120

Robe"Bqyley

Staub,DonandCherylDelk(eds). 1992. 7WeproceedmgsqffheTwe伽馳co"dZa"‑

9脚αgeReseaﾉ℃hFb噸加.EastLansing,MI:PapersinAppliedLinguisticsMichigan.
Woliam,Walt. 1969.Asocio""8"s"c"scrm"o"qfDe"o〃Ⅳ直gro"eech.Washing‑TbnseMarkingintheEnglishof

ton,DC:CenterfbrAppliedLinguistics.

Wolfram,Walt. 1985.Variabilityintensemarking:acasefbrtheobvious・塑陀g"fzge
陸α、伽g35:229‑253.

Spamsh‑speakingAdolescents

Wolfmm,WaltandDeborahHatfield. 1984.Tr"e胴α成伽gjizseco"dla"glmge陀αmi"g:pα"emsqfspo舵"α"dw""e"即g!姉伽αWemamesecomm""ily.Washington,DC:
CenterfbrApphedLinguistics[ERICdocumentED25960].

H､D.Adamson,BonnieFonseca‑Greber

WolfSon,Nessa・ 1982.Ontensealtemationandtheneedfbranalysisofnativespeaker
usageinsecondlanguageacquisition.""gldfzgeL"mi"832:53‑68.

KuniyoshiKataoka,VincentScardino

Young,Richard.1991.1k""如月伽加彪池"g""gemoゆ加わgy.NewYork:PeterLang.

andShOjiThkano
U"jve"jjyqfArizo"aAppendix:ReadingPasSage
Afterthehurricanehadpassed, therewasn'tasound・Susanraisedherheadslowly,and
triedtopullherselftogether・ Inthemidstoftheconfilsion,Walthadlefthersidetotry
andboltallthewindows,butthentherewasthishomblecrash,andshehad.passedout.
Wherewashenow,shewondeIed,asshepulledofftheblanketsandgropedherway
towardsthedoor.She'dbeenpeevedbecausehehadn'ttoldheraboutthedentinthecar,

andhowmuchitwouldcost.Butthatwasnothingcompar巳dtothis.
Shecreptaroundfbramomentandpausedbythegiantbookcasewhichhe'dbuiltfbr
herlastmonth.Shewassul℃she'dheardsomething.Thenshehearditagain:asoftmoan,
comingfmmtheback.Sheracedovertothekitchen,and,fbrasecond,couldn'tbeUeve

hereyes.Theroofhadcavedin,andWaltwaslyinginamoundofdebriswithhiSeyes
closed.ShefOundherwayclosertohim,wonderingallthetimewhetherhe'dbeenkilled
ornot.Shecalledhisnamerepeatedly,andbeggedhimtoanswer.

Waltawokesuddenly,lookedatSusan,andaskedwhathadhappened.FeaIingthathe
mightbeinjured,shetoldhimtoUestillandeXplainedthatthemofhadcavedinduring
thestonn.Inwardly,shethankedGodthathewasalive.Shethentoldhimthatshehadalreadysentfbrhelp.Shewassurethattheneighborswhohehadhelpedaftertheblizzard
lastwinterwouldcomeassoonastheylearnedofhisplight.

1．

Introduction

Duringthel980s,severalsmdiesfbundimerestipgpa"msqflW､mgrW
m mEFiiferlanguageofnon‑nativeEnglishspeakers.KUmpf(1984):m"
thespeechofTomiko，anativeJapanesespeakerwhohadleamedEnglish

5ffeftbiningtotheUnitedStatesasthebrideofan4"icapservice!naW
i". T6milo'sEnglishwasmuent,buthadnon‑nativelitefeatureS,mclud:""ginarking.Workingwithinadiscourseanalysis#alnqw.rtilfu"

説面正dhowimkomarkedpasttcnseincontextsthatdescrib・dp.steVghEwithinnarratives.Shefbundthat̲IgmiLo̲tcndedtomarkverPstja(
一一一一一

一一

aeSefmledpastevemswithinbackgroundclauses bPtnottoVla¥kverbstha!

describedpasteventswithinfbregroundclauses・Foregroundclausescorre‑

spondtowhatSchiffrin(1981)calls〃α""vecl"ses,clausesthatdeSGribe〜

一一一一一一anactionormOVethestorX血迦rward､Backgroundclailsescorrespondto

ggjefalbfgEMfffin'sclaSSirmmS, iricludingclaUsestha"et̲thesceng3;HAMgaigfeggi5E;&EiVgevaluativebOmentSgTojlu"te*efPregromq/●●

backgrounddistinction,th昌迦旦座PUndplaUSes.inthefOllowingtwonarra‑

fil= areitalicized.BothnarrativesarefromoursubjectBenny,whowas
describingtimeswhenhegotintrouble.
1．

(1)Thatwasn'ttheworsttime.
(2) Theworsttimewas

".D.Adnmso〃ααI122(3)whenlhitsomelittleboythroughawin…throughawindow.
(4) Itwas(5) becausehewasontheothersideofthewindow(6) .n'hekeptonmakin'facesatmel､ (7) ."'""rgow"""Wistノウ（8）"'ﾉz〃〃碗(9) ･"'broke"mewi""w.
(10)Hehadallkindsofcuts.

(11)Theytookmetojuvenile.

ontheothersideofthewindowandhekeepsmakingfacesatme').However,
wehaveclassifiedtheclausesintheselinesasbackgroundclausesbecausethe

HPrenderingseemslessnaturalthantheoriginal,perhapsbecausethefirstverb

isstativeaIiathesecondverbdescribesrepetitiveaction.Asimilarquestion
ariseswiththeconcludingclausesofeachnarrative.WehaveclassifiedtheseclausesasbackgroundclausesbecausewethinkthattheydonOtcorltinllelhe

eventline,butfatherfUnctionasanexplanatoryconclusion.Thepointisthat
itcanbedifficulttodistinguishbetweenfbregroundandbackgroundclauses,
andthatinourcodingwehavehadtomakemanydecisionsbased;tosome
extent,onintuitions,asintheexamplesabove.

2．

(1)ThenIwaswithmyfriends...

(2)TheywerefiPomtheSouthSide…Gn'VistaGn'all(3) ･"'wecα"e〃gﾉ"dひw"んeだ
(4)

123

庇"seMaJk加gmrﾉ2eE"8"s"qfSpα"軸‑…α""g"oleW"応@"'wemmHo"ywood(5) ."'wesmr･〃んrowi"'so"leborrlesqrb..""le/zo"ses(6) @"'weh"somebody'sbo"e(7) ･"'/nec@z"zeo脚応j火shoo""gagz"z""s,(8) sothathes/ior"iebackα"｡…

（9） ［Interviewer]:Reallyclose,huh？
(10)TWey"okme加加a(11)TVieyrookrhel"ekidImrsrole"iec""/"vi(12)･"'hegersmeb砥彪α(13)･n' thenlgotintrouble.

AsecondgroupofstudiesoftensemarkingwasdonebyWQliam"dhisassociater(Wdlframl985,Wolfram,ChristianandHatfieldl986a,

1986b),whoexaminedthespeechofViemamese‑speakingsubjeC!sliv".in
theWashington,D.C. suburbsofNorthernVirginia・Thesesmdieswillbe

feferredtoiStheVietnameseEnglish(VE)smdies.Thesubjectshadlivedin
fheUnitedStatesfrombetween3and7years.TheresearcherselicitedpatUral

SPeechbyusing@sociolinguisticinterVieWfPnn4t.(LabQv.19;4,W"

indFasOidl97J).UnlikeKumpftheylookedmamlyatlexicalandphono‑

logicalconstraintsontensemarking.Theyfbundth31regularveFbsewerg
mXfkedlessfrequentlythanirregularverbs,anorderofiequ.ncyajsofbund
insecondlanguagesPeechbyDulayandBurt(1974).Thisorderoffi巳qUency

56ffesponds,5sWell;totheOrderofacqUisitioninfirstlanguagespeechfOund

AccordingtoKumpf(1984)thepasttenses(whichincludesimplepast,

pastprogressive,andpastperfect)aremandatoryinbackgoundclauseswith
pastreference.However, infbregoundclauses,thepasttensescanalternate
withthecorrespondingpresenttensesinwhatistraditionallycalledhistoriCal

preSem̲(HP).WolfSon(1982)identifiestwocharacteristicsoftheHBdsusedmnarrative: (1)italternateswiththepastinsuchawaythatthetwoare"alwayssubstimtablefbreachotherWithomChangeinrefer.ntialmeamng;(2):< itisneverfbundinallverbswhereitcouldhavebeenused.

Itissometimesdi伍cult todistinguishbackgroundfiPomfbregoundclauses.Innarrativel,theverbinline7clearlymovestheeventlinefbrward(andmfactisintheHP).ButwhatabouttheverbsinlinesSand6?Dotheseclausessupplyabackgoundandexplanationfbrthehitting,ordoestheevent
linebegmhere?Lines5and6couldberenderedintheHP(CItwasbecausehe's′

産zseMq成加gi"rﾉ1eE"8"sﾉIqf"α"ish‑Sp"ki"8Adりlesce"rs

HD.A血加so〃ααﾉ．

124

125

proficiencygroupconsistedofsubjectswhohadljvedintheUS."1r3
years.ThehEherproficiencygroupconsistedofsubjecWhoh4dlivediKlqne

bedelerdfromaconsonantcluster,producing,fbrexample,mIs/fbr"ssed.
Inanotherstudy,WolfiPametal. (1971)fbundthatinPuertoRicanandblack
Englishconsonantclustersacrosswordboundariescanbereducedaswell,so
thatpIqyedjbrispronounced/pleyfJ/.
Finally,twoVEsmdieslookedfbrthepresenceofdiscourseconstraints
ontensemaddng.WolfiPam,Christian,andHatfield(1986a)fbundnoevi‑

iJ.S.fbr4‑7years.Wedividedoursubjectsusingtllg̲LQE鯉哩ignandby

usinganaccdracyindeIWhichwasthepercentageofpasttenseirlarkilginr
obligatorycontexts・Wecountedasan,obligatorycontextaverbinaback‐obligatoryrmEXEW5countedasanobligatory""averbilabpCk‑￨ ' grOihdciauscthatreferredtoapasteVent(asinli･.2ofnarKativel),Wiere

mleHPisnotpossible.Astable2shows,JuanaandMarcos,thetwosubje.ts

denceoftheinfluenceofthefbregound/backgrounddistinctioninthespeech
ofa33‑year‑oldsubjectintheiradvancedproficiencygoup.Wolfram(1985)

whohadlivedintheU.S.fbrtheshortesttime,hadthelowestscoresonthe

accuracyindex.Ariel'sscorewasalsolow(thesameasMarCoS'S),.butAriel

I 舞辮;縦鶏豊t:;淵繍島忽脚淵溌ぷり畷:窓

hadlivedintheU.S.onandofffOrllyears.Therefbre,wedecidedtogroup
JuanaandMarcosinthelowerproficiencygoupandtheothersubjectsinthe

unmaddngthatwasconditionedbythelexicalandphonological factors
mentionedabovewasfarmorefrequent.TheVEresearchersconcludedthat

higherproficiencygroup.Constraintgroup2intablelcontainstheindividual

whilediscourse‑levelconstraintsmaywellaffecttensemarking, theyare
outweighedbylexicalandphonologicalconstraints,andtherefbrethatany
smdyofdiscourselevelconstraintsthatignoreslexicalandphonological7tmblel.Perce""gesqf""rre"se"α戒伽gbyseve"Q)a"jsh‑sp"ki"gadoles""応Const.groupl

Const.group2

94

lower

83

(VerbsandVerbclasses)be
have

2.1Reseα『℃ﾉzQ"es"o"７︐６３

ResearchDesign(ProfiCiency)
higher

９９９2.

PeI℃entmarked

Constraints

constraintsisflawed.

go

wehaveattemptedtoimprove,ilpontheirdesignintwoways.(FirSt,,we
analyzeo

ratherthanconflatingalldiscourse､,types・Second,weanalyzetheen血edatabasemrbothlow‑levelanddis‑
courselevelconshPaints.Specifically,weask:Howdotheconstraintsintable
グー一一一一一一一一一L‑

laffeCt lliemarkingofthepasttensemthenarrativesofourSpamsh‑
speakingsubjects?Wealsoconsidertheeffectofthefbllowingphonologicalenvironmentonthemaddngofshortpastverbs.Thisconstraintwinbe
analyzedseparatelysinceitaffectsonlyregular,short‑fbrmverbs.TheVE
smdiesdonotuseaVARBRULanalysis,and,becausewewishtocompare
ourfindingstothosesmdiesandhavearelativelysmalldatabase,wewilluse
pel℃entagesratherthanVARBRULconstraintweightings.

︲ｌｌｌｌｌＱＢ■■■ｑ︲９１ＩｌｌｌｌｌｌＩ１ｌｌ■■■■■■ｇ●■９１１１Ｆ目０ⅡⅡＩⅡⅡＯＬＰｂⅡ１１０●ⅡＶｌ１１ｌｌＵ１■日■︲１１１︲ｆ１１４９ｌｌｌＩｌｌｌｌｇ７ｌＩ︲１１

ThepresentsmdyissimilartotheVEstudies(especiallyWolhPaml985),butaint.V+suff.

iht.Vchange〜‑‑‑

grOups,higherandlower.WolfiPam(1985)dividedhisl6subjectsintotwo
levelsofproficiencyassuggestedbytheirLORintheU.S・TYlelower

91

CO瓶e

88

/1d/

88

‑t/d

81

C

otheriIT.

67

d

Const. group3

Const・ gmup4

Thegg̲gglJPZQfCOnsnfaintsintablelcontainsthetwoproficiency

91b

finalCreplacement(ClauSetype)backgroundfbreground

57

96
88

(Speaker'ssex)
tmale

92

male

91

a･e･g､,kepr,"id,IGji;b.e.9.,9or,s","w; c.c.9.,"e;d.e､9.,"zadeI
11

HD.A血"126o〃ααl.

nzble2.Demogmphicim/bmα"o"α加""'es"h/ecrsα"dfzcc"racyi"dex(peｸ℃emageq/

４１

Accuracylndex

ｌ

８８
６４
４２
９
９Ｃ７
９
Ｃ
Ｄ９
●９
●９
●９
●

YearsinU.S.

９１５５１２４

Grade

７８７８６６７Sex

翻岬榊岬恥雌睡●︒■凸●●■ａ●●■＆︒●■＆●●■ユAriel

Marcos甑ｓ啄啄邸駆ｓ

Oscar

０ｃ
０ｃ
０ｃ
０ｃ
Ｏ
Ｃ

Benny
SylviaCountryofbirth

ＭｕＭＭＭＭｕ

Subject
Blancaｅｅｅ

p"rre"semqFkmgmobljgfzIDFycomexfsノ

淀"seMZ"9ki"gi"theE"g"shqfSpα"ish‑"eα""gAdolesce"

127

pastreferenceverbsinalldiscoursetypes.ThjsingWs"9uFsubW"
hi6feproficientintheiruseofthepasttensethanWolfiam'shighproficiency
subjects.

Wenextconsiderthedatashownintablel.Theconstraintsinthetable

constimteahypothesisofhowoursubjectsmarkedpasttense.Iirst,note"!
hiEbnstraintgioup4malesandfemalesmarkedpasttenseatalmo¥expcUy●

mesamerate (91Versus92percent).Sincethisisthecase,ihespeakprsisex

d5esiibtappeartoconsirainbasemarkingandWillnotbediscu"e4fUFUlgr,、

ConsiaintGrouplcomraststhelowerproficiencygroupwiththehig"

JU2"

profiCiencygroup.Abwewouldexpect,thehigherpronciencygroupmarks

pasttensemolefrequently,94percentversus83percent・
irregularverbsandverbclasses.Constraintgroup3containsthetwotypesof
clausesfOundinnarratives: fbregroundandbackground.Constraintgoup4
containsthetwopossibilitiesfOrspeaker'ssex.
2.2TWeSα畑p/e

NextconsiderCQ旦聖aintGroup2,verbtype.Table3sh･wsthepercent:agesatwhichthetwogroupsofsubjectsmarkedthevariousverbtypesand
IHE"centagefbrbotiIgr6upscombinedAswewquldexppct, the.hi"
Pi6fMncygtoupmarkeaall theverbs(exceptcol"e)morefrequendythao
thelowerproficiencygroup.

itiSiiterestinglotoniParethepercentagesatwhichoU"UbjeWnarkgj

irregni"VerbswiilthepeicentageSatWhichWolftam's(1985)Pigh,":
EMygroupmarrkedtheSeverbs.WewnlcOmparethreegrlllpsofyerb"(l)●Ours呵ectswerenativeSpanish‑speakingadolescentswhoweI℃smdentsat
RuizMiddleSchool,ascienceandtechnologymagnetschoolthatwassetup

inresponsetoacourtordertoendthesegregationofhispamcandanglo
smdentsintheTucsonUnifiedSchoolDistrict.Theschoolenrollsscience‑orientedsmdentsfifomalloverthecityaswellasstudentsfiFomthesurround‑Verbmgherprof.
be
have
go

int.V+suffix

Reauplts

/Idノ
ーtﾉd

Overall,oursubjectsmarked91percentofverbsthatreferredtopastevents
withmnarratives.Wolfram'shighproficiencysubjectsmarked73percentof

otherirr.

finalCreplacement

Lowerprof.

１

int.Vchange
COme

3．

Percentageofpasttensemarked

ToLal
７６
９
９３
９１
９０
９８
８８
８１
８０
６７
５

ageementlevelsamongthecoderswasclosetolOO%.

Ttzble3.Perce""g"Qfi"divid 肋e油sα"dverb"esmmked
兜駈兜別ね叩方釦０−撫謎鮒謡蹴:繍協霊罵息蹴態鶚職鯛朧lumpedtogether・However,whencategory(1)andcategory(2)areconsid‑

８
９７
９３
９５
９６
９５
８０
９５
８０
０１７
５

ingneighborhood,whichispredominandyhispanic.TheschoolhasanESL
program,butnobilingualprogam.However,manyoftheteachersuse
SpamshandEnglishinbothESLandcontentcourses.Additionaldemo‑
gaphicinfbrmationaboutthesulqjectscanbefbundintable2.
Thesubjectswereinterviewedatschoolorintheirhomesbynative
English‑speakinggraduatesmdentsusingasociolinguisticinterviewfbrmat.

MMaiiiregularverbs, (2)irregularverbclasses,and(3)regll!ar̲veFbs.

THErankordefofpercentagesfbrtheirregularverbs,show"tabl.4does
dOfmatchWolfrain'sorderoffrequencieswhengroups(1)and(2)"■Ⅵ０ １ Ｆ ︲ １ ４ ｈ ︲ ｊ

１１
fbrthefrequencyofmarking<itidiViJuaLverbs'isbe>/i"ve>go>co"@e.

IWbfadMiderisZe=5""g而危耐s,inbothsmdiesbeismarked

Forrmm函璽扱wefindanorderthatisdifferenthomWolham's.

/Wolfi.am'Smm5ibiencysubjectsmarkedtheshortpast(‑t/d)andthelong

relativelylowmarkingofthelongpastasrenectingthenamralorderof

凸■ｐＨⅡＦも■１０トーｆ ＩＩlable,maybemorepercepmallysalient than‑t/d.'Wolframexplainsthe

▲
Ⅱ
■
■
ｒ

: /Oursubjects,ontheotherhand,markedthelongpastmorefrequentlythan
theshortpast‑88percentversus81percent.Wolfram'sordermaynot
confbrmtotheprincipleofsaliency,since/Id/,constimtingaseparatesyl‑

NatalicioandNatalicio(1971)fbrfirstandsecondlanguageacqUisition. In｜〈
I

ofsaliency.

Tumingtothedeletionof‑t/dfiFomtheshortpast,wefilrstconsidersome
previousresearchonthismuch‑smdiedphenomenon.hnportantresear℃hin
thisareaincludesFasold's(1972)smdyofblackEnglishinDeroit,Wolfram
eta1.'s(1971)smdyofPuertoRicanandblackEnglishinNewYorkCity,ｔＰｂｌ１Ｄｆ

LabovandCohen's(1967)andLaboveta1.'s(1968)smdiesofblackand

９口Ｉｄ■０１１﹄色！ｊ１１１▲■ロＴ甲︐０１７

Pause

DismIssion

replaciveverbsshouldbemarkedlessfiPequendythanregular‑t/dverbs・With
regular‑t/dverbs,thepastfOrmdiffersfiPomthenon‑pastfbnnbytheaddition
ofafinalconsonant.However,withreplaciveverbs, thepastfbrmdiffers
fifomthenon‑pastfOnnonlybyachangeinthefinalconsonant・Withonlyone
exception,then,oursubjectsmorefifequentlymarkedverbsthatarephoneti‑
canydistantfiPomtheirnon‑pastfbnns,thussupportingWolfram'sprincipleｌ79(15/19)
70(19/27）の（9/13）

Non‑vowel(notincludingpause)

93 （487/522）
84 (118/141)
91 （605/663）(267/295）(77/97）88 (334/392）

Wenote,however,that,inouropimon,theprincipleofsaliencypredictsthat

I

ｉｌ

Vowel

79

(220/227）(41/44）96 (261/271）

theynidfOrWolfiamsincewehavesofewtokens,only6and7respectively・ ノIPercen伝v4marked

93冤瀞蝋纈朧灘麗腎辮f窒驚謂謡鰯墓驚蒜Lpercentinbackgroundclausesversus91percentinfbregroundclauses.There

Followingsegment

Lower

past tensesaremarkSdmQrefrequendythanregularpasLtenses・Thetwo

Theeffectofthefbllowingphonologicalenvironmenton‑t/ddeletioninme〃1sHighermaddngbynativeVieinamesespeakersinseveralways.Ingenefaijirtegular

pastbecausetheyhadnotyetfUllyacquiredit.Sinceoursubjectsappeartobe
moreproficientthanWolfram's,ourordermaybetheresultoftheprinciple
ofsaliencyoperatingwithoutinterferencefromprinciplesofacquisition.

宛"e4.P"℃e""8"Qfp""e"e‑Wmα成伽gj"肋花eん"owmgp加"ologicalemjiro"

Total

91

TheresultsofouranalysisaresimilartothoseofWolfifam'sanalysiSqftenseotherwords,hissubjectsdidnotproducethelongpastasoftenastheshortwhichshowsthatthehigherproficiencysubjectsmarkedpasttenseat97

ForegI℃undclause4．

acquisitionfbundbyBerko(1958) fbrfirst languageacqUisitionandby

shortpastfbrmsisshownintable4.ThetableshowsthatbothafOllowing
consonantandafbllowingpausedisfavormarkingmoresronglythana
fbllowingvowel,aswasthecasefbrFasold's(1972)blackEnglishspeakers.
Finally,weconsidertheeffectoffbregroundversusbackgroundclause.
Acrosstabulationofclausetypewithproficiencygroupappearsintable5,

Backgroundclause97

isamuchgreatercontrastinthelowerproficiencygroup・Thisgroupmarked
pasttenseat93percentinbackgroundclausesbutonly79percentinfbre‑
groundclauses.Thedifferenceinthepatternsshownbythetwogroups(asdisplayedintable5)issignificantatthe.011evel(X2=6.928;df=1).

１
１, past(/Id/)ataboutthe9amPrate‑38"celltand39perceqtrespeCtively.

Percentverbsmarl$d

Total

１Ｉ０Ｉｊ０ｊｌ１ｌ■０ⅡＩⅡⅡ Ｌ１ｄ１ｊ４Ｉ１１Ｉ︲

percent.Thus,inbothstudies,replaciveverbsaremarkedleastfrequently.

Proficiencygroupｉ￨ order, thoughthedifferenCebeIWSenourfirsttwocategoriesisonlyone△■■■■■■ＰＬ９︑１

Imostfifequently.Turningtotheilregularverbclasses,ourrankorderis:
ノ int.V+suHix>int.Vchange>Xplacive,whichisthesameasWolfram's

129

7hble5.Crossmb"Iα"o"qfc""e""eα"。"'nβcie"Cygm"p

１１１１Ｉ

。

泥"seMn戒i"gi"rheE"8"s/zqf助α"jsﾉi‑speat腕gAdoﾉesce"妬

１名１１ｂＬＢ■■Ｔ１ｉＩｌｌｌｑＩｌＩＴ/ eredseparately,somesimilaritieSemerge｡Astable3shows,ourrankorder

１１１１１１１■１７１".".A血加so〃αα1．

128mainlandPuertoRicanvarieties,andGuy's(1980)smdyofwhitespeakersin
NewYorkCityandPhiladelphia.WiththeexceptionofWolhfametal.
１１

︑︑

１︐１

・閏皇３号ひ５項︒頃Ｃａ陶豊四三⑪昌ロ署目昌９国揖農響星
声壷目︒唱冒函︷画同忌めの吻弓一︒で目ｏ団２９眉四名⑪戸口当鬮昌巨弓閏当３号声呂⑪一・頃Ｃａ二︼⑪房︒一⑪昌苗乞冒弓ｇｏ四一画の参・﹄豊⑪参︒西・唾﹄⑪着の号⑪昌呂ぢ﹄ｏ一彦旦豊の昌︑言鵲熊鷆霊罷霊霊塞悪霊竈龍龍醐龍
●・望昌飼垣呂８君︒乱︒﹄ｏ宮︒二・つ目両君︒一×の一乞冒屋︒一己員︒言８昌の一国＆○ｓ目＆号︲ロゴ︒︼胃居ｏ侶冨畳﹇君８函・ぢ⑪石．吻吻﹄・巳︒︺彊弓彦函呵身−８冨呵も爵ぢ臣二四コ︒彊

や昌冒召︒︒︒の﹄︒︒︒の壱︽圏︒︒宮の﹄．︒﹄︒四・の︒の量︒ロ目︒勘︒眉一意員︒呂巴で⑫曽呂﹄

俸四目型息旨⑪呂巴︽里︒⑪万易旨ｏろ娯一飼９８鬮菖号望昌飼垣呂８⑪閏．Ｏｏｍ−Ｑ
・の目且 ５首目ｏ目８画ぢ屋・冠参○戸飼吻ごｇ日恕吻曽冒旦﹇ｇ⑪呂員の二夢・の吻昌○・も崇旨８０湯一宮ｏｐｇ員︒逼画︒彊骨﹇一房の餡・圏己︒ロ固め⑪﹃号雪貯昌一●︲ｇ昌彦５弓︒乱昌目︒且普冒呂昌の昌言の巳呂季＄も己吻のｓぢ弓属弓彊旨の君●●屋○画の冠で首扇逗呂︒︒湯島目︒固めの乞苗身冒ｏロ当Ｃｓ⑭彦季ｇ曽属︷の愚国吾昌ｏ８員あｇ旨馬場も言⑲号◎団沼彦の呂凰号三彦昌彦︶で彦昌普冒呂昌甸冒呵屋呂里名．＄垣の置冒目８国︒榿の︒四口目苦飼室昌冨彦ｏ弓吻垣且︽３逗呉目シｇ昌彦昌弓彦○弓９５戸暑旨目◎目８普冒旦自昌飼︽＄弓冒シの３ｓ属肴乞で目昌．司る日甸鎧で芦く．︵巨臼︶首芯日甸雪︒参函乱君いき頁冒ぬ画︶万参︒シ白愚めぢ一の参○芦甸吻ごロの昌宮日宮５﹇ｇ勧○ぢ宮且・函冨も８のａ⑭呂曾農彦

ぢ冒曽冒呂当名号易ざ⑪目呂５日

・冒呂里ｇｇｇ戸曇由壱言曽︒ご図冒這身名望三色員爵閏豊彦

貞苗彊・閏巴函昌︒旨阿屋○目８︲唇○員眉目昌芯−８つ苧の屋員冒〆のｇ云っ日四身ロ︒農Ｐ︲﹃名里冨四つ目甸登己署ｏ浄彦のｚ屋②里芯置妥ｇ三参畠の日用の吾ぢ屋沼彦⑪呂乱ち

ぢどぢ⑪這菌彊冒︒＆︵呂臼︶言○・首当●易号目も旨呂ｇ罵冒員２８増⑪爵冨星

首呂⑪もつｇ５芦唱ご曾○畠⑪召乱曾冒︒﹇冨甸一言○営○浄彦のＺ員・めぢの君君﹇８三号団︒乱︒量⑪＄彊晨冒普冨壱ｇ冨乞の函の呂乱普冒昌昌画一５昌画 ・属且

訂隻︽の己冒受の消昌↓３．号Ｃａ邑○胃︒彊二昌房の﹄︽一の参︒シ呵普冒呂昌勺や岩ののｇ⑪目乱画二昌叩自国曽甸宕昌冨畳冒二巳冒呵画一⑪夢︒シ自画函旨呂ｏｍｐ８昌○轌身９国︲冒凰の戸︒﹃８旨︒目︒の乞号苗冒湯一⑪唖ｏ一・のぢ日苗昌困目の口９ｍ自国一易閏函乱員甸号の彊昌○戸︒ＵシＱｇＱンＵＵ戸︒⑪︒５号の函の岳晋一習呂︒↓§︑苦亘消昌宣言

翰飼彦日飼娼で彦号冨彦属切⑪壱己吻⑪彊吻８﹄豊彦辱め旨呵巨ｏ目ｏｏｇ冨〆ｏｍ爲巳つ＆︒○助︲ａ⑪めめ⑪函︒ａ弓５寓目８︵侵色︶雪︒

二ぢぬ芦︒シＱン︒ｇ戸︒シＵシ○８５号⑪由豊﹈曾弓曽昌︒・含己︑急︑雰肖ｇ南自署

曽呂︒⑪己日受⑪﹄ｇ一画８号Ｃａｍ呂・巴９ｍ三・君口轌ぢのｍｇの乞昌・宮○参貝の自⑪巳︒ｍ一⑪参○夛八由︷⑪参○戸０冒置の吻八

つ肩口ず雲筥蔚呂︶の函︒且普冒ｓ︷昌飼ちぢ趙温の這冨昌冒×の︒ｍ君︵ｇｇ︶冒○での﹄のつ湯目○○一○自己呵二吻出○一画四三ｍの戸冒﹃ぬ︒○一シ⑪肖回⑪律営○の︒屋○宮里のつ固画Ｏｐｏ︵⑪︒ｐ昌一吻

弓皇︒シ昌唖飼彦戸︒号目号冨彦昌３石己吻豊﹄・曇巴冒乱のｍの習乱曽冒呂昌

畠・吻一の琴︒シ這冒のの︒且冨号ｏ団扇室昌昌

ぢ習一冒昌惑いの昌ｇ弓号呵君国のＥ８２ｇも道︒ミ当﹈３ｍ目︒色︒吾︒彊幻昌房⑪
・由の眉⑪ＢＯＳ四日︶声三○沼貞ｏ胃︒彊号雪房２ぢ屋︒５日︒ｐ皇︒⑪這蔬Ｐｇ罵言﹈ｏＥ

２奇日旨呂ｏ閨８習冒ｏ豈昌の砦弓の日豊乱⑪呂乱普冒昌一畠忌昌ぢ昌呂﹄．届︒富里肩○目のニロ一団圏の委昌．園⑪員甸︑一目○口一画○Ｑ一句目頃の一全画一罠吻昌﹇つ﹈の菖苗○痕填

●

一

八圏自画目︒目︒︒萌呵彦罰昌画︒シ曇②壱ｇ函巨画○戸昌ＥＣ鎧︶ぬ旨⑪日昌日冨目⑪君︒乱ｏぢ目︒ニロ｜｜

・弓︒︒シ冒両宮︒温﹇名忌﹄︒シ曇望５日３吻冒冒巨ｏ２８冨昌冒三巳︵９国︶言○普冒具弓昌ぢ曾星ロ圏⑪彊式弓︒彊︒＆の２︒星・色９重名園﹄︒シ掴めも望５日恕翰

丙全員⑪望︒号渭冒画・のもうの一局シのｇつ①壱己圏ｏ屋のシ飼二⑫夢⑪君二参・⑲Ｑ声﹈の︻昌一﹇誘彦Ｕ

ぢ皿昌巨⑪笛⑪彦豊︾愚二一＄﹈巴切︵屋︒一苗︒一宮二目員屋︒︒一旬二○巴⑪巳︶弓⑪日の・望︒の云易旨︒−３君昌の話昌一×ｏ昼烏ｇ声一の的︒一・２︒Ｅの評乱目一のｇｍ参︒一君朋８Ｃａｍ巨冒⑪笛①彦●もめ日︒弓一のマ﹄当冨日のめ５営め且

１︲−０６日Ｐ︲ＩＩＰ４ｄｆＩｐ■ｂＨ４ＰＯＬ■日

ご目︒旨８○月︒

目呂里８．号の＆のｇ三参眉忌彊９ｏｚ・息ミ昌沼曇︒冒農ＳＣＥ目○日Ｂ眉目且函昌︒

２場二日巴５日恕函乞且函昌︒ぢシ⑪日用の乞昌冒留⑭易昌︒ＥＣ

屋⑪室扇ｇＱぢ自望屋昌芯一名＄一遍置冒２⑭這昌︽召二月閉⑪︷８ぢシ５℃８ぢシ５這遍

目８国︒旨の．四宮両ざ飼室員冨言戸属＆四一員呂里８号易旨幻成ミミ○当吻宮◎彦︒画の雪の一消甸妾目︒圏員冨垣切目○○旨画橲◎昌昌易○日のｓの鬮冨吾夢ｇ吻飼の２︐甸吻⑪弓日切の這娼○弓く︲■Ⅱ１ｔ︒

面吻甸目ｏ冒冒己もご自当参・翰己圏的︒旨当日○日的亘目勤倒副︲ざ○・目○号︷名画亭

即自も８のａ⑪昌吻ご昌呵垣呂８つ自８のめく・弓ぢ戸唱

壕員ｏ５もつ閏︒シ曇︵の彦冒︒這ぢ合邑旨当・易号自く・旨の日ロｏ昌彦５−８乱︒ぢ回︒且・目︒逗里８めぢシ固め壱︵君翰飼屋﹄︒﹇圏９塁︽司彦︒シ古扇箪司彦◎乙旨固○屋︒吻飼吻甸閏豊舅

●・旨⑪日目Ｂｇ５君︒乱︒ぢ目︒邑智冒昌﹇巳の昌吻ごロ冨昌目８一己愚彦＆湯︒冒昌眉

函一ｇ首彊めｇｏ屋︵○卜ｇ︶望︒面一口︒﹂・﹇⑪湯︒﹈３日︒︒且︑里曽詩ｇｏ②・５ｓ脇○言８国︶５参○四ｇ昌一⑪彦苦ｏあ・﹇﹈訂﹇︒﹈Ｂｏ屋．ｏｐｏａｍ暑呉ご亘冨ｓｏ切

閏８＆画 壱一国且﹈９５肴の参︒め吻一宕言呂廻どの旨乱のち巴８詞も⑪ＥＣ吻昌冨彊⑪己⑪遇︒︵等辱二ｍ窒即自国昌函Ｑｇ函君巨哩の︒ぢ妾のロ唇の鐘ｏ圏の当飼の堅吻二ｍ冒甸・の・声︒宮⑪勺邑⑪一切星﹈﹄︒﹈言吻巴

切身名＆．︵Ｓ臼愚言冒至冒画匡ｏｘａ︽奇鬮己︶ｇｏ冒彦８５輯○的畠号這彦↓の戸冒︒漫画自壱一ｍ且ぢ百５宮巴昌冒函呵冨︒目ｏｐｏａ翰一︽︵一豊昌︶Ｂｍｐ扇飼言昌

呵函

呂唇頃⑪富
参匡
・吻ミ
乱星
属吻冒
切毎
官房ｏ
湧届
冒︒飼
⑪呂
畠︒２
のニ旨
Ｐ乱・
昌．目
ｏ湯蓼
一︷
﹈冒
Ｑ○
﹈ｏ
の屋
︒つ
冒⑭
且の
一彦
百戸
ｚ身
・吻
里０
︒目
臣︒
ロ曾
ニ豊
画冒
のａ
もｇ
８５
軍轌
属冒
の乞
ｐ
菅乱昌づの愚息ｏ日且訂日邑ｏ５Ｅｏ５且ｍ三Ｐ．②一⑪夢○二２ｇｇｇ乞巴ロ目︒切目８宮甸吻⑪目ａ２ｇ２旨⑪弓⑪垣曾ｏＥｍ両彦弓冒−８つ亨蔚乞冒冒昌の参・旨３消︒︒︽つｇｏ自由至・のめ︒呵旦ロ自画・望慢甸巨○目︒︒︷︵四一の参︒シ︲一日⑪吻皿屋弓昌︒昌一︶ぬ一⑪言︒シ︾望屋の巳︲彊巨碑吻湯弓君︒一﹈呂巴めぢ色二四コ︒ｇ・⑫シ冨脇四コの⑪愚︵ず⑪︷号﹈屋一つの百一房石︶昌男曾昌・閏の易昌︒旨飼自○目ＣＯ君屋瑁昌乞冒ロマご屋○扇５頁目ｏｏ３も己由の困昌︒︵忌日︶の畳５・冒昌ミ眉吻呵︽の日当ｓｏ日誌乱の這旨の＄己２９．召︲︽ｍ﹄の易昌︒号易扇ぎ具の彦曽の湯昌呂呂

つ︑﹃つ目閏９ｍ三・﹈烏自○目８−呵屋轌乞８日︒鎧屋︒号一名冨潤８一目︒︒⑪夢つ目・旨の日萱ご愚電︒旨冒で更．Ｑ壗雪

︲自○﹄冨号普冒呈昌の冨めめ８のの星垣ｏ望︒畠ものｓ﹈§起函ミ︼８号︲昌昌ご具つ旨塁魯茂132

HD.A血加so〃αα4Wemayspeculatethatthispattemofunmaddngmayrepresent旦些型二一munigation̲§唾leg工型§jlabletolessproficientspeakers.WolfSon(1982)
fbundthathernativeEnglishspeakingsuhjectsavoidedHPduringthesocio‑
linguisticinterviewandweremuchmorelikelytouseitinpre‑andpost‑interviewcontexts. Shebelieves that thiswassobecausetheinterview

representedafbrmalcontextfOrwhichtheinfbrmalHPisnotappropriate.In
ourcase,aswell, thesociolinguisticinterviewwasprobablyarelatively
fOnnalcontext.Mostoftheinterviewstookplaceinaschoolsettingandallof
theinterviewersweremtorswhohadbeenhelpmgthesubiectswiththeirclassesthroughoutthecourseofthesemester.Theinterviewerswereinevita‑
blyidentifiedwithschoolwork,acontextthathasbeenfbundtoelicitamore

fbnnalstyle. Ifthiswasthecase,oursubjects, likeWolfSon's,mayhave
desiredtoavoidtheHPinordertosoundappropriatelyfbnnal.However,therewasaconnictmginfluenceonthelowerproficiencyspeakers,namely
thedesiretoavoiderrorsinpasttensefOrmsthattheyhadnotmastered. In
thesecircumstances,usingtheHPprovidedawaytoavoiderrorsbymaking
thesmallsacrificeofsoundinglessfbnnal.
Thispossibilitysuggestsapedagogicalimplicationfbroursmdy.Narra‑
tivesmaybeagoodplacefbrESLsmdentstopracticethepasttensesince
theycontainasafeenvironment:namelythefbregroundclause,whereeither
thepastorpresentfbnnisacceptable.Smdentslikethosemourlowprofi‑
ciencygroup,whostinhavesomedifficultywiththepasttense,appeartotake
advantageofthiscontext. 'IYleyproducealowerpercentageofpastfbnns
thanthemoreproficientspeakerswhenitisgammaticallycorrecttodoso・ Ifteachersdesiretolowertheirstudents'affectivefilterS(Krashenl981)in

ordertoencouragelanguageproducUon,theymight,aswedid,askquestions
thatelicitstories. @Didyoueverseeafight?' @Wereyoueverindangerof
death?' .What'sthefUnniestthingyoueversaw?'Narrativesnotonlyprovide
asafeenvironmentfbrusingpasttensefbnns,theyalsoevokeagreatdealofinterest,enthusiasm,andenjoyment.
Inconclusion,Wol廿am(1985)notes, ･Theconcemwithsurface‑level

conStraintg…shouldnotbetakenasarejectionof…mgherlevelorganization
inintedanguagetensemarking,'andhecallsfbrsmdiesthatlookatboth

typesofconstraints.TYlepresentresearchisonesuchsmdy,anditsuggests
thatlexical,phonological,anddiscourseconstraintsallplayaroleintense
markinginintedanguage.

亜"seMa戒加g伽〃zeE"8"sbqf助α"jsﾉI‑"eα""8Adblesce"応

133

Note

l.

Bayley(personalconununication)arguesthatthelongpasLislesssaljenllhanlheshon
paStbbciiusetheextlasynableofthelongpas[isunsires",̲whgeasinmgnYshqFtpas!
VcrbsthepasttensemorphemeoccursinastressCdsyllable・ Sincewelackafbrmal
definitionofpeI℃eptualsaliency,wemustrelyonlinguists' inmitionsastowhichpast
fbnndiffersmorefiPomthepresentfbrm,andinthiscaseourintuitionsdonotagree.

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Wolram,WaltandRalphW・Fasold. 1974. Thes地力qfsocialdja彫as伽A碗e"azg胸ﾉl.EnglewoodCnffS:PrenticeHall.

〃

WolfSon,Nessa. 1982.OntensealternationandtheneedfOranalysisofnativespeaker

1．

usageinsecondlanguageacquisition.Zα"8趾ageLecmmg32:53‑68.

Introduction:AcquiringtheEnglishArticleSystem

ﾄﾛ

Theproblemthaisecondlanguageleamersarefacedwiil"acqumng̲Ip
systeinofarticlesinEnglishisatoughone.InthepedagOgicallitggatqre"l.
teachersreportthatarticlesal℃oftentheirnumberonedifficulty(Covittl976,

citedinCelce‑MurciaandLarsen‑Freemanl983).Giventhatarticlesarethe

mostfifequentfOrmsthatareavailabletoleamersininput,thedi髄cultythat
learnersexperienceinusingthemcorrectlyappears,atfirstsight,sUrprising.

However,despitetheabundanceofthesefbrmsininput,Englisharticlesarea

remarkablycomplexsystemtoacquire・Thisclosedsystemofahandfillof
generallyimstressedmorphemesencodessemanticnotionsofexistence,̲gef
5rence,andattribution;discoursenotionsofanaPhoraandcontext;aswellas

syntacticnotionsofcountabilityandnumber･Addedtothecomplexityofthetargetsystemaredi伍cultiesinherentinthesecondlanguageleamingpro‑

ceSS, ixibludingtheinfluenceofthefirstlanguageandlearnergchanging

hypothesesabbutarticleusageatdifferemstagesininterlanguagedevelop‑
ment.

PartoftheproblemfbrleamersliesinthecomplexwaysmWhiCh
血哩・皿

●ＢＧ毎
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〃

蝋纈繍盤蕊
、

釣麺ｂ
錘唾咋

article,"e,andthesingularindefimtearticle,"("ﾉ,inEnglishfimctionina

ｊmeaningismapPedontofbrmintheEnglisharticlesys".The.efimte