87

Geoecological Studies in the Kangchenjunga Conservation Area,
Eastern Nepal Himalaya
Teiji WATANABE
Faculty of Environmental Earth Science
Hokkaido University,
N10, W5, Sapporo 060-0810, Japane-mail: twata@ees.hokudai.ac.jp

Abstract
Hokkaido University has conducted interdisciplinary geoecological research in the Kangchenjunga
Conservation Area, far-eastern Nepal, since 1997, with the collaboration of Tribhuvan University, Nepal.
The final goals of the project are to establish safe ecotourism and to promote biodiversity conservation.
To fulfill these goals, the first phase of the project from 1997 to 2000 focused on collecting basic data
related to geomorphic dynamics, such as permafrost, hazards, and glacier-related phenomena, as well as
wildlife habitat. Field activities in the second phase after 2001 underwent a great slowdown due topolitical insecurity. Nevertheless, this project has produced six Master’s theses and three PhD theses
so far.
Air temperatures at one-hour intervals were monitored at altitudes of 3,407 m, 4,755 m, and6,012 m. Permafrost distribution was examined by the methods of electric resistivity sounding, seismic
sounding, ground-temperature profile measurement, and BTS measurement. The lateral moraines of the
major valley glaciers, such as the Kangchenjunga Glacier, were subject to landslides, which are most
likely to be occurring even today. Vertical aerial photographs taken in 1992 were interpreted to identify
the distribution of glacial lakes, which showed no immediate threat of GLOF (glacial lake outburst
floods). The field observations, however, indicate that many small lakes are developing rapidly on
major debris-covered glaciers. The landslides are regarded as an immediate disturbance today and theglacial lakes may be regarded as possible disturbances in the near future with regard to the developmentof safe ecotourism in the area. Blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur), the most frequently observed large wild
mammal in the area, is an important prey species for the endangered snow leopard (Panthera uncia),also present in the study area. Blue sheep are also of direct interest to visitors and thus important to any
ecotourism management plans for this area.
This paper emphasizes the importance of a geoecological approach to establishing and developing
safe ecotourism in the high Himalaya with an example from the integrated results in the uppermost area
along the Kangchenjunga Glacier. In order to effectively utilize research results, research projects needto consider local peoples’ involvement.
Key words: biodiversity conservation, ecotourism, geoecology, Kangchenjunga Conservation Area,
mountain hazard, Nepal Himalaya, sustainable development

1. Introduction
The Kangchenjunga (Kanchenjunga, Kanchanjunga) area, located in far-eastern Nepal (Fig. 1), wasopened to foreign trekkers in 1987. It was designateda conservation area in 1997. The number of trekkers
in the area is only 700-800 persons per year. The
infrastructure is not yet well developed, and difficultaccess requires trekkers to spend more time andmoney. It may, however, be natural to expect moretrekkers when the infrastructure and accessibility are
Global Environmental Research
10(1)/2006: 87-98
printed in Japan

improved in the future. Then, the area could see development similar to other places in the highHimalaya, such as in Sagarmatha National Park. If
the Kangchenjunga area follows such developments,
traditional mountain cultures and practices as well as
ecosystems could be destroyed. It is hoped that ecotourism can be established and developed in the
Kangchenjunga area before disordered development
has a chance to ruin it. Another concern is that humanactivities may induce hazards as Messerli and Ives
(1984) have shown in China. Also, human activities©2006 AIRIES

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Teiji WATANABE

including ecotourism may be disturbed by occurrencesof hazards. Establishing and developing ecotourism,
therefore, will require implementation of safety measures against hazardous processes in high relief areas.
In this context, ecotourism in the Kangchenjunga
Conservation Area should focus on ensuring safety.
In this study, ‘safe ecotourism’ refers to ecotourism
which ensures the safety of mountain residents andtrekkers from hazards.
A geoecological research project in the Kangchenjunga Conservation Area was launched by Hokkaido
University in 1997 by agreement with Tribhuvan

University in Nepal. This project’s aims are to contribute to sustainable development and environmental
conservation by introducing and establishing safe
ecotourism; to augment scientific knowledge of thehigh Himalaya where they are under strong monsoon
influence; and to train students and young scientists ofboth institutes (Watanabe & Gautam, 1999). Socioeconomic approaches are often utilized in establishingand developing ecotourism; however, this projectfocuses more on physical aspects.
This paper outlines the major results of the project;integrates the results obtained in the uppermost area
along the Kangchenjunga Glacier; and discusses thesignificance of the geoecological approach to establishing safe ecotourism in the high Himalaya.

2. Background and Project Framework

Fig. 1 Study area. The distribution of the present glaciers isshown in light blue (simplified from Asahi, 2004).

When the establishment of the Kangchenjunga
Conservation Area was planned, the Nepali government together with the WWF Nepal Program sent
teams to collect basic data, including infrastructure(Gurung, 1996), forests and ecology (Carpenter et al.,1994a, b; Yonzon, 1996). Schellhorn and Simmons(2000) also helped plan tourism in the area for the
WWF Nepal Program. The Kangchenjunga Conservation Area Project (KCAP) was formed to protect
local environments and to help in improving local
communities’ living standards (Müller-Böker &Kollmair, 2000; Gurung & Gurung, 2001). No indepth academic research, however, had been conducted to ensure safe ecotourism.
This project centers on physical aspects of geomorphic dynamics (geo-components) and ecological studies (bio-components). The geomorphic dynamics
studied include periglacial processes, permafrost, andglacier-related phenomena (Fig. 2). All information
derived from these studies is supposed to be integrated

Fig. 2 Framework of the project emphasizing geoecological approach to safe
ecotourism development in the Kangchenjunga Conservation Area.

Geoecological Studies in the Kangchenjunga Conservation Area, Eastern Nepal Himalaya

to establish safe ecotourism; however, field studies
have been hampered by Maoist activities in the area
since 2001. Since then the only on-going field activity
has been to maintain air temperature measurements at
6,012 m.
Nevertheless, this project has produced four
Master’s theses (Nakamura, 2000; Gautam, 2002;
Otaki, 2002; Regmi, 2003) and three PhD theses(Asahi, 2004; Ikeda, 2005; Regmi, 2006) from
Hokkaido University; and two Master’s theses(Timilsina, 2001; Pradhan, 2003) from Tribhuvan University so far.
This geoecological approach can be a model forthe introduction of ecotourism in the high Himalaya,where rapid melting of permafrost and glaciers andfrequent occurrences of hazards, such as landslides,
debris flows, rockfall, avalanches, and glacial lake
outburst floods (GLOF), are commonly observed. The
major results of the individual components of theframework (Fig. 2) will be outlined in the following
pages. The results of the 1997 and 1998 visits havebeen reported in Japanese (Watanabe, 1998, 1999).
Studies on socio-economic and cultural aspects(Gautam, 1997a), infrastructure and local economy(Regmi, 2001; Regmi & Watanabe, 2001), and domesticated animal husbandry (Watanabe & Ikeda, 1999;
Ikeda, 2005) are excluded from discussion in thispaper.

3. Outline of the Major Results
3.1 Meteorological observations
No systematic meteorological stations have been
established in the Kangchenjunga area: only air temperature and precipitation measurements have beenrecorded with automatic data loggers.
Air temperatures have been recorded at altitudes of
6,012 m (South Tengkoma, December 1998-present),
4,835 m (South Lhonak, December 1998-October 2001),
and 3,407 m (Ghunsa, October 1997-March 2001; with89

some data missing due to vandalism) at one-hourintervals. Table 1 summarizes the data at these threestations. The extreme minimum air temperatureduring the monitoring period at 6,012 m was minus
28.3oC (10 January 1999), and the extreme maximum
air temperature at 6,012 m was plus 9.3oC (24 April
2003).
Precipitation data are available only for a six
month period in 2001: the total amount of precipitation from June to November was 299.2 mm on the
Kangchenjunga Glacier (4,648 m) and 425.4 mm on
the mid-slope at an altitude of 5,235 m.
3.2 Geo-component studies
Periglacial processes
The periglacial landforms observed in the area include earth hummocks, solifluction lobes, vegetatedand non-vegetated polygons, and rock glaciers. Figure 3
shows the altitudinal arrangement of the major
periglacial landforms along the Ghunsa Valley.
Rates of downslope movement of the solifluction
lobes monitored by glass fiber tubes at 5,322-5,414 m
were much smaller (2-18 mm/year) than those in otherregions of the world, such as in the Swiss Alps andJapanese mountains (Regmi & Watanabe, 2005). The
rates of displacement may be more pronounced at altitudes above 5,600 m because of the frequent freezethaw cycles during summer seasons. The number ofeffective freeze-thaw cycles (EFTC), defined as atemperature fall below minus 2oC followed by a rise
above plus 2oC (Matsuoka, 1990), was calculated at
different altitudes. Debris-mantled slopes exist up to
approximately 6,000 m, so the upper limit of thedebris-mantled slopes coincides with the upper limitof the effective freeze-thaw belt. This determines theupper limit of sorted polygons, as well as other typesof periglacial landforms (Fig. 3). Periglacial process
studies planned at altitudes above 5,600 m, however,
have not been realized yet due to the recent unstable
political situation.

Table 1 Monthly maximum, mean, and minimum air temperatures at South Tengkoma (6,012 m),
South Lhonak (4,835 m) and Ghunsa (3,407 m).
Jan.

Feb.

Mar.

Apr.

May

June

July

Aug.

Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

Mean

South Tengkoma (6,012 m), for a six-year period from 1 December 1998 to 30 November 2004
Monthly max

– 9.7

– 9.6

– 6.9

– 2.9

0.1

2.8

3.6

3.6

2.4

– 1.2

– 4.2

– 7.3

– 2.4

Monthly mean

– 14.4 – 14.3 – 12.0

– 8.8

– 5.4

– 1.9

– 0.7

– 0.9

– 2.5

– 6.5

– 9.5 – 12.2

– 7.4

Monthly min– 18.1 – 18.0 – 15.9 – 12.8

– 9.2

– 5.1

– 3.3

– 3.5

– 5.8 – 10.3 – 13.2 – 15.8 – 10.9

South Lhonak (4,835 m), for 2 years and 11 months from December 1998 to October 2001
Monthly max

– 4.4

– 3.7

– 2.5

2.6

5.5

7.6

8.0

2.6

5.8

3.7

– 0.5

– 2.5

1.9

Monthly mean

– 8.3

– 7.9

– 7.0

– 2.3

1.3

4.1

4.9

1.6

2.5

– 1.3

– 4.9

– 6.6

– 2.0

Monthly min– 11.4 – 11.0 – 10.3

– 5.8

– 1.6

1.6

2.7

1.0

0.4

– 4.1

– 7.9

– 9.4

– 4.7

11.4

8.7

5.3

11.0

Ghunsa (3,407 m), for 2 years from November 1997 to October 1999
Monthly max

4.5

7.0

8.2

12.4

14.0

15.5

15.1

14.6

14.8

Monthly mean

– 3.6

– 0.4

0.8

5.6

8.4

11.2

11.6

11.3

10.0

4.8

1.3

– 2.7

4.9

Monthly min

– 9.2

– 6.5

– 5.2

– 0.3

3.7

7.6

9.3

9.0

6.4

0.1

– 4.0

– 8.4

0.2

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Teiji WATANABE

Regmi (2003, 2006) examined rockfall along theuppermost section of the Ghunsa Valley. He concluded
that: (1) the south-facing rockwall experiences frequent diurnal freeze-thaw cycles, while the northfacing rockwall is characterized by seasonal freezethaw cycles; (2) the south-facing rockwall has agreater number and the larger amount of rockfall than
the north-facing rockwall has; and (3) the altitudinalbelt at which rockfall activities occur ranges from5,400 m to 6,000 m on the south-facing rockwalls, andfrom 5,000 m to 5,600 m on the north-facing rockwalls (Fig. 3).
Mountain permafrost
The present lower limit for permafrost was determined by electrical resistivity soundings, seismic
soundings, ground-temperature profile monitoring,and basal temperature of snow (BTS) measurement.
A complex of three-fold rock glaciers in the Nupchu
Valley (Fig. 4) was examined in detail (Ishikawa et al.,2001a). An electrical resistivity tomogram (bottom
in Fig. 4) shows the existence of permafrost in theupper part of the rock glacier. Data on a groundtemperature profile for two and a half years andsledge-hammer seismic analyses show that the upperrock glacier has permafrost, the middle rock glacier
may have permafrost, but the lower rock glacier doesnot (Fig. 4 & Table 2). BTS data also suggest
permafrost in the upper and middle rock glaciers. The
lower limit of permafrost, therefore, exists at around
4,850 m here (Ishikawa et al., 2001b). The same
methods were extended to hazard issues on trails,
which will be discussed later.
Regmi (2006) examined the distribution of rockglaciers and permafrost in and around the Kangchenjunga Conservation Area. First, rock glaciers ofperiglacial origin and glacial-origin were both
mapped; and then the size, altitude, and aspect of eachof the rock glaciers only of periglacial origin wereanalyzed by GIS. The lower limit of permafrost in thearea was found to be 4,800 m (Fig. 3). Summer
precipitation leads to more freezing and thawing to
expand cracks of the rockwall surface, so that more
rockfall debris is produced. Therefore, the concurrence of the effective freeze-thaw cycles and large
exposed rockwall area, especially facing south, wasconsidered the major controlling factor for the development of the permafrost, including rock glaciers(Fig. 3).
Landslides
Numerous landslides have been observed in thelower area. Arita and Schelling (1999) prepared a geological map of the area. Arita (1999) identified a
detailed salient napper structure and a tectonic window boundary along the Tamur and Arun rivers.

Fig. 4 Longitudinal profile of the Nupchu Rock Glacier withelectric resistivity analysis, ground temperature profile,and BTS measurement results (compiled from
Watanabe et al., 2000 and Ishikawa et al., 2001a, bwith unpublished data). SA1-3: seismic analysis (seeTable 2). Location is shown in Fig. 1.
Table 2 Results of the seismic analysis by a handy seismograph (OYO Co., McSEIS-3) on the Nupchu RockGlacier (Nakamura & Watanabe, 1999). Locations
are shown in Fig. 4.

Fig. 3 Altitudinal arrangement of the major periglacial
landforms along the Ghunsa Valley. The altitudes of
rockfall, exposed rockwall, and effective freezethaw belt were taken from Regmi (2006).

Location

Altitude(m)SA14,996-4,997

SA2

4,888-4,890

SA3

4,850

Run

Z: thickness of active layer.

V1
V2(m/sec) (m/sec)
1-1 458
1,572
1-2 275
3,300
1-3 3143,301
2-1 550
1,572
2-2 314917
2-3 324786
2-4 262
1,100
3-1 786
917

Z
(m)
2.8
2.2
1.5
2.8
2.1
1.9
2.4
-

Geoecological Studies in the Kangchenjunga Conservation Area, Eastern Nepal Himalaya

These geological studies are important in predicting
and controlling landslides because the landslide occurrence is related to geology: landslides are concentrated
in the Main Central Thrust Zone and Lesser
Himalayan Metasedimentary Thrust Zone in the lower
area and in the Higher Himalayan Crystalline Zone in
the Kangchenjunga Conservation Area. GIS studiesof land use/cover changes in and around theKangchenjunga Conservation Area by Gautam (2002)
and Gautam and Watanabe (2004) could also be relevant to extracting the landslide-geology distribution.
Another type of landslide is observed on themoraines at 4,760-5,200 m in the upper area
(Watanabe et al., 2000). Comparison of oblique
aerial photographs taken by Tomoya Iozawa in 1981,
aerial photographs taken in 1992, and results of the
field observations in 1998-1999 indicate that some of
the landslides have developed at least since 1992
(Nakamura, 2000). Figure 5 shows the landslide
scars near Lhonak. The large scar in the right half ofFig. 5 (Block A) is evident on the oblique aerial
photograph taken in 1981. However, the scar in theleft half (Block C) does not appear in the same
photograph, nor in the aerial photograph taken in 1992.
It is only recorded in the field observation in 1998.
This means that the scar on the left (Block C) had
developed between 1992 and 1998. Moreover, asatellite image taken in 2006 shows that newlandslides have occurred on the lateral moraines of theBroken, Tsisima, and Yalung glaciers.
We applied electrical resistivity soundings toinvestigate permafrost as a possible cause of the landslides. However, no permafrost was found, only possible small ice bodies. This implies that the landslides
developed during the final stage of permafrost melting.
Another possible cause is unloading due to therecent rapid deglaciation. The former surface level

Fig. 591of the Kangchenjunga Glacier was estimated with thehelp of studies on glacial chronology (Asahi &Watanabe, 2000). The results suggest that a 100 m
thick layer of glacial ice has melted in the past century.
This estimate is also supported by an old photographof the Janu (Jannu) Glacier, some 9 km to the south,
published in the book, ‘Round Kangchengjunga’(Freshfield, 1903). Landslides in this area occur at
the foot of the south- to east-facing slopes alone;north-facing slopes tend to be occupied by bedrock
cliff and talus cones. Deglaciation cannot be excluded
as a possible explanation for the landslides.
Although causes of the landslides cannot be
confirmed, the important consideration is that trails,
lodges and campsites not be located on the lateralmoraines with the landslides. Many fresh and small
cracks on the moraine surface (one example isobserved between Block A and Block B in Fig. 5)
indicate that the landslides are enlarging even today.
Further development of landslides on the lateralmoraines could lead to hazards if the area is developed.
It is important to monitor landslides at high altitudes
because similar features are observed in other
Himalayan regions as well.
Glacial fluctuation
Asahi (1999, 2001, 2004) mapped the distributionof the present glaciers. Existing glaciers spread over
the area above approximately 5,000 m, and theglacialized area covers 314 km2 in total (Asahi, 1999).
A comparison of 1958 and 1992 aerial photographs
reveals that 50% of the 57 glaciers in the Ghunsa
Khola drainage basin retreated during that period,
38% were stationary, and 12% advanced (Asahi &Watanabe, 2000).
Asahi and Watanabe (2000) and Tsukamoto et al.
(2002) reached different conclusions from Khule(1990), who described the glaciation and glacial chro-Landslides developed on the lateral moraines near Lhonak.
(photograph by T. Watanabe; May 2001)
The frontal part is the debris-covered Kangchenjunga Glacier withsmall glacial lakes. Block A: formed before 1981; Block B: formed
before 1981 but enlarged after 1992; Block C: formed between 1992
and 1998.

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Teiji WATANABE

nology in the area. Geographical positions of glacial
landforms, relative dating data, and 14C and opticallystimulated luminescence (OSL) dating data led to theclassification of the glacial activities into five stages:
the Little Ice Age, Holocene, Late Glacial (correlatedwith the Younger Dryas), the Last Glacial Maximum,
and the early substages of the Last Glacial (correlatedwith the marine isotope stage (MIS) 3). The valley
glaciers extended nearly to the same termini from theLate Glacial to the Little Ice Age. Even in the Last
Glacial Maximum and MIS3, the termini were somewhat larger than those of the Late Glacial. Aerial
photograph interpretation and field observation identified changing valley morphology from an ambiguous
U-shape to a V-shape along the Ghunsa River (Khola)at an altitude of approximately 2,800 m.
Glacial lake outbursts
Watanabe et al. (1998) examined the distributionof glacial lakes in the Kangchenjunga area. They
identified 116 lakes in the basin of the upper Tamur
River, to the west of the Kangchenjunga Conservation
Area. They confirmed the source area of a glaciallake outburst flood (GLOF) which occurred in 1980,
and estimated the flooded river course down valley.
They concluded from this earlier survey that GLOFs
are not a direct threat to the area, although Mool et al.
(2001) categorized three lakes in the western part of
the Kangchenjunga area as ‘dangerous.’
The 2001 field visit to the Kangchenjunga Glacier,however, resulted in a different view. In the last few
years, the Kangchenjunga Glacier has melted greatly,developing many small supraglacial lakes (Fig. 5):
only a few in 1997, but more than 30 in 2001. Sakai
et al. (2000) as a part of the Japanese Glaciological
Expedition Project examined the melt water of thedebris-covered glacier in Khumbu Himal. They
found that the melting speed is much greater than therate predicted by experimental studies. This isbecause small lakes on a debris-covered glacier andthe surrounding exposed ice cliff absorb a greatamount of energy, which causes the glaciers to melt
rapidly once the glacial ice contacts the water body.
The water flows from the lakes, causing the glacier tomelt rapidly (e.g., Watanabe et al., 1995) and modifies

Fig. 6the surface morphology creating new ice exposure andlakes. The present tendency, creating many smalllakes, is therefore expected eventually to result in thedevelopment of a large glacial lake on the
Kangchenjunga Glacier. The satellite image from2006 indicates small lakes on the Lhonak and Tsisima
glaciers (Fig. 1), which are not visible in the aerial
photographs from 1992.
3.3 Bio-component studies
Wildlife conservation
The major wildlife in the area was reported by the
WWF team (Wegge, 1991; Sherpa, 1994; Yonzon,
1996) including those species with protected status,
such as snow leopard (Panthera uncia), musk deer
(Moschus chrysogaster), and red panda (Alilurus
fulgens). Our reconnaissance studies (Kadkha &Gautam, 2000) confirmed the existence of blue sheep(Psuedois nayaur), so intensive studies on blue sheep
were conducted by Timilsina (2001), Timilsina andBasnet (2001), Otaki (2002), and Watanabe and Otaki(2003).
We focused on blue sheep (Fig. 6) as a key species
for the following reasons: (1) they can be a great attraction for trekkers; (2) illegal hunting of blue sheep
has been reported in the area (Wegge, 1991; Carpenter
et al., 1994a; Sherpa, 1994; Gautam, 1997b; Kadkha& Gautam, 2000); (3) competition for grass between
blue sheep and domesticated yaks has been reported(Carptenter et al., 1994a; Yonzon, 1996); and (4)endangered species such as the snow leopard rely on
blue sheep. Snow leopards have been observed bymany local people and evidenced by footprints (Otaki,
2002; Watanabe & Otaki, 2003); and the WWF Nepal
Program has systematic records of the snow leopard
collected in the field by Himali Chongda, a resident of
Ghunsa Village (Carpenter, pers. comm.). Grey
wolves are not reported in the area although Sherpa(1994) claims their existence in the area.
Timilsina (2001) and Timilsina and Basnet (2001)
observed the distribution and number of blue sheep ataltitudes between 4,040 m and 5,280 m. Otaki(2002) observed daily and seasonal patterns of their
movement in this area. She found that blue sheep
showed seasonal preferences for different altitudes:

Blue sheep at an altitude of 5,050 m. (photograph by T. Watanabe; November 1999)

Geoecological Studies in the Kangchenjunga Conservation Area, Eastern Nepal Himalaya(1) they stay mainly at altitudes from 4,850 to 5,100 min late spring; (2) climbing to 5,050 to 5,250 m inearly summer; (3) reaching 5,300 m in later summer;and (4) descending back to 5,050 to 5,250 m inautumn. Only pregnant females stay at the highest
altitude, which has rugged cliffs above grass-covered
slopes near 5,350 m, during the parturition season of
mid-June. Blue sheep and yaks share the same grazing
areas in some places (Watanabe & Ikeda, 1999;
Watanabe & Otaki, 2003); however, they are not inserious conflict (Otaki, 2002), which suggests that
resource competition for food may not actually be
important in this area (Watanabe & Otaki, 2003).
Relationships between blue sheep and trekkers
were then discussed based on the seasonal preferencein the use of slopes (Otaki, 2002). Trekkers and blue
sheep use the same space in spring, although the number of trekkers in spring is currently no more than 150.
However, if the number of trekkers increases, the conflict could become of great concern. Blue sheep run
away from trekkers when they approach closer thanthe critical distance (minimum 245 m and average
309 m on flat areas; minimum 117 m and average
157 m on slopes). Blue sheep graze on the main trail
between Khambachen (4,080 m) and Lhonak (4,760 m)
in March-May, when the distance between blue sheep
and trekkers can be much smaller than the criticaldistance. Otaki (2002) suggested that the number oftrekkers will need to be restricted in the areas between
Khambachen and Lhonak in spring if the number oftrekkers increases in the future, or that the trail
between Khambachen and Lhonak should be relocatedto the opposite side (left bank) of the Ghunsa Riverfor spring-time use, although an assessment of debris
flow and rockfall has to be carefully carried out.
The snow leopard seems to have a good habitat interms of an abundant food supply of blue sheep. One
study suggests that yak herders with small- to
medium-sized herds below 40 head incur great dam-age from the snow leopard (Ikeda, 2004), although it
is difficult to imagine the existence of such a large
population of snow leopards in the area. Nevertheless,such studies (Watanabe & Otaki, 2002; Ikeda, 2004)
showing different views on wildlife conservation between local yak herders and outside organizations/individuals are important for filling in the gap.
Forage plants
The alpine belt is characterized by an extensive
mat of Cyperaceae (Kobresia spp.). Pradhan (2003)
cataloged 77 forage species (45 herbs, 11 grasses/
sedges, 12 shrubs, 6 trees and 3 lichens) for both yaks
and blue sheep. Otaki (2002) and Ikeda (2005)
examined the relationship between air temperatures
and the growth of some forage plants. Pradhan(2003 and unpublished data) conducted a biochemical
analysis (ash, crude protein, fat, and total sugar) at six
plots between 4,950 m and 5,300 m, in which she
found some discrepancy between the biochemical
analysis and local accounts of nutrients (Table 3).
3.4 Integration in the uppermost area
The foregoing results for the uppermost area between Lhonak and the Pangpema Base Camp (finaldestination for trekkers) along the Kangchenjunga
Glacier have been integrated to facilitate discussion ofsafe ecotourism development. The valley morphology of this area is asymmetric (Fig. 7): the left-bankslopes of the Kangchenjunga Glacier are extremely
steep with rockwalls and debris cones, where rockfalls, debris flows and snow avalanches are active. No
trails and no room to develop are found there. On
the other hand, the right-bank slopes of the glacier,which are discussed here, are relatively gentle, but
geomorphic and hazardous processes occur on theexisting trails and campsites.
Figure 8 summarizes the geoecological zonation of
the area for ecotourism development. The area is di-Table 3 Comparison of nutrient evaluations by local accounts and chemical analysis (Compiled from Pradhan,
2003 and unpublished data).

Preferenceby animals
Astragalus donianus
BY
Kobresia pygmaea
BYS
Poa annua
BYS
Bistorta amplexicaulix
BY
Gentiana capitata
BY
Hemiphragma heterophyllum
BY
Vicatia nepalensis
BY
Arundinaria maling
YS
Berberis mucrifolia
BYS
Ephedra gerardiana
BYS
Potentilla fructicosa
BYS
Kobresia curvata
BYS
Usnea longissima
Y
Pleurospermum dentatum
BY
Hippophae tibetana
BYS
Fodder species

B: blue sheep, Y: yaks, S: sheep and goats.

93

Category

Nutrient evaluation
Local accounts Biochemical analysis

I

Best

Best

II

Best

Fair

III
IV

Fair
Poor

Fair
Best

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Teiji WATANABE

Ground surface
Geomorphology
Vegetation
Hazards on
moraineHazards on
glacier
Wildlife
Land use on
moraineDevelopment
potential
Suggestion fordevelopment

Fig. 7 The uppermost area of the Ghunsa Valley, or
the Kangchenjunga Glacier. The left- bankis characterized by steep rockwalls and debris cones, and the right-bank is characterized by grass-covered, gentle slopes.
(photograph by T. Watanabe; November 1998)

Zone A

Zone B

Vegetated slope

Rock wall & ice

Stable (slow mass
movement)
High quality

Rock fall & debris
flow
Poor

Zone C
Vegetated slope &ice
Slow mass
movement
Low quality

SourceLandslides

Landslides

Landslides

Foods, ice fall

Foods, ice fall

Ice fall

5, 11

Rich

Moderate

1, 2, 7

TrailsTrailsRich-moderate
Trails &campsites/lodge

19, 10, 11
1
3, 4

6

High

Some

High

4, 8

Avoid higher areas

Avoid dangerous
sites

Avoid higher areas,
control landslides

This
study

Fig. 8 Geoecological zonation for ecotourism development in theuppermost area of the Kangchenjunga Conservation Area. The
landscape classification map was modified from Otaki (2002).
Sources, 1: Otaki (2002), 2: Watanabe and Otaki (2003), 3:
Watanabe et al. (2000), 4: Nakamura (2000), 5: Asahi and
Watanabe (2000), 6: Regmi and Watanabe (2001), 7: Timilsina
and Basnet (2001), 8: Ishiwaka et al. (2001a, b), 9: Regmi (2003,
2006), 10: Regmi and Watanabe (2005), 11: Unpublished.

vided into three zones, A, B and C. Zone A is characterized by stable slopes with high-quality vegetation(forage plant) cover. The quality of vegetation was
analyzed for blue sheep (Otaki, 2002). Zone B ischaracterized by geomorphologically active (unstable)
rockwalls and debris slopes lacking vegetation cover.
Zone C is widely covered by glaciers and by both
high-quality and low-quality vegetation.
Landslides occur in all the zones, on the lateralmoraine, where the trail is located. Current trail conditions are poor and the potential for development of thetrail(s) in this area is not good. Nevertheless, tourism development potentials are high in Zones A and C.
For many trekkers, their biggest reason for going to
Pangpema Base Camp is most likely to see the summitof Mt. Kangchenjunga. To do so, they can go up thesouth-facing slopes even in Zone A, instead of visiting
Pangpema Base Camp. Zone A, however, is habitat for
at least 100 head of blue sheep, and in June the highest slopes are used by females for birthing lambs.
Development and tourist activities on the higher
slopes in Zone A, therefore, are not recommended
especially when blue sheep are giving birth. The
vegetation cover is quite extensive in Zones A and C,
but would be easily damaged if the high slopes weredeveloped. We recommend not developing the southfacing slopes in either Zone A or Zone C.
To minimize walking distance on the land-slide-prone lateral moraine, Zone B may provide theonly potential to construct a new trail on a higher
slope, because Zone B has fewer blue sheep on theslope. Zone B, however, is not appropriate in terms ofsafety measures because of the dominance of the steep
rockwalls and deep cirque walls.

4. Discussion and Conclusions
4.1 Hazards and ecotourism development
Most landslide studies in the Himalaya have been
conducted in the middle mountains with high population densities; however, this project suggests that landslide studies in high altitude areas should be also highlighted. Hazard studies should not only aim at protecting lives of mountain residents and trekkers but also
be an integral part of ecotourism development.
Landslides on the lateral moraines of theKangchenjunga Glacier cut the trails at some sites
shown in Fig. 8: the trails abruptly disappear, andparts of the trails are buried by rockfall debris. Figure
9 shows a plan view (top), cross-section (center), andclose-up photograph of the slide scar (bottom) in the
Pangpema Base Camp area. Debris flow deposits
cover the till composed of displaced moraine materials
by sliding (cross-section A-A’ in Fig. 9), showing thatthe sliding has occurred after the debris flow activities,
which began after the Little Ice Age (Watanabe et al.,Geoecological Studies in the Kangchenjunga Conservation Area, Eastern Nepal Himalaya

95

4.2

Fig. 9 Plan view (top), cross-section (center), and one of
the slide scars (bottom) in the Pangpema BaseCamp area (diagrams modified from Watanabe etal., 2000). The relative height of the landslide scar
between Sites a1 and a2 is approximately 20 m.
(photograph by T. Watanabe; November 1999)

2000). A similar problem is observed on the trail section between Khambachen and Ghunsa (near Janu
Glacier). Local residents and trekkers have had towalk on an extremely unstable, dangerous trail. In
conclusion, a detailed examination of hazard occurrences along the major trails and mapping of thesehazards are necessary for the entire area ofKangchenjunga.
Messerli and Ives (1984) showed the altitudinalzonation of mountain hazards in southwestern China,emphasizing that the effects of the hazards would increase if ecosystems were overused or abused. The
Kangchenjunga Conservation Area has had lesshuman impact up to now, but deforestation and construction of tourism-related facilities could change thespatial distribution of hazard occurrences.

Extension of the results to the lower areas
This study examined possible development of
ecotourism in the uppermost area along theKangchenjunga Glacier. It is also important to examine possibilities for ecotourism development in thelower area. Otaki (2002) also proposed the dispersion of trekkers throughout the entire Kangchenjunga
Conservation Area, by developing new trails at lower
altitudes and attractions in many places. Such ideas
originated from an ecotourism resource map and aphenology calendar prepared by Yoda et al. (2001).
Trekkers can enjoy different natural resources in different seasons when such maps and calendars aredeveloped. The dispersion of trekkers also decreases
their impacts on wildlife concentrated in alpine areas.
There are places where trekkers can see Mt.
Kangchenjunga and Mt. Janu (Jannu) in the lower
areas. Dispersion of trekkers’ destinations to include
the lower areas, such as the peaks and ridges near
Amjilessa and Gyabla, for example, would benefit
both local residents and trekkers: both could sharebenefits through seasonal and spatial differentiation oflandscapes and cultures.
The distribution of blue sheep over a wide part of
the area shows a high potential for wildlife-based
ecotourism as Timilsina and Basnett (2001) stated.
This may be another study target in the future.
To establish and develop ecotourism, forests andalpine plants are other important aspects to study, but
this project relies on Carpenter et al. (1994a, b) except
for a study in the lower area by Siwakoti and Gautam(2000). Monitoring of deforestation is also important in terms of both wildlife habitat conservation andmitigation of soil erosion and hazards. Deforestation
seems to have been a great concern in the
Kangchenjunga Conservation Area since its designation as a conservation area in 1997, when the numberof lodges increased (Regmi & Watanabe, 2001). Our
field observations witnessed rapid deforestation near
the settlement of Phole and in the area between
Ghunsa and Khambachen. However, comparison of anold photograph of Ghunsa taken in 1930 by Smythe(2000; 178) and today clearly demonstrates that deforestation is not evident there and even that individual
trees have grown to form small patches of forests.
4.3 Geoecological approachSocial and economic studies are often conducted
for introducing ecotourism. Some scientists have already focused on the roles and functions of the KCAP
(Müller-Böker & Kollmair, 2000; Gurung & Gurung,2001). The KCAP emphasizes the involvement oflocal communities although there seem to be someproblems (Ikeda, 2000, 2004; Müller-Böker &Kollmair, 2000; Regmi, 2001).
Mountain ecotourism is not a panacea (Ives, 2001),
but it has a certain conservation effect on mountainnature. Hazard processes are the major obstacles todeveloping ecotourism in the Kangchenjunga Con-

96

Teiji WATANABE

servation Area: landslides along the major trails aswell as rockfalls are immediate concerns. Our
geoecological approach, therefore, centers on more
physical aspects including permafrost melting, landslide occurrence, and glacial retreats. Knowledge ofthe impacts of global warming on permafrost is limited in the Himalaya (e.g., Chalise, 2006). A
geoecological approach that focuses on the melting ofboth permafrost and glaciers should be applied inorder to develop safe ecotourism in the high Himalaya.
Understanding geo-components is basic to biodiversity conservation as well (Watanabe, 2005).
The number of trekkers to the Kangchenjunga
Conservation Area is unlikely to increase to the level
seen in the Annapurna Conservation Area, Sagarmatha
National Park, and Langtang National Park anytime in
the near future. Development of infrastructure isslow, so there is a gap between reality and the expectations of local residents (Müller-Böker &Kollmair, 2000). Local women are generally cooperative toward the KCAP, but local men seem not to becooperative: yak herders who do not understand themeaning of snow leopard conservation (Ikeda, 2004)
are such an example. Local people working for theWWF, on the other hand, well understand the importance in wildlife conservation. This clearly showsthat more efforts are necessary by scientists to explain
the results of research projects to local residents. Evenif our results are submitted to the Nepalese government or international NGOs, they may not be effective
unless they are understood by the local residents aswell. Participation by local residents in research projects would be helpful in maximizing the applicationof research results to ecotourism and nature conservation.

Acknowledgement
This study is a part of a collaborative research project under the Academic Research Exchange Agreement between Hokkaido University and Tribhuvan
University. The former and present deans of the
Graduate School (Faculty) of Environmental Earth
Science (HU) and of the Institute of Science and Technology (TU) are thanked for their support and encouragement. Dr. Chris Carpenter, Wildlands Studies, University of California at Santa Barbara, provided valuable comments on the manuscript. The Department of
National Parks and Wildlife Conservation, Nepal Government, kindly granted a research permit in the conservation area. Tokachi Mainichi Newspaper Co.,
Obihiro, Japan, provided the major financial support
to the project, and various sources contributed to individual studies.

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(Received 30 June 2006, Accepted 19 July 2006)