（令和"年度前期日程）

英

語
９０ 分

注

意

事

項

１．試験開始の合図までこの冊子を開かないこと。
２．本問題冊子は１４ページ，答案用紙は!ページである。
３．各答案用紙の上の枠内には，受験番号を記入し，その右側の枠内には，受験番
号の下!桁の数字を忘れずに記入すること。
４．解答はすべて各答案用紙の所定欄に明瞭に記入すること。
５．問題冊子および答案用紙は切りはなさないこと。
６．答案用紙に記入する受験番号の数字の字体は，下記の例にならい，明瞭に記入
すること。

◇Ｍ４
（７７８―６７）

Ⅰ

次の英文を読んで，以下の設問に答えよ。（８５点）

Is language just communication?
To answer that, we need to ask: what is communication? At first blush, we
might say that communication is the exchange of information. We do use theEnglish word ‘communication’ to talk about when information is exchanged, but
we also use it to talk about expressing desires, feelings, orders, hopes, and allsorts of other aspects of our internal mental life. At least as we use the word in
English, human languages seem to go beyond mere exchange of information.
We don’t communicate only through language.

We can communicate allsorts of things through fashion, painting, music, dance, and other culturalactivities.

We can also communicate through raised eyebrows, smiles andgroans, and emojis.

Some of our communication is intentional, some of it isinadvertent ― think of those emails where you’ve cced＊１ the wrong person. Some

著作権処理の関係上，公開しておりません

of it is truth, some of it lies, and some of it neither. Some communication is

本文は，６ページまで続きます

about social status, or expectations of the moment, and much of it isunconscious. When my cat’s miaowing at me for food, and I impatiently say‘Yes, yes. I’m getting it. Just hang on till I get the tin opener,’ do I communicate
to her? She’s not a person, I’m pretty sure her miaowing isn’t a human language,
and I’m pretty sure she’s no idea what I’m saying.

In fact, she continually

miaows at me in a more and more desperate fashion as I struggle to open the tinof food, so me telling her I’m opening it is definitely not being successfullycommunicated.
Saying that language is communication doesn’t really give us much insight if
we just think about what the English word ‘communication’ means.

!

Isthere a way of understanding communication from the point of view of science?
There

are,

in

fact,

scientifictheoriesofwhatcommunicationis.

Communication can be understood as what happens when some information gets
encoded as a signal and is transmitted to something that receives it, decodes it,
― １ ―

◇Ｍ４
（７７８―６９）and thereby ends up with the message.

!

A digital radio transmittercommunicates information to a radio receiver by coding the sounds made in thestudio as a digital signal. This is then sent zooming over the internet, or overdigital radio networks, to your phone or laptop, which decodes it, and plays themusic.
Human beings communicate without language too. In the Sherlock Holmes
story, The Hound of the Baskervilles, there’s a murderer living on the moors（spoiler alert!）. The moors are barren and freezing and there’s nothing to eat.
But luckily for the murderer, his sister works in the big manor house and ismarried to the butler＊２ there. The butler and the sister concoct a plan to feed
the murderer ― the sister has a soft heart.

The butler communicates to themurderer that he can come and pick up food by holding a candle by a particular

window at a 著作権処理の関係上，公開しておりません
particular time. The murderer communicates he’s got the message,by holding up his own candle, in return. All this ends up disastrously when theintrepid Dr Watson gets involved.
This butler-murderer example is particularly instructive.

There’s nolanguage involved in the actual act of communication ― though there probably

was to set up how the communication would work ― but a life-or-death message
is communicated. How does this happen? It’s because both the sender of themessage（the butler）and the receiver（the murderer）know what the range ofmessages can be: it’s safe to come and get food, or it’s not safe. There are only
two possibilities: a candle at the window conveys it’s safe. No candle, it’s not.
Communication happens when the butler produces a signal. This is carried bylight waves through the night, to the eyes then the brain of the murderer, who isable to decode it. The act of communication has an effect on what the murderer
believes about the situation: his uncertainty about whether there is food to be got
at the back door is reduced.
You can even lie with this incredibly simple system of communication.
Imagine that someone had learned what the butler was up to, and signalled using
― ２ ―

◇Ｍ４
（７７８―７０）

a candle with the intention of luring the murderer to the back door to capture
him. Communication would still have happened, as the murderer’s uncertainty
about the situation would have been reduced.

Unfortunately for him, thatparticular act of communication would have effectively been a lie. However, it
was still communication: a meaning was got across by means of a signal.
The American engineer and mathematician Claude Shannon, sometimes
called the father of information theory, developed a scientific understanding ofcommunication along these lines.

At the heart of this is the idea thatcommunication happens when the uncertainty of the receiver of the message isreduced.

In our Sherlock Holmes example, the murderer has a finite set of

possible messages ― there are just two possible messages. Before he’s seen thesignal, he doesn’t know whether coming to the back door to get food is going to

著作権処理の関係上，公開しておりません
be successful.
After the signal, he at least thinks he knows. So he’s received aunit of information ― what Shannon called a bit. For Shannon, communication
happens when something receives units of information and a unit of information
is just something that affects your certainty about the world.
Shannon’s theory also allowed for what happens when the message iscorrupted as it’s transmitted.

In our example, we could imagine that themurderer might be hallucinating, and see a candle when there was none. The
message ― no candle at the appointed time, so it’s not safe ― is not received
properly because of the murderer’s hallucinations.

Or perhaps a gargoyle＊３,

knocked off its perch by a Dartmoor storm, blocks the line of sight from themurderer’s hideaway, so he doesn’t see the signal.

In this case the signal isgiven, but not received. Shannon modelled interference like this as noise in thesignal, and its effect was to lower the amount of information that the receiver
gets. Less is communicated.
We certainly do use language to communicate in Shannon’s sense. When
I’m writing this, I’m attempting to provide information to you that reduces youruncertainty about what I think about the topics in this book.
― ３ ―You gain◇Ｍ４（７７８―７１）

information, that you can then think about, ignore, criticize, laugh at, blog about,or whatever.

We can, in fact, take a well developed scientific approach tocommunication, like Shannon’s, and say that language is used to communicate inthat sense. Perhaps all of the other things we do with language which aren’tstrictly communication ― like me talking to my cat ― are offshoots of thatprimary fact.
In Shannon’s approach, communication has happened when a signal istransmitted that changes the receiver’s certainty about the world. This meansthat the receiver has to have a finite bunch of possible ways she or he thinks theworld is, and all the signal does is shrink these down to a smaller bunch. For themurderer, there are two possible ways the world can be（safe or not safe）, andthe candle signal reduces these down to one.

Meaning著作権処理の関係上，公開しておりません
in language doesn’t work like that, though. Sentences in language

create meanings where there were none before: part of the amazingness oflanguage is its creativity, its ability to conjure up new ideas that have never been
considered before.

!

If I say to you The giant spider knitted me abeautiful new hat, or A purple hippo just licked my toe, I’ve not reduced youruncertainty about the world, I’ve created new concepts in your mind.

I’vecreated a fictional world for you.
There is another objection to thinking of communication in Shannon’s sense
as central to what language is. Communication is one of the things language canbe used for, certainly, but just because something is used to do something, that
doesn’t tell us what that something is.

"

Alcohol ― strictly speaking, ethyl alcohol ― is used to, shall we say,lubricate＊４ social situations. But it is also used to disinfect wounds or medical
instruments, or to ease stress or heartache.

It can be used to dissolve otherchemicals to make a solution（think sloe gin）, to preserve foods, and it is used inthermometers because of its low freezing point. However, although alcohol isused for all of these things, the uses don’t tell us what alcohol is. To know what
― ４ ―

◇Ｍ４
（７７８―７２）

alcohol is, we ask a chemist, who tells us that its chemical formula is
CH３CH２OH.
Alcohol has a structure, and many uses. It occurs naturally as a side effectof fermenting sugar.

Certainly, human beings and some enterprising otheranimals, including the chimpanzees of Guinea in West Africa, have learned to use
alcohol to alter the way they feel, and, we humans have learned how to make it
ourselves.

But to understand why alcohol has the uses it has, we need tounderstand it scientifically.
For example, the reason that alcohol gets us drunk is that its chemical
structure allows it to lock onto a particular kind of neural organization in ourbrains.

When it does this, we end up with an imbalance inourneurotransmitters, and that lowers inhibitions, lowers our control over our

著作権処理の関係上，公開しておりません

physical actions and thought capacities, and produces the various otherpleasurable and not-so-pleasurable effects of being drunk.

Other aspects ofalcohol’s chemical structure ensure it has a low freezing point, is inimical tobacteria, and so on.
When we talk about what alcohol is（its chemical structure）, and what it’sused for（lots of things）, these are quite distinct things. On the one hand wehave the form of alcohol, which we understand by using chemistry, and on theother hand we have the functions of alcohol, what it does and what it is used for.
The structure tells us why the alcohol does what it does. アルコールの構造と用途の両方ともが，アルコールとは何か，そしてそれが人間の社会でどのように働くかを理解するうえで，重要である。 Language is just the same.
Language is used to communicate à la Shannon＊５ or in some other way,without doubt, but it is used to do many other things too. Some of these might
be thought of as side effects of its primary use as communication. Talking to mycat might be like this: I’m so used to using language to communicate that I still

use it in circumstances where communication is impossible.
We also use language to order our thoughts, when we speak to ourselves in
― ５ ―

◇Ｍ４
（７７８―７３）

our heads: planning what to do next, thinking about why the things that
happened took place, considering other people’s feelings, motivations, andintentions.
We use language to express our own feelings and thoughts, even when no
one is around to hear them. Reams of poetry, and diaries, and academic papers
have been written that were never meant to be read by anyone else than theirauthor. I have tens of notebooks full of writing that（I hope）no one else is

著作権処理の関係上，公開しておりません!
It is to help me to think. I’m not communicating togoing to see.

myself, since I can’t be transferring information to me that I already have.
There are at least two broad functions for language: communication, andexpressing, ordering, and even creating our thoughts. We don’t really have any
way of saying which is the primary use. We do, however, have ways of trying tofind out what the structure of language is.

［Adapted from David Adger, Language Unlimited: The Science Behind Our Most
Creative Power. Oxford: Oxford University Press, ２０１９: ３５―４１.］＊１

cced 同報（cc）の宛先に入れて送った＊２

butler 執事＊３

gargoyle ゴシック建築の屋根等によくみられる，怪物の形をした雨水の落とし口＊４

lubricate 円滑にする＊５

à la Shannon シャノン流にⅠ―１．下線部 ‘the actual act of communication’ において，誰が何をして，それぞれ何を伝えるのか。７０字以内の日本語で説明せよ。（句読点も文字数に含める。）

Ⅰ―２．下線部を日本語に訳せ。
― ６ ―

◇Ｍ４
（７７８―７４）

Ⅰ―３．下線部を英語に訳せ。

Ⅰ―４．下線部を日本語に訳せ。

!

Ⅰ―５．

から

"

のそれぞれに入れるのにもっとも適切な文をＡからＥの中から選び，記号で答えよ。

Ａ．Can we do better than just trying to analyse the concept?
Ｂ．It’s the engine of our imaginations.
Ｃ．Language doesn’t need to be involved at all.
Ｄ．The function of that writing is not to communicate.
Ｅ．Use isn’t essence.

Ⅰ―６．以下のとの答としてもっとも適切なものをＡからＥの中から選び，記号
で答えよ。



Which of the following is one of the objections to Shannon’s theory madeby the author?
Ａ．that messages can get distorted or obstructed on their way to thereceiverＢ．that senders may create and share concepts that may never haveoccurred to recipientsＣ．that some people communicate primarily through facial expressions
that are more likely to be misunderstood than words
Ｄ．that there are many functions for language that can be classified by
the frequency of their use
Ｅ．that under the influence of alcohol, senders and receivers of messages
are likely to miscommunicate

― ７ ―

◇Ｍ４
（７７８―７５）

Which is a use of language NOT mentioned in the text?
Ａ．to make sense, on our own, of things that occurred in the past
Ｂ．to pass information along from one person to another
Ｃ．to reflect on what other people may be experiencing inside themselves
Ｄ．to support our cognitive processes even without an audience
Ｅ．to understand another culture by learning its language

Ⅰ―７．以下の!から１０の文の中から本文の内容に一致するものを"つ選び，番号で答えよ。

１．Cultural activities such as painting, music, and dance are communicative
to the extent that they can be interpreted through language.
２．The author categorizes emojis as elements of language that indicate
degrees of consensus.
３．The author discusses radio transmission and receipt to illustrate thenotion of unconscious communication.
４．In the example of the candles, the author suggests that verbal
exchanges may have happened prior to nonverbal communication.
５．The author illustrates a situation where communication can be complete
even if the content of a message is not true.
６．A variety of interpretations will be generated whenever an act ofcommunication is successful.
７．Some applications of alcohol include facilitating social situations,sanitizing medical devices, and soothing emotional pain.
８．For writers, the ultimate goal of writing is not to explore their own
internal life, but to convey information to others.
９．Giving examples of a candle, a gargoyle, and a cat, the author
demonstrates that human language is fundamentally symbolic.
１０．Chimpanzees and cats communicate among those of their species inways that humans fail to recognize as language.
― ８ ―

◇Ｍ４
（７７８―７６）

Ⅱ

次の英文を読んで，以下の設問に答えよ。（６５点）

Mathematicians are a bit of a misunderstood breed. Most people think thatas a research mathematician I must be sitting in my office in Oxford doing longdivision to lots of decimal＊１ places or multiplying six-digit numbers together inmy head. Far from being a super-calculator, something a computer is clearlymuch better and faster at doing, a mathematician, as G. H. Hardy＊２ first
explained to me, is at heart a pattern searcher. Mathematics is the science of
spotting and explaining patterns.
It’s this ability to spot a pattern that gives humans an edge in negotiatingthe natural world, because it allows us to plan into the future. Humans havebecome very adept at spotting these patterns, because those who missed thepattern didn’t survive. When people I meet declare（as alas so often happens）: ‘I
don’t have a brain for maths’, I counter that in fact we all have evolved to have

著作権処理の関係上，公開しておりません

mathematical brains because our brains are good at spotting patterns.
Sometimes they are too good, reading patterns into data where none exists, asmany viewers
did when confronted with Richter’s＊３ random coloured squares at
本文は，13ページまで続きます
the Serpentine Gallery.
For me, some of the very first pattern recognition comes along with some ofthe very first art to be drawn. The cave paintings in Lascaux＊４ depict exquisite
images of animals racing across the walls.

The movement of a stampede of

aurochs is amazingly captured in these frozen images. It is intriguing to ask why
the artist felt compelled to represent these images underground. What role didthey play?
Alongside these images are what I believe to be some of the earliest


recorded mathematics.

A cluster of dots is understood to represent theconstellation of the Pleiades＊５, which is highest in the sky in the Northernhemisphere in the summer. There is then a strange series of dots, thirteen in
number, ending with a great picture of a stag＊６ with huge antlers above the
― ９ ―

◇Ｍ４
（７７８―７７）thirteenth dot. Next you get twenty-six dots ending with a picture of a pregnant
horse. What is this abstract sequence of dots depicting? One conjecture is thateach dot represents a quarter of a moon.

Thirteen quarters of the moon

represent a quarter of a year. So perhaps these dots are depicting a season,
telling the viewer that a season on from sighting the Pleiades high in the sky is agood time to hunt stag, because at that time they are rutting＊７ and vulnerable.
In order to relay this information, someone had to spot that a pattern of
behaviour seemed to repeat itself each year and that the pattern of animal

著作権処理の関係上，公開しておりません

behaviour corresponded to the pattern of moon phases. The drive to recognisesuch patterns was clearly practically motivated.

There is utility driving thediscovery.
Here we see the first ingredient of mathematics: the concept of number.
Being able to formulate an accurate sense of numbers has been crucial to thesurvival of many animals. It will inform whether you fight or fly in the face of arival pack. Sophisticated experiments have been done on newly born chicks thatreveal quite a complex number ability hardwired into the brain. The chicks wereable to judge that five is more than two and less than eight.
But to give these numbers names and represent them by symbols is auniquely human ability.

Part of our mathematical development has involved

finding clever ways to identify or name these numbers.

The ancient Mayans

represented numbers with dots. They depicted the number by writing something
down with the same number of elements.

But at some point this becomesinefficient because it’s hard to distinguish five dots from six dots. So someone
had the clever idea of putting a line through the four dots to indicate five dots,
just like a prisoner counting down the days till their release on the wall of thejail.
The Romans used a system whereby as numbers got bigger they were given
new names: X for ten; C for a hundred; M for a thousand.

The Ancient

Egyptians too used new hieroglyphs to indicate another zero on the end of a
― １０ ―◇Ｍ４（７７８―７８）

number: a heel bone for ten; a coil of rope for １００; a lotus plant for １０００. But
this system quickly gets out of hand as we get into the millions or billions. You
need new symbols for each new large number.
The Mayans, who were doing sophisticated astronomy, needed big numbers
to keep track of large swathes of time.

They came up with a clever way to

overcome the Roman problem. Called the place value system, it is the system we
use today to write down big numbers. In our decimal system the positions of thedigits indicate that they correspond to different powers of １０. Take the number
１２３. Here we have ３ units, ２ lots of １０ and １ lot of １００. There is nothing special

著作権処理の関係上，公開しておりません

about the choice of １０ beyond the fact that we can use our fingers to count up to
１０. Indeed, the Mayans had symbols all the way up to ２０, and the position of adigit counted powers of ２０. So １２３ in Mayan mathematics denoted ３ units, ２ lotsof ２０ and １ lot of ２０２ ＝４００, making a total of.

The Mayans were not the first to come up with this clever idea of using theposition of a number to indicate that it is counting different powers of １０（or ２０
in the case of the Mayans）. Four thousand years ago the Ancient Babylonians
had come up with this idea of the place value system. Instead of counting up to
２０ like the Mayans, or in decimal as we do today, the Babylonians had symbols
all the way up to ５９ and then they started a new column.


The choice of

was influenced by the high divisibility of this number.

It can be

divided by ２, ３, ４, ５, ６, １０, １２, １５, ２０ and ３０. This makes it a very efficientchoice for doing arithmetic.
Necessity, efficiency and utility were driving these mathematical choices.
We see their repercussions today in the way we keep track of time: ６０ minutes in
the hour, ６０ seconds in the minute.

Napoleon tried to get the measurement

authorities to track time using a decimal system, but fortunately that nevercaught on.
In the cuneiform tablets＊８ the Ancient Babylonians left behind we witness
the first mathematical analysis of how these numbers relate to the world around― １１ ―◇Ｍ４（７７８―７９）

us. More sophisticated mathematics was born soon after, in conjunction with thegrowth of the city states around the Euphrates. To build, to tax, to do commercerequire mathematical tools. These tablets reveal that officials were tabulating,for example, the number of workers and days necessary for the building of acanal, to calculate the total expenses of wages of the workers. この段階で行われていた数学については特に困難なこともおもしろいこともない, but it clearly got
some scribes thinking about what else you could do with these numbers.
They started to discover clever tricks to help them with their calculations.

著作権処理の関係上，公開しておりません

We find tablets with all the square numbers written out. These tablets were aids
for calculating how to multiply large numbers together, because someone had
noticed the interesting relationship between multiplying numbers and adding theirsquares. Captured by the algebraic relationship２２
A × B ＝（（ A ＋ B ）−（ A − B ））/４the scribe realised that you could use these tables of squares to work out A × B.
First add A and B and look up the square of the answer and then subtract fromthat the square of A − B. Then divide the answer by ４. What is so exciting hereis that this is a very early example of an algorithm at work. Here is a methodthat reduces the job of multiplying two numbers A and B together to the simpler
task of adding and subtracting the numbers followed by using the database ofsquares contained on the tablet of squares. It works whatever the numbers A
and B are, provided the squares don’t exceed those calculated on the tablet.
Although the Babylonians were tapping into an algebraic way of thinking
about numbers, they were far from having the language to articulate what they
were doing. The equation I have written down only became possible thousandsof years later when the Arabic and Persian scholars in the House of Wisdom in
ninth-century Iraq developed the language of algebra. The Ancient Babylonians
did not start writing down why this method or algorithm always gave the right― １２ ―◇Ｍ４（７７８―８０）

answer. It worked and that was good enough. The curiosity to come up with a

way to explain why it always worked would come later. This is why the word

著作権処理の関係上，公開しておりません‘algorithm’ comes from the chief librarian and astronomer at the House of
Wisdom, Al-Khwarizmi, who founded the subject of algebra even though the firstalgorithms can be found in Ancient Babylonia.

［Adapted from Marcus du Sautoy, The Creativity Code: How AI Is Learning toWrite, Paint and Think. London: ４th Estate, ２０１９: １５５―１５９.］＊１

decimal 小数の，十進法の＊２

G. H. Hardy イギリスの数学者（１８７７-１９４７）＊３Richter ドイツの画家（１９３２-）＊４

Lascaux ラスコー（フランス南西部の地名）＊５

the Pleiades すばる，プレイアデス星団＊６stag 雄鹿＊７

rutting＊８

cuneiform tablets 楔形文字を刻んだ書字板

発情しているⅡ―１．下線部を日本語に訳せ。

Ⅱ―２．下 線 部で，壁 画 に 描 か れ て い る「点」
（dots）を ‘some of the earliest
recorded mathematics’ だと著者が考えるのはなぜか。本文の内容に沿って，８０字以内の日本語で説明せよ。（句読点も文字数に含める。）

Ⅱ―３．下線部を英語に訳せ。There で始めること。

Ⅱ―４．下線部を日本語に訳せ。

― １３ ―◇Ｍ４（７７８―８１）

Ⅱ―５．空欄

と

には数字が入る。それぞれの空欄に入れるのにふさわしい算用数字を答えよ。

Ⅱ―６．以下の!から#の文の中から本文の内容に一致するものを"つ選び，番号で答えよ。

１．G. H. Hardy was slow in calculation, but excelled in finding universal
patterns to explain mathematics to ordinary people.
２．Those who do not have mathematical brains tend to see patterns where
there are none.
３．In some of the cave paintings found in Lascaux, you can find the very
moment when aurochs were hunted by huntsmen in the coldest seasonof the year.
４．Chicks have a natural ability to distinguish among certain smaller andlarger numbers, which, the text implies, plays a role in their survival.
５．In ancient Mayan communities, prisoners were required to count down
the days till their release on the wall of the jail.
６．The Mayan system of writing down numbers was superior to that of the
Romans when it came to handling big numbers.
７．Ancient Babylonian cuneiform tablets demonstrate that mathematics
was used for the purpose of education.
８．The word ‘algorithm’ comes from Al-Khwarizmi, who discovered amethod to find the product of two numbers, using tablets with squarenumbers.
９．The primary purpose of this passage is to persuade the reader thatmathematics is the key to success in life.

― １４ ―◇Ｍ４（７７８―８２）