© 2017 Journal of International and Advanced Japanese Studies
Vol. 9, February 2017, pp. 15–29
Master’s and Doctoral Programs in International and Advanced
Japanese Studies
Graduate School of Humanities and Social Sciences,
University of Tsukuba

Article“What We Want is to be Happy rather than Marrying”:
Exploring Japanese Single Women’s Perceptions on Marriage,
Childlessness and Being Single

Xiao LEI
Waseda University, Graduate School of Asia-Pacific Studies, Ph.D. Student
Japan has experienced significant demographic shifts and is regarded as an aging society with asignificant low birth rate. Two decades ago, Japanese women who lived outside marriage and did not
engage in child rearing were seen to be “good-for-nothing” and were likely to be socially stigmatized.
Terms such as “Christmas cake”, “parasite single”, and “makeinu (loser dog)” have become popular and areused to refer to single women with pejorative connotation in Japanese society. Nonetheless, now more andmore Japanese women are spending their lives as singles, even though marriage and motherhood are still
significantly valued in women’s lives. The subjects of this research are Japanese single women who areover 30 without children. The purpose of this paper is to explore their perceptions of marriage, childlessness
and being single. Adopting a qualitative research method, in-depth semi-structured interviews wereconducted with forty-three single Japanese women who were over 30, unmarried and without children.
Results suggested that women’s intentions of marriage and views on childlessness differed according toage and financial capacity. Family relations, love and working experience affected women’s views indiverse ways. Despite nominal inconveniences in daily life, women generally expressed their satisfaction ofliving as singles. At the same time, the social environment has changed and seemed to greatly benefit
single women, while traditional gender roles are still entrenched and internalized by some women. The
author suggests that women staying single is not necessarily resistance to marriage per se, but could beseen as an alternative way to live a happy life.
Keywords: Japanese Single Women, Marriage, Childlessness, Single Life

Introduction
Literature on traditional middle-class Japanese families has found that men are socialized to become daikoku
bashira, the breadwinner of their household, while Japanese women are socialized to become good wives andwise mothers (ryo sai ken bo). A family consisting of a salary man and a professional housewife (sengyo shufu)
is seen as the “standard family”. From the 1950s to 1980s, it was common for Japanese women to quit their jobs
after getting married in order to take care of the family and support the husband’s work. Therefore a Japanese
woman’s socioeconomic status has been attached to her husband’s via marriage for quite a long period (Iwao,
1993; Ochiai, 1997).
However, the tendency of establishing a “standard family” and women’s decision on marriage have changed
since Japan’s economic depression in the 1990s. As shown in table 1, in 1990, 13.9 percent of women aged 30-34;
7.5 percent of women aged 35-39; 5.8 percent of women aged 40-44, and 4.6 percent of women aged 45-49 were15

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single. But in 2010, the proportion of single women in each age cohort increased to 34.5, 23.1, 17.4 and 12.6
percent respectively (Somusho tokeikyoku, 2010). Along with this, the average age at first marriage in Japan has
been increasing over the decades. Until 1980, the first marriage for women was in their early 20s, but recently in
2014, it was at 29.4 years old for women and 31.1 years for men (Koseirodosho, 2015).
Table 1. Proportion of Single Women According to Age Cohort (30-49)

According to the Japanese National Fertility Survey by the National Institute of Population and Social
Security Research (NIPSSR, 2010), the ratio of single people who said they wish to marry at some point in theirlife (izure kekkon suru tsumori) declined from 95.9 percent in 1982 to 84.8 percent in 2010 for men. As for
women, the ratio declined from 94.2 percent to 87.7 percent in 2010. Nonetheless, the high ratios (84.8 percent
and 87.7 percent) indicate that most single people, especially single women, still wish to get married.
If most Japanese women wish to marry, why do they not get married? Since the 1990s, “women’s decision to
postpone marriage” has become the subject of much public discussion. “Women’s decision to delay marriage”
was blamed for the decline of the family, loss of family values, and the lowering of the nation’s birthrate(Nakano, 2001). Women who are single over 30 years of age and have no children were labeled as “makeinu(loser dogs)”, while married women were considered as the “kachiinu (winning dogs)” (critiqued by Sakai’s 2003
book). On the other hand, many researchers have conducted research on Japanese late marriages. They haveargued that the reasons for the changes in Japanese women’s marital behavior include women’s participation in
the labor force; increase in women’s educational attainment; an imbalance in the sex ratio that caused
mismatches in the marriage market; increase in the attractiveness of single life; an unwillingness to allow theirlifestyle to deteriorate as a result of marriage; and changing gender attitudes more generally (Kojima, 1995).
Given the fact that marriage is still considered to be the mainstream in Japanese society where single women
could be facing social stigma due to their single status, it is worth asking the following questions: “How doJapanese single women view marriage?”, and “What are their single lives like?” In this regard, qualitative
research based on interviews provides us with some useful insights into how they actually view marriage andtheir single lives at a personal level. In the following sections, I will first set the social context in terms ofmarriage and singles in Japan. Then I will provide an overview regarding my fieldwork and the characteristics
of informants. Finally, I will elaborate on women’s perceptions of marriage, childlessness, and single lives
respectively using informants’ narratives and stories.
1. Marriage and Singles in Japan
Regarding Japanese people’s marriage, Edwards (1989) argued that Japanese tend to view themselves as“incompetent” when alone, and only through marriage or other group association do they become competent.
Japanese notions of gender make marriage necessary because men need women to manage both their money
and their domestic lives, while women need men to provide economic security and proper representation for thefamily in the public domain. Getting married is a basic mark of adulthood, carrying with it social
responsibilities and an achievement of independence as a couple while remaining single carries the severe
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Xiao LEI, Japanese Single Women’s Perceptions on Marriage, Childlessness & Being Single

implications of immaturity and lack of moral responsibility. Marriage marks the passage into responsible
adulthood and implies the forthcoming birth of children.
On the other hand, many studies have proposed that marriage has become less attractive to women because
rising levels of education and increased opportunities at work have given women more resources and the option
to remain unmarried. At the same time, women view marriage as burdensome (Ohashi, 2000; Tsuya, 1994).
As the phenomena of late marriage became more and more apparent, popular new vocabulary words haveemerged to describe single people and their lives. In the 1980s Japanese women who remained unmarried
beyond 25 were labelled “Christmas cakes”, because it was considered that women were of less value after theage of 25 like the Christmas cake after December 25th (Takemura, 2010, p. 158). More recently, they have beencalled “Parasite singles”–singles who are enjoying a comfortable life and consuming luxury products because
they are living with their parents without paying rent or household bills (Yamada, 1999). Although Yamada
explained that both single women and men are parasites, the term has been used in the media largely todescribe women. As to single women themselves, most are unlikely to adopt the terms to define themselves on
the grounds that those terms retain sufficient negative connotation (Dales, 2014). However, these catch-phrases
existed as categories with particular social meanings which suggest that single women were seen as a specificgroup in society and were very likely to encounter social stigma in their daily life. For instance, old-fashioned
Japanese inns (ryokan) may reject single female guests, because “they might commit suicide” (Iwashita, 2001, p.
5). In addition, Tokuhiro (2004) mentioned in her research on Japan’s delayed marriage that many single women
revealed many unpleasant experiences because of their unmarried status. On the other hand, the view of single
women as parasites is considered highly problematic by some scholars. For instance, Nakano (2011) argued thatthe decision for a single daughter to live with her parents is negotiated between the two generations; often asingle daughter may be chosen among other siblings to care for her parents in their old age. Nevertheless, in her
recent work on Japanese single women she pointed out that, as the women became older, they lose values bothin marriage and the job market, because these two primary markets that involved women continued to operate
on principles that valued women’s docility, youth, beauty, and ability to serve men (Nakano, 2014). While manystudies and discourses on Japanese single women generally tended to be negative, I intended to investigate thesituation directly from single women. Therefore, I adopted a qualitative research approach and paid attention tounderstanding these women’s thoughts and life experiences. Before I delve deeper into these women’s diverse
perceptions, I would like to give an account of my fieldwork as well as the characteristics of my informants inthe next section.
2. Methodology and Informants
My empirical data were collected from in-depth semi-structured interviews of a sample of Japanese single
women in their thirties, forties or fifties. I started fieldwork in December 2013. In the beginning, in order to get
access to Japanese single women, I joined cooking classes conducted by ABC cooking school which is one of themore successful ones in the market. I attended classes in the Shinjuku, Shibuya and Ginza branch schools
successively. All these locations were very close to train and subway stations and opened until 10 p.m., to makeit convenient for working women to attend. Each class consisted of one instructor and one to five students.
After the class finished, students in the same class would eat the prepared dishes, sitting around the same table.
That was the time when I tried to introduce myself and my research to other women. I had hoped I could gain
some of the women’s interests in participating in my research, but I found that the women there refrained fromtalking about themselves. It was not hard for me to understand, because after all I was just a twenty-somethingforeign student whom they were meeting for the first time. I could not recruit informants easily through thisapproach. After that, I sought assistance from my own personal network. Fortunately, I was able to fix up thefirst two interviews through one of my Japanese friends’ introduction. Moreover, one of the informants
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introduced several more single women to me after she was interviewed. In order to maintain diversity in mysample, I made sure that no more than three people were introduced by one gatekeeper. Using snowball
sampling, I interviewed a total of forty-three single women in Tokyo, Kyoto and Osaka.
I focused on single women in Tokyo, Kyoto and Osaka because these cities are the center of singles’ culture in
Japan, and have a much higher concentration of single people than the other areas in the country. For instance,
in 2010, 36.1 percent of women in Tokyo aged 30-39 were single compared to 28.3 percent nationally, hence thehighest concentration of single people in the country. Also exceeding the national figure, the ratio of single
women aged 30-39 was 31.6 percent in Kyoto and 31.3 percent in Osaka, occupying the second and the fourth
place in the country (Somusho tokeikyoku, 2010).
Regarding my informants in the Tokyo area, all their workplaces were located in Tokyo with most of themliving in Tokyo. A few of them commuted from Yokohama, Chiba, and Saitama which were all within an onehour train ride. Among the informants in Tokyo, over half came from other prefectures, and the time that they
have stayed in Tokyo varied. As for informants in the Kansai area, all were local people, that is, born in Kansai.
They were living with parent(s) with only two exceptions who lived alone. They commuted or used to commute
between Osaka and Kyoto because of work or education.
The in-depth interviews lasted from one to two hours for most informants. The interviews were audio
recorded with their permissions and I also took notes at the same time. Most of the women were interviewed incafés or restaurants near their homes or workplaces. Two were interviewed in their own apartments, and two in
their workplaces. All interviews were conducted in Japanese.
Regarding the informants’ marital status (Table 2), all the informants were single without children. “Single”
refers to the woman’s unmarried status at the time of interview. Most of the informants reported that they were
not in a relationship at the time of interview, while some reported that they had boyfriends. I only have two casesof divorced women. In most cases, the informants did not ask questions regarding my own status for instance,
age, relationship, or marital status. Instead, several women asked me about the marriage trends in China where
I came from, and I told them that it is the same as in Japan, particularly in the big cities like Beijing andShanghai where people are getting married later and later and the number of singles are increasing as well.
Only one woman asked me how old I was and whether I was married directly during the interview. When I told
her I was in my late twenties and I was single, she said “Oh, it’s still alright (ja, mada daijobu dane)”1.
Table 2. Marital Status of Informants

My Informants’ ages ranged from 31 to 56. Over half were in their thirties. (Table 3).
Table 3. Age Range of Informants

Over half of the informants were living alone. Most were living in rented apartments and only four out of

1 My informants shared a common sense that a woman in her twenties does not need to feel any urgency to marry.
Women’s different perceptions according to different age group will be discussed later.

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forty-three have purchased their own apartments. It is more common for single women to live with theirparent(s) if the natal family is nearby in the same city. I also had two informants who were living with theirboyfriends (Table 4).
Table 4. Living Arrangement of Informants

Most of the informants had at least a university education. Some high school graduates, vocational school(senmon gakko) graduates and short-term college (tanki daigaku) graduates were included in the sample as well
(Table 5).
Table 5. Education Level of Informants

In terms of occupation, most of the informants worked in white-collar jobs. Over half were regular
employees2. Their income ranged from less than 3 million yen to more than 10 million yen per year. Over half of
the informants’ annual income was more than 3 million yen (Table 6).
Table 6. Annual Income Range of Informants (Million Yen)

According to national survey, in 2015 the mean annual income for working women in their early thirties was
307 million yen and was the highest compared to other age cohort (Kokuzeicho, 2016). In this regard, most of
my informants seemed to have higher income. In addition, my informants were well-educated women fromurban areas, therefore perceptions presented in the next sections may not be able to represent the case of single
women who live in rural areas.
In the next section, I will elaborate on my informants’ perceptions on marriage.
3. Perceptions of Marriage
Speaking of single women beyond 30s, one might wonder in the first place why they have not married yet.

2 In Japanese seishain. Working as a seishain is valued because it offers stable income and is associated with social
benefits.

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That is because, in most people’s minds, to marry at an appropriate age (tekireiki) is still the right thing for
women to do. Not only probing into the question why they do not marry, I also paid attention to my informants’intention to marry, that is, “Do you want to get married? Why?”.
(1) Different attitudes among different age groups: 30s, 40s, 50s
30s
My informants in their thirties generally expressed that they wanted to marry. Among them, Erisa (33, parttime worker3) showed a relatively stronger emphasis on her intention to marry, claiming that “Of course I wantto marry (mochiron kekkon shitai)”. According to her, the reason why she now enthusiastically wanted to marryis because she wanted to have children by the age of 35. She just had two years left to first find a partner4, thento reach the marriage goal, and finally to have a child. Like Erisa, the urge to have children was raised as theprimary reason to want to marry among many of my informants in their thirties. What is interesting is that
nobody took having children outside marriage as an option despite the fact that many women said they wereconcerned about the so-called “biological clock”. This echoes the reality that in Japan, marriage andreproduction are still strongly tied to each other, and having a child out of wedlock means perceived social
sanctions. The illegitimate birth rate in Japan had been approximating one percent of total births from the
1960s to1990s. During the 2000s, the figure kept rising slowly and was 2.28 percent in 2014, but it was still very
low compared with western countries (Cabinet Office, 2014).
In response to the question “why do you want to marry”, Miho (32, contract worker5) said, “Because it is hard
if I do not get married (kekkon shinaito taihen dakara).”. Although she just said “all sorts of (iroiro)” when I
asked her to explain “hard”, I deduced from her explanations that, firstly, “It is hard to have a child if I do notmarry”, which has been stressed by other women; secondly, “It is hard to live without a husband”. Dales (2013)
pointed out that financial security should be a compelling incentive for women to get married due to thelikelihood of unstable employment as well as the gendered wage gap. Miho, working as a contract worker,
possibly felt a sense of insecurity and inequality through her work, because she needed to renew the contract
every two to three years in order to keep the job. In contrast, to most people, a husband is still seen as a life-time
partner and security. Moreover, compared with women who were in relatively less stable conditions, women
working at regular positions with higher income did not link financial issue to marriage during the interviews.
Beyond 30s
Compared with informants in their thirties, single women in their forties and fifties did not show any strong
intention to marry. In response to the question of “Do you want to marry?”, Midori (50, regular worker) said, “Ifthere is a right person, I may marry. But if there is not, I may not (iihito ga ireba, kekkon shitemo ii. inakattara,
shinakutemo ii)”. This sort of statement was common among women in their forties and fifties. Another woman,
Aya (46, regular worker)’s response was salient, saying outright that “there is no need to marry (kekkon suru
hitsuyo ha nai)”. Different from women in their thirties, no women in their forties or fifties viewed marriage as alife goal which has to be realized by a certain age. To most of them, marriage is an option rather than anecessity. I suggest that this was made possible by the fact that single women in their forties and fifties, having
devoted themselves to work for a relatively longer time, now have a relatively higher economic accumulation.
They have earned enough money to support themselves and do not need to marry for financial security. This
point can be supported by the two women’s cases, because the annual income of Midori and Aya were both overeight million yen. Besides salary, Aya purchased her own apartments, which gives an indication of her

3 In Japanese arubaito, which was the informant’s original word.
4 Erisa just broke up with her boyfriend several months before the time of interview.
5 In Japanese Keiyaku shain. It is categorized as one type of non-regular employment in Japan.
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considerable financial assets. I will talk about Aya’s story in more detail in the next section.
(2) Family and Work Influence
Besides age and financial reasons, I suggest that family and work influence are two alternative factors
affecting women’s attitudes toward marriage.
Aya is 45 years old and lives in Tokyo. After graduating from university in England, she first found a job in asmall company in the local industry and worked there for three years. Then she came back to Japan and finallysettled in Tokyo. She is now working in the media industry and living alone in the apartment she bought ten
years ago in Tokyo. She said that she bought it for investment. Besides the apartment in Tokyo, she also owns
one in Hokkaido and another one abroad.
Aya has one elder brother who is not married and living with her mother. Her father passed away twomonths before the interview. According to her, she did not like her father and she did not have very frequentcontacts with him. I asked her for the reason. She explained that her father was a “typical” kind of Japanesefather, with what is called Teishukanpaku (bossy, domineering) temperament. Her mother is a professional
housewife and has little power in the household. Because her father just gave monthly living expenses at a fixedamount and left her mother to arrange everything with the limited money, when Aya was a child she witnessed
how hard her mother struggled in the family for financial reasons. As a result, she decided that “I will never belike my mother (zettaini oka-san no yoni naritakunai)”. After graduating from high school, she wanted to study
abroad. However, her father did not show any interest in supporting her, and undoubtedly her mother could notgive her any substantial help either. In order to persuade her father to give her financial support, she had tomake a presentation to explain why she wanted to go study abroad, and why the family should support her. She
said, “I kept doing the stupid (bakabakashii) presentation to my father for a whole week. When I got his
agreement, I felt like I was liberated. At the same time I decided that I must make money by myself and I would
never be like my mother (a professional housewife)”. I asked if she wanted to get married and she said, “Ifthere’s a good person, maybe I would. But since I can live very well by myself, why bother (nande wazawaza
shinaito ikenai no)?”.
Based on Aya’s story, I suggest that parents’ relationship, in other words, salary man and professional
housewife model continues its influence on women’s perception and expectation of marriage. Some womenmight have witnessed their mother’s struggling within the household, thus they tend to criticize the traditionalfamily model. Therefore, they want to be more independent and have less interest in marriage.
Another woman Hanako, is 35 years old and lives alone in a rented place in Tokyo. After graduating fromuniversity, she got a job in a major bank and worked at the Osaka office for 3 years. Then she was transferredto the Tokyo office and has worked in Tokyo until the time of interview.
She is the middle daughter in her family. Her two sisters who are both single live with their parents in theirhometown. Her parents’ marriage is also the so-called salary man and professional housewife model. According
to Hanako, her parents’ relationship is harmonious and her father is caring. Her mother handles everything
perfectly within the household, so the house is always clean and whenever they feel hungry, food will be served.
Her father always goes to bed before her mother in winter in order to warm the bed for her mother. Although
Hanako goes back to her hometown on long holidays such as the New Year and Obon6, she frequently contacts
her family, especially through long phone calls with her mother.
I asked whether her parents worried about her single status, and she said they did not show much concern
for her. Instead they worried about her two sisters because her father once said to her, “(Rather than your

6 The traditional Japanese Festival of the Dead. The starting date varies because it is based on the lunar calendar.
However it is most commonly celebrated around the 15th of August, during which Japanese people go back to theirhometown to visit and clean their ancestors’ graves.

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sisters) you are alright, aren’t you? In any case you can feed yourself (because you have a good job)”. According
to Hanako, she is not worried herself in the case that she could not find any one. It is not only because she earns
a good salary, but also because she knows that her parents and her family would always welcome her. “No
matter what happens I always have a place for me to return (Nani ga attemo itsu ni nattemo kaereru basho gaaru)”, she said. However, she stated that even if she wanted to get married, she does not have the confidence tobuild such a good relationship like her parents’.
Whereas the parents’ relationship negatively affected Aya’s attitude toward marriage, why did Hanako notreceive positive influence from her parents’ happy marriage? In other words, why did Hanako have no
confidence to succeed in marriage like her parents? In order to understand the reason, let us have a look at
Hanako’s work. As stated earlier, Hanako is working in a major bank in the Tokyo head office. What isnoticeable is that she is a career-track employee (sogoshoku). Her work is very demanding and intensive.
According to Hanako, on weekdays, she usually gets up at 7 a.m. and starts work from 9 a.m. Overtime workand nomikai7 is very common, so she usually gets home around 11 p.m. and sleeps at 2 a.m. On weekends she
spends one day going out to nail and hair salons, or having meals with friends if someone asks her out. On
other days she usually just stays at home dealing with chores, and relax. She said she needs to refresh andconserve energy for work for the coming week. Moreover, because work occupies most of her life, there is nochance for her to encounter the right person (deai ga nai), and she does not have much energy to consider
seriously about developing a relationship.
In addition, another woman Tomoko (44) is also a career-track employee and is now living with her mother.
She was sent to a new department and got higher pay just several months before the interview. According toher, she was offered a higher salary than before because she invested in herself to study and got an accountancy
related qualification. Her new position makes her much busier than before, but with her mother’s help within
the household she is managing everything very well. Unlike Hanako, Tomoko is not doing much housework
because her mother handles all of it. She is very grateful for her mother’s good health, saying that only with hermother’s help can she concentrate on her work. She also claims that she does not have the confidence in doing
both well, which might be one of the reasons why she is not married.
Broadbent (2003) pointed out that Japanese firms introduce “general employment track (ippanshoku)” and“career employment track (sogoshoku)” to deal with women’s employment. Compared with general track
position, career track position means higher pay as well as more potential demands, such as heavy workloads,
and long hours of overtime. In contrast to women’s growing participation in workforce, more and more
Japanese men are working unstable jobs. Their incomes are reduced compared with their parents’ generation, so
a lot of Japanese men cannot afford a professional housewife. Working single women are aware of the realitythat salary man and professional housewife model is difficult to realize nowadays. If women still need to work
after getting married, and at the same time fulfill the traditional gender roles within family, it would be too hardfor them. That might be one of the reasons why they do not have the confidence to marry.
(3) Matters of Japanese men and relationships
In the 1970s and 1980s, the “three highs” (tall, high income, and high education) represented women’s
expectations of prospective husbands. In recent years the standards have been replaced by the “three Cs”(cooperative, communicative, and comfortable) or “four lows” (low ego, low dependency, low risk, lowconsumption) for an ideal Japanese marriage partner. However, the women I met did not mention those popular
terms when I asked them for their views and expectations on Japanese men. Interestingly, I found that, fromtheir perspectives, Japanese men seemed to have few valuable attributes. When they talk about Japanese men,

7 A drinking party after work. It happens in most places of employments and is seen as a part of the corporate culture
in Japan.

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they tended to talk more about their bad qualities than good ones.
Miki is 31 years old and works as a regular employee in an NGO. She told me she had three serious
relationships. Regarding the men she dated she said:“Yes, they were gentle (yasashii), but it was just at the beginning. As time went by, they started to think
about themselves only and took everything for granted (atarimae). I eventually felt so tired to maintain therelationship that I decided to break up.”
Another woman, Ayumi (33) works in an IT company. She explained:“They work very hard. I think it is the good quality. But they don’t know how to express themselves andtend to be wishy-washy (hakkiri shinai, sunao janai). Now many Japanese men are ‘kamacho’. It’s short for‘kamatte chodai’ (means ‘please care for me’). For instance in my company, one day we were considering
having a nomikai after finishing work. The man next to my desk seemed very interested in our conversation,and I was quite sure he wanted to go with us. But, without asking directly whether he can join, he just kept
waiting until I asked him ‘how about going with us?’ Guess how he responded? He showed hesitation on
his face, and said ‘well…’ Of course he finally went with us, however, at that time I just thought he’s reallytiresome (hontoni mendokusai)!”
When discussing why Japanese men lack social skills (bukiyo) and tend to expect women to accommodate
others (tanin ni awaseru), Kayuko (33) who is a regular employee in a travel agency told me one story:“It was in winter and that day was very cold. When I was waiting for the traffic lights, I saw a mother andher son standing on the other side of the road. The boy may be a high school student. He stood straightwith his hands in the pocket. His mother, who is much shorter than her son, stood on tiptoe to wrap amuffler around her son’s neck. At the moment I thought “Oh my god! Is it necessary to do that much forhim (soko made suru hitsuyo aru)?” I think Japanese men are really spoiled by their mothers as well as
their sisters since they were little. Japanese mothers do too much for their sons.”
Being uncommunicative and lacking in social skills were the most common responses when single women
express their opinions of Japanese men. At the same time, they also criticized Japanese men for being narrowminded and shutting themselves within a small world (which usually refers to Japan) (semai sekai/nihon ni
tojikomoru). Nakano (2011, p. 137) pointed out that Japanese women were more likely to travel while Japanese
men were more likely to be tied to their work, which made them have different experiences before marriage.
Those differences may be seen as minus points when single women want to develop a relationship with men.
However, Kayuko’s words gave us an explanation on why Japanese men are used to women offering everything
and why they are vague about what they really want. It showed some single women like Kayuko may see thetraditional Japanese mothers’ roles as problematic, and it implied that they may not do “that much” for men.
Regarding relationships, Hanako, whose story I have elaborated earlier revealed one little episode that
happened between her and her boyfriend. Once, her boyfriend’s parents were going to visit Tokyo and wanted
to stay at his place. But he was travelling abroad for business during that time, so he asked her to send thespare key of his apartment to his parents in advance. In order to do this, she took her lunch time to go to thepost office near her workplace and send the key by registered mail. She said, “If it’s sent to my own parents I
could just put the key in an envelope and drop it into a mailbox by the roadside. But it’s for his parents, so I
don’t want to give them the impression that I’m not reliable (shikkari shiteinai).”. Another woman Mari (48) was
sharing her apartment with a female friend at the time of interview. According to her, they were getting along
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Volume 9 / February 2017quite well with each other. For instance, if one of them helped clean up the living room when she had the time,
the next time the other may cook for two of them when she finished work and arrived home early. They do these
little things in daily life to show their kindness to each other. It does not take much thinking to do such things.
They just do what they can anytime they want. She also had the experience of living with a boyfriend. However,when she was living with her boyfriend, she always thought “I have to cook and I have to clean the room (forhim)”, which made her very tired. Both Hanako and Mari’s stories reflect that in their minds relationship with
men usually means you have to be concerned and careful (ki wo tsukau) and cannot fully relax.
Besides their perceptions on marriage, my informants also shared their views on childlessness.
4. Views Regarding Childlessness
As mentioned earlier, single women in their thirties showed great concerns about having a child in time
regardless of their economic status. In comparison, women in their forties and fifties did not mention that theywanted to have children, but generally claimed that children might be impossible for them (kodomo ha tabun
muri desho)8. They were aware that they would be totally alone someday since their parents were going to die
before them. However, it does not necessarily mean pressure on having children in their lives. In fact, pressure
comes from the family when single women reach a certain life stage, and then eventually reduces as the women’s
age increase.
Chie (45) lives with her mother and five cats in Kyoto. According to her, her mother does not say anything to
her about marriage or children, but actually was quite nagging when Chie was around 35. During that period,
because her mother kept telling Chie over and over again that she wanted a grandchild (mago ga hoshii), one
day Chie picked up a little homeless cat, named it as mago (grandchild), and gave it to her mother saying “here’s
your mago (grandson)”. Chie talked about the episode as a joke, and her mother did not take it seriously either.
However, her mother stopped asking for a grandchild as Chie got older and remained single.
Growing older reduces the pressure of being a single woman without children, while having married siblings
could ease single women’ s pressure on producing mago for their aging parents as well. Miki (33) lives alone in a
rented apartment in Tokyo. She has an elder brother who is married and has a child. She mentioned that
although she wanted to have children eventually after getting married, she was not very pressured when her
parents said to her that they wanted to see the face of mago. “Because they already had one (the brother’schild)!”, she said. To get married at an appropriate age and to produce a grandchild for parents is considered asoyakoko (filial piety). The idea is shared by many of the informants. In Japan, family values and behavior
received strong Confucian influence, and filial piety is greatly emphasized in the Japanese context (Otake, 1982).
It also explained why some women said they wanted to get married because they wanted to fulfill filial piety totheir parents (oyakoko shitai).
However, in one case the woman stated that many women want to have children because they are afraid of
aging alone, but the reality is that having a child does not really mean you have somebody to rely on in old age.
According to White Paper of Aging Society, the proportion of elderly people who are living with their children
reduced sharply compared with the 1980s. In 2014, 55.4 percent of elderly people who are over 65 are living
without their children (including those who are living alone) (Cabinet Office, 2016). It could be considered as anindication of what the informant said above. Also, there were women claiming that they did not feel pressured
or obligated about having a child just because they did not like children.
Having heard about the informants’ perceptions on marriage and their views on childlessness, I will now
move on to their views on being single.

8 This point does not vary according to the economic status of women in this age group.
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Xiao LEI, Japanese Single Women’s Perceptions on Marriage, Childlessness & Being Single

5. Views on Being Single(1) Freedom
Regarding single life, all women stated that “freedom (jiyu)” is the best advantage they get from being single.
In terms of “freedom”, Yumi (35) who works as a regular employee told the story of her sister and her:“I can spend all the time on myself. My sister is married and has a kid. She is also working. She has to deal
with the company, asking whether they can shorten her work time because she needs to leave earlier topick up the kid. After arriving at home, she needs to cook dinner, prepare the bath, and so on. She has little
time to do what she wants to do for herself.”
According to Yumi, her sister used to go to yoga lessons with her for a period, but stopped when her husband
had some job changes. Because her husband became very busy, Yumi’s sister had to take care of their child anddeal with lots of things by herself. Yumi commented on her sister’s situation:“There is no alternative (shikata ga nai). She (the sister) cannot complain (monku ienai). Because it is thebalance of a family (katei no baransu dakara). But for me, I can do what I want at any time I like. Nobody
would interfere (Daremo kansho shinai).”
Another woman Miho (45) who is a regular worker in an advertising company explained:“When my boss asks me to travel on business, I can just pack my bag and leave without worrying aboutchildren or coordinating schedule with a husband. When drinking outside with my friends or coworkers, I
need not care about the time. It also allows others not to worry about my situation.”
Maoko (44) who is a pharmacist and works as a regular employee said straightforwardly that marriage andlittle children cause loss of productivity:“When I see those married women with little children I could not help thinking that you can never expect
them to work exactly the same as before. Whenever the child gets any physical problems, they will leave
their work and put priority on their children. After all, you never know when the children would have ahigh fever.”
The informants’ words reflected their perspective that freedom is seen as good for work and having moretime to do what they want for themselves. They compare themselves with married women who have little kids
and contrast the constraints of marriage with the freedom of being single.
(2) Inconvenience
As to the disadvantages or inconvenience (fuben) of being single, they usually claimed that “there is not any
particular inconvenience (tokuni fuben ga nai)”. However, some women mentioned that sometimes they could
not receive deliveries for they are living alone (hitorikurashi) and there is no one who is always at home. Renting
an apartment to live in is very common for young people in Tokyo. Usually, the place is not big but sufficient fora single person. For instance, Yumi, the woman mentioned earlier, is living in a rented apartment with an area oftwenty square meters. According to her, although she was satisfied with her apartment, she felt inconveniences
sometimes. She said:

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“I want to live in a bigger place, but I cannot afford a big apartment due to my financial situation. But forcouples, they can contribute money jointly and live in a roomier place.”
In contrast, Aya whose story was told in a previous section, is relatively well-off. She purchased herapartment which has two bedrooms. The problem of being single for her is that “the cleaning up of the house isvery hard (soji ga taihen)”.
When I asked informants what the advantage of being single (dokushin no meritto) is, all of them answered“freedom” without any hesitation. In contrast, when I raised the opposite question, asking them about thedisadvantage of being single (dokushin no demeritto), most of them could not come up with anything instantly.
They usually thought for a minute or so, then answered it beginning with words such as “nothing in particular,
but if I must say something I would say… (tokuni nai kedo, shii to ieba…). Those so-called disadvantages
mentioned above seemed insignificant, and given the fact that they were raised by women who were living
alone, I concluded that what they meant was actually the disadvantage of living with nobody rather than being
single.
(3) Companionship
Despite the fact that my informants generally did not perceive particular disadvantages of being single, some
women did mention that in some situations they did wish someone could be right beside them.
“One day I got a terrible cold and was not able to get up from bed. There was nobody at my side. I could
not get myself to hospital. I could not call my parents either, because they were far away in my hometown.
If I called them it would just make them worry. In the end, I called my college friend who is also single andliving alone to come to my place. She took me to the hospital and I was rescued.”(Miki, 35)
According to Miki, she also has some married friends with whom she is getting along very well. But she felt
reluctant to call them in that situation because she thought they have their own families to take care of. Miki’s
accounts reflect one fact that, friends, especially those who are single, are one of the important resources forthem to rely on in their daily life. Besides the moment when they need physical help, in their daily life they also
go out together for leisure activities such as meals, events, travels and so on. However, as age increases, friends
eventually married and became family-centered. In their minds, female friends no longer become as available as
before due to marriage. But how about the male friends?
“In the past I had a very good male friend, and we used to have many contacts. Whenever I wanted to findsomebody to have meals or drinks with after work, I would ask him. Now he is married, and I feel reluctant
to ask him out for a drink. I am sure if I ask him he will show up, but I do not want his wife tomisunderstand (Okusan ni gokai saretakunai). When I became aware, those who are still around turn out tobe women who are single and men who are gay (kigatsuitara mawari ha dokushin josei to otoko no gei
dake).”(Aya, 45)
In summary, in terms of companionship, single women are dealing with the reality that friends, no matterfemale or male, are likely to become less connected due to marriage. Married friends eventually participate lessand less in single women’s daily life, while single friends remain in their life. That also gives them a sense of
security. Like Midori (51) said, “People around me are all single. I am not special at all (Mawari no hito minna
dokushin dakara, watashi ha zenzen tokubetsu janai)!”.
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Xiao LEI, Japanese Single Women’s Perceptions on Marriage, Childlessness & Being Single

6. Discussion
Needless to say, Japanese single women have been greatly stigmatized in popular discourse. My researchsuggests that the social environment has greatly changed women’s lives as well as their perspectives towards
traditional social norms regarding marriage and their definitions of happiness. In contrast to olden times whendining, drinking and travelling were activities for couples or groups, nowadays in Japanese society someone caneasily find restaurants and bars to enjoy eating and drinking alone, and go on solo travel. There are bars setting
up special tables for single guests (ohitorisama senyo seki), and there are also hotels offering single-womentargeted packages (ohitorisama shukuhaku puran). Under the comfortable environment directed byconsumption activities, most women claimed that they are happy with their life now (ima no seikatsu ni
manzoku shiteiru). When I asked them to make suggestions to other single women, many women said “enjoy
the moment (ima wo tanoshinde)”.
According to the Survey on Attitude toward Marriage and Family (Cabinet Office, 2014), 80 percent of female
respondents said that they wanted to find a marriage partner with whom they feel happy and are able to relax(isshoni ite tanoshii koto to ki wo tsukawanai koto). Regardless of the ambiguous expressions on what an ideal
marriage partner is, the single women I met tended to do calculation when thinking of marriage. They weighthe factors regarding what they could gain from marriage as well as what they would lose due to marriage(kekkon de tokusuru mono to sonsuru mono). In their minds, the apparent advantage of marriage is only that it
might offer a sense of security (anshinkan) because one can have a lifetime partner. But what you lose is
freedom and a happy relaxing life. It seemed that the losses are more than gains if marriage happens in theirlives. Eiko (51) who spent ten years doing omiai (meetings arranged for two parties interested in marriage)
activities from the age of 25 to 35 but ended up finding nobody to marry, recalled her feeling of that period,
saying “at last I decided it’s fine if I don’t marry (kekkon shinakutemo ii to kemeta). Maybe I just wanted to havea relaxing life (nonbiri shitetakatta dake).”In her research on Japanese career women, Aronsson (2015, p.184) stressed that women in their thirties are
reevaluating themselves and share a certain sense of control and stewardship over their lives. Through myresearch, I suggest that the sense of controlling life, in particular the private life, is much stronger among those
single women. As age advances, single women eventually would view marriage and having children as
experiences (keiken) in different life stages. Some women may have the chance to gain the experience whilesome may not. Several decades ago women had to marry, both because they would face social stigma if they did
not do so, and because they did not have jobs that would support them through life. However, as women
increasingly participate in society, and in an age when women’s ultimate goal has become “living a happy life”,
being single has become one option for women.
7. Conclusion
In this paper, I have explored Japanese single women’s views in terms of marriage, childlessness and being
single. Through women’s narratives, I argue that single women’s perceptions regarding marriage andchildlessness vary according to age cohort and their economic conditions. Consistent response of intention to
marry among single women in their thirties suggests that being unmarried is not necessarily an indication of
women’s resistance to marriage per se. Single women’s actual practice during relationships may contradict theirthoughts on what and how much women should do for the partner. It reflects that the traditional gender roles
were internalized rather than being challenged by some single women. Moreover, the parents’ marital
relationship and single women’s working conditions impact on women’s perceptions as well as their life choices.
In contrast to the diversity of single women’s perceptions on marriage, they consistently expressed theirsatisfaction with their current lives regardless of the nominal inconveniences of living alone. This is not only27

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because women’s growing participation in workforce enabled them to support themselves, but also because
nowadays the social environment surrounding single women has greatly changed and life has become more
comfortable for singles in Japanese society.
Given that the number of single men is increasing as well, it is also necessary to examine the perceptions andlived experiences of Japanese single men in order to understand singlehood in Japan as a whole. Although thispaper only examined single women in Japan, investigations on single women in other social contexts such as
China where single women are labelled as “leftover women (sheng nu)” (To, 2013) would provide useful insights
on the diversity of women’s lives.
Acknowledgments
This paper was made possible through the help and support of Sato Azusa, who introduced me to her single
friends, and assisted in arranging the first two interviews during my fieldwork. I deeply thank all my
informants for sharing their thoughts and stories.
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