Outlook on Water Environmental
Management in Asia

2021

Outlook on Water Environmental
Management in Asia

2021

Water Environmental Partnership in Asia (WEPA)
Ministry of the Environment, Japan
Institute for Global Environmental Strategies (IGES)

Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2021
Copyright © 2021 Ministry of the Environment, Japan. All rights reserved.

No parts of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from
Ministry of the Environment Japan through the Institute for Global Environmental Strategies (IGES), which serves as the
WEPA Secretariat.

ISBN: 978-4-88788-250-8This publication is created as a part of the Water Environment Partnership in Asia (WEPA) activities and published by theInstitute for Global Environmental Strategies (IGES). Although every effort is made to ensure objectivity and balance, thepublication of study results does not imply WEPA partner country’s endorsement or acquiescence with its conclusions.

Ministry of the Environment, Japan
1-2-2 Kasumigaseki, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 100-8975 Japan
Tel: +81-(0)3-3581-3351
http://www.env.go.jp/en/

Institute for Global Environmental Strategies (IGES)
2108-11 Kamiyamaguchi, Hayama, Kanagawa 240-0115 Japan
Tel: +81-(0)46-855-3700
http://www.iges.or.jp/

The team for WEPA Outlook 2021 includes the following IGES members:[Drafting team] (Affiliation is correct at the time of writing, [ ] indicates part written by the author)
supervised by:
Mizuno, Osamu
Principal Fellow, Adaptation and Water [WEPA Message, Ch1](*Alphabetical order)

Inamura, Yukako
Policy Researcher, Adaptation and Water [China]
Kumar, Pankaj
Senior Policy Researcher, Adaptation and Water [Indonesia, Lao PDR, Malaysia]
Kyogoku, Tomoko
Senior Coordinator, Strategic Management Office [WEPA Message, China]
Mitra, Bijon Kumer Senior Policy Researcher, Adaptation and Water [Cambodia, Myanmar]
Murase, Noriaki
Programme Manager, Natural Resources and Ecosystem Services [WEPA Message, China]Pham, Ngoc Bao
Senior Water and Sanitation Specialist, Adaptation and Water [Thailand, Viet Nam]
Shivakoti, Binaya Raj Senior Water and Adaptation Specialist, Adaptation and Water [Nepal, Philippines, Sri Lanka]
Taguchi, Toru
Policy Researcher, Climate and Energy [Japan]
Takeda, Tomoko
Water and Disaster Risk Reduction Specialist, Natural Resources and Ecosystem Services[WEPA Message, Ch1, Korea]
Yagi, Kazuyuki
Programme Manager, Adaptation and Water [Ch1][Supporting team]
Kitamura, Eiko

Printed in Japan

Publication Coordinator, Strategic Management OfficeTable of Contents
Background to the Publication .......................................................................................................................................................................................

5

Key messages from the Water Environment Partnership in Asia (WEPA) ....................................................

6

Acknowledgements ..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

8

Abbreviations ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

9[ Chapter 1] Outlook on Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries ............................

11[ Chapter 2] Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries ..

31

2.1

Cambodia ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

32

2.2

China ..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

42

2.3

Indonesia .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

48

2.4

Japan ..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

54

2.5

Republic of Korea .........................................................................................................................................................................................................

62

2.6

Lao PDR ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

68

2.7

Malaysia .....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

78

2.8

Myanmar ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

88

2.9

Nepal .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

94

2.10 Philippines ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 102
2.11 Sri Lanka ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 110
2.12 Thailand ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 118
2.13 Viet Nam ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 130

References ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 141

Background to the Publication
COVID-19, which first occurred in December 2019, hasmorphed from a mere dangerous regional health threat
to an all-consuming global pandemic and economic
disaster. Under this environment, the importanceof public health, including improvement of the water
environment, has become even more critical globally.
Asia comprises 30% of the world’s land area and 30% of
the world’s freshwater resources, which is shared among
60% of the world’s population. As the area’s populations
and economies expand, Asia continues to face serious
water pollution issues, leading to degradation of theliving environment, reduction in available water, and lossof ecosystem services. In this context, coupled with therecent outbreak of COVID-19, the need to improve thewater environment has been strongly recognized.
The Ministry of the Environment, Japan proposed
the establishment of an initiative called the Water
Environment Partnership in Asia (WEPA) at the Third
World Water Forum in 2003, aiming to solve the region’s
water pollution issues in terms of governance, and in
2004, WEPA started initiating activities.
WEPA has conducted capacity development of
stakeholders as well as sharing of information andknowledge for finding solutions to water environmental
issues under the partnership of 13 Asian countries,
namely Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Japan, Republic ofKorea, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Philippines,
Sri Lanka, Thailand and Viet Nam.
Considering the importance of a common
understanding among stakeholders to solve water quality
issues in the region, the “WEPA Outlook on Water
Environmental Management” has been periodically
prepared by utilizing accumulated information andknowledge, as well as the human network developed
under this initiative. The report aims to provide the most
up-to-date and useful information on the environment
and its management in Asia, with a target audience ofpolicymakers, experts and others in the water sector of
the region. Four former editions of the Outlook werelaunched in 2009, 2012, 2015, and 2018 respectively
during the World Water Forums in Istanbul, Marseille,
Daegu-Gyeongbuk, and Brasilia, in order to provide a

useful source of information for stakeholders working onwater quality issues in other parts of the world.
This report is the fifth edition of the series, andconsists of two main chapters: Chapter 1 – “Outlook on
Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries”
and Chapter 2 – “Country Profiles of Water Environmental
Management in WEPA Countries”. The first chapter
presents the results of analysis on institutionalframeworks for water environmental management in the
WEPA partner countries. Directly following this foreword
readers will also find WEPA’s key recommendations
describing its commitments to sustainable water
environmental management, made through discussions
held in WEPA annual meetings and workshops. This fifth
edition also aimed at providing higher quality information
by improving the compatibility of the information
between countries, clearly indicating the changes overtime, and enhancing the description of “compliance withregulations”, which was proposed as a priority issue in“WEPA Basic Policy in the 4th Phase”.
The “WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental
Management 2021” was originally scheduled to be
published at the ninth World Water Forum in Dakar,
Senegal, which has been postponed from March 2021 toMarch 2022 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. However,while the Forum has been rescheduled, publication of
the WEPA outlook will proceed as planned in December
2021, three years since the previous edition, considering
the importance of periodically reviewing the situation ofwater environmental management in the Asian region. It
is hoped that this report, together with the four former
editions, will serve as useful tools and points of reference
for those involved in related issues in Asia and otherregions of the world, and contribute to sustainable water
environmental management.

December 2021
Ministry of the Environment, Japan
Institute for Global Environmental Strategies(WEPA Secretariat)

5Key messages from the Water Environment
Partnership in Asia ( WEPA )1

The Asian region continues to experience rapid
population growth, urbanization, industrialization andchanging consumption patterns. It is also beginning toobserve severe negative impacts due to climate change,
which has exacerbated the challenges surrounding
water resources in the region. Volumes of wastewaterand pollution loads discharged into the environment are
constantly rising, deteriorating water quality across theregion. Leadership at local, national, and regional levels
is required to address this issue, especially in setting
appropriate emission targets.

2

Achieving Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6 on water and sanitation is essential, anddue to its role in mutually reinforcing other SDGs, it is key also in ensuring their achievement,
including those related to health and biodiversity.

3

Moreover, during the unprecedented global pandemic of COVID-19, water management has been shown
to play a vital role in maintaining public health. It is a life-saving commodity, and is used for drinking andcooking, washing, sanitation, disinfection by boiling, producing critical medicines and medical equipment,
among countless other uses required to fight the pandemic. Improving water environment governance,
therefore, was found more relevant to prevent and deal with similar pandemics in the future. However,care must be taken so that new policies and governance tools for fighting pandemics do not incur negativetrade-offs in the water environment. Conversely, water environmental management policies must not
generate negative trade-offs in countermeasures against COVID-19 and other pandemics. To avoid these
trade-offs and maximize co-benefits between policies pertaining to COVID-19 and water management,
government agencies responsible for water management should be included in the wider coordination
process for COVID-19 countermeasures within each government.

4

Based on 17 years of accumulated experience, WEPA partner countries hold the following views incommon in addressing the above challenges:
a. There is no “one size fits all” solution tosolve the challenges across the region, thus
appropriate solutions need to be based on
local contexts – and where feasible, holistic
approaches should be adopted to minimize or
prevent pollution at source while maximizing
the effective and efficient reuse and recyclingof water throughout its life cycle.
b. Reliable and timely data on water quality and pollution loads plays an essential role in evidencebased decision-making to ensure sustainable water governance, and consequently improves water
environment. However, in many cases, such data is not available in the region due to the pervasivelack of reliable monitoring system, caused by inadequate monitoring facilities and human resources,
especially in technical capacity. Therefore, it is crucial to invest in both the ‘hardware’ and ‘software’of water monitoring and reporting, as well as ensure monitoring results are made widely and easily
available to all relevant stakeholders, such as via digital platforming.

6

c. Further technical innovation is required to improve wastewater treatment efficiency to reduce
pollutant loads in water bodies, as well as raise rates of water reuse and recovery of useful byproducts such as nutrients. Realization of such requires providing an environment conducive tochange, including creation of effective water quality legislative frameworks via improved wastewaterand sludge management, enhanced human and institutional capacity, and the political will to
enforce regulations and penalties.
d. Selection of wastewater treatment technologies
should be based on site-specific contexts that accountfor natural and socioeconomic conditions and level ofdevelopment. Appropriate low-cost, environmentallysound and socially acceptable technologies that are
simple to use and maintain should be prioritized overconventional, high-cost approaches.
e. Scientific evidence-based knowledge in formulating effective policies and regulations should be
utilized, including promotion of dialogue among policymakers and researchers, to improve water
environmental management.
f. Ensuring financial sustainability in wastewater and sludge management through innovative andsustainable financing mechanisms needs to be developed urgently.
g. The active involvement of various stakeholders,
including private sector and local communities in water
environmental management should be promoted.
Special care must be taken to ensure the views ofmulti-stakeholders disproportionately affected bywater environment management (or the lack thereof)
are well represented during decision-making processes.
h. Enforcement of legal frameworks, regulations and detailed rules or guidelines regarding domestic
and industrial wastewater management, including effluent monitoring procedures and analyticalmethods continue to be challenging, especially under new social distancing measures and limited
human resources. There is a need to continue efforts to overcome this challenge, and for thepartner countries to continue working together to comply with regulations and share experiences.

5

Focal agencies of WEPA countries related to the water environment will continue to contribute to thesuccessful implementation of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development through improving water
environmental management.

6

WEPA will continue to facilitate the exchange of lessons and knowledge among the partner countries
through the WEPA database, policy dialogues, workshops, and country projects. WEPA also supports
partner countries’ specific policy challenges, through implementing well-designed action programs.
Practical lessons learned and knowledge accumulated from the action programs are shared not only
among partner countries but also wider audiences through the WEPA database. WEPA intends tostrengthen interactions with other like-minded networks, international organizations and donor agencies
to explore opportunities to maximize the impacts of its activities.

7

Envisaging the wellbeing of populations and sustainable development in the region, the WEPA partners
hereby commit to improving the water environment via enhancing cooperation, sharing knowledge, andtaking actions in water governance. We believe such efforts will also contribute to improved capacity
building of the relevant stakeholders, and smooth implementation of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Development.

7

Acknowledgements
The WEPA secretariat is grateful to the focal persons and the collaborators of the following WEPA partner countries
for their contributions and constructive input, as well as their support in the preparation of this publication. We also
extend our appreciation to the WEPA Advisory Board for their guidance and invaluable input.
Cambodia
Rady Phin*, Director, Department of Water Quality Management,
General Directorate of Environmental Protection, Ministry ofEnvironment

Nepal
Madhav Dev Acharya*, Senior Divisional Engineering Geologist,
Water Resources Division, Water and Energy Commission
Secretariat (WECS)

Chandath Him, Deputy Director, Department of Air Quality andNoise Management, General Directorate of Environmental
Protection, Ministry of Environment

Janak Kumar Jha, Economist, Socio-economic and Environment
Division, Water and Energy Commission Secretariat (WECS)

China
Li Liping*, Division Director, Policy Research Centre for Environment
and Economy (PRCEE), Ministry of Ecology and Environment
Li Yuanyuan, Policy Research Centre for Environment and Economy(PRCEE), Ministry of Ecology and Environment

Indonesia
Budi Kurniawan, Deputy Director, Inventory and Pollution Load
Allocation, Ministry of Environment and Forestry
Herry Hamdani*, Deputy Director of Pollution Control from Small
Scale Enterprises and Nonpoint Sources, Directorate for Water
Pollution Control, Ministry of Environment and Forestry

Philippines
Vincente B. Tuddao Jr.*, Assistant Regional Executive Director forTechnical Services, MIMAROPA Region, Department ofEnvironment and Natural Resources (DENR)
Erlinda A. Gonzales*, Technical Officer as Environmental
Consultant, Environmental Management Bureau,
Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR)

Sri Lanka
R.M.S.K. Ratnayake*, Director, Environmental Pollution Control,
Central Environmental Authority
Himali Karunaweera, Assistant Director, Environmental Pollution
Control, Central Environmental Authority

Safrudin Hermanto, Inventory and Pollution Load Allocation,
Ministry of Environment and Forestry

Duggath Mudiyanselage Smathilaka Senarath Bandara,
Senior Environmental Officer, Central Environmental Authority

Lao PDR
Phengkamla Phonvisai*, Deputy Director General, Department of
Pollution Control and Monitoring, Ministry of Natural Resources
and Environment

Thailand
Chaiyo Juisiri*, Director of Inland Water Sub-division,
Pollution Control Department, Ministry of Natural Resources andEnvironment

Somsanouk Phommakhot, Director of Pollution Control Division,
Department of Pollution Control and Monitoring, Ministry of
Natural Resources and Environment

Kindao Intarukdach, Environmentalist, Senior Professional level,
Pollution Control Department, Ministry of Natural Resources andEnvironment

Sengkeo Tasaketh, Deputy Director of Pollution Control Division,
Department of Pollution Control and Monitoring, Ministry of
Natural Resources and Environment

Chayawee Wangcharoenrung, Director of Industrial Wastewater
Division, Water Quality Management Bureau, Pollution Control
Department, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment

Japan
Seiji Tsutsui*, Director, Water Environment Division,
Environmental Management Bureau, Ministry of the Environment

Viet Nam
Nguyen Minh Cuong*, Deputy Director, Department ofInternational Cooperation, Science and Technology,
Vietnam Environment Administration, Ministry of Natural
Resources and Environment (MONRE)

Hiroyasu Kawashima, Deputy Director, Water Environment Division,
Environment Management Bureau, Ministry of the Environment
Shinya Matsumoto, Chief of Sewerage Section,
Water Environment Division, Environment Management Bureau,
Ministry of the Environment

Republic of Korea
Taejin Park*, Senior Researcher, Water Environmental Engineering
Research Division, Water Environment Research Department,
National Institute of Environmental Research (NIER)
Jaeho Lee, Researcher, Water Supply and Sewerage Research
Division, Environmental Infrastructure Research Department,
National Institute of Environmental Research (NIER)WEPA Advisory Board Members
Motoyuki Suzuki, Professor emeritus at the University of Tokyo
Mitsumasa Okada, Vice President, the Open University of Japan
Koichi Fujie, Visiting Professor, Institute of Advanced Sciences,
Yokohama National University
Kensuke Fukushi, Professor, Integrated Research System for
Sustainability Science, the University of Tokyo
So Kazama, Professor, Graduate School of Engineering,Tohoku University

Malaysia
Hin Lee Lee*, Senior Research Officer, Environmental Water Quality
Research Unit, Water Quality and Environmental Research Centre,
National Water Research Institute of Malaysia (NAHRIM),
Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment

Yoshitaka Ebie, Senior Researcher, Centre for Material Cycles andWaste Management Research, National Institute for Environmental
Studies

Shin Ying Ang, Research Officer, Water Treatment Technology
Research Unit, Water Quality and Environmental Research Centre,
National Water Research Institute of Malaysia (NAHRIM),
Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment

Yoshihiko Matsui, Professor, Graduate School of Engineering,
Hokkaido University

MyanmarTin Tin Thaw*, Deputy Director, Environmental Quality Standard
Division, Environmental Conservation Department,
Ministry of Natural Resources and Environmental Conservation

8* Focal Person(As of March 2021)

Ikuro Kasuga, Associate Professor, Graduate School of Engineering,
the University of Tokyo

Masaaki Hosomi, Professor emeritus at Tokyo University ofAgriculture and Technology** Professor Hosomi passed away in September 2020. We would like toexpress our deepest gratitude to him for his great contribution to
WEPA during his life and pray for his soul.

Abbreviations
ADB
AMDAL

Asian Development Bank
Analisis Manajemen Dampak Lingkungan(Environmental Impact Assessment Statements)(Indonesia)As
Arsenic
ASEAN
Association of South‐East Asian Nations
ASM
Academy of Sciences Malaysia (Malaysia)
AWQS
Ambient Water Quality Standards (Sri Lanka)
B.E.
Buddhist Era (Thailand)
BAPPENAS Badan Perencanaan Pembangunan Nasional(Ministry of National Development Planning)(Indonesia)
BFAR
Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources(Philippines)
BOD
Biochemical Oxygen Demand
BOI
Board of Investment (Sri Lanka)
Cd
Cadmium
CDOs
Cease and Desist Orders (Philippines)
CEA
Central Environmentl Authority (Sri Lanka)
CEM
Centre of Environmental Monitoring (Viet Nam)
Chl. aChlorophyll a
COD
Chemical Oxygen Demand
Chemical Oxygen Demand
CODMn(potassium permanganate method)Cr
Chromium
CSDGs
Cambodia’s Sustainable Development Goals
Frameworks (Cambodia)
CSO
Central Statistical Organization (Myanmar)
CSO
Civil Society Organization
CWTP/CWTF Centralized Wastewater Treatment Plants/Facilities
DA
Department of Agriculture (Philippines)
DAO
DENR Administrative Order (Philippines)
DAS
Daerah Aliran Sungai (watersheds) (Indonesia)
DENR
Department of Environment and Natural Resources(Philippines)
DENR-NCR Department of Environment and Natural ResourcesMBSCMO National Capital Region Manila Bay Site Coordinatingand Management Office (Philippines)
DEWATS
Decentralized Wastewater Treatment System
DHM
Department of Hydrology and Meteorology (Nepal)
DILG
Department of Inferior and Local Government(Philippines)
DIN
Dissolved Inorganic Nitrogen
DIP
Dissolved Inorganic Phosphorus
DISI
Directorate of Industrial Supervision Inspection(Myanmar)
DKI Jakarta Daerah Khusus Ibukota Jakarta (Special Capital
Region of Jakarta) (Indonesia)
DO
Dissolved Oxygen
DOE
Department of Environment (Malaysia)
DOH
Department of Health (Philippines)
DoNRE
Department of Natural Resources and Environment(Viet Nam)
DONRE
Department of Natural Resources and Environment(Lao PDR)
DOSM
Department od Statistics Malaysia (Malaysia)
DPCM
Department of Pollution Control and Monitoring(Lao PDR)
DPWH
Department of Public Works and Highways(Philippines)
DWSSM
Department of Water Supply and Sewerage
Management (Nepal)
EC
Electric Conductivity
ECD
Environmental Conservation Department (Myanmar)
EIA
Environmental Impact Assessments
EMB
Environmental Management Bureau (Philippines)

ENRC

Environment and Natural Resources Code ofCambodia (Cambodia)
EPL
Environmental Protection license (Sri Lanka)
EPL
Environmental Protection Law (Lao PDR)
EQA
Environmental Quality Act (Malaysia)
EQS
Environmental Quality Standards (Japan)
ESC-BORDA Environmental Sanitation Cambodia-Bremen
Overseas Research and Development Association(Cambodia)
FAO
Food and Agriculture Organization
FCB
Faecal Coliform Bacteria
FMB
Forest Management Bureau (Philippines)
GAP
Good Aquaculture PracticeGB
Chinese National Standards (China)
GB/T
Recommended Standards (China)GDP
Gross Domestic Product
GES
General Effluent Standards (Philippines)
GIS
Geografic Information System
GoN
Government of Nepal (Nepal)
Hg
Mercury
HMs
Heavy Metal(s)IETS
Industrial Effluent Treatment Systems (Malaysia)
IGES
Institute for Global Environmental Strategies
IMF
International Monetary Fund
IPL
Industrial Processing Law (Lao PDR)IWK
Indah Water Konsortium (Malaysia)
IWMI
International Water Management Institute
IWRM
Integrated Water Resources Management
JICA
Japan International Cooperation Agency
KRA
Key Result Area (Philippines)
LGUs
Local Government Units (Philippines)
LKR
Sri Lankan Rupee(s) (Sri Lanka)
LLDA
Laguna Lake Development Authority (Philippines)
LSB
Lao Statistics Bureau (Lao PDR)
LWUA
Local Water Utilities Administration (Philippines)
MAFRA
Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs(Korea)
MARD
Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development(Viet Nam)
MEE
Ministry of Ecology and Environment (China)
MENR
Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources(Sri Lanka)
MEPA
Marine Environment Protection Authority (Sri Lanka)
MIME
Ministry of Industry, Mine and Energy (Cambodia)
MLD
Million Liters Per Day
MLIT
Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport (Korea)
MMDA
Metro Manila Development Autority (Philippines)
MND
Ministry of National Defence (Korea)
MOC
Ministry of Construction (Viet Nam)
MOE
Ministry of Environment (Korea)
MOEC
Ministry of Environment (Cambodia)
MOEF
Ministy of Environment and Forestry (Indonesia)
MOEF
Ministry of Forests and Environment (Nepal)
MoEJ
Ministry of the Environment, Japan (Japan)
MOEWRI
Ministry of Energy, Water Resources and Irrigation(Nepal)MOF
Ministry of Finance (Viet Nam)
MOH
Ministry of Health (Viet Nam)
MoH
Ministry of Health (Lao PDR)
MOHA
Ministry of Home Affairs (Viet Nam)
MOIC
Ministry of Industrial and Commerce (Lao PDR)
MOIF
Minsitry of the Interior and Safety (Korea)
MOIT
Ministry of Industry and Trade (Viet Nam)
MoNRE
Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment(Thailand)

9

MONRE
MONRE
MONREC
MOST
MoSTE
MoSTI
MOT
MoWRAM
MPI
MPWT
MPWT
MRC
MRD
MSDP
MWQI
MWQI
MWR
MWS
MWSS
NCSD
NDWQS
NEA
NEAP
NEB
NEDA
NEQA
NEQEG
NESAP
NGDWQ
NGO
NH3
NH3-N/
NH4-N
NH4+
NIA
NIER
NIWR
NLCDC
NO3 /NO3NO3-N
NOV
NPC
NPC
NRESRI
NWP
NWQS
NWRB
NWRP
NWSDB
ONEP
PAB
Pb
PC
PCB
PCD

10

Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment(Viet Nam)
Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment(Lao PDR)
Minisry of Natural Resourecs and Environmental
Concervation (Myanmar)
Ministry of Science and Technology (Viet Nam)
Ministry of Science, Technology and the Environment(Malaysia)
Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation(Malaysia)
Ministry of Transport (Viet Nam)
Ministry of Water Resources and Meteorology(Cambodia)
Ministry of Planning and Investment (Viet Nam)
Ministry of Public Work and Transport (Cambodia)
Ministry of Public Works and Transportation(Lao PDR)
Mekong River Commission
Ministry of Rural Development (Cambodia)
Myanmar Sustainable Development Plan (Myanmar)
Marine Water Quality Index (Thailand)
Marine Water Quality Index (Malaysia)
Ministry of Water Resources (China)
Ministry of Water Supply (Nepal)
Metropolitan Water Works and Sewerage System(Philippines)
Nationa Council for Sustainable Development(Sri Lanka)
National Drinking Water Quality Standards (Nepal)
National Environmental Act (Sri Lanka)
National Environmental Action Plan (Cambodia)
National Environmental Board (Thailand)
National Economic and Development Authority(Philippines)
National Environmental Quality Act (Thailand)
National Environmental Quality (Emission) Guidelines(Myanmar)
National Environment Strategy and Action Plan
(Cambodia)
National Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality(Malaysia)
Non Governmental Organization
Ammonia
Ammoniacal/Ammonia/Ammonium Nitrogen
Ammonium
National Irrigation Administration (Philippines)
The National Institute for Rnvironmental Research(Korea)Norwegian Institute for Water Research
National Lake Conservation Development Committee(Nepal)NitrateNitrate Nitrogen
Notice of Violation (Philippines)
National Planning Commission (Nepal)
National Power Corporation (Philippines)
Natural Resources and Environmental Statistic andResearch Institute (Lao PDR)
Myanmar National Water Policy (Myanmar)
National Water Quality Standards (Malaysia)
National Water Resources Board (Philippines)
National Water Resources Policy (Malaysia)
National Water Supply and Drainage Board(Sri Lanka)
Office of Natural Resources and Environmental Policy
and Planning (Thailand)
Pollution Adjudication Board (Philippines)
Lead
City of Provincial People’s Committee (Viet Nam)
Polychlorinated Biphenyl
Pollution Control Department (Thailand)

PD
PEZA
pH
PHP
PNSDW
PO4/PO4-P
PROPER
PUPR
RA
RPJMN
RPJPN
RTG
SD
SDGs
SEPA
SIA
SMEs
SPAN
SpTPs
SS
SSD
STPs
SWML
TCB
TDS
THB
TKN
TMDL
TN/T-N
TOC
TP/T-P
TPLC
TSA
TSL
TSS
UNDP
UNEP
UNESCOUNICEF
USD
VEA
VIPs
VOCs
WECS
WEPA
WHO
WISA
WQC
WQG
WQI
WQI
WQI
WQI
WQMA
WQMACA
WWTPs
WWTS
Zn
MEP

Presidential Decree (Philippines)
Philippine Economic Zone Authority (Philippines)
Potential of Hydrogen
Philippine Peso (Philippines)
Philippines National Standards for Drinking Water(Philippines)
Phosphate
Program Penilaian Peringkat Kinerja Perusahaan(Program for Pollution Control Evaluation and Rating)(Indonesia)
Ministry of Public Works and Housing (Indonesia)
Republic Act (Philippines)
Rencana Pembangunan Jangka Menengah Nasional(National Medium-Term Development Plan)(Indonesia)
Rencana Pembangunan Jangka Panjang Nasional(National Long-Term Development Plan) (Indonesia)
Royal Thai Government (Thailand)
Transparency (secchi disc)
Sustainable Development Goals
State Environmental Protection Administration, China(China)Social Impact Assessments
Small and Medium Enterprises
Suruhanjaya Perkhidmatan Air Negara (National
Water Services Commission) (Malaysia)
Septage Treatment Plants
Suspended Solids
Sewerage Service Department (Malaysia)
Sewage Treatment Plants
Scheduled Waste Management License (Sri Lanka)
Total Coliform Bacteria
Total Dissolved Solids
Thai Baht (Thailand)
Total Kjehldahl Nitrogen
Total Maximum Daily Load System
Total Nitrogen
Total Organic Carbon
Total Phosphorus
Total Pollutant Load Control System (Japan)
Tonle Sap Authority (Cambodia)
Tonle Sap Lake (Cambodia)
Total Suspended Solids
United Nations Development Programme
United Nations Environment Programme
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization
United Nations Children’s Fund
United States Dollars
Viet Nam Environment Administration (Viet Nam)
Ventilated Improved Pit Latrines
Volatile Organic Compounds
Water and Energy Commission Secretariat (Nepal)
Water Environment Partnership in Asia
World Health Organisation
Water Service Industry Act (Malaysia)
Water Quality Criteria (Indonesia)
Water Quality Guidelines (Philippines)
Water Quality Index (Korea)
Water Quality Index (Thailand)
Water Quality Index (Viet Nam)
Water Quality Index (Malaysia)
Water Quality Management Areas (Philippines)
Water Quality Management and Conservation Area
(Philippines)
Wastewater Treatment Plants
Wastewater Treatment System
Zinc
Ministry of Environmental Protection (China)

Chapter

1
Outlook on Water Environmental
Management in WEPA Countries

Outlook on Water Environmental
Management in WEPA Countries
The Water Environment Partnership in Asia (WEPA)
was formed to address issues related to the water
environment in the 13 partner countries by improving
water environmental governance, with the aim ofpromoting knowledge sharing among partner countries
towards finding solutions. Because each WEPA partnercountry faces different water-related environmental
problems, due to differing natural and socioeconomic
conditions, each has developed unique policies andmeasures designed to tackle these problems. Providing
a review of the above, therefore, is deemed useful tobring to light any differences and commonalities, aswell as issues in the water environmental management
framework among the WEPA partner countries, andpromote deeper discussion based on a common
understanding.
To this end, this chapter summarizes the state ofwater environmental management in WEPA partnercountries based on the country profiles in the following
chapters and attempts to identify common challenges.
This chapter also provides a snapshot of the current
water environmental management frameworks in thepartner countries from the following perspectives:

1.1 New Policy Development and Legislation
All WEPA countries have established basic environmental
laws stipulating protection of human health byensuring protection of a safe environment as a basis forsustainable development, and these objectives also apply
for water environmental management. Table 1.1 lists
the basic environmental laws and laws or acts specificto pollution control in WEPA countries. In recent years,
WEPA countries have been highly active in establishingor improving policies and legal frameworks for better
water governance. The major recent developments since
the time information was collected for WEPA Outlook
2018 on policies, laws and regulations relevant to thewater environment in the WEPA countries include:• In Cambodia, Sub-decree on Management ofenvironmental management and ambient water
quality standards

Sewage and Wastewater Treatment System,
enacted in Dec. 2017, which provides a mandate formanagement of sewage systems and wastewater
treatment systems to sub-national authorities. The
final draft revision of Sub-decree on Water Pollution
Control, which is to include revisions of water
quality standards and effluent standard, is underdevelopment.

• Institutional framework for water environment• In China, the Environmental Protection Law and the• Legal framework, including objectives of water

management• Monitoring framework of water environment• Enforcement framework including measures toensure implementation and compliance, focusing on
wastewater management

Given the problems faced by the countries differ inboth type and scale, we set out to solely provide a
country-based overview of the progress made in thepolicies and measures related to the water environment,
and attempted to avoid any inter-country comparisonsor evaluations of progress.

12

1 | Outlook of Water
Environmental Governance

Water Pollution Prevention and Control Law wereamended in 2018, the latter (Water Pollution
Prevention and Control Law) of which stipulates
requirements for wastewater prevention andtreatment. As for seawater, the Law on theProtection of the Marine Environment was amended
in 2017. Further, the Environmental Protection Tax
Law was enacted in 2018. China also introduced the
Pollution Discharge Permit system, which includes
wastewater control requirements in 2018 as a trial.

• In Indonesia, Law No. 17/2019 (Law on Water

Resources) was enacted in 2019 focusing on holistic
water resource management in line with the SDGs.
New elements introduced through Law No. 17/2019
include establishment of a water resource
information system for more comprehensive
monitoring, and licensing and empowerment forChapter 1: Outlook on Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

authorities engaged in water resource supervisionand management. Currently, with technical support
from WEPA through an Action Programme, theMinistry of Environment and Forestry of Indonesia isdrafting the related framework and regulations, andin particular, a technical Guideline for introducing
and implementing the Total Maximum Daily Load
(TMDL) approach in selected river basins across thecountry.

resources management. The previous Water Quality
and Ecosystem Conservation Act was expanded in2018 to encompass the entire water environment,
and was developed into the Water Environment
Conservation Act. Since 2020, total organic carbon(TOC) has been used as a parameter to monitor
organic substances in addition to CODMn, due to thedifficulty of monitoring non-degradable organic
substances.

• In Japan, a partial revision of the Johkasou Act was• In Lao PDR, the Environmental Protection Law wasenacted and promulgated in 2019 to convert old
type johkasou and improve johkasou management.
In addition, a new Basic Plan on Water Cycle wasenacted in 2020.

• In Republic of Korea, the Framework Act on Water

Management was newly established in 2018 toencompass the concept of integrated water

amended and enacted in 2018, containing measures
for the protection, mitigation and restoration of theenvironment as well as guidelines for environmental
management and monitoring. The National Strategy
on Rural Water Supply, Sanitation and Hygiene
2019–2030 No. 0947/MoH was approved and issued
in 2019.

Table 1.1 Basic environmental laws and laws or acts specific to pollution control in WEPA countries
Country

Basic Environmental Law

Cambodia

Law on Environmental Protection andNatural Resources Management

Law or Act specific to Pollution Control
Law on Water Resource Management

China

Environmental Protection Law

Water Pollution Prevention and Control Law
Marine Environmental Protection Law
Action Plan for Prevention and Control of Water Pollution

Indonesia

Law concerning Environmental Protection
and Management

Government Regulation concerning the management of Water Quality andControl of Water Pollution
Law on Water Resources

Japan

Basic Environmental Law

Water Pollution Control Law
Law Concerning Special Measures of Lake Water Quality
Law Concerning Special Measures for Conservation of the Seto Inland Sea
Law Concerning Special Measures for the Restoration of the Ariake andYatsushiro Seas
Law Concerning Special Measures for the Protection of Water Quality inWater Resources Areas for the Purpose of Preventing Specific Trouble

Republic of
Korea

Framework Act on Environmental Policy

Framework Act on Water Management
Water Environment Conservation Act
Acts for the designated rivers
Marine Environment Management Act

Lao PDR

Environmental Protection Law

Water and Water Resources Law
Industrial Processing Law

Malaysia

Environmental Quality Act

Environmental Quality Order 2015

MyanmarEnvironmental Conservation Law

The Conservation of Water Resources and Rivers Law

Nepal

Environmental Protection Act

Water Resources Act (under development)

Philippines

Philippine Environmental Policy
Philippine Environmental Code

Clean Water Act

Sri Lanka

National Environmental Act No.47

Marine Pollution Prevention Act of No. 35

ThailandEnhancement and Conservation of National
Environmental Quality Act

Groundwater Act

Viet Nam

Law on Environmental Protection

Law on Water Resources13• In Myanmar, the National Environmental Policy wasdeveloped in 2019; also developed was the
Myanmar Sustainable Development Plan (MSDP)
2018–2030. The National Surface Water Quality
Standards are under development.

• In Nepal, following the enactment of a new

Constitution in 2015, the Environment Protection
Act was enacted in 2019. The National Environmental
Policy and National Water Resources Policy wereboth put in place in 2020. The Water Supply andSanitation Act is currently awaiting approval and the
National Water Resources Act is being drafted.

• In the Philippines, newly developed is DAO (DENR

Administrative Order) 2019-15, which designates
the Boracay Island Water Quality Management andConservation Area (WQMACA) as well as creation of
its Governing Board. Boracay Island, one of thecountry’s major tourist destinations, was closed forsix months for environmental rehabilitation andredevelopment. DAO 2018-12, also new, designates
two Water Quality Management Areas and their
Governing Boards, for the Upper and Lower
Amburayan River System (UARS/LARS).

• In Sri Lanka, the Ambient Water Quality Standards(AWQS) were established under the National
Environmental (Ambient Water Quality) Regulations,No. 01 of 2019. A comprehensive river water
monitoring program and a program to protect the
Kelani River started in 2020.

• In Thailand, a new Decree on Industrial Effluent

Control Standard (2016) went into effect in June
2017. The country’s Master plan for Water Quality
Management was developed for 2018–2037 andincludes a target for improving surface water quality
in 59 areas (48 main rivers).

• In Viet Nam, the Revised Law on Environmental

Protection 2020 was approved by the National
Assembly in November 2020, which will come into
effect on January 1, 2022. In May 2017, Decision
No. 622/ QD-TTg by the Prime Minister was madefor the issuance of the National Action Plan for
Implementation of the 2030 Sustainable Development
Agenda.

1.2 Institutional Arrangements
Throughout all WEPA partner countries, water
environments are managed by ministries or agencies
responsible for environmental protection, along with14

related ministries (Table 1.2). Ministries or agencies
responsible for water resource management and public
works also play key roles. As for pollution control, thisis generally headed by the environmental line agency(environment ministry); however, the responsibility
to control industrial wastewater is also vested inindustrial and economic development sector agencies
in some countries, and this requires communicationand coordination among the relevant ministries. For
industrial zones or special economic zones containing
agglomerations of factories, different laws andregulations are often applied, which also mandate theinstallation of centralized wastewater treatment facilities.
Different agencies, such as industrial estate authorities,
handle water pollution control in such special zones
in many countries. In most countries, industries are
required to provide notification to designated authorities(at national or local levels) or apply for approval or
permits therefrom before commencing operations thatdischarge effluent, the requirements for which vary bytype and size of industry.
In some countries, efforts are underway to integratethese distributed responsibilities into one or moreministry or agency. For example:• In China, the Ministry of Ecology and Environment(MEE) was newly established by integrating the
National Development and Reform Commission(NDRC), the Ministry of Land and Resources (MLR),
and other practice protection departments in 2018.

• In Korea, responsibilities which were previously

spread across different ministries (e.g., large rivers/
streams were under Ministry of Land, Infrastructure,
Transport (MLIT), small streams/creeks were under
the Ministry of Interior and Safety, lakes were under
Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs, andsewerage was under the Ministry of Environment)
were all restructured for management under the
Ministry of Environment (MOE) in 2019 under theconcept of Integrated Water Resource Management(IWRM).

1.3 Ambient Water Quality Standards
With the exception of Myanmar, all WEPA countries issue
ambient water quality standards (Table 1.3).

• In the case of Myanmar, the Environmental

Conservation Law enacted in 2012 stipulates theestablishment of ambient water quality standards
for surface water, marine water and groundwater.

Chapter 1: Outlook on Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Table 1.2 Main responsibilities for water resource management in WEPA countries
Country

AgencyResponsibilities

Ministry of Environment

Environmental impact assessment (EIA), inventory development,
developing sub-decrees to prevent and reduce pollutions,monitoring pollution sources, inspections, etc.

Ministry of Water Resources and Meteorology

Water management, conservation, monitoring

Ministry of Public Work and Transport

Urban wastewater management

Tonle Sap Authority

Management/conservation/development in Tonle Sap Lake andrelevant areas

Ministry of Ecology and Environment

Supervision and management of water environmental protection

Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs

Supervision and management of rural environment

Ministry of Water Resources

Management of water resources

Ministry of Natural Resources

Management of ocean resources

Ministry of Environment and Forest

Water quality management, pollution control

Ministry of Public Works and Housing

Water resource management focusing on quantity and water uses

State Ministry of National Development Planning

Overall national development

Ministry of the Environment

Water environment conservation, industrial wastewater regulation,and maintenance and management of Johkasou

Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport andTourism

Water resource management, and maintenance and managementof river and sewage

Republic of Korea

Ministry of Environment

Water quality management of public water and sewerage

Lao PDR

Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment

Protection of natural resources (including water)

Ministry of Environment and Water

Water quantity and quality management

Ministry of Health

Drinking water quality

Ministry of Natural Resources andEnvironmental Conservation

Formulation of national environmental quality standards, including
water quality standards, water quality monitoring, enforcement

Ministry of Planning, Finance and Industry

Regulate industrial water use and discharge

Ministry of Forests and Environment

Environmental protection

Ministry of Water Supply

Water supply, sewerage management

Ministry of Energy, Water Resources and Irrigation

Water resource development, water quality monitoring

Water and Energy Commission Secretariat

Water resources development, policy and program formulation

Department of Environment and Natural Resources

Prevention and control of pollution

National Water Resources Board

Coordinate/manage water resources

Department of Public Works and Highways

National sewerage and septage management

Sri Lanka

Ministry of Environment

Environment and natural resources management

Thailand

Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment

Management of water resources

Viet Nam

Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment

Management of water resources

Cambodia

China

Indonesia

Japan

Malaysia

Myanmar

Nepal

Philippines

15• Among the most recent, Sri Lanka established the

The National Surface Water Quality Standards areunder development. As of December 2020, 38
parameters were listed with threshold values forprotecting aquatic ecosystems and human health.

ambient water quality standards for surface waterin 2019 (National Environmental (Ambient Water
Quality) Regulations, No. 01 of 2019).

Table 1.3 Ambient water quality standards in WEPA countries
Country

Surface Water

Groundwater

Marine Water

Cambodia

Water Quality
Standards in Public
Water Areas

Water Quality
Standards in Public
Water Areas

Water Quality
Standards in Public
Water Areas

Sub-Decree on Water Pollution Control(No.27, 1999)

China

Environmental Quality
Standards for Surface
Water

Quality Standard for
Ground Water

Sea Water Quality
Standard

Environmental Quality Standards for Surface
Water (GB3838-2002)
Quality Standard for Ground Water (GB/T
14848-9)Sea Water Quality Standard (GB3097-1997)

Indonesia

Water Quality Criteria

Water Quality Criteria

Standard Quality of
Seawater

Government Regulation Number 82 (2001)
Decree of the State Minister of theEnvironment Number 51 (2004)

Japan

Environmental Quality
Standards for Water
Pollution

Environmental Water
Quality Standards ofGroundwater

Environmental
Quality Standards for
Water Pollution

Environmental Quality Standards for Water
Pollution (1971, last amended in 2016)
Environmental Water Quality Standards ofGroundwater (1998, last amended in 2012)

Republic of
Korea

Environmental
Standards for Water
Quality and Aquatic
Ecosystem

Environmental
Standards for Water
Quality and Aquatic
Ecosystem*

Environmental
Standards for Water
Quality and Aquatic
Ecosystem

President Decree under Framework Act on
Environmental Policy (1990)

Lao PDR

Surface Water Quality
Standard

Groundwater Quality
Standard*

N/A

Agreement of National Standards ofEnvironment in Laos (2009)

Malaysia

National Water Quality
Standard,
National Lake Water
Quality Criteria andStandard,
National Standard for
Natural Recreational
Water Quality

Groundwater Quality
Standard

Marine Water Quality
Criteria and Standard

National Water Quality Standards
National Lake Water Quality Criteria andStandard
Groundwater Quality Standard
Marine Water Quality Criteria and Standard
National Standard for Natural Recreational
Water Quality

Nepal

**

**

N/A

Nepal Gazette (No. 10, 16 June 2008)

Philippines

Water Quality
Guidelines and General
Effluent Standards of
2016

Water Quality
Guidelines and General
Effluent Standards of
2016

Water Quality
Guidelines and General
Effluent Standards of
2016

Water Quality Guidelines and General
Effluent Standards of 2016

Sri Lanka

Ambient Water Quality
Standards

N/A

National Environmental (Ambient Water
Quality) Regulations, No. 01 of 2019

ThailandSurface Water Quality
Standards

Coastal Water Quality
Standards

Notification of the National Environmental
Board, No. 8, 1994
Notification of the National Environmental
Board, No. 20, 2000

National TechnicalRegulation on Coastal
Water Quality

QCVN08:MT2015/BTNMT National TechnicalRegulation on Surface Water Quality
QCVN09:MT2015/BTNMT National TechnicalRegulation on Groundwater Quality
QCVN10:MT2015/BTNMT National TechnicalRegulation on Coastal Water Quality

Viet Nam

National TechnicalRegulation on Surface
Water Quality

Groundwater Quality
Standards*

National TechnicalRegulation on Ground
Water Quality

Sources

N/A: not applicable.

* For groundwater used for drinking, the groundwater quality standard for drinking is applied.
** Nepal sets different water quality guidelines according to the objective (e.g., for recreation and for protection of aquatic ecosystem) or sector (fordrinking water, irrigation water, livestock watering, and industry).

16

Chapter 1: Outlook on Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries• In Nepal, systematic ambient water quality

Classification and indicators

monitoring is not conducted for public water bodies;instead, water quality is monitored by different
ministries and agencies. For example, regular water
quality monitoring of the Bagmati River is conductedby the High Powered Committee, which has
published data for the general public since 2014.
Ministry of Energy, Water Resources and Irrigation(MEWRI) monitors river and lake water quality.

Water bodies are mostly classified based on the required
quality for water use (ambient water quality standard)
in WEPA countries, with the number of classes of suchvarying according to country.
Regarding indicators, the total number and parameters
varies by country, but all standards include physical,
metal, organic nutrient and microbiological indicators.
The numbers of parameters used for ambient water
quality standards for surface water are shown in Fig. 1.1.

• National and/or local governments conduct ambient

water quality monitoring of public water bodies
periodically in the other 11 countries, while thenumber of monitoring stations, frequency, andnumber of indicators differ.

Monitoring framework for Ambient Water Quality
Of the 12 WEPA partner countries that issue ambient
water quality standards, 11 conduct regular ambient
water quality monitoring for public water bodies (Table
1.4).

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Cambodia (rivers)
Cambodia (lakes and reservoirs)
China
Indonesia
Japan (rivrers)
Japan (lakes)
Republic of Korea (rivers and streams)
Republic of Korea (Lakes)
Lao PDR
Malaysia
Nepal (fore recrea�on)
Nepal (for protec�on of aqua�c ecosystem)
Philippines
Sri Lanka
Thailand
Viet Nam

Physical Indicator

Chemical Indicator (Organic)

Chemical Indicator (Metal)

Chemical Indicator (Pes�cide)

Chemical Indicator (Other)

Biological IndicatorRadioac�ve Indicator

Other Indicators

Figure 1.1 Numbers of indicators in use for ambient water quality standards for surface water17

Table 1.4 Status of ambient water quality monitoring for public water bodies in selected WEPA countries
Country

No. of Monitoring Stations

Indicator

Responsible Intuitions

Year*

Cambodia

Rivers: 7
Lakes: 3
Coastal: 7
Sites for Mekong River: 19

Parameters stipulated in
Water Quality Standard in
public water areas(MOEC; 7 for surface water,
7 for coastal water, MoWRAM; 18)

Ministry of Environment,
Ministry of Water Resources
and Meteorology

2020

China

Rivers: 1,610
Lakes and Reservoirs: 110
Groundwater: 16,292

Parameters stipulated in
Environmental Quality Standard(24 for rivers and lakes, 39 forgroundwater, 35 for sea water)

Local government (Ministryof Ecology and Environment)

2019

Indonesia

Rivers: 510
Lakes: 10

Parameters stipulated in
Water Quality Standard(45 for rivers and lakes)

Regency/municipal
government, (Ministry ofEnvironment and Forestry forwater sources in two or more
provincial regions)

2020

Japan

Indicators for human health protection:
Rivers: 3,876
Lakes and Reservoirs: 405
Sea: 1,037
Indicators for the living environment:
Rivers: 4,568
Lakes and Reservoirs: 477
Sea: 2,027
Groundwater: 3,191

Parameters stipulated in
Environmental Standards

Local government (Ministryof the Environment)

2020

Republic of
Korea

Rivers: 5,589
Lakes: 368
Estuaries: 668
Groundwater: -Parameters stipulated in
Environmental Standards(26 for rivers, 30 for lakes,
20 for groundwater)

National Institute forEnvironmental Research,
local environmental agencies

2020

Lao PDR

93 stations

Parameters stipulated in
Environmental Standards(30+ Parameters)

MRC, NRESRI and DPCM

2020

Malaysia

Rivers: 1,353
Coastal: 151
Groundwater: 119

Parameters stipulated in National
Water Quality Standards, etc.
(30 for rivers, 17 for groundwater,
29 for Marine)

Ministry of Environment and
Water

2020

MyanmarRivers: 15/26
Lakes: 21/8
Groundwater: 3/0(ECD/Forest Department)

18 parameters by ECD,
30 parameters by Forest
Department

Environmental
Conservation Department/
Forest Department

2020

Philippines

Rivers: 321 classified principal rivers
Lakes: Laguna de Bay lake
Coastal: 39 priority recreational waters
Groundwater: 88

Parameters stipulated in DAO 2016- Environmental
08 or Water Quality Guidelines and Management Bureau
General Effluent Standards of 2016 (DENR)

Sri Lanka

Rivers: 9Tanks: 3(>111 points)

Parameters stipulated in
Environmental Standards(36 Parameters)

Central Environment
Authority (CEA)

2020

ThailandRivers:59
Lakes: 6(368 points)
75 automatic monitoring stations(surface water)
Groundwater: 1,162

28 parameters (surface water)
30 parameters (coastal water)
38 parameters (groundwater)

Ministry of Natural Resources
and Environment (MoNRE)

2020

Viet Nam

360 stations (surface water by MONRE)
100 stations (surface water by line
ministries)
23 automatic monitoring stations (bycentral level)
Over 80 automatic monitoring stations(local level)

Parameters stipulated in the
Circular 24/2017/TT-BTNMTMinistry of Natural Resources
and Environment (MONRE)

2020* “Year” refers to the year the information was provided by the related country, unless otherwise specified by the related country.

18

2001–2019

Chapter 1: Outlook on Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Evaluation of Monitoring Results
Each WEPA country evaluates results of national ambient
water quality monitoring for public water bodies. Table
1.5 provides a summary of the evaluation methodologies
used.
Table 1.5 Evaluation methodologies used for water quality
monitoring in the selected WEPA countries
Country

Evaluation Methodology

China

Classification of monitoring station based on resultsof monitoring and Environmental Quality Standard(Surface water, groundwater, and sea water)Indonesia

Achievement rate of environmental standard forwater in public water zones(Surface water)

Japan

Achievement rate of environmental standard forwater in public water zones(Surface water, marine water and groundwater)

Republic of
Korea

Achievement rate of environmental standard forwater in public water zones (surface water andgroundwater). Water Quality Index (WQI) is also usedand evaluated in 7 levels

Malaysia

Classification of monitoring station based onmonitoring results and Water Quality Index (WQI)(calculated by monitoring results of 6 indicators: DO,
BOD, COD, NH3-N, SS, pH) (Surface water and marine
water)
Percentage of samples exceeding the nationalguideline for raw drinking water quality(groundwater)

Philippines

Achievement rate of environmental standard forwater in public water bodies and rating based on theachievement rate of each water body
(Surface water and marine water)

ThailandClassification of monitoring station based onmonitoring results and Water Quality Index (WQI)(calculated by monitoring results of 8 indicators: pH,
DO, BOD, TS, FCB, NO3,TP, SS) (Surface water)

Viet NamClassification of monitoring station based onmonitoring results and Water Quality Index (WQI)• The evaluation methodologies applied in thesecountries can be roughly divided into two types:i ) The first involves setting classes of water bodies
in advance, such as in Japan, Republic of Korea,
and the Philippines. In this method, based on the
results of water quality monitoring, governments
determine whether each water body satisfies theEnvironmental Quality Standard or not, which isused to express the overall water environmental
standard for these countries as a percentage. By
using this evaluation method, whether the water
body is suitable for the water use determined inadvance can be evaluated.
ii) The second type involves categorizing monitoring
stations based on the results of water quality
monitoring and classification in the Environmental
Quality Standard. For example, in China, river

sections are categorized into six classes (I, II, III,
IV, V and worse than V) based on the classification
stipulated in its Environmental Quality Standard.
Based on this evaluation, whether the water use
designated for a water body under investigation
is suitable or not can be identified at themonitoring stations.

• In Malaysia, Thailand, and Viet Nam, the sameevaluation concept is applied, but they use theWater Quality Index (WQI) instead of classification
within the Environmental Quality Standard. Republicof Korea has also introduced a WQI system, with 7
levels. WQI is calculated by formulas developed inthese countries. The related governments also
provide results of national water quality monitoring
using this index on an annual basis.

Disclosure of Ambient Water Quality
Monitoring Results
The results of monitoring are evaluated annually in many
WEPA countries for information disclosure and policy
evaluation.

• The state of water quality is mainly reported to thegeneral public via published environmental quality
reports, and the following countries enable publicaccess to environmental reports giving comprehensive
assessments of water quality on websites: China,
Indonesia, Japan, Republic of Korea, Malaysia, thePhilippines, Thailand, and Viet Nam. In Cambodia,
monitoring reports are published quarterly. In
Nepal, the most recent report was Environment
Statistics of Nepal 2019.

• In some countries, such as China, Republic of Korea,

Thailand and Viet Nam, the public can view realtime monitoring data on a website, which is
uploaded from continuous monitoring stations.

1.4 Wastewater Management andEffluent Standards
Identification of Pollution Source

Among the 13 WEPA countries, seven have attempted to
implement inventory surveys for different sectors in order
to identify pollution sources quantitatively. Indonesia andViet Nam, in particular, are now aiming to improve theirinventory survey systems as their respective national
governments regard them as ineffective.
Table 1.6 summarizes the details of pollution load
surveys in selected WEPA countries, in which it can beseen that frequency, targeted area/basin and indicators
differ. Countries such as China, Philippines, and Thailand
calculate pollution loads generated from the whole19

country, while others such as Japan, Indonesia andRepublic of Korea evaluate pollution loads discharged totargeted rivers or lakes.
As shown in Fig. 1.2, the domestic sector is a major
pollution source in most of the surveyed countries orbasins. However, if the pollution load from industry isadded to agriculture as pollution sources to be regulated
by effluent standards, the percentage of pollution loadfrom this aggregated source accounts for about 20 to
60% of the total, which is above that of the domestic
sector in some countries or basins.

Table 1.6 Details of Pollution Load Investigation in selected WEPA countries
Country

Responsible InstituteStarting Year

Frequency

Target Area/Basin

China

Ministry ofEnvironmental
Protection(currently; Ministryof Ecology andEnvironment)

1997–(Report on the State of
China’s Environment)
2006–2009(National Census of
Pollution Source)

AnnualWhole country

Indonesia

Ministry ofEnvironment andForestry

2001 (year regulation
was established)

AnnualPriority rivers and
lakes

Japan

Ministry of theEnvironment

1978–(Total Pollutant Load
Control System)
1985–(Pollution Control
system under the
About once
Law Concerningin five years
Special Measures forConservation of Lake
Water Quality)
1977–(Nation Census of waterpollution source)

Republic of
Korea

Ministry ofEnvironment-

Philippines

Environmental
Management
Bureau/DENR

Malaysia
ThailandSourceReport on the State of
China’s Environment
1st National Census of
Pollution Source

COD
NH3

BOD
COD
TSS

Ministry of Forestry
and Environment

Tokyo Bay, Ise Bay,
Seto Inland Bay(Total Pollutant
Load Control
System)Targeted Lakes(Pollution Control
system under the
Law Concerning
Special Measures
for Conservation of
Lake Water Quality)

COD
TN
TP

Total Pollutant Load
Control System
Pollution Control
system under the
Law Concerning
Special Measures forConservation of Lake
Water Quality
National Census ofwater pollution source-

Four Major Rivers

BOD

National Institute forEnvironmental Studies

2005

-

Whole Country

BOD

National Water Quality
Status Report

DOE/Ministry ofEnvironment
and Water-

AnnualWhole Country/
Selected River Basin

BOD
NH3
SS

Environmental Quality
Report

PCD/MONRE

2006, 2015

Whole Country

BOD

State of Pollution
Report

0%

-

20%

40%

60%

China (COD, 2019)
Indonesia: Citarum River (BOD, 2015)
Japan: Tokyo Bay (COD, 2014)
Japan: Ise Bay (COD, 2014)
Japan: Seto Inland Sea (COD, 2014)
Malaysia (BOD, 2018)
Philippines（BOD, 2014)
Thailand (BOD, 2016)
Domes�c

Industry

Figure 1.2 Pollution sources by sector in selected WEPA countries

20

Indicator

Agriculture

others80%

100%

Chapter 1: Outlook on Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Effluent Standards

Effluent Standards for industrial wastewater

Quality Control is a basic approach for managing
domestic and industrial wastewater in WEPA countries.
All countries except Myanmar set national effluent
standards for domestic and industrial wastewater.

Pollution control is a major policy area for industrial
wastewater regulations in all WEPA countries. Table 1.7
shows the purpose, targeted industry and structure of
the standard in each country. As shown, while differingin the details for each country, for water quality control,
effluent standards are established for industrial effluent
in all WEPA countries except Myanmar.
• In some countries such as Cambodia, Indonesia, Lao
PDR and Philippines, all industries are subject toeffluent standards, regardless of size or type.
Conversely, in countries such as Malaysia and Japan
standards are based on volumes of discharged
wastewater. For example, in Malaysia, effluent
standards do not apply to industries producing
industrial effluent or mixed effluent of less than 60
m3/day.

• In Myanmar, national effluent standards are now

under consideration. The National Environmental
Quality (Emission) Guidelines (NEQEG) was releasedon 29 December, 2015, which provide the basis forcontrol of liquid discharges. A total of 71 industryspecific effluent levels have been set out in the
NEQEG. Yangon city has provincial effluent
standards.

• China, Japan, and Republic of Korea apply the Total

Pollutant Load Control (TPLC) system or Total
Maximum Daily Load (TMDL) approach to the wholecountry or specific water bodies, in addition toeffluent control. Malaysia and Indonesia have also
been working on introducing the TMDL approach for
specific water bodies, and Thailand is also studying
its introduction.

Industrial Wastewater Regulations
Industrial wastewater has been identified as one of
the major causes of water pollution in WEPA countries,
although its load on water bodies differs from country tocountry. With the aim of preventing or mitigating such
water pollution, all WEPA countries have establishedmanagement systems in efforts to enable control
over wastewater discharged from industry. However,challenges remain in implementation for many of thecountries.

Industrial wastewater in the region
The industrial sector is not necessarily the largest
contributor in terms of organic pollution load in WEPA
partner countries such as China, Philippines, Malaysia
and Thailand. This is partly because these countries
started to tackle the issue of industrial wastewater fromthe late 1970s and early 80s, by which wastewater fromfactories – especially large-scale factories and those inindustrial zones – was treated to comply with pollution
control regulations. However, industrial wastewaterremains a major source of water pollution in certain
industrial wastewater management basins, where
inadequately treated wastewater is discharged into thewater environment. In addition to organic pollutants,
toxic substances contained in industrial wastewater areof high concern to policymakers in the region.

• In all WEPA countries with industrial effluent

standards, general standards cover all types ofindustry or industries without specific standards. In
some countries, standard values are categorizedbased on the type of receiving body and size of therelated industry. In addition to general standards,
some countries have specific standards (stricter orlooser) for specific types of industry. For example,
China has 63 specific standards based on the type ofindustry, and Indonesia has 44. Moreover, Indonesia,
China, Japan and Republic of Korea have provincial
standards that account for local conditions of thewater environment.

• In Republic of Korea, ecotoxicity has been included
since 2007 as a parameter under the permissible
discharge limits, and in 2019, the ecotoxicity
management system was expanded to cover 82
types of industrial facilities. Since 2020, TOC has
been used as a parameter to monitor organic
substances in addition to CODMn, due to the difficultyof monitoring non-degradable organic substances.

Effluent monitoring
Monitoring of effluent quality is a key tool for checking
compliance with effluent standards at factories. Table 1.8
summarizes the responsibility for monitoring of effluent
quality, reporting of the monitoring result and inspectionin WEPA countries. In principle, owners of pollution
sources are obligated to monitor effluent quality andreport the results of monitoring to government or
public authorities throughout most of the WEPA partnercountries. In some WEPA countries, governments or21

Table 1.7 Industrial effluent standards in WEPA countries
Country

Structure of Standard

SourceSub-Decree on Water
Pollution (under updating)Cambodia

All industries designatedby the Sub-DecreeStandard values for two different types of receiving body(Protected public water areas/Public water areas andsewers)For areas requiring special treatment for protection ofhuman health and biodiversity, MOEC can establish separate
effluent standards

China

Any pollution sources(Category I pollutants)

One integrated standard
63 specific standards based on type of industry
Provincial standard

Integrated wastewater
discharge Standard(GB 8978 1996), etc.

Indonesia

All industries

General industrial effluent standards
Specific quality standard for 44 industry

Regulation (20/1990)
Decree (No.5/2014)

Japan

All industries(for hazardous pollutants)
Industries with volumes
exceeding 50 m3/day(for other pollutants)

National standard
Prefectural stringent standard
Provisional standard for specific industry

Water Pollution Prevention
Act

Republic of
Korea

Wastewater discharging
facilities prescribed by
Enforcement Decree

Effluent standards for water pollutants (7 parameters)
Permissible discharge limits for hazardous pollutants (32parameters)

Water Environment
Conservation Act

Lao PDR

All industries, regardless of
size and type

National Environmental Standards
Specific standard for livestock industry

National Environmental
Standard, 2017

Malaysia

Environmental Quality Act,
1974
Environmental Quality(Industrial Effluent)
Regulation 2009 defines a listof premises to which theseregulations do not apply

Environmental Quality (Industrial Effluent)
Regulation 2009
Environmental Quality (Crude Palm Oil)Regulation 1997
Environmental Quality (Raw Natural Rubber)
Regulation 1978

Environmental Quality Act,
1974
Environmental Quality(Industrial Effluent)
Regulation 2009

MyanmarNational Environmental
Quality (Emission) Guidelines(NEQEG) stipulate theindustries to be covered

National Environmental Quality (Emission)
Guidelines (NEQEG)

National Environmental
Quality (Emission)
Guidelines (NEQEG)

Tolerance limits for industrial eﬄuent discharged into inlandsurface waters (generic)Tolerance limits for specific industrial effluent discharged
into inland surface waters
Tolerance limits for industrial eﬄuent discharged into publicsewersTolerance limits for wastewater discharged into inlandsurface waters from combined wastewater treatment plants

Environment Protection
Act

Effluent Standard (DAO 2016-08) for all point sources
Effluent Standard (DAO 2007-26) for agricultural
purposes

Water Quality Guideline
and General Effluent
Standards of 2016

Nepal

-

Philippines

All point sources of pollution

Sri Lanka

All industries (a license isrequired)ThailandIndustry regulated by Factory
Act

Viet Nam

22

Targeted Industry-

Tolerance Limits for the Discharge of Industrial Waste
Tolerance Limits for Waste from 3 industries

National Environmental(Protection and Quality)
Regulations, No.1 of2008 Wastewater
Discharge Standards

General effluent standard (31 parameters), and type-specificeffluent standards

Enhancement andConservation of National
Environmental Quality Act

National Technical Regulation on Industrial Wastewater(two standards for two receiving waters)
National Technical Regulations for specific industries

National TechnicalRegulation on Industrial
WastewaterChapter 1: Outlook on Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Table 1.8 Responsibility for effluent monitoring in WEPA countries
Country

Responsibility of industry/government for effluent monitoring

Cambodia

All business operators are obliged to self-monitor effluent and submit periodic reports of results to MOEC. MOEC
conducts regular on-site inspections.

China

National and local governments are responsible for supervising the implementation of integrated wastewater discharge
standards.

Indonesia

All industries are required to send wastewater samples to registered laboratories once a month or more frequently
depending on their activities, with the analysis reports then submitted every six months to local authorities and the MoEF.
Local and national authorities have the right of access and sampling of effluent at any time.

Japan

Industries are responsible for implementing monitoring, recording and storing the results of effluent monitoring. Local
governments have the right to request industries to report their results and conduct inspections.

Republic of Korea

Every business operator or operator of prevention facilities shall record and maintain the operating status of the relevant
discharging facilities and prevention facilities, as prescribed by Ordinance of the Ministry of Environment when operating
discharging facilities and prevention facilities. The Minister of Environment or a Mayor/provincial (Do) Governor may
require business operators or operators of prevention facilities to submit the necessary reports or materials in orderto verify whether such facilities meet the standards for effluent water quality. Public officials appointed by Minister ofEnvironment have the right to conduct inspections.

Lao PDR

All industrial factories are required to install wastewater treatment systems and the necessary facilities to monitor andanalyze water samples. The monitoring report results are then submitted to the Director of the Industry Department of
the Ministry or respective province.

Malaysia

The owner/occupier of a premises shall conduct performance monitoring of the components of the effluent treatment
system in the manner as specified in the Guidance issued by Department of Environment.
The owner/occupier of a premises equipped with an industrial effluent treatment system shall maintain records of the
manufacturing processes, operation, maintenance and performance monitoring of the industrial effluent treatment
system. Records thereof shall be made available for inspection by authorized officers.

Myanmar

The Pollution Control Division of ECD, General Administration Department, Directorate of Industrial SupervisionInspection, and Directorate of Industrial Collaboration are responsible for inspection of effluent quality. Local and regional
offices of ECD are tasked with regular monitoring of effluent quality, and ECD headquarters is directly involved in effluent
monitoring upon notification of major environment pollution issues.

Nepal

Public entities have the responsibility of monitoring.

Philippines

The EMB-DENR monitors the quality of effluent through the discharge permitting system, while industries are encouraged
to undertake self-monitoring of the quality of discharges.

Sri Lanka

Industries have the responsibility for implementing industrial effluent monitoring. Local offices of the central
environmental agency have the right to conduct inspection of industries.

ThailandIndustries have the responsibility for implementing industrial effluent monitoring and reporting their results to various
ministries. Ministry of Industry and Ministry of Natural Resource and Environment have the right to conduct inspection ofindustries.

Viet Nam

Industries have the responsibility for implementing industrial effluent monitoring and reporting their results to MONRE.
MONRE has the right to conduct inspection of industries.

public authorities request owners of pollution sources
to report results of monitoring periodically as well as
conduct on-site inspections if necessary.

• In Myanmar, monitoring of effluent quality comesunder the responsibility of respective divisions/
offices of the national government. In Nepal, public
entities have the responsibility for implementing
industrial effluent monitoring. While some industries
conduct monitoring, their results are used only forreference. In the Philippines, EMB-DENR monitors
the quality of effluent through the discharge
permitting system, while industries are encouraged
to undertake self-monitoring of the quality of theirdischarges.

• In Japan, Republic of Korea, Malaysia, and Thailand,
online monitoring of effluent was introduced forpollution sources with certain volumes of effluents.
On the other hand, monitoring is not always
conducted by owners or managers despite their
obligation to do so, and results are not always stored
for easy access or do not reach the intended
authorities. This means authorities can neither
assess the state of compliance nor effectiveness ofany measures taken. Keeping records of monitoring
results was not an obligation affecting business
entities in Japan until a revision to the Water
Pollution Control Law in 2010 mandated therecording and storing of results, with penalties
applied in the event of non-compliance.

23

Results of monitoring
National governments in some WEPA countries evaluate
the compliance status of industrial wastewater standards
based on the results of monitoring or inspection by
the government or self-monitoring by industry. Figure
1.3 shows the compliance rate of industrial effluent
0%

20%

40%

standards in selected WEPA countries. As can be seenin the figure, compliance rates in Malaysia, Japan,
Republic of Korea and China exceed 90%. In many othercountries rates are lower, and in some counties national
governments do not endorse compliance rates based onlevels of accuracy.
60%

80%

100%

Japan
Malaysia
Republic of Korea
China
Viet Nam
Indonesia
ThailandSri Lanka
Philippines
Nepal

Figure 1.3 Compliance rate of industrial effluent standards in WEPA countries

Encouraging industry to comply with regulations
Penalty systems are sometimes ineffective in promoting
compliance; instead, governments attempt to raisecompliance through other measures.

• One of such measures is the PROPER program(Program Penilaian Peringkat Kinerja Perusahaan(Program for Pollution Control Evaluation and
Rating)) in Indonesia, which encourages industries
to comply with environmental regulations by
publishing their environmental performance,
including whether they meet designated effluent
qualities or not.

• Japan has introduced provisional effluent standardsof lower severity for specific types of industry that
do not currently meet the original standards, inorder to encourage technical improvements overcertain time periods.

• Malaysia also has rules to exempt the immediateneed for compliance with effluent standards fortreatment facilities under construction orundergoing upgrades.

• The Philippines provides rewards to individuals,
private organizations and other entities from the
National Water Quality Management Fund foroutstanding and innovative projects, technologies,
processes and techniques, and activities.

Domestic Wastewater Treatment
Centralized approach
The use of sewerage systems is the typical approach fordomestic wastewater treatment, particularly in urban
areas of Asian countries. Figure 1.4 shows the seweragetreatment coverage rates for domestic wastewater in
WEPA countries. Coverage in Malaysia, the Republicof Korea, and Japan is currently nearly 80% or more;that in China, Thailand, and Vietnam falls to about
40%, 30%, and 10%, respectively. In comparison, thecoverage rate of sewerage treatment facilities in other
WEPA countries is less than 10%.*1 In Lao PDR, there
is no urban sewerage collection system or centralized
wastewater system. Urban wastewater treatment rates
in Cambodia, Myanmar, Nepal, Viet Nam, Sri Lanka, andIndonesia are higher than those of rural areas but still*1 However, it must be stressed that the coverage ratio alone cannot be used as the basis for comparing different countries because calculation
methodologies vary according to the country.

24Chapter 1: Outlook on Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

100%

80%

60%

40%

20%

R
PD
o
La

In
d

on
e

si（
a

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20

20

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）

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）

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）
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20
）
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）
ilip
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）
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20

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20
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et
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Figure1.4 Service coverage rates of sewerage treatment in WEPA countries

below 20%. Meanwhile, wastewater treatment rates inrural areas are much lower in most countries, with the
exception of Japan, Malaysia and the Republic of Korea.
Such differences in sewerage treatment coverage rates
could be attributable to the size of the respective WEPA
country’s economy, based on a positive correlation
between the coverage ratio for sewerage treatment
in WEPA countries and per capita GDP; in most Asian
countries with ongoing low coverage ratios for seweragetreatment, per capita GDP remains below 4,000 USD.
It can therefore be surmised that the construction ofcapital intensive large-scale sewage treatment plants is
economically challenging for such countries. According
to UN data (UNDP 2006), constructing sewage treatment
plants is two to three times more costly than installing
septic tanks.
Time, continuous investment (including cost ofoperation and maintenance), capacity development, andvast amounts of infrastructure construction will be
required to build, operate and maintain centralized
wastewater systems to obtain similar domestic
wastewater treatment rates as developed countries. As
this may not always be an economically or environmentallyfeasible option for many of the WEPA countries,
alternative solutions to conventional centralized
wastewater management are being explored. In thiscontext, decentralized wastewater treatment systems(DEWATS) have received increasing attention from WEPA
countries as a promising approach to address thelimitations described above. Interest in DEWATS is rising
due to their potential to reduce treatment cost over thelong term, simpler operation, and less environmental
impacts in construction while achieving a comparable

BOD removal rate. Good examples have been observedin case studies from Indonesia, Malaysia, and thePhilippines, among others.

On-site treatment (septic tank)
In areas without access to sewerage treatment services,
on-site treatment using individual septic tanks to treat
black water from toilets is common, especially in urban
areas. Figure 1.5 illustrates coverage rates of septic tanks
in WEPA countries and cities and the rate of access tosewer networks. While the definitions used in the data
do not hold for all countries, it can be seen that coverage
rates for septic tanks are particularly high in urban areas
where coverage rates of sewerage treatment are low.
It shows that around 95% of households in Viet Nam’surban areas have a septic tank, with respective figures for
Thailand, the Philippines, and Indonesia of 87%, 83%, and80%. This means that septic tanks will continue to play animportant sanitation role as a basic facility for millions of
the region’s population for the foreseeable future.
However, wastewater treatment using individual
septic tanks presents issues in respect of prevention ofwater pollution. Most septic tanks are often of nonstandard design, improperly constructed, inaccessiblefor desludging, and are not regularly maintained or
desludged, which affects BOD removal efficacy. Lower
BOD removal rates for septic tank treatment, which are
30–60% based on results from several studies, thanthose for sewerage removal using aeration is partly due
to improper management of the tanks. For example, anestimate showed that 75% of septic tanks in Viet Nam
and 66% in Indonesia have never been emptied (WorldBank 2015).

25

57% of urban households
equipped with sep�c tanks

19% of urban popula�on
had access to sewer network

36% of urban households
equipped with sep�c tanks

2% of urban popula�on
had access to sewer network

25% of urban households
equipped with sep�c tanks

79% of urban popula�on
had access to sewer network

Japan

China

Less than 1% of urban
popula�on had access tosewer network

Republic of Korea

Nepal

87% of urban households
equipped with sep�c tanks

Myanmar

13% of urban popula�on
had access to sewer network
4% of urban households
equipped with sep�c tanks

3% of urban households
equipped with sep�c tanks

Sri Lanka

13% of urban popula�on
had access to sewer network
20% of households equippedwith sep�c tanks (Na�onwide)
79% of popula�on access tosewer network (Na�onwide)

More than 80% of popula�on
had access to seweragesystem (as of March 2020)
Less than 1% of households
equipped with latrines> 99% of households connect
to sewer network (Na�onwide)

95% of urban households
equipped with sep�c tanks

Lao PDR

Thailand

9% of households equippedwith new-type of Johkasou
systems (which treat both
black and grey water)

Viet Nam
Cambodia

Philippines

Malaysia

About 60% of urban
popula�on had access tosewer network

83% of urban households
equipped with sep�c tanks

Indonesia

6% of urban popula�on had
access to sewer network

80% of urban households
equipped with sep�c tanks

49% of urban households
equipped with sep�c tanks

10% of urban popula�onaccess to sewer network

51% of urban popula�on
had access to sewer network

Figure 1.5 Septic tank coverage and ratio of access to sewer network in WEPA Countries(Source: Created based on data from WHO and UNICEF 2019)(Note that connection to a sewer network does not guarantee proper treatment of wastewater, which could be a factor behind differences in
numbers between Figure 1.4 and Figure 1.5.)

In addition, septic tanks treat only black water; grey
water, such as from kitchens or bathrooms, is discharged
untreated. To mitigate and prevent water pollution,
domestic wastewater (both grey and black) should be
adequately treated using high-performance treatment
processes with high rates of pollution removal, especiallyin areas without access to sewerage treatment.
Another big concern currently facing many WEPA
countries is the inappropriate management of fecal
sludge (also referred to as “septage”) generated by septic
tanks. Figures reported for safe disposal or treatment of
septage vary widely, such as below 1% in Nuwara Eliya of
Sri Lanka, 4% in Indonesia, 10% in the Philippines (mainly
in Metro Manila), 4% in Viet Nam (World Bank 2013),
and 30% in Thailand (AECOM &SANDEC 2010). In manycases, septage management is not prioritized by either
central or local governments, or the efforts made bygovernments do not suit local social or economic
conditions of the communities, which leads tooperational issues with the septage management system
planned for introduction. In Indonesia, for instance,
while over 150 septage treatment plants have been
constructed since the 1990s, due to the lack of effective

26

septage emptying services, many plants stopped
functioning and less than 10% still operate – and of thesemany fail to function properly (World Bank 2016) (WEPA2019).
To date, most urban areas have heavily relied on
informal, ‘on-call’ septage emptying and collection
services, which are sometimes provided by unregulated
private companies with low levels of service quality fordesludging. Perhaps the most problematic aspect of thissystem is the illegal dumping, carried out by suchdesludging companies, of septage into nearby rivers or
canals. This has resulted from the lack of effective formal
septage emptying and collecting mechanisms, limited
treatment facilities and capacity, cost and/or time savings
related to long-distance transport, and obligatory
septage disposal fees at treatment plants. As a result,most of the urban human waste is not safely collected,
managed or treated before being released into theenvironment, contaminating both groundwater andsurface water, spreading high levels of pathogens into
the urban water environment and transmitting fecalassociated infections (Bao 2021).

Chapter 1: Outlook on Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

2 | Challenges of and opportunities
for collaboration onwater environmental governanceamong WEPA countries
WEPA Outlook 2018 identified the common challenges
on water environmental governance, and in particularfor industrial wastewater management, as follows (WEPA2018):
Deficiency of laws, lack of detailed rules for implementation:
In some cases, different laws and regulations related
to industrial wastewater management have diﬀerent
obligations, which can lead to confusion on the ground.
Some countries need detailed rules or guidelines for
implementation; for example, if no guidelines exist andindustry uses diﬀerent eﬄuent monitoring procedures
and analytical methods, which makes assessment ofeﬄuent quality data less reliable and less comparable,
this will create problems in proving noncompliance.
Weak coordination among agencies: There are atleast two ministries (covering environmental andindustrial sectors) at the national level related toindustrial wastewater management, which creates
overlapping responsibilities, weak coordination andconflicts of interest (i.e., industrial development vs.
environment conservation), which may negatively affectimplementation in some countries.
Availability of information: Information on industries
and their wastewater – not only number and type ofindustry but also wastewater volume and quality data – isinsuﬃcient in partner countries. In particular, information
on small and medium-sized industries is diﬃcult toobtain despite the high likelihood that they pollute local
water bodies. The lack of systematically organized andstored inventory data may prevent effective or strategicplanning and implementation of control measures.
Accessibility of information: The lack of willingness toshare information, as well as lack of information itself
also act as barriers for planning and implementation
due to the sensitivity surrounding industrial wastewater
management, as experienced by the WEPA secretariat in
its industry sector interviews. There is a sense of mistrust
and paranoia concerning how data will be used, i.e., aworry that data believed to be conﬁdential may be usedto ‘name and shame.’ Further, data-sharing between
governmental agencies takes place, which illustrates
weak coordination and can also complicates datacollection by WEPA Focal Points in partner countries, as

they have to go through separate sectoral ministries toobtain the data.
Reliability of data: Low reliability of data on quality ofeﬄuent, etc. is also pointed out as a problem by some
WEPA countries. This is likely to be due to many reasons,such as laboratory capacity and lack of standardized
method for sampling and analysis.
Lack of human resources: Partner countries often cite alack of human resources in national and local government
as a barrier to enforce regulations, not only in terms of
staﬃng levels but also implementation capacity.
Lack of ﬁnances: In particular, ﬁnances are needed toestablish databases and inventories, as well as to conduct
eﬄuent or ambient water monitoring to check on thestate of compliance.
Since the publication of the WEPA Outlook 2018,
WEPA has been discussing and communicating thecommon challenges among the partner countries andidentifying opportunities for collaborations through annual
meetings, international workshops, Action Programs,
questionnaire surveys, and daily communications.
As a result, it has been reconfirmed that the common
challenges identified in WEPA Outlook 2018 still remainamong the key common challenges for the WEPA
countries, although their contexts, significance, andcharacteristics differ from those in 2018. Some additional
interests and opportunities for collaborations to
overcome the identified challenges have emerged
through these discussions, which are summarized below:

Sound enforcement of laws and regulations
As described at the beginning of this chapter, it isobserved that WEPA countries have made significant
progress on establishing or improving policies andlegal frameworks to improve water environmental
governance in recent years, including updates to basic
legal frameworks on water environmental governanceand institutional arrangements, setting up new ambient
water quality standards, initiating comprehensive
monitoring strategies, and introducing new regulatory
frameworks on industrial wastewater management.
However, it remains a common challenge for WEPA
countries to ensure the appropriate implementationand enforcement of such policies and regulations.
In this context, WEPA Phase IV (April 2019 – March
2024) activities will prioritize promotion of capacity
enhancement of government officials to ensure soundenforcement of laws and regulations.

27

Capacity building and information sharing forspecific policy tools for water environment
governance
Most of the WEPA countries have basic laws andregulations on water environmental governance in place.
However, such legal systems are sometimes consideredinsufficient for addressing existing challenges on water
environmental governance. In this respect, somecountries have already introduced additional policy tools
to address such challenges, which other countries aretaking an interest in for applicability to their contexts.
One of such policy tools is the Total Maximum Daily
Load (TMDL) approach. The TMDL system requires amuch higher level of technical rigor and coordination
between national and local governments than the basic
set of laws and regulations. It also requires a morecomprehensive data set on pollution loads as well as
analysis for its implementation.
Another example is the Water Quality Index (WQI).
WQI has already been introduced in some WEPA
countries, and others are also expressing interest in its
utilization. One of the virtues of WQI is its simplicity,which makes it advantageous as a tool for communicatingwith the general public. It is also broadly understoodamong WEPA countries. On the other hand, WQIs cannot
be developed solely through scientific analysis, as theyalso involve policy-based decision making as well as
coordination among key agencies and stakeholders fortheir development.
WEPA countries are working on mutual understanding
and information-sharing to promote practical policy
tools, such as the development and implementation of
TMDL and WQI.

Strong horizontal coordination
The issue of and need for horizontal coordination amongagencies is clearly acknowledged among the WEPA
countries, and “Weak coordination among agencies”
was listed as one of the common challenges in the WEPA
Outlook 2018. The coordination issue is also closely linked
with another common challenge, “Deficiency of laws,
lack of detailed rules for implementation”, because thischallenge often emerges from distributed or overlapping
obligations (e.g., “different laws and regulations related
to industrial wastewater management have diﬀerent
obligations”), which itself results from weak coordination
among agencies.
To address such challenges, some WEPA countries
have recently taken concrete steps. For example, China
established the Ministry of Ecology and Environment(MEE), which was then integrated with the National
Development and Reform Commission (NDRC), the28

Ministry of Land and Resources (MLR), and other practiceprotection departments in 2018. In Korea, previously
disparate responsibilities across different ministries were
all restructured for management under the Ministry ofEnvironment (MOE) in 2019. Based on the assumptionthat such fundamental restructuring of institutionalarrangement tends to be associated with high transaction
costs, it might be useful to share such experiencesamong WEPA countries on how such costs can belowered. Other countries may wish to take different
approaches that will not affect existing institutionalarrangements at such a large scale but could still ensure
a high level of coordination among the concerned
agencies. Either way, WEPA counties might find it usefulto share their experiences to improve horizontal
coordination.

Strong vertical coordination
While it was not mentioned in WEPA Outlook 2018,
vertical coordination between national and local
government has also emerged as another criticalcommon challenge among WEPA countries. The
challenge has been especially highlighted in discussing
the TMDL approach. Strong coordination and clear
definitions of the boundaries related to the responsivities
among national and local governments, together withenhancement of the capacities of officials of local
governments have been considered as essential elements
for successful implementation of the TMDL approach,while such coordination is also required in the operationof the standard laws and regulations. Hence better
relationships between national and local governments
has become one of the topics that WEPA countries may
wish to pursue further through discussions.

Strategic deployment of DEWATS
A common understanding exists among WEPA countries
that sewerage systems represent a key infrastructure
for domestic wastewater treatment, especially in urban
areas. Further efforts are needed to increase seweragetreatment coverage rates in many WEPA countries, andin this respect WEPA countries have agreed to keep
sharing information on sewage systems. However, given
the scope of WEPA and the Focal Persons of partnercountries, the following two topics have been highlighted
as promising areas of cooperation among WEPA
countries through information sharing and capacitybuilding efforts. One issue concerns improving levels ofmanagement of existing septic tanks and their septage.
The performance of domestic wastewater of septic tanks
is very low in many cases, resulting from improper tankmanagement. Further, septage generated from septicChapter 1: Outlook on Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

tanks is often treated very poorly and sometimes illegally
dumped into public waters. There is clearly much room
for improvement in the management of existing septic
tanks and their septate.
The other issue concerns strategic deployment ofdecentralized wastewater treatment systems (DEWATS).
Septic tanks have certain technical limitations on theirperformance, regardless of maintenance levels. One ofsuch limitations is that septic tanks in many WEPA
countries treat only black water; grey water, which has ahigh BOD pollution load, is discharged untreated. In thisrespect, the strategic deployment of DEWATS such asJohkasou in Japan has become a focus of futurecooperation under WEPA. The plan for strategic
deployment of DEWATS should be carefully crafted basedon thorough investigation of the roles of DEWATS andtheir complementarity with sewerage systems.

Holistic approaches for IWRM and SDGs
In recent years, recognition is growing within theinternational community of the need to introduce
and implement more holistic approaches to addressenvironmental issues, including water environmental
governance, whenever appropriate. This topic is
deeply embedded in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Development and its Sustainable Development Goals(SDGs) adopted by the UN General Assembly in 2015.

For water, Integrated Water Resource Management(IWRM) is defined under SDG 6.5 that states “By 2030,
implement integrated water resources management at
all levels, including through transboundary cooperation
as appropriate.” UN-Water explains the rationale for
introducing IWRM as follows; “Many different sectors
are dependent on water, and as a result, where water
resources are limited, conflicts over use arise. The
commonly fragmented management of water resources
is particularly inept at solving such conflicts and ensuring
sustainable use of the resource. Water resources arenaturally confined to water basins so from an ecologicalperspective, it would be most appropriate to manage
these resources at this scale.”Another important aspect requiring a holistic
approach relates to the interconnectivity of various
social, economic, and environmental agendas. SDGs are
not a bundle of 17 independent goals but a set of aspects
society needs to shed equal light on for theirdevelopment. The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Development clearly states that “the interlinkages andintegrated nature of the Sustainable Development Goals
are of crucial importance in ensuring that the purpose of
the new Agenda is realized.” Water is considered a key
element to achieving many other SDGs. UNESCAP depicts
this critical role of water in SDGs via a diagram (Fig. 1.6)
by placing water at its center (UN ESCAP 2017). River

Figure 1.6 SDG 6 on water and sanitation is a core requisite goal for sustainable development (Source: UNSCAP 2017)29

basin management can act as a pragmatic entry point tocapitalize on as a spatial unit of IWRM implementation
for sound water cycle management and to implement
SDGs holistically, such as through established institutional
mechanisms like the Mekong River Commission, which isshared by several WEPA countries (Shivakoti 2021).
The current COVID-19 pandemic has brought thisinterconnectivity of various social issues into clear focus.
Wastewater service providers and regulatory monitoring
agencies, both acting as frontline service providers in thefight against COVID-19, are having to adjust to vastlydifferent working conditions. Governments andbusinesses have also had to adjust to the diversion of
fiscal expenditure towards COVID-19 response andrecovery measures (OECD 2020). COVID-19 can also
aggravate the living conditions of vulnerable communities
that have already suffered the effects of polluted water
resources. With the understanding of the importance ofholistic approaches, many WEPA countries haveattempted to introduce new schemes (see section 1.1
above). However, information on the experiences andgood practices on implementing such holistic approaches
is still limited, and on this point, this presents WEPA
countries with a good opportunity for informationexchange and mutual learning.

Other topics that may require attention
Naturally, the challenges faced by WEPA countries are
not limited to the above. Whenever requested by WEPA
countries and where appropriate, WEPA will pick up new
topics for further deliberation. The list of possible topics
include:• Agricultural wastewater management• Quality control of monitoring data
• Standardization of various procedures andregulations in the region• Deployment of economic instruments• Application of nature-based solutions• Environmental awareness-raising• Climate change and water environmental
governance30• Transboundary water issues• Wastewater reuse and resource recovery• Private-public partnerships• Access to international finance sources thoughdeveloping project concepts• Engagement of local communities in water
environmental governance• Partnership with other international initiatives

3 | Way Forward
WEPA has witnessed significant and steady progress onwater environmental governance among the partnercountries in recent years, especially on the policy andlegal frameworks and institutional arrangements.
However, many areas still require attention, as explained
above. Nonetheless, this is undoubtedly an encouraging
record and clear evidence that all WEPA countries havecommitted to better water environmental governancefor the counties and the region, no matter how difficult
the challenges faced. In this regard, the partner countries
have agreed to keep promoting cooperation under
WEPA, which is regarded as a highly useful platform
for policy development, capacity-building, information
sharing, and mutual learning.
By making the best use of its instruments, such as
annual meetings, international workshops, Action
Programs, and web-based databases, WEPA is best
positioned to work together and serve all partnercountries for better water environmental governance.
We look forward to 2024, when we will once again reporton the remarkable progress made on water
environmental governance in the region.

Chapter

2
Country Profiles of Water Environmental
Management in WEPA Countries2.1 Cambodia
1 | Country Information
Table 2.1.1 Basic indicators
Land Area (km2)

181,035 (2013)*

Total Population

15,288,489 (2019)*

GDP (current USD)

27.08 billion (2019)**
1,643 (2019)**

GDP per capita (current USD)
Average Precipitation (mm/year)

1,840 (1901–2016)***

Total Renewable Water Resources (km3)

476.1 (2017)

Total Annual Freshwater Withdrawals(billion m3)

2.184 (2017)

Annual Freshwater
Withdrawals
by Sector

Agriculture

94% (2017)

Industry

1.51% (2017)

Municipal(including domestic)

4.48% (2017)(Source: FAO 2020, *Ministry of Planning 2019, **World Bank 2020a,***World Bank 2020b)

Figure 2.1.1 Tonle Sap Lake

2 | State of Water Resources
Cambodia is located in the middle reach of the Lower
Mekong Basin and 86% of its land area, including Tonle
Sap Lake (TSL), drains into the Mekong River (FAO 2020).
The floodplains, TSL, and the Mekong Delta are the major
sinks of sediments and nutrients, which are essential foraquatic ecosystems and agriculture. The Mekong-TSL is
one of the world’s unique aquatic ecosystems, in thathigh flow conditions of the Mekong River in the wet
season induces reverse flow through the TSL River into
the lake. Due to the reverse flow as well as runoff fromtributaries around the lake, the TSL transforms in sizeby six times on average, reaching approximately13,000
km 2 with an average depth of 8–10 m (TSA 2015).

32

In the subsequent dry season, water draining out of
the lake is critical for the overall flow condition in thedownstream Mekong Delta. The Bassac River splits fromthe mainstream Mekong River and further splits into
numerous channels, forming a wedge shaped delta in
Vietnam. The Mekong Delta is a major grain basket for
both Cambodia and Vietnam. This distinctive hydrologicalcycle and associated sediment and nutrient regime isvital for aquatic biodiversity, including migrating fish, andTonle Sap Lake forms the sole source of livelihood forabout 40% of Cambodia’s population (MRC 2010).
Cambodia has an ample supply of water, mainly from
the Mekong River, Tonle Sap River, Bassac River andother tributaries, but most parts of the country
encounter water shortages during the dry season,
especially for domestic and irrigation uses. Water in
Cambodia remains regulated only in part, resulting in an
overabundance of water during the rainy season anddeficiency in the dry season.
Groundwater availability is estimated at 17.6 billion
3m (MoWRAM 2012), which is primarily used forhousehold water supply, irrigation and industry.
Groundwater use is increasing by 10% every year, andmany places in Cambodia have experienced overuse ofgroundwater due to rapid population growth andincreasing demands from agriculture and industry (UNDP2020); for example, an average groundwater level declineof 14 cm per year was reported for wells in Prey Veng andSvay Rieng between 1996 and 2008 (Johnston et al. 2013).

3 | State of Ambient Water Quality
3.1 Rivers
The water quality of rivers was assessed as good andwater pollution is not considered to be a significant
problem (MOEC 2020). However, in recent years
water quality deterioration has been reported in riverwater bodies. Water quality monitoring conducted by
Department ofWater Quality Management, Ministry ofEnvironment of Cambodia (MOEC) at the Chroy Changva
Station of the Mekong river showed a rising trend
in nutrient pollution in river water since 2011 (Figure
2.1.2). Although concentrations of total nitrogen (T-N)
remained below the national standard value, it exceeded
the national standard value in 2018 and 2019. Total
phosphorus (T-P) concentrations exceeded the national
water quality standard from 2012 to 2019. However,
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD), and Chemical Oxygen

Chapter 2: Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

BOD (mg/L)

10.0

BOD std.

10.0

COD (mg/L)

4.0
2.0

2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019
T-P (mg/L)

T-P Std.

T-P (mg/L)

0.60
0.40

Japan

0.15
0.10

0.00

2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 20192011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019

Figure 2.1.2 Water quality of Mekong River at Chroy Changva Station (Source: MOEC 2020)

3.2 Lakes and Reservoirs

BOD (mg/L)

10.0

BOD std.

COD (mg/L)

4.0

0.0

2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019
T-N (mg/L)

0.18

T-N Std.

0.16
0.12

T-P (mg/L)

0.14

1.20
1.00
0.80
0.60

0.08
0.06
0.02
0.00

2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019

Viet Nam

0.04

0.20
2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019

T-P Std.

0.10

0.40
0.00

T-P (mg/L)

Thailand1.40

2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019

Sri Lanka

T-N (mg/L)

4.0
2.0

2.0

1.60

6.0

Philippines

BOD (mg/L)

6.0

1.80

COD std.

8.0

8.0

0.0

COD (mg/L)

Nepal

10.0

Myanmar12.0

Malaysia

Tonle Sap Great Lake (TSL) is the largest freshwater lake
and a unique flood-pulse in Southeast Asia. It covers an
area of 13,000 km2 during the rainy season and shrinks
to 2,500 km2 during the dry season. About 1.7 million
people live in 1,037 fishing villages of TSL and surrounding
floodplains and their livelihoods directly depend on TSL’s

resources (Shivakoti and Bao 2020). However, due todegradation of the TSL water environment, caused by
the inflow of anthropogenic pollutants, the livelihoodsof millions of local residents is affected (Ung et al. 2019).
Water quality in TSL was monitored by the Department
ofWater Quality Management, MOEC at the Chhnok
Trou village from 2011 to 2019, and also revealed
deterioration of water quality of TSL (Figure 2.1.3).
According to the monitoring data, both BOD and COD

Lao PDR

Demand (COD) values imply that organic pollution is low.

Republic of Korea

0.05

0.20

Indonesia

T-N (mg/L)

2.0

0.20

T-N Std.

0.80

0.00

4.0

0.0

2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019
T-N (mg/L)

6.0

China

BOD (mg/L)

6.0

1.00

COD std.

8.0

8.0

0.0

COD (mg/L)

Cambodia

12.0

Figure 2.1.3 Water quality of Tonle Sap Lake at Chhnok Trou village, 2011–2019 (Source: MOEC 2020)33

values remained well within the national water quality
standard for lakes, which implies organic pollution is nota major issue for water environment management in TSL.
In contrast to BOD and COD, concentrations of T-N and
T-P exceed the water quality standard for most of themonitoring period, which indicates TSL water could behighly polluted by agricultural pollution such as runoff offertilizer, manure, which can also derive from householdproducts such as soap and detergent.

3.3 Coastal Water
Cambodia’s coastal shoreline is 435 km long on the
Gulf of Thailand, and the seaward boundary of thecoastal zone has been delimited as the outer limit of
the country’s exclusive economic zone with an area of
55,600km2. The landward boundary of the coastal zone
has not yet been satisfactorily defined, but is currently
considered to be about 5 km from the shore. The coastal
zones are situated in the four provinces of Koh Kong,
Kampot, Sihanoukville and Kep municipalities. In general,
coastal water is considered to be of fairly good quality,
but development activities such as those in economic
zones and seaports may exert a negative influence
on coastal water and coastal ecosystems if soundmanagement of solid and liquid wastes generated fromthose activities has not been properly implemented.
According to the results of monitoring in 2018,
concentrations of T-N, T-P and oil and grease exceeded
the national water quality standard for coastal water,which indicates anthropogenic activities are the mainthreats for the coastal water environment.
2.5

mg/L

1.5
1.0
0.5

Monitored
conc.

water quality
standard
T-N

Monitored
conc.

water quality
standard
T-P

Figure 2.1.4 Coastal water quality in Kep Municipality, 2018

(Source: MOEC 2020)

3.4 Groundwater
Groundwater in Cambodia is generally of good quality,and dependency on groundwater as a source of domestic
water is as high as 62–100% (MoWRAM 2008). However,high levels of arsenic, iron, manganese, fluoride, and total
dissolved solids (salinity) are observed in some areas(UNDP 2020). Arsenic concentrations in groundwater34

4 | State of Wastewater Treatment
Sewerage and sanitation in Cambodia are not welldeveloped and types in existence are aging or
constructed in the old colonial period. In most places,
wastewater is primarily treated by septic tanks anddischarged to the environment. As of 2019, only three
centralized wastewater treatment plants (CWTPs) are
under operation, located in Battambang City, Siem Reap
City and Preah Sihanouk City (Rady 2020). Further,
Phnom Penh has natural lagoons that receive wastewaterfrom the drainage system. The current centralized
WWTPs can treat only 5% of urban wastewater (Heng2019). Monthly service fees have been collected by
the Department of Public Work and Transport for thecentralized wastewater treatment facilities, such as inPreah Sihanouk City, where fees of 2.5 to 1,125 USD arecollected per building based on building category.
Cambodia has prioritized the development ofsewerage systems and centralized wastewater treatment
in several locations, and the urban wastewater
management plan has selected priority towns for future
centralized WWTPs in Cambodia (Table 2.1.2). In addition
to centralized systems, NGOs such as ESC-BORDA
promote decentralized wastewater treatment solutionsin schools, communities, hospitals, and small andTable 2.1.2 List of existing and future centralized
wastewater treatment plants

2.0

0.0

in many parts of Cambodia exceeded both the WHO
standard of 10 mg/L and the Cambodia National Drinking
Water Quality Standard of 50 mg/L. Many shallow wells
are also contaminated by fecal coliforms (IWMI 2013).

Location ofCentralized WWTPs

Capacity(m 3/day)StatusBattambang city

2,800

In operation

Siem Reap City

8,000

In operation

Preah Sihanouk City

25,000In operation

Poipet City

3,000

Feasibility study

Srei Saophoane City

3,000

Feasibility study

Kampot City

6,000

Feasibility study

Kep City

3,000

Feasibility study

Phnom Penh

30,000Feasibility study

Takhmao City

12,000Feasibility study

Pursat City

6,000

Feasibility study

Kratie City

6,000

Feasibility study

Steung Sen City

3,000

Feasibility study

Bavit city

3,000

Feasibility study(Source: Heng 2019)

Chapter 2: Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

The current legislative framework for water
environment management in Cambodia is shown in
Figure 2.1.5. Under it, the protection and promotion ofenvironmental quality and public health is the objective

Indonesia

5.1 Legislation

China

5 | Frameworks for Water
Environmental Managementof natural resource management including water(Article 1, Law on Environmental Protection and Natural
Resource Management). The Law on Water Resources
Management (2007) includes aspects of water quality
management, such as requiring wastewater discharge
licenses or permission for activities that could havenegative impacts on water quality and human andecosystem health (Article 22), as well as designations
for dangerous or restricted zones for water use where
the water quality, quantity and ecological balance areendangered (Article 23).

Cambodia

medium-sized enterprises. To date, ESC-BORDA has
implemented 62 DEWATS across Cambodia (BORDA
2017).

Japan

Law on Water Resources Management (2007)

Sub-decree on Environmental Impact
Assessment Process (August 11, 1999)

Purpose-regula�ng water pollu�on control for preven�ng andreducing the water pollu�on of public water bodies.
Sub-decree on the Management of Sewage andWastewater Treatment System (December 25, 2017)

Thailand
Viet Nam

under the Law on Environmental Protection and Natural
Resources Management, such as the Sub-decree on Solid
Waste Management and the Sub-decree on Environmental
Impact Assessment Process, also contain articles related
to water environmental conservation.
Currently, two new pieces of legislation are being
drafted in relation to water quality management, namely
the Law on Sewerage System in Cambodia by Ministry of
Public Works and Transport (MPWT) and the Sub-decree
on Water Quality by the Ministry of Water Resources andMeteorology (MoWRAM). The sub-decree on Water
Pollution Control (April 6, 1999) is being updated toreflect the context of Cambodia.

Sri Lanka

Details on water environmental conservation
measures can be found in the Sub-decree on Water
Pollution Control, established in 1999 under the Law on
Environmental Protection and Natural Resources
Management. This sub-decree aims to regulate various
activities that could pollute and/or have already polluted
public water areas (e.g., rivers, lakes, groundwater, andsea water). Ambient water quality standards for humanhealth and bio-diversity (Article 7), as well as effluent
standards for pollution sources (Article 4) are set by thissub-decree. Other elements of the sub-decree include
monitoring of pollution sources and their effluents(Chapter 4), monitoring of public water areas (Chapter5), and inspection rules (Chapter 6). Other sub-decrees

Philippines

Figure 2.1.5 Legislative framework of water environment management in Cambodia

Nepal

Purpose-improving the drainage system management and wastewater
treatment plants in eﬀec�ve and transparent way to ensure
safety of public health and biodiversity conserva�on.

Myanmar

Purpose-regula�ng solid waste management in an appropriate
and safe way to ensure the protec�on of humanhealth and the conserva�on of bio-diversity.

Sub-decree on Solid Waste Management (April 27, 1999)

Malaysia

Purpose-regula�ng water pollu�on control for preven�ng andreducing the water pollu�on of public water bodies.

Lao PDR

Sub-decree on Water Pollu�on Control (April 6, 1999)

Purpose-protect and promote environment quality and public health-assess the environmental impacts-ensure sustainable use and management the natural
resources-encourage and provide possibili�es for the public topar�cipate in the protec�on of environment and the
management of the natural resources, and-To suppress any acts that cause harm to the environment.

Republic of Korea

Purpose-s�mula�ng the eﬀec�ve and sustainable managementof the water resources to a�ain socio-economic
development and the welfare of the people.

Law on Environmental Protec�on andNatural Resources Management (1996)35

5.2 Institutional Arrangement
In Cambodia, several ministries deal with water
environment management (Table 2.1.3). MOEC is
responsible for protection and management of theenvironment and natural resources in the country basedon the Law on Environmental Protection and Natural
Resource Management (Article 9), and local authorities
such as provincial and municipal environmental
departments are in charge of water environmental

management, such as water quality monitoring.
MoWRAM was established in 1999 as lead water sector
agency, and exercises overall responsibility for water
management and conservation including Integrated
Water Resource Management (IWRM). Ministry of PublicWork and Transport is responsible for urban wastewater
management. Other important agencies include Ministryof Industry, Mine and Energy (MIME), and Ministry of
Rural Development (MRD), Tonle Sap Authority (TSA).

Table 2.1.3 Institutional arrangement of water environment management in Cambodia
AgencyResponsibilities

Ministry of Environment (MOEC)- Assess the environmental impact (EIA) of all existing and proposed projects/activities(Article 6)- Research and assessment of environmental impacts on natural resources (Article 9)- Provide recommendations to other concerned ministries to ensure conservation andrational use of natural resources (Article 9)- Develop inventories of pollution sources (Article 12)- Develop sub-degrees to prevent and reduce pollution (Article 13)- Monitor pollution sources and natural resource development activities (Article 14)- Conduct inspection of pollution sources (Article 15) and order improvement forviolations (Article 20)

Ministry of Water Resources and Meteorology(MoWRAM)- Water management and conservation through Integrated Water Resource
Management (IWRM)

Ministry of Public Work and Transport (MPWT)- Urban wastewater management

Ministry of Industry, Mine and Energy (MIME)- Drinking water supply for cities and towns

Ministry of Rural Development (MRD)- Clean water supply for rural areas

Tonle Sap Authority (TSA)- Coordinate management, conservation, and development in Tonle Sap area andrelevant areas

5.3 Ambient Water Quality Standards
Ambient water quality standards

Ambient water quality standards for public water areas
are set by the Sub-decree on Water Pollution Control(April 6, 1999). There are two kinds: the first covers
biodiversity conservation, which is designated for rivers(five parameters), lakes and reservoirs (sevenparameters), and coastal water (seven parameters); andthe second covers public health, which designates
standard values for 25 parameters related to harmful
effects on human health. These water quality standards
will also be revised through amendment of the subdecree on Water Pollution Control. There is no
groundwater quality standard, but water quality isassessed by standards designated for specific uses, suchas national drinking water quality standards.

36

Water quality monitoring framework
Since the promulgation of the Sub-decree on Water
Pollution Control in 1999, MOEC has been responsible
for regular control and monitoring of water pollution
in public water areas throughout Cambodia. MOEC
monitors river water quality at seven points, coastal
water quality at seven points and lake water quality atthree monitoring points every month. Water quality
is analyzed at MOEC laboratories. Further, under the
Mekong River Commission Water Quality Monitoring
Network Program, MoWRAM measures water quality
monthly at designated stations in rivers and related
tributaries. Details of the water quality monitoring
framework are shown in Table 2.1.4.

Chapter 2: Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Item

Surface water: pH,
Total suspended solids(TSS), CODMn, BOD,
Chromium (Cr6+), T-N,
T-P

T °C, pH, EC, Alkalinity/
Acidity, DO, COD, BOD,
T-P, T-N, NO3-N, NH4-N,
Feacal coliform, TSS,
Calcium, Magnesium,
Potassium, , Sulfate(SO42-), Chlorine

Sea: pH, CODOH,
Dissolved oxygen,
Coliform, Oil & Grease,
T-N, T-P

19

Frequency ofmonitoring

MonthlyMonthlyFrequency ofmonitoring
report published

Quarterly-

5.4 Effluent Standards
Effluent standards

Myanmar
Nepal
Philippines
Sri Lanka
ThailandUnder the Sub-decree on Water Pollution Control, allbusiness operators are obliged to self-monitor effluent
and submit periodic reports of results to MOEC. However,as some do not, MOEC conducts regular on-site
inspections to check whether they are in compliancewith effluent standards, which involves taking andanalyzing water samples of effluent as well as treated

Malaysia

Effluent inspection procedure

The major ways in which Cambodia has responded todate have been legislative, in the form of pollution related
decrees and laws, creation of an institutional framework– especially under MOEC and MoWRAM – as well as
introduction of monitoring and enforcements. One such
response is the National Water Resource Policy for theKingdom of Cambodia, developed by MoWRAM in 2014.
Its main objectives are: ( i ) protect, manage and use
water resources in an effective, equitable and sustainable
manner; (ii) solve water issues in collaboration withrelated institutions within public and private sectors;(iii) develop and carry out the national strategy andpolicy towards water resource management; (iv) direct
stakeholders for developing, managing and utilizing water
resources; and (v) achieve the national policy objective
on poverty reduction and sustainable national economy
development. The Cambodia National Environmental
Action Plan (NEAP) 1998–2002 is the first environmental
action plan initiated by MOEC to develop and implement
to integrate environmental concerns as well as decisionmaking processes of various stakeholders into national
policies. NEAP incorporates issues relevant to the water
environment from the viewpoints of fisheries, Tonle Sap
Lake, wetlands, public health (water borne diseases), as
well as minimizing environmental impacts from energy
industries (hydropower, oil and gas industries).

Lao PDR

Aiming at managing effluents discharged from pollution
sources, the Effluent Standard for Pollution Sources
Discharging Wastewater to Public Water Areas of Sewers
was established under the Sub-decree on Water Pollution
Control. Standard values are set for 52 parameters, suchas temperature, pH, BOD, heavy metals, agriculturalchemicals, and organic solvents. In principle, thestandards are applied to all industries and other pollution
sources designated by the sub-standards. For areas
which require special treatment for protection of humanhealth and biodiversity, MOEC can establish separate
effluent standards for pollution sources in the area
(Article 5 of the sub-decree). As mentioned in section
6.1.1, the Sub-decree on Water Pollution Control is being
updated to reflect the context of Cambodia. The effluent
standard will be updated through amendment of the
Sub-Decree on Water Pollution Control.

5.5 Major Policies on Water Environmental
Management

Republic of Korea

17

When violations of effluent standards are found, MOEC
issues written orders to industries to correct current
activities in order to be in compliance with the standards.
Industries are fined and punished for violations in themonitoring and reporting of, and compliance with
effluent standards stipulated under the Sub-decree on
Water Pollution Control for failure to act on orders issuedby MOEC.

Japan

Number ofsampling points

Measures against non-complianceIndonesia

MoWRAM

China

Name ofmonitoring
parameters

MOEC

water. Two types of monitoring programs are in place atpollution sources: (i) regular effluent monitoring at
normal factories and hotels, conducted at 90 day
intervals, and (ii), regular effluent monitoring at factories
that use chemicals and/or chemical compounds for
production, which should be conducted at 45 day
intervals.

Cambodia

Table 2.1.4 Water quality monitoring framework of MOEC
and MoWRAM

Viet Nam37

6 | Recent Developments inWater Environmental Management

5. Barriers to appropriate management of water
quality due to insufficient equipment forlaboratory/field testing

There are several developments in government policies
that will have significant impacts on water environment
management, as follows:

6. Shortage of expert technical officers at national
and local levels to carry out adequate water
quality management and enforcement

i. Sub-decree on Management of Sewage andWastewater Treatment System, enacted on 25
Dec. 2017, which provides a mandate formanagement of sewage systems and wastewater
treatment systems to sub-national authorities.

7. Budget limitations of government, especially for
improvement of capacity of laboratories in termsof facility infrastructure/equipment and humanresources

ii. Development of draft Environmental Code (ENRC),
which consolidates several existing legislative
arrangements for environmental protection andconservation of natural resources, including
provisions for waste and pollution control andimplementation of SDGs.
iii. Development of draft Sub-decree on selfmonitoring and report, which aims to enhancemonitoring of high potential pollution sources by
installation of real-time online monitoring
equipment and regular reporting to MOEC.
iv. Updating of Sub-decree on Water Pollution
Control, which is to include revisions of water
quality standards and effluent standard.

7 | Challenges and Future Plans
Based on the current state of water quality managementin Cambodia, several key management challenges havebeen identified, as follows:
1. Lack of specific water quality management policy
and strategies
2. Weak inter-ministerial coordination for water
environment management
3. Improvement of human resources and institutional
capacity, especially MOEC, in order to implement
Cambodian Sustainable Development Goals
framework (CSDGs), National Environment Strategy
and Action Plan (NESAP) and ENRC
4. Development of sewers and wastewater treatment
to deal with drainage problem and pollution ofwater bodies; Master plan for sewerage anddrainage sector for towns/country also required38

In order to overcome these challenges the following
actions will need to be taken by the line ministries andagencies:
i. Initiation of development of the National Water
Quality Management Strategies by MOEC
ii. Strengthening collaboration with other countries
for capacity development on water quality
monitoring and enforcementiii. Enhancing cooperation with development
partners to construct planned central sewage
treatment plants in priority cities
iv. Establishment of inter-ministerial coordination
mechanisms, to enhance cooperation among line
ministries such as Ministry of Environment,
Ministry of Water Resources and Meteorology,
Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries,
Ministry of Mines and Energy, and Council for theDevelopment of Cambodia towards soundmanagement of water environment in Cambodia

Chapter 2: Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Cambodia
China

Indonesia

Japan

Republic of Korea

Lao PDR

Malaysia

Myanmar

Nepal

Philippines

Sri Lanka

Thailand

Viet Nam

39

2.2 China
1 | Country Information

Table 2.2.2 Overview of China's seven major rivers

Table 2.2.1 Basic indicators

Length(km)

Annual Flow
(100 million m 3)

1,782,725

6,300

9,857

Land Area (km2)

9.6 million (approx.) (2018)

Yangtze River

Total Population

1.4 billion (2019)

Yellow River

752,773

5,464

592

Songhua River

561,222

2,308

818

Liao River

221,097

1,390

137

Pearl River

442,527

2,214

3,381

Hai River

265,551

1,090

163

Huai River

268,957

1,000

595

14,723 billion (2020)*

GDP (current USD)
GDP per capita (current USD)

10,484 (2020)*

Average Precipitation (mm/year)

651.3 (2019)**

Total Renewable Water Resources (km3)

2,904.1 (2019)**

Total Annual Freshwater Withdrawals(billion m3)

602.12 (2019)

Annual Freshwater
Withdrawals
by Sector

Agriculture

61.16% (2019)**

Industry

20.22% (2019)**

Municipal(including domestic)

14.48% (2019)**(Source: National Bureau of Statistics of China 2020,*IMF 2020, **MWR 2019)

2 | State of Water Resources
China’s total freshwater resources are the fourth largest
in the world. However, due to its large population, water
resources per capita are only about 2,300 m3, which isonly a quarter of the global average (Chinese HydraulicEngineering Society 2016). Moreover, water resources
are unevenly distributed – rich in the southern areas andpoor in the northern areas. In 2019, precipitation across
China tended to be low in the northwest and high in thesoutheast (MWR 2019).
There are 45,203 rivers in China, with a total lengthof 1.51 million km (MWR 2011a). Of these, the Yangtze
River, Yellow River, Pearl River, Songhua River, Huai River,Hai River, and Liao River constitute the seven major river
basins. There are also numerous lakes, over 2,800 ofwhich are 1 km2 or larger, covering a total area of about
78,000 km2. The five largest freshwater lakes are BoyangLake, Dongting Lake, Taihu Lake, Hongze Lake, and Chao
Lake, all located around the middle and lower reaches of
the Yangtze River.
Most of China's water resources are surface water,
with groundwater resources amounting to 819.15 billion
m3 in 2019. Looking at the breakdown of water use bysource, 80% of the total water use was surface water andabout 20% was groundwater, but groundwater use washigher in some regions. In the Yellow River basin, many
cities experienced problems such as land subsidence due
to over-pumping of groundwater.

40

Drainage Area
(km 2)(Source: National Bureau of Statistics of China 2020)

3 | State of Ambient Water Quality
According to the 2020 Ecological and Environmental
Status Bulletin of China's Ministry of Ecology andEnvironment (MEE), surface water pollution across
China has reduced. Assessments were conducted forsurface water quality, which is classified according to fivecategories of water resources (Grade I to Grade V) basedon the environmental standards for surface water (seeTable 2.2.3). Figure 2.2.1 shows surface water quality
in 2020, broken down by percentage. Seawater andTable 2.2.3 Classification of water quality standards forsurface water
Grade

Description

I

Mainly for headstreams and national nature preserves

II

Mainly for drinking water resources in first-class protectedareas, protected areas for precious fish, and spawningareas for fish and shrimp

III

Mainly for drinking water resources in second-classprotected areas, protected areas for fish, and swimming
areas

IV

Mainly for industrial water resources and recreational use
with no human contact with water

V

Mainly for agricultural water resources and water areas
required for landscapes(Source: MEE 2002)

2.4%

0.6%

7.3%
Grade I

13.6%

29.2%

Grade I I
47.0%

Grade III
Grade IV
Grade V
Inferior to Grade V

Figure 2.2.1 Surface water quality, by percentage(Source: MEE 2020)

Chapter 2: Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Table 2.2.4 Classification of seawater quality standards
III

Suitable for marine cultivation, bathing, marine sports orrecreation activities involving direct human contact withmarine water, and for sources of industrial use of water
related to human consumption

III

Suitable for water resources for general industrial use

IV

Suitable only for harbors and ocean development activities(Source: MEE 1997)

Table 2.2.5 Classification of groundwater quality standards
Description

I

Reflects the low content of chemical components ofgroundwater, applicable to various purposes

II

Reflects the relatively low content of chemical componentsof groundwater, applicable to various purposes

III

Reflects the medium content of chemical components ofgroundwater. Based on GB5749-2006, primarily applicable
to concentrative drinking water sources and industrial andagricultural use waterIV

Reflects the relatively high content of chemical componentsof groundwater. Based on industrial and agricultural use
water requirements and benchmark value of humanhealth, primarily applicable to agricultural water andpartial industrial use water. After being properly processed,
applicable as drinking water

V

Reflects the high content of chemical components ofgroundwater. Not applicable as drinking water. Selection ofsuch category of water depends on other purposes

Republic of Korea

Grade

Japan

Description
Suitable for marine fishing, marine nature preserves andprotected areas for rare or endangered marine organisms

Indonesia

Grade

China

According to the national monitoring results, the overallwater quality of 10 major water systems (Yangtze River,
Yellow River, Pearl River, Songhua River, Huai River, Hai
River, Liao River, rivers flowing through Zhejiang andFujian provinces, rivers in the northwest, and rivers inthe southwest) was between Grade I to Grade III for
87.4%, and inferior to Grade V for 0.2% (MEE 2020),
which represents a broad-based improvement compared
to 2013 (see Table 2.2.6). Figure 2.2.2 shows the water
quality in 2020 for 10 major water systems. Rivers
in northwest China, Zhejiang and Fujian region andsouthwest China and river basins of the Yangtze River andPearl River were of excellent quality. The water quality of
Yellow River, Songhua River, Huai River was fairly good,and Liao River and Hai River were slightly polluted.

Cambodia

3.1 Rivers

groundwater were also assessed based on surface water
categories according to their respective water quality
standards (see Table 2.2.4 and Table 2.2.5).

Table 2.2.6 Water quality of 10 major water systems in
China (2013, 2020)
Grade I–III

Grade IV–V

Inferior to Grade V

2013

71.7%

19.3%

9.0%

2020

87.4%

12.3%

0.2%

Lao PDR

Year(Source: MEE 2020)

Malaysia
Myanmar(Source: Standardization Administration, 2017)

Inferior to Grade V

Grade IV–V

Nepal

Grade I – III
100%

Philippines

80%
60%

Sri Lanka

40%
20%

r

ive

Ya

w

llo

Ye

er

Riv

r

Pe

r

ive

ive

R
arl

So

ng

aR
hu

Hu

r

ive

R
ai

H

r

ive

R
ai

h
in
in
ug d
rs s
ers reashrog an esve rea
i
v
t
i
R
a
a
a
g
R
i
c
n
L
n
n
n
wi ejia vinterter
ﬂo Zh pro
es
es
s
n
r
w
w
e
jia
rth
uth
Riv
Fu
no
so

Figure 2.2.2 State of water quality of 10 major water systems in China

er

iv
oR

Viet Nam

ng

R
tze

Thailand0%(Source: MEE 2020)41

3.2 Lakes and Reservoirs
In 2020, 76.8% of the 112 major lakes and reservoirs
across the country met the criteria for environmental
standards of Grade I-III and 5.4% of Inferior to Grade
V. The main indicators used to signify the existence ofpollution were total phosphorus, COD (chemical oxygen
demand), and Permanganate index. Of the 110 lakes andreservoirs where nutrients were monitored, 9.1% were
under oligotrophic status, 61.8% were under mesotrophic
status, 23.6% were under slight eutrophication, 4.5%
were under intermediate eutrophication, and 0.9% were
under severe eutrophication (MEE 2020).

3.3 Nearshore sea areas* 1
The water quality of coastal waters has steadily improved.
According to the 2020 monitoring results, 77.4% of areas
were classified as Grade I or II (National Seawater Quality
Standards), an improvement of 0.8 percentage points
compared to the previous year. Moreover, 9.4% of thewater bodies were below Grade IV, representing a drop
(improvement) of 2.3 percentage points comparedto the previous year. Major pollutants were inorganic
nitrogen and active phosphate (MEE 2020).

3.4 Groundwater
According to the results of the 2020 groundwater quality
monitoring, of the 10,171 monitoring sites, 13.6% wereclassified as of Grades I–III, 68.8% as Grade IV, and 17.6%
as Grade V. Among the 10242 shallow groundwater
monitoring sites, 22.7% were classified as Grades
I-III, 33.7% as Grade IV, and 43.6% as Grade V. Major
indicators exceeding the standard were manganese,water hardness, and total dissolved solids.

4 | State of Wastewater Treatment
Since 2011, the Chinese Government started monitoring
COD and ammonia nitrogen from agricultural plantations,fisheries, and livestock farms. Total COD discharge
in 2018 was 5,842,000 tons, and of this amount, 81.6
% resulted from household discharge. Furthermore,
90.5% of the ammoniacal nitrogen discharge resultsfrom household discharge (China Statistical Yearbook on
Environment 2019*2). In 2019, there were 2,471 urban
domestic wastewater treatment facilities nationwide,with a capacity of 178.63 million m3/day in 2019, and thevolume of annual urban domestic treated wastewater
was 52,585 million m3, with a treatment rate of 96.81%.

5 | Frameworks for Water
Environmental Management
5.1 Legislation
The Constitution of the People’s Republic of China
stipulates that the protection and improvement of theecological and living environment and the preventionof pollution are responsibilities of the state. The
Environmental Protection Law of the People’s Republicof China stipulates that “the State shall strengthen
the protection of air, water and soil, and establish
and improve corresponding investigation, monitoring,appraisal and restoration systems.” The Environmental
Protection Law of the People’s Republic of China wasrevised in 2014 and went into effect on 1 January
2015. With regard to the prevention of water pollution
in surface water and groundwater, the Law on Water
Pollution Control sets surface water environmental
standards, groundwater environmental standards,
and water pollutant discharge standards. The Water
Pollution Control Law was also amended in 2017. As forseawater, the Law of the People’s Republic of China on
the Protection of the Marine Environment was enacted
in 1982, which established water quality standards forseawater; this law was amended in 2017. In addition to
the above laws, the Environmental Protection Tax Law
was enacted in 2018, and regulations and administrative
orders/regulations related to water pollution prevention
also exist, such as the collection of an environmental
protection tax from companies that directly discharge
pollutants, based on discharge amount. Provinces andcities have also set their own environmental standards.

5.2 Institutional arrangements
The Ministry of Ecology and Environment (MEE) wasestablished in 2018 by the 13th National People’s
Congress, subsequent to formation of the Ministryof Environmental Protection (MEP), by upgrading theState Environmental Protection Administration (SEPA) in2008 and amalgamating with sections responsible forenvironmental protection in the National Development
and Reform Commission, the Ministry of Land andResources, Ministry of Agriculture, State Oceanic
Administration, and others.
MEE is responsible for establishing and improving
the fundamental system in China with respect to theecological environment. Its roles include forming
collaborations with other governmental departments to*1 Nearshore waters: refers to the sea area stipulated in the National Marine Functional Zoning (2011-2020).
*2 NBS and MEE. China Statistical Yearbook on environment 2019. https://navi.cnki.net/KNavi/YearbookDetail?pcode=CYFD&pykm=YHJSD&bh=

42

Chapter 2: Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Water Quality Monitoring

Nepal
Philippines
Sri Lanka
ThailandThe effluent quality of municipal wastewater treatment
plants is regulated by the Discharge Standard of

The Five-Year Plan for China's National Economic andSocial Development is China's basic policy document,
and also sets targets for achieving water environment
management. The National Five-Year Plan on Water
Pollution Control in Major River Basins has also
been formulated as an important water environment
management policy document.
In April 2015, China's State Council released theWater Pollution Prevention Action Plan (Water Ten
Articles) and has made efforts to resolve certain issues.
The Water Ten Articles call for: (1) overall control ofpollutant discharge; (2) promotion of transformation andupdating of economic structure; (3) a focus on water
resources saving and conservation; (4) strengthening of
scientific and technological support; (5) giving full play tothe function of market mechanisms; (6) tightening of

Myanmar

5.4 Effluent standards

5.5 Measure Policies on
Water Environmental Management

Malaysia

In 2020, there were 1,937 surface water sections (sites)
under the national monitoring program, including
1,614 water sections in seven major river basins of
the Yangtze River, Yellow River, Pearl River, Songhua
River, Huaihe River, Haihe River and Liaohe River aswell as rivers in Zhejiang and Fujian, and rivers innorthwestern and southwestern parts of China. In
addition, water quality monitoring was carried out in
112 major lakes (reservoirs), at 10,171 groundwater
quality monitoring points of natural resources authority(7,923, 910, and 1,338 groundwater monitoring points
in plain basins, karst mountainous areas, and bedrockin hilly mountainous areas respectively), and at 10,242
groundwater quality monitoring points of water
resources authority (mainly shallow groundwater)(MEE 2020)*3. Analytical methods for water quality aredescribed in the respective water quality standards; i.e.,
Surface Water Environmental Standards (GB3838-2002),
Groundwater Quality Standards (GB/T14848-2017), andSeawater Quality Standards (GB3097-1997).

Lao PDRThe 2017 amendments to the Water Pollution Control
Law have strengthened the penalties for violations. In
response to a violation, the government's environmental
protection section issues an order to the violatingcompany to correct the situation, as well as restricts orsuspends production operations, and imposes a fine of
not less than 100,000 yuan and not more than 1 million
yuan, in cases of (1) discharging pollutants withoutobtaining a pollutant discharge permit in accordancewith the law; (2) exceeding discharge standards or total
volume control indicators; (3) falsifying wastewater
quality data; and (4) discharging pollutants without
properly operating sewage treatment facilities (Lin 2020).

Republic of Korea

The surface water environmental quality standards set
five categories for 24 basic parameters. Groundwater
quality standards set standards for 39 parameters, andthe seawater quality standards set standards for 35
parameters. Separate water quality standards exist for
fisheries and irrigation.

Japan

Measures against non-complianceIndonesia

5.3 Ambient Water Quality Standards

China

Pollutants for Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plant (GB18918-2002), which sets effluent standards for 19 basic
parameters and 43 optional parameters for municipal
wastewater treatment plants nationwide. Certain regions
have independently introduced their own effluent
standards at the local level. Discharge concentration
limits of industrial wastewater pollutants are stipulatedby the discharge standards of water pollutants ofcorresponding industries, such as steel, meat processing,
etc. If there is no industrial discharge standard forany given industry, the limits shall be implemented inaccordance with the Integrated Wastewater DischargeStandard (GB 8978-1996). At present, there are 65
national water pollutant discharge standards in China.

Cambodia

initiate the formulation and implementation of national
ecological and environmental policies and plans as wellas to draft laws and regulations, and to formulate
departmental rules; forming collaborations with othergovernmental departments to compile and supervise theimplementation of ecological and environmental plans
and water functional zoning plans for key regions, river
basins, sea areas, and drinking water source areas; andto organize the formulation of ecological environmental
standards and formulate ecological environmental
benchmarks and technical specifications (MEE 2021a).
Provinces and municipalities also play an importantrole in pollution control through establishing local laws
and standards.

Viet Nam*3 http://www.mee.gov.cn/hjzl/sthjzk/zghjzkgb/202105/P020210526572756184785.pdf

43

environmental law enforcement and supervision; (7)effective strengthening of water environmental
management; (8) providing a full guarantee of water
ecological environment safety; (9) defining and fulfilling
the responsibilities of each party; and (10) strengtheningof public participation and social supervision (MEE 2015).
The articles also set numerical targets such as limiting
the national water consumption to 670 billion m3 or lessby 2020, increasing the percentage of water quality ofGrade III or higher in seven river basins including theYangtze and Yellow Rivers to 70%, and increasing theurban sewage treatment rate to 95% (MEE 2015).

6 | Recent Developments inWater Environmental Management
During the 13th Five-Year Plan period adopted by
the National People’s Congress in March 2016, China
formulated the Ecological Environmental Protection Plan
to further improve the quality of the environment andenhance governance capacity. The government set a
goal to improve the quality of the environment by 2020,
to mitigate vulnerabilities in the ecological environment.
The water quality target set in the 13th Five-Year
Plan for 2016–2020 was to increase areas of Grade III by
4% and reduce areas of Grade V and below by at least
4.7%. By the end of FY2019, the percentage of water
bodies designated as Grade III and above had increased
from 67.9% in 2017 to 74.9%, and the percentage ofwater bodies inferior to Grade V had decreased from
8.3% in 2017 to 3.4% (Chinese Academy of Environmental
Planning, 2020). Moreover, COD and ammonia nitrogen
had been reduced respectively by 13.8% and 15.0% by
the end of 2020 (Chinawater net 2021).

The 13th Five-Year Plan ended at the end of 2020,
and the Outline of the 14th Five-Year Plan for National
Economic and Social Development and the Long-Range
Objectives Through the Year 2035 was approved by the
National People’s Congress in March 2021.
In the 14th Five-Year Plan, the following strategies toimprove the water environment have been formulated(Xinhua News Agency, 2021).

• Improving the level of rural infrastructure and public

services- Improve rural infrastructure, including water,electricity, roads, and gas (24-2)*4- Promote the treatment of domestic wastewater inrural areas (24-3)• Improving the quality and stability of ecosystems- Strengthen ecological protection and managementof major rivers, lakes and wetlands (37-1)- Improve policies on land and sea use for ecologicalprotection and restoration (37-2)- Promote the establishment of basin-wide ecologicalcompensation measures for major river basins(37-3)• Environmental improvement

7 | Challenges and Future Plans
Although the overall quality of China's water
environment has been improving, there is still morework to be done. Some localities still have a relatively
extensive development mode, and their environmental
infrastructure needs to be improved; the country’s
overall water ecological condition still lags behinddeveloped regions in the world; the water environment
risks in some localities demand attention, including risksof environmental emergencies and sediment pollution(MEE 2021).

*4 The number in the prentices indicates the section in the 14th Five-Year Plan.

44- Improve water pollution prevention measures,watershed management and coordination (38-1)- Strengthen comprehensive management for majorriver basins, lakes, urban and coastal waters (38-1)- Reduce COD and total ammonia nitrogen emissions
by 8% each (38-1)- Eliminate inferior to Grade V water bodies inprincipal (38-1)- Promote the relocation and renovation of industries
with heavy pollution in major river basins (38-1)- Implement comprehensive prevention andmanagement plans for water and soil environmental
risks (38-1)- Strengthen the prevention and control of plastic
pollution (38-1)- Promote full coverage of urban sewage pipe
networks (38-2)- Upgrade sewage treatment (38-2)- Promote centralized sludge incineration anddetoxification treatment (38-2)- Achieve 90% detoxification treatment rate for urban
sludge (38-2)

Chapter 2: Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Cambodia
China
Indonesia
Japan
Republic of Korea
Lao PDR- Achieve 25% or more of recycled water use in cities
at and above the prefectural level with water
shortages (38-2)- Establish an ecological environment management
system that integrates above and below ground as
well as land and sea (38-5)- Realize the issuance of pollution discharge permits
for point source polluters (38-5)- Improve management and protection systems forrivers and lakes, and strengthen the system of river
chiefs and lake chiefs (38-5)- Improve the vertical management system ofmonitoring, supervision and law enforcement of
ecological and environmental institutions underprovinces (38-5)- Promote comprehensive law enforcement reform
for ecological environment protection (38-5)- Increase the disclosure of environmental protection
information and strengthen the establishment of acorporate environmental governance system (38-5)- Improve public supervision, and reporting andfeedback mechanisms (38-5)- Promote the participation of social organizations
and the general public in environmental governance(38-5)

Malaysia
Myanmar
Nepal
Philippines
Sri Lanka
Thailand
Viet Nam

45

2.3 Indonesia
1 | Country Information

Table 2.3.2 Spatial distribution of water availability
IslandTable 2.3.1 Basic indicators
Land Area (km2)

1,904,569 (2017)*

Total Population

267.7 million (2018)**

GDP (current USD)

970 billion (2019)**

million m 3/yearJava

164,000

Sumatera

840,737

Sulawesi

299,218

Kalimantan

1,314,021

GDP per capita (current USD)

4,200 (2019)**

Bali and Nusa Tenggara

49,620

Average Precipitation (mm/year)

2,702 (2020)***

Maluku176,726

Total Renewable Water Resources (km3)

2,019 (2011)

Papua

1,062,154

Total

3,906,476

Total Annual Freshwater Withdrawals(billion m3)
Annual Freshwater
Withdrawals
by Sector

222.6 (2019)****

Agriculture

85.2% (2017)

Industry

4.1% (2017)

Municipal(including domestic)

10.7% (2017)(Source: FAO 2020, *World Atlas 2017, **World Bank 2018,***World data atlas 2020, ****Ministry of Public Works and Housing 2019a)(Source: ADB 2016)

As of 2014, the total reservoir capacity was 12.6
billion m3, or 49.2 m3 per capita, which is half the capacity
prior to 1945 (105.5 m 3 per capita) (ADB 2016). To
enhance water security, the government planned tobuild 49 new reservoirs with total capacity of 3 billion m3
between 2015 and 2019 (Government of Indonesia2015).
Indonesia has almost 8,000 watersheds (Daerah
Aliran Sungai [DAS]), which are managed in 131 river
basins. Five river basins (304 DAS) cross internationalboundaries (Malaysia, Timor-Leste, and Papua
New Guinea), 29 basins (859 DAS) cross provincial
boundaries, and 37 basins are considered as having
national strategic importance (ADB 2016).

3 | State of Ambient Water Quality
3.1 Rivers

Figure 2.3.1 Citarum River in Bandung, Indonesia

2 | State of Water Resources
Water resources in Indonesia account for about 6%of the world’s water resources or about 21% of total
water resources in the Asia-Pacific region. Total water
availability is estimated at 690 billion m3/year whereas
total demand is 175 billion m 3/year. However, theavailable water is unevenly distributed spatially andtemporally (Table 2.3.2).

46

There are 5,590 major watersheds in Indonesia, divided
into 131 river basin territories. Status of surface water
quality compliance against the national guidelines
and its provincial distribution in Indonesia are shownin figures 2.3.2 and 2.3.3, respectively. The percentageof heavily polluted rivers, as defined by Class II Water
Quality Criteria in Government Regulation No. 22/2021,
exceeded 70% in 2016. As a result of monitoring 44
large rivers across Indonesia, it was found that only
four met Class II standards throughout the year (ADB
2016). A recent research by the Indonesian Ministry ofEnvironment and Forestry showed that at present 75% ofrivers in the country are seriously polluted, 52 of which
are categorized as heavily polluted, and 118 watersheds
out of 450 monitored watersheds are critically polluted.

Chapter 2: Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

90%

Heavily Polluted

80%

Moderately Polluted

70%
309

443

407

420

Lightly Polluted

438Class II Compliant

50%

China

60%

Cambodia100%* numbers indicate
sampling points

40%

20%
10%
0%

93

80

80

7
2012

19
2013

21
2014

154

109

40

39

2015

2016

Indonesia

30%

Japan

Figure 2.3.2 Status of compliance with water quality in Indonesia (Source: created by WEPA based on data from MOEF 2017)

Polluted

Moderate

Good

Figure 2.3.3 Provincial distribution of surface water quality

100

15
10

10
5
1

pa
r
m
Ka

Figure 2.3.4 Water quality of major rivers in 2019 in(Source: PUPR 2019b)
Indonesia

Numberof basinsArea(km 2)

Volume (million m 3/year)
Unconfined Confined

Sumatera

65

272,843

123,5286,551Java and
Madura80

81,14738,851

2,046

Kalimantan

22

181,362

67,963

1,102

Sulawesi

91

37,778

19,694

550

Bali

8

4,381

1,577

21

West Nusa
Tenggara

9

9,475

1,908

107

East Nusa
Tenggara

38

31,9298,229

200

Maluku68

2,583

11,943

1,231

Papua

40

26,287

222,524

9,098

Total

421

907,615496,217

20,906

Viet Nam

Name of rivers

RegionThailand

Ba
Ri
ve
ta
ng
r
ha
ri
Ri
ve
r
M
us
iR
ive
Ci
sa
r
da
ne
Ri
ve
Ci
liw
r
Be
un
ng
g
Ri
aw
ve
an
r
So
lo
Ri
ve
Ci
r
ta
ru
m
Ri
ve
r

0

Table 2.3.3 Regional distribution of groundwater potential

Sri Lanka

Concentra�on (mg/L)

1,000

Philippines

20

10,000

CFU/100 ml

25

E.coli/Fecal coli (CFU/100ml)
BOD (mg/L)
COD (mg/L)
NO3-N (mg/L)
PO4-P (mg/L)

Groundwater is an important water source and thepotential of groundwater basins is promising on several
islands, with a total area of 907,615 km2 and total basin
capacity of about 520 billion m 3/year (Table 2.3.3).

Nepal

30

3.4 Groundwater

Myanmar

Water quality data covering five key indicators for the
majority of river bodies in Indonesia for 2019 is shown in
Figure 2.3.4 (PUPR 2019b). It can be seen that most of
the rivers are moderately to severely polluted, especiallyin terms of E.coli.

Indonesia is the largest archipelago in the world,with 13,466 islands, about 5.8 million km2 of sea areaand 81,000 km of coastline. Pollution threatens theIndonesian seas.

Malaysia(Source: ADB 2016)

3.3 Coastal Water

Lao PDR

Heavily Polluted

Similarly, with conditions in rivers, there is significant
pressure on water quality in lakes from various sources,
such as domestic activities, agriculture, livestock, forestry
and industry. Water quality monitoring of 15 lakes on thegovernment’s priority list revealed that most fell into thehyper-eutrophic category (ADB 2016).

Republic of Korea

3.2 Lakes and Reservoirs(Source: ADB 2016)47

Indonesian Ministry of Health Regulation with Decree
No. 416/1990 aimed at water quality monitoring looks
for different provisions and controls which stipulates
groundwater quality standards. In Jakarta, 45% ofgroundwater shows contamination by faecal coliform
and 80% by E. coli. Major sources of contamination
include septic tank leakage, discharge of untreateddomestic wastewater, landfill leachate, and industrial
effluent contamination. Saltwater intrusion due tooverexploitation is common in coastal aquifers (ADB
2016).

4 | State of Wastewater Treatment
Wastewater and major pollutants
Domestic wastewater contains large amounts of chemical
oxygen demand (COD), nutrients, and faecal coliform,
and is the largest contributor to surface water pollution
in Indonesia. Agricultural wastewater contains COD,n u t r i e nt s , fe r t i l i ze r s u c h a s u re a a n d t r i p l esuperphosphate, and pesticides, and is a non-point
source of pollution. Industrial wastewater contains awide variety of pollutants depending on industrial
activity (e.g., Chromium (Cr) in tanning, Mercury (Hg) inillegal mining, color in textiles). The practice of using
wastewater in fishponds previously was widespread but
is now declining due to health concerns. Using
wastewater to produce fish feed, like duckweed, offers asafer alternative (UNESCO 2017).

Domestic wastewaterIn urban areas (population 110 million), about 1% of thewastewater is safely collected and treated, whereas inrural areas (population 130 million) wastewater is neither
collected nor treated (ADB 2016).

Industrial wastewater
There are about 24 thousand large- or medium-scaleindustries and about 3.5 million small-scale industries inIndonesia, employing a total workforce of 14.8 million.
Food and beverage, textile, vehicle, and petrochemicalindustries have all seen positive growth rates based on
GDP in recent years. Industries including cement, pulp
and paper (capacity over 300,000 t-pulp/year), upstream
petrochemicals, industrial estates, shipyards with graving
docks, explosives, and smelting are obligated to obtainan Environmental Impact Assessment (AMDAL) permit
to conduct business according to the Decree of Ministryof Environment concerning Type of Business Plan/
Activity Required Environmental Impact (MOE Decree
No. 5/2012).

48

There are various frameworks to assist green
industries, such as the government-based soft loan
program, which supports investment in waste reduction
and management. This program targets small andmedium-sized enterprises (assets less than 10 billion
Indonesian Rp) with maximum loans of 5 billion
Indonesian Rp.
Green Industry Standards have been laid out in Law
on Industrial Affairs (Law No. 3/2014). Eight industries
have individual standards under this law: cement, pulp
and paper, ceramic tiles, textile dyeing, milk powder,crumb rubber, ribbed smoked sheet rubber, andinorganic fertilizer.

5 | Frameworks for Water
Environmental Management
5.1 Legislation
For water environmental management, there are two
primary regulations: Law on Water Resources (Law No.
17/2019) and Government Regulation concerning theManagement of Water Quality and Control of Water
Pollution (Government Regulation No. 82/2001).
The purpose of the former is holistic water resource
management (both quality and quantity) in line with theSDGs, whereas the latter’s is to focus on water quality
management and pollution control – specifically strict
implementation of water quality standards, effluent
standards and TMDLs. To improve implementation ofthese guidelines and regulations in the field, some newelements have since been introduced through Law No.
17/2009, such as establishment of a water resource
information system for more comprehensive monitoring,and licensing and empowerment for authorities engagedin water resource supervision and management.
The objective of environmental management inIndonesia is to enable environmentally sustainable
development, and the basic legislative structure for water
environment management is shown in Figure 2.3.5.
Integral water resources management is regulated by
Law No. 17/2009. The main subjects regulated in this Law
on Water Resources include state control and people’s
rights to water; the authorities and responsibilities of theCentral Government and Regional Governments in the
management of water resources, water resourcesmanagement, water resources utilization permits, water
resources information system, empowerment andsupervision, funding, rights and obligations, society
participation, and coordination. Apart from that, it also
regulates the provisions regarding criminal investigationand provisions for violations of the provisions of this Law.

Chapter 2: Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Cambodia

Law Concerning Environmental Protec�on and Management (Law No. 32/2009）*
Law on Water Resources (Law No. 17/2019)
Decree of the Ministry of Environment and Forestry concerning
Domes�c Waste Water Quality Standard(Decree of MOEF No. 68/2016)
Decree of the Ministry Environment and Forestry concerning
Waster Water Quality Standards (Decree of MOEF No. 5/2014)* The Law Concerning Environmental Protec�on and Management has been amended by the Omnibus Law on Job Crea�on (Law No. 11/2020)
to revise some provisions on environmental impact assessment, forest management, and environmental licensing system.

Philippines
Sri Lanka

Designation

Nepal

Table 2.3.4 Classes of inland water quality
Class

Myanmar

The Long-Term Development Plan 2005–2025 (RPJPN:
Law No. 17/2007) stipulates the role of government
as facilitator, regulator, and development catalyzer toincrease the effectiveness of public services (ADB 2016).
In Indonesia, several ministries deal with water
management, such as the Ministry of Environment andForestry (MOEF), Ministry of Public Works and Housing(PUPR) and State Ministry of National Development
Planning (BAPPENAS). MOEF is responsible for water
quality management and pollution, PUPR deals withwater resource management especially focusing on
quantity and water uses, and BAPPENAS is responsible
for the overall national development.

Water quality criteria (WQC) are set as the benchmarks
for water quality conservation under the Government
Regulation No. 22/2021. These criteria are the minimum
standards set by the national government, though local
governments are free to set their own, which may
be even stricter and include additional parameters inaccordance with local settings.
To date, water quality standards have been developed
for surface inland water bodies such as rivers, lakes(approved in 2001) and coastal waters (approved in 2004),
though no standards have been developed and approvedfor groundwater, which is a matter of concern. Nationally,
river water quality is presently monitored through 510
water quality monitoring sites, and for lakes there are 10.
WQC sets standard values for different parameters
in four classes, which are determined based on the typeof water usage (Table 2.3.4). However, as rivers have notbeen fully categorized into classes, the state of water
quality in the country is evaluated based upon complianceof values with Class II. The Decree of the State Ministerof the Environment concerning Standard Quality of Sea

Malaysia

5.2 Institutional Arrangement

5.3 Ambient Water Quality Standards

Lao PDR

The Government Regulation No. 22/2021 strives toregulate the inventory of water bodies which consists of
the identification and characterization of water bodies,including surface water and groundwater and different
pollutants (point as well as non-point source). It also
regulates economic instruments for water pollution
control.

Republic of Korea

Figure 2.3.5 Basic legislative structure for water environment management

Japan

Integrated of the eﬄuent standards for 36 speciﬁc industries
including palm oil, tex�le, processing of fruit and vegetables,
coconut, cows and pigs husbandry, reﬁned sugar, oleo chemicalindustry

Decree of the State Minister of the Environment concerningStandard Quality of Seawater (Decree of the State Ministerof the Environment No. 51/2004)

Indonesia

Decree of the Ministry of Environment concerning
Management of Water Pollu�on Control(Decree of MOE No. 1/2010)

China

Government Regula�on concerning the management of
Water Quality and Control of Water Pollu�on(Government Regula�on No. 82/2001)

Standard (mg/L)
COD

Cl2

PhenolTotal Coliform

E. coli

Drinking water

2

10

0.03

0.001

1000

100

II

Water recreation facilities

3

25

0.03

0.001

5,000

1,000

III

Freshwater for fish, farmingand husbandry

6

50

0.03

0.001

10,0002,000

IV

Crops irrigation

12

100

0.03

0.001

10,0002,000(Source: Purwati et al. 2019)

Viet Nam

I

Thailand

BOD

49

Water (MOE Decree No. 51/2004) stipulated three setsof standards for coastal water quality: Marine water
quality standards for ports and harbours (Annex I in MoE
Decree 51/2004), standards for marine recreation(Annex II) and standards for marine ecosystems (Annex
III). Water quality standards for marine ecosystems,
notably, are subdivided further into clarity, TSS,
temperature and salinity for coral, mangrove, and sea
grass (lamun) (Table 2.3.5).
As with water criteria for surface water, local
governments can set stricter standards, such as theRegulation of the Governor of DKI Jakarta Province
No.93/2006, which applies stricter standards for capitals
of provinces and the special region of Jakarta (DKI Jakarta
Province).

Water quality monitoring framework
Water quality monitoring schemes are determined under
the Management of Water Quality and Control over
Water Pollution Government Regulation as follows:
1. Monitoring of water sources in the regency/municipal region is carried out by the regency/municipal government.

No.

Parameter

Unit

Coral

Standard value
Mangrove Sea grass

Physical parameters
1

Clarity

m

>5

-

2

Odor

-

Normal3

Turbidity

NTU

<5

4

TSS

mg/L

5

Refuse-6Temperature°C

7

Oil film-

undetected
7.0-8.5

20

80

28–30

28–32

1

pH

-

2

Salinity

‰

3

DO

mg/L

>5

4

BOD

mg/L

20

5

Free ammonia
mg/L(NH4-N)
Orthophosphate mg/L
(PO4-P)
Nitrate nitrogen mg/L
(NO3-N)

6
7

33–34

34

28–30

33–34

0.3
0.015
0.008

8

Cyanide (CN)

mg/L

0.5

Sulphides

mg/L

0.01

10

PAHs

mg/L

0.003

11

Phenols

mg/L

0.002

12

PCB

μg/L

0.01

13

mg/L

1

3. Monitoring of water sources in two or more
provincial regions and/or water sources onborders with other countries is observed by thenational government.

Surfactants(MBAS)

14

Oil and grease

mg/L

1

15

Pesticides

mg/L

0.01

16

Tributyltin (TBT)

μg/L

0.01

Water quality observations are carried out at least
once in six months and results are submitted to theministry of environment and forest. The mechanisms andprocedures for water quality monitoring are stipulated
further in detail through ministerial decree.

1

Hg

mg/L

0.001

2

Cr

mg/L

0.005

3

As

mg/L

0.012

4

Cd

mg/L

0.001

5

Cu

mg/L

0.008

6

Pb

mg/L

0.008

7

Zn

mg/L

0.05

8

Ni

mg/L

0.05

National wastewater quality standards are specified
by governmental regulation after due considerationof suggestions from related government agencies(Government Regulation No. 22/2021). As with water
quality standards, provincial governments can specify
similar or tighter wastewater quality standards than thenational wastewater quality standard.

20

Chemical parameters

9Effluent standards>3

undetected

2. Monitoring of water sources in two or moreregency/municipal regions within one province iscoordinated by the provincial government andcarried out by each regency/municipal government.

5.4 Effluent Standards

50

Table 2.3.5 Coastal water quality standards for marine
ecosystems

Dissolved metals
6+

Organic parameters
1

Total coliform

2

Pathogens3

Plankton

MPN/
100mL
nb/
100mL
-

1,000
undetected
No abnormal blooms

Radioactive parameters
1

Radioactive
substances

Bq/L

4

Chapter 2: Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Republic of Korea

Table 2.3.6 PROPER evaluation levels
Performancelevel

Category

Number ofcompanies
in 2016Gold

Zero emissions

12

Green

Beyond compliance

172

Blue

ComplianceRed

Failure to reachrequirementsBlack

Non-compliance, andinsignificant efforts at
improvement

1,422

Malaysia284

5

MyanmarTotal

Lao PDR

1,895(Source: MoE 2017)

Nepal

5.5 Major Policies on Water Environmental
Management
The Long-Term Development Plan 2005–2025 (RPJPN)
presents the main policies and strategies, which inturn sets the direction for the National Medium-Term
Development Plan (RPJMN) 2015–2019, which includes
the following targets regarding conservation of the water
environment:• Rehabilitation of 5.5 million ha of Indonesian Forest• Increase community involvement in watershedmanagement through development of Community
Plantation Forest, Community Forest, Village Forest,
development of ecotourism and development of
non-timber forest products• Rehabilitate 3 million ha and construct 1 million haof irrigation networks

Philippines
Sri Lanka
Thailand
Viet Nam

In the absence of any economic tools or concrete plans
for water quality management and enforcement ofregulations, Indonesia has some judicial and non-judicial
measures for managing non-compliance with effluent
water quality standards. In order to enforce the water
management guidelines, effluent standards for industrial
and domestic sectors were approved in 2014 and 2016
respectively, with either the Environmental Agency ofLocal and Provincial government or MOEF managing
inspections in accordance with to the permit issued.
While each industry has an obligation to monitor thequality of effluent once a month, rates of effluent
discharge and pH are monitored daily. Reporting is done
every three months, inspections for which involve a
three-step process: a) on-site inspection, b) submittal ofeffluent quality report by the industry, and c) online
report submission.
Based on Article 76 of Law No. 32/2009 on
Environmental Protection and Management, the Minister,
Governor, Regent, or Mayor can impose administrative
sanctions on business actors in accordance with thedegree of violation of environmental permits (e.g.,
effluent quality), which include:a. Written warning
b. Government coercion
c. Freezing of environmental permits
d. Revocation of environmental permit

Japan

Measures against non-compliance

The Program for Pollution Control Evaluation and Rating
PROPER: Program Penilaian Peringkat Kinerja Perusahaan
is executed to encourage compliance of companies
with applicable rules and regulations, and the results
are published as information reflecting the reputationof companies in respect of environmental management.
In 2016, 1,895 companies were rated under the PROPER
program (Table 2.3.6).

Indonesia

All industries are required to send wastewater samples toregistered laboratories once a month or more frequently
depending on their activities, with the analysis reports
then submitted every six months to local authorities andthe MOEF. Local and national authorities have the rightof access and sampling of effluent at any time.

Compliance management

China

Effluent inspection procedure

Although an enforcement regulation previously
existed, the Minister of Environment and Forestry
introduced a new aspect of monitoring of effluent
quality, which stipulates it be performed automatically,
continuously and online, under Decree of the Minister ofEnvironment and Forestry No. 93/2018 (No. P.93/
MENLHK/SETJEN/KUM.1/8/2018).

Cambodia

General industrial effluent standards were firstcreated in Government Regulation No. 20/1990. Under
the Decree of Ministry of Environment No. 3/1991 (no.
KEP-03/MENKLH/II/1991), specific effluent standards
were first identified for 14 industrial activities, whichthen increased to 21 by the Decree of Ministry ofEnvironment No. 51/1995. However, these Decrees weremerged into the Decree of Ministry of Environment andForestry No. 5/2014, which integrated the effluent
standards of 36 industries in those Decrees. Local
governments such as in DKI Jakarta, West Java andJogjakarta have established tighter wastewater quality
standards than the national government.

51• Establish flood management schemes in 33 river
basins• Improve water quality in 15 lakes and 5 rivers

Analysis of watershed status, water source
protection and restoration is to be carried out in fourpriority watersheds (Ciliwung, Citarum, Kapuas and Siak)and vegetation management is to be conducted in 26
sub-priority watersheds.
Presidential Decree No. 33/2011 lays out thenational policy of water resource management from2011 to 2030.

6 | Recent Developments inWater Environmental Management
Regarding the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs),
the Ministry of National Development Planning(Bappenas) is assigned to coordinate the entire processof planning, implementation, monitoring as well as
evaluation and reporting by involving all stakeholders.
Indonesia maintains a working relationship based on
mutual trust between all stakeholders, consisting of thegovernment, CSO, philanthropy and business, andacademics. Active engagement of all stakeholders is
encouraged and enhanced by their involvement andrepresentation in the Implementing Team and Working
Group within the SDGs National Coordinating Team. All
stakeholders are not only involved in the implementation,
but also in determining the direction of SDG
implementation.
The national medium-term development plan
(RPJMN) 2015–2019 targets universal access to waterand sanitation by 2019. Since 2019, WEPA started
implementing a WEPA Action Program in Indonesia,

providing technical support to the Indonesian Ministry ofEnvironment and Forestry of Indonesia (MOEF) todevelop a ”Guidelines on Implementation of Total
Maximum Daily Load (TMDL) as Water Quality
Management Approach”. The introduction andimplementation of the Guidelines is expected to address
water pollution caused by domestic and industrial
wastewater, which has been a longstanding issue inIndonesia. The final draft of the Guidelines is going to be
finalized by the MOEF, in collaboration with the Instituteof Technology Bandung (ITB) and the WEPA Secretariat.
Indonesia’s specific response to achieve its SDG
targets on water quality (SDG targets 6.2, 6.3 and SDG
target 6.A specifically) is described in Table 2.3.7.

Major flagship program for improvement ofwater environment
Indonesia has developed and implemented the Ecoriparian Program, a water body restoration program thataims to improve water quality and restore ecological andsocio-cultural functions of water bodies. The Program
includes:1. Maintaining quantity and continuity of water andprevent flooding
2. Improving water quality and restore aquatic
ecosystems
3. Revitalizing environmentally friendly river-based
culture4. Empowering local communities in water protection
and management
5. Implementing regulations that strengthen water
quality management and control water pollution

Table 2.3.7 Country’s response to achieving SDG 6

52

Response

YesNo

If yes, please provide short description

Mapping of agencies for SDG targets
6.2 and 6.3✔

- Ministry Public work and Settlement and Ministry of Environment and Forestry

Set up/revision of country’s indicatoron SDG targets 6.2 and 6.3✔

- By 2030, achieving access to improved sanitation and hygiene adequate andequitable for all, and stop the practice of defecation in open spaces, paying
special attention to the needs of women and vulnerable groups of people.

Available datasets to measureprogress of SDG targets 6.2 andSDG targets 6.3✔

- Central Bureau of Statistics (BPS): National Socio-Economic Survey (Susenas)
health and housing modules.
- Ministry of Public Works and Settlements: Annual Report.

Chapter 2: Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

China

Challenges: Overall, key challenges are divided into thefollowing four categories:• Institutional Challenges: Challenges in coordinationand integration at the implementation level

Cambodia

7 | Challenges and Future Plans• Enforcement challenges: Limited number of• Resource and financial challenges: Limited

Japanbudgetary allocation to control water pollution andlimited number and quality of human resources that
handle water protection and management at the
local level

Indonesia

environmental inspectors at the local level• Technical challenges: The necessary of increasing

Table 2.3.8 Necessary actions to address the above

Republic of Korea

the capacity of innovation in developing andapplying science and technology related to water
protection and management

mentioned challenges

i. Increasing the number of inspectors and training
on inspection and enforcement of environmental
law
ii. Encourage policy makers at the local level toempower environmental inspectors

Resource
and financial
Challenges

i. Increasing the capacity of local governments withguidance and budgetary assistanceii. Implement an effective incentive and disincentive
system for local government

Technical
Challenges

i. Increased collaboration between researchers andmanagers in the development and application ofscience and technology
ii. Increasing the technical capacity of staff andmanagers in industry and government agencies inwater protection and management

Philippines

Enforcement
Challenges

Nepal

i. Need to build an effective system in implementing
joint programs and actions between related
ministries and institutions and communities

MyanmarInstitutional
Challenges

Malaysia

Necessary actions to be taken

Lao PDR

Challenges

Sri Lanka
Thailand
Viet Nam

53

2.4 Japan
1 | Country Information
Table 2.4.1 Basic indicators
Land Area (km2)

377,977 (2020)

Total Population

125.9 million (2020)

GDP (current USD)

4,956.4 billion (2018)

GDP per capita (current USD)

35,280 (2018)

Average Precipitation (mm/year)

1,668 (2017)

Total Renewable Water Resources (km3)

430 (2017)

Total Annual Freshwater Withdrawals(billion m3)

79.3(2017)

Annual Freshwater
Withdrawals
by Sector

Agriculture

68% (2017)

Industry

14% (2017)

Municipal(including domestic)

18% (2017)(Source: See References)

Moreover, most of the available water is discharged tothe ocean unused due to the steep topography, very
short streams as well as intensive rainfall in rainy andtyphoon seasons.

3 | State of Ambient Water Quality
The main objectives of protecting the water environment
in Japan are human health and environmental
conservation, for which environmental standards forambient water quality have been established in the
Basic Environment Law as the acceptable levels of water
quality to be maintained in public waters. As such, there
are two related Environmental Quality Standards (EQS)
for water– one for human health, which are uniform
standards applicable to all public water bodies nationally,
and the other for conservation of the living environment,
which is applied to all public water bodies.
In most locations, EQS for human health have been
attained with a 99.1% compliance rate in fiscal year
2018. EQS for conservation of the living environment
have been achieved, with an 89.6% rate of compliancefor biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) or chemical
oxygen demand (COD), the representative water quality
indicators of organic contamination (Figure 2.4.2).
100Compliance rate (％)

90

Japan is located in the eastern monsoon region of Asiaand noted for having one of highest accumulations in theworld. The annual mean precipitation is 1,668 mm, about
1.4 times the global annual mean (inland area, 1,171mm). On the other hand, on a per capita basis (annual
mean precipitation × land area ÷ total population) thisis about 5,000 m3/person/year, about a quarter of theworld amount. In terms of available water resources
per capita, it is about 3,400 m3/person/year, which isless than half of the world average (about 7,300m3).

54

60
50
40
30
20
10

OverallRiversLakes andreservoirs

Coastal
areas

0

74
19
77
19
80
19
83
19
86
19
89
19
92
19
95
19
98
20
01
20
04
20
07
20
10
20
13
20
16

2 | State of Water Resources

70

19

Figure 2.4.1 Lake Biwa in Shiga Prefecture, Japan80

Fiscal Year

Figure 2.4.2 Shift in environmental standard compliance
rate (BOD and COD)
(Source: MoEJ 2020)

3.1 Rivers
The compliance rate for rivers is 94.6%, the highest
among the different types of water bodies. A trend ofrising compliance was observed until 2015, after which
it plateaued for a few years, but in general a high water
quality has been maintained.

Chapter 2: Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

The compliance rate for coastal waters is 79.2%, and for
total nitrogen and total phosphorus in coastal waters was

3.4 Groundwater
Of the 3,206 wells tested in 2018, 181 (or 5.6%) exceeded
standards for some EQS. Among others, values for nitrate
nitrogen and nitrite nitrogen exceeded the standards(Figure 2.4.3), the main causes of which are considered
to be nitrogen load from excessive fertilization,
inappropriate livestock excreta treatment facilities anddomestic wastewater.

Indonesia

3.3 Coastal Water

92.1%, which is higher than the previous year’s record.

China

The compliance rate for lakes and reservoirs recorded is
54.3%. While the rate has improved compared to before
2000, it has hovered around 55% in recent years. The
compliance rate for total nitrogen and total phosphorus
for lakes and reservoirs was low at 48.8%.

Cambodia

3.2 Lakes and Reservoirs

Environmental standard excess rate (%)

Japan

7

5
4

Republic of Korea

Nitrate nitrogen and nitrite nitrogen
Arsenic
Flourine
Tetrachloroethylene
Trichloroethylene
Lead

6

3
2
1
89 990 991 992 993 994 995 996 997 998 999 000 001 002 003 004 005 006 007 008 009 010 011 012 013 014 015 016 017 018
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2Survey year

19

4 | State of Wastewater Treatment

Sri Lanka
Thailand
Viet Nam*1: Domestic wastewater treatment facilities do not include facilities that treat only black water and discharge grey water into the environment
without treatment.
*2: A decentralized domestic wastewater treatment system widely used in rural areas of Japan. It can treat both black and grey water and obtain highquality effluent with aeration (less than BOD 20 mg/L according to the structural standard). Advanced types of Johkasou that can remove nitrogenor phosphorus are becoming increasingly prevalent recently. The Johkasou Law modified in 2005 defines the effluent water quality standard forJohkasou.
*3: Tandoku-shori Johkasou is an older-type Johkasou that treats only black water, and not grey water, and has therefore low effluent removal rates
and higher pollution loads (eight times) than the newer gappei-shori Johkasou. Under the Johkasou Law, Johkasou indicates gappei-shori
Johkasou that treats both black and grey water. Tandoku-shori Johkasou that does not treat grey water is, consequently, regarded as deemed
Johkasou. New installations of the older type have been forbidden since 2000 based on the modified Johkasou Law of the same year. Althoughnumbers of older tandoku-shori Johkasou are dropping, about 3.8 million are still in existence as of end of FY 2018. The issue of how to convert
the older type to the newer type is very urgent.

Philippines

domestic wastewater treatment systems, or Johkasou*2
are suitable, based on which Johkasou systems are
expected to play a larger role in domestic wastewater
treatment in the near future of Japan. Moreover,considering future social conditions anticipated in Japansuch as low birth rate and longevity, and population
decrease, it is assumed that both installations of new
Johkasou as well as conversions of older-type(“tandokushori ”) Johkasou*3 into newer-type (“gappeishori ”) Johkasou will increase.

Nepal

Access to domestic wastewater treatment facilities*1 inJapan stood at 91.7% for the population as a whole, asof the end of FY 2019 (except for some municipalities inFukushima, which lacked survey data due to the Great
East Japan Earthquake).
As shown in Figure 2.4.4, rates for those with accessto domestic wastewater treatment facilities are low inmunicipalities with small populations. Further, for areasof low population density, it is noted that decentralized(Source: MOEJ 2021)

MyanmarFigure 2.4.3 Environmental standard excess rates for groundwater (by item)

Malaysia

Note 1. Wells measured in general survey differ by year.
Note 2. Environmental standards related to groundwater contamination were established in 1997. Standards preceding this year are
considered evaluation criteria. In addition, the evaluation criteria for arsenic was revised from “under 0.05 mg/L” to “under 0.01
mg/L”, and for lead from “under 0.1 mg/L” to “under 0.01 mg/L” in 1993, and for trichloroethylene from “under 0.03 mg/L” to“less than 0.01 mg/L” in 2014.
Note 3. Nitrate nitrogen, nitrite nitrogen and fluorine were added to environmental standard items in 1999.

Lao PDR

055

Percentage of people with access to domes�c wastewater treatment facili�e (%)

With regards to installation of Johkasou, several
subsidy programmes are provided by the MoEJ, such as
the Johkasou Installation Promotion Programme, inwhich municipalities provide financial support tohomeowners installing Johkasou, and the Municipal
Johkasou Installation Programme, in which thegovernment subsidizes municipalities installing Johkasou.
In addition to installation subsidies, the government
provides financial support for the removal of older-style(tandoku-shori) Johkasou to promote conversion to the

100

99.6%

newer-type (gappei-shori) Johkasou.
Regarding the various sewerage treatment systems,
rural sewerage systems and Johkasou systems, it isimportant not only to develop domestic wastewater
treatment facilities effectively and appropriately,
corresponding to changing social conditions, but also torenovate, renew and operate existing facilities effectively,
considering technological and financial aspects of thesesystems for the sustainable management of domestic
wastewater treatment facilities.
At the End of FY 2019

94.9%

93.8%

90

91.6%
86.6%

80

81.1%

70
60

S:99.3%50

S:88.5%

S:85.7%

S:79.3%

S:66.3%

S:55.5%

Domes�cWastewater Treatment System (Total)

40

Percentage of people
with access todomes�c wastewater
treatment facili�esNa�onal Average:
91.7 %

30

R:7.8%

20
10
0Popula�on

J:0.3%
More than 1 million

R:4.3%

R:0.5%

R:0.9%

R:2.4%

J:5.8%

J:7.1%

J:9.7%

0.5–1
million

0.3–0.5
million

0.1–0.3
millionJ:15.5%50–100thousands

J:20.4%
Under 50thousands*S: Sewerage system, C: Community sewerage treatement system, R: Rural sewerage system, J: Johkasou sysytem

Figure 2.4.4 Percentage of people with access to domestic wastewater treatment facilities(Source: MoEJ 2019)by size of municipality

5 | Frameworks for Water
Environmental Management
5.1 Legislation
The purpose of the Basic Environmental Law is to “ensure
healthy and cultured living for both the present andfuture generations of the nation as well as to contributeto the welfare of mankind” (Article 1 of the Basic
Environmental Law). The EQS for water were establishedby the Basic Environmental Law as the administrative
targets for ambient water quality.
The Water Pollution Control Law, enacted in order toprotect human health and preserve the living
environment sets provisions for water quality

56

conservation such as effluent regulations from factories
and business establishments, continuous monitoring ofwater quality and the total pollutant load control system.
Other laws related to conservation of public water bodies
are shown in Figure 2.4.5.
As a measure related to domestic wastewater
management, the Sewerage Law was enacted in order toconstruct sewerage systems. In addition, the Johkasou
Law for on-site packaged household wastewater
treatment plants for areas without access to seweragetreatment was established, to define regulations relating
to their installation, inspection, desludging andmanufacturing.

Chapter 2: Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

General Measures

Basic Environment Law
Environmental Quality Standards for
Water Pollutants

Law Concerning Special Measures for
Preserva�on of Lake Water Quality
Planning of Plan for the Preserva�on of
Lake Water Quality, Special Regula�ons

Estuaries

Water Pollu�on Control Law
Control of total pollutant load, andcountermeasures against eutrophica�on

Main Activities in charge

Ministry of theEnvironment

Formulating and implementing a wide range ofwater environment management policies such as
formulation of ambient water quality standards,
water quality monitoring of public water andpublication of the results, effluent standard,
Johkasou maintenance, etc.

Ministry of
Health, Labourand Welfare

Formulating and implementing policies related
to water supply system development andmaintenance, water quality standards for drinking
water, and security of drinking water quality.

Ministry ofAgriculture,
Forestry and
Fisheries

Formulating and implementing policies related tothe conservation and management of agriculturalland and water contributing to the conservationof the rural environment, and the development of
sewage treatment facilities in rural areas.

Biwa Lake
The Law Concerning Special Measures for the Restora�on of
the Biwa Lake
Potable Water Sources

Groundwater Quality
Conserva�on

Water Pollu�on Control Law
Regula�ons for toxic substances fromfactories, purifying orders for polluted
groundwater, and con�nuous monitoring

Basic Law on Water Cycle
Holis�c and integrated implementa�on of policies on water cycle

Other Laws Related to Water Environment

Nationwide uniform standard values were set for 27
items as the EQS for water related to protection ofhuman health (health items). In 1971, the EQS forwater were established. Meanwhile, the EQS for water
related to conservation of the living environment (living
environment items) include environmental standards

ThailandFigure 2.4.5 Scheme of legal system for water(Source: MoEJ 2009)environmental management in Japan

Ambient water quality standards

Sri Lanka

Law Concerning Special Measures against Dioxins
River Law
Drinking Water Sources Law
Water Supply Law
Law Rrela�ng to the Preven�on of Marine Pollu�on andMari�me Disaster

5.3 Ambient Water Quality Standards

Philippines

Sound Water Cycle

The Basic Law on Water Cycle was enacted in 2014
to promote integrated and comprehensive measuresrelated to the water cycle. According to this act, theHeadquarters for Water Cycle Policy, headed by thePrime Minister, was established in the Cabinet.

Nepal

General Measures

Basic Environment Law
Environmental Quality Standards for
Groundwater

Ministry of
Formulating and implementing policies such
Economy, Trade as industrial water supply development andand Industry
wastewater treatment in the mining industry
through the implementation of mine pollution
prevention projects.

MyanmarLaw Concerning Special Measures for the Protec�on of Water
Quality in Water Resources Areas for the Purpose of Preven�ng
Speciﬁc Trouble

Malaysia

Ariake Sea/Yatsushiro Sea
The Law Concerning Special Measures for the Restora�on of
the Ariake and Yatsushiro seas

Lao PDR

Seto Inland Sea
The Law Concerning Special Measures for Conserva�on of the
Seto Inland Sea

Ministry of Land, Promoting sustainable river management throughpreparation of river-related development andInfrastructure,
management plans, disseminating sewerage
Transport andpolicies and formulating and implementing policies
Tourism
related to the development and management ofwater resources.

Republic of Korea

Lakes and Reservoirs

Name

Japan

Special Measures in Enclosed Water Bodies

Table 2.4.2 Institutional arrangement ofwater environmental management

Indonesia

Johkasou Law
Installa�on of Johkasou, regula�on ofdesludging and produc�on,registra�on system of Johkasou
installa�on worker, licence system ofJohkasou desludging technician, etc

Since water is involved in many aspects of our lives, fivemain ministries (Ministry of the Environment; Ministryof Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism; Ministryof Health, Labour and Welfare; Ministry of Agriculture,
Forestry and Fisheries; Ministry of Economy, Tradeand Industry) play key roles and collaborate in water
environment management in Japan.

China

Water Pollu�on Control Law
Factory eﬄuent control, no�ﬁca�on offactory establishment, monitoring orders,con�nuous monitoring.
Measures for household wastewater
Sewerage Law
Construc�on of sewerage

5.2 Institutional Arrangement

Cambodia

Conserva�on of Water
Quality in Public Water

Viet Nam

57

for 13 items, such as BOD, COD, and DO, as well as
total nitrogen and total phosphorus, for prevention ofeutrophication in lakes and coastal waters.
Moreover, as indicators of ambient water quality
standards for the conservation of aquatic living
resources, total zinc, nonylphenol and linear alkylbenzene
sulfonic acid and its salt were registered in 2003, 2012
and 2013, respectively.

Monitoring framework
According to the Water Control Law, prefectural

governors are required to conduct regular monitoringof public water bodies and groundwater, and report to
MoEJ as well as inform the public on the state of waterpollution in public water bodies and groundwater.
Prefectural governments prepare monitoring plans andcarry out regular water quality monitoring in cooperation
with relevant national government organizations basedon monitoring methods specified by MoEJ. Monitoring
results at approximately 7,000 locations in public water
bodies nationwide are publicly released on the MoEJ
website (Figure 2.4.6).

Figure 2.4.6 Comprehensive information site on the water environment

5.4 Effluent Standards
Effluent standards

Based on the Water Pollution Control Law, uniform
effluent standards were established for 28 items related
to protection of human health, which are applicableto factories and business establishments. Meanwhile,
effluent standards for 15 items related to the living
environment target only those factories and businessestablishments with daily effluent volumes exceeding
50m 3 per day. Local governments (prefectures andordinance-designated cities) may establish stricter
effluent standards than the national uniform standards
when the national standards are considered insufficientto achieve water quality targets.
The total pollutant load control system is a discharge
control mechanism to improve water quality by reducing
total pollutant loads flowing into certain enclosed coastal
waters, namely Tokyo Bay, Ise Bay, and the Seto InlandSea, where due to the presence of populated andindustrialized areas it is difficult to achieve EQS for water

58(Source: MoEJ 2020)

by regulating discharge based on only concentrations ofregulated substances. Under the system, the national
government sets targets for pollutant loads and periods,
and the relevant prefectures stipulate the tangible
methods required to meet the targets.
To date, COD loads have been steadily reduced intarget water bodies since 1979 (Figure 2.4.7). Figure
2.4.8 shows the improvement in COD concentrations inTokyo Bay, for example. Nitrogen and phosphorus loads
have also been reduced since their addition as designateditems under the system in 2001. In September 2016,
Japan set forth its basic policy with the 8th phase of total
reduction, with the target year of 2019.

Effluent inspection procedure
The Water Pollution Control Law stipulates monitoring
and recording of the quality of effluent from factories
and business establishments. Factories and businessestablishments located in total pollutant load control
target areas are required to measure and record

Chapter 2: Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

1,012
95

Others800

Industrial

Cambodia

COD generated loads (tons/day)
1,000

Seto inland Sea
900

429 89 838

Domes�c

82 746

China

367

356 72 672
309 67600
Tokyo Bay400

55 468Ise Bay444

115 40 355
307

286 272
35 34 246 221
29
119
27
101 978376
151 150 141 134
118

200

193

400

9 4 9 4 0 5 9 4 9197 198 198 199 200 200 200 201 201 t)
rge(ta

Osaka Bay

319
186
158 141
22
133
20
65
18 18
57 54 52
99 81
69 63

9 4 9 4 0 5 9 4 9197 198 198 199 200 200 200 201 201 t)
rge
(ta

261

173 190
221
180

163

9 4 9 4 0 5 9 4 9197 198 198 199 200 200 200 201 201 t)
rge
(ta

144
118
10
91
32 9 10
26
18
102
83 63

85
7
18
60

5 9 4 9200 200 201 201 t)
rge(ta

Republic of Korea

Fiscal year

404 404
51 51

365

37

76

54

Figure 2.4.7 Challenges in pollution load and target value (in terms of COD) (Source: provided by MoEJ)

Tokyo

6.1

5.2

5.2
5.3

Kanagawa

5.0
4.6

3.9

3.9

3.8

4.0

Chiba

3.7

3.3
3.3

3.1

3.0

2.4 2.3
2.2
2.3

1.4

1.2

1.2

1.3

1.2
1.3
1.2

1.5 - 2.0
2.0 - 2.5
2.5 - 3.0
3.0 - 3.5
3.5 - 4.0
4.0 - 4.5
4.5 - 5.0
5.0 - 6.0
6.0 <2016 – 2018 (average)

Figure 2.4.8 COD concentrations in Tokyo Bay (Source: provided by MoEJ)of violations, such as issuing orders for improvements
according to the outcomes of reports and inspections.

If it is judged that the water discharged from factories andbusiness establishments is unlikely to meet the effluent
standard (or will exceed the standard), administrative

Viet Nam

Measures against non-compliance

Thailandpollution loads in discharged wastewater. Governorsof prefectures and mayors of ordinance-designatedcities can require reports to be submitted and conduct
inspections of factories and business establishments on
wastewater treatment methods and the quality/amountof wastewater in order to prevent violations, and are also
authorized to take administrative measures in the event

Sri Lanka

1982 – 1984 (average)

1.9

Legend(mg/L)

Philippines

1.5 - 2.0
2.0 - 2.5
2.5 - 3.0
3.0 - 3.5
3.5 - 4.0
4.0 - 4.5
4.5 - 5.0
5.0 - 6.0
6.0 <

Chiba

Nepal

Legend(mg/L)

2.6

3.8

2.5

2.7

3.7

Myanmar

2.3

3.5
3.3
3.6

2.9

3.2
3.1

2.4

4.2

2.8

3.1

3.7

3.8
4.0

4.0

2.9

3.2

3.2

3.0

3.7

4.0
4.5
3.6

Malaysia

4.4

4.8

4.5

4.1

4.2

3.1

7.3

3.6

4.5

3.8

5.4
4.4

4.0

Lao PDR

5.2

6.0
5.4 6.5 5.1
8.9
5.8
3.9
5.0 4.8 4.7 4.1 3.7
4.3 3.8
3.9
4.9
4.3 3.46.7 3.3
5.0
8.3 4.0 8.9 5.93.3
3.7 3.7
3.9
3.3 3.8
Kanagawa
4.1 3.8
3.7
3.3
4.9
3.8
3.9
3.1
4.0
3.8

Tokyo

Japan

36 28630 247
211
290
59 28
183
163 155
52 25
243
42 23 19 19
197
36 34
33
167
144
124 110
103
83

324

245

488

Indonesia

38 413

0

561

286
477

59

measures such as operational improvement orders andbusiness suspension orders are implemented. Penalties
such as imprisonment or fines are additionally appliedin cases where effluent standards are not met (or are
exceeded) (in the case of standard violations).

6 | Recent Developments inWater Environmental Management
The various revisions of the laws related with water
environmental management have taken place
according to the times and demands of society. Recent
developments of water environmental management aresummarized below.

Proactive measures to prevent groundwaterpollution (2011 revision of the Water Pollution
Control Law)
In general, groundwater is widely used as valuable
freshwater resources in Japan owing to its good water
quality and low variation in water temperature. However,groundwater pollution cases due to the leakage ofharmful substances such as trichlorethylene fromfactories and business sites are continuously confirmed
each year. Such groundwater pollution is caused byaging production facilities and storage facilities used inindustry, as well as leakage of harmful substances due tooperational errors during the use of production facilities.
Given these circumstances, in order to effectively
prevent groundwater contamination, obligations to not
only report on establishment of facilities that store
hazardous substances but also to comply with structural
standards as well as monitor and record periodic
inspections of facilities that use and store hazardous
substances were implemented (Figure 2.4.9).

Monitoring of radioactive materials (2013revision of the Water Pollution Control Law)
Based on the serious environmental pollution resulting
from leakage of radioactive materials from the Fukushima
Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant during the Great East Japan
Earthquake of March, 2011, monitoring of radioactive
materials in public water bodies and groundwater
was implemented. Results from such monitoring areevaluated and disclosed periodically by trusted sources.

Ambient water quality standards (2016)
Ambient water quality standards consist of items forprotection of human health (health items) and items
for conservation of the living environment (living
environment items). Regarding health items, 27 items
are set for public waters, including heavy metals suchas cadmium and lead, organochlorine compounds
and agricultural chemicals, and 28 items are set forgroundwater. Standards for living environment items
have been set for BOD, COD, total nitrogen, total
phosphorus, total zinc, etc. The types of environmental
standards for each water area are being designatedbased on these standards in accordance with the
purpose of water usage. A study on levels of dissolved
oxygen concentrations in lake bottom water, added tothe standards in March 2016, is underway for water
areas the type designation of which is to be specified by
the national government.

Regulation of the discharging of effluent(partial amendment of effluent standards) (2019)
According to the Water Pollution Control Law, nationwide
uniform effluent standards are set for water discharged
from factories or workplaces with Specified Facilities(including the Specified Facilities in Designated Areas)
into areas of public waters, to preserve water quality.
In view of the challenges related to achieving uniform
effluent standards immediately, of the substances forwhich standards have been set, values for boron,
fluorine, nitrate nitrogen, and cadmium were reviewed.
As a result, new provisional effluent standards went
into effect from July 2019 for boron, fluorine, nitrate
nitrogen, etc., and from December 2019 for cadmium.

Johkasou Law (partial amendment ofeffluent standards) (2019)
Figure 2.4.9 Underground infiltration of hazardous
substances from production facilities (Source: provided by MoEJ)

60

As part of the development of sewage treatment
facilities, Johkasou maintenance activities are being
promoted in each municipality by utilizing national

Chapter 2: Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Lao PDR
Malaysia
Myanmar
Nepal
Philippines
Sri Lanka
Thailand
Viet Nam

Although the water quality of lakes is gradually
improving, the actual achievement rate of environmental
standards is low at around 50%. Many issues haveemerged such as low oxygenation at lake bottoms,
occurrence of water plants, decreased native species anda decline in hauls of fish due to changes in ecosystems,
as well as a weakening of the relationship between
people and lakes due to decreased contact. There areplans to adopt various regulatory measures related towater quality improvement, as well as comprehensively
promote the development of sewerage treatment andJohkasou in the future. Lakeside environments are also

Taking advantage of experiences in overcoming serious
water pollution, it is quite important that Japan
contributes to the preservation and improvement of
the water environment in other countries including
developing countries. As such, Japan will utilize its
technologies and knowledge to promote initiatives ininternational cooperation and partnerships, such as
institutional transfer and technology support. After theend of the global pandemic of the new coronavirus
infection occurred in 2019, it could be required to createa society focusing on global environment and publichealth more than ever.
Considering these situations, it could be also crucial
that the Japanese government will continue to conduct
the “Water Environmental Partnership in Asia (WEPA)” aswell as public-private partnerships for the promotion ofJapanese wastewater treatment technologies in othercountries.

Republic of Korea

Improvement of water quality of lakes

Initiatives on global water issues

Japan

7 | Challenges and Future Plans

Water quality is preserved by human interventions inharmony with nature. Bountiful seas, rich in biodiversity
and productivity, are known as “satoumi” and it isimportant to promote the creation of satoumi in inlandseas and bays close to where people live.
In addition to conventional efforts to improve water
quality and conserve natural seashore, the Ministry of
the Environment, Japan promotes policies combining
meticulous nutrient management, and the preservation,
restoration and creation of tidal flats and seaweed beds.
The policies are based on a report issued in March 2020
entitled “Environmental conservation measures of the
Seto Inland Sea in the future”, as well as the statement of
opinion issued in January 2021 on “Direction of reviewing
the measures on environmental conservation of thedesignated water in the Seto Inland Sea”.

Indonesia

The Basic Act on Water Cycle was enacted in 2014 as a
new act aimed at advancing policies related to the water
recycle in a unified manner. In 2015, based on this act,a Basic Plan on Water Cycle was prepared. In the plan,
river basin management was established as a measure
aimed at a healthy water cycle, under which the various
stakeholders concerned are to collaborate in eachriver basin to ensure a healthy water cycle. Based on
the results of the evaluation of changes in the situation
regarding the water cycle and the effects of measuresrelated thereto, The Basic Act on the Water Cycle calls
for the Basic Plan on Water Cycle to be reviewed and, as
necessary, modified every five years or so. The new Basic
Plan on Water Cycle, formulated in June 2020, includes
three main priorities: (1) Water-cycle innovation throughriver basin management, (2) Realization of a safe andsecure society through sound water cycle initiatives, and(3) Passing on an abundant society to future generations
through a sound water cycle.

Restoring Bountiful Seas

China

Enactment of the new Basic Plan on
Water Cycle (2020)

to be preserved, such as through the conservation ofvegetation and aquatic life in lakeside areas from theviewpoint of conservation and restoration of purification
and biodiversity.

Cambodiatreasury subsidies, etc., based on the "Regional Plan for
Establishing a Recycling-based Society". In particular,
regarding the conversion from tandoku-shori Johkasou(single treatment septic tanks) to gappei-shori Johkasou(dual treatment septic tanks), the subsidy rate has
been raised for projects of municipalities that promote
in-house plumbing work in conjunction with theintroduction of energy-saving septic tanks. To further
support this movement, a partial amendment to theJohkasou Law was enacted and issued in June 2019, andwent into effect in April 2020.

61

2.5 Republic of Korea
1 | Country Information

major river basins in Korea, namely the Han, Geum,
Nakdong and Yeongsan-Seomjin.

Table 2.5.1 Basic indicators
Land Area (km2)

100,341 (2015)

Total Population

52 million (2019)

GDP (current USD)

1,647 billion (2019)*

GDP per capita (current USD)

31,846 (2019)

Average Precipitation (mm/year)

1283.4 (2019)

Total Renewable Water Resources (km3)

132.3 (2020)**

Total Annual Freshwater Withdrawals(billion m3)

25.1 (2020)

Annual Freshwater
Withdrawals
by Sector

Agriculture

61% (2020)

Industry

9% (2020)

Municipal(including domestic)

30% (2020)(Source: *Korean Statistical Information Service (2020) (1,919 trillion won(seasonally adjusted, current prices)), **Sewage statistics by Korean
Ministry of Environment)

3 | State of Ambient Water Quality
There are 1,936 sampling points for ambient water
quality, which is measured against a composite water
quality index divided into seven levels (Ia: Very good, Ib:
Good, II: Moderately good, III: Moderate, IV: Moderately
bad, V: Bad, VI: Very bad). Water quality is assessed andpublicly disclosed for key sampling points as shown in
Figure 2.5.2 (MOE 2020, NIER MLIT 2020).

Hantangang
Misan

Hwacheon

Inje

Seosang
PocheonSincheon
Uiam
Guri

Han River Basin

Gapyeong
Hungcheon
Wonju
Gyeongancheon
Neungseo
Bokacheon
Gangcheon Pyeongchang
Yeoju
Cheongmicheon

Geum River
Basin

Chungju

Danyang

Bonghwa

Dalcheon

Mihocheon
Pungyang
Nammyun Hyundo
Andongdamharyu
Yugucheon
Daechungho
AndongGongjuHoisang
JanggyeGapcheon
ShinamBuyeo Okcheoncheon
Dogye
Nakdong River
Ewon
Haepyung
Basin
Gumi
ChilgokBonghwangcheon
Waegwan Kangchang
Yongdamho
Dasan
Namcheon
Goryung Sungseo
Jukpo
Okjungho
Chungam
ChangamNamgang
Sangdong
Chilseo
Jinju
Guryu
Seochanggyu
Yongbong Dongbokho
Naju

JuamhoTamjinho

Yeongsan River Basin

Excellent
Good
Fair
Marginal
Poor
Error

Figure 2.5.1 The Han River in Seoul, the Republic of Korea

Figure 2.5.2 Water Quality Index of ambient water in the(Source: Park 2020)
Republic of Korea

2 | State of Water Resources

3.1 Rivers

Alongside exponential growth in GDP, per capita water
use in the Republic of Korea has also grown. However, it
has seen a marked decrease in recent years; per capita
water use is currently 485 m3/year*1, whereas availability
is 1,553 m3/year (Lee et al. 2019). Seasonal variation inwater availability remains a challenge for the country’s
water management, especially in light of water-related
disasters exacerbated by climate change. About twothirds of the annual precipitation falls in the monsoon
season between June and September. There are four

All streams nationwide are classified into 115 sections
and water quality targets have been established foreach. Water quality in the country has steadily improved
overall since the late 1990s, due to increasing public
interest. Figure 2.5.3 shows the trend of water quality
in selected points in four major river systems (Paldang(Han), Mulgeum (Nakdong), Daecheong (Geum), andJuam (Yeongsan-Seomjin)) in terms of BOD. During
2017–2019, average BOD values were stable at 1.2–1.3
mg/L, and average COD values have slightly improved
from 4.2 to 3.9 mg/L (Figure 2.5.4).

*1 Calculated by dividing total water use (25.1 billion m3/year) by population (51.78 million) (Statistics Korea, 2020).

62

RTWQI

Chapter 2: Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Cambodia

BOD (mg/L)
4.0

3.0

1.0

0.0

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

2019

Figure 2.5.3 Changes in BOD values in four major rivers (2008–2019)(Source: MOE 2020)

Japan

COD (mg/L)

6.0

Han river (Paldang)
Nakdong river (Mulgeum)
Geum river (Daecheong)
Yeongsan river (Juam)

4.0

Republic of Korea

8.0

Lao PDR

2.0

0.0

Indonesia

Han river (Paldang)
Nakdong river (Mulgeum)
Geum river (Daecheong)
Yeongsan river (Juam)

China

2.0

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

2019

As with river water quality, that of lakes and reservoirs
also shows a trend of improvement and stabilizationin recent years. Table 2.5.2 shows recent water quality
trends in selected reservoirs.

COD(mg/L)

NO 3-N(mg/L)

PO 4-P
E.coli(mg/L) (CFU/100mL)

Category≤ 23

II (good)

24 – 33
34 – 46
47 – 59

2017

1.2

3.0

1.083

0.005

36

III (moderate)

2018

1.3

3.1

1.041

0.007

17

IV (bad)

2019

1.1

3.1

1.072

0.006

19

V (very bad)

≥ 60
(Source: Ministry of Oceans and Fisheries 2021)

3.3 Coastal Water* WQI=10×[DO]+6×([Chl.a]+

[SD]
[DIP]
)+4×([DIN]+)
2
2

Figures in square brackets [ ] represent scores based on Table 2.5.3b.
DO: Dissolved Oxygen, Chl.a: Chloropyll a, SD: transparency (secchidisc), DIN: dissolved inorganic nitrogen, DIP: dissolved inorganic
phosphorus.

Viet Nam

WQI trends of each sampling area are publicly
disclosed on the NIER website. The example shown in
Figure 2.5.5 is of Incheon Port.

ThailandThe Korean marine environment monitoring network
is composed of port, coastal/offshore, environmental
management waters, and estuaries, and monitoringis carried out seasonally (February, May, August, andNovember) at 417 monitoring stations. Additionally,
automatic continuous monitoring is conducted in Sihwa
Lake, Masan Port, Ulsan Port, Yeosu New Harbor, and thecoastal areas of Busan (MLIT 2020). Coastal water quality
standards were introduced in 2018 (Ministry of Oceans

Sri Lanka(Source: MOE 2020)

Water Quality Index*

I (very good)Philippines

Year

BOD
(mg/L)

Table 2.5.3a WQI calculation method for coastal
water quality

Nepal

Table 2.5.2 Recent annual average water quality values for
Lake Paldang, Andong, Daechong, and Juamand Fisheries, No.10/2018), and the Water Quality Index(WQI), comprising five levels, is calculated as describedin Tables 2.5.3a to c.

Myanmar

3.2 Lakes and Reservoirs(Source: MOE 2020)

Malaysia

Figure 2.5.4 Changes in COD values in four major rivers (2008–2019)63

Table 2.5.3b WQI calculation method for coastal
water quality
Score

Table 2.5.3c WQI calculation method for coastal
water quality

Parameter
Chl.a, DIN, DIP (μg/L)
DO (%), SD (m)Ecological
zone

Chl.a
(μg/L)

DO(%)

Parameter
DIN
DIP(μg/L) (μg/L)

SD
(m)

1

< reference value> reference value2< 110% of reference value> 90% of reference value3< 125% of reference value> 75% of reference valueSouthwest sea

3.7

230

25

0.5

4

< 150% of reference value> 50% of reference value

Central West Sea

2.2

425

30

1.0

5

≥ 150% of reference value≤ 50% of reference value

Jeju

1.6

165

15

8.0

East Sea

2.1

140

20

8.5

Korea Strait

6.3

220

35

2.5

(Source: Ministry of Oceans and Fisheries 2021)

90(Source: Ministry of Oceans and Fisheries 2021)

Reference values vary according to sea area, as shown in Table 2.5.3c.

Category

V

IV
III
II
I

2016-02

2016-082017-022017-082018-022018-082019-022019-08

2020-022020-08

Time (yyyy - mm)

Figure 2.5.5 Trend of WQI in Incheon Port (2016–2020) (Source: NIER MLIT 2020)

3.4 Groundwater
Prior to 2018, groundwater had been managed byvarious acts under the control of different ministries,
namely, Ministry of Environment (MOE), Ministry ofLand, Infrastructure and Transport (MLIT), Ministry ofAgriculture, Food and Rural Affairs (MAFRA), Ministryof the Interior and Safety (MOIS), and Ministry of
National Defense (MND) (Kang et al. 2020). In 2018, thegovernment passed the landmark Framework Act on
Water Management (No.15653/2018), which transferred
all groundwater-related responsibilities to MOE.
According to Korea Environment Corporation (2021),
1,140 monitoring sites have been set up as of 2020, anda total of 3,725 sites are planned to be established by
2030. Kang et al. (2020) observe that strategic scaling
up of groundwater use is essential in climate change
adaptation, especially in light of the increasing frequency
and intensification of droughts.

64

4 | State of Wastewater Treatment
In 2017, 2.16 million m3/day of domestic wastewaterand 4.01 million m3/day of industrial wastewater was
generated, and the treatment rate of both was 100%;
93.6% of domestic wastewater was treated centrally
and 6.4% with decentralized treatment (MOE 2018).
The domestic wastewater tariff is staggered according todischarge volume; for example, in Incheon in 2016 thewastewater tariff was 0.31 USD/m3, 0.48 USD/m3, 0.83
USD/m3 respectively for 15 m3, 50 m3, and 100 m3 (IBNet
2020).
Public awareness regarding wastewater treatment ishigh. In 2017, a decision was made to construct Seung-Gi
Wastewater Treatment Plant of Incheon City
underground to protect the breeding site of the blackfaced spoonbill (Platalea minor). Although numbers aregradually increasing (Sung et al. 2017), the black-facedChapter 2: Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

5.2 Institutional Arrangement

Environmental Impact Assessment Act(No.15662/2018)
Environmental Tes�ng and Inspec�on Act(No.15200/2017)
Water Supply and Waterworks Installa�on Act(No.16082/2018)
Act on Promo�on and Support of Water Reuse(No.16080/2019)
Ballast Water Management Act (No.16160/2019)
Special Act on the U�liza�on of Waterfronts(No.15624/2018)
Water-related Leisure Ac�vi�es Safety Act(No.16567/2019)
Korea Water Resources Corpora�on Act(No.15624/2018)
Development and Management of Deep Sea Water
Act (No.16518/2019)

Figure 2.5.6 Legislative chart for water quality
management(Source: created by IGES based on KLRI 2020, MOE 2020)

Viet Nam

In line with the approach to manage water from an
integrated perspective, responsibilities which werepreviously spread across different ministries (forOther Laws Related to Water Environment

ThailandThe water quality monitoring framework was firstestablished in 1967, with standards first set up in 1978.

Groundwater Act (No.15624/2018)

Sri Lanka

5. Creating economic and cultural value related
water environment

Conserva�on of Water Quality in Groundwater

Philippines

4. Establishing framework for safe water environment

Marine Environment Management Act(No.16520/2019)
Coast Management Act (No.16285/2019)

Nepal

3. Improving the index for aquatic ecosystems

Conserva�on of Water Quality in Coastal Water

Myanmar

2. Securing clean water through integrated basin
management

River Act (No.14722/2017)
Act on the Improvement of Water Quality andsupport for Residents of the Han River Basin(No.15104/2017)
Act on Water Management and Residents support
in the Nakdong River Basin (No.15095/2017)
Act on Water Management and Resident Support
in the Geum River Basin (No.15094/2017)
Act on Water Management and Resident Support
in the Yeongsan and Seomjin River Basins(No.15099/2017)
Small River Maintenance Act (No.16772/2019)

Malaysia

1. Establishing a harmonious water cycle

RiversLao PDR

The Ministry of Environment has established five core
strategies for the period of 2016–2025 under theframework of water environmental management, as
below:Act on the Inves�ga�on, Planning, andManagement of Water Resources(No.16608/2019)

Republic of Korea

Basic policy direction of water environmental
management

Conserva�on of Water Quality in Inland WaterJapan

The basic law for the environmental management policyof the country is the Framework Act on Environmental
Policy, under which environment quality standards are
established. The Framework Act on Water Management
was newly established in 2018 to encompass the concept
of integrated water resources management. This novel
initiative streamlined the previously fragmented waterrelated matters using a more holistic approach, andvarious amendments to other legislations were madeaccompanying this change.
The previous Water Quality and Ecosystem
Conservation Act was expanded in 2018 to encompass
the entire water environment, and was developed into
the Water Environment Conservation Act. Figure 2.5.6
shows the legislative framework related to water
environmental management in the country.

Water Environment Conserva�on Act (No.15832/2018)
Public Waters Management and Reclama�on Act(No.16501/2019)

Indonesia

5.1 Legislation

Framework Act on Water Management (No.15653/2018)
China

5 | Frameworks for Water
Environmental Management

Framework Act on Environmental Policy (No. 10893/2011)

Cambodia

spoonbill is on the endangered list, with 3,941 birds
observed as of January 2017 (BirdLife International
2021).
The number of industries is still climbing in the
country; however, the volume of industrial effluent
discharged is stable, as a result of water reuse andconservation efforts by industries and governments.

65

example, large rivers/streams were under MLIT, small
streams/creeks were under the Ministry of Interior and
Safety, lakes were under Ministry of Agriculture, Foodand Rural Affairs, and sewerage was under the Ministryof Environment) were all restructured for management
under the MOE.
The National Institute for Environmental Research(NIER) conducts monitoring of environmental water
quality.
The following local environmental agencies conduct
monitoring and legal enforcement:• Han River Basin Environmental Agency• Geum River Basin Environmental Agency• Nakdong River Basin Environmental Agency• Yeongsan River Basin Environmental Agency• Daegu Regional Environmental Agency• Wonju Regional Environmental Agency• Jeonju Regional Environmental Agency
These regional environmental agencies, together
with the Water Environment Research Center, ResearchInstitute of Public Health and Environment, K-Water, andthe Korean Rural Community Corporation form a multistakeholder consortium that implements the water
quality monitoring framework.

5.3 Ambient Water Quality Standards
There are two water quality standards for surface
water. The first cover the protection of human healthand apply to both rivers and lakes, for which there are
currently 20 parameters, such as Cd, As, and PCB, withplans to increase parameters to 30 by 2025. The second,
split into two cover the living environment (residential
environment criteria) and rivers and lakes/marshes,
respectively. Standards for the living environment forrivers include pH, BOD, TOC, SS, DO, TP, total coliform,
and fecal coliform; standards for lakes/marshes include
pH, TOC, SS, DO, TP, TN, Chl.a, total coliform, and fecal
coliform.
For groundwater, different standards are applied
according to water usage purpose. Drinking water
standards established under the Drinking Water
Management Act are applied for drinking water use with
51 parameters. For other purposes such as domestic,
farming and fisheries and industrial uses, groundwater
standards are used to evaluate groundwater quality, with
14 to 19 parameters, based on usage.

66

Special metropolitan cities, provinces or “Do” canestablish more stringent or expanded environmental
standards than the national standards where necessary
in consideration of local environmental conditions(Article 10 (3) Framework Act on Environmental Policy).

Monitoring of water quality in public water
bodies and groundwater
Water quality is monitored through a nationwide
monitoring network in accordance with category: 26
items for rivers, 30 for lakes and marshes, and 20 forgroundwater. In particular, there are 70 automatic
operating monitoring stations for surface waters. Water
quality is monitored by measuring five common items
such as DO, TOC, pH and 17 optional items, including
VOC. To raise inspection efficiency, monitoring spots areclassified according to usage: river water, lake water,
groundwater, coastal water, drinking water, irrigationwater, industrial water and river water flowing throughcities.

5.4 Effluent Standards
As of 2019, 58 water pollutants have been identified
under the legal framework, of which seven parameters(BOD, COD/TOC, SS, TN, TP, total coliform, ecotoxicity)
are used for effluent standards, and 32 parameters aremonitored as hazardous pollutants under the permissible
discharge limits.
Industrial facilities are categorized into the following
five levels according to discharge volumes.

• Level I: ≥2,000 t/day• Level II: 700 ≤ discharge < 2,000• Level III: 200 ≤ discharge < 700• Level IV: 50 ≤ discharge < 200• Level V: others
In 2007, ecotoxicity was first included as a parameter
under the permissible discharge limits under the Water
Quality and Ecosystem Conservation Act, and in 2019,
the ecotoxicity management system was expanded tocover 82 types of industrial facilities. Ecotoxicity is
analyzed with water fleas (Daphnia magna).
Since 2020, TOC has been used as a parameter tomonitor organic substances in addition to CODMn , due tothe difficulty of monitoring non-degradable organic
substances, which gives higher values for TOC than COD.

Chapter 2: Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

The annual calendar of monitoring, together withdemarcations, is as follows:

CambodiaEffluent monitoring• By May: Industrial facilities analyze samples, and

Lao PDR
Malaysia
Myanmar
Nepal
Philippines
Sri Lanka
ThailandThe inclusion of integrated water resource management
together with devolution of responsibilities regarding
water environmental management from central tolocal governments has added another dimension to
the challenge of restructuring, which requires a viablestrategy and detailed plan to be rapidly laid out in orderbring about institutional cooperation.
As a result of the restructure, responsibilities andactivities of the Ministry of Environment have expanded
rapidly, which makes it more difficult to prioritize projects
regarding water environment management.
Other technical challenges currently faced include
distortion of the water cycle (due to climate change andother environmental causes), increased non-degradableorganic matter in effluent, difficulty of managing nonpoint pollution sources, and the need to add ecotoxicity
standards based on other aquatic organisms. To combat
these various challenges, a holistic and comprehensive
review of projects is being carried out.

Republic of Korea

7 | Challenges and Future Plans

Japan

Inclusion of the concept of integrated water resource
management as part of the governance of water
management has had a large impact throughout all
aspects of water management in the country. While it has
allotted more responsibilities to MOE, it has also resulted
in a devolution of responsibilities for water environment
management from central to local governments.
Regarding the SDGs, achievement of indicator 6.3.2.,“water bodies having good ambient water quality” isreported at 93% as of 2020.

Indonesia

6 | Recent Developments inWater Environmental Management

China

submit data with justifications• By July: Regional Environmental Agencies review andverify reports, and take/analyze samples• By December: National Institute of Environmental
Research confirms the data and conducts metadata
analysis• By following March: Ministry of Environment
discloses data to the public

Viet Nam

67

2.6 Lao PDR
1 | Country Information
Table 2.6.1 Basic indicators
Land Area (km2)

236,800 (2019)

Total Population

7.12 million (2019)

GDP (current USD)

19.1 billion (2019)

GDP per capita (current USD)

2,670 (2019)

Average Precipitation (mm/year)

1,834 (2019)*

Total Renewable Water Resources (km3)

333.55 (2011)**

Total Annual Freshwater Withdrawals(billion m3)

7.32 (2017)**

Annual Freshwater
Withdrawals
by Sector

Agriculture

95.9% (2017)**

Industry

2.3% (2017)**

Municipal(including domestic)

1.8% (2017)**(Source: Department of statistics, Lao 2019, *Bank of the Lao PDR 2020,**FAO 2021 (estimated))

Despite this, water supply capacity is limited due to thecountry’s inadequately developed water infrastructure(MONRE 2019).
As with other Southeast Asian countries, seasonal
distribution of water resources is uneven in Lao PDR –about 80% of annual precipitation occurs during therainy season (May to October) and 20% in the dry season(November to April). In the dry season, flows of the Se
Bang Fai, Se Bang Hieng and Se Done Rivers that run
through the central and southern parts of the country
drop to 10–15% of the annual average.
There are 62 main river basins in Lao PDR (MONRE
2019), a country where 90% of the territory lies within
the Mekong River basin. Its tributaries contribute theequivalent of 35% of the average annual flow andaccount for 25% of the catchment area of the basin (MRC2005). In 2015, 71% of the population was using
improved sanitation, while 76% had access to improved
drinking water sources (WHO 2017).

3 | State of Ambient Water Quality

Figure 2.6.1 Mekong River in Luang Prabang, Lao PDR

2 | State of Water Resources
Lao PDR has rich water resources. Average annual rainfall
at higher elevations in the southern part of the country
is around 4,000 mm and in the northern valleys is around
1,300 mm. With a population of approximately 7.12
million, per capita annual water availability is around
55,000 m3, the highest of the WEPA partner countries.

68

Surface water quality in Lao PDR is considered good,
although deterioration is observed in the rivers andtributaries in urban areas due to a rise in untreatedor insufficiently treated wastewater and wastes. No
urban center, including the capital Vientiane, hascomprehensive piped sewerage systems nor wastewatercollection, treatment or disposal systems. On the partof the Mekong River downstream from Vientiane, forexample, low concentrations of dissolved oxygen (DO)have been observed (MRC 2010).
Mining activities and hydropower generation are themajor sources of degradation, especially in terms of
sedimentation. Wastewater and water run-off fromagricultural activities are also potential sources of highnutrients and toxic chemicals originating from fertilizer
and pesticide use (MRC 2010).
Inadequate management of solid waste in urban
areas is another cause of concern for water quality,
especially in the rainy season (MONRE 2012). Hazardous
and infectious wastes are disposed of together withother wastes in the same locations, but landfill sites are
not monitored for impacts of leachate on groundwater
quality and runoff into surface water (rivers and lakes)
during the rainy season.

Chapter 2: Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

B

B

C

B

A

Water quality class for the protection of aquatic life
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
A

A

A

A

B

B

B

B

C

B

C

B

A

A

A

B

A

A

B

B

C

C

B

C

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

B

B

Savannakhet

C

C

C

B

C

A

A

A

A

A

A

B

B

Pakse

B

B

B

C

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

B

B

29.2
21.7

20
14.1

15
10
5

7.1

5

5.2

2 Hong Ke (Lower)

6

4.5

3.3

3
4 Hong Ke (Upper)

3 Hong Xeng

2.1 2.9 2.1 2.2
8 Mak Hiao River

Sampling Point

JICA (2009.6)

JICA (2009.11)

JICA (2009.12)

JICA (2010.2)

Sri Lanka

011.6 12.2 12.3

10.3

Philippines

BOD (mg/L)

27.2

26.2

25

Nepal

30

(Source: Kongmeng and Larsen 2016)

Myanmar

Notes: Impacts (A: No impact; B: Low impact; C: Medium impact; D: High impact/
Water quality for aquatic life (A: Excellent quality; B: Good quality; C: Moderate quality; D: Poor quality)

Malaysia

Luang Prabang
Vientiane

Lao PDR

C

2007

Republic of Korea

Houa Khong

Human impacts on water quality
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011

Japan

Monitoring sites

Indonesia

Table 2.6.2 Levels of human impacts on water quality and water quality class for the protection of
aquatic life 2007–2011 at the Mekong, Lao PDR water quality monitoring stations

China

is a good sign that water resources can be managed
sustainably, as long as management strategies are inplace as and when needed.
As most of the country’s area is located in the lowlying deltaic zone, excessive sediment load is the primary
quality problem for the whole country, especially in thewet season.
Under different funding agencies, water quality
monitoring was conducted from 2009 to 2015 in themainstream of the Mak Hiao River and its major
tributaries, the Hong Ke and Hong Xeng Rivers in
Vientiane province. The results in terms of biochemical
oxygen demand (BOD) are shown in Figure 2.6.2, whichshows that BOD concentrations range from 2.1 mg/L to
29.2 mg/L (MONRE 2019). Water was found to be highly
polluted especially in urban areas.

For sustainable water resource management planning,
the Provincial Department of Natural Resources andEnvironment (MONRE) frequently monitors the water
quality – with special priority given for riverheads andwatersheds. Water samples are collected at a frequency
of every three months, which started in 2015. Bothin-situ and laboratory analysis for key water quality
parameters are performed, and water quality trends
are assessed to evaluate their effects on ecosystems.
River water quality in Lao PDR is generally considered
to be good, although human impacts on the river water
quality are increasing (Table 2.6.2). Result shows thatexcept for a few monitoring stations, the water qualityof most of the water sampling locations are not affectedby anthropogenic activities in their surroundings. This

Cambodia

3.1 Rivers

DONRE (2015.12)(Source: MONRE 2019)

ThailandFigure 2.6.2 Comparative study of river water quality in terms of BOD for four major river bodies under five different works

Viet Nam

69

Under a scheme supported by the World Bank, thewater quality of 11 major rivers around Laos wasanalyzed, the results of which are shown in Table 2.6.3.
As the results suggests, river bodies around Vientiane,
followed by Savannakhet, show relatively highconcentrations of water quality parameters compared to

the national water quality standard, mainly chloride,sulphate, EC, and alkalinity, owing to the impact of higher
anthropogenic activities like mining activities. Further,runoff from agricultural activities and improper sewage
management are also responsible for water quality
deterioration.

Table 2.6.3 Statistical summary of river water quality from 11 different monitored river bodies around Laos PDR
Province

River
Depth

Vientiane CT

Vientiane PV

Savannakhet

NamguemNamguem

Xe Champone

SekongXe NamNoy

Champasak

Houay
Lam
Phan

Xe KhamPor

Attapue

Xe NamNoy

XekongXe su

0.12 m0.2 m0.03 m0.03 m0.03 m0.03 m0.03 m0.03 m0.03 mTEMP. (°C)

25.8

25.7

28.2

28.5

26.3

28.7

25.9

28.4

26

pH

7.67

7.7

7.12

7.73

7.5

6.89

7.25

7.3

7.68

TSS (mg/L)

12.83

1.5

0.88

2.56

4.66

1.8

3.75

14.83

65.66

TDS (mg/L)

116

109

157

76

25

44

25

55

78

EC (µS/cm)

115.8

109.1

156

75.2

24.8

44

25

54.7

78

Ca (mg/L)

30.02

29.36

8.12

10.02

2.3

6.16

12.88

7.21

8.4

Mg (mg/L)

2.82

4.22

1.74

1.15

1.42

1.9

0.18

1.58

1.69

Na (mg/L)

1.84

1.66

5.82

0.4

0.94

1.04

1.22

1.32

2.7

K (mg/L)

1.7

1.15

0.82

0.2

0.82

0.05

1.05

0.59

1.28

ALK (mg/L)

82

68

17.5

29

11

22

28

26

30.2

Cl (mg/L)

10.95

19.25

15.1

5.25

0.48

0.25

6.25

0.25

0.25

SO4 (mg/L)

5.73

6.92

4.93

2.23

5.19

4.93

4.8

5.73

9.84

NO3 (mg/L)

0.03

0.01

0.04

0.1

0.06

0.05

0.2

0.07

0.09

NH4 (mg/L)

0.02

0.01

0.04

0.02

0.06

0.16

0.01

0.03

0.14

TN (mg/L)

0.28

0.35

0.39

0.25

0.38

0.29

0.27

0.19

0.24

PO4 (mg/L)

0.01

0.02

0.01

0.04

0.03

0.06

0.06

0.05

0.04

TP (mg/L)

0.09

0.08

0.04

0.05

0.08

0.09

0.09

0.1

0.15

DO (mg/L)

7.36

7.27

7.18

7.77

8.24

6.85

8.31

7.62

8.02

(Source: MONRE 2019)

3.2 Lakes and Reservoirs
Perennial ponds, marshes and oxbow lakes are common
in the lowland floodplains of Lao PDR, which are usually
shallow and vary greatly in size during the year and serveas habitats for many types of aquatic plants, mollusks,
crustaceans, amphibians and reptiles. Currently, dataon the water environment in lakes and reservoirs isavailable only on a project basis. For example, water
quality monitoring was conducted in the reservoirs of
the Nam Ngum dams (Nam Ngum 2 and Nam Ngum1)

70

from 2006–2011 as part of a hydropower development
project, and the results of monitoring at nine monitoring
stations (see Figure 2.6.5) shows a decreasing trend for
dissolved oxygen (DO) levels in some stations comparedwith national standard value of 6mg/L (Figure 2.6.3).
Total phosphorus levels in some stations in 2009 also
highly exceeded the national standard (0.05 mg/L)(Figure 2.6.4). Fertilizers and detergents are suspected as
the potential sources of pollution (Komany 2011).

Chapter 2: Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

5.0

0.0

Indonesia

Jul Sep Nov Jan Mar May Jul Sep Nov Jan Mar May Jul Sep Nov Jan Mar May Jul Sep Nov Jan Mar May Jul Sep Nov Jan
06 06 06 07 07 07 07 07 07 08 08 08 08 08 08 09 09 09 09 09 09 10 10 10 10 10 10 11

Sta�on 1
Sta�on 2Sta�on 3Sta�on 4Sta�on 5Sta�on 6Sta�on 7
Sta�on 8Sta�on 9

China

DO at station 1-9

Cambodia

DO (mg/L)
10.0

PeriodFigure 2.6.3 DO levels at monitoring stations at the Nam Ngum Dams

(Source: Komany 2011)

0.80

0.40

Total P at station 1-9

0.20
0.00

Jul Sep Nov Jan Mar May Jul Sep Nov Jan Mar May Jul Sep Nov Jan Mar May Jul Sep Nov Jan Mar May Jul Sep Nov Jan
06 06 06 07 07 07 07 07 07 08 08 08 08 08 08 09 09 09 09 09 09 10 10 10 10 10 10 11

Sta�on 1
Sta�on 2Sta�on 3Sta�on 4Sta�on 5Sta�on 6Sta�on 7
Sta�on 8Sta�on 9

Republic of Korea

0.60

Japan

Total P (mg/L)
1.00

ST-1
ST-2

ST-4

ST-3

Nam MoNam Ngun

Huay Dokmal

Huay Kal
ST-5
ST-6

Naw Ngum
NN2 Dam Site
Nam Bak

4 | State of Wastewater Treatment

ST-8
ST-9

(Source: Komany 2011)

3.3 Groundwater

Thailand
Viet Nam

Groundwater information, including resource potential,
uses and quality is very limited in the country. Since
surface water is abundant for supply, groundwater
is regarded as a source only when and where surface
water is not available (Chanthavong 2011). However,groundwater is an important source of domestic water,
small-scale irrigation and small-scale industry. It is also
used as a source for urban water supply, although

Both domestic and industrial sectors release various
pollutants. Domestic wastewater contains large amountsof COD, nutrients, and faecal coliform, and is the largest
contributor to surface water pollution. Agricultural runoff
primarily contains nutrients from excess usage offertilizers and pesticides, hence causing a diffused sourceof pollution. Industrial wastewater contains a wide
variety of pollutants, depending on the nature of raw
materials used, processing units and final production
outputs. It commonly contains various heavy metals,
grease, oil, and such like.

Sri Lanka

Figure 2.6.5 Monitoring stations of the Nam Ngum Dams

Philippines

Wastewater and major pollutants

ST-7

NN1 dAM sITE

Nepal

Huay Pamom

Water Sampling Sta�on

B.NaTou

covering only around 5% of the total water production
volume (if spring water is included in this definition,
about 20% of the total water production is covered bysubsurface water) (Chanthavong 2011). According to the
Lao Social Indicator Survey (MoH and LSB 2012), around
32% of Lao households use groundwater or springs fordrinking purposes. As for quality, arsenic contamination
has been detected near the border with China (MRC2010) and in Attapeu province.

MyanmarB.Pha Yaeng Tai
B.Pha Yaeng Neua
B.Lak 37
B.Lak 33
Nam Tong
Nam Koung
B.Lak 24

B.Phone Xay Neua
B.Phone Xay Kang
B.Phone Xay Tai
B.Koua Lek
Nam Ngun
B.KomeeB.NaLuang(Source: Komany 2011)

Malaysia

B.Phone Khan
Nam Muay
B.Phone Keo
B.Phone thong
B.Houay XayHhan
B.Vleng Keo

Lao PDR

PeriodFigure 2.6.4 TP levels at monitoring stations at the Nam Ngum Dams

Domestic wastewater
In order to handle these increasing levels of domestic
pollutants, the government of Laos is also promoting71decentralized wastewater treatment (DEWAT) systems.
Table 2.6.4 shows the transition to DEWAT systemdevelopment around the country and it indicates there isa significant increase in capacity of DEWAT system in the
country. As of 2017, a total capacity of 464.8 m3/day
DEWAT system is functional in the country (MONRE
2019).
Table 2.6.4 Status of domestic (decentralized) wastewater
treatment system
No Year

Location

Treatment
capacity (m³/day)

User

1

2009

Vientiane Capital

10

125

2

2010

Vientiane Capital

11.2

146

3

2010

Vientiane Capital

7

116

4

2011

Louanphabang Province

15

208

5

2011

Khammoan Provive

70

700

6

2011

Khammoan provive

30

300

7

2012

Vientiane Capital

26

455

8

2013

Vientiane Province

3

66

9

2014

Attapeu province

14

163

10

2014

Attapeu province

14

235

11

2014

Vientiane procince

160

1,600

12

2014

Champasak Province

15

300

13

2015

Champasak Province

8

150

14

2015

Vientiane Capital

6.4

80

15

2015

Vientiane Capital

1.5

50

16

2015

Houaphan province

14

161

17

2015

Louanphabang Province

10

500

18

2015

Vientiane Capital

10.2

-

19

2016

Xekong Province

35

50 bed20

2016

Bokeo Province

1

220

21

2017

Louanphabang province

5

Total

-

464.8 m /d3

Industrial wastewater
Most industries and factories in Lao PDR dispose of theirindustrial waste water directly into surface water bodies
such as ponds and rivers; however, such ponds lack the
sheeting to prevent infiltration of various pollutants from
untreated wastewater entering underground bodies.
Small factories in Lao PDR have ponds for industrial
effluent disposal, and some large-scale industries havetheir own wastewater treatment plants including bothanaerobic and aerobic treatment units, such as Beer Laocompany, Coca-Cola company and Sun Paper company,
the mining sector and other industries (MONRE 2019).

5 | Frameworks for Water
Environmental Management
5.1 Legislation
The Environmental Protection Law (EPL) Amendment 201872

is the cornerstone to Lao PDR’s environmental legislation.
Containing measures for the protection, mitigation andrestoration of the environment as well as guidelines
for environmental management and monitoring, it isspecifically aimed at protecting nature, human health,richness of the country’s resources and facilitating theprocess of sustainable development. According to EPL,
the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment(MONRE) is responsible for coordinating different line
agencies in establishing rules and regulations pertaining
to the management of the environment, conducting
research and development related to pollution control
technologies and science, and for overall management
and pollution control (EPL 2018).
EPL-2018 grants MONRE the monitoring ande nfo rc e m e nt a u t h o r i t y to i n s p e c t a n d i s s u eadministrative and civil actions against regulated point
sources within its jurisdiction. In reality, EPL-2012 lacked
the necessary efficacy in terms of granting enforcement
powers to MONRE or its environmental and natural
resources agencies, such as DPCM, regarding industrial
pollution sources (EPL 2018). Instead, the Industrial
Processing Law (IPL) Amendment No. 026/NA, dated
December 27, 2013 authorized by the Ministry ofIndustrial and Commerce (MOIC) acts as primary
enforcement authority over most factories, including in
imposing effluent and emission standards as part ofcertain operating permits, requiring self-monitoring
reports from certain factories, conducting inspections,taking samples, shutting down factory operations, andissuing administrative, civil, and criminal actions or
penalties (EPL 2018). As a result of overlapping andfragmented legislative bodies, no single ministry is
responsible for overall environmental compliance andenforcement of pollution sources in Lao PDR (EPL 2018).
The Law on Water and Water Resources,
promulgated in 1996, stipulates the principles ofmanagement, utilization and development of water. Its
purpose is to secure the quantity and quality of water bymeeting the population’s needs as well as ensuring
environmental sustainability, but lacks clarity on theissue of water supply and wastewater. In response tothis, the new Water Supply Law was drafted by the
Ministry of Public Works and Transportation (MPWT)with the assistance of the World Bank, which wasapproved by the National Assembly in November 2009.
However, as most of its stipulations focused on watersupply services, provisions for sanitation and sewerage,
which it lacked, are planned to be added by decree. To
reflect these changes, a revision of the Water and Water
Resources Law was proceeded with the assistance fromthe Asian Development Bank (ADB).

Chapter 2: Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Water and Water Resources Law
Prime Ministerial Decree on the
Implementa�on of the Water andWater Resources Law

Na�onal Water Sector Strategy
and Ac�on Plan

Lao PDR

Environment Protec�on Law
Prime Ministerial Decree on the
Implementa�on of theEnvironment Protec�on Law

MalaysiaNa�onal Environment Strategy
and Ac�on Plan; EIA Regula�on;
Regula�ons on the Monitoring
and Control of Wastewater
Discharge Environment Standard

Forestry Law
Regula�ons related to forestry
and biodiversity: Na�onal
Biodiversity Conserva�on Areas
and Aqua�c Resources

Decree on the Implementa�on ofLand Law

Regula�ons related to wetlands,
land uses and �tles

Land Law

Agriculture Law
Regula�ons related to Agriculture
Extension, Livestock and Fisheries

Mining Law

Regula�ons related to Mining
Extrac�on and Management

Electricity Law

Environmental Management
Standard for Electricity Projects

Hygiene and Disease Preven�on Law

Drinking Water Standard

Thailand

Regula�ons and standard
related to wastewater discharged
from industry and handicra�s

Sri Lanka

Industrial Processing Law

Philippines

Regula�ons related to Water
User’s Associa�on, lrriga�on
O&M, Supply and Drainage, etc.

Water supply and Sanita�on, andStandard
Regula�on related to Urban
Planning, Housing, Domes�c
Drainage System and Designs

Figure 2.6.6 Legislation system of water environmental management in Lao PDR

Viet Nam

Urban Planning Law

Nepal

Prime Ministerial Decree on the
Implementa�on of the Agriculture
Law• Na�onal Water Sector
Proﬁle• Lao Environment Monitor• Other Relevant Date andInforma�on• Relevant Training andAwareness Program

MyanmarPrime Ministerial Decree on the
Implementa�on of the Forestry Law

Republic of Korea

Cons�tu�on

Japan

Suppor�ng Tools

Indonesia

Management Instruments

China

Policy Framework

stipulation on irrigation use. The Law also grants greater
responsibility to MONRE to develop and implement
management plans of river basins throughout thecountry.
Another promising addition is the requirement to
set minimum water flows as minimum thresholds for all
water resources in order to meet the basic needs ofthose whose livelihoods rely on them as well assustainability of the ecosystem within the affected area
(Phonvisai 2017).
Other laws, such as the Forestry Law and Mining Law
are also relevant to water environmental management
as shown in Figure 2.6.6.

Cambodia

The Law on Water Resource Amendment was
adopted by the National Assembly in 2017. This
amendment aims to develop water resources in anenvironmentally sound and sustainable manner and inaccordance with the international best practices toensure water resources and ecosystems are protected.
New provisions have been added on water right and use,
including wastewater discharge permits, wetland andwater resource protection, groundwater management,
and reservoir management. Additionally, the Law
expands on the terms and conditions of large-, mediumand small-water uses and includes an article onenvironmental flows of hydropower as well as a(Source: MoEJ 2009)73

5.2 Institutional Arrangement
The functions and responsibilities of the Ministry of
Natural Resources and Environment (MONRE) wererevised in accordance with Prime Minister’s Decree
No. 451/PM of 23 December 2019 MONRE has broad
responsibilities, including protection of the nation’s
natural resources such as land and water resources, andprotection and restoration of the environment. Within itsits the Department of Pollution Control and Monitoring(DPCM), in charge of water pollution management
policies and plans, pollution aspects of environmental
quality management plans, action plans for the reductionand elimination of water pollution, and emergency
response plans. It is involved with and coordinates work
to control, resolve and remediate contaminated water
bodies and assess environmental damage from waterpollution by recommending and implementing standards,
measures, criteria and methods for monitoring andmanagement. Its responsibilities also include formulating
the water pollution section of Laos's state of pollution
report, developing systems, criteria, and codes of practiceand methods for preventing water pollution.

Table 2.6.5 Drinking water quality standard
Indicator

Parameter

Standard

Unit

Colour-10

PlatinumCobalt(Pt-Co)

Taste

-

-

-

Odor

-

-

-

Turbidity

-

15

NTU

Potential of HydrogenpH

6.5–8.5-

Total Solid

TS

1,000

mg/L

Aluminum

Al

0.2

mg/L

Ammonia

NH3

1.5

mg/L

Iron

Fe

1.0

mg/L

Manganese

Mn

0.5

mg/L

5.3 Ambient Water Quality Standards

Sodium

Na

250

mg/L

Copper

Cu

1.5

mg/L

To improve ambient water quality on certain parameters,
DPCM revised the National Environmental Standards of 7
December 2009 through comparison of updated data on
the country’s environmental quality with the standards
set by international organizations as well as economic
development of certain other countries. This led to anamendment of the National Environmental Standard,
which was adopted by Prime Minister Decree No. 81/PM
on 21 February 2017, that enforced regulations on air,noise, soil and waste quality for assessing and managing
contaminants released into air, water and soil to protect
human health and the environment. The ambient
water quality standards are comprised of groundwater(drinking) quality standards and surface water quality
standards as shown in Table 2.6.5 and Table 2.6.6
respectively.

Zinc

Zn

15

mg/L

Calcium

Ca

150

mg/L

Ambient water quality standards

Water quality monitoring framework
In Lao PDR, surface water is the major water source forurban water supply, while groundwater is usually themain source for rural populations in lowland areas,
particularly in the central and southern parts of thecountry where the groundwater table is sufficiently highand of sufficient quality. In upland areas, particularly thenorth and east of the country, water is usually suppliedby gravity flow systems, mostly from streams (surface
water), but also from springs (groundwater), although74

this access tends to be limited to remote communities.
According to a Lao PDR MONRE Report (2012), water
quality is considered good, although deterioration isobserved in rivers and tributaries in urban areas due toincreasing untreated or insufficiently treated wastewater
and wastes. Mining activities and hydropower generation
are the major sources of degradation, especially

Magnesium

Mg

100

mg/L

Sulphate

SO42-

250

mg/L

Hydrogen Sulfide

H2S

0.1

mg/L

Sodium Chloride

NaCl

320

mg/L

Chloride

Cl

-

250

mg/L

Fluoride

F-

1.0

mg/L

Nitrate

NO

45

mg/L

C18H29NaO3S

1.0

mg/L

Phenol compound

C6H6O

0.002

mg/L

Mercury

Hg

0.001

mg/L

Lead

Pb

0.01

mg/L

Arsenic

As

0.01

mg/L

Selenium

Se

0.01

mg/L

Chromium Hexavalent

6+

Cr

0.05

mg/L

Cyanide

CN -

0.07

mg/L

Cadmium

Cd

0.003

mg/L

Barium

Ba

1.0

mg/L

Resident Chlorine(Disinfection)

Cl2

>0.2

mg/L

SPC Bacteria (Standard
Plate Count Method)-

500

Colonies/cm3

Coliform bacteria

-

-

MPN/
100 cm3

E.coli Bacteria

-

-

MPN/
100 cm3

Alkylbenzenesulfonate

3Chapter 2: Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Indicator

Parameter1

2

Level of Water
3
4

5

Unit

Analysis

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

°C

Thermometer

pH value

pH

6–8

6–8

5–9

5–9

-

-

Electrometric pH Meter

Dissolved Oxygen

DO

>7

6.0

4.0

2.0

<2

mg/L

Electro-conductivity

Ec

<500

>1,000>2,000> 4,000>4,000µS/cm

Ec meterAzide Modification

5–7

7–10

10–12

> 12

mg/L

Total coliform bacteria

-

-

5,000

20,000--

MPN/100 ml

Multiple Tube
Fermentation TechniqueFaecal coliform bacteria

-

-

1,000

4,000

-

-

MPN/100 ml

Multiple Tube
Fermentation Technique

Total Suspended Solids

TSS

<10

>25

>40

>60

>60

mg/L

Glass Fiber Filter Disc

Phosphate

PO4

< 0.1

0.5

1

2

>2

mg/L

Ascorbic acid

Ammonium ion

NH4+

>0.5

>1.5

>3

>4

<4

mg/L

Kjeldahl

Nitrate-Nitrogen

NO3-N

-

5.0

-

mg/L

Cadmium Reduction

Ammonia-Nitrogen

NH3-N

-

0.5

-

mg/L

Distillation Nesslerization

PhenolC6H5OH

-

0.005

-

mg/L

Distillation, 4-Amino
antipyrene

Copper

Cu

-

1.5

-

mg/L

Nickel

Ni

-

0.1

-

mg/L

Manganese

Mn

-

1.0

-

mg/L

-

1.0

-

mg/L

Cd

-

0.003

-

mg/L

Chromium Hexavalent

Cr6+

-

0.05

-

mg/L

Lead

Pb

-

0.01

-

mg/L

AA-Direct Aspiration

-

0.001

-

mg/L

AA-Cold Vapour Technique

As

-

0.01

-

mg/L

AA -Direct Aspiration, ICP

Cyanide

CN

-

0.07

-

mg/L

Pyridine-Barbituric Acid

Radioactive
-α
-β

-

0.1
1.0

-

Becqurel/L

-

0.05

-

mg/L

DDT

-

1.0

-

µg/L

alpha- Benzene hexachloride

α -BHC(C6H6Cl6)

-

0.02

-

µg/L

Radioactive-

Organochlorine pesticide
Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane

C12H8Cl6O

-

0.1

-

µg/L

C12H8Cl6

-

0.1

-

µg/L

Heptachlor and heptachlor
epoxideC10H5Cl7
C10H5Cl7O

-

0.2

-

µg/L

Viet Nam

Dieldrin
AldrinGC

ThailandHg

Sri Lanka

Mercury
AsenicPhilippines

Zn

Cadmium

Nepal

Zinc

Myanmar<5

MalaysiaCOD

Lao PDRchemical oxygen demand

Potassium Dichromate
Digestion; Open Reflux or
Closed Reflux

Republic of Korea

t°C

Japan

Colour, Odour and Taste
TemperatureIndonesia

Table 2.6.6 Surface water quality standard

Chinaindustrial discharges, septic tank seepage and overflows
into the system.
A brief summary of the surface water quality
network in Lao PDR is shown in Figure 2.6.7, which showsthat 93 monitoring stations with facilities to analyze over
30 water quality parameter are active in 18 provinces of
the country.

Cambodiasedimentation. Water runoff from agricultural activities
could become a source of high nutrients and toxic
chemicals due to fertilizer and pesticide use. Litter, dust
and dirt, oil and grease, particles of rubber compounds
from tires, particles of metal, glass and plastic fromvehicles, and lead are the commonly found pollutants.
Urban drains also act as secondary sewers carrying

75

17(+1)
Provinces93

Sta�ons>30

Monitoring
Parameters

Figure 2.6.7 Network of surface water quality
monitoring in Lao PDR

1. Ground water quality
2. Drinking water quality
3. Effluent standards

5.4 Effluent Standards

a. Effluent from general factories

The following effluent standards are stipulated under
the National Environmental Standards issued in February
2017, the data of which is assessed against the MRC
Water Quality Guidelines for the Protection of Human
Health and the Protection of Aquatic Life.
The average chemical oxygen demand (COD)
concentration at Vientiane was recorded at around 1.4
mg/L, compared to 2.7 mg/L at Champasack. COD
concentrations at three stations in the Mekong River,
Nam Nguem, Nam Xebang Fai and Nam Xe Done slightly
exceeded the Mekong River Commission (MRC) Water
Quality Guidelines for the Protection of Human Health of
5 mg/L. Other than a recorded pH of 9.9 for Luang
Prabang, pH values for other areas along the MekongRiver were within the water quality guideline for pH (pHvalues of 6 to 9 for both the protection of human healthand the protection of aquatic life). The lowest pH
measurement was observed at Vientiane monitoring
station (pH = 6.2) while the highest pH measurement
was observed at Luang Prabang monitoring station (pH =9.9). Dissolved oxygen (DO) is one of the key water
quality parameters monitored routinely by the MRC
Water Quality Monitoring Network, and maintaining
good water quality requires adequate concentrations of
dissolved oxygen. In recognition of this, MRC member
countries have jointly established target values for theprotection of human health (≥ 6mg/L) and aquatic life (>c. Effluent from general toilets

Effluent standards

76

5 mg/L).
In general, the water quality of rivers within the Lao
PDR is considered to be good; however, little information
is available on groundwater quality despite its use as
chief source of water supply in rural areas. No systematic
monitoring of the impacts of fluoride, pesticide, nitratefrom fertilizer or other chemical pollutants is carried out.
For standards of wastewater discharged from urban
areas, buildings such as hotels, dormitories or hospitals
are classified according to the number of rooms andvolume of discharged wastewater. Buildings such as
residences, temples, schools, offices, markets andrestaurants are also classified according to floor area. For
the wastewater treatment standards for public areas,classifications are in place for areas such as historicalsites, public parks, water parks, and marshes and ponds.
The National Environmental Standard is enforced by
Article 27 and 32 of the Environment Protection Law, andcovers:b. Effluent from community households
d. Effluent from public canals
e. Effluent from pig farms
f. Effluent from car washes and gas stations

Effluent inspection procedure
According to the Regulation on Wastewater Discharge
from Industrial Processing Factories issued in 2005
by the Ministry of Industry and Handicrafts (currently
the Ministry of Industry and Commerce), all industrial
factories are required to install wastewater treatment
systems and the necessary facilities to monitor andanalyze water samples. The monitoring report results
are then submitted to the Director of the Industry
Department of the Ministry or respective province. The
industry department may dispatch factory environmental
inspectors, who are permitted to enter all areas withinfactories to inspect, observe, measure, sample andmonitor wastewater discharged into public water bodies.

Measures against non-compliance
Lao PDR has some judicial or non-judicial measuresfor cases of non-compliance in effluent water quality
management. If violations are found by the industry
department, certification for wastewater discharge
is suspended and wastewater discharge is suspended
or terminated until improvement and compliance isChapter 2: Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

b. Institutional Framework:• The absence of power leads to serious lack ofcompliance and major pollution issues

As regards current challenges, decision makers haveapproved several policy-oriented changes on existing
regulations as well as introduced several new policies on
the ground. Several of these are listed below:• Lack of technical skills and inadequate resources toRegulation 2012; and Industry Wastewater
Discharge Regulation 2005

• National Strategy on Rural Water Supply, Sanitation• Natural Resources and Environment Sector Vision• National government’s annual budget is not
sufficient

Future plans to address the above challenges
The national government is searching for potential
solutions to address the above-mentioned challenges
related to water environment, some of which are listed
below:
1. Human resources development, i.e., capacity
building for technical officers in government, whowill become key personnel for water environment
monitoring and governance through collaborations
with technically advanced countries
2. Seeking financial/technological support fromdonor agencies for improving water environmentin Lao PDR

7 | Challenges and Future Plans

3. Conducting the pilot project/program
wastewater treatment plant in Lao PDR

Although water quality is generally in good condition
throughout the country, it has deteriorated in majorurban areas in recent past times. No urban centers,

4. Developing technical guidelines/legislation onwastewater management and their strict
implementation

Thailandtowards 2030 and Ten-Year Strategy (2016–2025)
and Natural Resources and Environment Sector Fiveyear Action Plan (2016–2020), 22 September 2015

c. Financial support:• Lack of financial collection charges of pollutantsreleased into the environment as no specificlegislation is in force

Sri Lankaand Hygiene 2019–2030 No. 0947/MoH wasapproved and issued in 2019

control among the central and local governments
and agencies concerned, due to silo-based thinking

Philippines• Waste from Industry Processing Management• Lack of cooperation and coordination of pollution

Nepal

PM, 2010

support monitoring and enforcement

Myanmar• Environment Impact Assessment Decree No. 112/

• Lack of criminal laws for pollution control

Malaysia

towards 2030 and Ten-Year Strategy (2016–2025)
and Natural Resources and Environment Sector Fiveyear Action Plan (2016–2020), 22 September 2015

the field to control wastewater pollution and control

Lao PDR• Natural Resources and Environment Sector Vision• Lack of strict regulations to implement the laws in

Republic of Korea

on 2017Water and Water Resources Management,
2017

a. Policy and legislation:• Lack of national planning policy framework,
monitoring and enforcementJapan• Law on Water and Water Resources, 2017
• Decree on National Environmental Standard passed

Indonesia

6 | Recent Developments inWater Environmental Management

China

including the capital Vientiane, have comprehensive
piped sewerage systems or wastewater collection,
treatment and disposal systems. The water quality ofurban rivers may further deteriorate in the near future
due to inflows of increasing volumes of untreatedwastewater resulting from urban growth.
Overall, challenges for water environment
governance can be summarized in the following
categories:

Cambodiaconfirmed. Penalties for regulation violations are as
follows: (1) first stage: warning, suspension of import/
export, suspension of production, (2) second stage:
fine of five to 10 times the certification fee, and (3)third stage: fine of 10–15 times the certification fee
as well as penalties for non-compliance with otherrelevant regulations. Currently, DPCM is responsible
for environmental quality monitoring and compliance
enforcement and preparation for Lao PDR’s state ofpollution report, and provides data on air quality, noiselevels, water quality, solid waste, hazardous substancesand pollution problems throughout the country.
Monitoring of environmental quality is intended toprovide a grasp of the current ambient environment aswell as to monitor the emissions and impacts of specificdischarges.

onViet Nam772.7 Malaysia
1 | Country Information
Table 2.7.1 Basic indicators
Land Area (km2)

328,550 (2018)*

Total Population

32.523 million (2019)**

GDP (current USD)

364.7 billion (2019)***GDP per capita (current USD)

11,415 (2019)***Average Precipitation (mm/year)

2,420 (2018)****

Total Renewable Water Resources(km3)
Total Annual Freshwater Withdrawals(billion m3)
Annual Freshwater
Withdrawals
by Sector

580 (2017)*
6.707 (2017)

Agriculture

45.7% (2017)

Industry

29.9% (2017)

Municipal(including domestic)

24.5%(2017)(Source: FAO 2020, *World atlas 2018, **DOSM 2020, ***World Bank 2020,****World weather online 2018)

to March. The Northeast Monsoon brings heavy rainfall,particularly to the east coast states of peninsular
Malaysia and western Sarawak, whereas the Southwest
Monsoon normally signifies relatively drier weather(MoSTI 2010). Malaysia depends heavily on surface
water, mainly rivers, lakes, wetlands and reservoirs forwater supply, which presently constitute 98% of total
water supply for domestic, industrial and agriculturaluse. The remaining 2% comes from groundwater. About
80% of the water withdrawn from river systems is used
for irrigation. Percentages of water withdrawn fromsurface water sources for domestic and industrial uses
are expected to rise in the future. Potable water supply
extends mostly throughout the country except for a few
isolated spots where supply is challenged due to physicalor geographical factors, for which wells or rural watersupply scheme systems are provided.
According to ASM (2014), current water consumption
is about 12.5 billion m3/year, or less than 3% of theavailable runoff, but is expected to increase at about 5%
annually due to rapidly rising populations and industrial
growth to around 30.4 billion m3/year by 2020, 60.8
billion m3/year by 2040, and 121.6 billion m3/year by
2060. Irrigation will continue to be the largest water user
but its share is expected to be outpaced by domestic andindustrial consumption.

3 | State of Ambient Water Quality
3.1 Rivers
Figure 2.7.1 Titiwangsa Lake in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

2 | State of Water Resources
Malaysia is a rich water resource country thanks to its
high rainfall. In 2016, the highest annual rainfall wasrecorded at Kuching station with 5,423.0 mm, 877.5
mm higher than 2015, and the lowest was recorded at
Temerloh station, with 1,397.8 mm (DOSM 2017). In
terms of volume, this equates to 972.8 billion m3. Of
this, 495.71 billion m3 is surface runoff, 64 billion m3
goes to ground water and the remainder returns to theatmosphere through evapotranspiration (ASM 2014). The
weather in Malaysia is characterized by two monsoon
regimes – the Southwest Monsoon from late May to
September, and the Northeast Monsoon from November

78

The Water Quality Index (WQI) is used to evaluate thestatus of river water quality and the corresponding
suitability in terms of water uses according to the
National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQS).
To assess river water quality, samples from all 638 rivers
were investigated between 2010 to 2018. A total of
8,118 water samples were collected from 1,353 manuallymonitored stations, 1,252 stations designated forambient and baseline studies, 55 upstream water intake
stations, and 35 stations from the River of life project.
The WQI for river water quality is calculated based on
six parameters: DO, BOD, COD, NH 3-N (Ammoniacal
nitrogen), SS, and pH (DOE 2018), and classified into
three categories according to the index: clean, slightly
polluted, and polluted. Results indicate that 357 rivers(i.e., 56%), 231 rivers (36%) and 50 rivers (8%) fallunder clean, slightly polluted and polluted categories,
respectively during the 10-year period (2008–2018) of

Chapter 2: Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

8

9

2008

2009

2010

46 43

34

400

200
8

8

6

2011

2012

2013
Year

Polluted

7

10

2014

2015

2016

2017

8

2018

Total Number of River

464
53.3

26.9
17.8

44.7
37.0

41.2
32.4
26.3

57.3

56.6
35.8

33.2

477

2010
Clean

2011

Slighly Polluted

0.4

2012

84.7
73.2
477

477

2013
Year

Polluted

40.3

29.6
17.2

15.3

2015

2016

2017

300
200
100

0.4

2014

600

400
42.5

26.8

700

500

477
70.4

22.9
7.5

638

2018

0

Total Number of River

Figure 2.7.3 Trend in river water quality in Malaysia based on BOD sub-index (2008–2018)

Viet Nam

2009

76.7
477

58.9
40.7

18.2
9.5

2008

477

(Source: DOE 2018)

Thailand

Percentage Number of River (%)

570

0

Sri Lanka

577

100

Philippines

Slighly Polluted

10

11

Figure 2.7.2 Trend in river water quality in Malaysia (2008–2018)

579

300

36

35

Total Number of River

13

500

477
56

47

39

36

34

32

477

Total Number of River

36

51

477
58

Nepal

Percentage Number of River (%)

38

477

Myanmar

51

477
58

Malaysia477
58

Lao PDR

53
34

600

570
464
59

Republic of Korea

58

Japan

577

Indonesia

579

Clean

100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0

700

638

China

100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0

were also analyzed in terms of Mercury (Hg), Arsenic(As), Cadmium (Cd), Chromium (Cr), Lead (Pb), and Zinc
(Zn). The results indicate that all water samples exhibited
concentrations within the Class II limit for Cd, Pb, and Zn.
About 99.87%, 99.45% and 98.63% of water samples
were in Class II for Cr, Hg and As, respectively (DOE 2015).
River pollution is still a major issue in Malaysia
despite substantial investment in and effort taken to
improve and maintain river quality. Both point and nonpoint pollution sources are significant contributors towater pollution, and levels of BOD, NH3-N and SS in themonitoring samples were high. High BOD is attributed toinadequate treatment of sewage or effluent from agrobased and manufacturing industries. Meanwhile, themajor sources of NH3-N were assumed to be animalfarming and domestic sewage, and main sources of SS
were improper earthworks and land clearing activities.
The future scenario is predicted to be even morechallenging in managing water pollution due to thepresence of micro-pollutants and new emerging
pollutants (NEPs) resulting from excessive use ofpharmaceutical and personal care products, some ofwhich are endocrine disruptors.

Cambodia

analysis (DoE 2018), as shown in Figure 2.7.2. Figures
2.7.3 and 2.7.4 specifically show trends in river water
quality based on BOD and NH3-N sub-index, respectively(2008–2018). Based on Figure 2.7.3, river water quality
exhibited a deteriorating trend from 2008 to 2017,
but in 2018 showed signs of recovery owing to strictwater quality regulation and management efforts. For
2017, of the 477 river waters analyzed, none fell into
the clean category, 141 rivers (29.6%) were slightly
polluted while the remaining 336 rivers (70.4%) were
polluted. However, for 2018, 110 (17.2%) rivers werecategorized as clean, and 271 (42.5%) and 257 (40.3%)
rivers as slightly polluted and polluted, respectively.
Regarding NH 3-N as shown in Figure 2.7.4, it can beseen that the number of rivers falling under the clean
category improved although the total percentage shownin the figure is a lower number because of the increase
in total number of rivers being investigated. Anotherwater quality temporal trend (2008–2018) can be seenin Figure 2.7.5, showing SS. This indicates that in generalwater quality was improving from 2008 to 2015, but
in 2016 and 2017 showed a declining trend. Again, for2018, water quality improved despite additional rivers
being included in the monitoring network. Heavy metals(Source: DOE 2018)

79

477

477

477

477

49
39
24 28

29 32

36 38

38 36
27

26

2009

2010
Clean

2011

Slighly Polluted

31

38

31

2012

36 34

32

29

2013
Year

36

477

32

29

2014

49

45

42
29

Percentage Number of River (%)

577

18

2016

33

2017

464

35

32

18

72
477

74
477

78

79

477

477

63

50
27

22

17

14

15

2009

2010

2011

Clean

100
0

2018

(Source: DOE 2018)

Slighly Polluted

13 15

12 13

10 12

10 10

2012

2013
Year

2014

2015

Polluted

477

477

700

62

51

17

2016

3.2 Lakes and Reservoirs
Since lakes and reservoirs are managed by different
authorities, owners and operators, comprehensive water
quality monitoring has not been conducted by the DoE
and no water quality inventories exist for either water
bodies. However, a study by the Institute of Environment
and Water Resource Management and Teknologi
Malaysia shows 62% of water bodies comprised of lakes
and reservoirs to be eutrophic (Sharifuddin 2011).

300

33

27

200
17

2017

100
0

2018

Total Number of River(Source: DOE 2018)

stations (6%), Good at 54 stations (36%), Moderate at 86
stations (57%) and Poor at two stations (1%). The trend
in terms of Marine Water Quality Index (MWQI) for 2013
to 2015 is given in Figure 2.7.6, from which it can be seenthat numbers of Good, Moderate and Poor water quality
stations had increased in 2015, while Excellent stations
had decreased compared to the previous year.
140

3.3 Coastal Water

125

120
Number of sta�ons

In 2015, monitoring was conducted from a total of 151
coastal, 76 estuary and 90 island stations, providing 590,
401, 353, samples, respectively, which were analyzed
and reported based on the Marine Water Quality Index(MWQI). The index was developed based on sevenmain parameters: DO, Nitrate (NO3), Phosphate (PO4),
Unionized Ammonia (NH 3), Faecal Coliform, Oil andGrease and Total Suspended Solids (TSS), and provides
a score on a scale of 0–100 to determine the category ofmarine water quality, ranging from Excellent to Poor. The
monitoring results showed water was Excellent at nine

400

50

22

21

600
500

Figure 2.7.5 Trend in river water quality in Malaysia based on suspended solids (2008–2018)

80

200

17

Total Number of River

Polluted

570
59

2008

300

37

638

579

46

400

46

31

24

2015

500

477

Figure 2.7.4 Trend in river water quality in Malaysia based on NH3-N sub-index (2008–2018)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0

600

570

Total Number of River

577

464

2008

700

638

579

Total Number of River

Percentage Number of River (%)

100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0

100

86
75

80
60
40

30
15

20
0

54

45

4

11
0

2013
Excellent

2014
Good
Moderate

9

2

2015
Poor

Figure 2.7.6 Trend in marine water status for coastal areas(Source: DOE 2015)
in Malaysia (2013–2015)

Chapter 2: Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

5

Agriculture-based
Industries

133

39

11

6

8

0.3

Sewage Treatment
Plant

242

303

162

Piggery

217

450

27
(Source: DOE 2018)

Viet Nam

35

Thailand55

Sri Lanka

Manufacturing
Industries

Wet Market

NH 3-N Load
(Ton/Day)

Philippines

SS Load(Ton/Day)

Nepal

BOD Load(Ton/Day)

Myanmar

Water Pollution
Sources

Malaysia

Table 2.7.2 Summary of sectoral load of key pollutants

Lao PDR

Concerning the different key pollutants (BOD, SS and
NH3-N) of water bodies, all the sources can be divided
into five main categories as reported by DOE (2018):
manufacturing industries, agriculture-based industries,
wet market, sewage treatment plants and piggeries. In
terms daily quantities of these pollutants released, fromhighest, the sources are sewage treatment plants,
piggeries, agriculture-based industries, manufacturingindustries, then wet markets for most of the key
pollutants except for suspended solids, as shown in Table
2.7.2.

Republic of Korea

Wastewater and major pollutants

Japan

4 | State of Wastewater Treatment

Indonesia

Wastewater management and sludge collection andtreatment were assigned to Indah Water Konsortium(IWK), a specialized organization. To improve operationand maintenance, IWK gradually took over seweragesystems of various sizes and types. From 1994 to 2008,
over 8,800 became public systems and come under
IWK’s control, while over 3,000 systems remained
under direct management of the owners and, thus, areclassified as private systems. On average IWK took over
300 treatment facilities and 1,000 km of sewer network
per year. However, in areas without large-scale seweragesystems, private developers continued to constructsmall-scale sewerage systems.
IWK, although not the owner of the public facilities,
had the right to collect sewerage charges as it operated
and maintained them. However, the charging system it
introduced for individuals and enterprises subsequently
received complaints from citizens and resulted in three
reductions in charges (JSC 2011), which then led IWK
into financial difficulties. as the charges could not cover
the business expenses and collection of charges proved
difficult. To avoid insolvency, which would have affected
sewerage services, IWK was therefore placed under
governmental control in 2000 and has since been
managed as a private company with the government,
under the Ministry of Finance, controlling capital
expenditure. The role of implementing agency managing
sewerage construction was then transferred to Sewage
Service Department (SSD), supplementing its current
role as sewerage industry regulator.
In 2006, the Malaysian Parliament passed the Water
Service Industry Act (WSIA), which replaced theSewerage Service Act. Under the previous legal
arrangement, IWK had no right to oblige users to pay
desludging costs and sewerage charges or to impose
fines. As the new Act also integrates drinking water andsewerage services, it provides a level of holistic
management to water supply since supply can be cut forusers who default on paying charges. The new framework
also reinforced SSD’s roles and provided by law a new
regulator, SPAN (Suruhanjaya Perkhidmatan Air Negara
or National Water Services Commission).
SSD then became a project implementation agency,
in charge of defining plans for new construction andupgrades of sewers and wastewater treatment plants. As
was performed by IWK, SPAN thus handles monitoring
and regulation of sewerage services. SPAN also aims to
improve the quality of new systems constructed by theprivate sector through providing guidelines to ensure

China

Facilities and situation of wastewater treatment

According to ASM (2014), the groundwater resource
is currently still underused owing to relatively higher
exploration costs, and groundwater use is concentrated
in the State of Kelantan. In Sarawak, a number ofvillages, especially along the coast, obtain water fromgroundwater due to the low cost-efficacy of laying
pipes from central facilities to these isolated areas.
Groundwater is also an important source of water supply
in many small islands and is used in conjunction withsurface runoff and rainwater.
The status of groundwater quality was evaluatedusing the National Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality(NGDWQ) 2000 from the Ministry of Health (revised in
December 2000) as a benchmark. In 2015, 390 water
samples were taken from 105 monitoring wells andanalyzed for volatile organic compounds (VOCs),
pesticides, heavy metals, anions, bacteria (coliform),
phenolic compounds, total hardness, Total Dissolved
Solids (TDS), pH, temperature, conductivity and DO.
Results showed that all stations were within the NGDWQ
values except for As, iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), total
coliform and phenol.

Cambodia

3.4 Groundwater81

they are both built according to set standards and meet
effluent quality requirements as determined by the
Department of Environment. Accordingly, developers are
obliged to select only those systems approved by SPAN.
According to IWK, in 2018, the company’s service
area is 88,741 km2, and it operates and maintains 6,745
wastewater treatment plants, 1,188 pumping stations,and 19,134 km of sewer network, supporting the lives ofapproximately 25 million people.
Table 2.7.3 shows the status of wastewater
treatment facilities in Malaysia. According to SPAN
statistics, there were 10,773 public and private sewage
treatment plants, while still a significant number ofcommunal septic tanks, individual septic tanks and othersewage treatment system exists. This means that morethan 12 million people are still using such facilities.
Table 2.7.3 Status of domestic wastewater treatment
facilities (2018)a. Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises)(Crude Palm Oil) Regulations 1977

Quantity

Population
Equivalent
(PE)

6,932

26,128,858

a. multipoint Plant

6,830

17,513,195

b. regional Plant

102

8,615,663

c. Environmental Quality (Scheduled Wastes)
Regulations 2005

Private Sewage Treatment Plant

3,841

4,010,610

d. Environmental Quality (Sewage) Regulations 2009

Communal Septic Tank

4,231

515,527

Individual Septic Tank

1,357,553

6,998,919

Traditional System (Pour Flush)

1,185,032

5,925,160

e. Environmental Quality (Control of Pollution from
Solid Waste Transfer Station and Landfill)
Regulations 2009

Sewage Facilities
Public Sewage Treatment Plant (a+b)(Source: SPAN 2018)

5 | Framework for Water
Environmental Management
5.1 Legislation
The ultimate objective of Malaysia’s environmental
management (including water quality management) is
to improve living standards and ensure a sustainable
quality of life for its citizens. The National Policy on
the Environment approved in 2002 states, “the nation
shall implement environmentally sound and sustainable
development for the continuous economic, social andcultural progress and enhancement of the quality oflife of Malaysia” (MoSTE 2002). In line with this policy,
the national policy set eight principles to integrate theeconomy and environment, namely stewardship ofthe environment; conservation of nature’s vitality and82

diversity; continuous improvement in the quality ofthe environment; sustainable use of natural resources;
integrated decision making; role of the private sector
commitment and accountability; and active participationin the international community.
The Environmental Quality Act (EQA) 1974
(Amendments 2012) relates to the prevention, abatement
and control of pollution, and enhancement of theenvironment. The Act ordains that the minister, after
consultation with the Environmental Quality Council,
may elaborate regulations for prescribing ambient water
quality and discharge standards, and specifying the
maximum permissible loads that may be discharged byany source into inland waters, with reference either
generally or specifically to the body of waters concerned.
Over time, several amendments or additions weremade to this Act. Some of the key subsidiary legislations
related to water environment are as follows:b. Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises)(Raw Natural Rubber) Regulations 1978

f. Environmental Quality (Industrial Effluent)
Regulations 2009
g. Environmental Quality (Prescribed Activities)(Environmental Impact Assessment) Order 2015
Other laws and regulations are also shown in Figure
2.7.7.
There are some other important policies related towater Environmental Management. One of them is the
National Water Resources Policy (NWRP), which waslaunched in March 2012 for the period from 2010 to2050. It is aimed at determining the future direction of
the water resources sector based on a review of thenational water resources. NWRP for Malaysia provides
clear directions and strategies in water resourcesmanagement to ensure water security and sustainability
for both humankind and nature.

Chapter 2: Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Cambodia

Conserva�on of Water Quality

China

GeneralEnvironmental Quality Act
Environmental Quality Standards for Surface Water
Eﬄuent Discharge Standards

Selangor Waters Management Authority Enactment (1999)
Kedah Water Resources Enactment (2007)
Sabah Conserva�on of the Environment Enactment

Sabah Water Resources Enactment (1998)
Na�onal resources and Environment
Ordinance Sarawak

Japan

Speciﬁc Sector
State of Sabah and Sarawak

1. Agriculture
Irriga�on Areas Act (1953)
Drainage Works Acts (1954)

1. Agriculture
Drainage and Irriga�on, Sabah Ordinace (15/1956)
Drainage Works Ordinance Sarawak (1966)

2. ForestryNa�onal Forestry Act (1984)

2. Forestry
Sabah Forest Enactment (1965)
Forest Ordinance Sarawak, Cap126

3. Control of Rivers
Water Acts (1920), Reviewed (1989)
River Rights Enactment of Perak
Kelantan River Traﬃc Enactment (1955)
Pahang River Launches Enactment 6/49

4. Land Management
Sabah Land Ordinance (1930)
Sarawak Land Code (1958)

4. Land Management
Na�onal Land Code (1965)
Land Conserva�on Act (1960)
Earthwork by laws

Malaysia

5. Domes�c Water Supply
Water Services Industry Act

5. Domes�c Water Supply
Water Service Indutry Act

6. Mining
Mining Enactment (1960 Sabah)
Mining Enactment (1949 Sarawak)

6. Mining
Mining Enctment (1936)

8. Fishery
Fisheries Act (1963)
9. Others
Local Government Act (1976)
Street Drainage Building By law (1974, 1994-R)
Geological Survey Act
Ministerial Func�on Act (1969)(Source: MOEJ 2009)

Sri Lanka
Thailand
Viet Namprotection, including water quality management. The
mission of the Ministry of Environment and Water is tointegrate the functions of water resources and water
services, strengthen the management of the country's
water ecosystem, and ensure adequate and sustainable
water resources and supplies. The quality of drinking
water is regulated by the Ministry of Health, and the
National Water Commission regulates the entities
involved in water supply and sewerage services underPhilippines

Figure 2.7.7 Legislative chart for water quality management

Nepal

8. Others
Local Authority Enactment, Sabah Ordinance (11/1961)
Local Authority Ordinance Sarawak Cap 117

Myanmar

7. Local and Regional Planning
Town and Country Planning
Enactment Sabah Cap 141
Town and Country Planning Sarawak Cap 87

7. Local and Regional Planning
Town and Country Planning Act (1976)

The Department of Environment (DOE) was originallycreated as the Environment Division, which wasestablished in 1975 under the Ministry of Local
Government and Environment. It has been reorganized
several times due to the realignments of government
ministries and agencies, and it is now under the Ministryof Environment and Water which newly establishedin April 2020. DOE is responsible for environmental

Lao PDR

3. Control of Rivers
Sarawak Water Ordinance,
Sarawak Riverine Transport Bill (1993)

Republic of Korea

Peninsular Malaysia

5.2 Institutional Arrangement

Indonesia

Speciﬁc Area83the Water Services Industry Act 2006 (Act 655), whichcame into effect in 2008. Local governments are
involved in water resources planning and development.

5.3 Ambient Water Quality Standards
Water quality standards

National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQS),
which applies to surface waters, sets out standard
values for 72 parameters in six water use classes (Table
2.7.4.), the goal of which is not to meet the standardsof a particular water class in all surface waters, but toimprove water quality gradually in order to meet thestandards of a water class higher than the current class.
Table 2.7.4 Water quality classes in the National Water
Quality Standards
Class

Uses

I

Conservation of natural environment.
Water Supply I – Practically no treatment necessary.
Fishery I – Very sensitive aquatic species.

IIA

Water Supply II – Conventional treatment required.
Fishery II – Sensitive aquatic species.

IIB

Recreational use with body contact.

III

Water Supply III – Extensive treatment required.
Fishery III – Common, of economic value and tolerant
species; livestock drinking.

IV

Irrigation

V

None of the above.
(Source: DOE 2015)

For marine water quality, the Malaysian Marine
Water Quality Index (MWQI) was established with seven
sub-indexes.
While groundwater quality standards for Malaysia havenot been established, based on the assumption thatgroundwater can potentially be used as an alternative
source of surface water, the National Guidelines for
Drinking Water Quality are referred as the benchmark forevaluating groundwater quality monitoring results.

Water quality monitoring framework
The Department of Environment (DOE) is responsible
for conducting monitoring programs for rivers, marine
waters and groundwater. In 1978 it implemented the
National River Water Monitoring Program to determine
river water quality status and detect changes over time.
River water quality monitoring
For 2018, 8,118 water samples from 638 rivers wereanalyzed based on sampling frequencies of 4 to 12 times
per year. A total of 30 parameters were monitored and awater quality index was developed with six key indicatorspecies: DO, BOD, COD, NH3-N, SS and pH (DOE EQR2018).

84

Coastal water quality monitoring
For 2018, 368 stations, comprising188 from coastal, 85
from estuaries, 95 from islands and the remaining 79
selected from islands were investigated. A total of 2,208
water samples were taken and analyzed from the 368
stations with sampling frequencies of six times per year.
Twenty-nine parameters were monitored including six insitu and 23 in laboratory. The Marine Water Quality Index(MWQI) was developed based on seven parameters: DO,
NO3, PO4, NH3, Faecal coliform, Oil and Grease, TSS.
Groundwater monitoring
For 2018, 109 tube wells were monitored based on
specific land use: Agricultural (13), Urban & Suburban(12), Industrial Sites (19), Solid Waste Landfills (23),Golf Courses (7), Rural Areas (4), Ex-mining Area (GoldMines) (3), Municipal Water Supply (5), Animal Burial
Areas (14), Aquaculture Farms (7), Radioactive Landfills(1) and Resorts (1). A total of 17 parameters wereanalyzed in-situ (6 parameters) and Laboratory analysis(11 parameters). Various types of advanced sampling
equipment such as hydro lift pumps, HDPE tubing, water
depth sensors, generators, sampling bottles/preservative
kits, coolboxes and multiprobes were used for increased
accuracy. The Malaysia Groundwater Quality Index(MGQI) was developed to represent the groundwater
quality status and categories, based on a scale of
0–100, which represents from Very Poor to Excellent.
Parameters used for MGQI were pH, Fe, TDS, NO3 , E. coli,
phenol and sulphate.

5.4 Effluent Standards
Effluent standards

The National Environmental Quality Act 1974 states that“no person shall, unless licensed, emit, discharge ordeposit any environmentally hazardous substances,
pollutants or wastes into any inland waters incontravention of the acceptable conditions specified
under Section 21” (Section 25, National Environmental
Quality Act 1974).

Effluent inspection procedure
Monitoring of effluent, as well as recording andmaintenance of the monitoring results are obligations
that all premises are required to fulfill under theenvironmental regulations on sewage and industrial
effluents. Analytical methods and parameters to bemonitored are designated. All premises are required
to submit monthly effluent discharge reports to theDOE, either by the online reporting system or hardcopy submission. Authorized DOE officials can carryout inspections of all premises, including surpriseChapter 2: Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Japan
Republic of Korea

Since 2009, DOE has designed different enforcement
measures and tools for maintaining the water
environment. A brief snapshot of these, including
penalties for defaulters, is shown in Table 2.7.7 (DOE2018). Non-complying institutions or entities facepenalties of up to 100,000 MYR or five year jail terms.

Lao PDR

Compliance Level (%) (Target>90%)
2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

Average

Suspended Solids (SS)

97.8

97.1

97.0

96.9

97.3

98.1

98.5

98.2

97.9

97.6

Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)

95.2

94.8

93.9

93.7

94.7

96.3

96.2

97.7

95.4

95.3

Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)

97.7

97.5

97.1

96.9

97.9

98.5

98.6

98.4

98.2

97.9

Oil & Grease

99.1

99.1

99.1

98.6

99.1

99.5

99.6

99.5

99.4

99.2

Ammoniacal Nitrogen (NH3-N)

99.6

99.4

99.5

99.2

99.1

98.9

99.8

99.9

97.2

99.2

Average

97.9

97.6

97.3

97.1

97.6

98.3

98.5

98.7

97.6

97.8

(Source: SPAN 2018)

Industrial effluents regulations
Compliance (%)

No. of Field Inspections

Compliance (%)

2018

4,549

99.6

5,663

99.6

2017

10,280

99.2

5,518

99.2

Compliance (%)

2016

14,99599.0

2015

11,37299.0

201411,410

99.0

2013

7,201

99.0

2012

6,597

98.1

Viet Nam

No. Inspections

ThailandYEAR

Sri Lanka

No. of Desktop Inspections

Philippines

Table 2.7.6 Summary of industrial wastewater management and status of compliance with industrial wastewater
management guidelines

Nepal

2012

Myanmar

2011

Malaysia

2010

YEAR

Indonesia

Measures against non-compliance

Table 2.7.5 Summary of public sewage treatment plants and status of compliance with Sewage Effluent Standards for
2010–2018
Parameter

China

The government can be seen to have extended
diligent efforts in its monitoring of effluents from both
domestic and industrial sectors with the use of key
indicator species. Monitoring results for effluent quality
in terms of compliance with national standards for bothpublic sewage treatment plants and industrial sectors
are shown in Table 2.7.5 and 2.7.6 respectively. Resultshows a significant improvement in the rate ofcompliance in 2018 compared to 2010. In 2018, average
rates of compliance of effluent monitoring sites for
public sewage treatment plants and industrial sites with
ambient guidelines were 97.8% and 99.6% respectively.

Cambodia

inspections, to ensure compliance with all provisions
in the act, and non-compliance results in immediate
penalties to polluters. As a measure to improve effluent
quality, industrial effluent treatment systems (IETS)
were introduced with the aim of optimizing effluent
treatment operations and maintenance by enabling
preventive or corrective actions through the monitoringof treatment performance based on certain parameters.
Through IETS, companies can benefit from the early
identification of deficiencies, identification of proper
dosages for chemicals (Keong 2008) and increased
opportunities to identify preventive actions (How 2008).
The DOE provides technical guidance to promote IETS.
The guidance recommends that within each industry acompetent person certified by the director-general of
the DOE be on duty to supervise IETS. The use of IETS is
expected to encourage industry as a whole to be moreproactively engaged in pollution control but without
invoking the level of enforcement present in the public
sector.

(Source: DOE Annual report 2012–2018)85

Table 2.7.7 Summary of different enforcement instruments and economic tools for water environmental management
S.No

Regulations

Enforcement
agencyEnforcement method/Reporting

Penalty

1. Self Regulatory Mechanism:

1

EQ (Inustrial Effluent)
Regulations 2009
- Industrial Effluent
and Mixed Effluent

a. Section 7: monitor COD and any parameter in
Fifth Scheduleb. Reporting: Monthly
DOE

c. Section 9: Perfomance Monitoring of IETS based on Guidance Document on Performance
Monitoring of Industrial Effluent Treatment System

Section 32: Penalty - Ifconvicted, maximum penalty of
RM 100,000 or/and amximum
5 years jail and further fine of
RM 1,000/day for continued
offenced. Online Environmental Reporting (OER)
2. Site Inspection by DOE Officer
1. Self Regulatory Mechanism:
2

EQ (sewage) Regulations
2009

DOE

a. Section 10: Monitor concentration of the specified
parameters in Second Scheduleb. Reporting: Monthlyc. Online Environmental Reporting (OER)
2. Site Inspection by DOE Officer

Section 26: Penalty - If Convited,maximum penalty of RM
100,000 or/and maximum 5
years in jail and further fine of
RM 1,000/day for continued
offence

1. Self Regulatory Mechanism:

3

EQ (Control of Pollution
from Solid Waste
Transfer Station andLandfill) Regulations
2009

a. Section 8: Monitor concentration of ammoniacal
nitrogen from landfill on a continuous basis using
online instrumentation system linked to DOE
DOE

b. Section 8: Monitor concentration of the specified
parameters in Second Schedule (limits)c. Section 11: Conduct performance monitoring ofleachate treatment system

Section 29: Penalty - If Convited,maximum penalty of RM
100,000 or/and maximum 5
years in jail and further fine of
RM 1,000/day for continued
offenced. Online Environmental Reporting (OER)

5.5 Other Policies on Water Environmental
Managementg. Guidelines for Green Industry Practice: Printing
Industry (2014) – DOE, NRE (Malay version)

In order to manage the complex, interwoven issuesof water environment, the Malaysia government has
introduced several legislations and guidelines in termsof new standards, as well as revised existing standards asfollows (DOE 2018):

h. Guidelines on the Disposal of Chemical Wastes
from Laboratories (2015) – DOE, NRE

a. Malaysian Groundwater Quality Standards andIndex (2019) – Developed by DOE

j. Guidelines on the Effluent Treatment System for
Pig Breeders (2016) – DOE, NRE (Malay version)b. National Lake Water Quality Criteria and Standards(2015) – Developed by NAHRIM (Approved by
National Water Resources Council in 2015)

k. Guidelines for Green Industry Practice: Food
sector for Slaughtering and Processing of Poultry(2017) – DOE, NRE (Malay version)c. National Standard for Drinking Water Quality(2000) – Developed by Ministry of Health (MOH)l. Guidelines on Land Disturbing Pollution Prevention
and Mitigation Measures (2017) – DOE, NRE

d. National Standard for Natural Recreational Water
Quality and Guidelines for Natural Recreational
Water Quality Monitoring (Marine and Fresh
Water) (2017) – Developed by MOH

m. Environmental Impact Assessment Guidelines forDevelopment in Slope and Hill Areas (2017) – DOE,
NRE

e. Guidelines for Packaging, Labelling and Storage of
Scheduled Waste in Malaysia (2014) – DOE, NRE
f. Guidelines for Green Industry Practice: Juice
Production Industry (2014) – DOE, NRE (Malay
version)86

i. Guidelines of the Effluent Treatment System for
Dairy Cattle, Beef Cattle and Buffalo Breeders(2016) – DOE, NRE (Malay version)n. Environmental Impact Assessment Guidelines forDevelopment in Coastal Areas and Marine Parks(2017) – DOE, NRE

Chapter 2: Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

For the way forward, the following key actions have been
initiated:b. Amendment of Water Services Industry Act 2006

e. Malaysian Marine Water Quality Standards andIndex – Revised and published

Sri Lanka

f. Malaysian Groundwater Quality Standards andIndex – Study completed in 2017 – Published in
2019

Philippines

d. Review of the River Water Quality Criteria andStandard for Malaysia – Inception Report (September2019) – in progress

Nepal

c. Water Resource Bill to be tabled in Parliament in
2020

Myanmara. Amendment of Environmental Quality Act 1974 –to be tabled in the Parliament in 2020

Malaysiad. Lack of regulations or standards for wet market
effluent, car washes, and laundry

Lao PDR

c. Inability of Environmental Quality Act 1974
(Discharge control based on pollutant concentration)
to deal with shrinking river carrying capacity;
Inability of EQA 1974 to control pollution enteringriversRepublic of Korea

b. Point source and non-point source pollution

Japan
Thailand
Viet Nam

The Environmental Quality Act 1974 was somewhat
successful in reducing pollution through control of point
and non-point sources, and continuous monitoring andassessment of the water environment. However, many
challenges still remain. The new direction of water
environmental management has been incorporated in
the Eleventh Malaysian Plan and the new Environmental
Protection Act draft. The following elements are also
proposed by DOE to improve the nation’s future water
environment (Majid 2016): (i) Shifting the responsibility
for pollution control to industry by incorporatinga. Illegal dumping of wastes into watercourses

Indonesia

7 | Challenges and Future Plans

Some of the additional challenges are as follows:

China

The Eleventh Malaysia Plan 2016–2020 is seen as the
final part toward achieving Vision 2020. Launched in1991 by the government, Vision 2020 is an aspirationaltarget aimed at Malaysia becoming a fully developed
country economically, politically, socially, spiritually,
psychologically, and culturally by 2020. The theme of
the Eleventh Plan, “anchoring growth on people” hassix ‘strategic thrusts’ and six ‘game-changers’ intended
to reach the goals set out in Vision 2020 and create
an inclusive nation with an advanced economy. In
terms of water environment management, two of thecore strategies are relevant here: 1) “Pursuing green
growth for sustainability and resilience”, expected toincrease the quality of growth, strengthen food, waterand energy security, lower environmental risks andecological scarcities, and ultimately improve wellbeing
and quality of life, and 2) “Strengthening infrastructure
to support economic expansion”, with a focus on( i ) raising the financial sustainability of the water
services industry by strengthening the tariff system andimplementing joint billing for water and sewerage; (ii)
expanding the network and treatment plant capacity
through infrastructure investment and use of efficienttechnology through developing new treatment plants,
increasing clean and treated water coverage andexpanding connected water and sewerage services inrural areas; (iii) increasing efficiency and productivity ofwater and sewerage services through implementationof the Non-Revenue Water Reduction Programme andby rationalizing and upgrading sewage treatment plants;and (iv) strengthening the regulatory framework of thewater services industry with the National Sewerage
Master Plan, a water demand management master planand promotion of waste to wealth initiatives.

regulation elements (new approach taken by the
Department in the formulation of the new regulation
for pollution control); (ii) re-strategize the enforcement
programs and continuously improve compliancemonitoring to secure better solutions for pollution
prevention and control; (iii) increase use of ICT to reduce
costs of enforcement to cover more pollution sources;
promote self-regulation approaches to pollution control
by identifying groundwater potential for areas where
surface water is limited or unavailable; achieve better
management of lakes and reservoirs by clarifying theroles and responsibility of relevant stakeholders; andcarry out further studies and proper data management
to fulfill this target.

Cambodia

6 | Recent Developments inWater Environmental Management872.8 Myanmar
1 | Country Information
Table 2.8.1 Basic indicators
Land Area (km2)

676,552 (2018)*

Total Population

53.04 million (2019)**

GDP (current USD)

86.93 billion (2019)**
1,407 (2019)**

GDP per capita (current USD)
Average Precipitation (mm/year)

2,340 (2008–2017)*

Total Renewable Water Resources (km3)

1,168 (2017)

Total Annual Freshwater Withdrawals(billion m3)

33.2 (2000)***

Annual Freshwater
Withdrawals
by Sector

Agriculture

89% (2017)

Industry

1% (2017)

Municipal(including domestic)

10% (2017)(Source: ADB 2017, *CSO 2018, **World Bank 2020, ***FAO 2016)

in the dry season (CSO 2018). The catchment area of
Myanmar’s eight principal river basins is approximately
737,800 km2, and there are two major natural lakes,
the Inle Lake and Indawgyi Lake. Constructed reservoirs
have a capacity of 15.46 km3. The potential volume ofgroundwater resources in the country is 580 km3, of
which the estimated total renewable volume is 1,046
billion m3 and per capita total internal water resources
is 24,046 m 3 /capita/year (FAO 2016). Total water
development is 33.2 billion m3, which represents 3%of the total renewable water resources in Myanmar.
Approximately 91% of the total water withdrawal
comes from surface water and 9% from groundwater.
Groundwater is mostly used for domestic purposes (ADB
2017).

3 | State of Ambient Water Quality
3.1 Rivers
Myanmar is heavily dependent on inland surface
waterbodies for domestic use, agricultural irrigation andindustrial production. Water quality monitoring data of
Bago River, Shwegyin River, and Sittaung River revealed
that water environment conditions in these three rivers
are generally good, however they vary from river toriver. According to the water quality monitoring data in
2020, NO3-N concentrations range from 97 μg/L in Bago
River to 780 μg/L in Shwegyin River. In contrast, PO4-P
concentrations in Bago River water are around double
those of Shwegyin River and Sittaung River (Figure 2.8.2).
Wastewater and sewage from settlement areas is themain source of high levels of phosphorus, while nitrogencomes from run-off of fertilizers from agricultural areas(NIWR 2018).

3.2 Lakes and Reservoirs

Figure 2.8.1 Irrawaddy River in Nyaung-U, Myanmar

2 | State of Water Resources
Myanmar has an abundance of water resources, which
are distributed unevenly spatially and temporally. Around
80% of the average annual rainfall of 2,340 mm falls
during the monsoon season (May–October) and 20%

88

Myanmar has a number of natural lakes, including
Indawgyi Lake, Inle Lake, Inya Lake and Sunye Lake, which
serve as source of waters for various purpose, and theirbiodiversity and scenic beauty make them popular tourist
attractions. However, in recent years these lakes have
faced degraded lake environments, such as increased
water pollution, deforestation and illegal dumping of
garbage. Inle Lake is the second largest natural lake. It
has a surface area of 116 km2 and total water inflow
volume of 1,132 million cubic meter per year and is oneof the major sources of water in the lake basin area.
Annually it receives more than 0.3 million tourists (NIWR

Chapter 2: Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

1,000

5.8

5.5
5.4

150

PO4-P (μg/L)

NO3-N (μg/L)

5.6

600
400

120

China

BOD (mg/L)

180

800

5.7

90
60

5.3

200

Bago
River

Shwegyin
River

30

0

Si�aung
River

Bago
River

ShwegyinRiver0Si�aung
River

Bago
River

ShwegyinRiverSi�aung
River

Indonesia

5.2
5.1

210

Cambodia

5.9

Figure 2.8.2 Water quality of selected rivers in Myanmar, 2020 (Source: FRI 2020)

parameter

1

Turbidity (Degree)

value (2017rainy season)

value (2018rainy season)

9.0

9.9

Dissolved Oxygen (mg/L)

5

5

3

Chemical Oxygen
Demand (COD) (mg/L)

1210(Source: Yuasa et al. 2019)19

2

Mandalay

21,25781

18

1

Magway

552

81

17

2

(Source: Pavelic et al. 2015)

4 | State of Wastewater Treatment

Thailand
Viet Nam

Underinvestment in urban wastewater treatment
infrastructure has resulted in significantly deficientwastewater treatment services throughout Myanmar.
Only around 10% of wastewater generated is treated(United Nations World Water Assessment Programme2017), and there are only two sewerage systems, one
in each of the major cities of Yangon and Naypyidaw,
which can collect only small amounts of the wastewater
generated. The current capacity of Yangon city’s sewage
treatment facilities is 12,302 m3/day (ECD 2019) covering
only 7% of the city’s population. That of Nay Pyi Taw
city is 1,600 m3/day, which services about 20% of the
newly developed area of Naypyidaw, and 80% of areas
still reply on septic tanks or pit latrines with slab (ECD2019). Mandalay is a major city in central Myanmar witha population 1.2 million but lacks a central wastewater
management system. Rapid growth of industrial
sectors also increases the risk of water pollution due toinsufficient capacity to manage industrial wastewater.
A total of 41 industrial zones have been established in
Myanmar, most of which lack centralized wastewater
treatment facilities, although new industrial zones areplanned to be equipped with them. In recent years theGovernment of Myanmar has undertaken several projects

Sri Lanka

Groundwater is a vital source of water in many parts ofMyanmar, and in some areas provides 80% of drinking
and irrigation water supply (Viossanges et al. 2017).
However, the limited amounts of data make it difficult toform a picture of overall groundwater quality (van Geenet al. 2014, Bacquart et al. 2015), and the usability ofgroundwater is affected by water quality issues. Elevatedarsenic concentrations in groundwater exceeding the
WHO guideline value for drinking water (10 µg/L) havebeen reported in many areas. Table 2.8.3 shows that of
the 30,420 samples tested in the Dry Zone, 2% of themexceeded the arsenic value set in the National Drinking
water Guideline (50 µg/L), whereas 80% of samples

79

Philippines

3.4 Groundwater

8,611

Nepal

Myanmar has a 2,400 km long coastline bordering the
Bay of Bengal and Andaman Sea. Pollution of costal water
comes from coastal land as well as far inland. Major
pollutants in coastal water include chemicals, nutrients,and heavy metals carried from farms, factories, andcities by streams and rivers into the sea. The marine
water bodies around the country are also sometimes
deteriorated by oil spills and leaks.

Sagaing

Myanmar

3.3 Coastal Water

Total
samples

Malaysia2<10 µg/L 10–50 µg/L >50 µg/L
Percent of total sample

RegionLao PDR

no

Table 2.8.3 Arsenic concentration in groundwater ofSagaing, Mandalay and Magway Regions

Republic of Korea

Table 2.8.2 Water quality of Inle Lake, Myanmar, 2017–2018

exceeded the WHO guideline value of 10 µg/L. In somelocations, fluoride, nitrate, salinity, iron, manganese, andaluminum also exceeded WHO drinking water guidelines(Pincetti-Zúniga et al. 2020).

Japan2017). However, degradation of the lake environment is
set to hinder its ecosystem services, and a water quality
survey conducted during 2017–2018 raised concerns
over water quality deterioration. It also reported that thevalues of COD were high for both 2017 and 2018 (Table
2.8.2), which indicates continued organic pollution.

89

with the support of development partners, such as aproject to upgrade the current capacity of wastewater
treatment to 112,000 m3/day in partnership with theJapan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), a project
to establish an industrial wastewater treatment facility
in Mandalay city under an environmental cooperationagreement with Japan, and a project to construct a
central industrial wastewater treatment system withcapacity of 230 m3/day in Mandalay Industrial Zone (2)with financial aid from the Responsible Business Fund(Win 2019).
Table 2.8.4 Domestic wastewater treatment practices inurban areas
City
name
YangonPopulation(million)
5.2

Wastewater management
practices
i. Centralized wastewater treatment(12,302 m3/day)ii. Septic tankiii. Pit latrine

Nay Pyi Taw

0.9

i. Centralized wastewater treatment(1,600 m3/day)ii. Septic tankiii. Pit latrine

Mandalay

1.2

i. Septic tankii. Pit latrine(Source: ECD 2019)

5 | Frameworks for Water
Environmental Management
5.1 Legislation
The current legislative framework for water environment
management in Myanmar is shown in Figure 2.8.3.
Maintaining a healthy and clean environment andconservation of natural and cultural heritage forthe benefit of present and future generations is theobjective Environmental Conservation Law 2012. Article
7 stipulates that EIAs and SIAs must be carried out
for projects that may cause significant impact on theenvironment, the EIA process of which – according toEnvironmental Impact Assessment Guideline 2015 –must start with submission of project proposals to theEnvironmental Conservation Department. The National
Environmental Quality (Emission) Guidelines wasapproved in 2015, which provide the basis for regulationand control of noise and vibration, air emissions, andliquid discharges from various sources in order toprevent pollution for purposes of protection of humanand ecosystem health, and includes industry-specificguidelines on air pollution, wastewater, noise and odour.
The objectives of the Conservation of Water Resources
and Rivers Law 2006 are to conserve and protect water

Environmental Conserva�on Law 2012
Purposes:-To enable to emerge a healthy and clean environment
and to conserve natural and cultural heritage for the
beneﬁt of present and future genera�ons.

Myanmar Na�onal Water Policy
Purposes:-To achieve sustainable water governancein all sectors

Water environment
conserva�on

Environmental
Impact Assessment Procedure(2015)Na�onal Environmental
Quality (Emission)
Guidelines (2015)

The Conserva�on of Water Resources
and Rivers Law 2006
Purpose:i . to conserve and protect the water resources andrivers system for beneﬁcial u�liza�on by the public;ii. to smooth and safety waterways naviga�on along
rivers and creeksiii. to contribute to the development of State economy
through improving water resources and river
system;iv. to protect environmental impact

Figure 2.8.3 Legislative framework of water environment management in Myanmar

90

Chapter 2: Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Table 2.8.5 Institutional arrangement for water environment management in Myanmar
Department

Ministry/organization

Responsibilities

Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and
Irrigation

Provision of irrigation water for farmland

Water Resources Utilization Department

Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and
Irrigation

Irrigation and rural water supply

Directorate of Water Resources andImprovement of River System

Ministry of Transport and Communication

River gradging, navigation and prevent riverwater pollution

Directorate of Industrial Supervision andInspection

Ministry of Planning, Finance and Industry

Industrial water use and discharge

Department of Metrology andHydrology

Ministry of Planning, Finance and Industry

Water assessment of major rivers

Department of Urban and Housing
Development

Ministry of Construction

Domestic water supply

Department of Public Health

Ministry of Health and Sports
Environmental Health,

Water quality assessment and control

Department of Development Affairs

Ministry of Border Areas Development
Affairs

Rural water supply and sanitation

Department of Research and Innovation

Ministry of Education

Formulation National Standards

Water and Sanitation Department

City Development Committees (Yangon,
Mandalay, Nay Pyi Taw)

Water supply and sanitation in city areas

Viet Nam

Although there is no water quality standard in Myanmar,
ECD and the Forestry Department of MONREC are

ThailandWater quality monitoring framework

Sri Lanka

Myanmar currently has no ambient water quality
standard. However, with the objective of stipulating
national standards, as provided for under Paragraph (10)of the Environmental Conservation Law (“the Ministry
may stipulate the suitable surface water quality
standards, water quality standards for coastal andestuarine areas, underground water quality standards,
atmospheric quality standards, noise and vibration
standards, emissions standards, effluent standards, solid
waste standards and other environmental quality
standards”), the Environmental Conser vation
Department of MONREC in cooperation with other line
ministries and international experts has been working on
a draft of the surface water quality standard. Part of thisprocess involved conducting a review of the standards ofneighboring countries and developed countries, which
led to over 600 parameters being selected for thescreening process. Progress was then made on developing
a draft for surface water quality standards. The draft was
submitted to the National Surface Water Quality
Standards, which include 36 parameters with thresholdvalues for protecting aquatic ecosystems and humanhealth. The Environmental Conservation Department(ECD) of MONREC aims to put into effect the National
Surface Water Quality Standard in 2021 to thus establish
a surface quality standard.

Philippines

Ambient water quality standards

Nepal

Irrigation and Water Utilization
Management Department

Myanmar

Reforestation and conservation of forest
including watershed areas

Malaysia

Ministry of Natural Resources andEnvironmental Conservation

Lao PDR

Forestry Department

Republic of Korea

Ministry of Natural Resources andEnvironmental Conservation

Japan

Environmental Conservation
Department

Formulation of national environmental quality
standards, including water quality standards,
water quality monitoring, enforcement

5.3 Ambient Water Quality Standards

Indonesia

In Myanmar, several ministries deal with water
environment management. Table 2.8.5 shows a list ofagencies and their responsibilities for water environment

China

5.2 Institutional Arrangement

conservation. Control of the disposal of wastewaterfrom residences, office buildings and factories is the
responsibility of the Ministry of Natural Resources andEnvironmental Conservation (MONREC). The Ministryof Planning, Finance and Industry is responsible forregulating industrial water use and discharge, and theCity Development Committee is responsible for watersupply and sanitation respective cities.

Cambodia

resources and river systems for beneficial public use
and smooth and safe navigation, and contribute to thestate economy through improving water resources andmitigating environmental impacts.

91responsible for managing water quality monitoring. As
such, ECD monitors river water quality at 15 sampling
points, lake water quality at 21 monitoring points andgroundwater quality at three monitoring points quarterlyor twice a year for 18 water quality parameters. The

Forestry Department monitors water quality for 30
parameters at 26 sampling points for rivers and eight
monitoring points in dams. Details of the water quality
monitoring framework are shown in Table 2.8.6.

Table 2.8.6 Water quality monitoring framework of ECD and Forestry Department
Item

ECD

Forestry Department

Monitoring parameters

Temperature, Turbidity,
Total dissolved solids (TDS), Conductivity, pH,
Dissolved oxygen (DO), COD, BOD, Salinity,
Total Ammonia, Total Nitrate, Total Phosphate,
Copper, Lead, Arsenic, Mercury, Iron, Cadmium

pH, Conductivity, Color, Total Alkalinity, Turbidity,
BOD, COD, Calcium, Magnesium, Potassium, Sodium,
Chloride, Sulfate, Ammonia, Fluoride, Nitrate, Nitrite,
Total nitrogen, Total phosphorus, Bromine, Mercury,
Copper, Lead, Arsenic, Cadmium, Nickle, E.coli
Bacteria, Orthophosphate, Silicon, Chromium

Number of sampling points

Rivers: 15 sampling points
Lakes: 21 sampling points
Groundwater: 3 sampling points

Rivers: 26 sampling points
Dams: 8 sampling points

Frequency of monitoring

Seasonal (quarterly or twice/year)

Bimonthly

Frequency of publishingmonitoring reports

Quarterly-

5.4 Effluent Standards
Effluent standards

The National Environmental Quality (Emission)
Guidelines (NEQEG) was released on 29 December 2015.
These guidelines provide the basis for regulation andcontrol of noise and vibration, air emissions, and liquid
discharges from various sources in order to prevent
pollution and provide protection for human and ecosystem health. A total of 71 industry-specific effluent
levels have been set out in the NEQEG. The guidelines for
effluent levels cover thermal power, geothermal power,
wind power, oil and gas, petroleum refining, natural gas
processing, natural gas liquefaction, crude oil andpetroleum product terminals, electric powertransmission and distribution, gas distribution systems,
petroleum-based organic chemicals manufacturing,
plantation industrial/crop production, annual crop
production, mammalian livestock production, poultry
production, aquaculture, forest harvesting operation,meat processing, poultry procession, fish processing,food and beverage processing, dairy processing,vegetable oil production and processing, sugar
manufacturing, breweries and distilleries, textiles

manufacturing, tanning and leather finishing, sawmillingand manufactured wood products, board and particlebased products, pulp and/or paper mills, printing, large
volume inorganic compounds manufacturing and coal tar
distillation, petroleum-based polymers manufacturing,coal procession, nitrogen fertilizer manufacturing,
phosphate fertilizer manufacturing , pesticide
manufacturing , oleochemicals manufacturing ,pharmaceuticals and biotechnology manufacturing,
glass, and glass and mineral fibre manufacturing, ceramic
tile and sanitary ware manufacturing, base metalsmelting and refining, integrated steel mills, foundries,
metal, plastic and rubber products manufacturing,semiconductors and other electronics manufacturing,solid waste management facilities, wastewater treatment
facilities, health care facilities, and others.

Effluent inspection procedure
The Pollution Control Division of ECD, General
Administration Department, Directorate of Industrial
Supervision Inspection, and Directorate of Industrial
Collaboration are responsible for inspection of effluent
quality. Table 2.8.7 describes the responsibilities of each

Table 2.8.7 Effluent quality control agencies and their responsibilities
Agency92

Responsibilities

Pollution Control Division of ECD

Monitor the effluent quality regularly

General Administration Department

Manage and issue liquor licenses

Directorate of Industrial Supervision Inspection (DISI)

Encourage the development of private industrial enterprises inaccordance with the Industrial Enterprise Law

Directorate of Industrial Collaboration

To formulate policies and laws to accelerate growth of industries

Chapter 2: Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countriesiii. Ongoing project for establishing a National Water
Quality Monitoring System and Building the
National Laboratory to Improve the National
Capacity for Water Quality Management in
Myanmar.

Enforcement challenges

i. Lack of human resources and capacity ofregional offices
ii. Lack of incentive policies

i. Recruit new human resources and arrange
capacity building training.
ii. Formulate incentive policy for enforcement ofenvironmental pollution.

Resource and financial challenges

i. Lack of financial capacity for establishinglaboratory and technical training

i. Enhance cooperation with development
partners to establish laboratory and capacity
development training program on water andeffluent quality monitoring.

Viet Nam

i. Organize monitoring and inspection teams
at national, state, regional, city and townshiplevels, including relevant departments.

Thailandi. Formulation of environmental water quality
standards, monitoring and inspection of waterand effluent quality

Sri Lanka

Institutional challenge

Philippines

Actions to be taken

Nepal

Description

MyanmarBased on the current state of water quality managementin Myanmar, some key management challenges are
identified as follows:

Malaysia

7 | Challenges and Future Plans

Lao PDRiv. Implementation “Integrated Water Resources
Management – Institutional building and trainings”
project by Forestry Department, with specificoutcomes of (1) ecological water quality statusassessment; (2) functioning Myanmar National
Water Quality Laboratory; (3) database and data
user interface tools, for communication ofenvironmental status by FD; (4) implementationof the Myanmar National Water Framework
Directive - in selected Myanmar sub-basins; (5)development of monitoring and risk assessment
plans in areas of mining activities.

Republic of Korea

The Myanmar Sustainable Development Plan (MSDP)
2018–2030 is a document laying out a vision for thecountry toward sustainable development, and Goal 5emphasizes sound management of natural resourcesand environment for prosperity of the nation. The
National Environmental policy of Myanmar (2019) sets
a vision for a clean environment with a healthy andfunctioning ecosystem to ensure inclusive development
and wellbeing for all people in Myanmar. Myanmar
National Water Policy (NWP) sets its vision as, “in 2040
Myanmar will become water efficient nation with welldeveloped and sustainable water resources based on a
fully-functional integrated water resources management
system”. The objectives of the NWP are to establish
an Apex body for strengthening inter-ministerial
coordination for water management, invest in watersector infrastructures, institutions and capacity building,
improve efficiency on the water supply and demandsides, and enhance water information, knowledge,
technology and cooperation.

ii. Implementation of Project on Capacity
Development in Enforcement and Promotion ofEnvironmental Compliance.

Japan

5.5 Major Policies on Water Environmental
Management

i. Drafting of the national surface water quality
standard. ECD aims to finalize and complete theapproval process of the draft national surface
water quality standard in 2021.

Indonesia

When violations of effluent standards are found, awritten warning is sent to industries to correct current
activities to comply with the relevant laws and effluent
guidelines. If this fails to solve the pollution issue, anoperation suspension notice is issued.

There are several developments in government policies
that will have significant impacts on water environment
management, as follows:

China

Measures against non-compliance

6 | Recent Developments inWater Environmental Management

Cambodia

agency. DISI performs monitoring using an online
monitoring system for wastewater discharged fromalcohol factories. Local and regional offices of ECD aretasked with regular monitoring of effluent quality, andECD headquarters is directly involved in effluent
monitoring upon notification of major environment
pollution issues.

932.9 Nepal
1 | Country Information
Table 2.9.1 Basic indicators
Land Area (km2)

147,181*

Total Population

30.16 million**
31.83 billion (2020)***GDP (current USD)
GDP per capita (current USD)

1,085 (2020)***

Average Precipitation (mm/year)

1,530 (2014)

Total Renewable Water Resources (km3)

210.2 (2014)

Total Annual Freshwater Withdrawals(billion m3)

29.31 (2017)

Annual Freshwater
Withdrawals
by Sector

Agriculture

98.26% (2017)

Industry

1.7% (2017)

Municipal(including domestic)

0.03% (2017)* The country’s official land area is being updated with reference to the
new country map approved by the parliament in 2020
(Source: **NPC 2020 (2020 projection), ***GoN 2019, WEPA 2018)

There are about 6,000 rivers in Nepal, with a totaldrainage area of 191,000 km2, 74% of which lies in Nepal.
Three categories of river systems predominate, based on
their origin. The ﬁrst comprises four main river systems
from east to west, respectively: Koshi, Gandaki, Karnali,
and Mahakali river systems, all of which originate fromglaciers or snow-fed lakes in the Himalayas. River systems
in the second category originate in the Mahabharat
range in the mid-hills, and include Babai, West Rapti,
Bagmati, Kamala, Kankai and Mechi river systems. Riversystems in the third category include streams or rivulets
from the Chure hills bordering the Terai plain region insouth Nepal, the streams and rivulets of which generally
cause flash-flood during monsoon rains and remain dry
or with very low flow during the dry season.
An assessment has identiﬁed 5,358 wetlands in
Nepal including high altitude glacier lakes in the
Himalayas, natural lakes as well as ponds, dams andother small wetlands (NLCDC 2009). Of these, 329 lakes(including ponds, small wetlands) up to 3,000 m elevation
are roughly evenly distributed across seven provinces of
Nepal, except in the far west where there are only 21
lakes (Table 2.9.2) (NLCDC 2018).
Table2.9.2 Distribution of lakes in seven provinces in Nepal
Province

Figure 2.9.1 Trishuli River in Nepal

Total Lakes

Province No. 1

73

Province No. 2

86

Bagmati Province

36

Gandaki Province

61

Lumbini Province

52

Karnali Province

14

Sudurpashim Province

2 | State of Water Resources
Nepal has abundant water resources. Average annual
precipitation is around 1,500 mm, ranging from over
6,000 mm along the southern slopes of the Annapurna
Range in central Nepal to less than 250 mm in the northcentral portion near the Tibetan plateau. About 10% of
total precipitation in Nepal falls as snow, mostly in the
23% of Nepal’s total area that lies above the permanentsnowline of 5,000 m. There are 3,252 glaciers covering
an area of 5,323 km2 (or 3.6% of Nepal’s total area), withan estimated ice reserve of 481 km3, and 2,323 glaciallakes, covering an area of 75 km 2. The snow-capped
Himalayas is the main source of rivers in the country,
especially during the dry season.

94

Total

7
329
(Source: NLCDC 2018)

The annual rechargeable groundwater reserve is 8.8
billion m3, of which less than 2 billion m3 is currently
extracted, mostly for groundwater irrigation in thesouthern Terai region (WECS 2011). Usually, people livingin the Terai (lowland), inner valleys in the hills andmountains extract groundwater for domestic as well as
industrial uses.

3 | State of Ambient Water Quality
Water quality of public water bodies is generally
considered good. However, urban areas, especiallyChapter 2: Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

DO(mg/L)

BOD(mg/L)

Mechi

8.3

30

8.9

1.8

Kankai

7.7

60

8.7

2

Arun

6.2

200

9.1

2.1

3.1 Rivers

East Rapti (Sauraha)

7.8

213

8.7

2.5

Seti (Ramghat)

8.2

222

9.3

2

Bheri (Chatagaon)

7.8

208

9.3

1.1

Karnali (Chisapani)

7.8

264

10.5

1.5

Mahakali (Pancheswor)
Desired value

8.8

110

5

2

6.5–8.5*<1000*>5.0<30* NDWQS : National Drinking Water Standard(Source: Department of Hydrology and Meteorology 2018)

Table 2.9.3 State of water quality in selected rivers across Nepal shown for upstream-downstream sections (2016)

Desired Value>5

6.6– 14.8–
7.4** 1.2

<30

<250

<1000* <1500*

<1.5*

<50*

-

-

<500* <100*

<0.3*

0*

0*

9.6–
90.5

24.8–
192

380–
810

460–
970

10–
70

0.1–
0.3

0.1–
0.1

6.8–
30

140–
90

21.1–
10.6

0.5–
3.9

500–
900

40–
50

187–
1360

90–
90

0.5–
0.5

0.2–
0.1

22.6–
34.6

160–
130

24.5–
43.7

0.5–
5.7

900–
1600

110–
170

Nakhu - Saibu

8–
8.1

2.1–
7.1

40.5–
5.4

78–
15.9

120–
920

650–
300

90–
30

0.5–
0.2

0.13–
<0.1

12.1–
3.6

100–
120

12.3–
24.7

4.2 –
2.8

1600–
900

110–
70

Hanumante(SallaghariThimi)

8.5–
7.3

1.8–
15.1

33.0–
48.9

120–
90.7

1530–
1290

1800–
1600

160–
180

2.4–
2.7

0.2–
0.1

45.6–
26.7

80–
120

9.8–
10.2

6.4–
6.5

1600–
1600

120–
90

Manahara(Pepsikola Balkumari)

7.4–
7.6

7.0–
3.9

14.5–
23.8

23.7–
40.5

620–
980

870–
1450

60–
60

2.3–
2.0

0.2–
0.2

4.5–
12.8

60–
80

7.8–
11.8

4.9–
6.1

1600–
500

140–
40

Seti Pokhara(Mardi - Dobila)

7.4–
7.6

8.1–
8.7

1.2–
1.3

2.4–
2.6

110–
150

130–
170

1.5–
2.8

0.13–
0.1

0.05–
0.01

2.0–
2.0

120–
170

9.8–
6.9

0.3–
3.8

500–
500

50–
40

Narayani(Bridge Devghat mixed)

7.3–
7.1

11.2–
9.7

0.88–
1.5

2.5–
3.5

170–
160

200–
180

2.0–
1.1

3.5–
3.9

0.1 –
0.1

2.0–
5.0

340–
180

25.6–
22.9

0.2–
0.3

900–
900

60–
70

Sirsiya(Parwanipur- Ghadiharwa
Pokhara)

6.5–
6.6

1.1–
1.1

87.3–
88.6

123.1–
78

390–
750

410–
710

80.0–
90.0

8.9–
3.6

0.1 –
0.2

23.0–
33.0

300–
240

24.6–
25.9

3.9–
3.7

1600–
900

170–
110

Tinau
(Jhumsa bridge - 7.2–
Radhakrishna
7.5
Tole)

10.4–
9.5

1.6–
1.5

2.6–
3.9

200–
220

220–
220

0.9–
1.0

0.5–
0.5

0.02–
0.01

4.0–
4.0

200–
200

14.5–
9.8

0.1–
0.1

900–
500

70–
30

* NDWQS : National Drinking Water Standard** corresponds to upstream and downstream sections of the rivers shown in the table.

(Source: GoN 2016)

Viet Nam

120–
920

Thailand

36.7–
178

Sri Lanka

15.4–
167

Philippines

12.5–
0.9

Nepal

Bishnumati
7–(Budhanilkantha 7.5
Teku Dovan)

MyanmarBagmati(Sundarijal Khokana**)

6.5–
8.5*

MalaysiaTC
E-coli
DO
BOD
COD
TDS
EC
NH 3-N NO 3-N NO 2-N TOC
TH
Mg
Fe (MPN/
pH (mg/L)(MPN/(mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (µS/cm) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) 100ml)
100ml)

Lao PDR

Table 2.9.3 and 2.9.4 summarizes the state of water
quality in some key locations. Pollution of rivers in urban
areas, soil erosion in rural areas, mining of sand and rocks
are the three main factors impacting river water quality.
Sedimentation in rivers is prominent in the rainy season
due to soil erosion and runoff. Development activities
such as sand mining, encroachment of river banks andimproper river bank protection works have also caused

Republic of Korea

TDS(mg/L)

Japan

pH

Location / River

Indonesia

Table 2.9.4 State of water quality in selected river system

China

serious sedimentation issues. Over the last decade
increased mining of sands, stones by small and mediumsized crusher enterprises have resulted in increased
sedimentation in the rivers, with serious turbidity andecological impacts (such as changing courses of rivers
and river bank erosion).

Cambodia

Kathmandu Valley and Pokhara, suﬀer from degradation
due to direct disposal of huge volumes of untreated or
insuﬃciently treated domestic and industrial wastewater.
Solid waste dumped directly into rivers and lakes also
negatively contribute to state of water environment.
Increased use of fertilizers and pesticides also impact
water quality of surface and groundwater, especially, in
peri-urban areas where commercial farming (such as
vegetables) is extensive. During the rainy season there
are increased incidences of water borne diseases due tounsafe drinking water and sanitation, especially, in rural
areas.

95

3.2 Lakes and Reservoirs

in Kathmandu and the other in Pokhara. In the Phewa
Lake, which a major tourist attraction in Pokhara, there
are several hotels and residents established along thelake. Disposal of wastewater into the lake often causes
eutrophication and algal bloom at several locations.

Lake water in the country is generally good. However,some lakes are under pressure from economic
development, tourism activities, and population. Table
2.9.5 shows the state of water quality in two lakes, one

Table 2.9.5 State of water quality in the Phewa Lake (Pokhara) and Taudaha (Kathmandu) (2016)
TC
E-coli
DO
BOD
COD
TDS
EC
NH 3-N NO 3-N NO 2-N TOC
TH
Mg
Fe
pH (mg/L)(MPN/(mg/L) (mg/L (mg/L) (µS/cm) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (MPN/
100m) 100m)
Desired Value

6.5–
8.5*

>5

<30

<250 <1000* <1500* <1.5*

<50*

-

Phewa Lake
(Halanchowk- Dam site),
Pokhara

7.5–
7.6

7.9–
8.0

2.5–
2.1

5.7–
5.7

50–
50

50–
60

1.6–
1.6

0.11–
0.16

Taudaha8.2–(Locations 1-3),
8.1
Kathmandu

8.9–
8.9

17.1–
25.9

24.5–
33.8

90–
85

175–
167

50–
37.8

0.3–
1.0

-

<500* <100* <0.3*

0*

0*

0.07–
5–4
0.07

120–
120

6.7–
11.1

0.1–
0.1

900–
900

70–
70

0.1–
0.1

160–
130

12.8–
19.4

0.9–
0.8

900–
500

70–
40

10.1–
13.8

(Source: GoN 2016)* NDWQS : National Drinking Water Standard

3.3 Groundwaterrural areas. In Kathmandu Valley, long-term deteriorationof groundwater quality is continuously being reported
such as nitrogen contamination in shallow wells (Shakya
et al. 2019). Table 2.9.6 shows groundwater quality at
key locations.

Groundwater contamination in Nepal is caused bypathogenic bacteria, pesticides, nitrate and effluentsfrom industrial and domestic sources. Unplanned urban
development and insufficient waste management
facilities are the main causes of groundwater pollution in
Table 2.9.6 State of groundwater quality in selected locations
Temp.
(°C )
Desired value

-

pH

Total
Fe
EC
Turbidity HardnessCl
As
F(µS/cm) (NTU)(mg/L)(mg/L) Alkalinity(mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L)

6.5–8.5* <1500*

<500*

<500*

-

<0.3*

<0.05* 0.5–1.5*

Shallow Well

18.6

7.1

874.5

45.9

230.7

81.8

366.0

1.47

0.004

0.43

Tube Well

17.9

7.0

576.8

54.8

218.8

61.1

258.0

1.90

0.003

0.27

Deep Tube Well

20.3

7.0

704.2

33.2

251.2

59.0

302.7

1.80

0.009

0.74

East Terai(Jhapa, Morang
and Sunsari)(2018)**

Groundwater

27

6.9

445

12.7

191.6

17

197.6

1.83

0.005

0.235

Far west
Terai (Kailali)(2014)***

Groundwater

25.6

6.96

838.25

22.13

323

24.88

-

2.01

0.01

0.25

Kathmandu
Valley* NDWQS : National Drinking Water Standard

4 | State of Wastewater Treatment
Discharge of untreated wastewaters and dumping of
septic sludge from on-site sanitation systems into rivers
is common due to lack of adequate facilities to treat
wastewater. An estimated 876 million liters per day (MLD)of domestic wastewater is generated in Nepal, as shown

96

<5*

(Source: **Mahato et al. 2018, ***Gurung et al. 2015)

in Figure 2.9.2 About 70% of this comes from on-site
sanitation (faecal sludge) and only 30% of wastewater
is collected through sewer networks. However, ofthe collected wastewater, only around 7% is treated
while 93% (i.e. 268 MLD) is disposed of untreated. An
estimated 20.1 MLD of wastewater is treated either incentralized WWTP or DEWATS systems.

Chapter 2: Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Sewer Network(Wastewater)= 288 MLD

7%

70%

On-site Sanita�on(Faecal Sludge)= 579 MLD

Treated Wastwater= 20.1 MLD

Unsafe Disposal
without treatment= 267.9 MLD

86%

Cambodia

Domes�c WW
genera�on = 876 MLD

93%

30%

Centralized WWTP
= 17.3 MLD

China

14%
DEWATS = 2.8 MLD

5 | Frameworks for Water
Environmental Management
5.1 Legislation

Republic of Korea
Lao PDR
Malaysia
Myanmar

Nepal has enacted various acts and regulations related
to the environment and water since the 1980s such as
the Water Resource Act (1992), Drinking Water Rules(1998), Water Resource Strategy (2002), Drinking Water
Quality Standards (2005). After Nepal become a federal
republic comprising three layers of government (local,
provincial and state), the new Constitution of Nepal 2015
(2072 BS) guaranteed the rights to a clean environment,
healthcare and conservation, management and useof natural resources. The constitution also ensures
the right of access to basic clean drinking water andsanitation services. Several articles of the constitution
have provisions on water and the environment, while
the government is either revising or in the process of
finalizing new acts and regulations as part of legal or
institutional reform under the new federal administration(Table 2.9.7). The Environment Protection Act (2019),

Japan

Septic tanks and pit latrines in urban localities have
posed the risk of ground water pollution. Rapid, unplanned
urban growth and the lack of adequate investment are
responsible for the current poor state of wastewater
management in Nepal, especially Kathmandu Valley.
Management of industrial wastewater is largely
unknown due to lack of reported data, while theDepartment of Environment lacks the resources andcapacity (human resources for monitoring/sampling andanalysis labs) to enforce compliance with existing eﬄuent
standards. Industries, especially small and medium-sizedenterprises, are unable to invest in costly treatment
facilities as relevant acts and regulations on effluent
discharge came into eﬀect several years after theseindustries were established.
The tariff for wastewater in Nepal is based on water
consumption either metered (block tariffs) or unmetered(flat rate) according to pipe size. Kathmandu Upatyaka
Khanepani Limited (KUKL) tariff for sewer connection(and wastewater treatment, if available) is 50% of thewater consumption fee (KUKL 2021).

Indonesia

Figure 2.9.2 Domestic wastewater (WW) management in Nepal as of 2017 (Source: GoN 2018)

Table 2.9.7 Key provisions related to water environment in the new constitution and recent acts and policy documents

Constitution of Nepal

Year

Purpose/arrangements

Constitution

2015

Every citizen shall have the right to live in a clean and healthy environment; victimsof environmental pollution shall be entitled the right to compensation from thepolluter; right of access to basic clean drinking water and sanitation services;
conservation and multiple uses of water resources; use of forests and water
resources and management of environment

Act

2019

The umbrella Act governing over all environmental protection issues of the country.

National Climate Change
Policy, 2019

Policy2019

Utilizes opportunities for various types of assistance through the framework of
conventions for the purpose of climate change management in line with the national
priority and local needs while complying with international provisions.

National Environment Policy
2019

Policy2019

Guides the implementation of environment related laws and other thematiclaws, realizes international commitments and enables collaboration between
all concerned government agencies and non-government organizations onenvironmental management actions.

National Water Resources
PolicyPolicy2020

The policy aims to cover all aspects of water resources development andmanagement based on the Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM)
principle and newly restructured three tiers of government.

Environment Protection Rules

Rule

2020

This Rule is based on the new Environment Protection Act 2019.

Water Supply and Sanitation
Act

Act

Under
This Act governs all water supply and sanitation protection of the country.
Parliament

Water Resources Act (Draft)

Act

Under
drafting

The draft Act will be the new water resources act for the execution of new policy
which covers all aspects of water resources development and management.

Viet Nam

2019

ThailandAct

Sri Lanka

Forest Act

This Act governs all forest and related resources focusing on forest management,
while contributing to the conservation of wildlife, environment, and water resources.

Philippines

Environment Protection Act

Category

Nepal

Name

97

National Environment Policy (2019), National Climate
Change Policy (2019), and Integrated National Water
Resources Policy (2020) are prominent acts/policies
issued since adoption of the new constitution. The Water
Supply and Sanitation Act is currently awaiting approvalin the parliament while the Integrated National Water
Resources Act is in the final stage of drafting.

5.2 Institutional Arrangement
The Ministry of Forests and Environment is responsible
for environmental protection through managing andcoordinating the country’s environmental protection
policies and measures. The Department of Hydrology
and Meteorology (DHM) under Ministry of Energy, Water
Resources and Irrigation (MOEWRI) implements andcoordinates the monitoring of river hydrology, climate,agro-meteorology, sediment, air quality, water quality,
limnology, snow hydrology, glaciology, and wind and solar
energy. The Groundwater Resources Development Board
monitors the quality of underground as well as surface
water. The Water and Energy Commission Secretariat(WECS) has assumed the role of apex body for national
planning related to water and energy through theformulation and provision of assistance to water andenergy-related policy and strategy development. WECS
is also mandated to ensure sustainability by integrating
environmental agenda into development policies. Various
ministries and line agencies at the national level promotewater and environmental management, requiring theseministries to coordinate the work between them (Table
2.9.8).

Table 2.9.8 Key institutions and mandated areas relevant to water environment
Name of the Institution

Level

Mandated Working Area

CentralOverall Energy, Hydropower, Irrigation and Water Resources developmentof the country.

Department of Water Resources andIrrigation

CentralDepartment of Water Resources and Irrigation is responsible for planning,developing, implementing and monitoring of various central level surface
and groundwater irrigation systems by utilizing available surface andground water resources.

Department of Hydrology andMeteorology (DHM)

Central

DHM is responsible for collecting, processing, publishing and disseminatinghydrological and meteorological data and monitoring river hydrology, water
quality, sediment, limnology, snow hydrology, glaciology, weather, climate,agro-meteorology, air quality and solar energy in the country.

Water and Energy Commission Secretariat(WECS)

Central

Policy and planning regarding energy and water resources development
and management covering all sectors. Advisory role on critical issues
related to large water resources projects.

Ministry of Water Supply (MWS)

Central

Water supply, sanitation and hygiene development and management of thecountry.

Department of Water Supply and
Sewerage Management (DWSSM)

CentralThe Department of Water Supply and Sewerage Management (DWSSM)
is responsible for planning, implementing, operating and maintenance ofwater supply and sanitation systems throughout the country.

Nepal Water Supply Corporation(NWSC)

National
Corporation

NWSC is a public utility organization and autonomous government body,and provides drinking water supply services to the 20 cities within the
country.

Ministry of Forests and Environment(MOFE)

CentralForest resources and environmental development, with a mandate covering
environmental management and enforcement.

Department of Environment

CentralResponsible for the implementation and compliance of Environmental
Protection Act, and Rule (EPR), and pollution control standard aspromulgated by the Government of Nepal.

Ministry of Urban Development

CentralOverall urban planning, development and Management for thedevelopment of municipalities in the country.

Ministry of Physical Infrastructure
Development

Provincial

Provincial level policy planning formulation and development of various
physical infrastructure, and their environmental management.

Ministries of Industry, Tourism, andForests and Environment

Provincial

Provincial level policy planning formulation and development related toforests, environment, conservation of biodiversity, adaptation to climatechange and science and technology.

Kathmandu Upatyaka Khanepani
Limited (KUKL)

Kathmandu
ValleyKUKL is responsible for the operation and management of water andwastewater services in the Valley, and will assume responsibility for
infrastructure built by the Melamchi Water Supply Project.

Local Units

Local

Local level planning and development in close coordination with theprovince.

Ministry of Energy, Water Resources
and Irrigation (MOEWRI)

98

Chapter 2: Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Ambient water quality standards

Japan

Systematic ambient water quality monitoring is not yet
conducted in public water bodies in the country,
although water quality is monitored by different
ministries and agencies for different purposes. For

Indonesia

Monitoring framework

China

There are separate standards and guidelines for different
uses (drinking water, irrigation, aquaculture, livestock,
and recreation) in addition to Nepal Water Quality
Guidelines for the Protection of Aquatic Ecosystem(2008).

instance, regular monitoring of the water quality of the
Bagmati River in the Kathmandu Valley area is conductedby the High Powered Committee for the Integrated
Development of the Baghmati Civilization, which started
publishing data for the general public in February 2014.
Department of Hydrology and Meteorology under the
MOEWRI monitors river and lake water quality. For
drinking water, water supply providers are required tomonitor different water quality parameters under thesurveillance of concerned agencies under the Ministry of
Population and Health (Table 2.9.9). Figure 2.9.3 shows
the institutional framework of Water Quality Surveillance.

Cambodia

5.3 Water Quality Standards

Table 2.9.9 Drinking water quality parameters used in monitoring
Category

1

Monitoring
Frequency

Parameters

EC

Monthly

3

TDS

Quarterly

4

Residual Chlorine

Daily

Ammonia, Chloride, Nitrate, Total Hardness, Calcium

Monthly

Iron, Manganese, Sulphate, Arsenic, Cadmium, Copper,
Fluoride, Cyanide, Lead, Chromium, Zinc, Mercury, Aluminum

YearlyE. coli, Total coliform

Monthly2

5PhysicalChemical

67

Microbiological

Water Supply
Providers

Ministry of
Population and
Health and its
line agencies(Source: GoN/MoHP 2018)

Water Quality Standard
Surveillance Commi�ee (WQSS)
Coordinator Epidemiology andDisease Control Division (EDCD)

Department of Water
Supply and Sewerage
Management (DWSSM)

Rural Health Center(Water Supply
Project Approval)

Thailand

Unmanaged Sources(Each Community)

Sri Lanka

Rural Water
Supply Project(Project wise)Ins�tu�onal Unit

District Public Health Oﬃce
(Direct, Indirect Evalua�on,
Inspec�on and Examina�on of
Water Supply Project
Variﬁca�on and Registra�on)

Philippines

Division Oﬃce of Water
Supply and Sanita�on

Nepal

The Ministry of Urban
Development (MoUD)

Myanmar

The Ministry of Health andPopulaton (MoHP)

Malaysia

Daily

Surveillance
AgencyLao PDR

Turbidity, pH, Colour, Taste and Odour

Monitoring
Institution

Republic of Korea

No.

Small and Large
Urban Water Supply
Projects(Project wise)

Viet Nam

Water Supply Security Plan Helpand Monitoring

Figure 2.9.3 Institutional framework of national drinking water quality surveillance (Source: GoN/MoHP 2018)99

5.4 Effluent Standards
Effluent standards

Eﬄuent standards for diﬀerent pollution sources are also
set up under the EPA as follows:• Tolerance limits for industrial eﬄuent discharged
into inland surface waters (generic)• Tolerance limits for specific industrial effluent

discharged into inland surface waters (tanning, wool
processing, fermentation, vegetable ghee and oil,paper and pulp, dairy products, sugar milling, cotton
textiles, non-alcoholic beverages, pharmaceuticals,soap, paints, etc.)• Tolerance limits for industrial eﬄuent discharged
into public sewers• Tolerance limits for wastewater discharged into

inland surface waters from combined wastewater
treatment plants

Effluent inspection procedure
Inspection mechanisms and procedures are guided by
the water quality monitoring framework, guidelines
and responsibilities under relevant line ministries ordepartments dealing with drinking water, industry, andagro-farms.

Measures against non-compliance
Penalties are imposed for non-compliance, although
enforcement is sporadic due to gaps in monitoring
capacity of the concerned agencies. Instances ofenforcement have taken place, such as the MOFE
decision in 2019 requesting penalties for non-complying
medical institutes.

6 | Recent Developments inWater Environmental Management
The government has substantially strengthened
environment-related legislations, acts, policies, andguidelines related to the water environment. Under
its federal structure, the government is also revisingor drafting acts and legislations and establishing new
institutional structures at federal, provincial, and local
levels. The establishment of Ministry of Water Supply
reflects the government’s national and international
commitments and increasing prioritization of the water,
sanitation and hygiene (WASH) sector together with
relevant goals and targets, especially the Sustainable

100

Development Goal on water and sanitation. Nepal has
set its national indicators for WASH-related targets, suchas ensuring access to piped water supply and improved
sanitation by 2030 for 95% of the population.

7 | Challenges and Future Plans
A major challenge for water environment governancein Nepal is the actual implementation of acts, policies,and guidelines to ensure effective monitoring andenforcement at federal, provincial, and local levels.
Coordination among line institutes such as water
resources (MOEWRI), water supply (MWS), andenvironment (MOFE) at different levels is a big challenge
due to overlapping mandates, resource constraints,
multiple sector priorities, and lack of technical expertiseor capacity. Although the federal structure grants
autonomy regarding power and decision making down
to local levels, institutional establishment, allocationof trained staffs, and establishment of monitoring andassessment facilities are still in their infancy.
Nepal is aiming to rapidly develop and transition
from Least Developed to Developed status such as
through investments in industrialization, construction,
tourism, and modernization of agriculture. For instance,
rivers in Nepal are under pressure from mining industries(formal and informal), contributing to high levels of
sedimentation due to high demand for construction
materials. It is thus evident that the water environment
will come under greater pressures going forward,
meaning the level of water governance capacity of theconcerned agencies as well as stakeholders needs to be
substantially improved.

Chapter 2: Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Cambodia

China

Indonesia

Japan

Republic of Korea

Lao PDR

Malaysia

Myanmar

Nepal

Philippines

Sri Lanka

Thailand

Viet Nam

101

2.10 Philippines
1 | Country Information
Table 2.10.1 Basic indicators
Land Area (km2)

300,000 (2020)*

Total Population

104.9 million (2017)*

GDP (current USD)

376.8 billion (2019)**

GDP per capita (current USD)

3,512 (2019)**

Average Precipitation (mm/year)

2,348 (2017)***

Total Renewable Water Resources (km3)479 (2017)***

Total Annual Freshwater Withdrawals(billion m3)

92.75 (2017)***

Annual Freshwater
Withdrawals
by Sector*EstimatedAgriculture

73.28% (2017)***

Industry

17.09% (2017)***

Municipal(including domestic)

9.63% (2017)***(Sources: **BSP 2020, ***FAO AQUASTAT 2020)

Resources Board (NWRB). Around 421 have catchment
areas of over 40 km 2. There are 18 with areas over
1,400 km2 (typologically classiﬁed as major river basins),
occupying over a third (i.e., 108,923 km2) of total landarea, as shown in Table 2.10.2. Owing to their significancefor water sources for industry, agriculture and domestic
uses, and ecological stability, the government considers
protection and conservation of these rivers a highpriority for overall socio-economic development andsustainability.
Table 2.10.2 Major River basins in the Philippines
Name ofRiver Basin

Catchment Area
(km 2)

River Length(km)

Cagayan

25,649505

Mindanao

23,169373

Agusan10,921350

Pampanga

9,759

260

Agno

5,952

206

Abra

5,125

178

Pasig-Laguna de Bay

4,678

78

Bicol

3,771

136

Abulug3,372

175

Tagum-Libuganon

3,064

89

Ilog-Hilabangan

1,945

124

Panay

1,843

132

Agus

1,890

36

Tagoloan

1,704

106

Davao

1,623

150

Cagayan de Oro

1,521

90

Jalaur

1,503

123

1,434

60

Buayan-Malungon
Total

108,923(Source: NWRB)

Figure 2.10.1 Anilao River in Ormoc City, Philippines

2 | State of Water Resources
The Philippines is an archipelagic country with a tropicaland monsoon climate endowed with coastal bays, rivers,
lakes, and groundwater. It has abundant water resources
with water availability of 5,302 m3/year/capita, which
varies according to topography and season. River basinsare classified according to size, by the National Water

102

According to a report from the Bureau of Fisheries
and Aquatic Resources (BFAR) of the Department ofAgriculture (DA), there are 79 natural lakes in thePhilippines, which are utilized for fish production. Ten of
the lakes are considered as major hosts for aquaculture
production, including the Laguna Lake (Laguna de Bay),
which the largest inland freshwater body in thePhilippines. Since the country consists of numerous
islands, the marine waters cover an area of about 266,000
km2, with a coastline length of 36,289 km. Around 70% of
municipalities are located in coastal areas.
Surface water is the main water source for thecountry. Another important source of water for domesticChapter 2: Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

3 | State of Ambient Water Quality

Industrial
Agriculture andlivestocks

3.2 Lakes and Reservoirs

3.1 Rivers

Table 2.10.3 Observed water quality in the Laguna Lake (Laguna de Bay) and its tributaries in 2018

BOD

Fecal coliform

Class CClass D

Failed

>5

>5

2–5

<2

(19%)

(38%)

7–15

>15

% of monitoring points
mg/L% of monitoring points
mg/L

100% (43%)*
<3

3–5

5–7

100% (24%)

(19%)

(11%)

(3%)

(43%)

≤7

≤7

≤7

7–15

>15

≤0.5

0.5–5

>5

(50%)

(3%)

% of monitoring points
mg/L

100% (100%)≤0.5% of monitoring points≤0.5
100% (47%)

MPN/100 ml<1.1

1.1–100

100–200

200–400>400% of monitoring points(N/A)

100% (N/A)

(N/A)

(N/A)

(N/A)

Viet Nam

PO43-

Class B

>5

ThailandNO3-

Class A

Sri Lanka

DO

mg/L

Philippines

There are 321 classified principal rivers with drainage
areas of 40 km2 or more for monitoring, accounting for
76% of the country’s 421 Principal Rivers identified by
NWRB (EMB 2019). The objective of monitoring principal
rivers is to improve water quality and comply with the

Nepal

Deterioration of water quality is one of the coremanagement issues regarding the Laguna Lake (Laguna de
Bay). Pollution of the lake mainly derives from domestic(77%), agriculture (11%), industry (11%) and forestry (1%)
sources. Table 2.10.3 summarizes the water quality fromlakes and of tributaries feeding into the Laguna Lake
(Laguna de Bay). While there have been improvementsin the water quality of the lake for several parameters,that of the tributaries is of Class D or Failed status.

MyanmarFigure 2.10.2 Major sources of water pollution in thePhilippines based on BOD loading (Source: EMB 2014)

Malaysia

Non-point sources

27%

Lao PDR

29%

Domes�c

Republic of Korea

33%

Japan

11%

Indonesia

The rapid increase in population, urbanization, andindustrial development has led to water quality
degradation and deterioration. Figure 2.10.2 shows thefour key sources of water pollution. Water classiﬁcation orreclassiﬁcation based on the water quality criteria serves
as the benchmark for maintaining or improving the stateof water quality management in the Philippines. In 2019,
the Environmental Management Bureau (EMB) completed
its classification of 898 water bodies based on the uses
(such as public water supply, agricultural, aquacultural,commercial, industrial, navigational, recreational, wildlife
conservation and aesthetic purposes) and water quality
to be maintained (EMB 2019).

China

DENR Administrative Order No. 2016-08 or the Water
Quality Guidelines and General Effluent Standards of2016. Of the 421 Principal Rivers, 180 suffer from waterpollution, mainly due to domestic wastes (fecal coliform)
and industrial and agricultural wastes. Monthly water
quality monitoring conducted in 46 Priority Rivers during
2019 found that 34 rivers were within the BOD criteria
and 37 were within the DO criteria. An additional 180
rivers were monitored throughout the Philippines for DO,of which 82% were within the water quality guideline
value.
With the intention of reducing floating garbage,
which is noticeable in some waterways and creeks, thecountry implemented the Adopt-an-Estero Waterbody
Program. The measures implemented include increased
frequency of dredging and de-clogging activities,
improved waste collection efficiency, faster flooding
abatement, complementary local policies and programsand employment for some communities along the
adopted waterbodies. After an extensive clean-up
carried out by 29,391 individuals from partner adopters,
LGUs and communities within the adopted waterbodies,
2,065.3 tons of mixed solid waste were recovered. Of the407 esteros or waterbodies monitored in 2019, 153
exhibited significant improvement in BOD and 147
showed improvements in DO level.

Cambodia

supply, irrigation, and industrial uses is in the form of an
extensive groundwater reservoir.

Note: There were a total of nine monitoring points in the lake and 35 along the tributaries; *figures in parentheses refer to tributaries(Source: LLDA 2018)103

3.3 Coastal Water
In 2019 the EMB monitored 39 priority recreational
waters (bathing beaches) for Fecal Coliform and foundthat 64% of beaches were within the water quality
guideline value. Similarly, pH was monitored in 33
recreational waters, 97% of which had values within
the criteria. In addition to priority bathing beaches, 174
bathing beaches were monitored for Fecal Coliform and
157 for pH, 97 of which passed the water quality criteria
for Class SB waters for Fecal Coliform and 151 passed thewater quality standard for pH. Table 2.10.4 shows thewater quality state in the Manila Bay bathing beaches.
Table 2.10.4 Average Dissolved Oxygen (DO), Phosphate(PO43-), and Nitrate (NO3-) in the Manila Bay Beaches(National Capital Region), 2018
Phosphate Nitrate(NO 3- )(PO 43- )Manila Bay Bathing Beaches
Monitoring Station

DO

Navotas

2.59

0.2

0.33

Luneta

3.9

0.16

0.38

Cultural Center of thePhilippines (CCP)

2.8

0.33

0.36

Mall of Asia (MOA)

0.9

0.51

0.33

PEATC

4.9

0.25

0.33

6

0.5

10

Water Quality Guidelines Class“SB” DAO 2016–08(Source: EMB 2019)average 9.4 million kg of BOD was removed per year overthe most recent four-year period. The highest pollution
load reduction was attained in 2012 with 9.5 million kg of
BOD removed.
There are ongoing and planned wastewater
treatment projects to treat domestic wastewater inmajor cities or under certain housing schemes.

Industrial wastewater
As of October 2017, there were 379 operating special
economic zones in the Philippines; 261 Information
Technology Parks, 74 Manufacturing Economic Zones, 22Agro-Industrial Economic Zones, 20 Tourism Economic
Zones and 2 Medical Tourism Centers. Four zones are
owned by the Philippine Economic Zone Authority (PEZA)
while the remaining are privately owned. The majority of
manufacturing industries in the Philippines are located in
the National Capital Region (30%), Region 4A- Calabarzon(17%), and Region 3 - Central Luzon (11%).
Industries that are known to generate large amountsof wastewater are food and dairy manufacturing, pulp
and paper, and textiles, though very little related data
exists. Volumes generated by each industry depend
mainly on the level of technical processing andproduction rates, as shown in Table 2.10.5.
Table 2.10.5 Estimated wastewater generation rates of
selected industry types in the Philippines
Industry

Wastewater volume
from industrial use(‘process wastewater’) (m 3/day)

Poultry processing plant

1,750

Meat and meat products

75–380Mining67,500

Pharmaceuticals
manufacturing

50–200

3.4 Groundwater
The status of groundwater quality is assessed through thePhilippine National Standard for Drinking Water under
the Tap Watch Program of the EMB, which monitors
88 shallow wells in the country. Under the program, it
was found that nearly 58% of groundwater samples inselected sampling sites were contaminated with coliform,
meaning treatment is required. The increased level ofsalinity in groundwater is another concern, especiallynear coastal areas of major cities such as Metro Manila
and Metro Cebu, the cause of which is assumed to beover-abstraction of groundwater.

4 | State of Wastewater Treatment
Domestic wastewater
Only 10% of domestic wastewater is treated, while
only 5% of the total population is connected to a sewer
network. Those not connected rely on septic tanks, pit
latrines, or practice open defecation, while the vast
majority use flush toilets connected to septic tanks while.
In Metro Manila, 43 sewage treatment plants (STPs)
and septage treatment plants (SpTPs) serve over a
million residents (around 9%) of the population. An

104

Milk manufacturing

960

Ethanol manufacturing

3,100

Sugarcane milling

100,000

Beverage manufacturing13,000

Packaging

60

Food processing

500

Pineapple processing

6,540(Source: ARCOWA 2018)

Industrial wastewater generally contains high BOD
loads and other kinds of pollutants, depending on thetype of manufacturing process. Table 2.10.6 shows theindicative wastewater quality of selected industry types.
Individual companies have obligations to manage
their wastewater either as stand-alone entities or as part

Chapter 2: Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Industry
Sugarcane milling

BOD (mg/L)

COD (mg/L)

TSS (mg/L)

6,000

Ethanol manufacturing

60,000Fish product canning

30,000pH

110,000

6,000

48–50

4–4.5

45000

10,70025

6.5–7.5

900

1,500

250

25

44,147

Meat processing

1,000–1,500

2,000

250

-

7

Copper cathode

-

-

43

30.4

8.15

2,000–4,200

4,000–5,429

1,600–5,380

-

-

400

1,647.05

90

32.2

8.35

Desiccated coconut
manufacturing

6,000–10,000

17,000–20,000

2,000–4,000-

5.0–6.3

Pineapple processing

10,20020,000585

40–50

4.5–6.5

Beverage manufacturing

Swine farms
Bottling services

6.5–8.0

Japan–

Indonesia

800–1,000

China

2,000–3,500

Temp. (˚C)

Cambodia

Table 2.10.6 Indicative wastewater quality of selected industry types in the Philippines(Source: ARCOWA 2018)

Nepal
Philippines
Sri Lanka
Thailand
Viet Nam

The Philippines has an extensive body of water-related
legislation that provides the legal basis for policies andregulations concerning water resource managementof the country. The Philippine Clean Water Act of2004 (Republic Act No. 9275 (RA 9275)) provides acomprehensive and Integrated strategy to preventand minimize pollution through a multi-sectoral andparticipatory approach involving all the stakeholders.
The Act aims to protect the country's water bodies
from pollution from land-based sources (industries andcommercial establishments, agriculture, and community/
household activities). The Act applies to water quality
management in all water bodies, abatement and control
of pollution from land-based sources, and enforcementof water quality standards, regulations and penalties.
Under Section 5 of RA 9275, Department ofEnvironment and Natural Resources (DENR) in
coordination with the National Water Resources Board(NWRB) designates Water Quality Management Areas(WQMA) using appropriate physiographic units such as

Myanmar

5.1 Legislation

Malaysia

5 | Frameworks for Water
Environmental Management

Lao PDR

The wastewater charge formula was established in2005 (DAO 2005-10) on the basis of payment to thegovernment for discharging wastewater into water
bodies in all water management areas. The conceptbehind this was to incentivize those who discharge
pollutants to reduce their pollution loads, such as
through improved production processes and investment
in pollution control technologies. DENR also issues
discharge permits for wastewater, which include theallowable values of both quantity and quality of eﬄuents,
compliance schedule and monitoring requirements.

Republic of Korea

of an industrial park. Ideally, the process wastewater andother non-domestic wastewater are pre-treated byindustries before discharging the effluent into thesewerage system of the industrial park. Many industrial
parks operate their own, however, these are still required
to comply with pre-treatment effluent standards
established by the industrial park before discharge into
the centralized wastewater treatment facility (CWTF) of
the park. The CWTF within the industrial park shallfurther treat the effluent from industries before
discharging it into bodies of water or reuse forlandscaping, irrigation or other purposes. Recent
regulations on nutrients have been a challenge for CWTF
operators as existing treatment systems are not designed
to remove nutrients such as nitrates and phosphates tothe levels required.
For industries not located within an industrial park,
effluent must comply with the Philippine Effluent
Standards, DAO 2016-08. However, some industries findmanaging wastewater challenging as they have todevelop their own expertise to comply with effluent
standards set either by the special economic zone orwith general effluent standards.
Individual companies generally collect and reporttheir wastewater volume data as required by theregulations, though there is no national databasecollating all these data. Individual industrial facilities,
outside of special economic zones, need to acquire a
wastewater discharge permit and are responsible for thequality of their discharge to surface waters. From themonitoring conducted by the EMB, rivers of the regions
had “unsatisfactory ratings” for their water quality
criteria. In areas of regulation, in the Manila Bay Area
alone, 5,228 out of 10,168 industries were served with
Notices of Violation (NOV) for failure to acquire permits
to discharge treated wastewater.

105

watershed, river basins or water resources regions. As
such, WQMA have similar hydrological, hydrogeological,
meteorological or geographic conditions which affect thephysiochemical, biological and bacteriological reactions
and diffusions of pollutants in the water bodies orotherwise share common interest or face similar
development programs, prospects or problems.
Governing boards, composed of relevant stakeholders ineach WQMA and chaired by DENR regional offices, areresponsible for the development of strategies tocoordinate policies, regulations/local legislation, andother measures necessary to effectively implement the
Clean Water Act.
The Water Quality Guidelines and General Effluent
Standards of 2016 (DAO 2016-08) provide guidelines forthe classification of water bodies in the country,
determination of time trends and the evaluation ofstages of deterioration/enhancement in water quality,and evaluation of the need for taking actions inpreventing, controlling, or abating water pollution.
Other legislations related to water environmental
conservation are the Philippines Environmental Policy(PD 1151) and the Solid Waste Management Act (RA9003). EMB is the governmental agency responsible forwater conservation and protection.

5.2 Institutional Arrangement
The lead agency for water resource management is the
Department of Environment and Natural Resources(DENR). Its mandates are to formulate, integrate,
coordinate, supervise, and implement all policies,
plans, programs, projects and activities relative tothe prevention and control of pollution as well as
management and enhancement of environment.
The responsibility for planning and managing water
resources in the Philippines is shared among several
government departments, bureaus and agencies (Table
2.10.7). In addition, local government units (LGUs) are
required to provide water supply systems, communal
irrigation facilities, implement social forestry and local
ﬂood control projects under the supervision and controlof DENR (SEPO 2011). A number of institutions andagencies are involved in overseeing water governance at
all levels.

5.3 Ambient Water Quality Standards
Ambient water quality standards

The Philippines uses its Water Quality Guidelines andGeneral Effluent Standards (GES) of 2016 by DENR

106

Administrative Order No. 2016-08 (DAO 2016-08) (anamendment of DAO 1990-35). DAO 2016-08 has aprovision for the water classification of water bodies forthe purpose of maintaining the quality of water based on
beneficial usage (Table 2.10.8).
The water quality guidelines (WQG) are to be
maintained for each water body classiﬁcation, theparameters of which are categorized as primary or
secondary. Primary parameters are the required
minimum water quality parameters to be monitored foreach water body. Secondary parameters are those usedin baseline assessments as part of an environmental
impact assessment or other water quality monitoring
purposes.

Water quality monitoring framework
Regional offices of EMB conduct regular water quality
monitoring throughout the country based on theparameters indicated in DAO 2016-08. From 2001
to 2016, 238 water bodies were monitored either forclassification or for regular water quality monitoring, anddepending on the resources, monitoring is carried out
monthly or quarterly in accordance with the DENR-EMB
Water Quality Monitoring manual (2009).

5.4 Effluent Standards
Effluent standards

DAO 2016-08 states that discharges from any point
source shall at all times meet the effluent standards,
and Section 7 of the same states that discharges fromany point sources shall at all times meet the eﬄuent
standards set forth to maintain the required water
quality per water body classiﬁcation. The GES is to be
used regardless of the industry category and volume ofdischarge. Effluent used for agricultural purposes shallconform to DAO 2007-26 and shall at all times meet theeffluent standards.

Effluent inspection procedure
Monitoring in the industry is conducted at different
levels (Table 2.10.9), and can only be carried out by
the subjects needing to comply with eﬄuent standards
themselves, in principle. The documents to be submitted
include monitoring reports (self-monitoring), plans,required permits (discharge permits) or other proof ofcompliance or implementation. Field monitoring forverification involves actual plant inspection, effluent
sampling and validation of submitted reports.

Chapter 2: Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

National Water Resources
Board (NWRB)

To administer/enforce the Water code and serve as the lead coordinator for water resources management
programs.

Environmental Management
Bureau (EMB)

To formulate, integrate, coordinate, supervise, and implement all policies, plans, programs, projects, andactivities related to the prevention and control of pollution as well as management and enhancement of theenvironment.

Forest Management Bureau(FMB)

To formulate/implement policies and programs for the protection, development, occupancy management,
and conservation of forest lands and watershed areas.

Department of Agriculture
To undertake water resource projects for agricultural irrigation and other purposes, such as flood control anddrainage.

Bureau of Soil and Water
Management (BSWM)

To formulate/implement policies and programs for the protection of existing and potential sources of soil andwater for agricultural development.

Bureau of Fisheries andAquatic Resources (BFAR)

To establish plans for the proper protection and management of the country’s fisheries and aquatics
resources.
Administers compliance of the country’s National Standard for Drinking Water Program.

Department of Interior andLocal Government (DILG)

Administers implementation of the country’s National Water Supply and Sanitation Program; mandated tooversee attainment of the country’s SDG goal on access to safe drinking water by all.

Water Supply andSanitation Unit

To provide capacity building programs for Local; Government Units (LGUs) in preparing local water supply
and sanitation plans as well as providing information on available sector programs, and facilitating access tofinancing for water supply and sanitation projects.

National Power Corporation(NPC)

To develop and manage electric generation facilities including (but not limited to) hydroelectric dams andundertakes other activities related to watershed management.

Metro Manila Development
Authority (MMDA)

Administers governance of MM area development such as infrastructure development, law enforcement ofenvironmental laws - solid waste management, Clean Water Act, Water Code of the Philippines, Clean Air
Act, etc.

Metropolitan Waterworks andSewerage System (MWSS)

To regulate water concessionaires’ rates and services standards in Metro Manila and maintain existing assets
and infrastructures.

Pasig River Rehabilitation
Commission (PRRC)

Coordinate and integrate, and monitor the implementation of all Government Agencies plans, and programsfor the rehabilitation of Pasig river.

Laguna Lake Development
Authority (LLDA)

To formulate, regulate and implement all policies, plans, programs, projects and activities related to theprevention and control of pollution as well as management and enhancement of environment in the Laguna
Lake Region.

Local Water Utilities
Administration (LWUA)

To promote, finance, and regulate the operation and construction of local water utilities outside Metro
Manila.

Local Government Units (LGUs)

Administration/management of rivers within the jurisdiction of the LGUs and implementation of Ecological
Solid Waste Management Act within its area of political and jurisdictional responsibility.

Classification

Intended Beneficial Use

Class A

Public Water Supply Class II – For sources of water supply requiring conventional treatment (coagulation, sedimentation,
filtration and disinfection) to meet the latest PNSDWClass B

Recreational Water Class I – Intended for primary contact recreation (bathing, swimming, skin diving, etc.)

Class C

Fishery Water for the propagation and growth of fish and other aquatic resources. Recreational Water Class II (Boating,fishing or similar activities). For agriculture, irrigation, and livestock watering)

Table 2.10.9 Monitoring of industries
Level

Responsible Person/Office

ThailandPublic Water Supply Class I – Intended primarily for waters having watersheds, which are uninhabited and otherwise
protected, and which require only approved disinfection to meet the Philippine National Standards for Drinking Water(PNSDW)

Sri Lanka

Class AA

Philippines

Table 2.10.8 Classification of water bodies according to intended beneficial use

Nepal

To coordinate the preparation of national/regional/sectorial development policies and investment programs,
including those on sanitation.

MyanmarNational Economic andDevelopment Authority (NEDA)

Malaysia

Primary agency for implementing the country’s national Sewerage and Septage Management.

Lao PDR

Department of Public Worksand Highways (DPWH)

Republic of Korea

Department of Health (DOH)Japan

National Irrigation
Administration (NIA)

Indonesia

Mandates of the agency
The primary government agency responsible for the conservation, management, development, and properuse of the country’s environment and natural resources.

China

Name of the agency
Department of Environment
and Natural Resources (DENR)

Cambodia

Table 2.10.7 Key institutions involved in water governance in the Philippines

Report Requirement

Pollution Control Officer

Multi-Partite Monitoring (MMT)or Third Party Monitoring

Team headed by the company composed of various Stakeholders(LGUs, Non-Government Organizations (NGOs) and other sectors)

Audit Report/CMR

Regulating body

EMB Central Office/EMB-Regional Offices

Compliance Evaluation Report

Viet Nam

Project Proponent/Company

Self-Monitoring Report (SMR) and/or(CMR) Compliance Monitoring Report107Measures against non-compliance
The Clean Water Act requires owners or operators offacilities that discharge regulated eﬄuents to obtain adischarge permit, which is a legal authorization grantedby the DENR to discharge wastewater. The permit
specifies items such as quantity and quality of eﬄuent,compliance schedule and monitoring requirements, andcan be suspended or revoked if business entities fall outof compliance with the rules and regulations and/or
permit conditions.
A n u m b e r o f i n d u st r i e s a n d co m m e rc i a lestablishments are still unable to comply with theeffluent standards despite the availability of technology
to treat wastewater. As shown in Table 2.10.10, about
54% or 4,930 of the 9,060 monitored firms nationwide
were found to have violated effluent standards in 2019.
There are still micro-, small and medium-sizedenterprises which do not invest in facilities to treat theirwastewater prior to discharge to water bodies resulting
in the degradation of rivers, lakes and marine waters.
Table 2.10.10 Percentage of compliance of firms in 2018and 2019
Details

2018

2019

Discharge permits issued

6,010

5,929

Monitored firms

9,554

9,060

Notices of violation issued

4,959

4,930

Percentage of compliance

48%

46%
(Source: EMB 2019)

Those who violate the GES are referred to the
Pollution Adjudication Board (PAB) for issuance of a
“Cease and Desist Order” (CDO). Upon recommendationof the PAB, anyone who commits any of the prohibited
acts or violates any of the provisions of this Act and its
Implementing Rules and Regulations (IRR) may be fined
not less than 10,000 PHP but not more than 200,000
PHP for every day of violation. Failure to undertake
clean-up operations, willfully or through grossnegligence, can lead to imprisonment of not less than
two but not more than four years, in addition to a fine of
not less than 50,000 PHP but not more than 100,000
PHP per day of violation. In cases where such failure or
refusal to clean-up results in serious injury or loss of life
or irreversible water contamination, imprisonment of
not less than six years (but not more than 12 years) and afine of 500,000 PHP per day for each violation will beapplied.
On the other hand, rewards are provided toindividuals, private organizations and other entities fromthe National Water Quality Management Fund foroutstanding and innovative projects, technologies,

108

processes and techniques, and activities. Incentives forindustries are also provided, such as tax and duty
exemptions for industrial wastewater treatment/collection facilities.

6 | Recent Developments inWater Environmental Management
One development is DAO 2019-15, which has designatedthe Boracay Island Water Quality Management andConservation Area (WQMACA) as well as creation of its
Governing Board, the objective of which is to protect
and continuously improve water quality and sustain
livelihood opportunities in the island. Under a cleanup initiative of Boracay Beach areas, several notices ofviolation (NOVs) and cease and desist orders (CDOs) havebeen issued to various commercial establishments inBoracay Beach areas (prime tourist destination), Provinceof Aklan, regarding violations of the Clean Water Act.
Various establishments were also demolished, due toviolations of the easement rule under the Water Code of
the Philippines.
Another is DAO 2018-12, which has designated twoWater Quality Management Areas and their Governing
Boards, for the Upper and Lower Amburayan River
System (UARS/LARS). This DAO aims to ensure water
quality of the UARS and its tributaries to make it asustainable resource for the people of the municipalities
of Atok, Bakun, Buguias, Kapangan, Kibungan and Tublay
and their communities. In LARS, improvement in water
quality is expected to contribute to enhancement as asource of water irrigation and other agricultural uses in
the Provinces of La Union and Ilocos Sur.
Regarding Manila Bay, an ongoing large-scale groundinspection/rehabilitation is underway, involving issuanceo f N OVs a n d C D O s to v i o l at i n g co m m e rc i a lestablishments/hotels for failure to establish STPs/
wastewater treatment plants. Part of the clean-up
activities of the bay area and its tributaries undertakenby the DENR-NCR MBSCMO under KRA 2 include
Installation of trash traps at Baseco Lagoon, fabricationof two trash collector rafts with capacity of 552 kg loads,
inspection of rivers and esteros, coordination meetings
with concerned stakeholders, and launching of theManila Bay Watch Bike Patrollers. Over 1.2 million kg ofsolid wastes were collected and removed from Manila
Bay area and its tributaries.
Clean-up drives are also active in other major beachareas of prime tourist destinations in the Mimaropa
region, namely: Coron, El Nido and San Vicente, in
Palawan, and Puerto Galera in Oriental Mindoro, San

Chapter 2: Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Japan
Republic of Korea
Lao PDR
Malaysia
Myanmar• Meetings with concerned agencies to tackle issues

Indonesia

With the foundation for sustainable water quality
management already laid out, the main challenge
now lies in the continuation of existing water quality
management policies and programs to rehabilitate
and preserve the quality of the country’s water bodies,and ultimately, achieve and sustain quality of life for
future generations. Weak water use regulations andfragmentation in the water agencies cause coordination
issues and weak enforcement. Other challenges include
maintaining water quality against drivers and pressures,such as high water demand and limited supply,
indiscriminate land use and development, increasing
volumes of solid wastes, pollutants, and hazardous
wastes, and inadequate treatment facilities. Sciencebased data and information is needed for efficient andeffective planning and decision making to improvewater quality governance. For that, it is important toincrease access to the new knowledge and technologies
generated from international R&D standards.
The major responses planned or undertaken to
overcome the challenges include:

China

7 | Challenges and Future Plans

CambodiaJose in Occidental Mindoro; Panglao, Bohol and Siargao,
Agusan Del Norte. NOVs and CDOs have been issued tovarious commercial establishments in violation of the
Clean Water Act, and various establishments weredemolished in violation of the easement rule under the
Water Code of the Philippines.

and concerns as well as take appropriate actions

institutional framework for effective and proper
handling of water management
governance model• Conduct trainings and seminars to inform, educate• Conduct workshops on various technologies used inwater resources management

Viet Namand properly disseminate information regarding
water management and water environment
governance

Thailand

help address issues in water management, especiallyin reducing long-term costs, potential increases inwaste, and implications resulting from the lack ofavailable clean water

Sri Lanka• Improve planning and decision-making processes• Create a cost-effective long-term plan/framework toPhilippines• Study and implementation of participatory water

Nepal• Review, reorganize, reevaluate, and update legal and109

2.11 Sri Lanka
1 | Country Information
Table 2.11.1 Basic indicators
Land Area (km2)

62,705 (2019)

Total Population

21.8 million (2019)

GDP (current USD)

84 billion (2019)

GDP per capita (current USD)

3,852 (2019)

Average Precipitation (mm/year)

1,712 (2017)

Total Renewable Water Resources (km3)

52.8 (2017)

Total Annual Freshwater Withdrawals(billion m3)

13 (2005)

Annual Freshwater
Withdrawals
by Sector

Agriculture

87.3% (2005)

Industry

6.4% (2005)

Municipal(including domestic)

Groundwater resources in the country are estimatedat 7,253 million m3 and represent the major source ofwater especially in rural areas, where around 72% of therural population relies on it for domestic uses.

6.2% (2005)(Source: CB 2019, FAO 2020)

Figure 2.11.2 Annual precipitation distribution (in mm) in
Sri Lanka

3 | State of Ambient Water Quality

Figure 2.11.1 Kandy Lake in Kandy, Sri Lanka

2 | State of Water Resources
Sri Lanka is a tropical island country with an averageannual rainfall of 900–5,000 mm (Figure 2.11.2), which
provides 131,230 million m 3 of freshwater annually.
Zones in its southwest are the wettest, receiving over
2,000 mm/year, while northern (and some southeast)
areas are considered dry zones with under 1,500 mm/
year. There are 103 river basins, and the largest river isthe 335 km Mahaweli River, covering an area of 10,448
km2 (MENR and UNEP 2009). Rivers in the wet zones
contribute over 50% of the runoff despite covering only
about one third of the land area. There are over 3,400
wetlands, which include ancient irrigation reservoirs,
recently constructed multipurpose reservoirs, tanks andlakes.

110

Pollution by domestic and industrial wastewater as wellas leachate from garbage continues to be a problem forsurface water and groundwater resources in Sri Lanka.
Central wastewater treatment facilities cover less than
5% of the population, and commonly comprise onsite
septic tanks among urban dwellings. High use of synthetic
fertilizers on farms and resultant runoff and leaching of
nutrients is another cause of nutrient pollution in thesurface and groundwater.

3.1 Rivers
Water quality in main water courses is still within thelimits of the ambient water quality standard. However,untreated or insufficiently treated wastewater in urban
areas is the main cause of river pollution. For instance,
the Kelani River, the second largest river basin in Sri
Lanka, is one of the most polluted due to the rapid
growth of industry and high population density along
the river.
Illegal dumping of solid wastes into waterways is alsoa serious concern. Expansion of sand mining activities
also aﬀects the river water quality, such as with increased
turbidity, decreased water ﬂow and accelerated saltwater
intrusion. Table 2.11.2 shows the recent state of water
quality in certain rivers.

Chapter 2: Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

River

Year

BOD
(mg/L)

Nilwala River

2019

1

COD
(mg/L)

NO 3(mg/L)

PO 43(mg/L)

5.6

0.9

<0.01

1.47

<0.01

9.97

<0.01

2019

3.71

16.83

<0.01

<0.01

2019

1.67

14.63

0.15

<0.1

2020

1.78

12.92

0.15

<0.1

Mahaweli River

2020

5.0

7.75

0.03

<0.01

Malwathu oya

2020

1.70

23.70

0.02

0.1

E.coliNO 3CODTSSPO 43Sampling TDS(cfu/ (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L)(mg/L)
area(mg/L) 100
ml)

2018

1.37

12.41

0.43

<0.1

Farmland

2019

9

66.29

2.87

<0.1

2020

1.4

11.0

0.50

<0.1

Solid Waste
Dumping 270–296 10–790
Site

12–20

13–93

0.2–0.5 3.1–6.2

2017

3.87

22.43

0.99

<0.01

City

16–20

6–58

0.2–0.4 0.3–7.4

2018

1.75

15.75

1.87

<0.15

(Source: CEA 2019)

2019

2.75

10.5

1.06

0.05

*Based on research by University of Peradeniya &National Water Supply & Drainage Board

Attanagalu oya
Menik River

Badulu oya

Diyawanna oya(Source: CEA 2021)

3.2 Lakes and Reservoirs

COD(mg/L)

NO 3(mg/L)

PO 43(mg/L)

2019

7.43

25.06

1.10

0.03

2020

3.10

29.7

1.40

<0.01

Gregory Lake

2019

8.42

31.0

1.53

0.04

Wennaruwa wewa

2019

12.85

3.18

1.69

0.054

2019

2.53

28.27

NA

0.06

2020

5.81

18.91

NA

0.03

2019

3

35

NA

0.04

2020

3.56

23.92

NA

0.02

Kurunegala tankNuwara wewa

Tissa wewa

3.3 Coastal Water

Table 2.11.5 Existing wastewater treatment facilities inmajor cities
Sewerage System
Colombo (CMC)

Treatment Capacity(m 3/day)

Beneficiaries

Sea outfall

331,500

Dehiwala/Mt. Laviniya

CMC sea outfall

65,000Kolonnawa

CMC sea outfall

60,000Kataragama

3,000

20,000Hikkaduwa

1,040

500 +
Commercial (60 Nos.)

Rathmalana

17,00020,000Ja Ela

7,500

10,500

Kurunegala

4,500

43,000Kandy

14,00055,000 + 150,000(floating)

Viet Nam

A common groundwater quality problem in the country
is microbial contamination and nutrients (such as nitrate)

National sewerage coverage is limited to less than 3%,
while the rest of the country relies on on-site sanitationsuch as septic tanks, Ventilated Improved Pit Latrines(VIPs), and unimproved sources (pit latrines and unknown
types). There are ongoing and planned wastewater
treatment projects to treat domestic wastewater inmajor cities or under certain housing schemes. Tables
2.11.5 and 2.11.6 show the state of existing wastewater
treatment facilities.

Thailand

3.4 Groundwater

Domestic wastewater

Sri Lanka

Water pollution in coastal water bodies has grown overthe past few decades due to rapid development activities
and human settlements both in and outside coastal
areas, establishment of new industries and tourism. Over
60% of industrial establishments are located along Sri
Lanka’s coastal zone, such as coastal districts of Colombo
and Gampaha. Organic pollution in coastal areas, such as
Beruwala and Unawatuna areas, has led to high levels of
BOD.

4 | State of Wastewater Treatment

Philippines(Source: CEA 2021)

Industry is another source of groundwatercontamination in Sri Lanka. A study conducted under the
WEPA Action Program found higher COD, Nitrate, and EC
in groundwater samples collected nearby someindustries.

Nepal

BOD
(mg/L)

4–608

MyanmarYear

Reservoir

80–105

10–13 140–155 0.3–0.6 0.3–0.5

Malaysia

Table 2.11.3 Water quality of certain reservoirs

160–172 22–40

Lao PDR

In general, the water quality of lakes and reservoirs is
considered good. Table 2.11.3 summarises water quality
status of select reservoirs.

Table 2.11.4 Variation in groundwater quality acrossdifferent areas (2014–2018)*

Republic of Korea

3.23
26.06

Japan

20.1
2.95

Indonesia

2019
2020

Deduru oya

Chinacaused by leachate from on-site sanitation systems suchas pit latrines (Table 2.11.4). Excessive fertilizer use anduntreated wastewater are other factors responsible
for high nitrate levels in the groundwater. In coastal
areas, salinity is a prominent issue and is caused by a
combination of factors such as excessive groundwater
use and sea waves encroaching inland.

Cambodia

Table 2.11.2 State of river water quality(Source: CEA 2021)

111

Table 2.11.6 Wastewater treatment in major housing
schemesNo. ofConnections

Treatment
capacity(m 3/d)Beneficiaries

1,154

600

4,850

Jayawadanagama

669

NA

2,810

Maddumagewatta

315

NA

1,320

Raddolugama

2,045

6,000

8,590

Kuruminiyawatta

202

NA

850

Royal Park

249

NA

1,045

Hantana

394

550

1,650

Housing
SchemeMattegoda(Source: CEA 2021)

Industrial wastewater
In Sri Lanka industries are categorised into threebroad groups, namely Type A, B and C by the Central
Environment Authority (CEA) depending upon theseverity of pollution potential and to guide the siting ofsuch industries. A total of 15,404 highly polluting industry
units (Type A), 10,631 medium polluting industrial units(Type B) and 26,622 low polluting industrial units (Type C)
operate within Sri Lanka. Most industrial zones have own
wastewater treatment systems for treating wastewaterfrom factories operating within their boundaries. Thereis little or no data on the state of wastewater generationand treatment from small and medium-sized industries.
Table 2.11.7 shows the state of wastewater treatment insome export processing zones.
Table 2.11.7 Wastewater treatment in certain export
processing zones
Export Processing Zone

Treatment capacity (m 3/d)

Biyagama

21,000

Seetawaka

9,900

Koggala675

Katunayaka

3,000

Mirigama

400

Wathupitiwala

900

Polgahawela

450

Mawathagama

500

HoranaMalwatta

1,000
450(Source: CEA 2021)

According to the National Water Supply andDrainage Board Law, No. 02 of 1974, different tariffstructures apply for domestic and industrial sewer
services based on total amounts of water consumption
from all water supply sources for each billing month. The
domestic sewer service provided for commercial purpose

112

charges a flat rate of 40 LKR per cubic meter, while forresidential purpose the tariff rate varies according towater consumption. For residential purpose, anadditional service charge of 200 LKR also applies. For
industrial purpose, a flat rate of 65 LKR per cubic meter
applies.

5 | Frameworks for Water
Environmental Management
The Constitution of Sri Lanka states that protection,
preservation, and improvement of the environment forthe beneﬁt of the community is the responsibility of thestate (Article 27/14) and that every person in the country
has a duty to “protect nature and conserve its riches”(Article28). Surface water resources – rivers, streams
and lakes – are controlled by the government, under the
Crown Lands Ordinance and the Constitution. Vistas ofProsperity & Splendour" Manifesto of President Gotabaya
Rajapakse Among ten (10) key policies addressed in the
manifesto of the President Gotabaya Rajapakse, the 8th
chapter describes about the Sustainable Environmental
policy to strengthen and protect the forest cover, rivers,
streams and wildlife. The Haritha Lanka Program,approved in June 2008, is the current basic national
policy document for environmental conservation, andaims to promote sound environmental management in
Sri Lanka by balancing the needs of social and economic
development and environmental integrity. The “National
Action Plan for Haritha Lanka Program” was preparedin the same year, based on the above program, andincludes steps to be implemented during 2009–2016
under the supervision of the National Council for
Sustainable Development (NCSD). The plan’s proposed
strategies and actions represent a concerted eﬀort of
all relevant ministries and stakeholder institutions. As
regards environment pollution control, the CEA prepares
ﬁve-year action plans.

5.1 Legislation
The National Environmental Act (NEA) No. 47 of 1980
(amended as Act No. 53 of 2000) forms the basisof the country’s law, and aims “for the protection,
management and enhancement of the environment, forthe regulation, maintenance and control of the qualityof the environment; for the prevention, abatement andcontrol of pollution”. According to the act, discharges,
deposits or emission of waste into the environment
cannot be carried out without a license and must comply
with standards and criteria prescribed. Other acts andordinances related to water environmental management
are illustrated in Figure 2.11.3.

Chapter 2: Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Marine and costal water quality
Marine Pollu�on Preven�on Act of No. 35 of 2008
Coast Conserva�on Act No.57 of 1984 as amended
by Act No. 64 of 1988

- Eﬄuents discharge standards Gaze�e No. 1534/18 and theprescribed ac�vi�es for which a license is required inGaze�e No. 1533/16

Water resource development /management- Prescribed projects in Gaze�e No. 772/22 which apply- EPA - Environment Protec�on Areas declared under thesec�ons 24C and 24D of the Na�onal Environmental Act
No. 47 of 1980

Management of speciﬁc areas- Urban Development Authority Act No. 41 of 1978 as amended
from �me to �me- Greater Colombo Economic Commission Law No. 4 of 1978 as
amended by Act No. 49 of 1992

Figure 2.11.3 Laws and regulations related to water environmental management

5.2 Institutional Arrangement

Overall responsibility for protecting the environment including water environment

Water Resources Board

Scientific characterization, mapping, and preparation of comprehensive and integrated plans
for the conservation, utilization, control, and development of groundwater resources.

National Water Supply & Drainage Board

Operational development and installation of public and private water supply schemes basedon groundwater and coordinate sewerage systems.

Department of Irrigation

Regulation and control of inland waters

Mahaweli Authority

Maintenance of Mahaweli River and its reservoirs for development of lands for agriculture.

Coast Conservation & Coastal Resources
Management Department

Conservation of the coastal zone and management of its resources.

Marine Environment Protection Authority(MEPA)

Protection of the marine environment from ship- and shore-based maritime related activities.
(Source: created based on information from CEA)

Viet Nam

Central Environmental Authority

ThailandOverall management of the environment and natural resources of the country. Formulating
key policies, strategies, and guidelines for environmental management.

Sri Lanka

Ministry of Environment (MOE)

Philippines

Mandates of the agency

Nepal

Name of the agency

Myanmar

Table 2.11.8 Key agencies involved in the management of water environment

Malaysia

has the regulatory powers over the marine pollution
prevention and other governmental organizations thatare related to construction, engineering services, housing
and common amenities such as the Condominium
Management Authority, National Housing Development
Authority, and the Board of Investment (BOI) of Sri Lanka
are indirectly related to water environment as theiractivities significantly aﬀect the condition of water
quality. Local governments are also playing an importantrole in water environmental management in regulating
low-impact industries and activities prescribed by orders
issued under the NEA. Public health inspectors at the
local level control on-site sanitation systems such as pit
latrines and septic tanks.

Lao PDR

Diﬀerent governmental agencies control diﬀerent
areas of water environment management in Sri
Lanka, as summarized in Table 2.11.8. The Ministryof Environment, established in 2001, is the national
authority for formulating policies and guidelines
for conservation of the environment and natural
resources. Under the ministry, the CEA is responsible for
implementation of policies and regulations pertaining
to environmental pollution control and management.
The CEA was established in 1981 as the authority withregulatory powers to control, manage and enhance theenvironment.
Marine Environment Protection Authority (MEPA)(Source: created based on information from CEA)

Republic of Korea- Mahaweli Authority Act No. 23 of 1979
- North Western Provincial Environmental StatuteNo. 12 of 1990

Other acts related to water environmental management

Japan- Local Authori�es Act(for municipal and urban councils and Pradeshiya Sabah)- Irriga�on Ordinance Chapter 453- Na�onal Water Supply & Drainage Board Act No.2 of 1974
- Water Resources Board Act No. 29 of 1964

Indonesia

the EIA process

China- Cons�tu�on of the Democra�c Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka- Na�onal Environment Act No.47 of 1980 as amended by
No. 56 of 1988 and No. 53 of 2000

Cambodia

Environmental Conserva�on (Overall)

113

5.3 Ambient Water Quality Standards(AWQS) under the National Environmental (Ambient
Water Quality) Regulations, No. 01 of 2019. According
to this standard, no person shall discharge, deposit or

Ambient water quality standards

Table 2.11.9 shows the ambient water quality standards

Table 2.11.9 Sri Lanka’s Ambient Water Quality Standards (2019)

Other

Nutrient

GeneralNo.

Parameter

Unit

Category A

Category B

Metal

Category E

Category F

1ColourPt mg/L, max

20

-

-

100

-

-

Electrical ConductivityµS/cm, max

-

-

-

-

700

-

3

Turbidty

NTU, max

5

-

-

-

-

-

4

TSS

mg/L, max

5

Total Hardness(as CaCO3)

25

-

40

1,500

2,100

-

mg/L

250 des
600 max

-

-

-

-

-

-

6

pH

6.0–8.5

6.0–9.0

6.0–8.5

6.0–9.0

6.0–8.5

5.5–9.0

7

DO at 25°C

mg/L, minimum

6

5

5

4

3

3

8

BOD5 at 20°C

mg/L, max

3

4

4

5

12

15

9

COD

mg/L, max

10

10

15

30

-

40

10 NO3-N

mg/L, max

10

10

10

10

-

10

-

-

0.94

-

-

9.1

-

-

0.59

-

4.9

-

-

0.22

-

-

1.6

NH3-N pH < 7.5
11 7.5 ≤ pH < 8.5

mg/L, max

8.5 ≤ pH
12 PO4-P

mg/L, max

0.7

0.7

0.4

0.7

-

-

13 Chloride (CI)

mg/L, max

250

-

-

250

600

-

14 CN

mg/L, max

0.05

0.05

0.05

0.05

0.05

0.05

15 F

mg/L, max

1.5

-

-

1.5

-

-

16 SO42–

mg/L, max

250

-

-

250

1,000

-

17 Cd, totalµg/L, max

5

-

5

5

-

5

18 Cr, totalµg/L, max

50

-

20

50

-

50

19 Cu, totalµg/L, max

-

-

100

-

-

100

20 Fe, totalµg/L

300 des
1,000 max

-

-

2,000

-

-

50

-

-

21 120 ≤ Hardness < 180

Microbes Organic Micro Pollutant

Category D

2

Pb, total Hardness < 120

2µg/L, max

50

-

3

22 Mn, totalµg/L, max

1,000

1,000

1,000

1,000

1,000

1,000

23 Hg, totalµg/L, max

1

1

1

1

2

2

180 ≤ Hardness

4

24 Ni, totalµg/L, max

70

100

100

100

200

100

25 Se, totalµg/L, max

10

10

5

10

-

-

26 Zn, totalµg/L, max

1,000

-

1,000

1,000

2,000

24,00027 B, totalµg/L, max

-

-

-

-

500

-

28 As, totalµg/L, max

50

50

50

50

50

50

29 Al, totalµg/L, max

200

-

-

-

5,000

5,000

30 Phenolic compoundsµg/L, max

2

5

2

5

5

5

31 Oil/Greaseµg/L, max

100

-

100

100

-

300

32 Anionic surfactants as MBAS µg/L, max

1,000

1,000

1,000

1,000

1,000

1,000

2

-

-

20

-

-

33 MCPAµg/L, max

34 Pendimethalinµg/L, max

35 Total Coliform

MPN/100ml, max

36 Fecal Coliform

MPN/100ml

Note: ‘des’ means desirable and ‘max’ means maximum

114

Category C

2

-

-

20

-

-

10,00010,000-10,000--500 des
1,000 max

500 des
1,000 max

-

-

-

-

(Source: Government of Sri Lanka 2019)

Chapter 2: Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

2. Category B: water sources suitable for bathing
and contact recreation

4. Category D: water sources that require generaltreatment process for drinking

Water quality monitoring framework

Parameters

Mahaweli River

12

Once a month

Dadugam Oya

12Once a month

Benthota River

12

Once a month

Mahaoya

12

Once a month

Kandy Lake

10

Kurunegala Tank

12

BOD, COD,
TSS, pH,
Coliform,
Every three months Phosphate,
Nitrate,Once a month
Heavy metals

Gregory Lake
Nuwara Eliya

12

Once a monthNuwara Wewa
Anuradhapura

12

Once a month(Source: CEA 2019)

Measures against non-compliance
There are several enforcement instruments forwater environment, such as Environmental Impact
Assessment (EIA), Environmental Protection Licensing(EPL), Scheduled Waste Management License (SWML),
Environmental Protected Areas, Directives to Local

Viet Nam

Once a monthThailand17

Sri Lanka

Kelani River

In principle, effluent quality is self-monitored by thedischarging industry concerned or laboratory assignedby the CEA. Effluent quality reports may be submitted
at least once a year, to the actual monitoring bodyconcerned decided by the CEA. Industries also submit
effluent quality reports from third party laboratories
recognized by the CEA. However, not all industries havemonitoring facilities and the CEA occasionally monitors/
inspects effluents discharged from such biannually or
annually, as well as investigates suspected cases of noncompliance such as those based on complaints received
from the general public.

Philippines

Frequency

Effluent inspection procedure
Nepal

Monitoring
pointsMyanmar

Water body

Malaysia

Table 2.11.10 Water quality monitoring in major water bodies

Lao PDR

The CEA is authorized to conduct water quality
monitoring, which is carried out by environmental
pollution control unit and water quality monitoring
laboratory. The CEA possesses a main laboratory at the
Head Office and 9 Provincial and District laboratories
and private laboratories are also registered once in two
years to cater the environmental monitoring needs. The
National Water Supply and Drainage Board (NWSDB)
conducts water quality monitoring at water intake points
for drinking water purification – in total 340, including
70 groundwater intake points. CEA conducts regularwater quality monitoring in 12 main water bodies,with additional or random monitoring in other areas
conducted on an as-needed basis, and has ambient water
quality monitoring projects for diﬀerent river basins, as
shown in Table 2.11.10. The first water sampling took
place in the Kelani River, which is a major source ofwater supply, in 2013. Online water quality monitoring
commenced in 2017. In the same year, monitoring

The standards for discharge of wastewater into theenvironment were published in Gazette Notification No.
1534/18, dated 01/02/2008, and termed as the National
Environmental (Protection & Quality) Regulations No.
01 of 2008 Wastewater Discharge Standards. Proposed
eﬄuent discharge standards are based on the pointof discharge and the type of eﬄuent identiﬁed by theEnvironmental Pollution Control Unit of EPC Division.
Tolerance limits and values exist for industrial anddomestic wastewater as well as effluent based on
the mode of discharge into coastal or marine waters,
inland surface water, land for irrigation purpose andso on. Further, specific tolerance limits and values areprescribed for activities related to rubber manufacturing,processing or modifying industries, textile and apparelsector industries, tanning industries and public sewer
systems. In the proposed regulation sea out falls (long& short) and near shore, more stringent standards canbe imposed if possible regarding the need to protect thewater environment from hazardous waste landfills.

Republic of Korea

6. Category F: water sources of minimum quality
outside of categories A to E

Effluent discharge standards

Japan

5. Category E: water sources suitable for irrigation
and agricultural activities

5.4 Effluent Standards

Indonesia

3. Category C: water sources suitable for aquatic
life

China

1. Category A: water sources requiring simple
treatment for drinking

expanded to 16 water bodies (rivers, tanks, reservoirs),
and in 2020 is now conducted on a comprehensive basis.
The Sri Lanka Land Reclamation & Development
Agency carries out canal water quality monitoring in the
Colombo area at 23 locations, while agencies such as theWater Resources Board and International Water
Management Institute are also involved in groundwater
monitoring.

Cambodiaemit any pollutant into inland surface waters exceeding
AWQS. There are six categories under AWQS, classified
by suitability for different uses/purposes:

115

Government Authority on Solid Waste Management,
Environmental Recommendations (ER). The EPL scheme,
which started in 1990, is required for all entities in the
country that discharge wastes into the environment, asprescribed by a regulation published under the NEA,
and licenses vary according to the pollution potential of
an industry (Type A, B and C). Additional enforcement
arrangements are made by other agencies, such as
the Water Resource Board, which grants approval forgroundwater withdrawals for commercial uses, MEPA,
which requires discharge permits for discharging
wastewater to the sea, and Mahweli Authority, which
protects reservoirs coming under their purview.
Non-compliance or violation results in suspension orcancellation of licences and filing of cases, as well as
minimum ﬁnes of 10,000 LKR, imprisonment or both, as
determined by the NEA.

6 | Recent Developments inWater Environmental Management
In 2020, a comprehensive river water monitoring
program was started to strengthen the ongoing rivermonitoring program. It is being implemented along 25
main rivers at monitoring points determined based on
physical factors and pollution sources. Monitoring is tobe carried out by central and provincial labs of the CEA.
Further, to avoid duplicity, NWSD will share water quality
data from its intake points. This overall monitoringprocess is to form the basis of the master plan for rivermonitoring. After analysis of the data, monitoring will befurther strengthened to cover industries and implement
pollution control measures.
In 2020, implementation of a program to protect the
Kelani River was initiated. The river is nationally
important as a water resource supporting fisheries,hydro-electricity generation, sand mining, and main
water supply source for Colombo. Around 10,000
industrial activities are located along the river. Pollution
in upstream areas results from agricultural run-off fromtea plantations, whereas downstream areas are affectedby high contamination due to urban run-off, industrial
discharge, and leachates of haphazardly disposed solid
waste. The program aims to maintain and improve water
quality by undertaking server activities planned for the
short, medium and long term. In the short term (early2020), it plans to conduct GIS mapping, locate andidentify pollution sources, monitor industrial activities
through a monitoring team, and carry out water quality
monitoring (including establishing online monitoring116

stations) and awareness programs. In the medium term(by 2020), activities are to include investigation ofindustrial and domestic waste dumping, analysis of wasteloads, initiation of legal action against unauthorizedindustries, and implementation of the second phase of
online monitoring. After 2020, the program plans to
install CCTV linked to CEA to observe effluent discharge
from large industries, continue establishing online
monitoring stations, and develop a comprehensive
database to analyse trends in water quality.
Surakimu Ganga National Environmental Programme
was started in 2021, as a national river protection
programme based on the Sustainable Environmental
Management which emphasized in the 8th chapter ofthe manifesto “A vision for a Resurgent, Prosperous
Country” released by the Hon President of Sri Lanka.
The ministry of Environment, the CEA and stakeholder
agencies including local government are working
together in this programme to protect the 103 riverine
systems in Sri Lanka. The ultimate goal is to control waterpollution, restore, manage eco system functions and get
the maximum beneficial use from such rivers.
The programme is implemented through interministerial coordinating committee, District Committees
and Divisional Committees island wide. Initially 27
perennial rivers were selected for thorough investigationof issues and to take remedial measures to overcome theriver water pollution. The ongoing water quality
monitoring programmes and other actions taken so far
by the stakeholder agencies will be coordinated andnetworked through “Surakimu Ganga” programme.
In the proposed NEA amendments new regulations
on environmental damage compensation, introductionof the polluter pays principle, legalization ofenvironmental clearance, and control over groundwaterpollution are included.

7 | Challenges and Future Plans
The lack of proper institutional coordination is a major
challenge since water sector management is divided into
several sections under different ministries or agencies.
Similarly, different sections of water management are
spread across several laws and regulations, meaning
compliance monitoring and enforcement thereof
remain an ongoing challenge. There is also a needfor considerable improvement as regards resources
allocation from the national budget, such as forhiring staff for field monitoring and inspection andlaboratory analysis. The lack of baseline data as well as

Chapter 2: Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Cambodia
China
Indonesia
Japanlimited sharing of available data are further barriers to
improvements in water environmental governance. The
lack of financial and technical resources often hampers
regular monitoring as well as the establishment of newmonitoring stations. Failure to self-report by industry
is another prominent challenge as some industries
lack the resources and capacity to monitor and reporttheir compliances. Industries, in particular SMEs, lackthe financial resources such as for treating wastewater.
Further, the high costs of construction and operationof centralized WWTP as well as public resentment andprotests over WWTP establishment remain as challenges
for wastewater treatment in cities.

Republic of Korea
Lao PDR
Malaysia
Myanmar
Nepal
Philippines
Sri Lanka
Thailand
Viet Nam

1172.12 Thailand
1 | Country Information

2 | State of Water Resources

Table 2.12.1 Basic indicators
Land Area (km2)

510,890 (2016)

Total Population

69.625 million (2019)

GDP (current USD)

543.65 billion (2019)

GDP per capita (current USD)

7,260 (2019)

Average Precipitation (mm/year)

1,718.1 (2016)*

Total Renewable Water Resources (km3)

438.7 (2017)**

Total Annual Freshwater Withdrawals(billion m3)

57.3 (2014)

Annual Freshwater
Withdrawals
by Sector

Agriculture

90% (2014)

Industry

5% (2014)

Municipal(including domestic)

5% (2014)(Source: World Bank 2020, *Thai Meteorological Department 2016,**World Data Atlas 2017)

Based on geographical characteristics, Thailand can bedivided into 25 river basins. The total volume of waterfrom rainfall in all river basins is estimated at morethan 800,000 million m3, of which 75% is lost throughevaporation, evapotranspiration and infiltration, andthe remaining 25% constitutes the runoff that flows into
the rivers and streams. The available water quantity is
about 3,300 m3/capita/year (Office of National Water
Resources Committee 2000).
According to ADB (2013), Thailand has abundant
water resources with an estimated 126 billion cubic
meters (m3)/annum exploitable, considerably more than
the reported national demand for water of 50–56 billion/m 3 /annum (excluding navigation and ecosystem
requirements). Of these water resources, groundwater isimportant as it supplies 20% of public water supply and
75% of domestic water. The groundwater system ismainly recharged by rainfall of about 40,000 million m3
and seepage from rivers. It was estimated from previoushydrological balance studies that about 12.5 to 18% ofrainfall reaches aquifers. Both the government and theprivate sector have undertaken more than 200,000
groundwater well projects with a total capacity of about
7.55 million m3/day (information from the WEPA focal
person in 2012).

3 | State of Ambient Water Quality
3.1 Surface Water

Figure 2.12.1 Chao Phraya River in Thailand

118

According to the 2019 water quality monitoring results
published by the Pollution Control Department ofThailand in 2020, of the 65 major water sources acrossthe country, in terms of water quality, 2% were foundto be very good (excellent), 34% were good, 46% werefair, and 18% were poor. The ‘very good’ water source
was the Upper Tapi River. Surface water quality in thenorthern, central, north-eastern, and eastern regions
was worse than in the previous year, and water quality inthe central region was worse than other regions. When
compared to the surface water classification criteria,
only three sources, representing 5% of water sources,
met the water quality. The majority of water sources
over the past decade (2010–2019) tended to be stable,with water quality ranging from fair to good.

Chapter 2: Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

90

15

25

18

22

23

9

17

20

25

Cambodia

%
100

18

80
70

45
48

43

50

46

41

49

49

Poor

46

55

Fair

40

Good

20

34

32

10
0

34

2

2010

2011

2012

28

29

34

34

2013

2014

2015

2016

Excellent

46

34

28

2017

2

2018

2019

34

25
20
15

27

30

27

5
0

20
18
11
0.7
10

20

27

25
20

21

22

16
13
9
1.4
11

20

19
11
0.9
12

20

17
14
1.4
13

20

18
12
0.9
14

20

32

29

28

20

19

18
15

18

1.5
15

20

14

27
26
25

21
20
19

23

18
11

12

0.5

0.2

27

BOD

18
18
18

DO

17

Total Coliform Bacteria

Faecal Coliform Bacteria

NH3-N

Myanmar

10

31

32

Heavy Metals
0.9
16

20

17

0.3

18

20

19

20

20

(Source: PCD 2020)

Meet standard

Do not meet standard

NH3-N

81%

19%

Faecal Coliform
Bacteria

77%

23%

Total Coliform
Bacteria

81%

19%

BOD

75%

25%

DO

79%

21%

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90 100 %Figure 2.12.4 Results of surface water quality monitoringin the Central region compared to the surface water(Source: PCD 2020)
quality standard - Class 3

Viet Nam

10

Thailand

0.1%

Sri Lanka

99.9%

Philippines

Heavy Metals

0

Nepal

Figure 2.12.3 Percentage of parameters that do not meet the surface water sources classification during 2010–2019

When assessed using the water quality index, thatthe water sources of highest quality were 1) the upper
Tapi River, 2) the Kwai Noi and Kok River, 3) the upper
Phetchaburi River, 4) the Lee and Kwai Yai Rivers, and 5)
the Tradd River. The most deteriorated water sourceswere 1) the lower Ram Tahong River, 2) the lower Chao
Phraya River, 3) the lower Tha Chin River and the upper
Panglad River, 4) the lower Rayong River and the Lopburi
River, and 5) the Sakae Klang River. The causes of poor
water quality were municipal wastewater, industrial
sewage, and agricultural and livestock runoff discharging
into major water sources, as well as inefficientwastewater treatment systems and inadequate
wastewater collection and treatment (PCD 2020).

Malaysia

34

Lao PDR

30

29

percentage of heavy metal values that exceeded thesurface water source classification ranges from 0.2–1.5%;
meanwhile, for BOD and DO values, they range from 19–
36% and 19–31%, respectively, with a slight downward
trend.

Republic of Korea

36

35(Source: PCD 2020)

Japan

Figure 2.12.2 State of surface water quality across the country during 2010–2019

From the analysis of surface water quality data, it
was found that main parameters such as DO, BOD, Total
Coliform Bacteria (TCB), Faecal Coliform Bacteria (FCB),
Ammonia-Nitrogen (NH3-N) and Heavy Metals (HMs), did
not meet the required standard for surface water sourcesclassification during 2010–2019. More specifically, theIndonesia

30

40

China

49

60

119

Over the past 11 years (2009–2019), the water
quality of most water sources was fair. None have beenfound to be of very poor quality since 2009, and water
sources in general are undergoing a transformation
towards good water quality. Sources that haveconsistently retained ‘good’ status are Upper Tapi, Khwae
Noi, and Lum Chee. Conversely, some sources tend to beof consistently poor quality, requiring close monitoringand problem solving, which are the Lower Chao Phraya,
Lower Tha Chin, Lop Buri and Lower Lumtakong.
For the purposes of water quality monitoring andevaluation, water samples are collected four times a
year, and analysed in accordance with surface water
quality standards issued under the Enhancement andConservation of Natural Environmental Quality Act 1992.
The 23 parameters analysed include temperature,
Acidity/Alkalinity (pH), Dissolved Oxygen (DO),Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), Total Coliform
Bacteria (TCB), Faecal Coliform Bacteria (FCB), NitrateNitrogen (NO3--N), Ammonia-Nitrogen (NH3-N), heavy
metal group such as Copper (Cu), Nickel (Ni), Manganese(Mn), Zinc (Zn), Cadmium (Cd), Chromium (Cr), Lead
(Pb), Mercury (Hg), Arsenic (As), and chlorinatedpesticides such as DDT, Alpha-BHC, Dieldrin, Aldrin,
Endrin, and Heptachlor Epoxide (PCD 2014).

Koh Lann, Phrao Bay (Samet Island), Ban Son Bay, and
Koh Phangan; however, the Gulf of Thailand at themouths of the Bang Pakong, Chao Phraya, and Tha Chinrivers continued to have poor to very poor water quality.
There were 26 red tide events (over four times theamount in the previous year), presumably caused byfactors such as municipal wastewater discharge,
industrial and agricultural drainage, oil spills from drilling,
oil transport, navigation, and rapid phytoplankton
production (PCD 2020).
The trend of coastal water quality in the period of
2010–2019 also showed that, in general, most of thecoastal water quality has been at a fair to good level, thepercentage of coastal water locations with poor and very
poor quality have reduced, and the percentage of coastal
water locations with fair and good quality has increased,
especially after 2015.
Coastal water samples have been collected twice ayear and evaluated using the Marine Water Quality Index(MWQI). This tool was developed by the Pollution
Control Department for assessing marine water quality
in a range of 0–100 (0–25: very poor; 25–50: poor; 50–
80: fair; 80–90: good; 90–100: excellent). The MWQI is
calculated from the coastal water quality data acrosseight parameters: Dissolved Oxygen (DO), Total Coliform
Bacteria (TCB), Phosphate - Phosphorus (PO43--P), Nitrate- Nitrogen (NO3--N), Temperature (Temp.), Suspended
Solids (SS), Acidity - Alkalinity (pH) and Ammonia Nitrogen (NH3-N). However, if levels of pesticides andtoxic elements such as Mercury (Hg), Cadmium (Cd),Total Chromium (Total Cr), Chromium Hexavalent (Cr6+),
Lead (Pb), Copper (Cu), Cyanide (CN –) and PCBs arefound to exceed the Marine Water Quality Standards,
the MWQI is recorded as “0” by default (PCD 2017). In
general, the main parameters indicating coastal water
quality problems are bacteria (Total Coliform Bacteria,
Faecal Coliform Bacteria and Enterococci), as well as
chemical contaminants, i.e., phosphates (phosphorus)

3.2 Coastal Water
According to the Thailand State of Pollution Report 2019,the coastal water quality is generally fair to good. While
tourist beaches have excellent coastal water quality,
some coastal areas are consistently defined as poor,
especially in the Inner Gulf of Thailand.
In 2019, the coastal water quality monitoring results
showed that 2% of samples were of very good quality,
59% were of good quality, 34% were fair, 3% were poor,and 2% very poor. Coastal water quality over the past 10
years has tended to improve since 2016 and remained
stable through 2019. ‘Very good’ coastal waters were
%
100

5

3

1

90

6

9

6

13

80
70

34

36

50

60
40

0

2

8

7
30

23

1
3

1
5

2
3

35

35

34

HighlyDeteriorated
Deteriorated

72
35

47

20
10

4

78

50
30

1
13

Fair

52

60

58

8

2

15

16

11

16

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

1

2

2017

2018

2019

1

2016

Good
Excellent

36

Figure 2.12.5 State of coastal water quality across the country over 2010–2019

120

59

61

(Source: PCD 2020)

Chapter 2: Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Malaysia
Myanmar
Nepal
Philippines
Sri Lanka
Thailand
Viet Nam(Source: Department of Groundwater Resources 2019, PCD 2020)

Lao PDR

Figure 2.12.6 State of groundwater quality in Thailand

Every day it is estimated that 9.7 million cubic metersof domestic wastewater is generated across thecountry, which is managed by 105 centralised municipal
wastewater treatment plants operated by local
government agencies and wastewater management
authorities. Currently, 95 treatment plants are in
operation, with a treatment capacity of 2.6 million cubic
meters per day (27% of total wastewater volume). In
big cities like Bangkok, ratios of treated wastewater are
higher, estimated at 45% (PCD 2020). The main reason
for the low ratios of treated domestic wastewater acrossthe country is the lack of budget to cover investment aswell as operation and maintenance system expenditure
at the local administrative organization level. The
treatment technology used for wastewater mainlycomprises stabilization ponds, aerated lagoons, andactivated sludge systems.
Houses and all other buildings are required to install

Republic of Korea

Domestic wastewaterJapan

Rapid population growth and the lack of propercollection, treatment, and management of domestic
wastewater are the main causes of water quality
degradation in surface and coastal waters. In 2019, thetotal population increased from 66.41 million (2018) to
69.63 million, and numbers of foreign tourists entering
the country increased from 25.83 million (2018) to 26.56
million (PCD 2020). Consequently, the total amount ofgenerated wastewater has also increased. Meanwhile,wastewater is discharged into water resources fromvarious sources, including local businesses, factories,
and agricultural activities, often exceeding the carrying
capacity of the concerned water source, especially insome important river basin areas, major waterways, andtourist destinations. Activities such as related to industry,
ports, tourist attractions, and aquaculture are also
increasing each year.
Although both surface and groundwater pollution
derive from various sources, the main sources of waterpollution can be divided into three types: domestic
wastewater with a total generated amount of about 9.7
million m³/day, industrial wastewater with a total volumeof 17.8 million m³/day, and agricultural wastewater witha discharged volume of 4.9 million m³/day (only for pig
farms and aquaculture operation) (Chaiyo 2019).

Indonesia

In 2019, groundwater quality and groundwater levelchanges were monitored from 1,162 observation wells
at 2,098 sites distributed across 27 basins/watersheds.
The results showed that groundwater was generally of
good quality and within the standard, according to the
Groundwater Act B.E.2520. However, in some areas,
concentrations of iron and manganese exceeded thestandard due to geographical or hydrological conditions.
Also, in the Gulf of Thailand and areas along Lake
Songkhla, the salinity level of groundwater has increased.
Heavy Metals (HMs) and volatile organic compounds(VOCs) exceeding the required standard for groundwater

4 | State of Wastewater Treatment

China

3.3 Groundwater

have been detected in samples at some waste disposalsites, industrial waste disposal sites, and industrial parks(PCD 2020). Therefore, groundwater use needs to becarefully monitored for possible contamination.

Cambodiaand nitrates (nitrogen), mostly from communal andtourist areas, and agricultural and industrial activities.
Areas where water quality was found to be of poor tovery poor quality are areas of the Inner Gulf of Thailandand estuaries of the Bang Pakong River, the Chao Phraya
River, the Tha Chin River, and the Mae Klong River (PCD
2015, PCD 2017).

121wastewater treatment systems for primary treatment to
reduce the contamination of wastewater before it isdischarged into water sources.
Large buildings such as hotels, condominiums,
hospitals, department stores, markets, restaurants,
schools, dormitories and office buildings are required to
install wastewater treatment systems and treat
wastewater according to standards. Monitoring and law
enforcement are regularly implemented to manage
wastewater treatment, especially in important river
basin areas, major canals, and attractive beaches. Survey
results revealed that 62% of large buildings are incompliance with the law (PCD 2020).

Industrial wastewaterIndustries discharge processed wastes including byproducts from industrial operations as wastewater.
At present, many industries are located in areas ofhigh population density or within residential areas incities. Across the country there are more than 120,000
industrial establishments of various sizes in 77 provinces,carrying out a wide range of activities, located within the
Inner Gulf. Meanwhile, there are approximately 87,000
small or community factories in Thailand, contributing
6% of the BOD load in main rivers (Wangcharoenrung2017). The total amount of generated industrial
wastewater was estimated at 17.8 million m3/day (Chaiyo2019). Laws and regulations are being strictly enforced
for small/community, medium-sized and large factories,
industrial plants and industrial estates, which were all
required to have wastewater systems complying with theeffluent standards set by the Government of Thailand.
General standards for controlling effluent fromindustry, industrial parks, industrial zones and specificstandards for producing fresh water from seawater
reverse osmosis plants, leather mills, pulp and paper
mills have been issued.
Many industries, such as dyeing, textiles, pulp andpaper, tea, coffee and beverage industries, small andmedium-sized enterprises (SMEs), have transferred tousing clean technologies to reduce waste, water and raw
material use, energy, greenhouse gas and CO2 emissions,and have achieved effluent standards in both production
processes and discharge lines. During 2011–2018, about
34,000 plants were certified as green industrial plants.
Industries that generate large volumes of wastewater
are obliged to install equipment and tools to measure
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) and Chemical
Oxygen Demand (COD) parameters, and report such to
local authorities via computer networks to ensure theirtreated wastewater meets the standards.

122

Agricultural wastewater
Agricultural activities such as the use of chemicalfertilizers, pesticides and animal wastes from livestock
farms (e.g., pig farms) all produce wastewater. A large
portion of the fertilizer used for rice paddy fields iswashed away by irrigation water and flows into rivers,
estuaries, or other bodies of water, which causes
eutrophication and encourages water hyacinth growth.
This unwanted plant grows very quickly, and smothers
major areas of water bodies.
Standards for controlling water discharge from pig
farms and aquaculture have been formulated, andmonitoring systems are in place to ensure wastewater
treatment plants operate within the standards. Farmers
are assisted in managing wastewater efficiently andproduce in an environmentally friendly manner.
Currently, there are 18,118 aquaculture farms, which are
GAP (Good Aquaculture Practice) certified (PCD 2020).
To both raise awareness and develop environmental
management of pig farms, including of waste treatment
and recycling in order to reduce the impact of odour andpolluted water problems, a project named “Farm Rak
Sing Waed Lom” (Environmentally Friendly Farm) was
launched, aimed at farmers.

5 | Frameworks for Water
Environmental Management
5.1 Legislation
The Constitution of Thailand (RTG 2017) stipulates
that the Thai people have the duty to cooperate inand support the conservation and protection of theenvironment, natural resources, biodiversity, and cultural
heritage (chapter IV, section 50-8). Meanwhile, the State
has the responsibility to “conserve, protect, maintain,
restore, manage, and utilize or arrange for utilizationof natural resources, environment, and biodiversity toattain benefits in a balanced and sustainable mannerand shall allow the people and communities in theconcerned localities to participate in and benefit fromthe implementation herein described as required by
the law” (chapter V, section 57-2). The Constitution also
stipulates that the Thai people have a right to use theenvironment, but that they also have a duty to conserveand protect the environment.
Meanwhile, the Enhancement and Conservation of
the National Environmental Quality Act (NEQA) of 1992
is the basic law for environmental conservation in the
country and defines the authorities and responsibilities
regarding environmental protection. Some key featuresof NEQA are as follows:Chapter 2: Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

which resources will be drawn to solve
environmental problems in priority areas.

• Formulation of a National Environmental(NEB) to declare Pollution Control Areas (PCAs) orConservation and Environmentally Protected Areas
when justified from an environmental point of view.

Committee for pollution control matters, including
enactment of discharge standards.

In terms of control and management of water quality
issues in Thailand, the regulations can be grouped into
three categories as follows:

standards such as industrial effluent standards,
domestic effluent standards, and effluent standards
for pig farms and fish/shrimp farms.

- Regula�ons of Industrial Pollu�on Control Facili�es
THE PUBLIC HEALTH ACT
THE HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES ACT
THE PUBLIC CLEANSING ACTBUILDING CONTROL ACT

Figure 2.12.7 Legislative chart for water quality
management(Figure was prepared by IGES based on information from the official
website of Thailand Pollution Control Department: http://www.pcd.
go.th/about/en_ab_mission.html)

Sri Lanka

An overview of the legislation related to water
environmental management in Thailand is shown in
Figure 2.12.7.

THE FACTORIES ACT

5.2 Institutional Arrangement
sources in order to meet ambient environmental quality
standards.

5.3 Ambient Water Quality Standards
The first standard for ambient water quality wasestablished in 1994, and comprised 28 items underfive categories of water bodies, designated according

Viet Nam

Surface water quality standards

ThailandAccording to NEQA, PCD and the Office of Natural
Resources and Environmental Policy and Planning(ONEP) under MoNRE are responsible for wastewater
management through conducting national and regional
water quality management planning as well as facilitating
local authorities in their responsibilities for wastewater
management. Under the EQA, the PCD establishes
effluent standards for pollution control from point

Philippinesclassification based on the state of water quality,
socio-economic aspects and availability of treatment
technologies.

OTHERS LAWS, REGULATIONS RELATEDTO WATER QUALITY CONSERVATION

Nepal• The ambient water quality standards and- Groundwater Quality Standards- Water Characteris�cs Discharged into Deep Wells

Myanmar• The establishment and application of effluent

GROUNDWATER ACTMalaysia

assessment (EIA) to determine the impact andmitigation plan for development projects of various
types and sizes such as dams with a storage volumeof 100 million m3 or more, irrigation projects of
12,800 ha or more, hotels or resorts with 80 rooms
or more, thermal power plants with capacities of 10
MW or more, and mining projects of all scales.

- Industrial Eﬄuent Standards- Building Eﬄuent Standards- Housing Estates Eﬄuent Standards- Municipal Wastewater Treatment System
Eﬄuent Standards- Eﬄuent Standards for Pig-Farm- Gas Sta�on and Oil Terminal Eﬄuent Standards- Eﬄuent Standards for Coastal Aquaculture- Eﬄuent Standard for Blackish Aquaculture- Eﬄuent Standard for Inland Aquaculture- Water Characteris�cs Discharged into
Irriga�on System

Lao PDR• The application of the environmental impact

EFFLUENT STANDARDS

Republic of Korea• Recognition of the Polluter Pays Principle.

- Surface Water Quality Standards- Coastal Water Quality Standards- Groundwater Quality Standards

Japan• Establishment of a multi-agency Pollution Control

AMBIENT WATER QUALITY STANDARDS

Indonesia• Provision for the National Environmental Board

ENHANCEMENT AND CONSERVATION OF NATURALENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY ACT (NEQA 1992)

China

Management Plan, executing duties of government
agencies to implement the plan and for provinces toprepare action plans.

CONSERVATION OF WATER QUALITY IN PUBLIC WATERS

Cambodia• Establishment of the Environmental Fund, from123

to water usage as shown in Table 2.12.2. The General
Water Quality Index was established as an indicator topromote people’s understanding of water quality, which

was calculated with the values of eight parameters (pH,DO, BOD, TS, FCB, NO3 , TP, SS). These standards are thenational minimum standards.

Table 2.12.2 Surface water quality standard classification
Class

Description/Condition

Beneficial Use

Class 1Natural water resources without
wastewater from any activities

Water is safe for consumption, sanitized, and appropriate
for propagation and ecosystem conservation.

Class 2

Very clean fresh surface water resources

Water resources for conservation, fishery, swimming,
water recreation and consumption (with basic treatment).

Class 3Medium clean fresh surface water resources

Water resources for agriculture and consumption(with general treatment).

Class 4

Fairly clean fresh surface water resources

Water resources for industrial work and consumption(with special treatment).

Class 5

Sources which are not classified into classes 1-4

Water resources for transportation.
(Source: PCD 2015)

Coastal water quality standards

5.4 Effluent Standards

The coastal water quality standards comprise 30
parameters designated in six classes, determinedaccording to usage (six classifications). Different
classifications are applied for the west coast of Phuket
Island.

Based on the NEQA (Section 32), a series of effluent
standards have been set up as follows:

Groundwater quality standards
The parameters included in groundwater quality
standards are divided into four groups: volatile organic
compounds (15 parameters), heavy metals (10parameters), pesticides (nine parameters) and others(four parameters).

Water quality monitoring framework
Under the EQA, the government conducts monitoringof the receiving water quality to maintain quality. The
Water Quality Management Division under the Pollution
Control Department - Ministry of Natural Resources
and Environment (MONRE) is responsible for regularmonitoring of both inland (surface and groundwater)and marine water. There are 368 general and 75
automatic monitoring stations across 48 main rivers andsix standing surface water resources (lakes) within the
country. Water quality samples from general monitoring
stations are taken four times/year during the wet anddry seasons (Chaiyo 2020), and the methods usedshould follow the Standard Method for the Examinationof Water and Wastewater (1998) (Yolthantham 2011).
Monitoring results of ambient water quality, conductedby the Pollution Control Department, are summarized
and made available to the public through online
publications annually (e.g., Thailand State of Pollution
Report).

124

a. Industry
Industrial effluent standards
Standards are applied to factory Group II and III
categories and all industrial estates under the Factory
Act B.E. 2535 (1992). Standard values are designatedfor 15 parameters and 12 heavy metals. This standard
has been used since 3 January 1996. The standard also
provides some exemptions for certain industries such as
related to chemicals, starch, and animal foods. Recently,
a new Decree on Industrial Effluent Control Standard B.E.
2559 (2016) was announced by the Ministry of Natural
Resources and Environment of Thailand, on 6 June 2016,
to take effect from 6 June 2017. Under the new standard,no exemptions are permitted. The standard is comprisedof two parts – a general effluent standard (consisting of
15 parameters and 16 heavy metals), and type-specificeffluent standards.
Regarding effluent quality control, the Regulations ofIndustrial Pollution Control Facilities (1982) stipulates
that specific industrial plants are obligated to havesupervisors and machine operators responsible forpollution prevention. Such industrial plants include thoseusing heavy metals in production processes anddischarging wastewater in quantities above 50 m3/day
containing designated quantities of heavy metals.

b. Domestic and commercial
Building effluent standards
Effluents from each type of building, namely apartments,
hotels, hospitals, schools and academic buildings, public

Chapter 2: Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

factories in 77 provinces but only three inspection
officers per province for Ministry of Industry and 40
officers for Pollution Control Department.

• Insufficient monitoring tools: lack of equipment andlaboratory facilities for monitoring and analysis.

• Data exchanges between government agencies is

There are four parameters in these standards, namely
pH, COD, SS, and fat, oil, and grease.

• Lack of environmental awareness/honesty of• Water Characteristics Discharged into Deep Wells
Around 10 years ago, under the Environmental Army
Project (2005–2007), over 25 universities across Thailand
took part in a large-scale survey to support the inspection• Low Capacity for Environmental Management

Group: Those which do not treat wastewater, suchas SMEs and community factories. The survey
conducted in 2014 showed there are approximately
87,000 small and community factories, contributing
6% of the BOD load of main rivers in Thailand.
Possible reasons: ( i ) factories lack funding andViet Nam

Effluent inspection procedures

challenging to comply with the effluent standard,such as the starch industry, textile, pulp and paperindustry and leather tanning industry. Possible
reasons: (i) one general effluent standard cannot fit
all types of factories; (ii) only concentration-based
standard exists; (iii) lack of knowledgeable persons
for wastewater treatment plant operation.

Thailand

System• High Pollution Industry Group (2): Those finding it

Sri Lanka• Effluent Standards for Brackish Aquaculture• Effluent Standards for Inland Aquaculture• Water Characteristics Discharged into Irrigation

accidents, such as in the petrochemical industry,ethanol industry, sugar industry and cold storage
industry. Possible reasons: (i) lack of qualified/welltrained safety and environmental officers; (ii) lack ofaccident prevention training.

Philippines

There are several effluent standards for aquaculture andothers as follows:• High Risk Industry Group (1): Those with frequent

Nepal

d. Others
Effluent standards for coastal aquaculture
and others

Problematic industries, which often fail to comply
with the effluent standard are classified into three types(Wangcharoenrung 2017):

Myanmar

In consideration of the contribution of pig farms to waterpollution such as in the Tha Chin River and Bang PakongRiver, standards were established in 2001. Parameters
designed by the standards include pH, BOD, COD, SS,
and TKN and different values are applied to Type A (morethan 600 livestock units) and Type B (60–600 livestock
units).

factories; profit is considered paramount.

Malaysiac. Agriculture
Effluent standards for pig farms

not common thus much duplication exists.

Lao PDR

Gas station effluent standards andoil terminal effluent standards

Republic of Korea

This is a new standard, established in 2010, and contains
six parameters, namely pH, BOD, SS, TN, TP and fat, oil,and grease.

• Limited human resources: Approximately 120,000

Japan

Municipal wastewater treatment systemeffluent standards

Indonesia

These standards regulate effluent from housing estates,
which are classified into two types: those with over
100 but less than 500 units, and those over 500 units.
Regulated parameters include pH, BOD, suspended
solids, settleable solids, total dissolved solids, sulfide,
TKN and fat, oil, and grease.

China

Housing estate effluent standardsof about 120,000 factories in the country, which was
aimed at building a wastewater database for better
planning and management of industrial wastewaterin the future. The data collected includes: ( i ) Contact
address; (ii) GPS Coordinates; (iii) Photos of front door
and effluent points; (iv) Boiler’s exhaust opacity with
Ringelmann Scale; (v) Effluent wastewater quality.
According to Wangcharoenrung (2017), under asurvey carried out by the Environmental Army Project 10
years ago targeting factories, the results showed thatcompliance statistic was almost the same after 10 years.
In addition, a number of challenges in monitoring havealso been pointed out, including:Cambodiaand private offices, department stores, fresh markets
and restaurants, are regulated under these standards.
Regulated parameters, depending on building size,
include pH, BOD, suspended solids, sulfide, TKN, and fat,oil, and grease.

125

knowhow for wastewater treatment; (ii) small site
inspections are impossible or too challenging.
In 2016, statistics related to pollution complaints
from various responsible offices showed that there were
10,422 complaints, a drop of 9% from the previous year.
The types of pollution problems included air pollution(foul odours, dust and smoke), noise levels and vibration.
However, most of the complaints received by the PublicService Center, Office of the Permanent Secretary, Prime
Minister Office concerned municipal solid wastes,
sewage wastes, and hazardous wastes (PCD 2016).

Effluent monitoring
The NEQA requires the owner or possessor of point
sources of pollution designated under the act to monitor
the quality of effluent and collect statistics and data, as
well as submit notes and reports (Section 70 and 80). The
types of effluent to be monitored are categorized into
four groups: sewage-swine farms; land development,
industrial estates and industrial zones, and Class A
buildings (hotels, hospitals, condominiums, department
stores, markets and restaurants). The point sourcesof water pollution were also monitored in three river
basins: the Chao Phraya, Tha Chin, and Bang Pakong.
If the capability to treat or dispose of wastewater
fails to meet applicable standards, the owner has a duty
to make modifications or improvements to reachconformity with the pollution control official’s directions.
Fees, fines and civil liability and penal provisions areapplied if violations are found or the owners refuse tocomply. It is a promising trend that all sectors are willingto comply with the standards, and it can be advantageous
for securing business agreements as well as lead to
improved quality of the environmental and by extension
quality of life.
Meanwhile, the Pollution Control Department has
the authority as pollution control office under the
National Environmental Quality Act B.E. 2535 (1992) toinvestigate wastewater effluent from various pollution
sources. According to the PCD (2015) in 2015, 1,392
pollution sources consisting of industrial factories,
industrial estates, certain types and sizes of buildings,
gas service stations, swine farms, municipal wastewater
treatment systems and allocated lands were underinvestigation, of which 404 sources did not meet thestandards. While notification to officers in the Factory
Act was required for industrial factory and industrial
estate sources, administrative orders were issued topollution contributors or possessors other than industrial
factories and industrial estates to make changes,

126

corrections, or improvements to their pollution
treatment systems to meet the required standards within
designated time durations.

5.5 Other Policies on Water Environmental
Management
The Government of Thailand has, over time, invested
over 83 billion THB in constructing centralized
wastewater treatment facilities. As per Section 23 andSection 24 of the Decentralization Act, 1999, Provincial
Administrative Organizations, Municipalities, Tamboon(sub-district) Administrative Organizations and the Cityof Pattaya may receive income from fees collected fromusers for the public services provided in order to operate
and maintain the facilities (Bao et al. 2020).
Similarly, under the National Environmental Quality
Improvement and Conservation Act of 1992, local
governments may collect fees from service areas where
centralized wastewater treatment facilities were built
and operated as public works using government funds.
On 4 December, 2006, the National Environmental Board(NEB) agreed to collect wastewater management fees
based on the “Polluter Pays Principle” and the type ofwastewater treatment system. According to a recent
study, only around 17 local government agencies haveadopted user fees for wastewater collection across thecountry (Bao et al. 2020). For various reasons, most local
government agencies do not impose user fees or service
charges for wastewater collection and treatment, which
has resulted in insufficient funds to operate and maintainexisting treatment plants.
Despite the many economic tools or instruments
available, which have also been successfully applied inother countries, none have been successfully applied in
Thailand. As a basic guiding rule, to effectively address
the issues surrounding water pollution, the principle of‘polluters pay principal’ should therefore be adopted
nationwide. It should be noted that, based on the lessons
learned from other ASEAN countries, economic
instruments can be successfully implemented whencombined with other measures, such as stricter
environmental standards, guidelines on alternativetechnologies, and environmental awareness raisingmeasures.

6 | Recent Developments inWater Environmental Management
The 12th National Economic
and Social Development Plan
On 13 September 2016, the 12th National EconomicChapter 2: Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Nepal
Philippines
Sri Lanka
Thailand
Viet Nam

The water environmental management in Thailand hashistorically been a priority for the country, especiallysince 1992. Legislative frameworks have since beendeveloped and improved to promote implementation,and over the last 25 years, the overall picture of the

Myanmar7 | Challenges and Future Plans

Malaysia

Also taking place in 2016 was the Ministry of Interior’s
drafting of the Maintenance of the Cleanliness andOrderliness of the Country Act (No. 2) B.E. 2560 (2017),
which was approved by the Cabinet on January 12th,
2016. It states that local administrative offices in eacharea are to be responsible for the collection and disposalof sewage waste and municipal solid waste. The Ministerof Interior is to issue a ministerial regulation as follows: (i)set up a specific fee for sewage and municipal solid waste
management, (ii) assign the responsibility and authority

Lao PDR

Maintenance of the Cleanliness and Orderlinessof the Country Act (No. 2) B.E. 2560 (2017)

Republic of Korea

On 28 December 2016, the National Environmental
Board gave its approval for the 20-Year Pollution
Management Strategy prepared by MONRE, with goals inthree phases: (i) Phase 1: in the first five years, improve
the pollution management system; (ii) Phase 2: in years
10–15, produce and consume environmentally-friendly
products on a daily-life basis; and (iii) Phase 3: within 20
years, gear the country towards becoming a low carbon
and zero waste society.

MONRE in cooperation with Ministry of Agriculture andCooperatives drafted the Strategy for Water Resource
Management Act B.E. 2558–2569 (2015–2036) which
was approved by the Cabinet on 7 May, 2015. The
strategy set a policy framework for unified and integrated
prevention of and solutions to water resource problems,
including the scarcity of water, flooding and water quality
issues. The vision of the strategy states that “Every single
village has clean water for household consumption as
well as for stable production. Damages from flooding
are mitigated. Water quality meets the standard. Water
resources are sustainably managed with balanced
development and participation of all sectors”. This
Strategy consists of six sub-strategies, each focusing on adifferent target area: (i) Strategy for Water Managementfor Household Consumption, (ii) Strategy for Creationof the Stable Water Supply in Production Sector (bothagricultural and industrial sectors), (iii) Strategy for
Flooding Management, (iv) Strategy for Water Quality
Management, (v) Strategy for Conservation and
Mitigation of Impaired Watershed Forest and Preventionof Soil Erosion, and (vi), Strategy for Management.

Japan

20-Year Pollution Management Strategy

Strategy for Water Resource Management Act
B.E. 2558–2569 (2015–2036)

Indonesia

Also occurring in September 2016 was the National
Environmental Board’s approval of the Pollution
Management Plan for the 2017–2021 period, preparedby the Ministry of Natural Resources and the Environment(MONRE), which contains four strategies, two of which
cover pollution management. One is a strategy for
managing the quality of the environment in a good state,i.e., such that it is protected, rehabilitated and restored.
The other focuses on increasing the efficiency of usageof natural resources in a worthy and sustainable manner,which can be used to gauge whether all stakeholders
are aware of the value of natural resources, utilize themefficiently, as well as mitigate any potential environmental
impact and thus enabling economic development on thebases of sustainable bio-resources.

China

Pollution Management Plan for 2017–2021 period

to Local Administrative Organizations concerning waste
collection, transport and disposal, (iii) those who wish
to conduct businesses around sewage and waste
collection, transportation and disposal must apply for alicense from the local administrator, (iv) the Department
of Local Administration has the duty to propose, advise
and support the Local Administrative Organizations
to conduct plans for the Waste Management Project
to be in-line with the provincial development plan,
prepare a budget for local administrative organizations
requiring budgetary support drawn from the National
Budget, state the penalties under criminal law for those
conducting unauthorized business operations around
waste collection, transportation and disposal, as well as
for those who infringe local laws. This Act was announced
in the Royal Thai Government Gazette No. 134 Section
5A on 15 January B.E. 2560 (2017), and went into effecton 16 January B.E. 2560 (2017) (PCD 2016).

Cambodiaand Social Development Plan was approved by the
Cabinet, which contains 10 strategies, two of which
focus on pollution management: (1) a strategy onan “environmentally-friendly growth for sustainable
development”, and (2), strategy on “the developmentof the various regions, the cities, and economic areas,
with the goal of conserving and restoring natural
resources and the environment in order to sustain anenvironmentally-friendly growth and the people’s goodquality of life”.

127country’s state of pollution shows some improvements,
due to the cooperation of various stakeholders, including
governmental and non-government actors. However,many issues still need to be addressed, such as the steadydegradation of water quality in many cities and areas due
to rapid development of communities, especially thoseliving next to waterways, and impacts from agriculturaland industrial activities. Many cities also still lackappropriate sewage collection and treatment systems.
Based on the current challenges and above
discussion, it is recommended that the following
measures be considered to further improve water quality
and more effectively control water pollution in Thailand
in the coming years:• Use of less capital-intensive solutions, to avoid• Effective implementation and enforcement of• Development of appropriate guidelines andrelevant laws and strategies on water pollution
prevention and protection of water resources,
including National Water Quality Management Plan
under the 20-year Pollution Management Strategies,
Strategy for Water Resource Management (2015–2036); 20-year Marine and Coastal Resources
Management Master Plan (2017–2036), theNational Water Quality Master Plan (2018–2037),
and the 20-year Groundwater Resources
Management Strategy (2017–2036).

• Effective application of economic measures in thepollution permitting system to reduce discharges towater sources and maintain acceptable water quality
level.

• Establishing specific effluent standards, taking into

account the sensitivity of the surrounding area andthe assimilative capacity of the receiving water body.

• Regular monitoring of ambient water quality,

investigation of water quality changes, and inventoryof pollution sources, which play an important role instrategies for effective water quality protection andmanagement.

128

constructing costly centralized wastewater
treatment plants and raise the ratio of wastewater
treatment. Decentralized wastewater treatment
systems can be integrated as an effective means to
supplement centralized systems, due to theircompetitive advantages of cost, area availability andjust-in-time nature, thereby improving wastewater
management, especially in urban and peri-urban
settings. There should be zoning of areas fordifferent sanitation system schemes, i.e., on-site/
decentralized/centralized or combinations thereof,
considering various local factors such as population
density and land availability.
procedures for the collection of water protection
fees, to ensure that the full cost of operating andmaintaining the wastewater treatment system isrecovered.

• Promotion of environmental awareness, bycollecting wastewater treatment fees in the service
areas of water quality management facilities so thatthe citizens benefitting from these facilities canparticipate in a holistic and sustainable solution to
the problem, based on the polluter pays principle(PPP).

• Replication of knowledge dissemination andawareness programs on environmental measuresacross the country for all polluting sectors, especially
agriculture and aquaculture. Environmentally friendly
agricultural practices for farmers should be further
strengthened to reduce the impact of environmental
problems such as odours and wastewater.

• Creation (by government) of an enabling

environment for private investment in the water andwastewater sector, ensuring good returns, whilefurther encouraging private sector involvement incorporate social responsibility.

Chapter 2: Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Cambodia

China

Indonesia

Japan

Republic of Korea

Lao PDR

Malaysia

Myanmar

Nepal

Philippines

Sri Lanka

Thailand

Viet Nam

129

2.13 Viet Nam
1 | Country Information

2 | State of Water Resources

Table 2.13.1 Basic indicators
Land Area (km2)

310,070 (2016)

Total Population

96.46 million (2019)*

GDP (current USD)

261.9 billion (2019)*

GDP per capita (current USD)

2,715 (2019)*

Average Precipitation (mm/year)

1,950 (2017)**

Total Renewable Water Resources (km3)

884 (2017)

Total Annual Freshwater Withdrawals(billion m3)

82 (2014)

Annual Freshwater
Withdrawals
by Sector

Agriculture

80.6% (2018)

Industry

15.0% (2018)

Services

1.7% (2018)

Municipal(including domestic)

2.7% (2014)

Viet Nam has a large river and canal network, including
over 3,450 rivers and streams with lengths exceeding
10 km. There are 13 large rivers and 310 inter-provincial
rivers belonging to eight large river basins, with an areaof about 270,000 km2 (accounting for 80% of the total
area of the river basin). Of these, many rivers crossborders with other countries, such as the Mekong river
systems (Mekong River), Red River, Bang Giang - Ky
Cung River, Ma River, Ca River, and Dong Nai River. As aresult, the country has an abundance of surface water
resources. The total volume of the country’s river basins
is about 830–840 km3/year, but only about 310 km3(37%) is within the country, while the remaining 63% isgenerated from neighboring countries (MONRE 2018).

(Source: *World Bank 2020, **2030 WRG 2017)
Bang Giang-Ky Cungriver basin, 3%
Other river basin, 20%

Red-Thai Binhriver basin, 27%

Mekongriver basin, 22%

Ma river basin, 5%
Ca river basin, 5%

Dong Nai river basin, 11%
Vu Gia-Thu Bon river basin, 3%
Ba river basin, 4%

Figure 2.13.2 River basin area as percentage of total area

(Source: MONRE 2018)

Figure 2.13.1 Han River in Da Nang, Viet Nam

130

Although Viet Nam enjoys abundant surface water
resources in general, they are unevenly distributed
across the country due partly to uneven rainfall
distribution. The total volume of water being exploited isabout 80.6 billion m3 (approx. 10% of total national water
volume), of which over 80% is used for agricultural
purposes (about 65 billion m3 /year). Water is also used
for energy production, daily life, aquaculture andindustrial production, tourism and services. There is atrend of rising water use in industry, fisheries and living.
Water use for agricultural production is highest in the
Mekong Delta and Red River Delta, accounting for 70% ofwater use. The catchment area with the highest industrial

Chapter 2: Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA CountriesCa

29,930

23.5

Gianh

4,680

8.14

Thach Han

2,550

4.68

Huong

3,300

5.64

Vu Gia-Thu Bon

10,35020.1

Tra Khuc-Ve-Tra Bong

5,200

6.19

Kon-Ha Thanh- La Tinh

3,640

2.58

Sesan

11,45012.9

3.1 Surface Water

Srepok

18,20013.5

Ba13,900

9.5

Dong Nai-Sai Gon

40,29437

Mekong (or Cuu Long)

761,417475

Group of river basins
in southeast region

15,7609.16

In general, the surface water quality in some majorriver basins has seen a slight improvement due to more
efficient control over rising pollution loads. The RedThai Binh, Ma, Vu Gia-Thu Bon and Mekong river basins
have relatively good water quality, and many segmentsof these rivers are used as raw sources for domestic
water treatment plants. However, some river basinsare still severely polluted and of relatively low quality,
such as Nhue-Day river basin. Most river basins in Viet
Nam’s territory have high TSS values and turbidity, often
exceeding QCVN 08- MT: 2015/BTNMT (A2), as well as
the B1 level (see Table 2.13.3) during the flood season.
Major pollutants in the contaminated areas areincluded in organic pollution and micro-organism. Local
pollution of oil, grease and heavy metals also occurs,
especially in areas affected by waterborne traffic,
industrial production, and mineral exploitation.
Water Quality Index values calculated based on the
2014–2018 water quality monitoring results of sevenriver basins showed that the ratio of river basins, whichhave been classified as “Average” quality, account thehighest percentage in all river basins. The river basins
with good and very good water quality (higher than thenational average) are the Red river -Thai Binh river basin,
Mekong river basin, and Cau river basin. The Nhue-Day
river basin still has the poorest water quality with a ratio(Source: MONRE 2014)

It is predicted that Viet Nam will become one of thecountries most vulnerable to climate change and is likely
to face significant impacts, especially in its water
resources, surface water resources in particular. Impacts
from climate change will vary according to region, and inrecent years the northern delta and central coastal
regions have already been affected by longer dry periods
and torrential rains, resulting in droughts and flooding,as well as rising sea levels, storms, flooding and coastal
erosion. The southern region is relatively flat andgeologically weak, and is prone to flooding and saltwater
intrusion as a result of sea level rise, with about 45% of
the region projected to be at risk by 2030 (MONRE 2018).
In addition to surface water, groundwater is also an
important water supply source for domestic, industrial
and agricultural activities. According to MONRE (2015),
groundwater in Viet Nam is relatively plentiful due to theabundant rainfall which is distributed widely across theViet Nam

18

Thailand

28,400

Sri Lanka

Ma

Water pollution of river basins across the country resultsfrom different sources, but is mainly due to the dischargeof untreated or partly treated domestic, industrial andagricultural wastewater, as well as wastewater fromcraft villages and hospitals. According to MONRE (2018),
domestic wastewater accounts for more than 30% of
the total wastewater discharged directly to rivers, lakes,
or canals leading to rivers, and is often characterized byhigh levels of organic compounds, nutrients, suspended
solids, and large amounts of coliforms.

Philippines

9.4

Nepal

13,260

MyanmarBang Giang-Ky Cung

Malaysia

135

Lao PDR

169,020

Republic of Korea

Red and Thai Binh

3 | State of Ambient Water Quality

Japan

Total annual flow
(km 3)

Indonesia

Catchment area
(km 2 )

Major river basins

China

Table 2.13.2 River basins in Viet Nam

country. Reserves are estimated at about 172.6 million
m3/day. The total volume of groundwater exploitation isabout 10.53 million m3/day, of which the Northern andSouthern delta are the two most exploited areas withtotal capacities of about 5.87 million m3/day, accountingfor 55.7% of the country’s exploitation. Recently, due tooverexploitation of groundwater in areas such as Hanoi
and the Mekong delta, problems of falling water tables,
associated land subsidence and salinity intrusion havebeen reported.

Cambodiawater use rate is Hong - Thai Binh, accounting for nearly
half of the total water use for Vietnam’s industry (MONRE
2015). The structure of water use is expected to change
by 2030, with 75% going to agriculture, 16% to industry,and 9% to domestic uses (MONRE 2018). In addition,
Rapid urbanisation and the prolonged dry season due tothe impacts of climate change is causing serious water
shortages in many areas of the country, especially in theareas around Mekong river basin in Vietnam.

131

of 18.8%. In the Ma river basin, Red River-Thai Binh river
basin, and Dong Nai River basin, the ratio of average topoor water quality is very high, mainly due to the highamount of suspended solids (especially during the rainyseason) (MONRE 2018).
Very good

Mekong River (Viet Nam)

1.7

18.9

Dong Nai river basin

5.0

14.7

Vu Gia-Thu Bon river basin

4.7
1.1 5.3

Red River-Thai Binh river basin

5.9

Nhue-Day river basin

6.3

Cau river basin

Very poor
16.6
17.6

48.0
42.2

19.1

1.1

42.8

32.2

53.8

20.7

17.4

18.8

42.6

16.9

WQI Value
91–100
76–90
51–75
26–50
0–25

0.4

27.3

50.3

6.2

Poor

62.2

12.8

Na�onwide

Average

62.9

20.0

Ma river basin

Good

50.3

23.8

3.4

23.4

3.2

Suitability for the following purposes
Used for domes�c water supply purposes
Used for domes�c water supply purposes, but requires appropriate treatment measures
Used for irriga�on and other similar purposes
Used for naviga�on and other similar purposes
Heavily polluted water source, this is a need for appropriate treatment measures in the future

Figure 2.13.3 Changes of WQI values of rivers belonging to Red River-Thai Binh river basin during 2014–2018
NOTE: Water Quality Index (WQI) is calculated according to “Decision No. 879/QD-TCMT dated 1 July 2011” (Source: MONRE 2018)

WQI

2013

100

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

75
50
25

Bắc Kạn

Bắc Ninh

Cau RiverThái Nguyên

Hà Bắc NinhNộiCong RiverNgũ Huyện
Khê

Thái Nguyên

HN BN HD

Other rivers

Figure 2.13.4 Changes of WQI values of rivers belonging Cau river basin during 2014–2018 (Source: MONRE 2018)
mg/L
7

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

QCVN 08-MT: 2015/BTNMT (B1)

6
5
4
3
2
1
0

Cầu Lộc Hà
Hà NộiCầu Sông Thát

Văn Môn
Bắc NinhCầu Đào Xá

Figure 2.13.5 Changes of ammonium content in Ngu Huyen Khe river water during 2014–2018 (Source: MONRE 2018)132

Phả Lại

Cầu Cà Lồ

Cầu Gia Tân

Tân LongCầu LoàngChùa Hang

Kim Sơn

Giang Tiên. Phú Lương

Yên NinhVăn MônCầu Đào Xá

Cầu Lộc Hà

Cầu Sông ThátCầu Đa Phúc

Mỏ Chè

Cầu Bến ĐầmHồ Núi Cốc

Nam Hồ Núi Cốc

Phú Cường

Cầu Huy NgạcThống HạHiền Lương

Cầu Thị CầuVạn PhúcBắc Giang HàNộiHòa LongYên Dũng

Phúc Lộc, phường

Cầu Vát

Thái Nguyên

Hương Lâm

Tân PhúCầu Mây

Cầu Gia BảyCầu Trà VườnSơn Cẩm

Hoàng Văn ThụHòa Bình

Văn Lăng

Nà BảnChợ Mới

Cầu PhàThác Giềng

Dương Phong0Chapter 2: Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

2013

100

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

75

China

50

Cambodia

WQI25

Hà Nội

Hà NamNinhBình

Day River

Hà NamOther rivers

Nam
Định

Cầu Sét

Tựu Liệt

S. Tô LịchĐịnh CôngCầu Mới

Phương LiệtNghĩa ĐôĐền Độc Bộ

Cầu Sắt

Đò QuanĐầm Tái

Cầu Phủ LýBến Dế

Nho QuanCửa ĐáyĐò Mười

Thượng kiệmYên Trị

Độc Bộ

Ninh Bình

S. S.
Lừ SétInternal riversHa Noi

Figure 2.13.6 Changes of WQI values of rivers belonging to Nhue - Day river basin during 2014–2018 (Source: MONRE 2018)

Class

Objective of use
Good for domestic water supply and other purposes in A2

A2

Good for domestic water supply, but suitable treatment technology must be applied;conservation of aquatic life or other purposes in B1 and B2

B1

Good for irrigation and other purposes with demand for similar quality water and other purposes in B2

B2

Good for water transportation and other purposes with demand for low-quality water

3.2 Coastal Water
71.6

Meets standard

60
45.9

20

13.1
COD

16.3

BOD5 N-NH4 N-NO2

TSS

Fe

Figure 2.13.7 Ratio of values exceeding QCVN 08-MT:
2015/BTNMT (A2) of some selected parameters on
Ca river basin during 2014–2018 (Source: MONRE 2018)

Viet Nam

0

32.0
20.9

Thailand40

Does not meetstandard

In general, coastal water quality in Vietnam isrelatively good and most monitoring parameters arewithin the limits set by National Technical Regulation
on Coastal Water Quality QCVN 10-MT: 2015/BTNMT).
In most monitored areas QCVN 10-MT: 2015/BTNMT(aquaculture and bathing) limits were even betteredin terms of COD, NH 4+ during 2011–2015, especiallyin northern and southern coastal areas. However,cases of organic pollution are rising due to increased
discharge of untreated wastewater and solid waste
directly into the sea in coastal provinces, and levels oforganic pollution in the northern coastal areas is higher
than in the central and southern regions, but showed

Sri Lanka

80

Philippines

%
100

Nepal

A1

Myanmar

Table 2.13.3 Classes of surface water quality standards

Malaysia

Meanwhile, water quality of the part of Nhue Riverflowing through Hanoi city has always showed low (lowWQI value), mainly due to the significant impact of waterpollution in the downstream area, especially during thedry season. Further, most of the rivers flowing throughHanoi have always been heavily polluted (with WQI lessthan 25), with no improvement from year to year. Other
smaller rivers such as Lu river, Set river, and Kim Nguu
river are also in the same condition, according to MONRE(2018).

Lao PDR

Nhue-Day river basin is part of the Red-Thai Binhriver basin, which expands over six provinces and cities in
the Red River Delta region. During 2014–2018, riversegments flowing through urban and productionintensive areas continued to be polluted by organic
matter, nutrients, and microorganisms, and river water
quality in 2016 dropped compared to previous years.
Conversely, 2017 to 2018 saw water quality rise in someareas.

Republic of Korea

Nhue River

Khánh PhúGián Khẩu

Cầu Non NướcTrung Hiếu Hạ

Thanh Tân

Xi măng Việt TrungCầu Đỗ Xá

Cầu phao Kiện KhêCầu Quế

TB Thanh NộnĐền Đức Thánh Cả

Ba Thá

Tế Tiêu

Cầu Mai LĩnhĐò Kiều

Cầu Hồng Phú

Công Thần

Công Nhật TựuĐông QuanCự ĐàCầu Tó

Phúc La

Công Liên Mạc

Cầu Chiếc

Hà NamJapan

Hà NộiIndonesia

0133

a falling tendency during 2011–2015. Tho Quang boat
(Da Nang) has become one of the hotspots of marine
pollution in recent years.

3.3 Groundwater
According to MONRE (2015), although groundwater
quality may vary geographically, it is generally consideredrelatively good. Normally, groundwater has a pH value
arranging from 6.0–8.0, is termed as soft water (hardness<1.5 mg/l), and concentrations of organic compounds,
microorganisms and heavy metals are often within
permissible levels, i.e., National Technical Regulation on
Groundwater Quality QCVN 09-MT:2015/BTNMT.
mg/l

2011

2012

2013

However, cases of groundwater pollution are
occurring in certain areas, especially the Northern
Delta (e.g., Red River Delta). Major pollutants exceeding
permissible levels include Total Dissolved Solids (TDS),
ammonium, heavy metals (Mn, As, Cd, Pb) and salt
intrusion. Saltwater intrusion has been reported in someareas, especially in the three most vulnerable – coastal
central provinces, lower basin of Dong Nai river, andcoastal provinces of the Mekong delta. Ammonium
content in groundwater has also frequently exceeded
the limits of quality standards in some points of regions
across the country, the highest being in the Northern
Delta (VEA 2015).
2014

QCVN 09:2008/BTNMT

2015

1

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0

TP. HạLong

TP. Cẩm
PháQuảng NinhXã Đông Xã Yên Xã TrựcHòa, Tp. Lương, Phú,Thái Bình H. Ý Yên H. TrựcNinh
Thái Bình

P. Ninh Xã Ninh Xã Ninh Xã Gia
Phong,
Phúc,
Giang,Xuân,
Tp. Ninh Tp. Ninh Hoa Lư Gia Viễn
Bình
Bình

Nam Định

Ninh Bình

H. Lệ
Thủy

TP. Đồng Xã Vĩnh Xã SuốiHớiLộc, TX. Nho, H.
Long
Định
Khánh Quán.

Quảng BìnhĐồng Nai

Figure 2.13.8 Ratio of ammonium content in underground water in some localities in the period 2011–2015 (Source: VEA 2015)

4 | State of Wastewater Treatment
Domestic wastewater
Domestic wastewater includes wastewater sources fromhousehold activities, businesses and service industries(restaurants, hotels, resorts, etc.). The percentage ofdomestic wastewater of total wastewater discharged
directly into rivers, lakes and canals is very high,exceeding 30%. Based on the data, the southeast region
and Red River Delta (especially in big cities like Hanoi
and Ho Chi Minh) areas exhibit the highest amountsof domestic wastewater discharge into receiving water
bodies. The estimated ratio of domestic wastewatercollected and properly treated in Class IV urban areas (orhigher) is about 12.5%, an increase of 5% compared to
2011–2015, with 45 centralized wastewater treatment
plants across the country with approx. 926,000 m3/day

134

total capacity. In big cities such as Hanoi, only about
20.62% of the city’s total generated domestic wastewater
is treated, which drops to 10% or higher in Ho Chi Minhcity. Currently, construction is planned for about 80
additional centralized wastewater treatment systems
under ongoing projects, with a total design capacity of
about 2.4 million m3/day (MONRE 2018).

Industrial wastewater
In addition to domestic wastewater, other sources ofwastewater discharges such as from industry, services,craft villages also affect the urban water environment.
In the inner parts of some cities like Hanoi, there arestill some small-scale production units and craft villages(e.g., food processing, slaughtering cattle), mainlycomprised of households, which have not invested inwaste and wastewater treatment systems. The southeast

Chapter 2: Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Japan
Republic of Korea
Lao PDR
Malaysia
Myanmar

Article 53 of the new Constitution 2013 states that
“The land, water resources, mineral resources, wealthlying underground or coming from the sea and theair, other natural resources, and property invested andmanaged by the State are public properties, coming
under ownership by the entire people represented anduniformly managed by the State.” The Constitution is thebasis of environmental and water resources protection in
the country.
The Law on Water Resources 2012 (Decree No.
17/2012/QH13) also highlights issues relating to theprotection of water resources, including responsibilities
for the prevention of water deterioration and depletion,and control of water quality. In addition, the Law on
Environmental Protection 2014 (No. 55/2014/QH13)
provides statutory provisions on environmental
protection activities; measures and resources used forthe purpose of environmental protection, including riverwater environmental protection; and rights, powers,
duties and obligations of regulatory bodies, agencies,
organizations, households and individuals who are tasked
with environmental protection.
Several other relevant laws, such as the Mineral Law,
Land Law and Biodiversity Law, and decrees, decisions,circulars and strategies on water resources management
have also been promulgated to complete the national
legislation related to water environmental managementin Viet Nam.

Indonesia
Nepal
Philippines
Sri Lanka
ThailandCurrently, agricultural wastewater is also a matter ofgreat concern as it represents one of the main factors
influencing water resources in areas with thriving
agricultural economies, such as Mekong Delta and Red
River Delta. Wastewater from agricultural activities often
contains pesticides and fertilizers, which are toxic tothe environment and human health. It is estimated thateach year about 70,000 kg (solid form) and over 40,000
liters of pesticides (liquid form), as well as about 70,000
kg of untreated chemical bags enter the environment,
increasing the level of pollution of surface water andgroundwater (World Bank 2017). In addition, wastewaterfrom livestock production also significantly contributes
to environmental burdens due to its volume – the total
for 2018 was estimated at approx. 6.66 million m3/day(MONRE 2018) – as well as contents, comprising large
amounts of suspended solids, organic substances,
nutrients and microorganisms.

5.1 Legislation
China

Wastewater pollution from agricultural activities

5 | Frameworks for Water
Environmental Management

Cambodiaregion, where a large number of industrial zones areconcentrated, is considered to produce the largest
volume of industrial wastewater generation, followedby the Red River Delta, which also has a large number ofindustrial zones and industrial production establishments
in operation.
In Vietnam, industrial wastewater has been carefully
controlled and treated, especially industrial wastewater
generated from industrial zones; however, percentagesof properly treated wastewater meeting national effluent
standards varies. As of early 2020, 274 industrial zones
operated nationwide, of which 244 had centralized
wastewater treatment systems, accounting for 89%.
Provinces with large numbers of industrial zones/parks
are those such as Ho Chi Minh City, Hanoi, Binh Duong,
Ba Ria - Vung Tau, Dong Nai, Long An, Quang Ninh, Bac
Ninh. There are 191/244 industrial parks with automaticwater quality monitoring stations, accounting for 78.3%.
According to Decree 38/2015/ND-CP on Waste and Scrap
Management, all factories, production, business andservice establishments located outside industrial zones/
parks and which discharge large amounts of wastewater(1,000 m3/day or higher) must install automatic continuous
wastewater monitoring systems, and transmit all realtime data directly to the Department of Natural
Resources and Environment as regulated.

Viet Nam

135

5.2 Institutional Arrangement

reports on strategic environmental assessments,
assisting the government in designing, implementing andproviding guidelines for responses to climate change,
providing instructions on environmental remediationand improvement, implementation of national
environmental monitoring, promulgation of technicalregulations, standards on water quality and obligation forwater quality monitoring of public water bodies, andmanagement of river basins nationwide (Figure 2.13.9).
Other ministries that may influence or affect water
resources management include the Ministry ofAgriculture and Rural Development, Ministry of Industry
and Trade, Ministry of Health, Ministry of Science andTechnology,Ministry of Construction, Ministry ofTransport, and Ministry of Finance, Ministry of Planning

State responsibilities for water resources managementof the government, ministries and ministerial-levelagencies, city and the provincial people’s committee,
district and commune people’s committee are clearlystated in the Law on Water Resources 2012 and Law
on Environmental Protection 2014, which has recently
been replaced by a revised Law on Environmental
Protection 2020 (No. 72/2020/QH14), which set out how
the government is to perform uniform or overall state
management of water resources.
The Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment(MONRE) is the main ministry responsible for overall
state management of water resources, including theplanning for environmental protection, verification of

GOVERNMENT OF VIETNAM(Law No.55/2014/QH13)*(*It has recently been replaced by a new law on
Environmental Protec�on 2020 (No.72/2020/QH14))

Overallmanagement ofwater resources

1992
CONSTITUTION(Amended in 2013)MONRE

LAW ONENVIRONMENTAL
PROTECTION(Law No. 72/2020/QH14)

Co-coordina�ng(Decree No. 36/2017/
ND-CP;
Law No. 17/2012/QH13;
Law No. 72/2020/QH14)(Supported by
DoNREs under PC)- State management of water resources,
and river basins na�onwide.
- Promulgate and implement legal documents onwater resources.
- Promulgate technical regula�ons, standards on
ambient water quality and unit prices onwater resource planning, basic survey, explora�on,
exploita�on, use and protec�on.
- Water quality monitoring for public water bodies
na�onwide, etc.
- Standing Oﬃce of Vietnam Na�onal MekongCommi�ee

Co-coordina�ng
City, Provincial-Level People’s Commi�ee

LAW ONWATER RESOURCE
2012(Law No. 17/2012/QH13)

Decree No. 201/2013/
ND-CP detailing theimplementa�on ofsome ar�cles in the
Water Resources Law

Related Ministries (Decree No.81/2007/ND-CP;
Decree No. 178/2007/ND-CP)(Ar�cle 71, Law on Water Resource 2012)

District, Commune-Level People’s Commi�ee(Ar�cle 71, Law on Water Resource 2012)

Other Relevant Ministries, including MARD
(Decree No. 01/2008/ND-CP), MOIT (Decree No. 189/2007/ND-CP),
MOH (Decree No. 188/2007/ND-CP), MOC (Decree No. 17/2008/ND-CP),
MOT (Decree No. 51/2008/ND-CP),
MOF (Decree No. 118/2008/ND-CP), MPI (Decree No. 116/2008/ND-CP),
MOHA (Decree No. 61/2012/ND-CP), MOST (Decree 20/2013/ND-CP)

Note: MONRE: Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment; MARD: Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development; MOC: Ministry ofConstruction; MOHA: Ministry of Home Affairs; MOH: Ministry of Health; MOST: Ministry of Science and Technology; MPI: Ministry of Planning andInvestment; MOF: Ministry of Finance; MOIT: Ministry of Industry and Trade; MOT: Ministry of Transport; PC: City or Provincial People’s Committee.

Figure 2.13.9 State responsibilities for water resources management in Viet Nam(Source: Prepared by IGES based on information from the relevant decrees)136

Chapter 2: Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries(DoNRE) under the city or provincial people’s committee
takes a leading role in the promotion of environmental
conservation activities through implementing
environmental regulations and providing guidance.

Relevant Ministries

China

Table 2.13.4 Responsibilities of other relevant ministries for water resources management

Cambodiaand Investment, and Ministry of Home Affairs (Table
2.13.4). In implementation, local governments play animportant role in environmental management. The
Department of Natural Resources and Environment

Responsibilities

Manages urban public works; design and construction of urban water supply, drainage
and urban wastewater works.

Ministry of Health (MOH)

Manages drinking water quality; responsible for preparing and supervisingwater quality standards and regulations (drinking and domestic).

Ministry of Science and Technology (MOST)

Appraises the draft and publicizes the water quality standards prepared by MONRE.

Ministry of Finance (MOF)

Prepares policies on taxes and fees for water resources; allocates state budget.

Ministry of Planning and Investment (MPI)

Checks and provides instructions to other ministries and sectors on the preparationand implementation of the strategies on socio-economic development; allocates, plans
and invests; coordinates international relations.

Ministry of Tansport (MOT)Manages and develops transportation on water; manages aquatic engineering andport systems.

Ministry of Industry and Trade (MOIT)

Develops hydropower via the Viet Nam Electricity Corporation (EVN).

Ambient water quality standards

Philippines
Sri Lanka
Thailand
Viet NamAt the national level, according to MONRE, the periodic
surface water monitoring program continues to operate.
It involves around 360 monitoring points for monitoring

Nepal

Water quality monitoring framework

Myanmar

Ambient water quality standards are established forsurface water, coastal water and groundwater. The Center
for Environmental Monitoring (CEM) under the Viet Nam
Environment Administration (VEA), was establishedunder Decision No. 188/QD-IDU on 23/3/2010 of the
VEA, and assists the VEA in organising, implementing
tasks of national environmental monitoring, constructionand environmental data management, applications for
information technology in environmental monitoring,and building reporting on environmental quality in thefunctional framework of the VEA. The CEM is a leading
center in the national environmental monitoring
network. Since 2005, a number of regular monitoring
programs have been carried out by the Center for
Environmental Monitoring. In order to improve efficacy
in managing monitoring data, from 2003, CEM started
developing software dedicated to this task, and in 2009–2011, under the framework of an investment project tobuild an information network system, the software wasdeveloped into a new system and modified to handle
additional requirements.

a number of the river basins, including Cau, Nhue –Day, Red River-Thai Binh, Ma, Ca, Vu Gia - Thu Bon, andDong Nai river basin about 4–5 times a year. Other
ministries also maintain their own annual environmental
quality monitoring programs, with approximately 100
monitoring points of surface water in urban areas,
areas affected by industrial production activities, with amonitoring frequency of 3–6 times/year.
At the local level, most provinces and cities haveapproved environmental monitoring network planningor the environmental monitoring plan in their areas, withnumbers of monitoring points and annual monitoring
frequency varying greatly (5–30 points; 2–6 times/year)
among localities according to local conditions andrequirements, as well as state of funding approval.
In addition to periodic monitoring activities,
investment and expansion of automatic continuous
monitoring systems have also taken place at both central
and local levels. According to statistics, there are
currently 23 continuous automatic surface water
environmental monitoring stations at the central leveland over 80 at the local level.
Monitoring data is used to review and revise policies
and countermeasures for improving water quality andconservation measures. MONRE issues the National
State of the Environment Report annually, in which major
data is made public.

Malaysia

5.3 Ambient Water Quality Standards

Lao PDR(Source: Prepared by IGES based on information from the relevant decrees defining functions and responsibilities of each relevant ministry)

Republic of Korea

Ministry of Construction (MOC)

Japan

Manages rural water supply and sanitation; manages water for irrigation and aquatic
production; flood, storm and disaster prevention; fishery, cultivation land management;
management of hydraulic engineering and dikes.

Indonesia

Ministry of Agriculture andRural Development (MARD)

137

5.4 Effluent Standards
Effluent standards

There are various effluent standards in Viet Nam
as shown in Figure 2.13.10, including for domestic,
industrial and medical wastewater. In general, industries
are required to carry out environmental impact
assessments (EIA) and have to commit to self-monitoring
four times a year, in accordance with a circular issued
by the national government. Twice a year MONRE, VEA
or/and DoNRE conduct inspections of compliance withindustrial effluent standards, which are carried out basedon prior announcement and not more than twice a year.
If a violation is suspected, “environmental police” from
the Ministry of Public Security are authorized to conduct
compulsory investigations without prior notice, andtherefore have more opportunities to identify possible
non-compliance. As mentioned earlier, currently 191
out of 244 industrial parks are equipped with automaticwater quality monitoring stations, accounting for 78.3%.
Meanwhile, no automatic monitoring systems areavailable in small-scale industrial clusters or craft villages.

Effluent inspection procedures
Wastewater discharge activities from production,business, service establishments and industrial parks
must be periodically monitored, according to theapproved environmental impact assessment report,
for which environmental protection plans have been
determined. Meanwhile, industrial zones and parks must
install automatic continuous wastewater monitoring
systems and transmit data directly to the local
Department of Natural Resources and Environment.
According to Decision No. 1620/QD-BTNMT of 21st
July 2016, on approval of inspection plans for projects,
factories or business establishments with wastewater
discharges, those organizations engaged in production

CONSERVATION OF WATER QUALITYLAW ON ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION 2014
LAW ON WATER RESOURCES 2012
AMBIENT WATER QUALITY STANDARDS- QCVN 08-MT:2015/BTNMT – Na�onal Technical Regula�on on Surface Water Quality- QCVN 09-MT:2015/BTNMT – Na�onal Technical Regula�on on Groundwater Quality- QCVN 10-MT:2015/BTNMT – Na�onal Technical Regula�on on Coastal Water Quality- QCVN 38:2011/BTNMT – Na�onal Technical Regula�on on Surface Water Quality for Protec�on of Aqua�c Lives- QCVN 39:2011/BTNMT – Na�onal Technical Regula�on on Water Quality for Irrigated Agriculture- QCVN 44:2012/BTNMT – Na�onal Technical Regula�on on Oﬀ-Shore Water Quality

EFFLUENT STANDARDS- QCVN 01-MT:2015/BTNMT – Na�onal Technical Regula�on on the Eﬄuent of Natural Rubber Processing Industry- QCVN 11-MT:2015/BTNMT – Na�onal Technical Regula�on on the Eﬄuent of Aqua�c Products Processing Industry- QCVN 12-MT:2015/BTNMT – Na�onal Technical Regula�on on the Eﬄuent of Pulp and Paper Mills- QCVN 13-MT:2015/BTNMT – Na�onal Technical Regula�on on the Eﬄuent of Tex�le Industry- QCVN 14:2008/BTNMT – Na�onal Technical Regula�on on Domes�c Wastewater- QCVN 25:2009/BTNMT – Na�onal Technical Regula�on on Wastewater of Solid Waste Landﬁll Sites- QCVN 28:2010/BTNMT – Na�onal Technical Regula�on on Health Care Wastewater- QCVN 29:2010/BTNMT – Na�onal Technical Regula�on on the Eﬄuent of Petroleum Terminal and Sta�ons- QCVN 35:2010/BTNMT – Na�onal Technical Regula�on on Discharged Produced Water for Oﬀshore Oil and Gas Facili�es- QCVN 38:2011/BTNMT – Na�onal Technical Regula�on on Surface Water Quality for Protec�on of Aqua�c Lives- QCVN 39:2011/BTNMT – Na�onal Technical Regula�on on Water Quality for Irrigated Agriculture- QCVN 40:2011/BTNMT – Na�onal Technical Regula�on on Industrial Wastewater- QCVN 52:2013/BTNMT – Na�onal Technical Regula�on on Wastewater of Steel Industry- QCVN 60-MT:2015/BTNMT – Na�onal Technical Regula�on on the Eﬄuent of Bioethanol Processing- QCVN 62-MT:2016/BTNMT – Na�onal Technical Regula�on on the Eﬄuent of Livestock- QCVN 63:2007/BTNMT – Na�onal Technical Regula�on on Eﬄuent Discharged from the Cassava Starch Processing Factories
OTHER RELEVANT LAWS, DECISIONS, DECREES, CIRCULARS, ETC.

Figure 2.13.10 Relevant laws, standards for conservation of water quality in Viet Nam(Source: Prepared by IGES based on information from the relevant Laws, Standards, Decisions, Decrees, Circulars, etc.)138Chapter 2: Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Myanmar
Nepal
Philippines
Sri Lanka
Thailand
Viet Nam

The revised Law on Environmental Protection 2020,
which has recently been approved by the National
Assembly on 17th November 2020, consisting of 16
chapters with 171 articles regulating environmental
protection activities and stipulating the rights, duties
and responsibilities of agencies, organizations,resident communities, households and individuals inenvironmental protection activities. This Law will comeinto effect from January 1, 2022.
In addition, one of the most recent development inwater environment management is Decision No. 622/
QD-TTg on10th May 2017 by the Prime Minister, related
to the issuance of the National Action Plan for

Malaysia

6 | Recent Developments inWater Environmental Management

Lao PDR

Administrative violations related to water environment
are specified in two documents: Decree No. 155/2016/
ND-CP, related to environmental protection, and Decree
No. 33/2017/ND-CP, related to water resources andminerals.

Republic of Korea

The current tax policy is based on the viewpoint oflimiting activities that adversely affect the environment
in general and the water environment in particular, as
well as activities having a direct or indirect impact onenvironmental protection. The 2009 Law on Natural
Resources Tax stipulates that “natural water, including
surface water and underground water, except natural
water used for agriculture, forestry, fisheries, and salt
production” is subject to natural resources tax. The law
also stipulates that “natural water used for agriculture,
forestry, fishery and salt production” is not subject toSanctioning of administrative violations in
the field of environmental protection andwater resourcesJapan

Tax policy related to the water environment

The environmental protection fee for wastewater has
been regulated by the Government of Vietnam andimplemented since 2003, and regulations on such
fees have undergone two changes to date. According
to Decree No. 154/2016/ND-CP, the environmental
protection fee for wastewater continues to apply todomestic and industrial wastewater. Collection of thefees has been assigned to local authorities, with the
Department of Natural Resources and Environment
collecting the fees for industrial wastewater, and cleanwater service providers (i.e., People’s Committees ofcommunes, wards and towns) collecting the fees fordomestic wastewater.

Indonesia

In recent years, environmental management in Vietnam
has focused more on the use of economic tools, including
taxes, environmental fees or other forms of sanctions
or compensation as measures to complement otherconventional standard-based approaches.

Environmental protection fee for wastewater

China

5.5 Other Policies on Water Environmental
Management

tax; and that “Natural water used for hydropower
production by households and individuals to produce
for domestic use and Natural water exploited byhouseholds and individuals for domestic use” are subject
to natural resource tax exemption. Implementing anatural resources tax on natural water contributes toencouraging exploitation and rational use of natural
resources in order to help better protect natural
resources.

Cambodia

and business activities that discharge wastewater into
the receiving environment (industrial establishmentswith wastewater discharge flowrates of 200 m3/day ormore and at risk of causing environmental pollution insea or river basins) must be regularly inspected by both
central and local authorities. Further, according to Article
37 of Circular 25/2019/TT-BTNMT of December 31, 2019
(MONRE), project owners, or production, business orservice facility owners are responsible for preparing
regular annual environmental monitoring and protection
reports (covering work activities, environmental
protection measures, environmental monitoring, solid
waste and hazardous waste management, andmanagement situation of scrap imported under theguidance in Appendix IV of the Circular). These annual
reports (January 1 to end of December 31) must be sent
to the competent agency/authority (Ministry of Natural
Resources and Environment) before January 31 of thefollowing year. Concurrently, establishment owners orenterprises must maintain all related documents forsharing with competent state agencies when they visit
for inspections and examination.
During 2014–2018, the Ministry of Natural Resources
and Environment presided over and coordinated withother ministries and localities in carrying out inspections
and examinations of over 3,000 establishments,
industrial parks and industrial complexes nationwide.
Sanctions were issued for 1,400 violating organizations,with fines exceeding 200 billion VND (MONRE 2018).

139Implementation of the 2030 Sustainable Development
Agenda. Viet Nam’s sustainable development goal to2030 consists of 17 goals and 115 targets, corresponding
to the global SDGs elaborated in the document“ Transforming our world: The 2030 Agenda for
Sustainable Development” adopted by the United
Nations General Assembly in September 2015. Thesetargets cover all the UN SDGs targets with several
modifications and adjustments suitable in the context ofViet Nam. Concerning the water and sanitation relatedgoal, SDG 6, MONRE, MARD, MoC and MoF have been
assigned as lead organizations in implementing therelated targets – specifically, MONRE is responsible fortargets 6.1d, 6.3b, 6.4, 6.5, and 6.6; MoC for 6.1a, 6.2,
and 6.3a; MARD for 6.1b; and MoF for 6.1c, 6.3c.

Remaining challenges

140

7 | Challenges and Future Plans
Over the last 2 decades, a number of efforts made havebeen made by both central and local governments aswell as donor agencies to improve the water quality andenvironmental landscape of lakes and rivers, especially in
big cities and provinces such as Hanoi, Da Nang and Ho
Chi Minh City, but despite this, the issue of surface waterpollution in lakes, rivers and canals remains. Surface
water quality in many cities continues to decline, due tocontamination from organic substances, nutrients andmicrobial contamination, as these areas receive large
amounts of untreated or improperly treated wastewaterfrom both domestic and industrial sources.
Below gives a list of the challenges that remain as
well as recommended necessary actions to be considered:
Necessary actions proposed

Institutional challenges

i. Reviewing, supplementing and completing legal policies on water environmental protection
ii. Assignment and consolidation of state management system for water environment protectioniii. Develop and promote the implementation of river basin planning, zoning planning, water
exploitation and use

Enforcement challenges

i. Strengthen activities of water pollution control, inspection, examination and enforcement ofcompliance with the law on water environment protection
ii. Apply economic tools, scientific and technological solutions in water environment protectioniii. Effective investment to thoroughly solve hotspots of water pollution in river basins; waste source
control; effective prevention and control to minimize contamination of the water environment
iv. Raising awareness and enhancing community participation and responsibility in water
environmental management and protection
v. Promote international cooperation activities in water environmental management and protection,
especially transboundary issues

Resource and financial challenges

i. Promote international cooperation activities
ii. Attract private investment

Technical challenges

i. Promote international cooperation activities
ii. Screen production types and production technologies in attracting investment, ensuring not
to attract outdated production technologies into Vietnam; choose environmentally friendly
technologies for hazardous waste and organic matter pollutionReferencesReferences
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