名古屋高等教育研究 第 ! 号"（!# !）International Approaches
to Transnational Higher Education (TNHE)
Tricia COVERDALE-JONESᴾ ᴾ ᴾ ᴾ ᴾ ᴾ ＜Abstract＞
This article considers the importance of student mobility worldwide intransnational higher education (TNHE) and research on international
students, much of which has focused on Western European institutions
receiving students from other countries and continents.

There is a

desire in this research nowadays to avoid clich d and binary oppositionsof cultures and the !deficit Model" of the East Asian learner. Induction
or orientation is here taken as an exemplification of differing approaches
to internationalisation in TNHE.
Research by this author in 2010 did indeed find differences in approachto the induction of international students, with more similarities between
the UK and Japan than to China.
This may be a feature ofdevelopmental stages in receiving international students; China hasmore recently started to receive students from North America andWestern Europe, where previously they tended to be from the East
Asian region. The focus on adaptation by the student rather than byacademic staff and institutions has been noted (Ryan 2011) as the !firststep" in the internationalisation process of Transnational Higher
Education.

1ȅIntroduction
Internationalisation has become a frequently cited theme in transnational
Principal Lecturer, School of Languages and Area Studies, University ofPortsmouth(Visiting Professor, Center for the Studies of Higher Education, Nagoya
University)193

higher education worldwide (Brown & Jones 2007, Turner & Robson 2008,
Coverdale-Jones & Rastall 2009).

However, interpretations of approaches

to

the

international

students,

andmeaningandtheimpactofinternationalisation will vary according to the geography, politics, culture
and experience of internationalisation within national Higher Education(HE) systems.

There may even be stages in the development of theseapproaches and policies as managers, researchers or teaching staff innational HE systems gain in experience, or there may be different paths
which HE institutions and national governments follow.

Many of thefactors which influence this are geopolitical factors, over which we as
educationalists have only limited influence.

The purpose of this researchis to consider the impact of internationalisation and student mobility, toconsider briefly previous research on the internationalisation of HE, and to
take the example of induction or orientation programmes as exemplificationof differences in approach to receiving international students.

Induction isa key point for international students in their adaptation to new learning
systems and cultures; however, comparatively little research has looked at
this process. It is here suggested by this author that there may be adevelopmental cycle in the changing of attitudes towards TNHE with lessemphasis on the student s adaptation and more emphasis on adaptation on
all sides, by academics, support staff and institutions.

2ȅStudent Mobility across the World
With increasing multi-directional student mobility, internationalisation isa key issue for universities worldwide in the twenty-first century. Higher
education institutions in all continents experience the intake of international
students.

International meetings and conferences consider issues ranging

from institutional approaches to curriculum planning, to recruiting andcaring for international students to world rankings for universities.

The

motivations of universities may be largely financial or relatively altruistic(Yonezawa et al. 2009); there are varying levels of government support for
outward or incoming individual students.

Motivations may be based on

raising the status of a university in the world rankings, a key point at the194International Approaches to Transnational Higher Education (TNHE)
2010 AC21 conference, or it may part of the related global talent war.
The movement of students across borders is a worldwide phenomenon
which has given rise to much research on teaching and receiving
international students, much of this in the Anglophone world which
receives 40.1% of all international students worldwide (OECD 2011) 1 ).
International students are an important section of the student population in
the UK (14.7% of the total student population), even more so than in Japan
(3.2%).

3ȅResearch Literature on International Student Experience
In light of the increasing impact of student mobility worldwide, it isunsurprising that a large amount of research has been published in English
on this, nonetheless with a preponderance focusing on the students coming
into Western European and to a lesser extent North American countries.
Research on Internationalisation has tended to focus principally on Chinese
students, who form the largest cohort in most receiving countries (Lord &Dawson 2002).

Lord and Dawson point out this possibly ethnocentric bias

in referring to:
the wealth of information on the Chinese student and the dearth ofparallel literature on students from the Indian sub continent (2002: 5)
The emphasis in academic articles is often on teaching international
students at classroom or course level within institutions (Brown & Jones
2007, Carroll & Ryan 2005, HEA project !Teaching International Students")
but there has been less emphasis on strategic institutional issues andgovernment support. Developments have tended to focus on the reception
and teaching of international students within the context of the national
Higher Education Institutions (HEIs), but TNHE is increasingly amulti-directional, worldwide phenomenon. Emerging destinations such as
Malaysia or the more established Germany are developing experience inthis field (HESA 2010, Verbik & Lasanowski 2007), just as many students
from Europe or North America are travelling abroad for study or work

195

experience and internships, including travel to East Asian countries such as
China, Japan or Korea.
In all cases, the need for adaptation has been recognised to a greater or
lesser degree, but the question which arises from all this is # whose
adaptation is required?

The student s or the academic s or the

institution s or the education system s?

Does globalisation require

academic staff and institutions to look to the future in terms of the needs ofinternational as well as home students?

And what can we learn from one

another?
As a contribution to this debate, an increasing number of conferences
across the world has considered the effects of internationalisation in higher
education.

The Portsmouth series on East Asian Learners (2004, 2006,

2008 2010 in Portsmouth, 2007 and 2009 in Jinan and Qingdao, China) has
also moved its focus from the classroom and the learner towards TNHE.
This reflects increasing interest worldwide in research in the field of TNHE.
Symposia and conferences are being held discussing the needs ofinternational students and how these may differ from those of home
students (AC 21, Shanghai 2010; Germany2); Denmark3)) although in somecountries the focus is more on recruitment than on the student experience.
This tends to be an early stage in the developmental cycle of ministries or
institutions which set out on the path towards internationalisation.
However, a difference in focus in different cultural and political contexts isapparent.

There may be emphasis on rankings and becoming aworld-class university, as at the recent AC21 conference in Shanghai in
2010, or the emphasis may be on the future as at the British council s seriesof conferences in the !Going Global" series which includes !changing
education for a changing world" and !the future world" among its themes
for the March 2012 conference.
In June 2011 the HEA UK conference on Teaching International Students
had a different audience.

The focus was more student-focused onchallenges for universities, students and teachers, including diversity,
approaches to teaching, learning, assessment, curriculum and programme
design.

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International Approaches to Transnational Higher Education (TNHE)
3.1ġ Approaches to Research on the International Student Experienceand Stereotyping
As a leading commentator on international Higher Education, Janette
Ryan in her presentation at the recent BALEAP (British Association of
Lecturers in English for Academic Purposes) conference sees the researchon international students as following three phases:
1) Focus on student # deficit model, early 1990s, emphasis on remediation,i.e. it was the responsibility of students to change.
2) Focus on curriculum # internationalise for all students, i.e. it is the

responsibility of institutions to change.
3) Focus on future # discourses of globalisation/internationalisation in
university mission statements, opportunity for collaborative working

i.e. a joint responsibility to change.
(Ryan 2011) (added notes in italics)
Early research on the international student experience arising withindifferent contexts

is more likely to begin with individual case studies,

either from the teacher s or the student s point of view.

Later research

has then considered groups of students; here the lure of negative
stereotyping can be perceived in some of the literature on international
students, where the international students are seen as $bearers ofproblems rather than $bearers of culture .

This view is seen by many

(Gieve and Clark 2006, Grimshaw 2007, Ryan 2010a) as oversimplification
and !problematisation" where the international student is seen as aproblem and required to adapt to an unchanged learning environment.
!The perceived inadequacy of Chinese students learning strategies has
been attributed to an apparent reliance on memorisation (rote learning),
which is correlated with a passive, receptive approach to knowledge,
over-reliance on the teacher, and a lack of critical engagement." (Gieve
and Clark 2006: 60)!Deficientlearning styles: rote learners, lack critical thinking skills;

197

prone to plagiarism (homogeneous group); don t want to participate inclass discussion, only interact with others from similar backgrounds"(Ryan 2010a)
As cited above, much has been written about !the Chinese learner".
Negative stereotyping can degenerate into a stereotype of !Confucian
heritage cultures" (CHC) in opposition to !Western" cultures (Yoshino 2004)
where a number of conceptual problems arise; both CHC and Western areseen as homogeneous groups and the other philosophical influences onculture (e.g. Taoism, Communism) are ignored.

This negative stereotyping,where the students from one country (or gender or other subject group) areviewed as a monolith, also leads us to overlook the role of the student asagent (Morita 2004, cited in Gieve and Clark 2006: 65, Grimshaw, T. 2007).
There is also a tendency to see differences in binary terms, e.g. !deep" vs!surface ! learning (Ballard 1996) and often from an ethnocentric point ofview as criticised by the commentators above.
!Enabling the extension of knowledge (Western, good), as opposed to its
mere conservation (Asian, Bad)" (Gieve & Clark 2006: 60)
The persistence of a fixed or binary view of !the Chinese learner" often
does not take into account more recent and continuing changes in China
both within the education system and in the wider geographical, social andpolitical context (Shi 2006, Ryan 2010b).

Both Shi and Ryan among others

point to the increase in student-centred learning, reforms in education anddiversity within the country, as many of us have also experienced in ourobservation on visits to Chinese institutions.

In a forthcoming chapter,

Cortazzi and Jin also point out recent changes in approaches to teaching(not yet published).

4ȅApproaches to the Induction of International Students
In previous research, this researcher has chosen to focus on induction (ororientation) as an exemplification of approaches to internationalisation, both198

International Approaches to Transnational Higher Education (TNHE)
in academic and institutional terms (Chikada and Coverdale-Jones 2010).
Induction is here seen as indicative of approaches to international students
and the institutional or sectoral process of internationalisation, these being
closely linked.

Chan and Dimmock (2008: 189) looked at the meanings ofinternationalisation & different approaches to internationalisation (citing
Knight & de Wit 1995)4). They found that in their two case universities
respondents saw internationalisation in terms of the activity approach, i.e.
they focused on activities which would help the students to adapt, which
seems to be the pattern in most universities (e.g. Sheffield Hallam
University 2011). At the same time there is agreement on the importance of
induction for successful completion of the course (Cook et al. 2006).
In the context of internationalisation, there are also multiple
developments at tutor, department and institutional level towards
internationalising the curriculum and the classroom.

Guidance for tutors

has been funded and published, in Anglophone and in Japanese contexts(personal communication from an International Student Adviser in Japan).
Examples in English include the !Transnational Education: Developing
Leadership Capability" (Curtin University 2011) which provides online
courses for academic staff on the theme of Teaching International Students,
the well-known and influential book by Carroll and Ryan (2005) or the more
recent project in the UK Strategies to enhance learning (Burnapp et al. n.d.)and the major Teaching International Students project of the HEA (Higher
Education Academy) where the sharing of cases and solutions is facilitated.
When we turn to the issue of induction, we find a relatively small amountof published research in English but with some agreement in therecommendations on good practice, including the importance of induction
and ongoing support for student success.

This applies to all students,

whether home or international students (Cook et al. 2006, Hassanien &Barber 2007).

Although their study was not specifically on international

students, Hassanien, & Barber (2007) in their evaluation of student induction
in higher education found that !mean values for the international students
were significantly higher than the British students, indicating thatinternational students believed these topics to be significantly more
important."

They thus emphasised the !imperative role" of as being more199

significant for international students (p.39).
Lord and Dawson (2002) considered approaches to socialisation, i.e.
adaptation to the new learning culture, as ethnocentric.

In their study on

the reception and induction of two contrasting student groups, Chinese andIndian postgraduate management students on a pre-MBA course, there
were expectations that the Indian students would have fewer problems
assimilating, partly due to !the similarities of educational qualification
nomenclature" and more cultural links with the UK; the Indian group had
more friends or relatives who had studied in UK (75% Indian, 47% Chinese)and friends or relatives living there (62% & 41%).

They found that

following practical problems at the two initial stages of pre-arrival andencounter, (start date, accommodation, airport meeting) the need later wasfor personal support (buddy system) with problems of loneliness andacademic integration in both groups; there was !insecurity about our
expectations of them, desire for more guidance" and a recommendation for!significant input on the culture of learning in the university, and on study
skills" (ibid., 13). Both groups had problems linked to memorisation, use oftechnology, use of textbooks and reading, the role of the lecturer, group
work, and English language.

Lord and Dawson (2002) recommended

training for tutors/administrators, more pastoral care, English classes,
classroom time to share experiences and a review of assessments.

Many

but not all of these practices have since been put in place at UK
Universities (e.g. Sheffield Hallam 2011) and elsewhere, especially but not
only in Anglophone countries.
Burley et al (2009) in also considering the experience of Indian
postgraduate students similarly found a need to !re-orientate the students
from one paradigm of learning to another" and to enable the students !toengage in the higher level cognitive skills".

The adaptation byinternational students at a deeper level is the result both of successful
induction and of ongoing support.

Foster (2010) gives an interesting

example of an online pre-arrival course for Indian students coming to
Edinburgh Napier University for Hospitality Management top-up degrees5).
The online course emphasised the need at an early stage to acquire new
study skills and learning culture, and the involvement of students in the200International Approaches to Transnational Higher Education (TNHE)
design and pilot. The effect of this will be evaluated in terms of degree
results this autumn.
Bond and Scudamore (2010) recommended for Engineering students thatinduction should include !involving students in practical activities relevant
to studying engineering with clear briefings on the activity itself" (p.14) andon !setting ground rules for the working together; mixing students fromdifferent backgrounds in groups; involving more experienced students andsupport staff" (p.14) in induction activities; and !ongoing systems such as
tutorial groupings and $study-buddy pairings" (p.15). They recommended
a move !away from the idea of induction as an introduction and towards
ongoing, embedded contact with a range of staff and students throughgroup activities, referral to service via tutorials, library-based sessions, andeven social activities" (p.15).
The common threads in these studies of induction are the emphasis on
the new culture of learning; in other words it is still the student who has toadapt, as mentioned above but researchers also offer guidance on the ways
in which academic staff can adapt their teaching style to facilitate student
success.

This reflects progress from the days when the student was theone who had to carry all the burden of adaptation. It may be that the!emerging contenders" in terms of student mobility will also have to go
through this faculty staff development. The more contentious issue ofchanging the curriculum requires a willingness from academic staff tochange their thinking, and can lead to strong resistance.

Curriculum

change and the internationalisation of faculty members through staff
development may be a longer-term process in the university sector of any
country, one which cannot be hurried, as with any change of culture.
Examples of a more developed attitude towards induction, and thus tointernationalisation, can be seen in the findings from research below.
4.1ġ A Recent Study of Induction in Japan, the UK and China
In order to demonstrate differences in attitudes to international students
this researcher conducted a survey in 2010 with a small sample ofinternational students in one university in the UK, three in Japan and two in
China on the subject of induction.

The results support the hypothesis that201

a developmental cycle exists in changing attitudes to internationalisation
with increased experience in the field within a national HE sector.
The results showed differences in approach to induction in the
respondents comments, which are briefly summarised here:
・There was emphasis on study information in UK, with more meetings
with tutor in small groups.

The induction week in departments waspreceded by an International Office induction week. UK universities
also appear to put more information online, as well as face-to-facemeetings in large and small groups and a printed handbook.

Onlineinformation is included in a pre- arrival module delivered via the VLE
Blackboard to which students have password-protected access.6). The
PrepUP and pre-sessional VLE modules often used film clips withstudent speakers.
・In Japan there was emphasis on talks about study, social meetings andinformation about living in the country.

The equivalent medium for

information sharing was the use of information on paper andpresentations by student advisers in English or Japanese to large
groups of international students on the Induction day, which followed
the Entrance Ceremony day.

(There were 31 sheets of paper orleaflets in the orientation packs, including one on earthquake training.)
In induction and throughout the semester face-to-face meetings andinformation on paper were the preferred media. Some of thisinformation was also available on webpages, for different sections of
one university.
・The information on China has a number of problems and may beunreliable but may still show differences in approach.

The lesser

importance of induction, which was cancelled due to swine flu in Sept
09 and the fear that this disease was imported by foreigners, can beseen as an indication of culture.

The national political agenda here

took precedence over the need to learn a new academic culture; indeed,
there was no evidence of awareness of other learning cultures.

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International Approaches to Transnational Higher Education (TNHE)
Information was more difficult to find in this high-context society (Hall1976) and UK students felt the lack of information on webpages in
China.
Some examples of student comments on induction show the experiencefrom the student s point of view, which may be assumed or unexpected forthe information-givers.

All information may appear to be equallyimportant (e.g. garbage and learning culture), or there may be a lack ofappreciation of the difficulties which confront the new international
student.
4.2ġ What do You Remember from the Induction Process?
-how to separate garbage
customs in Japan (UK student in Japan) (Several students mentioned
garbage separation as a point of emphasis.)-

The start of the course was horrible since we were left to do tons ofbureaucratic stuff in a language we hardly understand. Very little
guidance was given, at least not in English. (There was no induction.)(UK student in China)-

It was quite hard to follow it. First of all because I wasn't so familiar
with the language and secondly because I was given too muchinformation about a system quite different from the home one.
(Italian student in UK)

In this study there were fewer differences between the UK and Japan(medium of giving information) than between those two countries and China.
We can see here how, particularly in China, the need for awareness ofstudent needs is easily overlooked, or how induction and guidance on
form-filling for bureaucracy may be cancelled at short notice due togovernment policy on a non-educational basis (the induction cancellation
due to fears of imported swine flu).

However, even in a university with a203highly developed induction process student needs may be overlooked sothat a student may still be overwhelmed by information.

The role ofinternational student advisers may also differ; this is part of ongoing
research by this author.

ˑȅConclusion
The process of internationalisation requires the recruitment ofinternational students,ofinternational staff

and

the

international

development of existing staff and the creation of a truly international
curriculum.

The effects of the high level of student mobility require

faculty members and university managers to change their teachingpractice, curriculum and expectations.

The Global 30 programme in Japanis one example of a !live" project currently in its first year of student intake
where adaptation on all sides will be needed in order to foster student
success.
The considerable body of academic research on TNHE has been citedhere with examples of induction for Indian students, where there aconsensus on the need for adaptation on all sides rather than merely
delivering the same courses in a different language.

Guidance for tutors inparticular has been funded and published, in Anglophone contexts.
Academic articles on internationalisation in Japanese are not accessible tothis researcher, but this could be a fruitful source of comparison for future
research.
The responses from the survey on induction do reveal some differencesin approach, not always the expected differences.

Approaches to the

induction of international students show a potential relationship between
the country s experience of receiving international students and entry into
the TNHE market.

We observe a rapid rise in the numbers ofinternational students in China in the last ten years, so an equally fastchange process in ways of dealing with international students can hardly be
expected.

Nonetheless, this supports the idea of developmental stages inreceiving international students for a national context and learning culture.
It may be that more recent entrants into this field, the !emerging

204

International Approaches to Transnational Higher Education (TNHE)
contenders" in terms of student mobility, will also have to go through a
deeper faculty staff development process in order to enable student success.
It is true that many faculty members from China are supported as Visiting
Scholars or Masters-level students in the USA or the UK and may returnwith a desire to change practice in their home institutions.

A change

process is underway but may be a longer-term process in the university
sector of any country, one which cannot be hurried, as with any change ofculture.
Notes1) USA 18%; UK 9.9%; Australia 7%; Canada 5.2% (OECD, 2011).
2) %Deutsch-Chinesisches Bildungsforums!, Konfuzius-Institut, Universit&t
Hamburg e.V., 9 September 2010.
3) Internationalising Education: Challenges and Rewards; a symposium South
Denmark University, 21-22 April 2009.
4) the activity approach, the competency approach, the ethos approach and theprocess approach (from Knight & de Wit 1995).
5) A !top-up" degree is a well-known expression in British universities.

It

refers to the common articulation agreements whereby students study forthe first two or three years in their home country, with the pass grades
recognised for credits prior to entry into the British university for the final
two years of a degree programme or final year.
6) The Portsmouth university policy that use of the VLE (Blackboard) is
obligatory for delivery of or support for learning in all modules including the
pre-sessional course. Japanese universities do not offer pre -sessionalcourses. However, students are supported in their language learning andpreparation for the Masters level entrance exam, an exam which also applies
to Japanese entrants.

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多国籍化する高等教育への国際的なアプローチ
トリシア・カヴァデール・ジョーンズ＜要旨＞

本論文は多国籍化する高等教育における世界的な学生移動の重要性について考察し、外国人留学生に関する研究に注目する。留学生研究の大半は、他の諸国・地域から多くの留学生を受け入れてきた経験をもつ欧米諸国で行われてきた。本研究が主張したいことは、東アジ
ア出身の学習者に対する月並みかつ二分法的な文化論である「欠陥モデル」から脱却することの必要性である。留学生に対する導入プログ
ラムやオリエンテーションは、多国籍化する高等教育が多様なアプローチをとっていることの実例であるとみなせる。
筆者が 2010 年に実施した調査からは、留学生に対して受け入れ大学が実施するオリエンテーションに関して、英国と日本の間により多くの共通性を見つけることができた。他方、中国と日英との間には共通点は少なかった。このことは留学生受け入れに関する経験知の差によるものではないかと考えられる。中国が北米・西欧諸国からの留学生受け入れを活発に行うようになったのは最近のことであり、以前は
東アジア地域からの受け入れが主であった。教職員や大学組織よりも、まず学生の異文化適応を重視する視点は、多国籍化する高等教育における国際化への「第一歩」であると考えられている(Ryan 2011)。

英国ポーツマス大学言語地域研究学部・主任講師
名古屋大学高等教育研究センター・客員准教授

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