Annual Population and Social Security Surveys in 2021
The Sixteenth Japanese National Fertility Survey

Marriage Process and Fertility of Married Couples
Attitudes toward Marriage and Family among Japanese Singles
Summary of the Survey Results on Married Couples/ Singles
Department of Population Dynamics Research
TEL: +81(3)3595-2984
This document is available at the following web page.
(URL) https://www.ipss.go.jp/ps-doukou/e/doukou16/Nfs16_gaiyoEng.html
Numerical data for each of the graphs in this summary can also be found at the following web page (Japanese only).
(URL) https://www.ipss.go.jp/ps-doukou/j/doukou16/doukou16_gaiyo.asp

Table of Contents
Highlights of the Survey .............................................................................................................................. 6
Views on Marriage and Childbearing among Never-married Persons .............................. 6
Marriage, Childbearing, and Child-rearing among Couples in First Marriage................ 6I.
Results of the survey of singles ............................................................................................... 8II.
Results of the survey of married couples ......................................................................... 10
III. Work, living, and attitudes among never-married persons and married
couples ............................................................................................................................................ 13
Overview of the Survey ............................................................................................................................ 15
(1)
(2)
(3)

The purpose and history of the survey ............................................................................. 15
Survey methodology and questionnaire collection ..................................................... 15
The representativeness of the sample .............................................................................. 17

Section I Results of the Survey of Singles ........................................................ 20
1. Thoughts on Marriage .......................................................................................................................... 21
1.1 Intention of getting married ...................................................................................................... 21
1.2 The merits of marriage and of remaining single ............................................................... 25
1.3 Reasons for remaining single .................................................................................................... 27
2. Relationships with the Opposite Sex ............................................................................................. 28
2.1 Relationships with the opposite sex ....................................................................................... 28
2.2 Where and how never-married persons met their dating partner........................... 31
2.3 Experience of sexual intercourse............................................................................................. 32
2.4 Experience of cohabitation ......................................................................................................... 33
3. Desirable Life Course ............................................................................................................................ 34
3.1 Women’s life course regarding marriage, childbearing, and work ........................... 34
3.2 Criteria for potential spouses .................................................................................................... 36
3.3 Desired number of children and reasons for having children .................................... 37
4. Lifestyle of Never-married Persons ............................................................................................... 40

Section II Results of the Survey of Married Couples ....................................... 42
5. Marriage Process .................................................................................................................................... 431

5.1 Age at first encounter/first marriage and the length of courtship ........................... 43
5.2 How did couples meet? ................................................................................................................ 44
6. Fertility of Married Couples............................................................................................................... 46
6.1 Completed number of children ................................................................................................. 46
6.2 Number of children of couples in the childbearing period........................................... 50
6.3 The number of children born to married couples with wives aged 45-49 bysocioeconomic status ............................................................................................................... 52
7. Views on Number of Children ........................................................................................................... 57
7.1 Ideal and intended number of children of married couples ........................................ 57
7.2 Intended number of children at time of marriage and actual completed numberof children ..................................................................................................................................... 59
7.3 Reasons for having children ...................................................................................................... 60
7.4 Reasons why couples do not realize their ideal number of children ....................... 61
8. Pregnancy and Childbirth Situations ............................................................................................. 64
8.1 Sex life and contraception of married couples................................................................... 64
8.2 Pre-pregnancy plans ..................................................................................................................... 66
8.3 Concerns about infertility and treatment experience .................................................... 67
9. Child-rearing Conditions ..................................................................................................................... 68
9.1 Wives’ employment and childbirth......................................................................................... 68
9.2 Utilization of childcare support systems and facilities .................................................. 74
9.3 Husbands’ housework and childcare ..................................................................................... 77
9.4 Childcare assistance from grandparents .............................................................................. 79

Section III Employment, Residence, and Attitudes of the Never-married andthe Married ...................................................................................... 80
10. Employment Status and Co-residence with Parents ............................................................ 81
10.1 Employment status of never-married persons, husbands, and wives .................. 81
10.2 Co-residence with parents of never-married persons and couples ....................... 88
11. Experience Interacting with Children and Evaluation of Marriage Around Them . 92
11.2 Wife’s experience of interacting with children before marriage and wife’s
evaluation of the marriage around her ............................................................................ 94
12. Views on Marriage and Family ...................................................................................................... 95
12.1 Never-married persons’ views on marriage and family ............................................. 95
12.2 Wife’s views on marriage and family .................................................................................. 972

List of Tables and Figures
Table I. Numbers of questionnaires distributed and returned, and valid response rate .......................................... 16
Table II. Number of never-married persons, by sex and age (Survey of Singles)..................................................17
Table III. Number of couples in first marriage, by the wife’s age and by duration of marriage (Survey of Married
Couples) ..................................................................................................................................... 17
Table IV. Age composition by marital status: The 16th Survey and the 2020 Population Census ........................ 18
Table V. Regional composition by marital status: The 16th Survey and the 2020 Population Census .................. 19
Figure 1-1. Lifetime intention to marry among never-married persons, by survey............................................. 21
Figure 1-2. Lifetime intention to marry among never-married persons, by survey and age ............................... 22
Figure 1-3. Views on marriage among never-married persons who intend to marry, by survey ........................ 23
Figure 1-4. Percentage of never-married persons who have the intention to marry within a year, by survey andemployment status ...................................................................................................................... 24
Figure 1-5. Percentage of never-married persons choosing each “advantage of marriage,” by survey .............. 25
Figure 1-6. Percentage of never-married persons choosing each “advantage of single life,” by survey ............. 26
Figure 1-7. Percentage of never-married persons choosing each “reason for staying single,” by survey and age.................................................................................................................................................... 27
Figure 2-1. Relationships with the opposite sex among never-married persons, by survey and age .................. 28
Figure 2-2. Percentage of never-married persons not involved in a relationship and their desire to date, by
survey and age ............................................................................................................................ 29
Figure 2-3. Percentage of never-married persons with dating experience, by age: 16th survey (2021).............. 30
Figure 2-4. Percentage distribution of way and/or place never-married persons met their dating partner, by
survey (Those with a dating partner or fiancé/fiancée) .............................................................. 31
Figure 2-5. Percentage of never-married persons with sexual intercourse experience, by survey and age ......... 32
Figure 2-6. Percentage of never-married persons who have experienced cohabitation, by survey and age ........ 33
Figure 3-1. Ideal/Expected life courses of never-married women and life courses that men expect of theirwomen partners, by survey......................................................................................................... 35
Figure 3-2. Percentage of never-married persons who find it important or would consider each criterion forpotential spouse, by survey ........................................................................................................ 36
Figure 3-3. Average desired number of children of never-married persons, by survey ...................................... 37
Figure 3-4. Average desired number of children of never-married persons, by survey and age ......................... 38
Figure 3-5. Reasons for having children of never-married persons, by survey ................................................... 39
Figure 4-1. Percentage of never-married persons to whom each lifestyle applies, by survey ............................. 40
Figure 4-2. Lifetime intention to marry among never-married persons to whom each lifestyle applies, by
survey (Percentage of those who answered “intend to get married someday”) .......................... 41
Figure 5-1. Average age at first encounter and first marriage and duration of courtship, by survey andway/place married couples met (couples in first marriage who married within five years prior toeach survey) ............................................................................................................................... 43
Figure 5-2. Percentage of love marriage and arranged marriage, by year of marriage ....................................... 44
Figure 5-3. Percentage of ways and/or places married couples met, by survey (Couples in first marriage who
got married within five years prior to each study [For the 16th survey, those who got married
within six years prior to the survey]).......................................................................................... 45
Figure 6-1. Completed number of children of married couples, by survey (Duration of marriage: 15 to 19
years) .......................................................................................................................................... 46
Figure 6-2. Percentage distribution of couples by number of children, by survey (Duration of marriage: 15 to
19 years) ..................................................................................................................................... 47
Figure 6-3. Number of children born to couples with wives aged 45-49, by survey .......................................... 48

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Figure 6-4. Percent distribution of couples with wives aged 45-49 by number of children, by survey .............. 49
Figure 6-5. Number of children of married couples, by survey and duration of the marriage ............................ 50
Figure 6-6. Percentage distribution of couples by the number of children, by survey (Duration of marriage: 5 to
9 years) ....................................................................................................................................... 51
Figure 6-7. Number of children born to couples with wives aged 45-49, by survey and by residence (Densely
Inhabited District (DID) or non-DID) as of the time of the survey ............................................ 52
Figure 6-8. Number of children born to couples with wives aged 45-49, by survey and the regional bloc ofresidence (as of the time of the survey) ......................................................................................53
Figure 6-9. Number of children born to couples with wives aged 45-49, by survey and educational attainmentof wife and husband ................................................................................................................... 54
Figure 6-10. Number of children of married couples, by survey and the wife’s use of childcare leave after
giving birth to the first child (Wives aged 40-49 who continued to work after giving birth totheir first child) ........................................................................................................................... 55
Figure 6-11. Number of children of married couples, by survey, the wife’s age at first marriage and use ofchildcare leave after giving birth to the first child (Wives aged 40-49 who continued to work
after giving birth to their first child) ........................................................................................... 56
Figure 7-1. Average ideal and intended number of children of married couples, by survey............................... 57
Figure 7-2. Average ideal and intended number of children of married couples, by survey and duration of
marriage ..................................................................................................................................... 58
Figure 7-3. Percentage distribution of the intended number of children at the time of marriage and completed
number of children of married couples, by the wife’s age at first marriage: 16th survey (2021)(Duration of marriage: 15 to 19 years) .......................................................................................59
Figure 7-4. Reasons for having children chosen by married couples, by survey ................................................ 60
Figure 7-5. Reasons why couples do not realize their ideal number of children, by survey (Couples whose
intended number of children is less than their ideal number of children) .................................. 61
Figure 7-6. Reasons why couples do not realize their ideal number of children, by survey and the wife’s age(Couples whose intended number of children is less than their ideal number of children) ........ 62
Figure 7-7. Reasons why couples do not realize their ideal number of children, by combination of ideal andintended number of children: 16th survey (2021) (Couples whose intended number of children
is less than their ideal number of children) ................................................................................ 63
Figure 8-1. Marital sexual intercourse within the past month, by the wife’s age: 16th survey (2021) (Allcouples and those who intend to have an additional child) ........................................................ 64
Figure 8-2. Contraceptive practices within the past month, by the wife’s age: 16th survey (2021) (All couples
and those who intend to control their pregnancies) .................................................................... 65
Figure 8-3. Plans before pregnancy, by survey and order of pregnancy ............................................................. 66
Figure 8-4. Percentage of couples who have been worried about infertility and treatment experience, by survey
and duration of marriage ............................................................................................................ 67
Figure 9-1. Employment status of wife after childbirth, by survey, intention of having additional children, andstage of child-rearing (age of youngest children) ....................................................................... 68
Figure 9-2. Change in work status of wife before and after getting married, by year of marriage ..................... 69
Figure 9-3. Change in work status of wife before and after giving birth, by year of birth of child..................... 70
Figure 9-4. Percentage of wives who continued to work after getting married/giving birth and that of wives
who continued to work and used the childcare leave system, by work status before getting
married/pregnancy (Wives who were working when they decided to get married or when theyfound out about pregnancy)........................................................................................................ 71
Figure 9-5. Wife’s employment status and use of childcare leave when the first child was one year old, by
employment status before pregnancy with the first child, and the year of birth of the first child.................................................................................................................................................... 72

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Figure 9-6. Percentage of wives who used childcare leave among those who maintained the same employment
status between the time of discovering their pregnancy and when the first child was one year
old, by employment status and year of birth of their first child.................................................. 73
Figure 9-7. Childcare support systems/facilities used before the first child turned three years old, by year ofbirth of the first child: 16th survey (2021) ................................................................................. 74
Figure 9-8. Percentage of couples who used childcare support systems/facilities before the first child turned
three years old, by year of birth of the first child ....................................................................... 75
Figure 9-9. Percentage of wives who used childcare leave after giving birth to the first child, by survey andnumber of children (Wives aged 40-49 who continued to work after giving birth to their firstchild) .......................................................................................................................................... 76
Figure 9-10. Frequency of husbands’ performance of housework and childcare before the first child turned
three years old, by year of birth of the first child: 16th survey (2021) ....................................... 77
Figure 9-11. Frequency of husbands’ performance of housework and childcare before the first child turned
three years old, by the wife’s employment status when the first child was one year old: 16thsurvey (2021) ............................................................................................................................. 78
Figure 9-12. Percentage of couples who received childcare assistance from their parents (grandparents ofchildren) before the first child was three years old, by year of birth of the first child ............... 79
Figure 10-1. Employment status of never-married persons aged 25-34 after graduating from the last school
attended, by survey..................................................................................................................... 81
Figure 10-2. Employment status of never-married persons, by survey and age.................................................. 82
Figure 10-3. Employment status of wife and husband when they decided to get married, by survey ................ 83
Figure 10-4. Employment status of wife and husband, by survey and the wife’s age (aged 30-39, 40-49) ........ 84
Figure 10-5. Average hours of work per week of never-married persons, by survey and employment status(never-married persons aged 25-34 who were working as of the time of the survey) ................ 85
Figure 10-6. Percentage distribution of employment status (as of the time of the survey) and annual income(the year before the survey) of never-married persons, by survey (never-married persons aged
25-34) ......................................................................................................................................... 86
Figure 10-7. Percentage distribution of employment status (as of the time of the survey) and annual income(the year before the survey) of wife and husband, by survey (wife and husband aged 25-34)... 87
Figure 10-8. Percentage of never-married persons living with parents, by survey and employment status (as of
the time of the survey) ................................................................................................................ 88
Figure 10-9. Percentage of couples living with their parents, by the wife’s age (as of the time of the survey):
16th survey (2021) ..................................................................................................................... 89
Figure 10-10. Percentage of couples living with the wife’s and the husband’s parents, by survey and the wife’sage (as of the time of the survey) ............................................................................................... 90
Figure 10-11. Percentage of couples living with the wife’s and the husband’s parents, by birth year of the firstchild (before the first child was three years old) ........................................................................ 91
Figure 11-1. Contacts with children and views on marriage of others, by survey (never-married persons) ....... 92
Figure 11-2. Lifetime intention to marry among never-married persons, by survey, contact experience withchildren and views on marriage of others: 16th survey (2021) .................................................. 93
Figure 11-3. Contacts with children and views on marriage of others, by survey (wives who have been married
for less than 10 years)................................................................................................................. 94
Figure 12-1. Views on marriage and family among never-married persons: 16th survey (2021) ....................... 95
Figure 12-2. Views on marriage and family among never-married persons, by survey (percentages of those
supporting conventional views).................................................................................................. 96
Figure 12-3. Views on marriage and family among wives: 16th survey (2021) ................................................. 97
Figure 12-4. Views on marriage and family among wives, by survey (percentages of those supporting
conventional views).................................................................................................................... 985

Highlights of the Survey[Sample] Unmarried men and women aged 18 to 54 and married women under the ageof 55 living in 1,000 districts (census tracts) selected randomly from all survey districts
established for the 2021 Comprehensive Survey of Living Conditions of the People on
Health and Welfare.
[Period of Survey] June 2021 (Information as of June 30)[Number of Responses]
Survey of Singles: 14,011 questionnaires distributed, 7,826 valid responses (55.9%
response rate)
Survey of Married Women: 9,401 questionnaires distributed, 6,834 valid responses(72.7% response rate)[Key Findings]
Views on Marriage and Childbearing among Never-married Persons
・The percentage of never-married persons aged 18-34 who reported that they “intend
to get married someday” decreased regardless of gender, age, or “lifestyle” reflected inpersonal tastes and preferences (men: 81.4%, compared to 85.7% in the previous
survey; women: 84.3%, compared to 89.3% in the previous survey).
・The percentage of never-married persons who were in a dating relationship remained
unchanged at 21.1% for men and decreased slightly to 27.8% for women compared tothe previous survey. At the same time, 1 in 3 never-married persons has no desire to
be in a dating relationship. Six out of 10 men and women have ever been in a dating
relationship with a person of the opposite sex (60.0% of men and 64.8% of women).
・For the first time since the survey was conducted, the most common response of both
men and women for the ideal “women’s life course” was “balancing work and family”.
・In terms of desired traits in a potential marriage partner, men increasingly indicated awoman's financial ability to be either important or a consideration (48.2% vs. 41.9%
in the previous survey), while the percentage of women who considered a man's
housework and childrearing attitudes and ability to be important has increased
significantly (70.2% vs. 57.7% in the previous survey).
・The average number of children desired decreased for all age groups (1.82 vs. 1.91 in
the previous survey for men; 1.79 vs. 2.02 in the previous survey for women).
・ Support for the views that “if one gets married, one should have children” and“femininity and masculinity are necessary” declined significantly.

Marriage, Childbearing, and Child-rearing among Couples in First
Marriage
・The percentage of couples in first marriage who met at their workplace or throughfriends decreased, while couples who met through Internet services such as SNS andmatching apps now account for 13.6% of recent marriages.
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・The number of children ever born to couples with wives aged 45-49 decreased (1.81
children compared to 1.86 children in the previous survey), reflecting the effect of later
marriage.
・The average number of children a couple expected to have remained unchanged (2.01
children in both this and the previous survey).
・The percentage of women who chose “child-rearing and education is too costly” as thereason for not having their ideal number of children decreased. Still, it remained themost commonly chosen reason.
・ The percentage of couples who have undergone tests/treatment for infertility
increased from 18.2% to 22.7%. 6.7% of couples married for less than 5 years were
undergoing tests/treatment for infertility as of the time of the survey.
・The percentage of wives who continued to work before and after the birth of their firstchild rose from about 50% to almost 70% over the past five years, reaching 69.5% for
wives who gave birth between 2015 and 2019. 79.2% of those remaining employed
used childcare leave.

The Japanese National Fertility Survey is conducted every five years by the Institute ofPopulation and Social Security Research in Tokyo (IPSS) to capture changes in behaviors
and attitudes regarding marriage and childbearing in Japan. The sixteenth survey was
conducted in June 2021. The main results of this survey are summarized as follows.
(1) Willingness to form a family, measured as reported desire to marry and desired
number of children among never-married persons, or intended number of children
among married couples, has declined considerably. For example, the share of those who
desire to marry at some point among never-married women aged 18-34 declined from
89.3% to 84.3%. The average desired number of children among this group of nevermarried women declined from 2.02 to 1.79. The average number of intended children
among couples who married within the last five years also declined from 2.04 to 1.95
(Figure 1-1, Figure 3-3, Figure 4-2, Figure 7-2). Those who thought it was not necessary
to marry or have a child also increased, while more people prioritized individual lifestyles
and values than in previous surveys (Figure 1-5, Figure 1-6, Figure 1-7, Figure 3-5, Figure
4-1, Figure 7-6, Figure 12-2, Figure 12-4). Meanwhile, the percentage of intended
pregnancies rose (Figure 8-3), suggesting an increase over time in more deliberate
planning of conception. The percentage of couples receiving infertility treatment
increased further from the previous survey (the number of couples who had undergone
tests/treatment for infertility rose from 1 in 5.5 to 1 in 4.4, and 6.7% of couples married
within the last five years had undergone tests/treatment for infertility as of the time ofthe survey) (Figure 8-4). The final number of children born to couples (the average
number of children born to married women aged 45-49) fell from 1.86 to 1.81, partly due
to the increasing trend toward later marriage in this generation (Figure 6-3).
(2) Another notable finding is that gender role attitudes and behaviors both changed
considerably, resulting in increasing similarity between men and women. With respect toemployment trajectories, women increasingly remained in their jobs after marriage
and/or childbearing, with the percentage of women who continued their work increasingfrom about 50% to 70% (Figure 9-4). We also see for the first time a visible increase inhusbands who took childcare leave. For instance, among couples with wives who were7

regular employees, the percentage of husbands who took childcare leave increased from
1.7% to 6.3% (Figure 9-8). The number of husbands who performed housework on a daily
basis has also increased. Again, among those whose wives were regular employees, 40%
performed housework on a daily basis, while the share was only 20% among those whose
wives are not employed (Figure 9-10, Figure 9-11). These behavioral changes are also
reflected in attitudes. For example, for both never-married men and women, balancing
work and family is the most frequent response to the question about women's mostdesirable life course in terms of marriage, childbirth, and work (Figure 3-1). As men
increasingly emphasized the contribution of women in family finances or women
increasingly emphasized men’s housework/parenting role or appearance (Figure 3-2),
the gender difference in behaviors and attitudes decreased.
(3) Another notable change from the last survey is the context in which respondents
met their dating partner or spouse. In the current survey, those who answered that they
met their dating or marital partner through friends or workplace decreased, reflecting an
increase in the use of online platforms. For example, more than one in ten never-married
men and women who were currently dating answered that they met their partners online(11.9% for men and 17.9% for women), and 13.6% of couples married between late 2018
and early 2021 met their partner through these internet-based services (Figure 2-4,
Figure 5-3). In addition, a wide range of changes in behavior related to spouse selection
has occurred, including a slight increase in arranged marriages (albeit at low levels) anda slight decline in the mean age of those marriages (Figure 5-1).

I. Results of the survey of singles
This section summarizes the main findings from the survey of singles. Results are basedon never-married men and women aged from 18 to 34 unless otherwise noted.
1. Those who answered “intend to get married someday” declined for all age groups.
In the 2000s, the share of never-married persons who thought they “intend to getmarried someday” has been stable. In the current survey, however, the share has declined
from the last survey (from 85.7% to 81.4% for men and from 89.3% to 84.3% for women)(Fig.1-1). The decline is seen regardless of gender and age groups (Fig. 1-2, Fig.4-2),
suggesting that the social situation as of the time of the survey may have affected theconsciousness of a wide range of respondents. Looking at the intention to get married
within a year by employment status, there was a tendency for a lower percentage of men
to answer “want to get married within a year” for part-time workers compared to regular
employees (Fig. 1-4).
In terms of advantages of marriage that the never-married thought of, “having children
and a family of my own,” which has shown an increase until the last survey, has declined,
while “being financially secure” slightly increased (Fig.1-5). As for the advantages of being
single, the answers “having the freedom to what I do and how I live my life” and “being
carefree, not having the responsibility to provide for a family” have increased (Fig.1-6).
Those under the age of 25 tended to report they did not have a strong motivation to marry.
For those aged 25 or over, the most frequent answer was they did not meet an appropriate
partner, while among never-married women, the share of those who reported they did
not get along with the opposite sex and they wanted to enjoy their hobby has increasedslightly (Fig. 1-7).
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2. One in five never‐married men and about one‐third of never‐married women had
a female or male dating partner, respectively, or were currently engaged. The sharehas been declining since the early 2000s. About 60% of the never‐married have had
a dating partner, while one‐third did not desire to have a dating partner.
The share of never-married persons who answered they had a dating partner or afiancé(e) of the opposite sex was 21.1% for men and 27.8% for women. These numbers
have declined from 2005 for men (27.1%) and from 2002 for women (37.1%) (Fig. 2-1).
72.2% of men and 64.2% of women reported not having an opposite-sex dating partner.
It should be noted that those who answered “not particularly interested in a relationshipwith the opposite sex” increased to 33.5% for men and 34.1% for women (Fig 2-2).
For those aged 25-29, more than 60% of never-married men and 70% of never-married
women had had a dating relationship with the opposite sex (Fig 2-3). About 60% of nevermarried men and 65% of women aged 18-34 had had such experiences.
Asking those who had a dating partner or fiancé(e) as of the time of the survey about
where or how they met, the most frequent answer (about 30%) was they met at school(Fig. 2-4). We also found that those who answered “through friends or siblings” or “atwork or in a work-related context” decreased, while the share of those who met theirpartner online accounted for more than 10% (11.1% for men, 17.3% for women).
Among never-married persons aged 25-29, 63.6% of men and 61.2% of women had
ever experienced sexual intercourse, which was stable compared with the last survey, but
the percentage declined among those aged 30-34 (Fig. 2-5).

3. For women’s desirable “life course” regarding marriage, childbearing, and work,
the share of those who answered “re‐entry after childrearing” or “full‐timehousewife” declined, while “balancing work and family” increased.
“Balancing work and family” accounted for 34.0% (increased from 32.3% in the last
survey) of the “desired life course” among never-married women, and this life course
became the most frequent answer for the first time. “Re-employment after childrearing”
and “full-time housewife” decreased, while the share of those who answered “continue
working without getting married” or “double income no kids (DINKS)” as a desirable life
course also increased. It should be noted that 39.4% of never-married men answered that“balancing work and family” was a life course they wanted their partner to choose. It also
accounted for the largest percentage for the first time (Fig.3-1).
In terms of spouse selection criteria, both men and women emphasized “personality,”“competence in and attitude toward housework and childcare,” and “understanding ofand support for your work.” For other criteria, there was an increase in men’s emphasis
on “income and other financial resources.” Meanwhile, there was an increase in women’semphasis on “competence in and attitude toward housework and childcare” and“appearance.” (Fig. 3-2)
Among those who intended to marry, the average number of desired children, which
has declined since 1987 with some fluctuation, was 1.82 for men and 1.79 for women. For
women, the desired number of children fell below 2 for the first time (Fig. 3-3).

9Those who were never married and desired to have a child were asked the reasons fortheir answer. The share of men and women who answered “it is natural to get married
and have children” has declined. In addition to that, the share of answers “I want to havechildren of someone I love” or “children will stabilize the marital relationship” also
declined (Fig. 3-5).

4． With respect to the never‐married persons’ lifestyles, those who answered, “I
have hobbies or life work (career) that make my life worthwhile” or “I don't think I
would be lonely even if I continued to live alone” increased.
We asked never-married men and women about their lifestyles. The share ofindividuals who answered, “I have hobbies or life work (career) that make my life
worthwhile” or “I don't think I would be lonely even if I continued to live alone“ increased,
while “I have many friends with whom I can easily hang out,” “I have little money to spend
on things I want or do what I like,” or “I often sacrifice my personal life for work,”decreased (Fig. 4-1).
Looking at the percentage of never-married people who thought that they "intend to
get married someday" by lifestyle, we found that the willingness to get married has
dropped significantly in this survey for all lifestyles (Fig. 4-2).

II. Results of the survey of married couples
In this section, we present the main findings from the survey of married couples.
Results are based on couples with wives under the age of 50 unless otherwise noted.

5． Opportunities to meet “at work or in a work‐related context” decreased during
the pandemic. Meanwhile, one in five newly married couples met online.
The average age couples met was 26.4 for men and 24.9 for women. The average
duration of the relationship before marriage was 4.3 years. Both trends increased overthe surveys, but these numbers did not change from the last survey this time (Fig. 5-1). It
should be noted, however, that the respective age of couples when they met among those
who married through arranged marriage was slightly lower than in the previous surveys(decreased from 35.6 to 33.9 for men and from 32.3 to 31.7 for women). The current
survey added “through the internet” for the first time to the question of where or how the
couples met. For the couples who met online, the average age was 27.8 for husbands and26.2 for wives, which was higher than that of couples who were in love marriage (i.e., allcouples except those meeting through an arranged marriage matchmaking, through amatchmaking service or meeting online) (25.3 for husbands and 23.8 for wives). The
duration of the relationship was shorter for the couples who met online than those in lovemarriages (2.8 years versus 4.9 years).
Looking at where or how the married couples met each other, 6.0% of marriages
formed from July 2015 to June 2018, and 13.6% of marriages formed during periods that
corresponded to the pandemic (July 2018 to June 2021) were of couples who met online(Fig.5-3). For the couple formed during the pandemic, meeting “at work or in a work10

related context,” which accounted for about 30% of all marriages in previous surveys,
decreased from 28.2% to 21.4%.

6. The average number of children born to married couples who are expected to
end their reproductive years (completed number of children ever born, the numberof children born to wives aged 45‐49) decreased from the last survey.
We define completed fertility as the average number of children born to couples who
have been married for 15 to 19 years and are likely to end their reproductive period. The
number decreased from the last survey (from 1.94 to 1.90) (Fig. 6-1). The number ofchildren born to couples with wives 45-49 years old also declined from the last survey(from 1.86 to 1.81) (Fig. 6-3). Among these couples, 9.9% did not have a child, and 19.4%
had only one child (Fig. 6-4).
Looking at the number of children born to wives aged 45-49 by population density,
there was a decrease regardless of where they lived. The number was 1.74 for those living
in a high population density area, while it was 1.97 for those not living in such an area,
falling below 2 for the first time (Fig. 6-7).
Looking at the number by region, it decreased in every region, but the number tended
to be higher in Western Japan (2.08) or the Nagoya region (1.86), while it was lower in
the Osaka region (1.63) (Fig. 6-8). Looking at the number of spouse pairing patterns byeducation, there was an increase among those who were both highly educated, thus
narrowing the gap by educational pairings (Fig. 6-9).

7. Both desired and planned number of children decreased among newly married
couples. For the reasons to have a child, those answering “it is natural to getmarried and have children” and “children will stabilize the marital relationship”
decreased.
Wives’ average number of desired children declined gradually, marking 2.25 in thecurrent survey. The average number of planned children was stable (2.01) (Fig. 7-1). It
should be noted, however, that both numbers tended to decrease with the duration of themarriage. For example, among couples who had been married for less than five years, thedesired number of children was 2.11 and the planned number of children was 1.95 (Fig.
7-2).
We asked about reasons for having a child to those whose desired number of children
was one or more. The most frequent answer was “having children makes my life moreenjoyable and enrich my mind.” Meanwhile, “it is natural to get married and have children”
and “children will stabilize the marital relationship,” which has declined over the years
and also in this survey (Fig. 7-4).
We also asked about reasons why couples were not able to have a child. The mostfrequent answer was “because it costs too much to raise and educate children” (Fig.7-5).
This number continued to be higher among couples with wives younger than 35, while
fewer people chose this answer in the current survey if the wife was aged 35 or older.
Instead, these couples increasingly chose “because I have not been able to get pregnant,even though I want children” or “because I cannot bear the psychological and physicalburden of child-rearing any longer” (Fig.7-6).
11

8． About 40% of all couples and 50% of couples who wanted to have a child had
had sexual intercourse over the last month. One‐third of married couples have everworried about infertility. Those who had experienced infertility tests or treatments
increased from one in 5.5 to one in 4.4. Over 6% (6.7%) of couples who had beenmarried less than five years were having infertility tests or treatment as of the timeof the survey.
The current survey asked married couples whether they had had sexual intercoursewith their spouse over the last month. The number was 37.9% among married couples
with wives under 50 years old. The number was 53.3% for those who want to have a child(Fig. 8-1). 58.3% of couples used contraception, most of which were modern
contraception techniques, including using a condom. Only 61.3% of couples who had an
intention to manage their fertility (planning to postpone or stop childbearing) used suchmodern contraception, and 37.5% of married couples had a risk of having a pregnancy
earlier than they expected or an undesired pregnancy (Fig. 8-2).
The percentage of those who worried about infertility increased from 35.0% to 39.2%
in this survey. The percentage of those who had ever gone through infertility treatment
increased from 18.2% (one in 5.5) to 22.7% (one in 4.4). 6.7% of couples who married
within the last five years had ever had infertility tests or treatment (Fig. 8-4).

9. Among wives who were working when they realized that they were pregnant
with the first child, the percentage of those who were also working when the child
was one year old has increased from about 50% to 70%. 43% of the mothers who
had their first childbirth between 2015 and 2018 took childcare leave, while 3.7%of the fathers did. For the first time, the percentage of wives who used daycare
centers surpassed half of all who had their first child between 2015 and 2018.
The share of wives who worked after childbearing has increased dramatically. 70.4%
of wives among couples who plan to have another child did so, an increase from 53.2% in
the last survey (Fig. 9-1). For those who did not plan to have an additional child, the shareof wives with their youngest child aged 0 to 2 who were working increased to 67.0%. With
respect to employment status, the share of regular employment increased from 22.8% to38.1%.
The continuous employment rate after childbirth among married women who were
working when they realized they were pregnant has received attention as an indicator toassess the government’s policies for declining fertility. This number has increased from
57.7% (the first childbirth cohort of 2010-2014) to 69.5% (cohort of 2015-2019) (Fig.94). Among those who took childcare leave, the number was 55.1%. Looking at
employment status, 83.4% of women in regular employment continued their work after
their first childbirth (childbirth cohort of 2015-2019). The corresponding figure was
40.3% for women in nonregular employment (including part-time and dispatchedemployment), which increased from 27.9% for the childbirth cohort of 2015-2019, still
showing a gap compared with their counterparts in regular employment.
The survey also asked what kind of childcare support parents had used until their firstchild reached 3 in age across children’s birth cohorts (Fig.9-6). For parents of children
born between 2015 and 2019, 43.0% of wives and 3.7% of husbands used childcare leave.
12

Those who used daycare services increased to 51.9%, reaching more than half for the firsttime. When limited to wives who continued to work as regular employees, 93.1% (88.2%
in the previous survey) of wives and 6.3% of the husbands used childcare leave. Husbands’
use of childcare leave had been around 1% over the years, but there was a clear increasein the current survey. Wives’ use of daycare services was 78.8% (80.8% in the last survey),
and use of shortened work hours was 48.1% (48.4% in the last survey). The share ofhusbands who did housework or childcare regularly until their child reached 3 years in
age has increased over the fifteen years. For example, when their wives worked as regular
employees, about 40% of husbands did housework regularly.

III. Work, living, and attitudes among never-married persons andmarried couples
The earlier sections discussed attitudes toward marriage and family among nevermarried men and women, temporal changes in marriage and fertility processes orattitudes among married couples. This section presents how living conditions or life
values among them changed.

10. The share of regular employment among never‐married persons after school
graduation has increased since the 2010 survey. For couples’ work arrangements,
the share of housewives has decreased to 22.8% among women in their 30s. The
share of both spouses working as regular employees has increased from one in five
20 years ago to one in three.
Looking at employment status among never-married persons aged 25 to 34 at the timeof school graduation or the survey, the share of regular employment was lowest in the2010 survey for both men and women, and it has increased since then (Fig. 10-1).
Looking at work arrangements among couples with wives in their 30s or 40s, thecomposition of couples with husbands who were either self-employed or regular
employees and wives who were non-employed has decreased since the 1970s. Instead,the share of “husbands working as regular employees and wives working as part-time” or“both husbands and wives working as regular employees” increased (Fig.10-4). In the2010 survey, the share of couples with husbands working as regular employees and wives
non-employed was 36.8% among wives in their 30s; the share of couples with bothpartners working as regular employees was 18.1%. In the current survey, the former was
22.8%, while the latter was 34.1%. As such, the pattern of employment status has been
reversed.
The living arrangements of couples and their mothers until their child was three years
old also changed. Since the late 1990s, living close to the wife’s mothers (living separately
in the same municipality) or living with or living close to the husband’s mother decreased.
Meanwhile, the share of living separately in different municipalities has increased. For
example, from 2015 to 2018, the share of couples living separately from the wife’s motherwas 63.6%, and the share of those living separately from the husband’s mother was 57.2%(Fig. 10-9).

13

11. Interaction with children and positive attitude toward parents’ or friends’
marriage decreased among women.
The survey asked never-married persons whether they had ever interacted with a baby
or small child. More women than men reported they had such experiences, and 60% of
never-married men and slightly more than half of the never-married women answered
they did not have such experience. The share actually increased from the last survey for
women (Fig.11-1). The respective percentage of women who responded “I feel envious ofmarital relationships like that of my parents” and “when I look at my friends who aremarried, I think they seem happy” decreased. The latter response decreased from 60% in
the last survey to 50%. The data show that those who have more interaction with children
or have a positive feeling about marriage around them tend to have a higher intention to
marry (Fig. 11-2).

12. Traditional ideas regarding marriage and family have increasingly received lesssupport. In particular, the support for the statements “if one gets married, one
should have children” and “in any society, femininity and masculinity are necessary
to some extent” declined considerably.
In almost all aspects, the share of individuals supporting traditional ideas regarding
marriage and family decreased. For never-married persons, the share of those who
supported the statement “if one gets married, one should have children” decreased from
67.4% to 36.6% for women and from 75.4% to 55.0% for men. The support for thestatement “in any society, femininity and masculinity are necessary to some extent” also
declined considerably, from 82.5% to 55.9% for women and from 84.4% to 68.3% for men(Fig. 12-2). Meanwhile, about 70% of never-married men and women supported thestatement “for married men, spending time with family is more important than success atwork.” (Fig. 12-1)
Also, for attitudes among married women, the respective share of support for thestatements “in any society, femininity and masculinity are necessary to some extent” and“if one gets married, one should have children” decreased (from 85.3% to 63.1% for theformer and 66.6% to 45.8% for the latter) (Fig. 12-4).

14

Overview of the Survey(1) The purpose and history of the survey

In June 2021, the 16th Japanese National Fertility Survey was conducted by the National
Institute of Population and Social Security Research. The survey is conducted todetermine current situations and background to marriage and/or fertility of married
couples, which are not available in other public statistics, and also to obtain the basic datanecessary to develop relevant policies and project the future population. The first
National Fertility Survey was conducted in 1940 (prewar), and the second in 1952
(postwar). Since then, it has been conducted every five years, investigating married
couples’ marriage process and fertility. Since the 8th survey (1982), a survey of singles
has been conducted simultaneously with that of married couples. This summary reportpresents the preliminary results of the 16th Survey of Singles and the Survey of Married
Couples.
The current survey was originally scheduled to be conducted in June 2020, five years
after the 15th survey conducted in 2015, but was postponed for one year due to the
COVID-19 pandemic and conducted in June 2021.

(2) Survey methodology and questionnaire collection

The Survey of Single Persons (Unmarried Men and Women) covered single persons
aged 18 to 54. The survey of married couples was conducted on married couples withwives under 55 years of age (respondents were wives). This is a nationwide sample
survey, and facts as of June 30, 2021, were examined. The survey was conducted in 1,000
randomly selected areas from the 1,106 survey areas of the 2021 Comprehensive Surveyof Living Conditions (conducted by the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare) (stratified
random sampling from the 2015 census areas). All single persons aged 18 to 54 living inall households in these districts were the subjects of the single persons survey, andmarried women aged under 55 were the subjects of the married couples survey1. The
upper age limit for singles and wives of married couples, which was less than 50 years old
until the previous survey, was raised to under age 55 in the current survey.
The survey was conducted by respondents filling out the distributed survey forms
themselves and submitting them in sealed envelopes. For the survey of singles, 8,401
questionnaires were collected out of 14,011 distributed 2 (number of survey targets),

1 Households in the unit areas within selected survey areas were excluded if they were also selected for distribution of
the income questionnaire of the 2021 Comprehensive Survey of Living Conditions in order to reduce the burden of
respondents. However, in Tokyo, Kyoto, and Hyogo Prefectures, where a state of emergency was declared in April 2021
to prevent the spread of COVID-19, the survey was conducted without taking the above measures due to a change in thesurvey schedule.
2 In the previous surveys, surveyors visited all the households within the survey areas to identify the target persons
living in each household and distributed the appropriate number of survey forms. However, in this survey, due to the
spread of COVID-19, there were many cases in which surveyors were unable to identify the survey targets because they
were unable to directly contact the residents in the households, resulting in a large discrepancy between the number ofsurveys distributed and the actual number of target respondents residing in the survey areas. As such, the number ofsurvey forms distributed to the target population (the number of questionnaires distributed) was estimated based on
the number of surveys distributed in the previous survey as follows:
Estimated number of questionnaires distributed = Number of questionnaires distributed in the previous survey✕ Rate of increase in the number of subjects nationwide from the previous survey✕ Rate of increase in the number of the survey areas from the previous survey.
For the survey of single persons, the number of single men and women under the age of 55 nationwide was estimatedto be 26,996,000, based on the estimated population of 2020 by sex and marital status in the “Household Projection forJapan (2018 Projections)” (National Institute of Population and Social Security Research, 2018). The figure was 1.14
times the 23,702,000 eligible persons under age 50 in the previous survey. The number of survey areas increased from
900 in the previous survey to 1,000 (1.10 times), but the number of unit areas was approximately 1.08 times the15resulting in a response rate of 60.0% (84.5% in the previous survey). 575 invalid
responses were excluded, yielding 7,826 valid responses and a valid response rate of
55.9% (76.5% in the previous survey). For the survey of married couples, 7,060 responses
were collected out of 9,401 questionnaires distributed3, resulting in a response rate of
75.1% (91.4% in the previous survey). After excluding 226 invalid responses, there
remain 6,834 valid responses, yielding a valid response rate of 72.7% (87.8% in theprevious survey).

In this report, results are shown on never-married persons aged between 18 and 34 forthe single-person survey and on the couples in their first marriage for the married couples
survey. Note that for the survey of married couples, couples with wives under 50 weretargeted until the previous survey, and wives under 55 in the current survey. As such, theresults of the 16th survey in the report mainly cover couples with wives under age 55 who
got married before age 50.
Note that the figures of the previous survey in this summary report may differ slightly
from those published in the past summary reports. This is because the method used tocreate the variables in the 16th survey was applied to the variables in the past surveys tosecure consistency and comparability across surveys. When comparing the results of past
surveys with those of the 16th survey, please refer to the figures of past surveys in thisSummary Report. The final “Survey Report” to be compiled will include the results thatwere not included in this “Summary of Results.” Note that the method of creating variables
may be reconsidered to ensure accurate results, and hence, the figures presented in this“Summary of Results” may be updated.

Table I. Numbers of questionnaires distributed and returned, and valid response rate
Survey of Singles

Survey of Married Couples

Number of subjects surveyed

14,011

9,401

Number of questionnaires returned

8,401 (response rate 60.0%)

7,060 (response rate 75.1%)

Number of valid responses

7,826 (valid response rate 55.9%)

6,834 (valid response rate 72.7%)

previous survey since the unit areas where income questionnaires of the Comprehensive Survey of Living Conditions
were distributed were excluded from this survey. Since 11,442 questionnaires were distributed to singles in theprevious survey, the number of questionnaires distributed in the current survey is estimated to be 14,011, based on theabove formula.
3 The number of questionnaires distributed to the married couples was similarly estimated. The number of married
women under 55 years of age nationwide was estimated to be 14,838,000, 1.16 times the 12,745,000 eligible (under 50
years of age) in the previous survey based on the 2020 population by gender and marital status in the “Household
Projection for Japan (National Survey)” (2018 estimate). As mentioned above, the number of unit areas wasapproximately 1.08 times the previous survey. Given that the number of questionnaires distributed to married couples
in the previous survey was 7,511, the number of questionnaires distributed in the current survey is estimated to be
9,401, based on the above formula.

16

Table II. Number of never-married persons, by sex and age (Survey of Singles)
Age
Total
Subtotal(18-34)
18-19
20-24
25-29
30-34
35-39
40-44
45-49
50-54

Number of never-married persons
in the 16th survey
Men
Women
3,408 ( 100.0 %)3,082 ( 100.0 %)2,033 ( 59.7 )2,053 ( 66.6 )
302 (
8.9 )
322 ( 10.4 )
700 ( 20.5 )
799 ( 25.9 )579 ( 17.0 )
549 ( 17.8 )452 ( 13.3 )383 ( 12.4 )379 ( 11.1 )
298 (
9.7 )
320 (
9.4 )
259 (
8.4 )
386 ( 11.3 )
263 (
8.5 )
290 (
8.5 )
209 (
6.8 )

（Reference）Number of never-marriedpersons in the 15th survey
Men
Women
3,942 ( 100.0 %)3,424 ( 100.0 %)2,705 ( 68.6 )2,570 ( 75.1 )419 ( 10.6 )
381 ( 11.1 )
923 ( 23.4 )1,023 ( 29.9 )788 ( 20.0 )
754 ( 22.0 )575 ( 14.6 )412 ( 12.0 )458 ( 11.6 )
323 (
9.4 )
445 ( 11.3 )
299 (
8.7 )
334 (
8.5 )
232 (
6.8 )
-(
- )
-(
- )

Table III. Number of couples in first marriage, by the wife’s age and by duration of marriage(Survey of Married Couples)Age of wife
Total
Subtotal(Under 50)
Under 20
20-24
25-29
30-34
35-39
40-44
45-49
50-54
Duration of
marriage
Total
Less than 5 years
5-9
10-14
15-19
20-24
25 years or more
Not known

Number of married couples
in the 16th survey
5,482 (
4,351 (
1(
37 (
321 (
660 (
925 (
1,102 (
1,305 (
1,131 (

100.0 %)
79.4 )
0.0 )
0.7 )
5.9 )
12.0 )
16.9 )
20.1 )
23.8 )
20.6 )

Number of married couples
in the 16th survey
5,482 (
719 (907 (1,037 (
953 (
976 (
764 (
126 (

(Reference)
Number of married couples
in the 15th survey
5,334 (
5,334 (
4(
75 (
397 (
820 (
1,203 (
1,547 (
1,288 (-(

100.0 %)
100.0 )
0.1 )
1.4 )
7.4 )
15.4 )
22.6 )
29.0 )
24.1 )- )(Reference)
Number of married couples
in the 15th survey

100.0 %)
13.1 )
16.5 )
18.9 )
17.4 )
17.8 )
13.9 )
2.3 )

5,334 (
894 (
1,064 (
1,141 (
1,241 (
716 (
152 (
126 (

(3) The representativeness of the sample

100.0 %)
16.8 )
19.9 )
21.4 )
23.3 )
13.4 )
2.8 )2.4 )In order to examine the representativeness of the sample of the 16th survey, we
compared the respondents' age and marital status composition and regional composition
with data from the 2020 Population Census conducted by the Statistics Bureau of the
Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications. Despite a 9-month gap between thissurvey and the Census, the Census data is most desirable for comparison and verification.
The figures from the “Result with Imputation on 2020 Population Census (Reference
Table)” (total population) were used for comparison. The data on never-married men andwomen under 35 years old and married women, the main subjects of this report, areexamined below.
17With respect to the age structure, the percentage of never-married men in their early
20s in this survey is somewhat smaller than in the Census. Meanwhile, the percentage ofnever-married men and women in their 30s in this survey is larger than in the Census.
The percentage of married women in their late 20s and early 30s is smaller in this survey
than in the Census. The percentage of married women living in the Kanto and Kinki
regions is smaller in this survey than in the Census, while the percentage of married
women living in the Tohoku and Chubu regions is larger in this survey than in the Census.
However, although there are some tendencies in over- and under-representations, thedifferences are within a few percentage points, and this survey is considered to berelatively well-representative for a sample survey of this type. Therefore, it can beconcluded that analysis of this survey’s samples will yield valid results with respect to thequantitative attributes of the population. However, in analyses where precise results are
required, it is necessary to devise ways to ensure that this is achieved accurately bycontrolling for age, region, and other attributes.
Table IV. Age composition by marital status: The 16th Survey and the 2020 Population Census【Male】
Age
Total
18-19
20-24
25-29
30-34
35-39
40-44
45-49
50-54

【Male】
Survey of Singles
NeverSeparated/marriedWidowed
100.0%
100.0%
8.9
0.3
20.5
2.6
17.0
6.5
13.3
15.1
11.1
18.0
9.4
24.0
11.3
0.5
8.5
33.1

Age
Total
18-19
20-24
25-29
30-34
35-39
40-44
45-49
50-54

【Female】
Age

Total
18-19
20-24
25-29
30-34
35-39
40-44
45-49
50-54

Population Census
NeverSeparated/marriedWidowed
100.0%
100.0%
8.6
0.1
22.0
2.7
17.8
6.5
12.6
11.8
10.4
18.3
9.8
28.2
10.6
0.7
8.3
31.7

【Female】
Survey ofSingles
Nevermarried
100.0%
10.4
25.9
17.8
12.4
9.7
8.4
8.5
6.8

Survey of
Married Couples

Separated/
Widowed
100.0%
0.0
0.4
3.3
7.3
11.8
18.9
28.8
29.5

Wife
100.0%
0.0
0.7
5.3
11.4
16.5
20.3
24.4
21.4

The 16th Japanese National Fertility Survey

18

Population Census
Age
NeverSeparated/
MarriedmarriedWidowed
Total
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
18-19
10.6
0.1
0.1
20-24
26.5
0.9
1.3
25-29
18.8
3.2
6.7
30-34
11.7
7.0
12.6
35-39
8.9
11.9
16.7
40-44
8.2
18.1
19.6
45-49
8.6
28.1
22.7
50-54
6.6
30.8
20.3
Statistics Bureau of the Ministry of Internal Affairs
and Communications, "Result with Imputation on 2020
Population Census (Reference Table)"Table V. Regional composition by marital status: The 16th Survey and the 2020 Population
Census【Male】
RegionTotal
Hokkaido
Tohoku
Kanto
Chubu
Kinki
Chugoku/Shikoku
Kyushu/Okinawa【Male】
Survey of Singles
NeverSeparated/marriedWidowed
100.0%
100.0%
3.0
5.5
8.7
9.6
35.1
32.8
20.4
21.6
13.0
12.0
7.9
9.1
11.9
9.4

RegionTotal
Hokkaido
Tohoku
Kanto
Chubu
Kinki
Chugoku/Shikoku
Kyushu/Okinawa【Female】
RegionTotal
Hokkaido
Tohoku
Kanto
Chubu
Kinki
Chugoku/Shikoku
Kyushu/Okinawa

Population Census
NeverSeparated/marriedWidowed
100.0%
100.0%
3.7
4.5
6.1
7.2
39.7
32.3
17.5
18.1
15.8
16.0
7.6
9.3
9.6
12.5

【Female】
Survey ofSingles
Nevermarried
100.0%
2.9
6.8
35.2
20.4
14.2
9.0
11.4

Separated/
Widowed
100.0%
5.5
7.7
28.1
16.1
16.1
9.9
16.6

Survey of
Married Couples

Population Census
RegionNeverSeparated/
MarriedmarriedWidowed
Total
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
Hokkaido
3.9
5.0
3.8
Tohoku
5.7
7.5
6.2
Kanto
39.1
30.4
36.3
Chubu
15.7
17.6
18.6
Kinki
17.4
16.5
16.3
Chugoku/Shikoku
7.5
9.4
8.2
Kyushu/Okinawa
10.7
13.5
10.6
Statistics Bureau of the Ministry of Internal Affairs andCommunications, "Result with Imputation on 2020 Population
Census (Reference Table)"Wife
100.0%
5.0
7.0
35.7
20.9
12.3
8.6
10.5

The 16th Japanese National Fertility Survey

The prefectures included in each region are as follows.
Hokkaido: Hokkaido
Tohoku: Aomori, Iwate, Miyagi, Akita, Yamagata, Fukushima
Kanto: Ibaraki, Tochigi, Gunma, Saitama, Chiba, Tokyo, Kanagawa
Chubu: Niigata, Toyama, Ishikawa, Fukui, Yamanashi, Nagano, Gifu, Shizuoka, Aichi, Mie
Kinki: Shiga, Kyoto, Osaka, Hyogo, Nara, Wakayama
Chugoku・Shikoku: Tottori, Shimane, Okayama, Hiroshima, Yamaguchi, Tokushima, Kagawa, Ehime, Kochi
Kyushu/Okinawa: Fukuoka, Saga, Nagasaki, Kumamoto, Oita, Miyazaki, Kagoshima, Okinawa

19Section I Results of the Survey of Singles
Part I presents the survey results of singles regarding their attitudes toward marriage and childbearing,
relationship status, desired life course image, and lifestyle. The main sample consists of never-married men
and women between 18 and 34.

20

1. Thoughts on Marriage
1.1 Intention of getting married
The number of men and women who “intend to get married someday” decreased fromthe previous survey.
The percentage of never-married persons who intend to marry someday has remained relatively stable sincethe 11th survey in 1997. In contrast, this survey shows a decrease from the previous survey for both men andwomen, with 81.4% of men aged 18-34 (85.7% in the previous survey) and 84.3% of women of the same age(89.3% in the previous survey). On the other hand, the number of never-married persons who say they “haveno intention of ever getting married” has continued to increase since the beginning of the 2000s, with 17.3%
of men and 14.6% of women in the 16th survey.

Figure 1-1. Lifetime intention to marry among never-married persons, by survey
Male

100

Female

95.9
91.8

94.2
90.0
85.9

87.087.0

86.3

92.9

90.2

89.1

85.7

88.3

90.0

89.4

89.3
84.3

81.4

（%）

75

50

25
17.3

2.3

4.5

4.9

6.3

5.4

7.1

9.4

14.6

12.0
4.1

4.6

5.2

4.9

5.0 5.6

6.8

8.0

0
1982
1992
2002 2010
2021
1982
1992
2002 2010
2021
1987
1997 20052015
1987
1997 2005
2015
Survey Year
Intend to get married someday

Have no intention of ever getting married

Not known

Note: The figures are for never-married persons aged 18-34. Error bars on the markers in the figure indicate 95%
confidence intervals. The respective number of cases was as follows: men (2,732), women (2,110) in the 8th (1982)
survey; men (3,299), women (2,605) in the 9th (1987) survey; men (4,215), women (3,647) in the 10th (1992) survey;men (3,982), women (3,612) in the 11th (1997) survey; men (3,897), women (3,494) in the 12th (2002) survey;men (3,139), women (3,064) in the 13th (2005) survey; men (3,667), women (3,406) in the 14th (2010) survey; men(2,705), women (2,570) in the 15th (2015) survey; men (2,033), women (2,053) in the 16th (2021) survey. Question:"Thinking about your whole life, which of the following describes your thoughts on marriage?" (1. Intend to getmarried someday, 2. Have no intention of ever getting married.)[Figure 1-1. Lifetime intention to marry among never-married persons, by survey]

21

The number of never-married people who think they “intend to get married someday”
declined, regardless of sex and age group.
This section shows the never-married persons’ lifetime intention to marry by age group. For both men andwomen of all ages, the percentage of never-married persons who say they “intend to get married someday”
has decreased since the previous survey, a marked change compared to the changes seen up to the 15th survey.
The decrease was particularly marked among men aged 30-34 (83.3% in the previous survey and 70.8% inthis survey), women aged 30-34 (84.2% in the previous survey and 77.5% in this survey), and women aged
20-24 (91.4% in the previous survey and 86.2% in this survey).
The fact that there has been a decrease in this survey, regardless of gender or age, suggests that the social
conditions of the time when the survey was conducted may have affected the attitudes of a wide range ofgenerations.

Figure 1-2. Lifetime intention to marry among never-married persons, by survey and age
Male

Female

100

90.8

84.4

88.2

50
25

9.1

13.6

5.5

11.2

Aged 18-19

88.1

75

0
100

88.2

85.4

9.2

13.4

83.4

83.1

15.0

16.1

91.4

86.2

50

（%）

25

6.3

13.1

Aged 20-24

75

0
100

88.6

84.0

50
25

8.8

14.8

Aged 25-29

75

0
100

70.8

77.5

50

27.2
25

14.4

13.1

20.4

Aged 30-34

84.2

83.3

75

0

1982

1987

1992

1997

2002
2010
2021
2005
2015

Intend to get married someday

1982

Survey Year

1987

1992

1997

2002
2010
2021
2005
2015

Have no intention of ever getting married

Not known

Note: The figures are for never-married persons aged 18-34. Error bars on the markers in the figure indicate 95%
confidence intervals. Question: "Thinking about your whole life, which of the following describes your thoughts on
marriage?" (1. Intend to get married someday, 2. Have no intention of ever getting married.)[Figure 1-2. Lifetime intention to marry among never-married persons, by survey and age]22

Almost 50/50 on deciding when to marry: age or ideal partner.
Among never-married persons who intend to get married, the percentages of those who think they “intend to
get married by a certain age” and those who say that they “do not mind not getting married until an ideal
partner is found” were almost evenly split. Compared to the previous survey, the percentage of both men andwomen who “do not mind not getting married until an ideal partner is found” increased to 48.6% for men
and 51.7% for women.

Figure 1-3. Views on marriage among never-married persons who intend to marry, by survey
Male

Female

100

48.1

51.9

56.9

55.2

49.8

54.1

49.2

42.9

43.6

49.5

46.8
58.4

59.3

40.5

39.2

15th (2015)

48.6

25
37.5

45.5

50.1

50.5

46.7

42.4

42.9

15th (2015)50

14th (2010)

（ %）

60.4

52.8

14th (2010)

75

48.6

44.5

49.6

56.1

55.2

49.0

51.7

16th (2021)

13th (2005)

12th (2002)

11th (1997)

Survey Year

10th (1992)

9th (1987)

16th (2021)

13th (2005)

12th (2002)

11th (1997)

10th (1992)

9th (1987)

0Intend to get married by a certain age
Not known
Do not mind not getting married until an ideal partner is foundNote: Figures shown are for never-married persons aged 18-34 responding that they "intend to get married someday."The respective number of cases was as follows: men (3,027), women (2,420) in the 9th (1987) survey; men (3,795),
women (3,291) in the 10th (1992) survey; men (3,420), women (3,218) in the 11th (1997) survey; men (3,389),
women (3,085) in the 12th (2002) survey; men (2,732), women (2,759) in the 13th (2005) survey; men (3,164),
women (3,044) in the 14th (2010) survey; men (2,319), women (2,296) in the 15th (2015) survey; men (1,654),
women (1,731) in the 16th (2021) survey. Question: "Again, thinking about your whole life, which of the following
describes your thoughts on marriage?" (1. Intend to get married by a certain age, 2. Do not mind not getting
married until an ideal partner is found.)[Figure 1-3. Views on marriage among never-married persons who intend to marry, by survey]

23

Men’s intention to get married within a year differs by employment status.
Looking at the intention to get married within a year by employment status, around 60% of men indicatedtheir intention to get married within a year among regular employees, self-employed/family employees/those
doing a side job at home, and dispatched/temporary/contract employees. On the other hand, the percentagesof part-time workers and unemployed/those engaging in housework expressing the intention to get married
within a year were low: 37.6% for part-time workers and 25.3% for unemployed/those engaging inhousework. Compared to the previous survey, the number of men who intended to get married within a year
decreased among self-employed/family employees/those doing a side job at home, part-timers, andunemployed/those engaging in housework.
For women, differences by employment status were not as significant as those for men, with about two-thirdsof all respondents expressing the intention to get married, whether they were regular employees, part-timeworkers, or self-employed/family employees/those doing a side job at home. Among the unemployed/thoseengaging in housework, 47.2% expressed the intention to get married within a year, down from 62.7% in theprevious survey.

Figure 1-4. Percentage of never-married persons who have the intention to marry within ayear, by survey and employment status
Male

Female

100

（%）

75

66.2
59.9
52.5
44.6

50

33.6

69.7
67.8
64.4
62.7
62.3

61.9
60.5
58.6

66.8
66.3
64.6
60.0
47.2

37.6
25.3

25

14.8

13.7

17.0

15.5

0
1987

1992

1997

2005
2015
2002
2010
2021

Regular employee
Part-time employee

1987

1997

2005
2015
2002
2010
2021

Dispatched/temporary/contract employee
Self-employed/family employee/doing a side job at home

Unemployed/engaging in housework
Student

Survey Year

1992

Note: The percentages in the figures above indicate the proportion of respondents stating that they "want to
get married within a year" or "do not mind getting married if I find an ideal partner" among never-marriedpeople aged 18-34 responding that they "Intend to marry someday." The classification of "Dispatched/temporary
employee" was first added as an option in the 12th Survey. "Contract employee" was added from the 13th
Survey. The respective number of cases was as follows: For the 15th (2015) survey: men (Regular employee:
1,155, Part-time employee; 166, Dispatched/temporary/contract employee: 118, Self-employed/family
employee/doing a side job at home: 80, Unemployed/engaging in housework: 122, Student: 583); women (Regular
employee: 1,078, Part-time employee: 273, Dispatched/temporary/contract employee: 183, Self-employed/family
employee/doing a side job at home; 33, Unemployed/engaging in housework: 126, Student: 532). For the 16th
(2021) survey: men (Regular employee: 904, Part-time employee: 93, Dispatched/temporary/contract employee:
70, Self-employed/family employee/doing a side job at home: 43, Unemployed/engaging in housework: 75,
Student: 406); women (Regular employee: 840, Part-time employee: 184, Dispatched/temporary/contract employee:
95, Self-employed/family employee/doing a side job at home: 25, Unemployed/engaging in housework: 89,
Student: 439). The percentages for all never-married persons (male and female) aged 18-34 were the 15th
(2015) survey (45.5%, 52.6%), the 16th (2021) survey (46.9%, 50.8%). Question: "Then, what do you think
about getting married within a year from now?" (1. Want to get married within a year, 2. Do not mind getting
married if I find an ideal partner, 3. Do not intend to get married yet)
[Figure 1-4. Percentage of never-married persons who have the intention to marry within a year, by survey andemployment status]241.2 The merits of marriage and of remaining single
Advantages of getting married: “Having children and a family of one’s own” declined,
while “being financially secure” increased slightly.
In terms of specific advantages of getting married, the number of respondents who chose “having children
and a family of my own,” which had increased almost consistently since the 9th survey (1987), started to
decline, with 39.4% of the female respondents choosing this answer, decreasing by almost 10 points fromthe previous survey. Among men, the number of respondents who chose “obtaining a mentally relaxing space”
slightly increased to 33.8%, exceeding “having children and a family of my own” (31.1%). As in the previous
survey, the number of men and women who chose “being financially secure” increased slightly.

Figure 1-5. Percentage of never-married persons choosing each “advantage of marriage,” bysurveyMale
Being financially secureFemale5.9
8.4

Gaining social credibility
and being on an equal
footing with others
Obtaining a mentallyrelaxing space
Living with the person I
currently feel affectionforHaving children and afamily of my own

8.9

20.4
21.0
12.2

7.0
8.6
31.1
33.8

28.1
25.3

13.3
14.9

14.0
14.0

31.1

Obtaining sexual
fulfillment

35.8

39.4

1.6
1.8

Having convenience in life
Achieving independence
from parents
Being able to reassure
parents and meetingothers’ expectations

0.2
0.3

4.6
5.9

2.6
5.5

4.0
3.8

6.7
4.8
15.9
13.4

Others

18.0

0.6
0.1

0

49.8

21.9

0.8
0.4

10

20

30

40

50

60

0

（%）

10

20

30

40

9th (1987)

10th (1992)

11th (1997)

12th (2002)

13th (2005)

14th (2010)

15th (2015)

16th (2021)

50

60

Note: Figures shown are for never-married persons aged 18-34. They indicate what percentage of
respondents consider each item as a major marriage advantage (choose up to two). The percentage ofnever-married persons who responded that getting married has advantages are as follows: 9th: men 69.1%,
women 70.8%; 10th: men 66.7%, women 71.4%; 11th: men 64.6%, women 69.9%; 12th: men 62.3%, women 69.4%;
13th: men 65.7%, women 74.0%; 14th: men 62.4%, women 75.1%; 15th: men 64.3%, women 77.8%; 16th: men
63.3%, women 70.9%. Question: "Do you think getting married has any advantages for you now? Pleasecircle the appropriate number in the box below. If you chose ‛1. Has advantages’, please choose up to
two specific advantages from the box on the right and write down the numbers in the answer column on theright end."[Figure 1-5. Percentage of never-married persons choosing each “advantage of marriage,” by survey]

25

The biggest advantage of a single life: “Having freedom” continues to increase.
Looking at specific advantages of single life, “having the freedom to what I do and how I live my life,” which
has been the most frequently cited advantage since the 9th survey (1987), increased slightly in this survey to70.6% for men and 78.7% for women. The percentage of respondents choosing “easier to maintain extensive
relationships with friends and others” continues to decline. In addition, an increasing number of respondents
chose “not having the responsibility to provide for a family” and “having a wide range of choices in housing
and living environment.”

Figure 1-6. Percentage of never-married persons choosing each “advantage of single life,” bysurveyMale

FemaleHaving the freedom to what I
do and how I live my life

69.7
70.6

Having the freedom to datethe opposite sex

75.5
78.7

7.2
7.9

4.9
4.8

Being financially well-off

25.2
24.9

Having a wide range ofchoices in housing andliving environment
Being carefree, not having
the responsibility toprovide for a family
Easier to maintain extensive
relationships with friends
and others

16.2
16.2

6.3
9.6

6.1
11.2
26.7
27.7

19.8
24.1

17.3
14.6

Being able to have a job andstay connected to society

25.8
20.6

2.8
2.5

Being able to stay connectedwith my current family

9.8
7.5

3.4
2.9

Others

10.6
10.7

0.7
0.3

0

0.7
0.4

20

40

60

80

100

0

（%）

20

40

60

80

9th (1987)

10th (1992)

11th (1997)

12th (2002)

13th (2005)

14th (2010)

15th (2015)

16th (2021)

Note: Figures shown are for never-married persons aged 18-34 and indicate what percentage of respondents
consider each item as a major single life advantage (choosing up to 2). The proportions of those who consider
that single life has advantages were as follows: 9th: men 83.0%, women 89.7%; 10th: 83.6%, 89.0%; 11th:
82.7%, 88.5%; 12th: 79.8%, 86.6%; 13th: 83.8%, 87.2%; 14th: 81.0%, 87.6%; 15th: 83.5%, 88.7%; 16th: 84.1%,
90.3%. Question: "Now, on the other hand, do you think single life has any advantages over married life foryou at this moment? Please circle the appropriate number in the box below. If you chose ‛1. Has advantages,’
please select up to two specific advantages from the box on the right and write down the numbers in theanswer column on the right end."[Figure 1-6. Percentage of never-married persons choosing each “advantage of single life,” by survey]

26

100

1.3 Reasons for remaining single
Reasons for remaining single are lack of positive motivation to get married, and for thoseover 25, lack of a suitable partner.
The survey asked never-married persons intending to get married about their reasons for staying single. For
the younger age group (18-24 years old), a lack of positive motivation to get married was cited as the mostfrequently selected reasons. Specifically, the top reasons given included “I am still too young to get married,”“I don’t feel the need to get married yet,” and “I want to devote myself to work (or study) now.”
Among those aged 25-34, “I have not yet found a suitable partner” was selected most frequently: 43.3% for
men and 48.1% for women. The percentage of respondents who chose “I cannot get along with the oppositesex” has increased since the 13th survey in 2005. In addition, “I want to enjoy hobbies and pastimes now”
increased for both men and women in the current survey.

Figure 1-7. Percentage of never-married persons choosing each “reason for staying single,”by survey and age
Aged 18-24
Male
Still too young to getmarried

49.6
47.8

Do not feel the need toget married yet
Want to devote myself towork (or study) now
Want to enjoy hobbies andpastimes now

37.3
40.4

37.3
34.8

45.9
42.1

2.4
2.3
29.5
25.8

23.9
29.3

17.9
14.3

19.1
14.4

19.4
22.4

20.4
24.5

28.5
26.6
37.3
36.0

31.2
31.0
45.3
43.3

7.6
7.3

51.2
48.1

14.3
20.0
19.9
16.1

24.4
24.6

Aged 25-34
Female

3.8
3.8

16.9
17.9

12.8
12.3

Do not have enough money
for marriage

Aged 25-34
Male

21.4
20.8

30.3
29.8

Cannot get along with the
opposite sex

Others

33.0
31.3

16.0
15.8

Have not yet found a
suitable partner

My parents or othersaround me do not (willnot) agree to my marriage

41.0
41.2

21.0
20.4

Do not want to lose thefreedom and ease of being
singleCannot find a place tolive after getting married

Aged 18-24
Female

15.8
18.2

29.1
23.1

17.8
13.4

6.0
5.9

5.6
4.2

7.2
5.2

5.1
4.5

4.7
3.9

9.3
6.1

2.7
1.4

4.8
2.9

2.6
4.0

5.5
5.5

1.9
1.4

1.8
1.2

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60（%）

10th (1992)

11th (1997)

12th (2002)

14th (2010)

15th (2015)

16th (2021)

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

13th (2005)

Note: Figures shown are for never-married persons aged 18-34, and indicate what percentage of respondents listed
each item as a reason (choosing up to 3) for being single. Question: "Which of the following reasons, if any,account for your being single at present? Please choose up to 3 reasons that apply to you the most from the box
on the right and write down the numbers in the answer column on the right end. (If you are engaged and planning to
get married, please enter ‛12’ in the column for ‛biggest reason.’)"[Figure 1-7. Percentage of never-married persons choosing each “reason for staying single,” by survey and age]27

2. Relationships with the Opposite Sex
2.1 Relationships with the opposite sex
The percentage of never-married persons with a dating partner or a fiancé(e) peaked in
the early 2000s. In the current survey, the percentage remained unchanged at 20% formen, while it decreased slightly from the previous survey at just under 30% for women.
The survey asked respondents about their relationships with the opposite sex. The percentages of both men
and women who responded that they are in a dating relationship with the opposite sex or engaged havedeclined since their peak in the early 2000s. In the current survey, the percentage remained almost unchanged
at 21.1% for men between 18 and 34, while for women, it declined to 27.8% from the previous survey.

Figure 2-1. Relationships with the opposite sex among never-married persons, by survey andage
Total(Aged 18-34)
Aged 18-19（%）

Aged 20-24
Aged 25-29
Aged 30-34

28

Increase in the number of never-married persons without a dating partner of the opposite
sex who is not interested in a relationship.
The percentage of never-married men and women aged 18-34 who did not have a dating partner (neither afriend/dating partner nor fiancé(e) of the opposite sex) at the time of the current survey was around 70%(indicated by the height of the bar graph in the figure). Since the 14th survey, these never-married persons
have been asked about their desire to be in a relationship with the opposite sex. The percentage of those men
and women who “want to be in a relationship” is slightly less than 50% in total. Meanwhile, the percentageof never-married men in each age group was in the range of 30%, and for never-married women, the rangeof 20%. In other words, one out of three never-married persons aged 18-34 is “not particularly interested ina relationship with the opposite sex.”

Male

60.5

65.4

62.1

43.2

47.2

48.3

50.6

47.7

31.1

34.7

32.7

36.1

61.9

67.5

70.0

32.7

30.7

30.0

28.1

28.9

30.9

68.4

66.8

31.3

33.7

55.9
30.7
24.4

60.6

54.9

52.2

55.3

55.5

63.4

69.7

27.0

31.1

15th (2015)

32.2

14th (2010)

13th (2005)

12th (2002)

11th (1997)

10th (1992)

9th (1987)

8th (1982)

35.4

29.6

40.3

44.7

49.5
25.7
22.6

35.2

47.1

47.6

55.3

47.5

56.4

59.8
25.1
33.0

25.0

35.3

33.1

37.0

38.7

40.4

47.4
23.6

32.2

37.3

39.1

35.8

39.4

26.0

24.6

25.9

34.1

68.8

70.5

23.1

24.5

34.9

39.4

55.3
22.0

60.5

28.8

23.5

21.4

30.6

64.8

68.9

33.5

28.2

21.3

24.8

35.8

17.2

45.5

45.6

53.8

50.9

45.1

51.2

53.4
30.8

40.7

Survey Year

23.7

56.1

43.8

78.8
31.4

61.8

33.5

25.8

29.9

64.2

26.3

22.8

38.7

59.1

Aged 30-34

52.2

77.8

41.9

Aged 25-29

48.9

43.8

48.8

77.3

38.9

Aged 20-24

40.3

42.1

46.9

33.5

35.3

32.0

36.8

29.6

69.9

30.2

30.1

39.5

16th (2021)

55.6

31.5

15th (2015)

55.9

31.9

14th (2010)

27.6

72.2

13th (2005)

32.6

69.8

12th (2002)

61.4

11th (1997)

52.2

10th (1992)

52.8

9th (1987)

49.8

8th (1982)

47.3

16th (2021)

36.8

48.6

FemaleAged 18-19

100
80
60
40
20
0
100
80
60
40
20
0
100
80
60
40
20
0
100
80
60
40
20
0
100
80
60
40
20
0

Total(Aged 18-34)（%）

Figure 2-2. Percentage of never-married persons not involved in a relationship and their desire
to date, by survey and age

Not in any relationship－Not asked

Not in any relationship－Not known

Not in any relationship－Want to be in a relationship

Not in any relationship－Not particularly interested in a relationship with the opposite sex

Note: Figures shown are for never-married persons aged 18-34. The graphs indicate the percentage of never-marriedpersons not in a dating relationship (engaged to a person, or having a romantic partner or friend of oppositesex). The question on the desire to be in a relationship with the opposite sex has been asked since the 14th
Survey. Question: "Are you dating someone of the opposite sex?" If not, "Do you desire to be in a relationshipwith the opposite sex." (1. Want to be in a relationship, 2. Not particularly interested in a relationship withthe opposite sex.)[Figure 2-2. Percentage of never-married persons not involved in a relationship and their desire to date, by survey
and age]29

Never-married persons in their late 20s who have had a dating partner of the opposite
sex: over 60% for men and 70% for women.
This survey asked never-married persons about their dating experience. The percentage of never-marriedpersons aged 18-19 who have ever dated a partner of the opposite sex was 52.0% for men and 51.2% forwomen. The percentage of never-married persons aged 25-29 was the highest, at 63.6% for men and 71.2%
for women. 60.0% of men and 64.8% of women aged 18-34 had been in a relationship with the opposite sex.

Figure 2-3. Percentage of never-married persons with dating experience, by age: 16th survey(2021)

30

2.2 Where and how never-married persons met their dating partner
The most common way and/or place never-married persons met their dating partner or
fiancé(e) is through school. The percentage of encounters through friends and work
decreased in this survey, while more than 10% of encounters occurred through SNS, apps,
and other Internet services.
The survey asked never-married persons who were dating partners or engaged couples as of the time of thesurvey how they met their dating partners. The most common answer for both men and women was “atschool,” up slightly from the previous survey. The percentage of men was 28.6% in the previous survey but
increased to 30.1% in this survey, while the percentage of women was 26.8%, an increase from 24.1% in theprevious survey. On the other hand, “through friends or siblings” and “at work or work-related context”
decreased by about 5 points each from the previous survey for both men and women. In addition, the 16thsurvey added a new option, “through the Internet,” for cases not covered by the existing options, referring to
the use of online services that provide a place for personal interaction, such as social networking services(SNS) and matching applications. With 11.9% of men and 17.9% of women responding “through the Internet,”
more than one in ten never-married men and women with a dating or engaged couple met their dating partner
through an Internet-based service.

Figure 2-4. Percentage distribution of way and/or place never-married persons met theirdating partner, by survey (Those with a dating partner or fiancé/fiancée)31

2.3 Experience of sexual intercourse
The percentage of never-married men and women in their late 20s who have had sexualintercourse remains at 60%.
Among never-married persons aged 18-34, 53.0% of men and 47.5% of women have had sexual intercourse(see note in the following figure). By age group, 63.6% of men and 61.2% of women in their late 20s have
had sexual intercourse (compared to 65.1% of men and 61.3% of women in the previous survey), almost
unchanged from the previous survey. Among men and women aged 30-34 and women aged 20-24, there has
been a decline in the percentage of those who have had sexual intercourse since the previous survey.

（%）

Figure 2-5. Percentage of never-married persons with sexual intercourse experience, by
survey and age

32

2.4 Experience of cohabitation
10.9% of men and 12.9% of women have experienced cohabitation in their late 20s.
The survey asked never-married persons whether they have ever cohabited. Among never-married persons
aged 18-34, the percentage of those who have cohabited (the sum of “used to but not anymore” and“currently”) was 6.4% for men and 8.2% for women. The percentage of men who have ever cohabited has
generally remained unchanged across all age groups, with 10.9% of those in their late 20s. Among women,
the percentage rose to 12.9% for those in their late 20s and 15.7% for those in their early 30s.

Figure 2-6. Percentage of never-married persons who have experienced cohabitation, by
survey and age
Total(Aged 18-34)
Aged 18-19（%）

Aged 20-24
Aged 25-29

16th (2021)

15th (2015)

14th (2010)

13th (2005)

12th (2002)

11th (1997)

10th (1992)

9th (1987)

16th (2021)

15th (2015)

14th (2010)

13th (2005)

12th (2002)

11th (1997)

10th (1992)

9th (1987)

Aged 30-34

33

3. Desirable Life Course
3.1 Women’s life course regarding marriage, childbearing, and work
Women’s Ideal Life Course: “balancing work and family” is the most common, “nonmarried employment” is increasing, and “re-employment” and “full-time housewife” aredecreasing.
The survey asked women about their ideal life course (ideal life course) and their expected life course(expected life course) in terms of the combination of marriage, childbearing/child-rearing, and work in their
future lives.
Life course image shown in the response options:・Continue to work without getting married (Non-married Employment Course)
・Get married but continue to work without children (DINKs Course*)
・Get married, have children and continue to work (Balancing Course)
・Get married and have children, but leave work after marriage or childbearing/child-rearing, and return towork after raising children (Re-employment Course)
・Get married and have children, leave work upon marriage or childbirth, and do not work afterward (Fulltime Housewife Course)
・Other (write in freely)(*DINKs stands for “Double Income No Kids,” and refers to couples who work together and intentionally
do not have children.)In the “Ideal Life Course” category, the “Balancing Course” increased from 32.3% in the previous survey to34.0%, the highest percentage for the first time in this survey. The “Re-employment Course” decreased to26.1% from 34.6% in the previous survey, and the “Full-time Housewife Course” decreased to 13.8% from
18.2%. In this survey, the number of respondents who considered the “Non-married Employment Course”
and “DINKs Course” ideal increased.
In terms of “Expected Life Course,” the “Re-employment Course” decreased to 22.7% from 31.9% in theprevious survey, while the “Balancing Course” remained unchanged at 28.2% in the previous and current
survey. Meanwhile, the “Non-married Employment Course” increased from 21.0% in the previous survey to33.3%, the highest percentage among all courses.

More men want their partners to take a “Balanced Course,” almost 40%, the highest
percentage among all.
The survey asked men about their desired life course for their female partners. While the “Re-employment
Course” decreased from 37.4% to 29.0%, and the “Full-time Housewife Course” decreased from 10.1% to
6.8%, the “Balancing Course” increased from 33.9% to 39.4% as the highest percentage among all the options.

34

(%)

Figure 3-1. Ideal/Expected life courses of never-married women and life courses that men
expect of their women partners, by survey

35

3.2 Criteria for potential spousesCriteria for a spouse: The percentage of men requiring “financial resources” for women
increased, while the percentage of women requiring “competence in and attitude toward
housework and childcare” and “appearance” for men increased.
The criteria of “personality” is found to be important by the highest percentage of men and women, followedby “competence in and attitude toward housework and childcare” and “understanding of and support for mywork.” 70% of the women found “competence in and attitude toward housework and child-rearing important.
Compared to men, women tend to find it important and would consider potential spouses' educational
background, occupation, and financial resources more than men. This tendency has not changed since the10th survey (1992). The following changes have been observed since the 1990s. More men find it important
and would consider their potential spouse’s “income and other financial resources” (from 26.7% in the 1992
survey to 48.2% in 2021), and more women find “competence in and attitude toward housework and childcare”
important in their potential spouse (from 43.6% in the 1997 survey to 70.2% in the 2021 survey). In addition,
while the percentage of women who find it important or would consider their potential spouse’s “appearance”
has increased (from 67.6% in the 1992 survey to 81.3% in the 2021 survey), the percentage of women who
find it important or would consider “having common hobbies” with potential spouses has decreased (from78.9% in the 1997 survey to 72.2% in the 2021 survey).

Figure 3-2. Percentage of never-married persons who find it important or would consider eachcriterion for potential spouse, by survey
Educational
background

Financialresources

Occupation

Personality

94.1

80

Understandingof work

Housework
skills95.1 95.0
84.3

79.6

Common hobbies

76.6 77.0

79.7

88.3

88.2 88.5

42.5

41.8 42.0

92.8 91.5
86.8

81.2
70.4

73.2 73.2

60
48.2

47.4 46.6
41.9

39.4

40
29.8

30.5

27.3

26.7
22.2

42.1

2.8

3.7 3.0

4.4

6.0 5.9

3.4

100
88.7

85.5

80

22.0

20.8

24.4

4.7 4.7

93.3 91.6

97.3

98.0 98.0

89.3

88.3 88.2

93.2 93.4
88.4

80.7

78.0

24.1 24.6

77.7

81.3

78.9

74.9

96.0 96.5
89.7

72.2

70.2

67.6

60 54.6

54.7

55.9
51.7
46.5
39.8

40

33.6

30.0
22.5

20
9.0

57.7

49.6
43.6

36.3
30.4

24.2

23.9 23.9
12.9

10.6 9.0

15.9

18.8

10th (1992)
11th (1997)
12th (2002)
14th (2010)
15th (2015)
16th (2021)

Consider10th (1992)
11th (1997)
12th (2002)
14th (2010)
15th (2015)
16th (2021)

10th (1992)
11th (1997)
12th (2002)
14th (2010)
15th (2015)
16th (2021)

Prioritize

10th (1992)
11th (1997)
12th (2002)
14th (2010)
15th (2015)
16th (2021)

10th (1992)
11th (1997)
12th (2002)
14th (2010)
15th (2015)
16th (2021)

10th (1992)
11th (1997)
12th (2002)
14th (2010)
15th (2015)
16th (2021)

10th (1992)
11th (1997)
12th (2002)
14th (2010)
15th (2015)
16th (2021)

10th (1992)
11th (1997)
12th (2002)
14th (2010)
15th (2015)
16th (2021)

0

Note: The figures are for never-married persons aged 18-34 who answered 'intend to get married someday'.Question: "When deciding on amarriage partner, how important are the following items (1) to (8)? Please circle one number for each. <1. Educational background of
the partner (Educational background) 2. Partner's occupation (Occupation) 3. Partner's income and other financial resources (Financial
resources) 4. Partner's personality (Personality) 5. Partner's appearance (Appearance) 6. Having common hobbies (Common hobbies) 7.
Partner's understanding of and support for your work (Understanding of work) 8. partner's competence in and attitude toward houseworkand childcare (Housework skills)> (1. I find it important, 2. I would consider it, 3. I do not find it relevant)."[Figure 3-2. Percentage of never-married persons who find it important or would consider each criterion for potential spouse, by survey]

36

Requirements of potential spouses: Female

（%）

20
0

46.2
34.9

Requirements of potential spouses: Male100

Appearance

3.3 Desired number of children and reasons for having children
The desired number of children of never-married persons continues to decline, and thistrend is more pronounced among women.
The survey asked never-married persons how many children they would like to have (the desired number ofchildren). The average number of children desired by never-married men and women aged 18-34 who intend
to get married has generally continued to decline since 1982: 1.82 for men and 1.79 for women, falling below
2 for the first time in this survey.

Figure 3-3. Average desired number of children of never-married persons, by survey

Male

Female3(N of children)

2.33

2.30

2.23

2.28
2.15

2

2.052.07

2.23

2.17

2.04
1.91

2.13

2.03

2.10

2.12

2.02

1.82

1.79

1

0
1982

1987

1992

1997

2002
2010
2005
2015

2021

1982

Survey Year

1987

1992

1997

2002
2010
2005
2015

2021

Note: The figures are for never-married persons aged 18-34 who responded that they "intend to get married
someday". The average was calculated by excluding those who did not answer the desired number of children
and recoding responses of "5 or more" to 5. Error bars on the markers in the figure indicate 95% confidence
intervals. The respective number of case was as follows: men (3,270), women (3,001) in the 12th (2002)
survey; men (2,652), women (2,698) in the 13th (2005) survey; men (3,084), women (2,993) in the 14th (2010)
survey; men (2,263), women (2,263) in the 15th (2015) survey; men (1,613), women (1,690) in the 16th (2021)
survey. The average desired number of children for never-married persons aged 18-34 who responded that they
'have no intention of ever getting married' were as follows: men (0.65), women (0.71) in the 12th (2002)
survey; men (0.80), women (0.57) in the 13th (2005) survey; men (0.59), women (0.49) in the 14th (2010)
survey; men (0.49), women (0.33) in the 15th (2015) survey; men (0.31), women (0.21) in the 16th (2021)
survey. Meanwhile, the average desired number of children for all never-married persons were as follows:men (1.96), women (1.96) in the 12th (2002) survey; men (1.98), women (2.01) in the 13th (2005) survey;men (1.90), women (2.00) in the 14th (2010) survey; men (1.74), women (1.88) in the 15th (2015) survey;men (1.56), women (1.55) in the 16th (2021) survey. Question: "(1)How many children would you like to have?
(0. Do not want any children 1. 1 child, 2. 2 children, 3. 3 children, 4. 4 children, 5. 5 or more: ( )children)."[Figure 3-3. Average desired number of children of never-married persons, by survey]

37

The average desired number of children by never-married men and women is below 2 for
all age groups.
The average number of children desired by never-married women who intend to marry by age has generally
continued to decline for all age groups. In this survey, the average number of children desired for both men
and women in all age groups was below 2. The declines are substantial for men in their early 30s, and womenin their early 30s and late 20s, falling from 1.83 to 1.58, from 1.78 to 1.50, and from 2.03 to 1.75, respectively.

Figure 3-4. Average desired number of children of never-married persons, by survey and age
Male

3
2.30

2.34

2.09

1.97

1.97

2.25

2.15

2.05 2.11

2.09

1.95

1.85

2.14

1.99 2.05

2.05

1.91

1.86

1.98 2.01

1.92

1.83

2

2.29

2.20

2.25

2.22

2.13 2.23

2.16

2.05

2.16

2.09 2.18

2.20

2.09

2.10

2.13

1.98 2.03

2.06

2.03

1.90

1.76

1.87 1.84

1.97

1997

2002 2010
2021
2005
2015

1.90

1
0
3

2.33

2.30

(N of children)

2

2.34

2.26

1.89

1
0
3

2.36

2.30

2.22

2

2.18

2.18

1.75

1
0
3
2.29

2.26

2.21

2.13

2

1.90

1.58

1.83

1.78

1.50

1
0

1982

1987

1992

1997

2002 2010
2021
2005
2015

1982

Survey Year

1987

1992

Aged 30-34

2.18 2.15

Aged 25-29

2.21

Aged 20-24

2.19

Aged 18-19

2.30

FemaleNote: Figures shown are for never-married persons aged 18-34 responding that they "intend to get married someday."
The average was calculated by excluding those who did not answer the desired number of children and recoding
responses of 5 or more to 5. Error bars on the markers in the figure indicate 95% confidence intervals. The
numbers of cases for the 15th (2015) and 16th (2016) surveys are as follows (15th, 16th): age 18-19: men (356,253), women (339, 275); age 20-24: men (798, 579), women (927, 678); age 25-29: men (645, 474), women (658,453); aged 30-34: men (464, 307), women (339, 284). The average desired numbers of children for all never-marriedpersons for the 15th and 16th surveys were as follows (15th, 16th): age 18-19: men (1.85, 1.73), women (1.95,
1.72); age 20-24: men (1.81, 1.65), women (1.97, 1.66); age 25-29: men (1.68, 1.61), women (1.89, 1.52); age
30-34: men (1.66, 1.23), women (1.58, 1.24).
[Figure 3-4. Average desired number of children of never-married persons, by survey and age]38

Reason for having children cited by never-married persons: “Because it is natural”
declined significantly for both men and women.
The survey asked never-married persons who wish to have children about their reasons. As in the previous
survey, “because having children makes my life more enjoyable and enriches my mind” was selected mostoften by both men and women, at around 70%.
Among men, about 40% selected “because I want to have children of someone I love,” while “because it isnatural to get married and have children” decreased from 48.1% in the previous survey to 33.5% in thissurvey. The percentage of respondents who chose “because children will support society in the future”
increased slightly from 20.0% to 23.2%.
Among women, “Because I want to have children of someone I love” decreased from 56.0% to 47.2%,“Because it is natural to get married and have children” decreased from 38.8% to 23.8%, and “because
children will stabilize the marital relationship” decreased from 21.1% to 15.1%, respectively.

Figure 3-5. Reasons for having children of never-married persons, by survey

39

4. Lifestyle of Never-married Persons
More never-married persons responded “I have hobbies or life work that make living
worthwhile” and “I do not feel lonely living alone”.
The survey asked about the lifestyles of never-married persons, including socializing, consuming, working,and having hobbies. The percentages of men and women (67.0% and 63.7%, respectively) said they “havehobbies or life work that make living worthwhile” was the largest among all the response options, up about
6 points each from the previous survey. The percentage of respondents who “do not think they would belonely even if they continued to live alone” also increased, with the increase being particularly big among
women, rising from 36.2% in the previous survey to a majority of 50.7%. On the other hand, the percentage
of both men and women who say they “Have many friends with whom I can easily hang out” decreased from
55.1% to 51.1% among men and from 60.4% to 50.3% among women. Other responses that saw declines forboth men and women were “I am particular when it comes to clothing and things I own,” “I have little money
to spend on things I want or do what I like,” and “I often sacrifice my personal life for work.”

Figure 4-1. Percentage of never-married persons to whom each lifestyle applies, by survey

40

The percentage of never-married persons who “intend to get married someday” withactive lifestyles such as “often go on trips,” “particular when it comes to clothing andbelongings,” and “have many friends” also decreased in this survey.
Never-married persons’ willingness to get married differs depending on their lifestyle. For never-marriedpersons who answered “agree” or “somewhat agree” to each of the lifestyle-related questions, we compared
the percentage of those who answered “intend to get married someday” with respect to their lifetime intention
to get married. In previous surveys, the percentage of never-married persons who answered “intend to getmarried someday” tended to be higher among those with active lifestyles, such as “have many friends withwhom I can easily hang out,” “often go on domestic and overseas trips outside of work,” and “am particularwhen it comes to clothing and things I own.” In the current survey, even never-married persons with theselifestyles showed a decline in their intention to get married. The never-married persons with such lifestyles
as “I have little money to spend on things I want or do what I like,” “I have hobbies or life work that makeliving worthwhile,” “I don’t think I would be lonely even if I continued to live alone,” and “I often sacrifice
my personal life for my work” also showed a further decline in their intentions to get married.

41

2010
2015
2021

1997

2010
2015
2021

1997

2010
2015
2021

1997

2010
2015
2021

1997

2010
2015
2021

1997

2010
2015
2021

1997

2010
2015
2021

1997

"Intend to Get Married Someday" (%)

Figure 4-2. Lifetime intention to marry among never-married persons to whom each lifestyle
applies, by survey (Percentage of those who answered “intend to get married someday”)

Section II Results of the Survey of Married
Couples
Part II, based on the results of the survey of married couples, presents the data on the process of marriage,
pregnancy, and childbirth, attitudes toward the number of children, working styles of husbands and wives,housework and childcare, and use of childcare support systems by married couples during childbearing andchild-rearing years (mainly married couples with wives under 55 years old married before age 55).

42

5. Marriage Process
5.1 Age at first encounter/first marriage and the length of courtship
The average age at first encounter remained unchanged at 26.4 years for men and 24.9
years for women, and the average length of courtship at 4.3 years.
For couples in their first marriage who married in the last five years as of the time of the survey, the average
age at which the couple first met (the average age at first encounter), the average age at first marriage, andthe average length of courtship are shown. The average age at first encounter has been on an upward trend in
the past, but the level in the current survey was almost unchanged from the previous survey. The average
length of courtship has also shown no increase, remaining flat at around four years.
Looking at trends by marriage type – “love marriage,” “arranged marriage,” and “through Internet services”(referring to marriages in which the couple met through internet tools that connect individuals online, suchas social networking sites and apps, and which was newly added to the options in this survey) – the age atfirst encounter and age at first marriage in “arranged marriages” were lower in the current survey. The
average age at the first encounter in “through Internet services” was 27.8 for husbands and 26.2 for wives,
slightly higher than in “love marriages” (25.3 for husbands and 23.8 for wives), and the average length ofcourtship in marriages “through Internet services” was 2.8 years, shorter than in “love marriages” (4.9 years)(see note to Figure 5-1).

(Age/Year)

Figure 5-1. Average age at first encounter and first marriage and duration of courtship, by
survey and way/place married couples met (couples in first marriage who married within five
years prior to each survey)

43

5.2 How did couples meet?
The percentage of husbands and wives meeting each other “through Internet services”(SNS, apps, etc.) is increasing, and the percentage of traditional “love marriages” isdecreasing.
In addition to the traditional categories of “arranged marriage” and “love marriage,” the current survey added
a new option, “through Internet services,” as the way husbands and wives met. This option refers to cases
where the couple met using social networking services (SNS), matching applications, or other services thatprovide online opportunities for personal interaction and that do not fit into the traditional options. Looking
at changes in the way for meeting by year of marriage, the percentage of couples who met “through Internet
services,” shown in the lower right of the figure, has increased rapidly since 2015, surpassing that of“arranged marriages” in the most recent year (15.1% for “through Internet services” and 9.8% for “arranged
marriages”). The percentage of traditional “love marriages” has declined as new opportunities to meet the
opposite sex have emerged.

（%）

Figure 5-2. Percentage of love marriage and arranged marriage, by year of marriage

44Marriages formed “at work” have decreased in the last three years, including during the
COVID-19 pandemic, and 13.6% of newlyweds meet “through Internet services” such as
SNS, apps, etc.
Looking at how husbands and wives met by survey year, the percentage of “at work or in a work-related
context,” which had been the top response, decreased from 28.2% in the previous survey to 21.4% formarriages between July 2018 and June 2021 (2021b), which includes the period when marriage was declining
under the COVID-19 pandemic. The percentage of “arranged marriage matchmaking meeting” increased
from 6.4% in the previous survey to 9.0% in 2021b(*). It was 6.0% for “through Internet services” (using
SNS, apps, etc.), a new option added to the current survey, for marriages between July 2015 and June 2018(2021a) and 13.6% for 2021b.

Figure 5-3. Percentage of ways and/or places married couples met, by survey (Couples in firstmarriage who got married within five years prior to each study [For the 16th survey, those who
got married within six years prior to the survey])
8th (1982)
9th (1987)
10th (1992)
11th (1997)
12th (2002)
13th (2005)
14th (2010)
15th (2015)

28.2

16th (2021)a28.2

16th (2021)b

30.8
27.0

21.4

0

11.7
14.2

25.9

14.1

25

5.7

5.8

4.9
4.5

4.8
4.7

4.0

50

3.8

4.1
9.0

75

（%）

6.4 1.0 4.0
8.6

6.0
13.6

100

At workThrough friends or siblings

At school

In town or on a trip

Through circle activities, club activities and lessons

At a part-time job

Childhood friend/a neighbor

Arranged marriage

Through the media

Through the Internet

OthersNot known

Note: The figures shown are for couples who have been married for less than 5 years with wives under 50 (the15th survey and earlier) or couples who have been married for less than 6 years with wives under 55 married
before age 50 (the 16th survey). For the 16th survey, the sample is divided into two groups by the timeof marriage. (2021)a: married between July 2015 and June 2018; (2021)b: married between July 2018 and June
2021. The number of cases were as follows: 894 in the 15th (2015) survey, 486 in the 16th (2021)a survey,
398 in the 16th (2021)b survey. "Arranged marriage" indicates marriage "through an arranged matchmaking
date with marriage in mind" or "through a marriage matchmaking service." In the 8th and 9th surveys, "at apart-time job" was not included in the options. "Through the media," extracted from additional comments thatwere categorized as "others" in the 11th through 15th surveys, includes websites and the Internet. "Throughthe Internet" means "through the Internet (other than the channels listed above)," a new item added in the
16th survey. A note in the answer column states, "‛Through the Internet’ refers to cases where the couple
met through social networking services, websites, apps, etc." The results of the 16th survey not shown in
the graph (a, b) are as follows: (1.2%, 1.3%) for the "childhood friend/a neighbor", (1.0%, 0.3%) for the"others", (0%, 0.3%) for the "not known". Question: "How and when did you and your husband meet?" Items: "Atschool", "At work or in a work-related context", "Childhood friend/a neighbor", "Outside of school throughcircle activities, club activities, lessons, etc.", "Through friends or siblings", "Through an arranged
matchmaking date with marriage in mind (including introduction by relatives, superiors, and so on)", "Througha marriage matchmaking service (including online)", "In town or on a trip", "At a part-time job", "Throughthe Internet (other than the channels listed above) -> Please specify", "Other -> Please specify"[Figure 5-3. Percentage of ways and/or places married couples met, by survey (Couples in first marriage who
got married within five years prior to each study [For the 16th survey, those who got married within six
years prior to the survey])](*) According to the Vital Statistics (Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare), the number of first marriages for wives
under age 50 in 2020 dropped significantly to 330,000 from 380,000 in 2019. Note that the values for 2021b in thechart are based on a situation with fewer marriages occurring than in previous years, and an increase in the composition
ratio does not necessarily mean an increase in the number of marriages occurring.

45

6. Fertility of Married Couples
6.1 Completed number of children“The completed number of children” is defined as the final number of children born to a couple (thiscorresponds to the average number of children born to couples). In this survey, the average number ofchildren born to couples married for 15-19 years with little or no plans to have additional children is definedas the completed number of children, and aggregate results are presented. Until the previous survey, thisindicator was calculated for couples with wives under 50 years old as of the time of the survey; this survey
presents results for couples with wives under 55 years old (*). In addition, “the average number of children
born to couples with wives aged 45-49” is also calculated for couples with wives aged 45-49, which is shown
later in this report.
* Note on raising the maximum age limit for wives as of the time of the survey in calculating the completed
number of children
When calculating the completed number of children for couples who have been married for 15-19 years,
limiting the wife’s age as of the time of the survey to less than 50 years would exclude some couples whomarried when the wife was between 30 and 34 years old and couples who married at 35 years old or older.
According to marriage statistics from the “Vital Statistics” (Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare), formarried couples who had been married for 15-19years in past surveys, the percentage of couples where thewife is between 30 and 34 years old at first marriage has ranged from 4 to 13% of married couples where thewife is under 50 years old at marriage. However, in the 16th survey, among couples who have been marriedfor 15-19 years (married between 2001 and 2006), the trend toward late marriage further increased, with thepercentage of wives married between the ages of 30 and 34 increasing to about 20%. Therefore, in the 16thsurvey, the upper age limit for the calculation was raised from under 50 to under 55, and the completed
number of children was calculated by including all couples whose wives were married between the ages of
30 and 34. The calculation of the average number of children born to wives under 50 in the 16th survey isshown in the footnote. The figure is overestimated since it excludes a portion of the couples who married
when the wife was 30 to 34 years old and have a relatively small number of children.

The Completed number of children of married couples continues to decline.
The completed number of children of couples who have been married for 15-19 years remained stable ataround 2.2 until the 2002 (12th) survey but has since declined, reaching a low of 1.90 in the current survey.

N of Children

Figure 6-1. Completed number of children of married couples, by survey (Duration of
marriage: 15 to 19 years)

46

The percentage of couples who have completed childbearing with one child continues toincrease.
Looking at the distribution of the number of children born to couples who have been married for 15-19 years(a duration of marriage in which the childbearing period is considered almost complete), the percentage of
couples with one child has been gradually increasing since the 2005 (13th) survey and accounted for about
20% of the total, or 19.7% in the current survey. The number of childless (0 children born) couples also
increased to 7.7% (6.2% in the previous survey). Along with this increase in the number of couples with nochildren and those with one child, the percentage of couples with two children declined to 50.8% in thecurrent survey (54.1% in the previous survey).

47

16th (2021)

15th (2015)

14th (2010)

13th (2005)

12th (2002)

11th (1997)

10th (1992)

9th (1987)

8th (1982)

7th (1977)（%）

Figure 6-2. Percentage distribution of couples by number of children, by survey (Duration of
marriage: 15 to 19 years)

The average number of children born to couples with wives aged 45-49 also declines.
Since women rarely have children beyond the age of 45, the average number of children born to a couple
with wife between 45 and 49 years of age can be regarded as the final number of children born when the wife
is 50. This value has been declining since the 2002 (12th) survey and was 1.81 in the current survey.

Figure 6-3. Number of children born to couples with wives aged 45-49, by survey

48

The percentage of couples with one child increases among couples with wives ages 45-49.
Looking at the distribution of the number of children born to couples with wives between 45 and 49 years ofage, the percentage of couples with one or two children increased, and the percentage with three or morechildren decreased from the previous survey.

Figure 6-4. Percent distribution of couples with wives aged 45-49 by number of children, by
survey49

6.2 Number of children of couples in the childbearing period
The average number of children born to couples who have been married for 5-9 years and
10-14 years has stopped declining.
The average number of children born to couples is shown by the years since marriage, i.e., the duration of
the marriage. The number of children born in marriages lasting less than 15 years, including many couples
who have not yet completed childbearing, has remained mostly unchanged, but there are some signs ofreversal.

Figure 6-5. Number of children of married couples, by survey and duration of the marriage

50The number of couples with one child in the childbearing period continues to increase.
Looking at the distribution of the number of children born to couples who have been married for 5-9 years
and who are in the childbearing period, the percentage of couples with one child has been slowly increasing
since the 1990s. This trend continued in the current survey, with the percentage of couples with one childincreasing to 29.4% (from 28.2% in the previous survey). On the other hand, the percentage of couples withno children peaked at 13.8% in the 2010 (14th) survey and has been gradually declining.

51

16th (2021)

15th (2015)

14th (2010)

13th (2005)

12th (2002)

11th (1997)

10th (1992)

9th (1987)

8th (1982)

7th (1977)（%）

Figure 6-6. Percentage distribution of couples by the number of children, by survey (Durationof marriage: 5 to 9 years)

6.3 The number of children born to married couples with wives aged 45-49
by socioeconomic status
Below, we present the average number of children born to couples with wives aged 45-49 by majorsocioeconomic status (place of residence as of the time of the survey, educational attainment of husband andwife, and experience of using childcare leave).

The number of children born to couples with wives aged 45-49 is less than 2, even in nondensely inhabited districts (non-DID).
The average number of children born to couples with wives aged 45-49, by densely inhabited district (DID)
classification of residence as of the time of the survey (DID is a classification that indicates a more urban
area; see note for more details on classification). Since the 2000s, there has been a continuous decline in thenumber of children born to couples with wives aged 45-49, with residence both in DID and non-DID. The
average number of children born is consistently lower for couples residing in DID than in non-DID. In thecurrent survey, the average number of children born to couples with wives aged 45-49 residing in non-DID
fell below two for the first time to 1.97.

N of Children

Figure 6-7. Number of children born to couples with wives aged 45-49, by survey and by
residence (Densely Inhabited District (DID) or non-DID) as of the time of the survey

52

The number of children born to couples with wives aged 45-49 in Western Japan tends tobe higher.
Comparing the average number of children born to couples with wives aged 45-49 among the five regional
blocs, the figures for the “Tokyo area” and the “Osaka area” were relatively low in this survey, with thelowest being 1.63 children in the “Osaka area.” Among the three metropolitan areas, the figure for the“Nagoya area” was relatively high at 1.86 in this survey. The highest figure among the five regional blocs
was found in “Western Japan,” at 2.08 in this survey and was the only one among the five regional blocs witha figure exceeding 2.

Figure 6-8. Number of children born to couples with wives aged 45-49, by survey and theregional bloc of residence (as of the time of the survey)

53

The number of children born to couples with wives aged 45-49, by education attainmentof the husband and wife, showed a slight narrowing of difference by education for wives.
Looking at the number of children born to couples with wives aged 45-49, by the educational attainment of
the husband and wife, the average number tended to be lower for both husband and wife with higher
educational attainment in general, until the previous survey. However, in the current survey, the number ofchildren born to couples in which the wife has a college degree or higher rose from 1.66 in the previous
survey to 1.74, showing a narrowing of difference by educational attainment.

Figure 6-9. Number of children born to couples with wives aged 45-49, by survey andeducational attainment of wife and husband
Husbands' educational attainment

Wives' educational attainment

3.0

2.5

2.00

N of Children

2.0

1.79
1.75

1.91

1.94

1.73
1.73

1.85
1.66

1.5

1.82
1.81
1.74

1.0

0.5

0.0
1977

1982

1987

1992

1997

2005
2015
1977
1987
1997 20052015
2002 2010
2021
1982
1992
2002 2010
2021

Survey Year

Junior high school

High school

Junior college, Vocational school, University or Graduate school

Junior high school or High school

Junior college or Vocational school

University or Graduate school

Note: Figures shown are for couples in first marriage with wives aged 45-49. The average was calculated by
excluding couples who did not answer the number of children and recoding responses of 8 or more to 8. Educational
Attainment consists of three categories: "Junior high school", "high school", "junior college, vocational school,
university or graduate school" in the 10th (1992) survey and earlier, "junior high school or high school", "juniorcollege or vocational school", "university or graduate school" since the 11th (1997) survey. The respective numberof cases was as follows: With respect to wives in the 15th (2015) survey, junior high school or high school (567),
junior college or vocational school (483), university or graduate school (221). With respect to husbands in the
15th (2015) survey, junior high school or high school (521), junior college or vocational school (206), university
or graduate school (541). Regarding wives in the 16th (2021) survey, junior high school or high school (417),
junior college or vocational school (566), university or graduate school (280). Regarding husbands in the 16th
(2021) survey, junior high school or high school (477), junior college or vocational school (232), university or
graduate school (547).
[Figure 6-9. Number of children born to couples with wives aged 45-49, by survey and educational attainment of wifeand husband]54

No decline in the number of children born to wives who continued to work before andafter the birth of their first child using the childcare leave system.
The average number of children born was calculated for wives who were employed before and after the birthof their first child (when the pregnancy was discovered and when the child was one year old) and who were40-49 years old as of the time of the survey, by whether or not they used the childcare leave system. In 2005,
the average number of children born to wives who continued to work using the childcare leave system was
2.04, significantly lower than 2.32 for wives who continued to work without using the childcare leave system(including self-employed and part-time workers). In the current survey in 2021, the average number ofchildren born to wives who did not use the childcare leave system declined to 2.10, while the average numberof children born to wives who used the childcare leave system remained unchanged at 2.03, indicating anarrowing gap between the two groups.

N of Children

Figure 6-10. Number of children of married couples, by survey and the wife’s use of childcare
leave after giving birth to the first child (Wives aged 40-49 who continued to work after giving
birth to their first child)

55

The difference in the number of children born by whether or not the childcare leavesystem was used narrowed regardless of the wife’s age at first marriage.
The average number of children born to wives aged 40-49 was compared among wives who continued towork before and after the birth of their first child, separately for couples whose wives’ age at first marriage
was less than 30 and for couples whose wives were 30 years old or older, by whether or not they used thechildcare leave system. Looking at wives whose age at first marriage was under 30, the average number ofchildren born to wives who used childcare leave was lower than that of wives who did not use childcare leavein 2005, but the number of children born to those who used the childcare leave system rose slightly thereafter,and by 2021 there was no difference between the two groups.

N of Children

Figure 6-11. Number of children of married couples, by survey, the wife’s age at firstmarriage and use of childcare leave after giving birth to the first child (Wives aged 40-49 who
continued to work after giving birth to their first child)56

7. Views on Number of Children
7.1 Ideal and intended number of children of married couples
The average ideal number of children continues to decline gradually, while the averageintended number of children remains unchanged from the previous survey.
The average ideal number of children for a couple has been slowly declining since the 2000s. In the current
survey, too, the average ideal number of children declined slightly from 2.32 in the previous survey to 2.25.
On the other hand, the average intended number of children has been on a gradual downward trend since the1990s, but in the current survey, the number was 2.01, which was the same as in the previous survey.

N of Children

Figure 7-1. Average ideal and intended number of children of married couples, by survey

57

The average ideal and intended number of children continues to decline for couples
married for less than 10 years duration.
Trends in the ideal and intended number of children are shown by the number of years since marriage, i.e.,
marriage duration(*). For couples who had been married for 10-14 years, there was a slight increase in boththe ideal and intended number of children. On the other hand, for couples who had been married for less than
10 years, both the ideal and intended number of children declined slightly, and the average intended numberof children was below 2.

Figure 7-2. Average ideal and intended number of children of married couples, by survey andduration of marriage
0-4 years

5-9 years

3
2.42

2

2.08

2.49
2.22

2.51
2.28

2.40
2.14

2.33
2.11

2.31 2.30
1.99 2.05

2.30
2.08

2.25
2.04

2.56

2.63

2.65

2.17

2.21

2.25

2.11
1.95

2.61

2.18

2.47

2.48 2.41

2.38

2.33

2.10

2.07

2.09

2.03

1.97

2.32

2.26

1.96

1.91

2005
2015
2002
2010

2021

2.05

2.20

N of Children

1010-14 years
3
2

2.68

2.18

2.67

2.18

2.72

2.20

2.75

2.25

2.58
2.17

2.60 2.51
2.10

2.06

15-19 years
2.67
2.42
2.01

2.30
1.92

2.66

2.70

2.71

2.60

2.69

2.22

2.22

2.34
2.03

2.21

2.13

2.19

2.18

2.56

2.11

2.42

1.99

1
0
1977

1982

1987

1992

1997

2005
2015
2002
2010

2021

1977

1982

Survey Year

Average ideal number of children

1987

1992

1997

Average intended number of children

Note: Figures shown are for couples in first marriage with wives under 50 (the 15th survey and earlier) or thoseunder 55 married before age 50 (the 16th survey). The intended number of children was calculated by adding thenumber of children already born and the number of additional children intended. The average was calculated by
excluding couples who did not answer the ideal or intended number of children and recoding responses of 8 or more
to 8. Error bars on the markers in the figure indicate 95% confidence intervals. For the average ideal numberof children, the number of cases for each duration of marriage was as follows: 0-4 years: 864 in the 15th (2015)
survey, 708 in the 16th (2021) survey; 5-9 years: 1,034, 879; 10-14 years: 1,093, 1,002; 15-19 years: 1,176, 916.
For the average intended number of children, the number of cases for each duration of marriage was as follows:
0-4 years: 858 in the 15th (2015) survey, 703 in the 16th (2021) survey; 5-9 years: 1,020, 871; 10-14 years:
1,096, 1,008; 15-19 years: 1,187, 922. Question: (1) Ideal number of children: "For you and your husband, whatis the ideal number of children you would like to have?" (0. None, 1. 1 child, 2. 2 children, 3. 3 children, 4.
4 children, 5. 5 children or more ( ) children.) (2) Intended number of children: "Then, how many children do you
and your spouse plan to have in total?" (0. None, 1. 1 child, 2. 2 children, 3. 3 children, 4. 4 children, 5. 5children or more ( ) children.)[Figure 7-2. Average ideal and intended number of children of married couples, by survey and duration of marriage](*) Since the number of couples with a high age at first marriage has been increasing in recent years, in the 16th survey,
calculations are made by the duration of marriage for couples with wives aged under 55 (but aged under 50 at marriage)(before the 15th survey, calculations were made for couples with wives aged under 50).

58

7.2 Intended number of children at time of marriage and actual completed
number of children
Comparing the intended number of children at the time of marriage to the actual
completed number of children, the higher the wife’s age at first marriage, the larger thedifference between the two, and the less the intended number realized.
The current survey asked couples how many children they intended to have when they married. Looking at
the distribution of the intended number of children at marriage of couples married 15-19 years, two children
was the most common, accounting for about 40-50%, and nearly 20% answered three or more. About 30%of the couples said they had not considered it in particular. Looking at this by age at first marriage, the higher
the age at first marriage, the greater the percentage showing intention to have one or fewer children, and thesmaller the percentage showing intention to have three or more children.
On the other hand, looking at the distribution of the number of children born to couples married for 15-19
years, the percentage of “one or fewer” children, which was less than 10% for the intended number of children
at the time of marriage (6.6%), has reached nearly 30% (27.3%) for the actual completed number of children,
indicating a gap between the intended and actual situation. The higher the age at first marriage, the larger thisgap tends to be.

Figure 7-3. Percentage distribution of the intended number of children at the time of marriage
and completed number of children of married couples, by the wife’s age at first marriage: 16thsurvey (2021) (Duration of marriage: 15 to 19 years)597.3 Reasons for having children
The most common reason for having children is that “having children makes my life moreenjoyable and enriches my mind,” while the choice of “it is natural to have children” and“children will stabilize my marital relationship” decreased.
Couples with at least one ideal number of children were asked about their reasons for having children. The
most consistently chosen response in each survey has been “having children makes my life more enjoyableand enrich my mind,” which about 80% of the couples chose. The percentages for “it is natural to get married
and have children” and “children will stabilize the marital relationship” have declined in recent surveys. The
percentages for “children will support me in my old age” had gradually increased until the previous survey
but declined in the current survey.

Figure 7-4. Reasons for having children chosen by married couples, by survey

60

7.4 Reasons why couples do not realize their ideal number of children
The percentage choosing “it costs too much to raise and educate children” as a reason for
not realizing the ideal number of children remained high among couples with wives under
35 but declined among couples with wives 35 and older.
Among the reasons for not realizing the ideal number of children, the highest percentage chose an economic
reason: “it costs too much to raise and educate children,” at 52.6%. The percentage choosing “because theenvironment is not conducive for children to grow up freely” has decreased in recent years.
Comparing by wife’s age (Figure 7-6), a higher percentage of couples with wives aged under 35 cited
economic reasons (cost of raising and giving education to children, housing, and work), while a higher
percentage of couples with wives aged 35 years old or older cited physical reasons, such as “I do not want tohave children at an older age” and “I have not been able to get pregnant even though I want children.”Looking at changes by wife’s age group by survey year, for couples with wives aged 35 or older, thepercentage choosing “because it cost too much to raise and educate children” decreased, while “because I
cannot bear the psychological and physical burden of child-rearing any longer” increased. On the other hand,for couples with wives under 35, the percentage choosing “because it costs too much to raise and educate
children” remained high, while the percentage choosing “because I want to cherish my life and our life as acouple” has increased since the 2010 (14th) survey.

61

Other

I want my youngest
child to reach adulthood
before my husband
retires

My husband does not wanta child

I cannot get myhusband's cooperation inhousework and childcare

I have not been able toget pregnant even though
I want children

Health reasons

I cannot bear thepsychological andphysical burden ofchild-rearing any longer

I do not want to havechildren at an older age

I want to cherish mylife and our life as acouple

The environment is notconducive for children
to grow up freely

Interference with one's
job or businessHouse is too small

It costs too muchto raise and educate
children（%）

Figure 7-5. Reasons why couples do not realize their ideal number of children, by survey(Couples whose intended number of children is less than their ideal number of children)Figure 7-6. Reasons why couples do not realize their ideal number of children, by survey andthe wife’s age (Couples whose intended number of children is less than their ideal number ofchildren)
wives under 35 years old
100
75

79.8
77.8

50
25

18.0 21.4

22.4 21.4（%）

7.7 8.5

11.5

16.2

14.8

20.8 23.1

19.7

12.6 13.7

9.3

13.7

12.0 13.7

8.7 11.1

0

6.0

4.3

6.6 8.5

wives over 35 years old
100
75
52.2
48.6

44.1 43.7

13th (2005)

14th (2010)

15th (2015)

7.5 7.1

6.7 6.4

Other

8.0 8.5

I want my youngest
child to reach adulthood
before my husband
retires

9.6 11.1

I cannot get myhusband's cooperation inhousework and childcare

Interference with one's
job or businessHouse is too small

It costs too muchto raise and educate
children

12th (2002)

26.0 25.5
17.1 18.0

I have not been able toget pregnant even though
I want children

5.0 6.9

I cannot bear thepsychological andphysical burden ofchild-rearing any longer

5.7 4.5

I do not want to havechildren at an older age

7.5

0

22.9

My husband does not wanta child

17.0

14.0 14.9

I want to cherish mylife and our life as acouple10.1

Health reasons

25

The environment is notconducive for children
to grow up freely

50

16th (2021)

Note: Figures shown are for couples in first marriage whose intended number of children is less than the ideal
number of children (with wives under 50 years old). Those who did not answer the question (i.e., "not known")
were excluded from the calculation of the percentage choosing each option. As multiple answers were permitted,
the total value exceeds 100%. The number of cases (wives under 35 years old/wives over 35 years old) was asfollows: the 12th survey (624/1,510), the 13th survey (468/1,363), the 14th survey (323/1,512), the 15th survey(183/1,070), and the 16th survey (117/737). Question: "Why is the number of children you intend to have fewer than
the ideal number of children? Please circle all the reasons below that apply to you, and circle twice the mostimportant reason."[Figure 7-6. Reasons why couples do not realize their ideal number of children, by survey and the wife's age(Couples whose intended number of children is less than their ideal number of children)]62

The most common reason for not having three children is because “it costs too much toraise and educate them,” and the most common reason for not having even one child is “I
have not been able to get pregnant even though I want children.”
We examined whether the reasons for not realizing the ideal number of children varied with the combinationof the ideal number of children and the intended number of children. For couples with three or more ideal
children and two or more intended children (most of these couples have a combination of three ideal children
and two intended children), economic reasons were a barrier to having three or more children, with the largest
percentage of 59.3% stating that “it costs too much to raise and educate children.” On the other hand, 61.5%of the couples with one or more ideal number of children but zero intended number of children chose “I havenot been able to get pregnant even though I want children.”Figure 7-7. Reasons why couples do not realize their ideal number of children, by
combination of ideal and intended number of children: 16th survey (2021) (Couples whose
intended number of children is less than their ideal number of children)63

8. Pregnancy and Childbirth Situations
8.1 Sex life and contraception of married couples
37.9% of couples with wives aged under 50 had sexual intercourse in the past month,
likewise 53.3% of couples who intended to have children.
Among couples with wives aged under 50, 37.9% had had intercourse in the past month. The percentage
exceeded 60% for couples with wives in their 20s but less than 50% for couples with wives in their early 30s.
Defining “no intercourse in the past month” as “sexless,” the percentage of “sexless” couples is about 60%
for couples in first marriage with wives aged under 50.
When the figures are calculated for couples with at least one additional intended child, the percentage of
those who had had intercourse is higher, and the percentage of “sexless” couples is 46%.

Figure 8-1. Marital sexual intercourse within the past month, by the wife’s age: 16th survey(2021) (All couples and those who intend to have an additional child)64

About 60% of the couples used contraception, with the majority using modern
contraceptive methods such as condoms and the pill.
Couples who had had intercourse in the past month were asked about their contraceptive use and the methods
they used. The number of couples who practiced contraception was 58.3% of all couples (see note for details).
By wife’s age, couples with wives under 30 years old had the highest percentage at 63.9%, while those withwives in their early 30s had the lowest percentage at 52.5%. The majority of contraceptive methods usedwere modern contraceptive methods(*).
Among the couples with intention to control birth (i.e., couples who intend to have children in the future but
did not wish to do so at this moment, namely, those with the intention of postponing birth) and couples who
did not intend to have children in the future (i.e., intention of stopping birth), only 61.3% had used modern
contraceptive methods, indicating that 37.5% of couples were at risk of experiencing unwanted or earlier
than intended pregnancy.

Wives' age at the time of survey

Figure 8-2. Contraceptive practices within the past month, by the wife’s age: 16th survey(2021) (All couples and those who intend to control their pregnancies)(*) Modern contraceptive methods include condoms, the pill (oral contraceptives), IUDs and rings, sterilization
procedures, and spermicides (pills, films, etc.). These have relatively higher contraceptive efficiency than other methods.

65

8.2 Pre-pregnancy plans
While the percentage of unintended pregnancies is declining, they account for more than
10% of third pregnancies, and the percentage of wanted pregnancies is increasing.
The survey asked about the couple’s plans prior to conception for all the pregnancies (“wanted a child assoon as possible,” “did not intend to get pregnant yet,” “did not intend to get pregnant anymore,” or “did nothave any specific plans”). Looking at the pre-conception plans by pregnancy order, the percentage of“unintended pregnancy,” which includes “did not intend to get pregnant yet” (earlier than intended
pregnancy) and “did not intend to get pregnant anymore” (unwanted pregnancy), is lowest in the second
pregnancy and highest in the third and subsequent pregnancies. Overall, the percentage of unintended
pregnancies has tended to decrease in recent years as the percentage of “wanted to have a child as soon as
possible” increases. However, among unintended pregnancies, the percentage of “did not intend to get
pregnant anymore” still accounts for about 10% in the third, 20% in the fourth, and 30% in the fifth pregnancy.

Figure 8-3. Plans before pregnancy, by survey and order of pregnancy

668.3 Concerns about infertility and treatment experience
More than one in three couples worried about infertility. The number of couples who had
been tested or treated for infertility increased to 1 in 4.4 couples. 6.7% of couples who had
been married for less than five years were undergoing tests or treatment for infertility.
The percentage of couples who have ever worried about infertility increased from 35.0% in the previous
survey to 39.2% in the current survey (more than one in three couples) for all couples (total number). The
percentage of couples who had been tested or treated for infertility (the sum of “currently undergoing tests
or treatments” and “have had tests or treatments in the past (excluding currently undergoing tests ortreatments)”) also increased from 18.2% (1 in 5.5 couples) in the previous survey to 22.7% (1 in 4.4 couples)in the current survey. 6.7% of couples who had been married for less than five years were undergoinginfertility-related tests or treatment at the time of survey.

67

16th (2021)

15th (2015)

14th (2010)

13th (2005)

12th (2002)

16th (2021)

15th (2015)

14th (2010)

13th (2005)

12th (2002)

16th (2021)

15th (2015)

14th (2010)

13th (2005)

12th (2002)

Percentages of couples who have been worried about
infertility / have had treatment experiences

Figure 8-4. Percentage of couples who have been worried about infertility and treatment
experience, by survey and duration of marriage

9. Child-rearing Conditions
9.1 Wives’ employment and childbirth
The percentage of wives working after childbirth rose significantly, with the percentage
of wives with the youngest child under two years old exceeding 60%.
We examined the wife’s employment status after childbirth by the couple’s willingness to have additional
births and by the age of the youngest child. In the current survey, 70.4% of wives who still intended to haveadditional children were working, up significantly from 53.2% in the previous survey. Looking at theemployment status of wives of couples who did not plan to have children anymore (couples who havecompleted the birth period) by the age of the youngest child, the percentage of wives with youngest childaged 0-2 increased from the previous survey (47.5%) to 67.0% in the current survey. The percentage of wives
with the youngest child aged 3-5 who were working, which is a group known to include many who would
start working again, had also increased to 72.9% in the current survey (61.0% in the previous survey). With
respect to employment status, wives in regular employment, who had a relatively high employment
continuation rate, increased in all stages of child-rearing as indicated by the age of the youngest child.

Figure 9-1. Employment status of wife after childbirth, by survey, intention of having
additional children, and stage of child-rearing (age of youngest children)

68

The percentage of wives who continued to work before and after marriage rises to about
80%.
Looking at changes in wives’ work status before and after marriage(*) (i.e., when they decided to get married
and immediately after marriage) by year of marriage, the percentage of those who were working at both time
points among all wives was 79.8% for wives of couples married between 2015 and 2019 (even if they changed
jobs, they were counted as continuing if they were employed at both time points). The same figure was about
60% for those who married in the period up to around 2000, but for recently married couples, nearly 80% of
wives continued to work after marriage.

Figure 9-2.
marriage

Change in work status of wife before and after getting married, by year of(*) Changes in the work status of the wife before and after the marriage are defined as follows: “Continuous employment:
employed when the marriage decision was made and also employed immediately after marriage; “Cessation of
employment upon marriage”: employed when the marriage decision was made and unemployed immediately after
marriage; “Employment after marriage”: unemployed when the marriage decision was made and employed
immediately after marriage; “Unemployed since before marriage”: unemployed when the marriage decision was madeand unemployed immediately after marriage.

69

The percentage of wives who continued to work after the birth of their first child,regardless of whether or not they were working before the pregnancy, rose to over 50%.
Among all wives who had given birth to their first child, including those who were unemployed before
pregnancy, the percentage who continued to work has been increasing in recent years. (Even if they changed
jobs, they were counted as continuing if they were employed at both time points).(*) The figure for the wives
whose first child was born in 2015-19 (total of those with and without the use of childcare leave system) was
53.8%, up about 11 percentage points from 42.5% in 2010-14 to over 50%. The percentage of wives who
used the childcare leave system and continued working also increased significantly from 31.6% in 2010-14
to 42.6% in 2015-19.

Figure 9-3. Change in work status of wife before and after giving birth, by year of birth ofchild
1st childYear of child birth

1985-89
1990-94
1995-99
2000-04
2005-092010-142015-19

5.5
18.4
8.1
16.3
11.2
13.0
15.3
12.2
21.1
31.6
42.6

37.4
37.7
39.3
40.3
10.2

40.8
10.8

31.1
11.2

23.6

35.3
33.6
31.3
26.9
22.3
21.2
17.4

3.3
4.3
5.2
5.3
5.6
5.2
5.2

36.2

6.9
5.1
4.5
3.5
3.0
3.9

2nd child
1985-89
1990-94
1995-99
2000-04
2005-092010-142015-19

4.9
8.4
10.7
16.5

19.6
14.0
14.7

5.4
6.8
6.7

63.2
65.6
63.4

12.7
24.4

8.4

58.9

12.9

7.8

38.3

51.9
13.9

7.7

3rd child
1985-89
1990-94
1995-99
2000-04
2005-092010-142015-19

6.4
7.0
10.2
13.1

24.3
21.8
18.3

5.7
8.1
8.5
20.0

20.1
0

8.1
20.8

35.3

58.6
57.7
59.3
55.6
10.2
22.2

25

45.6
6.7
50

（%）

34.1
75

5.0
5.3
3.7
3.2
3.4
1.6
100

Continuous employment (using childcare leave)

Continuous employment (not using childcare leave)

Cessation of employment upon becoming pregnant

Unemployed since before pregnant

Not known

Note: The figures are shown for couples in first marriage with one or more children (with wives under 50 (the 15thsurvey and earlier) or those under 55 married before age 50 (the 16th survey). Data shows couples with the childaged 1 or older but below 15 in the 12th to 16th survey (1st child) and in the 13th to 16th survey (2nd child and3rd child). Change in employment shows change in the employment status of wives when they became aware of theirpregnancy and when their child became 1 year old. (Even if the job has changed, as far as the wife is employed atboth points in time, she is included in the "continuous employment" category.) "Unemployed since before pregnant"includes couples whose wife was employed when their child became 1 year old. Couples who did not state whether
they had used childcare leave are included in the "continuous employment (not using childcare leave)". The sum ofrates for continuous employment regardless of whether using childcare leave or not was as follows: For those whose
year of child birth lies between 2010 and 2014, 1st child (42.5%), 2nd child (37.3%), 3rd child (40.9%). For those
whose year of child birth lies between 2015 and 2019, 1st child (53.8%), 2nd child (52.2%), 3rd child (57.5%). The
number of cases was as follows: For those whose year of child birth lies between 2010 and 2014, 1st child (1,729),
2nd child (1,375), 3rd child (472). For those whose year of child birth lies between 2015 and 2019, 1st child(751), 2nd child (671), 3rd child (252).
[Figure 9-3. Change in work status of wife before and after giving birth, by year of birth of child](*) Changes in the work status of the wife before and after giving birth are defined as follows for couples for whom eachof the first to third children is one year old or older:・“Continuous employment (using childcare leave)”: employed when finding out about the pregnancy, took childcare
leave, and employed when the child was one year old;・“Continuous employment (not using childcare leave)”: employed when finding out about the pregnancy, employed at
the time the child was one year old, without taking childcare leave;
・“Unemployed since before becoming pregnant”: unemployed when finding out about the pregnancy and unemployedat the time the child was one year old.

70

The employment continuation rate of wives who were employed when they found out
about pregnancy with their first child increased to 69.5%.
The percentage of wives who were employed when they learned they were pregnant with their first child andwho were still employed when their first child was one year old (the employment continuation rate) increased
significantly from 57.7% of wives who had their first child in 2010-14 to 69.5% of wives who had their firstchild in 2015-19. Wives who used the childcare leave system and continued working accounted for 55.1%of the total (43.0% five years ago). In other words, the percentage of those who used the childcare leavesystem among those who continued to work was 79.2% (74.5% five years ago).
Looking at the employment continuation rate before and after giving birth to their first child by employment
status, the employment continuation rate for wives in regular employment has been increasing since the 2000s,
with 83.4% of wives who gave birth to their first child in 2015-19 in regular employment. The continuation
rate for wives in fixed-term employment, such as part-time and temporary employment, has also increased
since the 2010s, reaching 40.3% in 2015-19, but there is still a large difference from wives in regular
employment.

（%）

Figure 9-4. Percentage of wives who continued to work after getting married/giving birth andthat of wives who continued to work and used the childcare leave system, by work status before
getting married/pregnancy (Wives who were working when they decided to get married or when
they found out about pregnancy)

71

The percentage of wives in regular employment before pregnancy with their first child
who used the childcare leave system and continued to work rose to 70%. The
corresponding percentage of wives in non-regular employment also increased to 20%,indicating an overall increase in the use of the childcare leave system.
Differences in wives’ employment status when their first child was one year old by their employment statuswhen they found out about the pregnancy of the first child are shown by the year of first childbirth. The
percentage of wives who were in regular employment at both the time points and who used childcare leaverose from 58.0% for wives who had their first child in 2010-14 to 68.3% for wives who did so in 2015-19.
(Wives who did not use the childcare leave system decreased from 7.3% in 2010-14 to 6.5% in 2015-19.)
The percentage of wives who used the childcare leave system and were part-time or temporary workers at
both time points increased from 11.0% in 2010-14 to 21.2% in 2015-19 (13.8% in 2010-14 and 14.1% in
2015-19 for wives who did not use childcare leave). The percentage of wives who were part-timers or
temporary workers when their pregnancy was discovered but were regular employees when their first child
was one year old remained virtually unchanged, ranging from 1 to 2%. Wives who were self-employed orfamily employees when they found out about their pregnancy had a high employment continuation rate, withmore than 80% still working when their child was one year old. The percentage of wives unemployed when
their pregnancy was discovered but employed when their first child was one year old increased slightly from
4.6% to 6.6% in 2015-19.

Figure 9-5. Wife’s employment status and use of childcare leave when the first child was one
year old, by employment status before pregnancy with the first child, and the year of birth of
the first child72

The percentage of wives who were in the same employment status when they found out
about their pregnancy and when their first child was one year old and used childcare leave
reached over 90% for those in regular employment and increased dramatically to 60%
for part-timers or dispatched workers.
Here, the change in the percentage of wives whose employment status did not change between when they
discovered their pregnancy and when their first child was one year old (status continuers), and who used thechildcare leave system is examined: The percentage of wives who continued to work as regular employees
who had their first child in 2010-14 rose from 88.8% to 91.3% of those who had their first child in 2015-19.
On the other hand, among wives who were part-timers or dispatched workers at both time points, the use of
the childcare leave system was rare until 2000-2004. However, with the enforcement of the revised Child
Care and Family Care Leave Law in 2005, it became possible for fixed-term contract workers who met certain
requirements to take childcare leave. Since then, the percentage of workers who use the childcare leavesystem and continue working has increased. Among wives whose children were born in 2015-19, thepercentage of those who used the childcare leave system and continued to work as part-time or temporary
workers rose significantly from 44.4% in 2010-14 to 60.0%.

Figure 9-6. Percentage of wives who used childcare leave among those who maintained thesame employment status between the time of discovering their pregnancy and when the firstchild was one year old, by employment status and year of birth of their first child73

9.2 Utilization of childcare support systems and facilities
The number of couples using childcare support systems and facilities has been increasing.
We asked about childcare support systems and facilities used by the respondents until their first child turned
three years old. The percentage of couples who used any of the options in the figure has been increasing inrecent years, with 90.3% of all couples (total) who gave birth to their first child between 2015 and 2018.
Since 2005, the utilization rates of “maternity leave system,” “childcare leave system (for wives),” “childcare
time leave/shortened working hour system (wives),” “authorized child daycare centers,” and “places forparent-child interaction and consultation in the community” have particularly increased. The usage rate of
local parent-child interaction and consultation services has increased significantly, with 58.0% of married
couples and 50.8% of wives who continue to work full-time having used such services in the current survey.

Figure 9-7. Childcare support systems/facilities used before the first child turned three years
old, by year of birth of the first child: 16th survey (2021)
Total
Utilizing either systems or
facilities
Maternity leave system

30.1
28.0

Childcare leave system (wife)
Childcare leave system (husband)
Childcare time leave/shortened
working hour system (wife)
Childcare time leave/shortened
working hour system (husband)
Authorized child daycare centers
Certified centers for earlychildhood education and careOn-site daycare facilities andcompany-led daycare businesses
Other childcare facilities
Daycare moms
Babysitters
Family support centers

Wife: Continue to work as a regular employee
80.7

97.7
99.0
98.9

86.8
90.3
85.1

40.0
43.3
37.3

92.4
92.6
83.9
89.4
93.1

43.0

1.7
1.1
3.7

2.3
2.0
7.8

25.9

0.3
0.4
0.9

8.3

54.0

34.3
36.4

57.1

12.4
12.4

6.3
7.3
4.8
9.8
7.3
8.5
1.7
0.7
0.5
0.0
1.7
2.6
5.2
5.3
4.2
10.9
11.6
11.1

12.0
14.5
13.5
47.4
49.2

Community centers
13.2
9.7

0

66.0

10.9
14.5
18.5

2.3
3.5
3.3
5.3
6.0
6.9
0.8
0.8
0.5
0.2
0.9
1.8
4.2
4.5
2.9

None of the above

50.2
48.1

0.6
1.3
1.6
23.1

Temporary childcare services

6.3

18.2
20.8

38.5
39.9

58.0

19.3

25

50.8

2.3
1.0
1.1

50

75

Year of birth of the first child

100

(%)

0

2005-0925

50

2010-1475

100

2015-18

Note: The figures shown are for couples in first marriage with wives under 55 married before age 50. The data shows
couples with the first child aged 3 years or older but under 15 years in the 12th to 16th surveys. "Wife: continue
to work as a regular employee" refers to those were regular employees at two points of time: "when you found out
you were pregnant with your first child" and "when the first child turned one year old." In the questionnaire,"other childcare facilities" is indicated as "other unlicensed childcare facilities (nursery, baby hotel, etc.),
certified childcare centers", and "community centers" as "childcare support centers, open space places and otherplaces for parent-child interaction and consultation in the community". The respective number of cases and average
number of systems/facilities used were as follows: For "total," 2005-09 (642, 1.71), 2010-14 (912, 2.23), 2015-18(547, 2.48). For "wife: continue to work as a regular employee," 2005-09 (174, 3.35), 2010-14 (303, 3.89), 2015-18(189, 4.00). Question: "During the period until your child turned 3 years old, ... (2) did you use any of thefollowing systems or facilities?"[Figure 9-7. Childcare support systems/facilities used before the first child turned three years old, by year ofbirth of the first child: 16th survey (2021)]

74More than half of the couples used childcare centers by the time their first child turned
three years old, and the percentage of husbands using childcare leave also increased in
the current survey.
Trends in the use of childcare support systems, which are surveyed continuously, are shown. The percentage
of couples who used daycare centers etc. (see note to chart for composition) until the child turned three years
old was 18.9% for couples whose first child was born in 1990-94, but for couples whose first child was bornin 2015-18, the percentage was more than 50%, at 51.9%. For couples with wives who continued to be regular
employees, the percentage rose from 56.3% to 78.8% over the same period. The percentage of husbands
using childcare leave increased significantly for the first time among couples whose first child was born in
2015-18, rising from 0.9% to 3.7% for all couples (total) and from 1.7% to 6.3% for couples with wives who
continued to be in regular employment, compared to couples whose first child was born between 2010-14.

Figure 9-8. Percentage of couples who used childcare support systems/facilities before thefirst child turned three years old, by year of birth of the first child
Total

Wife: Continue to work as a regular employee

100
90
82.9

83.9

86.2

80

88.2

89.3

79.5

85.9
73.3

70

66.8

(%)

51.9
45.5

40

37.7

34.4
29.5

30

0

88.2
80.8

78.8

69.9

56.3

50

10

93.1
92.6

64.7

60

20

92.1

24.3
20.2

6.0
2.8

21.5

19.0

19.5

18.9

12.6

17.5

3.6
0.2

4.6
0.3

9.0
3.2

50.3

48.4

48.1

43.3
43.0
34.1

34.8

26.7

26.7
20.8

24.1

16.5

7.0
0.9

0.8

19.4

21.3

22.0

0.9

0.7

15.9
6.3

3.7

1985-89 1990-94 1995-99 2000-04 2005-09 2010-14 2015-18

1.7

1.7

1985-89 1990-94 1995-99 2000-04 2005-09 2010-14 2015-18

Year of birth of the 1st childChildcare centers (under 3)

Maternity leave (wife)

Shortened working hours (wife)

Childcare leave (husband)

Childcare leave (wife)

Note: The figures shown are for couples in first marriage with wives under 50 (the 15th survey and earlier) or
those under 55 married before age 50 (the 16th survey). The data shows couples with the first child aged 3 years
or older but under 15 years in the 12th to 16th surveys. For "childcare leave (husband)," data in the 14th to
16th surveys were aggregated. For "childcare centers (under 3)," comparative data in the 13th to 16th surveys were
aggregated. "Childcare centers (under 3)" includes authorized child daycare centers, certified centers for earlychildhood education and care, on-site daycare facilities and other childcare facilities, but excludes temporary
childcare services. The respective number of cases was as follows. For couples whose 1st child was born between
2010 and 2014: "Total" 1,356; "wife: continue to work as a regular employee" 417; and, for 1st child born between
2015 and 2018: 547, 189. Question: "Before your child turned 3 years old, (1) did you live with your mother orthat of your husband’s? And (2) did you use any of the following systems or facilities?"[Figure 9-8. Percentage of couples who used childcare support systems/facilities before the first child turned
three years old, by year of birth of the first child]

75

The percentage of wives who used the childcare leave system among wives who continued
to work with three or more children increased from 15.3% in 2005 to 63.8% in 2021.
The use of the childcare leave system is increasing among wives who are balancing work and child-rearing.
Among wives in their 40s who continued to work before and after the birth of their first child and had twochildren, the percentage of those who used the childcare leave system was 25.6% in 2005 and rose to 63.6%
in the current survey in 2021. Among wives in their 40s with three or more children, the percentage of those
who used the childcare leave system was 15.3% in 2005 (the 13th survey) but rose to 63.8% in the current
survey in 2021. The use of the childcare leave system is increasing among mothers raising children whileworking.

Figure 9-9. Percentage of wives who used childcare leave after giving birth to the first child,by survey and number of children (Wives aged 40-49 who continued to work after giving birth
to their first child)769.3 Husbands’ housework and childcare
The frequency of housework and childcare performed by husbands has been increasing
since the mid-2000s.
The frequency of housework and childcare performed by the husband until the first child turned three years
old was examined. Looking at the distribution of husbands’ frequency of doing housework and childcare by
year of birth of their first child, the total of “frequently” and “on a daily basis” showed a tendency to increasein more recent years. The percentage of husbands who performed housework and childcare “frequently” or“on a daily basis” until the child turned three years old was 41.0% for housework and 54.5% for childcare
for couples whose first child was born between 2005 and 2009 but increased to 48.8% for housework and64.4% for childcare for couples whose first child was born between 2015 and 2018. In addition, thepercentage of husbands who “almost never” do housework or childcare has decreased, falling below 10% to6.8% in childcare for couples whose first child was born between 2015 and 2018.

Year of birth of the 1st child

Figure 9-10. Frequency of husbands’ performance of housework and childcare before the firstchild turned three years old, by year of birth of the first child: 16th survey (2021)

77

40% of husbands in couples where the wife is a regular employee do housework on “adaily basis.”
The frequency of housework and childcare performed by husbands until their children turned three years old
was examined for each wife’s employment status when their first child was one year old. About 50% of
husbands either “almost never” or “sometimes” performed housework, even when their wives were working.
However, about 40% of husbands of couples in which the wife is a regular employee performed housework“on a daily basis.” There was a difference in the frequency of husbands’ performance depending on theirwives’ employment status.
The percentage of husbands who “almost never” did childcare was much lower than that for housework, andmore than half of the husbands did childcare “frequently” or “on a daily basis”, regardless of the wife’s
employment status.

Figure 9-11. Frequency of husbands’ performance of housework and childcare before the firstchild turned three years old, by the wife’s employment status when the first child was one year
old: 16th survey (2021)

78

9.4 Childcare assistance from grandparents
60% of couples raising infants receive help from their mothers (child’s grandmothers).
Grandfathers also play a certain role.
The percentage of couples in which the husband or wife’s mother (child’s grandmother) helped raise thechild until the first child turned three years old is rising and was 57.8% for all couples (total) with children
born during 2015-18. Grandmothers play an important role as childcare providers. Looking at thecomposition, the percentage getting help from grandmothers on the husband’s side remained unchanged atjust over 20%, while the percentage of help from grandmothers on the wife’s side rose. On the other hand,among wives who were employed when their first child was one year old, the percentage of wives who
received help from their husbands or wives’ mothers has been slowly declining since the 2000s. This may be
due to the diversification of the child-rearing environment, such as the increased use of child-rearing support
systems and facilities available to dual-earner couples, including childcare leave and shortened working hoursystems.
The current survey also asked about the frequency of help from the couple’s fathers (the child’s grandfathers).
About 30% of the couples received help in child rearing from the husband’s or wife’s fathers. Grandfathers
also play a certain role in child-rearing.

Proportions of 'With assistance'

Figure 9-12. Percentage of couples who received childcare assistance from their parents(grandparents of children) before the first child was three years old, by year of birth of the first
child

79

Section III Employment, Residence, andAttitudes of the Never‐married and the MarriedPart I outlined the views and attitudes of never-married persons regarding marriage and family. Part II
outlined changes over time in the process of marriages and births of married couples, as well as in the status
and attitudes toward child-rearing. Part III shows the changes in the living conditions and attitudes of nevermarried men and women and married couples.

8010. Employment Status and Co-residence with Parents
10.1 Employment status of never-married persons, husbands, and wives
The number of never-married persons working as regular employees at the time ofgraduation increased compared to the survey 10 years ago.
The survey examined the employment status of never-married persons aged 25-34 after graduating from thelast school they attended (post-graduation). The percentage of regular employees for both men and women
was lowest in the 2010 (14th) survey, at 57.2% for men and 56.2% for women. Since then, the percentage
has begun to rise, with the percentage of regular employees in this survey at 62.3% for men and 61.5% forwomen. The percentages of part-time, dispatched, and other non-regular employees have declined somewhat
since their increase in the 2010 survey. Less than 10% of men and of women were unemployed or engaging
in housework (8.3% for men and 7.6% for women in this survey).

81

16th (2021)

15th (2015)

14th (2010)

13th (2005)

12th (2002)

16th (2021)

15th (2015)

14th (2010)

13th (2005)

12th (2002)（%）

Figure 10-1. Employment status of never-married persons aged 25-34 after graduating fromthe last school attended, by survey

The percentage of regular employees as of the time of the survey has increased compared
to 10 years ago. However, the percentage of non-regular employees is higher for women.
Looking at the current (as of the time of the survey) employment status of never-married persons by age, thepercentage of regular employees has declined from the 1980s to the 2000s, but has reversed since the previous
survey and is returning to the level of the early 2000s in all age groups in the current survey. In all age groups,
the percentage of non-regular employees (part-timers, dispatched workers, etc.) is higher among women, andamong those aged 35-49; the percentage of unemployed/engaging in housework has remained at around 15%
for both men and women since the 2000s.

Figure 10-2. Employment status of never-married persons, by survey and age

Aged 18-24（%）

Aged 25-29
Aged 30-34
16th (2021)

15th (2015)

14th (2010)

13th (2005)

12th (2002)

11th (1997)

10th (1992)

9th (1987)

8th (1982)

16th (2021)

15th (2015)

14th (2010)

13th (2005)

12th (2002)

11th (1997)

10th (1992)

9th (1987)

8th (1982)

Aged 35-4982

30% of either partner of the couples had non-regular employment or were unemployedwhen they decided to get married.
The most prevalent combination of employment status at the time of the couple’s decision to get married wasthat the husband was a regular employee, and the wife was either a regular employee or self-employed/infamily employment, which has remained at approximately 60% since the 12th survey in 2002. The second
most prevalent type of couple was one in which the husband was a regular employee and the wife was a parttime, dispatched, temporary, or contract employee, accounting for 20.5%, exceeding 20% for the first timein this survey. On the other hand, the percentage of couples in which the husband was a regular employee
and the wife was unemployed or a student was 9.1% in the 12th survey (2002), which has since decreased to
3.3% in this survey.

Figure 10-3. Employment status of wife and husband when they decided to get married, by
survey83

Regular employee couples in their 30s and 40s increased.
The survey examined changes in the combination of the employment status of husbands and wives as of thetime of the survey for couples with wives in their 30s and 40s. Until the 2010 (14th) survey, the percentage
of couples in which both husband and wife were regular employees (i.e., husband: regular employee; wife:
regular, self-employed, or family employee) had remained around 20% for couples with wives in their 30s
and 40s, but after 2010, the percentage has turned to an increasing trend. In this survey, 34.1% of couples
with wives in their 30s were in this category, which was the most prevalent. Meanwhile, among couples withwives in their 40s, the percentage was 28.0%. The combination of husband with regular employment andwife who was unemployed/engaging in housework or a student was the majority among those wives in their
30s until around 2002 when it was around 40%, but it has been continuously decreasing and was 22.8% inthis survey.

Figure 10-4. Employment status of wife and husband, by survey and the wife’s age (aged 3039, 40-49)
Wives aged 30-39
7th (1977)
9th (1987)
10th (1992)
11th (1997)
12th (2002)
13th (2005)
14th (2010)
15th (2015)
16th (2021)

22.3
18.7
15.7
13.6
11.5
11.2
9.7
9.3
7.0

7th (1977)
9th (1987)
10th (1992)
11th (1997)
12th (2002)
13th (2005)
14th (2010)
15th (2015)
16th (2021)

28.7
23.7
22.4
20.6
25.1
21.0
24.1
18.3
22.7
16.1
22.2
13.1
25.1
11.9
21.9
10.3
16.4

22.8

34.6
43.1
42.5
41.7
38.7
36.8
30.6

40.7

15.3

27.0

29.5

10.1

16.0
20.4
20.3
24.2
26.4

22.5

21.8

22.6
19.5
18.2
16.4
18.1
25.0
34.1

Wives aged 40-49

0

29.1

37.3

25

20.9
23.8
28.2
30.2
31.8
35.0
37.0

50

（%）

11.2

25.0
22.4
27.0
21.5
19.4
19.7
16.2
19.8
28.0

75

100

Husbands: Self-employed etc.

Husbands: Regular employee; Wives: Unemployed/student

Husbands: Regular employee; Wives: Part-time, dispatched employee etc.

Husbands: Regular employee; Wives: Regular employee, self-employed etc.

Husbands: Part-time, dispatched employee etc.

Husbands: Unemployed/student

Not known

Note: Figures shown are for couples in first marriage with wives aged 30-49. "Self-employed etc." refers to"self-employed/family employee/doing a side job at home"; "regular employee" refers to "regular employee";"part-time, dispatched employee etc." refers to "part-time employee" and "dispatched/temporary/contracted
employee," and "unemployed/student" refers to "unemployed/engaging in housework" and "student." "Not known"
includes couples with husbands' employment being not known and couples with husbands who were regular employees
but wives' employment was not known. The classification of "dispatched/fixed-time employment" was first added
as an option in the 12th survey (contract employee was also added to same classification in the 13th survey).
The respective number of cases was as follows (wives aged 30-39 and wives aged 40-49): the 7th survey (3,451;
2,796), the 9th survey (3,924; 3,117), the 10th survey (3,491; 3,912), the 11th survey (2,755; 3,459), the 12thsurvey (2,899; 2,931), the 13th survey (2,577; 2,644), the 14th survey (2,866; 3,185), the 15th survey (2,023;
2,835), the 16th survey (1,585; 2,407). Question in the 16th survey: "We would like to ask you about youremployment status and that of your parent(s). For yourself, please answer about two time periods, and for yourparent(s), about the current situation. Circle one number for each of the following: (1) employment status, (2)type of work, and (3) number of employees at the company for yourself, and for your parents, company size. (Ifyou have more than one job, answer about your main job.)" (Yourself, d. Present; Husbands, g. Present)[Figure 10-4. Employment status of wife and husband, by survey and the wife's age (aged 30-39, 40-49)]

84

Hours of work per week among never-married persons decreased from the previous
survey.
The average hours of work per week among never-married persons aged 25-34 has decreased over the past
20 years, both for never-married persons aged 25-34 (total) and for all employment statuses. However, since
this survey (the 16th) was conducted in June 2021, it may reflect temporary changes in working patterns (e.g.,
requests for leave and shorter hours, increased remote work, etc.) related to the COVID-19 pandemic.

Figure 10-5. Average hours of work per week of never-married persons, by survey andemployment status (never-married persons aged 25-34 who were working as of the time of thesurvey)85

Annual income distribution has shifted upward from 10 years ago for both never-married
and married persons.
Here we present the employment status and annual income one year prior to the survey for those who were
employed as of the time of the survey for never-married men and women aged 25-34 and for husbands andwives of married couples in the same age group. The 25-34 age group is the core generation for marriage andchildbearing. Compared to the 2010 (14th) and 2015 (15th) surveys, the distribution of annual income in thissurvey (2021) has generally shifted upward. In this survey, annual income peaked at 3 million yen for nevermarried men, 2 million yen for never-married women, and 4 million yen for husbands. Among wives, themost prevalent category was “unemployed/student,” and the majority of wives had an annual income of lessthan 1 million yen.

86

10 million yen or more

9-million-yen level

8-million-yen level7-million-yen level

6-million-yen level

5-million-yen level

4-million-yen level3-million-yen level2-million-yen level

1-million-yen level

1 to 99 hundred thousand yen

Unemployed/student

10 million yen or more

9-million-yen level

8-million-yen level7-million-yen level

6-million-yen level

5-million-yen level

4-million-yen level3-million-yen level2-million-yen level

1-million-yen level

1 to 99 hundred thousand yen

Unemployed/student（%）

Figure 10-6. Percentage distribution of employment status (as of the time of the survey) andannual income (the year before the survey) of never-married persons, by survey (never-marriedpersons aged 25-34)

87

10 million yen or more

9-million-yen level

8-million-yen level7-million-yen level

6-million-yen level

5-million-yen level

4-million-yen level3-million-yen level2-million-yen level

1-million-yen level

1 to 99 hundred thousand yen

Unemployed/student

10 million yen or more

9-million-yen level

8-million-yen level7-million-yen level

6-million-yen level

5-million-yen level

4-million-yen level3-million-yen level2-million-yen level

1-million-yen level

1 to 99 hundred thousand yen

Unemployed/student（%）

Figure 10-7. Percentage distribution of employment status (as of the time of the survey) andannual income (the year before the survey) of wife and husband, by survey (wife and husband
aged 25-34)

10.2 Co-residence with parents of never-married persons and couples
The percentage of never-married persons co-residing with parents declined for both men
and women.
The percentage of never-married persons living with both parents or either parent is shown for never-marriedpersons as a whole (total number) and by employment status. The percentage of both men and women coresiding with their parents had been on an upward trend since the 1990s, but in this survey, it declined fromthe previous survey (from 72.2% to 65.9% for men and from 78.2% to 72.1% for women). Women weremore likely than men to co-reside with their parents. By employment status, the percentage of never-marriedpersons co-residing with their parents declined significantly for men in the “dispatched/temporary employee”
and “student” categories. Among women, the percentage of co-residing with parents declined in all except“unemployed/engaging in housework.”（%）

Figure 10-8. Percentage of never-married persons living with parents, by survey andemployment status (as of the time of the survey)

88

Couples with older wives tend to live with the husband’s parents.
We examined the current residential status of wives and husbands with their respective mothers and fathersby the wife’s age. No significant differences were found in the wife’s side or husband’s side for younger
wives, but a slightly higher percentage of couples with older wives co-reside with husbands’ mothers orfathers. Overall, the percentage of couples co-residing with or living near (living separately within the samemunicipality) the wife’s or the husband’s parents is about 30-40%, except for those under 25 years of age.

Figure 10-9. Percentage of couples living with their parents, by the wife’s age (as of the timeof the survey): 16th survey (2021)

89Co-residence with the husband’s mother is declining.
Looking at changes in the residential status of the husband’s and wife’s mothers by the wife’s age, thepercentage of couples co-residing with the wife’s mother has remained almost unchanged, while thepercentage of couples co-residing with the husband’s mother has declined. The percentage of couples livingwith the husband’s mother was around 20% in the early 2000s but has been declining since then. In thissurvey, 4.7% of couples with wives under 30 years old, 7.6% of couples with wives in their 30s, and 11.0%
of couples with wives in their 40s. The percentage of couples living close to their mothers (living separately
in the same municipality) decreased overall from the previous survey for both the wife’s and husband’s
mothers. Among wives in their 40s, the percentage of couples whose mothers are deceased has declined in
more recent surveys, while cases in which the mothers are alive and living apart (living separately outside
the same municipality) have increased.

Figure 10-10. Percentage of couples living with the wife’s and the husband’s parents, by
survey and the wife’s age (as of the time of the survey)
Mothers of wives
7.8

18.2

24.9

40.3

11.7

49.2

9.0

17.8

26.6

39.2

11.0

6.0

30.8

52.8

7.5

14.5

5.5

30.2

52.0

6.6

12.0

5.2

27.7

56.0

6.4

9.2

5.5

28.9

6.5

58.7

34.0

5.0

32.9

5.7

29.2

5.6

2.1

44.1

28.9

43.8

27.9

13.3

10.1
8.5

50.3

7.1

30.5

50.0

51.5

2.0

14.1

55.4

3.1

11.8

33.2

47.1

12.8

31.1

46.2

55.3

23.4

27.8

3.4

64.1

2.8

4.7

35.2

2.5

41.8

27.9

3.2
2.8
2.3

61.0

1.9

5.7

28.9

54.2

4.9

17.0

27.7

44.5

6.8

5.8

31.0

51.9

6.0

15.6

28.7

44.7

6.6

5.5

32.4

48.6

6.0

4.9
4.4

55.0

32.0

4.4

54.3

28.8

57.7

8.8

23.6

45.2
45.9

11.8

3.4

10.5

4.6

7.6

30.6
29.7

12.9

8.1

24.7
28.8

50.4

11.2

5.8

29.0

49.9

9.4

12.8

5.7

27.7

53.6

8.1

11.0

25

50

13.9

75

20.1

21.1

0

（%）

Deceased

Not known

15.2

39.8

28.0

Living apart in the same municiparity

17.3

39.5

28.1

Living together

20.2

33.1

24.2

25

4.9

32.4

22.1

17.6

100

4.4

54.6

21.4

6.6

0

49.0

27.8

12.3

45.9

50

Aged 40-49

12th (2002)
13th (2005)
14th (2010)
15th (2015)
16th (2021)

51.1

28.6

Aged 30-39

12th (2002)
13th (2005)
14th (2010)
15th (2015)
16th (2021)

26.7

6.9

9.3

75

100

Living apart in other areas

Note: Figures shown are for couples in first marriage with wives under 50 years old. Question in the 16th survey:"We would like to ask you about whether your parent(s) and your husband’s parent(s) currently live with or apartfrom you. Please circle the number that applies." ((1) Your (wife’s) mother/(2) Your (wife’s) father/(3) Husband’s
mother/(4) Husband’s father, [1. Living together, 2. Living apart in the same municipality, 3. Living apart inother areas, 4. Deceased], c. Present)[Figure 10-10. Percentage of couples living with the wife's and the husband's parents, by survey and the wife's age(as of the time of the survey)]90

Aged under 30

12th (2002)
13th (2005)
14th (2010)
15th (2015)
16th (2021)

7.0

Total

12th (2002)
13th (2005)
14th (2010)
15th (2015)
16th (2021)

Mothers of husbands

An increasing number of couples engaged in child-rearing live far away from theirchildren’s grandmothers.
We examined whether the couple lived with either of the couple’s mothers until the first child turned three
years old, by the year of the first child’s birth. The more recent the year of first birth was, the lower thepercentage of couples living together or in close proximity (living separately in the same municipality) andthe higher the percentage of couples living separately (living far away) in other areas. The percentage of
wives living with their mothers remained unchanged at around 5%. On the other hand, 14.2% of couples
whose first child was born between 1995 and 1999 co-reside with the husband’s mother, but the percentage
declined as the year of birth became more recent, with about 9% of couples whose first child was born in the2010s.

Figure 10-11. Percentage of couples living with the wife’s and the husband’s parents, by birthyear of the first child (before the first child was three years old)9111. Experience Interacting with Children and Evaluation ofMarriage Around Them
11.1 Never-married persons’ previous experience with children and their evaluation of
marriage around them
The frequency of interacting with children and positive evaluation of friends’ marriage
are both higher among women than men but declined among women in this survey.
The survey asked never-married persons if they had ever interacted with babies or small children. Around
40% of never-married persons answered that they had had (or have) frequent opportunities to interact withbabies or small children, with a higher percentage among women than men. However, compared to theprevious survey in 2015, the percentage of both men and women who “often had (have) opportunities”
decreased.
As for their parents’ marital relationship and the marriages of friends around them who were married, about
half of them answered that they envied their parents’ relationships and that their married friends around themseemed to be happy, indicating that they had a favorable view of the marriages around them. The percentageof never-married persons who viewed their friends’ marriages positively by responding that they thought
their married friends seemed happy was higher among women than men. However, this percentage of women
decreased from 58.5% in the previous survey to 51.2% in this survey.

Figure 11-1. Contacts with children and views on marriage of others, by survey (nevermarried persons)92Never-married persons with more experience interacting with children and a positive
view of marriage in their surroundings tend to be more willing to get married.
We examined whether never-married persons’ lifetime intention to get married differed depending on theirexperience of interacting with children and their evaluation of their parents’ and friends’ marriages. Those
who had had (or have) frequent interactions with babies or small children, those who had a favorable viewof their parent’s marital relationships, and those who considered their married friends around them to be
happy were more likely to say that they intended to get married someday than those who did not.

Figure 11-2. Lifetime intention to marry among never-married persons, by survey, contact
experience with children and views on marriage of others: 16th survey (2021)

9311.2 Wife’s experience of interacting with children before marriage andwife’s evaluation of the marriage around her
The percentage of wives who had experience interacting with children before marriage
and who gave positive evaluations of the marriages of friends around them increased.
The survey asked wives if they had any interactions with babies or small children before they got married.
The number of wives who said they often had opportunities to interact with babies or small children increased
from the previous survey, with 46.1% of wives saying they often had opportunities to interact with babies orsmall children. Positive evaluations of their friends’ marriages also increased from the previous survey, with
70.3% of the wives in this survey saying that they thought their friends seemed happy. The number of wives
who were envious of marriages like their parents’ decreased slightly from the previous survey to 44.9%

Figure 11-3. Contacts with children and views on marriage of others, by survey (wives who
have been married for less than 10 years)9412. Views on Marriage and Family
12.1 Never-married persons’ views on marriage and family
Gender differences are found in the following opinions: “If one gets married, one shouldhave children,” “it is natural to sacrifice oneself for the family,” and “it is fine if there are
marriages between men or between women.”
The survey asked never-married persons about their views on marriage, family, gender, and work. Looking
at the percentage of respondents who agreed with the unconventional views (views that are generally lesssupported in past surveys and among older people), “5. Even after marriage, one should have one’s own goals
in life independent of one’s spouse and family” and “3. It is acceptable for a man and woman to have sexualintercourse before marriage if they love each other” were selected by about 90% of respondents, and “12.
For married men, spending time with family is more important than success at work” by about 70%, and “11.
It is fine to have children even if one is not married” by about half of the respondents.
Regarding conventional ideas (ideas that are generally more likely to be supported by past surveys and amongolder people), over 50% of both men and women agreed that “13. If a woman were to have her first child, it
is better to do so in her 20s,” and “4. In any society, femininity and masculinity are necessary to some extent.”
More than half of both men and women disagreed with the following statements: “6. If one gets married, it
is natural to sacrifice half of one’s own individuality and way of life for the family” and “7. After marriage,
the husband should work outside the home, and the wife should take care of the home.” Views were split
evenly on the following items: “9. At least when children are young, it is desirable for mothers to stay homeand not hold a job,” “2. If a man and a woman were to live together, they should get married,” “1. Remaining
single throughout one’s life is not a desirable way of life,” “10. Once married, a couple should not break upover such a reason as differences in personality,” and “8. If one gets married, one should have children.” Thefollowing items showed a significant difference between men and women: “8. If one gets married, one shouldhave children,” “6. If one gets married, it is natural to sacrifice half of one’s individuality and way of life forthe sake of the family,” “10. Once one gets married, one should not break up over such a reason as differencesin personality” (more men than women agreed), and “14. It is fine if there are marriages between men or
between women” (more women than men agreed with this statement).

Figure 12-1. Views on marriage and family among never-married persons: 16th survey (2021)

Up-to-dateConventional95

Support for “if one gets married, one should have children” and “femininity andmasculinity are necessary” declines significantly.
Looking at changes in the percentage of respondents who support conventional views on marriage, family,
gender, and work (views that are generally more likely to be supported in past surveys and among older
people), the percentage of respondents who support these views has declined from the previous survey inalmost all items.
The change was particularly large for “8. One should have children (agree),” falling from 67.4% to 36.6%
among women and from 75.4% to 55.0% among men. The next largest change was in “4.
Femininity/masculinity are necessary (agree),” which dropped from 82.5% to 55.9% among women and from
84.4% to 68.3% among men. It can be said that the consciousness of the need to have children and thecommitment to femininity and masculinity has decreased.
For women, a decrease of more than 20 points was observed in these opinions: “2. If a man and a woman
were to live together, they should get married (agree),” “9. Mothers should stay home (agree),” and “10.
Divorce should be avoided (agree),” and a decrease of more than 15 points, for the following ideas: “1. It is
undesirable to be single throughout one’s life (agree),” “6. It is natural to sacrifice themselves in marriage(agree),” “7. husbands should work, and wives should stay home (agree),” “11. It is fine to have children
without getting married (disagree),” “13. If a woman were to have her first child, it is better to do so in her
twenties (agree).” Among men, the percentages for “9. Mothers should stay home (agree)” and “10. Divorce
should be avoided (agree)” decreased by more than 15 points, while those for “2. Men and women should
get married if they live together (agree),” “1. It is undesirable to be single throughout one’s life (agree),” “6.
It is natural to sacrifice themselves in marriage (agree),” “11. It is fine to have children without getting
married (disagree),” and “7. The husband should work, and the wife should stay home (agree)” dropped bymore than 10 points. Overall, the decline in support for conventional ideas was greater for women.

96

7. Husbands should work andwives should stay home
(Agree)6. Marriage entails sacrifice(Agree)8. One should have children(Agree)10. Should avoid divorce(Agree)1. Remaining single throughout
one's life is not desirable(Agree)2. Marriage instead of
cohabitation(Agree)9. Mothers should stay home
w/o a job
(Agree)4. Femininity and masculinity
are necessary(Agree)13. Better to havefirst birth in the 20s(Agree)11. Okay to havechildren unmarried(Disagree)

12. Men should prioritize time
w/ family than success at work
(Disagree)

3. Acceptablepremarital intercourse(Disagree)

5. Should have
one's own goals(Disagree)

14. Acceptablesame-sex marriage(Disagree)

Proportion of answers supporting 'Conventional' ways of thinking (%)

Figure 12-2. Views on marriage and family among never-married persons, by survey(percentages of those supporting conventional views)

12.2 Wife’s views on marriage and family
65.0% of wives agree that “Family is more important to men than job success.”
The survey asked the wives of married couples about their views on marriage, family, gender, and work
styles. Looking at the unconventional views (generally less supported in past surveys and among older
people), more than 80% of respondents supported “3. It is acceptable for a man and woman to have sexualintercourse before marriage if they love each other,” “5. Even after marriage, one should have one’s own
goals in life independent of one’s spouse and family,” and “14. It is fine if there are marriages between men
and women” were supported by more than 80% of the respondents. Two out of three respondents (65.0%)
supported “12. For married men, spending time with family is more important than success at work,” while
the percentage of respondents who supported “11. It is fine to have children even if one is not married” wassplit between those who support and those who do not support.
Looking at conventional views (generally more likely to be supported in past surveys and among older
people), those gaining the most support were “13. If a woman were to have her first child, it is better to do
so in her 20s” (70.9% agree), and “4. In any society, femininity and masculinity are necessary to some extent”(63.1% agree). On the other hand, many respondents were opposed to “7. After marriage, the husband should
work outside the home and the wife should take care the home” (81.6% disagree), and “6. If one gets married,
it is natural to sacrifice half of one’s individuality and way of life for the sake of the family” (65.1% disagree).
Also split in opinion were found in “2. If a man and a woman were to live together, they should get married”(52.7% agree, 44.7% disagree), “8. If one gets married, one should have children” (45.8% agree, 51.2%
disagree), and “9. At least while children are young, it is desirable for mothers to stay home and not hold ajob.” (45.5% agree, 52.0% disagree). Slightly more were opposed to “1. Remaining single throughout one’s
life is not a desirable way of life” (39.9% agree, 57.2% disagree) and “10. Once married, a couple should notbreak up over such a reason as difference in personality” (37.8% agree, 59.3% disagree).

Figure 12-3. Views on marriage and family among wives: 16th survey (2021)

97Significantly fewer wives think that “femininity and masculinity are necessary” and that
“if one gets married, one should have children.”Looking at changes in views on marriage, family, gender, and work styles, the percentage of wives who
support conventional views (views that are generally more likely to be supported in past surveys and amongolder people) declined overall in this survey compared to the previous survey. The declines from the previous
survey were particularly large in the percentages supporting “4. Femininity/masculinity are necessary (agree)”(down 22.3 points from 85.3% to 63.1%) and “8. One should have children (agree)” (down 20.8 points from
66.6% to 45.8%). In other items, support for “9. Mothers should stay home (agree),” “2. If a man and awoman were to live together, they should get married (agree),” and “6. It is natural to sacrifice themselves inmarriage (agree)” decreased by more than 15 points. Meanwhile, support for the following ideas declined bymore than 20 points: “1. It is undesirable to be single all one’s life (agree),” “10. Divorce should be avoided(agree),” “11. It is fine to have children without getting married (disagree),” “7. The husband should work,and the wife should stay home (agree),” and “13. If a woman were to have her first child, it is better to do soin her twenties (agree).”98

7. Husbands should work andwives should stay home
(Agree)6. Marriage entails sacrifice(Agree)8. One should have children(Agree)10. Should avoid divorce(Agree)1. Remaining single throughout
one's life is not desirable(Agree)2. Marriage instead of
cohabitation(Agree)9. Mothers should stay home
w/o a job
(Agree)4. Femininity and masculinity
are necessary(Agree)13. Better to havefirst birth in the 20s(Agree)11. Okay to havechildren unmarried(Disagree)

12. Men should prioritize time
w/ family than success at work
(Disagree)

3. Acceptablepremarital intercourse(Disagree)

5. Should have
one's own goals(Disagree)

14. Acceptablesame-sex marriage(Disagree)

Proportion of answers supporting 'Conventional' ways of thinking (%)

Figure 12-4. Views on marriage and family among wives, by survey (percentages of those
supporting conventional views)