again in the
distinctive language of his island and realized that if all Fua Mulaku people
had died, their language would never again be spoken in this world. Alas!
The first thing he knew was that all his close relatives had passed away
except for one little boy. Most of his friends had passed away too.
229

Mūnufāhagamudīṅkalēgefānu stayed in Mīdū, close to his people, during
the following months. As they knew he was a good faṇḍita man, they
asked him whether they could ever go back to Fua Mulaku. He told themthat he would go to see the island after some time and then he would
make the right magic to free their island from the evil that had overtaken
it. After “three times forty days” had passed since the large island wasabandoned, Mūnufāhagamudīṅkalēgefānu gathered the Fua Mulaku
people living in Mīdū and told that he needed thirty people to go with him
to explore the island and make a spell to send away the evil. Many men
and women offered themselves, and even some children wanted to go, but
the faṇḍita man told them that the island was not safe enough to bringchildren yet. In this manner, he selected thirty healthy-looking men andwomen and instructed them to bring their own food.
The thirty people, including Mūnufāhagamudīṅkalēgefānu left Mīdū on
one of the twelve-oar dōnis at dawn. When they arrived at Fua Mulaku
the sun was very low. They anchored offshore at Rasgefanno, Fua
Mulaku’s main anchorage, on the island’s eastern shore, and waited for awhile under the faṇḍita man’s advice. When they stepped down aftersunset, they first unloaded the heaps of flowers, consisting of 500 unimal(Guettarda speciosa), 50 kaṣimal (Pandanus odoratissimus), 1000
huvandumal (Jasminum grandiflorum), and the 100 limes they had
brought with them. A place indicated by the sorcerer was swept clean ofleaves by the women. Then the flowers and limes were arrayed in neatheaps close to the shoreline under the gera (Scaevola taccada) trees andthe women were told to return to the boat.
All this work was done in the twilight and no one dared to venture inland,because Mūnufāhagamudīṅkalēgefānu had clearly warned everyone that
before exploring the island, magic had to be done at the boundary of theaffected place, otherwise some disaster may happen.
Once the ingredients for the ritual had been arranged and the spot wasvery clean, Mūnufāhagamudīṅkalēgefānu sat down close to the flower
230

heaps and began to recite magic words. The other people sat silently at a
certain distance from him. He went on for about half an hour until thelight in the western horizon disappeared. Then the ceremony was over andeveryone went swimming back to the dōni where the women had
prepared food for them. That night they felt the awful presence of thedark and empty island close to them and everyone aboard was sofrightened no one dared to speak loudly.
The following day they stayed on the boat until right after sunset. Thenthe men went ashore and repeated exactly the same solemn ritual. In theevening, when it was over they swam back to the dōni anchored offshore.
As in the previous night, they ate their dinner in silence and went to sleep
uneasily, full of dark forebodings.
Finally, on the third evening, while the men were engaged in the ritual,they felt that a new presence was there. Looking from the corner of theireyes they realized that somebody else was sitting with them, but they
couldn’t make out the features of the strange silhouette in the gloom.
Meanwhile Mūnufāhagamudīṅkalēgefānu kept reciting as in the former
two rituals and acted as if nothing new had happened.
However, when the night fell, Mūnufāhagamudīṅkalēgefānu told his
companions that he would go and come back very soon. He swam alone tothe anchored dōni and told the men and women to bring the boat close to
the shore. As the sea was calm that evening, they rowed right to the beachwithout difficulty and there the faṇḍita man ordered everyone to take all
their belongings and bring them ashore. After a while, the food, mats,cooking pots and the other utensils were lying in a heap on the beach, highabove the waterline. Everything had been done in the darkness and in
total silence. Then the sorcerer told the men who had been sitting at theritual spot by the bushes to take all the flowers and limes and bring themto the dōni.

231

Once the flower heaps filled the empty boat and holding the dōni in waisthigh water, Mūnufāhagamudīṅkalēgefānu called in a loud voice: “Theones who are not from this island get aboard first!” Suddenly, a dark
figure jumped aboard in the gloom and the sorcerer pushed the boat withall his strength and let it go towards the ocean. Soon the offshore current
caught the dōni and carried it swiftly away from the island.
Mūnufāhagamudīṅkalēgefānu sighed and told the people gathered at thebeach under the starlight that the spirit who had caused the deadly plague
was now adrift on the dōni. The island was now free from its curse.
Everyone cheered and a fire was lit on Fua Mulaku for the first time since
they arrived. They cooked and slept on the beach that night. Their fear
was gone and they joked and sang. Even in the dark shadows of the night
the island didn’t look like an ominous place now.
The next day they repaired and made seaworthy one of the dōnis which
had been abandoned on the island during the epidemic. Once it was readysome people sailed on it to Mīdū to tell the others that Fua Mulaku wasfree from its curse and that it was safe to return. In this manner, during
the weeks that followed, many of Fua Mulaku’s original inhabitants cameback to resettle their own island, but not all of them desired to do so, assome had decided to stay in Mīdū.
After much hard work, Fua Mulaku people succeeded in making theirisland an inhabitable place again. People were so happy with their greatfaṇḍita man that they asked him to stay. Moved by the devotion andadmiration of his countrymen, the sorcerer decided not to go to Male’ tohis comfortable post in the king’s palace. Mūnufāhagamudīṅkalēgefānumarried a girl from his own island and lived peacefully there until death
took him away.
At the beginning of the narrative there is a reference to the island having
been taken over by the vigani. Again here, like in so many old Maldive
stories, the star role is taken by the faṇḍita man, who succeeds to trick232

the spirit or dakō who caused the epidemic to flee from the island. 215 In
this case, the islanders are willing to sacrifice a large twelve oar dōni,
which is set adrift to get rid of the evil.
In the height of an epidemic, it was common in Maldives to perform theceremonial departure of a boat from the island. This ritual was called Bali
Furuvāluṅ and was centered around a model boat, about four or five feetin length, but often much bigger. Since Maldivians are skilled carpenters,
this ceremonial ship would be very nicely built, with proper little sails andrigging. Mostly it was a replica of a local vessel, like a dōni, batteli or oḍi(or veḍi), but occasionally it looked like a foreign warship (manavaru) or a
trading brig or schooner (nā or nau).216
The ceremonial vessel was specially prepared for the ritual and filled withsweet food, commonly boṇḍibaiy (boiled rice soaked in palm syrup androlled in dry banana leaves) or perhaps fonifoḷi (sweet pancakes), alongwith limes, flowers, oil lamps, and sandalwood. The ship’s hull was
painted in black with white and red stripes, and its masts decorated withpennants made of strips of cloth with magic words written on them. Then,
during a colorful procession passing through the main streets or paths,
the ritual ship was carried around the main streets or paths of the island
afflicted by the disease. If the boat was small, the men would usually bear
it on their shoulders,217 but more often than not these boats were so large

215

The relationship between the dakō and death was emphasized in the popularreligion of ancient Ceylon as well where the Yakas were considered to be thespirits of the dead. C. G. Seligman ‘The Veddas.’
216

Maldivian royal brigs and schooners (nākoḷu), as well as other large vessels
known as bagala and ḍaṅgi were built at the shipyards of Beypore in the Malabar
coast. Most of this information was given by Magieduruge Ibrahīm Dīdī; Ahamad
Dīdī, Fiyōri, Huvadu, among others from Aḍḍu and Huvadu Atolls
217

A boat of this type was used as a decoration in the officer’s mess in the British
air base in Gan, Aḍḍu Atoll233

that they had to be carried around the island fixed on a frame withwooden wheels which was pulled by strong ropes.
The ceremony of releasing the boat (Bali Furuvāluṅ) would be performed
at a chosen spot on the leeward side of the afflicted island. The best time
would be right after sunset in the twilight, which is a very special time forthe performance of faṇḍita. To conclude the ritual, the small wooden
vessel would be brought to the lagoon and, after putting it afloat, thesmall oil lamps and the incense sticks it carried would be lit. Then it would
be held by four men, with water above their knees, and its sails would be
set while the faṇḍitaveriyā stood close by reciting special magic words toattract the evil causing the disease in the island towards the ship. In themeantime, many men, women and children would be watching thedeparture from the beach. Finally the little ship would be released and it
would slowly drift with fully open sails towards the ocean.
This ceremony was done in the hope that the dakō or spirit causing
disease would be attracted by the sweets, fruits and flowers, as well as
intimidated by the mantras recited by the sorcerer, and would leave theisland on the ritual vessel. The performance of the Bali Furuvāluṅ was,until relatively recently, very common in Aḍḍu and Huvadū Atoll, and it isvery likely that this same ritual, or a similar one, was customary all overthe Island Kingdom in more ancient times.
Except for the fact that in the Maldive ceremony no crafted images arepresent, this custom has much affinity with processions and festivals inhonor of the village-goddess in certain places of the neighboring
Subcontinent. There, the image decorated with flowers is also carriedaround the village, before being set adrift in a river or estuary, or in the234

sea.218 Similar ceremonies are enacted to banish Māri, the dreaded
goddess of pestilence, from a particular area. In some instances, in places
where there is no large river or sea, a cart pulled by oxen, filled with bagsof grain (or with large vessels of boiled rice sprinkled with blood) can beused for the same purpose.219 Once again, this provides a good glimpse
into the relationship between the South Indian goddess Māri and the‘boat full of lights’ of the legends of the Maldivians, as mentioned in thereferences to Ranna Māri further above.
Magieduruge Ibrahīm Dīdī told that once, on a trading journey to Gaddū(Huvadū Atoll) in the mid nineteen-sixties, they intercepted on the way
such a ceremonial boat offshore, close to the southern rim of Huvadū
Atoll. It seems it had been released on a Bali Furuvāluṅ ritual performedby the people of Fiyōri Island after some sickness, possibly cholera, spreadthere. The crew of the dōni he was traveling on, picked the small ship up,
relieved it of its load of foṇifoḷi (sweet pancakes very common in Huvadu
Atoll traditionally made with turtle eggs and flour), and let it go. Some of
the traders and sailors aboard ate the foṇifoḷi but Ibrahīm Dīdī refused to
eat them. Old people aboard had warned that it was dangerous to tamper

218

The procession preceding the Bali Furuvāluṅ is strongly reminiscent of thecustom, common all over India, of carrying around temple images on carts orpalanquins decorated with flowers and lamps. The final releasing of the carefullycrafted boat in the sea is similar to the Sedo and Berā festivals in Bengal and also
to the conclusion of the famous annual Durgā Pūja festival in the same region,
when the image of the goddess is immersed in the river. A. Bhattacharyya,‘Folklore of Bengal.’219

In a reference on how the regent of Kotah drove cholera out of the place, W.
Crooke writes: “Having assembled the brahmans, astrologers, and those versed inincantations, a grand rite was got up, sacrifices made, and a solemn decree ofbanishment pronounced against Māri, the cholera goddess. Accordingly anequipage was prepared for her, decorated with funeral emblems, painted black anddrawn by a double team of black oxen; bags of grain ... were put into the vehicle,
that the lady might not go out without food, and driven by a man in sable
vestments, followed by the yells of the populace, Māri was deported across the
Chambal river, with the commands of the priests that she should never again set
foot in Kotah.” ‘Popular Religion & Folklore of Northern India.’235

with such a ceremonial, but, apparently, nothing untoward happened
during the following days or months to whoever had eaten those sweet
pancakes.

236

Part II. The Island Mother
The learned author says that Sri Always-Happy advised him that privacy isessential for ‘attacking enemies, offering prayers, casting spells, eating theforbidden meat, administering poisons and sexual intercourse.’ At my request,
member Sri J. reviewed this quotation. Sri J. complements the author. He adds in
his memo: ‘The Tantra says a man should make a secret of his age, wealth, holes
in the walls of his house, his mantra (incantation with which he summons psychicaid), his sexual habits, medicine (that suits him), his austerities, his yoga practices,
his charities and the insults offered to his person. Their publication causes muchanartha (no good, no worth).’G.V. Desani, ‘All about H. Hatterr’

2.1.1 THE DOUBLE FACE OF FEMININITY
In Divehi mythology women are portrayed as having absolute qualities of
one kind or the other. A woman is either extremely beautiful or extremely
ugly, either loving and pleasant, or dangerous and frightening. These
qualities are not meant to reflect the common Island womenfolk. Indeed,
they transcend average human characters and are rather based on
mythical personalities.
In the Maldive myths, many evil spirits are female and the most important
one is called haṇḍi. This name comes from the Sanskrit ‘Caṇḍi’, a form of
Dēvi. Caṇḍi or Caṇḍika is and older name of Durgā, one of the epithets of
the Great Goddess in the Devi Māhātmya, the first comprehensive work
about the figure of the Goddess in Sanskrit dating back to the 5th century
AD. Nevertheless it is not known how this particular name of the goddess
was popularized in ancient Maldives.
237

This spirit’s appearance is generally that of a lovely young woman wearing
a red dress, although in some instances she may be naked, along withbeautiful jewellery and flowers in her hair.220 She usually dwells undercertain trees, mainly trees with red flowers such as berebedi (Erythrina
variegata), kāṇi (Cordia subcordata) and nikabilissa (Saraca indica). It is
important to note though that for traditional Maldivians the color
referred to as ‘red’ (raiy) could be broadly any color ranging fromyellowish orange to brown. In addition this ghost would also be found in a
few types of trees with white flowers which grow in the forest far fromhuman habitation such as funa (Calophyllum inophyllum), kimbi(Barringtonia asiatica) and bōkeyo (Pandanus zeylanicus), dense,
sprawling trees which usually grow forming dark, thick clumps, especiallythe latter, the wild screwpine.
The striking thing about the haṇḍi is that, in spite of her awesome beauty,
she is able to transform herself into a monster: a powerful, fearsome hagwith protruding fangs, bloodshot eyes, a wild mane of hair and sharp
claws. One of the main features of this Maldivian female spirit is that she
has a claw or talon on her heel, like a rooster’s, which, save rare
exceptions, is present even in her benign aspect. In order to be able to live
among humans without being identified the haṇḍi has to hide her claws.
This striking zoomorphic feature probably owes its origin to the diverse
animals Indic Dēvis and Yoginīs use as vehicle or mount (Skt. vāhana).
Most Vāhanas are claw-bearing animals, like the lion, tiger, crow or owl.

220

The Smallpox-goddess or village-goddess, Sītalā, is also represented either
wearing a red dress or naked in the iconography of the Subcontinent. This divinity
is also known as Māri in Southern India and is connected with any deadly
contagious disease238

As these spirits have both a benevolent and a malevolent aspect, theyalso possess the ability to use their supernatural powers both to pleaseand to harm people. This popular legend illustrates their ambivalence:221

The Fruits of Greed“Once upon a time, Maniku and Kayddā, a very poor couple lived in an
island. They had two children, but they were not able to feed them. One
day, while they were looking for firewood in the forest, they sat under alarge berebedi tree and Kayddā began to wail in despair: “What are welooking for firewood for? We have nothing to cook! How can we go backhome like this? Our children will be crying, dying of hunger!”
Her husband became very sad seeing his wife in this mood and he too
began to sob aloud. The sun was setting and they should have been on
their way home, but they were so hopeless that they just sat there crying
and crying.
Suddenly Maniku and Kayddā realized that a very beautiful young woman
was standing in front of them. She had a pleasant face, shining like themoon. Her dress was red and she wore the finest golden jewellery. In her
straight black hair, there were bright red hibiscus and garlands of little
white flowers. The poor couple stopped crying and, as they looked at her
in sheer awe, they became so scared they began to shiver with fear.
The pretty girl smiled kindly at them and spoke with a very sweet voice:“Don’t be afraid, I am not going to hurt you!” She laughed,” Please listen
to what I am going to say: I know you are a very honest couple and I know

221

Told by the late Doṅ Kokko, Hirunduge, Male’, the former lamplighter of theKing’s palace239

how poor you are. I have heard your cries and I came to do something
good for you.”At this point the haṇḍi thrust her hand forward, opened it and dropped afew shiny coins (favanu) in front of Kayddā and Maniku. “Here are somegold coins! With them you can build a small dōni (fishing vessel). You will
be able to fish every day and you will live well. Then, you and your children
will never be hungry anymore. But, remember. . .” suddenly, her voicebecame frightening and her sweet expression vanished: “You must nevertell anybody about this!”
Maniku and his wife were so afraid they didn’t dare to move. The young
maiden pointed at the coins and laughed again: “Take them, they are foryou!” she exclaimed. And all of a sudden, she disappeared.
The distraught Kayddā and Maniku took the coins and went home. They
were still shivering when they examined them at the light of the lamp.
The next day they bought food and had a good meal. They were glad tosee the children happy. Later on, Maniku went to a carpenter to have adōni built for him. The carpenter was surprised, but when he saw the goldcoins he agreed.
After a few months the couple had used up their gold coins, but they had
their own boat. Maniku went regularly to fish and they were not poor any
longer. It is true that they were not rich either, but they never were
miserable and hungry anymore, as the beautiful haṇḍi had predicted. Now
they could live with dignity and the truth is that husband and wife wereboth very happy along with their children.
Meanwhile the carpenter’s wife became friendly with Maniku’s wife. She
had been suspicious for a long time and asked her every day where they
had got those gold coins from, but Kayddā eluded her questions.

240

However, when, after much prying, Kayddā finally gave in and revealed
the secret of her good fortune, the carpenter’s wife said: “You are silly!
You should go more often to the forest and get more gold coins. You aremaybe not as wretched as before, my dear, but you are still living in a very
modest house. Just look at yourself! You have no beautiful dress andalmost no jewellery. How can you say you are happy?”
Kayddā thought over what the carpenter’s wife had said and felt
miserable. When her husband came happily home after a good catch, he
was surprised at his wife’s gloomy face and asked: “Are you sick?”
Kayddā told Maniku in a whiny tone what was the cause of her sadness.
Her husband was very annoyed and said: “You shouldn’t pay attention to
the carpenter’s wife. You should be grateful for what you have got. Have
you forgotten the times when we went around the island begging forfood?”
But Maniku’s wife was not convinced and pouted her lips. From that day
onwards, Kayddā kept sulking and nagging her husband until one day hegave up: “All right! All right! We will go again under that tree to see
whether we get some more gold coins. But I still don’t think it is proper todo so.” Thus, one day, late in the afternoon, the couple went back to thesame spot. When they arrived it was close to sunset. Kayddā and Maniku
sat under the tree in the same manner and howled and cried in thetwilight as if they were really suffering.
All of a sudden a monstrous being appeared in front of them and they heldeach other in terror. It was not the lovely girl they had expected, but ahideous-looking woman. Her face was too horrible to behold, with a wide
mouth full of sharp teeth, a wild mane of hair and hands with long nails,
stained with blood. Her red eyes looked cruelly at them and she spoke witha roaring voice: “Why did you come here again? Did I tell you to come?”

241

The frightened couple didn’t dare to utter a word. Instead, they turned
around in panic and fled as fast as they could. When Kayddā and Maniku
arrived home, they were panting and shivering.
The next day, while Maniku was out fishing, his dōni crashed against a
hidden coral reef and sank. He barely managed to save himself and cameback home swimming. After this he and his wife Kayddā became again apoor wretched couple and they lived miserably, as they had been before.
This is a story with a moral end that puts emphasis on the evils of greed
and lack of contentment. There are a number of folk tales in India
following a similar pattern: The honest poor couple, the blessing by thevillage goddess and the jealous neighbor’s wife spoiling everything. Often,
it is the latter that is punished, like in the story of Mandodari,222 a folk taleof Andhra Pradesh.
This haṇḍi story also stresses the importance of keeping a secret and theconsequences of revealing the secret to the wrong person. A secret that isbeneficial for a person should never be divulged. Secrecy is thefoundation of Tantric knowledge and many stories in Maldive folklore arebased on this common wisdom.
The fact that the haṇḍi appeared under a tree at dusk, a time where
humans were not supposed to be in the forest, may have its origins in the
Indian Yakśī legends. Such tree-spirits or sprites appear often in the
Buddhist Jātaka tales as well.
Although the term dakīnī and its male counterpart dakō,223 which have its
origins in the Sanskrit terms Yakśīnī and Yakśa, do exist in the Divehi

222

B. Rama Raju, ‘Folk Tales of Andhra Pradesh’.

223

The dakō is also identified with the type of monsters called furēta (ferēta). Its
activity is assumed to cause severe epidemics and he is deemed to come together
with the vigani, the amorphous evil force. (Cf. 1.4.2).
242

language, practically all the female tree spirits are now called haṇḍi. In
South India though this name is rare and, among the sanskritized terms torefer to the goddess, the form ‘Cāmuṇḍi’ is more common. Other names,such as ‘Isakki’, are derived from the Skt. Yakśi
Another Maldive story illustrating the feminine duality, albeit in adifferent manner, is the story of Haṇḍi Doṅ Kamaṇā of Kāṣidū.224 This is awell-known romantic tale with a sad end, subject of many versions ofdifferent length. The following is a bowdlerized version that was put intonovelette form and popularized during the nineteen-seventies in Male’:225Haṇḍi Doṅ Kamaṇā

“Kāṣidū, one of the most important among the Maldive Islands, lies in the
Kardiva Channel about five degrees north of the equator. The nearest
atolls are not visible from its lonely shore. Compared to other islands in thearchipelago, it is fairly large, being about two miles long, but narrow. Even
today, it is so heavily forested, that a sailor approaching from the east
would not discern any human habitation.
Long ago, a handsome young carpenter called Māvaḍi Doṅ Ahamadu lived
in this island. He had no close relatives and lived alone in a small house
where he had his workshop. He enjoyed his job and was a strong andhard-working person. Daily, he left the village early in the morning andwent into the forest to cut wood. He usually went there with a young boy
who was helping him to carry his tools. When they reached the middle of224

The word ‘doṅ’ in Divehi generally means ‘fair skinned’ (although in fruits itmeans the state of ripeness). However, it is often prefixed to a common name, notnecessarily implying that the person is particularly fair.
225

Told in 1988 by Aishath Naazneen, Gāge, Male’. In the ancient versions of thelegend, the characters were not named. Abdulla Sādigu, a contemporary writer,
popularized the names in the story.
243the forest, the boy left and Doṅ Ahamadu began his toil. Since he liked tochew betel and arecanut he carried it in a maḍisīla226 which he left under atree along with his food and water.
After finishing his hard work, Doṅ Ahamadu would open his maḍisīla andsit calmly chewing betel.227 Meanwhile, as he assumed that he was alone
in the forest, he would begin to sing raivaru in a loud voice.228 This was his
favorite time of the day: the heat of the day was gone, the sun was low
and its light became golden. The young man enjoyed the cool breeze andhis songs reflected his joy.
One day, when he finished his song, he heard an eerie female voice sing a
reply from the deepest part of the forest. Astonished, Doṅ Ahamadu
wondered where that crystal-clear voice could come from. “I didn’t know
any woman on this island could sing like that,” he murmured to himself.
On the next day, at the same time he heard that incredible lilting answer.
For several weeks, every day after he finished his work, and before settingout for home, he heard that mysterious voice. He came to anticipate it
eagerly. Day by day their songs became increasingly intimate, until herealized he had fallen in love with the hidden singer. Finally, Doṅ Ahamadu
decided to marry her.
One day the young man, sitting in his usual place chewing betel, expressed
his desire in raivaru and the girl suddenly appeared before him. Doṅ

226

A round cloth bag that can be opened or closed by means of a string.

227

The chewing of betel (biley) and nut is normally a social activity. However, it has
a sensual connotation as well. Frequently, in the Maldivian Island lore, references
to the betel leaf and the areca nut have an alternative meaning which is outrightsexual
228

Raivaru are couplets, a form of verse which was formerly very popular in theislands. Tradition says that in ancient times certain spirits taught the Maldivian
people to sing raivaru.
244

Ahamadu was so stunned he almost fell backwards. In front of him stood asmiling young woman of such radiant beauty her face seemed to shine.
She was wearing a lovely red dress and delicate flowers in her hair. Doṅ
Ahamadu’s heart was beating so fast he gasped for air.
Nervously, he stuttered, “W-who are you?”“I am Doṅ Kamaṇā” replied the girl still smiling at him.
“I never saw you or heard of you. Did you grow up in this island?”Ahamadu tried to control his voice and sound calm.
“Yes, I did. Perhaps you didn’t look around in the village very much.” Shelaughed.
“Yes, yes.” He agreed “That’s why I was so surprised. I didn’t know there
was such beauty in this island. I thought I loved you because of your voice.
But now, having seen the way you look, I love you more deeply than I
thought I could ever love anyone or anything. When shall we marry?”“I am ready now. But, first, you must accept my conditions.”“For you I would do anything. Tell me your conditions and I’ll agree.”
Then the girl said, “You must solemnly swear you will never ever look atme while I am by the well. Second, you must never look at me while I am in
the kitchen. Third, you must never ask where I get fish and other food. And
fourth, you must always let me wear the dresses I like.”
Readily Doṅ Ahamadu assented, relieved that her conditions seemed soeasy, and got up. As he walked home along with the pretty girl through245the forest in the light of the setting sun, he could not believe he was solucky. The very next day these two young people were married.229
Time passed and husband and wife lived together in bliss, continuing as
deeply in love as the day they met. Doṅ Ahamadu was very proud of DoṅKamaṇā. She seemed ageless, remaining as beautiful as when he first saw
her. Because of his love, Doṅ Ahamadu faithfully kept his promise not tolook while his wife was by the well or in the kitchen. He never asked where
she got their fish either. Doṅ Kamaṇā chose her dresses, which werealways red, and she liked wearing sweet smelling flowers in the hair. Her
husband didn’t find anything wrong with her. To him she always lookedvery pretty and neat.
As years went by, Doṅ Kamaṇā gave birth to a girl and two boys who wereas beautiful as her. The three children cheered the house even more andthe young couple was so happy they were all the time singing or laughing.
Unfortunately, after twelve years of marriage this happiness came to an
abrupt end. One fateful day Doṅ Ahamadu went to the beach and saw a
trading dōni lowering its sails. Suddenly, he realized that while others
traveled and kept in contact with people in other islands, he had isolated
himself for years from his friends. His life consisted of his wife, his workand his home.
He asked somebody sitting on the hoḷuaṣi (raised log platform) “Where
did that dōni230 come from?”229

Traditionally, in the Maldive Islands, marriage was not a very importantceremony. It never had the social relevance that birth and funerary rituals (and in
the case of girls the libās levvuṅ puberty ceremony) had. This was also the norm inancient Sinhala society in Buddhist Ceylon.
230

Although the dōni is normally a fishing boat, large dōnis are frequently
converted temporarily into trading vessels by erecting a long hut in the middle ofthe deck, behind the mast
246

“From the South. I think it is Takurufānu’s dōni.”Doṅ Ahamadu decided, “I must wait until I know for certain.” Takurufānu
was a very good friend of his and he had not seen him since the days
before his marriage. Thus he sat on the hoḷuaṣi, eager to meet his friend
again and to share with him the news about his happy life. After the dōni
threw the anchor and the passengers came ashore, Doṅ Ahamadu went
on board the trading vessel and met Takurufānu, who besides being a
trader, was a learned faṇḍita man too. He was highly respected in Kāṣidū.
Takurufānu was surprised at seeing his old friend and exclaimed, “DoṅAhamadu! You are looking very well! Where have you been all this time?”Doṅ Ahamadu replied, “Here, in this island. It has been many years since I
last saw you!” Although he was very pleased to meet him, Takurufānu
acted as if he was annoyed: “Hmm! Before you used to visit me and cometo my island. Now, for so long, you have kept to yourself. You could as wellhave been dead. I didn’t even get any news about you.”
A bit abashed, but smiling, Doṅ Ahamadu explained, “Well, I am married
now. But let’s go ashore!”
Takurufānu agreed and when he stepped on the beach, he instructed ayoung boy to take his box of belongings to the Katību’s house while hewent along with Doṅ Ahamadu.
Arriving at Doṅ Ahamadu’s home, Takurufānu sat on the boḍuaṣi (indoor
raised platform) and considered his surroundings. He was impressed: “Youhave a very good house. No wonder you have kept to yourself. You musthave a wonderful wife also, because everything is in its proper place. The
richness of a home is not in its furnishing, but in orderliness andcleanliness.” The older man kept taking in the details admiringly and, after
a while, said: “So . . . where is your wife? Is she pretty too?”247Doṅ Ahamadu was enthusiastic: “She is more beautiful than any woman in
the world! I have never seen anyone you could compare to her; and she isso kind to me too.”231
His friend was amused by the sudden rapture and had to smile “Well, well.
You must show her to me, then.”
Don Ahamadu called Doṅ Kamaṇā. The lovely young woman enteredsilently and leaned against the door frame in a graceful position.
Takurufānu eyed her with a penetrating stare. Feeling uncomfortable, DoṅKamaṇā turned her gaze away from him. She tried to smile, but she
couldn’t and a veil of deep sadness fleetingly passed across her face. Thenher expression became vacant. After some tense moments, seeing thatneither his wife nor his guest had said a word to each other, Doṅ
Ahamadu sent her away on some pretext.
Smiling nervously to break the tension he asked, “Isn’t she charming?” Butas soon as he noticed the look on his friend’s face, Doṅ Ahamadu’s grinfroze.
Takurufānu brought his index finger to his lips, and intoned, “Lā ilāha illaallāhu.232 What have you done my friend! Your eyes will not be saved!
Where did you find that woman?”Doṅ Ahamadu was puzzled: “In the forest. You know I cut firewood. Why
are you so worried?”

231

Here, indirectly, reference is made to a Maldivian proverb saying that ‘A knife ispretty when it is sharp and a wife is pretty when she is kind.’232

A popular expression of surprise, meaning ‘There is no God except Allah’ in the
Arabic language248

“She is not human! You are married to something which is not a humanbeing!”“What! What is she then?” His eyes glittered, like those of a mad man.
“She is a haṇḍi!”Losing his self-control, he cried out: “Takurufānu! What can I do? I evenhave children from her!”“Children! Oh no! How many?”
Cold with fear, Doṅ Ahamadu shivered: “Three children, a girl and twoboys. To me they look normal. They are very beautiful. But now I don’tknow what to do. Please help me!”Seeing the horror in his friends face, Takurufānu told him, “Come withme.”
They both went to the Katību’s house and Takurufānu gave Doṅ Ahamadu
a very powerful magic spell written on a sharpened piece of kuredi (a very
hard wood). He said: “Bury this stake in the varuvā corner of the house.
Your wife will be forced to leave by herself.”
Still frightened, Doṅ Ahamadu asked, “What if she gets angry?”“Why do you fear that woman so much? Is there something you have nottold me about her?”“Well, yes. She forbids me to look at her while she was in the well andwhile she was in the kitchen.”“How could you agree to that? How foolish!”
The young man lowered his eyes: “I love her.”249

Takurufānu ignored the sorrow in his friend’s voice: “When you go home,”
he instructed him. “Spy on what she is doing, and tell me later.”
Still nervous, Doṅ Ahamadu went home alone and quickly buried thecharm as instructed. Hearing his wife by the well, he peered around thecorner. Instantly he regretted it. Her appearance was terrible to behold.
She bent over the well, and caught a tuna fish using her sharp, long teeth.
Her face was hideous, her loosened hair looked wild and her very
movements were repulsive.
Doṅ Ahamadu concealed himself, so his wife would not know he washome. Later, hearing a noise in the kitchen, he peeked through the door at
her. Doṅ Kamaṇā sat with her legs thrust between the three stones
supporting the cooking pot. Where the firewood was normally placed, hesaw flames flare from her feet. Shortly thereafter, the fish started boiling.
A great chill went down the young man’s spine and he fled into the houseand sat on the boḍuaṣi.
Soon she came to him. “Do you want to eat?” she asked with her usual
kind and musical tone which he had found so pleasant before.
Startled at hearing his wife’s voice, his body jerked. “No!”“Are you not hungry?” Doṅ Kamaṇā enquired with a concerned look on
her face.
Uncontrollable quivering overcame Doṅ Ahamadu. He started to one side
past her. “I’m not feeling well.”“What has happened to you?” She asked gently. “You have never been likethis! I’m very sorry to see you like this. You are shivering!”
Her husband did not answer and stared in front of him, avoiding her gaze.
Then the beautiful woman spoke with a voice full of sadness: “Youshouldn’t think I am ignorant of what’s going on. I know everything. The
250

moment I saw Takurufānu, I knew that he would be like an earwig cutting
through my life.233 Haven’t we already been married twelve years? Isn’t
that of any value to you? All those years of blessings, along with the joy of
our three children, you’ve sacrificed on that man’s empty words. Why giveso much importance to an outsider who just arrived this morning? Now, I
know you don’t love me! If you did, you would have valued my words, notsomeone else’s.” The harrowing tone of his wife’s voice made Doṅ
Ahamadu realize, all of a sudden, how deeply he had hurt her.
He now turned his eyes towards his wife’s charming face. She was almost
crying. He remained silent, remembering the bliss they had known
together and feeling his love revive.
“It is true,” she continued in sorrow, “I am a haṇḍi. But, even if I am aspirit and not human, what disgrace has befallen you? You knew only
happiness with me. It was to spare you the shock of seeing me in my othershape that I made those conditions when we married. I wanted to be ahuman being, just for you.”
Her husband didn’t know what to say and just sighed deeply. Now it
dawned on him that he had done something very wrong and that it was
impossible to mend it.
The young woman spoke with tears running down her lovely cheeks. “Iknow you have used potent magic to get rid of me. Therefore I must go. I
could easily take revenge, and yet I have no wish to hurt you, because I
still love you. I have always loved you. Although I am more powerful thatyou can imagine, I will never use that power to harm you.”
Realizing that he had destroyed their relationship, Doṅ Ahamadu gasped.
“I’m sorry for what I did. Please don’t go.” He began to cry too.

233

A local expression meaning ‘to bring misfortune’.
251She narrowed her eyes, “I will go, because you want to send me away. I’ll
take the children and leave no trace. Everything will be as it was before I
came. I’m sorry I made any difficulties for you. You won’t be troubled any
more.”234
Doṅ Ahamadu miserably pled, “Doṅ Kamaṇā! Please stay! I love you.”
Ignoring him, the sobbing woman took their children to the beach, walked
into the sea, and disappeared.
The young man followed her to the seashore, knelt down on the coral sandand wailed in despair. Every single day of his life he returned to that place.
He stayed for hours looking towards the sea and sobbed bitterly. Doṅ
Ahamadu never married. He never talked to anyone and aged quickly.
Claiming he was crazy, people avoided him until he died.
Doṅ Kamaṇā never returned. The place where they lived was called Haṇḍi
Gaṇḍuvaru. Until recently, the ruins could be seen in Kāṣidū. Now, even
they are gone.
There are rougher versions of the same legend, some of which are noteven set in Kāṣidū, that contain grislier, cruder details, typical of island
spirit folklore. In these undoubtedly older versions Haṇḍi Doṅ Kamaṇā
literally splits her offspring in two equal halves at the end. She leaves one
child with Doṅ Ahamadu, takes another child with her and the remaining
child she deftly cuts lengthwise in two with a cleaver (kativaḷi). Her half-234

at this point in more pristine ghastlier versions Haṇḍi Doṅ Kamaṇā literally splits
her offspring in two equal halves. She leaves one child with Doṅ Ahamadu, takes
another child with her and the remaining child she deftly cuts lengthwise in two witha cleaver (kativaḷi). Her half-child keeps living, stands up, and walks with his motherinto the sea, while the other half-child dies and begins to rot. His father buries it not
far from the beach, close to the place where he goes to weep every day. The
relation between women with supernatural powers and machete knives links thispart of the story to the fierce aspect of the goddess such as black Kāli who always
holds a bloodied cleaver in one hand.
252child keeps living, stands up, and walks with his mother into the sea, while
the other half-child dies and begins to rot. His father buries it not far fromthe beach, close to the place where he goes to weep every day. The
relation between women with supernatural powers and machete knives
links this part of the story to the fierce aspect of the goddess such as black
Kāli who always holds a bloodied cleaver in one hand.
There are echoes of the Mahābhārata in the strict conditions Haṇḍi DoṅKamaṇā set before agreeing to marry Doṅ Ahamadu. In the Indian epic,
Goddess Gaṅgā assumed human form as an attractive young woman andappeared on her own banks, for she herself is the river Gaṅgā too,dressed in silk and jewels and with lotus garlands on her hair. As she
stood there, King Santanu arrived at that very spot to watch the beautiful
sunset. When he saw the charming Gaṅgā there he fell suddenly in lovewith her and felt compelled to ask Gaṅgā to be his wife. She agreed tomarry Santanu on one condition: “You must never question any of myactions, however irrational they may seem, and you must never try to
prevent me from doing what I desire, or I shall leave you.”
Even if Haṇḍi Doṅ Kamaṇā’s narrative follows a different course, in theend, she, like Gaṅgā, leaves her husband because he broke his promise
after a long period of marriage. The similarities end there though, because
Doṅ Kamaṇā’s children don’t play any further role in the story, whileGaṅgā’s only surviving son, Bhiśma becomes one of the main charactersof the Mahābhārata. The relationship between the man and thesupernatural female forms the core of the legend in the Maldive popularstory, but the relationship between mortal King Santanu and beautiful
goddess Gaṅgā is just the prelude to the great Indian epic poem.

253Gaṅgā, though a female goddess, has no Krodha form,235 so the fearful
aspect of Haṇḍi Doṅ Kamaṇā has its origins most probably in the
Dravidian Village Goddess tradition.236 Her frightening appearance, which
she took care to never show to her husband, is one more instance of theDēvi or goddess taking a fearful shape. This duplicity is part of her very
nature.

235

There is a relationship though, between female tree spirits (Yakśīs) and female
goddesses having water monsters as their vāhana or vehicle, like Gaṅgā who isusually standing or sitting on a Makara. See Ananda Coomaraswamy, ‘Yakśas,Vol. II’.
236

There are also parallels in the part of the Gaṅgā story when she was expelledfrom heaven because of her pride and overbearance, (C. Sivaramamurti, ‘Gaṅgā’)and the legend of goddess Māri Ammā, the South Indian smallpox-goddess, who
was expelled from heaven on account of her haughtiness (L.K. Anantha Krishna
Iyer, ‘The Tribes and Castes of Cochin, Vol 1’).
254

2.1.2 FROM SWEETNESS TO HORROR
The descriptions of the haṇḍi female spirit in her frightening aspect vary,but, generally she has a savage look: Her hair looks dirty and unkempt,
her eyes are red, her mouth is large, with fang-like long teeth, her hands
and feet have nails looking like claws, her complexion is dark and often
she is either stained with blood or blood is dripping from her mouth,
staining her teeth red. This, again is in sharp contrast with Doṅ Kamaṇā’s
appearance as a lovely maiden, wearing fresh flowers in her carefully
combed and braided bun, her flawless face and body, sweet voice, and, inshort, every quality and virtue which can make a woman desirable.
Haṇḍi Doṅ Kamaṇā’s well combed hair, neatly arranged in a bun on theside of her head, decorated and perfumed with flowers, was a strong
tradition in the Maldive Islands. Divehi women had to wear their hairalways combed, oiled and bound, either plaited or arranged in a bun.
When every girl or woman got up in the morning, the first thing she had
to do was to thoroughly comb her locks. Unkempt and puffed-up manesof hair were not tolerated except while washing it during the bath, whileallowing it to dry after it, or when females were in the process ofgrooming themselves.
Divehi women used to engage in the latter task as a social activity in small
groups, idly combing, delousing and applying oil and perfume to eachother’s locks. The lice (ukunu) and the nits (lī) were killed between two
fingernails. Usually, one of the women was languorously spread out,
gently resting her head on the other’s thigh and this was a moment forpleasant conversation in soft hushed tones. Placidly dressing anddelousing each other’s hair, like between sisters or friends, or mother todaughter, was regarded as a mark of the highest mutual esteem among
island women.
In traditional Maldive society it was totally unacceptable for a woman to
go around with disheveled hair out of the context of bath or grooming,
255unless she was mentally ill. If a girl happened to walk out her house, oreven if she stayed within her home for a long time without combing her
hair, other people would confront her saying: “You look like Minikā
Daitā!” (the Cannibal Woman) or “You look like the dafferēta” (a very ugly
spirit). The latter is a southern expression. Da’ or Daiy=tooth, Dafferēta
literally means ‘the tooth monster’.
Conscious of the dread they were causing, sometimes women would
dishevel their long black hair on purpose in the midst of heated family
arguments or verbal street-fights. In ancient times, little girls of poorfamilies or orphans would have their heads regularly shaven until they
were close to coming of age. Then they would be sent to work in a
wealthy household within their own island “to let the hair grow” for acertain period until they got married. 237
Within the traditional Tamil and pan-Indian socio-religious context, thebound hair is symbolic of control and virtue,238 and, by extension, asymbol of the Goddess in her pleasant form. On the other hand, thedisheveled mane of the monstrous aspect of his wife Doṅ Ahamadu seesby the well, represents chaos and disorder, or the dark, horrifying face of
the Dēvi. In the Tamil epic Śilappadikāram, wrathful Kaṇṇagi’s wild long
hair “spread like a forest”, so terrifies the king of Madurai when she
confronts him, that he dies upon seeing it.
Haṇḍi Doṅ Kamaṇa’s red dress, a common feature in Maldive haṇḍi tales
except for some stories where the haṇḍi is naked (Cf 2 ‘Spirits andfever.’), has its origins in red being the auspicious color of the Dēvi. In
Tamil Nadu, village goddesses are often just crude images or stones
covered with a red cloth and all over rural India, stones representing the237

Source: Kokkobeage Sakīna, Funāḍo village, Fua Mulaku

238

Kalpana Ram, Op. cit.
256

Goddess are daubed with red pigment. Even mere red marks by the sideof a tank, or on a rock, or on a tree by the water may already represent
the village goddess.239 These village deities are mostly identified with thesmallpox goddess (Māri or Sītala), who is also viewed as a form of Kāli, thefierce goddess of time and destruction. Maldivians claim that trees having
red flowers are especially malevolent and the significance of the red color
within the context of the goddess tradition will be subject to further
discussion somewhere else in this book.
The fact that the haṇḍi has no husband or male consort, thus being free
to roam in the forest at will, as well as falling in love with a human being
and being able to marry him, is a proof of the great antiquity of this Divehi
spirit. In village India, although the ancestral village-goddesses aremothers, surprisingly, they are not married. Unlike average village
women, these exalted females are not bound by social constraints and arefree to do as they please. No father-figure was deemed necessary in thesocieties in which these goddesses originated.240
Furthermore, Doṅ Kamaṇā’s astonishing magical powers, like fishing tuna,pelagic saltwater fish, from the shallow freshwater well, or cooking withthe fire that comes out of her bare feet, are also strongly reminiscent of atribal or village deity from the Indian Subcontinent. Among the beliefs of
the Bhil, a large ‘tribal’ people group of Central India researched by
Waharu Sonavane, one legend tells that when the Bhils had no more
firewood for their kitchen stove to brew liquor, their divinity Raja Panatha
put his foot under the pot to keep the fire burning. Moreover, in Bengali
folklore tree-haunting female ghosts known as Saṅkhcinni or Saṅkhacurni
are able to take the place of a human wife and cook with their feet.241

239

See D.D. Kosambi, “Cults to Deified Women” in ‘Myth and Reality’.

240

Ibid. “Mothers, but unmarried”.

241

Lal Behari Day ‘Folk Tales of Bengal’257

It is also possible though that the fire coming out of the girl’s feet has its
origins again in the Śilappadikāram story. The feet are the place where
anklets are worn and it was a misplaced anklet that unleashed the
awesome and fiery temperament of the heroine, Kaṇṇagi. As her anger
was the cause that the whole city of Madurai was burnt down to ashes,
there is a relationship between anklets and fire. This relationship ispresent as well in the Pattini Dēvi cult in Ceylon, which in turn owes its
origins to the Kaṇṇagi tradition too. In Mal Pattini Upata, one of the local
narratives woven around the figure of goddess Pattini, the Dēvi scorches
demons with the fire of her anklet.242
Towards the end of Haṇḍi Doṅ Kamaṇā’s story there is a moment where
the husband, Doṅ Ahamadu, expresses his fear from his wife in emphatic
terms. Paradoxically, this takes place even before he has seen DoṅKamaṇa’s terrible aspect, when his only experience with her has been
continuous bliss. This connection between lurking fear and women is acommon occurrence in the haṇḍi stories of Maldivians, whether they
belong to the ancient oral tradition, like the stories above, or whether
they are descriptions of actual experiences, like the following one: 243
The Haṇḍi in the Dream“Long ago, it was the custom for us boys to go into the jungle to pickcertain flowers during the month of Ramzān in the afternoon. We would
then sit down and pass our time knitting the small flowers into garlands
which we would give later to the girls we fancied.

242

R. Weerakoon, ‘Sri Lanka’s Mythology’.

243

Told by Eduruge Aisā Dīdīge Muhammad Dīdī of Fua Mulaku Island.
258

One day, I had picked a bunch of uni flowers in the forest.244 It was hot
and, while I was bringing them home in a cloth, I felt tired and sat under
the shade of a tree. As I was feeling sleepy, I put the flowers on one sideand dozed for a while. When I woke up, my heap of flowers had
disappeared. Thus, I went home empty-handed, because I was too tired topick more flowers.
That evening while I was sleeping I had a very clear dream: I saw two girls
standing right in front, looking hard at me. They were close together, one
partially hidden by the other. Both were beautiful young women and theone farther away was taller than the other. However, for some reason,maybe the intensity of their stare, I found them frightening. In fact, I
became very tense and was so scared I didn’t dare utter a word and stoodvery quiet facing them. Time passed and I had not moved at all, butsuddenly the girl closer to me asked in a very aggressive tone: “Why did
you touch me?” And before I had the time to answer, she thrust her handforward towards me. This terrified me to so much that I screamed in panic
and woke up. Having heard my anguished cry, my grandfather came to my
bed and calmed me down.
The next day after sunset, I was chatting with some friends, sitting under alarge funa tree.245 Suddenly, I felt a hand pulling my arm and I jerked it off
and yelled. My friends didn’t see anything, then we all got up and looked
around, but there was nothing there. However, I was very frightened andwent home. My grandfather, seeing my state, made some powerfulfaṇḍita. In time I was not troubled by the girl spirit anymore, whether
asleep or awake.

244

Sweet-scented little white flowers (Guettarda speciosa) that grow wild in all
Maldive Islands.
245

Calophyllum Inophyllum, a large tree with dark foliage and pretty white andyellow flowers. This tree is rated as a malevolent tree (nāman) in Maldive tradition
259

This story helps to understand the reasons behind the fear that
Maldivians have of some flowers and trees. Such apparently innocent
activities as picking certain flowers and bringing them home, or making asiesta under a particular type of tree, may provoke the attack of female
demons. This type of spirits is generically known as haṇḍi too, but they
don’t necessarily have two aspects, like Doṅ Kamaṇā. As the story above
illustrates, female tree spirits can be very frightening even if nothing intheir outside appearance looks alarming. In the story ‘The House of
Sorrow’ (Cf. 2.2.3) the heroine scares the sorcerer out of his wits eventhough she looks like an average adolescent girl. Another good example is
Dōgi Āihā who is the heroine in two stories further ahead in this book.
The haṇḍi is a spirit who is generally linked with the forest and with thetrees. In every story the girl appears under a certain tree, deep in thewoods, far from human habitation, and generally at a particular time ofthe day. Still, in the Maldives the people consider that people should keepaway from certain sectors of the forest, especially after sunset. It is as if
certain parts of the woods were reserved for them, as if those places wereholy.
In Fua Mulaku oral tradition there are hints that in the distant past there
were sacred groves, where trees having to do with female spirits owing to
the red color of their flowers, would be preserved and no branches werechopped down from them. Such a place was called Kaḷḷā Māri, in thesouthwest of Fua Mulaku Island. It seems that yearly some kind of popularcelebration was held at that sacred grove, with men disguising themselvesin costumes made of coconut palm leaves. The head was a tall cone madeof woven palm fronds with red flowers (hibiscus) attached at the top. The
Kaḷḷā Māri forest disappeared long ago and only the memory remains.
The relationship between Dravidian female divinities and trees is veryancient. The most primitive forms of village goddesses had a ‘sacredgrove’ surrounding their aniconic image. Still in India, some local Dēvis
have such a sacred grove (kāvu or rāna), which means literally ‘forest’260

about the stone representing them. Although in most cases this has
shrunk to a thicket of shrubs worthless as fuel, occasionally the grove isquite a jungle,246 where not a single branch of any living tree may be cut inspite of the shortage of firewood. The relationship between beautiful
women and trees is an ancient feature of the Indic folklore.
This connection has been extended in some cases to the fruits producedby the trees. In certain stories about Dravidian goddesses it is said that abeautiful young woman was born from a ripe mango fruit. There is a Tamil
legend where a lovely young woman was transformed into a mango toescape being raped and killed by a group of evil men while she was taking
a bath in the river. The mango was hanging from a branch over the water,
and when the fruit became ripe and fell, it was carried downstream by thecurrent. An old woman found the mango, brought it home and when she
cut it, the beautiful girl suddenly appeared in front of her.247
In the story about goddess Pattini from the popular religion of Ceylon, it issaid that this female deity was born form a mango in one of her sevenbirths. The figure of goddess Pattini originated in the Kannagi tradition of
the Subcontinent; therefore it holds an anklet in her hand in local
iconographic representations.248‘Lāl Parī Kamaṇā’ is a long fairy-tale myth that was one of the mostpopular in Maldives at the time when local storytellers had some prestige
in the island society and were called to the houses ―usually in theevenings or on rainy days― to provide entertainment by reciting their

246“The mother-goddess ‘forest’ at Phagṇe, about three hundred metres long byfifty to a hundred wide, is easily the most impressive sight in the middle Paunā
valley”. ‘The Sacred Grove’ in D.D. Kosambi, Op. Cit.
247

‘Virgin Goddess of the Mango’ by Prema Nandakumar about the Tamil book
‘Masaniyamman’ by Tulasi Iramasami. ‘The Hindu’ March 16th 1999 issue
248

Gaganath Obeyesekere, ‘The Cult of the Goddess Pattini.’261

stories. Such storytellers used to receive some payment in kind in
exchange for their services.
‘Lāl Parī Kamaṇā’ is based on a story coming from the Indian
Subcontinent, although it contains some features that are clearly local.
This folktale incorporates the theme of a woman being ‘born’ already as agrown-up girl from a ripe mango fruit. Such a surprising feature, which
would be quite odd in another context, fits well within the lore of theDravidian village-goddess tradition. In the gruesome punishment at theend, the story contains a clear warning about the dangers of defying theexisting social order that is extremely ancient and markedly South Asian.
In addition, and more to the point of the theme discussed in the present
chapter, the ‘Lāl Parī Kamaṇā’ legend includes female characters
displaying both the extreme aspects of femininity found in all Maldivianhaṇḍi legends: On the one hand the kindness and virtue, and on the otherthe readiness to commit acts of violence and manipulate the wellmeaning and somewhat naive male characters of the story.
The name ‘Lāl Parī’ is of North Indian or Persian origin. Altough parī is thename for ‘fairy’ in Divehi, the woman in this story is not a fairy according
to Maldivian folklore, while lāl, meaning ‘red color’, is likely to refer to red
as a powerful symbol; for the color of fresh blood is the color of theGoddess and it is directly related to her fertility and the bloody sacrifices
offered to her in Dravidian tradition.
How did the term ‘Caṇḍi’, rare in neighboring South India, arrive to theMaldive Islands? In Divehi, the term ‘mother’ ―so popular in Dravidian
religion to refer to the goddess― is not used to refer to female spirits thatoriginated in the village goddess.
‘Caṇḍi’ probably came to the Maldives from further North, from Bengal.
In Bengali village cults, the local form of the smallpox goddess or Śītalā is262

called ‘Basanta Caṇḍi’.249 This goddess has no temple dedicated to her
and she is generally worshipped under a tree. Also in some districts ofBengal, the term Caṇḍi is a generic name given to several goddesses who,
however, share no identity in power and functions and having different
iconographic representations. Most of those deities worshipped under
the name Caṇḍi in the Hooghly district are village goddesses whosemodest shrines are located under shady trees.
Sītala is a name used in Northern India. Her iconography and background―she rides an ass, holding a broom in one hand and a winnowing fan in
the other― differs from that of Māri, a term more common in TamilNāḍu, except that, like the Maldivian haṇḍi, she either naked or wears red
clothes. It is important to take into account, though, that Sītala, Caṇḍi andMāri are generic names for a large array of village goddesses.

249

Somnath Mukhopadhyay, ‘Caṇḍi in Art and Iconography’.
263

2.2.1 SPIRITS AND FEVER
The Maldivian haṇḍi is far from being a mere fairy owing to its complex
character that habitually includes a malignant side. The haṇḍi, like mostmalevolent spirits, is linked to disease. This female spirit is blamed for
causing illness, especially fever, and this is one of the main reasons why
they are feared. Since it was assumed that there was no medicine against
it, fever (huṅ) was always taken very seriously.
Before modern medicine reached the islands, Maldivians were positivethat fever was a disease caused by malevolent spirits. Thus, they believedthat fever could only be treated by faṇḍita (magic or sorcery). The factthat heat would come out of the body was perceived as a great evil. Even
though faṇḍita and Divehi bēs (traditional herbal medicine) were usuallypractised by the same person, no herb was deemed effective against
fever. The body had to be cooled by magic.
To protect themselves from attacks by evil spirits, people avoided
vulnerable locations. When in the forest, men and women would avoid
sitting too long in the shade of certain trees because a haṇḍi may appear
to them and cause fever or death. They would not tamper with certain
flowers, such as funamā (Calophyllum inophyllum), kimbimā (Barringtonia
asiatica) or berebedimā (Erythrina variegata). These wild flowers would
never be brought home, because they are assumed to carry the influenceof the haṇḍi along with them, hence people in Southern Maldives use toclaim that red flowers are particularly risky regarding malevolent
influence.
Haṇḍi stories are extremely common. In my interactions with Maldivians I
was astonished by the number of persons of both sexes and of every age
and background who affirmed having seen a haṇḍi with their own eyes.
One old man saw this spirit as a young girl swinging under a screwpine
tree and when he went close he realized there was nothing there. In
another instance a boy suddenly saw the haṇḍi, a beautiful bejeweled264

lady, appear in front of him in the middle of the forest and was so
unnerved by the unexpected apparition that he shat in his pants (gāṣagūlī). According to the notes I took, all the people claiming to having seena haṇḍi had previously heard this spirit described by someone else. Thisfactor may explain why, despite the varying circumstances of the different
encounters, the descriptions of the spirit itself were very similar. The story
that follows, told by a young girl,250 is fairly representative:
The Haṇḍi from the Kimbi Forest“I was with two other girls my age at the beach in Kandovali. 251 We hadcollected lots of different flowers from the forest and were playing withthem, making figures with petals of different colors on the white smoothflat stones by the waterline. At that time I was standing at a distance fromthe other girls and happened to look towards the bushes.
There stood a woman broadly smiling at me. Behind her, further inshore
there was a thick kimbi (Barringtonia asiatica) jungle. She held her arm
out straight and was moving her index finger downwards, calling me tocome to her. She was wearing a red dress and red flowers in her hair. She
was very beautiful, so fascinating I could hardly take my eyes off her. She
certainly looked familiar, like someone who belonged to our island,
although not like any specific person. First I thought: She must be looking
for firewood. But then I thought: She is smiling too much and calling mewith too much insistence. She is also behaving in other strange ways.

250

Nāzima Ibrahīm, Baḍiā Ibrahīmu’s daughter, Funāḍu village, Fua Mulaku. She
was fourteen-years old at the time of telling the story.
251

A section of the shore at the southern end of Fua Mulaku. The name means‘forest of kandu trees’ (Hernandia ovigera)
265

Then I realized that no one in our village looked like her and that it was
Friday prayer time. I got scared and told the girl closer to me: ‘It’s ahaṇḍi!’ At once she ran away as fast as she could and I followed her. The
other girl came after us wondering why we were leaving so quickly. We
told her later, once safely in the village. Later, that night I became feverish
and I was cured with faṇḍita.
Among the initiated, the learned faṇḍita men, there seems to be a
tradition of being able to deal with spirits in unconventional ways. Rather
than avoiding contact with spirits, great sorcerers seek contact with themand even boast of performing unusual feats with spirits. Faṇḍita men do
this in order to show not only that they don’t fear these weird creatures,
but that they are even able to control them.252
Long ago, in Dūṇḍigamu village, Fua Mulaku, lived a man called Nūhu
Mūsā who tried to capture a haṇḍi in the middle of the night by grabbing
hold of her long hair, saying: “Mi kāka tae mihai damvegoho?” (“Who is
this at such late hour?”) Apparently, the spirit pulled with such strengththat it broke free, but Nūhu Mūsā entered his own home, where folks
were not sleeping owing to a childbirth party, and showed everybody
some beautiful, smooth black strands of the haṇḍi’s hair.253
However, good sorcerers are rare and the non-initiated should avoid, asmuch as possible, any contact with evil spirits and the trees they haunt.
The following story describes how some average men teased a spirit, withtragic consequences.254

252

For more details on the probable origins and purposes of this practice see David
Kinsley, ‘Tantric Visions of the Divine Feminine’253

Told in 1990 by Ibrahīm Dīdī, Daylight Villa, Dūṇḍigamu village, Fua Mulaku.

254

Told in 1990 by Faḷōdaḍi Muhammadu Hasanu of Fua Mulaku.
266

The Spirit on the Screwpine Tree“Three men of Dūnḍigamu, my village, went one Friday morning to cast
the net on the reef. As it was a good day, they became engrossed in fishingand time passed quickly. It was already forenoon, Friday prayer time,
when they were ready to return home and they decided to take a shortcut
through the forest, instead of going along the normal path.
On the way, as they were walking close to a tall screwpine, they saw awoman sitting on one of the upper branches.255 The three men stopped intheir tracks and wondered what she was doing up there. She wascompletely naked, sitting with her legs spread apart, exposing her
genitals. They thought: “This is surely not a person from our village!”
Even though the men were quite close to her, the spirit was not paying any
attention to them. She was a good-looking woman and was busy licking
her shoulders, her arms, her knees, as if she had not noticed theirpresence. The men realized she was not a human being and, although she
didn’t look fearsome, they began to get frightened. They looked at eachother not knowing what to do.
But then one of them said: “I am not afraid of a haṇḍi!” And he began
waving his bundle of fishes at the woman from below the tree, teasing
her: “Aṅh! Kāṅlō! Maha kā dē! (Hey! Girl! Fish for you to eat!)”Then the haṇḍi, slowly licking one of her shoulders, threw a mean sidelong
glance at the men, briefly sneering at them with contempt. After this she
went on licking herself, utterly ignoring them. The men made a few

255

Pandanus spp., a large bushy plant with stilt roots and long, spiny leaves. It
grows wild, in dense shrubs close to the seashore and is probably the mostabundant tree in the Maldivian jungle267

attempts to catch her attention again, but their efforts proved futile.256
Finally they went home.
As soon as they arrived at their houses, all three of them fell ill with highfever. They also developed other symptoms, like itching and coughing. The
condition of two of the men never improved and they died within a few
weeks. They were the ones that had been teasing the spirit. The other man
was very sick for a long time. Even though he survived the illness, he neverfully recovered. During the rest of his life, he never felt as strong andhealthy as he had been before seeing that evil spirit.
After hearing such tales, people point out that taunting female spirits canbe extremely dangerous because of their unpredictability. This story
creates a certain amount of controversy among local islanders though.
Some people claim that the spirit described is not a haṇḍi, but they
couldn’t come up with a different name for it. They would say: “It’ssomething else, something very evil, but not a haṇḍi.” However, everyone
agrees that the three men were foolish to walk through a narrow path
cutting across deep forest right at Friday prayer time, a highly malefic
time, when everyone should either stay at home or be at the mosque for
Friday prayers.
The description of this alarming spirit matches with ancestral female
guardian figures, having their origin in local or tribal deities, seen often
carved on gates and pillars of temples in Tamil Nadu. 257 These images are
said to ward off the evil-eye and a few adaptations of them were once

256

The licking emphasizes her tongue; and in Indian legends and iconography thegoddess in her fierce aspect displays her red tongue.
257

See Religion: Belief System and Practices in S. Bhakthavatsala Bharathi,‘Coromandel Fishermen.’ See also Carol R. Bolon, ‘Forms of the Goddess Lajjā
Gaurī in Indian Art.’ A similar tutelary divinity, Dilukai, exists in Micronesia, far awayfrom the Subcontinent. Anne D’Alleva, ‘Art of the Pacific Islands.’Concerning theconnection between display of sexual parts and aggression. Cf 1 ‘Display of Anger.’268

popular throughout the Subcontinent and may be known as Lajjā Gaurī orReṇukā, Renukā being also one of the names or forms of Māri, thegoddess of illness.
In this story, the connection between meeting a female spirit in the forest,
falling ill with fever, and eventual death is made again. This is a veryancient relationship, which goes back to the character of the IndianMother Goddess in her manifestation as Māri.
The name Māri or Māriamman is commonly used in Tamil Nadu, although
it is also known in North India among the Chamār for example. The same
goddess in Kerala is referred to as Bhadrakaḷi, Bhagavatī, Dēvi or simplyAmmā (mother). In Andhra Pradesh she is called Pośamma or Śītalā, thegoddess of smallpox or village-goddess.
Village-goddess is a translation of the Sanskrit term ‘Grama dēvata’. Even
though she is commonly called the ‘goddess of smallpox’, the village
goddess has as its function to protect her village against the attacks of thedemons of disease, the most deadly ones being traditionally smallpox andcholera in this order, hence the name ‘Smallpox Goddess’. However, it isalso her duty to keep away other evils like famine, discord and droughtfrom her locality. Under this manifestation, the goddess is assumed topunish her children for having neglected her. The mother sends disease in
the form of fever along with other symptoms, like pus-filled pustules in
the case of smallpox, and diarrhea in the case of cholera. The latter
symptoms might eventually bring about death, caused by the Dēvi’s
determined and protracted anger.258
During an outbreak of disease the heat is assumed to come from themother’s uterus. Fever is a disease of the heat. Therefore its antidote has
to be cold (hence the name of the Hindu goddess Śītalā, meaning “cold” in258

See explanations in J.S. Hawley & D.M. Wulff, ‘Devi Goddesses of India’ and inDavid Kinsley, ‘Hindu Goddesses’.
269

Sanskrit). The name Māri is also said to have its origins in the Tamil word
for rain, which cools down the heat and cures the fever produced by
epidemics. 259
Remedies like water and white foods are assumed to be cooling. In
Maldives, foods that are considered to be heat producing are fish,
especially skipjack tuna (kaṇḍumas), with its dark red flesh, while coolingfoods are white rice gruel (bayppeṅ) and water. The fever and boils
produced by smallpox are treated with a cooling paste made grinding theleaves of the hiti tree (Azadirachta indica).260 Therefore, in thesecircumstances even the simple fact of cooling the person suffering fromhigh fever with a cloth or towel soaked in cool water, would be alreadyconsidered an esoteric activity and not a casual one.

259

For the etymology of the word Māri see S. Bhakthavatsala Bharati, Op. cit.

260

See R. Brubaker, ‘The Ambivalent Mistress’ for an explanation of therelationship between the village goddess and the leaves of this tree in South Indian
tradition.
2702.2.2 BLOOD SACRIFICES
The legend behind Māri, the Indic goddess of illness, is that she was
expelled from heaven on account of her haughtiness. She is, thus, full ofrepressed anger. That makes her fastidious and difficult to please.261 In
her wrathful aspect, the Dēvi is associated with blood and heat. The first
derived from the red color of menstruation and the blood present atbirth, and the second from the heat of the womb.262 Blood and its redcolor, ancient symbols of primordial femininity, are always related to thegoddess in South Indian tradition and it is not surprising that Maldivian
female spirits are always said to wear red when they are dressed.
In the rural areas of the Subcontinent, as persons afflicted by disease
were reckoned to be suffering from the Dēvi’s wrath sacrifices were
offered to appease the goddess.263 Blood sacrifices are the main
characteristic of Dēvi worship especially in South India and Bengal.264
In these rituals blood has to be shown, because it is believed that thegoddess is thirsty for blood and only blood can appease her. Even if in
Maldives no open acknowledgement whatsoever was made that such agoddess was the recipient of the sacrifice, certain rituals existed where
red roosters--never hens, only male animals-- were commonly
261

L.K. Anantha Krishna Iyer, ‘The Tribes and Castes of Cochin’262

These symbols are illustrated in D.B. McGilvray, ‘Symbolic Heat, Gender, Health& Worship among the Tamils of South India and Sri Lanka’. Often in South Indian
iconography the Dēvi and her clothes are green, the color of the fresh leaves oftrees and plants, another color related to fertility.
263‘(The goddess) mercilessly chastises her people with the disease, but holds its
victims especially dear; she delights in the disease, is aroused by it, goes mad with
it; she kills with it and uses it to give new life.’ Richard Brubacker, Op. cit.
264“...This completes the presentation of the sacrifice to the goddess, who is
supposed to delight in the food offered, and especially in the blood.” HenryWhitehead, ‘The Village Gods of South India’271

slaughtered. Sometimes the ceremony would be made in the name of an
obscure entity without attributes called ifurinfarā. This name is derived
from Parṇaśavari, who is the goddess that corresponds to Māri or Śītala in
the Vajrayāna Buddhist pantheon.265
In the Maldive Islands, if a particular sickness had been lasting very long, if
in a certain island fishing was bad for a long period of time, or after anisland had been deserted following a deadly epidemic, the blood sacrificewould be made with great ceremony. Perhaps this is the reason why in
Divehi the word for sickness is ‘bali’ (Skt. = sacrifice). The timing of theceremony among Maldivians follows the ancestral pattern of the
Subcontinent where traditionally village-goddess festivals were notundertaken regularly or routinely.266
The probable origin of this custom is that in ancient times, in a similarmanner as sickness, bad fishing, the withholding of nourishment, wasinterpreted as a sign of the wrath of the Mother-goddess. Once the needfor the performance of a major ritual was assessed, islanders would work
hard on the preceding days looking for flowers in the forest and doingother jobs to make all the necessary arrangements for the blood sacrifice.
Even if women and children would take active part in the preparations,the actual sacrificial ceremony was conducted only by adult males.

265

Here a local deity (Māri) found expression and definition thanks to thecondescending attitude of Vajrayāna Buddhism towards the reemergence ofancient cults. This may explain why both Ranna Māri and Ifurinfarā are present in
Maldivian tradition. See also B. Bhattacharya, ‘The Indian Buddhist iconography’
266‘... Festivals were only held and the goddesses were only worshipped whensome disaster, usually an epidemic, struck the village.’ Kingsley, “Hindu
Goddesses”. H. Whitehead, is even more explicit: “So long as everything goes onwell and there is no disease afflicting man or beast, and no drought nor other great
calamity, it seems safest to let her (the village goddess) alone. But, when
misfortune comes, it is a sign that she is out of temper, and it is time to take steps
to appease her wrath.” Op. Cit.
272

This bloody ritual was called Bahuru Kiyevuṅ and it was a complex processof great solemnity. First, the leader (imāmu), a skilled faṇḍita man, would
set an auspicious date to begin the ceremony. Then he would choose agood spot in the varuvā (NW) corner of the island. In that place an opensided pavilion would be erected on the seashore and, starting from it, asmall jetty would be built reaching from the beach to a deeper spot in the
lagoon. While the pavilion was constructed with wooden poles and wasthatched with coconut-palm fronds, the jetty was built with coral stones
and filled with white sand or fine coral gravel. In some instances the jetty
was covered with a thatched roof supported by wooden poles all along its
length. Finally, all these structures would be decorated with flowers andother ornaments made from palm leaves.
Once everything was ready, the Bahuru Kiyevuṅ would begin. The ritual
would last for ten days and its performance would normally start on a
‘Thursday night’ (Friday eve) right after sunset for a period of about twohours.
Inside the pavilion the leading faṇḍitaveriyā sat along with a number ofmen (any number between four and forty, but usually ten) who would
read the Qurān aloud and one man who would recite a chant calledsalavāfuḷu. All participants would cover their heads with a white scarf(foṣā). These white scarves were not only often part of the traditional
male attire, but they also had a ceremonial significance in ancient
Maldives.267 The faṇḍita man would lead the ceremony and, from time to267

It was customary to carry such a white scarf as an offering to ask for an
audience with the king or a very high official. At the moment of the meeting the foṣāwould be held with the two hands extended forward, and the king may decide to
take it or let it fall to the ground.
273

time, he would interrupt the Qurān chanting and recite mantras. Beside
him there would be a heap of flowers on a round brass tray.268
The preparation of such flower heaps was complex:269 The long spathes ofkaṣimā, the screwpine flower (Pandanus odoratissimus),270 would be split
in two, arranged in a Maṇḍala-like square and the space therein would be
filled with smaller flowers, like unimā (Guettarda speciosa) and jasmine.
Then another tier would be laid on top with the points oriented at aslightly different angle, giving the ensemble an eight-pointed star shape,
and the same operation would be repeated. The star-shapes would
become smaller as the heap became higher and the top of heap wascrowned with a lime.271 Only white flowers would be used in this ritual,
for it was deemed that red ones would attract dangerous spirits.
Someone would be outside of the pavilion burning coconut shells andreduced them to embers. A special paste made of dry unimā, agal wood,

268

See the description of the Māri festival in Paranūr in E.O. Shaw, ‘Rural
Hinduism’, where a mud pot surmounted by a conical structure covered with leaves
and flowers represents the vehicle for the goddess. Limes, coconuts and camphor
on brass plates are part of the preparations for worship in that same festival.
269

Elaborate flower offerings in different shapes (heaps, garlands, pots) arecommon all over South India in village-goddess worship. Compare for example withthe careful preparation of the karagam in the Kurumbaiamma (cholera goddess)
festival in Irungalūr in Tiruchirapalli district, Tamil Nāḍu, described by HenryWhitehead, Op. Cit.
270

A large, odd-looking flower described technically as Spadix. The flower isclothed in leafy whitish-yellow spathes that emanate a strong odor.
271

Limes (Citrus medica) are commonly used in Dēvi worship rituals all over rural
India. Besides daubing red pigment on rocks representing the Goddess, a lime cut
open is a common offering since it is also a symbol of the Dēvi. Yama’s consort
Dhūmrōrnā (a form of Cāmuṇḍi) is represented in iconography holding a lime fruitin her left hand.
274

sandalwood, benzoin, ambergris and other ingredients,272 powdered andmixed with coconut oil and palm syrup, would be brought. The embers
would be put inside of a special brass vessel (dummēṣi)273 and the mixture
would be slowly shredded over it, causing abundant aromatic smoke. A
red rooster would be tied to a little pole under the pavilion, although insome cases, a sea turtle (velā) could be used as well.274 While theceremony was being conducted the pavilion would be lit with oil lamps.275
The religious chanting and the recitation of magic words would go on until
there was no trace of twilight left in the western horizon. Then theflowers would be kept in a white scarf and all participants would go home.
The next evening, a new flower heap would be arranged with fresh
flowers picked that same day, and the same ritual would be repeated. At
its conclusion, the flower heap would be again tossed in the same cloth ofthe previous evening. Then all participants and witnesses would retire forthe night.
The ceremony would continue the next day after sunset. It would be
performed during the following eight days identically. However, on the272

The names were given in Divehi and for some of the items (kalagāṇi,dunsamarāhi, lādari and ūdu) I couldn’t find a translation. They probably
correspond to incense-like natural resins and aromatic herbs
273

Name thus in Fua Mulaku and Aḍḍu. This implement is made of brass and looks
very much like a brazier274

The descriptions were provided by Boṇḍorāge Muhammad Dīdī of Fua Mulaku,
one of the last persons in Maldives having performed a complete Bahuru Kiyevuṅ,as well as by the late Magieduruge Ibrahim Dīdī, who had witnessed a number ofsuch sacrifices in Huvadu Atoll. He quoted an instance where a leatherback turtle(Dermochelys coriacea) had been chosen as the victim
275

Round brass lamps with seven wicks, known as veṣe in Aḍḍu and vo’ in Male’
that were hung from the beams by means of a chain with a hook at its end.
275

ninth evening,276 after the rites were over, the flower heap would beplaced in a new, separate white scarf. The proceedings of the sacrificewould vary and may have been even more complex in the past.
On the tenth and last evening the Bahuru Kiyevuṅ would reach its
climax.277 On that occasion, after the reciting ended, the last flower heap
would be put in a new separate cloth, as in the previous night, and the
Imāmu would decide that the time was ready to “show the flowers” (mādekkuṅ). The final rite had to be performed in the dark.278 All the lamps
would be extinguished and (lighted only by the stars) the men would
descend from the end of the jetty into the sea. There, with water up to
the knees, the three scarves with the flowers ―one heavy with all the
now faded flowers of the first eight nights and the other two with theflowers of the ninth and last night respectively― would be carried by twomen, each holding two corners. After certain mantras were recited, at asign from the leader the men would throw first the limes, then the lastflowers, followed by the flowers of the ninth night and, finally, all theflowers of the eight preceding nights would be thrown into the sea.
Meanwhile, the faṇḍitaveriyā would continue reciting magic words andthe moment of “showing blood” (lē dekkuṅ) had come. Right then one
man with a knife would cut the neck of the rooster and let the blood drip

276

In the Indian Subcontinent there are very ancient nine-night festivals in honor of
the village goddesses. These ceremonies invariably end with blood sacrifices. See“Mothers as Death-goddesses” in D.D. Kosambi, ‘Myth and reality’.
277

The festival to the local goddess at Irungalūr, Tamil Nāḍu, lasts for then days.
According to H. Whitehead, in it “the blood of the victim seems to be regarded as
the food of malignant spirits.” Op. Cit.
278

Regarding the obligatory blood sacrifices to the goddess in rural India, D.D.
Kosambi writes that blood sacrifices are demanded on no-moon nights. The pitch
dark being essential for such blood rites. Ibid.
276

into the sea.279 This was the moment when the spirit would arrive. It
seems that often it would be seen as a kind of sudden and abnormal
phosphorescence in the waters of the lagoon.
Then the leader would instruct all participants to go ashore walking
backwards, with their faces towards the sea. Once on dry land, the faṇḍita
man would keep reciting magic words and draw magic circles (aṇu) on thesand around him. He would change place three times, drawing a newcircle every time, and the ceremony would conclude when the leader ofthe ritual would declare: “Āman vī”, meaning that the spirit was favorably
inclined towards them. Finally, some lamps would be lit again andeveryone would return home. It is widely claimed that invariably fishingwould improve during the following weeks or months, but that adangerous presence would be felt at the same time.
Fisher folk of South India always used to worship goddesses to protect
them while they sailed the seas and help them procure big hauls of fish.280
The Mukkuvar or fishermen of the Southwestern coast of India have as
their chief deity the goddess Bhadrakāḷi, a generic name used in Kerala forthe village-goddess (Māri in Tamil Nāḍu) or goddess of pestilence; she isalso called Bhagavatī or simply Amma (mother).
Formerly there were no elaborate images nor temples dedicated to this
divinity. Instead, she was represented by a log of wood, placed in a hut.
During festivals (to improve fishing), which used to be held four times a
year, the fishermen assembled for the sacrifice of a red cock and offeringsof lime fruits and flowers. These ceremonies were performed by a man

279

In Dravidian fertility rituals, the end of one life (the sacrificial victim’s) symbolizes
the threshold of a new life. For instance, the Urāli tribals of the Western Ghats
perform analogous rituals to the Bahuru Kiyevuṅ by sprinkling a field, instead of thesea, with the blood of the sacrificed animal.
280

See the paper ‘Village Goddesses of South India’ by K.V. Raman in ‘Shakti in
Art and Religion’ ed. by Nanditha Krishna277

from the Mukkuvar caste, acting as priest or pujāri. All these rituals had tobe conducted by every community in their own local or home shrine,281
because fishermen were not allowed to enter the temples of the major
Hindu divinities.
Nowadays, in Maldives, vahutāṅ, a ritual for the improvement of fishing ina particular island, is made by tying a kind of pennant or windvane-likedevice to a stake. Sometimes this stake is tied to a high tree close to thebeach, but often it is also driven into the ground at a particular spot above
the waterline and sheltered within a little hut made of palm-frond thatch
and sticks. It is not surprising that the latter contraption is similar to the
Mukkuvar goddess shrines, because vahutāṅ is quite clearly a local
fertility ritual.282
The following story is set in Huḷudū, which though called an ‘island’ by
Maldivians, is in reality a village or sector at the southwestern end of alarge (by Maldive standards) and roughly triangular island, whose
northwestern end is another village named Mīdū and whose eastern point
is uninhabited. It informs us of the dire consequences of a Bahuru Kiyevuṅ
ceremony gone awry and of the favorable treatment of the unnamed
spirit towards the community having offered the blood sacrifice:281

It is recorded by Captain Hamilton (A New Account of the East Indies, 1744)
that he saw at many Muchwa (fishermen) houses, a square stake of wood, with a
few notches cut about it , and that stake drove into the ground, about two foot of it
being left above, and that is covered with cadjans or cocoanut tree leaves, and is atemple and a God to that family.” E. Thurston, ‘Castes and Tribes of Southern
India’.
282‘The basic relationship between the village goddess and her village seems quite
straightforward. In return for the worship of the villagers the goddess ensures good
crops, timely rain, fertility and protection from demons, diseases and untimely
death. The arrangement is a local one, with little or no room for outsiders ... sovillagers leave her jurisdiction and protection when they venture beyond it.’Kingsley, Op. Cit.
278

The Wrong Kind of Blood“About 700 years ago283 the island of Huḷudū, in Aḍḍu Atoll, was suffering
because the fishing had been very bad for a very long time. The sea didn’tyield enough for the islanders to survive. Without enough fish to fulfill
their daily needs, there was famine and people were starving.
Finally, the people of Huḷudū decided to do something about theirdesperate situation and asked a great faṇḍita man called Kudu Abū284 tomake a magic ritual to improve the fishing in their waters and relieve
them from their plight. The magician informed them that he would
perform a powerful sacrifice.
Thus, a Bahuru Kiyevuṅ ceremony was organized in the traditional way.285
During the days that followed the men and women of Huḷudū worked hard
to make all the preparations. Children also helped in the collection of
flowers and limes. A jetty and a small open-sided pavilion were built by thebeach in the NW end of the island.
Once the pavilion was ready, the required amounts of flowers and a red
cock were brought there for the sacrifice. During the following evenings
there was the customary religious chanting at dusk under the light ofmany oil lamps. It was a very serious ritual and Huḷudū people were filled283

Told by Boṇḍorāge Muhammad Dīdī of Fua Mulaku island. No reference wasprovided for this dating by the storyteller.
284

Historically, there was a faṇḍita man with this name living in Huḷudū in the 19th
century. As this story is many centuries older, one possible explanation could bethat there have been a number of faṇḍitamen in Aḍḍu with this same name. (Cf.
3.1.3 ‘Tantric Heroes’)
285

The storyteller pointed out that back then the ceremony might have been more
complex than the one described further above in this same chapter.
279

with awe. Kudu Abū, displaying his great faṇḍita skills, confidently led therites and performed the reciting of mantras.
At last, on the crucial day of the ceremony, after the twilight became
darkness and the western horizon was as gloomy as the rest of the sky, thesolemn chanting in the pavilion was concluded and all lamps were blownout. In the starlight, the performers of the ritual walked along the jetty
into the water carrying the bundles of flowers. Kudu Abū and the man hehad chosen to perform the blood sacrifice followed, holding the rooster
and a knife.
But it so happened, that, after the flowers were thrown into the shallow
water of the lagoon, the person who had to sacrifice the red cock was
suddenly overwhelmed by fear. When the time came to ‘show blood’ tothe sea, this man was so scared that he was trembling. Meanwhile Kudu
Abū was absorbed in reciting the necessary mantras and in the almost
total darkness he couldn’t see his companion well. Unfortunately, when heinstructed that it was time to cut the neck of the cock, the terrified man
was shaking and shivering so much that he clumsily cut his own finger
with the knife. He screamed in pain: “Addoyōi! I cut my finger!” And his
blood dripped into the sea.286
Now human blood had fallen into the waters and it was too late to correct
the error. Kudu Abū immediately sensed that the approaching spirit had
taken a form of such deadly power and malevolence that he yelled at it:“Please leave us alone! Go away! We will give you half of our millet fields

286

Here, in the summoning or incantation to the nameless divinity, instead of thebeneficial form of the deity, its wrathful, bloodthirsty form had been accidentally
invoked.
280

(veradaḍo) in Gan Island287 and you can have the blood of the people ofHitadū Island if you spare us!”288
The sorcerer kept feverishly repeating this and reciting strong mantras.
After he went ashore Kudu Abū traced an aṇu (protective magic circle) all
around the island and engaged in special recitations until he was
exhausted. However, he was still not sure whether the spirit had accepted
his desperate plea.
The next day, Huḷudū fishermen went out to the sea and realized thatfishing had not improved around their island. Nevertheless, during thedays that followed, looking for the elusive school of fish, some fishermen
wandered westwards and north of Hitadū. Seeing a great number ofseabirds hovering over the ocean at that point, they came to know that in
the waters close to Hitadū island’s northern end the fishing was excellent.
In the days that followed all the boats of Huḷudū flocked there andreturned with a huge catch. Thus, they now were sure that the evil spirit
they accidentally invoked had accepted their deal. It had kept away fromtheir island and had gone to dwell close to Hitadū.

287

People from all other inhabited islands in Aḍḍu Atoll would own stretches of landin this large, fertile island, now the site of an airport. When a field was “given” to a
spirit it would be left without tilling and it was said that the spirit was ‘eating it.’ Thefact that plants would not thrive in uncultivated areas was attributed to the spirits
drawing ‘their blood.’
288

Compare this passage with the following South Indian legend where the wrathof the goddess is diverted somewhere else: “The Rajah of Goomsur had
Mahalakshmi as his goddess ... Every day she had to have the blood of two
buffaloes. ... After he had been taken prisoner (by the British), the Rajah could do
nothing more for Mahalakshmi, and she waxed angry. One day she approachedhim, and said: ‘You offer me nothing. What am I to do?’ The Rajah replied: ‘The
English government did me this evil. Go to them, spoil everything they have, bringcholera and smallpox to their regiments.’ The goddess left him, thirsting for blood.
Great trouble and distress came upon Ongole three days after the Rajah had
passed by. ... So great was the thirst of Mahalakshmi for blood, that when a man
fell sick he died on the spot. She let none escape.” E. Rauschenbusch-Clough.
‘While Sewing Sandals; Tales of a Telugu pariah Tribe.’281

Weeks passed and some fishermen decided that it involved much effort tosail from Huḷudū to Hitadū and back every day. As there was so much fish
close to that island, they would dry their catch right there on Hitadū. Thus
they built some huts in the northernmost point of that island in a place
known as Koṭṭe.289 There they processed and stored their fish and kept
their boats during the night.
Hitadū is (by Maldive standards) a very long island and Koṭṭe was quite faraway from the village. However, some of these fishermen from Huḷudū
were wondering why no one was coming to where they were, not even
women looking for firewood which was abundant in the place. One night
one of the young fishermen left the hut where he used to sleep and went
furtively across the forest towards the village. He had been often on
Hitadū in other occasions and he had a girlfriend there.
Back then, it was customary for lovers to know where exactly in the housetheir girlfriend would sleep. If a young woman happened to fall in lovewith a man she liked and trusted, she would secretly make a small holeclose to her bed, in the thatch mesh forming the walls of her home. She
would then cover it with loose ends of palm leaves to hide it and shewould tell her lover where the opening in the thatch was. During themonths that followed the girl would make it a point of sleeping every nightwith her head near that side.
Thus, if the lover wanted to meet with her, he would choose a late hour, tomake sure everyone was sleeping. Then he would thrust his hand throughthe hole in the thatch and gently pull the hair of the sleeping girl to wake
her up. Once awake, she would feel for his hand, affectionately press it289‘Koṭṭe’, meaning ‘fort’ in Divehi. At that lonely point, there are the ruins of afortification crudely built with large, loose, coral stones. The site has been
vandalized in recent times and only traces of it remain now. H.C.P. Bell took
pictures of the structure at the beginning of the century, which were subsequently
published in his comprehensive monograph.
282

and he would withdraw his and wait. After carefully looking around in thedim lamplight,290 trying to make as little noise as possible not to wake theother people in the room, the young woman would sneak out of the houseand go with her boyfriend into the bushes or to some other hidden place.
If, by chance, someone in the house happened to get up while the girl wasgoing out, she could always say that she was going to the beach or theforest to relieve herself. But let’s go back now to our story.
This young man of Huḷudū, made fearless by the anticipation of a night ofpleasure, embracing his pretty Hitadū girlfriend under the bushes, finallyarrived in the village after crossing the dark forest. Silently, he walked
through the quiet and empty streets under the starlight. The air was thickwith heavy, putrid smells and this boy, far from being alarmed, thought
this was normal in any village of his atoll when the fishing was very good.
In such times of abundance, a lot of tuna was processed and dried. Hence,
more offal and gills than the cats and crows could eat were carelessly
thrown here and there, and they were left to rot. Anyway, as we havealready mentioned, the boy’s mind was preoccupied with something elseand he was not even thinking about the foul odors.
Finally, he arrived at the house of the girl he loved. In almost total
darkness, owing to the large banana trees surrounding the house, the boy
searched for the correct wall and felt for the hole. Once he found it, hegently separated the loose ends of thatch, which cleverly hid the opening
she had made. With his heart beating at a fast pace, the young man thrust
his hand across the thatched panel covering the sides of the girl’s home
and, feeling the mat and the pillow, he carefully searched for her hair withhis fingers. With a feeling of triumph, the boy found a soft hair lock and,taking hold of some strands, he gave it a gentle tug. As the girl didn’t
respond, he thought: “She is in deep sleep,” then he groped for more hair

290

Most houses had only one room where the whole family would sleep. Usually
there would be four beds or raised platforms occupying the four corners
283

and, when he caught a thicker strand, he tugged with slightly increased
strength.
However, the girl was not waking up and the boy was feeling miserable,squatting in the dark, tortured by mosquitoes. Having been looking
forward to a sweet night of pleasure, he insisted, holding all the time theyoung woman’s hair between his fingers. He was tugging from time totime, wondering whether perhaps she was awake, but was angry at him
for having neglected her for so long. However, he quickly dismissed thatpossibility thinking: “If this would be the case she would have plugged theopening or gone to sleep somewhere else.” As time passed and noreaction was forthcoming, the young man became so frustrated that hewas considering giving up. Angrily, he gave a strong tug to the girl’s
strands.
To his amazement, a whole length of the girl’s tresses came to his hand.
Immediately, his surprise turned into horror, as he pulled a bit more, andout of the hole he drew a piece of his lover’s rotten scalp. At this, theyoung man was overcome by nausea, got up and vomited right there,propping himself against the stalk of a large banana tree. Now he realizedthat the vile smell of decay pervading the village was not the stench ofrotten fish. The man uttered a cry of fear and loathing when he saw that
he was still holding the girl’s hair between his fingers. He let the rotten
scalp fall in disgust, rubbed his hands hysterically, and stumbled away insheer terror.
It was a very different man who walked now hurriedly northwards acrossthe coconut groves and the forest in the shadows. He was avoiding thehouses of the silent village, fearful of the unseen horrors they may contain.
When he arrived to Koṭṭe, he rushed into his hut, fell on his cot and broke
into uncontrollable sobbing. The other fishermen woke up in alarm andasked the boy what was wrong. But it was difficult for him to talk. The
young man would try to say something, but the words that came from his
mouth were totally incomprehensible (“Hus veḍe”, meaning ‘only284

nonsense’) and after frustrated attempts to communicate he would burst
into sobs again. For the rest of the night no one slept.
It was close to dawn, when everyone should have been preparing forfishing, but all the fishermen were worried about the state of their young
companion. After much strain they managed to understand what he said
and it was horrifying news: “All the people of Hitadū are dead.”
Then a group of the fishermen decided to go to the village to ascertain thetruth of what the boy was saying. While they were on their way, some ofthem were bragging that, no matter what they would find there, they
were not scared. But before noon, they arrived to the first houses at thenorthern end of the village and what they saw there chilled every one ofthem to the bones.
Men, women and children had died within their homes and their bodies
were skin and bones. For the spirit which had been accidentally conjured
up in Huḷudū, in that fateful ceremony where human blood had been shedinto the sea, was a bloodthirsty evil demon that had killed them all andsucked out their blood. There were unburied corpses in every house; allwere in an advanced state of decay and full of maggots. The stench ofrottenness was so overwhelming that most of the men felt dizzy, but it
could not be avoided even going out of the houses because the whole
village was reeking of it. It was an abominable place and the stunned men
had not uttered a single word since they were confronted with the horrid
sights. After but a short while, they exchanged meaningful looks andstopped walking southwards. They had seen enough and no one felt likegoing further into the dreadful village.
Thus they fled the ghostly town walking northwards at a fast pace, almost
running, and when they arrived at Koṭṭe their faces were ashy-pale withfear. It took a while before any of them recovered his speech. Feverishly,
the fishermen packed all their belongings, dismantled the huts, loaded
their boats, and returned to Huḷudū that same afternoon.
285

During the months that followed, Huḷudū fishermen didn’t profit from theabundance of fish in the waters around Hitadū. Instead, they avoided thatmalignant area like the plague and went in search of other fishinggrounds, which they eventually found, although they were not so rich. Thelong island, looming ominously on the western horizon, could not be easily
ignored, but they now looked at it in awe and never sailed close to it,
fearful of the unspeakable horrors it contained.
It is said that many years later a party of people from another island went
up to Hitadū and walked ashore. A good faṇḍitaveriyā performed somestrong magic there to free the island from its evil and all the unburiedcorpses were duly buried. At first some people of other islands went to
Hitadū merely to harvest coconuts or wood and to look for useful things
among the ruined homesteads. They stayed only for short periods of timeto profit from the many unclaimed trees and their fruits. Decades later,
however, people from neighboring islands began to resettle this large
island. As years went by, its population grew until there were again as
many inhabitants there as there had been before the calamity struck.
This story vividly demonstrates the fact that village goddesses are purely
local deities, their allegiance apparently restricted towards the reducedgroup of worshipers of the locality to which they belong. They seem never
to be regarded as having any relation to the world as a whole. The sole
object, then, of the worship of these village deities is to propitiate themand to avert their wrath. Therefore, behind all those sacrifices there are
no great spiritual goals and by means of their rituals, local people are
merely looking for the benefit of their own island by getting rid of someevil disease or improving the fishing around its waters.
H. Whitehead is eloquent on this subject:“I have dignified the periodical sacrifices to the village goddesses by thename of festivals, but the term is a misnomer. There is really nothing of a
festal character about them. They are only gloomy and weird rites for the286

propitiation of angry deities or the driving away of evil spirits, and it is very
difficult to detect any traces of a spirit of thankfulness or praise. Even theterm worship is hardly correct. The object of all the various rites andceremonies is not to worship the deity in any true sense of the word, but
simply to propitiate it and avert its wrath.”291
The Dravidian Dēvi cult is a very ancient form of religious expression. Its
origins are lost in dozens of millennia and go back perhaps to the times ofthe very first human settlers on earth. See S. K. Ramachandra Rao, ‘Durga
Kosha’. Unlike relatively more recent religions it is not connected to any
form of government or law-making body. Neither has it included regularworship rituals, uniform iconography nor a prescribed set of standard
prayers. Even the term ‘worship’ itself lacks accuracy when dealing withthe rites surrounding the village goddess. It is true that sacrifices areoffered to this obscure divinity292 in scattered villages or islands, but one
cannot affirm that these constitute worship in the Semitic or even the
Vedic sense of the word. Therefore, the lack of greater, loftier aims invillage goddess cults was extremely repugnant not only for the Islamic
hard-liners, but even for many turn-of the century writers, both English
and Indian.
The remarkable aspect of the Bahuru Kiyevuṅ ceremony is that the
bloodthirsty goddess, although not named as such and assumed to be an
amorphous, shapeless spirit, is reckoned to come from the sea.293 This
291

Certain events involving goddess-worship in a South Indian village seem tocorroborate this point: “The object of transporting the goddess to the lands of thenext village is to transfer to that village the wrath of the deity, a precaution which
does not show much faith in the temper of the goddess, nor much charity towards
their neighbors.” H. Whitehead, Op. Cit.
292

Or rather divinities as she is assumed to be the same one mother, but isclaimed jealously and exclusively by every single locality for its own petty andselfish interests. W.T. Elmore, ‘Dravidian Gods in Modern Hinduism.’
293

This spirit was deliberately identified with Satan and evil Jinns as theislamization of the country increased.
287

fact is again stated in the Maldive story of Ranna Māri, where the evil
spirit comes from the ocean on the night when a girl is sacrificed to her. In
the Ranna Māri legend it is said that “this spirit looks like a boat full of
lights” and, interestingly, illuminations and nightly processions, as well asanimal sacrifice, are a feature of the festivals in honor of Goddess Māri in
Tamil Nadu to this day.294 Hence, it is likely that the ancient worship of
Māri in Maldives included processions on boats carrying lamps in honor ofthis goddess. The human sacrifice, a common feature in ancient Dēvi
worship all over the Subcontinent, was replaced in time by the sacrifice of
cocks.295

294“Mother Māri Amman has earned a unique name and her attraction lies in her
warding off her devout bhaktas from satanic forces and dreadful diseases. ... And
the annual festival (in her honor) lures huge crowds overflowing the temple
complex and the town. Illuminations and procession are its star attraction anddevotees come from far off places to redeem the vows taken with performance ofspecial rituals.” Prof. K.K. Moorthy, “Sarvam Sakti Mayam”.
295

See R. Nagaswami, ‘Tantric Cult of South India’ and also ‘Mother Goddess Cult’in ‘Racial History of Dravidians’ where the author, L.A. Krishna Iyer, in a bid topromote greater Brahmanical influence (as many South Indian reformers of thetime, such as Sri Narayana Guru) is very explicit in his deep contempt for village
worship: “The Dravidian religion was dark, repulsive, obscene and bloody. The
worship of Mother-Goddess with human sacrifice ... has always flourished where
Dravidian religion held its ground.” However, in recent times, there are some writers
who try to expound a positive, less elitistic, view of the village-goddess cult. See forexample Kancha Ilaiah, ‘Why I Am Not a Hindu’288

2.2.3 THE LINK BETWEEN BLOOD AND LIFEIn the Maldive Islands, once the blood sacrifice was over, the cocks or sea
turtles used in it would be brought home by the faṇḍita man and would
be eaten. If there was abundance of it, the meat would be distributed
among neighbors and friends and there would be a feast. As in South
Indian Dēvi worship, the idea behind this practical attitude towards thesacrificial animal is that the goddess, as she delights in the blood, takes
away the essence or spirit and leaves the worshipers the material
substance. This is probably the origin of the custom of cooking chicken
curry as the main dish in any major celebration even at the present time.
For example, in the long poem ‘Etereveṣi’ describing the local customs of
Fua Mulaku islanders, the killing of a chicken, the maulūdu religious
festival, and an opportunity for celebration owing to the arrival of the
trading fleet are closely connected. 296
In a traditional Maldive ritual called vajīduvuṅ, a colored cloth with somegeometrical figures would be spread on the ground and men would dancearound it to the tune of drums (tāra). As the dance would growincreasingly frenzied, the dancers would slash themselves on the head
and in the tongue with sharp instruments. The dance would continue withthe participants displaying the blood oozing out of their wounds. People,
having witnessed those dances, used to say that those self-inflicted
wounds would heal miraculously after the dance was over. This type ofritual survived many centuries and was banned by the government only
about thirty years ago. The word vajīdu, coming from the Arabic, meaning‘extasy’ or ‘trance’, was probably given by government officers, theoriginal name of the ceremony having fallen into disuse.297

296

See also H. Whitehead, Op. Cit. above

297

Source: Magieduruge Ibrahīm Dīdī.
289

Contemporary Maldivians, such as Said Abdullah, Pearl, Male’, my first
Maldivian friend and a well-traveled seaman, assert that the vajīduvuṅ
ceremony is connected with Shia’ atonement rituals held in the month ofMuharram to commemorate the death of their martyrs. Some even go as
far as suggesting that the ritual originated in African voodoo.298 However,these assertions don’t explain satisfactorily why a certain Shia’ ritual was
widely practiced in Islands which have been Sunni Muslim since theconversion from Buddhism. Besides, in the Maldives there was no explicit
mourning for any Shia’ martyr in this rite, and the self-mortification was
rather a purely personal experience.
It is also not clear why it was such an ancient, popular and widespreadcustom in the Maldives if it had come from such extremely distant places
as Persia and West Africa. It is true that occasionally the ruling king in
Male’ used to set free an African slave and give him a homestead in someAtoll away from the capital. In a few islands, such as Goidū (SouthMāḷosmaḍulu) and Feridū (Ari Atoll), there are families claiming Africanancestry. However, most of the Maldive Atolls had but little influence
from outside and yet the vajīduvuṅ rites were performed there as well.
Actually, the explanation of the roots of vajīduvuṅ is much closer at hand.
In all probability it has its origins in the South Indian coastal region, where
there are some popular ceremonies in which much blood is openly
displayed. These have been part of festivals peculiar to the temples of thevillage goddesses since very ancient times.299 Popular Dravidian Dēvi
rituals include practices like piercing one’s tongue or cheeks and slashingat one’s breast and forehead with swords until the blood spurts out. In
the same manner as in vajīduvuṅ, these practices are performed by males

298‘Dhanfuḷi’ magazine, September 1996 issue.

299

See the chapter ‘Village Deities’ in H. Krishna Sastri, ‘South Indian Images ofGods and Goddesses’.
290

in front of the crowd of devotees during the festival and it is said that they
are garish remnants of the ancient practice of human sacrifices offered to
the goddess.
Both the Maldive vajīduvuṅ and the Bahuru Kiyevuṅ ceremonies reflect
the underlying South Indian belief that the goddess is pleased by thedisplay of blood. It is implicit that if blood is not displayed to the Dēvi, shewill take it herself in a supernatural way. The affected person will becomethin and people will assume that the haṇḍi is absorbing his or her blood.
As blood is connected with life and fertility, the consumption of bloodfrom the afflicted man, woman or child, will inevitably lead to extreme
emaciation, followed by death, if drastic measures are not taken to makeamends with the local goddess.
Maldivian spirits, unless they are crude flesh eaters, such as Minikā Daitā,Dōgi Āihā or Kaṇḍu Furēta, do not suck blood biting in the neck in vampire
fashion. Instead the blood is drawn out of the victim’s body in the courseof prolonged contact with this type of spirits, or even through their mere
physical proximity. Hence the local term used in this case is lē damani(drawing out blood), instead of the term lē boni (drinking blood).300
The following legend shows how prolonged contact with a bloodthirsty
female spirit draws the life out of a whole family and lays a curse upon thehousehold. Again, according to islanders, it is not clear whether this spirit
is a haṇḍi or not. However, she has all the characteristics of a type offemale tree-spirits called Yakśi in India,301 including the ability to either

300

See the chapter ‘Village Deities’ in H. Krishna Sastri, ‘South Indian Images ofGods and Goddesses’.
301

These spirits are ever-present in popular tales and films in Malayalam. Theirappearance is that of a pretty young maiden, but they are capable of killing anddevouring people. They are especially reputed for luring a man using their charmand beauty and then inevitably bringing about ruin to his life in the form of madness
and death. See I.K.K. Menon, ‘Folk Tales of Kerala’291

show herself or remain invisible at will. This gloomy story, full of horrid
detail, has been passed on for many generations among the families inthe village of Funāḍo, SW Fua Mulaku, in order to explain why no house
could be built in a certain abandoned plot at the edge of that village.302
The House of Sorrow“Very long ago, a house stood here. The owner of the house lived therewith his wife and three children. One night he went to the beach at
Kandovali, a fannu in the SW of the island, to fish with a big machete knife(the toṣi taḷani mode of fishing).303 It was around midnight when hedecided to return home with his catch.
Not far from the beach, on the left side of the path leading into the island,
there was a large nikabilissa tree which has long since disappeared.304 It
was a dark night, but the man could make out a figure under the tree,
walking slowly towards him. First he was frightened, but as he came closer
he realized it was a girl and he scolded her: “What are you doing here?”
Politely, with a soft voice the young woman answered: “It’s very lateBēbē305 and your wife is already sleeping. I came to look for you and I will
cook the fish you caught tonight. Reef fish spoils quickly.”

302

Slightly abridged version as it had been narrated by the late Kendūgebeage
Muhammadu to his daughters. Told by Shabunamvilla Āminat Alī in 1986.
303

Known as ‘faru taḷani’ in the Male’ form of Divehi.

304

No more nikabilissa (Saraca indica) are left in Fua Mulaku island now. At thetime of putting this story into writing there were a few left in Aḍḍu Atoll. It seems
that the reverence in which trees with rich red or orange blossoms were held has
faded during the last decades. When Hamīdu wanted to show me a berebedimal
tree in his village of Dūṇḍigam, we found out it had recently been cut.
305

The polite form of addressing elder males.
292

The man thought “My wife is pregnant and I don’t like to wake her up
during the night. She already works very hard during the daytime.” Thus,
he acquiesced and both walked together to his home.
Once there, the girl quickly cleaned and cooked the fish. While the manate heartily she stood next to him watching him eat, but didn’t speak.
After the meal he told her: “Now I am going to sleep. You can go backhome.”
Suddenly the young woman began to weep: “I live on the other end of theisland. I cannot go home so late! Please let me stay here.”Now the man had a good look at her at the light of the oil lamp andthought: “I have never seen this woman before, but she is not too short,neither too tall, nor too dark; she is also not too thin306 and her smooth
black hair is well oiled. Her waistcloth is not worn and her girdle chain(faṭṭaro) is not too short. She is maybe from a good family.” He decided
that it would not be right to leave her out at such a late and cold hour ofnight and, as the girl kept sobbing and pleading with him, he allowed her
to stay. He pointed to her the aṣi (platform) where she should sleep andwent to bed.
During the night one of the small children woke up and cried. The man
was too tired to get up and his wife was sleeping deeply beside him.
Suddenly he heard the girl taking the baby and lulling it back to sleep. At
this the man thought: “How good!”
In the morning he told his wife: “This girl can stay here and work. You are
pregnant and should not exert yourself too much.” The woman cast a long
look at the girl and she thought she had a sweet face and looked neat andgentle. Thus, she agreed with her husband and during the days that306

A local and now obsolete way of implying that the girl was good-looking. Ancientindigenous standards of beauty emphasized the absence of extremes.
293followed, besides looking after the children, the newly-arrived girl did mostof the household work. She was very clean and hard-working and always
smelled nice. Her body seemed to emit a great number of fragrances, likedifferent kinds of flowers, at different times. As she didn’t like to be close
to the fire, she left the cooking to the woman of the house.307
As time passed, the wife came to like the mysterious young woman more
and more, because she was obedient and always spoke politely. She also
noticed that the girl displayed a lot of patience with the children and never
became angry. However, there were a few weird things about her. Like thefact that she could not stand any grown-up person touching her, and that
she never left their compound. When visitors came, she would always
hide. The husband and wife smiled to themselves and thought she was a
bit silly being so shy.
The day came when the wife gave birth. As soon as the midwives left thehouse, the young woman emerged from her hiding place and took thechild in her arms. She was happily carrying it all the time and would only
let it go, albeit reluctantly, when the baby needed his mother’s breast.
One evening, the husband was away fishing and the wife heard the childcrying in a strange, muffled way, while she was dozing alone on her bed.
She silently got up and secretly watched what was happening in the otherroom. There she saw that the girl was pressing her mouth against thechild’s nose. Carefully she returned to her bed and remained awake owing
to her alarm and her anguish. Before dawn, when her husband came, she
told him what she had seen. He became so angry she had to calm him
down before they both went to confront the girl. They found her placidly
sleeping close to the baby. The husband woke her up roughly and asked
her what did she do to their baby and why.

307

This is in clear contrast with other haṇḍi stories such as ‘Kaṣidū Haṇḍi DoṅKamaṇā’ where the spirit herself would produce fire with her own feet.
294

The girl sat on the bed and looked away, avoiding their gaze as if
ashamed. As the man kept pressing her for an answer he became very
angry at her passivity and yelled at her. At this the young woman became
offended. Arrogantly raising her eyebrows, half closing her eyes andpouting her lips, she got up. Without saying a word or even looking atthem, she quietly walked out of the house into the night and was gone.
The couple was baffled. After a long silence, the wife snapped: “Youalways have to shout! You could have been more careful!” And now thehusband directed his anger towards her: “You started it with your stories! I
don’t know why I even had to believe you!” The wife was indignant: “So
you tell me I am lying?”
In this manner they argued and argued until their noise woke up thechildren and they began to cry. While the wife was stilling the baby, thehusband looked at the small flame of the oil lamp. Then he looked aroundthe room. The other children kept crying and now the wife shouted at him:
“They are crying! Don’t you hear?”
The man was too tired to retort. He quietly went to sit close to the children
and lulled them to sleep. After a while everyone fell asleep and it wasdawn.
The next morning they woke up late and were in bad moods. There was a
lot of work to do in the house and the wife had still not recovered fromgiving birth (it is customary in Southern Maldives that women stay awayfrom work in total rest after childbirth). She felt that the household work
was too heavy for her alone and her husband had to stay in the house tohelp her. As he could not go fishing, there was no fish to eat.
The children missed the girl and kept asking “Kobā Dattā? (Where is
Auntie?)” the whole day long. They cried very often and their tantrums
were putting their parent’s nerves on edge. During the night both of themweren’t getting much sleep after having worked hard in the daytime. The
children woke them up constantly crying and whining. Husband and wife295

became haggard and depressed. To top it all, their constant quarrels madeeach other’s life miserable to the point that their neighbors and kin began
to avoid them.
Seven long days passed in such manner. One evening the husband was
sitting inside the house lulling a child on the swingbed, while the wife wascooking in the kitchen. Suddenly, when he happened to glance towards thedoor he saw the girl standing at the threshold in the twilight. She waslooking at him silently. The man asked: “How long have you been standing
there? I didn’t hear you coming.” She didn’t answer. Then he called hiswife.
The girl didn’t utter a word and kept staring at them. Her face was grim.
The man and his wife tried to cheer her up and told her they were sorry forhaving been angry and rude. Finally they begged her to stay. Now the
young woman reacted and walked calmly and proudly inside the house.
She tilted her head up and addressed the husband in a sharp tone: “Youtake me as your wife and I will stay.” She was no longer meek; there was a
new impudence about her now. She knew she had power over them.
The woman of the house was full of dismay but she had to accept her
defeat when her husband agreed.308 He justified himself by telling his wife
that, as there was so much work in the house they needed her badly. Aftersealing the deal, the girl brazenly warned the man: “You must not tellanyone that I am living with you as your wife now.” The husband suddenly
realized that there was something highly frightening about the young
woman, a new menace in the air, but there was no coming backDuring the following days the girl kept working as diligently as ever. Slowly
and steadily she ended up running the household. She wanted to havethings done her own way and no longer took orders from the woman of308

Polygamy was very rare in traditional Maldivian society, except among the royalfamily296

the house. The husband and his wife became apprehensive of her, they feltthat she was very evil, but could not explain why, because she was as
hard-working and tidy as she had formerly been. And, except for the factthat she was now occasionally cohabiting with the husband, the young
woman didn’t do anything openly wrong and was always polite andcorrect with the man and his wife. However, they both secretly agreed
that things had changed for the worse. The girl had a certain snake-like
quality he had not noticed before. She always seemed to observe themwith piercing, cold eyes. In time, their loud conversations dwindled until
they became mere frightened whispers between them.
The wife could now take time for her needed rest, but her strength didn’t
return. The little baby slowly fell ill. He became listless and his body was
getting thinner and thinner. His mother wanted to call the faṇḍita man,but the girl adamantly refused. She asked her husband to intervene, but hecould only mumble some feeble protests. The young woman was sovehement in her resolve not to let any sorcerer enter the house that theman had to give up. He felt he had no willpower anymore to counter the
intruder’s vicious dominance and his wife stood by watching helplessly andin dismay as this implacable girl took full command of the household. By
now both husband and wife had become sickly and weak, like theirchildren. They seldom left their abode and spent bleak, languid days inthat sad house.
After a few weeks the baby died and the parents felt wretched and guilty.
One by one all the other children became skinny and sad. With their bodies
reduced to shin and bones, they died one after the other within a few
months. Following the death of the last child the wife became mad withsorrow and despair. Her wasted body was frightening to behold and she
felt so weak, she couldn’t get up from her bed. The poor woman was notable to sleep during the nights and, crying and whimpering, she ended up
dying miserably on her wet mat. Her husband, thin and in a pitiful
condition too, spent his last strength arranging her burial.
297

The young girl was looking as pretty, young and healthy as ever, and theman lived alone with her now. She looked after him and the house as
efficiently as before, but his health was only going from bad to worse. The
man spent his days lying down because he was too weak to get up.
Meanwhile the young woman kept him company chatting pleasantly as agood wife would do.
One day, after a long time, a neighbor came in for a visit while the man
was lying on the swingbed and the girl was sitting beside him swinging it.
The visitor stood in front of him and felt sorry for his friend. He waslooking almost like a skeleton now. Out of concern for him he said: “Bēbē
you look very ill. It is so sad that your wife and all your children are dead.
What to do? Now you are left alone in this house with no one to look afteryou. Please come to my house. There is one of my sisters that you could
marry. You know her. She will look after you and you will recover.”At this the man looked at his neighbor in bewilderment. Smiling wryly hepointed at the girl: “What do you say? This is my wife now and she islooking after me.” The neighbor, genuinely surprised looked around in
confusion and asked: “Who? Where? I don’t see anybody!”
Finally, it dawned on the man that the girl in front of him was a spirit. As
he beheld at the same time the young woman, now sneering at him incontempt, and his perplexed neighbor, looking in puzzlement at him hethought: “Of course, he is unable to see her because she is not human!”And, all of a sudden, the visitor saw such terror in the face of the sick manthat it sent a chill down his spine. Thinking his friend had become raving
mad he left the accursed house in haste and never came back.
Presently the man realized he had been living all this time with an evil
spirit, and that he himself had brought this calamity to his own home. He
remembered now his wife and his children and the dreadful way they died.
Feeling guilty, he cried bitterly, but he had no strength left to leave the298house or to chase the young woman away. She now looked in a new way
at him, always with a sort of mocking smile, which scared him to death.
The girl, however, was not openly unkind to him and dutifully kept
cleaning the house and feeding him, but the man didn’t want to live
anymore. He refused to eat her food and tried to ignore her, avoiding
conversation with the young woman no matter how much she teased andtaunted him. After but a few weeks this poor man died in silence and inutter disgrace, because nobody was there to bury him.
The man’s corpse was in an advanced state of decomposition whenneighbors living on the leeward side of his home, alarmed by the smell ofrotten flesh, entered the house. They found the putrescent body full ofmaggots on the swingbed and took the necessary measures to bury it
quickly, without ceremony. Later, the man’s relatives came, took away
everything of value and left the ghastly house empty.
With no one to look after it, the house slowly fell into disrepair. The
thatched roof decayed and rain poured in. The kitchen, the verandah, andannex rooms built of sticks, were dismantled and carried away by women
looking for firewood. In time, only the four main walls and the wooden
beams remained. The garden was soon overgrown with weeds andcreepers. However, the haṇḍi was still living there.
Back then there were few houses built of stone. The surrounding
compound was cool and shady. On its fertile earth big trees grew. Hence,
before too many years passed, some relatives of the former house owner
moved in. They said it was a good place and worked hard to renew thehouse. After repairing the roof, they thatched it with new woven palm
fronds, built a new kitchen and verandah, cleared the garden of weeds
and settled in.
With new white gravel scattered all around the house the place now
looked welcoming. The new family should have been happy in theirrenovated house. However, they were always full of sadness. They had
299

horrible nightmares in their sleep and, as time passed, they all fell ill one
after the other. All of them became thin and weak and the children
became listless. One day, they called a faṇḍita man and he advised themto wear charms on different parts of their body,309 but, after he saw thatthey were not improving, he consulted his books and gravely advised themto move to another place.
Finally this family moved back to their former house. In time, as thedeserted house looked so good, some poor relations asked the owners for
permission to settle in it. They agreed, but warned them that they had
known only sorrow there.
These poor newcomers were proud of living in such a good house, but
soon they fell sick as well and had to recognize that there was a powerfulevil there. Disenchanted with the house, they soon moved away too. Afterthem, even poorer and lower people with no place to go moved in during
the next years, but the haṇḍi didn’t spare anybody her curse, even though
she now never showed herself. Thin, enfeebled and full of gloom, everyone
among the series of men, women and children who spent some time there,
ended up abandoning that dreary place. After this, word got around theisland about the malevolence of that spot and no one wanted to live there
anymore.
This time the house was definitely abandoned and it fell thoroughly into
ruin. Years upon years passed. The beams collapsed, the veu (stone bathwith steps) filled with rubble and vegetation, the whole place became
overgrown and the path leading to the accursed homestead disappeared.
But the girl-spirit still lived there.

309

Tavīdu. Charms consisting of magic or Quranic words written on a small pieceof paper which is rolled and put inside a small copper, brass or gold casket which isfastened by means of a string to the arm, waist, etc
300

Many more years passed and even the children of the ones who had tried
to live there became old and died. This malignant spot had now become ajungle. The stone walls, cracked by roots of large trees, collapsed. Amongthe thick vegetation, low remainders of the wall, now covered with darkmoss, gave a hint that once a house had stood there. But even then, thehaṇḍi continued to haunt the dark, small ruin. People walking close to thatspot in the evening, said that they heard sad, wailing voices and cries ofchildren, and quickened their pace in fear. A few of the old people knew
something was wrong among those mossy stones. They remembered thefrightening stories their elders had told them about the house that once
stood there and they passed them on to their children.
As centuries went by, the present times came and, either because people
have grown more sceptical about spirits or because the last time the haṇḍi
living in that place had caused real harm was so long ago, the stories
about the evil female-spirit drawing the blood of a whole family lost theirpower. People had no more fear of that part of the forest, where the darkstones hidden among the bushes told that a house stood there many
hundreds of years before. There were many such ruins in the island.
However, the fact that the memory of the haṇḍi had faded didn’t meanthat she was not there, with her deadly malevolence very much alive.
Thus, a man called Alī Dīdī, the grandfather of somebody living in theisland today, thought in his youth: “People just speak nonsense about thisplace. I have inherited this excellent plot close to the village limits. Why
shouldn’t I make a profit from it?”He cleared the place thoroughly of undergrowth, cutting and uprooting
trees which had grown thickly all over. After this he knocked the ruined
remainders of the small building down to their foundations. The stones,
now black and green, hideously slimy, were carried away to one end of theplot and left there in a heap. Alī Dīdī then brought new white coral stones,
lime and sand, and built a brand-new house. Beside it he erected a solid
kitchen with a stone foundation. Then he thatched both buildings and dug
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a new well. Finally he planted breadfruit trees, coconut palms andbananas, spreading new white gravel all over the compound.
The new house looked neat and cozy and Alī Dīdī moved in with his family.
However, even on the first night no one could sleep well there. The
children kept waking up and crying, and their mother thought that she
saw ghostly animals inside the house during the night, even though thedoor was locked. The frightened woman would tell her husband that red
roosters and cats jumped all of a sudden from unexpected corners
startling her and scaring her terribly.
The truth is that Alī Dīdī had nightmares too. Nevertheless, he had worked
so hard and invested so much of his fortune in building this house that hetried to ignore the evil power at work within it. But his wife and children
looked alarmingly unhealthy, getting more languid and skinny day by day,and he was looking no better. They didn’t seem to have the willingness tolive anymore. His wife never sang while she was working as before, and hischildren didn’t play. They all dreaded the frightful, gloomy nights andspent their days idly lying down, struck with a pernicious, overpowering
weakness.
At last, one day, after a heated discussion, his wife admonished Alī Dīdī
very seriously: “Look! My patience has run out. I am moving to myparent’s house.” Thus she left, taking the children with her. And, indeed,
being away from that wretched house worked miracles for her and thekids. They recovered immediately, gaining in health, weight andcheerfulness.
Even after the bitter quarrel with his wife, Alī Dīdī stubbornly kept callingthat horrid dismal place his home. He thought that by insisting in staying
there, his wife would eventually return. But now, alone there, his nights
were full of desolation and horror. He tried to sleep in the daytime andkeep awake at night to avoid the terrifying nightmares that tortured him
as soon as he closed his eyes. However, keeping awake was no better302

owing to the abominable spectral visions he had and the mysterious noises
he heard.
Shortly thereafter, Alī Dīdī, dispirited and swallowing his pride, followed in
the wake of his wife. When she saw him coming, he was so thin andlooked so sad, that tears came to her eyes. She nurtured him lovingly until
he recovered. At her parents’ place they maybe didn’t have much room forthemselves, but at least they were free from fear and sorrow. In but a few
weeks they all healed completely and they were their normal, happy selves
again.
The frightening house was again deserted, but not for long. After a severefamily squabble, one of Alī Dīdī’s cousins left his wife’s parents’ home. As
he was angry and didn’t want to return to his in-laws’ house, he went tocheck the empty homestead and approached the owner: “You are notusing that house and I need a home as soon as possible.310 Please let me
make use of it.” Alī Dīdī agreed but warned him: “The air is bad there,
though, and people become sick.”But his cousin didn’t care: “If we fall sick we will make medicine orfaṇḍita.” And so he moved in with his family. His immediate impression
was that the house was very pleasant and he was full of enthusiasm.
However, as soon as he stepped inside he and his wife began to feel
uncomfortable. Eventually, as the days passed, they too fell ill and became
prey to violent nightmares. Alī Dīdī went to visit his cousin after but a few
weeks and, seeing his somber face and the emaciated bodies of hischildren, told him about the agony he had endured during the days hespent alone in that dreary house.

310

In Maldives it was customary for the husband to live with his wife’s extended
family. Local people say that, if one could get along with the others, it was better tolive in one sprawling home where many men of the household would go fishing,others would go to climb coconut palms and many women would work in the fields
and in the kitchen, sharing prosperity. Even in ancient times, however, both types
of households, the nuclear and the extended family, coexisted in the islands
303

“There is some strong evil spirit causing all this,” they agreed.
Thus, they both went to a good faṇḍitaveriyā and asked him to makepowerful magic to rid the house of its insidious, hostile presence. The
sorcerer, after listening carefully to them, sat for a long while lost inthought. Finally he said: “I will see what I can do. Don’t give me money
now; pay me only if I am successful.”
The first thing the faṇḍitaveriyā did was to tell Alī Dīdī that, as he needed
to be alone to make this kind of magic, he had to tell his cousin to leave
the place. Accordingly, the occupants of the house vacated it that same
day before the evening. On the next day in the afternoon, the sorcerer
went to the sinister empty house and planted kenduḷu plants all aroundthe perimeter of the building.311 Once he was finished, he waited for thesun to set. He then sat down on the ground in front of the main door,
which was on the eastern side of the house, and began reciting magic
words. After a while, he took his masdaiyffiohi (ritual knife) and, facing thedoor, thrust it between two kenduḷu. But this magician was ill-equipped
for a spirit of such lethal malevolence and, while he was thrusting theknife, he began to shiver in fear.
When he looked up, he was startled. There, at the threshold of the house,a dusky girl was standing facing him. One of her hands was raised, restingon the doorframe.312 Her dress was merely the traditional black cloth
reaching from her waist to her feet and her ornaments were of a very

311

Kandoḷu in Male’ Bas (Crinum asiaticum) with a large, onion-like bulbous root,
long pale green leaves and white flowers.
312

This gesture is important in local culture, since it implies that she was behaving
as if she was the owner of the house304

ancient type. 313 She had a sad look about her face and a lovely expression.
A fragrant flower smell hit the sorcerer’s nostrils and he began to think hehad been foolish by being so apprehensive.
Yet all of a sudden, the girl’s lips twisted and she giggled at him in such awicked way that the magician froze in terror. Nothing of what Alī Dīdī had
said had prepared him for this and he was speechless with fear. This man
was not one of those mighty sorcerers of yore that knew how to deal withall types of demons and the tremendous evil in the girl’s smile and in her
hard eyes chilled the inexperienced faṇḍita man to the bone.
The poor sorcerer was at a loss about how to continue the ritual he hadcome to perform. He had never been confronted closely by such an awful
apparition. Time passed while he sat like paralyzed, aware of the danger
right in front of him. Looking upwards, towards the orange and pink
clouds of the twilight, the man was fidgeting nervously, trying hard to
avoid the intense, terrifying stare of the young woman. Finally he sighed
and, trying to gather courage, addressed the malevolent presence gently
in what came out as an awkward tone: “Kāṅlō, what are you doing here?”She snapped back with such ferocity that the scared sorcerer almost fell
backwards: “Look!” she roared, “This is my house! Who are you?”
The sorcerer shuddered in fright and embarrassment. He didn’t know what
to answer and felt like an intruder. The horrid girl, looming a few steps
before him, was seething with savage hatred now, like a wild beast poised
to attack. Panic overtook the poor man and, mumbling some lame excuses
he fumbled with the knife and hastily withdrew it.

313

Her dress was the black waist cloth known as kaṇḍikī in Male’ and alfakā in theSouth; aristocratic ladies used to wear the fēli, a more elaborate waistcloth withbroad horizontal white and black bands. Regarding female ornaments, when
ancient clay, glass or alabaster bangles are unearthed while digging wells in theislands or when sea erosion exposes them, these are assumed to belong to female
spirits and are called haṇḍiuḷā
305

The faṇḍita man didn’t dare to take his eyes off the sand. His heart was
beating fast and he was breathing heavily. After a while, when he lookedup, the dreadful young woman had vanished. He realized now that he was
drenched in cold sweat. Shaking, he got up and went home feeling dizzy,stumbling many times on the way. His wife noticed his state when she saw
him walking slowly on the street at dusk and met him at the door: “Whathappened? What happened?” she cried anxiously.
The weary sorcerer lay down and told her about the horror he had seen.
He was panting and sweating. His wife tried to convince him to get up andeat something, but he didn’t want to take any food. During the night hewas shivering with very high fever. The next morning he had become
insane. He never recovered.
Following these events no one lived in that awful, dismal home. Alī Dīdī
used it as a storehouse, but after his death, when the roof collapsed, it
was not repaired. The main building was already in a ruinous state when
Alī Dīdī’s son destroyed it. He knocked the walls down, burned the decayedwood, scattered the stones about and planted coconut palms andbreadfruit trees in that plot. Neighbors say that dreadful place is still
haunted and if one dares to walk close to it in the night, mysterious
sounds can be heard, like a woman weeping bitterly, little children crying
and other unexplainable noises.

Before concluding this chapter, it will be worth drawing attention to thefact that in Maldive popular spirituality there are a few constant factors
which need to be analyzed in order to establish a pattern:
The spirits are not the spirits of the objects that are propitiated, thus theyremain outside of them. Therefore, the tree spirit above is not thenikabilissa tree itself in human form, but a spirit that has chosen to dwellthere, as it may choose to dwell in a rock, in the sea or in the ruins of a
home.
306

Some spirits have a human origin. Probably all of them have a story
explaining how they became spirits, but most of these stories are lost.
Spirits can take human form, even if it is not known whether they have ahuman origin or not, like the girl in the story above. While in humanshape, their malevolence is often masked by beauty and youth. Many evil
spirits have the appearance of charming, beautiful women.314
Contrary to what it may seem, not all spirits are evil. There might be a lotof harmless spirits all around, but these seem to be irrelevant. In practice
it is the malignant spirits which draw all the attention towards
themselves, as it is precisely the fear of their displeasure which calls forth
the different ceremonies of propitiation and appeasement described inthis chapter.
“Fear is, rather than respect or veneration, what pervades the relationshipbetween the Maldivian folk and their ancestral evil spirits. Disease, anger,
quarrels with family and neighbors are perceived to be the result of
demons meddling with one’s life. The average islander’s innermost wish
would be to be able to lead a quiet, prosperous and blissful life, free fromthe interference of dark powers.315
We have seen in previous chapters how in the eyes of the Maldivian
people their own rulers seem often to act in the same random anddestructive manner as evil spirits. For instance, instead of stigmatizing

314“The fundamental conception of the Dravidians with regard to the origin of theirgods is without doubt that they are the spirits of departed people.” W.T. Elmore,‘Dravidian Gods in Modern Hinduism.’ The fact that it may not be stated or known
leads us to the following questions: Is the possibility of having a human origin
irrelevant to the story? Does this possibility add to the spirit’s malevolence?
315

All these factors are analogous to the ‘outstanding characteristics of Dravidian
animism’ described by W.T. Elmore. “It is, therefore, by a consideration of theDravidian fear of evil-minded spirits that we shall find the key to practically all of theideas and customs connected with their worship.” Ibid.
307

lawbreakers, Islanders tend to consider that to become a “proper
Maldivian” (Divehi vuṅ) one has to have been exiled or imprisoned by thegovernment at least once in one’s lifetime. Therefore, people arrested by
the authorities seldom feel any guilt; instead they just think “it’s theirturn.” Hence, both the popular fascination by dark magic power and theveneration towards powerful or ‘holy’ men are tainted with terror. As aresult of this perceived link, in the mindset of Maldivians there is areadiness to fear all sources of power, whether spiritual, magical orpolitical. Thus, the common fear of the government is merely a derivationof the atavistic fear of demons.

308

2.3.1 THE VILLAGE GODDESSIn the folk-narrative of Maldives there are a few stories about women
eating human flesh. These anthropophagous females are known
generically as Minikā Daitā (Cannibal Aunt). One hypothesis about theorigin of such myths could be that in times of extreme famine islanders
may have been reduced to practicing cannibalism. However, this doesn’t
explain why a single woman in each case has emerged as a mythicalhuman-flesh eater and why we don’t have matching stories about groupsof islanders, or males, incurring in such aberrant behavior.
People in Fua Mulaku love to tell stories about a woman who lived very
long ago in their island and liked to eat human flesh. They take a certain
pride in this cannibal female and claim her as their own, never failing totell strangers about her. It is said that she lived at a place called Kāṣifīṣi
(the mound of bones) where many human bones lay buried in the earth.
The most representative variant of this weird story is the following:316
Diguvāṇḍi Daitā“Long ago, in Fua Mulaku, in the village of Diguvāṇḍo lived a woman withher husband. Since she was very beautiful he was very much in love with
her; accordingly, he made it a point of fulfilling every one of her wishes.
One day this woman became very angry because he returned from fishing
without fish. “Ekkalas dogo hadani!” (“You are always lying!”) She yelled
at him.
The truth is that it was a very bad fishing season, but the furious lady
wouldn’t take any excuse and threatened her husband with direconsequences if he came back without fish again. To make matters worse,
316

Told by Katībuge Ibrahīm Saīdu, Diguvāṇḍo village, Fua Mulaku.
309

she didn’t want any kind of fish, it had to be skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus
pelamis) which has dark red flesh and is the favorite fish of all Maldivians.
The husband couldn’t fish anything either on the following day. Arriving at
the house, he sneaked to the well at the back of his home before she could
see him. There he took the extreme step of cutting a strip of flesh from his
own leg. After bandaging the wound he brought the piece of flesh to hiswife saying that it was the only piece of fish he could get. When she asked
him why he was limping he said: “I just fell from a coconut tree and I havea wound here.”
Diguvāṇḍi Daitā cooked it and found the flesh delicious. The next few days
were also bad fishing days, so the husband kept cutting strips of his flesh
by the well to keep his wife happy.
However, Diguvāṇḍi Daitā grew suspicious about the fact that her
husband was going straight to the back of the house as soon as he cameback from fishing. So she spied on him and found out that he was cutting
his own flesh. She thought: “This is why this flesh tasted much better thantuna.” Thus, without hesitating, that same night she killed her husband,drained his blood into a bowl and drank it. Then she cut his body in small
pieces and cooked them into garede (rihākuru).
After a few days Diguvāṇḍi Daitā gave birth to a child. The midwives whocame to her home to help to deliver the baby asked for some food. She
told them there were boiled taro, coconuts and garede in the kitchen.
While they were taking food, one of the midwives took something fromthe pot of garede with the ladle and they saw in horror that it was ahuman hand!
Often this story would end with the same corollary as the one that
follows: “Then the island became Muslim and Daitā was killed.” The310

variant that follows is less common and it is set in the adjoining village ofHōdaḍo:317
Hōdaḍi Daitā“Long ago, before the people of Fua Mulaku were converted to Islam, awoman known as Hōdaḍi Daitā lived alone in a big house in the village ofHōdaḍo on the northeastern part of the island. Inside her home, in themain room, she had planted forks with the tines upward behind theswing.318 Since she lived near the middle of the island, people going fromthe northern end to the southern had to pass close to her house. When thefishing season was bad, she would invite the passers-by saying: “Come!
Come in and rest!”
When a man, woman or child entered the house, the woman would tellhim or her to sit on the swing while she brought some tea. Then she went
to the kitchen.319
Hōdaḍi Daitā kept the inside of her house very dark, day and night. Whilethe unwary islander waited for tea, she would suddenly enter the houseand ram hard into the sitting visitor. Taken by surprise, the hapless person
would lose balance and would be pushed off the swing onto the sharp
forks. If the prongs didn’t pierce the body in any vital organ, she would

317

Told by the late Magieduruge Ibrahīm Dīdī. This is the version Diguvāṇḍo
people use to tell.
318

Maldivian traditional homes always had a large swing inside the house and/or in
the verandah
319

In the traditional Maldivian homestead, the kitchen would be a separate building,a few meters away from the house. In the southern atolls, the open space between
the kitchen and the house where the people, would spend most of the day, is called
Medovatte (the ‘v’ sound being silent)311

finish her victim off with a knife. Then she would eat the flesh and drink
the blood.
This bloodthirsty woman continued killing and eating the island womenand men, old and young, in this manner, until only six people remained in
Fua Mulaku. These few survivors feared that the island’s population would
be obliterated. However, right at that time the island became Muslim andthe King sent a commissioner who executed Hōdaḍi Daitā.
The grisly features of these stories are a reflection of the fact that in
Maldives, as in South India in ancient times, blood sacrifices were
customary in the worship of local goddesses, even going to the extent of
cutting a piece of one’s own flesh.320 The mention in both stories of a badfishing season is not mere coincidence, as this type of sacrifice would becalled for precisely in such an extreme event. The lack of fish in the sea
would be interpreted as caused by the Goddess’ wrath, and bloody
sacrifices would be made to her, as the provider of human needs, toappease her anger.321
The reference to a fork in the first story is significant, because forks are
not common implements in the traditional Maldive household. Thisfeature definitely hints at a goddess, for practically all South Indian village
or locality goddesses wield a fork or trident (Skt. triśula). The mostcommon iconographical form of the village goddess in South India
represents her having four arms holding a trident, a noose and a skullbowl (kapāla) full of blood, while the last hand is in the position of
granting favors (varada mudrā). Eventually she may hold a small drum(ḍamaru) with a snake tied around it, a shield, a sword and a handshowing the gesture of protection against fear (abhaya mudrā) instead of

320

This particular sacrificial offering, among other sanguinary rituals in honor of thegoddess, is described in R. Nagaswami, ‘Tantric Cult of South India’.
321

See the chapter “Village Goddesses” in D. Kinsley, ‘Hindu Goddesses’.
312any of the implements or mudras specified above. The trident is an
essential attribute of the goddess to such an extent that many village
goddess shrines in Tamil Nadu have just a trident or a spear planted in the
ground to represent the Mother Goddess.322
In the first story the woman lives alone in the house and it is assumed that
she has no husband. This circumstance is consistent with the paradoxicalrole of the ancestral village goddess as Mother and unmarried woman
simultaneously. Though a Mother, Dēvi tolerates no consort, as no father
was deemed necessary in the society in which the village goddesses
originated.323
The pitifully meek male, so eager to fulfill his wife’s needs, playing the roleof the husband in Diguvāṇḍi Daita’s story does not display the strength ofcharacter expected from a real island man in such a dire situation. The
respect and devotion he has for the dangerous woman sharing his
household is excessive even by local standards in the Southern Atolls,
where traditionally women have been wielding a lot of authority. The
husband’s behavior towards his wife in this story is a mixture of love, awe
and fear, which reflects rather the relationship between the devout
worshipper and the goddess in the ancient Tamil country.324

322

Most village-goddess shrines are very humble structures: “...from their (demons)
who inhabited queer-shaped stones, dead trees, darkness, caves, the tiny little
shrines (of the smallpox-goddess) which were nothing but a few iron spikes stuck in
the ground or a lump of stone covered with red stain and oil. For (the world of thepeople of the Kolli Mountains in Tamil Nadu) was teeming with frightening deities
who must be placated with spells and incantations and libations of the blood ofpigs.” D.C. Wilson, ‘Granny Brand, Her Story.’
323

D.D. Kosambi uses this argument as a proof of the extreme antiquity of thevillage Dēvi cults in ‘Myth and Reality’324“She saw the terrified eyes of a mother creeping to make offerings at thehideous little shrines of the smallpox goddess.” D.C. Wilson, op. cit.
313

In both stories the geographical position of the woman’s house ismentioned and both women are named after their village. As both villages
still exist in present day Fua Mulaku, it is likely that, in ancient times,
there were important goddess shrines in the localities of Diguvānḍo andHōdaḍo, which attracted devotees from the northern and southern endsof the island. In the same manner, in South India, village goddesses are
known by the name of their village or locality, preceding the generic nameof the goddess (Amma, Dēvi, Bhagavatī, etc.).325
Athough some of the present-day Dēvi temples in the Subcontinent are
attracting devotees from distant places, originally all village goddesses
were purely local deities. They were assumed to cause either profit or
injury to the area deemed to be under their protection. To their devotees
their relation to the cosmos was of no consequence. From such limited
perspective, the goddess symbolized only the simple facts and worries ofvillage life, such as cholera, small-pox and bad fishing instead of relating
to the great forces of the universe.326

325

Rural goddesses remain connected with the name of the village in the
Subcontinent as well. See “Local Mothers” in D.D. Kosambi, op. cit. Even now, in
Kerala locality is of such crucial importance that all Dēvis are prefixed by the nameof their corresponding town or place. The generic Dravidian or Sanskrit names areinterchangeable, for example Aṭṭukal Ammā, Aṭṭukal Dēvi or Aṭṭukal Bhagavatī (Afamous local goddess in Trivandrum)
326

Currently the situation has changed owing to the influence of new doctrines
claiming that village goddesses are merely manifestations of Kālī or Durgā, in orderto bring all these local cults into the Hindu mainstream. The epitome of this largely
political, rather than spiritual, activity is the creation of brand-new myths such as
the goddess Bharat Mātā.
314

Just as in South India, in Maldives the local goddesses looked after theirown village in exchange for the unflinching devotion of the villagers.327 As
it has been previously hinted, village goddesses can be dangerous andmalevolent when, through a lack of devotion, their vengeful spirit isaroused. In such an event, when they afflict the village or island withepidemics and famine, blood, fruit and flower sacrifices have to be madeto them in order to appease their ill temper. In ‘The Village Gods of South
India’, H. Whitehead compares the offerings made to the village goddess
with the offerings made to “a tyrannical government official to secure his
favor.”
Towards the end of Hōdaḍi Daitā’s legend, it is stated that she killed somany islanders that only six people remained on the island. This isprobably an oblique reference to the last major epidemic that struck Fua
Mulaku before the conversion to Islam. Severe epidemics hit this island
periodically and it is known that it was depopulated at least twice during
the last thousand years. The conclusion that Daitā was killed by order ofthe King after the Maldives became Muslim is, in all probability, an
allegory of the desecration of Dēvi temples and images, once the kingimposed Islam on the whole archipelago back in the 12th century. The
copper plate edicts (lōmāfānu) of the time show that the enforcement ofIslam upon the Maldivian population was a carrot-and-stick affair. While,in the new situation, some islanders received extraordinary privileges
from the King, others were harshly threatened.

327“The people of Goomsur, who are Khonds and are of Dravidian origin, have agoddess called Jugah Pennu, who ‘sows smallpox upon mankind as men sow seed
upon the earth.’ When a village is threatened with this dread disease, it is deserted
by all save a few persons who remain to offer the blood of buffaloes, hogs andsheep to the destroying power.” The bloodthirsty character of the village goddess,
as well as her connection with a particular locality are well described by E.
Rauschenbusch-Clough ‘While Sewing Sandals; Tales of a Telugu Pariah Tribe’ inthe chapter ‘The Fiend Mahalakshmi.’315

In the North of Maldives, there are stories about a scary, fierce woman
who relishes eating human flesh as well. She is called Minikā Daitā(Cannibal Aunt) and plays the main role in the well-known tale of thetelabaguḍi girl.328 This legendary woman also displays the elusive andunpredictable changeability common to the goddesses worshipped bySouth Indian villagers:
Telabaguḍi Koe’

“Once upon a time a very poor woman lived in Male’. She eked out a living
by sweeping the yards of other people’s houses. One day while she wasbent low doing her humble job she happened to find a boḍulāri (four lāricoin). She became so happy that she stopped sweeping and ran home toshow it to her daughter. Koe’, her only child always longed to eat
telabaguḍi (fried round sweet cakes) but being so poor they couldn’t
afford to buy such an expensive sweet. Now this woman could fulfill her
wish.
As soon as the girl got the coin she ran across the island to buy atelabaguḍi. Koe’ bought only one and, as she couldn’t wait, she began
nibbling at it on her way back home. As she walked close to the beach she
went there to defecate.329 She still had half of her telabaguḍi, so first she
looked for a clean spot, picked two big leaves, put the cake between them328

Told by Gāge Fātumatu Naīma of Māfannu, Male’.

329

As in other stories of this book, such as ‘Kamaṇā’, ‘Bloodshed under the Tree’,and ‘The Wrong Kind of Blood’ the verb ‘to shit’ used to be part of the casualspeech and didn’t necessarily have rude connotations. This verb refers to a naturalactivity for islanders. People used to go to the beach (or to the forest) to defecate,especially in the morning, like they would go to eat at noon and to sleep in thenight. This situation has changed somewhat in recent times after the introduction of
toilets, but the use of this verb without coarse implications used to be common instorytelling and colloquial conversation316

and laid it on the ground, covering all with a piece of coral rock. Then she
squatted close to a bush and afterwards walked on the sand to the water
to wash her private parts.
When Koe’ went back to take her telabaguḍi home she saw that it wasn’t
where she had left it, even after all her precautions. Fuming, she looked
around and saw that it wasn’t very far away. A crab was pulling it towards
its hole.330 But when the girl ran to catch it, swiftly the crab disappeared
taking the sweet inside its lair. So she walked slowly back home, feelingmiserable.
After three days, when she happened to pass by the same spot of thebeach on a walk, Koe’ noticed that from the hole in the ground where thecrab had taken her telabaguḍi a tree had started growing.
As a good Maldivian, the girl knew all the trees growing in the islands andtheir names, but she had never seen such a tree before. It was a kind oftree she didn’t recognize. She was so thrilled that she didn’t tell anybody,in case they would give it to the King for his garden. Thus, every day she
went to have a look at the tree as it grew and grew. This amazing tree
grew faster than other trees and soon it became very large with spreading
shady branches.
One day Koe’ went to look at the tree as usual and she was surprised tosee that its branches were full of telabaguḍi. She was so happy that in notime she had climbed the tree and was sitting on one of its branches.
When she tasted the first telabaguḍi it was so good that she went on
eating and eating until her belly was so full that she could eat no more.
Then Koe’ climbed slowly down the tree and had a good look at it. To her
330

The ghost crab (Ocypode spp.). Its name in English has nothing to do withspirits and it probably owes its origin to the crab’s pale greenish color. It lives in thesand, close to the waterline, digging holes where it swiftly hides when it feels
threatened. These crabs are very common in Maldive beaches. Some islanders
jokingly say that they are more numerous than Maldivian people.
317

amazement its branches seemed as full and heavy as before, even though
she had eaten lots of those sweet cakes. The sun was setting and the girldidn’t want to be in the forest after dark, so she went back home, walking
very slowly because she couldn’t run after eating so much.
From that day onwards, Koe’ went to her tree at sunrise and spent herdays there idly munching telabaguḍi from its branches until she could eat
no more. In the beginning her mother wondered why her child didn’t takeany food when she came back home in the evening. She asked her, but thegirl wouldn’t say anything. However, as the days went by and she saw thather daughter looked well fed, she thought the girl was eating in some richpeople’s house and stopped worrying.
One day, while Koe’ was sitting up the tree as usual, a woman came. The
child was startled because this was the first time someone had come todisturb her blissful days in the tree. When she looked down she saw a wildlooking woman with a big mane of disheveled hair and a large mouth withlong sharp teeth. She was Minikā Daitā, the cannibal woman, but the girldidn’t know it. With a meek voice the woman asked:“Can you throw me one?”The girl did as asked and threw one telabaguḍi at her. The woman caught
it saying: “Oh! It fell into the sea. Throw another!”
Koe’ didn’t know that she was being fooled as it wasn’t easy for her to see
the woman clearly between the leaves below her. So she threw anothertelabaguḍi.
“Oh! What a pity! It fell on a crap!” Lied the woman this time.331 And in
this way the woman kept fooling the girl until she looked up and said:

331

As this is a story for children, in the original version the different wrong places
where the Cannibal Woman says the proferred telabaguḍis are falling are named
one by one, which can be rather tedious318

“Look! I couldn’t catch any of them. You are too far away. I think it will bebetter if you put a telabaguḍi between your toes and reach it out to me.
It’s no use throwing them, they get wasted.”
Koe’, who was tired of throwing and throwing telabaguḍis, agreed andpicked a telabaguḍi, put it between her toes and stretched her leg so thatthe woman could reach it.
All of a sudden, the woman clutched the girl’s ankle and pulled her downwith enormous strength. Immediately she put the stunned Koe’ into a sackand, carrying it on her shoulder, she went home.
When she arrived home the man-eating woman left the sack on theverandah and told her daughter: “Child, go to cook while I take a bath.
Today I have brought good food for us.”
Saying this, she went to take a bath while her daughter went into the
kitchen to kindle the fire. After a short while, Minikā Daitā’s child felt astrong wish to see what was in the sack her mother had brought. She
peeped out of the kitchen door and looked around to make sure that her
mother was not there. Then she strained her ears and when she heard thesound of water from the veyo behind the house, the girl was sure that her
mother was taking a bath. Swiftly, she came out of the kitchen, went tothe verandah and opened the sack.
Minikā Daitā’s daughter was surprised to see a girl curled inside. Koe’ wasdazzled by the sudden bright light and closed her eyes tightly. Gradually
she opened them and she was pleased to see a girl of her age instead ofthat horrible woman. She giggled excitedly and Minikā Daitā’s daughter
beamed back at her, exclaiming: “How beautiful you are! Do you want toplay with me?”With a jerk Koe’ came out of the sack and, happily clapping her hands, she
exclaimed: “Good! We are the same size! Let’s exchange our waistcloths
and our ornaments to see if you can look as pretty as me.”319

So both girls playfully took off their pieces of cloth and their jewellery andexchanged them. After doing so they looked at each other and laughed.
Then Koe’ suggested to the unwary Minikā Daitā’s daughter: “Now let’s
play another game! Let’s see who looks more beautiful while sleeping. Lay
down on this hirigā (A large, flat, coral rock), close your eyes, and be very
quiet.”The unsuspecting girl stretched herself on the stone and, smiling, closed
her eyes. At once, without hesitating, Koe’ took a kativaḷi (large knife orcleaver) and cut her neck, severing her head with such a swift blow thatthe girl died instantly without having any time to react and withoututtering any cry.
Then Koe’ hastened to cut the body of Minikā Daitā’s daughter into little
pieces. Once she had done that she washed all the blood off well. She also
washed the hirigā, the knife and her hands thoroughly. Then she put all
the flesh into the cooking pot and boiled it on the fire.
When the mother came from her bath in the veyo, she found the food was
ready and greedily ate the meat without knowing it was her own
daughter’s. While she was eating she went on saying: “It’s delicious! Cometo eat too. Are you not hungry, my child?”
Koe’, who was hiding in the kitchen said: “I won’t eat now, mother. I will
eat later, keep some for me.”Minikā Daitā didn’t insist and went on relishing her food. When she was sofull that she could eat no more, she went out, belching, to wash the dishes.
Then she noticed that up a tree by the well there was somebody singing asong; it was Koe’ who in the meantime had climbed up the big tree.
Standing safely on a very high branch the girl was mockingly singing:“After eating up her own daughter this woman went to wash the dishes”
The Cannibal Woman, thinking it was her own child singing on the tree
said smiling: “Daughter, daughter! To whom are you singing this song?”
320

“Oh! I was singing it to the crow.”
Koe’ sang the song again and the woman asked: “To whom are you
singing this song?”“I was singing it to the bat.”332
Saying so the girl went on singing from the tree the same nagging songover and over: “After eating up her own daughter this woman went towash the dishes.”
While Minikā Daitā was washing her dishes and pots, Koe’ repeated thesong so many times that the woman finally lost her temper and angrily
scolded the girl: “Stop that nonsense!”
At this point Koe’ spoke clearly: “I am singing this song to you, evil Minikā
Daitā! Today you pulled me down from my tree and brought me here in asack, and your daughter let me go out, and we played and exchanged our
dresses. After that I tricked her and slaughtered her very easily. Then I cut
her into little pieces, I washed all the blood, cooked her flesh and put it on
your table. You ate her, not me!”
When Minikā Daitā heard this she realized what she had done and flew
into a horrible rage. Her eyes looked fiercely up the tree and became red
and very cruel. Her disheveled hairs stood on end and became wilder andmore entangled. Her voracious wide mouth opened and showed her large,
jagged teeth.

332

Vā (vavalā and vaulu in the southern languages), the fruit-bat or flying fox, avery large bat common in the Maldives. To avoid monotony the text has beenshortened at this point. Here the girl keeps repeating that she is singing the song toa number of local land animals, including mākanā (grey heron, itself the main
subject of many Divehi folk stories), hōnu (gecko), cat, boṇḍu (a lizard of the gen.
Calotes), rat, hikandi (shrew), kambili (white-breasted swamp hen), baraveli (hermitcrab), koveli (a kind of cuckoo bird), and the toad.
321

The cannibal woman looked now much bigger and was awful to behold.
She was so enraged that she frenzily tried to climb up the tree, scratching
the bark with her long nails, jumping and uttering blood-chilling cries. This
fearful woman seemed to increase in strength as her anger grew. She wasshaking the tree with such violence that the girl became extremely
worried. Finally, feeling no longer safe up there, Koe’ jumped down inpanic and ran away as fast as she could.
Immediately, Minikā Daitā ran after her with terrible speed, but she wasso blinded by her fury that she strayed off the path, fell into a burning
lime-pit and caught fire. When Koe’ heard the frightening cries she lookedback and saw that Minikā Daitā was in flames. Then she stopped running
and, panting, looked on as the living torch consumed itself.
Once the girl was sure that the dreadful Minikā Daitā was dead, sheturned and went back home.
The mixture of the humorous and the gruesome is a common feature of
Maldivian mythology. Even if in the Maldives this is meant to be a tale forchildren, the telabaguḍi story contains some interesting parallels with thevillage-goddess tradition of South India where the combination of bothnaive and macabre features is also present. Local goddesses can have afrightful appearance when they embody their destructive nature, whichparadoxically coexists with their nurturing, motherly character. Goddess
Nīli, one of the ancestral divinities of Travancore, is usually represented
with fangs, holding one child on her arm; 333 and The Tamil goddess Isakki,
who carries a child in one arm and a trident in the other, is appeased withblood sacrifices. Minikā Daitā, though eager to kill and devour the333

According to Chellam, priestess of a Nīli temple in Kaliyankad, Tamil Nadu, “thegoddess uses the child as a snare (or weapon) to waylay wrongdoing people totheir death. The unwary person hears the child crying in a dark or bushy place andwhile he goes to look for it, gets lost and is killed by the fiery goddess…the child isjust one of the weapons Nīliamman can produce at any time.”322

telabaguḍi girl, is very kind to her own daughter. Here her daughter, agentle, average girl strangely sharing the same household with her
terrifying cannibal mother, could represent the faithful devotee who calls
the Goddess ‘Mother’.
The heroine, Koe’, may represent an ungrateful and selfish person in theeyes of the goddess. Although she offered a few cakes to her, throwing
them from the tree, the girl had sought to keep her tree’s location secret
even from her own mother. As the mother is the most revered figure
within the island kinship system, Koe’’s self-gratifying attitude is generally
acknowledged to be reprehensible, even though in the end she escapes
unhurt.
In ‘Telabaguḍi Koe’’ the ambivalence of femininity can be perceived bothin the heroine herself and in Minikā Daitā. Koe’ and the cannibal woman’sdaughter are assumed to be average pre-adolescent island girls ―or in
their early adolescence― having pleasant features. Nonetheless, Koe’displays unusual cruelty and audacity as she doesn’t hesitate to ruthlessly
murder, slaughter and cook her kidnapper’s unsuspecting daughter, which
is not a probable action by an average young girl. Even so, in Maldivian
folklore this bloody and aggressive behavior, coupled with dexterity inhandling knives is frequent among women characters.
The fact that Minikā Daitā is a scary sight is not unexpected though, forVillage Goddesses in their dangerous aspect look horrifying: They usually
have fang-like teeth, a wild mane of hair and a lolling tongue. Theirdisposition is violent and they are often eager to devour humans. Like
Diguvāṇḍi Daitā in the second story of this chapter, this frightening
woman has a daughter, but there is no mention of a husband.
Among the ancient popular divinities of Kerala, which mostly displayed
abominable attributes, there was a deity called ‘Pillatini’, the child-323

eater.334 Such man-eating women are also mentioned in some of the
Jātaka and Pancatantra tales. They are described as partly or fully naked
ogresses, often black in color, with a wild mane of hair and large teeth.
They usually live in the forest and are known as Yakkhinī in Prakrit, theSanskrit generic name being Yakśinī or Yakśī, a tree sprite. Within the Indic
tradition, it has been observed by W. Crooke that:“We have already learnt to look to the folktales for the most trustworthy
indications of popular belief. ... The (Queen ḍākinī) Kālarātri or “blacknight” is of repulsive appearance.335 She has dull eyes, a depressed flat
nose, her eyebrows meet together; she has large cheeks, widely parted
lips, projecting teeth, a long neck, pendulous breasts, a large belly, andbroad expanded feet. She obtains her powers by eating human flesh.
(ḍākinīs) carry on their unholy revels in cemeteries and cremation
grounds.(Cf. 3.2.2 ‘Fūḷu Digu Haṇḍi’) They meet under the leadership ofthe dreaded Bhairava (a fearsome form of Shiva).” 336
Coomaraswamy, a highly respected South Asian scholar made a remark
about the spirits called Yakśīs that is very illustrative in this context:“It is a fact beyond dispute that the tales about these ogresses themselves
have their origin in the stories about very ancient rural divinities of the
Subcontinent.337

334

K. Narayana Panikkar, ‘Folklore of Kerala.’

335

Kālarātri is also the most fearful form of Durgā in the nine forms of this goddessor ‘Navadurgās’. A ḍākinī is a female imp or goblin (V.S. Apte, ‘Sanskrit-English
Dictionary’).
336

W. Crooke, ‘The Popular Religion & Folklore of Northern India.’

337

A. Coomaraswamy, ‘Yakśas, vol. 2’324

2.3.2 THE SURVIVAL OF OLD MYTHSAt the present time, while there is no actual goddess worship, tales about
female spirits are still very popular in the Maldives. This is more evident in
the South, where the folk mythology is better preserved. Some of thosedemons are considered more dangerous than others, but all of them arefeared. Surprisingly, even through the fear, one would be able to detect acertain amount of unexpected emotions, like warmth towards certain
female spirits, justified as: ‘After all she belongs to our island’.
South Indian Dēvi worshipers have a comparable attitude towards theirlocal goddess, for in the worship of the Village Goddess of the Indian
Subcontinent there is an intimate connection between devotion,
expressed as submission, and fear. Similarly, in the Maldives, the fear of
spirits in general, but especially of female spirits is so real that one could
well say that it gives them life. Hence, even though in the Maldive Islands
goddess-worship has disappeared as such, the goddesses are still present
and still play a role in the life of the average islanders, even though merely
as fearsome spirits, like the ubiquitous haṇḍi.
To illustrate this latter reflection, the following story338 emphasizes theanger of the Goddess and the simmering antagonism between the old andthe new religion:Vaṣoveu Haṇḍi

“In Fua Mulaku Island there is an ancient round bath of coral stone, cut
and fit together tightly without mortar. Although now it lies hidden in thejungle, often islanders go there to look at it and wonder how their338

Told in 1985 by the late Magieduruge Ibrahīm Dīdī.
325

ancestors possessed so much skill. They call it simply vaṣoveu (roundbath).
Long ago, a seven year old girl went near the vaṣoveu with two of her
friends. As the jungle bushes were very thick, she lost sight of the othergirls. They looked for her and started to call her name: ‘Kaddā! Kaddā!’A haṇḍi happened to hear nearby and heard the name clearly. Instantly,
she assumed the appearance of Kaddā’s mother and appeared before thegirl. Beckoning to her, the spirit tricked the little girl and she followed thehaṇḍi deeper and deeper into the forest, far away from her friends.
Finally, they came to a sinister-looking clump of wild screwpine, so thickthat a human being couldn’t penetrate it. The haṇḍi confined Kaddā
within the mesh of screwpine roots and when the night came she brought
her food and water.
Meanwhile, as the sun had set and the girl did not appear, Kaddā’s realmother searched for her frantically. People told her that they had seen her
on her way to the vaṣoveu so she went there with some men and big
bright torches. They searched through the night and more people became
involved in the search, but they didn’t see any trace of the girl.
During the following days, from sunrise to sunset, groups of people
searched the forest. Meanwhile throughout the island the drums were
beaten and the takbīr (a Muslim religious chant) was recited aloud.
Finally, at noon on the sixth day, a group of men and women who were atthe vaṣoveu area looking for Kaddā suddenly saw the girl dropping fromthe top of a tall screwpine. She fell messily onto the ground, in front ofthem.
The people squatted down to take her up carefully and saw that Kaddā’scheeks were deeply gouged and her face covered with scratches. She wasdead, but still not rigid. They were puzzled, because the top of thescrewpine is a bunch of spiny leaves and they knew that the girl could nothave climbed there.
326

Local islanders say that being an unbeliever, the haṇḍi was sick of hearing
the Muslim chants and became very angry.339 Blinded by her rage, thehaṇḍi got rid of poor Kaddā and went into hiding deeper into the forest.
Since then, parents in that island never let little girls go to the vaṣoveu
alone. At any rate, everyone agrees that the two girls who went with
Kaddā into the jungle were foolish because, if a companion is lost in theforest, one should never call her name or his name. Instead, one shouldcall, “Hō! Hō!”340
Here the female spirit is referred to as haṇḍi, a term which originated in
the Sanskrit Caṇḍi, which is a form of Durgā, the powerful demonslaughtering goddess. In the Subcontinent local goddesses often were,and still are, identified with Durgā (and sometimes with Kālī), but they
have never been thoroughly incorporated into the mythologicalmainstream. Neither have these fierce village goddesses been ascribedhusbands, like the submissive wives Sarasvatī or Lakśmī. Thus, thesepotentially dangerous goddesses have remained at the fringes of theorthodox Hindu pantheon, maintaining an autonomous presence.
In Maldives, feminine demons carry the names of goddesses actuallyworshipped in the Subcontinent, like haṇḍi (Caṇḍi), hāmuṇḍi (Cāmunḍi)and Ranna Māri (Māri). Although all three names have a meaning in
Sanskrit, the first two names (Caṇḍi and Cāmuṇḍi) are epithets of theGreat Goddess in The Dēvi Māhātmiya, (and are thus well within the
Brahmanical mainstream) while Māri is the name used mainly in TamilNāḍu for the goddess of smallpox, worshipped for prevention and cure of339

Although the word Kāfir is used, in this instance it simply refers to the fact that
this female spirit is a non-Muslim. The division of spirits into believers andunbelievers is not exclusive to stories told by Muslims. Many centuries before Islamit was already a typical feature of Jaina stories
340

Usually girls going to cut firewood to the jungle always call “Hō!” when they lose
sight of their companions. Source: Keuḷukovage Havvā, Hōdaḍo, Fua Mulaku
327disease, especially by mothers on behalf of their children. Mahamāri isalso an epithet of Kālī. The Northern Indian name for the same goddess isŚītalā (The Cool One). Other Maldivian female spirits have names of lesser
Dēvis, such as dōgi or Dōgiaihā (Yoginī).
In South India, a number of local female divinities worshipped by nonbrahmins in Kerala and Tuḷu country are known as Cāmunḍi, Māriamma
and Caṇḍika.341 Despite their Sanskrit names, the fact that they are mostly
not worshipped by Brahmins points to their great antiquity, because all
throughout the Subcontinent there is a link between low caste andaboriginal forms of religion. These are the same goddesses that gave
origin to the names of Maldivian spirits: Caṇḍi, ‘the wrathful’ an epithet ofDurgā common in Bengal, Māri (meaning ‘the one who is pestilence’ or‘the killer,’ the goddess of epidemics)342 and Cāmuṇḍi (‘the one who killed
the demons Cāṇḍa and Muṇḍa,’ the most fearsome form of Dēvi). They
are, in general, not part of the Buddhist pantheon. The most important
female divinities that entered later branches of Buddhism are thegoddesses Tārā and Prajñāpāramitā, which were included in it asbodhisattvas, compassionate helpers who can assist in bringing aboutenlightment.
Taking into consideration these facts, it is practically certain that, at somepoint in the local history, the generic name haṇḍi was applied to thenumerous village goddesses worshipped throughout the Maldive Islands,much in the same manner as many village Dēvis are assumed to be
manifestations of Kālī or Durgā in the Subcontinent. The Sanskritized

341

Coastal Karnataka, Studies in Folkloristic and Linguistic Traditions of Dakshina
Kannada Region of the Western Coast of India, edited by U.P. Upadhyaya
342

Unlike the other two, this is a name almost exclusively used in Tamil Nāḍu.
According to Sanskritic sources, the name ‘Māri is derived from the Sanskrit for‘death’. However, in Tamil etymology, it is claimed that this name derives from theTamil word for ‘rain’, as goddess Māri cools down the heat produced by epidemics.
S. Bhakthavatsala Bharathi, ‘Coromandel Fishermen.’328

name ‘Caṇḍi’, could have been adopted, along with the name Cāmuṇḍi, invery ancient times, when Brahminical influence reached Southern India.
However, it is also possible that the nomenclature mentioned above wasborrowed at a later stage of the Maldive Buddhist period.
The Mother-Goddess worship is such a resilient form of religious
expression that, in spite of royal patronage, the Buddhist teachings were
not able to interfere with the continuity of the original Village Goddess
cults. These must have been prevalent in the islands since immemorial
times, when the Maldives were settled by fishermen from nearby coasts.
The stories about dangerous female spirits and about women inaggressive or dominant roles, which form the core of Maldive mythology,
are but the last remnants of very old pre-Buddhistic Dēvi cults; anddespite having almost disappeared from South-Asian coastal territories, it
is a well-established fact that Mother-Goddess worship was the ancestralreligion of the entire South Indian fisherfolk. 343
Therefore, the notion that the presence of terrifying goddesses in theMaldive folklore precedes the Buddhist period is something that can beestablished beyond any doubt. Even if today the Mukkuvar and Parava
fishermen of the Southern end of the Subcontinent are predominantly
Christian, those fishing communities have retained strong traces ofgoddess-worship, the Virgin Mary or Mātā (Mother) being generally theirmain object of devotion. In the Anga Gada Mituru and Anga Madu Mituru
stories of the Northern Maldivian folklore there is a fairy-like female
figure who magically can replace spoiled teeth by a set of new teeth. This
fairy is known by the name ‘Santi Mariyambu’, possibly derived from thePortuguese ‘Santa Maria’ or Virgin Mary, a remnant of the sporadic
contact with the Portuguese preceding British hegemony in the Indian
Ocean. Meanwhile the dangerous goddess Isakki, whose name is derived

343

E. Thurston, ‘Castes and Tribes of Southern India’ Vol. 5.
329

from ‘Yakśi’, is identified by the Mukkuvar with the devil of the Christianreligion.
In the Hindu temples of Kanyakumari District, Isakkiamman is usually
represented holding a child on one arm and a trident or any otherweapon in the other. She may have large teeth and sometimes holds a
corpse between her fangs. Since these fishermen of the nearest coasts are
the most probable ancestors of the Maldivians, it is not surprising that
this same persistence of Dēvi worship, albeit in a highly residual form (Cf.
2.2.2 ‘Blood Sacrifices’), is present in the Maldive Islands too. Braving
official disapproval, it still somehow endures despite many centuries of
Buddhist rule344 followed by as many centuries of Muslim hegemony,owing to the fact that it is deeply rooted in the popular psyche. Thissurvival is not easy, and it is almost miraculous, as the Islamic religious
tradition, by its very nature, doesn’t include any high-profile form of
femininity able to match the popular Roman Catholic figure of the Virgin
Mary, which in turn could secure a form of continuity analogous to the
devotion to the Holy Mother among the South Indian fishing communities
mentioned above. 345
Considering all this, it is not far-fetched to assume that in Maldives, theold pre-Buddhist cults resisted the more severe form of early Buddhism tosuch an extent that, when it began to collapse, they took again the upper
hand and found their way into the Vajrayāna system which prevailed in

344

There are traces of Jaina influence in the Maldivian past. The word for‘followers’ in the lōmāfānu copperplates being “fētambaruṅ”, from “śvētambara”(white-clad), an important term in Jainism.
345“(The Virgin Mary) is worshipped as a central figure of importance in her own
right, not as a mother or wife to a male divinity (... and there is) ethnographic
evidence indicating that goddess worship has historically been an important featureof religion among Hindu fishing communities in South India.” And “(The Virgin
Mary) is more important to the (Mukkuvar) belief system than the figure of Christ.”
Kalpana Ram, Op. cit.
330the Maldives between the eighth and the twelfth centuries AD.346 Thus,
the Maldive village-cults strengthened themselves during the lastcenturies of Buddhist rule in the Island Kingdom and received new vigor
right before the onslaught of Islam.
Vajrayāna Buddhism was an offshoot of the greater Mahāyāna vehicle.
Most Maldive archaeological remains found to date bear the imprint of
this form of Buddhism, a school of thought which increased its popularity
by including a variety of dogmas, theories, rites and practices which either
had been imported from other religious systems or had been keeping a
low profile within the society in question. Hence, it was easy for ancestral
cults to come to the surface, and a number of gods and goddesses (bothancient and new), along with different rituals, philosophies, esoteric cults
and magic were included in the Vajrayāna branch. This form of Buddhism
was cosmopolitan in character and included the aspirations of all classes
and ranks of people. Thus it became very popular as it satisfied the needsof both pious people and habitual sinners.347
However, in Maldives the extreme popularization of religion, led to thedissolution of the central religious authority. This explains, to a certain
extent, the reason why the Maldivian government during the eightcenturies of Islamic rule that followed has felt consistently threatened bypopular creeds. Hence, most of the efforts of the local learned men weredirected towards stifling popular traditional religious expressions.
Consequently, as religious authority had been invariably in alliance withthe royal power to protect mutual interests, a conflict was unavoidable. In
mid-twelfth century, the Maldivian king, unwilling to accept the gradual346

G. Tucci makes this comment about the inhabitants of Swat valley. Quoted by
M. Taddei in ‘South Asian Archaeology’ edited by Norman Hammond.
347

N. Ghosh, ‘Srī Sarasvatī in Indian Art and Literature’. The author concludes that
“Vajrayanā Buddhism was a very demoralizing form of religion which went against
the original teachings of Lord Buddha.”331

erosion of his power, sought to reverse this situation; and it is within thisbackground that Islam came in handy to reestablish a stern, centralized
religious rule.348 In the light of the texts preserved in the Isdū andDambidū lōmāfānu copperplates and examining the history and dynamics
of the Vajrayāna system, it is not surprising to find that a great number ofthe writings on the copperplates etched right at the time of conversion,
are direct appeals from the monarch to his subjects to join the new
religion he had chosen, mingled with threats if they failed to do so.
Before concluding this subject, it is important to draw attention to theelusive attitude of Maldivians towards their female spirits, sorcery andIslam. In this behavior we can see at play the constant shift between thehieratic way of worship ―usually the official, government-sanctioned
form of religion― and the household religious expression or popular cult.
This duality is very frequent all over South Asia, where common people
have a tendency to think that ‘serious religion’ cannot help them in their
daily, more immediate and urgent needs, but that their local goddess,
spirit or sorcerer definitely will.349
Among numerous people groups of neighboring India, there is a stressbetween the Sanskritized way of life and what is usually referred to as the348

A similar situation arose in neighboring Ceylon, which was resolved by thereinforcement of the more severe Hinayāna Buddhism and the expurgation of all
traces of Mahāyāna (including its branch Vajrayāna) doctrines from the island. N.
Mudiyanse, ‘Mahayana Monuments in Ceylon.’
349“The line between the deities of Konduru’s high religion and those of the low is
not always sharp, and Balayya, like other villagers, switches easily in his worshipfrom one to the other. He worships the Hindu gods with the aid of his Brahman
priest and turns to worship the goddesses assisted by his family Washerman orPotter. The goodwill of all is necessary for his health and safety, the prosperity of
his endeavors, and the well-being of his household.” Paul G. Hiebert, ‘Konduru.
Structure and Integration in a South Indian Village.’332

low caste or tribal ways.350 In the Maldives this conflict expressed itself inthe tensions between the Islamic ideology promoted by the government
and the laid-back ancestral Divehi way of life. W. Crooke in his ‘Popular
Religion and Folklore of Northern India’ observes:“(The deities constituting the Hindu official pantheon) are the deities of
the richer or higher classes, and to the ordinary peasant of Northern India
these great gods are little more than a name. He will, it is true,occasionally bow at their shrines ... but from time immemorial ... hisallegiance was bestowed on a class of deities of a much lower and moreprimitive kind.
Traditionally there was an enduring resistance against what was deemed
to be ‘organized religion.’ Buddhism disappeared when it ceased to enjoy
royal patronage in the Maldives. However, having a life of their own
among the common folk, the ancient popular beliefs in spirits survived insecret. Even under a Muslim government, islanders saw no contradictionin adopting certain practices of Islam along with magic and sacrifices tolocal spirits, hence C. Maloney in his ‘People of the Maldive islands’
suggested that the attitude of Maldivians in this context was
schizophrenic. In present-day Divehi society, though, the stress on
ideological purity makes the balancing act between the two religious
spheres increasingly difficult.
The imposition of an undiluted Islamic way of life has been acute since1978, when a government hostile to Divehi lifestyle and traditions, which
it sees as a deviation from Islam, came to power. Its policies have beensuccessful owing to the non-existence of institutions that could effectively
protect the local traditional heritage. This lack makes Maldivian people
extremely vulnerable to the predatory whims of their leaders.

350“The old and mediaeval Bengali literature bear out this fact reflecting thestruggle between the worshippers of local goddesses and the deities ofBrahmanical hierarchy.” S. Mukhopadhyay, ‘Caṇḍi in Art and Iconography.’333

2.4.1 THE SORCERER AND THE DEVIIn the ancestral oral literature of Maldivians the faṇḍitaveriya or sorcerer
is always portrayed as a hero. Only recent stories tend to cast him in therole of a villain. The reason behind this new attitude is that increasing
scholarization and contact with the wider world has allowed educatedMaldivians to analyze and criticize, even going to the extent of ridiculing,
their own local traditions. But, ironically, they have been strictly forbidden
to apply the same methods of rational enquiry to the intruding Arabdoctrine.
However, the fact remains that in the traditional Maldive society thefaṇḍitaveriya was ―and still to some extent is― highly admired andrespected. He belonged to the ‘learned men’ category and his services
were in great demand. In contrast to the fact that within the Maldive
mythology most of the evil spirits are female, sorcerers are almost
exclusively male. There are a number of exceptions to this rule though,i.e. the notorious Havvā Fuḷu, in the story “Doṅ Hiyalā and Alifuḷu.”Nowadays, among faṇḍita practitioners, there are some women following
this profession as well, but in general female sorcerers are more common
in the North of Maldives than in the South. Even though female spirits
might have great magic powers, they are not reckoned to be human.
What’s more, the masdaiyffiohi or ritual knife to immobilize spirits wasmeant to be used only by a man.
The greatest faṇḍitaveriya in Maldive lore is Oḍitān Kalēge. There arequite a few stories about him throughout Maldives and he is often
associated with beautiful female spirits and fierce spell fights. The
beginning of this story351 is of special importance because it reveals a clue
hinting that the great Maldivian hero Oḍitān is none other than the351

Told in 1990 by Muhammadu Sālihu, Daisy Villa, Dūṇḍigamu village, Fua
Mulaku334

famous Ṛṣi Vaśiṣṭa. Rṣis are sages or ascetics. They play a central role in
Hindu and Buddhist tradition. In Buddhism their equivalent are theSiddhas and Arhats. Vaśiṣṭha’s importance resides in the fact that he plays
a role in some of the greatest Hindu epics, such as the Rāmāyaṇā:Oḍitān Kalēge’s Troubles“When Oḍitān Kalēge was a child he was already a great magician. One
day, while his mother was pregnant, he heard some people talking in thehouse that she would soon have a child. Now, young Oḍitān was not
happy at all, for he didn’t want his mother to have another baby. Thus, helay down on the eḷigēṇḍi clutching an egg over his belly and mutteredincantations.352 As a result of this, his mother, who was inside the housewith the midwives, was unable to give birth and was screaming in pain forlong hours. His anxious father entered the house and kicked his son off theeḷigēṇḍi because he was blocking the way. When Oḍitān fell, the egg heheld in his hands was crushed and, in that very instant, his mother gavebirth.
Then it dawned on the father that Oḍitān Kalēge had been doing somenasty trick and he became very angry.
As he went to grab him, young Oḍitān slipped away. His father ran behind
him and they ran and ran to the end of the island. But Oḍitān kept running
until he went out of the world and reached the place under the Dagas.353
Under that gigantic tree he met a lovely young woman named Dōgi Āihā352

Raised doorsill in the Fua Mulaku form of Divehi. Oḷigaṇḍu is its equivalent in
the Male’ Bas. The purpose of this raised doorsill was to hinder certain spirits fromentering the house.
353

A mythical tree giving shade to the outer world. Heavenly trees, such as the
Kalpaka who grows only in heaven, are a common feature in Indian traditions335

Kāṅlēge. Oḍitān was fascinated by this girl and looked at her too long.
Stunned by her radiant beauty, he fell in love with her.
However, Oḍitān was still a child. He had to make a great effort toovercome his shyness when he asked Dōgi Āihā to marry him under theDagas. Hearing this, the girl laughed scornfully in his face. Oḍitān was
confused by her long, outrageous laugh and looked at her in stupor. DōgiĀihā stared back at him with contempt. She frowned and said mockingly:“How dare you ask for that? You are too young to marry me!” Oḍitān
Kalēge was indignant and exclaimed: “I am not too young! I am a mighty
magician already!”
Dōgi Āihā Kāṅlēge354 squinted with her lovely eyes and looked hard at the
good-looking boy without saying a word for a while. Finally, she sighed
and instructed: “All right young magician! I am going to give you a chance
to prove you are worthy of me: First, you have to go back to where youcame from, learn endeṣegiri and vaḍodeṣegiri,355 and then I will marryyou.” Thus Oḍitān Kalēge, with serious determination, went back to theworld and feverishly engaged himself in learning endeṣegiri andvaḍodeṣegiri. The years passed while he was deeply immersed in his
studies and he became a handsome young man.
After having learned all that esoteric knowledge, Oḍitān Kalēge went backto the Dagas to meet dashing Dōgi Āihā Kāṅlēge again. Even though hetried to keep cool, the young sorcerer was dazed by the splendor of her
beauty as she stood smiling in front of him. She was well aware of his
feelings and asked him playfully: “So, did you learn endeṣegiri and

354

This name is in the Mulaku Bas and its equivalent in Male’ Bas would be DōgiĀihā Kambulēge. Dōgi Āihā was a Yōginī, a semi-divine being. Yōginīs and theirrelevance in Maldivian mythology will be discussed further ahead
355‘Secret knowledge about what happens in the bed and by the well’. Literally:‘The submarine peaks (or rocks awash) of the bed and of the well.’ These words
are in the Fua Mulaku language and they refer to sex and the ablutions after sex.
336vaḍodeṣegiri?” Oḍitān proudly answered: “Yes I did! And now I want tomarry you!” The girl laughed her crystal-clear laugh and exclaimed: “Allright, I am ready for the wedding, but first you must ask for valī.”Oḍitān Kalēge was taken off guard. He had not expected this difficulty. But
when he spoke he remained self-possessed: “Who is your Valīveriyā(guardian)?”356“Hasan Mala,”357 answered a defiant Dōgi Āihā Kāṅlēge.
“Where can I find him?” asked Oḍitān Kalēge acting as if he was
unimpressed.
The girl gave him precise instructions: “Go back to the world, to thesouthern rim of Haddummati Atoll, off the Māmendū channel, along
Hitadū’s ocean side.358 There, when you shout over the waters he willappear.”Oḍitān went back to the Central Maldives, to the precise spot where DōgiĀihā Kāṅlēge had said and after he yelled an imposing figure arose fromthe sea. Hasan Mala stood in front of the young magician in all his
magnificence, carrying his books and asked him: “What do you want?”Oḍitān Kalēge kept calm as he spoke: “I want to marry Dōgi Āihā Kāṅlēge
and I have come to ask for your permission to marry her.”

356

Permission. Until menopause all single Maldivian women have a guardian who
has to approve of their marriage.
357

A Maldivian mythological figure likely derived from Mañjuśrī, a transcendent
Bodhisattva whose main attributes are to possess great beauty (hence the nameMala) and to hold the book of wisdom (prajñāpāramitā) in his left hand.
358This is not the same Hitadū mentioned in other chapters of this book. Someislands of the Maldives have the same name though located in different atolls
337

After reflecting for a moment, Hasan Mala replied: “All right. I give myagreement and I will not put any further condition unless my father
disagrees.”
The magician asked: “Where can I find your father?”
Hasan Mala duly informed him: “He is in the Kardiva Channel, off Kāṣidū
Island. Go there; shout and my father will appear.”Oḍitān Kalēge did as directed and went north. As he was off of Kāṣidū’sshores, he gave a yell and, instantly, Hasan Mala’s father, a huge,dignified old man, appeared. The towering figure in front of him asked:“What do you want from me?” And the young magician explained: “I wantto marry Dōgi Āihā Kāṅlēge and her Valīveriyā is your son. He gave me his
permission to marry her, provided you give your consent too.”
The old man looked at young Oḍitān Kalēge and replied: “I agree with myson and I will not put any further condition unless Hasan Mala’s motherdisagrees.”Oḍitān Kalēge asked: “And where is Hasan Mala’s mother?”
The old man directed him: “Go to Aḍḍu Atoll, off the Gan channel, in theocean, there when you shout my wife will appear.”Oḍitān Kalēge went to the southern end of the Island Kingdom, and overthe dark oceanic waters off Gan Island’s southeastern shore, he shouted
and an old woman of impressive size rose from the sea.359
She asked him gently: “Why did you call me?”359

As no further attributes were given, the correspondence between Hasan Mala‘sfather and mother and figures of the Vajrayāna Buddhist pantheon is not clear. Still,
the fact that these deities were dwelling at strategic geographic locations and theirgigantic size, points out to their probable role as mythical guardians over the
Maldive archipelago.
338

Young Oḍitān Kalēge told her that he wanted to marry Dōgi Āihā Kāṅlēge
and he added: “Hasan Mala is her Valīveriyā. I went to him first and heagreed. His father, in turn declared he will consent if you don’t put any
further condition.”
Hasan Mala’s mother said: “I will not put any condition. It is fine with me.”Happily, Oḍitān Kalēge went again out of this world to the spot under theDagas and met Dōgi Āihā Kāṅlēge again. She was calmly combing her
beautiful hair and smiled at him knowingly. The young sorcerer was very
excited and hurriedly told her that he had finally obtained permission to
marry her. So they were married that same day under the mythical tree.
On the morning of the next day Oḍitān’s wife gave him a good fishing rope
(rodo) with a silver hook, saying: “Here out of the world, same as in yourplace, the man has to go fishing to feed his family. I own two grindstones(dāiy),360 one is for fishing and the other one for long-distance trading
journeys. Both are black and they are under the shade of a grass (buru)
clump by the beach. Are you ready to go fishing right now?”Oḍitān Kalēge nodded his agreement and Dōgi Āihā Kāṅlēge continued:“Now pay attention to what I say: Take the smaller grindstone for fishing.
As you sail out into the ocean, you will see a school of big digimaha(wahoo, Acanthocybium Solanderi). You may fish any one of them except
the large wahoo leading them. Will you remember?” Seeing the serious
expression of his wife, Oḍitān Kalēge had to smile and told her not toworry: “I know well how to fish.” He said.
Thus, Oḍitān Kalēge went to the beach with his hook and rope, took a
blade of the buru grass, put the smaller grindstone in the water and, with360

The great magicians of the Maldives were assumed to have such skill in magic
that, instead of using conventional boats, they would be able to make a heavy
grindstone float and travel on it, using a grass blade as a sail339

his powerful magic, made it float. Then he sat on it and, using the small
blade of grass as a sail, he sailed into the ocean. Soon enough, in the dark
blue waters he met the school of big wahoo his wife had told him about.
Seeing the big beautiful wahoo leading them, Oḍitān became so filled withchildish enthusiasm that he completely forgot Dōgi Āihā Kāṅlēge’s
instructions and went straight for it. He hit the fish with his rodo and his
skill was such that the hook got snagged into the left flank of the huge
wahoo at the first strike.
Suddenly the long blue and silvery fish pulled with such strength that itsnapped the line and went away with the hook. Thus, Oḍitān Kalēge
couldn’t fish anymore. He now realized that he had been foolishdisobeying his wife’s instructions on the very first day. Crestfallen, he
returned home without fish or hook. When he arrived Dōgi Āihā Kāṅlēge
was sitting in the kitchen cooking palm syrup (rā hiyani) thrusting her feetunder the pot instead of firewood. The noise of the stones inside the pot
was such that she didn’t hear him coming.361 Upon reaching the thresholdof the kitchen door he could see that his wife’s left flank was bleeding andthat the silver hook was caught in the fleshy folds below her ribs.362
Instantly Oḍitān Kalēge thought: “Oh no! She is going to be very angry!”and began to back away from the kitchen door.
Right then Dōgi Āihā Kāṅlēge turned her face towards him. Their eyes met
and he saw such hatred and fury in hers that he winced. Since he knew hedidn’t have the strength to face her intense anger, Oḍitān Kalēge ran
away from his wife in panic. Panting, he arrived at the beach, took the361

Smooth white pebbles are put inside the palm syrup to avoid excessive foaming
while boiling. Somewhat incongruously, this female spirit is not afraid of this noise,for other female spirits are. (Cf. 2.5.2 “The Tamed Haṇḍi”)
362

These three flesh folds just below the ribs (Skt. trivalī) are one of the marks of
Dōgi Āihā’s great beauty. Cf.1.3.1.
340

bigger grindstone and a blade of grass and, putting it in the sea, sailed
away as fast as he could.
Dōgi Āihā Kāṅlēge got up from the fireplace and darted out of the kitchen
like lightning. In no time she arrived at the seashore, took the smaller
grindstone, used a blade of grass as a sail and, putting it into the water,
raced after her fleeing husband. She kept pursuing him for a long time inthe seas out of the world, until those seas ended and they came to thisworld off the southern fringe of Haddummati Atoll.
Fearing her husband would escape, Dōgi Āihā Kāṅlēge, with her strongfaṇḍita, made three large fire waves rise out of the ocean and sent themafter him. Oḍitān Kalēge, whose magic power wasn’t small either, turned
his back and cast a spell hurling three fire waves just as large against his
wife’s deadly waves. Thus, his waves and her waves hit each other andbecame fixed at a particular spot in the form of watery waves.
These three waves can be seen to this day at a point in Haddummati
Atoll’s southern outer edge called Golā Konā.363
Even after cultural isolation and the passage of time cut the Maldives offfrom the Hindu-Buddhist mainstream of the Subcontinent, the mainfeatures of the first part of this Oḍitān legend cannot hide the fact that it
finds its roots in the following ancient Indian story about Vaśiṣṭha quoted
in the Rudrayāmala and the Brahmayāmala:364“The great sage Vaśiṣṭha performed his ascetic meditations with terrible
penances (Skt. tapas) for six thousand years, trying to compel Dēvi, thegreat Goddess, to show herself to him. As he failed, he flew into a rage
and tried to curse the Goddess, but his father told him not to do it and

363

Northern Maldivian people call this place Golā Kaṅ.

364

B. Bhattacharya, “An Introduction to Buddhist Esoterism”.
341explained to Vaśiṣṭha that he had a wrong idea of Dēvi: In reality, she is
the boundless material, brilliant as ten thousand suns, out of which thecosmos is made. She was Herself the substance of the Buddha’s
enlightment, kind, loving and beautiful.
“Vaśiṣṭha tried his meditations again in a different spirit and in the end
the goddess Tārā (a form of Dēvi) appeared to him in all her dazzling
splendour. She explained to Vaśiṣṭha that he was still on the wrong track,and that he had to learn the Kaula Tantric method of religion.365 She said
that he wouldn’t reach her by mere yoga and asceticism, not even to
glimpse Her proper feet. ‘My worship’, she said, ‘is without austerity andpain!’ Finally the goddess told Vaśiṣṭha that he must go to Mahacīna(probably somewhere in the Himalayas) and learn the proper forms. Thenshe disappeared.”In the Maldive version of this story, the figure of Dēvi is initially replacedby the figure of the mother (the word “mother” being commonly used toexpress some of the qualities of the Goddess in Indic tradition), untilOḍitān’s father, in anger, forces the young sorcerer to seek refuge underthe mythical tree out of this world. Thereafter the Dēvi appears in theform of Dōgi Āihā, a beautiful and fiery Yoginī, a figure related to thegoddess as well, for the name Dōgi derives from the Sanskrit Yoginī, a kindof lesser goddess in Hindu-Buddhist tradition.
These stories are meant to underline the fact that the worship of Dēvi
involves certain specific esoteric rites. Furthermore, they point out that
there is a clear link between Tantric worship and the popular villagegoddess worship. In India these cults have been periodically dismissed as365

The hidden path. The Kaula school was a result of the fusion of Tantric
Brahmanism and Śaktism on one side and Vajrayāna Buddhism on the other.
Among the Kaula sects, the most important one was the Yoginī Kaula cult believed
to have been founded by the saint Matsiendranātha, believed to be identical with
the Buddhist Siddha Luipāda.
342

the ‘vulgar and crude religion of uncultured and half-civilized people.’
Many Indian historians, though Hindu, are keen to propagate this viewand see in Tantricism and the Dēvi cult a degenerate form of religion.366
This contempt was not so much stemming from the nature of some of theDēvi-worship ceremonies, but mostly because their practice was mainly
confined to the ‘backward’ castes and the rural dispossessed groups,
arguably the aboriginal inhabitants of the Subcontinent. Now most ofthese groups are considered (in the Indian language of officialdom) ‘low’
or ‘backward’ castes and tribes, and are largely despised andmarginalized. This approach reflects the historical and socio-cultural fact
that, in the eyes of the ruling religious elite in the Subcontinent, anythingthat the lower castes do is disgusting.
This repulsion finds expression in ancient Indian stories such as theadventure of King Lavana, where he becomes a Caṇḍāla (untouchable) inan experience induced by an ascetic. In another work, the Kādambari of
Bana a Caṇḍāla village is described thus:“A very market place of evil deeds, surrounded on all sides by boys
engaged in hunting, unleashing their hounds, teaching their falcons,
mending snares, carrying weapons, and fishing, horrible in their attire, likedemoniacs. On all sides the enclosures were made with skulls; the dust
heaps in the roads were filled with bones; the yards of the huts were mirywith blood, fat, and meat chopped up. The life there consisted of hunting,the food of flesh, the ointment of fat, the garments of coarse silk, thecouches of dried skins. Dogs are household attendants, cows are for riding,wine and women are men’s only enjoyment, blood is the oblation to theirgods, cattle their sacrifice. The place was the image of all hells.”

366

See for example A.S. Menon, ‘History of India’ and A. L. Basham, ‘The Wonder
That Was India.’
343

The Tantric cult and its rites are of great antiquity. They are rooted in theancient rural worship of female divinities and originated, as such, in theaboriginal religion of the Subcontinent. The Vedic Brahmanism of the
Aryan invaders from Central Asia frowned upon those popular cultsfinding them base, despicable and devilish. This is in tune with the factthat the aboriginal Indian (or Dravidian) population was consistently
identified with dark devils in the Brahmanical lore.
After Buddhist hegemony gave a serious blow to the dominance ofBrahmanism all over South Asia, the hieratic initial form of Buddhism,
with its insistence in revering the ‘great man’ (thus effectively leaving thefemale element out of the religious sphere), kept these popular cults atbay. However, all along the history of India, their practice instead of being
discontinued was kept secret. Hence, in the Subcontinent, towards theend of the Buddhist period, all the hidden Tantric cults found their way
into Buddhism itself. These came to the surface when the more popular
Vajrayāna vehicle appeared in the second half of the first millennium AD.
Tantras are ancient Hindu texts which deal mostly with prescriptions andrituals for the worship of the goddess. In Tantric worship great
importance is given to Mantras (magic words) and Yantras (magic
diagrams). Owing to an unhealthy fascination with the occult in recent
times, Tantric rituals have been described ad nauseam in a great numberof works.367 True to form, the Tantric tradition included many practices(Skt. sādhanā) that were closely guarded secrets. The reason being that,on one hand those rites would openly conflict with the prevalent South
Asian social norms ―now heavily influenced by a puritanical combinationof Brahmanical, Islamic and British colonial values― and were deemedvile and scandalous, and on the other hand because every sorcerer367

For a scholarly outline of the Tantric ritual system see S. Chattopadhyaya,‘Reflections on the Tantras.’344

naturally strove to preserve the secrets that gave him access to special
powers (Skt. siddhi):“Very little is known about the Tantras before they made a debut in a welldeveloped form in the beginning of the Tantric period, which began about
mid-seventh century AD. It is bound to be so, because the Tantras, as has
been pointed out, were practiced in secret and handed down in secretthrough an unbroken chain of preceptors and disciples, who never madethemselves known, and, as such, passed out of recognition.” 368
Dōgi Āihā Kāṅlēge telling an innocent Oḍitān, barely out of childhood, toobtain experience in secret sexual practices, and the Goddess Tārā askingVaśiṣṭa to desist from his ‘clean’ but ineffective penances and devotions
and to follow the esoteric Tantric path are basically the same type ofrequest, as the Kaula path is the esoteric, or left handed, path of thehighest order.
In India and Nepal, the (so called) left-handed way of tantric worship (theright handed being the “clean” way) is usually practised by only a small,select circle of followers owing to the need to protect its secret nature. It
includes five essential parts as offerings to the goddess. These are (inSanskrit): matsya (fish), māmsa (meat), mudrā (parched grain), madya(liquor) and maithuna (sexual intercourse). The initiated are expected topartake of all of these elements. This ceremony usually takes place inhidden places in the night. This ritual is, at least in theory, no orgy. The
Kumāritantra states emphatically that a worshipper who performs this368

See for example what is said about the Tantric author Padmavajra (AD 693).
“Padmavajra was a historical figure, and a very interesting work of his, entitled the
Guhyasiddhi, has lately been discovered. ... The whole work is written in what iscalled the twilight language, or the ‘Sandhyābhāṣā’; but there is enough to show to
and ordinary reader that he advocated many mystic and objectionable rites andpractices, which he termed secret rites.” B. Bhattacharyya, ‘An Introduction to
Buddhist Esoterism.’345

type of sādhanā for material gain or for satisfying sensual pleasure, goesto hell (narakā).
In Maldives these secret rituals were known as diyōge kuḷi, or ‘Game of
the Goddess,’ for the Divehi word ‘diyō’ comes from the Sanskrit word
‘Dēvi’ (Prakrit ‘Dēviyō’). Some old people still know about sites where it
was practised on their own or on other islands.369
In Maldives, the diyōge kuḷi was the target of much official persecution for
centuries, owing to its essentially immoral nature,370 and it has probably
died out. Periodically, during the past four or five hundred years, vessels
with the black flag of the Sayyidu Bēkaluṅ, whose task was to enforce
Islam in the Maldive Kingdom, would sail to the islands where the practiceof this tantric ritual became known to them and severely punished theislanders indulging in such practices.371 The Sayyidu Bēkaluṅ were highranking officials of the Maldivian Government claiming to be descendantsof the Prophet. They included mostly Maldivian religious men educated in
Arabia and sometimes visiting Arabs who were given the rank andprivilege to repress any Maldivian cultural manifestation deemed unIslamic. The severe Sayyid Bēkaluṅ were ‘holy men’, greatly feared andrespected. They not only wielded considerable political muscle but werealso reckoned to possess special spiritual powers.
Nowadays, as a result of the ancient Diyō ritual and its necessary fiveingredients, the number five is still associated with the goddess in popular

369

This same ritual was also very common among the palm-climbing castes ofKerala. See L.K. Anantha Krishna Iyer, ‘The Tribes and Castes of Cochin, vol. I’.
370

In Maldives it was easy for palm-climbers (rāveriṅ) to produce alcoholic drinks.
They used to put a grain of rice in a container with the sap and let it brew for sometime. It is believed that this part of the ritual was what incensed the stern Muslim
government officials most. Source: Magieduruge Ibrahīm Dīdi.
371

Source: Ahumadu Shafeegu, Taṇḍiraiymāge, Māle.
346

Maldive lore. Hence, the common five-armed starfish is still known asdiyōkāli, “the mark of the goddess”,372 in Aḍḍu Atoll and Fua Mulaku
Island, and as randiyēkālla,”the mark of the golden goddess”, in Huvadū
Atoll. In the island of Guḷi (South Male’ Atoll), a larger five-armed starfish
is known as kamaṇā, also the name of a queen- or goddess-like female
figure in Divehi mythology; and in Māḷos Island (Ari Atoll) its name is mēli,a kind of fairy from the local folk tales. Therefore, it is very likely that inancient Maldives the starfish was one of the emblems of a female deity.
The diyō is not a ‘spirit’ that average Maldivians can describe as readily as
they would describe the ubiquitous haṇḍi. In fact, in the island lore, apartfrom the diyōge kuḷi and the southern names of the starfish, diyō is only
mentioned in popular lullabies for children as a fairylike figure with strong
magical powers. She can convert plain coral stone into turquoise and plain
sticks into sandalwood. By and large, diyō is described as a dignified,
beautiful woman wearing a crown or diadem. Although she appears to be
exceedingly pretty, she may have a terrifying and ugly aspect too, adistinctive trait of South Indian female divinities.
In ancient times a number of Maldivian queens used the name diyō
appended to their proper name, like Kakuni Diyō or Āmina Diyō. There isnothing unusual about this practice, as traditionally queens throughout
the subcontinent have been wearing the name Dēvi in the same manner.
There is also a beautiful long poem called Diyōge Raivaru about apowerful queen called Diyō and her fleet of ships, but it was composed inrelatively recent times (the 18th century) by the Maldivian writer Baṇḍēri
Hasan Manikufānu and its heroine has very little in common with diyō,
the mythical figure of the ancient Maldive folklore.

372

In the Southernmost atolls, a kāli (the ā slightly nasal) is a general word for any
implement made by tying to a stick shorter sticks with rope. It usually has a crosslike shape, except in this case, stressing the crucial importance of the number fivein relation to the Dēvi.
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The main aim of the diyōge kuḷi and other esoteric rituals practised in theMaldives was to secure special powers for a reduced circle of participants.
As we have seen above, within the Tantric context ―the Goddess’
explanation to Vaśiṣṭa― the implication that mere conventional
knowledge is not enough is stated in very clear terms. This leads
unavoidably to the suggestion that there is an aura of naivety andincompleteness about what can be termed as ‘average learning’, like thefollowing story shows: 373
The Man Who Learned from Two Books“Having completed his education in the continent, a young man called
Rekifutu returned to his island in Aḍḍu Atoll. He was handsome, from agood family, and was now well versed in the Qurān, Arabic and certain
sciences. His parents were very proud of him, for he was their only malechild, and his four younger sisters had missed him sorely and were very
happy to see him back. The girls kept flattering their brother and fussing
about him all the time, and the truth is that he himself could not hide his
pride at his achievements.
Soon after arrival, Rekifutu went to the main mosque for the Friday
prayers. The island chief was leading the prayers and, in the customary
sermon, this cunning man asserted that all islanders had the obligation to
be very kind to their island chief and bring him money and presents
whenever they could. God didn’t want the island chief to be poor; instead
He was pleased to see islanders treat their chief well. The sermon went on
for quite a while, with the chief praising himself and bragging about his
goodness.

373

Told by A. Nasīm I. Dīdī, Nūḍalhī, Funāḍo village, Fua Mulaku.
348

Rekifutu was dismayed to hear these words. As soon as the sermon
concluded, knowing that the islanders couldn’t understand Arabic, he roseand directly addressed the boastful chief in that language; saying: “Whatkind of sermon is this? You use your craftiness and the name of God to
become richer at the expense of people who are quite poor. It is wrong todo that! Surely God is not pleased with your behavior.”
The chief was surprised, but he quickly smiled and replied in not-so-perfect
Arabic: “Look here, my son, don’t get angry. These people are like animals,
ignorant and stupid. If I can get revenue from them, I will do it. I am thechief of this island and I must be wealthy. I deserve it! It is difficult andboring to rule over them all the time,” finally, with a wink, he offered: “Wecan both benefit from this situation. If you are smart and don’t tellanybody about this, I shall give you part of my wealth.”
Rekifutu did not reply and the Friday prayer went on. At the end, when
everyone was leaving the mosque, the young man stood at the gate of thecompound, gathered the people about him and told them that their chief
was a deceitful man, who was abusing his authority over them to increase
his wealth. He declared: “God never said that chiefs should become rich at
the expense of poor people.”
Furiously, the island chief elbowed his way through the crowd, demanding
in a very loud voice: “Who is this insolent young man talking to you andinsulting me? I have known this Rekifutu since he was a baby. What does
he know about life? He went to a foreign country, and already thinks thateverything can be done here as foreigners do. Now he has come back to
our island and has become so arrogant that he wants to turn you against
me. This impertinent youngster is not interested in the welfare of ourisland! His only aim is to put me down, I who have been so good to you, sothat he may become a tyrannical ruler over you. If you listen to his
subversive words, all of you will suffer. Think of me. You know me. I am
your chief and I have always been good to you.”349

Reacting angrily, the islanders became a blind mob who beat Rekifutu
savagely. When they had had enough, they left the poor young man
unconscious and bleeding at the gates of the mosque.
As soon as they heard the terrible news, Rekifutu’s sisters ran to themosque with tears in their eyes. Since nobody was willing to help them,
the four sobbing girls had to carry their badly bruised brother home aswell as they could. His mother lovingly cared for his wounds for many
anxious weeks until he was completely healed. However, even after hewas cured, her son was apathetic. He seemed to be always lost in thought,
never smiling and joking as he had done before. Rekifutu’s parents andsisters were very worried, for he had become very silent and his eyesstared all the time vacantly. They feared the beating had affected hismind.
But Rekifutu’s mental state was fine and during the time of his recovery hehad been nurturing a hidden determination. As soon as he felt fit enough,he left Aḍḍu Atoll without saying a word to anyone and went to Male’.
There, in the capital, the young man frequented the dark alleys of the
Bazaar area and boldly became involved with the worst outlaws and thugsof the Island Kingdom. He mixed with criminal elements such as Soi KuḍaKalō, Gobu Umaru and Boḍā Bea, and with wanton women like Baburu
Mañje.374 For two years Rekifutu lived discreetly among dubious
characters, cleverly disguising his identity and not telling any of his
relatives.
When he returned to the island, everybody welcomed Rekifutu. Most ofthem had forgotten how they had treated him. His parents and sisters
374

Here the narrator threw in a few names of well-known Maldivian shadycharacters, but not all of them were contemporaneous and they seem to have been
huddled together for the sake of effect. The word ‘baburu’, is the Divehi word for‘Black African.’ In ancient Divehi ‘baburu’ was a generic word for ‘foreigner’;however, at some point in history between the 12th century and the arrival of thePortuguese, this word began to be used to refer exclusively to Africans
350were delighted to see the young man back safely. They hadn’t had any
news about him for a very long time and feared that some disgrace had
befallen him. As he hadn’t told them of his whereabouts, they all assumed
that he had spent more years abroad continuing his studies. In a breezymanner, Rekifutu tactfully avoided all the questions about his more recent
activities during the happy and carefree days that followed.
Friday came and Rekifutu, impeccably dressed in white, went to themosque. There, the chief gave his usual boastful, greedy and self-serving
speech. Rekifutu said nothing and smiled confidently. The Island chiefstudied him with slight apprehension. But after a while, as Rekifutu just
kept smiling, he was pleased. He assumed that the learned young man
was now his supporter. Once he had finished his sermon without any
unpleasant interruption, the chief thought “good! I gave him a good
lesson. He has finally learned to respect his elders.”
At the end of the Friday prayer, Rekifutu very politely requested the chieffor permission to speak. The island chief became alarmed and wondered,“What is he up to now?”
Rekifutu quickly calmed him saying he just intended to make a little
speech to tell the islanders how fortunate they were to have such a good
leader. As the chief was a very vain man, he felt flattered and gave his
permission eagerly.
Rekifutu addressed the crowd praising the chief in the most exaggerated
terms. The unsuspecting island chief, standing beside him, was immensely
satisfied. At the conclusion of his speech the young man emphaticallyassured the islanders that their leader was such a worthy and holy man,that if one of them was lucky enough to get hold of a droplet of his blood,
or a piece of his clothing, or a tuft of his hair, the gates of heaven would
be surely open for that person.

351

Suddenly, all the people turned towards the island chief and started tolook at him with relish. Calmly detaching himself from the crowd, Rekifutu
walked back home without hurry.
It is said that the chief didn’t make it to the gates of the mosque. The mob,in the ensuing frenzy, tore him to pieces. Some even used knives. Soon
nothing was left of the island chief, not even a single blood droplet on thesand.
Though it is mostly told as a light, humorous story, ‘The Man Who
Learned from Two Books’ is actually a cynical illustration of how firmly
Maldivians believe that mere religious and scholarly studies―represented by the ‘first book’― cannot make a man powerful.
Accordingly, there is a general acceptance among islanders of the factthat a person not possessing ‘special’ esoteric knowledge ―the ‘second
book’ of the story― will not be successful within the community.

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2.4.2 SECRET KNOWLEDGE
Since in the Maldives faṇḍitaverikaṅ was essentially a syncretistic
remainder of former religious beliefs, a great part of this special
knowledge was of hidden nature, suitable only for the initiated. Naturally,
when the Islamization of society gradually increased, a process that wasmore marked since the 16th century, the antagonism betweenfaṇḍitaverikaṅ and Islam became more acute, a process described further
ahead in this book.
Traditionally, the faṇḍitaveriyā or sorcerer had a respectable function in
the islands. He was a combination of doctor, shaman and learned-man.
His position commanded prestige and appreciation in society andhistorical records show that most faṇḍita men were from wealthy andnoble families.
In some islands there are people who practice a ritual called ajida. Afaṇḍita man in Dūṇḍigamu village, Fua Mulaku,375 explained that ajidāṣa
eruṅ is like performing a prayer. “One salutes the sun at sunrise and atsunset. Then one salutes the four cardinal points.” He told that he foundinner peace in the practice of this ritual. Some orthodox Muslim men ofhis village claimed that he was indulging in idolatry, but he refuted thecharges. He said that anyone making ajida will find health, success andpeace of mind. When asked about the origin of this rite, he said that itcame from the old people.
Within an increasingly hostile environment, there are two reasons whyfaṇḍitaverikaṅ is mostly made up of secret knowledge. The first is
because it has its origins in the highly secretive Tantric teachings; and thesecond is because its contradictions with the government-enforced
Muslim doctrine should not be exposed. Even though much maligned in375

I have omitted the name of this person to protect his identity.
353

recent times, sorcery is still widely practiced and, for instance, nowadays
in all islands in the Maldives practically all fishermen still seek the help offaṇḍita to improve their luck in the fishing grounds. This type of magic iscalled vahutāṅ and it is undoubtedly the most popular form of sorcery
practiced in the Maldives.
As the faṇḍitaveriyā’s knowledge is such an important secret, it naturally
follows that it has to be protected. This is seen as a duty and, at a very
early age, Divehi children are taught the importance of keeping a secret
and the harm that may result from divulging it. Stories like ‘The Skull
below the Tree’376 clearly emphasize the dire consequences of betraying asecret to the wrong person, even if it be the king himself:
The Skull below the Tree

“A very poor man called Ibrāhīmu lived long ago on an island. Since there
was very little food, he had to go search for something to eat when hebecame hungry. He went to a midili tree (Terminalia Catappa) but there
were no kanamadu (the nuts of that tree). Disappointed, with his stomach
empty, he went into the forest and wandered for a long time. While he
was in the deepest part of the forest, Ibrāhīmu noticed a glint below a big
tree. Fearfully, he crept near and saw that it was only a human skull
bleached white by the sun. When he had almost reached it, a noise
startled him.
The skull said: “Come nearer!”
Alarmed, Ibrāhīmu responded, “I’m surprised that you speak.”376

Told in 1987 by Aishath Naazneen, Gāge, Male’354

“Come, come nearer, my friend. I’ll do you no harm. I have been here avery long time, and no one has come. I’m very bored. Tell me, where areyou going?”
Ibrāhīmu answered, “I am just a poor, hungry man looking for food. Thereis not much to eat on the island.”“So you’re hungry. Don’t worry. Just go to the watermelon creeper behind
this tree over me.”Ibrāhīmu thought: “How unusual, a watermelon creeper here in thewilderness!”
But to his amazement there behind the tree he found indeed a large vinewith many big, beautiful watermelons.
The skull said, “Eat as many as you can. But, every day you must come andtalk to me.”
The melons were excellent and Ibrāhīmu ate and ate until he was full. As
he was about to leave, the skull said, “Be sure not to tell anyone about themelons you ate and about who is here under this tree. Remember that weare now friends.”“I will remember,” Ibrāhīmu said before leaving that spot.
During the next weeks Ibrāhīmu was very happy. He went every day to talkwith the skull and eat some melons. Each time the skull reminded him not
to tell anyone about what he was doing. One day Ibrāhīmu commented, “I
have been coming here so many days. You must tell me who you are andwhy you are like this.”
The skull answered, “Alas! Once I was a very wealthy and respected man.
But my mouth killed me.”“How could your mouth kill you?” Ibrāhīmu asked.
355

Impatiently the skull retorted, “That’s all I know. Don’t ask more about it.”
But Ibrāhīmu left unsatisfied.
Many days later, when Ibrāhīmu came to eat his daily share of melons, theskull told him, “Now we have come to the point that we know each other
well. You look better fed. People might ask, ‘How is that?’ and they see
you disappear in the forest every day. You must promise solemnly not totell anybody about the watermelons and about me.”
“I will not tell anybody,” Ibrāhīmu pledged.
For some time everything went well and Ibrāhīmu kept his agreement.
However, one fateful day while he was idly sitting at home, hereconsidered the skull’s story. “How amazing this is! He says his mouth
killed him. I must tell the Radun (the King). His Majesty will be pleased tohear that such bizarre things take place in his kingdom. Since the Radun isgenerous, he might even give me a big present.”
So, one day he went by dōni to Male’ and told the whole story to the
Radun. Naturally, the Radun was astonished. “Is it possible that such athing could happen in my kingdom?”
The ministers did not trust Ibrāhīmu and stared at him in contempt,
saying, “His Majesty should not pay attention to these crazy stories.”
The Radun asked Ibrāhīmu, “Do you swear to me that there is a talking
skull below a tree in your island, and that in the same spot there is a bigvine giving watermelons everyday?”Ibrāhīmu said, “Yes! I have been going there so many days, I know it welland I have eaten a great many very tasty watermelons.” Then he added,“The skull claims that his mouth killed him. Everything I have told you istrue Your Majesty.”

356

The Radun became very serious and warned him: “If you are trying to foolme, you will be punished severely.”
Ibrāhīmu smiled with assurance. “Your Majesty will not be deceived.”
The Radun sailed on the royal ship with his ministers to Ibrāhīmu’s island
to see the wonder with his own eyes. Ibrāhīmu led them into the forest toshow them the mysterious spot. However, when they arrived there,
neither the skull, nor the melon vine, were to be seen. Everybody searchedthoroughly, but there was no trace of a vine or a skull any place nearby.
Looking at Ibrāhīmu angrily, the ministers declared, “You lied!”
Ibrāhīmu froze, staring at them in terror.
The Radun demanded, “Why did you try to fool us?” He reflected amoment. Then without waiting for any answer, his face grew hard and heannounced, “Now you will know the punishment for anyone who dares totell a lie to his king.”
Ibrāhīmu started weeping bitterly, swearing it was no lie.
“O king! Have no mercy on him,” urged the ministers impatiently. “Herewe stand. We can see that this man has shamelessly lied, but still herefuses to admit what he has done. This worthless villain thinks he cancontinue fooling us.”
The king’s face was grim. Ignoring Ibrāhīmu’s frantic pleas, the Radunordered his soldiers to tie Ibrāhīmu tightly to the tree. After leaving thatplace the king went to the island village and sternly warned the people
that no one should go to help Ibrāhīmu, or they would suffer a similar
punishment.” Ibrāhīmu is condemned to death by Royal order,” heconcluded.

357

Meanwhile, left tied to the tree, Ibrāhīmu wept miserably. Suddenly heheard a laugh and at his left, under the tree, he saw the skull. Shocked,
Ibrāhīmu cried “Where have you been?”“I came to tell you my mouth killed me as your mouth killed you.”“What do you mean?” asked Ibrāhīmu.
“You are a foolish, unworthy man. Though I was your friend and treated
you well, letting you eat my watermelons, you broke your promise to me. I
should not even be here talking with you. But I will tell you my story:“In my time, long, long ago I was a mighty faṇḍita man. It so happened
that with my own mouth I made a promise to the King one day. Some timelater I lied to him, breaking my promise with my own mouth as well. The
King executed me under this same tree just like you. But, that was longago.”
Ibrāhīmu begged in anguish, “Help me, please!”“No, no,” said the skull. “I warned you. We were friends, but you broke
your promise. It is right that you die.”Scorning Ibrāhīmu’s desperate supplication, with a burst of raucous
laughter, the skull disappeared.
The detail of the skull in the story is highly relevant, for graveyards, deadbodies and skulls are of central significance in Tantrism. Skulls are often
worn as garlands by Tantric divinities and are widely used in Tantricparaphernalia along with other human bones. 377

377

There is a wide range of literature on this subject, see for example: Ajit
Mookerjee, ‘Rituelle Kunst Indiens’; P.S. Rawson, ‘The Art of Tantra’, D. Kingsley,‘The Sword and the Flute.’
358

The secret has to be kept on the basis that “The secret benefits you, thus
your duty is to keep it.” The vital importance of not revealing a secret isrepeatedly emphasized in Tantric literature: “Gopanīyam, gopanīyam,gopanīyam prayatnatah, Twayāci gopitavyam hi na deya yasya kasyacit. “(Keep your secrets to yourself only. Leave no stone unturned to retain
their secrecy. Never leak them out to a layman.”)378 As in these verses, thecentral theme of this story is the insistence and repetition of the secrecy
pledge by the skull to stress the extreme seriousness of the matter.
The story that follows, Alifuṣi Keuḷubē, illustrates how zealously a vital
secret can be kept by a sorcerer-fisherman. Keuḷubē means ‘uncle master
fisherman’ and the keuḷu (or keyoḷu) is a very important figure in Maldive
fishing lore. In some islands a certain popular festival known as Boḍu Mas(‘big fish’) is a drama in which the difficulty in catching a large fish isenacted.
In the Boḍu Mas the figure of the keuḷu, or master fisherman, is idealized
and represented larger than life, with a mask costume made of sackclothand coconut palm fronds. In this festival the other main players are someyoung men carrying the big fish, usually made to look like a marlin or
spearfish, skillfully crafted of woven palm fronds and sticks. The boat is
made of the same material and it normally is carried hanging from theshoulders by a number of men who are at the same time holding mockoars. Other actors, like the faṇḍita men, dressed in white, play a big role.
Lesser roles are played by people wearing mask costumes which makethem look like octopuses, crabs and sea monsters. All these costumes are
made of woven palm fronds too.
In this open-air dramatic representation, the keuḷu gets practically all theattention and the show revolves around him. He is not even inside theboat, but moves freely around, holding his line and expressing sentiments

378

Tantra Mahāvijñāna, S.R. Sharma359

of frustration, anxiety and hope, while the large fish (Boḍu Mas) moves
back and forth, always reluctant to get caught. The final triumph comeswhen the keuḷu catches the big fish. This show is usually staged in an open
area in the moonlight during the night. It is still performed in many islandsin the Northern and Central Maldives as part of the Boḍu Īdu
celebrations,379 but it has practically died out in the Southern Atolls.
Though set in an island in the North, the following legend is told by people
in the South of Maldives.380 Located at the northern end of Māḷosmaḍulu
Atoll, Alifuṣi is famous for its good carpenters, but nothing concerning theisland is mentioned in the story:
Alifuṣi Keuḷubē

“Long ago, in Alifuṣi Island, lived a master fisherman who became famous
all over the country. He used to fish in abundance at every time and place.
In the lean season, even if other dōnis would come close to his, they would
not fish at all, while he would fill his with large tuna right at the same
spot. When other fishermen were worried because they came home
without fish, he was the only one never failing to make a good catch.
Many people were jealous of him, but respected him for his skill or luck.
Alifuṣi Keuḷubē sailed only with his sons. He never accepted anyone else in
his crew. Every day, after putting the bait fish in the wet compartment in
his dōni, he would sail out into the ocean. Once there, he would go
forward to the prow, recite something in a low voice, bow low, jump into

379

The Maldive way of referring to ‘id-ul-Adhā, the yearly Muslim holiday following
the lunar calendar. ‘Boḍu Īdu’ means big ‘id and ‘Kuḍa Īdu’ or small ‘id is ‘id-ul-Fitr,
the holiday following Ramzān.
380

Told by Vaijehēge (Unakeḍege) Alī Dīdī.
360

the sea, swim under the keel, and emerge at the stern. Once aboard, hewould start throwing the bait fish and begin fishing. Beautiful tunas would
swarm around his boat and Keuḷubē would pull them up along with hissons until his boat was full. Then he would return to the island.
His sons had been sternly warned by him not to ask any questions. They
didn’t. Besides, they were also afraid to ask him. Even when others asked
them, they didn’t tell anybody either what their father was doing to fish so
successfully.
Because of such abundant and steady catch, Alifuṣi Keuḷubē was rich andlived comfortably in his house with his wife, sons, and daughters. They
were happy because he always brought fish home and the family wasnever in need, but the truth is that he didn’t have many friends.
Years passed and Keuḷubē became older, but he kept fishing in the samemanner. People talked about him. The wives of other fishermen would tellthem to go and ask Keuḷubē: “He is always fishing, but you never do. He
makes good faṇḍita. Ask him how he does it.” So, a group of fishermenwent to his house and asked him to reveal them his magic secret to them.
Keuḷubē angrily sent them away and they were afraid to ask again.
But the day came when Keuḷubē became very sick and couldn’t go fishing
anymore. His illness became worse and he stayed in bed. His family
thought he was close to death and his eldest son went to him whisperingin his ear:
“Father, we don’t know what you recite to catch so many fish. You never
told us and, following your wishes, we never asked you. But now you aredying and, if you don’t tell your secret to us, we will become as poor as theother fishermen. Please, tell me how you make that faṇḍita”Keuḷubē, making an effort, told his son the following story:

361

“When I was very young, I was a very greedy and arrogant person. I used
to become very angry when I could not catch fish, so I was always working
very hard, trying and trying again, spending a long time in the ocean. I
was usually alone, because nobody wanted to go with me such long hours.
One day I went to an old faṇḍita man and explained to him that I wanted
to catch fish always. This man taught me a certain magic ritual and thespot where I should go to fish. Thus, the following morning itself, notbothering that it was Friday prayer time, I went alone there on my small
dōni. And, indeed, within a little while a very big marlin bit the hook.381
It was the biggest spearfish I have ever seen and, after a long and mighty
struggle, I finally succeeded in catching it. I remember that I was very tired
and my hands were scraped raw. Then, with great difficulty, I began to tie
the enormous marlin to my boat. Meanwhile, the waters around me werered with the blood pouring from the mortally wounded and exhausted fish,
which was longer than my dōni.
All of a sudden, at one point in front of me, the sea started to boil. I waslooking intently at that spot, wondering what the cause of the strange
turbulence was. Suddenly, out of the red foam, a woman rose from thewater. She was very young and beautiful and had flowing, long black hair.
She stood hovering over the blood-red waters, but was not wet at all.382
Her attractive face was full of kindness, and yet I was frightened, sensing
danger. The girl saw my expression and told me not to fear. Cheerfully, shesaid that if I gave her the big spearfish I had just caught, she would teachme the way to always catch a lot of fish.”381

Makaira indica, hibaru in Divehi. It can be a very large fish, reaching a length ofseven meters
382

Cf. 3.2.1 ‘Lurking in the Darkness’ and 3.4.1 ‘Monsters from the Sea’ for themeaning of the red waters in relation to female deities362

“I was reluctant to let that big marlin go, but I also was very eager toknow how to fish more and, thus, I agreed. Following this the young
maiden did something that left me amazed: She took the huge dark fishout of the water with only one hand, opened her mouth wide andswallowed it headfirst in front of me. I couldn’t believe my eyes, for all thewhile her graceful body was no larger than mine; and her slender shape
did not change. Then this girl ordered me to bow down to her, and I was
so much in awe and fear that I did. After that she taught me the secretwords and the way to make always a good catch, in any season and in any
weather. Finally, she smiled again at me and disappeared into the sea
within a wake of blood-red foam.”“As you know, my son, with the knowledge that faṇḍita I soon became thebest fisherman in the Kingdom. But I bowed down to an evil spirit and I
had to recite devilish words. I wanted the things of this world. Now I cansee I was wrong. Good Muslims shouldn’t do those things. Now I am goingto die carrying a heavy burden. I have done much wrong. You are young
and innocent. I want you to be honest, hardworking, to have patience andto keep away from pride and greed. Don’t be afraid of poverty. If you havefaith, God will provide.”
The son became sad and his father noticed it: “Don’t be disappointed.
Even having committed such sin, I know what is right and what is wrong.
Be courageous, and when you are old you will remember these words andyou will know that I was right. Even if I am leaving this world like this, you
should live a good life.” Saying thus, Alifuṣi Keuḷubē died.
In other, probably older, versions of this legend, Keuḷubē, instead ofadvising his son to avoid practicing faṇḍita, goes along with him to thepoint where the spirit rose from the waters and, in a typical end of a
Maldive haṇḍi story, the spirit, now appearing in a fearful form, refuses togive the powers to Keuḷubē’s son. Still, in another version, the wrathfulspirit kills both father and son.
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A feature in the story above that deserves mention is the fact that theabundant blood oozing from the large fish attracts a spirit. To prevent
this, Maldivian fishermen, after fishing, clean the boat very well with
abundant seawater until they have effaced all traces of fish blood. Behind
this action there is the belief that when a boat is dirty with blood and fish
offal, it will catch a greedy spirit that will hinder it from fishing. This evil
spirit is called ressi and it is connected with the spirits of the deadancestors (muladovi).383 Once the ressi has caught hold of a fishing boat,
only magic will be effective to free it from such curse. One of the mantras
recited while performing the ceremony against ressi goes thus: “Ressi
Muladēvi debē nē, rīti magu atiri abbāni, Hali mi oḍiṅ faibāni.
Even ashore, Maldivians make it a point of cleaning thoroughly with water
all the implements they use for cutting fish, knifes, wooden boards,
washing well their hands and keeping the surrounding areas scrupulously
clean too. All this activity in getting rid of any traces of blood has their
origin in the popular belief mentioned above those places where blood isthrown are likely to attract the unwanted attention of demons lurking inthe shadows. This relationship between blood and spirits has alreadybeen elaborated in the chapter dealing with blood sacrifices.
In a similar manner as in Alifuṣi Keuḷubē, in the very ancient Oḍitān Kalēge
story narrated at the beginning of this chapter, spirits rising from the sea
play a central part. This feature of Maldive traditions harks back to thefact that the surrounding ocean is held in high reverence by Islanders. The
sea is the place that provides the food on which they survive, but at thesame time it remains a dangerous place, immensely vast, deep and full of
mystery.

383

And also with a voracious spirit called dābba who lives on dry land. In Southern
Maldivian folk tradition, the ressi is described having a head with a big mouth full oflarge teeth and two Marlin fish tails. Source Magieduruge Ibrahīm Dīdī (1983).
364

Probably the most intriguing feature of the story narrated above, is that in
it a local spirit is explicitly identified with the devil (Iblis or Śaitān) of theIslamic religion in a similar manner as the Christian fishermen of the South
Indian coast identify the Devil with the goddess Isakki, one of thefearsome goddesses of the Tamil village cults.384 Here we can clearly see
how the strains of syncretism are showing and the spirits of ancientbeliefs have been made into satanic figures within the new religious
order. Even though they may provide temporary material benefits to theperson invoking them, no good is acknowledged to result through contact
with such devilish creatures. Thus, in the new type of myth, the person
excelling in magical powers is no longer a hero, but a sinner repenting
from his evil deeds.
Nowadays, Divehi fishermen still resort to the customary ceremonies inorder to improve the fertility of the ocean surrounding their island. Since
they are now informed that these rituals are in contradiction withorthodox Islamic piety, they are probably performing them with a certain
amount of bad conscience. Fishermen are well aware that by trusting in
those magic rites, they can be easily accused of ‘selling their souls to thedevil’ for material benefits ―as the story above highlights― and of being‘bad Muslims,’ but they keep doing them all the same.
All Maldivian fishermen love to fish more and bigger fish. They hate to go
back home with an empty boat, thus all of them to some extent performfaṇḍita to improve fishing. For example, all Maldive dōnis and battelis(fishing boats) carry a little metal plate, inscribed with magical signs,
within the wood of their keel. This copper or brass plate is tightly
embedded between planks at the moment the boat is being built. In casethis copperplate may not be enough, Maldive fishermen periodically384

Kalpana Ram, Op. cit.; The name Isakkai is said to be derived from the Sanskrit‘Yakśi’, Krishna Rajamani, ‘Arts and Crafts of Tamil Nadu’
365perform a number of different types of sorcery or witchcraft to ensure abetter catch.
The somewhat controversial goal of the contemporary ruling elite is tomake ‘pure Islam’ flourish in the Maldive Islands. High-profile local
fisherman traditions, such as the Bahuru Kiyevuṅ sacrifice or the vahutāṅ
shrines, are perceived to be in conflict with the official doctrine and, thus,
are considered satanic. Within this uncompromising ideological pattern,
syncretism cannot be accommodated in any form and, openly, there is noroom for the old traditions anymore. Hence they have to be kept secret.

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2.5.1 INAUSPICIOUS DEATH
In stories told by Maldivians, women and sorcerers usually play theleading role. The underlying fascination with both the powers of
femininity and the powers of magic lies in the fact that both have amysterious, inexplicable source. In addition, both powers are reckoned to
be able to either bring blissful fulfillment of a man’s wishes or wreak
havoc in his life.
The following story with a tragic end is from Central Maldives.385 The
heroine is called Kamaṇā in most versions, but not all storytellers agree on
this name. A very common legend, this is one of the few Maldivian stories
mentioned by C. Maloney in ‘People of the Maldive Islands’:Kamaṇā

“Long ago, in the island of Hannyāmīdū, on the eastern fringes of Ari Atoll,a good and honest couple had only one daughter. When the girl grew up,
she became a woman of extraordinary beauty. Many men in the island
were attracted to her, but when they tried to approach her, the girlrepeatedly rejected their advances. She was not interested in interactingwith men. Instead, she was a very hard-working, cheerful, kind, truthfuland clean girl. After some time, most of the island men stopped bothering
the young woman, but a few bad characters secretly plotted against her.
One morning at dawn, Kamaṇā went to the beach to defecate as usual.
Suddenly, a group of evil men who had been hiding in the bushes jumped
on her while she was in the edge of the water washing her private parts.
They caught the young woman by her arms and legs and immobilized her.
Then they raped her many times over and beat her up viciously. The
385

Version told in 1987 by W. Rashīdu, Māfushi island, South Male’ Atoll367

unfortunate girl cried and yelled for a long time, but nobody came to help
her. Perhaps Kamaṇā was too far away from the village and no one could
hear her. But it also could be because people were afraid of the group ofmen.
The girl was now at their feet sobbing, begging them to let her go. But the
wicked men were filled with murderous rage. Ignoring Kamaṇā’s pleas tospare her life, they heaped heavy blows on the young woman until they
ended up killing her. However, even after her last breath, she looked sobeautiful that the men were still not satisfied. They couldn’t stand thesight of the girl’s calm, serene beauty and decided to disfigure her. Thus,
they mutilated Kamaṇā’s dead body, cutting one of her breasts. Finally,
the wicked men dragged the dead woman into the sea and washed theblood on their bodies. While the murderers left the scene of their crime,
the girl’s corpse was carried eastward by the currents.
It is said that the dead young woman drifted to Māfushi Island, in South
Male’ Atoll. The people who found the damaged body on the beach buried
it close to the shore in awe. They claimed that, in spite of the wounds andlacerations, the dead girl looked lovely and fresh, as if she was only
sleeping. Later they built a small building on top of the girl’s grave,planted little white flags around it and kept always a lamp burning during
the night.
In the Maldives, such constructions are called ziyāraiy. They are acommon sight in almost every island. An average ziyāraiy looks like a low,
little white house located at a lonely, windswept end, close to the sand of
the beach and often half-hidden by the green and bushy vegetation of theshore.
A ziyāraiy was a little portion of hallowed ground, swept clean every day,sanctified by the tomb in its middle. The islanders used to periodicallyplant new fluttering white flags around it and a little lamp was kept
burning inside during the night. The ziyāraiy in Māfushi is one of the few
368said to contain the remains of a woman. Usually ziyāraiys were erected on
the graves of learned or ‘holy’ men386 or on the tombs of corpses having
drifted to the shore.
In Konḍē Island in Huvadū Atoll, there is a famous ziyāraiy containing aheadless and armless human corpse which drifted there long ago.387
Further South, in Fua Mulaku there is a ziyāraiy called Riba in a lonely spot
on the SW tip of the island. The islanders say that it houses the body of aperson who had the extreme blessing of finding land and a decent burial
even after death. The ocean is a foreboding place of evils hidden in its
depths; it is deemed to be no place for a human body and death in the sea
was considered a curse.
Owing to their auspiciousness, vows used to be made to such ziyāraiys.
Masts, oars, and even heads of swordfish were planted in the groundwithin their enclosure, after the favour had been granted. Even now
islanders in Fua Mulaku put small pebbles on the low wall around the Riba
―which is now in a semi-ruinous state― when they want a wish to be
fulfilled. Thus, ziyāraiys were places where the supernatural power of thedeparted people’s souls kept helping the living. Currently most ziyāraiy
shrines have fallen into disrepair for the government has actively
discouraged the tradition of revering the tombs of saints, labeling it as an
un-Islamic practice.
The fact that a beautiful and virtuous girl from Ari Atoll, after having been
mercilessly defiled, killed and senselessly mutilated by lustful and violent
males, reached a position of power after death is representative of theDravidian Dēvi tradition. The lovely young woman who repelled the386

Danna bēkaluṅ. The classical meaning of the word ‘learning’ in Maldives,
includes not only religious, but faṇḍitaverikaṅ, esoteric knowledge, as well.
387

Source: Ahumadu Saīdu, a government officer in Gaddū island office, Huvadū
Atoll (1983).
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advances of the men desiring her and was brutally murdered is a classic
example of the legends woven around Dravidian village goddesses.388
Village goddesses in the Subcontinent earned their divinity by having
unjustly suffered extreme outrage at the hands of men. Girls who were
killed or driven to commit suicide to escape unwanted attention became
objects of worship. After their death, the places where those women
were buried or cremated became holy for the local people. Altars foranimal sacrifices or memorial stones were erected in their memory, in aparallel, but not identical, manner as the worship of Sati memorials inNorth India.389
Even in contemporary Maldive literature there are stories where avirtuous woman, without any provocation, finds herself in the role of thevictim. The following one is an abridged translation of a story published in1977 in a small magazine in Male’:390
Little Raindrops“In a large island in Northern Maldives, lived a fisherman called Hasanu.
Every morning when he woke up before dawn, his wife Fātumā Fuḷu, got
up and prepared food for him. There was no woman in the whole island
like her. She was hard-working, tidy, patient and gentle. Besides, even

388

Broadly speaking, ‘Dravidian’ refers to what could be called the native culture of
the Subcontinent, while ‘Brahmanical’ to the Sanskritic Vedic-Aryan doctrines andpeople groups that are generally assumed to have originated in Central Asia.
Although the ‘Dravidian’ element is reckoned to pervade mostly South Indianculture nowadays, the fact is that both elements coexist in different degrees all over
the Subcontinent. See T. B. Coburn’s Prolegomenon in ‘Devi Māhātmya.’
389

See ‘Virgin Goddess of the Mango’ a review by Prema Nandakumar of the Tamilbook ‘Masaniyamman’ by Tulasi Iramasami in ‘The Hindu’ March 16th 1999 issue390

Written by Ahmed Wahīd Alī. Published in Divehi (Latin script) in the booklet‘Vara’ by Kopī Mohamed Rashīd under the title ‘Hima Fodhu Vaarey’.
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though perhaps not the prettiest in the island, Fātumā Fuḷu was a goodlooking woman, very intelligent and full of wit.
Fātumā Fuḷu’s immediate relatives were all dead. She had married Hasanu
right after her libās levvuṅ puberty ritual. While still an eleven-year-old
girl, she had been suddenly thrust into the life of a married woman. It had
been hard in the beginning to give up the games and the carefree ways ofchildhood. But now, looking back, she was happy with her husband
Hasanu. He worked hard and didn’t waste money in useless things. Even
though both of them were from quite poor families, as years went by, theirhousehold prospered.
There was only one cloud in the horizon of their otherwise pleasant
existence: Hasanu and Fātumā Fuḷu hadn’t had any children in their fifteen
years of marriage. However, this didn’t seem to bother the couple very
much, since they were very fond of each other. They never quarreled andeveryone in the island considered that wife and husband were leading
exemplary lives.
One afternoon, Hasanu told Fātumā Fuḷu that he was going to get somechilies and left. On his way, he saw in the distance some young girls who
were walking to the well carrying their pots. He was fascinated by theirgraceful way of walking and felt a twang of pain: “Girls seem to beprettier in these times. It’s my bad luck that I married so long ago.”
As he walked closer to the girls, he happened to look at one of them andwas stunned: “How beautiful she is!” he thought. Hasanu couldn’t take his
eyes off the young woman and stopped walking to have a better look at
her. As he stood there, close to the well, Hasanu kept fixing his eyes on theunsuspecting girl and indulging in dreamlike thoughts of possessing her.
Meanwhile, the girls, having filled their pots, put them on their heads andbegan to walk by him. At that moment Hasanu was in such a self-inflictedstate of feverish eagerness that he decided to take some immediate371

action. Thus, he rashly grabbed the girl’s hand asking: “Mañje,391 what isyour name?”
The girl angrily shook her hand off his grip and, trying to keep the heavy
pot on her head balanced, scorned Hasanu: “Are you asking my name to
ask for me in marriage?”
When he said “yes!” the girl was furious. With a quick movement, shethrew the pot full of water on his head and ran away. The other girls, who
had been watching the whole scene, were now laughing aloud. Hasanu
was embarrassed and, their ill-temper now aroused, they began to tease
the wet man. One taunted him: “Go to her home if you want to marryher!” and another fumed, “Do you think you can get a girl like us just by
grabbing her hand?”Hasanu bravely withstood their mockery and anger. Finally, the man wasable to calm the irritated girls down and, before they turned to go, he evenmanaged to get from them the name of the girl he liked and the place
were she lived. Then he went to the field in a hurry, picked a few chilies
and went home. As soon as he arrived he took a bath and told his wife
that he had to meet Keuḷu Bē (master fisherman) and left in a hurry.
Instead of going to Keuḷu Bē’s house, Hasanu went to Kaḷu Ibrahīmbē’shome. When the latter saw him coming to his verandah, he exclaimed
jokingly in surprise: “Hasanu! Have you lost your way?”
Trying to act naturally, Hasanu said: “I just was walking by and, being
thirsty, I came in.”Kaḷu Ibrahīmbē called: “Aisā Manikē! Bring a good glass of water for our
visitor.”391

A northern term of endearment for girls.
372

When the girl appeared, Hasanu’s heart gave a leap. As he took the glassof water he softly pressed her hand. He then had a long look at the girl,who stood frowning in front of him, and drank all the water in one
draught. After taking the glass, this time being careful to avoid Hasanu’s
groping fingers, Aisā Manikē left.
The man was for a moment lost in deep thought. Kaḷu Ibrahīmbē noticed it
and tried to cheer him up. Hasanu asked him: “Is your daughter married?”
And when he heard that she wasn’t, he decided: “I want to marry her.
What do you think?”Kaḷu Ibrahīmbē calmly replied: “It’s all right. I had been thinking lately that
it is time to give her away in marriage.”
Thus it was agreed and, after talking for a while in the verandah with thefather, Hasanu eagerly went inside the house and sat beside Aisā Manikē.
However, she stubbornly looked the other way refusing to talk to him andthe man left in frustration.
Kaḷu Ibrahīmbē, seeing him coming out so soon asked: “What did shesay?” Hasanu was disappointed: “She didn’t say a word.”“She is too young and inexperienced,” the girl’s father said “Don’t worry! I
will talk to her mother. Come back tomorrow in the evening.”
Hasanu walked very slowly back home taking a long roundabout. As he
realized the predicament he was in, he needed to think. The decision hehad just taken at Aisā Manike’s house appeared now reckless and foolish.
The future ahead of him looked difficult and scary. People in the island
considered him a model husband and Fātumā Fuḷu a model wife. The truthis that he had no excuse to divorce her.

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It was a sure thing that he would get a bad name for having left such agood woman just for the sake of marrying a young girl.392 His reputation
as a trustworthy and honest person would suffer. Along the years, Hasanu
had built very good friendships with wealthy and influential people of his
island who assisted him in times of need. He could lose those importantconnections and that could mean struggling with poverty again.
But then again he thought of Aisā Manikē and his lust for her took theupper hand. “She is so young and attractive! There is no way I am going tostep back from marrying her.” Hasanu was torn inside. He thought that hewould never find peace unless he arranged the matter in a decisive
manner. He needed a drastic solution that would put an end to his
uncertainty. And, at that moment, Hasanu took a certain dark resolution
which no one but he could know.
The following evening Hasanu went to meet Aisā Manike again. Theirmarriage had already been arranged with the additional consent of her
mother and now they were happily chatting outside in the twilight. Soon
thereafter, every evening Hasanu and his young bride-to-be met in somedark corner and engaged in a full-fledged sexual relationship. It took thenbut little time for the whole island to be aware of this development andthe news reached Fātumā Fuḷu’s ears too. After all her years of knowing
Hasanu, she didn’t expect this and was deeply hurt. Hiding her shock andpain, she never confronted her husband with what people secretly had
told her and in a determined bid to trust him Fātumā Fuḷu dismissed therumors as mere backbiting. Thus, Hasanu foolishly thought that his wife
didn’t know and became even more careless.

392

Here the attitude of island society reflects their ancestral values, which insisted
on monogamy and saw no excuse for getting rid of a virtuous wife, even if nooffspring was forthcoming. On the other hand, according to Islamic Sharia’ law
there is no problem for a man to divorce his wife if she can have no children.
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One evening before sunset, after taking a bath as usual, gentle Fātumā
Fuḷu was carefully combing her hair in a sheltered spot under a tree close
to her home. She had a good look at herself in the mirror and thought: “Ihaven’t become any uglier and my face still looks good; I cannot see any
wrinkle.” Then she smiled at herself, displaying her white teeth, “I haven’t
lost a single tooth, and my hair has not even one white strand. I wonder
why Hasanu wouldn’t want me anymore.” Suddenly, she heard two
women she knew well, Doṅ Kamaṇā and Doṅ Kambulō, talking about her
in a loud voice. The thick palm-tree trunks hid her from their sight and they
didn’t realize that she was listening.
What Fātumā Fuḷu heard was much worse than the bits of bad news
people had whispered to her. These two women were feeling sorry for her
and told nasty details, while describing her husband’s sexual frolicking
about the island with the young girl. They claimed that they would neverremain passive like Fātumā Fuḷu in such a case and that they wouldn’t
hesitate to attack and beat up their husbands if they happened to hearthat they were involved in some dirty affair like that. Even so, whatpierced her heart in a more dreadful manner than any physical harm wasto hear that her own husband, Hasanu, was going around the island
telling everyone that she, Fātumā Fuḷu, was not a good wife anymore, that
she had become dirty, careless and lazy. After the gossipers left, the sun
had set and the woman, wounded with a pain that was impossible to bear,
was crouching on the ground, crying silently and not daring to get up.
That evening, Hasanu came late as usual. Upset at having to keep on
leading his stressful double-life, he didn’t try anymore to be pleasant toFātumā Fuḷu and grumbled aloud. He found everything wrong with thefood his wife had carefully prepared and neatly displayed in front of him
as usual. At that point, her patience wore out and the injured woman
exploded: “Of course you don’t find my food tasty anymore!” Then Fātumā
Fuḷu revealed to her husband point by point that she knew everything thatwas going on.
375

Hasanu had never seen his wife like this and didn’t react as the deeplyhurt woman in front of him poured out on him all her sorrow,
hopelessness and despair. She was overcome by the loneliness andexasperation she had endured lately and her words became incoherent.
Shaking with pain and repressed rage, Fātumā Fuḷu turned her back on his
blank face and shedding tears went into the kitchen.
Then Hasanu became furious. His first impulse was to scream back at his
wife and put her in her place. However, he tried to control himself
thinking: “If I start a fight, she will definitely be stronger;393 besides, thesympathies of the people in the neighborhood will mostly be with her.” But
all of a sudden, when the secret decision he had taken came to his mind,
he calmed down and didn’t say a word.
The following day in the afternoon, Hasanu prepared his adze, machete
and axe, took a sack and put them inside. Then, while he was having
lunch, he told his wife that he wanted to plant some things in the fields
and, as there was a lot of work, she had to come along with him.
Fātumā Fuḷu didn’t feel like walking the long distance to the fields to toil
there in the hot afternoon sun. Lost in reverie, the woman thought about
how much things had changed between her and her husband in such ashort time: “Now he never smiles at me and he never says a kind word tome anymore.394 I am still young and my husband already wants to throwme away.” She sighed deeply, “Just a few weeks ago I would have so muchenjoyed to go with him to the fields, even at this hot time, but now I guess
I have to go because we are still married after all.” And yet, something

393

In Maldives women are assumed to be more skilled in being fiercer, using morevenomous language and to endure for a longer time in verbal fights. Cf. 1.5.2‘Display of Anger.’394

One should talk to the person one respects with a smile in Maldivian courtesy.
376

inside her was telling her not to go. She recalled that her right eyelid had
been trembling often lately.395
After Hasanu finished his meal he got up, took the sack with his tools on
his shoulder and handed over some banana shoots to Fātumā Fuḷu. The
woman tied them up together with some fiber, put them on her head andfollowed him. The couple walked and walked and, passing by the fields,
entered the forest. Fātumā Fuḷu was puzzled, “Why do you want to plantbananas so far away?” she asked. Her husband ignored her and silently
walked on, deep into the jungle. She was tired and, although her heart
was telling her to go back, she just walked mechanically forward until they
were far away from the village.
Finally Hasanu stopped. The place around them was full of large, shadytrees. It was a spot where islanders were not even going to cut firewood
and where malevolent spirits were likely to dwell. Fātumā Fuḷu wasfrightened and began to shiver. In front of them was a small rectangularspot that had been recently cleared. It looked ominous and the woman felt
as if even the trees where beckoning her to go away from there.
Hasanu began to dig in the small clearing. He worked for a long time,
digging a large and deep pit. The sun was setting and Fātumā Fuḷu,standing close-by looking at him, wondered: “It’s getting late. Why are
you making the hole so deep? The roots are going to rot.” Her husband
merely laughed in contempt and kept digging. Finally, he got out of thelong trench he had dug and stood close to his wife looking down at it.
Unexpectedly, the woman was pushed violently into the pit and landedwith a thud. Fātumā Fuḷu uttered a cry, but when she looked up inastonishment and pain, she saw her husband’s face and was shocked tosee his vicious expression. Instead of complaining she fell instantly silent.
395This can be either an auspicious or an inauspicious omen, according to what thefaṇḍitaveriyā deems is the case.
377

Hasanu grunted: “Now you don’t need to ask what I am going to plant
here.”
Fātumā Fuḷu now realized she was lying inside the pit that was going to be
her own grave and felt a chill of terror. The helpless woman begged
Hasanu to spare her life. Weeping, she got up and rested her head on her
husband’s feet, wetting them with abundant tears. As they had lived somany happy years together, she hoped that some love for her would
remain in his heart. Hasanu, however, was utterly indifferent to her pleasand his face showed no humanity at all. He was only becoming impatient.
Slowly, it dawned on the woman that her last hour had come and she
looked up to the sad red sky in despair.
Right at that moment, from an isolated little cloud, it began to rain very
softly. Fātumā Fuḷu suddenly felt the coolness of the raindrops on her
warm face, swollen from so much crying. With the palms of her hands
upwards to catch the raindrops, the woman wailed in a clear, harrowing
voice: “Oh little drops of rain! Nobody is going to see how I am killed! Little
drops of rain! As you touch my body while I am being killed, please be thewitnesses of my death! Be my witnesses! O crimson clouds of sunset! Be
my witnesses! All the trees here around me! Be my witnesses!”
Hasanu cruelly mocked her and, as she bent again towards him begging
for mercy, he lifted his adze and hit his wife on the back of the head. The
blow was so strong that Fātumā Fuḷu, after giving a short death-cry no
one would hear, instantly fell flat into the pit her husband had preparedfor her burial.
The woman’s body lay motionless and her sweet face, now shining with abeautiful expression of peace, looked upwards. Fresh blood oozing fromher mortal wound was bubbling on the earth at the bottom of the grave.
Hasanu was now in a hurry. He first threw a large, heavy stone on his
wife’s chest and quickly dumped earth over her body. Carefully, heflattened the place and covered it with dry leaves and twigs, making it
378

look like a natural clearing. Then, as the light was quickly diminishing, heheaded towards the village at a fast pace. The red clouds of twilight weremute witnesses to the man’s hasty flight from the scene of his crime. Aftercrossing the dark forest, Hasanu took a perpendicular path that led him to
the seashore. There he took a bath, washed well his adze to efface all
traces of blood and went home walking along the beach in the dusk.
Later in the evening Hasanu went to the Katību’s house and acted as if he
was very upset. The island chief asked: “What happened? Why do youcome at such a late hour?” The man told him that his wife went at sunset
to the beach and still had not come back. Without wasting time the Katību
organized a search by blowing his conch shell and calling all the islanders
to cooperate. All able people were woken up and search parties combed
all the homesteads, the forest and the beach of the island.
Hasanu acted as if he was desolate during those difficult days, not eating,not shaving, not changing clothes and barely sleeping. He was secretly
worried that someone could find his wife’s secret grave and the anxious
expression came easily to him. While the whole island was taking part in
the search for the lost woman, he cunningly avoided Aisā Manike, crying
on everyone’s shoulder and proclaiming how much he missed Fātumā
Fuḷu. Finally, after three days of unfruitful effort, the Katību came to
Hasanu’s home, announcing with a sad face that he had given orders togive up the hopeless search. Hasanu was so relieved that he broke down
and cried. The island chief, misunderstanding the true meaning of thetears, felt genuinely sorry for the man.
Hasanu prudently waited for a few weeks. As time passed, the islanders
became busy with the preparations of a Maulūdu celebration. Then
Hasanu carefully resumed his relationship with Aisā Manike and set an
early date for the marriage. His island had erected a beautifully decorated
pavilion to conduct the Maulūdu festival. Many high people from otherislands, including the Atoll Chief and his entourage, had arrived for theoccasion. Hasanu had put his best clothes on and had perfumed himself.
379

He was not able to hide his happiness and relief anymore. The future
ahead looked bright and easy for him. He would now have a pretty young
wife and his reputation as a worthy man would continue.
It was close to dusk and the large Maulūdu pavilion was lit by the light ofmany lamps. As the preparations were still going on, many people waited
standing outside, watching how the women were bringing in the food andcarefully arraying it. Hasanu, owing to his friendship with his island’s
important people, was standing within the crowd right beside the Katību.
Suddenly it began to rain very softly, but the excitement was such that noone paid much attention. Looking up at the red clouds and feeling the little
raindrops falling on his face, Hasanu spoke aloud: “These are the samekind of raindrops that fell when I killed my wife!”
Suddenly, the Katību looked towards him in alarm and bafflement, but
Hasanu kept gazing at the sky lit by red clouds far overhead, calmly
repeating: “The same little raindrops . . . the very raindrops that fell when I
killed my wife.”
Fuming, the island chief hit Hasanu in the back and yelled at him:“Hasanu! You first said that your wife was lost and now it turns out thatyou killed her!” cursing in anger, he continued, “The Atoll Chief is close by.
Consider yourself arrested until I get to the bottom of this matter.”
Suddenly Hasanu realized what he had said and opened his mouth insurprise. But it was too late and there was no way he could mend things
now. Feeling dizzy, his legs failed him and he sat down on the groundholding his head with his hands. Immediately, Hasanu was firmly held by
three men who tied his hands and feet. Shocked by the sudden disclosure,the men and women of his island surrounded him in amazement anddisbelief as the news of his crime spread.

380

Hasanu was brought in shame to the Katību’s house, where in a little timea great crowd assembled.396 There he was closely questioned in front of
the important people of his island and the Atoll Chief. He had no will left tohide anything anymore and ended up confessing every detail of his
hideous crime.
The following day the prisoner was put aboard a dōni to be brought to thecapital. There he would be given lashes until the skin of his back would
burst and lonumirus (a mixture of red hot chillies and salt) would bespread on his wounds. After that the faṇḍiyāru (chief judge) may evenorder that he be put to death. Hasanu thought: “My plan of getting rid of
Fātumā Fuḷu and marrying Aisā Manike failed. Like my wife said, the little
raindrops bore witness to her death.”
From the deck of the ship, Hasanu, in pain from having his feet and hands
tightly bound with coconut rope, looked towards his island. It was
becoming smaller and smaller. Now his whole life on that island, from hischildhood onwards, came to his memory. Overwhelmed by all thethoughts that came to him, he tried to empty his mind, but he couldn’t. In
spite of himself, he ended up recalling some fond memories of Fātumā
Fuḷu and when his island disappeared in the horizon he was weeping.
The leading point of this story is that the treacherous and unjust mannerin which kind Fatmā Fuḷu is killed by Hasanu, the husband she trusted andloved, gives her access to supernatural powers even after her death. Thus,
the wronged woman is able to cause even such unlikely things as
raindrops to become her witnesses. Incidentally, this crucial event takes
place at twilight, which is the best time to propitiate spirits. Although it is
not sure whether Ahmed Wahīd based this story on an older tale, the factthat this kind of plot is ever popular in the Maldives and the fact that it

396

Violent crime was rare in the Maldives back then and such an event would
naturally have attracted a big crowd
381

falls within the Dravidian village goddess narrative theme are, in all
likelihood, not mere coincidence.
Childlessness is one of the common marks of these martyr goddesses. And
in the story above, one can see how in Maldive society it was notcustomary to divorce a woman merely on the excuse that she would not
bear children. There were few things that Maldivians enjoyed more thanthe constant company of children of all ages in every activity. And yet,even though children were considered to be a blessing, a childless couple
was not considered inauspicious, as long as they led exemplarily lives, like
Fātumā Fuḷu and Hasanu in the beginning of the story.
In Maldivian culture it was important for every boy and girl to marry assoon as possible and to raise a family. Children were expected to lookafter their elders and provide security for them in old age. Unlike in mostcommunities of the Subcontinent, where parents would prefer to havesons who would be able to perform the proper funeral rituals, in theMaldive islands, there was no particular preference for boys. While in theneighboring cultures only a male could light the funeral pyre, Maldivians
have always buried their dead and sons had no privileged role in death
ceremonies. Hence, a couple having only daughters would not consider
itself cursed.
Considering the general fondness Islanders have for children, neighbors
and relatives would feel privately sorry for a childless couple. But eventhen, traditionally everyone thought it a cruel act if a man would divorce
his barren wife after years of marriage. In fact it was deemed moreuncharitable to divorce a childless wife than a woman who had alreadychildren because that would compound her loneliness. Still, if thehusband decided to do so, the new wife would be under the threat of theformer wife’s sorrow, bitterness, and eventual malevolence. As traditional
Maldivians reckoned that females had some kind of obscure powers, few
people would feel comfortable putting themselves in a position that was
so vulnerable to attacks.
382

Divehi women may resort to sorcery to bring their husband back: There isa folk story called ‘Doṅ Beyya’ a castaway and sole survivor of an ill-fatedtrading journey, who had settled somewhere in what is now Indonesia
after a terrible ordeal, despairing to ever return to Maldives. Meanwhile
the wife in the hero’s island, sure that he is alive, spends years making
magic to bring her husband back home. Thousands of miles away, DoṅBeyya’s new wife is prey of horrible nightmares induced by his former
wife’s sorcery. This has the effect of ruining the man’s marriage, leading
him to take the decision to leave his foreign wife and look for a way ofreturning home. Owing to its importance in preserving the marriage andits role in social control, this theme will be discussed with more detail in
the next chapter.
While in ‘Little Raindrops’ it is the attraction towards a younger girl thattriggers murderous thoughts in the hero, in Kamaṇa’s story the beauty of
the heroine herself makes her the center of sexual attraction. Even if she
is not interested in having relationships with men, it is her intense beauty
that brings about the girl’s violent end and gruesome mutilation.
Since she is powerless to avoid her cruel fate, Kamaṇa’s myth fits the firstof the two patterns Brubaker identified in the Dravidian village goddess
stories: The woman is innocent and her suffering is an outrage; herattractiveness is her undoing but it is not her doing; the male is drawn to
her and uses her cruelly, but she does nothing to provoke his action. In
the second pattern, which can be discerned in other Divehi stories (‘Haṇḍi
Doṅ Kamaṇā,’ ‘The House of Sorrow’ among others), the emphasis isreversed: The goddess uses her attractiveness to lure the male and thiseventually leads to his destruction.397
Female beauty is a double-edged sword. Beauty as a curse for a young
woman is a recurring theme in ancient Tamil literature. Often the heroine

397

R.L. Brubaker, Op. cit. above383

wishes her beauty away in order to achieve other goals in life, like in thestory of Avvaiyār (an incarnation of Goddess Sarasvatī) or the case of
Kāraikkal Ammaiyyār (the faithful and devoted worshipper). In bothinstances beautiful women prefer to become old hags to avoid being
bothered by men or by marriage.398
In the Maldives, as in Indic tradition, beauty is a mark of great
auspiciousness; therefore the attractiveness in a woman is to be displayedso that its brilliance may shine on all. This resilient island custom hasconstantly clashed with the Islamic mania of covering and cloistering
females. The traditional jewellery Divehi women used to wear, thecomplex hairstyles and even the later karufehī libās dress with its golden
embroidered neck were meant to enhance feminine charm. As beauty isheld to be a virtue, the young wife is considered to be a treasure. She is afamily’s greatest ornament, enhancing the dignity and worth not only ofher husband, but of her whole household.
Contrary to Semitic custom, Maldive society has always let female beauty
unfurl and good-looking women have traditionally been valued as asource of pride for any island, reflecting the ancient values of theneighboring Subcontinent where the Kathāsaritsāgara, referring to thebeautiful wife of a King, says: “She was a fitting ornament to the king, likelanguage is to a poet who enjoys its many possibilities. She shone with
virtue and auspiciousness and (her beauty) was to the king as moonlight isto the moon which contains the nectar of immortality.” Comparisons offemale beauty with the moon are very common in Maldives too.
On the one hand the calm display of beauty and virtue, on the other theviolent sexual defilement and senseless mutilation, followed by death. InKamaṇā’s legend there is an element of loss in the destruction of the398

Thangam Krishnan, from the story ‘The Goddess who wanted to be a Mortal’ in‘A Mythological Mosaic’ and S. Rajam, ‘The Lady of Karaikkal’ in ‘Periapuranam in
Pictures’.
384

potential fertility and of the good that would have resulted from theunfolding of the girl’s qualities, if she would have lived, that is followed byintense spiritual pathos. This leads irreversibly to the community’smourning ennobling the cause of the young woman. The two Goddesses
Sammakka and Sarakka, popular in certain tribal Telengana districts,
unlike Brahmanic Gods, are martyrs, instead of victors. In spite of having
been killed in an unequal battle, suffering utter defeat like Kamaṇā, they
were transformed into divine spirits and are now worshipped asprotective divinities.399
Notwithstanding the fact that Kamaṇā is pure, beautiful and full ofpromise, the flower was nipped in the bud before it could fully open andripen. Hence, while the girl represents health and growth, her attackers
personify brutal and random powers which bring about suffering anddesolation. Both the divine forces of virtue and the demonic forces ofdestruction are reckoned to be at work within the community. The
reliable and positive strength is represented by a beautiful and virtuous
female and the unpredictable and violent forces by lustful men. Here thelatter gain the upper hand, so that the sad results may be shown. The
mythic theme of these Dravidian stories underlines the fact that thegoddess’s abuse by males is in relationship with the invasion of the village
or island by hostile demons from outside during an epidemic.400
Epidemics may represent either that the Goddess’s protective defences
have broken down and victorious demons are able to attack the island, or
the wrath of the awakened Goddess, who is demanding worship bypunishing her own people for having neglected her. In the first case theGoddess is, albeit temporally, defeated by demons: "She receives the main
brunt of the onslaught, but she is unable or unwilling, to contain it all and399

K. Ilaiah, from the chapter ‘Hindu Gods and Us’, Op. cit. above

400

D. Kingsley, Op. cit. above385

spreads it to the villagers”401 and in the second she displays a further
weakness and chastises her own children for not fulfilling her need forattention.
Thus is the ambivalence of the Village Goddess who, though herself the
epitome of virtue and might, knows deeply the suffering and defeat in theheart of every devotee.402 Her empathy attracts worshippers, because
there is nothing as human as suffering and defeat, which everyone has toface, sooner or later, in life. Furthermore, out of the necessity to keep atbay hostile demons, emerges the terrible, armed and bloodthirsty aspectof this same Goddess. The idea of revenge, which is also very human, is
usually the other side of the coin in most Dravidian stories about mythicalmartyred women. Kamaṇā’s legend is like the beginning of the story of
Nīli, a folk-goddess of Kanyakumari district, Tamil Nāḍu, but the end
where in the Indian Dēvi folk stories the bloodthirsty goddess arises, isoddly absent and we are left to wonder what became of the brutal men
who martyred innocent Kamaṇā. Nīli’s story goes thus:“Once there were two sisters of contrasting characters. The elder sister(Palavūr Nīli) was somewhat naive. She assumed that everyone had goodintentions. Kaliyankāḍ Nīli, the younger sister, was a practical person.
Although a good girl too, she didn’t see the point in trying to please
everyone. One fateful day some evil men, taking advantage of the elder
sister’s soft character, brought her to a lonely place and brutally raped
her. The younger sister became furious. She wanted so vehemently topunish the offenders, that following her rightful and strong desire she
received divine powers. Thus she became a fiery goddess who immediately
set out to destroy the men who had defiled her sister. Nīli killed them in agruesome way, torturing them and ending up cutting their throats and

401

Ibid.

402

Kalpana Ram, Op. cit. above386

spilling their blood all over. She then went on destroying all the men who
showed signs of wickedness. Even though bloodthirsty, Nīli is disarmed bypeople who have a good heart and do good deeds out of sincere
motives.403
The meek and gentle women in the Divehi stories narrated in this chapter
are in sharp contrast with the terrifying female spirits prevalent in
Maldive oral narrative. Interestingly, the fearful face of the goddess
seems to be justified by the fact that men always tend to take advantageof the position of authority they are commonly assigned in society. Folk
tales like Kamaṇā show how male privileges are often used to hurtrighteous women and there are other stories where a symmetrical cruelwoman ―which reflects the violence inflicted by males upon women―sets things right.
As if to confirm this, present-day social changes brought about not only by
the enforcement of ideological Islam, but even by modernization haveaffected the traditional status of Divehi women in a negative way. With
the advent of the tourist industry and merchant-navy labor, the lion’sshare of economic opportunities has fallen into the hands of men,
upsetting the traditional male-female economical balance. Thus, Divehi
women have lost power in their society. The bloodthirsty Dēvi portrays
the innermost wishes for justice experienced by disempowered women
enduring a situation that is not right. Thus, it reverses in the spiritual
realm the injustices of the physical world.

403

Source: Chellam, Nīli temple priestess, Kalyankāḍ, Tamil Nāḍu.
387

2.5.2 THE IDEALIZATION OF THE FEMININE
Even when, generally, a series of disquieting, inauspicious qualities havebeen ascribed to women and female deities in the Indic tradition―pollution through menses, jealousy, destructive anger, tempting men tosin― one cannot ignore the fact that, at the same time, they possess theacme of auspicious qualities: fertility.404 From it springs the basic law thatwithout women there are no children. Indeed, the Mother, as creator andpreserver has a more plausible religious role, within the popular Dravidian
village cults, than Brahmānic male divinities like creator Brahmā orpreserver Viṣṇu.405 After all, babies grow within the mother’s womb and it
is woman who gives birth to them (creation), and it is woman who feeds
them the milk of her own breasts and who nurtures and cares for them
until they are big enough (preservation).
The Tamil work Śilappadikāram portrays the goddess as the supremedeity, adored by all the gods, including the trinity of Brahma, Viśnu andShiva. The idealization of woman as mother in the Southern Indian Village
Goddess tradition has its origin in the fact that in the village cults of thesubcontinent female deities are preponderant and wield a great deal of
authority. Despite the fact that village goddesses are generally called‘Amma’ (mother), some authors, such as W.T. Elmore, argue that many of
their functions are anything but mother-like:“The general idea, however, which the Dravidians have of their gods is not
at all maternal, and I believe that mother-worship did not originate withthem either as to the name or the conception.”

404

Ellis O. Shaw, ‘Rural Hinduism’.

405

Concerning the identification of the Dēvi with Viṣṇu, see the comments on the
Tamil work Takkayāgapparaṇi by Ottakkūtar (12th cent. AD) in R. Nagaswami,‘Tantric Cult of South India.’388

On the other hand, the Brahmānic goddesses are secondary divinities who
keep mostly in the background, as the subservient and self-effacing wivesof the powerful Hindu male gods.406 Village goddesses are often defined
as forms of Shiva’s wife Parvati, in an effort to assimilate all cults of the
Subcontinent into the Hindu pantheon. This tendency was more marked
from the 12th century onwards, when Śaiva shrines where incorporated
into most Devi temples.
In the Maldive island environment, there is a parallel between theambivalence of the Goddess as both bountiful mother and wrathful,fearsome hag, and the ambivalence of the sea as both a source of food tosustain island people and as a dangerous place taking the lives offishermen and traders. Furthermore, both the mother ―as the role of thefeminine in society― and the surrounding sea are regarded as
unavoidable and ever-present aspects of island life.
Kamaṇā in the story of the preceding chapter was not an average woman.
Already during her lifetime, her insistence on keeping away from males
and her numerous virtues can be categorized as supernatural within theMaldive island social background. Similarly, when a haṇḍi, a spirit, goes tolive among humans, it displays virtues that are definitely part of asuperhuman ideal. Since it is well known that such spirits have a negative,
fierce side to them too, stories like the one that follows tend to underline
and idealize Janus-like characteristics that are assumed to be essentiallyfeminine.407
In contrast with most haṇḍi myths, the following one is a gentle, pleasantstory which even includes humorous scenes:

406

Source: Srikala Nair, Sree Sankaracharya University of Sanskrit407

Told in 1991 by Muhammad Manikufānu, Diggāmāge, Dūṇḍigamu Village, Fua
Mulaku Island.
389

The Tamed Haṇḍi

“Maige Ahumadu Takkān’s son Muhammad Dīdī was a mightyfaṇḍitaveriyā. He was hard-working and honest and he had a reputation
for being a fearless man too. Even though he was past his middle age andhis hair was turning silvery grey, he went every day alone to the forest toplant coconut palms or clear the jungle in order to plant taro.
One day he was in a very thick part of the bush slashing the vegetation toprepare a taro field. He was keeping the thickest sticks to bring home forfirewood and burned the heaps of leaves and twigs left by his work.
Clearing in this manner with his axe, he cut some heavy kando (Hernandia
ovigera) branches loaded with large green leaves. When they fell to theground, he saw a naked girl curled up in the ground against the mesh ofintertwining stilt roots of a dense screwpine shrub. Muhammad Dīdī wasstartled and drew back in fear, but then he realized that the girl looked
terrified.
Her eyes and mouth were larger than normal and she had big, beautifully
gleaming, very white teeth. Then Muhammad Dīdī saw also somethingthat sent a chill down his spine: This girl had curved sharp talons at theback of her heels. She was not a human being! She was a haṇḍi, and hecould see that she had been trapped there, unable to flee from the fire andthe smoke.
It was the first time Muhammad Dīdī had seen a haṇḍi so close, for thesespirits feel uneasy at cleared places and love the thick, dark bush. But once
his initial surprise faded, he was not afraid anymore. After all, he was afaṇḍita man and knew how to deal with spirits. Muhammad Dīdī also
knew that a haṇḍi would be hard-working and talk little. Now, at his
home, the women ―at that time the extended families used to live
together in a single house or compound― were lazy, careless, talkative
and always very cunning, finding an excuse for not working. He knew that390

if he could force this haṇḍi into submission she would be obedient, cleanand straightforward. She could work inside the house, so the other women
would be able to go to the taro field, gather firewood and do other tasks.
Meanwhile, the girl was frozen by terror and remained very quiet, opening
her eyes very wide. Thus, Muhammad Dīdī performed some strong faṇḍita
writing, a powerful mantra to bring the spirit under his control, on theblade of his masdaiyffiohi (ritual knife) which he always carried on him.
Next he thrust the knife in the earth close to the Haṇḍi’s feet.
Muhammad Dīdī now squatted close to the girl and spoke to her in a kindvoice: “Kāṅlō,408 come to my house, I will treat you well.” She glared at
him knitting her brow, like local people do when confronted with animpertinent question. He insisted a second time very gently. She kept
silent, eyeing him still with mistrust. Muhammad Dīdī insisted a third time.
Then her face relaxed and she lowered her head, looking down. Now heknew she would come, so he said: “Get up and come!” and the haṇḍi got
up and followed him. On the way home Muhammad Dīdī cut screwpine
leaves, shaved the thorny edges off, and bound them together at one end.
Then he told the girl to cover her nakedness with this leaf skirt. When shetied them around the waist, the leaves covered her legs down to her
feet.409
Both of them arrived home quietly and Muhammad Dīdī told everyone:“She is a poor girl from the other end of the island. Her parents are deadand nobody is left to look after her. She will work in this house, but she will
not go to the taro fields or to gather firewood to the forest.” When they408

A term of endearment. Kambulō in the Male’ Bas.

409

Fua Mulaku people say that in very ancient times, islanders wore skirts made ofscrewpine leaves. Later only utterly destitute people wore them. This custom
disappeared long ago.
391

asked her for her name, he himself answered: “She is called Maryā, shedoesn’t talk much.”
True to her nature, Maryā was silent, obedient and very hard working. She
only had to be shown once how a particular task was to be done and shewould repeat it to perfection. After a few days, she could do most of thework in the home. Muhammad Dīdī’s family house was a big, wealthy
place, which every day got its share of fish from their dōni (fishing boat).
Soon the haṇḍi was cutting the large tunas, boiling them and drying thembetter than any woman in the household.
The time came when Muhammad Dīdī ordered that a red libās dress and afēli (waistcloth with black and white bands) be woven for Maryā; and alsothat some ornaments be bought for her. He didn’t think it was fair that she
go around looking so scruffy, with only a long leaf skirt around her waist,
when she was doing so much work. Some of his women relatives angrily
protested: “She is just a homeless, wretched girl! It’s all right if she isdressed poorly. Who is she anyway?” But Muhammad Dīdī gently calmed
the women down by pointing out: “We live in an affluent house. People
already know how hard she works and how good she is. If we let her go
about dressed like a poor person, they will say we are very greedy andmiserly people.” The women, after considering this, had to agree.
But it so happened that when Maryā put on the dress, everybody wasstunned. With her hands and feet dyed red with henna and the sparkling
jewellery, she looked like a lady of noble birth. Her beauty was so dazzlingthat the young people of the house lowered their eyes before her in awe.
Henceforth the children gave up teasing her and began calling her‘Maryandaitā’ out of deference.410 Respect for this unpretentious girlincreased all over the house, for no one could find any fault in her and sheherself never spoke evil about anyone. Soon thereafter, even the entire

410

Daitā, meaning approximately ‘auntie’, a term of endearment and respect392

neighborhood agreed that the girl deserved to be treated with respect andeveryone always referred to her as ‘Maryandaitā’. However, young
women both in the house and in the neighborhood began to feelthreatened.
The haṇḍi talked little but wasn’t sullen. She never used filthy language,
and there were no lice in her hair. Once Muhammad Dīdī’s mother spied
on her and realized that she ate very little: just a small aladari (young taro
shoot) and a mahavaḷi,411 and only when she was alone, while the other
women were stuffing themselves with food at every meal. Maryā also
worked in a way that she always seemed to enjoy what she was doing. No
job seemed difficult or boring to her. Her hands were never still and when
there was no work to be done in the kitchen or in the house, she maderope with coir fiber. She was so clean and careful, that there was not asingle bedbug in the beds and the whole place was spick-and-span and inorder. Muhammad Dīdī was happy.
But being beautiful made life difficult for Maryā and it bred conflict. In theevenings, while the other young women went out to make jokes andlaugh412 with young men close to the house, Maryā chose to stay inside.
She went to sleep soon after lighting the oil lamps and hanging them intheir places. If a young man asked her why she wouldn’t come outside totalk to him, she would politely refuse, saying that she preferred to go tosleep early in order to wake up before sunrise to sweep the place; and soshe did. Every morning, while it was still dark, the young woman got up
and went to call the boys who had to go fishing.413 Then she took a bath in
411

When the tuna is cut in the Maldivian way, this corresponds to a small section
close to the gills which is mostly bone.
412

In traditional Maldivian society, there were no restrictions for girls as regards
talking or in interacting socially with men. However, parents would advise their
young daughters not to laugh and joke with them.
413

Fishermen are usually called to go fishing when the dikoi (or koveli) bird
(Culculus saturatus) sings, that is between three and four o’clock in the morning.
393

the veu, dressed herself, combed her hair, tied it in a neat bun414 andswept the leaves which had fallen from the breadfruit trees during thenight. After she had piled the dry leaves up in heaps and set fire to them,
the girl went to the kitchen and started to work while everyone, except for
the fishermen out at sea, was still in bed.
Some men, impressed by Maryā’s beauty and good qualities, approached
Muhammad Dīdī. They privately told him they wished to marry her, but heput them off, one after the other, giving some excuse. Men talked
admiringly about Maryā, and the other girls in the house and in theneighborhood were openly jealous of the way all the young males were
fussing about her.
Women ridiculed Maryā’s way of putting men off, thinking it was just away of trying to fan more interest in her, and mocked: “She is soarrogant!” Truly, men were not discouraged by Maryā’s disinterest andmade magic charms using limes, cockroaches and other things, to makeher fall in love with them. But their sorcery had no effect on her. In time,as all their efforts proved unsuccessful, they gave up desiring Maryā andapproached more easy women. Maryā, who resented so much unwanted
attention, was relieved. The other females, who had been so openly hostile
towards Maryā at first, felt very happy with her because they could see
she wouldn’t take away their lovers from them. As time passed, all theother girls came to trust her and became her friends again. However, ahaṇḍi is a haṇḍi and Maryā’s behavior was at times very strange.
Muhammad Dīdī had many coconut trees and from a good number ofthem, the rāveruṅ would tap the rā (palm sap). Very often a lot of rā wasbrought to the house and it was cooked in large pots, to make syrup.
While it is boiling, some pebbles are put inside the sap, to avoid excessive

414

Cf. 2.1.2 ‘From Sweetness to Horror.’ The importance of hair-tying in Dravidiansociety is explained in K. Ram, Op. cit. above.
394

foaming. Although she managed to do every other job well, the girl was
terrified at the noise made by the boiling rā with the stones banging
against the pot. Every time, after putting the pots of sap over thefireplace, Maryā would run away before it started to boil.415 She darted
out of the kitchen and across the taro fields into a wild screwpine clump, amuch loved place for female spirits to conceal themselves. There shewould hide until somebody would call her and assure her that the syrup
was ready and the fire was put out. Then the girl would emerge out of thescrewpine trees and walk slowly towards the house, trembling, withdowncast eyes out of fear and shame.
Everyone thought Maryā was a bit crazy and they got used to her strange
habit. The other women had their fun at seeing her run out the kitchen in
terror every time the rā began to boil. Sometimes the children would
follow her and stare at her while she was sitting wedged between the stiltroots of the screwpine or sitting up on the screwpine branches, terror
written all over her face. She would ignore them no matter how much theyteased her. The only one in the house who didn’t make fun of Maryā’s
ways was Muhammad Dīdī and his face had a troubled look when anyone
spoke to him about this.
Many years passed and Muhammad Dīdī died. However, beautiful Maryākept staying in his house. She was not growing old, but kept looking as
young and pretty as the first year she came. She still was humbly doing all
the household work without ever complaining. Now the magic that kept
her in the house was gone. But it is said that she didn’t go back to theforest because she loved dearly the people in what had been Muhammad
Dīdī’s home and she was dearly loved by them in return.

415

Certain noises, as well as the sound of certain mantras, are known to scareaway spirits. Among the Chamar caste of North India it is believed that the
sputtering sound of the chapati on the tawa is offensive to goddess Sītala andwomen dip their hands in flour before flattening it to avert her anger during
smallpox epidemics. G.W. Briggs, ‘The Chamars.’395

One day, Maryā was sitting on the aṣi (a raised platform) with other men
and women of the household. While they were engaged in conversation,
idly chewing betel, she was scratching her leg absent-mindedly. All of asudden, a man saw her bare leg and noticed the claw on her heel. The girlhappened to look towards his shocked face and quickly pulled her fēliunderclothing down. But it was too late, because he got up, went straight
towards her yelling: “You are not a human being! You are a haṇḍi!”, andgrabbed her fēli, pulling it with such strength that it came off.
Maryā lost balance and fell messily on the floor with her two legs in the
air. Now everyone got up and stared at her with mouths open inamazement and horror. Full of shame, the young woman didn’t dare tolook up. She lay there propped on her elbows for a while in bewildermentwith legs spread apart exposing her taloned heels. Finally she looked up.
The man was standing in front of her, holding her fēli in his hand, and all
the eyes of men, women and children were fixed on her. Then she began
to weep bitterly and, before anyone could react or even say a word, Maryājumped up and fled from the house.
Some children playing outside saw the girl racing across the taro fields intears before she disappeared into the forest without leaving any trace.
After a while, the people in the household were regretful and looked andlooked for her, but nobody found out where she was hiding.
Maryā never came back, but long after she disappeared some people said
that they still had seen her and heard her close to Muhammad Dīdī’shouse in the darkness, before dawn. They say that she would sweep the
path to the house or that she would sneak into the kitchen and clean thepots and put everything in order. Local tradition claims that she is still
ocassionally seen to this day.
It is worth noticing that Maryā‘s attitude towards men is identical withKamaṇa’s, the heroine of this chapter’s first story. Muhammad Dīdī’s
refusal to give the haṇḍi in marriage and Maryā’s utter disinterest in men
396

can be better understood in the context of Indian folk tales where thegoddess comes to live among common mortals, such as in one of the talesof the Kathāsaritsāgara: “Honourable lady, who are you and why have youdescended into my house?’ She replied, ‘You must not give me to anyone
in marriage. As long as I am in this house, you shall prosper. What need isthere for you to know any more?’ Dharmagupta was frightened when
Somaprabha said this and hid her inside his house.”
The goddess coming to live as a humble girl among humans and doing thehousehold work to perfection is a common theme in popular South Indian
narrative. There is a popular Telugu movie about a girl (who later turns
out to be an incarnation of Durgā ) supernaturally doing all the heavy
work her grumpy mistress forces her to do.
This story gives a good insight into the idealization of feminine qualities in
Divehi female spirits, once their negative, dangerous nature has beeneffectively neutralized. In South Indian culture, as has been briefly pointed
out further above, it was important for a girl to lead a discreet,
unpretentious life. A young woman, who was forced to come out of herprescribed role owing to unwanted circumstances, was justified in
expressing her outrage by committing suicide or expressing extreme
destructive anger. This is manifestly portrayed in the figure of Kannagi,
the heroine of the Tamil epic Śilappadikāram, who in her righteous fury
destroyed the city of Madurai.416 Instead, in ‘The Tamed Haṇḍi’ story,Maryā disappears, depriving the people of the household of her beneficial
and benign presence. She is justified in doing so in outrage at having been
put to shame in public after her life had been led with virtue anddiscretion.
Maryā’s story is basically not very different from a very famous legend ofKerala called the Yakśī of Padmanabhapuram. Yakśīs or Yakśīnis are

416

Ilango Adigal, ‘Śilappadikaram’.
397

graceful female tree spirits which can become bloodthirsty hags, killing
their victims and sucking their blood out ―although the term dakīni exists
in Divehi no stories connected to it were forthcoming―. In this legend, abeautiful Yakśī used to lure the wayfarers traveling between Trivandrum
and Kanyakumari with her beauty, to kill them afterwards. One day, she isdomesticated by a Brahmin priest who plants a magic nail in her head.
Then he brings her to his aunt’s home and she does the household work
there to perfection. But one day his aunt, while combing the Yakśī’s hair,removes the nail and the girl disappears.417
At the end of the ‘Tamed Haṇḍi,’ as in the popular tale ‘Haṇḍi DoṅKamaṇā,’ the supernatural heroine disappears when her secret is
discovered by the humans she has been living with. Also in North India
there are legends with a similar ending. One of these is the story of theḍākinī ancestress of the Palwār Rājputs of Oudh (Ayodhya). Note that inthis story it is a man who discovers the secret, in the same manner as in‘The Tamed Haṇḍi’:“Soon after the birth of her son this lady was engaged in baking roṭi.
Suddenly, her baby began to cry and she was obliged to perform a double
duty. At this juncture her husband arrived just in time to see his demon
wife assume gigantic and supernatural proportions, so as to allow boththe baking and the nursing to go on at the same time. But finding her
secret discovered, the ḍākinī disappeared leaving her son as a legacy toher astonished husband.”418
In Maldives there are a few other stories following the pattern of ‘The
Tamed Haṇḍi.’ The spirit appears mysteriously in the kitchen and in thehouse while nobody is around, does some work and disappears. This spirit

417

I.K.K. Menon, ‘Folk Tales of Kerala’.

418

Oudh Gazetteer, III, 480, quoted by W. Crooke, ‘Popular Religion & Folklore of
Northern India.’398

is sometimes referred to as avaṭṭehi or avaṭṭeriya (neighbor) and there areislands in the North of the country where it is said that, instead of a lady,
it is a short, black child who cleans the pots left outside the kitchen during
the night.

399

2.6.1 THE DANGEROUS SIDE OF WOMEN
Maldivians conceive married life as a must. Celibacy is not only
unthinkable, but also suspect: if a man and a woman don’t have a normal
sexual life, understood as a functioning marriage in order to build afamily, it is assumed that they may fall prey to unnatural, perverse habits,
ending up worse off. Scott O’Connor, a friend working in a small-scale
farming project in Ari Atoll, told me that the islanders were convincedthat goats of both sexes needed to be together in order to live. They werepositive that if males and females were kept in separate pens, as he hadsuggested, death would follow.
Within the context that marriage is unquestionable, islanders generally
believe that man’s lot in life is closely connected to his wife’s character,qualities and behavior. A man married to the right woman will attract
blessings in his life. He will not only be free from worries as far as therunning of his household is concerned, but he also will generally have‘better luck’ in whatever he undertakes: His palms will produce more sap
or more coconuts, he will fish more and bigger fishes, his trade dealings
will bring him higher profits, etc.
In Divehi tradition it is assumed that women have an enormous influencein the fate of men. They have powers to control the supernatural forcesthat can make a life easier or more difficult. Generally, it is consideredharmful to wrong a woman, because destructive forces of unknown
consequences may be unleashed by her grief, worry or spite. Hence,
women, as opposed to men, are considered to be unpredictable and topossess potentially dangerous powers. This dark, sacred power thatwomen possess is called ‘aṇaṅku’ in the Tamil language. It is one of thetwo main powers, the other being the kingly authority, that rule humanlife according to the ancient Saṅgam literature. Both powers are deemed
to be divine, the center of religious and political power being the king, and400

women holding the key for the survival of the society by their ability togive birth and nourish the babies.419
A Maldivian woman’s duty is to be a hard-working, clean and virtuous
wife, but this is attached to the condition that her husband is under the
obligation, which is almost a threat, to treat her well because of her
mysterious control of obscure powers. Many local stories are based on
the ruinous consequences of upsetting this balance. The following tale420
is an illustration of a woman’s destructive power wreaking havoc after her
husband causes her to become entangled in an unbearable situation:
The Scarlet Wake

“Long ago, a handsome middle-aged man came to an island in Aḍḍu Atollon a trading journey and had to stay there for a few weeks. He hadn’t met
his good-natured hosts previously, but they were very kind to him. Therewas such a pleasant atmosphere in their home, that the stranger felt
obligated to them to continue having all his meals there, steadily refusing
the frequent invitations from other houses.
In that happy house lived a pretty young woman, Eḷa Fātumā, who was
unmarried. She didn’t belong to the house owners’ family. Her parents
were very poor and she had been working in that house since she was alittle girl. She didn’t miss her family. As she was treated very well andloved her employers, she was very glad to live there.
Eḷa Fātumā did all the household work in a cheerful mood. She was always
smiling and singing. Among her daily chores, she often had to serve food,419

See also K. Ram and W.P. Hartman, Op. cit.

420

Told in 1983 by the late Magieduruge Ibrahīm Dīdī. The trader’s Atoll was very
likely Huvadu, but specific islands were not mentioned in this story.
401drink, or betel and nut to the stranger. One day his eyes met hers and she
flashed an alluring smile. Thereafter, whenever the young woman broughta glass to the handsome guest they playfully touched each other’s hands
while nobody was looking (a very common way of flirting in rural
Maldives). It took but little time and they fell deeply in love with eachother.
The man asked the girl to marry him, but he also told her that he had to go
back and that perhaps it would be difficult for her to live far away fromher home island. However, Eḷa Fātumā was so much in love with this man,that she already had made her decision. She told him that she was readyto go with him wherever he went. Shortly thereafter, they were married.
One day the newly-wedded couple boarded a boat and left to the man’s
island. The young woman was very thrilled and she considered herself very
lucky. Suddenly, upon arrival at the island that would be her new home,Eḷa Fātuma, to her dismay, found out that her husband was a widower
who had been already married before. He even had two grown-up
daughters who came to greet him to the beach. The girls looked veryarrogant and were almost as big as her.
How outraged she was! She thought: “I have never felt so much shame inall my life.”421 Her world, from being golden and blissful, had suddenly
turned very bitter. Making an enormous effort, the young woman
swallowed her feelings of humiliation and smiled wanly to everyone she
met in her husband’s home. During the following gloomy days Eḷa Fātumā
was very careful not to show either anger or disappointment. But her
husband felt some change in her mood and said: “I know why you are
angry.” She answered: “I am not angry.”421“Ladaha’ kiriyā maru nivē.” Literally: “Almost died of shame.” A local expression,often spoken aloud, to signal distress and humiliation.
402

He knew she was, though; and he missed her bright, easy smile and her
lively chatter. So, he tried to be nice to her, giving excuses like: “I didn’t
dare to tell you about these girls, because I thought that you wouldn’t
want to marry me. But you don’t have to worry; they will help you in thehouse. Life will be easier for you.”Eḷa Fātumā looked around her in consternation, but acted as if she wascontented. She tried to be friendly to the girls, but they were cold andindifferent towards her. The two young women and their deceased
mother’s relatives clearly resented the attention their father was giving tothis stranger from another island. They were extremely unfriendly andtheir constant ill-will didn’t make life easy for her.
Months passed and Eḷa Fātumā had to endure the nagging, disdainful
ways of the other women in silence. The injury in her heart was by now too
deep to heal; she felt lonely, trapped and hurt. She sorely missed the
happy and carefree ways she had left in her home island, among her own
people. Her husband was the only person in that hostile place who hadsome sympathy for her, but she knew well that even his heart was divided.
It was useless to complain to him because he was very fond of his
daughters and she would look like the bad person. Whenever she wasalone, Eḷa Fātumā crouched in a dark spot and cried bitter tears in secret.
The fishing season was approaching. One day, at dawn, the husband
brought his wife and his two daughters to a certain uninhabited island to
cut a large amount of firewood that would later be needed to boil the tunain order to preserve it. They traveled on a small sailing boat. The women
carried some food, pots and their kativali (large machete knives). The man
repaired the little hut in the island with some new thatching and sticks. As
he was leaving he told Eḷa Fātumā and the girls that he was going to catch
some reef fish and that he would be back before sunset.
Once her husband was away, Eḷa Fātumā told one of the daughters to stayat the hut and cook something while she and her sister went to cut
403

firewood. Then she walked with the other girl resolutely into the bush.
When they had been going for a while, the daughter was tired andsweating from trying to keep up with her stepmother. Finally she whined:“Why are we going so far away? We can start cutting firewood here; there
is so much of it around us.” Eḷa Fātumā didn’t answer. She kept walking
obstinately at a fast pace and the daughter, who was afraid to be left
alone in the wilderness, had to follow her grudgingly. The jungle was thickand, to be able to move forward, now and then both women had to cut
low branches with the kativaḷi they were holding.
All of a sudden, when they came to a small clearing, Eḷa Fātumā stopped.
But before her stepdaughter standing behind her could move, she turnedand gave the stunned girl such a violent blow with her kativaḷi that her
head, cleanly separated from her neck, flew into the tangled bushes androlled on the dry leaves. Then the woman took a shortcut across the forest
and went to the waterside, where she washed her bloody hands and knife.
After letting some time pass, Eḷa Fātumā walked along the beach towards
the hut.
The other girl had made a hearth with stones close to the hut and wassquatting there in the shade of the large trees, cooking rice in a pot. She
was busy keeping the fire going, so she didn’t get up when she heard
someone arriving. The daughter didn’t look well at the woman’s faceeither when Eḷa Fātumā came close to her, firmly clutching the murderous
weapon in her hand. Vaguely looking around she just asked: “Where is mysister?”Eḷa Fātumā, ominously looming behind her, said: “She went to the beachat the other end to take a bath,” and while the girl was distracted fanningthe fire to reduce the smoke, the woman’s kativaḷi hit her neck from theback with all her strength. The blow was so powerful that the daughter’s
severed head banged against the pot, spilling the water to one side. Mostof its long, black hair got instantly burned in the fire.
404

Then Eḷa Fātumā walked again into the forest and returned with the
bleeding head of the other girl. Carefully, she put each head in a separatemuḍeiṣi basket and brought them to the brightly-lit lagoon. There, holdinga muḍeiṣi in each hand, she waded until the water was waist-high. Only
then she released the baskets, setting them adrift. The young woman
watched how the current carried the girls’ heads away, their scarlet wakes
slowly fading. After a while, Eḷa Fātumā washed herself with the sea water
and walked back to the bushes fringing the beach above the waterline.
Eḷa Fātumā sat very still under the shade of a tree and looked persistently
at the horizon. She was squinting with her eyes, waiting only to see the sailof her husband’s boat. Many hours passed and in the late afternoon, when
the little vessel was in sight, the woman had not stirred at all.
Now she got up and walked calmly to the beach to meet him, holding one
kativaḷi in each hand. As the boat touched the sand, the man stepped out.
His wife was standing in front of him but didn’t say a word. She waslooking at his eyes with intense fierceness, breathing heavily. Her long
black hair was a wild, uncombed mane blown larger by the wind.
The island was eerily silent. The man nervously looked around and then,reluctantly, at fearful-looking Eḷa Fātumā. He hesitated, and then his voice
trembled when he asked: “Where are the girls?”
Without answering, holding the knives upright, blades inwards, EḷaFātumā stretched her neck and, with a swift and vigorous movement,
crossed her hands over her chest.422 Her severed head fell at the feet of her
husband and a thick jet of blood sprinkled him before the young woman’s
body collapsed.

422

At this point the storyteller mimicked the powerful, scissor-like motion with his
own arms405

It was common for young Maldivian girls of destitute background like Eḷa
Fātumā to seek employment by themselves in the houses of affluent
people before puberty. Since before that age girls used to have their head
shaven regularly, this custom was called ‘bol dikkeranna’ (to let the hairgrow). Once it became obvious that a girl was growing into a woman, shewould not have to shave her hair anymore unless she had to apply
medicine on her head.423 However, marriages such as Eḷa Fātumā’s werevery rare in island society. The usual norm required the groom to come tolive to the bride’s home and become part of his wife’s family. Hence, EḷaFātuma’s decision involved a great risk from a Maldivian point of view,
since she would place herself at the mercy of a family not her own, in a
strange island. Ibn Batūta noted that his Divehi wives asked to be divorced
when he decided to leave the country.
The interplay between the beneficial and the dangerous side of a woman
is a recurring theme in Divehi folklore. Although at the beginning of thenarrative the heroine is portrayed as a poor, self-effacing and kind girl,she turns out to be a very strong and determined female. Her husband, by
more or less unwittingly causing her humiliation, awakens his young
wife’s dark face opening a Pandora’s Box of violence, released by her
deep chagrin, as if the violence had been lurking there, waiting to happen.
Telling these stories to preserve the memory of women who have died ina tragic way is a very important feature of South Indian folklore, as in the‘Kamaṇā’ story narrated in the previous chapter. The striking feature
about this story is the tragic end in which the heroine cuts off her own
head. Eḷa Fātumā does this out of vindictiveness and what is left unsaid,

423

Information by Kokkobeage Sakīna, Fua Mulaku
406but is implicit in the ending, is that the woman’s spirit will haunt her
husband for the rest of his life.424
As in many other Maldive tales, ‘The Scarlet Wake’ is probably not basedon a real event, but it may reflect the content of very old legends aboutsome kind of supreme sacrifice. It is known that in ancient Tamil Nadu
there were devotees who went to the extent of cutting off their own headas an offering to the goddess Koṭṭavai.425 In South India, sculptures or basreliefs representing a devotee severing his own head with a sword are acommon feature in the vicinity of medieval Durgā sculptures. “(They) offer
the supreme sacrifice to the goddess by cutting off their head and offering
the blood coming out of their severed neck.” This ritual was called Avippali
in ancient Tamil Nadu. Head-offerings are also mentioned in the Bengali
version of the Rāmāyaṇa, where king Rāvaṇa cuts off his ten heads, one
after the other, to propitiate goddess Durgā.426
In the story of king Śūdraka from Somadeva’s Kathāsaritsāgara, one cansee how the cutting of one’s own head represents the supreme sacrificeto the goddess. The faithful servant Vīravara sacrifices the head of his son
to the goddess in order to save the King’s life. His daughter dies of grief
and his wife kills herself, thus he ends up cutting his own head in goddessCaṇḍikā’s temple. King Śūdraka, who had been watching in secret, was so
amazed by Vīravara’s courage and faithfulness that he decides to sever his
own head too as a sacrifice to the goddess. However, as he was ready to424

Compare with the story about the Wudders (navvies) who cut their own throatsin the presence of the king of Warangal in ‘The Village Gods of South India’. H.
Whitehead calls this “A truly Indian method of taking revenge.”425

Also spelled Koṛṛavai, the goddess of war and destruction of the early
Dravidians. She is currently identified (and thus incorporated into the Brahmanicalpantheon) as a form of Kālī or Durgā. R. Nagaswami, Op. cit. and R. Bernier,‘Temple Arts of Kerala’
426

S. Mukhopadhyay, ‘Op. cit.
407

do so, goddess Caṇḍikā, impressed by the display of devotion and braveryof the King and his servant, speaks to King Śudraka and restores Vīravara
and all his family back to life. Also part of the Kathāsaritsāgara is the storyof Madanasundari ('The Wife Who Switched the Heads). Madanasundari’s
husband and her brother sacrifice their heads to the goddess.
Interestingly, in this work there is no mention of women sacrificing theirheads; only male devotees seem to do so.
Thus, the cutting of one’s own head is the supreme mark of devotion to
the goddess in Indic tradition. This ritual is never performed in the honorof male deities, but only to the goddess, for as a mother who has
bestowed the gift of life Dēvi is more likely to be moved by this utmost
effort to show devotion to her and will be more ready to grant favors to
devotees taking this extreme step.427 The fact that the woman in the story
was alone with two younger women at the time of the cutting off theirheads and the fact that each one had a kativaḷi is not without significance.
In Vajrayāna Buddhist iconography, the goddess Cinnamuṇḍa Vajravārāhī,
is represented as having cut off her own head with a cleaver (Skt. kartṛ),flanked by her two smaller female attendants who have cut off their own
heads too. Also within Vajrayāna tradition there are stories about female
Siddhas: Mekhalā and Kanakhalā, two young sisters who cut off their own
heads to show their Guru their great Siddhi-powers.428
In Hindu iconography, Kāli is always depicted holding a severed head in
one of her left hands ―she has normally four arms, but may have any
number― and a bloodied cleaver or sword in the upper right. Goddess
Chinnamastā, one of the ten Mahavidyās, is represented headless; withher head in one hand ―she has two arms― and a sword in the other. Outof her severed neck, three equal jets of blood flow in regular arches

427

R. Nagaswami, Op. cit.

428

H.W. Schumann, Op. cit. above408

across the air. One of the jets enters her mouth, while her two female
attendants, with swords in their hands swallow the blood coming fromeach of the other two jets.429
Finally, this story also has echoes of the Jamadagni-Renukā myth, where
Parasurama severed both the heads of his mother and that of a low-caste
Chakkilian woman, in a symmetrical way. This tale is very common among
the Coromandel fishermen and it is one of the myths explaining the originof goddess Māri, the goddess of illness.430 While in Jamadagni’s myth both
women were later restored to life, but in confusion the goddess got the
low-caste woman’s head and viceversa, in the Maldive myths emphasis islaid upon the impossibility of mending things.
The symbolism of putting the heads in baskets and setting them adrift, sothat the currents carry them away from the island were the headlessbodies lay, should be interpreted as a powerful curse. In the previous
chapter it is mentioned how important is for Divehi people to be properly
buried ashore, on land. The sea is no place for a human body. Even hairs
or nail clippings cut aboard a vessel are never thrown to the sea, but are
carefully kept and thrust into cracks or holes in the coral walls of the next
island.
According to contemporary Maldivians, the previous story is meant toillustrate how very seriously a woman ―and here it is implied a woman ofquality― takes the offering of her own body to her male partner. The
contrast between the general male attitude and female attitude towards
a sexual relationship is emphasized here: while a man may take sex as agame, a woman does not, as she is investing too much of her deep self in

429

E.A. Benard, ‘Chinnamastā, The Awful Buddhist and Hindu Tantric Goddess’430

S. Bhakthavatsala Bharathi, ‘Coromandel Fishermen.’409

the relationship; hence the bloody, self-sacrificing symbolism and theresulting destructive hatred.
The following story is allegedly based on real incidents.431 However, it isvery likely that it may be a myth reflecting the story of an ancient villagegoddess. The circumstances surrounding the strong will anddetermination of a woman of quality, Doṅ Sittibū, are idealized to thepoint that, instead of the depiction a real-life personality, what indirectly
emerges is the reflection of the islanders’ devotion towards thatextraordinary female character:Doṅ Sittibū“Doṅ Sittibū was a young and very beautiful lady living in Fua Mulaku
Island over six hundred years ago.432 Her home was in the center of theisland at one place called Duvaffāṇḍo. She also was very wealthy and very
wise, everyone in the island held her in high esteem.
One day, the island’s Vāroveriya (royal administrator) asked Doṅ Sittibū tomarry him telling her that their alliance would make them both very
powerful. However, she politely declined his offer. Instead, she marriedanother man of her choice.
It so happened that very soon after their wedding her husband became
seriously ill and died a sudden death. The Vāroveriya promptly accusedDoṅ Sittibū of having murdered her own husband. The people of theisland, however, instead of believing him, were sure that she hadn’t killed
431

Told in 1985 by Abdul Latīfu, Ronḍuge, Mādaḍo village, Fua Mulaku.

432

No evidence is given for the dating, except that the narrator mentioned that it
was during Queen Khadīija’s rule. Frequently in oral narrative it is said that
Maldives was ruled by queens in ancient times, which may be a reference to theprevalence of matriarchy in ancestral island society
410

anybody. They claimed that the Vāroveriya, sore at having been rejectedby Doṅ Sittibū, had made haherā (black magic) to kill her husband. All theislanders stood behind her claiming that she was no criminal and that all
this was a mean plot to humiliate her.
Doṅ Sittibū didn’t want to stand trial before the Vāroveriya. She knew she
would be putting herself in a disadvantageous position, as the chief was aperson with a grudge against her. Thus, she asked to be brought to Male’
where she would put herself under the authority of the Baṇḍēri (HighRoyal Officer). The Vāroveriya reluctantly had to accept, because he wasaware that the people of the island were on her side and he didn’t want
any trouble.
Doṅ Sittibū gave orders to make one of her own veḍis (cargo vessels)
ready for the trip to the capital island and gave instructions to her sailors
to include a load of arecanut (fua’) husks. Once aboard, while the ship
sailed towards Male’, Doṅ Sittibū dedicated her whole time to making
rope with her hands using the difficult short fiber strands of the arecanuthusks. When she arrived to Male’ the young lady had made an enormous
bundle of excellent-quality rope. The measures were: 12 bēnḍi = 1 fōl inthe local measuring system.
Doṅ Sittibū was escorted to the Baṇḍērige (Officer’s Residence) by the
Vāroveriya’s envoy and, all along, she insisted on carrying her big bundleof rope herself, over her shoulder. Once at the Baṇḍērige she was shown,
as a mark of deference, a place to sit on the aṣi (raised platform), but Doṅ
Sittibū politely declined and prefered to sit on her rope.
When the Baṇḍēri arrived he asked the lady why she was not sitting on
the aṣi. Doṅ Sittibū calmly replied that she didn’t want to sit on someone
else’s property. The Baṇḍēri, who was acting on behalf of the queen, wasimpressed by her poise and dignity. After the Vāroveriya’s envoy informed
him of the reason he had brought Doṅ Sittibū to his presence, the Baṇḍēri
questioned her concerning her alleged crime.
411

After a very long interrogation, the Baṇḍēri decided that Doṅ Sittibū had
been a victim of the Vāroveriya’s machinations and proclaimed her
innocent. The impression this lady made on him was so favorable that henot only set her free, but also formally stripped the former ruler of his post
and named her the new Vāroveriya. He proclaimed that any place in Fua
Mulaku Doṅ Sittibū set her feet upon would become baṇḍāra (property of
the administrator).
Doṅ Sittibū gracefully accepted all the favors bestowed upon her. She wasvery well treated during the rest of her stay in the capital until she decided
it was time to prepare the journey back to her island.
After leaving Male’, as she was sailing southwards, her ship passed close
to a dōni whose crew had caught a big Marlin (Makaira indica). The huge
fish was leaping out of the water, causing a big commotion and thefishermen fiercely struggled with it. Meanwhile, on Doṅ Sittibū’s ship thecrew, who were anxiously following the spectacular scene, started toargue about which part of the Marlin was best to eat. As they couldn’t
agree, they asked her. The lady’s answer was that the best part was theone called bōṣifiya (a small section between the rear end of the belly andthe anal fin of the swordfish). Suddenly she had an idea and commanded
the captain of her ship to sail back to Male’.
Once again in the capital, she disembarked and went straight to theBaṇḍēri’s house. He was surprised to see her back so soon. She asked
politely for another favour. The Baṇḍēri declared that he was ready togrant it. Doṅ Sittibū said that the bōṣifiya from every Marlin caught by
local fishermen should be added to her revenues. The Baṇḍēri agreed andshe bid him farewell again.
Thus, Doṅ Sittibū set sail again towards her island. After a few days, shelanded at Neregaṇḍo, in the Northwestern end of Fua Mulaku. Men,
women and children took her from the dingy at the beach and carried heron their shoulders. They didn’t want her to set her foot anywhere, but on412

the way to her home, when she liked a particular place for her, she shookwith such vigor that she managed to fall and step on the ground, claimingthat spot for herself. It is said that she lived the rest of her life being
carried on people’s shoulders every time she stepped out of her home.
Doṅ Sittibū had people at her service to collect her taxes and she would
pay them back what she wished. Her opinion was so respected that she
would decide the amount to be paid to the Queen in Male’, without having
to consult anybody.
It isn’t known whether she married again, but it is certain that she diedwithout having any children. Her house became a ruin invaded by thickjungle, but until living memory there was a stone weight to weigh cotton(ūkirigal) there.
Much of the mythology describing Māri, the dangerous goddess of fever
and disease, addresses the reasons why this goddess is either single orwidowed: Men either fear to marry her or, when they have, she has
murdered her spouse. Even festivals celebrated in her honor reenact, incertain cases, the death of her husband.433 This death leaves her rituallyand mythologically a widow, but there is no talk about the goddess
expressing her grief, because the village goddess, though a mother,tolerates no consort.434 As there is no mention of any offspring either, thisis in line with the village goddess tradition. Her children are her own
devotees, the local people who worship her and call her ‘Mother’.
Doṅ Sittibū dedicating her time to making rope with her hands using thedifficult short fiber strands of the arecanut husks is a symbolic, very
difficult task, proof of this mythical woman’s perseverance anddetermination. Usually rope is made with the longer fiber of coconut

433

W.P.Hartman, ‘Sacred Marriage of a Hindu Goddess’.

434

See ‘Mother Sixth’ in D.D. Kosambi, ‘Myth and Reality’.
413

husks. The arecanut gives its name to Fua Mulaku, the widely
acknowledged reason being that traditionally the arecanut palm used to
grow very well in this large and fertile island.
This short legend may be the remainder of a long ancient epic. It is
certainly very much in line with the Siri myth of the Tuḷu country,435 wherea woman of courage, dignity, self esteem and strong determination, after
many difficult ordeals achieves her goals and becomes a protective figure
for her devotees. The Siri myth is narrated in 15,683 lines. According to L.
and A. Honko, it represents the struggle between the matrilineal andpatriarchal kinship systems in Tuḷu society. As in Maldive society elementsof both systems are present in a mixed form, there is evidence of thesetensions too.436
The devotion of local islanders towards Doṅ Sittibū is apparent in theirunanimous willingness to accept her as their leader, even when she had
been accused of having murdered her husband. The grants made to her
by the Queen through her officer may have been land grants for thetemple of this goddess. The fact that she was carried around the islandand her feet never touched the ground, may refer to her idol being
carried around the island in procession, as it is so common for village
deities all over South India.
Within this background, it is also highly likely that the piece of flesh calledbōṣifiya from every marlin captured by Fua Mulaku fishermen had to bebrought to her temple as an offering. Finally, the stone referred to as anūkirigal, may have even been the likeness of this goddess itself, as village
divinities have traditionally had no images in iconic form, being

435Tuḷu is a Dravidian language spoken in an area located at the northern end ofKerala and part of coastal Karnataka. Though it has a distinctive culture, the Tuḷuregion is not reflected in the administrative division of India
436

L. Honko, Op. cit. above.
414

represented by stones, pots, tridents and even mere heaps of sand. In
Dravidian worship, the crucial fact is locality. Thus, representation has lessrelevance than the place where the spirit appeared or is deemed toreside. Often the purpose of the stone or image is merely to mark the
spot related to the story that keeps alive in the devotees’ memory, thus, it
is not an idol, a fetish or a totem in itself.437 Iconography was not an
important element in the Dravidian village-goddess worship because
these cults were almost entirely based upon oral tradition. Nowadays,
however, many village-goddess shrines in South India take the standard
calendar-art Bengali-inspired figure of goddess Kali as the iconographic
representation of their local deity.438
All the stories above stress the preeminence that women had within the
traditional Maldive social system. Since Divehi marriages are notarranged, and usually the man comes to live in his wife’s home, young
women throughout the Atolls in the Maldives have never been
consistently at the mercy of mothers-in-law, like their haplesscounterparts in the Subcontinent. Maldive girls have been allowed todevelop their own personality with few restrictions since time
immemorial. Divehi women have somehow managed to maintain thisposition in spite of the growing intrusion of revived ‘global’ Islam within
Maldivian social norms. Theirs is a daily struggle: although they would not
like to be perceived as attacking the religion and despite of being regularly
fed apologetic rhetoric through the media, almost all Maldivian women
privately agree that the prevailing religious laws and regulations give
undue advantage to men.

437

See W.T. Elmore, op. cit. above.

438

See Sreelatha Vasudevan’s paper (Iconographic Concepts and Forms of
Korravai in Sangam Literature) in ‘Shakti in Art and Religion,’ ed. by N. Krishna.
415

This flourishing of the Maldivian woman’s character is striking compared
to what is the norm in South Asia. For instance in India, girls in general
have to cultivate an abashed look in order to be able to please their future
mother-in-law and, in a very one-sided contract, a married woman isjudged by how devoted to her husband she is, no matter how bad hetreats her or how outrageously he behaves.439 Similarly, in neighboring Sri
Lanka, much importance is attached to pre-marital virginity, and womenare assumed to have some kind of sinister influence. Therefore, they are
the subject of numerous taboos and it is usual for Ceylonese women to be
kept away from many ceremonies and rituals.440
However, this is certainly not the case in Divehi society, as writer andformer member of the Central Information Service of the Government ofIndia K. Gopinath, who visited the island of Minicoy in the 1970’s,
observed in his book “The Coral Islands of the Arabian Sea”:“In Minicoy, women enjoy equal rights and status with their malecounterparts on account of their active participation and involvement insocio-economic pursuits from olden days. Women of Minicoy haveconsiderable freedom in personal and matrimonial matters too. They
possess a dignity, poise and confidence which one does no come acrossfrequently among tribal or non-tribal women in the (Indian) country. They
occupy the place of pride in their society, enjoy high social position andbelieve in community living and organization. The predominance of
women in all walks of life is a unique feature. ...
The girls have the freedom to choose their husbands. Their communal
system affords a good deal of scope for young men and women for

439

There is extensive bibliography on this subject, such as J.L. Gupta ‘Challenges
to the Fair Sex: Indian Women, Problems, Plights and Progresses.’440

N. Wijesekera, ‘Deities, Demons and Masks,’ N. Ratnapala, ‘Folklore of Sri
Lanka’ and Seligmanns, ‘The Veddas.’416

courting prior to wedding resulting in love marriages. ... A peculiar featureof their custom is the absence of the role of parents at the marriage whichis performed by the Katību. The bridegroom is accompanied by a few
friends and the bride by two or three elderly women. The ceremony isfollowed by a simple feast or tea party. The bride and bridegroom thenreturn to their own houses. Afterwards the bride sends a messenger tobring the bridegroom to her house. Since then the bridegroom becomes a
member of the bride’s family. In Minicoy the house (as a property) belongs
to the women.
That the houses belong to the women is also true in the tradition ofcertain islands in the Maldives. In Fua Mulaku, for instance, some houses
are known by the name of a female ancestor (i.e. Tubbīge) and some men
are known by the name of their mother appended to their name (i.e.
Kudu Aisāge Hasanu).
Gopinath calls Minicoy ‘The Island of Women’ and underlines the fact thatthe position of pride women occupy in Minicoy has no parallel in theother islands, otherwise so similar in appearance, comprising the U. T.
Lakshadweep. Minicoy is presently under Indian administration andofficially belongs to the Union Territory Lakshadweep. However, it has
strong cultural affinities with the Maldives. Minicoy’s inhabitants speak,although with some archaic variations, the Male’ form of the Divehi
language, which they call ‘Mahl.’ The rest of the Lakshadweep group, suchas the islands of Androth, Kavaratti and Chetlat, where the language
spoken there is a form of Malayalam, has more affinities with the Malabar
culture.
According to M. Ali Manikfan of Minicoy, the situation of women has
worsened during the last two decades in his island. He mentions theinfluence of immigrants from rural Tamil Nadu from one side, who are
spreading the practice of arranged marriages, and the influence of local
militant Muslim hardliners from the other side. He laments that thedistinct culture of Minicoy is getting irremediably lost417

This pride that is inborn in Divehi women is probably the single mostdistinctive feature of Maldive civilization. It is the factor that makes
Maldives stand out most clearly as a separate nation among the nearest
South Asian countries, although it goes generally unacknowledged.
Yet this quality has been often terribly misinterpreted in the neighboring
Subcontinent: In 1995, a young Maldivian woman, Maryam Rashīda, wasarrested in South India, in the city of Trivandrum, on charges of being aspy. After interrogation, one senior Malayali police officer remarked tothe press: “She (Maryam Rashīda) has absolutely no inhibitions.” This
comment was prompted because this girl didn’t display any of the
sheepishness ―or feigned shyness― which is expected from South Indian
women in their interactions with men. Another explanation could be that
she wore modern ‘Western’ dress, like younger generation Maldivian
women usually do, unless they have been enrolled in the Arabic
Madrasahs or have fallen under the influence of the sectarian Islamizing
groups active within the country.
What the Indian Police spokesman above felt compelled to express about
this hapless girl arises out of a fundamental misunderstanding between
two neighboring cultures, for in spite of the geographical proximity thepeople of South India generally not aware of the cultural differences ofMaldivians or Minicoyans. In Maldivian society men and women are free
to interact together without being subject to the constant self-righteous
inquisition and reprehension of sex-segregated Kerala. 441 In the Divehi

441

Kalpana Ram’s own experience as a ‘Westernized Indian’ in Kerala is revealing:“(In Kerala) women’s apparent adaptations to a Western model are viewed with aprurient curiosity, mixed with connotations of moral betrayal but also with
anticipations of the sexual availability projected onto Western women. My best
hope was to be subjected to the more benign versions of surveillance, to outrightwonderment and curiosity, rather than to the brutal forms of sexual aggression andhostility. I was fortunate in the rural areas where my fieldwork was based. My
experiences were less happy in the crowded, seething urban streets of
Trivandrum.” K. Ram ‘Op. cit.’418

traditional environment it was rather inhibited women, acting coy andsubdued, that were mistrusted and considered threatening. The following
oft-quoted Maldive proverb reflects the fact that Maldivians have anatural tendency to be suspicious of women looking sheepish:“Maḍuṅ moṣē gurā bārah daigannāne eve.”
The parrot crowing softly will bite most viciously.” (Or “Maḍuṅ inna gurābārah daigannāne eve.” The parrot staying quiet will bite most viciously.)
Since in the Maldive Islands, male intimidation and sexual aggression
against females is extremely low compared to the level prevalent inpresent-day Kerala, Maldivian women are bred feeling comfortable within
their own society and grow up being fearless of men. As a consequence ofthe safe environment thus created, their personalities are able to growunrepressed, like flowers that can fully open in a favorable atmosphere.
Unlike their counterparts in India, Divehi females are not exclusively
responsible of having to represent a ‘tradition’ that has been adulterated
in favor of the males.442 Therefore, traditionally they have been freed
from the indignity of systematic sexual discrimination so common in other
South Asian states.

442

In present-day South Asian societies, the word ‘tradition’ and its contextual
meaning should be taken with caution, especially concerning women. The Vanuatu
poetess Grace Mera Molisa writes powerfully about the counterfeit gender roles
promoted in the name of ‘tradition’ in modern times: “Custom” - misapplied bastardised - murdered/ a frankenstein corpse - conveniently - recalled - tointimidate - women. Quoted by Anne D’Alleva, Op. cit.
419

2.6.2 THE MYSTERY OF FEMALE POWER
It is difficult to find a traditional Maldive tale where there is not a woman,or a group of women, playing a central role. Despite the heavy influenceof Hindi movies and a number of foreign soap-operas, story-tellingremained popular in Maldives in the 1980’s. The local radio often staged
story-telling contests and to meet the growing demand, old tales werechanged and rewritten. Thus, romantic elements have been introduced inorder to make recent Divehi stories more attention-grabbing in acommercial sense.
Even though the new popular stories are pervaded by culturally alienfeatures, still the heroines must remain in the foreground to please theMaldive public. The graphics of contemporary Divehi novelettes sold in
local bookstores, as well as the illustrations at the head of the story
section of the major Divehi newspapers, prominently display figures ofbeautiful women.
In certain characteristic Maldive tales reflecting lore of great antiquity, thepurpose of the woman in the main role and the plot of the legend findjustification in the display of her supernatural powers. Much in the samemanner as the stories which form the background of the ancient
Dravidian female divinities in the neighboring Subcontinent, sexuality andromance are not essential to the narrative and may be totally absent.
Even something as important in the popular tales of Maldivians as thebeauty of the main female character is done away with. Although the coreof these ancient Divehi stories revolves around a central female figure,whether she is beautiful or not becomes irrelevant and, instead, theemphasis is laid on the extraordinary events surrounding that particularwoman.
This type of Divehi narrative often connects the heroine with a particular
locality and, as has been previously outlined, the main difference between
Dravidian village-deities and the goddesses of the Brahmanic pantheon is420that their origin is associated with a geographical location. Their story
usually begins on earth, often as the ghost of some person who has died.
In the following Divehi story no dates were mentioned and, although it istold as if it would have been a relatively recent event,443 its features are
similar to legends behind local female deities in South India:
The Lament“In Miladummaḍulu Atoll there is an uninhabited island called
Burehifasdū. Long ago, an old man from a distant island and two young
sisters from the neighboring inhabited island lived there as caretakers. The
girls worked very hard during the day, thus they retired early.
One evening, while the sisters were sleeping inside their thatched hut as
usual, the mosquitoes were especially irritating and the old man decided
to drive them away. Thus, he made a little heap of coconut husks in frontof the door and set it on fire. After a while, he put the flames off, so thatthe breeze would carry the smoke inside to drive away the mosquitoes.
Then he left to finish some work he had to do before going to sleep.
However, the old man didn’t check the smoking heap well and, while he
was away, it caught fire. The flames licked the front of the hut and, feelingthe heat, the sisters woke up. The girls stared horrified at the fierce flames
which were now blocking their only exit. In sheer panic, the younger sistersprang recklessly past their scorching gate. But the elder sister didn’t dare
to jump after her and, in despair, took the fatal decision of hiding under
the cot.

443

Told in 1987 by Mohamed Ibrahīm, Selvio, Male’.
421

Soon the blaze enveloped the whole hut. Presently, the old man, having
seen the light of the tall flames, returned in haste. He found the younger
woman badly burned and in shock.
She yelled at him: “Go, get Dattā out!”
Frantically the girl ran back and forth. The old man was at a loss about
what to do and the girl stared at him fiercely and demanded: “Dosomething!”
Right then, the burning walls collapsed inward and the elder sister gave apiercing death scream through the flames: “Addōy, ma saharō!”444
Hearing this, the younger sister went mad. The old man tried to calm her,
but the girl kept darting about like possessed, waving her arms wildly andmuttering incoherent words.
Running onto the shallow reef, she piled up firewood on a flat coral rockrising above the waterline, screaming, “We must warn the people in
Hembadū! Dattā must be saved! Dattā must be saved!” She kindled thewood, but the wind blew the flames down.
Seeing her signaling fire fail, the girl rushed to the bokkurā (dinghy),
pushed it into the lagoon and jumped in it. Ignoring her painful injuries,
she rowed frenziedly. However, the wind and the current were very strongthat night and, despite her superhuman efforts, the young woman was
unable to reach Hembadū. Instead, the bokkurā drifted towards anotherisland, Bōmasdū. There the girl jumped ashore and, even though she was
not familiar with the village, she went screaming along the streets until
the people woke up. Weeping, she told them what had happened.

444

An interjection of intense pain (akin to Tamil ‘Ayyō’), followed by the cry “Woe to
me!”
422

Immediately, some men brought the girl on a dōni (sailing boat) to nearby
Hembadū, where her people lived. She was sobbing all the time, wiping
her face with her bloody hands. The young woman was a scary sight withher face smeared with blood, her hands scraped raw from so muchrowing, her feet bleeding from the wounds (inflicted by sharp corals while
she walked on the reef carrying firewood) and the burns on different partsof her body. Seeing the girl in such a state, crying hysterically, her familybrought her immediately home and tended her wounds.
In the morning a group of people went to Burehifasdū. The party searchedthrough the small smoking ruin, while the bewildered old caretaker stared,
as though hypnotized, at the charred remains of the hut.
The young woman’s body was completely carbonized, except for her silver
bracelet and a small piece of her intestine. Since then, no one has lived in
Burehifasdū. However, even now, people who happen to go there say that,once a day, you may hear the girl’s tormented wail: “Addōy, ma saharō!”eerily echoing all over the island.
In the end of the story there is a parallel with the myths explaining thehuman origin of various Dravidian village goddesses. In the legend of a
local Dēvi called Buchamma (Pośamma) from Andhra Pradesh, whose
worship includes the usual blood sacrifices, it is said that after her bodywas burnt: “Her father went to the fire-pit and after searching in theashes, found her jewels and ‘tali botu’ or wedding symbol.”445 Compare
this legend also with the local myth of Kitsamma, from Andhra Pradesh:“The fact that she spoke from the flames makes her a goddess of unusual
power. After her death some of the people who had heard her call from

445

W.T.Elmore. Op. cit. above.
423

the flames, went to a place at some distance and addressed her threetimes, to which calls she replied.” 446
In Maldives, as has been previously outlined, women are very often
connected to extraordinary or portentous happenings. Those events andthe role of the woman, or women, in them are always presented in theform of a story where the context and the narrative are purely local. Theybuild a nexus between the people and the islands they belong to by
introducing a new meaning and a new perspective to familiar places.
Hence, all types of island people have a special fascination for thesestories. The one that follows is one of the many versions of a recently
popularized island legend as told in 1990 by Ahumad Dīdī, Alifuḷuge, Fua
Mulaku Island:
The Girl in the Shark’s Belly“Long ago in the island of Fiōri, on the massive coral reef that fringes theocean in Southern Huvadū Atoll lived a young girl who was her parent’s
only child. She was not only a very pretty girl but she also had a goodeducation. Her manners and learning were excellent, because her parents
had looked after her very well. However, she herself felt that they werealways protecting her too much and she wanted to have more freedom,
like the other girls in the island.
One day she told her mother: “Annyā, (the word for “mother” in Huvadu
Atoll) I am always inside the house. The other girls say it is such fun to go
to the beach to bring saltwater.”
The mother replied lovingly: “You don’t need to go to look for saltwater,
we are affluent and there are people who will do it for us.”

446

Ibid
424

But the girl insisted: “Aḷā447 let me go with them!”
Then the woman told her daughter this story: “When you were a baby, alearned man from Vādū came here and read our palms. He told yourfather and me that you would always be our only child and that we would
never have any more offspring. Then he looked at your tiny hand and said
that something would happen to you before becoming a woman. We
asked him what he meant, but he only told us that he didn’t know.
However, he instructed us to watch over you very well.” Then she smiled
and continued: “That is why we either keep you always at home or we let
you only go out when we go along with you.”
But the daughter insisted, promising that she would be very careful andthat the other girls who would go with her could watch over her too.
Finally, she cried and looked so desolate that her mother let her go.
The girl was given a guḷi (a terracotta pot) and left along with the othergirls to the beach to a spot called Aḍḍanāhuṭṭā. There she had a greattime playing in the water and in the sand with her friends. After a while,when it was getting late, her companions went to a deeper place and filled
their pots with saltwater. Then they waded up to the beach and every girl,after putting the pot on her head, went home.
Now this girl had been left alone because she could not wade as well as
her friends. She tried to do as they did and went to the edge of a deeper
place to fill her pot. Unfortunately she lost her balance and fell splashinginto the water. She managed to keep afloat by holding the pot with themouth downwards, but, the current carried her swiftly away from Fiōri,
across the lagoon towards the ocean. The girl panicked when she saw thatthe bottom under her was becoming a deeper shade of blue. She screamed447

A common exclamation meaning “come on!” in Huvadu; “Aḷē!” in Male’ Bas425

and yelled for help until her voice was hoarse, but, as nobody had seen her
falling in, no one could hear her.
Anyway, the island was now far off in the distance and the girl was now
being tossed by the surf over the dark waters.448 She was so terrified that
she held tightly to her pot closing her eyes all the time.
Far offshore, one of the huge predator sharks that cruise the Indian Ocean
close to the surface, saw the little figure floating over the dark blue depths
and, without hesitating, opened its mouth open wide and gulped the girlin an instant.
After some days had passed, in a northern atoll of the Kingdom, there
were some fishermen who had sailed far into the ocean to hunt the big
sharks as was customary in their island (the specific island was not
mentioned in this version). That day, the men aboard the boat caught a
big fish and were full of joy. They followed it, slowly drawing in the line all
the while, and saw that it was a very large tiger shark. When they got
close enough, the keuḷu (master fisherman) exclaimed: “Look! It is turningand showing its belly.”
The other fishermen looked at him and asked in puzzlement: “What does
this mean Keuḷubē?”The master fisherman looked at the huge white belly of the shark over thesurface as if lost in thoughts and said: “I have never seen this before, but I
heard old people say that this means that a human being is inside.”Thus, the fishermen threw their harpoons skilfully, close to the jaws,
taking care not to touch the shark’s belly. Blood oozed abundantly fromthe wounded gills, staining the ocean around them red. Once they were
sure that the mighty fish was dead, they tied it along the boat and sailed

448

Right off Fiyōri the bottom of the ocean quickly sinks to a depth of 2,000 m
426

immediately to the uninhabited island where they used to slaughter theircatch. When they pulled the shark ashore, they carefully opened the big
belly with a knife and, to their astonishment, found a girl cuddled inside,
holding her pot tightly against her. She was miraculously alive.
The girl opened her eyes wide and looked frightened. She didn’t say aword when the fishermen addressed her and didn’t offer any resistancewhen they took her out of the belly. They washed her with sea water andbrought her to their boat. The girl watched the men in silence while they
cut the huge liver off the shark and prepared it to make oil. Once they hadfinished their work the fishermen jumped aboard and sailed back to theirisland.
Everyone was surprised when they saw the men who had gone fishing
sharks arrive with an unknown young woman. Soon a crowd gatheredaround the fishermen. Keuḷubē brought the distraught girl to his home
and, after she had a bath and some food, she went to sleep. During thefollowing days the girl didn’t speak at all. Keuḷubē’s family found out that
she was very well-bred, but only after a long time she began to stammer
some words. She didn’t remember from where she had come from andwhen they tried to ask her about her island of origin, she became soterrified that she fell completely silent, staring into the void.
Years passed and Keuḷubē looked all the time after this mysterious girl as if
she had been his own daughter. When she became a very pretty grown
woman, she married one of the keuḷu’s sons. This made her adoptive
father very happy, because both his son and his daughter-in-law remainedin his own home. As years went by, the girl had children and everyone
forgot about the extraordinary way in which she came to the island. The
only odd thing about her was that she was very afraid of the sea andwould refuse to go to the beach even to wet her feet.
One day, on a batteli (trading boat) coming from the South, the father ofthe long-lost child happened to visit the island where Keuḷubē lived. He
427

was now a very old man with white hair. Once ashore, he said he was
exhausted from the trip and needed some rest. He was brought to thekeuḷu’s home and sat on the undōli (swing) in the cool verandah. When heasked for a glass of water, his own daughter came and gave the glass tohim. The old man was startled and told her not to go. While she stood
puzzled in front of him, he studied the young woman carefully.
“Who is this girl?” He asked Keuḷubē. Then his host sent her back to the
kitchen and described in detail the circumstances of the girl’s arrival to theisland.
Once his host had finished the story, the old man didn’t know what to say.
Suddenly tears welled up in his eyes and Keuḷubē asked him: “What ishappening?” And then the father of the girl narrated how his only
daughter had disappeared long ago from Fiōri and how, after months offruitless search, they had given up all hopes of ever finding her alive.
At this point Keuḷubē told the girl to come and asked her whether she
knew who their guest was. She looked at the old man squinting with hereyes, but after a while she said that she didn’t recognize him. Then the oldvisitor told her the whole story. All of a sudden, the girl remembered andbegan to weep. Everyone watching them was in complete silence, even thechildren. Suddenly, the young woman ran away and went to hide in the
kitchen where she began to sob aloud.
After a long while the girl came out, her eyes still wet with tears. This time
she looked at the old man again and smiled, full of joy at the reunion. All
the people present began to talk excitedly and the silence was broken.
Beaming with pride she called her children to show them their real
grandfather. Hugging the little boys and girls, the unexpected visitor told
her: “This is the happiest day in my life. I will send word to your mother tocome here so that she can see her daughter again in this world.”
This tale prominently mentions the fishing of large sharks, a type offishing full of risk, known as mākeuḷukaṅ and sung in epic form in raivaru
428poetry (Mākeuḷukamuge raivaru). The sharks fished are large speceies
such as tiger shark, white shark and mako. Fishermen spend about threedays at sea in certain points where the large sharks are known to cruise.
The boat is stabilized by sandbags sunk to a certain depth held by a mere
three strands of thin rope. After being attracted to a hook with a bait ofrotten fish or a rotten sea turtle with maggots and all, pieces of the kernelof young coconuts are thrown. When the shark bites the hook, thestabilizing sandbags break free and the shark drags the boat along until it
is tired. Finally, when the shark comes close enough it is harpooned.
Traditionally those large sharks were killed for their liver oil, which was
mainly used to coat the wood below the waterline in Maldivian boats.
Therefore typically only the liver was taken to make oil and the rest of the
shark was left to rot to be used in turn as future bait. The stench of therotten sharks was so unbearable that this activity would not be carriedout in the fishermen’s home islands, but in a separate uninhabited islandor islet. Since more recent times the shark flesh is salted and sold tomerchants who export it abroad. 449
This legend has been recently popularized and written in novelette form
by Ahumadu Sharīfu, a contemporary Divehi writer. His small novel makes
interesting reading, as it describes a number of customs and ceremonies
related to island life in ancient times.450 In his version, the girl hails fromMārandū, an island at the northern end of Huvadū Atoll which is now
uninhabited. Swallowed by the shark when she was only about three
years old, the girl was later found in the island of Takandū, Tiladummati
Atoll, in the far North.

449

Sources: Nizar, Hinnavaru (Fādippoḷu Atoll) and documents from the Maldive
Islands section. National Archives, Colombo.
450

Ahumadu Sharīfu, Maradū Island, Aḍḍu Atoll “Miyaru Baṇḍun Negi Kujjā” (TheGirl taken from the Shark’s Belly).
429

In all the versions recorded the girl was from Huvadū Atoll as well, and in
most variants, she is from Vilingili, an island happening to be located in
the northern end of that large Atoll. However, in clear divergence from
Ahumadu Sharīfu’s version, in oral tradition the heroine is not in her earlychildhood during the fortuitous event involving the shark. In the stories
still told in the South of Maldives, the girl at that time is between ten andtwelve years old, right before puberty, for according to Divehi tradition,
the pre-adolescent phase of a girl’s life, before performing the libās
levvuṅ puberty ritual, is a critical age. It is considered to be the time whengirls are most in danger of something awful happening to them.
Furthermore, while in A. Sharīfu’s novelette the little girl walks straight tothe beach and into the lagoon unseen by her mother ―oddly enough, thereason why she keeps afloat without drowning when carried away by thecurrents is left unexplained―, in the oral tradition she gets lost while
going to fetch saltwater with a pot, either a ceramic cylindrical guḷi or ametallic spherical baṇḍiyā, depending from the storyteller.
The girl didn’t know how to swim because her protective parents had
never allowed her to go to the beach. However, she didn’t drown while
being carried away into the ocean by the current because she was holding
to her container placed with the mouth downwards, to keep it full of air―a trick she had just learned from her friends―. Therefore, the pot is ofcentral importance in the story, contributing to the salvation of the girl’slife. This is the reason why she still holds to it tightly when she is foundwithin the shark’s stomach. The pot or vessel is a symbol of the goddess
because of the parallels between it and the mother’s womb. Some South
Indian village goddesses are represented by a pot. Owing to the neglectedstate of the Maldive folklore, it is not surprising to find such disparities
between variants of the same story in oral tradition and the written
novelette version. Among contemporary Divehi writers reproducing theirlocal folklore with fidelity doesn’t seem to be a priority.
This story not only echoes Dravidian folk-goddess stories, but it also has
affinities with the biography of a certain Buddhist Siddha called Mīna or
430

Matsyendranātha. This Buddhist saint was swallowed by a giant fish while
he was fishing and it is said that he kept alive within its belly owing to his
favorable Karma. Mīna used this circumstance to practice austerity,
thereby obtaining great siddhi powers. Many years later, the fish in which
he dwelled was caught by fishermen and was towed to their village. There
all the locals were astonished when they cut open the fish belly and saw
the unharmed Siddha emerge unharmed out of it.451
The legend of the girl in the shark’s belly is not the only story in Maldives
about the connection between a human being and large fish in singularcircumstances. The story ‘Donmohonāi Miyaru’ tells about a young man
who liked to sit daily on the trunk of a coconut palm bending over thelagoon. After some time he strikes friendship with a shark he sees every
day swimming in the waters below.
There is also a well-known Maldivian local legend displaying similarities
with the stories about Buddhist Siddhas and their supernatural powers. I
heard this story both from Said Abdulla (Sīdī), Pearl, Male’ and from
Husēn Dīdī, Karānge, Fua Mulaku right at the beginning of my stay in
Maldives. Later, as I adopted the methodology of asking different persons
to tell me stories I already knew, I heard it from a number of otherpeople. More than a real story it is just a reference without a plot in it. It
could possibly be a fragment of a very old story too. The hero of this tale
is a man who, for many years, wandered across the oceans holding onto
the back fin of a huge fish (whale), for in Maldivian folklore, whales were
not considered to be mammals, but just another kind of fish. It is said thatthe lower part of this person’s body, from the waist downwards, wascovered with barnacles and seaweed.
This fact draws attention to the amazingly long time that this man had
been living on the seas with part of his body constantly under water. Logs

451

H. W. Schumann, Op. cit.
431

that drift for months in the ocean are covered with barnacles andseaweed below the waterline. They begin growing in patches and they will
end up covering the whole hull of a boat when it has been left quite a longtime floating without being put ashore. Barnacles are resilient marine
creatures and are notorious for being a nuisance.
Most islanders telling this myth don’t question at all the fact whether it islikely or not that a man would survive for such a long time in thesaltwater. This story, like the two previous ones about extraordinary
events, is a wonder in itself and it is there to be listened to in amazement
and not to be questioned. And, incidentally, within a non-oceanic
background, quite similar claims are made about ascetics or Ṛṣis in the
Subcontinent.
In Indian traditions it is often mentioned that some sages sit for such along time performing penance that creepers grow on them. In the wellknown case of Vālmīki,452 the writer of the Rāmāyaṇa, he remained somany years deeply immersed in ascetic trance that he ended upcompletely covered by an anthill (Skt. Vālmīka), hence his name.

452

R.K. Narayan, ‘Gods, Demons and Others.’
432

Part III. At the Threshold of the Spirit World
Und die Menschen vergaßen allmählich die alten Gottheiten. Die Alten
nahmen die Überlieferungen mit ins Grab, die von den Vorfahren ererbten
Traditionen starben mit ihnen. Mit den Jahren wurden aus den Jungen alte
Männer, doch sie erinnerten sich bereits an nichts mehr. Die halbvergessene
Geschichte des Stammes und die neuen Göttervorstellungen vermengten sich in
ihren Köpfen auf phantastische Weise.
L.W. Saposchnikowa; Wege im Dschungel, Erlebnisse einer Ethnologin unter
indischen Bergvölkern; Leipzig 1970

3.1.1 ANCIENT SORCERERS: MYTHS OF ORIGIN
In ancient Maldives, successful faṇḍita men (sorcerers) were so highly
respected that they became established as famous figures of the island
lore even long after their death. The admiration bestowed upon them inthe traditional society was such that in the narration of their mighty deeds
the lines between myth and reality became blurred. In some cases evengeographical features were ascribed to the activity of ancient sorcerers.
Thus, their names continued to be remembered and honored many
centuries later.
In the Maldive origin myth that follows, the figure of the faṇḍita man iscentral to the story. Unfortunately his name has been lost, but thisunknown sorcerer is connected with the Divehi myth of the origin of thecoconut palm. This important tree is called divehi ru’ (Maldive palm) in
the Island language. Maldivians make a cultural claim on this tree becausemuch of the local landscape, activities and wealth, are dominated by it. In

433

spite of its scant length and lack of detail, this myth453 which describes theanthropomorphic origin of the coconut palm reflects the lore of theearliest times of the islands:
The First Coconuts“Very, very long ago the first people who came to the Maldives couldn’t
live on the islands because there were no coconuts and no coconut palms.
Food, drink, shelter, utensils, wood for boatbuilding, firewood, medicines,
toys for children, whistles, baskets, cooking oil, lighting oil, hair oil,brooms, rope and shade, among other benefits can be got from themarvelous coconut tree.
Those very first people on the Maldive Islands found it so difficult to live
without those essential things that they began to die in great numbers.
However, a great faṇḍita man, seeing that so many people were dying
every day, decided that he had to do something. After searching in his
books, he prepared a certain secret magic mixture.454 Then, he went to thegraveyards and, before burial, he put a bit of that mixture in the mouth of
every dead man, woman and child.
During the following weeks the deaths continued unabated. However,after some time, out of the mouth of every skull a coconut palm grew.
Months passed and the trees began to develop. Some were big, others
small, some fair and others dark, depending from the color and size of thecorpse out of which they had originated.
In this manner the Maldive Islands were soon covered by coconut trees.
However, only few people had remained alive to witness this splendor.
453

Told by Vaijehēge Alī Dīdī. Fua Mulaku

454

The word used by the storyteller was bēs (medicine).
434

Then the great faṇḍita man taught the survivors how to make use of
everything the tree gives and the people stopped dying. Soon their
existence became easier thanks to the coconut palms. In recognition, they
set some coconuts from every palm aside to plant new coconut trees.
From that time onwards, the future looked bright for the islanders,
because there is no better wealth that a Maldivian father can give as alegacy to his children, than a great number of coconut palms planted byhis own effort.
None of the ancient stories of the Maldivians tells where the earliest
islanders came from. In all the myths, when foreign kings and religious
figures arrived occasionally through the centuries, and perhaps millennia,
Maldivians were already living in their islands. According to the myth
above, the coconut tree has a human origin and the nut itself is identified
with a skull. Of the three spots that every coconut shell has at one end,
the hard two spots are reckoned to be the ‘eyes’ of the skull, while thesofter spot from which the shoot will come out, is its ‘mouth’. Even now in
the Divehi language, the hard coconut shell and the human skull containthe same word: nāṣi.
There are different varieties of coconut trees and nuts. Some trees nevergrow tall. Nuts come in different sizes and colors, from pale yellow toorange and olive green and, in the Divehi language, the names given to
the different colors of nuts correspond to the names given to different
skin shades of people.
The coconut was also a symbol of new life: at childbirth, ancient
Maldivians would not throw away the placenta. It was customary to place
it inside the shell of an empty coconut in the kihah stage ―young coconut
having soft shell― with the severed top as a cap, following which it would
be buried outside of the burial ground and a coconut tree would435

immediately be planted in the same spot.455 Thus, people could see along
their lives the growth of the coconut palm that had been planted right at
the moment of their birth. The custom of burying the placenta in a kihah,
which looks very much like a small funerary urn, stemmed probably fromthe repugnance ancient Maldivians had for letting human remainders bein direct contact with the earth, for in this Island country all deceased
persons would be buried in a wooden coffin. If they could not afford one
or if wooden planks were not available, the corpse would be packaged inwoven coconut palm fronds.
Even miscarried fetuses or very small children would be buried in small‘coffins’ made out of a section of the thick stem of the plantain tree. To be
ready for the eventuality of having a proper burial, many Maldivian
houses would have the dry wooden planks for the coffins of the family
inside the home, resting on the inner beams. The idea that the planks of
their future coffin were constantly in full sight of the men, women andchildren living in the household did not seem to disturb local people theleast. Being prepared for eventual death was a matter of pride.
Ripe coconuts had primordial relevance in an ancient ritual called niuḷuṅ
jehuṅ. This ceremony would be performed to bring auspiciousness to a
new boat (or a renovated one). A person ―or a number of persons―holding a coconut would turn around the completed vessel before it was
launched into the sea and break the coconut below its prow.
Although the niuḷuṅ jehuṅ took place mostly in relation with boats, thissame ceremony would be performed around a house in the event that its
dwellers would be having problems in the forms of frequent quarrels or
dislike by neighbors. The ritual would begin by placing the dāiy(grindstone) before the door. Then, all the members of the household

455

Source: Himitige (Bīruge) Halīma, a midwife from Miskimmago, Fua Mulaku(1985)
436

would walk around the house ―the older men first followed by the young
and the women― holding a coconut and finally breaking it on thegrindstone. In this manner the house would be made auspicious again.
These niuḷun jehuṅ rituals were always presided by a faṇḍitaveriyā. The
breaking of coconuts is an important feature of popular worship in South
India and Ceylon as well.456
As the coconut tree has occupied since time immemorial a central place inMaldive Island culture, it is not surprising that along with the growth ofnationalism worldwide, it has nowadays been incorporated into local
nationalist symbology. A coconut tree with eleven fronds is part of themodern Maldive national emblem and the green-colored rectangle at thecenter of the national flag is said to have been inspired by the green colorof the fronds of the coconut palm, which symbolizes the country’s wealth.
The origin myth that follows also reflects the lore of very ancient times. Its
importance lies in the fact that it seeks to explain how the skipjack tuna
(Katsuwonus pelamis), the basic and most appreciated Maldive food fish,came to the waters surrounding the Atolls. Considered ‘the king of thefishes’ in Maldives, skipjack tuna (kaḷubilamas or kaṇḍumas) is thefavorite fish of Divehi people and it is topmost in the list of theirgastronomical preferences. What makes it most valued in their diet is thefirmness of its flesh, its dark red color and its rich taste. It can bepreserved very well as “Maldive Fish” and formerly it was not only a good
resource for lean fishing times, but also a valuable trade item.
Second to skipjack tuna come other pelagic fishes closely related to it, likeyellowfin tuna (kanneli), little tuna (laṭṭi), frigate mackerel (rāgoṇḍi), andwahoo (kurumas), whose flesh is still firm, though somewhat whitish.

456

Source: Zāhiruge Muhammad Dīdī and Vaijehēge Alī Dīdī of Fua Mulaku. The
latter had witnessed such rituals before they disappeared.
437

Reef fish (farumas) were not valued by Maldive Islanders in former times
and were considered a lower kind of food. According to Divehi
nomenclature the term farumas (reef fish) includes many species that are
pelagic, for the term kaṇḍumas (ocean fish) is used mostly to refer to thetuna species having red flesh. However, some of the larger species
belonging to this category, such as red snappers (raiymas), jacks (handi),
and quite a few others ―such as the fiyala of the story that follows―
were occasionally welcome at the table of the average Maldivian. Sharks(miyaru) and rays (maḍi) were not greatly appreciated because of their
particular texture and smell.
Concerning preference for certain species of the great variety of smaller
reef fish, there used to be slight variations between the different atolls,
and even from one island to the other, and it can be said that the favorite
among these smaller fishes was the big-eye scad (muṣimas). But, unlike in
Polynesia, moray eels (veṅ) were never eaten in the Maldives. Finally,
parrot fishes (laṇḍā) with their soft, somewhat smelly flesh were probably
the most despised food fish by Divehi standards.
Lobsters, clams, squid, crabs and other marine invertebrates, though
appreciated in other countries, were eaten by Maldivians only in case of
emergency; especially when fishing in a particular island was so bad that‘proper’ fish was impossible to find. Still, there are some exceptions tothis rule, for quite a few people enjoy the tough flesh of the octopus(bōva), and a certain sea snail (donaṅga) used to be a popular delicacy in
the Northern part of the archipelago, including the capital island Male’.
Again, like in the previous myth, the central character of the following one
is a great faṇḍitaveriyā. 457 This story contains a number of esoteric details
and, while in the legend about the coconuts the name of the ancient457

Told in 1991 in Male’ by Nihani Riza.
438faṇḍita man is unknown, in this instance, the hero’s name and the factthat he was skilled in the art of navigation are prominently mentioned:
The First Tunas“Long ago, in the island of Feridū in Ari Atoll, lived a famous navigator(mālimi) called Boḍu Niyami Takurufānu. One day he went on a trading
journey with his ship and on the third day at sea his crew caught a big
fiyala (Coryphaena hippurus). This is a large pelagic fish with very tasty
flesh and whose head is considered a delicacy. Boḍu Niyami, who
happened to be up the mast at that time busy with his astronomical
calculations, called down to his men and told them to keep the head of the
fish for him.
However, when he came down from the mast with his instruments, hefound out that, after boiling the fish, someone from the crew had alreadyeaten the head and, after picking it clean, had thrown it to the sea. ThenBoḍu Niyami flew into a rage and refused to give indications to thehelmsman. When the latter insisted, the outraged navigator said: “Gotowards the head of the fiyala!”
In this manner they sailed for eighty eight days until they reached thegiant black-coral tree at the edge of the world.458 It was a frightening
place. The current was very strong and huge masses of water were fallingin a big roar down the edge beyond the black tree. The crew was so scared
that, in despair, they threw a line and fastened the ship to one of the
branches of the huge tree. Following this, they fell down on their knees
begging Boḍu Niyami to save them.

458

The actual Antipatharia or black coral (enderi) doesn’t rise above sea level likethis mythical tree. It lives at a depth of about 20 m and is related to the Gorgonids.
Its skeleton, made of black keratin, is very appreciated by local jewelers
439

Finally the navigator, seeing the poor sailors so helpless and frightened,
told them that his anger was gone, but that they would have to wait sometime before the wind and the tide became favorable. Although the anxious
crew spent a sleepless night, the next morning, they were pleasantly
surprised. The sea had become calm and there were some strange big
fishes leaping in the waters close to the giant tree.
Boḍu Niyami thought: “This is a beautiful fat fish and its flesh must be
good and firm.” So he took a piece of parchment and traced on it its
figure. Then he recited some magic words over it to capture the souls of
the mysterious fish. After this he rolled the drawing, put it into a bamboo
flask and sealed it.
After three days passed and the wind became favorable, the ship sailed
back towards the Maldives and a school of the strange fish followed in its
wake. After sailing for eighty eight days they reached Tiladummati Atolland the school of fish had increased in numbers to such an extent that
there was barely free water around the ship and some of the fish jumped
onto the boat’s deck.
As they approached the Baraveli Kaṇḍu, north of Ari Atoll, the crew saw
something that looked like two huge rocks rising out of the sea directly
ahead of them. Boḍu Niyami realized that those were the pincers of the
Queen of the Hermit Crabs and that she had come up from the depths
attracted by the huge numbers of beautiful fish following his ship. Then
this mighty navigator quickly realized that he had to do something to send
the whole school of fish towards the bottom of the ocean immediately,otherwise the giant hermit crab might catch his ship instead of the fish.
Thus, Boḍu Niyami quickly took the rolled parchment out of the sealed
bamboo flask and, after attaching a weight to it, threw the magicaldrawing into the dark waters as far away from his ship as he could. The
crew watched in relief as the school of fish disappeared into the blue
depths and the pincers of the Queen of the Hermit Crabs sank out of sight.
440

After arriving to Feridū without further incident, Boḍu Niyami went ashore
to sleep. On the next morning he sailed on his fishing boat to the west of
his island and threw the empty bamboo flask into the ocean. Since then, at
any time of the year, there are schools of skipjack tuna in those seas.
People in Feridū claim that Boḍu Niyami Takurufānu’s tomb can still beseen; apparently, two low sand hills on the island mark the place where
he built his traveling ship. However, it is not unlikely that these mounds
might actually be the remainders of an ancient Buddhist Stupa. Similar
low hills are present in most of the relatively large Maldive Islands that
had been inhabited eight centuries ago.
The part where the navigator directs the boat towards the head of thefish, at the beginning of this story, is often told as a separate legend called‘Fiyala Bolah Oḍi Duvvi’ (‘the boat was directed towards the head of thefiyala-fish’). Accordingly, here two stories have been tied up, a method
not at all uncommon in Maldive oral tradition.
In the shorter version, the boat ends up in the African coast, the cargo
and ship are lost and the captain, traders and crew only come back to
Maldives with much difficulty. The morale of this well-known Maldive taledraws attention to the dangers of arousing anger. Not only fools, but evenlearned and respected people, such as the navigator, can become reckless
when their resentment and stubbornness are aroused by a trifle. Theirself-destructive anger makes them ready to ruin themselves, not caring
about drawing others in their wake.

441

3.1.2 MYTHS OF EXTINCTION
There is not much in the way of myths of extinction in the Maldive folknarrative. However, the general idea is that at the end of the ages there
will be a great natural disaster and the waters of the surrounding ocean
will cover the whole country. That will be not only the end of theMaldives, but also of the whole world.
Such a line of thought is only natural in this extremely low country that is
so vulnerable to the onslaught of tidal waves, and which, therefore,
perceives itself as being constantly under threat by the sheer force andpervasiveness of the Indian Ocean.
Interestingly, there are similar myths among the aboriginal inhabitants ofother island groups in the Indian Ocean, such as the Andaman and the
Nicobar Islands, where the ground is on average much higher than in theMaldives. Much as in the Maldive myth, the Andamanese lore talks also
about great cataclysms submerging all land and drowning men andbeasts. The Nicobar Islanders, although from different ethnic origin, also
have a myth about a great catastrophe flooding the entire land.459 In theMaldives, the drama of this perceived fate is given a true dimension
through the fact that the physical existence of this nation is apparently
threatened by sea-level rise. Being so flat, the whole country could easily
disappear owing to a rise in the level of the oceans.
There are no mountains and no cliffs at all in the Maldives, where all dry
land is just a few feet above the mean sea level. The highest points of thecountry are a few unimpressive dunes. These are no higher than 6 m andare present only in a few islands, like Guḷi in South Male’ Atoll and thenorthwestern shore of Hitadū Island in Aḍḍū Atoll. In certain islands
lacking these natural features, the highest points are ancient man-made459

Anjana Kaul ‘Andaman and Nicobar, Islands in the Sun.’442

mounds. These are mostly the ruins of Buddhist Stupas, the mostconspicuous one being probably the one at Isdū, Haddummati Atoll.
According to the tradition of Maldivians, there are mighty copper walls at
the limit of the oceans which hold vast amounts of sea water. It is said
that during the night, evil demons work hard to destroy these walls bylicking them with their tongues. Owing to their persistent and malignant
activity, right before dawn each morning the walls become very thin at
the places were the demons have been damaging the copper. However,every day a certain chant in Arabic known as gunūtu (Arabic ‘Qunut’) issaid to be able to restore the protective walls to their original thickness.
This chant is recited before sunrise, during the fatisnamādu, the dawn
prayer, one of the five obligatory Muslim daily prayers.
The demons who are engaged in trying to damage the copper walls areactive only during the darkness of the night, which is a most inauspicious
time. Hence, it was very important for Maldivians to recite the gunūtu
during the Muslim prayer right before the rising of the sun to undo theevil work the demons did in the previous night. Otherwise the copper
walls would give way and masses of ocean water would sweep over the
Islands destroying everything, killing everyone and submerging the wholearchipelago forever.460
The gunūtu is a brief chant, characteristic of the Shafi’ sect, recited aloudwith the palms of the hands raised in front of the face. Other Muslim sects
don’t consider the reciting of the Qunūt at dawn important at all. Some
Maldivian people say that the destructive demons are led by dajjālu (theAntichrist). Others identify these demons with shaitānu or iblis, the devilof the Islamic tradition.

460

Source: Fatumat Naima, Gaage, Male’. This legend is also quoted by François
Pyrard de Laval in his travel narrative.
443

3.1.3 TANTRIC HEROES
Maldivian faṇḍita men, in their powers and in their characteristics, arevery closely related to the Tantric Heroes and Ṛṣis of the Subcontinent.
Even though there is a background of reality in the stories told about
them, these should be taken with some caution. The line between mythand reality is often blurred and the personalities of different faṇḍita men
are mixed up. This is a problem which mars the biographies of Indian andTibetan Buddhist tantrics as well; and it is important to take this difficulty
into account to put into proper perspective the strange stories told about
mighty Maldivian sorcerers:“Absurd accounts are recorded about the life of Nāgārjuna (AD 645); andwild stories are told of his stupendous magical feats. From learned andscholarly observations it can be easily seen that the Tibetan sources havehopelessly mixed together the accounts of 2d century AD Nāgārjuna (thedisciple of Aśvaghoṣa), with 7th century AD Nāgārjuna (the disciple ofSaraha). The two names thus being separated by 500 years. But as thesetwo persons are taken erroneously to be the same, a serious confusion has
arisen. The Chinese version, which does not take into account the TāntricNāgārjuna, is less confusing, though it also abounds in absurd stories
about his life. ... But it can be easily proven that the second, or the Tāntric,Nāgārjuna is a historical person and a follower of Vajrayāna(Buddhism).”461
In the pages that follow, a few relatively more recent Maldivian faṇḍita
men and their exploits are described in detail:Ahumad-ul-Hāfiz Edurukalēfānu is better known as Dūṇḍigami
Edurukalēfānu. It is said that he lived in the 16th century. There was no461

B. Bhattacharyya, ‘An Introduction to Buddhist Esoterism.’ See also M.
Walleser, ‘The life of Nāgārjuna, from Tibetan and Chinese Sources’444specific reason given for this approximate dating, but if he studied with
Vādu Danna Kalēfānu (see footnote below), it must have indeed been inthat century. Although most of his life is clouded in mystery, fiction woven
with fact in intricate patterns, a feature common to all stories about
Maldivian sorcerers.
There is some historical evidence on Dūṇḍigami Edurukalēfānu ‘s life. He
was born in the village named Dūṇḍigamu, at the southeastern end of Fua
Mulaku Island. His parents were well-off and, while still a child, they sent
him to Vādū in Huvadū Atoll, an island known by its excellent navigators.
While in Vādū, the boy studied with Vādū Dannakalēfānu, also known as
Nāibu Tuttu and as Muhammadu Jamāl-ud-Dīn. Nāibu Tuttu had lived
most of his life in Hadhramaut, Southern Arabia, learning the Arablanguage, customs and religion. This learned man had numerous pupils
while in Maldives in the last quarter of the 16th century. It is claimed thathe spent his last years in near-reclusion in Vādū Island.
After spending many years learning in that island, Ahumadu returned to
Fua Mulaku with a lot of knowledge. His master Nāibu Tuttu had given
him a number of books as a present and he kept them in a safe place at
home. Ahumadu had a good character and, in spite of having become alearned man, he never became arrogant. Instead, he was a gentle,
considerate and kind person, who always spoke to everyone, high or low,with a smile on his face and, according to Maldivian courtesy standards
this trait is very important, for seriousness is interpreted as lack ofrefinement.
This eminent faṇḍita man lived a simple life and never put a distance
between himself and his friends. He was a real islander who liked also towork with his hands. Often, in the night, he liked to go fishing to the reef
with his casting net.462 Like all mighty sorcerers, he was not afraid of462

Del lannā; landā in the Male’ form of the language.
445

spirits. He was acquainted with the world of ferētas, ghosts and goblins,
to such an extent that even those creepy beings had high regard for him,an ability or skill that is also common among Śaiva Tantris or priests allover the Indian Subcontinent. The following story463 describes Ahumadu’s
familiarity with ferētas and his control over powerful reef monsters which
can change size at will:
The Stone Ring“Dūṇḍigami Edurukalēfānu went one evening to the coral reef to cast his
net. He was a bit miffed because he didn’t find anybody to go along withhim. It is not easy to throw the net, while carrying the fish at the sametime, but that particular night all his friends had something else to do.
He went to the reef edge, wading close to the breakers at low tide,
Ahumadu cast his net once and caught a few fish. While he wasdisentangling them from the net, he felt a presence beside him andthought: “Good!” In the starlight, reef and sky shine dull grey and thevegetation on the shore looks black. One cannot make out details of
figures well. However, this renowned sorcerer didn’t ask his companion
who he was and just kept handing over the fishes to him.
Silently, the dark silhouette beside Ahumadu carried the bundle of reef fish
he was catching. When he thought he had fished enough, the faṇḍita man
put his net on his shoulder and waded ashore. While he was walking
through the forest path towards the village, his mysterious helper followed
him without making any sound. When they arrived at the mosque well,Ahumadu washed his arms and legs to get rid of the salt and the fish463

Told in 1985 by Kudu Ibrahīm Dīdī, Daylight Villa, Dūṇḍigam village, Fua
Mulaku446

smell. He noticed that his partner was not washing himself. And, rightthen, he heard the dark presence talk for the first time: “I must leave”.
Ahumadu asked him: “Who are you?” And his companion answered: “I amRaṣikeḍe Ferēta.”464
As an initiated faṇḍitaveriyā that he was, Ahumadu was unfazed: “Takeyour part of the catch.” He said casually.
The monster replied: “No. I will take only one eye.” And he grabbed one of
the fishes and sucked its eye out. Then he turned and left.
Days passed and another day at sunset, Ahumadu went again alone to thecoral reef with his net. The tide was too high and he thought: “The fish will
swim out of the net’s range before it sinks. I think the tide will be lower inan hour, and if I go home now I will not feel like coming back afterwards.”
Thus he waded ashore, chose a good spot behind the bushes above thewaterline, spread his net on the grass and laid down on it. In the twilight
Ahumadu looked at the clouds spread across the sky, noticing how they
kept changing color. Then he fell asleep.
He woke up when a small crab pinched him.465 It was already dark and it
was raining heavily, but to his astonishment he wasn’t wet. When helooked up, Ahumadu saw that a large ferēta was standing right above himon all fours, sheltering him from the pouring rain with its body. Now, when
an islander is suddenly so kind to another it invariably means that he issoon going to ask him or her for something. So the faṇḍitaveriyā enquired:464

Raṣikeḍe is a lonely, windswept point in the southern coast of Fua Mulaku,
where a submerged reef (Raṣikeḍe Faro) extends for a further two miles
southwestwards into the ocean.
465

Beach crabs do this to check whether something edible has drifted close to theirterritory. The first time they pinch lightly.
447

“Why have you come here?” And the ferēta answered: “I came to see you,because Daṣi Aḍi Ferēta stole my ring and he doesn’t want to give it
back.”466“What can I do?” asked Ahumadu.
“You can do much!” replied the monster. “Everyone respects you. If I askDaṣi Aḍi Ferēta to give me back my ring he will not give it. But if you ask
him, surely he will.”“Alright,” said the sorcerer. “Go and bring him here.”
As soon as the ferēta left, rain poured over Ahumadu, soaking him to thebones. The faṇḍitaveriyā had forgotten that the monster was sheltering
him and regretted having sent him away so soon. But while he waited, therain stopped and presently he could see in the starlight two enormous
dark figures stomping across the coral reef towards him.
He walked out to the beach to meet them. When they stood before him heboldly confronted the ferēta that looked a bit abashed: “You tookRaṣikeḍe Ferēta’s ring!”“No. I did not!” answered the demon.
Ahumadu was firm: “Don’t lie! Bring it here immediately!”
The monster at once turned and left. He came after some time holding in
his hand a huge round coral stone having a hole in the middle.467

466Daṣi Aḍi is another point in Fua Mulaku’s southern end, further east fromRaṣikeḍe
467

As large as this room, would say the storyteller making a wide horizontal circular
movement with his hand.
448

The sorcerer ordered: “Leave it here!” Obediently, Daṣi Aḍi Ferēta bent
and left the ring on the sand. Raṣikeḍe Ferēta took his ring, put it on his
finger and beamed with satisfaction, his huge teeth suddenly visible; thenboth monsters left, leaving Ahumadu alone on the beach. The faṇḍita man
took his net, folded it and put it on his shoulder. He looked around andthought: “It is too late now to go fishing.” Then he went home.
Ahumadu married a young woman from his own island. He used to travel
to Ceylon and South India in the yearly trading trip and he is reputed forhaving brought the first breadfruits to Fua Mulaku. This information isdisputed by some who claim that the first breadfruit shoot was broughtfrom Male’ by somebody who had stolen it from King Ghias-ud-Dīn’s
compound and that Ahumadu Edurukalēfānu was the first who began toeat breadfruits, showing that they were edible. However, chronologicallythis is impossible for King Ghiyas-ud-Dīn would reign about two centuries
later, when Ahumadu Edurukalēfānu was long deadAhumadu and his wife had three children, two daughters and one son.
Unfortunately, both girls died a sudden and tragic death when they wereclose to coming of age. On a dark night, while Ahumadu’s daughters weretraveling in their father’s veḍi their ship hit the treacherous Kendere reefin Huvadū Atoll and sank like a stone, with people, cargo and all.
After Dūṇḍigami Edurukalēfānu’s two daughters died, he was left with
only one son. The boy’s name was Ibrahīmu. He was very good in his
studies and he faithfully followed in his father’s steps. It is said that, whilestill a child, Ibrahīmu learned Arabic, the Qurān and faṇḍita. In time,
Ibrahīmu became a mighty faṇḍita man himself.468 This is what happened
to the boy once:

468

This story and the details about Dūṇḍigami Edurukalēfanu’s life and personality
were told by the late Vaijehēge Alī Dīdī, also known as Unakeḍege Alī Dīdī,
Hamīdu’s father
449

The Voracious Monster“One day, while searching through his father’s books, Dūṇḍigami
Edurukalēfānu’s son Ibrahīmu found a loose paper. It was an old
manuscript describing how to conjure up a dābba.
A dābba is a monster of insatiable hunger, suddenly appearing from thedepths of the earth that devours everything it sees.
Ibrahīmu was so excited that he couldn’t sleep that night. Thus, in the latehours, he got up, took the paper and went to Huru Aḍi Mago. This was alonely place away from the village, where he was sure no one would comeat that time. The boy recited the spells correctly and a dābba rose fromthe earth. It was bigger and more horrifying than Ibrahīmu had expected,
with a mouth like a toad, but full of large, sharp teeth, and the childbecame frightened. He knew that one shouldn’t look at a dābba in the eyeotherwise it would attack and devours him at once. Hence the boy, indespair, drew the attention of the monster towards other things, such as acoconut-tree stump, a bush and a large stone, among other objects which
the dābba gulped one after the other. Thus the things around him were
becoming less and less and Ibrahīmu feared he would be next in line to be
swallowed. Trembling with fear, he tried to recite the mantras to make thebeast vanish, but his voice was quivering.
Right at that time Dūṇḍigami Edurukalēfānu saw his son’s desperateplight in a dream.469 Immediately he got up and hurried to Huru Aḍi Mago.
Fortunately, Ahumadu arrived right on time, because around the boy there
were no other objects to devour. And, after Edurukalēfānu hurriedly
recited the correct magic words, the dābba disappeared back into theearth. Ahumadu wanted to scold his son, but he was so happy that he had

469This phenomenon is locally known as bavativuṅ.
450

rescued him, that no harsh words would come out of his mouth. He justlaughed and walked happily back home with the child. It is said that thenext day there was a big pit in that place.
This description of the dābba matches with a monster from Hindu
tradition created by Shiva from the spot between his eyebrows to destroy
Rāhu. A horrendous demon with a big head, protruding eyes and sharp
teeth, whose alarming body was lean and emaciated, giving notice of
insatiable hunger, yet of resilient and irresistible strength, embodying thedestructive power of its creator. This demon was later elevated by Shiva
himself to the rank of Kīrttimukha (Face of Glory) and it is frequently seenin Hindu iconography crowning the arch framing a divinity.470
The following story471 explains whay the kaṭṭēḷi (Promethean scholar), a
long, slimy black fish, lives now in deep areas off the island and no longer
close to the surface:
The Eye-sucking Ferēta and the Kaṭṭēli

“Years later, when Ibrahīmu became a teenager, he liked to go to thecoral reef to cast the net like his father. At that time, certain fishes locallyknown as kaṭṭēḷi were coming to the shallow reef waters during the night;
and it so happened that every night that Ibrahīmu went to the reef, acertain ferēta followed him. This spirit was a nuisance for the boy,because each time he caught a kaṭṭēḷi with his net, the ferēta begged him
to give him the fish. The monster would then suck one of the kaṭṭēḷi’s eyesout and, instead of giving the fish back to the young man he would throw
it into the sea.

470

H. Zimmer, ‘Myths and Symbols in Indian Art and Civilization.’

471

Told by Donkāratu Beyya, Dūṇḍigamu village, Fua Mulaku
451

At first Ibrahīmu wouldn’t mention this to his father, because the truth isthat the awesome looking monster wasn’t causing the boy any harm.
However, one night Ibrahīmu caught only kaṭṭēḷi with his net and thespirit, after sucking one of their eyes out, threw all the fish into the sea.
Thus, the boy came back home late at night empty handed and very
annoyed, because the kaṭṭēḷi is a delicious fish.
When his father heard him coming he woke up, because he liked to eat
fresh fish cooked at night, as it is a custom in the islands. He saw his son’slong face and asked: “Kalō,472 What happened?” And Ibrahīmu told him
about the eye-sucking Ferēta. At this, the mighty faṇḍitaveriyā became soangry, that he went immediately to the beach and throwing a handful ofsand towards the coral reef, he cast a powerful spell by which all Kaṭṭēḷi
fishes would be forever banned to the depths. In this manner, Ahumadu
ended the harassment of his son by the reef monster.
Kaṭṭēḷi is very much valued as food in Fua Mulaku, especially when tunafishing is scarce. This type of fishing is done only at night. In the present
times, to fish kaṭṭēḷi one has to go off Fua Mulaku’s shore on a dōni andfish with a very long line and a weight, because these fish never comeclose to the surface anymore.
The Nagūsēsaru

After the death of his father Ahumadu Edurukalēfānu’s, Ibrahīmu became
the best faṇḍita man in the Kingdom. It is said that he was the only personin the whole Maldives who knew the Qurān by heart at that time. Once hetraveled to Male’ on his veḍi and stayed there for some time. The Radun
heard of his knowledge and appointed him faṇḍiyāru (chief judge).
However, Ibrahīmu politely refused, for he was a modest man and he472

A local term of endearment for boys452

enjoyed living a simple life, like his father. Life in the royal court was full of
intrigue and he knew that if he was given political power he would lose histrue friends.
While Ibrahīmu was in Male’, he was invited to an important maulūdu
celebration. In the evening, when he arrived to the haruge (pavilion), alllamps were lit and all guests of honor were sitting in front of their plates,
ready for the meal. Ibrahīmu was a bit late and saw that there was no free
dish. Someone had come uninvited, but no one else had noticed.
Then this great sorcerer looked well at the guests and realized that the
Nagūsēsaru, a demon with a long tail, was there in human shape, eating
among the others. Ibrahīmu could see that his tail was rolled under hismuṇḍu ―a lunghi, the cylindrical-shaped cotton waistcloth used by men―
and a small section of its tip stuck out. Resolutely, Ibrahīmu went towards
the Nagūsēsaru and yanking out his tail strongly, shouted: “Who are you?
You have not been invited!”
The Nagūsēsaru got up and left in shame, but before leaving thebeautifully lit and decorated pavilion he turned and, raising his hand,addressed Ibrahīmu coldly: “Alright, alright,” (“Heu, heu,”) and walked
into the night.
Days passed and one fateful evening Ibrahīmu went to the beach in orderto relieve himself.473 While he was squatting close to the shallow water
washing his private parts, the Nagūsēsaru appeared from the sea. Even in
the darkness, Ibrahīmu could see that the spirit had assumed its mostdreadful shape and it was not looking human at all. Suddenly the greatfaṇḍita man stood up and realized that he had forgotten his masdayffiohi,
the ritual knife which could protect him against demons, at home. He was473

That is, to defecate. Usually done during the evening or at dawn.
453

thus helpless, when the monster thundered: “There in the maulūdu haruge
you humiliated me, but now you are in my hands!”
Ibrahīmu had no hope: “I have nothing to say. You can do what you want.”
Then, the hideous beast poised its long tail and struck the man viciously
across his body. As Ibrahīmu fell unconscious on the sand, the monster,
now satisfied, disappeared over the coral reef into the sea. At dawn some
women saw the wounded man being lapped by the waves and brought
him home.
The respected Ibrahīmu Edurukalēfānu was now gravely ill. Everyone who
visited him knew he would never recover. The places where the demon’s
tail had hit him were swollen and although he was very well treated, thewomen dutifully applying medicine to his wounds, he wouldn’t heal. Hislast words were: “Whatever favors a person from Aḍḍu and Fua Mulaku
asks me, I will grant.”474
Ibrahīmu was buried in Male’, close to the gate of Māfannu Ā Miskiy.
Legend says that no ziyāraiy was erected over his tomb on purpose andthat Male’ people kept its location secret for centuries, in fear thatsomeone from the Southern Atolls would ask for kingship. But somepeople knew, for the narrator, Vaijehēge Alī Dīdī, told that Daṇḍukoṣige
Muhammad Dīdī showed him once the location of the grave when both ofthem went to Male’.
Edurutakkānge Muhammad Dīdī was also a famous faṇḍita man ofancient times. He is a bit of a mythical figure and there is not muchinformation about him as a person or about his life. It seems that he lived
in Diguvāṇḍo village, Fua Mulaku Island and that he was a student of474“Aḍḍu Mulaki mīhaku ma ekahi ā kommi bēnume fudenne.” In the same manneras Subcontinental ṛṣis, Maldivians considered that their holy men had the ability to
bestow boons on their devotees.
454Dūṇḍigami Edurukalēfānu. One of his main feats was to kill the Arruffanno
Ferēta. This is the story of his exploit as told by the late Magieduruge
Ibrahīm Dīdī:
Arruffanno Ferēta“Long ago in Fua Mulaku Island’s western edge, where a village path joins
the beach at a place called Arruffanno, a monster came ashore from thesea.
Some people casting a net on the coral reef at night saw it. They said thatthe evil spirit looked like a huge, pale flame over the reef. That fiend
haunted the villages in the night, killing many people and drinking theirblood, hence the inhabitants lived in fear.
Edurutakkānge Muhammad Dīdī, a learned faṇḍita man of the island,
spent many days on the reef making magic ritual. Although he worked
very hard with his sorcery, the demon still came ashore at night andcontinued killing people and spreading terror. The situation was so
desperate many dreaded the island would become depopulated.
Distressed that all his magic had failed, Muhammad Dīdī used all his skills
into casting one final spell to defeat the evil spirit. Following this last
powerful curse the monster became a large coral rock.
At Fua Mulaku the western reef surface is flat and that isolated rockstands out in the landscape. The local people call it Ferēta Gal, the demonstone. When it is hit with an iron rod, it still oozes blood. It is said that it
will do so forever, whenever it is struck.
This story may be an elaboration of a much older legend. The stone at
Arruffanno could have been an ancient sacred site, the blood being asymbol of the goddess. That a stone oozes blood when hit is a claim often
made about aniconic stone images of village deities in the neighboring455

Subcontinent. “A Pulaya woman who had come to cut grass sharpened
her scythe against a stone which started to ooze blood. The horrorstricken woman shrieked aloud and the Pulayas in the neighborhood camerunning to the spot.” Later a shrine was built over that stone.475
The fact that the spirit was drinking blood may be an oblique allusion tobloody rituals. Furthermore, the mention of many people being killed islikely to refer to an epidemic, which in turn is always connected with thevillage-goddess who is propitiated by means of blood sacrifices in times ofpestilence. The flame symbolism is also revealing, for there is arelationship between goddesses and fire in the Indic tradition. Somelocality goddesses, such as Mīnakśī of Madurai, were born from thesacrificial fire, while others are said to wear a halo of flames around theirhead.
According to local lore Edurutakkānge Muhammad Dīdī’s other mighty
deed was to banish another spirit called Mābē under a big coral rock at
the NE shore of the island. The corresponding story is narrated in thechapter ‘Tutelary Spirits’ further below.
Karaiyye Muhammad Dīdī was a more recent faṇḍita man. He lived in Fua
Mulaku at the beginning of the twentieth century and his house was in
the village of Mādaḍo, in the middle of this large island. His descendants
are still living there.
Muhammad Dīdī’s main exploit was to banish Neregaṇḍo ferēta, amonster living in the ocean between Aḍḍu Atoll and Fua Mulaku. It used
to come ashore through the channel called Neregaṇḍo, which is a deep
notch in Fua Mulaku’s Northwestern reef. This ferēta could take any

475‘The legend of Cōṭṭānikara Dēvi’ in K.R. Vaidyanathan ‘Temples and Legends ofKerala’.

456

shape and it used to terrorize the people living close to that area, in thevillage of Daḍimago. In the story that follows476 the Neregaṇḍo ferēta
takes the shape of a frigate bird.
Neregaṇḍo Ferēta“In his middle-age, Karaiyye Muhammad Dīdī was in love with a very
beautiful woman living in Bategedaro, in Daḍimago. Back then, he used togo every evening to the northern end of the island to meet her. He always
was accompanied by a young boy in his nightly escapades, and he used
him as a messenger with his lover. One evening, Muhammad Dīdī waswalking northwards along with his companion through the dark island
paths. As he was getting close to the lady’s home, he was very happy andhis heart was beating faster in anticipation. The sun had set and, at a
certain point, as he looked towards the pink sky overhead, he saw
something strange.
By the path, high up on a frond hanging vertically from a coconut tree
there was a big frigate bird. It was thrusting its head between two leaves(fanva’). Muhammad Dīdī thought: “Strange! Frigate birds never do that.
This is no bird. I’m sure it is some evil spirit lurking there, waiting for the
darkness to set in to do some evil.”
Quietly slowing his pace, the faṇḍita man told the boy to follow him andwalked off the path to the trunk of the coconut palm where the ferēta sat.
Reciting magic words, Muhammad Dīdī planted his masdaiyffiohi (ritualfaṇḍita knife) in the base of the tree trunk and then told his companion toclimb the palm and catch the bird. Immobilized by the spell, the large,
black bird was easily caught by the boy, who brought it to the ground.

476

Told by Meṭa Muhammadu, Miskimmago, Fua Mulaku.
457

Then Muhammad Dīdī, reciting mantras, drew an aṇu (magic circle) on thesand and put the Frigate bird in the middle. He said: “At dawn, it will not
be able to go back to the sea and it will die.” Thus they left, and while thesorcerer was enjoying himself in the company of the beautiful lady, thespirit spent the entire night wailing aloud, caught in the aṇu.
Much later, close to dawn, Muhammad Dīdī reluctantly left the warmth of
the woman’s body and stepped out into the cool, damp night. As he drew
close to the palm tree where he had immobilized the spirit, its laments
grew louder. Then the faṇḍita man was struck by the fact that the poor
ferēta had been suffering all night while he had been having a good time.
Feeling sorry for it, he went close to the magic circle and said: “If you
promise not to come ashore anymore, I will free you.”
The Neregaṇḍo ferēta replied: “I cannot live without ever coming ashore.
Thus, people shall still see me between Koṭṭe (the Northern end of HitadūIsland in NW Aḍḍu Atoll) and Neregaṇḍo, but I promise that I will neverhurt anyone anymore.”
Muhammad Dīdī agreed and, squatting down, cut the aṇu. Swiftly, theferēta, now no more in the shape of a bird, but in a larger, hideous form,
ran towards Neregaṇḍo, jumped into the sea and disappeared leaving awake of foam. Right at that time the first cock crowed.
The great faṇḍita man, still squatting, realized that the ferēta hadnarrowly escaped death. Then he got up, brushed the sand from hismuṇḍu, and went home. He was tired and still had a long way to go.
Frigate birds (hurā in the southern and hōrā in the northern form ofDivehi) are black, large seabirds. Females have white feathers under theneck down to the belly region, and males a red neck pouch, which isnormally deflated and barely visible.
Unlike the seagulls, frigate birds can get wet. Thus, if they touch thewater, they will not be able to fly. Therefore, they eat either the fishes458

stolen from seabirds that can dive, or flying fishes caught while they glide
above the surface. If rain comes, they can soar very high, up above therain clouds. Ancient Fua Mulaku lore tells that frigate birds were once
people that became birds owing to a curse. They are very common insouthern Maldives during certain seasons, when they arrive in large
squadrons to catch flying fish. They breed mostly in the Chagos Islands.
The story also mentions the common island practice of using younger
people to exchange messages between lovers. Traditionally women would
use a girl and men a boy to act as a messenger. Their main task was toexchange messages without arousing suspicion and to check whether
everything was clear before an arranged meeting. Girls and boys would dothis job in exchange for gifts, but they found it thrilling too.
Perhaps there were stories about Northern faṇḍita men in the past.
However, even after much inquiry, I did not succeed in obtaining stories
about great magicians from the Northern Atolls. Some people knew theOḍitān Kalēge stories, but they had no knowledge of any mighty magician
hailing from their own atoll. In a rare display of utter lack of chauvinism,
most northern islanders candidly acknowledged that Southerners are far
better magicians. In legends such as ‘Bēri’ or ‘Haṇḍi Doṅ Kamaṇā’, thesorcerer comes from an unspecified island in the South. And more recent
stories, such as Gabuḷi Bādalu mock the gullibility of Northern islanders
when confronted with a sorcerer pretending to come from the South ofMaldives.
Old people from Male’ and other northern islands reckoned that, eversince ancient times, when they needed a faṇḍitaveriyā (or kaṅveriyā),they went to look for him in the boats coming from the Southern Atolls
anchored at Male’ harbor. In the future it will be worth while investigating
more thoroughly the Northern Maldive lore in order to find out whether
there was any historical sorcerer in that vast region of the country.

459

Endeavoring to ascertain the dates when Maldivian sorcerers werereputed to be living can be complicated. Often the exploits of very ancientfaṇḍita men are attributed to sorcerers of the more immediate past. Kudu
Abu (Small Abu), a faṇḍita man from Huḷudū (Aḍḍu Atoll) was known tobe able to kill a tree instantly just by pointing his finger at it. He used todisplay this skill in public and it is said that he could kill easily a person in
the same manner. 477 However, there is a chronological problem in the
narration of some of his feats, for Kudu Abu apparently lived in thenineteen century and exploits that are undoubtedly many centuries older
are ascribed to him as well. Despite that, Kudu Abu is unquestionably ahistorical figure and his descendants are still living in Huḷudū.
Even though names of actual houses, islands and even people areprominently mentioned in the narration of the exploits of faṇḍita men,
there are some important ones, including Oḍitān Kalēge, whose existence
is disputed. Nonetheless, despite not being told as if they were fact, which
would include the mention of ancestry and belonging to a specific island
household, their stories remain popular all the same. ‘Sifa Huturu Koyya,’
the following story, is one of the favorite legends about magicians in theSouthern Atolls. The hero, a young sorcerer, is also from Huḷudū, an island
reputed for its mighty faṇḍita men.
Huturu koyya’s magic powers are great, but he is not consideredhandsome by island standards of beauty. He is a skinny man with very
dark complexion, and he is compared to the wiry, almost black trunk of a477

Compare this with what W. Crooke writes about Bengali sorceresses: “Among
the Agariyas of Bengal there are old women, professors of witchcraft, who stealthily
instruct the young girls. The latter are all eager to be taught, and are notconsidered proficient till a fine forest tree selected to be experimented on isdestroyed by the potency of their charms: so that the wife a man takes to his
bosom has probably done her tree, and is confident in the belief that she can, if shepleases, dispose of her husband in the same manner if he makes himself
obnoxious,” ‘An Introduction to the Popular Religion & Folklore of Northern India.’460

uni tree, 478 meaning that the young man was black and skinny. Among
Maldivian people there is a very large spectrum of different skin colors.
Darker skinned or ‘black’ people are considered ugly and often, in thisprocess, all their other marks of beauty are overlooked. Hence, thecomment: rīti doṅ kujje’ or “beautiful fair child” is very common, while
one never hears the expression rīti kaḷu kujje’ or “beautiful black child.”
Handsome people were supposed to be fair skinned and not thin.
Maldivian ideals of beauty are akin to those of the neighboring
Subcontinent, where dark-skinned people are assumed to be ugly.479
The expression ‘four years, four months and ten days’ mentioned at the
beginning of the story is an emphatic and cheek-in-tongue way to say ‘avery long time’ in Maldivian lore. It originated in the period a woman has
to wait to remarry if her husband is lost at sea, which is four years, added
to the period (iddā) a widow has to wait to remarry after her husband
died, which according to local Sharia’ Law is four months and ten days.
‘Sifa Huturu Koyya’ is an old Divehi digu vāhaka (long story).480 Thesestories are traditionally told, calmly, in a leisurely manner, at home on
rainy days, or on the deck of a boat, during a long journey towards distantislands on a full moon night. There are features in these long narratives
which make them interesting for islanders of all ages:

478(Guettarda speciosa) A small tree with very dark, almost black, bark, large
velvety leaves, and small, fragrant, fast-decaying, white flowers (unimā). It is
normally not cultivated and grows wild in the forest.
479

Although a large proportion of the population of South Asia is of rather dusky
complexion, not only the traditional art, but also contemporary magazines and films
show almost exclusively fair-skinned people. Even divinities supposed to be dark,such as Kṛṣṇa and Kāli are mostly depicted in a surreal sky-blue color or, lessfrequently, in a darker bluish hue, but never in the dark-brown color typical of thelocal darker-skinned people
480

Told by Muhammadu Sālihu, Daisy Villa, Dūṇḍigamu village, Fua Mulaku.
461

Sifa Huturu Koyya“The departure of the vāru oḍi from Huvadū Atoll had been delayed, forvarious reasons, four years, four months and ten days. Finally it left
Havaru Tinadū, the atoll’s capital, loaded with the Sultan’s tribute. Before
leaving the Atoll and crossing the broad Huvadū Channel, it stopped atMāfuṭṭa,481 where the sailors went ashore to cut betel leaves. As they
jumped from the bokkurā (a small rowing boat) there was a very ugly,
black and skinny man under the shade of the hirundu tree.482 He looked
like a burned trunk of an uni tree. As soon as they set foot ashore, he
asked the sailors, “Where are you going?”“To Male’.” They said.
“Bring me along with you.”
Looking at him in contempt, the sailors exclaimed, “Yuk! Not you!”
Since he kept insisting, finally, they said, “Ask Nevi Kalēfānu, the captain.
He’ll come ashore soon.” And the sailors left, walking into the island to cut
betel leaves.
Nevi Kalēfānu came ashore on the next bokkurā. He did not fail to see
Huturu koyya (the ugly man) who asked him, “Can you bring me on yourship?”
The captain stared at him and seeing how black and skinny he was said,
“No!”

481

Now joined with another island and officially known as Kolāmāfuṣi.

482

The yellow tulip tree (Thespesia populnea), cultivated on chosen spots close to
the shoreline. The cool area under the shade of this tree was a social meeting point
in almost every island.
462

Huturu koyya asked “Why?”
Haughtily the captain answered: “Our oḍi is not an ordinary one. It is thisatoll’s vāru oḍi, carrying the tribute (vāru) to the king. It’s full. We havealready been delayed four years four months and ten days. You have notime to prepare for the trip.”
Huturu koyya said, “I don’t need to prepare. In fact, I don’t need to takeanything. I am ready. Just give me a small place on board to sit down.”“There is no place for sitting down. It is all full!” said the captain wearily.
“Then give me a place for my two feet to stand.”This time he lost his temper “Not even that. No!”
Huturu koyya said menacingly, “All right! All right! If you don’t bring me,
you’ll take a further four years four months and ten days to arrive in
Male’.”
The captain was surprised and asked mockingly, “And if we bring you?”
Huturu koyya looked at the sun. It was low; the rays were golden. He
thought: “In one hour it will be setting.” Slowly he turned his head towards
the captain and, narrowing his eyes, said calmly, “If you bring me along,
you’ll be entering Male’ harbor tomorrow and you will see the sun risingover Huḷule.”
The captain thought this was absurd, because the journey would take atleast three days with the best of winds. However, he agreed to bring
Huturu koyya aboard to see what he would do, and perhaps to make afool of him.
The oḍi was moored to the local buoyed cable off Māfuṭṭa. This mooring,used for short calls on the island, consisted of two heavy submerged
weights joined with a strong rope. The ship’s rope was secured to the463

buoy. A small stern sail was hoisted to steady the ship. As they saw thecaptain coming on board, the sailors started hoisting the other sails.
The moment Huturu koyya stepped on the ship behind the captain, asudden gust of wind blew from Norimma (the SW) and there was
confusion on board. The heavy vessel creaked under the strain of theunexpected motion. Some of the half-hoisted sails blew full and themooring rope became so taut the captain had to find an axe to cut it.
Released, the ship sailed smoothly out of the Māfuṭṭa channel into theocean. The sun was setting right at that time.
The captain, after considering the clouds in the horizon, commanded
Huturu koyya to take the tiller of the rudder. Huturu koyya thought: “Whatcheek he has! I am a passenger and he asks me to be his helmsman!”
It was getting dark, and the last islands of the great Huvadū Atoll werelost astern. The captain and the crew drank tea and ate their evening
meal. After eating, they talked and chewed betel, but they did not give
anything to Huturu koyya. They did not even make him part of theirconversation. He did not ask for anything either. Soon, everybody fell
asleep.
In the darkness, Huturu koyya sat patiently at the tiller. He wasmaintaining a steady course towards the North. The ship was sailing at agood speed and was careening beautifully. After a while the young man
felt something bumping softly against the hull ahead, close to the prow.
And, deftly reaching over board with his left hand, he pulled a huge pieceof ambergris (māvaharu) from the water. Koyya laid it on deck in front ofhim, considered it briefly, and then he took his knife and cut it into threeequal pieces.

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One boy was not sleeping. Huturu koyya told him, “Futā!483 Make somefire.”The boy took some coconut shells, lit a piece of cloth with the fānus(hurricane lantern), the only light on board, and set them on fire in a metal
pot. After a while, when they became red hot coals, he put the pot beside
Huturu koyya by the sternpost. Then the boy said he was tired and went tosleep. After letting a little time pass, Huturu koyya began to recite magic
words and rubbed the ambergris between his fingers. While he slowly
shredded the first piece over the embers, thick smoke rose and the heavy
oḍi creaked and took an astonishing speed. When he burned the second
piece over the red hot coals, the oḍi’s speed increased so much, that thepeople who habitually lie say it was flying. People who don’t lie say it did
touch the water though.
As he finished the second, and began to shred the last piece of ambergris
over the live embers, even the people who don’t lie, say the ship didn’t
touch the waters. It was flying. In the darkness, above Haddummati andKoḷumadulu Atolls and over the sea between Nilande and Mulak Atolls, theoḍi sped northwards while everyone on board except Huturu koyya was indeep sleep. At dawn, it entered South Male’ Atoll through Rannaḷi channel,
leaving it by Velassaru. Finally it flew over Maātila, the channel to enterNorth Male’Atoll, and, right at that moment, the sun rose.
Huturu koyya shouted to the oḍi people, “Hey there! There are noble
people ashore, what is this lack of courtesy? We should lower the sails!”484

483

A term of endearment originally meaning ‘son’ (Skt. Putrā), common in theSouthern Atolls
484

Since Male’ was the Royal island, all incoming vessels had to lower their sails
way before entering its harbor. This was done as a mark of deference to the King.
465

Suddenly all got up, captain, crew and passangers. Baffled, they realized
where they were and could not believe their eyes. Fortunately, all southernpeople carry a knife and, in a frenzied manner, they cut the ropes to lower
the sails as fast as they could. At last, they entered the harbor rowing andpunting, and anchored the oḍi close to the northern gate.
Huturu koyya went to the captain and said, “I want to be brought ashore.”
The captain was now suddenly kind to him. With an oily smile, he said,“Wait, Huturu koyya. Eat with us, drink tea, chew, and then go ashore.”“No. Last night you even didn’t give me a glass of water,” he commented
coolly. “You don’t need to give me anything now.” He insisted on beingbrought ashore.
Once on land, Huturu koyya went straight to Daharāge, a noble house. At
the gate there was a middle-aged woman in fine clothes bent over,sweeping the road. He stopped close to her and called, “Fahaveri Dattā!”(Sister-in-law)
She looked up at him, and then continued her sweeping with increased
energy, without answering. To her dismay, she had seen that the stranger
was black and ugly and wore only a tucked up muṇḍu.
He called again, and she did not even look at him. The third time he called,
she thought, why doesn’t he go away? Who is that? But she did not
answer and kept sweeping.
Huturu koyya complained, “Now the wife of my elder brother doesn’t eventalk to his younger brother?”
The woman now remembered that her husband once spoke of having abrother from another mother in the far South, in the island of Huḷudū. She
had heard he was a big faṇḍita man.

466

She got up a bit embarrassed. Now she looked at him with respect and,according to tradition, invited him inside. She brought him tea, and betel
and nuts to chew and sat with him on the undōli.
He asked, “Where is Bēbē?” (Elder brother)“He is in the palace now. He is making faṇḍita for the king’s daughter!”answered the woman.
“What happened?”“You don’t know? Well, it’s a long story: When the Radun saw that his
wife had a difficult pregnancy, he made a vow that if the child was born
healthy, he would go to Matīraffuḷu485 for the circumcision if he was aboy,486 or to perform the libās levvuṅ ceremony if she was a girl. Finally,
the queen gave birth to a daughter. The baby was healthy and without
defects. She grew strong, tall, and fair, but she was always a bit thin. The
Radun likes her very much because she is his only child.
One day, looking at her, the king thought, she is becoming a woman now
and he remembered his vow. So, he prepared his daughter to travel toMatiraffuḷu. The royal oḍi left Male’ in the morning but the wind was notfavorable. Before the sun set, they anchored at Kuḍabanḍos for thenight.487 Tea was cooked aboard and after dinner, everyone went to sleep.
Sometime before dawn, while it was still dark, the princess woke up. She
went out on deck, cleared her throat and spat overboard into the gloomy,
silent waters. Somehow, right after that, she felt ill and went to her bunk.

485

Matīrah (Tiladummati Atoll), an uninhabited island at the northern end of thecountry where there is a very important ziyāraiy shrine.
486

Khitān kuruṅ in Male’ Bas. This ceremony was traditionally known as Islāmkuruṅ in the South.
487

A small, uninhabited island a few miles north of Male’467

The next day she was very sick and was brought back to Male’. Ever since,
she hasn’t recovered and they say that she is suffering all the time.”“How long ago was that?” Huturu koyya asked.
“Four years ago! Think about it! She is always in bed and all the timefaṇḍita is being made; and yet she still has not gotten well a bit. The kingis very sad and hopeless.”
Huturu koyya smiled sarcastically and said, “She could easily be healed.
I’m sure I can heal her!”
Suddenly his sister-in-law became frightened. She hushed her voice andconfronted him, “How can you say that? At the palace they will think you
are mocking them. You might be punished.” And indeed, a girl working in
the kitchen had been listening secretly to their conversation. Immediately
she sneaked out of the house, went straight to the palace kitchen and told
the servant girls there what she had heard. Naturally, it took no time forthe young man’s claim to spread through the whole royal court.
While Huturu koyya and his sister-in-law were still sitting on the undōlichewing betel, Dahara Takurufānu, Huturu koyya’s elder brother entered.
He was so beside himself that he didn’t even take time to greet his brotherwith the formal courtesies. Facing him, he exclaimed: “What have you
said? Now you have been summoned to go to the palace immediately!”
Shocked, his wife put her finger to her mouth.488 “You see? As you arestaying at our place, now we are all in trouble because of you.”
Huturu koyya calmed her, “Don’t worry sister-in-law. I can manage this.
But I cannot go to the palace in this garb. I need a bath and clothes.”488

A gesture indicating fright or surprise.
468

His brother gave him some of his old clothes and the sister-in-law showed
him the bath. He bathed, put his brother’s clothes on and sat on the
undōli.
Hastily, his brother went towards the gate, saying “Let’s go.”However, on the way, Takurufānu realized that Koyya was not following
him. He had to walk back home and found him still sitting there. “Why
don’t you come with me to the palace?” he asked impatiently.
Huturu koyya said in a fastidious tone, “I won’t go to the palace in thisoutfit.”Mumbling crossly, his brother gave him his best clothes. Finally, they bothleft.
On the way, Takurufaān told his brother, “In the royal palace there aremany rules. You must know how to behave. Remember not to sit on thetransverse small platform in the outer room of the building. Then he wenton, telling him six other places he should not sit, as they were reserved forhigh nobles only.
Huturu koyya went through the gates of the palace with Takurufān. Onceinside, the young man calmly sat on the small transverse platform, thevery place his elder brother warned him not to sit. His brother angrily told
him to get up, in a muffled voice, and complained about his bad manners.
Offended, Huturu koyya left the palace without saying a word. At the gate,
the dami aṣi people (the royal guards), saw him coming out alone andmockingly asked him, “Hey, handsome faṇḍita man, how many nāḷi (about
800 grams) of different flowers do you need to make your magic?”
Huturu koyya walked past the guards ignoring them. At once, his brotherwent out to look for him and met him on the street. He begged him to go
back to the palace at the king’s order.
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This time in the palace, they had brought a special chair made of blackwood with a red cushion especially for him. Huturu koyya sat there andwhen the Radun arrived they talked for a long time.
“What do you need?” the king finally asked.
“I will tell you about that later. First I need to be left alone with theprincess.”
The Radun did not like to leave the ugly black man alone in a room withhis only daughter, but refrained from saying so. He ordered that the
princess’ chamber should be put in order. Thus, the room of the princess
was cleaned, her hair was combed and a new fēli (waistcloth) was put onher. At last, after removing the dirty clothes and pots, the servant girls
informed the King that everything was ready.
When Huturu koyya entered, he ordered the maidservants and attendants
to leave. Then, making sure that he was alone, Huturu koyya went to the
middle of the room and looked around in wonder, appreciating how
refined the place was. He admired the heavy undōli, the beautiful mats,the embroidered pillows and the bronze lamps.
He thought: “For four years the best faṇḍita men of Male’ have been
coming here making magic for her with expensive ingredients. I will show
the King what I can do.”His gaze turned towards the princess lying on the bed as if she waspeacefully sleeping. Huturu koyya had never been alone with such a lovely
girl and he stared at her in awe. She looked pale, and a bit too thin. Every
now and then she winced with a pain so intense, that it distorted herserene features. Occasionally, she arched her back all of a sudden, as if she
was suffering violent torture.
With utmost care, Huturu koyya put his palm on her chest, then on her
cheek, and third on her shoulder. He then went out, requested just a glass470

of water and recited mantras over it. Sitting at the head of her bed, he put
one arm around the neck of the princess. Raising her head, he forced her
mouth open, and poured the water down her throat.
Almost instantly the girl opened her eyes and was cured. She looked at
him startled, and asked, “Who are you?”
Hearing the voice of the princess, the servants and maids rushed in andcould not believe their eyes. Meanwhile, Huturu koyya quietly left theroom.
Everyone in the palace rejoiced that night. Huturu koyya was made to sit
in a place of honor and was served the best food before he went home.
The Radun praised his powers and so did everyone of his entourage.
During the next days Huturu koyya stayed idling in Daharāge. Every day hereceived food and also carefully packed betel and arecanut presents fromthe palace. However, seven days later, on the following Thursday night,
the princess again fell unconscious and was jerking in pain.
Huturu koyya was urgently called to the palace that night. The king was
full of sorrow when he talked to him, “She is suffering again. Can you cureher completely? I have faith in your magic now and I know you can domuch. For many years local faṇḍita men have been consuming my money
in expensive remedies and you only needed a glass of water.”
Huturu koyya said, “Of course I can fully heal her. But for that I need manythings, and they will cost a lot of money.”
The Radun said, “All right. No fortune will be too great if it is going to heal
my daughter.”

471

Then, Huturu koyya said, “The following things will be needed: A small
pavilion489 should be built in the island of Kuḍabaṇḍos where the hoḷuaṣi
is now located. In front of the pavilion, a small jetty should be built,
reaching out to the deep waters of the lagoon. Upon its completion, forty
kambili (White-breasted swamp-hens), forty cocks, forty sea turtles, forty
goats, and forty cows, including the big cow of Henvēru,490 should be
brought there with their legs tied together. Lastly, forty people who know
how to read Arabic should be brought with forty Qurāns and 10 oil lamps.”“Anything else?” asked the king.
Smiling, and remembering the royal guards who had ridiculed him, hesaid, “Yes! Every dami aṣi man should bring forty nāḷi of flowers.” Then
Huturu koyya went home.
As soon as he arrived to Daharāge, he went to the garden and made amagical drawing on the ground, close to the weeds. Then he went tosleep. During the next days, no flowers would bloom in Male’.
Meanwhile, on Kuḍabanḍos, the small decorated pavilion and jetty were
promptly built and everything Huturu koyya had requested was brought tothe island. The Radun then sent for Huturu koyya and pleaded, “We have
now arranged and gathered everything you mentioned, except for theflowers. The dami aṣi men are worried.”
The king summoned them. The guards came and humbly begged the
young sorcerer to forgive them. As he saw that they were sorry, he said,

489

Although the building is a small, open-sided pavilion (haruge), here the word‘gaṇḍuvaru’, meaning ‘palace’ is used. By this it is understood that it is a building
worthy of the princess, but not necessarily a permanent and solid palace, sincepavilions are usually temporary constructions.
490

The eastern quarter of Male’, where a very big cow was reported to be living;but since it was the norm to offer only male animals in this type of sacrifices, here
the word ‘geri’ may mean bulls
472

“Tomorrow, you’ll be able to gather the flowers. But you must pick them
fast because I cannot make the magic without them.”
Huturu koyya left for home and rubbed out the drawing on the earth. Thatsame evening, one hundred thousand flowers burst open in Male’. Picking
them kept the dami aṣi men busy the whole night.
The next day, Huturu koyya and the forty people were brought together
with the king’s daughter on the royal ship to Kuḍabanḍos. After anchoringin front of the island, they waited for the late afternoon and went ashore.
The princess was carefully laid on the bed that was in the center of thesmall pavilion. Around her the ten oil lamps were hung and lit. Under
every lamp, four Qurāns (Tiris) were placed on stands with four people
reciting from them, facing each other.
Huturu koyyā went to check the sacrificial animals that had been brought
ashore with their feet tied, and counted them to see that they were all live,
healthy animals.491 Then he went to the jetty and sat down. The sun had
set. The flowers had been carefully arranged close to the jetty in neatconical heaps. Now he ordered the forty men to start reciting, while hefaced the sea and recited ancient mantras.
Some time passed and it was dusk. All of a sudden, against the starry sky,
the silhouette of a large black ship glided towards the island. Silently, it
threw anchor and loomed in front of the jetty. Aboard this sinister vessel
were all the spirits, furētas and ghosts of the northern expanses of theMaldive Ocean Kingdom. Fearlessly, Huturu koyya called: “Ship ahoy! Is
there anyone aboard who is causing this princess to suffer?”
A muttering sound went around the spooky ship. The spirits were asking
each other in whispers whether anyone had done anything to the princess.

491

At this point, in the original story, all the animals are named again.
473

Finally a tall, slimy demon standing on deck assured Huturu koyya that noone aboard their ship was causing any distress to the Radun’s daughter.
Satisfied, Koyya yelled: “All right! Weigh anchor and leave.” And the spirits
pulled the anchor and left the lagoon noiselessly.
Again the young sorcerer ordered the forty people to recite, while hechanted his magic words. Some time passed and another ship, muchlarger and darker than the previous one, sailed into the lagoon andanchored alongside the jetty. Aboard this huge, dismal vessel there were agreat number of spirits of all types. They were the haṇḍis and ferētas ofthe southern end of the Maldive Islands.
Huturu koyya boldly called: “Ship ahoy! Is anyone aboard inflicting pain on
this princess?” And he pointed towards the girl lying on the bed under thelight of the oil lamps.
Again, the ship trembled with a commotion. A sinister rustling soundrevealed that the innumerable spirits where passing the question and theanswers around. After some time, a regal-looking haṇḍi came on deckwith all her sumptuous jewellery glittering in the starlight and addressed
the magician in a clear, musical voice: “Sir, there is no one on board thisship causing injury to the daughter of the King.”
Huturu koyya, appreciating her beauty and her courteous tone, replied:“All right, you may weigh anchor and leave.” Thus, they raised theiranchor and left southwards.
Again, Koyya immersed himself in the recitation of old incantations fromthe end of the jetty, while the forty men surrounding the princess inside
the pavilion read their forty books aloud. Those were the only sounds that
could be heard in the quiet night. And, after a long time, a somber, creepy
ship arrived from the west and entered the lagoon. Though it was not aslarge as the previous one, aboard were all the ghosts, spirits and haṇḍis of
the central regions of the Maldive Kingdom.
474

As it threw anchor, Koyya called: “Ship ahoy! Is there anyone on board
making the princess suffer?”
The spirits and furētas aboard whispered to each other for a while, andfinally answered him: “No. No one here is hurting that noble young lady in
any way.”
The sorcerer calmly said: “All right, you may sail away.”
However, when the spirits tried to raise the anchor they couldn’t. The rope
didn’t move. It was rigid as steel. Even when all the ghosts and goblins
aboard tried hard to pull the rope, it did not even tremble slightly.
Huturu koyya smiled and exclaimed: “Surely someone aboard is causing
some evil to the princess.”
The spirits were puzzled and looked at one another. Frightening,
mysterious sounds could be heard as the numerous haṇḍis and demonsconferred with each other in hushed voices. They were anxious for there
was not much time left before dawn and they had to be back to theirislands before that time, otherwise they might perish. Finally, after a longsearch, stowed in a dirty dark place in the keel water at the bottom of theship, they found a very shabby furēta. He was old, had only one eye, oneear, walked on one leg and one arm was missing. The other spirits
questioned him sternly and he finally confessed.
This pitiful creature was brought on deck and facing him, the young
sorcerer asked: “Is it you who is causing the agony of the princess?”
Reluctantly, the goblin answered: “Yes.”
Koyya noticed how embarrassed he was and encouraged him to talk: “Tellme what happened.”
Not daring to look up, the pathetic spirit spoke in a monotonous, nasal
voice: “I am among the poorest and most wretched creatures among475

spirits. Look at me. I have only one eye, one ear, one arm and one leg. I
have seven daughters; all have one eye, one ear, one arm, one breast and
one leg.492 We are so poor I always have to wander around looking forfood for them.” Wiping away a tear of self-pity, the miserable furēta
continued: “Years ago, I happened to pass under the royal ship’s hull while
it was anchored close to this island. I saw the light of the lamp astern andlooked up. Then, all of a sudden the princess spat over board and hit me.
Look!”He showed the top of his head, where there was a hideous, large wound.
“That is why I stuck a thorn in her body.”493
Huturu koyya bent down from the jetty, scooped up a little salt water andrecited magic words over it. Then he sprinkled it over the furēta’s head
and, instantly, his severe wound was healed. Looking sternly at him hesaid: “Now you must pull the thorn out. Recite the following words alongwith me: Lussē, lussē, kaṣi lussafiē, mulussē.”
Still full of rancor at the young princess for having inflicted him the painful
wound which had tortured him over the past four years, this grotesquefurēta didn’t want to recite the mantra. He fidgeted and recited it wrongly
four or five times.494

492

In Nandadeva Wijesekera, “Deities & Demons, Magic & Masks” there are anumber of descriptions of Sri Lankan prētas and their features, including female
prētas with one breast. In South India, among the ancient popular divinities ofKerala there was a minor goddess called ‘Oṭṭamulaci’, the single-breasted one.
K.N. Panikkar, ‘Folklore of Kerala.’
493

Though not specifically mentioned, among a Divehi audience it is understoodthat this a ‘magic thorn’.
494This is one of the favorite parts with the children. The storyteller makes a longshow of the furēta reciting that mantra wrongly, while the magician patiently repeats
it as it should be said.
476

Each time, patiently, Huturu koyya repeated the mantra; and each time
the furēta said some word wrong. The other spirits on board began
goading him, grumbling: “Come on! Soon it will be dawn and we must beback in our islands before then.”Finally, tiring of resisting, the goblin said the words correctly. Right then,Huturu koyya turned his head towards the pavilion and asked: “Is theprincess well?”
The girl had risen. She sat on the ominous edge of her bed and was gazingaround with wide eyes.
The young sorcerer simply told the wretched-looking furēta: “Now you canleave.” And, quick as lightning, the little monster disappeared below deck.
Then the other spirits pulled the anchor, which now came up easily. In but
a little time, the dreary ship was gone, lost against the night sky.
The flower heaps on the jetty were prepared and bunches of them werethrown into the sea. Then, each of the forty men brought an animal to the
top of the jetty and waded into the water. First, they brought a kambili
each. The sorcerer cut its throat over the sea, but not a drop of bloodcame out. One by one, they went back for the cocks, the sea turtles, thegoats, and last the cows. In the same manner Huturu koyya severed thethroat of each animal, but not a single droplet of blood came out, evenfrom the big Henvēru cow.495

495

Owing to the ominous presence of such a large number of spirits during thenight, no blood was left in their bodies. Cf. 2.2.2 ‘Blood Sacrifices’477

However, as blood had to be ‘shown’ (lei dekkuṅ) to the sea, Huturu koyya
cut the tip of his own finger and let the blood trickle into the water.496 The
ritual was now concluded and the evil had been dispelled at a great risk.
As dawn came, everyone got on board the royal oḍi. They arrived to Male’
while it was still early morning. Soldiers and servants who had seen theroyal vessel’s sail from afar were anxiously waiting at the harbor. As soon
as the princess came ashore they escorted her to the palace. Huturu koyya
went to Daharage and the forty men went around Male’ telling about thewonders and evils they had witnessed on the little island.
Meanwhile the princess was the center of attention at the palace. Her
father was beaming with satisfaction and ordered that Huturu koyya be
brought immediately into his presence. When he was brought before theRadun, the young sorcerer was told that, as the King was so pleased, hewould grant him anything he wanted.
Calmly, Huturu koyya asked the King to give him the princess in marriage.
The monarch was taken aback at the insolence. But the princess, who was
spying, opened her eyes wide and looked at him in a new manner. She wasso impressed by what she had seen that she liked this young dark man.
The king fumed: “Ask me for anything but that.”
Huturu koyya insisted: “I don’t want anything else; I only want yourdaughter.”
The Radun, affronted by so much impertinence, dismissed him rudely:“You go now! I have to think about that.”496”An oblation of blood which has been rendered pure by holy texts, ... blooddrawn from the offerer’s body is looked upon as a proper oblation to the goddessCaṇḍikā.” W.J. Wilkins, ‘Hindu Mythology.’
478

The sorcerer left and the king called his daughter. “Do you know who wasjust here? ““No.” She answered, although she had secretly witnessed the whole scene.
“Huturu koyya was here. And he wants to marry you! Think of that!”exclaimed the outraged king.
The princess politely said, “Father, why don’t you agree? He is a big
magician. There is no one like him in the whole Island Kingdom.”
The Radun was nonplussed. “Are you ready to marry him; that ugly man?”His daughter lowered her eyes and spoke softly, “O father! When I opened
my eyes and found myself in that pavilion, I glanced towards the end of
the jetty and there he was, looking back towards me. He was close to abig, dark ship full of spirits, but didn’t show the slightest fear. Father, I
found him handsome then and I still think he is not that ugly.
The king, clutching his head in dismay, gasped: “You love him!” and heturned his face away from her muttering: “Love is indeed a blind thing.”
The monarch didn’t know what to say. Meanwhile his daughter stood very
quietly in front of him. He looked at her with a worried expression:“Daughter, now you have become a woman. You should not walk aroundlike this, without being properly dressed with a libās as befits a lady of
your standing. You must first go to Matīraffuḷu to undergo the libās levvuṅ
ceremony. I hope that after this trip you will change your mind and think
like a noble lady, not like a silly girl.”
The princess had not said another word, but her father was irritated anddismissed her. He had already improvised a secret plan to give orders to
prolong the trip to that northern island, in the hope that his daughter’s
youthful infatuation would cool off.

479

Thus, the young princess was sent away in the royal ship to the northernend of the Maldive Kingdom. The Radun had given instructions to her
servants to stay there for at least four months; and so they did. Even after
the ceremony was over, the girl told the servants that she was ready to go
to Male’, but they gave to her one reason after the other for not leaving.
One week they told her that the wind was not favorable and after over amonth, when even the princess could see that the wind was blowing fine,they told her that the astrologer had said it was a bad day for leaving andthey were waiting for an auspicious day, and so forth. The poor girl was
helpless to change anything and her vacant days in that nondescript,
uninhabited island were long and full of boredom.
Meanwhile, Huturu koyya waited patiently in Male’ for the return of theprincess; and every evening, the King sent the prettiest girls of his kingdom
to Daharāge with special instructions to flirt with Koyya. They camesmiling coquettishly, bringing him sweets and betel leaves, but the young
sorcerer did not even look at them. He ignored all these girls until theywent back to the palace having failed in their mission, one by one, night
after night.
At last, one day Huturu koyya heard through a royal servant that the
princess had come back and he went to the palace immediately. He foundthe King in an angry mood, because he had just been informed by her girlattendant that she was still infatuated with that ugly man. Seeing him theRadun thought: “Why doesn’t he just go? I would give him so much gold
and anything he wanted. Why does he want my daughter?”
Huturu koyya ignored the king’s somber face and said candidly: “YourHighness knows why I am here.”
The monarch sighed in weariness: “All right, you are a mighty magician.
However, you are not a nobleman. If you want to marry the princess, youmust do some heroic deed first.”
The young man was unfazed: “What shall I do?”480

The king instructed: “You must catch the giant sea turtle (boḍu velā) of
Gādūkoḷu.497 And you will have to catch it tonight, before sunrise.
Otherwise you cannot marry my daughter.”
After Huturu koyya left, the Radun called the princess. “This ugly magician
wants to marry you; do you want to marry him?”
The girl said: “Yes father,” and smiled shyly. But then he told her that hehad ordered Koyya to catch the giant sea turtle of Gādūkoḷu before
sunrise. Since she had already secretly listened to this, she was alreadysad. Now tears poured out of her eyes. She was indignant: “Father! You
know he cannot do that! Nobody can!”Her father dismissed her and laughed wickedly, satisfied with himself.
The boḍu velā was a giant sea turtle which haunted the ocean off Huḷule’s
southern reef end. In the evening, Huturu koyya went there, swimmingfrom the Lonu Ziyāray Koḷu, the southeastern end of Male’. He wascarrying a big, strong rope and waded close to the breakers at thesouthern tip of Huḷule’s reef. Suddenly, in the middle of the night, he saw
the mighty turtle coming towards him. As they came together, Koyya tiedthe rope around the animal’s neck. It fought fiercely, but the sorcerer held
his ground with his feet firmly planted on the coral reef edge and slowly,
he managed to tie one fin after the other until the turtle was helpless.
Then the young man tugged his huge trophy across the channel to Lonu
Ziyāray Koḷu. There, with great effort he pulled it ashore when it was
already dawn.
Huturu koyya gave a big sigh and, gazing at the sky, he realized how long
his struggle with the giant reptile had been. Yet, still he had enoughstrength left over to put the turtle upright, making it stand on the tail end

497

The southern tip of Huḷule Island, close to Male’481

of its shell. Thus, the huge body of the great turtle cast a shadow over
Male’ as the sun rose.498
In the town, the people didn’t see the sun until after ten o’clock. Everyone
exclaimed in wonder: “The sun hasn’t risen over Male’ today.” In thepalace as well, everyone was amazed. However, the Radun was red withfury.
Huturu koyya, after taking a bath and putting on clean clothes, went to
the king and declared: “Now I have done what you wanted. Shouldn’t you
give me your daughter in marriage?”
The monarch was beside himself. With venom in his voice he hissed: “Allright, you have done what I asked for. But, still you are Huturu koyya. Who
are you to come here and give me orders? This is my Kingdom!”
The young sorcerer was not prepared for so much anger and could notutter a word.
Threatening him with his finger the king vowed: “You will not marry my
only child as long as I rule these Islands.”
Politely, Huturu koyya said: “All right!” and calmly went away, unfazed byhis humiliation. He was tired and very disappointed. However, atDaharage his sister-in-law stared at him in awe and tried to raise his
spirits. While she served him tea, she told him that all Male’ was talking
about his prowess. The young man didn’t feel like talking and, after eating
hungrily, he went to sleep.
He slept all through the day and, waking at sunset, he bathed and went to
the harbor. There he went to meet Keuḷubē (‘Uncle master-fisherman’),498

The storyteller literally said: “That day the sun didn’t rise over Male’”.
482

the most experienced fisherman in town, and told him: “I want to go
fishing with you tonight, but no one else should go with us.”Keuḷubē agreed and Huturu koyya jumped aboard the dōni. Before it
became dark, they left. After fishing a few bait fish off Male’’s northernshore, they went out into the ocean. Within a short while they had caught
seven hundred large skipjack tunas and Keuḷubē was very happy: “Koyya,
you certainly are a good faṇḍita man! I never have trouble fishing, but I
have to tell you that never in my life I have fished so much in such a shorttime.”
However, although Keuḷubē was in an excellent mood, he could not cheer
the young sorcerer up. Huturu koyya was sad. Kindly, the masterfisherman asked him: “Shall we return? You don’t look well and we haveenough fish.”“Not yet!” said the magician. “Let me first do what I must do. For that I
will need all the fish.”Keuḷubē was surprised, but seeing his determination, he quietly assented.
He watched on in amazement as Huturu koyya tied the seven hundred
tunas in a bunch. Then they sailed off Huḷule, along its long reef’s westernside, trailing the enormous bunch of fishes behind them. This large clusterof dead tunas, releasing all their blood, awoke a giant hermit crab which
had been sleeping buried in the sand of the ocean depths.
The sun was rising and the titanic crustacean showed part of his hugeshell, large as an island, above the surface. To Keuḷubē’s horror, themonstrous hermit crab slowly but steadily began following them and
Huturu koyya turned their boat towards Male’.
At that moment, the Radun awoke from his sleep and looked casually at
the harbor from his window as he did every morning. Suddenly, the kingbeheld Huturu koyya standing on the boat with a crab of colossal
proportions towering behind him. At once his pride vanished and he483

realized in fear that this sorcerer had more power than him. The Radunnow saw that if he didn’t give his daughter in marriage to the young
magician, even if he be so ugly, he might lose his kingdom.
Hence, the monarch immediately sent his prime minister (Boḍu Vazīru) tothe beach to tell Huturu koyya to stop bringing the tremendous crab closer
to the palace.
The prime minister quickly went to meet the young sorcerer on a boat andyelled: “The Radun himself has requested me to tell you that he has
decided to give you the princess in marriage.”
As soon as he heard that, Huturu koyya released his huge cluster of tunas.
The current swiftly carried the seven hundred fish southeastwards throughthe Huḷule channel into the deep ocean and the giant hermit crab followed
the bait and disappeared.
All Male’ now sighed in relief and the men, women and children who had
gathered anxiously at the beach to watch the dramatic events, cheered
with delight when the young magician disembarked. The girls put flower
garlands on him and the boys carried him on their shoulders to the palace
gate.
Thus, the ugly magician at last married the princess and they led a happy
and prosperous life together. The lesson of this story is that one should
never spit in dark places without calling a warning: “Jai, dure!”499
Seemingly harmless actions of humans can have disastrous consequencesin the spirit world. Since Maldivians believed that they were constantly

499

Or simply “Jai!” This was the warning cry in the Southern Maldives. In Male’ andthe North it was the custom to give the spirits a longer warning: “Gaikoḷu gaigāduru!” Source: Fātumatu Naīma, Gāge, Male’484

surrounded by spirits, the moral of this legend stresses the importance ofbeing careful. One never knows the consequences that a trivial action
from the human point of view such as spitting, may have on the spirit
world. Formerly, in the Maldives, it was customary for people to give awarning cry before throwing the vaḷudāni (a small bucket attached to apole to draw water from the shallow Maldivian wells) into the well during
the night, as it may hit a spirit happening to be there. Such a warning
would be uttered as well when throwing dirty water or rubbish into dark,humid, overgrown places, as those spots are the favorite haunts of spirits.
Being mindful of the surrounding spirits is the subject of a well-known
Bengali folk tale, “Niścoydatta of Ujjayini” where the king of the Yakśas
(spirits), complaining that a number of Yakśas had been killed by somecareless humans, declares:“In ancient times men were reasonable. Before dropping a bucket into awell they used to call out, ‘Peace! Peace be with you!’ as a warning to theYakśas that happened to be loitering at the bottom of the well. Then, in
later times, men used to shout, ‘Look out!’ It was not a polite warning,nevertheless it was a warning. But nowadays what do they do? They justhurl a bucket into the well without any warning! ... You can’t blame us forpunishing you.”500
Although Sifa Huturu Koyya’s story is deeply marked by Divehi features,some key parts of the plot are highly reminiscent of South Indian lore.
There is a Telugu legend in which Sanubhuti, a skinny and flimsy Brahmin,
strikes a deal with an evil spirit (Brahmarakśasa) who feels sorry forhim.501 As a favor to Sanubhuti, the spirit possesses a princess of a city
500

Sudhin N. Ghose, “Folk Tales and Fairy Stories from Farther India”

501

This legend is present in a more elaborated version in the Tamil lore, theBrahmin being originally from the village of Manarkāḍ, traveling to Mysore, fromthere to Kashi and then finally to Trivandrum. K.A. Seethalakshmi, ‘Folk Tales ofTamil Nadu.’
485

called Vanadurga, so that the Brahmin can heal her and become wealthy
and marry a fine woman. Arriving at Vanadurga, Sanubhuti informs thepalace guards that he can heal the princess and they bring him
immediately to the king. Seeing the ragged appearance of the Brahmin,
the king does not believe that he can cure the princess. Finally, after much
haggling Sanubhuti makes a solemn oath and the king leads the Brahmin
towards his daughter’s room. When he is asked what he needs to performthe powerful ritual to exorcise the evil spirit from the princess, Sanubhuti
smiles and says he does not require any equipment for the ritual. Then heenters the room and closes the door behind him. Eventually the Brahmin
heals the princess and the king showers him with honors and wealth.502
This part of Sanubhuti’s story is practically identical with Huturu Koyya’s.
Given that both tales reflect ancestral lore, they confirm that there musthave been a deep cultural connection between South India and theMaldive Islands in ancient times. What is not known is at which point
Indian lore influenced Maldive tradition, and whether it was along withthe establishment of Buddhism or whether it was owing to popular
contact much farther back in time. As in the legends about Oḍitān Kalēge,
who corresponds in the Indian epics to the famous Ṛṣi Vaśiṣṭa, theBrahmin tantric hero, this story shows that the Brahmins of the
Subcontinent and the faṇḍita men of the Maldive Islands had a very
similar function within their respective social backgrounds.

502

B. Rama Raju, ‘Folk Tales of Andhra Pradesh’.
486

3.2.1 LURKING IN THE DARKNESSThe number seven has a mystical significance in popular Maldive culture.
It is believed that it is an auspicious number and that it may have magicalpower. Here are a few instances of its importance:
In the island of Māḷos (South Māḷosmaḍulu Atoll) there is the custom once
every year to take a bath in seven different wells (haiy vaḷuṅ feṅ veruṅ).503
This is probably an ancestral Dravidian custom. The Pulaya or Cheruman,an agricultural caste of Kerala, used to take a bath in seven different tanks
when they were considering themselves polluted.504
During the ceremony of libās levvun (a puberty ritual for girls) when they
are no longer considered children and are introduced as women into thesociety, the faṇḍita man has to turn seven times around a hunigoṇḍi (along, low chair with a blade to grate coconut at one end) on which the girlstood. Formerly the girl had to stand on two gold sovereigns placed on
top of a sack full of rice.
The masdayfiohi, a knife with a handle made of a spermwhale tooth, used
for magical rituals, has a blade said to be made of seven metals (haiylō). I
could not get precise information about exactly which metals were those.
Probably it is just the impressive name of a certain alloy, not necessarily
containing seven different metals. In India, an alloy of five metals(Pañcalōha) is common for the casting of idols and ritual tools.
There is a game played with stones and seven holes, where it is very
difficult to win. Upon winning this game it is said “haiyṅ attavāḷīṅ gāneguṅ” (taking the stones out of the seven holes), which is an indicationof having performed an extraordinary feat.

503

Source: Mohamed Zuhair (Juhā), Vainujehēge, Māfannu, Male’.

504

E. Thurston, ‘Castes and Tribes of S. India’, Vol. 2.
487

In some children’s tales, such as ‘Mākumbē’ and ‘Māmelidaitā’ or
Māmulidaitā, known as ‘Mēliyādaitā’ or simply ‘Mēliyā’ in the Southern
Atolls, the main characters have seven children, usually alternate girls andboys. In the local epic ‘Donhiyalā and Alifuḷu’, the heroine’s mother gavebirth to seven children and only the last survived.
In addition, the number seven is also connected with the activity ofcertain evil spirits afflicting little children with fear and disease. Thisphenomenon is known in the islands as kudinge biru (children terror).
Lurking in the darkness of the long equatorial nights there is a certain
female spirit who is said to cause fear in children. She is especiallydreaded because Maldivians affirm that both too much fear andcontinuous crying can be deadly, especially among little boys and girls.
Since it is believed that children may easily become weak and lose
appetite due to fear, much faṇḍita is done against this particular demon.
Most people don’t know this spirit by a name and refer to it as ‘Kudinge
Biru Daitā’ (The Aunt of the Terror of Children). It is deemed to be astately, queen-like woman of either blue or very dark complexion (thecolor of the deep ocean, also referred to as kaḷu ‘black’) or who wears
dark blue clothes. She never comes alone, having her own attendants anddisplaying great personal pomp and splendor. Her faithful companion is aseven-headed snake called haiybōrāhi, always looming behind her. The
color of this mythical snake is either black or dark blue as well.505
This female demon is said to have seven daughters or attendant girls (haiyaṅheṅbēfuḷun), who rotate their positions of privilege day after day insuccession. Thus every day of the week a different girl will command over

505

Source: Aishath Naazneen, Gāge, Māfannu, Male’. Note the relationshipbetween a female divinity and a snake, so common in the tradition of the
Subcontinent.
488

the others. The eldest daughter is called Lajjigavisanāvi.506 Except for her
name, which could have its origins in Vaiśṇavī, one of the ‘Seven little
mothers’ of the Indian lore, no other details are known about her.
This woman-spirit may sit on top of the house and make the children
inside cry. In the night, there will be unusual noises coming from thethatched roof. The main name of this demon is not clear, some people say
she is a manifestation of hāmunḍi, the fearsome woman haunting
graveyards and unclean, dark, humid places mentioned at the end of thischapter. Others call this spirit by the non-indigenous name Umm-usSubyānu, which is a certain figure of Arabic folklore well-known in Egypt.
In all likelihood, this name was brought to the Maldives by local learned
men having studied in Arab lands. Having only vague ideas about theirown folklore, such men were led to confuse a Divehi spirit with a demon
they had heard of while in distant Egypt.507
Old Maldivians insist that the two names mentioned above are notreferring to the same spirit, since hāmunḍi is generally connected with
causing madness, violent behavior and death, while Umm-us-Subyānu is
supposed to bring about degenerative diseases, like polio, in children. This
leaves us with the assumption that, if they are not the same spirit, Ummus-Subyānu must have had an older name in Divehi which has been lost.
In Southern Huvadū Atoll there is a story related to this theme about acertain local spirit called Kaḷobolā (lit. ‘Black Head’). The journey of thespirit and the boy is described in the bandi form of verse and all importantislands of the southern section of Huvadu Atoll are mentioned beginning

506

Probably from the Sanskrit ‘Latikā’=A string of pearls or a small creeping plant,and ‘Vaiśnavī, one of the Saptamātṛkās.
507

Except for a few names, such as Umm-us-Subiyānu, Ghūlu and the genericword ‘Jinni’, popular Arabic folklore has had not much effect upon the Maldivian
mythology489

in Vādū: ‘Vādūn Hurā fannyā Kaṇḍahagā nubalannyā... and ending inFares ...deṅ Kava hadā Kava husvū Farehu huṭṭē Koḍē haulu govē, after
having completed the full circle. In spite of some similarities with Kudinge
Biru Daitā, it is not clear whether this is a female demon or not.508
Kaḷobolā“In the island of Vādū one evening a boy was crying and crying. His mother
couldn’t sleep and asked him what was wrong. Instead of answering, hekept crying. She tried to soothe him, hugging him and cooing soft words
into his ear, but it didn’t help. He cried and cried. She asked whether he
was angry or sick, but the child just went on crying. Finally the motherbecame so mad that she grabbed him and put him out of the house.
When he saw that he was outside, the boy stopped his cries. He looked up
and in the moonlight he saw Kaḷobolā, a big black spirit, sitting on the roofof his home. Kaḷobolā came down, packed the boy on his shoulders andleft at high speed.
They went eastwards from island to island during the night. At the cock’s
call, Kaḷobolā came back to the Southeastern rim of Huvadū from thewest, having covered a circular route of about hundred and fifty miles. The
spirit told the boy: “I have been carrying you around the whole night and I
have brought you here safely. You have to pay a price.” Saying so,Kaḷobolā gouged out one of the boy’s eyes, gulped it, and disappeared into
the sea.
When the sun rose, the boy saw that he was at a lonely end of the beachon the island of Fares, not far from his home island. An old man called

508

Told by Murushīdu from Fares Island, Huvadu Atoll. He was not a little reticent
to tell it, fortunately he was encouraged by my friend Afīfu from Ratafandū Island in
the same Atoll
490

Ekoḍukalōbeyya, who had the reputation of eating only lizards, found him
there. He brought the child to a house in Fares where he stayed until aboat brought him back to Vādū.
The gouging out of eyes seems to be a common habit among different
Maldivian demons. In northern Maldives this story is told with a different,
far more tragic, end: Instead of Huvadu Atoll, other versions will belocated in different places according to the native island of the storyteller
and, after having been taken around by the spirit, the child doesn’tsurvive the ordeal and, in the morning, his skeleton is found picked clean.
This crueler version of Kaḷobola has no specific name or sex and it isassumed to be some kind of monster.
From a Divehi perspective, the most striking feature of this story is theabnormal unkindness of the mother. No average mother would punish
her child so severely as to put him out of the house during the night. In
Maldives children were not even allowed to see the red sky at sunset andthey were kept indoors in a room lit by a dim lamp from dusk to dawn toshelter them from evil spirits lurking in the gloom outside. Looking at the
red sky was considered inauspicious and even the children’s clothes
drying on the line were put indoors before that time. Red skies, as well as
the red waters of the sea reflecting them, are connected with the goddess
in her malevolent and destructive form in Indic tradition.
Throughout the Maldive Islands, the material world and the spirit world
are assumed to be parallel. Hence, spirits connected with harm tochildren and pregnant women are reckoned to be always physicallynearby. Since fatness is considered a good quality among babies in the
traditional Maldive context, one should never say that a particular child,especially one’s own, is fat or beautiful. Dangerous female spirits lurking
nearby may be tempted to strike the child with affliction and disease. If
the child becomes thin it is already considered a very ill omen. Thus, onlya jealous person wishing evil to befall others would do such a thing. The
polite way would be to say: ‘Oh, your son has become thin!’ so the491parents will be happy. In India, the child-afflicting goddesses need to bepropitiated during pregnancy, in the labor room as well as during thechild’s early years.
“Behind child-afflicting goddesses such as the Mātṛkās is probably the
belief that women who die childless or in childbirth linger on as inimical
spirits who are jealous of other women and their children and whose
jealousy is appeased by stealing or harming their children. Worship of the
Mātrkās is aimed primarily at keeping them away. Not referring to one’s
children as beautiful or attractive and marking children with collyrium tohide their beauty are practices probably related to keeping thesegoddesses from noticing one’s children, lest their jealousy be aroused andthey harm the offspring. To make much of one’s children might attract theMātṛkās attention and risk incurring their dread afflictions.”509
While in the Subcontinent these deities are appeased with offerings,
baths and sacrifices, in Maldives much faṇḍita is done to counteract thisoccurrence. Divehi children are also told frightening stories about spirits
so that they stay indoors during the night. Safaru Kaiddā is the subject of a
popular tale usually told by mothers to their daughters. Like in the storyof Kaḷobolā above, here we find again a spirit plucking out a human eye.
Safaru Kaiddā

One evening a woman told her daughter, “Let’s hide the vaḷudāni (small
bucket attached to a pole) and the funḍā dāy (grinding stone) and go tosleep.”“Why should we hide them?” the daughter asked, “We never do.”509

D. Kinsley, “Hindu Goddesses”
492

Lovingly the mother answered, “Tonight is the 15th of Safaru, and every
year Safaru Kaiddā comes this night with her seven daughters. One ofthem has one eye missing. So, you must hide the vaḷudāni and dāy.”“Tell me why, mother!” the daughter insisted. “What will happen if we
don’t hide them?”
Widening her eyes and lowering her voice, her mother explained, “Once,
when I was a small child like you, we went to sleep on the 15th of Safaru
without hiding them. That night Safaru Kaiddā came. She ground medicine
for her seven daughters on the dāy and used the vaḷudāni to bathe themat the well. So, the whole night we heard the sound of water being pulled
out of the well.
“At dawn, when she left, we went outside. There was a lot of dirt aroundthe well from the daughters’ bodies, for she washes her daughters only
once year. When we cleaned up the mess, under the mud, we found a goldgilāfati.510 We could hardly make it out through the thick layer of grimecovering it. My aunt took it and kept it hidden in the house.
“The next year, Safaru Kaiddā returned on the night of the 15th of Safaru.
In a frightening voice, she asked ‘Where is my daughter’s gilāfati?’ Angrily
she beat the walls of the house with her fists demanding: ‘Give it back!’
Inside we were shaking with fear, without uttering a word. Then she
threatened: ‘If you don’t give the gilāfati back to me, I’ll take one of youreyes for my daughter to eat.’
Savagely, this terrible woman beat, kicked, and shook the house. Finally,
she broke the door, forcefully thrust her hand through it, gouged out myaunt’s eye, and left happily.”510

An ancient type of short, massive necklace worn close to the base of the neck.
The gilāfati is obsolete now.
493

The mother concluded, “You see what happens if, on the 15th of Safaru’snight, the funḍā dāy and vaḷudāni are left out. So, my child, let’s hide theminside the house and go to sleep.” 511
Safaru is the month of Safar in the Arabic lunar calendar, and Kaiddā is alocal form of the Arabic name Khadīja (Kaddā in the South of Maldives).
Again, although Safaru Kaiddā is a local Divehi spirit whose portrayal
matches with certain aspects of Cāmuṇḍi, it carries an Arabic name in thesame manner as Umm-us-Subiyānu. She is said to be a looking like afearsome, cruel-looking old woman wearing gold jewellery. It is believedthat Safaru Kaiddā always comes along with her seven daughters. Since
her daughters are young, some Divehi people say that Safaru Kaiddā is notold, but middle-aged, for an old woman would be referred to as someone‘having children who have grown-up children.’
One of the girls has only one eye and every time her mother gouges an
eye out of a person for her sake, she delights in eating it. The justification
behind the action of feeding human eyes to her daughter is that thedisfigured, one-eyed, girl seeks comfort in the mutilations she causes. The
origin of this elaboration is obscure, as none of the Saptamātṛkās has oneeye, but it could have some relationship with Cāmuṇḍi who, in her mostfearful form, looks like a hag and enjoys eating corpses and drinking
blood. In the Dēvi Bhagavatam there is a story about a certain goddess
who was in love with Viṣṇu and, displaying her charms to him, attempted
to make him fall in love with her. Viṣṇu asked her for her disk-weaponand she gave it to him, then he asked her for one eye and, without
hesitating, she gouged it out.
Where did these stories about fearsome, grotesque-looking women who
are dangerous to children originate? In the tradition of the Subcontinent
there is a confused account in relation to a group of minor goddesses

511

Told by Gāge Naīma, Māfannu Male’, in 1989494

called Lokamātās sent by Indra (the king of the gods) to kill Kārttikeya (orSkanda) shortly after his birth. However, when they approach the child,
their full breasts begin to ooze milk, and they are unable to harm him.
Then these women ask little Skanda to adopt them as his mothers and heagrees. Although the Lokamātās do protect the baby and nurse him, they
are still frightening female demi-goddesses whose qualities and habits areinauspicious. On this weird relationship between tender motherhood andbloodthirsty cannibalism, so common in the most ancient Indian folkgoddesses, see the chapter ‘The Village Goddess’ further above.
Only two of these Lokamātās are described: one is said to have been bornfrom fury and to carry a trident in her hand. The other is said to be theblood-drinking and cruel daughter of the red sea.512 Even if Kārttikeya
adopts them as his mothers and divides them into good and evil spirits,
the Lokamātās are collectively characterized as stealing children. Later,
the desolate wives (Ṛṣipatnīs) of the seven sages (Saptaṛṣis, also theconstellation Ursa Major, known as Assaraṅga in the Divehi language)
who have been unjustly accused of adultery and divorced, ask Kārttikeya
to adopt them as his mothers. Thus, they became the pretty constellationKṛttikā, known as Keti in Maldives.
The Lokamātās, probably the former ones who had attended Skanda in
the beginning ―here the account is vague― wish to be his mothers. He
agrees and asks them what else they wish. They ask to be recognized as
great goddesses and to live off the children of men, as they themselves
have been denied their own children. Kārrtikeya is reluctant to do so, butallows them to torment children until they are sixteen years old andgrants them their terrible appearance.

512

There is a deity worshipped by Tamil fishermen called Ceṅkaḷunīr Amman, the‘Goddess of the Red Water.’ Cf. 3.4.1 ‘Monsters from the Sea’ further below.
495

One of the ‘mothers’, Kadrū, is said to be able to enter the womb ofpregnant women, eat up the fetus and come out as a snake. Besides thesea snakes (Pelamis platurus) that live in the ocean and, though highly
poisonous, rarely reach the coast, there are only harmless and small landsnakes in the Maldives. Hence, in the Maldives, instead of a snake,
women having miscarriages fear that an octopus may come out of theirwomb. There is also the related belief that pregnant women should not
eat octopus, lobster nor triggerfish, for these are animals which fiercely
resist being pulled out of the coral cavities in which they hide, at the timeof being fished.513
Furthermore, in Kārttikeya’s (or Skanda’s) army there is a large group of
about two hundred female beings, called mātṛgaṇa or Mothers, who help
him to fight the demons. Most of those female fighters are described as
beautiful, youthful women and yet they are said to have sharp teeth, long,
sharp nails and protruding lips. Some are emaciated, with sagging breasts,
others are round-bellied and others have long ears.514 They can also
assume any form they desire.

513

Information provided by the late Halīma, Himitige, a midwife from Miskimmago
village, Fua Mulaku.
514

Vidya Dehejia, ‘Yoginī Cult and Temples.’ and S.K. Panikkar, ‘SaptamātṛkāWorship and Sculptures”.
496

3.2.2 THE SEVEN MOTHERS
Despite being called ‘Little Mothers’, the Mātṛkās represent dangerous
spirits, who are lurking in the rooms where birth takes place and close towhere children are, to afflict them with affliction and diseases. In the
Subcontinent, not only disease, but also sorrow, strife and passivity arereckoned to be caused by evil spirits. The number and names of theselesser goddesses are not exactly determined. However, normally there isreference to seven (Sapta) or eight (Aṣṭa) Mātṛkās. Furthermore, there
are many common points between the Mātṛkās and the Yoginīs, which
will be discussed in more detail in the next chapter.515
Generally, all these ‘mothers’ display a number of inauspicious qualities,
in spite of being often considered only relatively evil. Their color is said tobe dark, hence, although the spirits called Umm-us-Subyānu and Safaru
Kaidda in the Maldive lore are probably separate spirits, they still havethree characteristics in common: A dark complexion, seven daughters anda name derived from the Arabic language.
In the Tamil country, the Saptamātṛkās are represented in all the big
temples and are thought to be related to the seven Kanniyamār(unmarried girls) of the ancient Tamil folklore; they are frequently
appeased by means of special offerings when any unforeseen and sudden
illness takes hold of a person. 516 In Karnataka, the Māris of Mysore aresaid to be seven in number, and all the seven are sisters: Bisal Māri (thesun), Gunal Māri, Kel Māri (the earthen pot), Yīranagari Māri, Hiridevati(the eldest sister), Candamandamma and Uttahnahaliamma.517 There
515

According to the Skanda Purāṇa, Yoginīs can help in child and unborn foetus
protection. Vidya Dehejia, op. cit.
516

See “Village deities” in H. Krishna Sastri, ‘South Indian Images of Gods andGoddesses’
517

H. Whitehead, Op. cit.
497

seems to be a very close relationship between the Seven Sisters and thevillage goddesses. W.T. Elmore comments: “In all parts of South India theSeven Sisters are the most prominent among Dravidian deities. ...
Localities quite near together often have different names for them. ...
Poleramma is the best known, being found in almost every village.”518
Furthermore, within the village beliefs of Ceylon there are a group of illdefined divinities called Kiriammas whose number is generally
acknowledged to be seven. The very name Kiriammas, meaning ‘milk
mothers’519 implies that they may have something to do with children
and, again like the Mātṛkās of the Indian lore, they are the subject ofabundant, albeit often mutually contradictory, popular legends.
Nowadays Kiriamma ceremonies have been incorporated into Pattini
worship. “Associated with Pattini (a form of Kannagi) worship is the cult of
Kiriammas. They are seven in number and their help is invoked whenchildren are afflicted by contagious diseases.” 520
Other inauspicious goddesses are the dark Jieṣṭā, of the Hindu pantheon,
who haunts homes where family members quarrel and food is given togrown ups, disregarding the hunger of their children. In the Buddhist
tradition, there is the goddess Hārīti who afflicted children too until
Buddha transformed her essence. Traditionally Divehi children are given
preference at meal times; and not only are much fuss made about theirfeeding, but also they are given excess food to play with too. It is fairly

518

W.T. Elmore, ‘Dravidian Gods in Modern Hinduism.’. In Oppert’s list in his work
‘Original Inhabitants of India’, Pidāri, the generic name for a series of popular Tamilvillage goddesses, appears to be Poleramma.
519

Although there are texts that say that the name Kiriammas doesn’t come from
‘Kiri’ (Milk), but from ‘Giri’ (mountain). N. Wijesekera, ‘Deities and Demons, Magic
and Masks’ and N. Ratnapala, ‘Folklore of SriLanka.’
520

Nandasena Ratnapala, Op. Cit. above.
498

common that parents give their son or daughter a banana or a sweet tohold in each hand, even after the child is full.
Traditionally, Maldive Islanders could not tolerate children crying. When achild weeps, he has to be quickly stilled, often by giving him immediate
satisfaction or by entertaining him in such a manner that he stops crying
as fast as possible. Continuous crying, even among adults, is considered avery ill omen and is always connected with malevolent demonic activity. If
not stopped, it may invite even more evil spirits and it could even cause
illness or death. When a person cries without any apparent reason,
powerful magic has to be done, like in the following storydescribing an
event that actually happened:
The White Disk

In a house where a big family lived, there was a girl called Sanfā whowailed every evening. She sat close to the lamp or lay in bed crying herheart out without any apparent reason. This young woman was in good
health and there were no worries in the household, but whether she wassurrounded by people or alone, Sanfā cried and cried.
Everyone at home was very anxious. How could this be a happy place withsomeone crying inside all the time? Visitors felt uneasy, especially if they
happened to come after sunset. The sight of that young girl and hercontinuous weeping made the atmosphere unbearable. Usually, alloutsiders left after but a short time and from then onwards made it apoint of keeping away from that house.
Her family had arranged for a maitiri to be recited by a very goodfaṇḍitaveriyā.521 Along with this chant, they had tried powerful magic in
521

The maitiri was a chant or recitation meant to protect the person to whom magic
was done against from the evil consequences of that magic499

several different occasions, but nothing seemed to help. Thus, Sanfā kept
crying every night until everyone in her home felt so miserable, they werethinking that they were going to become crazy.
Her family tried all means to cheer her up engaging the girl inconversation, playing games, cracking jokes, singing or whatever they
could come up with, in order to make her happy. Her impatient father
went as far as letting his anger overcome him. He threatened her andscolded her, which only made matters much worse.
One evening, while Sanfā was laying on the bed crying her heart out as
usual, Āminā, Sanfā’s older sister, brought in an oil lamp to hang up inside
the room. As she was trying to reach the hook, a gust of air blew the lampout and she found herself suddenly in the darkness. Startled, Āminā turned
towards the sobbing girl and saw a luminous white disk suspended overher. The room was gloomy, but the round shape seemed to emit its own
light.
When the girl went closer to it, she saw that in the disk there was abeautiful, smiling face. Its eyes, lips and nose were very much like those ofa pretty young woman. Around it a much darker red halo was glowing andthe most amazing thing was that this luminous disk was hovering in the
air without any support. Fascinated, Āminā waved her hand before it andaround it, to determine whether it was merely a reflection or whether it
was caused by a beam of light coming from outside. But try as she might,
the round white smiling face remained unchanged. Meanwhile under it
Sanfā continued her endless weeping.
Suddenly, Āminā’s expression became grave. She thought: “This may be a
spirit!” Frightened, she went to her father and whispered to him: “Bappā,please come to see Sanfā’s bed.”
The man was relaxing on the swingbed and was in no mood to get up.
“What for?” he asked.
500

“There is something there. Maybe it is a spirit” The girl answered.
The father reluctantly got up and stood grumbling at the threshold: “Do I
now have two crazy daughters?” he complained, “I don’t see anything. It is
too dark in here. Where have you put the lamp?”Āminā, with awe on her face, ignored his mood and urged him: “Come into
the room while it is dark.” Following him she whispered, “Look closely over
the top of Sanfa’s bed. Do you see it, father?”
Now the man was staring at the smiling face in wonder and didn’t say aword.
He went out of the room and came back with a lamp and the Tiris.522 Afterputting the book on its wooden support, he sat close to Sanfa’s bed andrecited Sifat-un-Nabī, Mūsal Qubūr and all chapters of the Qurān he knew
how to read well.
Āminā stayed for a while close to him, but as time wore on and she
became tired, she went to sleep. Meanwhile, the disk trembled slightly,
but remained there, smiling at him, unchanged. Below it, far from
improving, the man’s daughter kept crying all the while.
At this point the father lost his patience. He just couldn’t stand that white,round smiling face anymore. It definitely seemed as if it was mocking him
and his efforts. His anger welled up and he began beating it with his
hands. But it was like beating air. Unaffected, the white shiny disk kept
smiling at him. Then the man took Sanfa’s kannai (a long, cylindrical
pillow) and trashed the disk in a fit of blind rage with such violence thatthe pillow broke and kapok was flying all over.

522

This is the name people in the South traditionally use to call the Qurān. It means‘thirty’ and it refers to the fact that the Qurān was formerly divided into 30 books.
The latter are independent from the chapters or Sūras.
501

The lamp had fallen and its flame went out. The room was now in total
darkness, but nothing happened to the smiling face. The pillow had broken
by hitting the wall and the disk stood there, its aloof smile a challenge,
while Sanfā was bitterly weeping underneath. Breathing heavily, andpainstakingly regaining his self-control, her father began to recite the
takbīr (a Muslim chant of praise) aloud.
This time, when he looked at the evil round face, he noticed that it had
become slightly smaller. Encouraged by this sign, he kept reciting andreciting the takbīr until the white disk shrunk to the size of a coin. The
man’s voice had become hoarse, but after this he had to recite it only
three further times until the smiling round face finally disappeared.
The house was now in complete silence. He got up and checked carefully
over his daughter’s bed and realized she had stopped crying. He sighed
and went out to look for some fire. It was very late in the night, soon it
would be dawn.
Sanfā was sitting on the bed when her father lit the lamp. They smiled ateach other. He told the girl lovingly to lie down and sleep. Then, aftersmoking a biḍi he himself went to bed. The next day he woke up late in themorning, but he was a satisfied man. Ever after, the mood in thathousehold was happy, and Sanfā never again shed tears in the night. 523
Although in the story above the relationship is not clearly stated and theonly suggestion of a female spirit is the beautiful smiling face inside thedisk, it is not improbable that in Maldives most spirits afflicting children
were formerly connected to the Saptamātṛkās or mothers.
In the Subcontinent, among these ‘seven mothers’ the one calledCāmuṇḍi is the most outstanding. Traditionally, Cāmuṇḍi is frequently
included among the Mātṛkās, who are considered to be mere lesser
523

Told by the late (Unakeḍe) Alī Dīdī, Vaijehēge, Fua Mulaku
502

goddesses, although she is a goddess in her own right. The spirit calledhāmuṇḍi in Maldives haunts dark, damp and dirty places or graveyards. It
is a violent demon that can attack straight away, causing madness or
bleeding wounds, like in this story about hāmuṇḍi from Ari Atoll:“Once, I was relaxing in my verandah late in the night and I saw somemysterious chicken that were following a hen in the starlight. I thought:“Strange, that those chicken are awake in the middle of the night!” I was
so amazed that I got up and run after them. After a while the chicken
entered the shadows of some bushy place and I followed them. Suddenly, I
felt something in my neck. I don’t remember very well what happened andit was so dark I couldn’t see anything. Since I lost track of the chicken, I
headed back home. When I reached my house I went near the lamp andrealized that I had a wound close to my throat. Although I almost was
feeling no pain, it was bleeding. Then I realized I had escaped some very
big danger (evil thing). I consider myself lucky to be alive.”524
Since this is a very scary spirit, probably one of the most malevolent in theMaldives, stories about hāmuṇḍi are commonly told to the children by
their elders to prevent them from wandering about the island after dark.
She is said to appear as a thin naked woman, with dirt or ashes smearedon her skin ―or of grey-colored skin―, wild, dirty hair and protruding
teeth. She looks frightening, although some people say that her face is not
ugly while she is calm. It seems that this female spirit can look like abeautiful woman until she opens her mouth wide, for her teeth may bepointed, sharp and stained red with blood. Hāmuṇḍi is generally found in

524

Narrated by Ahmadu Salīmu, Victory House, the Kuḍa Katību (assistantheadman) of Māḷos Island, Ari Atoll in 1989.
503

the sitting position, one leg drawn up and a hand resting on her knee.
Whoever meets her frontally is in imminent danger of death.525
The presence of this female spirit is invariably heralded by chicken orother birds. She is also said to lead a group of seven hens and to be able
to transform herself into a grey, or ash-colored, hen at will. Hāmuṇḍi canalso, in certain cases, use her great powers to produce instantly a verylarge number ―either ninety-six or one-hundred― of other chicken outof the blue. Oddly, hāmuṇḍi’s chickens are active during the night, whennormal chicken are sleeping. Even if they walk slow or come very close, no
one can catch those ashen chickens. If a person tries to capture them,
they will disappear in the dark vegetation.
The identification of hāmuṇḍi and birds is not mere coincidence. In Indian
tradition, although there are a few exceptions, like the peacock,practically all birds are considered a bad omen. Hence, their presence,
especially in great numbers, is extremely inauspicious and evendangerous. Birds like owls or crows are emblematic of Goddesses which, if
driven to anger by lack of devotion, have the power to bring aboutcalamity or disgrace, like Cāmuṇḍi. “Once, Allauddīn Khalji, after having
destroyed many Hindu places of worship during one of his raids, set out
with his troops to destroy a certain Dēvi temple in Bahuchara, Gujarat.
When his Muslim army neared this temple in the evening they were
surprised to see thousands of hens. As the soldiers were hungry, instead ofdestroying the temple, they became engrossed in catching and cooking
the hens and only one hen escaped. After eating them they were so tired
they went to sleep. During the night, the only surviving hen (Which was inreality the goddess in that form) started crying: ‘Kukkur, Kukkur, Kukkur.’
Then all the cooked-up hens in the stomachs of the soldiers came back to

525

Data about hāmuṇḍi were checked with a number of different sources; however,the late Muhammad Jamīl, the last great Maldivian scholar of the ‘Old School’,
provided the main points.
504

life calling back the same sound, tore open the bellies where they were
imprisoned and the Muslim army was destroyed.” 526
Birds are often the vāhana or vehicle of numerous Yoginīs. In Vajrayāna
Buddhist tradition Cāmuṇḍi is the consort of Yama, the God of death, thedivinity presiding over the numerous hells where the wicked suffer.
Finally, in the Ṛg Veda Yama is said to use a bird as his messenger ofdeath.527
Fear of spots associated with death is, at any rate, quite high in theMaldives. Graveyards, even though usually sanctified by a mosque, areconsidered the most inauspicious places in an island. Even now, if they
can avoid it, Divehi people would prefer not to walk near places burial
grounds, especially ancient ruined cemeteries or isolated tombs, even inbroad daylight. One of the most popular Maldive stories connected withthis theme is perhaps Fūḷu Digu Haṇḍi, meaning ‘the spirit with the longumbilical cord.’Fūḷu Digu Haṇḍi

“Once upon a time, a woman called Ayminā Bi went to look for water tothe well by the graveyard surrounding the mosque. As she turned to gohome with the full pot she saw a sight that instantly chilled her blood: FūḷuDigu Haṇḍi was sitting on the sand of a fresh grave nearby. It was afearsome looking spirit and it was pouring sand on its head with a human

526

K.K. Moorthy, “Sarvam Sakti Mayam”.

527

Vidya Dehejia, Op. cit. and R. N. Saletore, ‘Encyclopedia of Indian Culture.
505

skull.528 Ayminā Bi was so terrified, that she ran back home as fast as she
could.
Once inside the house, she lay on her bed exhausted and soon she felt very
ill. Her husband Takurufānu was away on a trading trip, so she was alone
at home and very afraid. The sun set and Ayminā Bi was shivering withfever. In the middle of the night Fūḷu Digu Haṇḍi came and, as it couldn’t
find a way to get in, it walked around the house shouting: “Ayminā Bi,
Ayminā Bi! Did you see me at the graveyard while I was pouring sand on
myself with a human skull?” The frightened woman screamed in terror: “I
didn’t see you!”“Good!” exclaimed the spirit “I will come back tomorrow night.”
In the morning Ayminā Bi told all the women in the village about her
ordeal and when the sun set all the women in the village were frightened.
The haṇḍi came at a very late hour and, as in the night before, it went
walking around the house yelling: “Ayminā Bi! Did you see me at thegraveyard while I was pouring sand on myself with a human skull?” Thepoor woman screamed: “I didn’t see you!”“Good!” exclaimed the spirit “I will come back tomorrow night” and left.
The next morning, Takurufānu, Ayminā Bi’s husband, arrived to the island
and was sad to see his wife shivering in bed with high fever. Crying,
Ayminā Bi told him everything.
Takurufānu was incensed: “Let it come tonight! We’ll get rid of thisnuisance! Don’t be afraid.” He called their neighbor Mariyambu and told

528Nāṣigaṇḍu. The bowl-like half of the human skull (Skt. kapāla) is not only anessential ingredient for tantric ceremonies which are usually performed ingraveyards (or cremation grounds), but it is also a very common iconographicalattribute of village goddesses, the fierce goddess Kālī, ḍākinīs and Yoginīs506

her: “Ayminā Bi is sick and cannot work, please grind some lonumirus (apaste of hot red chilies, black pepper, garlic and salt) for me.”At sunset Mariyambu came with the thick red hot paste on a big green
leaf. Takurufānu told her to stay with them that night and she agreed. As
the night grew darker, Takurufānu told his wife to pretend not to bescared when the haṇḍi shouted and to answer ‘Yes!’ this time. Ayminā Bi
said she would try her best. At midnight, Takurufānu was ready inside
holding a knife and the chilly-pepper mixture.
After walking around the house in the dark, Fūḷu Digu Haṇḍi called:“Ayminā Bi, Ayminā Bi! Did you see me at the graveyard while I was
pouring sand on myself with a human skull?”This time Ayminā Bi answered boldly: “Yes! I saw you!”529
Immediately the haṇḍi flew into a rage: “What? You saw me? How do you
dare? Wait, I will teach you a lesson you will never forget!” Then it began
to thrust its umbilical cord through a gap in the thatch that covered thesides of the house.
Inside, the two women and the man watched in horror the disgustingly
long umbilical cord entering the room and moving about like a snake. It
became longer and longer until it almost filled the house. Takurufānu
moved close to the hole where the spirit’s umbilical cord had come into
the house. Then he took his big knife, hacked the umbilical cord off at theroot and immediately smeared the red-hot salty paste on the cut. The
haṇḍi screamed in pain and rage: “Ouch! My navel! My navel!” Yelling likemad, it fled into the night and was never seen again. 530

529

In other versions the haṇḍi asks: “Did you tell the people that you saw me
pouring sand on myself?” and the woman answers: “No, I told them you werepouring gold dust.” On the last night she says: “I told them you were pouring sand!”
530

This is the version told by Aishath Naazneen, Gāge, Male’.
507

Nowadays this story is frequently enacted by students in popular theatre
form and the role of the haṇḍi, or evil spirit, is mostly played by a man.
Since the original meaning of this particular legend has been lost, it is now
generally assumed that a woman is more likely to be harassed by a malespirit than by a female one. Southern islanders, however, uphold that ahaṇḍi, whether in terrifying or benign form, is always female andcategorically discard the possibility that a haṇḍi may be a male spirit.
Magieduruge Ibrahīm Dīdī, Vaijehēge Alī Dīdī, both from Fua Mulaku andother old storytellers were categorical in this regard. They claimed that
northern islanders have confused their myths. Younger Northern
Maldivians with a modern education commented that the difficulty
surrounding this haṇḍi’s sex was irrelevant in ancient times and that it
only arose when the need for translation into English required to specify‘he’ or ‘she’ instead of the non-gender specific Divehi pronoun.
Certainly, being ugly, scary, thin and dirty are conditions that contributeto subdue, if not to obliterate, this haṇḍi’s sexual features. But, since theremainders of Maldive mythology as preserved in the Southern atolls are
more consistent than in the North of the country, in all likelihood FūḷuDigu Haṇḍi was a female spirit in older versions of the legend. Indeed,
after meeting Fūḷu Digu Haṇḍi, the woman in the story is attacked byfever and the Divehi female spirit called haṇḍi is known precisely as being
the cause of fever itself. The Arabic generic word ‘Jinni’ is almost neverused in the south of Maldives, where every spirit has preserved its own
Divehi name and specific attributes, and the Maldivian haṇḍi originated in
the Dravidian bloodthirsty goddess of disease, as has been mentioned
further above in this book. The Fūḷu Digu Haṇḍi story, where comical
situations are mingled with horror is usually taken as a nonsensical talefor Maldivian children. Nevertheless, the description and the attributes ofthis haṇḍi itself and the fact that it is found in a grave are highly relevantfrom the mythological point of view for they provide very important clues
about ancient Maldive beliefs.

508

Both in looks and in behavior, Fūḷu Digu Haṇḍi, with its large protruding
teeth and disheveled hair, has a striking similarity with a tantric goddess
in her fearsome (Skt. krodha) form, like Cāmuṇḍi. Thus, despite its namein the story, the spirit mentioned in it has more affinities with theMaldivian spirit called hāmuṇḍi, than with the female demon referred toas haṇḍi. Again, the fact that this haṇḍi is sitting on a grave has great
relevance within this context, for in Indian iconography goddess Cāmuṇḍi
is portrayed as a fearsome-looking woman ―often horribly emaciated,hollow-eyed, almost skeleton-like― sitting on a human corpse.
Finally, Fūḷu Digu Haṇḍi, as described in the tale, has many affinities aḍākinī or a Yoginī, which are lesser goddesses in the Indic tradition.
Yoginīs frequent the burial grounds, have a frightening appearance andtheir hair is in disorder. Their eyes are red and fierce. They hold a skull(Skt. kapala) in one hand. They wear no clothes, unless they cover the
lower part of their body with raw hides. They use human entrails or
snakes as a girdle around their waist, hence the ‘long umbilical cord’ (fūḷudigu) elaboration in the Maldive tale. “These creatures wander around in
the night, especially in cemeteries and their vicinity, inspiring fear to all
humans, except to the initiated.”531
Graveyards have great relevance in tantric worship. They are used as the
scenario where the initiated are taught to overcome fear, in a spiritual
test that eventually would enable them to increase their magic powers(Skt. siddhi) and to become familiar with the spirit world. In the
Subcontinent, graveyards or cremation grounds were used by ascetics tomeditate upon the transient nature of the material world.
“Here the sage pursued his goal of spiritual liberation by smelling therottenness of corpses and experiencing the loneliness of these miasmic,

531

Vidya Dehejia, Op. cit.
509

peripheral places where human life ends, places of pollution and horror,
avoided by the common man.”532
In Maldives, even now, burial grounds are fearsome places assumed to be
frequented by evil spirits during the long tropical nights. Only the
initiated, the faṇḍita men, dare to go there at late hours to procure
themselves bones for their rituals and also, exceptionally, other humanparts from freshly buried corpses, as will be mentioned in the next
chapter. There is a parallel between the Maldivian behavior and theattitudes of the South Indian fishermen in the same context:“Men are also vulnerable to attack from demons in particular physicallocations: the graveyard, where ghosts lurk and where ‘mantravaadis’
come to steal the parts of the body they need for sorcery, the parts of thevillage associated with repeated death such as a point along thebeachfront where two boys were swept away ....”533

532

D. Kinsley, ‘The Ten Mahavidyas’533

Kalpana Ram, Op. cit
5103.3.1 FEAR OF THE BURIAL GROUNDS
Traditional Divehi social organization lacks Sanskritic influence. As wehave seen along this book, Divehi mores and rites are markedly Dravidian.
Thus, instead of a complex caste system, like the Vedic one, Maldive
Islanders knew merely a distinction between noble (bēfuḷu) and common
people. According to Vedic customs, widows were not allowed toremarry, but there were no limitations concerning marriage for Divehi
widows; and while Aryans had a strict concept of pollution through nonvegetarian food and contact with certain substances, Maldivians havealways eaten fish, preferring the blood-red flesh of Skipjack tuna and,what’s more, some of their ancient folk-religious rituals (diyōge kuḷi)included the drinking of palm wine.
Even so, perhaps, the most relevant trait that links the ancient Divehi
people to Dravidian civilization is the fact that, unlike in Ceylon, there are
no indications that they ever burned their dead. Divehi people always
carefully buried their deceased ones. The location and arrangement of theburial place was a matter that was given great consideration by Islanders
high or low. Burial grounds and isolated tombs were important landmarksin every island village.
Maldive cemeteries are usually close to a mosque, in the belief that theprayers said therein will soothe the spirits. Since certain disgusting or
frightening diseases are associated with particularly evil demons, thosespirits should not be allowed to dwell near a frequented place or even amosque, least they trouble worshippers at night. Therefore, people having
died of malevolent illnesses are not buried in the graveyard close to themosque compound. Instead their burial place will be an isolated, lonely
spot as far as possible from human habitation, or even in a separate
uninhabited island.
Thus, on every single Maldive island there are a number of places where
people should not go without very good reason, or only at certain times.
511

The whole duration of the night and the Friday-prayer time ―every Friday
between forenoon and early afternoon― are considered highly malefic
times. In Fua Mulaku a person called Rekkā534 who died of a swollen body―probably hydropsy― was buried in a lonely place close to the beach in
the Southeastern shore of the island. His tombstone has disappeared, but
his name, his disease and the approximate place where he was buried arestill remembered in the island lore. In the Raṣoveṣi, a lengthy poem
describing the landmarks around Fua Mulaku Island, Rekka’s tomb is the
subject of the following verse:
Rekkā hamatā mi vī/ Muḷa mīheke duḷa balī
Vaki ko’ mmi atirimatī/ o’ vvā nimi avadivī(We) have arrived to (the place called) Rekkā, (which is named after) a
person afflicted by the sickness of the swollen body (hydropsy). He wasleft isolated on this shore until he ended up dying.
In the Maldives the malevolent spirit rising out of a corpse still wrapped inits shrouds after it is buried is known as ‘kaḍḍovi.’ Ka’ meaning corpse anddovi spirit; dovi or devi comes from the Sanskrit ‘devata,’ meaning divinity
or spirit.535 It is said that these deathly specters rise mainly from thetombs of people who have died suddenly of deadly diseases or of
unnatural causes. In the Island folklore certain diseases such as leprosy,
smallpox and hydropsy, were considered a highly inauspicious omen.
They come out in the night and haunt the island, hovering a few inches
above the ground in a rigid, upright position. Kaḍḍovi are pale spirits,
appearing wrapped in the shrouds they have been wrapped in; like a body534

A common local name until the mid-19th century, when Arabic names began to
be used. Since mid-1980’s, with the introduction of identity cards where theperson’s name is written in the Arabic script, Maldivians have been discouraged bytheir own authorities from using non-Arab names, including their traditional
autochthonous ones.
535

The ‘v’ sound is silent, hence this word is pronounced ‘kaḍḍoi.
512

after rigor mortis has set in, they are unable to bend. The spirits of thedead are believed to rule during the malefic nightly gloom and in thedaytime they are presumed to keep low. While it is to be expected thatspirits would rise out of every corpse, only the malevolent ones receive all
the attention.
Fear of such spirits strongly influenced Divehi architecture in ancient
times and people took great pains to make sure they couldn’t enter theirhomes. Before the entrance of a Maldive house, the roof would extend tothe height of a man’s chest, covering a short verandah, after which, thedoor of the house proper would have a doorsill rising to a height ofeighteen inches, known as oḷigaṇḍu in the Male’ Bas and as eḷigēṇḍi in theAḍḍu and Fua Mulaku form of Divehi. Thus, somebody entering the house
would have first to bend very low, and then, after only one or two steps,that person would have to raise his legs again to get into the houseproper. There were no windows in these buildings.
In Divehi tradition there is no private sphere within the house and anyone
is welcome to come and visit anyone at any time during the day. In all
island homes, doors are always kept open between sunrise and dusk anda household visited by many people is considered a blessed place,although Island wisdom also said that one same person should not visit
too many houses in order to avoid trouble. However, after nightfall when
the dovis are said to roam around the island, the doors of all homes aretightly shut. Since the spirits of the dead don’t like the light; within thehouse a lamp would be always kept burning. Usually, its flame would belowered to save oil or kerosene after everyone goes to sleep. This lightwould be put off only after dawn.536 It was considered a very inauspicious
omen if the lamp went off during the night, leaving the house in darkness.

536

This is also the case among the malevolent spirits of the dead in theneighboring Subcontinent. “The Rakśasas always depart at dawn.” W. Crooke,‘Popular Religion & Folklore of Northern India.’513

Since the kaḍḍovi move in straight lines, the paths approaching humanhabitations from malevolent spots, like the forest, the graveyard and thebeach, would be winding in order to hamper their mobility. These
specters are white and glow dimly in the dark. It is believed that if aperson sees a kaḍḍovi in the cemetery in the night, he might die in a few
days of a terrible sickness; the back arched, all muscles tensed, and withintense pain or convulsions with a ghastly grin on the face after the lastgasp.537
This same spirit also receives other names, such as muladovi (mula =death) when able to take the appearance of the deceased person, usuallyappearing in customary dress instead of wrapped in shrouds, and also as
buddovi, a spirit of a long-dead ancestor (Skt. Bhuta).538 The figure of
bhuta as a ghost associated with death is present all over the Southerncoastal regions of the Subcontinent, from Tuḷu country down to Southern
Ceylon. In those areas bhutas are still a living legend which manifests itself
in local narrative and vibrant popular expressions with colorful dances andmasks.539
The kaḍḍovi, muladovi and buddovi are spirits that appear to act
independently of any outside control, being able to inhabit corpses andcause different diseases, which might be followed by death. Thus they are

537

These look very much like the symptoms of tetanus (lockjaw).

538

and ‘Coastal Karnataka, Studies in Folkloristic and Linguistic Traditions ofDakshina Kannada Region of the Western Coast of India’, edited by U.P.
Upadhyaya
539

There is snome speculation that buddovi could be a sort ofdemon derived fromthe person of the Buddha, but in Sri Lanka, where demon cults and Buddhism
coexist, the figure of Buddha is never included in the world of the demons causing
disease. Hence, among the Buddhist populations of that island both beliefs remainparallel, as they most likely were in Maldives before the conversion to Islam. See N.
Wijesekera, ‘Deities and Demons, Magic and Masks’; A.G.S. Karyawasam,‘Buddhist Ceremonies and Rituals of Sri Lanka’.
514

also comparable to the spirits known as vetāla in the Indian Subcontinent.
Unlike other fearful spirits, they do not unearth bodies and eat humanflesh. In fact, apart from the corpse they may happen to dwell in, they do
not appear to have a body of their own.
Certain Maldivian ghosts are generally known as furēta or ferēta (Skt.
Prēta), a sort of hungry ghost, often tall and larger than a human being,
and to this group belongs a spirit called kissadovi, (Skt. rakṣasa = a demon+ dovi). Like the kaḍḍovi and muladovi, these spirits wander around theisland in the night and haunt graveyards and dark places, but they are lesssubtle ghosts. Usually they are crude flesh eaters, whether in a fresh or
rotten state. Although their bodies are more or less anthropomorphic,
their features are often deformed and grotesque. They correspond tocertain demons known as prēta, rakṣāsa and piśac in the Subcontinental
tradition.
All the spirits mentioned above bother human beings in different ways
and in the island lore there are detailed descriptions of their features andthe diseases or evils they may cause. The special characteristics thatdefine a certain spirit may change from island to island and some names
may be known in one atoll but not in the other.540
Some of these flesh-eating spirits are also similar in their features to theghouls of the Arab folklore. The ghoul (Arabic ‘ġūl’) is a fearsome-looking
spirit with the body of a corpse and the head of a dog. Like the furētas it
haunts graveyards and feeds on corpses. It is not part of Maldive

540

Most of these data were provided by the late Magieduruge Ibrahīm Dīdī in a
number of conversations in the early 1980’s. At first it was not easy to make senseof the scattered bits and pieces of information I gathered about spirits of the deadancestors and their link with the concept of vigani. It took many questions to get
Ibrahīm Dīdī to repeat certain details enough times for a definite picture to emerge
in my mind. Unfortunately, much of this information was surreptitiously abstracted
from my notes and published in a small pamphlet named Vanavaru in Male’ in thelate 1980’s without duly acknowledging any of the sources.
515

mythology because Maldivians are not familiar with dogs, there being nota single dog in the whole country. Quite a few Maldivians know the word
gūlu though and use it occasionally as an insult, but they don’t know
exactly what it stands for.
It is widely believed that a great number of the spirits known as dovi werespirits of ancestors who had found no rest. Hence, they came back totrouble humans, especially if they rose from the body of an evil person,from someone having died an unnatural death, as has been mentioned
before, or from a corpse which had not been properly buried. W.T. Elmore
comments that: “The Dravidians have a great fear of ghosts of all kinds,
regardless of what their earthly career has been.”541 The latter is the casein the following story told by Husēn Koi Bē, Hoḷudū Island, South
Miladummaḍuḷu Atoll:
The Haunted House“Long ago in Male’ there was a nice large house which was always empty.
As soon as people moved in, they fell sick and, if they didn’t leave the place
for good, they died in a very short time. The owner ended up asking for avery cheap rent, but even then no one wanted to live in it.
One day, an Englishman residing in Male’, having heard this story, told theowner to let him live in that house for some time. The owner readily
agreed and the foreigner moved in. He slept during the daytime, which iseasy in Male’ during the hot hours between forenoon and late afternoon.
At sunset, he put a table and two chairs in the middle of the main room.
As it became dark, the Englishman sat on one of those chairs, holding a
notebook and a pen, placed a small, dim oil lamp on the table, and waited.

541

W.T. Elmore, ‘Dravidian Gods in Modern Hinduism.’516

After a long time, in the middle of the night, a thin man with a sad face
appeared and sat down. This man told the foreign gentleman that he had
been killed by a former owner of the house years ago. To confirm this hepointed to the spot where he had been mortally wounded displaying abroad gash under his shoulder. As the Englishman looked at the wound,the thin man told him that the wicked killer had buried him secretly insidethat same room, cunningly wiping off every trace of the crime. Saying thus
he pointed to the floor at the place where his body had been buried. The
man complained that he had been given a hasty burial without having
been duly washed and without any ceremony, and he was bitter about
that. Then, without saying another word he disappeared.
The next morning, the Englishman told his landlord about his meeting withthe ghost. They first had breakfast together and then they brought anadze and a spade to dig in the exact location the spirit had pointed out. It
took but a little digging when they suddenly found human bones.
Carefully, they removed all of them and brought them to the graveyard,
where they were finally given a proper burial. After that the house ceased
to be haunted.
Close to the island of Hitadū, in Aḍḍu Atoll, there is a small island called
Kabbōhera, which means the ‘islet of the many corpses’.542 This ghastly
name was given to this place because there are a lot of human skeletonsburied in its sands and their origin is the matter of much speculation.
Some people in Hitadū say that this place was used for certain weird
rituals before Islam. A certain legend543 explaining the presence of thosebones goes thus:

542

Herā means islet close to the ocean fringe and corresponds to hurā in thenorthern form of Divehi
543

Told by Boṇḍorāge Muhammad Dīdī of Fua Mulaku.
517

Kabbōhera

“Long, long ago, some people of Hitadū sat under the trees close to thebeach enjoying the cool sea breeze. Shortly after sunset, they saw abeautifully lit ship entering the shallow lagoon and threw anchor. From it
the sound of music and dances (nacaraṅgu) could be heard. The islandmen, women and children who were looking from the beach became so
fascinated by the mysterious vessel that they went into the water andwaded towards it.
Some time passed and, after seeing that those people were not coming
back, their families or friends began looking for them. As they went to thebeach, they were confronted by the eerie sight and the attractive sounds
coming from the ship full of lights. They thought that the others must haveboarded the vessel and were having fun there and, stepping into thelagoon, they waded towards it. Again, as those people were not coming,others went to the beach and waded towards the ship thinking that there
must be a good show there. In the end even old people, the infirm and thewomen with babies went towards the dazzling vessel. In this manner,
everyone on the island of Hitadū went to see the ship and disappeared.
It is said that on the following day there was no trace of the ship, but inthe same spot where it should have been there was a large heap of deadbodies. Those were the corpses of Hitadū’s entire population piled on topof one another. The island was completely silent and the rotten bodies
began to emit an unbearable stench. Eventually, the crabs feasted on the
decaying flesh, but there was too much of it even for them. In time, thewaves brought sand that covered the rotten bodies completely. Manymonths later, bushes grew on the sand and a new islet was formed.
Several years after this awful event, when new settlers arrived to Hitadū,
some people went to that small island to plant coconut trees. While518

digging there, they were amazed at the large quantity of human bones inthe sands of that little islet. Thus they called it Kabbōhera.
This legend repeats a theme found in northern Divehi legends: a boat fullof lights and its association with mass death. Once more, this might reflect
the link between deadly epidemics and festivals offered to Māri, thepestilence goddess who sends smallpox and cholera to punish her
children. Kabbōhera was probably the place where the people affected bya lethal plague were buried in mass graves. Since the pattern of humanhabitation has changed along the centuries, there are some places inmany islands where people were buried in the past and which cannot beeasily identified now because all the visible signs of a graveyard havedisappeared. Sometimes the present village grows towards these ancientburial grounds. Hence, it is not uncommon for people to find humanbones while digging a well.
There are some islands where changes in the pattern of the tidal currentson the coral reef have eroded away the sites of ancestral cemeteries andwhere human bones are exposed. This is taken to be not only a very badomen for an island, but also a source of great shame, because bones
should remain underground forever. And yet, at the same time, such an
event is not entirely unwelcome, as it comes in handy for the old people
to illustrate the transience of this world. “You see, such-and-such island
was a large island long ago, where people had been living for many
generations. Alas! Now the current is eating it away and even the bonesof their ancestors are coming out to the surface!”544
Certain islands, such as Kunāvaṣi in Northwestern Felidū Atoll, were
populated in the distant past, however Kunāvaṣi hasbeen so thoroughly
eroded, that only a very small bushy islet remains.545 The only witnesses
544

Source: 1984 Magieduruge Ibrahīm Dīdī.

545

Source: 1989 Alī Najību, Nedunge, Male’.
519

of former human habitation in Kunāvaṣi are now the large quantity ofpottery shards strewn over the long sand spit of the present islet. Hence,
it is likely that with the passing of the centuries, some of the Maldive
islands that had formerly been inhabited may have completely
disappeared.
Other islands were abandoned in the past because the water table hadturned salty. The rainwater falling on a coral island percolates into theporous ground and forms an underground layer of freshwater resting overthe underlying saltwater known as the ‘Ghyben/Hertzberg lens’. Although
it doesn’t mix with the saltwater below, that freshwater layer can beeasily depleted. Ancient Maldivians were spartan in their use of
freshwater, but now, with the introduction of flush toilets and washingmachines the situation has changed. Nowadays many islands in theMaldives rely on collection of rainwater in tanks for their supply of
drinking water. Male’ and tourist resort islands have desalination plants.
When the water table grows increasingly salty the permanent wells
become useless, and the only way to collect fresh water is to dig a shallow
well, collect the water and cover it again. Women do this job using
coconut shells and waiting until the mud has settled before collecting thewater. This was still normal practice until recent times in some northern
islands such as Filladū, Tiladummati Atoll. As this process involved a lot of
hard work, Maldivians believed that this calamity struck a place when its
inhabitants had been sinful. Neighboring islanders claimed that thepeople of the island suffering such a curse had exposed themselves to theattack of demons because of their recurrent bad habits. Thus, even theincreasing salinity of the wells in an island (or in a particular section of theisland) would be deemed to be the result of supernatural activity.
In the past, Maldivian people felt extremely vulnerable to the attacks ofevil spirits. Hence legends where a great magician fights back the demons520causing deaths and disturbing even the deceased ones in their graveyards
used to be very popular in the Maldives. In the story that follows,546 thegreat faṇḍitaveriyā Oḍitān Kalēge, married to a fierce and powerful
Yoginī, is confronted with bitter truth:
The Double Life of Dōgi Āihā Kāṅlēge

“Oḍitān Kalēge was a learned and powerful faṇḍita man. He lived in an
island of Haddummati Atoll alone with his young and beautiful wife DōgiĀihā Kāṅlēge, a mighty faṇḍita woman too. Oḍitān was a good hearted
man but, unknown to him, his wife was very evil. People in neighboringislands were dying in horrible ways during the night and corpses ingraveyards had been unearthed and eaten.
One day, a frightened man came to Oḍitān Kalēge and whispered to himthat his wife Dōgi Āihā Kāṅlēge was responsible for the many deaths andthe desecration of cemeteries. The great sorcerer was annoyed andrefused to believe him because he was fascinated by her and she wasalways kind and loving to him.
The man calmed him, “Please don’t get angry. Just stay awake at night
and watch what your wife does, especially on the dark nights of the newmoon.”
Forgetting his usual good manners Oḍitān dismissed the man rudely. Laterhe told his wife what the man had said. She laughed and replied: “Howabsurd! You know that I am always beside you and there is nothing I dothat you don’t see.”546

Told by Abdul Hamīdu, ‘Light’, Dūṇḍigamu, Fua Mulaku.
521

Even though he knew this was true, the great sorcerer wanted to be sureand asked: “Do you always stay in this island in the nighttime?”
The young woman calmly looked into his eyes and declared: “I swear to
you that I never leave this island during the night!” Then she smiled
sweetly at him and pouted her lips, acting mockingly offended. Oḍitān
looked at his pretty wife and was relieved.
However, during the following months, as the nightly carnage in theneighboring islands continued unabated, doubts about Dōgi Āihā kept
nagging Oḍitān’s mind. One night, after he went to bed with his wife, heclosed his eyes, but didn’t sleep. After about two hours, when he wasalmost dozing, he noticed her stirring. Stealthily Dōgi Āihā got up and left
the room without making any noise. There was something uncanny about
her manner that made the husband suspect that she was not just going toanswer a call of nature, so he followed her secretly in the darkness to see
what she was up to.
Dōgi Āihā left the house and walked hurriedly to the tuṇḍi, a sandy
projection at one end of the island. There the young woman planted her
two feet firmly on the sand and lifted her head towards the starry sky.
Then she raised her arms and began to sway from her hip upwards,
reciting magic words. First she moved very gently, but after some time her
movements became wilder and wilder. Slowly, the upper part of her bodyextended itself towards the sky, making her waist into a long, long strip.
Oḍitān Kalege was hiding in the bushes by the beach and, after seeing
how Dōgi Āihā bent her body like an arch to reach one of the inhabitedislands, he realized that the man had told the truth about his wife. And
yet, the fact was that Dōgi Āihā had not lied either when she said that she
never left his island. While the upper part of her body was killing people,
drinking their blood, eating their flesh, disturbing dead bodies ingraveyards and incurring into other unmentionable deeds in distantplaces, her feet actually stayed at home. Oḍitān decided that he had to522

stop Dōgi Āihā’s bloodshed there and then. Thus, without wasting moretime, the sorcerer gathered firewood, built a fire close to where thewoman was standing and dragged her feet into it.
Struck with burning pain, his wife’s body shrunk. Dōgi Āihā Kāṅlēge wasnow awful to behold and Oḍitān was taken aback. Blood was drippingfrom her lips and her teeth were stained red with it. To make mattersworse, she was glaring at him with fierce hatred. There was no love left for
him in her fiery eyes, as she hissed murderous incantations against him.
Instantly, Oḍitān shielded himself against her vicious magic with his ownfaṇḍita. However, Dōgi Āihā’s power, compounded by her anger, was ofsuch malignant intensity and ferocity, that he realized he could no longer
protect himself. Thus, the eminent sorcerer ended up having to flee fromhis angry wife. Frantically, he ran to the house, intending to leave on theboat.
Casting deadly spells in quick succession, Dōgi Āihā set on fire the house,
the boat, as well as every piece of wood on the island. Desperately, herhusband searched for a way to escape from her unleashed fury, running toand fro on the charred place, but there was none. Finally, Oḍitān found agrinding stone among the ashes of the kitchen. He quickly carried it into
the lagoon and made it float by the power of his magic. Then he took alittle blade of grass and held it as a sail between his fingers.547 With thestrength of his faṇḍita, sitting on the stone and powered by the ‘sail’ he
was holding in his hand, Oḍitān sailed away from his island at great
speed.
Furious at seeing him escape, his wife gathered all her perverse forces fora final blow. Standing in the shallow water of the lagoon, Dōgi Āihā thrust
her right hand forward, raised three huge waves of fire from the sea, and547

A type of grass known as buru.
523

hurled them after him. The massive effort left her exhausted. Instantly she
died.
Meanwhile Oḍitān saw the three flaming waves fast approaching him.
Being near an islet, he hastily made for its beach. The moment he steppedon the sand, he was beyond their reach. Hence, they turned into waves ofwater, and so he was saved.
To this day, at a point near the beach of Golā Konā in Haddummati Atoll,ocean swells break into series of three waves. Natives of the atoll attribute
this natural wonder to Dōgi Āihā. They say that her magic fire waves
became normal ones and stayed there forever.
Certain legends about Māri, the goddess of smallpox, say that once she
blasted her husband with supernatural flames while she was in a rage.548
The particular island where Oḍitān lived is not identified, but the atoll
corresponds to Haddummati Atoll, traditionally said to have seveninhabited islands (Haddū=sat-duvu), hence its name.
The stone-boat sequence appears in a few of the Oḍitān Kalēge and DōgiĀihā stories. The common explanation for it would be an emphatic: “Theirmagic was so powerful that they could make a grindstone float and use it
as a boat.”
Characteristically, and not without humor, a great stress is laid on theamazing magic powers of both Oḍitān and Dōgi Āihā. Although Divehi
grindstones (dāy) do have the shape of a ship, they are usually small(about 50 cm in length only). Since there are no hard rocks in theMaldives, just coral, the dark basalt grindstones used in the islands havebeen traditionally brought from India or Ceylon. The symbolism of thefloating stone is obscure but it is probably related to the fact that
grindstones are coming from abroad.

548

Brubaker ‘The Ambivalent Mistress.’524

Formerly, in the uninhabited island of Abūhera, in Aḍḍu Atoll, there was asmall archaeological remain whose purpose was a bit of a mystery.
Abūhera is actually the name of the southern prolongation of HitadūIsland, rather than a truly separate island in the common use of the term.
Narrow, sandy and at the mercy of the strong winds, Abūhera was not fit
for human habitation. Within a stony enclosure there was a boat built ofhirigā (porites coral) close to a low stone building of the ziyāraiy (shrine)
type. As they had not been looked after, both stone-boat and stone-housewere in a semi-ruinous state. Unfortunately they were completely
destroyed in the 1940’s when the causeway linking Hitadū with the British
military air-base in Gan was built. According to Hitadū people, it was a
non-descript spot that had no popular religious significance within living
memory. However, some local people say the house and the boat weremeant to be used by the spirits.549 It is not known how ancient were thoseruins and in present times confusing and contradictory local statements
provide no clue.
The only reference to stone-boats I found outside of the Maldives is in alegend from Ceylon, linked to the Pattini cult, the popular worship of agoddess which originated in the Kannagi tradition of the Subcontinent.
Hugh Nevill, who studied popular folklore in mid-19th century Ceylon,
describes this myth as embodying extremely ancient lore.
“Then she was reborn as a Dēvi or goddess, and called Ambarapoti. She
constructed a stone boat, and landed in it at Madakalapu (Batticaloa).
There she received power to alleviate suffering ... She is described as
wearing necklaces and large ear ornaments. She built a temple for herself
on Paelawa rock, and there she tosses balls in the air for sport, in threesets of seven each. ... She removes pestilence.”550 Note the connection

549

Source: Magieduruge Ibrahīm Dīdī.

550

R. Weerakoon, ‘Sri Lanka’s Mythology’.
525between this goddess and Māri, the Indian Smallpox or Village Goddess,for the identification of evil spirits with Māri is a recurring feature of
Maldivian popular beliefs.
Interestingly, in the Maldive legends, the stone-boats appear inconnection with female spirits too. At least in two stories they belong to
Dōgi Āihā, Oḍitān Kalēge’s fiery wife; and here again, in Dōgi Āihā’s secretdefilement of tombs and eating human flesh, while openly acting as agood wife, we see the link between the beneficent and the wrathful
aspect of the Goddess: Her capacity both to cause pestilence if slighted
and to remove it if properly invoked, a theme has been discussed withmore detail in other chapters of this book.
The fierce battle of magic spells between Oḍitān Kalēge and Dōgi Āihā isconsistent with Vaśiṣṭa’s personality as a sage of great siddhi powers witha competitive spirit. However, in the Indian tradition, Vaśiṣṭa’s rival is not
his wife, but the sage Viśvamitra.551 The mutual animosity and bitterrivalry of these two great Ṛṣis appears in many important epic poems,
like the Mahābhārata and the Purāṇas, where both Ṛṣis curse and pursue
each other. For example, in the Mārkaṇḍeya Purāṇa, Vaśiṣṭa andViśvamitra, in a wrangle, cursed each other to become birds and, in thoseshapes, the two sages fought such a terrible battle that the whole
universe was seriously disturbed. Finally Brahmā, in the interest of peace,
restored both of the rivals to their original form and brought aboutreconciliation between them.552
The name Dōgi Āihā comes from the Sanskrit term Yoginī, the feminine
ending ‘-nī’ having been replaced by the Arabic common name Aihā(Āisha). Kāṅlēge is the southern form of the Divehi respectful title

551

However, from the point of view of character, Arundati, Vaśiṣṭa’s wife in the
Indian epics, has little in common with the fiery Dōgi Āihā of Maldivian tradition
552

R.N. Saletore, Op. cit.
526

Kambulēge. In the Indian tradition, a Yoginī is a feminine divine being,
usually a female attendant of the Goddess.
According to the Yaśastilaka of Somadevasuri (10th century AD), Yoginīs
can traverse the heavens at great speed and their behavior is wild. They
decorate their naked bodies with designs made of blood, wear snakes andskulls as ornaments, utter ferocious cries and their companions arevultures. In some religious texts, a Yoginī can be an aspect of the Goddess
herself, and the most persistent belief about them is that they feed onhuman flesh and can fly across the sky.
The story of queen Kuvalayavatī in the Kathāsaritasāgara has quite a few
similarities with Dōgi Āihā Kāṅlēge’s Maldive legend above:“The king, returning unexpectedly from an expedition, is confronted with
an awful sight in his own palace, when he finds his wife performing afrightening ritual. The queen was stark naked, with her hair standing on
end and her lips trembling in muttering incantations, in the midst of agreat Maṇḍala made with various colored powders, after offering ahorrible oblation of blood, liquor and human flesh.
“The terrified husband demands an explanation, and thus the queen tells
him that she is a ḍākinī and that the ceremony he has seen enables her to
fly in the air. Long ago, she once saw some women flying across the sky.
When she asked them how to obtain this power of Khecara, she was toldthat she must be willing to consume human flesh. On indicating her
agreement, she was initiated into the secret circle by the chief ḍākinī,Kālarātri.
“Then the queen describes to the alarmed king the ghastly initiation
ceremony: “Kālarātri made me take off my clothes and perform a horrible
ceremony to the terrific aspect of Shiva (Bhairava), standing in the middle
of a Maṇḍala. After she had sprinkled me with water, she revealed to me
various spells known to her and gave me human flesh to eat that had beenoffered in sacrifice to the gods. Upon receiving the spells and eating the527human flesh, I immediately flew up, naked as I was, into the heavens
along with other women belonging to the ḍākinī circle. After I had amusedmyself thoroughly, I descended from the sky by my teacher’s command.
Later, I went quietly to my own apartments.”“Thus, even in my girlhood, while I was still a young princess, I became amember of the secret ḍākinīcakra and in our meetings we devoured thebodies of many men”.
In this story, as in Dogiaihā’s story, the husband doesn’t know about thenocturnal whereabouts of his wife. She, in turn flies across the sky andeats human flesh. The ability to fly is considered as a lesser variety ofmagical power among the sādhakas (initiated). Consider for example how
Devī addresses Shiva in the Śrī Matottara Tantra, a text dealing
extensively with Yoginīs: “My lord, impart to me the secret knowledge
about cakras of Yoginīs, the knowledge of which bestows the ability to flyin the air.”553

553

Vidya Dehejia, Op. cit.
528

3.3.2 SPECIAL POWERS
In Divehi legends, as we have seen, there is a relationship between
obtaining magic powers, nudity and consuming human flesh. Thisconnection is also present in local sorcery, faṇḍitaverikaṅ. In order to beable to fly into the air, become invisible or to compel other people to do
one’s wishes554, powers which are known respectively as khecaritvam,
adṛśyatvam and prākāmya in Sanskrit, Maldivian sorcerers would performa special faṇḍita ritual without clothes. Occasionally this ceremony toobtain special powers would include the consumption of flesh or organs
taken from people who had died recently.
The faṇḍita man would go to the graveyard in the night to cut pieces offlesh from a corpse in the darkness. Owing to its white color the heap ofsand of the fresh tomb would stand out. No one would bother the person
going through the ghastly task, as graveyards were especially avoided atsuch late hours. Even so, this type of rituals were rare and mostly
sorcerers would go to the graveyards at night to pick other parts for theirmore common rites, like skulls and long bones from older tombs.
The link between nakedness, consumption of human flesh, secretceremonies and natural phenomena, is part of the popular tradition of the
Subcontinent as well. An illustrative instance is the legend of the ḍākinī
Nonā:“Dhanwantari, the physician of the gods was mortally bitten by the snake
king Takśaka. Before he died he ordered his sons to cook and eat his deadbody to succeed to his magical powers. The snake king dissuaded themfrom eating the unholy meal, and then let the cauldron containing it float
down the Ganges. Nonā, a Chamār (leather-worker caste) woman, foundthe pot and ate the contents. She immediately obtained the power of554

Source: Magieduruge Ibrahīm Dīdī
529

healing, especially snake-bite. One day the women who weretransplanting rice wondered how Nonā was able to do as much work as allof them put together. So they watched her and saw that when Nonāthought she was alone, she stripped herself naked, muttered some spells
and threw the bundle of rice seedlings into the air. When the plants settled
in their proper places, the spectators cried out in astonishment. Finding
herself discovered Nonā tried to escape. As she ran the earth opened andall the water of the rice fields followed her. The channel which she formedis the Noni River to this day.”555‘The Daughters of the King of the Thirty Three Kingdoms of the Sky’ is alengthy tale which includes fragments of ancient Divehi folklore within the
background of a tale with Persian or North Indian influence. This story,
which features a deō (giant, Skt. ‘daitya’) and beautiful girls who fly
through the sky, was popular among traditional story-tellers in Male’.556
Hasanu, the hero who falls in love with one of the princesses, overcomes
temptation when other beautiful girls are luring him and are not shy to
expose their nudity. The difference with most Maldive stories about
supernatural females is that in the tale above the women don’t seem tohave a malevolent side. They are, however, preceded by a loud noise
before they appear, as is often the case in the manifestation of certain
spirits in the Maldives.
Besides Yoginīs and ḍākinīs, who have a kind of witchlike and sinister
reputation, there are a number of women able to fly in Indic tradition.
Foremost among them are the Apsaras, a class of female demi-goddesses
or celestial damsels who reside in the sky. The meaning of the word
‘Apsara’ is “formed from the essence of water.” Hence ‘The Daughters of
the King of the Thirty Three Kingdoms of the Sky’ are fond of bathing in a555

W. Crooke, Op. cit.

556

Deō is a giant, ogre or titan, (Skt. daitya).</**$>
530

large beautiful rectangular veyo pool with an open-sided pavilion at one
end. The Apsaratīrtha is a sacred pool where the Apsaras bathe. These
celestial nymphs are usually described as the servants of Indra, the king of
the gods in Hindu tradition, who is also called ‘Apsarapati’ (Skt. Lord of
the Apsaras). The five girls referred to as princesses in the story ‘The
Daughters of the King of the Thirty Three Kingdoms of the Sky’, in all
likelihood, Apsaras. Their kingly father, whose name is not mentioned in
the Maldive narrative, is probably Indra. Since the names ‘Apsara’ and‘Indra’ have disappeared from Maldivian mythology, both are referred toby their long titles every time they are mentioned.
In the Indic tradition, Apsaras live in Indra’s palace in Swarga (Divehi
Suvaruge) or heaven, hence the Maldive title ‘King of the thirty-three
kingdoms of the Sky.’ In the king’s title, the Divehi word ‘Suvaruge’(heaven) has been replaced by the Arabic ‘Havā’ (air or sky), a word
normally used only in poetry. The meaning of the number thirty-three inthis context is not clear. In the Divehi narrative they are called initially‘five girls looking like five full moons’ (fas handu kahala fas rīti kudīn), a
common poetic resource to express the radiant beauty of a woman in the
poetic speech of the islands that is also found in the traditional Indianlore. “As he gazed upon those two women of equal beauty, Guhacandra
felt as if the night had been illuminated by three moons.”557 They arealternatively referred to by the storyteller as ‘parīn’, a name of Persian
origin, meaning ‘fairy,’ which has crept into Maldivian folklore, probably
owing to the fact that the original Divehi word for those creatures has
been lost.
Apsaras are divine creatures endowed with such radiant grace and charm,that they proved an irresistible temptation for important sages (Skt. Ṛṣi)even while they were doing penance. Much like Hasanu, the hero in ‘The

557

Somadeva, ‘Kathāsaritsāgara.’
531

Daughters of the King of the Thirty Three Kingdoms of the Sky’, mighty
ascetics had to interrupt their severe austerities as a result of having
fallen in love with an Apsara. Their proverbial beauty has a dangerous side
to it, as it represents (along with the auspiciousness attached to female
beauty in Indic tradition) an overpowering force which brings about
distraction from the pursuit of higher goals. Even so, this dangerous side,
inasmuch as it is restricted to mere sensual temptation, is not comparablewith the fierce malevolence of Yoginīs or of goddesses in their terrifying(Skt. krodhā) form.
In Vajrayāna Buddhism, Yoginīs, and their related witch-like beings calledḍākinīs, are messengers between the practitioner of austerities (yogi orsādhaka) and the sphere of liberation. In the secondary literature, they
are referred to as ‘Initiation Goddesses’ who fly through the air (even if
they lack wings) and communicate the knowledge obtained from theTranscendent Buddhas, revealing it to the initiated. This knowledge will
help the sādhaka to meditate, to understand the secrets of the Tantric
texts and to obtain special powers (siddhi).558
Generally, in Vajrayāna iconography, Yoginīs are represented as beautiful
girls surrounded by an arch of fire, which is one more example of therelationship between these demi-goddesses and fire. Dākinīs, however,are usually depicted as older women with a wrathful face. The main
attribute of both these semi-divinities is the blood-filled skull and they areboth generally represented in a dancing pose. Nevertheless, besides these
iconographic differences, the boundaries between a ḍākinī and a Yoginī
are not very clearly determined, to the extent that in some Tantric works,
both Hindu and Buddhist, the terms ḍākini and Yoginī are often
interchangeable. This type of lesser goddesses, however, should not be
confused with female ascetics or women undergoing austerities, who in

558

H. W. Schumann, ‘Buddhistische Bilderwelt.’532

the tradition of the Subcontinent are known as Yoginīs as well. In this casethe term Yoginī is just the feminine form of Yogi, a practitioner of Yogic
disciplines, and there is no reference to this type of Yoginī in Maldivian
mythology.
In the Maldives there are still people who affirm having seen comparable
fairy-like beings with their own eyes. One carpenter from Dūṇḍigamu
village, SE Fua Mulaku, described such an experience:“We had to stay here overnight guarding the toolbox at the shed while theboat was being built. Late one night we were sitting in the open close to
the shed. It was a pleasant, starry night and me and other three men wereidly chewing betel and talking. Suddenly, we saw a light in the sky towards
the east, in the direction of the coconut trees fringing the beach.
All of us looked towards it thinking: “This cannot be the moon.” However,our vision was limited by the trees. To our surprise, when the light camecloser to their range we saw that it was a round luminous disk shining pink
and white. Inside it, or rather as a part of it, there was a beautiful naked
girl smiling at us. It passed slowly across the sky in front of our eyes. Someof us got frightened and shouted at it. But it didn’t change speed and the
young woman’s lovely face remained calm until it was lost from our fieldof vision among the dark tree branches.559
In spite of the mild climate, full nudity was never acceptable in traditional
Maldive society. Although men would often roll up their muṇḍu to its
minimum expression, especially to climb trees, and average Divehi
women would go through their daily tasks with bare upper bodies, limits
were taken very seriously. The display of female thighs was consideredextremely offensive and in verbal family feuds the brief display of sexual559

This event allegedly happened in the eastern shore of Fua Mulaku in 1988.
Narrated by Daisy Villa Sālihu, who was one of the witnesses, in presence of otherthree carpenters who saw it as well.
533

parts was interpreted as an insult to the opponent. Thus it can beaffirmed that nakedness was an aberration from the general practice,especially since its purpose in the few exceptional cases mentioned
further above was of a rather esoteric character.
Even so, mention should be made of a certain folkloric dance formerly
practiced in Huvarafuṣi (Tiladummati Atoll), an island in the far North ofMaldives. This dance was called ‘findu beru’ (bottom drum) and only
females took part in it. Apparently, it was forbidden for men to watch it,
because the island women would perform it in total or partial nakedness.
Detailed descriptions of the dance not being available, the findu beru
seemingly consisted in a series of movements marked by the rhythmic
sound of the performers slapping their own buttocks. Even though it
always took place in private, this type of female dance was banned by the
Maldivian government in the 1970’s.560
The original purpose of this popular dance having long been forgotten,
present-day Maldivians claim that Huvarafuṣi women performed thefindu beru for fun. The most likely hypothesis, however, is that this typeof Divehi dance originated in an ancient ceremony to the village-goddess,the deity causing pestilence still worshipped in the Subcontinent.
In order to invoke the blessings of goddess Māri, the women of certain
areas of Tamil Nāḍu still perform such nude dances during the dry season
every year. Like in the Maldives, such performances have been forbiddenby the local authorities. However, there are instances where the village
women have defied the ban and have secretly staged the yearly dance
despite police deployment. One well-known place for the performance of
this dance is the village of Vellakadai, close to Yercaud. Despite thehostility of the authorities, this event is a serious religious occasion and it

560

Information by Ibrahīmu, from Kuḷuduffuṣi, barman at Halaveli tourist resort; andby Amīn Didi, Mānel, Male’ in 1984534

is part of the ancestral Dravidian culture of certain Tamil populations
categorized as ‘backward’ or ‘tribal’ in India.
The dance is performed by eighteen women on the second day after
Pongal (Karingal) in the local Māri Amman temple. Only females and boys
below the age of four are allowed to watch this nude dance. Villagers
believe that any grown-up male who watches the women dancing naked
will incur the wrath of the goddess and become blind. Therefore, the men
and the boys leave the village during the ceremony and return to it only
after the dance is over. In the Salem area there is a legend that says thatan Englishman who unwittingly watched the female dance to goddess
Māri met with death before returning to his home. This is a description ofsuch a ritual dance:“The Hindu women in the most curious way propitiate the goddess whobrings the cholera ... They perform a most frantic sort of dance, forming
themselves into a circle, while in the centre of the circle about five or six
women dance entirely naked, beating their hands together over theirheads, and then applying them behind with a great smack that keeps timewith the music ...; they shriek and sing and smack and scream mostmarvelously.”561

561

Calcutta Review, XV; 486. Quoted by W. Crooke in ‘An Introduction to the
Popular Religion and Folklore of N. India.’535

3.4.1 MONSTERS FROM THE SEA
In any island of the Maldives there are a number of grisly stories aboutkaṇḍufurēta (known as kaṇḍoferēta in the South), large evil spirits coming
ashore from the dark ocean waters. The telling of these tales is notconfined to storytellers, so they are widely known and shared by peopleof all ages and both sexes. The relevance of this corpus of stories lies in
the fact that, despite their crudity, they form part of the main body ofDivehi folk-narrative and are secondary in importance only to the legends
about female spirits. Some of the kaṇḍufurēta tales are based onelements of the ancestral folklore, such as ancient angry deities. However,a number of them owe their origin to the freak occurrence of stray seals
and crocodiles in the Maldive beaches, which in the eyes of islanders
supplied tangible proof of the existence of fearful monsters. In the Indian
Ocean seals are common in the colder islands and island groups lying a
few thousand kilometers further south from the Maldives. Lonely anduninhabited, New Amsterdam, St. Paul and Kerguelen are favorite hauntsof seals and sea elephants, but these animals are extremely rare in thewarm waters off the Maldive Islands. The late Ibrāhīm Hilmi, Ākakāge,
Male’, described how in the 1950’s he was called to Himiti Island, NilandeAtoll, to verify the presence of a monster which terrorized the local
population. In his words: “I walked up the beach and saw that it was alarge seal calmly lying under the magū bushes fringing the coastline.”
In most of these sea-monster stories, in a manner which finds parallels inmany other Divehi folk-tales, the crux of the whole narrative is thecontact between the spirit world and the human realm. Mention has
already been made to the fact that one should never say that a baby is fat
or that one should never call the name of a person in the forest, as lurking
spirits could bring about some affliction. Hence the main purpose of thisstory―beyond showing love, death or tragedy― is to draw attention to
the catastrophic consequences that even apparently trivial human actions
can have when the spirit world is not taken into account.
536

According to the average kaṇḍufurēta tale, when sea-demons happen to
haunt an island they are a more of a threat to the careless individual than
to the community. These creatures eat human flesh and delight indrinking blood. While they are on land, the sea monsters may temporarily
dwell in graveyards or hide in the forest. Symptomatically, most of thesestories have a bad end.
Blood imagery in the form of blood drops or blood stains, is a recurrent
theme in the Maldivian folklore, especially in this kind of ghost stories.
Certain local butterflies (Papilio helenus and Atrophaneura hector) are
known by the islanders as lē kokā (blood butterfly). The vivid red spots on
the black background of their hind wings are taken to be drops of humanblood in popular imagination.
The terror that the spirits of the sea produce upon the Maldivian island
folk is akin to the dread the Mukkuvar and Kaḍal Arayan fishing castes ofcoastal South India have of the spirits dwelling in the waters: “They dread
demons, specially the water-demon.”562 Since Maldivian spirits generally
have a human origin, the fear that people may die at sea is connectedwith the possibility that, if their bodies are not found and given proper
burial, they might become evil spirits that will add to the alreadyworrisome number of existing ones.
Because of their probable human origin, some sea monsters can easily
take human shape and behave like average Maldivians. Thus, they may
even be able to engage into love-relationships with islanders and lead anapparently normal life married to an unsuspecting person. This type ofstory often ends with the faṇḍitaveriya unmasking and killing the evil
spirit. The following tale is from Northern Maldives.563 Kaṭṭarufuṣi Island

562

T.K. Krishna Menon, ‘History of Kerala,’ Vol III.

563

Told in 1987 by Husein Koi, Miladū Island, Miladummaḍulu South.
537

doesn’t exist; it is an imaginary or nonsensical name which makes thesentence “Kaṭṭarufuṣi fuṭṭaru faraiy” (The ocean side of Kaṭṭarufuṣi) a
tongue twister.
The Ocean Side of Kaṭṭarufuṣi

“Long ago a man called Rāveri Alibē lived on an island at the northern endof Maldives. Although he was a very good and respected faṇḍita man, he
was not wealthy and had to work hard to make a living.
One day, this man was on his way to Male’ to do some business. On theway the batteli trading vessel stopped in Uṅgūfaru, an island in NorthernMāḷosMaḍuḷu Atoll where his good friend Ibrahīmbē and his wife Havvā
Manike resided. As the boat anchored there at sunset, Alibē went ashore
and walked straight to Ibrahīmbē’s house. Both friends were happy tomeet each other and, after chatting for a while, Ibrahīmbē told Alibē that
he had decided to entrust a shipment of diyahakuru (palm syrup) in rumbā(large glazed terracotta jars) and a big load of coconuts to him, to sell it in
Male’. After eating dinner they spent some time chewing betel and talking
until they became tired and went to sleep.
In the morning, Alibē loaded the syrup and the coconuts on the boat.
Grateful to his friend Ibrahīmbē for giving him this opportunity to makeprofitable trade in Male’, Alibē gave him a beautiful casting net. “Here is apresent for you!” he said.
Ibrahīmbē was so impressed that he exclaimed aloud: “This is a beautiful
net, Alibē. It is large and well-woven!”
His friend was happy and said, “Yes, but be careful with it! No matter
where you go, never cast this net on the fuṭṭaru (ocean side) ofKaṭṭarufuṣi.”538

Ibrahīmbē agreed to be careful as he bid him farewell. He remained on thebeach until Alibē’s batteli faded into the distance. When he went home, hecarefully wrapped the casting net and put it away, thinking: “Now theboats are bringing a lot of tuna every day to our island. We have plenty offish. I will keep this net for leaner times.”
After a few months, the fishing season failed and the boats returned day
after day without catch. Ibrahīmbē’s wife complained, “We have no fish atall. How can I cook?” Her husband was worried about the situation too.
Then, he remembered the net Alibē gave him and went to the coral reef.
He tried casting the net in different places, remembering not to go to theocean side of Kaṭṭarufuṣi.
The sun was sinking towards the horizon, and the man had not caught
anything. Not even a crab had scratched his net. Finally, in frustration, he
forgot about his friend’s warning and ventured to the ocean side ofKaṭṭarufuṣi. As he threw the net there, there was a sudden commotion in
the water and he thought the fish were actually biting it. At the first try, it
was full of goat fish.
By sunset Ibrahīmbē had all the fish he could carry. Satisfied, he walked
across the reef to the beach. Cutting a vaka (stem fiber) from a palm leaf,
he strung the beautiful fish together, making six bunches. “My wife will bevery happy”, he thought, “it has been a long time since we have eaten
fresh fish”. Smiling to himself, Ibrahīmbē put the net over his shoulder, andcarried three bunches of fish in each hand. He was on the point of theisland that was farthest from the village, and under the purple colors ofdusk, the man headed home along the lonely beach.
On the way, he felt that one bunch was missing. “What is this?” hewondered. Soon in his other hand, there was also one bunch less.
Astonished, he exclaimed, “Ahātakurā!”564 Then Ibrahīmbē wound the564

An expression of frustration and surprise.
539

strings tighter around his hands to prevent their slipping. Suddenly, while
he was still far from his village, he felt something pull on one of his handswith an irresistible force.
It was getting dark and Ibrahīmbē was sensing something evil at his heels,
but he was too terrified to look back. Desperately, he made a sharp turnand went into the bushes in order to glance over his shoulder. However,
the monster following him was so huge he had to bend his head far backto look up at it looming against the starry sky. The man’s horrified scream
died in his throat as the abominable thing grabbed him and devoured himon the spot.
Havvā Manike, Ibrahīmbē’s wife, became nervous when the sun set and hehad not appeared. A hard working woman, she had already pounded thespices for cooking and was ready to cut the fish. She waited and waited,fearing something had happened to her husband.
It was dark when Ibrahīmbē arrived with four bunches of goat fish.
Immediately, he began cutting them open to clean them. His wife was so
happy, she ran straight to him.
“Where did you get those beautiful fish, Iburā?” she asked smiling broadly
at him.
He did not answer and didn’t even look at her.
“What is wrong with you? You should be happy after coming with such agood catch.”“I am a bit sick,” he mumbled. “I have a fever.”“Then, go quickly to rest, and leave this. I will cut the fish myself.” Said
Havvā Manike
Ignoring her, Ibrāhimbē finished the work himself. Then he went to lie
down on the bed inside the house. Meanwhile Havvā Manike cooked some540

bayppeṅ and brought it to him.565 As he saw her coming in, he turned onto
his other side, saying “I can’t eat.” Then he covered himself with a blanket.
Sad, feeling rebuked, his wife silently left the room.
Weeks passed and people all over the island were dying in mysterious
ways. Each day one family or another had to grieve over some horrible
death.
A month later, Rāveri Alibē stopped on the island. As usual, he wentstraight to Ibrahīmbē’s house. He felt that the atmosphere of the island
looked sadder and was amazed to see that Havvā Manike, a cheerful
woman who always used to have a big smile on her face, was sullen andsad. “Where is Ibrahīmbē?”“He is gone, but he may come back soon. Wait.” She said in a weary voice.
Alibē waited. After a while, he saw Ibrahīmbē coming. But, Ibrahīmbē
seemed to be walking in a strange manner. Not his normal happy, friendly
self, he had an ominous air about him. Alibē suspected something wasvery wrong.
Although he had planned to leave before sunset, he told the people on thebatteli that it was better to stay overnight. So the vessel was anchored in aproper place. Later Alibē carried his box of belongings to Ibrahīmbē’shouse. Despite his apprehensions, he planned to stay there for the night.
At dinner, Ibrahīmbē did not say a word. Marks of sadness creased Havvā
Manike’s pretty face. This didn’t look like the same house; before, they
were always cracking jokes. Alibē was relieved when dinner ended.
Pleading tiredness from the sea trip, he went directly to his room.

565

Rice congee, a popular staple in South Māḷosmaḍulu Atoll. Ēdafuṣi people are
reputed for relishing this food.
541

At two o’clock, Alibē woke up. Soundlessly, he rose and left the room. Thenhe noticed a strange light reflecting against the peak of the pitched roof. It
was coming from Ibrahīmbē’s room. Alibē made a strong faṇḍita toprotect himself. Then he watched Ibrahīmbē increase in size and passthrough the roof, like a ghost. Swallowing his fear, Alibē followed him
outside.
Now a huge glowing, repulsive furēta, Ibrahīmbē went to the graveyard.
There he dug out a newly-buried corpse, and ate it with hellish pleasure.
Next, the monster walked around a house, reciting awful charms. Alibēknew that someone would soon die in that house. Pausing, the furēta
looked around. The man kept hidden behind the bushes, fearing that thehideous being might know he was there, spying. Taking care not to makeany sounds, Alibē heard only his own pounding heart.
At last, Alibē was relieved to see the monster move towards the beach,and plunge into the sea. To prevent the return of that horror, Alibē took ashort stake he had brought with him. It was a thick section of kuredi (ironwood) sharpened at one end and engraved with powerful magic signs.
Then, reciting mantras he thrust the stake into the sand at the point where
the waves lapped the beach. After a little while the point where he hadburied the stake began glowing oddly, like fire.
After this, Alibē woke everyone on the island and told them the wholestory. At first many refused to believe him. But the eerie light coming outof the point at the fannu where the magic stake had been buried
convinced them.
Meanwhile, Havvā Manike woke up and wondered where her husband
was. “Where might he be?” She murmured, looking for him. When she
went outside she saw the people gathering in the pale light of dawn.
“Where is my husband?” she questioned Alibē.
“We thought it was Ibrahīmbē,” he replied,” but it wasn’t him after all.”542

“Who was he then?” she asked in alarm.
Alibē related what he saw to her, concluding, “Some evil monster from thesea devoured Ibrahīmbē and took his appearance.”
The young widow wailed in sorrow, but the other islanders were relievedto see the fearful plague of violent deaths come to an end.
Deeply grieving over the loss of his good friend, Alibē brought Havvā
Manike to his island, caring for her as if she were his own sister.
This story from the North of Maldives is a typical kaṇḍufurēta story. The
spirit from the sea not only takes human form but is even able to live withthe wife of the person he has supplanted. Like the Yoginī female spirits
mentioned in another chapter, he cannot resist going to the graveyard to
eat human bodies. The fact that the magician plays a heroic role is acommon feature in all ancient Maldive tales. This particular legend
cautions against taking lightly the faṇḍita man’s advice. Ibrahīmbē, thevictim, brings about his own doom for not paying heed to the words ofAlibē, the sorcerer.
Early in life, Maldivians were taught to obey the advice of their elders. In
the old times there was a spirit known as kaṇḍu labari who used to grab
children, taking them into the sea. Thus, boys and girls were warned
against the dangers lurking in the ocean. Until they reached a certain age,
Divehi children were not allowed to go alone to beaches located far fromhuman settlements, especially at certain times of the day.
The following tale has many variants. Although changing slightly from atoll
to atoll, or even from island to island, the basic structure of the different
variations is very similar: A teenager meets a lover in some uninhabited
corner of the island and they agree to get together secretly every night.566

566

Told in 1986 by Afīfu, Ratafandū Island, Huvadu Atoll
543

Bloodshed under the Tree

“In Southern Huvadū Atoll there are two islands, Fares and Mātoḍā, lying
on the same reef. Since they are less than one mile apart, it is easy towade from one island to the other at low tide. Fares and Mātoḍā havebeen inhabited since ancient times; tradition says that there has always
been a deep rivalry between the people of both islands.
Long ago, Kalō, a boy from Mātoḍā, was fishing with a harpoon on thereef in the morning. As he drew closer to Fares, he saw that there was noone on the beach. This was a lonely end of the island and he went ashore
to rest for a while. The young man left his harpoon and his catch on thesand and sat down under the shade of a hirundu tree (Thespesia
populnea). He was tired from wading in the waist-deep water under the
hot sun and was enjoying the rest and the cool breeze. Suddenly, a girlcame out of the bushes and went to the waterline to relieve herself. She
was squatting close to him, but she hadn’t noticed that he was there.
Suddenly, she happened to turn towards him and was startled.
She stood up embarrassed, because she just had unwittingly offered theboy a full-view of her bottom. But Kalō flashed a smile at her and put her
at ease with soft, gentle words. The girl smiled back. A bit abashed, shesaid she was looking for firewood and walked slowly towards where theboy sat. She left her large kativaḷi (machete-knife) stuck by its tip on a low
branch and sat close to him. They began to talk and soon it was pastnoontime but they didn’t notice. She told the boy her name was Rekibīfānu
and also told him where she lived. Then she giggled and asked him
whether he would come to her home one day.
More hours passed and the two youngsters, fascinated by each other, kept
chatting. Finally the sun was very low and Kalō decided that he had to go
back to his island. He realized now that his catch had become rotten fromlying so long in the sand and threw it away. The young man went then into544

the water and started wading towards Mātoḍā. When he turned to lookback, the girl smiled at him once more from the shore. She took the little
firewood she had gathered, tied it together and, disappearing into thebushes, walked home with a light step. She was so happy!
Kalō barely had the time to catch two stingrays before it was so dark hecouldn’t see before him.567 When he arrived home, his parents wereannoyed. “This is all you caught? What have you been doing? We thought
you would bring a lot of fish after such a long time on the reef.”
But the young man didn’t care about their bad mood. He was only thinking
about the girl he had met. He was not even hungry, even though he had
not eaten since early morning. The next day in the afternoon, Kalō put hisbest muṇḍu on, combed his hair, perfumed himself, put talcum powder on
his face and asked one of his friends to bring him across to Fares. The
other boy agreed and punted him across on his small batteli to the otherisland.
Kalō headed straight to the girl’s house, not looking to the right or left. Buta few young men, who were sitting under the trees, wondered why he hadcome to Fares and followed him. He arrived to the girl’s place and asked:“Where is Rekibīfānu?” to a woman there. The girl came out and was so
glad to see him she opened her mouth to express her delight, but before
she could utter a single word, her brother angrily told her to go into the
kitchen. She wanted to protest, but then her mother and the other people
in the house began to scream at her: “Who are you bringing here?” They
were so aggressive that she backed away in shock and in fear.
Meanwhile the young men who had followed Kalō were closing inmenacingly from his back. They spoke in a vicious tone: “You shouldn’t
have come to come to this island, we don’t want you here.” The boy was

567

Rays (maḍi) are poor food according to traditional Maldivian tastes.
545

scared. There were now many people around him, threatening andinsulting him. Kalō turned and walked towards the jetty while they yelled:“That’s it, go! Next time we will beat you up!” His friend, seeing him
coming, called in fear: “Jump aboard, fast!” Without looking back Kalōbegan to run and, as he hit the water, he waded as fast as he could
towards the boat. In an instant he was on board and the other boy punted
strongly away from the shore.
Meanwhile a large crowd had gathered on the beach, abusing them in theworst terms: “If you dare to come again we will kill you!” Some were eventhrowing pieces of sticks and stones at them. The two boys didn’t want tolook back and were very relieved when they could not hear them anymore.
But during the following days, try as he might, Kalō could not takeRekibīfānu off his mind. So again he waded every day in the morning close
to Fares, as he had done the first day he had met her. From there hescanned the beach, to see whether the girl appeared. Often he saw otherpeople, and then he acted as if he was busy fishing, not looking towards
the shore. Slowly he waded back towards Mātoḍā, finding relief in the factthat he was at a safe distance.
Finally, one day his patience was rewarded and he saw a silhouettecoming out of the bushes down to the waterline. Kalō was sure it was her.
He could make out Rekibīfānu’s broad smile even from where he was. She
made signs with her hand, encouraging him to come closer. The boy
waded quickly to where the girl stood and they met again under the large
hirundu tree. Enlarging her eyes, she told him how angry the people in her
island had been that day, and that they hadn’t cooled down even longafter he left.
They were both delighted to see each other, but this time they didn’t relax.
Nervously rubbing her hands, looking right and left, Rekibīfānu told theboy: “This is dangerous. You better leave. Anyone could happen to comehere now and there will be trouble. You know, they even said they wanted546

to kill you!” Kalō fell silent and sighed. After thinking for a while he asked
her: “When can we meet again?”With the corner of her eyes, Rekibīfānu looked towards the path in fear:“In the daylight it’s easy to see you wading towards this island. Would you
dare to come across during the night?” Kalō, full of enthusiasm answered:“Yes!” The girl then giggled in excitement and said: “All right. I will meetyou late every night in this same spot, under this tree,” then she ran into
the island without even looking back and was lost in the vegetation. The
young man hurriedly walked into the water and waded away from Fares
as fast as he could.
That same night the boy waded again towards Fares. In the dark it was
not as easy as he had thought. The tide was very high and the wind wasstrong. He prayed that he would step on no poisonous fish or that hewould not meet any sea monster. Finally he arrived to the beach of theother island. He felt light walking on the sand after the difficult crossing.
The black outline of the hirundu tree loomed before him in the starlight.
This same spot, so pleasant and friendly in the daylight, was now agloomy, windswept, desolate place. He walked towards the tree andentered into complete darkness. Kalō tried to get his eyes used to thegloom and, before long, realized Rekibīfānu was not there.
Suddenly he heard the cracking noise of dry twigs and he felt his heart
beating fast. Almost immediately the girl was in front of him. She felt in
the darkness with her extended hands and touched him. Rekibīfānu wasstartled and made a little squeak. He calmed her whispering: “It’s me,
Kalō!”She asked: “Are you afraid?” He said: “No!” and she lied as well. Soon they
were in deep conversation, talking in thrilled whispers. Afterwards theylost no time and were embracing each other.
Unfortunately time passed very fast and it was close to dawn. The twolovers parted and both felt that leaving each other hurt as much as547

physical pain. The girl disappeared in the bush and the young man set out
to cross over to his island. After the soft, warm body of the girl, Kalō found
the reef water bitterly cold. As the tide was lower, it was easier to wadeback, but it seemed more difficult. When he arrived at Mātoḍa, he washedhimself with fresh water and went straight to his bed. He woke up in theforenoon and felt groggy during the rest of the day.
But as night fell, Kalō revived. This time he wanted to bring something to
the girl, so he took some arecanuts and put them inside a maḍisīla (clothbag). Then he waited for the late hours of the night when everyone went
to sleep and he could sneak away from his home. When the time came, hetook his bag, tied it to one shoulder and went to the beach to cross over tothe other island. Once he was in Fares, under the dark hirundu tree, herealized the girl was already there. This time Rekibīfānu had brought
something too. She had carefully prepared betel leaves with jasmine
flowers, wrapping them delicately.568
The boy and the girl sat down full of excitement. They chewed and talked
until they began to fondle each other lovingly. Like on the previous night,
time passed very quickly and it was almost dawn again. In this manner
Kalō and Rekibīfānu continued their nocturnal escapades. They passed
their nights in joyful conversation and sweet caressing, without anyone
else knowing what they were up to. Realizing that the animosity between
both their native islands was a strong and ancient matter, the lovers kept
their secret zealously. Weeks became months and both young persons
kept meeting each other in the shadows, in spite of wind or rain, every
single night. By now they had even built a little shelter and a swing, andthat place under the hirundu tree didn’t look as dreary as it did the firstnight they met.

568

Traditional presents between lovers having an oblique sexual meaning
548

One night Kalō was wading as usual towards Fares to meet his girl. He wascarrying some kurumbas (tender coconuts) for her. Rekibīfānu had told
him that her brother had found many turtle eggs the night before and shewould bring fatafoḷi (sweet pancakes) that night. He was full of
anticipation, thinking about the pleasures the night had in store for him.
But, suddenly, as he walked up the beach towards the tree, Kalō heard
muffled voices and giggles. Stealthily hiding in the bushes, the boy tried toreach a vantage point to be able to see who was there. He walked aroundfrom behind the tree until he saw two dark figures silhouetted against thestarlit lagoon. One was Rekibīfānu, but he couldn’t make out who theother was. Straining his ears, Kalō heard the girl talk: “Why don’t you
speak to me tonight? Are you angry? What have I done?” And he realizedthat the girl was confusing the mysterious shape with him.
Kalō was almost going to call her when he heard Rekibīfānu playfullysaying: “Well, if you don’t want to speak, at least eat!” and put a fatafoḷi
close to the dark figure’s lips. Suddenly the mouth opened wide and bit the
pancake along with her fingers. The hapless girl had barely the time togive a scream of surprise and panic, when the monster jumped on her anddevoured her all, crunching her bones and licking her blood.
This scene was too ghastly for the boy witnessing it. In sheer terror, Kalō
fled inland along the path, but before he reached the first houses of thevillage he felt dizzy with fright and sorrow and collapsed. In the earlymorning, some local people found the young man fainted on the path andbrought him to a house nearby. When he woke up, Kalō screamed as if thehorror was still in front of him. Then he cried and fainted again. By noon
he was able to tell among sobs what had happened.
When a group of islanders went to check the spot under the hirundu tree,
they found only a pool of dry blood and Rekibīfānu’s ring.

549

The strong rivalry between two neighboring islands is a common
occurrence in the Maldives, where even the relationship between
different villages on one same island is often soured by fierce antagonism.
I have heard practically identical variant of this story set in Haddummati
Atoll instead of Huvadū. In another version the evil monster bites the girlin the back of her neck, killing her instantly and dragging her body into thesea. The following story,569 set in a northern atoll, does away with thedifficulty of the girl and the boy belonging to different islands and theenmity provoked by their relationship:
The Track of Blood“Long ago, the Katību (island headman) of an island in the far North ofMaldives had two daughters whom he loved deeply. Wanting to maketheir life enjoyable, he had an undōlige, a swing within a small open-sided
thatched pavilion, built for them close to the beach. The sisters went there
frequently in the evenings, to enjoy the cool breeze, free from mosquitoes.
After a few months, the elder sister, Aisā Manike became friendly with aboy. He used to come every evening to meet her at the swing. While they
were engaged in love games, the younger sister, Sanfā Manike, swung theundōli slowly. Sometimes Aisā Manike sent her to look for the guḍuguḍa
(hookah), because her boyfriend liked to smoke.
One evening, when both sisters arrived at the undōlige, the boy was notthere. While they waited, they looked around. Suddenly, Aisā Manike
noticed him lying on the crossbar from which the swing was suspended.
Relieved, the girl giggled exclaiming: “Come down! What are you doing up
there?”

569

Told in 1987 by Fātumatu Naīma, Gāge, Māfannu, Male’.
550

But Sanfā Manike looked at the same figure and became frightened:“Dattā,” she whispered to her sister, “that’s not Ḷiambē. Let’s go home!”
Aisā Manike brushed aside her sister’s fears: “Don’t be silly. Of course it’shim!” Maybe he is angry because we came too late tonight and that is
why he doesn’t want to talk to us. Let’s bring him the hookah, so he will
smoke and calm down.”
Thus both girls went home and returned with the water pipe loaded withtobacco and fresh embers. The older sister, seeing her lover’s shape on the
crossbar urged him: “Come down to smoke, the hookah is ready.”
But when the younger girl looked up, she exclaimed in terror: “Look Dattā!
Foam comes out of his mouth! Look at his fangs! Every tooth is as big as amāḷoskeyo!”570
Aisā Manike chided her sister: “Don’t say such crazy things! He might get
angry.”
But Sanfā Manike was too terrified to obey her sister: “Dattā, I am sure
you can see this monster in Ḷiambē’s shape because he has devoured him,
but I can see it in its hideous real shape!”
Now her sister lost her patience and was infuriated, but Sanfā Manike wasunable to bear the sight of the dreadful furēta and cried out in horror:“Dattā, I cannot stay here; even if you don’t come I am going home.” And
she ran away in panic.
Arriving home, the terrified girl stepped over the oḷigaṇḍu (raised doorsill)and froze there wailing: “Bappaē! Dattaē! (Father! Sister!).” Suddenly, she
fainted.

570

Large banana variety used for cooking.
551

Her parents picked her up, laid her on her bed and put kola vaṭaru (eau decologne) on her face. When Sanfā Manike came to her senses, they asked
what had happened. Overcome with her memories, the girl’s eyes widenedin panic and she yelled: “Bappaē! Dattaē!” and fell back, unconscious. This
happened several times until it dawned on her father that something bad
had happened to Aisā Manike. He told his wife: “Let Sanfā Manike sleep.
Our elder daughter must be in danger! Let’s go to look for her!” and,taking some lamps, they ran out of the house.
It was late in the night and the streets were dark and deserted while
husband and wife hurried towards the undōlige. When they arrived there,
no one was to be seen. Then they looked better, lighting the place with
their lamps, but all they found was a track of blood on the white sand. It
was leading from the swing across the beach and into the water of thelagoon. The girl’s blood was still fresh and red; and that was the last trace
Aisā Manike left on her home island.
In this story the monster can be seen in its actual shape only by one of thesisters; many South Indian legends include spirits that can only be seen in
their evil shape by certain persons, or when the proper mantra isrecited.571 Almost identical versions of this story exist in the South.
However, in them the roles of the girl and the boy are reversed. In one ofthe variations, towards the end, the girl becomes a monster as tall as acoconut palm which catches the boy with her mouth full of huge sharp
teeth and devours him in one gulp. And the blood, always the blood, inthe form of stains or puddles on the ground is a constant in all these gory
popular legends.

571

See for example the legend of the terrible Yakśi of Choṭṭanikara in K.R.
Vaidyanathan, ‘Temples and Legends of Kerala.’
552

The following story is about a demon of the Northern Atolls.572 This spirit,known as bēri, is able assume the shape of a log and drift towards theisland it wished to haunt. People might accidentally awaken it, causing it
to assume human form, simply by using certain words or talking about
particular subjects. There is an analogy here with the Subcontinental
tradition, according to which there is a power in the repetition of certain
words (mantra) that can be used for the invocation spirits. This Bēri story
has variants set in different islands of North-central Maldives:
Bēri“In the southern rim of Miladummaḍulu Atoll there is an uninhabitedisland named Kaṇḍūdū. Many years before it had a thriving populationand the following tale attempts to throw light on the reason why it is now
deserted.
Long ago, during a stormy night, a dark wooden log was tossed by thewaves towards Kaṇḍūdū Island until it gently drifted to the beach. It
seemed to have been carried about by the currents for a long time,
because its surface was smooth and slimy except for some patches where
the barnacles had established their colonies.
The following day there was no trace of the storm and in the soft earlymorning light three island girls walked along the path towards the beachjoking and laughing in a carefree manner. They carried dirty pots and weregoing to scrub them with sand as they did every day at sunrise. These
young women were very good friends and were always excited to spend
time with each other. One of them was the Katību’s (island headman’s)daughter and she was much prettier than her two companions.

572

Told in 1991 by Husein Koyi Bē of Hoḷudū island, South Miladummaḍulu Atoll
553

Once on the beach, the girls saw the log laying there, one of its ends still
within the waterline. They inspected the dark piece of wood, chattering all
the while. In the middle of their titter, the young women soon forgot about
it and, squatting on the wet sand, they began to scrub their pots
thoroughly.
After she had finished, the Katību’s daughter left her clean pots on the
ground and stood close to the log. Then, casually, with one foot on thesmooth dark wood and the other planted in the sand, she spoke to theother girls about her secret sensual dreams. As none of them was yet
married and they were full of curiosity, they ended up talking of sex. Later,when her companions had finished, she removed her foot from the log andit was time for the three young women to put their pots on their heads
and carry them back home.
The following day, the three girls met again as usual and went to thebeach. The log was still there, close to the place where they scrubbed theirpots. After their task was over, they stood for a while talking close to it
and, again, the Katību’s daughter, while talking about future marriage,
ended up having a conversation about sexual matters with her friends
while her foot was propped against the dark log.
On the third day, things happened in an identical manner. The three girls,
exhilarated by each other’s company, again had their secret conversationon the beach, while the Katību’s daughter nonchalantly leaned her footagainst the now dry, and somewhat discolored, surface of the log that had
drifted there.
That evening, the log, which was not a log after all, but some evil spirit,transformed itself into a handsome young man. Finding himself standingon the lonely windswept beach, the youth wiped off the sand that had
stuck to his body and walked resolutely into the island. The village was indarkness and most of the houses had closed their doors, their occupants
retiring for the night.
554

The young man headed straight towards the Katību’s house and found thedoor open. The inside was lit by the warm light of oil lamps. The Katību
was relaxing on the undōli (swingbed) in his verandah and, seeing thestranger, invited him to come in. The young man said that he had jumped
from a northbound dōni. He explained that night had fallen, and that thecaptain, who was not familiar with this lagoon and its anchorage points,
had not wanted to stop over at Kaṇḍūdū.
After some light talk, the newcomer mentioned that he had come toKaṇḍūdū to marry. The Katību then had a good look at him, as discreetly
as possible, and decided the man was all right. He then said: “I have one
daughter of marriageable age, she is now in the kitchen boiling fish,” andhe called the girl.
The young woman entered the lamp lit room and stood at the doorsill. As
soon as her eyes fell upon the stranger, a weakness overcame her.
Noticing that she liked the handsome young man, her father arranged the
ceremony. Thus, the marriage was performed that same night.
Weeks passed and the pretty local girl lived very happily together with her
handsome husband in her father’s house.573 She was so much in love withher husband that she seemed to walk on a cloud the whole day. Her eyes
seemed to look far away and she wore always a mild smile on her lips. The
other two girls began to tease her. They found her new absent-minded
attitude extremely annoying. From having been such a talkative girl, theKatību’s daughter, had suddenly become silent and had stopped sharing
her secrets with the other two. Thus, the mutual friendship the three
young women had previously enjoyed so much cooled beyond
improvement.

573

There are versions in which the story ends here and nothing untoward happensin the island
555

One day, a kaṅveriyā from the South arrived to Kaṇḍūdū on a journey.574
He was put up at the Katību’s house, as it was the best in the island. Soon
he noticed the sullen young man and, when he had a chance to be alone
with the Katību, he casually asked him: “Who is that handsome youth? Is
he from this island?”
His host answered: “No, he is from another atoll. He is my son-in-law.”
The kaṅveriyā said nothing. However, during the following days he eyed
the young man with distrust all the time and observed him very closely in a
furtive manner. Finally, one evening he took the Katību aside andaddressed him in a very serious and urgent tone: “Katību, the young man
living in your home is not a son of Adam. He is the bēri, a malevolent spirit
coming from the sea who has taken the appearance of a man!”
The island chief was so shocked that he remained speechless for a while,
but after pondering over the strange circumstances in which the young
man had arrived to the island, late in the night, alone and wet, he sighed
and asked the sorcerer: “What should I do?”The kaṅveriyā said: “The most important thing is to act as if you don’tknow anything. Your son-in-law must not know that we are suspicious ofhim.”
The Katību agreed and then the sorcerer continued: “Tomorrow, call theislanders and tell them to build a maulūdu haruge (a pavilion to perform a
festival) with walls made of loose stones. When it is finished, call theentire island to celebrate a maulūdu.” The next day the kaṅveriyā wentfrom home to home, spoke secretly with every adult male in each574Kaṅveriyā is another word for faṇḍitaveriyā or sorcerer. Husein Koyi used thisword while telling the story. In another version told in Male’ the sorcerer in the storyis Oḍitān Kalēge
556

household and concluded by reminding every man to be ready for his
signal. Then the men went to build the maulūdu haruge (pavilion).
After the building was finished, that same evening, everything was
prepared to celebrate the festival inside. The lamps were lit and lengths ofcloth were hung to cover the walls. Unwittingly, the Katību’s son-in-law
entered the haruge first and, finding that no one else had yet arrived, hesat there and waited. A man arrived after him, sat beside there for a
moment and exclaimed: “Oh! So-and-so hasn’t come!” and he got up andleft. The next man came, sat briefly beside the young man and said: “Soand-so hasn’t yet arrived. How strange! I’ll go and fetch him.” And he got
up and left too. Thus, in the same manner, all the men of Kaṇḍūdū cameand went.
But they didn’t go far; they waited outside the haruge in silence while thestranger was sitting inside alone. Suddenly, at one signal from thekaṅveriyā, they all pushed the loose coral walls inwards and the wholebuilding collapsed on the young man. Trapped inside the heap of stones,
he began to howl and howl, telling the islanders surrounding it that hewould leave to Beriyanfaru and remain there if they promised not to hurt
him anymore.575 The islanders agreed and went back to their homes.
Later in the night, the stranger, now a hideous slimy furēta (monster)
crept from under the stones and hurried towards the beach. Once hereached the same spot where the log had been, the monster crawled into
the sea and disappeared. But it is always dangerous to hurt a spirit. Hence,
many years later the bēri came back to Kaṇḍūdū to take revenge. The
men, women and children of the island fell ill and died one after the otherin quick succession. During those accursed days, the malignant monster
roamed in the graveyard, close to the mosque, unearthing corpses, eating

575

A large reef without islands at the western end of Mālosmaḍulu Atoll. It is said
that the bēri still haunts Beriyanfaru
557

their eyes and drinking their blood. The constant presence of this evil was
making the island a frightening place to live.
Before long, the wretched and small group of survivors decided to leaveKaṇḍūdū. Sick, thin and terrified, they loaded all their belongings on theirdōnis and left for good. They settled in another island of the same atolland thrived there. Since those times, Kaṇḍūdū is considered a malevolent
place and it has never again been inhabited.
This legend has some structural similarities with ‘Haṇḍi Doṅ Kamaṇā ofKāṣidū’ in the chapter ‘The Double Face of Femininity’ further above.
However, while in Doṅ Kamaṇā the love-relationship between the humanbeing and the spirit are central to the story, in ‘Bēri’, after the arrival of
the kaṅveriyā, the Katību’s daughter drops out of the narrative. The speedwith which their wedding was arranged may seem strange. However, intraditional Maldives, unlike birth, menarche and funerary rituals, marriage
was a casual matter, not even worthy of being qualified as a ceremony.
The usual practice in the Maldives was for the man to go to live with his
in-laws and not the other way round.
Though initially the protagonist, the girl’s relevance is restricted to thefirst part of the story. The pretty young woman is instrumental in bringing
the fearsome bēri to her island. She does so by talking about sex while
making physical contact through her foot with the log. Inadvertently, she
triggers the chain of events that will end up with massive deaths and theeventual depopulation of Kaṇḍūdū. And yet, towards the end she istotally sidelined by the tragic events that follow and we are left without
knowing what became of her.
An explanation for the sudden change of focus in the narrative may lie in
the fact that both the first part and the last part of this legend aresometimes narrated as two separate stories. Accordingly, the first part byitself would be a story with a happy ending known as ‘The Girl who
married a Log.’ In this variant a pretty island girl marries a spirit from the558

sea who is so much in love with her that he decides to abandon his evil
ways forever and live a normal life. Such a plot is symmetrical to thestories of island men marrying a haṇḍi or female spirit and remains wellwithin the mainstream of traditional Maldive lore. Still, it is likely that thestory above may be a merger of two stories that had been originallyindependent from each other and which were tied together some time in
the past.
In the local folklore of Maldivians, the bēri is the only spirit that takes theappearance of a log, although sometimes it may take the appearance ofan unmanned drifting ship or, more oddly, of a government vessel withlights, crew and all.576 The symbolism is not clear, unless the log somehow
represents ―or is haunted by― the body of a person having died at sea,
which is reckoned to be the most inauspicious way to die. There are many
chances that a corpse which has been floating with abandon, being
carried about by the currents without having found rest, might end up
becoming an evil demon when it finally drifts to an island.
However, it is also possible that the bēri legend may be an indication thatlogs might have had certain relevance as objects of worship in ancient
times. The implicit message from the legend above is that “One should be
careful with logs” and from respect to veneration there is only one step.
This hypothesis is not far-fetched considering that the proper words, duly
repeated at certain times, can invoke a spirit from the log. In this case thewords are part of private sexual talk, which like a mantra, is usually secret.
Wooden logs found on Maldive beaches were rarely coming from theMaldive Atolls themselves, where every bit of wood is thoroughly
exploited. Rather, they would drift for weeks on the Indian Ocean watersfrom the heavy forested areas of the Southern Subcontinent or from even

576

There is no parallel with the North-European ‘Flying Dutchman’ legend though,and no similar narrative exists in the Maldives. Cf. 1.6.3 ‘Mass Death.’559

farther away, from Sumatra or the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Morerecently, among the logs drifting to the Maldive Islands there are somethat have fallen from log-carrying merchant ships during storms; that is
the reason for the occasional presence of pinewood logs (orimas vakaru)
in the Islands. Logs drifting to beaches of the Maldives were traditionallyconsidered ‘baṇḍāra’, i.e. government or royal property.
In Coastal South India’s oral tradition there is some link between logs andspirits; for example, in the Ceṅkeṇiyamman myth of the Paṭṭanavar Tamilfishermen. According to this legend, once a man caught a log in his net
and brought it home, keeping it there.577 One day his wife decided to split
the log into smaller pieces for firewood. To her amazement, when she hit
the wood with her cleaver, blood began to ooze out of it. Faced with thisportent the woman shouted and the whole village assembled there. After
this event it is said that this community began to worship the log. Sometime later, the woman’s husband had a dream in which the goddess
appeared and told him that she had decided to bless the village with her
presence in the form of a log. The goddess asked him to consecrate thelog and build a shrine around it. Thus a temple was built in the village andwas dedicated to goddess Sri Ceṅkaḷunīr Amman, ‘The Mother-(Goddess)of the Red Water.’
The red waters are related to the goddess in her fierce aspect. One of theterrifying deities connected with Skanda’s birth is called ‘The Daughter ofthe Red Sea’, referring not only to the color of the ocean’s surface before
sunrise or after sunset, but also to waters tainted red with blood.

577

His name has been recorded as Veerarāgava Chettiyar. See Religion, Belief
System and Practices in S. Bhakthavatsala Bharati, ‘Coromandel Fishermen.’
560

Part IV. A Showdown of Doctrines
Islam will always be victorious. (Hasan Al-Turabi, Sudanese religious leader in
an interview to the German magazine ‘Der Spiegel’)
Venceréis, pero no convenceréis. (Miguel de Unamuno, Spanish writer anddean of Salamanca University, upon hearing the arrogant speeches of thevictorious fascist legions at the end of the civil war. Following this declaration he
was arrested and exiled to the island of Fuerteventura.)

4.1.1 TUTELARY SPIRITS
Maldivians have many beliefs akin to the rural populations of the Indian
Subcontinent, where village people and tribals believe that they are
surrounded by spirits. Throughout the Maldive Islands, according to the
local inhabitants, spirits use to dwell in the graveyard, in a forest, in aparticular tree, in the ocean or in the coral reefs. Some of the major spirits
are benevolent and their role is that of guardians against evil. Yet, unless
duly propitiated, those same spirits may change their role and bring about
the evil themselves, in the form of deaths, bad fishing, failure of crops anddiseases.
Even so, for Divehi people the spirit world is something relevant, andindeed very real, only in their home islands. One Maldivian man who had
traveled extensively abroad confessed that he was never afraid during thenight in any other place on this earth, but that he was always overcome
by intense fear when he walked close to the graveyard of his own
island.578

578

Personal communication. Fua Mulaku 1986.
561

Generally, all Maldive Islanders are aware that they can easily made tolook as fools if they acknowledge their strong belief in the spirit realm, sothey themselves are quick to dismiss and make derogatory remarks aboutsuch beliefs, depending on their audience. Maldivians tend not torecognize their tales about spirits as anything worthy, or necessary, of
being put into writing and even less into any art form, like painting.
Therefore, it is not surprising that all of it is still kept only in the form oforal tradition.
As we have seen, in Maldives most of the main spirits are female. This is
the case in the Dravidian popular tradition too. The basic idea is probably
stemming from a deep reverence for motherhood as the origin of all lifeon earth. However, some turn-of-the-century British scholars who
considered Dravidian religious expressions as dark, bloody and repulsive
refuse to see any high ideal behind the paramountcy of female divinity:“The reason for the Dravidian deities being female is probably nothing
very profound, and is not especially complimentary to the female sex
among the Dravidians. The qualities which bring these goddesses theworship of the people are their most undesirable ones ... quarrelsomeness,vindictiveness, jealousy, and similar attributes.”579 However, as in thelatter, there are also a number of male spirits in the island lore. A few
shreds of legends, almost incoherent and without detail, talk about
ancient male guardian spirits carrying weapons. Some people say thatnow forgotten ancient tales mentioned a man carrying a sword coming
out of the sea. Like the dark Kudīnge Biru female demon, which causes
terror to children, this man with the sword is commonly linked to thehaybōrāhi, the seven-headed snake. Despite their popularity, the essenceof the spirits mentioned in those scattered fragments of traditional

579

W.T. Elmore, Op.cit.
562

narratives has either been lost or been adapted to a more recent versionof the guardian spirit called Baḍi Ferēta or Baḍi Edurukalēfānu.580
There is no reference to this spirit in the very old lore. For example, in anotorious poem lambasting the folk traditions of Maldivians written by alocal learned man called Ahmad Haji Edurukalēfānu at the beginning of
the 18th century, the Baḍi Furēta is not even mentioned in the long list of
spirits and local beliefs. This is hardly surprising, for the meaning of ‘baḍi’in the Divehi language is ‘gun’, and a spirit carrying such a recent weapon
as a gun, and who even wears an 18th-century military uniform, has to be
perforce a modern spirit. Besides, it is said that Baḍi Edurukalēfānu isfluent in Arabic, writing and speaking the language to perfection, an
unlikely feature for a spirit hailing from the ancestral popular Divehi
background.
The fact that Baḍi Furēta carries a weapon though, tells us that this spirit
has his origins in former Dravidian tutelary deities. The well-known South
Indian god Murugan, a deity that originated in very ancient Dravidian
village cults and was later incorporated into the Hindu pantheon, carries adeadly spear which he uses to kill demons. The male village divinitiesMāḍan and Ayyanār always carry weapons, usually a spear, club or sword,
but sometimes bow and arrow as well. Māḍan is a fierce looking folk
guardian-spirit sporting a large mustache, fangs and wild looks. He is very
popular in Tamil Nāḍu and Kerala and often acts as a protector of thevillage goddess.
Often in Ayyanār shrines located at the edge of Tamil villages, side by sidewith the main traditional figures of clay horses (and in some cases
elephants) which represent the animals that will serve him as vehicles in
his nightly perambulations, Veeran (hero) guardian figures with swords

580

The first name is more common in the South and the latter in the North ofMaldives. Edurukalēfānu is the title of a learned man, (Eduru= Skt. Śastri).
563

and, in a contemporary development, even policemen with guns arearrayed. The latter are bodyguards who help Ayyanār in his nocturnalrounds as watchman against the evil spirits threatening to invade thevillage to cause harm, such as damaging crops and spreading discord
among villagers. H. Whitehead comments that Ayyanār seems to be an
exception to the general rule that the village deities are female.581 The
more benevolent Ayyanār complements the function of Māri, the village
goddess who keeps epidemics at bay by fighting evil demons too. Unlike
Māri who has both a pleasant and a dangerous character, male guardian
spirits have a consistent temperament.582
There is evidence though that other attributes of Baḍi Edurukalēfānu havetheir origin in other ancient mythical figures. Reading some relatively
recent tales and poems about this Maldivian guardian spirit it emergesthat his ancestry is largely based on that of the great mythical sorcererOḍitān Kalēge who corresponds to the great sage Vaśiṣṭha of the
Subcontinental epics. Since some of those poems may be two or threecenturies old, they may be reckoned to be ancient, but here thecomparison is between a probably three-hundred years old gun-holding
spirit, and a mythical figure from the ancient lore, who is thousands ofyears older.
In those traditions it is said that Baḍi Furēta’s parents are the ‘Queen of
the Sunrays’ and the ‘Lord of Brilliance.’ While, actually, in the ancient
lore those two mythical personalities were Oḍitān Kalēge’s parents. The
Maldivian ‘Queen of the Rays of the Sun’ (Iru Dōdi Kamaṇā) correspondsin the Indian lore to Urvaśī, while the Maldivian Lord of Brilliance (Nūru kī
Rasge) to the Vedic god Indra. According to the ṛg Veda, they both gave

581

H. Whitehead, ‘The Village Gods of South India.’582

See the chapter “Village Deities” in H. Krishna Sastri ‘Southern Indian Images ofGods and Goddesses’.
564

birth to Vaśiṣṭa. Urvaśī was an Apsara, a celestial female, born out of theethereal vapors made into clouds by the rays of the sun, hence Iru DōdiKamaṇā. Indra is the Lord of the East, where the sun rises (hence Nūru kī
Rasge) and is also the chief of gods, carrier of the vajra or thunderbolt
weapon.583
Since most poems about Baḍi Furēta are written in a scornful tone, where
the mythical figure is dismissed as an unbeliever guilty of incest and otherabominations, the confusion above was probably deliberate, with theintention of discrediting figures of the traditional island lore. Oḍitān
Kalēge, the mighty faṇḍita man, whose exploits had been hitherto thefavorite stories of Maldivians, had its image tarnished as a Kāfir ―aderogatory term for “heathen” or “unbeliever”― since the 18th century.
Ever since modern technology facilitated speedy travel and two-way
communication with the Arabian Peninsula, Maldivian religious men
became increasingly aware of the sharp antagonism between the official
religion they sought to enforce and the popular spirituality in their island
country. When steam navigation was introduced, Maldive learned men or
nobles going to Arabia for the Hajj ceremonies were able to come back toMale’ within a relatively short period of time. Until then many of the few
Maldivian Hajj pilgrims had settled in Arabia or died there, owing to theirold age and the length and difficulty of the trip. Thus, returning Hajj
pilgrims were able to compare the contradictory, and mutually exclusive,
forms of spirituality prevalent in their Island Kingdom with the “Pristine
Islam” of Arab lands.
From that time onwards practically all the writings of Maldivian learned
men reflect their increasing impatience and intolerance towards thepresence of lingering non-Islamic traditions in the Island Kingdom.
Therefore, it is not surprising that from having been a source of

583

R.N. Saletore, Op. cit.
565

admiration in the traditional lore, a tantric hero like Oḍitān Kalēge
became an accursed furēta (monster) within the changed scenario. On theother hand, since most Divehi spirits were already of a terrifying nature,
the task to make them appear as devils was easy.
In order to increase their personal influence upon their countrymen,
Maldivian learned men have consistently sought to create an artificial“tradition” by thoroughly searching, examining and weeding out all thetrue traditions of their own country. Although it is widely claimed that
Islam is a religion without priesthood, in practice, individuals having
religious knowledge time and again stake a claim to social and politicalauthority in their society. One of the most successful ways of reinforcing
their personal power is through striving permanently to conform to themain Arab religious pattern. This dynamic trend is largely responsible forthe apparent uniformity among Muslim societies throughout the world.
The consequence of their relentless activity was that new cultural
structures were built upon the ruins of the old identity of the Maldivians.
These intrusive structures bred alien values that created insecurity among
the common folk.
The insecurity imbued upon the Maldivian people had a definite purpose,as from then onwards average islanders had to refer to their ‘learnedmen’ to know what was right or wrong in every circumstance. Thereby thepower of the religious elite was enormously strengthened. Since islanders
were assumed to be ignorant, savage folks, no feedback was needed fromthem. The only choice left before the common people was to obey theirIslamic masters or be punished.
Maldivian learned men still claim that they have invested their energy indisinterestedly ‘educating’ their own ‘ignorant’ fellow islanders during thelast few centuries. But in reality, their actual goal was to establish theirown tyranny by asserting the hegemony of ‘purified’ Islam, withthemselves as its representatives, in their own society. This trend led tothe slow death of Maldivian culture as an independent entity.
566

Since the King’s conversion to Islam in the 12th century AD, thepermanent threat of harsh Islamic punishments introduced a new
atmosphere of tangible terror in the mellow island surroundings. True,
the ancestral spirits had been also a source of fear for the Maldivians. But
these belonged to the supernatural world and the old beliefs had neverreally succeeded in bringing them to life. On the other hand, the mastersof the new doctrine ―which invests political authority with the halo of
religion― were not ghosts anymore. They were, and still are, very real.
Their presence cannot be ignored. To make matters worse, they havebeen allowed to monopolize a netherworld which adds its weight to thealready wearisome burden of the average daily life of the islanders.
It may be argued that one should not judge too harshly the Maldivian
learned, or religious, men. Since they viewed their own native culture as
pernicious, they didn’t see themselves as doing anything harmful. Afterall, they did what they thought was best in their eyes and, in their zeal for
Islamization, they were not aware that they were undermining thecivilizational foundations of their own country.
If we accept this point of view, though, we have necessarily to condone
the destruction of the Maldive culture as a wholesome, beneficial activity.
Hence, it should go on with our blessings until the last vestiges of thecultural heritage of Maldivians have been obliterated.
In the present time, the damage is of such magnitude that it cannot be
repaired. However, in spite of the generalized cultural blindness, oral
myths of great antiquity ―which have been handed down from parents tochildren― still reflect the ancient lore. Thanks to those stories, it issometimes possible to catch glimpses of the past, enabling areconstruction of the historical pattern of former Maldive folk traditions.
In the original Maldive mythology, the line between divinities (goddesses
and guardian spirits) and furētas (ghosts, monsters and goblins) was
probably clearer and there was not much confusion between them.
567

Nowadays, we find a jumble of confused accounts and it is not easy toestablish a pattern, but there is little doubt that such a pattern existed
before Maldivian learned men began to express their disapproval of thelocal spirit world. According to Fua Mulaku lore584 the origin of the BaḍiFerēta legend is thus:Baḍi Ferēta“Long ago, a young nobleman from Male’ was banished to Fua Mulaku. (Itwas an ancient royal custom to exile people of royal blood to this lonely
island if they had been causing trouble in the court). This man was veryarrogant and openly despised the islanders. He made no friends andalways wanted to be alone. Therefore, everyone avoided him.
He was allowed to carry a gun around and, as no one knew it was
unloaded, he used it to scare people. At night, when the streets were
empty, he prowled around the island. In the daytime he often went into
the forest with his gun and tried to molest and rape the young womengathering firewood there.
Owing to his ways this young aristocrat earned a reputation of being adangerous lunatic and, in time, everyone feared him. It seems that heloved to hide in dark, humid places and when somebody came close hesuddenly would jump out and scare them.
Apparently, this man died of unnatural causes before he became old. After
his death he became a nocturnal spirit known as Baḍi Ferēta who roams
around Fua Mulaku Island to this day. Islanders say that now this spirits
lurks in the darkness in damp, dirty spots where people defecate (likegūfīṣi, mounds surrounded by taro fields), near wells or ponds where there

584

Narrated in 1986 by Hasan Dīdī, Finifenmāge, Fua Mulaku.
568

is a smell of urine, where refuse is thrown or under the branches wherechickens sleep.
He squats in silence, holding his gun tightly. On moonlit nights, if hehappens to be looking towards the moon when one meets him, no harm
will follow. However, if he happens to turn towards the person unwarily
approaching him, he will fire his gun, loaded with kirufeḷihuni (coconut
flakes from which the milk has been extracted). The victim will thus becovered with coconut dust and, no matter how much the skin is washed,on the following morning that person will have a terrible skin disease withvery itchy pimples covering the whole body. To make matters worse, thepimples often degenerate into nauseating, oozing wounds, because thevictim will not be able to avoid scratching his or herself madly.
After reading this one would expect that spirit to be confined to Fua
Mulaku. Oddly though, the Baḍi Furēta is not a mere local spirit, as one
would infer from his legend. It is present in many of the Maldive Atolls,
where it is known by slightly different names. Owing to his firing dry
coconut flakes with his gun, this spirit is also known as Kirufelihuni
Husēnkalēge in other islands. In Male’, local people say that he used tolive in a house called Keyoge, whose garden was shady, humid andovergrown, full of large banana trees. This household doesn’t exist now
and its location is unknown. Perhaps the name refers to a mythical house.
Girls avoided his home, not only because of his habit of molesting women,a habit Baḍi Furēta shares with some demons of the Dravidian lore, butalso because of his perverse sexual inclinations, as he is reputed to haveeven committed incest. Sometimes women in certain islands are said tobe possessed by this spirit. Compare his habits with those of the malespirits known as Bhūt (Skt. Bhūta=Spirit of the dead) in Bengal: “Theyprefer dirty places to those which are clean ... and are fond of women,569

whom they possess and abduct.” 585 Commenting on the few Dravidian
divinities that are male, W.T. Elmore quotes: “(Besides Ayyanār) the
demon Kattan is another male-god of importance ... He violated all thewomen in his region. The men could not catch him, so he impaled himself
on a stake, and becoming a terrible devil was made a servant of Māri
Amma (the smallpox goddess)586.
The connection between this armed spirit and a lush growth of trees andplants is akin to the relationship between guardian spirits and good crops
in the Subcontinent. In traditional South Indian rural areas, crop blights
were blamed on the activity of evil spirits. Tutelary divinities, if propitiatedaccording to the proper rites, would protect the cultivated plants against
those demons that could harm them. The Maldivian spirit BaḍiEdurukalēfānu, like the South Indian deity Ayyanār mentioned above
carries a weapon and wanders around in the night. Ayyanār is a veryancient village god of South India. His complexion is dark, he has long,
curly hair, wears a crown and his throne is under a banyan tree, a dark
and shady place. This deity is sometimes represented displaying clear
military features, riding a horse (or an elephant), in full military uniform,
wearing a large moustache, and holding a sword. By his side sit his
attendants (veerans, bhūtas and piśācas) and horses in full battle gear.587
Although most of the legends about Baḍi Edurukalēfānu stress his
malevolent character, the following Divehi story introduces us to the roleof this spirit as protector and benefactor.588 Like the crops under theprotection of guardian spirits in the Tamil countryside, in this case, thanks

585

W. Crooke, Op. cit.

586

W.T. Elmore, Op. cit.

587

H. Krishna Sastri, ‘South Indian Gods & Goddesses.’588

Told in 1990 by Dombeage Muhammad Dīdī, Funāḍo village, Fua Mulaku Island
570

to the Baḍi Ferēta’s influence, crops are able to grow healthy and strong
in an out-of-the-way location in the jungle, where evil spirits abound:
The Broken Covenant“Long ago, a very poor young couple, Mariyā and Ahumadu, lived in thelarge island of Fua Mulaku. Neither of them owned anything and they had
neither family nor friends. They had to toil hard for other people in order
not to starve, weeding fields, digging wells and doing other harsh,
unpleasant jobs. Every day, from dawn to dusk, husband and wife did very
heavy work together. Although they did their job well, none of theiremployers were ever grateful or kind to them. Usually, after their hard
day’s labor, the young man and woman were given just a little food andwere sent away in contempt.
Mariyā and Ahumadu were both black people.589 Their bodies were lean
and their complexion, which was already very dark, became pitch blackfrom working all the time under the hot sun, drenched in their own sweat.
The poverty of this young man and woman was such, that they both went
about half naked. A worn piece of cloth around their waist, so small it
didn’t even reach halfway to their knees, was all each of them possessed.
This young couple lived in a little hut in an unused corner of land fringing
the forest. They had no furnishings inside and they both were used to sleepon the bare earth. But not even that ramshackle dwelling could they calltheir home. Every now and then, somebody fearing that they would claimthat bit of land, became angry with these poor, dispossessed people and589

This doesn’t mean that they belonged to a special race or group. It is just astatement of a fact, for among the Maldivian population there is a wide spectrum ofdifferent skin colors, from very dark to very fair.
571

burned their flimsy hut, chasing them away yelling: “Get out of this place!
The trees here belong to me!”Abased, the girl and her husband would pick up the wretched remaindersof their home and would leave quietly to build another shack somewhere
else.590 They knew very well that, if they complained, no one would
support them nor feel any pity for their plight. But in Mariya’s eyes there
were tears and Ahamadu would have to be especially gentle and loving
with his wife during the bitter days that followed, to wipe out thehumiliation, until they chose another spot and their new hut wascompleted.
In spite of all the hardships, these two young persons loved each othervery much and always stuck together. Time passed and Mariyā became
pregnant. Even so, during the months that followed, the girl kept doing
the same amount of brutish labor along with her husband. Ahumadu was
unhappy that his wife had to work so hard, for rest during pregnancy is avery important matter for island women. But Mariyā’s hands were always
busy and she never grumbled. One day, while they were clearing a field
invaded by weeds, the young man took a brief pause from his labor. He
then looked towards his wife and was overcome with pity for her. Mariyā
was bent over her work, actively toiling, carrying her large round belly.
Thick drops of sweat rolled over her dark skin.
The girl didn’t realize her husband was staring at her. Suddenly, she raised
her head and, when her eyes met his, she stood up and flashed a broad
smile at Ahumadu. “Don’t look at me like that! I am not a pretty, fairwoman!” she teased him. “If you keep sitting for such a long time, the sun
is going to set and we will not have finished the task. Then Daitā will be
angry at us and we will get no food.” She pouted her lips and her voice590

Even though in theory all land in Maldives belonged to the king and no one
could own land, people could lay a claim to the use of the land if the trees planted
there belonged to them572

became beguilingly childish and whiny: “Aḷē, I don’t want to go to sleep
with an empty stomach, after working so much.”
She had expected her husband to smile back at her, but his expression was
grave. When he spoke he was very serious: “Mariyā, this is not a life! We
have nothing and we are working the whole day so hard, but what do we
get in exchange? Only scorn. On top of that, we still have to beg for ourfood and even then we never get enough to eat. Every night we go tosleep so exhausted on the bare earthen floor, but while it is still dark wealready have to get up and start all over again.”Mariyā’s smile was gone. Now she looked at him with a sideway glance.
She was frowning and didn’t say a word. The young man paused briefly
and lamented, “You know Mariyā. We are always doing what other people
in this island tell us, yet even being so obedient, they still are never welldisposed towards us. We never get any respect from them. It seems thatanyone can throw abuse at us and humiliate us with impunity as if wewere beasts. We are nobody; we don’t even own a home!”
Then Ahumadu pointed gently towards his wife’s big black belly and said:“How can we look after this child? What life will our offspring have? Arethey going to live like us? I don’t want them to live like this!”Mariyā refused to be drawn into her husband’s mood. She bit her lips,
looked upwards as if fed up, and sighed deeply in weariness: “I know all
this very well. But what is the use of talking like this? What can we do?”Ahumadu’s eyes now lit up: “Please listen Mariyā. I have an idea. Working
as we do, we know the forest well. My plan is to go deep into the jungle,
clear a place away from anyone else’s reach and plant bananas, papayas,
pumpkins and other things there. Then we will sell our harvest and we will
become rich.”
Mariyā’s skepticism was not easily shaken. She raised her eyebrows,
narrowed her eyes and spoke to the point: “During the days you spend573

clearing a field and planting it, we will go hungry. Besides, the things you
plant in the forest will not grow. The haṇḍi will draw their blood out andstunt them or kill them.”591
Ahamadu was confident: “I know. But I also have thought about that.
Listen! I have noticed that the places haunted by the Baḍi Ferēta during
the night are very lush, fertile places. I am going to plant a big field bymyself and I will ask him to haunt it. Then he will keep the haṇḍi away andmake our plants grow.” As he needed her support, his expression betrayeddeep anxiety when he pleaded with her: “Please Mariyā! Let’s do this. We
will work there every second day only.”Maryā silently agreed, yet she didn’t look very enthusiastic. The truth isthat she had no hope at all in the future, and her husband’s talk had only
one effect: It made her conscious of their miserable existence, which shetried hard to ignore by being cheerful at all times, by joking continuallyand by finding joy in little things. Now she was full of sorrow.
Noticing his wife’s gloomy face and wide open eyes, Ahamadu had tosmile. He brought his face close to hers, sniffed one side of her nose indeep affection and said: “It will be all right Kāṅlō.”592 Then they took up
their work again.
Thus, the couple toiled very hard on every alternate day, preparing theirown field at a hidden place in the heart of the forest. After clearing andweeding, they dug the earth and planted banana stalks and kahanala(giant taro, Colocasia spp.) They also cultivated little patches where they591

Islanders believe that cultivated trees growing far from human habitation are
haunted by the bloodthirsty female spirit called haṇḍi who draws the life (lit. ‘blood’)
out of them. Thus, stunted banana trees growing close to the forest producing verysmall fruits are called haṇḍikēl in the South of Maldives592

The traditional Maldivian way of kissing. Kāṅlō is a term of endearment,
Kambulō in the Male’ form of Divehi.
574

carefully buried different kinds of seeds. Those were hard days for the
young husband and wife. They could not work for the rich people and went
to sleep with hungry stomachs. On the next day, when they resumed
toiling for their unmerciful employers, they felt extremely weak.
The exhausting work-rhythm became sheer agony for the heavily pregnant
girl and her husband. They were almost starving. To make matters worse
they received threats when they went to beg for their only meal in theevening: “What is this? Now you work less than before. You have become
very cunning, you two!” Mariyā and Ahumadu patiently swallowed theinsults, waited until their employers’ anger had been vented, and silently
ate their food.
One night, in the middle of all the severe hardships, Mariyā gave birth to ababy girl. The young woman had been working as arduously that day as
ever. And yet the very next day, carrying her daughter along with her, she
got up and went to work. She left her newborn child on a bed of large
leaves in a shady place close to her while she was working. When her little
baby cried, Mariyā would briefly interrupt her strenuous toil and give her
milk. Ahumadu, working beside her, could see how trying it was for his
wife to live like this, but he never heard her complain. She always laughed,sang or cracked jokes.
Not being able to ignore her distress, tears came to Ahumadu’s eyes easily
during all that period. He felt very sorry that his young wife couldn’t get asingle day of rest even after childbirth. Mercifully, this dire situation
improved somewhat once their own field was ready. From that time
onwards they were able to go to work for other people every day. At least
then Mariyā and Ahumadu could have a meal every evening.
The full moon was approaching and, on the eve of the eleventh lunar
night, Ahumadu, after a hard day of work as usual, went after dusk to afoul, dirty place full of chicken droppings, under a palm frond on which thechickens slept. He squatted there and sat very still, waiting for the Baḍi575

Ferēta to appear. But time wore on and the spirit didn’t come. The moon
set and Ahumadu went home. The next day he was depressed. Mariyā
tried to cheer him up: “Come on! The moon was not yet completely fulllast night anyway.”
Ahumadu steadfastly visited the same smelly spot for the following threenights, waiting for hours, fighting against sleep, without meeting the BaḍiFerēta. He almost gave up, but Mariyā, who could not stand to see herhusband so dejected ―and was privately irritated about his continual longface― kept encouraging him: “Maybe he has been somewhere else. Tryagain tonight.”
Finally, on the 15th lunar night, while he was sitting concealed in his
hiding post and the moon was full and round, Ahumadu was so tired that
he fell asleep. When he woke up the vile stench of the place hit his nostrils.
Realizing at once where he was, the young man kept very still.
Suddenly, in the clear moonlight, a few paces away from him, he saw theBaḍi Ferēta. The moon was high overhead and the spirit was sitting
quietly, looking towards it. His gun was on his back and the young man
looked at it with respect, because this nocturnal demon has the custom offiring a mixture of kirufeḷihuni (dry coconut flakes), sand and feces atanyone coming too close to him.
Ahumadu, stealthily crawling under the large kahanala leaves, went up towhere the spirit was. He surprised him by grabbing onto his gun and said:“Oh Sāhib! Have mercy! This humble slave didn’t want to steal your gun.
This miserable slave only wishes to talk to you.”593 Then, the young man

593Aḷugaṇḍu (lit. ‘slave lump’). First person pronouns are avoided in Divehi formal
speech, as it is deemed that ‘I’ is too strong a word to address an aristocrat. The
term ‘aḷu’ (slave) is connected to worship, dating perhaps from the time of the God
Kings prior to conversion
576

bowed low to him touching the ground in respect, for the Baḍi Ferēta is ofroyal lineage.
The dark spirit stood up. He was wearing an impressive military coat which
was black (or dark blue) with red braids, chevrons and shoulder patches.
Owing to his noble birth, he valued courtesy highly. After calmly
considering the black, skinny man in front of him, he put his gun down andenquired: “What do you want to tell me?”
Ahamadu was relieved as the tension relaxed: “It is well known that yourhighness knows the art of making trees grow well. This miserable slave
has recently planted a field and humbly asks your highness to bless thatgrove with your beneficial presence.”
The Baḍi Ferēta, pleased with Ahumadu’s excellent manners, readily
agreed: “I will go to your field every twelfth and thirteenth night of each
lunar month, when the moon is full. However, you must commit yourself
to do something for me too.”
The young man, caught off guard, mumbled: “What?” And the spirit
replied: “Not now, but one day I will come to you asking for some favor,
and then you will have to grant it to me as well.”Before Ahumadu could reply, the Baḍi Ferēta took a leaf and a sharp ileiṣi
(the central nerve of the palm leaf) and wrote something on the shiny
surface of the leaf. When he had finished writing he handed over both leaf
and ileiṣi to Ahumadu and told him: “This will be our covenant. If you
agree, sign here.”
The young man, in the moonlight knew only that the leaf was covered in
Arabic letters, but he couldn’t read a word. He signed with a scribble, thesame scrawl he had secretly practiced to mark his future trees,594 and594

It is customary for Maldivians to mark their own trees with a particular
combination of letters or a symbol by either painting it or etching it on the bark.
577

handed it back to the spirit. The Baḍi Ferēta folded it carefully, put it inside
his coat and went away.
As the weeks passed, Ahumadu’s grove inside the jungle became thelushest in the island. Within a few months he harvested his first bananas,
papayas and taro tubers. They were so large and beautiful that hebartered them easily for other goods. Thus, Mariyā and her husband
stopped working for other people and could cook their own food without
having to beg for it. Some of their former employers now came to them
humbly, saying that they had some heavy work to do. They assured the
young couple that they would provide three meals now, and even gifts,
but Ahumadu and his wife would tell them: “We will not go. You hardly
gave us anything back then. There is no need to give us anything now.”
Now the young man and Mariyā went to toil in their own field and planted
other crops, like chilies, cassava, pumpkins and sorghum. Everything grew
very well and, with their hard work and the fertility of the garden plots,
the young couple soon became valued by many islanders who were eager
to trade to obtain their fruits and vegetables. As the months went by, theirfortune increased.
Years went by and Mariyā and Ahumadu became wealthy people. They
lived now in their own home. Their daughter was five years old and,having known no hardships and no hunger, she was a very pretty, fat little
girl. As Mariyā never again became pregnant, they were very fond of her
and gave their child all their attention. They insisted on giving her a goodeducation too, because they didn’t want her to be illiterate as they were.
Thus, every day she went to the eduruge to learn and she became a brightstudent, bringing them much happiness in return for their love.
Despite having become a person of good reputation, Ahumadu felt sorrythat he was so ignorant when he saw that his daughter, though still asmall girl, was much more educated than him. Thus, he went again one
full-moon night to his own field to look for the Baḍi Ferēta. When he met
578

the spirit, as usual, in a humid, foul-smelling spot, the young man, after
the formal introductory salutations, told him that he now occupied an
important position in the island thanks to him. The Baḍi Ferēta felt
flattered by the polite display of gratefulness.
Ahumadu then told him about the heaviness in his heart: “O noble andillustrious Edurukalēfānu, having reached a high rank in society, now thisabject slave feels extremely humiliated by being so illiterate.” And the
young man went on explaining how he had not been educated by his
parents, who died when he was a little child, how he spent all his time, as
far as he could remember, working from dawn to evening for a plate offood.
The Baḍi Ferēta listened attentively and then Ahumadu went on tellinghim how, barely out of childhood, he had married Mariyā, almost a child
too, who was herself an orphan, as steeped in ignorance as him. Finally,
he formally asked the Baḍi Ferēta to be his teacher. The eminent spirit,
disarmed by the fact that the humble young man before him, in spite of hisrude past, had managed to learn such exquisite manners, obliged.
During the years that followed, Ahumadu went to his field every twelfth
and thirteenth night of the lunar month, as soon as the moon rose, tomeet the Baḍi Ferēta. The spirit had insisted that he wanted no lamps.
Thus, in the clear full moon light he taught his eager disciple how to read
and write Arabic and how to recite the Qurān, except for a few sections,which the ferēta, as Kāfiru couldn’t recite. He taught him poetry andstorytelling too, except for a poem called Farehe Mituru.595 The young
man sat very attentively during the long lessons, straining his eyes to beable to read in the moonlight. Every one of those nights Ahumadu went595

The parts of the Quran that the ghost could not recite as Kafir were the‘Alhamdu’ or Exordium, ‘Fanara Āyā’, Kāfirūn Sūrā and Muhammadu Sūrā. Farehe
Mituru (Farihi Mituru’ in Male’ Bas) is probably a Muslim devotional narrative, but I
was unable to elucidate further information about it.
579

back home when the moon set, took a bath to get rid of the stench, andwent to sleep until noon.
The remaining days of the month Ahumadu taught his wife Mariyā how toread and write too. He also borrowed books and learned more about
religion and faṇḍita by himself. Those were prosperous years for the oncedespised couple. Since their fields kept producing more and better fruits,
tubers and vegetables, they could employ people to work for them, but
Mariyā and Ahumadu were used to hard labor and became bored if they
stayed at home. They now enjoyed going to work to the fields every day
and there was nothing that would dissuade their daughter from goingalong with them.
After almost ten years of learning Ahumadu was now a wealthy, respected
and successful person. But, as his wife Mariyā never became pregnant
again, some evil tongues whispered behind her back. On a number ofoccasions, people would come to Ahumadu and speak to him in private. Ina flattering way they would tell him that a man of his status could easilyfind fair and fat women who would bear kids for him. They didn’t
understand why he, who was so learned and affluent, would stick to thatblack and thin woman who could have no more children. Finally theybluntly suggested that it would be better for him to divorce his wife andsend her away. These people usually hinted that one of their sisters, or adaughter or a cousin, would be ready to marry him anytime.
Ahumadu firmly, yet politely, ignored those people. However, secretly he
was aggrieved, for they were speaking slightingly of his dear Mariyā. He
would always remain a trustworthy husband and he kept valuing his wife
highly until his death. How could he forget the way she had cheered him
up and kept him faithful company during the hardest years of his life?
Besides, he knew she was not so ugly anyway.
Meanwhile their daughter had grown into a very attractive young woman
having an excellent character. In spite of her fortune and her learning, she
580

didn’t become arrogant. She was a hard-working girl who loved to work in
the house and help in the fields. Thanks to her presence, her parents’home was a happier place.
One night, when Ahumadu went to his well to wash himself, the BaḍiFerēta appeared in front of him and startled him. The spirit, showing him
the now dry leaf written in Arabic which he had kept hidden in his clothes,pointed at the scribbled signature demanding: “Do you remember ouragreement?” Ahumadu politely nodded.
The Baḍi Ferēta continued: “Well, this is the time to honor it. . . You haveto give me your daughter. I don’t want anything else.”
It took time for Ahumadu to recover from the shock. Finally he said: “No!
She is my only child! Please ask for anything else. But not for her.”
The Baḍi Ferēta was offended, but as befits a grand spirit belonging to avery ancient royal dynasty, he kept very calm and didn’t display any
emotion. After a while he simply said: “All right. All right.” (“Heu! Heu!”)
And he was gone.
After a few days the trees and crops that belonged to Mariyā andAhumadu became sick. All the leaves were covered with hideous blisters
and quickly decayed. The disaster that befell their groves was such thatthey could not get a single healthy fruit or vegetable from them.
Ahumadu’s face was grim. He sighed and decided to make faṇḍita, so hetook a piece of kiredi wood and sharpened one end.596 Then he carefully
wrote on it all the parts of the Qurān that Baḍi Ferēta had refused toteach him and buried it thrusting it in the exact spot where he had met thespirit on the first night, fourteen years before.

596

Pemphis acidula. A type of hard mangrove wood known as kuredi in Male’ Bas.
581

Five days later, Ahumadu was sitting on the swing in his verandah late in
the evening. Mariyā and the girl were already sleeping, but he was
enjoying the cool breeze, chewing betel and nut when, all of a sudden, theBaḍi Ferēta arrived at his gate. The stately spirit had become gaunt; hewas pitifully thin and looked very sad. The contortions of his face showedthat he was suffering intensely. He spoke in a humble voice now, with nomore trace of the nobleman’s pride: “Ahumadu! What have you done tome? I cannot endure this pain any longer. Remember that I made you rich.
I also made you a learned man. You signed an agreement with me, thenyou broke it; and now you are the cause of my agony. This is not fair.”Ahumadu replied: “O noble Edurukalēfānu! Please believe what I am goingto say: I truly appreciate all that you have done for me and my wife. I will
not forget your kind favors as long as I live; and I don’t enjoy harming you.
In fact, seeing you suffer now fills me with sorrow. However, I cannot let
you take away my child. It is useless for Mariyā and me to be rich if ourdaughter is taken away from our home. Life would be unbearable for us.
Please let’s make a new agreement. If you let my crops grow again, I will
heal you.”
The Baḍi Ferēta agreed and, while he was standing there, Ahumadu
walked in the darkness to the stinking place where he had buried his
magic charm, unearthed it and brought it home. Then he wrote somemagic words with the soot of a candle on a white dish, put some water init, dissolved the words and gave the water to the spirit to drink. Thus, theBaḍi Ferēta was instantly healed; and true to his word, as one would
expect from a ghost of aristocratic origin, he never came back to botherAhumadu and his family again.
A general feature in ancient Maldive stories about married couples is thatthe husband and wife stick with each other against all odds. Back then,since this type of story used to be told by parents to their children tocommunicate ancient wisdom to them, role models for solid marriages
were commonly found in the Island lore. Stories with faithful, stable,582

mutually dedicated couples are ‘Donhiyalā and Alifuḷu’ (Cf. 1 The Evil King)and also ‘Khālid and Sitti’ and ‘Haṇḍi Doṅ Kamaṇā’ (Cf. 2 The Double Faceof Femininity), among others. The latter even contains a warning about
the disastrous effects even a little indiscretion or small betrayal by thehusband will have on the mutual trust on which a marriage is based.
In the tale above, Ahumadu doesn’t hesitate to break his contract with
the Baḍi Ferēta, but he never leaves his wife. It is noteworthy that hedoes so although she could bear no more children, even after they
became wealthy. As monogamy and the fidelity of both husband and wife
towards each other are topmost in the scale of Dravidian social values,
these stories reflect ancestral standards of morality. Those standards
became upset, and eventually decayed, with the introduction ―andincreasing enforcement― of the Islamic system.
In a one-sided way, the Brahmanical or Vedic system insisted in the total
submission of the wife to the husband, regardless how outrageous thehusband’s behavior may be. Contrarily, the Dravidian system stressed theimportance of mutual faithfulness in a married couple.597
Except perhaps for the royal family, ancient Maldivians used to bemonogamous until their ideals adapted to the changes introduced
through the new religion into their former scale of values. Polygamy, easy
divorce, and the effective disadvantageous position of the wife versus thehusband in Islamic law, have brought about the highly volatile
relationships which have been the norm in the Maldives since the second
half of the 20th century.
There are a great number of theories about the equality of men andwomen in Islam, but they are empty rhetoric used for ideological andpropagandistic purposes. In practice, a mere cursory glance at the Sharīa’597

C. J. Jayadev, ‘The Tali in Relation to South Indian Initiation Rites.’583

laws and at Fiqh quickly dispels any notion about the supposed equality
between the sexes in this religion. Hence, today the Maldives is counted
among the countries having the highest divorce rates in the world. For
some reason, however, Minicoy Island has been spared this incongruity
and marriages are more stable and enduring in that isolated atoll.

584

4.1.2 THE BIG MAN
Throughout the Maldives there are stories about a certain male spirit who
haunts the islands in the night. This demon usually resembles a tall man
and is simply called Raṣu Etere Mīha or Boḍu Mīha, meaning simply the‘man of the island’ or the ‘big man’. Sometimes it is called furēta as welland it has affinities with the guardian spirit of Puhār described in the
Tamil epic Manimekhalai. This spirit invariably comes out late at night andwalks behind the person daring to step out at such hours. It seems that,like in Mābē’s case, the only function of this spirit is to frighten people,
since nobody has been caught or hurt by the Boḍu Mīha. According tomost descriptions it has a scary face with a mouth full of large teeth,characteristics which would link this spirit with the fearsome Vignāntakas
described further above in this book.
Apparently, there is no connection between the Boḍu Mīha and sickness
or premature death. People sometimes see him in the middle of the night,
walking silently, ominously, along the island paths. There are quite anumber of Maldivians who insist that they have been followed by thisspirit until they hid somewhere or ran away in panic from him.
Although there are a lot of islanders, from different atolls, who claim thatthey have seen the Boḍu Mīha, he still remains an elusive spirit. This tallman is never to be seen in the daytime and has never been captured.
People seem to see him only in the darkness, when they are alone andeveryone else is sleeping. Stories about this spirit may be told with the
purpose of frightening children in order to keep them indoors during thenight. However, one should not overlook the fact that, even though they
are not so famous, the Divehi stories about the Boḍu Mīha, ‘The
Abominable Man of the Coral Islands’, are also strikingly similar to the
Tibetan legends about the Yeti, the mysterious man of the snowy
Himalayas.

585

In Fua Mulaku there is an ancient spirit known as Mābē, who might have
had his origins in an ancestral guardian divinity. This spirit’s presence isacknowledged to be an essential feature of the island and, as such, he is
the subject of a few verses in a local folk-poem called Raṣoveṣi which
describes all the landmarks around Fua Mulaku, where it is said to be
confined under a coral rock of the Porites type (hirigal), a dense type ofcoral growing in massive clumps:598
Matimagi Mābē“A long time ago, in Fua Mulaku Island Mābē was a very important spirit.
However, people got together and complained that he was wandering too
freely around the island, scaring everybody. Then they summoned
Edurutakkānge Muhammad Dīdī, an eminent faṇḍita man (Cf. ‘Mighty
Sorcerers’) and, giving him the proper amount of gifts, asked him for help
to get rid of this spirit.
Thus, the great sorcerer went to Matimago, a street parallel to the eastern
shore, close to the beach and made a very powerful magic ritual. He
compelled Mābē to become very small and banished him under a roundcoral block at a place on the northeastern edge of the coral reefsurrounding the island.
Since then, Mābē was no longer free to roam at will around Fua Mulaku.
However, it is said that he is still able to come out secretly at night. Hidden
by darkness he will go to a house and choose a victim. Mābe attacks both
men and women while they are in deep sleep. He sits on the unwary
person and holds the limbs and the mouth very tight, squeezing the wholebody. Right then the victim will have a horrible nightmare, dreaming thathe or she is going to die immediately.
598

Told by Maryam Fārugu, granddaughter of the late Magieduruge Ibrahīm Dīdī
586

Owing to Mābē’s firm grip, the victim will not be able to move or screamat all and panic will set in. After making what seems like an extraordinary
effort, the affected individual, thinking that he or she is fighting against
imminent death, will try very hard to yell within the dream. Finally, after
emitting a weak sound and move one or two limbs, the victim will wakeup. Then he or she will be able to move freely and everything will be over.
Nevertheless, after this terrible experience most people do not want tosleep anymore. Usually, the afflicted person will fight against sleep,
fearing the spirit’s return, and will stay awake until dawn.

The Mābē leaves no trace and no lasting sickness. He simply scares people
in their dreams, a common occurrence afflicting not only among Fua
Mulaku people, but also outsiders staying for some time in that island ―I
myself went through the experience―. Apparently the symptoms are
similar to a disease called Ciguatera, caused by consumption of pelagic
fish having eaten a certain type of plankton. Some people in the island
claim that Mābē is a good spirit, but others say that he cannot be good,
because he makes one feel as if one is almost dying. Compare with similar
beliefs in the Subcontinent: “The Bhuiyārs have adopted from the Hindu
mythology Jam or Yama, the God of Death, as one of their dream ghosts.
He sits on his victim’s breast in sleep, and it is impossible to shake him offor make an alarm.”599
One intriguing fact about this spirit is that Mābē means ‘maternal uncle’in the local language; and the maternal uncle, the brother of one’s
mother, is a figure worthy of the highest respect in the Divehi family
structure. Hence, it is possible that Mābē might have been originally arevered tutelary figure in the ancestral folklore of that island.

599

W. Crooke, Op. Cit. above.
587

4.2.1 TRACES OF SYNCRETISM
The evidence of Tantrism found in Maldive sorcery or faṇḍitaverikaṅ,hints at an enduring influence of local, non-Arab, doctrines. All theseresidual practices have withstood the passage of time owing to theirwidespread popularity and their strictly clandestine nature. As such, they
have been handed down from master sorcerer (faṇḍitaveriyā) toapprentice sorcerer for over eight centuries. But, transcending the realmof popular esoterism, the question that eventually arises is: Did the richand complex Buddhist philosophy, which became a civilizational force inso many Asian countries, leave any trace in the Maldives?
In a situation parallel with Afghanistān, Maldive Buddhism, which onceenjoyed royal patronage and inspired the construction of great Stupas andmonasteries throughout the islands, seems to have totally disappeared
without further manifestations. Its scant and battered remainders areapparently confined to the archaeological field. A summary reading of thelōmāfānu copperplates, the only trustworthy records of the time, showsthat, at the time of conversion to Islam, things were much like in
Afghanistān at the time of that country’s conversion. When Afghanistan
was converted, “Buddhist monasteries and shrines were razed to theground and the monks had either to court sword or accept Islam. It was atorrential sweep over this great Buddhist land and Buddhism disappeared
from the country forever.”600 The similarities, however, end there: Whilein Afghanistān Buddhism and its culture disappeared owing to a foreigninvasion, in Maldives the destruction was inflicted by a local monarch.
This is certainly true on the surface, although some authors believe thatthe general non-violent disposition of Maldivians is a remainder of thevalues embedded in their Buddhist past.601 But such speculations about
600

C.S. Upasak, ‘History of Buddhism in Afghanistān.”

601

See C. Maloney, Op. cit.
588

traces of Buddhist attitudes in the Maldive psyche lack credibility. Owing
to their elusive, insubstantial quality, they can easily be dismissed as mere
subjective conjectures and one is then again left to conclude that nothing
has remained, that the ancient religion has been effectively obliterated.
During my first years in Maldives, I myself arrived at this conclusion andheld on to it for a long time.
Nevertheless, after spending more time studying Maldive art, astrology,
magic and myths, very lightly at first, a suggestion to the contrary set in.
Suddenly, one day, stumbling upon some strange words which nobody
could explain, it dawned on me that, even though in a very small degree,
more tangible, non-subjective proofs of the endurance of Buddhist
doctrines existed.
Old Maldivian astrological texts contain certain puzzling words derived
from Sanskrit. Although their meaning is very deep ―as will be shown
shortly― they are not in use anymore in the Divehi language in its present
form. Further investigation revealed that these terms are foundexclusively in certain tables used by nakatterin (astrologers), but nowhere
else.602
Those mysterious words correspond to the chain of interdependentconditions of the Buddhist wheel of life. Although there are no
iconographic remains of a Maldive Bhavacakra or wheel of life, tables
containing the twelve stages of the chain of interdependent conditions orPratītyasamutpāda603 are easy to find in most Divehi astrological texts,

602

Or nakaiytteriṅ in the Male’ form of Divehi. In this book the Southern form has
been used because most of the astrologers interviewed were from Aḍḍu or Fua
Mulaku. The astrologers are named after the Indic nakay (Skt. nakśatra) calendar,
made up of 27 constellations
603

This is an abbreviation; the complete name in its correct form is ‘dvadaśaṅgapratītya-samutpāda,’ which can also be translated as the ‘twelve-linked chain of
dependent origination.’ Shu Hikosaka, ‘Buddhism in Tamil Nadu.’589

even in recently copied books. While this scale appears in practically all
Maldivian astrological books, some of the spellings are not always
consistent. For example, the word Avindāna is written in some texts as
Aviddāna.
Local astrologers, however, no longer know the meaning of this chain.
They call each one of the elements by the generic name ‘aṅga’, whichmeans ‘mouth’ in Divehi, but they do not know what they describe orrefer to. A clear and convincing explanation about the relationshipbetween astrological calculations and the different stages of the chain ofinterdependent conditions was not forthcoming.
On the following table we can see the twelve links of the chain, as they
appear in the Maldive nakatteri texts, with their corresponding Sanskritname and the English translation:

Divehi/ Sanskrit/ English
Avindāna/ Avidyā/ Ignorance (Vidya = Knowledge)Haṅgiskāra/ Samskāra/ Intentional actions
Vinnāna/ Vijñāna/ Consciousness
Nāmarūfa/ Namarūpa/ Name and BodyHaḍāgatana/ ṣaḍāyatana/ Six senses (Ayatana = Senses)
Isfarūha/ Sparśa/ Contact
Vedāna/ Vedanā/ Sensation
Tiruna/ Tṛṣṇā/ Desire
Ufadāna/ Upādāna/ Attachment
Bava/ Bhava/ Existence
Dāti/ Jāti/ Birth
Darumuranu/ Jarāmaraṇa/ Old Age and Death590

After long talks with astrologers, I became convinced that they use thisscale without having any idea about its purpose. However, while trying toinvestigate whether there had been any belief about reincarnation in thepast, there was some kind of response. It seems that, although nowadays
nobody connects this table with reincarnation, belief in reincarnation was
widespread in the Maldives up to the 19th century. Since they normallyuse two sets of constellations in their tables (the twelve zodiacal ones andthe twenty seven nakay), some present-day nakkaterin assume the aṅgato be merely the names of a third set of constellations, but astrology has
now become so irrelevant that most think it is pointless to find out.
Anyway, most astrologers I interviewed, were old men who complainedthat their skill was irremediably dying out as every day less and lesspeople were interested in their trade. They claimed that in former times,
all islanders used to ask for their services at every event or undertaking intheir lives. From naming a child to building a boat, from knowing in whichangle of the compass the main door of a new house should be placed, toplanting a tree, or starting a trading journey, the nakatteriyā’s advice wassought, valued and dearly paid for.
Astrologers were categorized as ‘astronomers’ in the 1931 Census of
Male’ Island, the first census ever undertaken in the country.604 According
to the Table of Occupations of the census, there were three astronomers
in Male’ in 1931 and all of them were male. It was a respectableprofession in the old times and the king’s astrologer was an influential
person within the country.605

604‘Report on the Census of the Maldive Islands 1931.’ Reedited by the Dpt. ofInformation and Broadcasting, Male’ in 1979
605

See H.C.P. Bell’s Monograph for more information about the position of theastrologer in the Maldivian court.
591

While enquiring why Divehi people stopped using astrology, the answer ofa certain old man was most revealing.606 After giving thought to thematter for a while, he concluded:“These are other times and people don’t like to wait. Everyone wants
things to be done as soon as possible. One day, in my youth me and myuncle went to the astrologer and asked him what would be a good date toprepare a lime pit; and the nakatteriyā told us ―here Alī Dīdī chuckles at
the absurd answer― that it should not be done within that year.”
Understandably, he and his uncle disregarded the advice of the astrologer
and went ahead. They set up the lime pit and burned it straight away. Alī
Dīdī explained that they couldn’t wait until the following year. Since theywanted to build a house and the wood and the stones were ready, theyneeded the lime as fast as possible.
Beyyāge Beyyā, an old astrologer from Funāḍo village, Fua Mulaku, was
one of the few Maldivians who could identify the nakay constellations in
the night sky, for other astrologers merely had knowledge of them as
names in the books. He claimed that the great Maldivian astrologers, thepeople who had written the books he was perusing, were in the distant
past. The manuscripts he owned had been copied by hand from texts
written by people who didn’t even remember who the original writer ofthe books was, nor the person who had made additions enlarging thetext. He recognized that, as some things had been copied without
adequate explanation, the astrological knowledge had slowly died out.
Thus, the meaning of many of the tables of the books they were using,including the Pratītyasamutpāda, was obscure for them. In a symptomaticdevelopment of the present times, when Beyyāge Beyyā died, his
grandson took his books and threw them away in a marsh. Mercifully, I
had been able to copy some of the beautiful cosmic diagrams Beyyāge

606

Vaijehēge (Unakeḍe) Alī Dīdī in 1990.
592

Beyyā’s books contained before their destruction. Those diagrams were
known as hakurā (Skt. cakram) in old Divehi.
Alī Najību, an old gentleman from the capital, well versed in Maldive
traditions and culture, commenting about the twilight of astrology in
Maldives, emphasized the fact that it was very ancient knowledge.607 He
reckoned that part of it was very useful, for it was based on carefulobservation and on trial-and-error methods, like the best date to catch
certain bait fish, to bury seeds, to cut certain trees so that the wood
wouldn’t rot, etc. This man decried the general rashness and lack of
wisdom of present-day Maldivians and he argued that Maldive astrology
should not have been discarded in such a wholesale and denigratingmanner as it had been done.
Even if here and there in the Maldive Islands a few of the hand-copiednakkatteri texts have been saved from the systematic destruction ofrecent times, most of what is written in those books makes no sense
anymore. The reason being that the old people who would haveunderstood every table and item, the astrologers of the last days of theheyday of astrology in Maldives ―around the 1930s―, have all died out.
Moreover, the general disinterest which preceded the irreversible decline
of astrology in the islands, made sure that when only the books were left,
their meaning had faded into oblivion. And yet the importance of themere presence of the Pratītyasamutpāda in old Divehi texts lies inproviding evidence that some kind of belief in reincarnation must havepersisted well past the annihilation of Buddhism in the Islands.
In their paradoxical drive to create a new “Maldivian tradition” upon theruins of the former traditions of the Maldives, local learned men in the
recent past, knowledgeable in Arabic but not in their own customs, weresuspicious about the clearly non-Islamic origin of this scale. Thus, most of607

Nedunge, M. Male’, the man behind the translation of the Isdū lōmāfānu.
593

its names were included in a poem composed in the first half of the 18th
century with the purpose of denouncing a number of non-Muslim beliefs
common among the Maldive Islanders. In that particular composition,
written in classical Arabic by Haji Ahumadu Edurukalēfānu the names ofthe different links of the chain, with the exception of Aviddāna (Avidyā),were indiscriminately mixed up with names of spirits. Haji Ahumadu
Edurukalēfānu was a local scholar well-versed in Arabic who died in 1747.
While this composition reveals the excellent command of the Arabic
language by this local learned man, it makes also apparent his utter
ignorance of his own country’s mythology and folk traditions. This is thereason for the confusion, which persists today, of assuming that some of
the terms on the aṅga table are actually names of spirits. Such mistakes
arose from the deep contempt that local learned men displayed towards
their own island lore.
As has been mentioned above, the relationship between the
Pratītyasamutpāda and astrology is obscure. Hence the reason why it isfound in Maldive nakatteri books remains an enigma.608 According to
Buddhist texts, this chain has an altogether different purpose. The chainof interdependent conditions ventures to explain the Buddhist view ofman in terms of the relationship between his birth and death. The central
point of Pratītya (dependent) samutpāda (origination) is that anythingthat comes into being, originates dependently. In the origin of the life ofan individual there are twelve conditions (pratītyaya), or causal stages,
which Buddha is said to have stated as follows (the words in italics are theDivehi astrological terms):“Before my enlightment, monks, when I was unenlightened and still abodhisattva, I thought: “Into wretchedness, alas, has this world fallen; it is608

Possibly a careful reading of the Kālacakra Tantra (10th- 11th century) andother similar Buddhist texts, which include Astrology in the path towards liberation,
could help to elucidate this matter.
594

born, grows old, dies, passes away, and is reborn. But from this pain it
knows no escape, from old age and death (Darumuranu). When indeed
from this pain shall an escape be known, from old age and death?”
Then, monks, I thought, “Now, among what exists, old age and death doexist, so what is the cause of old age and death?” And as I duly reflected
there came the comprehension of full knowledge: It is when there isbecoming that there is rebirth (Dāti), rebirth has the longing to exist(Bava) as cause.
[In the same way this yearning to be (Bava) is said to be caused byattachment (Ufadāna), attachment by desire (Tiruna), desire by feeling(Vedāna), feeling by contact (Isfarūha) or stimulation of any of the six
senses (Haḍāgatana) by the mind and the body (Namarūfa), mind-andbody by consciousness (Vinnāna), consciousness by accumulation of
intentional actions (Haṅgiskāra) and these in turn by ignorance(Aviddāna).]Thus, with ignorance (Aviddāna) as cause there is accumulation of deeds(Haṅgiskāra), with accumulation of deeds as cause there is consciousness(Vinnāna), consciousness by mind-and-body (Namarūfa) [Here the chain isreversed down to] rebirth (Dāti) as a cause of old age and death(Darumuranu). This is the origin of this whole mass of pain.
This is the origin indeed. Thus, as I duly reflected on these things unheard
before, vision arose, knowledge arose, full knowledge arose,
understanding arose, light arose.609
Those words and the concepts they relate to have lost all practicalrelevance in the Maldives nowadays. It is not clear whether, afterconversion to Islam, Maldivian astrologers continued to pass on the609Śramana Vidya; Studies in Buddhism. Ed. by N.H. Samtani. Central Inst. ofHigher Tibetan Studies. Varanasi 1987.
595

understanding of the philosophic principles behind the Chain ofInterdependent Conditions; and if they did so, it is not known for how
long. Even though I tried hard, I couldn’t find a consistent explanation as
to why those tables were still present in Maldive books, when the very
meaning of the terms they contain has, apparently, long been forgotten.
In modern Divehi, for example, no one knows the meaning of ‘tiruna’
anymore. Therefore, to express the concept of ‘desire’ the Arabic term‘śauq’ has been introduced in relatively recent times (probably during thelast two centuries).
There are nonetheless indications that, even after centuries of
conversion, some learned men did follow doctrines condemned by Islam.
Those activities were performed in a secret manner, as the following
account of a real event proves.610 Another interesting point this story
illustrates is the mutual suspicion between the powerful elite and themeek average Maldivian regarding whose vices are more repulsive:
The Lonely Mosque

Alī Takkān was a man from Aḍḍu Atoll who went to Male’ to learn how to
weave. While in the capital he stayed with his in-laws. After many days
learning how to master the skill, he told his host: “Ḷiyambē,611 send me
North! I have never visited the northern Atolls.”
His host obliged and got a fare for him in a batteli merchant boat sailingnorthwards. He gave Alī Takkān a letter of recommendation for the
Tiladummati Atoll chief, Sayyid Sayyid. Following an uneventful journey,
the Aḍḍu man disembarked in Noḷivaramfaru, the island where the Atoll
610

Told by the late Vaijehēge (Unakeḍege) Alī Dīdī in 1990.

611

Lit. ‘brother-in-law,’ often also a colloquial way to address any non blood related
male friend.
596

Chief had his residence. After showing his letter, Alī Takkān was put up at
the Atoll Chief’s own home.
During the idle days he spent on the island Alī Takkān made many friends
who were glad to have his company. Whether he stayed at home orentered local people’s houses, they wanted him to talk all the time. People
in Noḷivaramfaru rarely got to meet anyone from that far South, so the
local men and women were curious about him and kept asking him manyquestions. However, Alī Takkān was not a talkative man. Besides, he spoke
Divehi in the Aḍḍu way and was feeling awkward in the northern dialect ofDivehi spoken by the locals. Therefore, he mostly enjoyed walking alone;so he spent many days of leisure strolling around the island.
At that time, the Friday mosque of Noḷivaramfaru was in the middle of aforest. One evening, during one of his walks after sunset, Alī Takkān
decided to go there for the ishā evening prayer. He expected the mosque
to be deserted at that time, but he heard the bangi (prayer call) while hewas within the mosque area making his ablutions. When he entered themosque, he looked towards the spot where the imam should have been.
Straining his eyes, Alī Takkān didn’t see anyone there and went closer.
There was only the faint light of a small oil lamp and he saw that on theimam’s mat there was a small heap of clothes.
Sitting on the ground there was a half-naked man engaged in somestrange ritual. It was certainly not the Muslim form of worship and theman was so absorbed in his gesticulation, that he didn’t notice Alī
Takkān’s presence. Going to the farthest corner of the mosque, Alī Takkān
hurriedly made his prayers and left. He avoided looking again in the
direction of the man engaged in mysterious observances, because it
frightened him.
Walking back home in the cool night air, Alī Takkān felt better. When hearrived to the Atoll Chief’s house, he was careful to act as if nothing was
wrong and didn’t tell anybody what he had seen in the mosque. They had
597

been very kind to him and he didn’t want to be perceived as atroublemaker. He was apprehensive that the women of the house would
notice a change in his face while they were serving dinner, but nothing
happened and, saying that he didn’t feel well, he went early to sleep.
The next morning, Alī Takkān chose two people he considered to betrustworthy among the friends he had made during his stay inNoḷivaramfaru, and asked them to come with him for the ishā prayer thatsame evening. They agreed and, after making ablutions in a small mosquein the village, Alī Takkān suggested that it would be a pleasant walk to thelonely mosque in the jungle. They knew he loved to go for long walks, sothey exchanged glances and smiling in a patronizing way, agreed to gowith him. Shortly before arriving, they could hear the prayer call.
The three men entered the mosque without making much noise and, upon
approaching the imam’s place, clearly saw the man sitting on the floor
entranced in strange movements. Alī Takkān winked to his friends and,quietly, they left the mosque. They walked towards the village in thedarkness. After a while, on the path across the forest he suddenly asked
the other two men: “Who is that man? What was he doing?” One of his
friends answered: “The man we saw there is Mudīmbē, the Mudīmu(caretaker) of the Friday Mosque. He is an important person in this island,
learned and respected. We don’t know what he was doing. I think weshould tell the Atoll Chief.”
Thus, the three of them went to Sayyid Sayyid and told him about thestrange scene they had witnessed in the dim light of the solitary mosque.
The Atoll Chief calmed them and assured them that he would talk about it
to Mudīmbē. On the next morning the Atoll chief called the Mudīmu to hishome in Ali Takkan’s presence. The caretaker of the mosque listened to all
the accusations but, to Alī Takkān’s surprise, didn’t show the slightest
emotion or regret. The Atoll Chief said he would write a report and send it
to the government in Male’. However, Mudīmbē didn’t seem to be struck
with fear upon hearing those words.
598

When the Atoll Chief ordered the Mudīmu’s house to be searched, twoboxes full of books were seized and brought to Sayyid Sayyid’s home. They
were not usual Muslim books and were full of frightening Kāfir drawings.
Most were written in scripts Alī Takkān couldn’t read, although a few were
written in Arabic or Persian. Sayyid Sayyid ordered that the boxes with theoffensive texts be thrown into the ocean and a dōni was sent especially to
do this job. Alī Takkān had assumed Mudīmbe would be swiftly andharshly punished, but people in Noḷivaramfaru told him: “No matter what
he has done, nothing will happen to Mudīmbē.”Even though The Atoll Chief had acted swiftly he didn’t seem to be unduly
upset that such things were happening in his island. His manner had beenrather bureaucratic all along and he seemed to be merely doing his dutyas Atoll Chief. After the initial enquiry and the search of his home, theMudīmu was merely warned not to leave Noḷivaramfaru until the case wasover. Alī Takkān found that odd.
Weeks passed and one day an official letter arrived from the government
in Male’. It was an order that Mudīmbē should be brought to the capital.
After a few days, he left on a boat and the Atoll Chief went to see him off.
In the end, what the people in Noḷivaramfaru had predicted became true.
After staying six months quietly living in Male’, Mudīmbē was sent back to
his island. A few months later, the government sent a letter to the
Tiladummati Atoll Chief, Sayyid Sayyid, stripping Mudīmbē of his Mudīmu
rank and transferring it to his son. That was all the punishment hereceived.
This account reflects the contrast between two opposing attitudes: on
one hand the general passive acceptance and, on the other, thepuzzlement among a few average folks when they realize that theirMudīmu was “doing things Muslims shouldn’t do”. These are thereactions that commonly arise among Divehi people when confronted

599

with the fact that the very people supposed to enforce Islamic orthodoxy
are guilty of straying from the doctrine they preach.
Besides their administrative functions, Island chiefs are responsible forleading prayers and read religious sermons at the Friday hukuru namāducelebrations. This is one of the reasons why women in the Maldive Islands
are unable to reach positions of substantial authority in the local
administration. Despite the pious façade of the Maldivian authorities andthe open display of mildness and obedience expected from the common
folk, strong undercurrents are at hand under the smooth surface. There isa prevalent suspicion between the ruling and the lower classes as regards
secret practices, morality and the keeping of the Islamic rules. Generally
both social levels have a deep distaste for each other’s habits and theaccusations of immorality and unbelief are mutual.
Traditionally, Divehi common people have been pessimistic regarding
their ability to follow strictly the Islamic system and average islanders
went about their daily lives without thinking about religion. Popularspirituality compelled Divehi people to think about fearful spirits andmagic only occasionally and in an erratic pattern, as needs and problems
arose. The regular discipline of the official religion is alien to theirtradition. They tend to see in the limitations of their own human failures,for example in the common inability to follow the strict prayer discipline,
a lack of personal commitment.
This pessimism among Maldivians has, in turn, bred an inferiority
complex, which expresses itself in their unlimited capacity to dismiss
themselves as “people who are not able to be good Muslims.” The same isvalid for the restrictions imposed by their own environment, like theimpossibility of enforcing effectively the puritanical segregation of sexes
in the reduced spaces available in the islands. The symptoms of thisintimate ill-feeling are either anxiety, among people who try Islamic
perfection against all odds, or cynicism, among those who just give up
trying.
600

Within the framework of Islamic history, one of the most common
assertions is that “before Islam there was Jāhilīya,” and by ‘Jāhilīya’ utter
ignorance and darkness is implied. Consequently, history is rewritten in a
black-and-white, Orwellian manner where truth and serious historicalenquiry become irrelevant. The only crucial guideline is to bend all facts
towards the fulfillment of the Islamic structure. Hence, in Maldive‘historical’ chronicles, the first settlement of the country, spanningcenturies or perhaps even millennia of Dravidian fisherman background,along with the arrival of a kingly Buddhist dynasty, which ruled thecountry for over thousand years, bringing influences from the North of
the Subcontinent, are dealt with in a few sentences. This incredibly
reduced summary is invariably followed by the sweeping statement that:“And the King and all the inhabitants of the Maldive Islands became
Muslim”. Officially, only then “real history of the Maldives” begins. The
flourishing of a genuinely Maldive Buddhist civilization, on which still theactual Divehi language, customs, manners and ceremonies are largely
based, goes not only ignored, but, what is worse, even despised.
However, ancient Maldive ruins testify that none of the buildings built
after the twelfth century is as grand as the Stupas that dotted the country
at the end of the first millennium. We know that the king’s first impulse
after conversion was to make the Maldives a cultural ‘tabula rasa’ byerasing all the manifestations of the former Maldive civilization. But wealso know that some of the old skills were allowed to continue for a few
centuries, well into the Maldive Islamic period. Thus, mosques built in a
syncretistic style, with beautiful Maṇḍalas carved and lacquered in theirwooden ceilings, still manage to give us a glimpse of the ancient cultural
splendor of the Maldivians.
Irreversibly, during the centuries that followed, even those few
remainders of the past were deleted. But in recent history the behavior
that ruined the ancient Maldive cultural achievements, found willing
accomplices among the people ruling the islands. This behavior often
claimed the finest local cultural traits as its own as long as they were in
601

accordance with its ideology. During the last few centuries there are no
known instances of Maldivian scholars openly challenging the imported
ideology that distorts local history beyond recognition. Consequently, thedismantling of the Maldive cultural heritage increased at an alarming
pace, as more and more Maldivians became ‘religiously aware’ and set
out to search and efface all traces of local flavor from their own nation.
Ironically, the ancient, well-established local customs were referred to as“bid’ā” (innovations).
The totality of the intellectual and ruling elite having defected en masseto the promotion of alien cultural values, the weight of defending the
local cultural identity fell on the shoulders of the common folk. Whether
consciously or not, some Maldivian people have performed this task bymeans of a resilient attitude, which amounts to an effective, albeit
unorganized, cultural resistance. This resistance expressed itself in theform of a good measure of silent common sense and by stubbornly
ignoring some of the harsher Arab injunctions that are incompatible with
their character and their mellow island environment. One example can befound in the attitude of the spartan islanders of Maḍaveli (Huvadū Atoll),
who earned the reputation of being kāfirs (unbelievers) because theywent about their daily lives ignoring the Islamic religion. In a common‘bandi’ poem of Southern Huvadu Atoll, Maḍaveli is mentioned as‘kufūrunge raṣē’, the island of unbelievers.
Apparently, until well into the second half of the twentieth century, themen of Maḍaveli refused to perform the regular five daily prayers andtheir womenfolk didn’t wear the libās covering the upper part of theirbodies. Islanders from the nearby islands of Havaru Tinadū and Vādū,
where a certain elite was acquainted with Arabic and religion, used totake advantage of this situation. With easy conceit they made theMaḍaveli islanders the butt of their jokes, claiming that they were halfnaked, uncivilized savages who didn’t even know ‘shahāda,’a sarcastic
comment often made about people who have no education. Maḍaveli
people though, asserted that their island was very poor and they had no602

time for such frivolities. They claimed that they were all day working very
hard and life was difficult enough already as it was.612 In reference to thisissue, Mr. Ahumadu Shafīgu, a respected Maldivian scholar, affirmed:“You cannot imagine how poor some islands were back then.” Thedisparity between mores in different islands, however, ended after
Muhammad Amīn’s rule in the 1950’s. Since then, owing to an increased
interference of the government in local affairs, no island can escape theintense influence of the central administration.
E.A.H. Dīdī, an aristocratic Maldivian official who was in charge of thecensus in 1931, openly manifested the contempt and frustration
traditionally displayed by Maldivian rulers towards their subjects. While
writing about the difficulty of gathering the information needed in the
Census, Mr. Dīdī expressed his initial feelings in this manner: “... theseinformations are sought for from a people steeped in ignorance andunjustifiably (sic) suspicious of anything having the semblance ofauthority.” Later he acknowledged, though, that people ended up being
helpful by “showing no opposition towards the taking of a census.”613 Thispatronizing attitude towards the common people is prevalent even now.
One comment I often heard from exasperated high Maldive government
officials during the 1980’s was: “The people of this country don’t knowwhat is good for them!” A Saudi-educated Maldivian, who back then wason his way to become Minister, was blunt: “These people are so stupid!”
The main goal of the successive generations of Maldivian learned men has
been to keep alive the slogan of the Maldives being a “hundred percent
Islamic country.” Thus, it is not surprising that, as the rulers and thepeople were so different in their outlook and mores, Portuguese

612This information is from Karānge Hasan Dīdī and Magieduruge Ibrahīm Dīdīfrom Fua Mulaku, as well as Afīfu from Ratafandū and Tuttu from Fares, Huvadu
Atoll. Data collected along the 1980’s.
613‘Report on the Census of the Maldive Islands 1931.’ Op. Cit. above.
603

castaways in the 16th century thought that the Maldivian Kings werepeople of a totally different country. Manoel Rangel, who, after having
been shipwrecked in the Chagos Islands, ended up in Maldives in the year
1557, comments in his memoirs: “After we had left the island, the natives
that took charge of us, brought us to another island on which a Moor was
ruling as King...”614 Hence, the rulers of Maldives, by behaving like an alien
force of occupation ended up looking like one.

614

Emphasis mine. Although Arab foreigners held the kingship in Maldives on threeoccasions in history, no Arab was the king in Male’ when Manoel Rangel and theother castaways arrived to the capital.
604

4.2.2 FOLK WISDOMFor generations Maldivian parents used to educate their children bymeans of their ancestral oral tradition. Elders would tell stories and singcertain songs that expressed local ideals of behavior and reflected
traditional moral standards. They did so in order to transmit to the next
generation the Islands’ scale of values and social norms. For example, afather would sit with his daughter on the swing in the evening on theverandah, swinging fast to keep the mosquitoes away, while singing acertain song saying:“Laughing to the young men and making jokes with them is a wrong
thing my child. Nā, Nā, Nā.”This type of songs is made up of unwritten compositions, reflecting valuesof much greater antiquity than Islam. The melody of this particular song615
is identical with the tune of devotional Buddhist songs, which means thatthe musical tune ―along with probably most of the words― has beentransmitted from parents to children for centuries without change.
Some of the tales, whose contents didn’t contradict or which were seen
as complementing the Muslim doctrine, have been transmitted in thismanner for generations. They are either a remainder of very ancientSouth Indian folk stories, or local adaptations of Jātaka tales, the stories of
the Buddha’s former births. For example, a story called “Kuḷḷavah Falu
Rāni” (The Queen of the Mangrove Forest), reckoned to be a very old,
traditional Divehi tale, is in fact a Buddhist tale, the Sujāta Jātaka, adapted
to a Maldivian context.616

615

Sung by Al Hasanu, Shabnamvilla, Funāḍo, Fua Mulaku, in 1983.

616‘The Jataka or Stories of the Buddha’s Former Births,’ edited by E.B. Cowell;Vol. 3605

Kuḷḷavah is the fruit of a certain kind of mangrove tree (Sonneratia
caseolaris). Its size is like a small apple and its color is pale green with a
trace of scarlet forming a ring close to the stem. It can be eaten boiled orraw, and many islanders claim that its taste is rather rough and cheesy. A
great part of the surface of some very low but large islands617 in the
Northern Atolls is covered by salty swamps, and this type of mangrove
grows very well there. Those marshes are too salty to cultivate manioc,
taro or yams, and only other mangrove kinds, such as kaṇḍū (Bruguiera
cylindrica), which has edible pods, can be grown for food there.
Those swampy islands were considered bad, infertile, places to live andthey were sparsely populated. Since they were damp, hot and infested bymosquitoes, they were mostly inhabited by people living in conditions ofabject poverty. Being so poor, those islanders could not afford to buy riceor flour, so their staple food consisted of kuḷḷavah and coarse kaṇḍū pods,
which need a long time of cooking and changing of water to soften themand take away their bitterness. Kuḷḷavah was considered to be at thebottom of the traditional Maldive food scale and refined islanders find thesmell of the fruit in its ripe stage highly unpleasant. The following story
revolves around that fruit:Kuḷḷavah Falu Rani

“Once upon a time, a humble young couple lived at one end of a large
island fringing one of the Atolls located at the northern end of the Maldive
Kingdom. On this island there was a vast mangrove forest (kuḷḷavah falu),
covering more than half of its swampy surface. Since it was infested byhordes of mosquitoes, this was considered a very unhealthy place to live

617

Islands in Maldives are small in size and, by Maldivian standards an island of
about four kilometers in length would be considered large606

and most people would avoid it. However, precisely there, in the middle ofthe mangroves, there was a small hut where this man and woman lived.
They were so poor they lived a hand-to-mouth existence and wereconstantly foraging for food. The couple subsisted mainly on the kuḷḷavah
fruit they picked from the surrounding mangroves. These smelly fruits
were so important in their diet, that except for a few small coconuts fromthe stunted palm trees growing close to their marshy wooded area, and a
few reef fish the husband used to catch in the shallow lagoon close by,they seldom had the chance to eat anything else.
In spite of their poverty, this man and his wife lived very happily together
in that lonely place. It is true that at the other end of the island there wasa small village, but they rarely went there and seldom had visitors. They
enjoyed their simple life and thanked God for whatever they had.
One day, the woman became pregnant. She had prayed for a good childand was rewarded with a beautiful girl who brought laughter and joy totheir home. The baby used to play or sleep under the shade of themangrove trees while her parents were busy picking the fruit. A few
months later the woman decided that the milk from her breasts was notenough and that her daughter needed some food. So, the first thing thelittle girl was fed was a fine paste lovingly made by her mother bysqueezing very ripe kuḷḷavah fruit with her hands.
As years went by, the child grew and her parents let her run about the
mangrove forest as she pleased. She used to wander quite far away fromher home, wading in the mud through the mosquito-infested swamps, but
in each direction there was only mangrove. The girl ended up being very
familiar with those trees and spent long hours perched in their branches
idly munching kuḷḷavah fruit. When she went back home, she invariably
had a plate of mashed kuḷḷavah mixed with grated coconut.before going tosleep.

607

More years passed and this lonely girl became a ravishing young woman.
The mangrove forest had no secrets for her anymore. By now she was soskilled she knew how to climb even the most difficult trees. She also knew
very well which ones gave the best fruit and could easily identify thedifferent varieties of kuḷḷavah by their shape, color and smell. Some had asweeter taste when ripe and others had a stronger, slightly acid andpungent flavor, which she knew how to appreciate. The girl also foundpleasure in eating the fruit in its last stage, when it was very soft, so ripethat it was almost decaying. She loved its intense putrid smell, which manyrefined islanders find extremely offensive. Thus, in her early adolescence,
this striking young woman lived alone, hidden from the rest of the world
inside the mangrove forest. She didn’t find the steamy heat of the marshes
unpleasant and the mosquitoes didn’t bother her. The girl was happy
there, gathering kuḷḷavah and playing under the trees and in the muddy
swamps from dawn to dusk. After nightfall she would go to meet her
loving parents in their tiny hut, where they would all eat kuḷḷavah fordinner. That was one of her favorite times, when they would talk, sing andmake jokes until she fell asleep. This girl was completely illiterate and had
no higher dreams and aspirations than to spend her life in that place likeher parents had done. Little she knew that her life was going to changevery soon.
One afternoon, the royal ship anchored close to this island. The girl was
sitting on a mangrove tree close to the lagoon and was completely hiddenby the dense leaves of its branches. She watched the large vessel in awe
and disbelief, for she had often seen sails in the horizon, but this was thefirst time she had seen such a large boat so near.
Aboard the royal ship, the Radun, on a journey to the northernmost atollsof his kingdom, inspected the long, densely wooded island and spoke to his
minister: “Which trees are those?”

608

The minister answered: “These are mangrove trees, O Radun! This island isvery poor and pest-ridden, but it has the largest mangrove forest in thewhole Maldives.”
The king was a young man and he was sick of being on board. Welcoming
the opportunity of breaking the monotony of the trip, he enthusiasticallyexclaimed: “Let’s go ashore for a visit then! I have never been in such aforest and I would enjoy a walk now.”
Thus, everything was made ready for the Radun to disembark on thatisland with his retinue. He began by paying a brief visit to the humble,
nondescript village located at one end. After exchanging the usual
formalities with the local authority, the king decided to walk northwards,
towards the other end. The island chief was nervous and tried to preventthe young monarch from going there, saying it was not real land, but avery large muddy place without paths, blighted by mosquitoes and otherpests.
The king had made up his mind though. Seeing that his ministers were notenthused either by the idea of accompanying him to the forest he told
them to remain at the village with the rest of his escort. Ignoring theirprotests, he walked into the bush with only two personal guards. Soon the
ground became marshy, the usual island vegetation gave way tomangrove trees and the Radun entered into the Kuḷḷavah Falu, a huge,
dismal-looking swampy area.
The young monarch, tired of protocol, found it exhilarating to be alone inthis great silent forest, without umbrella-bearer and other cumbersome
attendants surrounding him.618 In spite of the difficulty of the terrain, he

618

Formerly the Maldivian king was always escorted by a man holding a large
white umbrella (hakkoḷu) over his head whenever he walked out of the palace.
Other attendants close to him were carrying a box with betel and arecanut, a fan,standards (koḍikāli) and weapons.
609

walked valiantly on, with his feet in the mud, avoiding the low branches.
However, owing to the absence of paths, the place was a labyrinth andsoon the Radun and his two soldiers got lost. They wandered in the forest
without knowing where they were going.
The king was leading the way, followed by his guards, when he heard asound. He thought it was some bird, and not wanting to scare it, hewhispered to the soldiers to be quiet and walked stealthily in the directionof the noise. Carefully, he lifted some twigs and, all of a sudden, he wasstunned. There, before his eyes was the gorgeous girl who lived there.
She was squatting very close to him, calmly filling a muḷōṣi (palm frond
basket) with the kuḷḷavah she had just picked from the surrounding trees.
The sunlight filtering in thin shafts through the high green branches fell on
the lovely young woman, giving an eerie quality to the scene. The king, hisheart beating fast, remained very quiet, enthralled by the beauty of theforest girl. The vision in front of him looked so unreal that he began to fear
he was seeing a spirit, an event not at all unlikely in such a dark and deep
forest. Thus, the Radun backed up one step and a dry stick cracked under
his foot.
Startled, the girl stood up and froze. She opened her large eyes and her
beautiful mouth wide in amazement. Since she had never seen anybody insuch fine dress in all her life, the king was for her an impressive, awesome
sight.
All of a sudden, the young woman became conscious that she herself wore
only a length of cheap, half-torn cloth around her waist. Quickly, shecovered her breasts with her arms, and then she turned around and ran
away.
The king immediately ordered his guards to follow her and hurried after
them. As the girl moved with such swiftness and ease within the thick,swampy woods, they soon lost sight of her. But the men pressed ahead
and followed the tracks her feet left in the mud. Thus they were led to a610

meek shack in the heart of the mangrove forest where they found the poor
wretch trying to hide inside, trembling like a leaf.
Feeling frightened and exposed, the mangrove girl was screaming andshaking like a wild cat when she was taken by force out of her parents’
hut. Finally, the soldiers managed to calm her and she was brought
whimpering aboard the royal ship. Meanwhile, the king, turning to one ofhis ministers, declared: “Verily, this is the most charming young woman in
my whole kingdom! We will bring her along with us to Male’. I havedecided to marry her.” In this way, for the first time in her life, the lonely
child born in the salty swamps left the mangrove forest that had sheltered
her since her birth.
As she sailed towards the capital to become a queen, the young woman
was terrified by the rolling seas and the creaking ship. She had never felt
so homesick and miserable in all her life. Wondering what she had done todeserve this, she was sobbing all the time, but she never let anyone comeclose to her and yelled like a madwoman if somebody did. Since there
were no kuḷḷavah on board, she wouldn’t eat anything, she would only
drink some rice water and, anyway, she was so seasick that she wasconstantly throwing up during the long journey. The king was worriedseeing the half-naked, filthy girl huddled constantly into a corner with fearin her reddened eyes like a cornered cat. She was reeking of vomit, withtears streaming down her dirty face, and didn’t speak a word to anybody.
The Radun kept away from her. He seriously doubted that the young
woman would survive and was beginning to repent of having brought her
along with him.
But things went better after the arrival to the capital island. Once inside
the palace compound, the pitiful wretch was immediately surrounded by
pretty girl attendants who pampered her and treated her like a child. Aftera few days of rest, the girl of the mangrove forest began to smile again.
She was now eating good meals and was being bathed and perfumed byher servants. They found her rude ways exhilarating and joked with her all
611

the time. Dressed in fine silks and wearing expensive jewellery, the young
woman now looked dashing. Everyone in the palace was amazed to see
how beautiful the future queen was, in spite of her execrable manners.
Time passed and the mangrove-forest girl was formally wedded to theking, but her husband found it difficult to put up with his wife’s grossbehavior. Thus, at the Radun’s strict orders, the girl spent busy days
learning from morning till evening. The coarse young queen was notwilling at first and threw terrible tantrums. However, before long she wastaught how to read and write, how to dress properly and how to talk andbehave in the court as befits a Maldivian queen.
A few years later, a group of people from the small village at the end of
the great mangrove forest island happened to arrive to Male’ on a trading
journey. They went to the palace and asked for an audience, saying thatthey were bringing a present for the queen. The audience was granted andthe lovely young queen received them in her best dress and finest
jewellery. “What has brought you here?” she enquired haughtily.
The people produced a muḷōṣi full of kuḷḷavah, opened it in front of her andsaid meekly: “O Queen! We are people from your island, friends of yourparents. Don’t you remember us?”Coldly, she ignored their question and asked: “What is inside that muḷōṣi?”A bit abashed, but smiling, one of the men in front explained: “This is ourgift for you. We thought that you would be very happy to eat somekuḷḷavah, as they don’t grow here in the capital.”
Feigning surprise by raising her eyebrows high, the queen gracefully took
one of the fruits and held it in front of her. She turned it slowly in her hand,squinting. Then, without taking her eyes off the kuḷḷavah, she exclaimed:“This is a very interesting fruit! Is it attached to the tree from this side orfrom this other side?”612

Some versions of the Kuḷḷavah Falu Rāni story don’t end here and continue
with the king punishing his wife for having forgotten her humble origin.
Depending on the variant, the young monarch orders that she be given
hundred lashes, and then either divorces her or sends her back to herisland in shame. In the original version in the Jātakas this story ends withthe humiliation of the queen as well.
Even so, usually Maldivian storytellers prefer to end this tale with thequestion posed by the queen as a punch line, imitating her expression.
This emphatic end rarely fails to make listeners smile. Since this is a very
popular story, even today in the Maldive Islands, when somebody, after
suddenly making fortune, forgets about his former friends and becomes asnob, people would say: “This person is like the Kuḷḷavah Falu Rāni.”As it has been mentioned above, other short stories transmitted fromparents to children in the Maldives, are based on very old South Indian
popular lore. This is evident in some of the tales because they include
exotic animals like tigers, monkeys or elephants. Although tigers arepresent in many Divehi tales, there have never been any tigers in thisisland country. The only land mammals of the Maldives are four: the cat,the rat, the shrew and the bat. Of these probably the first two werebrought from the mainland in ancient times by Maldivians. More recently
a kind of small mouse has been introduced and has become a pest.
The following story is ‘Beru Hamunā’, the Maldive version of a very wellknown Tamil fable called ‘The Brahmin and the Tiger’.619 The fact that in
Maldives the Brahmin has become a pretty young woman is not sosurprising. Firstly, despite that the Maldive country is located close to theIndian coast and despite the many cultural affinities, Maldivians are notfamiliar with the Vedic Hindu system and who is a Brahmin would not be

619

Told by Aishath Naazneen, Gāge, Male’. For the Tamil story see K.A.
Seethalakshmi, ‘Folk Tales of Tamil Nadu’613

readily understood by every Divehi listener. Secondly, Maldive popular
culture is pervaded by a strong feminine element and most of the favorite
Divehi stories display a predilection for female main characters. Even so, it
is also worth observing that ‘Beru Hamunā’, the name of the girl, hasretained exactly the same consonants as the word ‘Brahmin’, namely theletters B, R and H, M, N.
Beru Hamunā“Long ago there lived in Male’, the capital of the Maldive Islands, a girlcalled Beru Hamunā. She was a coquettish young woman who loved to bewell dressed. Her most special days were when she went out of the housefor a long walk. On those days, after taking a bath in the afternoon, Beru
Hamunā combed her hair well. Then she put her best dress on, andcarefully drew lines of anduṅ (kohl) on her eyelids and eyebrows. After thisshe powdered her face and sprinkled perfume on herself, put on her
bangles and earrings and went out for a walk until nightfall. This is what
Male’ people traditionally like to do, because it is the most pleasant timeof the day to be out in the street or walking along the seashore, enjoying
the cool ocean breeze and the beautiful colors of the sunset.
One day, Beru Hamunā walked proudly along a side-street, prettily
dressed in the golden late-afternoon light, when she saw a big cage there.
It so happened that at that time there was no one else on the street and,drawn by curiosity, the girl walked close to the cage. With the corner ofher eye, she noticed that a tiger with a sad face was locked inside. Her
curiosity satisfied, Beru Hamunā was about to walk by, towards the mainstreet, when the tiger called: “Ēh, mañje, stop, please!”
This startled the girl, “Why should I stop?” Turning her head towards thecage she said: “Tell me what you have to say quickly! I have got to go.”614

With sorrowful voice the tiger spoke: “I have been sitting locked in thiscage for three days. They left me here and forgot about me. I don’t even
get any food. The key is hanging there, please open the door of the cageand let me out. I will give you such a good present that you will neverforget me.”“All right.” The young woman said softly, her kindness aroused by theplight of the tiger. “But you must promise that I will get that present you
just told me about”. With these words Beru Hamunā unlocked the cage,
opened the door and with a swift leap the tiger was free.
“Where is my present?” the young woman asked.
Ferociously the tiger roared: “Your present? I am going to eat you!”
Beru Hamunā was unfazed. She coolly raised her eyebrows and tilted herhead. “Ah! So that is the present! You are going to eat me.”
The tiger roared again: “Yes!”
Then the girl narrowed her eyes and spoke slowly, stressing every word.
“All right! But first you must do something for me, as I have done
something for you.”“What is that?” the tiger wondered.
“I want to see again how you looked when you were inside the cage.
Please show me.”
The tiger thought that her request was easy and entered the cage. With aquick movement, the young woman closed the door, turned the key, andlocked the animal inside again. Holding the key upright between her
thumb and forefinger the girl laughed. “Who is smartest? Now you areagain a prisoner! You will get no food and you are going to die. As for me,
I’m not going to be sorry this time. I am leaving.”
615

The tiger now cried. “Please, don’t leave me here! Open the cage; I will not
eat you this time. I promise.”
But Beru Hamunā walked away a few steps and then, turning her head,yelled at the animal: “Don’t complain! You didn’t keep your first promise!
Now there is no way I can believe you.” Then the young woman turned
around a corner and the tiger lost sight of her.

616

4.3.1 HONOR AND PRIVILEGE
Maldivians, whether belonging to the elite or the common folk, haveshown great regard for people perceived as ‘holy men’ all through their
history. On a number of occasions, they even have allowed that type of
people ―no matter how arrogant or self-righteous― to lord it over themwithout any resistance. The following story620 illustrates the extent towhich islanders are willing to put up with the excesses of a ‘holy man’:
The False King of the Sea“Long ago, in one of the Maldive islands, there was a sly and lazy middleaged character called Husēn, who instead of working, lived off otherpeople. One day the men and women of his island went to the Katību(headman) and said: “We are fed up with Husēn’s cunning ways. He is aliar and a loafer and he is always cheating, stealing and molesting women.
He has become a nuisance. Let’s get rid of him!”621
The Katību addressed the gathering saying that he would deal with thematter. To calm the crowd, he promised that he would see that Husēn was
sent away as soon as possible. Satisfied, the people left. But it so
happened that while the Katību pondered about how to tell this disgusting
character to leave, Husēn himself was thinking that it was time for him togo. He had become aware that the people of his home island knew and620

A variant of this story was put into writing in the 1970’s by Kopee M. Rasheed.
This is the version told in 1990 by Husein Takkān, Ratamalāna, Fua Mulaku
621

In Fua Mulaku’s history there is an instance where the people of a village calledHōdaḍo got rid of such a nasty character by themselves. This person, called Soru,
was originally from a Northern Atoll. When the authorities arrived to enquire about
who had killed Soru, the whole village answered at once: “Hōdaḍo killed him!”617

resented all his sleazy tricks. Therefore, it was no longer profitable for him
to remain there.
When the Katību met Husēn and, struggling with words, began to tell himthat he had decided to send him far away on the next boat touching theisland, the roguish fellow hid his relief. The headman, surprised at having
asserted his authority so easily, was delighted. A few days later, when abatteli (travelling vessel) threw anchor in the lagoon, the Katību andHusēn went on a bokkurā (dinghy) and jumped aboard. After the island
chief had talked briefly with the captain, Husēn finally left the island.
Meanwhile the Katību, immensely relieved, watched the batteli leave thelagoon and enter the channel leading to the ocean.
The captain carried a letter from the Katību for the headman of anotherisland, giving him instructions to keep an eye on Husēn. However, once on
board Husēn could not keep quiet. He worked his deceitful schemes on theunwary traders and crew until they were full of loathing and conspired to
get rid of him as soon as possible. But Husēn was not stupid and sensed
their enmity. Fearing that they might throw him overboard that very night,
he quickly improvised a plan. Seeing a small sandbank ahead shortly
before sunset, Husēn asked the captain to drop him there with his things.
The captain obliged and he and the traders calmed down when they left
him astern, standing alone on the sandbank.
Husēn sat down on the sand and watched for a while the batteli’s sailbecoming smaller and smaller. Then he buried his box and his pillow
deeply in the sand. He kept with him only his mat and two sets of clothes,
one old and one new. After this it was dark and he lay down to sleep aswell as he could. He slept miserably because the wind was chilly and crabs
came now and then to pinch him, checking whether he was a lump offood. Waking before dawn, Husēn got up, dressed first in his good clothes
and pulled his old, torn clothes over them.

618

Not long afterwards, in the pale early morning light, Husēn saw a fishingdōni approaching and he spread his mat neatly before him. Then he beganostentatiously to make namādu (Muslim prayers) for the fishermen to see.
When the dōni drew closer, the men aboard started to point at him andtalk loudly. In an authoritarian voice, Husēn commanded them to keep stilland let him finish his prayers. He could hear the excited fishermen
whispering to each other. One of them observed, “Look! This is a very
important man. See his fine clothes. You can make them out through thetorn holes of his outer garments.”“That’s because he is trying to conceal the fact that he is an important
person,” another deduced. “He must be a very mighty man indeed.”“Where did he come from? Who took care of his nice clothes here?
Perhaps he is the King of the Sea,” a third concluded.622
Another noted, “He looks well fed, too. How could he find anything to eat
in this barren tiny sandbank? He must possess great magic powers.
Definitely he is the King of the Sea.”
Finally, one suggested, “This is a very bad fishing season. I’m tired of
returning home empty handed every day. Let’s ask the King of the Sea tobring big schools of fish close to our island with his powers.”
At that moment, Husēn finished praying. Looking at the fishermen heasked haughtily, “Why have you come here? Why do you bother meduring my prayers?”

622Kaṇḍu Rasgefānu, a mythical Maldivian king said to dwell at the bottom of thesea. I couldn’t find descriptions of the Kanḍu Rasgefānu, beyond the fact that heusually displays the ancient symbols of South Asian royalty, like having constantly
an attendant carrying a large white umbrella (hakkoḷu) by his side. However,whenever rural Maldivians are shown the picture of a mermaid, they spontaneously
exclaim: “The daughter of the King of the Sea!”
619

Fearfully one man answered: “Please forgive us for disturbing you, O Kingof the Sea! We are sorry for our bad manners, but we have a very urgent
request. If your majesty would come to our island to send fish close to ourfishing grounds, it would be a very big favor for us.”
“It is not easy to send fish to your island.” Husēn replied fastidiously. “I
would have to stay there for some time, but you don’t know how to treat aking.”
The fishermen begged, “Please come your Majesty. Although our island ispoor, all your needs will be met.”
Husēn kept acting as if he refused to leave the sandbank, but thefishermen pressed their request, until he finally boarded their fishing dōni.
When Husēn arrived at the island, he was put up in the best house andgiven choice food every day. But after some time, he demanded a betterhouse at a certain distance from the village, claiming that he was not used
to live among people.
Eager to fulfill his every wish, the islanders cleared an area in the forest
and built him a very nice house there. Once it was completed they brought
to it the best furnishings in the island. Then Husēn complained that he wasfeeling lonesome, for the Queen of the Sea and his concubines were far
away. He demanded no less than thirty female attendants. Thus, the mostbeautiful young women of the island were brought to him.
It so happened that before long, the island’s fishermen began catching a
lot of fish. Eventually, the good fishing season would have come anyway,
but the islanders attributed their luck to their ‘King of the Sea.’ They were
proud of him, so they became talkative. Husēn warned the islanders not totell any outsider that he was there, for if they did, the spell would be
broken and they would never catch fish again. Although it was difficult forthem not to boast about the King of the Sea when people from otherislands came for a visit, they kept the secret.
620

As the months passed, Husēn lived a lazy, luxurious life. He became fat
and his skin was now smooth. When some of his attendant girls became
pregnant, he sent them back home and ordered the islanders to replacethem with other young pretty girls.
One day, the batteli which had left Husēn on the sandbank the previous
year happened to anchor close to that island and the captain went ashore.
He had friends there and wanted to take a bath and spend the night intheir home. Once he arrived to his friends’ house he was dismayed atseeing their young daughter heavily pregnant. With a sad face, thecaptain told her parents: “This is a great misfortune. For a long time I
desired to have a strong bond with you. I always thought that yourdaughter was very attractive, but she had not yet come of age. This time I
came to your island with the sole purpose of marrying her. But tell me,
who is she married to?”The parents looked at each other uneasily. Her mother quickly muttered,“Nobody!” But the father thought this didn’t sound right, so he anxiously
corrected his wife, “Well, she married somebody, but we cannot tell you
about him.”
The captain was puzzled. Sensing that these uncanny answers indicatedthat his friends had grown cold towards him, he took the girl’s father
aside. “I know your daughter is not a loose, immoral girl. How could she
become pregnant without being married? And if she is married as you
said, why can you not tell me who her husband is? Are you not my friends
anymore?”His friend became nervous and avoided his eyes, “I am your friend, but ask
me anything else. If you value our friendship, don’t ask me that.”
Now the captain was alarmed and, thinking something was very wrong,he spoke to his friend’s wife. “What has happened? You were my friends
for many years. Even your parents and my parents were good friends.
621

What has gone wrong? I fear it has to do with your daughter’s big belly.
You must tell me.”With tears in her eyes, the woman pled, “It has nothing to do with you. We
want to be your friends. But, please don’t ask us those questions. This
entire island must keep a big secret.”
Deeply hurt, the captain said, “What secret? If you don’t tell me that
secret, I will never talk to you again. You will no longer exist for me!”After crying loudly for a while, the woman acquiesced. Wiping her tears
she said “Well, I think that in this case, I must tell you the secret: Ourdaughter was a slave attendant to the King of the Sea. The child she
carries in her womb is from His Majesty.” While she spoke, a hint of pride
crept into her voice.
The captain was baffled. He stuttered, “Th-th-the wha-what? The Ki-King
offofof the Sea?”
She was relieved. Beaming with excitement at being able to boast, thewoman continued, “Our fishermen found him months ago making namādu
on a sandbank. Right then the fishing was very bad, but thanks to his
great spiritual powers, we have plenty of fish every day.”
Suddenly the captain tightened his lips, drew air in and his face began tolook very angry. The woman didn’t notice and went on, “We built a little
palace for the King of the Sea. He lives in our island now, in the middle ofthe forest. The thirty prettiest girls of our community are his attendants
and we bring him food and gifts every day.” Suddenly her expression
became worried, “Oh no! We swore to keep the secret! Now disgracemight befall our island.”The captain’s eyes shone like those of a madman. Making a great effort tocontrol his temper he asked the woman: “You found him on a sandbank?
About nine months ago, isn’t it?”622

Amazed, she answered, “Yes! How could you know?”
Now the captain was so furious he was frightening to behold: “Where isthat palace?”
She meekly pointed outwards: “Take the path into the forest and you will
see the lights. But now the sun has set and His Majesty would be very
angry. It is forbidden to go there at night because that is when he is using
his magic powers to attract the fish shoals to our island.”Ignoring the woman’s cautions the captain ran out of the house along thedark path into the forest. Panting and feverish with rage, he arrived to thepalace, broke the door and rushed in, finding ‘The King of the Sea’ in the
midst of a sexual orgy with his female attendants. Husēn froze inembarrasment and surprise while the naked girls scurried away and hid.
The captain roared: “Husēn, you black dog! I will kill you!” Suddenly
recognizing him, Husēn opened his eyes wide in terror and, before theangry captain could jump on him, bolted out of the room and escaped
through the back door. Dashing naked through the gloomy forest, he fled
oblivious to the pain when his feet hit roots or stones. Realizing he would
not find him in the darkness, the captain yelled: “Husēn! Some day I willfind you; and I swear I will kill you!”
Unflaggingly, Husēn waded from one island to another across the coral
reef until he hid at the far end. However, the words of the captain became
embedded in Husēn’s mind and for the rest of his life he kept hiding infear. Although the captain never found him, he lived miserably, full ofanxiety, until he died.
The storyteller pointed out that in those days ―without radio
communication and motorized vessels― people could easily live in hidingin the far-flung atolls of the Maldives. Now this is no longer possible, forevery suspicious person is duly reported to the nearest island chief, who isin daily radio contact with the capital.
623

The ‘King of the Sea’ impersonated by the swindler in this story was a key
figure in the Maldive lore. He was believed to live under the sea in a
beautiful palace and was reputed to be a powerful monarch, being able tocontrol the ocean and its creatures at will. Long ago, in order to calm thewinds and smooth the seas, Maldivians sought to placate the King of the
Sea by writing the Sūra Al-A’nam of the Qura’n on three pieces of paper
or cloth. These were then dropped into the choppy waters one after theother. Average fishermen and sailors used to be in awe of this mythicalking because of the great powers attributed to him.
There is also a story named ‘Gabuḷi Bādalu’ about a crook impersonating aSouthern faṇḍita man who arrives to a northern island and escapes after
cheating everyone. While ‘The False King of the Sea’ is probably fictitious,‘Gabuḷi Bādalu’ is based on a real event which took place during the reignof Sultān Rannabaṇḍēri Kilēgefānu.
In a similar manner, Maldivians believed that Arab ‘holy men’ were asuperior kind of human beings too. Owing to their greater proximity toGod, they were deemed to possess special spiritual powers. Thus, whenconfronted with Sayyids from Arabia, all islanders, including the King,
used to behave meekly. Paralyzed by their awe for Arab saints, all
Maldivians have developed an inferiority complex concerning their own
culture and their own spirituality. For the last eight centuries, thiscollective lack of self-esteem has led them to believe that any unknown
traveler or adventurer impersonating the role of an Arab religious figure
was better fit to rule them than even the best of their own people.
In the 14th century, when the Moroccan traveler Ibn Batūta arrived in theMaldive Islands, he was immediately given a very high post in thegovernment and was appointed faṇḍiyāru (chief judge) by the prime
minister himself. This is indeed a very high post for a newcomer. And,considering that he was somebody completely ignorant of the country’s
habits, customs and ceremonies, it is absurd to assume that he would be
able to do a good job.
624

However, such things did happen in the Maldives, and I believe in otherplaces in Asia also, like Aceh, where Arab visitors were assumed to beendowed with some sort of mystical power. Talking with characteristic
hubris about the Divehi prime minister, who incidentally had been
instrumental in procuring this foreign traveler the high post he was
occupying in the local government, Ibn Batūta commented that: “Anyway,
he never did anything properly,”623 ...when this very prime minister had
appointed him faṇḍiyāru in the first place!
Ibn Batūta’s office as faṇḍiyāru was marred by the pharisaic andcontemptuous manner in which he acted. He thought nothing ofcensoring and ridiculing the island culture as soon as he took office.
However, I find that this was not entirely his fault, but of the indifferenceof the local authorities towards the fate of their subjects. After all it was
the Maldivian prime minister who had put him, right from the onset, insuch a delicate position.
How could Ibn Batūta, a foreigner who had just set foot on the country,
be expected to be aware of and respect Divehi customs when theMaldivian rulers themselves thought nothing of them? Did they give him
any set of instructions advising him not to tread on ancestral Maldive
ways? The answer is negative. Hence, the Moroccan traveler, with his
own ideas of “good” and “bad”, had no choice but to do the only thing heknew, even if it meant annihilating local mores:“When I was appointed I strove my utmost to establish the prescriptions of
the Sharīa’t. There are no lawsuits there (in the Maldives) like those in mycountry. The first bad custom I changed was the practice of divorced wivesof staying in the houses of their former husbands, for they all do so tillthey marry another husband. I soon put that to rights. About twenty-fivemen who had acted thus were brought before me; I had them beaten and623

Ibn Batūta, ‘Travels in Asia and Africa’.
625

paraded in the marketplaces, and instructed that their women be
separated from them. (Ibn Batūta, Op. cit.)
Here Ibn Batūta, as expected, takes Maldive society as if it were a blank
page for him to write upon, and doesn’t even try to understand Divehi
family structure. Having their origin in the Dravidian matrilineal kinshipsystem, Maldive customs in this field had, naturally, very little to do with
Arab mores. According to Island tradition, it is the man who would go tolive to the girl’s house after marriage. This is a Divehi custom widelyreflected in popular narrative, for example, in an ancient local legend
about the ‘Kaṇḍu Rasgefānu’ whose plot has superficial similarities with
the European ‘Little Mermaid’ tale. While in ‘The Little Mermaid’ it is thegirl who goes ashore to meet the prince she is in love with, in theMaldivian legend the plot is based on the diametrically opposite situation:
The island boy goes under the ocean to live with the girl he loves, thedaughter of the King of the Sea.
Hence, in Maldivian families, parents were happy to have daughters
because they would bring boys into their home, whereas sons would‘bring fish to someone else’s house’, meaning that even before marrying,
while courting a girl, their interests would be in someone else’s
household.
Consequently, a Maldivian former husband, as a mark of consideration
towards his divorced wife’s parents, would see nothing wrong in lingering
for a while in their home. Even after divorce, all the links towards the exwife’s household would not be abruptly severed. Usually the divorcing
husband would try to keep a friendly relationship towards his ex-in-laws,
especially if there were children from the broken marriage. Therefore, in
the Islands, it was considered no evil for men to linger in their former
wife’s house until they found a new bride. The latter, in turn, would bringabout a radical change in the situation, by bringing her husband to her
own household.
626

Another thing that Ibn Batūta, in his zeal for Islamic doctrinal purity,
found very wrong was the laxity with which Maldivians performed the fiveobligatory Muslim daily prayers:“Afterwards I gave strict injunctions that the prayers were to be observed,
and ordered men to go swiftly to the streets and marketplaces after the
Friday service; anyone whom they found not having prayed I had beaten
and paraded. I compelled the salaried imāmus (prayer-leaders) and
Mudīmus (caretakers of mosques) to be assiduous in their duties and send
letters to all the islands to the same effect. (Ibn Batūta, Op. cit.)
Owing to their relaxed humid and tropical environment, Maldive Islanders
are of rather mellow and laid-back disposition. Traditionally they havealways resisted regimentation and the five daily obligatory prayers of theinvasive politico-religious system were not performed by everyone in theirancestral society, for irregular worship was one of the main characteristics
of Dravidian popular spirituality.624Rather, it was the custom to send only
a few of the island men, wearing clean white clothes, regularly to themosque. Hence, island mosques used to be very small buildings.
The excuse most people gave for not performing regularly the fiveprayers, was that it was difficult for them, as fishermen, palm-climbers
and housewives, to be regularly clean enough to perform all of them. I
found that the attitude of many island people revealed that they
considered that these regular prayers were something meant for the elite,
which they perceived as idle, and not for them, the hard-working folks.
One very informative comment I happened to overhear was: “If we wereas rich as them (here they specifically mentioned a house of wealthy,
religious people) we would be saying ‘Allahu Akbaru’ all day long too.”624

See W.T. Elmore, and H. Whitehead, op. cit.
627

Meanwhile, among the elite the expression: “These are people who don’teven know Shahāda!” was often heard in reference to the common folk,
reflecting fussiness about the fact that they were surrounded by people“who didn’t care about Islam”.
However, the main reason for not sending all the men of the island―including children― to the mosque five times a day, was most probably
because of a traditional condition that required a high specialization of
the island labor field pattern. Owing to this determining factor, labor
divisions were always of paramount importance in Divehi society andancestral customs dictated that the person doing a job be recognized as
an authority (veriyā) in his or her field. A Maldivian fisherman is a‘masveriyā’, the leader of the fish; a palm-sap tapper, a ‘rāveriyā’, theleader of the palm-sap, and so on.
Hence, within this socio-laboral framework, Maldivians had been usedsince very ancient times to trust that the aḷuveriyā (leader of worship)
would fulfill the spiritual needs of the whole community. The aḷuveriṅ
were a group of males whose function was to permanently ‘keep in a purestate’ by reading holy books, performing prayers, funerary rituals andother ceremonies. Their duty demanded from them to be always neatly
dressed in white and to keep away from heavy manual work. Thus, thetraditional ‘Zātu pāku bēkaluṅ’ or aḷuveriṅ played an identical role as themonks had performed in the ancient Buddhist Maldive social structure.625
The aḷuverin were usually elderly people owing to the expected behavior
in old age. The traditional Maldive classification of behavioral patterns
according to age, dictated that wisdom was expected to increase as age
increased. Foolishness and sin were considered to be a characteristic ofyoung age, while old people were expected to steadily cut their links with

625

‘Gentlemen in a state of purity’. This is a term used in local poetry. Aḷuveriṅ isthe plural of aḷuveriyā.
628

the material world and prepare themselves for death. Typically, a person
eligible to be an aḷuveriyā would be an old, physically weak, man who wasfit for this activity after becoming unable to do the average hard jobs
―like fishing or coconut-palm climbing― that other island males had todo. Usually, the island authorities and learned men were included in theinformal category of aḷuveriṅ as well. Besides being paid for their services,in important celebrations, like funerary ceremonies and maulūdu
festivals, aḷuveriṅ would occupy the positions of honor, and would havethe benefit of eating special meals prepared for them.
The labor division outlined above was not as rigid as in other South Asian
communities, its structure being somewhat fluid, owing to the clash of
cultures within Divehi society. This conflict has been simmering for the
past eight hundred years, with the autochthonous Maldive Indic cultureon the one hand and the alien Arab Semitic hegemonism on the other.
The trauma of this silent confrontation has never been resolved ―and isnowhere near resolution― since the intruding religious thought demands
utter allegiance and submission to foreign ‘holy places’ and ideologicalleaders in order to gain access to heaven after death.
Even though enjoying what is described by islanders as ‘full power’,
meaning official government backing, the foreign doctrine often acts as an
irritant. The reason for this lies in its persistence in seeking to replacetime-tested island mores by an imported scale of values that subverts
existing local social norms. This deaf, bitter struggle makes the Maldive
social structure look ‘amorphous, almost featureless’ in the eyes of anobserver. (C. Maloney, Op. cit)
In the capital island, owing to stronger Arab influence, periodical
enforcement of the rule that all people without exception should performthe five daily prayers was more common. Therefore, the local informal
labor division was not as manifest as in the outer Atolls. As a result of thevirulent decrees inspired by Arab visitors of old, even as recently as midtwentieth century, a government official carrying a whip, would
629

periodically walk around Male’ at prayer time, or to appear in common
people’s houses by surprise, to give an instant flogging to the folks who
had not gone to prayer. 626
But Ibn Batūta’s problems didn’t end with the prayer issue. One of his
most difficult tasks would prove to be the implementation of his decision
to impose desert dress on coral-island women. In his memoirs, he doesn’t
describe the methods he tried nor the punishments that he inflicted toconvince Maldivian women to wear Arab clothes. However, it is known
that he met with stiff opposition, which he candidly acknowledges in thefollowing episode:“Their womenfolk wear only an apron from their waists to the ground, therest of their bodies being uncovered. When I held the qāzīship there, I tried
to put an end to this practice and ordered them to wear clothes, but I met
with no success. No woman was admitted to my presence in a lawsuit
unless her body was covered, but apart from that I was unable to effectanything. (Ibn Batūta, Op. cit.)
His lack of success in his endeavor would keep haunting him later on in hislife. Somewhere else in his writings he mentions again: “I tried also tomake the (Maldivian) women wear clothes, but I could not manage that.”(Ibn Batūta, Op. cit.)
Ibn Batūta’s own four Maldivian wives, and his unspecified number of
local concubines, had to wear the full Muslim dress, complete with head
covering. As he himself confesses, this heavy dress didn’t suit theirfeatures and the poor wretches looked disfigured. Moreover, their Delhistyle burqas made them feel awkward and very uncomfortable in thehumid and salty equatorial heat of the Maldive atolls.

626

Source: ‘Baṇḍēri’ Abdurrahmānu, Male’.
630

Unlike their counterparts in most Asian cultures, Maldivian women feel atease and relaxed in the company of men and this group of local women
would remain in the Moroccan traveler’s memory. Accordingly, many
years after having abandoned them in their islands, Ibn Batūta pays acompliment to the Maldive females he lived with, by mentioning in his
travel writings that their company was extremely pleasant. One wonders
whether, before he died, it ever came to his mind to attribute thepleasantness of Divehi women to having been bred precisely in theirnative ways; the very ways which he so fiercely hated and spent so much
effort to annihilate.
“Dress is part of the culture of a people like its language and script. If
these are given up the qaum (nation) melts away into the general mass. In
fact for a qaum to adopt the dress of another qaum is a reflection of aninferiority complex. It means that the nation considers itself base,downtrodden and backward, that it believes it has nothing of which it canbe proud, that its forbears were not capable of leaving anything which it
could retain without feeling ashamed. It shows that the nature of theqaum has fallen so low, that its social mind is so counterfeit, that it is so
bereft of constructive thought that it cannot forge a better life for itself;that to show itself to be cultured it borrows everything from others, andwithout any shame it announces to the world that culture, civilization,
etiquette, beauty, lustre, whatever is worthwhile is the life of others (Arabways in the case of Maldives) and that whatever is with others is thestandard of all progress; and that this nation has spent thousands of years
of its existence in a jungli (wild) condition, that it could not produce
anything which was worthwhile and worthy of respect.627

627

Abul A’la Maududi, ‘Libas ka Masla’, Dar-ul-Ishat, Hyderabad 1947. A hard-line
Islamic ideologue from Pakistan, he was obviously not referring to the Maldives inthis interesting note.
631

In their environment Maldivians have been always confined to reduced
spaces: Their small islands, their boats. As they live their lives in full viewof each other, the concept of privacy has never been part of their culture.
Women were never secluded and, except for the time they spent cooking
or sleeping, they lived in the open air, like the men. As a consequence, in
Divehi tradition, as opposed to Semitic tradition, shame was in the eyes ofthe person engaging in voyeurism, especially during activities such as
bathing and answering calls of nature. Instead of hinging on the coveringof different parts of the woman’s body, traditional Maldive decorum
demanded from males an active restraint of their personal lustful
behavior.
Again, even if his censorious injunctions as a faṇḍiyāru, bred from a weird
admixture of conceit, naivety and ruthlessness, clashed with local
customs, this traveler from Tangiers ―about 10,000 Km away fromMale’― enjoyed the full support of the highest authorities in the exerciseof his function. During his sojourn in the islands Ibn Batūta asserted that:“(In Maldives) the Qāzī (faṇḍiyāru) is held in higher respect among thepeople than all the other functionaries; his orders are obeyed as implicitly
as those of the ruler or even more so. (Ibn Batuta. Op. cit.)
In most countries, jurisprudence is based on custom. Local ways, having
been bred and nurtured within the indigenous environment, are highly
valued. Hence, what makes the Maldive legal framework so strange is its
unquestioning readiness to throw away its own whole system of old,
time-tested, general usages, which had been the fruit of centuries of trial
and error. Without any previous discussion, these local practices whichconstituted an effective Divehi consuetudinary law were exchanged for analien doctrinal system whose effects on the island social system could not
be fathomed.
There are probably very few countries in the world, where one could findsuch a lack of appreciation of the positive role of ancestral mores. This632

attitude has made Maldivians careless. Not having been able to develop
something like a ‘national conscience’ they have allowed ‘holy men’ who
didn’t know the island society well enough to tamper with their own
national heritage at will. Unprepared to withstand the adamant andaggressive qualities of the encroaching doctrine, islanders have developed
a collective lack of self-respect; which has resulted in the squandering of
the riches of their cultural treasure. This waste is self-inflicted. The royalpalace in Male’ was destroyed and its art treasures dispersed as recently
as the late 1960’s. As a comparison, not even the worst revolutionary
excesses in China or Russia brought about the destruction of the ancientimperial palaces in Beijing and St. Petersburg respectively.
Proof of this waste is the absurd willingness to sacrifice venerable andhomely ancient Maldive ways, bred on their native soil and handed overdown the generations, to the latest whim of the ruling politician or newlyarrived faultfinding Arab traveler. The following excerpt from an interview
of Girāvaru women (an island of North Male’ Atoll) by Clarence Maloney,
made in mid-1970’s, illustrates this general eagerness of Maldivians torecklessly sacrifice local time-honored customs at the altar of, often fickle,
government decrees:“... Girāvaru women also wear a distinct style of wide white embroidery
bands around the neck of their dresses, and thin silver bangles. Uponenquiry, one woman said: “It’s just nicer.” Another said: “We won’tchange our dress unless the Government orders it.” (C. Maloney, Op. cit.)
Ethnologist J.C. Lévi Strauss sees in this radical renunciation of traditional
values observed by him among certain South American Indians the tragic
fate of a fragile way of life that crumbles easily because the loss of certain
elements brings about the immediate depreciation of all the others.628

628

J.C. Lévi Strauss, Op. cit. above633

4.3.2 FOREIGN MASTERS
Although during the past eight hundred years many Arab travelers andreligious men must have visited the Maldives, most of them left norecords. However, certain Arab individuals who reached a prominent
position in the Islands have been mentioned in the Maldive Royal
Chronicles (Tārīkh).
Over a hundred years after Ibn Batūta’s visit to the Maldives, Sayyid
Muhammad (named as Sīdī Muhammad in the Rādavali royal chronicles),a foreign Muslim from Arabia, seized and held the kingship of the Maldive
Islands in AD 1466-68, while the rightful local king was on the pilgrimage
to Mecca.629 The reactions of the local elite to a foreigner usurping thethrone of a native king are not known, but most likely there was no open
resistance. After all he was an Arab ‘holy man’, speaking the ‘sacredlanguage’ and, had there been widespread unrest and opposition to his
rule, it is doubtful that they would have gone unrecorded in the royalchronicles.
Almost fifty years later another obscure Arab, whose name according to
the Tārīkh was Sharīf Ahmad, became king of the Maldives for two years
and nine months (1510-13). Nothing is known about how he came to theMaldives, how he gained accession to the throne, or how he reigned.
About the man as well, little is known, except that he was from Mecca
and belonged to the Sharīf (or Quraish) race, affirming to be a descendantof Muhammad through either of the sons of Hasan, son of Alī, theProphet’s son-in-law. Again, it is not known whether there was any local
reaction to this non-Maldivian’s accession to the highest position of
power in the Islands.

629

From the Tārīkh, quoted in H.C.P. Bell, ‘The Maldive Islands’.
634

At the beginning of the 17th century, while the French castaway, François
Pyrard de Laval was living in Male’, the faṇḍiyāru (supreme judge) of theMaldives was an Arab. This person, again, belonged to the Sharīf race,
claiming to be a direct descendant of Muhammad. Strangely enough, thisArab ‘holy man’ who held, albeit temporarily, such a high post is not evenmentioned in the Tārīkh and his name remains unknown. This is what
Pyrard told about him:
“He was quite a good man and the king liked him very much. He held
foreigners in high esteem and blamed the king for the bad treatment he
had inflicted upon us, as we were their friends, thus enemies of thePortuguese as well. (He claimed that the Muslim) kings of Aceh, Java andother places used to give a good reception to people like the Frenchmen,
the English and the Dutch, as he had noticed while he was there. The kinganswered to the faṇḍiyāru that he was confused, that he himself was not
to blame, since the (poor welcome) was owing to the (hostile attitude) of
the noblemen and elders of (Male’) island.
This (man, before he occupied the post of) faṇḍiyāru was on his way fromAceh to Arabia and he had been very well received there (among theAcenese), having accumulated a great number of costly presents, which he
was taking back to his country. As the king knew (about his great wealth)while he stopped over in the Maldives, he asked him to stay, insisting somuch that (the Arab holy man) finally acquiesced. He became so close to
the king that he had always his meals along with him, which is a favour no
one else enjoyed.630
The French nobleman then goes on to describe in grisly detail some of thebarbarous punishments imposed by this unidentified Arab faṇḍiyāru on
the Maldivian people, such as public humiliations, beatings until death,630

François Pyrard de Laval, ‘Voyage aux Indes Orientales’. Even in ancient times
wealth was a source of respect in South Asia, as the Sanskrit proverb expresses:‘Sarvaguṇa kañcanam aśrayanti’ (All virtues reside in gold)635

mutilations of hands and feet, and feudal-style executions. Finally Pyrard
concludes:“But, going back to the faṇḍiyāru who ordered so many executions; after
having remained some time in the (Maldive) Islands, he was finally readyto go back to Arabia, with a ship fully loaded with treasures. At his
departure the king, as well as the common people, made a big show ofcrying. They were sad to see him leave, for they were considering him to
be a great saint. He promised to come back, but the truth is that he was
not wishing at all to do so. (François Pyrard de Laval, Op. cit.)
According to the Maldive historical chronicles (Tārīkh), less than half acentury later, in 1686, Sayyid Muhammad Shams-ud-Dīn of Hamavi,
another such Arab ‘holy man’ arrived to the Maldives. He claimed also to
be a descendant of the Prophet through his grandsons Hasan and Husain.
The Tārīkh relates how this Sayyid and his brother, after studying at Cairo,
visited Mecca and Medina, and subsequently traveled to Mangalore in
India.
The Arab Sayyid then toured the whole of the Malabar Coast, inSouthwestern India, making numerous converts to Islam. From there hesailed eastwards to Aceh ―located at the northern end of Sumatra, thiscountry is known as Asē Karā, the coast of Aceh, in Divehi― and carriedon vigorous proselytism there too. This ‘holy man’ exhibited all the while
great personal pomp and splendor, being carried around by slaves on apalanquin and having a green flag borne ahead. This is how he arrived to
the Maldive Islands:“Learning that the people of the Maldives were much less instructed in the(Muslim) faith than the Achinese (the people from Aceh), the Sayyid
embarked for the Islands. He reached Male’ in Rabī-ul-Awwal AH 1097 (AD1686), and was received with special honour, being met by the Sultān(Ibrahīm Iskandar I) himself in person.

636

Invited (by the king) to teach orthodoxy, the Sayyid introduced several
drastic reforms into existing customs. Every man was ordered to grow abeard; and women appearing in public made to wear veils. The use ofsilver belts (faṭṭaru) was strictly banned. (H.C.P. Bell, op. cit.)
Thus, again we have a foreign ‘holy man’, fuming with disapproval,
arbitrarily interfering with Maldive customs without anybody speaking out
in defense of the local ways. This instance sadly illustrates one more timethe manner in which the Maldive people are victims of a subversion ofvalues. They are trapped in such a manner that they have no choice but toconstantly display veneration towards the encroaching Semitic doctrine
which treads with contempt upon their own national heritage.
Apparently the veil was enforced off and on during Maldivian history, but
after being compulsory for a time it gradually disappeared when the initial
fervor waned. More recently, since the early 1980’s, school uniforms withveils ―compulsory for girls attending Arab schools― have served as acatalyst for the enforcement of female Arab dress in the Maldives. The
faṭṭaru silver girdle, holding the waistcloth in place, was part of the
traditional Maldivian female dress. Actually it was banned because
women would often raise their long shirt (libās) in order to display it.
Things went well with this Sayyid as long as he was teaching orthodoxy to
the common people, but as soon as he directed his scrupulously strict
religious zeal towards the Maldivian king himself ―here drastic reforms
were not welcome― he ran into trouble. After having been accused of anumber of gross misdemeanors by the Arab saint, King Ibrahīm Iskandar
flew into a rage and his relationship with the ‘holy man’ became strained
beyond improvement. Thus, after a mere six-month stay in the Maldive
Islands, Sayyid Muhammad Sams-ud-Dīn of Hamavi left the Maldives andsettled in India.
History repeated itself in 1986, when the Saudi-funded Wahhabi
movement ―which since 1978 had initially been blessed and encouraged637

by the Maldivian government ― ran into trouble as soon as it began
directing its venom towards the country’s rulers for allegedly ‘not being
Islamic enough.’ The government acted swiftly and ruthlessly. There was a
big crackdown which began in Rimbudū Island, South Nilande Atoll. Books
and tapes were seized; many Wahhabi leaders were arrested andimprisoned and from then onwards their activities were restricted. This isa case of a group becoming ‘Plus royaliste que le Roi.’ Even so ever sincethen the Wahhabi groups have steadily grown in power and influence
within Maldivian society. A few years later, in 1687, King Ibrahīm Iskandar
died. After another Radun rose and fell in between, Muhammad Muhi-udDīn gained accession to the Maldive throne. This new king, who was
exacting in his own religious life to quite an extreme degree, wrote a
letter to the Sayyid of Hamavi and invited him to come again to Male’. The
Arab ‘holy man’, who was living at that time in Hugli (Calcutta), obliged
and prepared to sail to the Islands.
Meanwhile, in the Maldives, king Muhi-ud-Dīn had fallen prey to intense
Arabophillia and during his reign he sought to enforce both severe
legalism and rigorous puritanism among his hapless subjects. It is worth
noticing that in this instance it was an indigenous Maldivian king, insteadof a ‘holy man’ from Arabia, who became an enforcer of alien, culturally
intrusive, rules:“(During the reign of King Muhammad Muhi-ud-Dīn-ul-Ādil) the
observance of (the five) regular prayers, the giving of Zakāt (charity-tax),
and adherence to other Muslim precepts, were strictly enforced. Women
were required to cover their bodies and faces, and the meeting of the twosexes in public prohibited. On the other hand, the wearing by men of
shirts, turbans, and shoes (hitherto limited to certain high government
officials) was permitted generally. (H.C.P. Bell, op. cit.)
In Divehi tradition there was never segregation of sexes in public. Thus,
the rule imposed by the king was in conflict with the customary norm in
Maldives of separation of work, but not of sexes. This foreign attire had
638been hitherto limited to certain high government officials. The Arab-style
attire formerly worn by the elite was the very dress that made some
Portuguese visitors think that the rulers of the Islands were ‘Mouros’ (ageneric term for Moors or Arabs).631
According to the Tārīkh those months of harsh puritanical intransigence
were “the happiest days experienced at the Maldives.” This remark
reflects where the interests of the writer of the royal chronicles,
undoubtedly a member of the religious elite, lay. Comments about thissame period would have been decidedly different if any ‘Popular
Chronicles of the Maldives’ had existed.
But it so happened that right when the Arab ‘holy man’ arrived, thezealous monarch who had been such a staunch supporter of Arabinterests in the Maldives, was in his deathbed. King Muhi-ud-Dīn diedwithin three days following the Sayyid’s arrival, after having reigned forless than one year.
Acting swiftly, the very next day after the death of the Radun who had
been his fervent admirer, the Sayyid claimed that he had a right to thethrone, as a descendant of the Quraish tribe, in accordance with the
Muslim Hadīth (sayings of the Prophet). Thus, without further ado he had
himself proclaimed king under the name Sultān Sayyid Muhammad
Shams-ud-Dīn. Once again, an Arab foreigner rose to the Maldive throne
leaving everyone around him stupefied.
In the same manner as Ibn Batūta had done three centuries before, Sultān
Sayyid, enforced a strict system of attendance at the mosques for the five
daily Muslim prayers and was equally full of condemnation towards the
local mores of Maldivians. Living up to his image of a ‘holy man’ evenafter he had become a king, the Radun Sayyid Muhammad Shams-ud-Dīn
631

B. Gomes de Brito, Historia Tragico Maritima. Berichte aus der Grossen Zeit derPortugiesischen Seefahrt.
639

preached and gave Islamic religious instruction at the palace in Male’.
Since he fell deathly ill very soon after attaining kingship, the Arab
Sayyid’s reign lasted only a very short period (1691-92). Nevertheless, he
was honored even after his death by being buried as a saint:“He had intended to enlarge the Hukuru Miskit (Friday Mosque), butfalling sick in Ramazān of fever and dysentery, he died ... after reigning 5
months less 5 days. He was buried with special honours within the Medu
Ziyāraiy enclosure, to the West of the grave of Shaikh Yūsūf Shams-ud-Dīn,
Muslim apostle to the Maldives. (H.C.P. Bell, op. cit.)
The Tārīkh concludes the narrative concerning the Arab king with a rather
dry, although intriguing, statement suggesting that the Sayyid developed
an eleventh-hour fondness towards a local lady:“Almost on his death-bed he married Kambā Maryam, widow of Sultān
Muhī-ud-Dīn. (H.C.P. Bell, op. cit.)6404.3.3 UNEQUAL PARTNERS
As has been previously pointed out, throughout the history of the islands,
Maldivians gave excellent hospitality to visiting Arab religious figures.
They consistently made them feel that the whole island country was attheir feet; and, to top it all, showered them with costly presents and muchtreasure at their departure. And yet, the welcoming manner in which
Maldivians, high and low, consistently have treated Arab visitors ―who
more often than not were rather vain and aloof― was not reciprocated by
the people of peninsular Arabia when Maldivians happened to visit that
territory. The fatal ordeal of king Nūr-ud-Dīn’s during his Hajj pilgrimage in1799 brings home the fact that the welcoming attitude and the hospitality
were a purely one-sided affair. This story was narrated in the ‘Tārīkh’ andwas included in H.C.P. Bell’s monograph ‘The Maldive Islands’.
“In the year 1799, the king of Maldives, Sultān Nūr-ud-Dīn, named his son
Muhammad Muīn-ud-Dīn Prince Regent and sailed to Mecca in a large
ship built at Male’. Usually all Maldivian kings, when they went on Hajj,
profited from the occasion by buying many slaves at the markets in
Mecca, therefore the royal vessel was loaded with much treasure in goldcoins and jewellery.632 Escorting their Radun, a retinue of about threehundred Maldivians, in a number of other ships, sailed the same day fromMale’ to take part in the royal pilgrimage.
After entering the Red Sea, the king’s vessel called at Hudaida harbor, inYemen, and then proceeded northwards towards the port of Jeddah, in
Hejaz, from where the Maldivian king and his retinue continued bycaravan inland towards Mecca, carrying the royal treasure on camelback.
Once in the sacred city, the king duly visited the Ka’aba and performed theother pilgrimage rituals, as stipulated by the Muslim religion. However,

632

Most of the valuables the king brought to Arabia along with him came from aplundered shipwreck. H.C.P. Bell, Op. cit.
641

upon his return from visiting the holy site of Arafat, the Arab ruler ofMecca, Sharīf Ghālib, with a jealous eye on the Maldivian king’s treasures,
arrested king Nūr-ud-Dīn and prevented him and the members of his court
from returning to Jeddah.
Then followed a nasty showdown between the avaricious ruler of Mecca
and the outraged Maldivian monarch, out of which Sharīf Ghālib, having
no scruples against using violent methods, emerged victorious; the king ofMaldives had to leave Mecca in shame, stripped of all his possessions. But
king Nūr-ud-Dīn’s woes were not over, and even before he arrived to
Jeddah, he was greeted by very bad news. Some battered members of his
crew, informed him that the rapacious Sharīf of Mecca had plundered therest of the royal treasure, the guns and whatever else he could grab from
the Maldive royal ship while it lay anchored at Jeddah harbor.
Full of bitterness at his humiliation and deep disappointment, king Nūr-udDīn, became depressed. Before he could make a decision about what to donext the dejected monarch fell ill of smallpox. Having lost his will to live,
death overcame him swiftly in the unbearably hot and unhealthy air of
Jeddah. Thus, a mere four months since he had left Maldives in pomp andsplendor, the Maldivian king died and was buried miserably in that bleak
Arab seaport.633
The Radun passed away so unexpectedly, that he left the members of his
retinue completely distraught. Penniless in the middle of a vast, strange
and hostile desert country, without an adequate knowledge of thelanguage the situation of these Maldivian courtiers was pitiable ―for,although familiar with the Arabic script, most Maldivians didn’t know how
to speak the Arabic language―. Even though they tried to stay together,
the frightened group of Divehi aristocrats and their attendants ended up

633

The spot where the tomb of the Maldivian king is located is not even known.
642

being dispersed in the confusion that followed the king’s untimely deathand the savage plundering of all their wealth.
A very large number of Maldive men and women disappeared, including
many noble ladies and other members of the island elite. Some of themdied of diseases and others were badly mistreated and killed by local
Arabs. Still, other Maldivians were abducted by treacherous Arab slave
traders, who had been very much aware of their utter helplessness allalong and profited from this chance. These were taken somewhere elseand never seen again.
A few Maldivians of the original pary, amidst the humiliations of cramping
poverty, sailed from port to port and gradually managed to reach Muscat
on the coast of Omān. Fortunately, there the ruler was of a friendly
disposition and he had the decency to assist the Maldivians in distress.
From that Omani harbor, the survivors finally were able to get back to theMaldive Islands.
Only seventy worn-out and hollow-eyed Maldivian men and women
returned to Male’ after their ordeal, eleven months after they had left
Male’ for the pilgrimage. A full two-hundred and thirty of the original
three hundred members of the Maldive royal retinue either died of
disappeared without trace during those fateful days spent in thedangerous Arab peninsula. Among the people who lost their lives in this illfated journey, a large number belonged to Maldive noble families,
including a son and a daughter of king Nūr-ud-Dīn, as well as his trusted
Prime Minister, Muhammadu Handēgiri Takurufānu.
After this tragic experience, and other similar ones which have not been
properly recorded, it is not surprising that Arab lands were rated quite
low in the unofficial ‘list of safe countries’ of Maldivian navigators. The
safest country on the list is the island of Ceylon, which owing to thefriendly disposition of its inhabitants and a number of cultural affinities,
such as its Sinhalese language being close to Divehi, earned the nickname643‘Oḷudū’, the ‘tame’ or ‘domesticated’ island. This name was used by island
traders making the yearly trip there, because they felt very much at homein that island. Even since ancient times, quite a number of Maldivians
have settled in Colombo or Gāli (Galle).
The next on the list would be Southern India, the harbors of Koccē(Cochin) and Sūtukuḷi (Tuticorin), being the favorite among Maldivian
traders; then follows Bengal, a former favorite destination of the royal
trading vessels which carried the copra from the King’s islands to the
Bengali markets. However, a long time has passed since then and direct
trade with Bengal has dwindled considerably. The trips to South India,
Ceylon and Bengal were made once yearly, the heavy-loaded ships leaving
Maldives in August or September, having the SW monsoon winds in theirfavor, and returning with the crisp, dry winds of the NE monsoon.
The royal trading vessels were mostly brigs and schooners, large ships
known generally as nākoḷu, used to travel almost exclusively to Bengal.
The profit of this trade was for the royal treasure. Other types of vessels,
such as the baghala and ḍangi (boum), were used in the trade with South
India and Ceylon. Most bagala were used by the Borah merchants. The
Borahs were wealthy Shia’ Muslim traders from Bombay and Gujarat who
had shops in Male’ and who built the mosque known as Bandara Miskiy
that still stands. They were accused of unfair trading practices andexpelled by Muhammad Amīn around mid 20th century for allegedly
monopolizing commerce.
Lower on the ‘list of safe countries’ would be places where Maldivians felt
like foreigners, such as Burma, Siam, Somalia or the Yemeni coast.
Maldivians only visited those places by accident, when their ships strayed
off course during their annual trading journey. Finally, at the bottom end
are countries considered wild places, foremost of which were theAndaman Islands, the notorious Minikā Rājje (‘Kingdom of Cannibalism’)of Island lore.
644

Asking Maldivians about where they would place Arabia in this list,
reactions are mixed. Some people are very outspoken, privately claimingthat “the Arabs are the worst people on earth.” And in the light of what
happened to King Nūr-ud-Dīn and his party two hundred years ago, one
may guess that rumors about the abysmal way Arabs treat visiting
Maldivians, whether in that particular instance or in others, have enduredin the popular memory. Therefore, even though Arabia is the land of the
Muslim holy places, it has some sinister fame preceding it.
Nowadays, most Maldivian seamen have stories about being mistreatedin Arab harbors. I have also talked in different occasions to young
Maldivians who had studied, or still were pursuing their studies, in Saudi
Arabia. They commented that they were never able to make any
meaningful friendships with local Arabs. None of them were ever invited
to Saudi homes and all agreed that the locals were arrogant and treatedthem with contempt, keeping them always at a distance. However, inspite of this widespread sentiment, no Maldivian would dare to tarnish
the image of the Arabs in public. It seems that there are laws in Maldivesforbidding ‘to speak poorly about Arabs’. I never could get written
confirmation of whether this is a fact or a rumor, but many people in
Male’ affirm it is so.
During the centuries that followed the arrival of the first Sayyids to Male’,word must have gone around in Arabian lands of the abundance ofpresents and flattery showered upon Arabs impersonating ‘holy men’ inplaces like the Maldives and Aceh. People like the faṇḍiyāru of Pyrard’s
time and other unrecorded Sayyids, arriving back to their country withships full of Maldive treasures, must have caused quite an impact within
their society. Unfortunately, we don’t have the means to check whether
the Sayyids and other Arab travelers who periodically visited the Maldives
all along the last six centuries were spurious characters or not.
If indeed those ‘holy men’ were respectable within their country, it is very
likely that they settled for a life of ease with their fortune ―which anyway
645

would secure them a degree of credibility―, spending their last days intheir home-town. There, they would not be able to avoid telling theirfriends and family how they were treated like supermen by the gullible
Indian Ocean Islanders, after merely flogging and executing a few of themand cutting a few hands and feet here and there. Their boastful talk, inturn, must have left a deep and lasting impression on their town folks,
already amazed at seeing the large amount of costly presents so-and-so
had brought from the wonderful islands in the East. The myth enduredand developed, firing the imagination of all sorts of people in Arab lands.
Thus, in the years that followed, a number of cheeky Arabs, seeing theironce-in-a-lifetime chance to make a fortune, were able to exploit thissituation. There is at least one such recorded incident:“In the year 1893, when King Muhammad Imad-ud-Dīn IV was ruling the
Maldives, an Arab named Ahmad Hatbullah sailed to from Cochin to theislands on a small schooner, looking smooth and newly painted. When hearrived to Male’ he publicly announced that he had arrived sailing on his
beautiful brand-new ship with the special purpose of offering it as apresent to the honorable Maldivian king. Following this he was promptly
called to the palace and was received by the king himself with great pomp
and splendor.
After talking about religious issues ―it is not known whether he also
claimed to be from the Prophet’s lineage― the Arab traveler said, amidmuch adulation, that he was offering his excellent schooner as a fitting
addition to the merchant fleet of the Maldivian king, for such a greatMuslim monarch amply deserved such a wonderful present. Sultān Imadud-Dīn, feeling enormously flattered declared that such a courteous andgenerous Arab ‘holy man’ should not leave the Maldives without receivinga fitting present from the king in return.
Thus the Maldive monarch personally offered the Arab visitor a gift of noless than five thousand silver Rupees ―a fortune at that time― out of his
royal treasure. After making a big fuss about refusing the money, Ahmad
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Hatbullah declared that he was humbly accepting the monetary favor
bestowed upon him only to please the king. Then he walked out of thepalace and promptly disappeared in the crowded alleys of the harborarea. That same night he left Male’ aboard an Indian trading ship, having
previously struck a deal with its captain to weigh anchor and to clear as
fast as possible.
“The next day, king Imād-ud-Dīn ordered that the new schooner should begiven the name ‘Nasr-ul-Hamīd I’ and went to have a look at it at the
harbor.634 However, when the ship was carefully inspected by the
Commodore, it was found to be an old vessel which had been cleverly
patched up with boards and small nails. The king was rather disappointed
because his gift was not as good as he had expected.
“This new addition to the royal fleet proved to be extremely short-lived.
When sail was set for a test-trip the ‘Nasr-ul-Hamīd I’, while sailingnorthwards, overturned barely a couple of miles after leaving Male’harbor, close to Dūnidū Island. Some other ships had to come immediately
to the rescue, and it was with difficulty that the vessel could finally be
brought to Fālandoru, in the inner Male’ harbor. There, the captainrealized that the ship’s hull was completely rotten. After checking it hedeclared that the supposedly new schooner was in such a hopeless state,that it was beyond repair. Thus, the ‘Nasr-ul-Hamīd I’ was pulled ashoreand broken up.635
The story of Ahmad Hatbulla’s fraud sheds some light on the true natureof the relationship between the Arabs and the Maldive Islanders andgiven the fatuous attitude of Maldivians towards self-asserting Arab ‘holy634

It was common for all ships belonging to the Maldivian Royal Fleet to carry long,and somewhat pompous, Arabic names
635

Folder ‘Maldive Vessels’ from the collection of Maldivian documents. National
Archives, Colombo, Sri Lanka.
647

men’, it is unlikely that we are dealing with an isolated case in thiscontext. Similar events, which went unfortunately unrecorded, must havetaken place all along the history of the Islands. However, such instances
are eventually hushed up with determined thoroughness. Maldivians arestill optimistic concerning that unequal partnership and would refuse toadmit that they have been ―and are still being― taken advantage of.
In olden times, it was possible for Maldivian men to settle in Hejaz, in the
Arabian Peninsula, in order to be close to the Muslim holy sites, and, if
they so desired, even to marry there. All this, of course, provided thatthey adapted to the climate and the society, and certainly Maldivians―like the members of King Nūr-ud-Dīn’s court― who were kidnappedand sold as slaves in centuries past, or some very old pilgrims who felt too
weak to make the return trip, had no choice but to stay there. However,since the introduction of rigorous immigration laws in the Kingdom of
Saudi Arabia, Maldive Islanders go there strictly on a pilgrimage visa andhave to leave the country before its date of expiry.
Even Maldivians studying in Arab religious schools have to return to theIslands as soon as their period of study is over. The times when, as Muslim
brothers, they could linger indefinitely in the sacred land are definitely
over. I heard one case about a Maldivian who was ignominiously expelledfrom the stern Saudi Kingdom, after he tried to overstay once his studies
were finished. Even though he had learned how to speak Arabic fluently,
and even though he was a great admirer of his hosts, displaying great
fervor in the religion whose holy places are in that land, he was sent
unceremoniously away, back to the Islands, all the same.636
In the Maldives, there still lingers a vague idea of the Ummā, the elusive
and ill-defined community to which all Muslims are supposed to belong.
Certainly the unshakable Maldive historical habit of giving a red-carpet

636

Source: Zāhidu, Daḍimago village, Fua Mulaku.
648

welcome to every Arab ‘holy man’ is very Ummā-like. However,nationalism has proved to be a tough bone to crack for this lofty
philosophical Islamic concept. Reality dictates the tone and, in the age ofnation-states, the Ummā remains a distant mirage, an impracticalabstraction. Belief in this myth is little more than wishful thinking. The
bare fact is that, in spite of much talk about universal Islamic
brotherhood, nowadays Maldivians in the land of the Sacred Muslim
Places are no less treated as foreigners than Maldivians in Peru.

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4.3.4 A POLICY OF DESTRUCTION
The relentless effort to promote Arabic cultural values within the Maldive
island society is allegedly made with very good intentions. Its supporters
claim to hold the monopoly of moral and spiritual values, and steadfastly
affirm that their aim is to create a more virtuous society. However, local
resistance against the arbitrary imposition of an alien desert culture on
this equatorial oceanic nation has never been officially defined ―or atleast assessed― and has rather been stubbornly ignored. Hence, as thesaying goes “the road to hell is paved with good intentions” and, humans
the world over being who they are, as soon as a new law to promote
virtue is enforced, a new trick to circumvent that very law pops up.
The result is that the country has become a virtual police state, but
certainly the society is not becoming any more virtuous. Lacking
perspective of their cultural identity, average island people are simply
helpless to fight back the cultural forgery imposed on them. The state
religion has been Islam for the past eight centuries and, in the eyes of theislanders, Islam is synonymous with a formidable machine of power andauthority which cannot be contested. Thus, Maldivians have to put up
with the role of remaining passive onlookers when freshly arrived Arabic
teachers or ‘holy men’ harshly criticize their own island traditions with
impunity.
It is a secretly acknowledged fact, though, that among the island people
there are many who feel that they are traveling on a boat which is goingin the opposite course they wish to go, but they feel helpless to do
anything about it. This conflict is, if anything, compounded by the intense
propagation of hard-line Islamic ideologies, including the construction ofmosques and Arabic religious schools throughout the country since 1978.
Decades before the murderous spree led by religious hard-liners in
Algeria, and long before the opening of those schools in the Maldives,
Algerian writers such as Rachid Mimouni had already questioned the650wisdom of mass-religious indoctrination. “What do they want? A countryof muezzins? Or a country of pious unemployed people (chomeurs)?”637
The Arab religious schools, fruit of the petrodollar wealth, were first
opened in the capital Male’ in 1983 and they set a pattern of cultural andpolitical indoctrination for schools all across the Maldive Islands.
Paraphrasing Vivekananda, in those schools the first thing a Maldivian
child is taught is that his father is a fool because he can’t understand the
Qurān as he doesn’t know Arabic, the second that his grandfather was a
lunatic because he held on to many folk beliefs that were unislamic, thethird that his mother is shameless because she doesn’t cover her hair, thefourth that his grandmother was a whore because her form of dress
revealed too much of her body, the fifth that all the old Maldivian books
and stories are lies, and the sixth that Divehi courtesy is rude because
Maldivians don’t go around saying ‘Assalām alaykum’ at all times ―thetraditional Maldivian way being to ask: “Where are you going?”― as Arabcourtesy dictates. Vivekananda, a well-known Indian reformist,
denounced British education in the schools of the Raj for giving Indians afalse perspective of their own culture.
Boys or girls attending the new religious schools have problems having
pride in their own culture because they have been pitched against thebasic Maldive cultural values ever since their first classes. One
unavoidable side-effect of Islamic education is that students end up
admiring the Arab culture and despising their own traditions. Children―who are unaware of causing any harm― are made willing accomplices
in the dismantlement of their own cultural heritage.
With the media in the hands of an Islamizing government and the spreadof Arabic madrasahs throughout the country, the pace and depth of Arabinfluence is growing fast. During the 1970’s, except for a few modern

637

Rachid Mimouni , ‘Le Fleuve détourné’, 1982
651

schools in Male’, most Divehi children were taught Qurānic reading in thesmall traditional ‘maktabs.’ However, this situation changed in the 1980’s,
when two heavily funded Arabic schools ‘Mawhad Dirāsat-ul-Islamiyya’and ‘Madrasat-ul-Arabiyya-al-Islamiyya’ opened in Male’. These schools,
teaching undiluted Islam, were instrumental in introducing the Arab veilamong girls and in the crystallization of Arabic mores within the Maldive
society.
Even the phonetic sounds of the Divehi language are changing. Local
letters are abandoned and disappear. The indigenous sound ‘p’ has been
replaced by the Arabic letter ‘f’ during the last couple of centuries; andthe autochthonous retroflex ‘ṇ’ (ṇaviyani) has been slowly vanishing to
the point of having been deleted from the local written alphabet by
Muhammad Amīn in mid-20th century.
In contrast to this carelessness towards their own phonetics, young
Maldivian students are very particular in their efforts to reproduce withfidelity Arabic phonetic sounds, alien to their own language, in order to
win Qurān-reading contests promoted by their government. This trend isto blame for the growing tendency towards the abandonment of retroflex
sounds not existing in Arab phonetics. Those retroflex sounds ―’ḷ’(Ḷaviyani), ‘ḍ’ (ḍaviyani) and ‘ṭ’ (ṭaviyani) and ‘ṇ’ (ṇaviyani)― made byflapping the tongue against the palate are a characteristic feature of the
Indic languages. However, they were the bane of some highly fastidious,
Arabophillic local ‘holy men’ who sought to replace the local Divehi Akuru
with the Arabic script in the past. 638
After many unsuccessful attempts, the ‘Tāna’ alphabet now in use wasdevised as a compromise. This three-century-old ―although somepresent-day documents propagated by the government claim that it is638

Divehi Akuru , the traditional Maldivian writing whose most ancient manuscripts(in the form called ‘Evēla’ by H.C.P. Bell) go as far back as the 7th century AD. The
last manuscripts written in Divehi Akuru are from mid-19th century
652

older in order to fit it into their particular vision of history― artificialalphabet is based mostly on the Arabic numerals and diacritical signs and,more importantly, is written from right to left like Arabic; the claim that
the Tāna script was devised in the 16th century not supported byhistorical documents. The oldest writing specimens in that alphabet,interspersed with Arabic, are from the 18th century. These are the Īdu
Miskit Doroṣi inscriptions, dated AH 1170 (AD 1757).
The abandonment of the Divehi Akuru and the introduction of the Tānaform of writing was a decisive step towards a greater Arabization of
Divehi culture. The new form of writing could easily accommodate words―and even whole sentences― in Arabic within texts in the local language.
Therefore, in practice, the Tāna alphabet became a wedge for the further
introduction of a foreign Semitic tongue into the written form of Divehi.
During the past five or six centuries, Maldive identity has steadily lost its
color and vitality. Local dances, songs, festivals and ceremonies that weredeemed un-Islamic have been weeded out and repressed with almost
sadistic ruthlessness. Hence, most autochthonous ancestral culturalexpressions have degenerated or have disappeared. Kite-flying andmutual water-splashing (feṅ kuḷi), are among the popular festivals thatwere forbidden by the Maldive government during the latter half of thetwentieth century .
Since the early 1980’s, during a government drive to promote Islam in the
Atolls called ‘Dīnuge Hēlunterikaṅ’, Islamic preachers sailed from island toisland, to scold the islanders with fiery speeches. Acting with the samezeal characteristic of the former Sayyids, these enforcers of religious
ideology saw sin and depravation in the normal sexual dimorphism ofdress and behavior and in the open expression of youthful joy by meansof dances and songs, which are a vital part of any healthy society.
Devoid of popular entertainment, except for modern sports, island
atmosphere has become extremely dull and most islanders agree that the653

only excitement is to be found in secret illicit relationships. Despite theintroduction of consumerism and the relative economic buoyancy of thelast two decades of the 20th century, things have not changed very muchsince C. Maloney reported in the mid-1970’s that:“This particular island appeared ... as an enervating place, with almost no
games, no music or scheduled events, except prayers, and few surprises ....
Only the changing of seasons, (the Muslim month of) Ramzān and the twoĪd (Muslim festivals) broke the passage of time. The Katību (government
official) ruled in a tyrannical way.... There is no crack in the shell oforthodoxy, at least in appearance. The majority of citizens of the Maldivespass their time on such islands as this ... scarcely touched at all by thecivilisational vibrancy of the outer world. (C. Maloney, Op. cit.)
Since 1979 Arab preachers have been periodically invited to the Maldive
Islands by the government and given VIP treatment. Conferences where
those ‘holy men’ are the star figures are organized in the evenings during
their stay. Government officials and schoolchildren from the capital areforced to go to listen to their religious speeches. These aggressive
sermons in Arabic are not only broadcast live in the national radio, but
their recordings are routinely aired during the following months.
However, an Egyptian friend of mine who knew well that type of person,
Mahmoud Salama, told me that no one in Egypt would pay so much
respect to those cheap preachers. According to him, they were totally
unimaginative types, from a mediocre background who were basking in
the exaggerated attention they were receiving. “These are backward
characters. What good can the Maldivians learn from them?” anotherEgyptian friend, Amīn ‘Pako’, one day commented. And yet, during thelast twenty years, these Egyptian preachers have been let loose in theMaldives to indoctrinate the local people under special orders from the
President’s office.

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These brash preachers seize with glee their unearned high status in the
Islands. Often they use to grow quite passionate and eloquent in theirspeeches about the torments of hell, probably provoked by the un-Islamic
appearance of the crowds who are gathered in to listen to them. For thefact is that Maldives got most of its Islamic façade ―mosques withminarets, Moorish arches and veiled women― only from the year 1981
onwards, when the petrodollars began pouring abundantly into thecountry. And there are many locals who have not adopted the Arab look.
Initially these Egyptian propagandists were not liked by Maldivians at all.
They appeared rude and gross to them, terribly lacking in manners. The
calm, monotonous voice of the Divehi translator contrasted sharply with
the impassionate, hysterical screams and violent gesticulation of the Arabreligious preacher. To make them more palatable, in later years, theindoctrinators were coached by government officials regarding how tobehave in front of the Maldive public and they learned how to talk in amore culturally sensitive cool and regular tone. And yet, the crude
content of their sermons remained the same; for instance, in a sermon by
an Arab guest preacher in Divehi Rājjege Aḍu (Radio Maldives) translated
from the Arabic into Divehi and broadcast during the month of Ramzān in1990 Maldivian women were coaxed to cover their hair: “Every single hairof a woman not covered by the veil will become a poisonous snake in hell.”Throughout Divehi history, Arabs were still viewed as foreigners by theaverage Maldivian. However, the last quarter of the twentieth century has
seen a new phenomenon appear in the Island society’s horizon: The ‘Arab
wannabe.’ These are Maldivians who leave the islands in their childhood
and are sent to Arab countries or to Pakistan to receive Islamic training.
Eventually, when they return to their country as adults, they behave
exactly like the Arab Sayyids of old. These uprooted Arab impersonators
put much effort into weeding out the last remnants of true Maldive
national identity. Since the end of the 1970’s, many very high government
posts in the Maldives are held by such ‘Arab wannabes’ and their number
is increasing.
655

In the outer Atolls, the average attitude of these young, but religious-wisehighly trained people is, at best, arrogant and insensitive. They are usuallycontemptuous towards the ‘aḷuveriṅ’, or old religious males of the island,
whose time-tested combination of folk-wisdom and religion, is too
unislamic for their taste. At the same time, their position as young
persons and religious learned men simultaneously is still highlyincongruous. Within the ancestral island society, there was a role for old
religious men, but none for inexperienced youngsters happening to bewell-versed in Arabic and religion.
Traditionally, one was supposed to acquire knowledge ―along withwisdom― with age. Hence, young aḷuveriṅ, or young learned men, simply
didn’t exist. The result is that these brazen young ‘Arab wannabes’, full ofIslamic zeal, put much effort into discrediting their elders, slandering
them for not being orthodox enough. In this manner they have led people
not to pay attention to the old local aḷuveriṅ and have ended up
destroying the traditional hierarchical system, in which old people had tobe respected. This is paving the way for a break-up of the moral fabric of
Divehi society.
It is a well-known fact that presently in Maldives, there is a secret hostility
to excessive arabization, but it is leading nowhere. This ‘resistance’, if iteven may be called so, is not only unorganized, but its goals are notdefined and it has no visible leadership. Moreover, there seems to be
nowhere else to go in the other direction, for the ancestral Divehi culture
is effectively lost.
Commenting on the power of the government and the power of Islam in
turn-of-the-millennium Algeria, Mohammed Arkoun, director of theInstitute of Arab-Islamic Studies at Paris-III University, wrote:“The nationalist vision insists on the continuity in time of the Arab-Islamic
culture and, consequently, of the state. Thus, the social spirit dominating
today is directly connected with the official thesis that refuses to make the656

indispensable room to the scientific analysis of facts and problems.
Intellectuals who, like Mustafa Lacheraf, invest their efforts into theseparation between the functions of the official ideology, which pretends
to mobilize national construction, and the critical knowledge of theingredients that have fashioned real Algerian society, are extremely
rare.639

639

M. Arkoun, ‘Une Spiritualité qui dépasse la Religion d’État’ (GEO n 114).
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Epilogue - STUCK IN THE SANDS OF ARABIA
I believe, in fact, that there is no greater suffering for man than to feel his
cultural foundations giving way beneath his feet.
Alberto Moravia.

Is the fate of gradually becoming an Arab nation the Maldive Islanders’
only option? This is the dilemma of Maldivians since they made thedecision to accept the Arabs as their undisputed cultural masters andbegan to sever their links with their own past. Nowadays Maldivians areculturally restless people who can never be at ease. The intense
indoctrination of the 1980s and 90s, when Islamization was imposed on
the islands at a much higher gear than at any time in the nation’s history,
has made Maldivians feel uncozy in their own country. The changes
brought about have been of such magnitude and in such a short time, that
there is now a whole young generation of Divehi people who, having not
known how things were previously, take for granted that their homenation has always been so orthodox and impersonal.
Although in ethnically Arab countries it may not be so, in the Maldives
Islam is an elitist religion. Traditionally, only a very powerful sector of theelite, for various reasons, has cherished the strict Islamic rules.
Furthermore, in the enforcement of orthodoxy downwards, it is precisely
this very elite who, often hand-in-hand with visiting Arabs, has repressedor wiped out most Maldive popular expressions leaving in its wake a
bleak, unsmiling, hieratic ideology.
The relentless campaign to promote Islam spearheaded by thegovernment since 1979 has been quite successful. In between, many
Maldivians have adopted the Arab way of life and the Arab dress andmore recently some even have gone so far as to adopt the Arab languageas their own. The atmosphere in the capital Male’, although the city looks
now more modern and wealthy than before, is heavily charged withreligion. Young people born during the last two decades only know the658

hard-line religious environment and most don’t even know an
independent Divehi cultural identity not attached to religious propaganda.
Thus, they have grown accustomed to the prevailing cultural forgery andthe ensuing loss of personal freedom. Since they didn’t experience themellower times preceding the year 1980, when for example, shops didn’t
have to close at prayer times and there were popular discotheques in
Male’, this is only natural.
Maldivian people opposing arabization are in a very vulnerable position,
because they are easily, and conveniently, singled out as opponents ofIslam. In a perverse paradox, the alien-based ideology of Islam is equaled
with patriotism in the Maldive government propaganda. The government
repeatedly (and somewhat unimaginatively) claims that the Maldives is a
‘100% Muslim country’. This means different things to different people,
but it plainly comes down to the fact that there is no freedom of religion,
no freedom of thought and no freedom of expression. Within thisperverted context, someone who is against Arab cultural intrusion is easily
made to look like a person lacking patriotic fervor. As a consequence, thebitter irony is that Maldivians are misled into believing that the only way
to become better citizens is by distancing themselves more and morefrom their own true national identity and become Arab look-alikes.
Most of the youth opposing arabization have despaired of protecting theirown ethnicity, because the Maldivian or Divehi identity has beendishonestly usurped by an Arabicized elite who pretends that it is equal toIslam. Sadly, finding it impossible to express their frustrations, many keen
idealistic youngsters became victims of drug addiction in the last decades.
The very governmental organization whose duty in the 1980’s was, intheory, to protect and promote Maldive culture had a long name made up
of mostly Arabic words. A clear indication of this council’s abysmal recordin protecting the autochthonous culture is the fact that even its main
publication (Faiytura) was used by the government as its mouthpiece forthe further promotion of the cause of Arabization of the Maldives.
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Therefore, in the Maldive Islands one is confronted with the patent
absurdity that the people who are most active in destroying the national
cultural heritage are hailed as patriots.
Confronted with this farce, non-conformist young Maldivians have no
choice left but becoming cynical and many have jumped into the
bandwagon of contemporary consumerism. They choose foreign values
that are more attractive to them because most are only vaguely awarethat they have a culture of their own. These frustrated young men andwomen are very keen to display progressive, modern views, which they
perceive to be neater and smarter, as a potent form of protest.
The modernity that inspires and gives hope to this section of theMaldivian youth comes to the Maldives nowadays from the influence of amultitude of sources. However, the greater role in fashions, tastes andnew attitudes is played probably by the comparatively more democraticsocieties of urban East and South-East Asia, like Singapore, Japan and
Thailand, towards which they display great affinity.
Is the only choice left for Maldivians now to further dismantle the cultural
heritage they have been handed over from the previous generations?

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Glossary
Note: Maldivian language words are in italics. For the transcription of theMaldivian language the ISO 15919 transliteration of Indic scripts has been
used, save exceptions.
Arabi Bas (Arabic language). The fact that Arabic is the language of theprevailing religion has endowed it with special significance in the Maldive
society, for it is also the language of political and social power. Arabic in
Maldives was traditionally restricted to religious purposes, hence only ahandful of learned men were able to speak it. Most Maldivians didn’tknow how to speak the Arabic language, although they were familiar with
its script. Divehi has affinities with some North Indian languages andSinhala but not with Arabic, from which it merely has borrowed words. In
addition, some Arabic letters have sounds that don’t come naturally to
the Divehi people and are, thus, very difficult to pronounce for them.
Even so, much effort is invested among Maldivians since childhood inorder to achieve the correct pronunciation
Ashi. A raised platform found in traditional houses or built under a shade
to rest or above the hearth to dry fishBaṇḍia. A large aluminium pot used mainly by women to carry water
Batteli. A locally-built wooden sailing boat, while in the North of Maldives
this word used to refer to a relatively large two-masted trading vessel, in
Huvadu Atoll a ‘batteli’ was a small sailing boat, corresponding to a smalldōni, used for short trips within the atoll’s lagoon
Bēbē. Form of addressing any older male person.
Bileiy. The leaf of the betel vine (Piper sarmentosum), betel leaf is chewed
along with arecanut (fōh). Formerly arecanut and betel were very661

important as gifts and to give to guests after the meals in funeraryceremonies
Bokkurā. A small dinghy without mast powered by one set of oars
Dāiy. A heavy flat grindstone with a cylindrical roller (fō) of the samestone. Dāiy were made of dark basalt, a dense igneous rock not available
in the Maldives, where all stone is coralline. They used to be imported
from South India or Ceylon. These grindstones were common household
implements used in traditional Maldivian kitchens to grind spices andmedicinal mixtures. Dāiy were also used to grind glass for popular kitecompetitions until the early 1960s when kite combats were outlawed
Datta. Form of addressing any older female person. This is an endearing
and respectful term used to address certain older females, such as older
sisters, aunts and even other women not part of one’s immediate kin.
While in Maldivian tradition absolute age in numbers had no relevance,
relative age was of the utmost importance.
Dekunu atoḷutah’. The Southern Atolls, Southern Maldives or simply ‘theSouth’. Huvadu, Fua Mulaku and Aḍḍu, the atolls lying below the Suvadiva
Channel (Huvadu Kaṇḍu). These atolls have distinct language variants
broadly differing from Māle Bas, the official form of Divehi
Divehi. This epithet means ‘from the islands’ and is used in the same
sense as ‘native’. It is found in ‘Divehi Raajje’, the name of the country;‘Divehi Bas’, the Maldivian language; ‘Divehi akuru’, a generic name forthe ancient Maldivian scripts (later rechristened by HCP Bell as ‘Evēlaakuru’ for the older forms and ‘Dives akuru’ for the later form). The verb
‘Divehi vuṅ’ refers to the fact of becoming naturalized
Divehi ata. The sugar-apple (Annona squamosa)Divehi bēs. The traditional Maldivian herbal medicine

662

Divehi hakuru. The thick sweet syrup obtained after boiling the sap of thecoconut palm
Divehi ruh’. The coconut palm
Dōni. A small or medium-sized fishing boat
Eterevaru. The side of the coral reef facing the lagoon in an atoll.
Faṇḍita (fanditha). Local sorcery or magic; in modern Divehi language‘faṇḍita’ is homonymous with esoteric learning, sorcery or magic. It isnever used as the word ‘Paṇḍit’ in Sanskrit and its derived forms in otherIndian languages, where it is meant to be the title of a learned person or
the respectful form of addressing that particular individual.
Faṇḍitaveriyā. The practictioner of faṇḍita or sorcererFaṇḍiyāru (Fandiyaaru). The chief judge, the highest official in the country
below the royal family
Fannu. The place where an island path meets the sea
Faru. The coral reef. Faro in the Southern languages
Faṭṭaru (faṭṭaro). A long chain made of silver (or gold in women of very
high status) wound many times around the waist over the cotton clothtraditionally worn by Divehi women. Ibn Batūta mentions that in the 13th
century all Maldivian women, including the queen didn’t cover the upper
part of their bodies. Pyrard de Laval, in the 17th century, comments that
although high class women wore elaborate dresses, islanders from outer
Atolls and low-class women were still not wearing an upper garment. As
more centuries passed and the dress code changed across class divisions,the more recent libās, or loose shirt reaching down to the knees,
completely covered the area around the waist. Thus, the faṭṭaru became
an unseen piece of Maldivian female jewellery. Not to be confused withthe faṭṭarubay of gold coins worn around the neck.
663

Fātihā. A funerary ceremony featuring the ceremonial reading of theexordium of the Quran. It is usually celebrated yearly, with special cooking
and feasting, to commemorate a deceased close relative’s death.
Fēli. A cotton waistcloth with black and white bands worn by the noble
ladies, as well as by the soldiers, in ancient times; often the black bands
could be dark brown. Women not belonging to the aristocracy wore aplain black waist cloth known as kaṇḍikī in Male’ and alfakā in the South.
The vertical embroidered band at one end would be worn in the front bysoldiers and in the back by ladies
Fōh. Arecanut, the fruit of the Areca palm (Areca catechu) chewed withbetel leaf; when eaten dry this nut is sliced with a special scissor-like
instrument. Known as fuah in the Southern languages
Fōḷavahi. The Maldivian name for the Chagos Archipelago located to thesouth of the Maldives. Known as Hoḷḷavai in the Southern languages
Furēta, ferēta. A monster or demon, usually ugly and scaryFuṭṭaru. The ocean side of the coral reef that is incessantly pounded by
the waves
Garudiyā. The broth obtained cooking tuna fish that is eaten along withthe main staples. Known as lono in the southern languages, it is perhaps
the most valued item in Maldive cuisineHaṇḍi. An ambivalent spirit that appears either in the form of a beautiful
woman or in a hideous, terrifying shape. It is usually connected to certain
trees growing in the forest
Hunigoṇḍi. A long, low chair used to grate coconut with a serrated metal
blade at one end. It used to be a normal kitchen implement in Maldivesand it was used in some ceremonies such as Libās levvuṅ.

664

Iloshi (iloṭi, ileishi or lieshi). The thin nerves of the coconut palm, used tomake brooms and toothpicks. They are separated from the palm-leaf
blade (fanvah) using a knife. Short sections of ilōṣi are used as toothpicks.
Kaṇḍumas (Tuna). The favorite fish of Maldivians; the preferred species is
Skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis). In former times the dry cured
Maldive fish was one of the main sources of income for Maldivian tradersKaṣikeyo (Kēva’). The cultivated screwpine (Pandanus spp.); the wild
varieties are known as bōkeyo (Male’ Bas) or kēgehe (Fua Mulaku)
Kativali. A large machete knife or cleaver normally used to cut firewoodKeuḷu (Keyolhu). The master fisherman in a fishing boat
Kokko. Form of addressing any younger person
Libās. Also known as ‘Divehi libās’, was a dress part of the female
Maldivian costume worn over the waistcloth. It used to be a loose shirt inbright colors, such as red, purple or blue, that reached down to the knees.
The ‘karufehi libās’ displayed elaborate embroidery in the part around theneck. Formerly Maldivian women wore no upper garment until theyreached puberty. ‘Libās levvuṅ’ was a ceremony for women which took
place at the time of their first menstruation.
Lōmāfānu. Royal edicts written on long copper plates held together by aring. The oldest lōmāfānu that have hitherto been found and preserved
are from the end of the twelfth century AD and were issued in Male’, theroyal capital. Other lōmāfānu have been found in the islands of Gan, Isdūand Dambidū in Haddummati Atoll.
Magū. (Scaevola taccada), known as gera in the Southern variants of theMaldivian language, a bush growing close to the waterline common in
every Maldive island that just needs coral sand and seawater to grow. Its
fresh-looking leaves were used as famine food in the past665

Mākana (Maakana). The Grey Heron (Ardea cinerea), a ubiquitous bird in
Maldivian folklore; one of its main traits is obstination (goiy dūnukurun), a
feature attributed to this bird in the Panchatantra as wellMāle Bas (Male’ language). The official form of Divehi, named after thecapital of the Maldives. It is also the most extended of the varieties ofMaldivian and the only variant that has traditionally been put into writing
and that has been subject to standardization. Diglossia is common in thecommunities of the Southern Atolls, including Haddummati, where two
language variants coexist in the same island, the suitable variety usedwithin its appropriate context. Over there Māle Bas has a specialized
official function, whereas the vernacular is used for ‘lower’ purposes.
While the local language is acquired within the household, Māle Bas islearned through schooling
Maliku. Also known as Minicoy, it is an isolated atoll part of the Union
Territory of Lakshadweep, India, with a large island (Maliku, population
about 8.000) and a small uninhabited island (Vilingili). Although the ethnic
and linguistic background of the Maliku islanders is identical to theMaldives, Minicoy has been under different Indian administrations for the
past few centuries. Geographically this atoll is much closer to thenorthernmost Maldive Island (Turākunu), than to the southernmost
Lakshadweep Island (Kalpeni). In contrast with the other islands of the
U.T. Lakshadweep, where the inhabitants speak Malayalam, the language
known locally as ‘Mahl’ spoken in Minicoy is akin to the official form ofDivehi or Māle Bas
Mālimi. The navigator in an ocean-going trading ship. In large oceangoingvessels he would have an assistant or helper known as Koḍa mālimi.
Māmuli, Māmeli or Mēliya. A middle-aged fairy-like woman (Daita or
Dhaitha) having seven children. She is said to live at the “end of theisland” (Rakkolhu)

666

Masdaiyffiyohi. Literally meaning “fish-tooth knife”, a special knife used infaṇḍita with a handle made of sperm whale tooth ivory; the blade of themasdayffiohi knife is allegedly made of an alloy of seven metals (haylō).
All faṇḍita men owned these knives in the past
Maulūdu. Also known as ‘rah maulūdu’, is a traditional Muslim religious
festival that involved chanting devotional songs in praise of the
Messenger of Allah. The celebration took place in an open-sided
decorated pavilion known as haruge (harege in Aḍḍu and Fua Mulaku).
This festival also involved much cooking of special food
Midili. A local tree (Terminalia catappa); the ripe fruit has a bit of pulp on
the outside and a large kernel inside of which there is a small nut.
Maldivians said that after eating the pulp any water tastes better
Minikā Rājje. The traditional Maldivian name for the Andaman Islands,
meaning the “Land of the Cannibals”
Muḷōṣi (muḍeiṣi). Easy-made basket made with two short sections ofcoconut palm frondsMuṇḍu. A light cotton lunghi or sarong worn around the waist. It was the
traditional essential piece of men’s clothing. Usually Maldivians favoredcheckered colored pattern with a broad vertical darker band (fasba). It
was a simple, light and very sensible way of dressing in the tropical heat
until it was replaced by trousers. Formerly one of the most important
shops in Male’ was the ‘Haji Mundu Shop’ that closed down in early 1979
Nakaiy. The Nakshatra constellations that were used in the traditional
Maldivian calendar to identify seasons, especially concerning weather,fishing and travelling. According to the nakaiy schedule the year was
divided in periods of roughly thirteen days. Nakaiyterikaṅ is astrology, theknowledge of the nakaiy and their influence upon daily affairs.

667Oḍi, veḍi or voḍḍa. A long-range bulky wooden merchant sailing vessel
used mainly in the yearly trading journey with harbors in foreign coasts. It
usually had a large central mast and two smaller mastsOḍitān Kalēge. A famous sorcerer in Maldivian tradition. He was said toreside at a house known as Keyoge (banana house) while residing in
Male’. He is mentioned in ancient written poems
Radun. The traditional way of referring to the Maldivian monarch;
Rasgefānu, another local term, was also often used. The Arabic term
‘Sultān’ would be favored in official documents though. Queens would be
addressed as Rānī.
Rihākuru. A salty and thick paste made by cooking tuna fish until most of
the water evaporates. Known as garede in the southern languages, it is
one of the most important items in Maldive cuisine
Undōli (indōli). A large swingbed typical of island homesteads
Valī. In the Maldive Islands every woman has a valīveriyā (guardian),usually the father, who needs to give valī, permission for the girl or
woman to be married
Vāru (vāro). The royal taxes; the Vāroveriyā or Royal Tax Administrator
was the main beneficiary of the taxes that he collected in the name of theking and was formerly the main ruler of an island
Veyo (veu). A bathing pool with stone steps usually located in the
backyards of houses or close to a mosque. In the 1940’s Muhammad
Amīn’s government ordered that they be filled with earth. Islanders wererequired to build small wells and bathing by the side of the well was
promoted for health reasons in a drive to keep communicable diseases
under control
Ziyāraiy (ziyārat). A small building erected over the tomb of a revered
person. It usually looks like a low, small house within a walled enclosure
668

that was kept clean from vegetation and swept regularly. Little white flags
used to be planted around the main construction and a lamp was kept
always burning during the night, a shrine erected over the tomb of a saintor a person of power. Devotees would recite, pray and put new flags,
lamps or simply pebbles within the precinct of the ziyāraiy. It was deemedthat the powerful spirit of the departed person, now in the spiritual realmof the ancestors, could help those living with his powers, now increasedby having his abode in the spiritual world.

669

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