ARCHITECTURAL TYPOLOGICAL STUDY OF CORAL STONEMOSQUES OF MALDIVESMOHAMED MAUROOF JAMEELDISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN FULFILLMENT OF THE
REQUIREMENT FOR THE MASTER OF SCIENCE IN
ARCHITECTURE

FACULTY OF BUILT ENVIRONMENTUNIVERSITY OF MALAYAKUALA LUMPUR

2012

ORIGINALITY DECLARATION

I declare that the work presented in this dissertation is, to the best of my knowledge,
original with the exception of that acknowledged in the text. I also declare that no part ofthis dissertation, either in full or part, has been submitted to any other University for thepurpose of postgraduate studies.

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ABSTRAK
Masjid warisan di kepulauan Maldives dibina dengan menggunakan batu karangan lautyang diambil dari terumbu karang di sekitar kepulauannya. Masjid lama tersebut
mempunyai ciri ciri senibina indah dan unik dihiasi dengan gabungan ukiran batu karanganlaut beserta ukiran kayu ÔlacquerÕ. Walaupun, pembangunan pesat di Maldives telahmembawa perubahan yang ketara dan banyak memansuhkan warisan keseniannya, masjid
warisan ini masih ada yang utuh dan aktif digunakan. Belum banyak kajian yang dijalankan
tentang masjid warisan ini, justeru penyelidikan ini dijalankan dengan objektif untuk
mengenal pasti jumlah masjid yang masih ada, mengkaji keadaan fizikal, pengaruh
rekabentuk serta menganalisa tipologi masjid-masjid tersebut.

Kajian kualitatif ini dijalankan dalam beberapa peringkat pemerhatian, penelitian, dananalisa. Pertamanya kajian telah mengenalpasti bahawa kerajaan Maldives mempunyai 203
tapak warisan yang mana 46 daripada tapak warisan tersebut mempunyai sebanyak 51 buahmasjid lama yang masih aktif. Kajian juga mendapati bahawa terdapat 40 buah masjid
daripada 51 buah masjid tua yang tersenarai adalah masih utuh dalam keadaan fizikal yangberbeza beza dan 18 daripada masjid tersebut adalah dibina sepenuhnya menggunakan batu
karangan laut.
Keduanya, kajian mendapati bahawa ujudnya pengaruh Ôgeo-cultureÕ dalam pembangunan
budaya dan senibina di Maldives. Telah dikenalpasti yang ciri-ciri rekabentuk istimewa
masjid masjid lama Maldives ada persamaan dengan beberapa masjid di daerah Asia
Selatan, Timur Afrika, Asia Tenggara dan Timur Tengah . Ini membuktikan bahawa
pengaruh senibina masjid di Maldives adalah percampuran antara beberapa budaya
daripada negeri negeri persekitaran Laut India.
Ketiganya, kajian telah dijalankan untuk mengenal pasti tipologi bangunan dengan
menganalisa 21 buah masjid dan merumuskan bahawa terdapat beberapa ciri ciri
rekabentuk dan senibina yang dikongsi oleh masjid batu karangan laut tersebut.
Kebanyakannya mempunyai pelan lantai segiempat tepat atau segiempat sama yang terdiri
daripada Dhaala, atau kadangkala mempunyai Bilik Mihrab. Rekabentuk lain yangdikongsi adalah lantai yang tinggi dengan anak tangga yang dicorak, atap berlapis dengan
siling ÔcofferÕ dan LaageÕ., Antara ciri ciri khas yang lain adalah ukiran batu karangan lautbeserta tulisan kaligrafi ArabKajian ini juga diharap dapat meningkatkan kesedaran, akan uniknya rekabentuk senibina
masjid warisan di Maldives, justeru itu akan juga dapat meningkatkan usaha pengurusandan pemuliharaannya.

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ABSTRACT
Coral stone mosques of Maldives are ancient mosques assembled using finely shaped
interlocking 'porite' coral stone from the reef, that have architectural features with coral
carvings and detailed lacquer work. These mosques are among the earliest survivingbuildings in the country where its cultural heritage is vanishing fast due to rapid changes
and development. Little is known about these mosques, and the purpose of this research isto identify the surviving mosques, their state of condition, the influences in their evolution,and to establish a typology in terms of architectural features.
The research uses qualitative research methods with multiple surveys and analysis andfirstly identifies the surviving mosques and the state of their condition. The research findsthat the Maldives government has 203 heritage sites in an unofficial list out of which 46
sites have 51 ancient mosques. The research also finds that 40 out of the 51 ancientmosques survive in different states of condition and 18 of them are confirmed as mosquemade from coral stone.
Secondly, the research identifies specific geo-cultural regions in the Indian Ocean that haveinfluenced the evolution of the culture of Maldives and compares architectural features ofthese regions to those of the mosque. The research finds that different features of themosque have similarities with structures in the South Asian region, the East African region,
the Southeast Asian region and the Middle East and establishes that the mosques are arepresentation of the fusion of many maritime cultures of the Indian Ocean.
Finally, 21 mosques are analyzed to identify typological architectural features establishingthat the coral stone mosques of Maldives are a type of tropical mosque with a spatial plan
form that has a simple rectangular or square prayer hall with a combination of
antechambers called Dhaala, sometimes with a unique Mihrab Chamber. Typicalarchitectural features include the raised coral stone platform, decorated rising steps, tiered
roof form, coffered ceiling with recessed area called Laage', post and beam structure,
unique arched sliding doors, diagonal lattice work on windows, special coral carvings,
lacquer work and calligraphy.
The research contributes to improve future protection and management of the mosques byraising the awareness about their uniqueness and the state of their condition.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
It is my greatest pleasure to acknowledge and express my heartfelt gratitude to thefollowing people, without whom this work is not possible. First of all I would like to thankmy supervisor Associate Prof Dr. Yahaya Ahmad for the patient guidance, encouragement
and expert advice he provided me throughout the study period. I am extremely lucky tohave a supervisor with such a wealth of knowledge and experience who has such an
inspirational and friendly personality. I would also like to thank all the staff at University ofMalaya who helped me during my study at the University.
Secondly I would like to thank former Deputy Minister Mamdhuh Waheed, former State
Minister Ahmad Naseer and staff of Heritage Department of Maldives for giving me thesupport and opportunity to coordinate the surveys and Mr. Deen for funding my research
trips. I would like to thank Aminath Hassan for the initial telephone surveys and membersof the field survey team (Zameer, Wiam, Sharim, Isha, Shuza and Muja) who took the hardtask of assisting me on collecting site data and everyone else, who contributed to thesurvey. I would also like to thank Dr. Rosniza Othman for her advice and translation of theabstract.
I would like to thank the experts from the UNITAR workshop on Management andConservation of World Heritage sites, Hiroshima, Japan, 2011, for selecting, Coral Stone
Mosque of Maldives, as a case study to identify the issues related to a World Heritage
Nomination and the experts from the 'Heritage of the Indian Ocean' conference, La
Reunion, 2011, for commenting on the paper presented on Coral Stone Mosques ofMaldives.
Finally I would like to thank my family and friends who supported me during my work.

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CONTENTS
Abstrak
Abstract!
Acknowledgement
List of Figures
List of Tables
Abbreviation
Glossary!
List of Appendices
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Background
1.3 Statement of problems
1.4 Research questions
1.5 Objectives of research
1.6 Research process
1.7 Outline of research
1.8 Limitations of research
CHAPTER 2: BACKGROUND AND LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Heritage of Maldives2.2.1 History of Maldives2.2.2 Architectural heritage of the Islamic Era
2.2.2.1 Traditional mosque architecture
2.2.2.2 Vernacular Architecture
2.2.3 Heritage protection efforts of the past
2.3 Mosque architecture
2.3.1 Features of the Typical Mosque
2.3.2 Regional typologies of the Mosque
2.3.3 Typological studies of mosques
2.4 Coral stone for construction
2.4.1 Corals
2.4.2 Hirigaa or Porite corals
2.4.3 Coral stone construction in Maldives2.4.4 Types of coral stone construction in Maldives
2.5 Areas of the geo-cultural region that influenced the culture of Maldives2.5.1 Ancient South India
2.5.2 Malabar coastal areas of India
2.5.3 Other coastal regions of south Asia
2.5.4 The Minicoy and Laccadive group of Islands
2.5.5 Sri Lanka
2.5.6 Swahili coast of east Africa
2.5.7 Malacca straits regions
2.5.8 The Maritime regions of Arabia and Persia

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CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY AND SURVEY
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Research methodology
3.3 Literature reviews and Archival surveys
3.4 Initial survey
3.5 Field survey
CHAPTER 4: COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS TO IDENTIFY THE
INFLUENCES TO THE ARCHITECTURE OF THE MOSQUE
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Areas of the geo-cultural region that influenced the culture of Maldives
4.3 Comparison to identify the influences to the architecture of the mosque
4.3.1 Comparison with ancient south India
4.3.2 Comparison with the Malabar coast of India
4.3.3 Comparison with other coastal regions of south Asia
4.3.4 Comparison with the Minicoy and Laccadive group of Islands
4.3.5 Comparison with Sri Lanka
4.3.6 Comparison with Swahili coast of east Africa
4.3.7 Comparison with the Malacca Straits region
4.3.8 Comparison with the maritime regions of Arabia and Persia
4.4 Comparative analysis
CHAPTER 5: ANALYSIS TO ESTABLISH THE COMMONARCHITECTURAL FEATURES OF THE MOSQUE
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Analysis of the spatial form of the mosque
5.3 Analysis of architectural form, construction and ornamentation
5.4 Conclusions of the analysis
CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Summary of interpretations and analysis
6.3 Conclusion and answers to the research questions
6.3.1 Influences to the evolution of the architecture
6.3.2 Architectural features of the coral stone mosques of Maldives
Bibliography
Annex 1: List and details of ancient mosques in the Unofficial Heritage List
Annex 2: Details of field survey of 21 coral stone mosques

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123viiLIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1
Figure 2.1
Figure 3.1
Figure 3.2
Figure 3.3
Figure 3.4
Figure 3.5
Figure 3.6
Figure 3.7
Figure 3.8
Figure 3.9
Figure 3.10
Figure 3.11
Figure 3.12
Figure 3.13
Figure 3.14
Figure 3.15Figure 3.16
Figure 3.17
Figure 3.18
Figure 3.19
Figure 3.20
Figure 3.21
Figure 3.22
Figure 4.1
Figure 4.2
Figure 4.3
Figure 4.4
Figure 4.5
Figure 4.6
Figure 4.7
Figure 4.8
Figure 5.1
Figure 6.1

Research process
Example of ancient travel routes in the geo-cultural regions of the Indian
Ocean
Diagram showing the process of research method
Description of Ihavandhu Old Friday Mosque
Description of Kelaa Old Friday Mosque
Description of Nolhivaram Old Friday Mosque
Description of Meedhu Old Friday Mosque
Description of Huraa Old Mosque
Description of Male' Old Friday Mosque
Description of Male' Eid Miskiy
Description of Kalhuvakaru Miskiy
Description of Fenfushi Friday Mosque
Description of Veyvah Old Friday Mosque
Description of Bileddhu Old Mosque
Description of Nilandhu Old Friday Mosque
Description of Kudahuvadhu Old Friday Mosque
Description of Guraidhu Ziyaaraiyy Miskiy
Description of Fonadhu Old Friday Mosque
Description of Isdhu Old Mosque
Description of Kondey Old Mosque
Description of Vadhu Old Friday Mosque
Description of Hulhumeedhu Boadha Miskiy
Description of Hulhumeedhu Fandiyaaru Miskiy
Description of Hulhumeedhu Dhadivaru Miskiy
Example of a South Indian Structure that is comparable to the mosque
Example of a Kerala structure that is comparable to the mosque
Example of a Burmese Lacquer work that is comparable to that of themosque
Example of a South Indian Structure that is comparable to the mosque
Example of a Sri Lankan Structure that is comparable to the mosque
Example of coral stonework in East Africa that is comparable to the mosque
Example of a Structure in Melaka that is comparable to the mosque
Example of a calligraphic work that is comparable to the mosque
Coral stone mosque types
Spatial features of the mosqueviiiLIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1
Table 3.2
Table 4.1
Table 5.1
Table 5.2
Table 6.1
Table 6.2
Table 6.3
Table 6.4

Summary of categories in the unofficial list of Heritage sites
Revised analysis of the mosques identified in the unofficial list
Comparative analysis of the features
Analysis of spatial plan forms of the mosque
Analysis of architectural features of the mosque
List of surviving mosques and their state of condition
Comparison of architectural features of the geo-cultural region to that of thecoral stone mosque
Analysis of the common features of the coral stone mosques of Maldives
Common architectural features of the coral stone mosqueix

ABBREVIATIONSBCECEEIAGOMICCROM

Before Common Era
Common Era
Environmental Impact Assessment
Government of MaldivesInternational Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restorationof Cultural Property
ICOMOS International Council on Monuments and Sites
ICT
Information Communication Technology
NCLHR
National Centre for Linguistic and Historical Research
UNEP
United Nations Environment Programme
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
WHC
World Heritage Committeex

GLOSSARY

AtollCholas
Coir rope
Cyprea Moneta
DhaalaDikka
El-ninoFarosHirigaa
Holhu Ashi
Hukuru Miskiy
Indian Moira
Kursi
Laage'Loammaafaanu
Mahavamsa
MaqsuraMasjidMedrepore ashlar
MihrabMimbarMiskiy
Moodhuge
Odi Haruge
PoritesRedin
Rihaakuru
Sangam period
Thelhigaa
Veligaagroup of coral islands
ancient Tamils from southern India
rope made out of coconut fibrescientific name for Cowry Shell used for money in ancient time
Verandah like antechamber around the prayer hall of mosquesraised tribune in mosque for Quran recital or prayer recitals
climatic pattern in tropics that changes ocean surface temperaturesmall atolls that rise within large composite atolls
porite coral or boulder coralraised platform and shelter found in Maldivian Islands
Friday Mosquepart of north Goa, India
stand for the Quran in the mosque
stepped recessed part in the centre of the mosque ceiling
ancient copper plate chronicles of Maldivesthe great chronicle of ancient Sri Lankan Buddhist history
enclosed area near Mihrab
mosquetype of stony coral cut to neat blocks for construction.
part of the mosque facing towards Kaaba in Mecca
pulpit in the mosquemosquehouse built on sea
shelters for boats
type of coral stone
according to Maldivian folklore, ancient mysterious people
Maldivian fish paste
ancient Tamil period in south India
coral rubble
sedimentary coral sandstonexi

LIST OF APPENDICES

Annex 1
Annex 2

List and details of ancient mosques identified in the unofficial heritage list
Details of field survey of 21 coral stone mosquesxii