Ministry of the Environment

WEPA Outlook on

Water Environmental
Management in Asia

2015

WEPA
Outlook on Water Environmental
Management in Asia

Water Environmental Partnership in Asia (WEPA)
Ministry of the Environment, Japan
Institute for Global Environmental Strategies (IGES)

Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2015
Copyright © 2015 Ministry of the Environment, Japan. All rights reserved.

No parts of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic ormechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without
prior permission in writing from Ministry of the Environment Japan through the Institute for Global
Environment Strategies (IGES), which serves as the WEPA Secretariat.

ISBN: 978-4-88788-182-2

This publication is made as a part of WEPA and published by the Institute for Global Environmental
Strategies (IGES). Although every effort is made to ensure objectivity and balance, the publication of
study results does not imply WEPA partner country’s endorsement or acquiescence with its conclusions.

Ministry of the Environment, Japan
1-2-2 Kasumigaseki, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo, 100-8795, Japan
Tel: +81-(0)3-3581-3351
http://www.env.go.jp/en/
Institute for Global Environmental Strategies (IGES)
2108-11 Kamiyamaguchi, Hayama, Kanagawa, 240-0115, Japan
Tel: +81-(0)46-855-3700
http://www.iges.or.jp/

The research team for WEPA Outlook 2015
includes the following IGES members:[Drafting team]
Tetsuo Kuyama, Manager (Water Resource Management), Natural Rescores and Ecosystem Services Area
Binaya Raj Shivakoti, Policy Researcher, Natural Rescores and Ecosystem Services Area
Bijon Kumer Mitra, Policy Researcher, Natural Rescores and Ecosystem Services Area
Pham Ngoc Bao, Policy Researcher, Natural Rescores and Ecosystem Services Area
Yatsuka Kataoka, Senior Coordinator (Networking and Outreach), Programme Management Office[Supporting team]Mari Arai, Administrative Assistant, Natural Rescores and Ecosystem Services Area
Kiyoko Uematsu Administrator, Natural Rescores and Ecosystem Services Area

Printed in Japan

Table of Contents
Background to the Publication ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5
Message from WEPA .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6
Acknowledgements .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 8
Abbreviations ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 9[ Chapter 1] Outlook on Water Environmental management in WEPA Countries ............................... 12[ Chapter 2] Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries
2.1

Cambodia ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 28

2.2

China .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 34

2.3

Indonesia ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 40

2.4Japan ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 46

2.5

Republic of Korea .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 54

2.6

Lao PDR ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 60

2.7

Malaysia ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 68

2.8

Myanmar ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 74

2.9

Nepal .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 80

2.10 Philippines ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 86
2.11 Sri Lanka ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 94
2.12 Thailand ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 100
2.13 Viet Nam ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 108

Appendix
Selected social, economic and water related indicators in WEPA partner countries ................... 120

References ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 124

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2015

3

Background to the Publication
Asian countries are now facing serious water pollution problems, even while they are enjoying the full
benefits of economic growth in the region. This may lead to the degradation of the living environment,
as well as a decrease in available water. Under these circumstances, an initiative called the Water
Environmental Partnership in Asia (WEPA) was proposed by the Ministry of the Environment, Japan atthe 3rd World Water Forum in 2003, aiming to solve the water pollution issues in terms of governance.
Since 2004, WEPA has conducted capacity development of stakeholders as well as sharing of informationand knowledge for finding solutions to water environmental issues under the partnership of 13 Asian
countries, namely Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Japan, Republic of Korea, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar,
Nepal, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand and Viet Nam.
Considering the importance of a common understanding among stakeholders to solve water quality
issues in the region, the “WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management” has been prepared byutilising accumulated information and knowledge, as well as the human network developed under thisinitiative. The report aims to provide the most up-to-date and useful information on the water
environment and its management in Asia, with a target audience of policymakers, experts and others in
the water sector of the region. Two former editions of the Outlook, published in 2009 and 2012 during
the 5th World Water Forum in Istanbul and 6th World Water Forum in Marseille, may also serve as usefulreference for those who are dealing with water quality issues in other countries across the world.
This report is the third edition of the series, and consists of two main chapters: Chapter 1 - “Outlook on
Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries” and Chapter 2 - “Country Profiles of Water
Environmental Management in WEPA Countries”. The first chapter presents the results of analysis on
institutional frameworks for water environmental management in WEPA countries. The second chapter
provides updated country profiles on water environmental management in the WEPA countries. It also
gives WEPA’s message introducing the existing challenges and our commitment for sustainable water
environmental management made through discussions held at WEPA annual meetings.
WEPA Outlook 2015 is being published for the 7th World Water Forum organised in April 2015 in Daegu
and Gyeongbuk, Republic of Korea. It is our sincere wish that this report serves as a good reference forthose who are involved in issues in Asia and other regions of the world, and we also hope that it willcontribute to sustainable water environmental management in Asian countries.

March 2015
Ministry of the Environment, Japan
Institute for Global Environmental Strategies (WEPA Secretariat)

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 20155

Message from WEPA
Necessary Actions for Sustainable
Water Environmental Management in Asia

1

Water is widely recognised as being at the core of sustainable development and is inextricably linked withother key global challenges, as highlighted in the outcome document of Rio+20, “The Future We Want.”
Access to safe water supply and adequate sanitation remains a key global challenge for sustainable
development, and is linked with poverty eradication, social equity and human wellbeing. Over the past 15 years
the international community has made headway into meeting water targets, and in particular, sanitation
targets. These are aimed at increasing the proportion of the population using improved sanitation facilities.
However, insufficient attention was paid to the consequences of effluent from these facilities—–treatedwastewater and faecal sludge—which now represent issues requiring action.

2

The Asian region enjoys the benefits provided by water in general. Nevertheless, it also suffers from seasonal
fluctuations in water volume at both ends of the spectrum, such as from floods and droughts, meaning
countries in the region are faced with complex issues related to water resources as part of water resource
management. Further, as the region has also experienced rapid growth over past decades, both in terms of
economy and population, the course of such development has often been associated with unsustainable
practices, which has meant that populations within the region have experienced negative impacts on bothwater quantity and quality, specifically:
insufficient water access especially for thepoor, contamination of drinking water
sources, intensified water pollution caused
by untreated wastewater from domestic,
industrial and agricultural sectors, especiallyin urban and peri-urban areas, as well as
deterioration of aquatic ecosystems.

3

Among other pollutants, organic pollution and eutrophication are still commonly observed in water bodies,
especially in highly populated urban areas. Such pollution problems, which vary in severity from area to area,
are heavily impacting on the wellbeing of local populations, biodiversity, natural resources and ecosystems. In
this regard, appropriate wastewater treatment should be further promoted, especially for domestic andindustrial sectors, as should an appropriate management framework and practical tools, which should bedesigned with local needs, conditions, and capacity in mind.

4

In addition to the pressures induced through socioeconomic development, the huge risk climate change
represents for water resources poses a significant challenge. To prepare for and adapt to climate change, a“no-regrets” mindset needs to be better instilled within current water environmental management systems,
and further, more scientific information on climate change impacts is needed, which should be incorporated
into policymaking to a greater extent.

5

Progress on water quality management has been
observed over past decades, and WEPA partnercountries share the common view that the following
challenges should be further addressed to strengthen
this current positive trend:a) Review of existing legal frameworks in considerationof socioeconomic contexts and current state of water
environment, including review of effluent standards
that consider industrial makeup and effluent quality.

6

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2015

b) Strengthening capacity of water quality monitoring and evaluation,
maintaining emphasis on time-series data for longer terms totackle mid- and long-term challenges of climate change. Ensuring
disclosure of monitoring results to the various stakeholders as a
key element in data and information management.
c) Identification of pollution sources and loads on the ground-level water environment—critical for appropriate,efficient and localised actions to prevent water pollution.
d) More attention on the impact of grey water on the water environment, especially in densely populated areas,in order to prevent water pollution caused by domestic wastewater.
e) Improvement of wastewater treatment facilities, especially through enhancement of human and institutional
capacity to maintain them; combined with selection of site-specific treatment technology that accounts fornatural and socioeconomic conditions and level of development. Prioritisation of appropriate low-cost,environmentally sound and socially acceptable technologies that are simple to use and maintain compared
to conventional wastewater treatment approaches.
f) Strengthening implementation; enforce regulatory frameworks of water quality management, especially for
wastewater and sludge management.
g) Utilisation of more scientific knowledge in water environmental management, including promotion of
dialogue among policymakers and researchers, to improve the water environment.
h) Ensuring financial sustainability in wastewater and sludge
management through innovative and effective financing andincentive mechanisms.
i ) Promoting involvement and coordination of different stakeholders
such as the private sector and communities in water environmental
management. Further encourage appropriate Public-Private
Partnership (PPP) models.

6

WEPA also recognises that discussion on the Post 2015 International Development Agenda (post MDGs andSDGs) maintains its focus on water resources and even extends the scope to water quality and wastewater
management. WEPA anticipates such international goals to spur further action to improve the water
environment in the region.

7

Keeping this in mind, WEPA, in its third phase starting in 2014, continues to facilitate the exchange of lessons
and knowledge among WEPA partner countries through existing WEPA schemes such as the WEPA database,policy dialogues and workshops. In addition, a new scheme to promote actions within WEPA partner countries
has been launched, with the aim of addressing critical barriers of implementation. Under this scheme, WEPA
supports implementation of small but relevant attempts to solve specific ‘bottleneck’ problems that currently
hinder sound planning and implementation of water environment policy and management. Practical lessons
learned and knowledge accumulated from the action programmes will be shared not only among the partnercountries but also with the wider audience through the WEPA database. WEPA intends to strengtheninteractions with other like-minded networks, international organisations and donor agencies to explore
opportunities to maximise the impacts of WEPA activities.

8

Envisaging the wellbeing of populations and sustainable development in the region, the WEPA partners hereby
commit to improving the world’s water environment via enhancing cooperation, exploiting knowledge, andtaking action in areas of conservation and protection. We believe such efforts will also contribute to improved
water environmental governance, capacity building of the relevant stakeholders, and implementation of the
Post 2015 International Development Agenda.

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 20157

Acknowledgements

The WEPA secretariat is grateful to the focal persons and the collaborators of the following WEPA partner countries fortheir contributions and constructive input, as well as their support in the preparation of this publication.
We also extend our appreciation to the WEPA advisory committee for their guidance and invaluable input.
* Focal Person
Cambodia
Sokha Chrin*, Deputy Director General, General Directorateof Technical Affairs, Ministry of Environment
China
Li Liping*, Researcher, Institute for International
Environmental Policy, Policy Research Centre forEnvironment Economy, Ministry of Environmental
Protection (PRCEE)
Indonesia
Budi Kuruniawan*, Head of Infrastructures and Services,
Ministry of Environment
Lao PDR
Phengkamla Phonvisai, Director of Legislation andInformation, Department of Pollution Control,
Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment
Japan
Eisuke Futamura, Director, Water Environment Division,
Environmental Management Bureau, Ministry of theEnvironment
Masahiro Yasuda*, Deputy Director, Water Environment
Division, Environment Management Bureau,
Ministry of the Environment
Republic of Korea
Teagu Kang*, Senior Researcher, Water Quality Control
Centre, National Institute of Environmental Research (NIER)
MyanmarTint Zaw*, Deputy Director General,
Irrigation Department, Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation
Mu Mu Than, Assistant Engineer,
Planning and Works Branch, Irrigation Department,
Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation
Malaysia
Ahmad Jamalluddin bin Shaaban*, Director General,
National Hydraulic Research Institute of Malaysia(NAHRIM), Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment
Nepal
Kamal Ram Joshi*, Senior Divisional Hydrologist,
Water and Energy Commission Secretariat

8

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2015

Philippines
Vincente B. Tuddao Jr., Director for Governance andEnforcement, Department of Environment andNatural Resources (DENR)
Erlinda A. Gonzales*, Technical Officer as Environmental
Consultant Environmental Management Bureau,
Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR)
Sri Lanka
R.M.S.K. Ratnayake*, Director (Environmental Pollution
Control), Central Environmental Authority
Himali Karunaweera, Assistant Director (Environmental
Pollution Control), Central Environmental Authority
Thailand
Wijarn Simachaya, Deputy-Permanent Secretary, Ministryof Natural Resources and Environment
Thiparpa Yolthantham*, Director of Planning,
Pollution Control Department (PCD),
Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment
Viet NamDo Nam Thang, Deputy Director General,
Department of International Cooperation (Operational
Focal Point of Global Environment Facility (GEF) of Vietnam)
Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment
Nguyen The Dong*, Deputy Director General,
Vietnam Environment Administration,
Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment

WEPA Advisory Committee Members
Motoyuki Suzuki, Professor emeritus at the University ofTokyo
Mitsumasa Okada, Professor, the Open University of Japan
Kensuke Fukushi, Professor, Integrated Research System
for Sustainability Science, the University of Tokyo
So Kazama, Professor, Graduate School of Engineering,Tohoku UniversityAbbreviations

ADB

Asian Development Bank

GB/T

Recommended Standards

AMDAL

Environmental Impact Assessment Statements

GDP

Gross Domestic ProductAN

Ammonium Nitrogen

ICIMOD

BOD

Biochemical Oxygen DemandInternational Centre for Integrated Mountain
Development

BOI

Board of Investment

ID

Irrigation Department

BFAR

Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources

IETS

Industrial Effluent Treatment Systems

IGES

Institute for Global Environmental Strategies

IMF

International Monetary Fund

ISES

Industry-Specific Effluent Standards

ISOInternational Organization for Standardization

IWK

Indah Water Konsortium

KeTTHA

Ministry of Water Energy, Green Technology,
and Water

LAO

Local Administrative Organisation

LGUs

Local Government Units

LLDA

Laguna Lake Development Authority

LSGA

Local Self Governance Act

LWUA

Local Water Utilities Administration

MARD

Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development

MBAS

Methylene Blue Active Substances

MDG

Millennium Development Goal

MENR

Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources

MEP

Ministry of Environmental Protection

MEPA

Marine Environment Protection Authority

MLIT

Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport andTourism of JapanMoAIMD

Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Mahaweli
Development

BSWM

Bureau of Soil and Water Management

CBS

Central Bureau of Statistics

CDC

Council of Development of Cambodia

CEA

Central Environment Authority

CEM

Centre of Environmental Monitoring

CNMC

Cambodia National Mekong Committee

COD

Chemical Oxygen Demand

CRMP

Coastal Resource Management Project

CWTPs

Combined Wastewater Treatment Plants

DAO

DENR Administrative OrderDA

Department of Agriculture

DDA

Department of Development Affairs

DDCs

District Development Committees

DENR

Department of Environment and Natural Resources

DoEPC

Department of Environmental Pollution Control

DHM

Department of Hydrology and Meteorology

DILG

Department of Inferior and Local Government

DKI

Special Capital City District

DO

Dissolved Oxygen

DoE

Department of Environment

DoEPC

Department of Environmental Pollution Control

DoH

Department of Health

MoC

Ministry of Construction

DoNRE

Department of Natural Resources and Environment

MoCT

Ministry of Construction and Transportation

DPWH

Department of Public Works and Highways

MoE

Ministry of Environment

DWSS

Department of Water Supply and Sewerage

MoECAF

Ministry of Environmental Conservation and Forestry

EHS

Environmental Health Service

MoEJ

Ministry of the Environment, Japan

EIA

Environmental Impact Assessments

MoF

Ministry of Finance

EMB

Environmental Management Bureau

MoH

Ministry of Health

EPA

Environment Protection Act

MoHA

Ministry of Home Affairs

EPL

Environmental Protection Law

MoITMinistry of Industry and Trade

EPLs

Environmental Protection Licenses

MoNRE

Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment

EQA

Environmental Quality Act

MoST

Ministry of Science and Technology

EQS

Environmental Quality Standards

MoSTI

Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation

ESSO

Environmental and Social Services Office

MoT

Ministry of Transport

EVN

Viet Nam Electricity Corporation

MoU

Memorandum of Understanding

FAO

Food and Agriculture Organization

MoWRAM Ministry of Water Resources and Meteorology

FCB

Faecal Coliform Bacteria

MPI

Ministry of Planning and Investment

FMB

Forest Management Bureau

MPWT

Ministry of Public Works and Transportation

Chinese National Standards

MRC

Mekong River Commission

GB

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2015

9

MWQCS

Marine Water Quality Criteria and Standards

SEPA

State Environmental Protection Administration, China

MWQI

Marine Water Quality Index

SLS

Sri Lanka Standards (test method)

MWR

Ministry of Water Resources

SMEs

Small and Medium Enterprises

MWSS

Metropolitan Water Works and Sewerage System

SOEs

State Owned Enterprises

NA

National AssemblySS

Suspended Solids

NAA

Non-Attainment Areas

SSD

Sewerage Service Department

NCEA

National Commission for Environmental Affairs

TCB

Total Coliform Bacteria

NCSD

National Council for Sustainable Development

TCE

Trichloroethylene

NDWQS

National Drinking Water Quality Standards

TCVN

National Environmental Standards

NEA

National Environmental Act

TDS

Total Dissolved Solids

NEB

National Environmental Board

TKN

Total Kjehldahl Nitrogen

NEDA

National Economic and Development Authority

TMDLs

Total Maximum Daily Load SystemNGO

Non Governmental Organization

TMS

Tele-Monitoring system

NIA

National Irrigation Administration

TN

Total Nitrogen

NIS

National Institute of Statistics

TOC

Total Organic Carbon

NLCDC

National Lake Conservation Development Committee

TP

Total Phosphorus

NLMA

National Land Management Authority

TPLCs

Total Pollutant Load Control System

NPC

National Power Corporation

TSS

Total Suspended Solids

NRE

Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment

TSGL

Tonle Sap Great Lake

NSDW

National Standards for Drinking Water

UKL-UPLNSO

National Statistics OfficeEnvironmental Management Effort and Environmental
Monitoring Efforts

NTNC

National Trust for Nature Conservation

UNDESA

NWP

National Water Plan

United Nations Department of Economic and Social
Affairs

NWQS

National Water Quality Standards

UNDP

United Nations Development Programme

NWRB

National Water Resources Board

UNEP

United Nations Environmental Programme

UNESCO

United Nations, Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization

UNICEF

United Nations Children’s Fund

VAT

Value Added Tax

VDCs

Village Development Committees

VEA

Viet Nam Environment Administration

VOC

Volatile Organic Compounds

WATSAN

Water and Sanitation

WCP

Wastewater Charge Programme

WDI

World Development Indicator

WECS

Water and Energy Commission Secretariat

WEPA

Water Environment Partnership in Asia

WHO

World Health Organisation

WQC

Water Quality Criteria

WQI

Water Quality Index

WQMA

Water Quality Management Areas

WQMAP

Water Quality Management Action Plan

WREA

Water Resources and Environment Administration

NWS&DB National Water Supply and Drainage Board

10

ONEP

Office of Natural Resources and Environmental Policy
and Planning

PC

City of Provincial People’s Committee

PCAs

Pollution Control Areas

PCB

Polychlorinated Biphenyl

PCD

Pollution Control of Department

PCE

Perchloroethylene

PD

Presidential Decree

pHPower of Hydrogen (hydrogen-ion concentration)

PNSDWPhilippines National Standards for Drinking Water

PPP

Polluter Pay Principal

PPSDALResearch Centre for Natural Resources andEnvironment

PRC

People’s Republic of China

RA

Republic Act

RBIMSRiver Basin Integrated Information Management
Systems

ROK

Republic of Korea

WRUD

Water Resources Utilization Department

PROPER

Pollution Control Evaluation and Rating

WWF

World Wide Fund for Nature

PU

Ministry of Public Works

YCDC

Yangon City Development Committee

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2015

Chapter

1

Outlook on
Water Environmental Managementin WEPA Countries

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 201511

Outlook on Water Environmental
Management in WEPA Countries
The Water Environment Partnership in Asia (WEPA) was

3) Measures to ensure implementation and compliance,

formed to address issues related to the water environment

focusing on wastewater management.

in the 13 partner countries by improving water environmental
governance. For this purpose, WEPA aims to promote

Given that the problems faced by each country differ inknowledge sharing among partner counties to findboth type and scale we set out to solely provide a country-

solutions. Because each WEPA partner country faces

based overview of the progress made in the policies anddifferent water-related environmental problems due tomeasures related to the water environment, and tried todiffering natural and socioeconomic conditions, each has

avoid any inter-country comparisons or evaluations ofdeveloped unique policies and measures designed toprogress.

tackle these problems. Providing a review of the above,
therefore, was deemed useful in order to bring to light any

01. Objectives of water environmental
management

differences and commonalities, as well as issues in thewater environmental management framework among the
WEPA partner countries, and promote deeper discussion

Legal Framework

based on a common understanding.

Most WEPA countries have established a basic environmental

To this end, this chapter summarizes the state of water

law stipulating protection of human health, ensuring a safe

environmental management in WEPA partner countries

human environment and protection of the environment as abased on the country profiles in the following chapter andbasis for sustainable development, and these objectives

attempts to identify common challenges.

also apply for water environmental management.

This chapter also gives a snapshot of the current water

Myanmar drafted “The Environmental Conservation Law

environmental management frameworks in the partner(The Pyidaungsu Hluttaw Law No.9/2012)” in Marchcountries from the following three perspectives:2012 and enacted the law in April 2012.

1) Objectives of water environmental management
including legal frameworks and ambient water quality

More detailed definitions of water environmental

standards;

management objectives are laid out in laws or acts
specific to water pollution control in some countries.

2) Monitoring of water environment;

Table1.1. Basic environmental laws and laws or acts specific to pollution control in WEPA countries
Country

Basic Environmental Law

Cambodia

Law on Environmental Protection andNatural Resources Management

China

Environmental Protection Law

Indonesia

Law concerning Environmental Protection
and Management (Law No.32/2009)

Japan

Basic Environmental Law

Laws or Acts specific to Pollution Control• Draft Law on Water Supply and Sanitation of the Kingdom of Cambodia• Law on Prevention and Control of Water Pollution• Marine Environment Protection Law• Water Pollution Control Law• Law Concerning Special Measures of Lake Water Quality• Law Concerning Special Measures for Conservation of the Seto InlandSea• Law Concerning Special Measures for the Restoration of the Ariake andYatsushiro seas

• Law Concerning Special Measures for the Protection of Water Quality inWater Resources Areas for the Purpose of Preventing Specific Trouble

Republic of Korea Framework Act on Environmental Policy• Water Quality and Ecosystem Conservation Act• Act Relating to Han River Water Quality Improvement and Community
Support• Act on Nakdong River Watershed Management and Community Support• Act on Geum River Watershed Management and Community Support• Act on Yeongsan and Sumjin River Watershed Management andCommunity Support• Prevention of Marine Pollution Act

12

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2015

Chapter1 Outlook on Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Lao PDR

Environmental Protection Law

Malaysia

Environmental Quality Act

MyanmarEnvironmental Conservation Law

Nepal

Environmental protection Act 2053

• Selangor Waters Management Authority Enactment• Kedah Water Resources Enactment• Sabah Conservation of the Environment Enactment• Sabah Water Resources Enactment• National resources and Environment Ordinance Sarawak

Philippines• PA 9275 Clean Water Act• DAO 2005-10 PCWA Implementing Rules and Regulations

Sri Lanka

National Environment Act No.47(amended as Act No.53)

ThailandEnhancement and Conservation on National • Groundwater Act
Environmental Quality Act, B.E.2535

Viet Nam

Law on Environmental Protection• Marine Pollution Prevention Act of No. 35• Coast Conservation Act No.57 of 1984 as amended by Act No. 64

Ambient water quality standards as
the administrative target

inland water was proposed by the Central Environmental

With the exception of Sri Lanka and Myanmar, all WEPA

Authority in 2000, but actual issuance has been delayed.

In Sri Lanka, the ambient water quality standard forcountries issue ambient water quality standards.

In Myanmar, the Environmental Conservation Law

Compared with countries with ambient water quality

enacted in 2012 mentions the establishment of ambient

standards for surface water, few countries have such forwater quality standard for surface water, marine water

groundwater.

and groundwater, and discussions on establishing thestandard have just started.

Table1.2. Ambient water quality standards in WEPA countries
Country
Cambodia

China

Surface Water

Groundwater

Marine Water

Water Quality
Standards in Public
Water Areas

Water Quality
Standards in Public
Water Areas

Water Quality
Standards in Public
Water Areas• Sub-Decree on Water Pollution Control

SourceEnvironmental Quality
Standards for Surface
Water

Quality Standard for
Ground Water

Sea Water Quality
Standard• Environmental Quality Standards for(No.27, 1999)

Surface Water (GB3838-2002)• Quality Standard for Ground Water(GB/T 14848-9)• Sea Water Quality Standard(GB3097-1997)

Indonesia

Water Quality Criteria

Water Quality Criteria

Standard Quality of
Seawater• Government Regulation Number 82 (2001)• Decree of the State Minister of theEnvironment Number 51 (2004)

Japan

Environmental Quality
Standards for Water
Pollution

Environmental Water
Quality Standards ofGroundwater

Environmental Quality
Standards for Water
Pollution• Environmental Quality Standards for Water
pollution (1971, latest amended in 2013)• Environmental Water Quality Standardsof Groundwater (1998, latest amended in2009)

Republic of Korea

Lao PDR
Malaysia

Environmental
Standards for Water
Quality and Aquatic
Ecosystem

Environmental
Standards for Water
Quality and Aquatic
Ecosystem*

Surface Water Quality
Standard

Groundwater Quality
Standard*

National Water Quality
Standards

**

***

***

Environmental
Standards for Water
Quality and Aquatic
Ecosystem• President Decree under Framework Act on
Environmental Policy (1990)• The Agreement of National Standards ofEnvironment in Laos (2009)

Marine Water Quality
Criteria and Standard• National Water Quality Standards for***• Nepal Gazette (No.10, 16 June 2008)

Malaysia• Marine Water Quality Criteria and Standard

Myanmar
Nepal

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 201513

Philippines

Water Quality Criteria
for Fresh Surface
WatersWater Quality Criteria • DENR Administrative Order NO.34 (Series
for Coastal and Marine
of 1990)
WatersSri Lanka
ThailandSurface Water Quality
Standards

Groundwater Quality
Standards*

Marine Water Quality
Standard• Notification of the National Environmental
Board, No. 8, B.E. 2537 (1994)• Notification of the National Environmental
Board, No. 20, B.E. 2543 (2000)

Viet Nam

National TechnicalRegulation on Surface
Water Quality

National TechnicalRegulation on Ground
Water Quality

National TechnicalRegulation on Coastal
Water Quality• No. QCVN 08:2008/BTNMT National

Technical Regulation on Surface Water
Quality• No. QCVN 09:2008/BTNMT National
Technical Regulation on Ground Water
Quality• No. QCVN 10:2008/BTNMT National
Technical Regulation on Coastal Water
Quality* For groundwater used for drinking, the groundwater quality standard for drinking is applied.
** Although no water quality standard is established, groundwater quality status is determined based on National Guidelines For Raw Drinking
Water Quality from the Ministry of Health (Revised December 2000) as the benchmark in Malaysia.
*** Nepal sets different water quality standards according to objective (for drinking water, irrigation water, livestock watering, and industry).

Classification

require only approved disinfection in order to meet theClassification of water bodies is mostly based on the

National Standards for Drinking Water (NSDW) of therequired quality for water use (ambient water quality

Philippines.

standard) in WEPA countries, with the number of classesof such varying according to country. For example,

Indicators

Philippines categorises water bodies into five classes

Regarding indicators, the total number and parameters(Class AA, A, B, C and D) for surface water and fourvary by country, but all standards include physical, metal,

classes (Class SA, SB, SC and SD) for marine waterorganic nutrient and microbiological indicators. The

based on water use. Class AA of surface water isnumbers of parameters used for ambient water quality

intended primarily for waters having watersheds which

standards for surface water are shown in the following

are uninhabited and otherwise protected and which

figure.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Cambodia (rivers)

70

80
Physical Indicator

Cambodia (lakes and reservoirs)
China
Indonesia
Japan (rivers)
Japan (lakes)
Republic of Korea (rivers and streams)

Chemical Indicator(Metal)Chemical Indicator(Pesticide)

Republic of Korea (Lakes)

Chemical Indicator(Other)Lao PDR

Biological Indicator

Malaysia
Nepal (for recreation)
Nepal (for the protection of aquatic ecosystem)
Phillippines
Thailand
Viet Nam

Figure 1.1. Number of indicators in ambient water quality standards for surface water

14

Chemical Indicator(Organic)

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2015

Radioactive Indicator
Other Indicators

Chapter1 Outlook on Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

02. Monitoring of Water Environmentof ambient water quality has taken place to date (WREA

Monitoring System for Ambient Water Quality

2010).

Of the 11 Asian countries that issue ambient water

In Nepal, although water quality is monitored by different

quality standards, 9 conduct regular ambient water

ministries and agencies, systematic ambient water quality

quality monitoring for public water bodies (Lao PDR andmonitoring is not conducted for public water bodies.

Nepal do not).

National or local governments conduct ambient water

In Lao PDR, although the Department of Environment isquality monitoring of public water bodies periodically inresponsible for country-wide administration andthe other 9 countries, while the number of monitoring

monitoring (based on the Agreement of the National

stations, frequency, and number of indicators differ (seeEnvironmental Standards, 2009), no regular monitoring

Table1.3).

Table1.3. Status of ambient water quality monitoring for public water bodies in selected WEPA countries
Responsible Institution

Year

CambodiaCountry10

No. of Monitoring Stations

MonthlyFrequency

BOD, DO, pH, Water
Temperature, TSS,
Coliforms

Indicator

Ministry of Environment

2011

China

469 (rivers)
26 (main lakes and reservoir)
4 (Three Gorges Dam)
4100 (Groundwater)
279,225 km2 (marine water)

unknown

Indicators stipulated in
Environmental Quality
Standard

Local government(Ministry ofEnvironmental Protection)

2011

Indonesia

unknown (40 rivers)

At least twice amonth

unknown

Regional Environmental
Impact Control Agencies

2011

Japan

Indicators for human healthprotection:
3,947 (rivers), 405 (lakes andreservoirs), 1,057 (sea)Indicators for the living
environment:
4,550 (rivers), 475 (lakes andreservoirs), 2,044 (sea)Indicators for aquatic
biodiversity:
1,447 (rivers), 150 (lakes andreservoirs),125 (sea)Groundwater:
3,680 (outline survey)

Monthly

Indicators stipulated in
Environmental Standards

Local government(Ministry of theEnvironment)

2013

Republic of Korea

697 (rivers)
185 (lakes)
2,499 (groundwater)Monthly(48 times/year for key
locations) (rivers andlakes)
2 times/year for
groundwater

Indicators stipulated in
Environmental Standards

Water Quality Monitoring
Network

2008

Malaysia

901 (in 477 rivers)(manual: 891 stations,
10 continuous water quality
monitoring stations)
105 (groundwater)
321 (marine water)

unknown

Indicators stipulated in
National Water Quality
Standards (river)
VOCs, pesticides,
heavy metals, anions,bacteria (coliform),
phenolic compounds,
total hardness, TDS,
pH, temperature,
conductivity, DO(groundwater)

Department ofEnvironment (MoNRE)

2013

Philippines

192 (rivers)
4 (lakes)
88 (groundwater)
unknown (marine water)Monthly or 4 times/
year (rivers)
n/a (groundwater,
marine water)

DO, BOD, TSS, TDS andHeavy Metals* (rivers)
Fecal coliform, Nitrate(groundwater)DO, coliforms Heavy
metals (marine water)

Environmental
Management Bureau(DENR)

20012005

Thailand366 (48 rivers and 4 lakes)
170 (marine waters)
620 stations (groundwater)

4 times/year(rivers and lakes)
2 times/year(marine water)

23 indicators in Surface
Water Quality Standard(rivers and lakes)
unknown (ground waterand marine water)

Pollution Control
Department, Departmentof Groundwater
Resources (MoNRE)

2012

Viet Nam

248 (116 for surface water)

4 times/year

BOD, COD, DO, TSS, N,P

Center for Environmental

2007* Heavy metals are not regularly monitored by Environmental Management Bureau (EMB)and
exceptwhere mining, electroplating,tanning,underor other similar activities
metalsMonitoringtake place.
Viet Nam Environmental

Administration, MoNRE* Heavy metals are not regularly monitored by Environmental Management Bureau (EMB) except where mining, electroplating,tanning, or other similar activities take place.
(source: See Reference)

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 201515

Evaluation of Monitoring Results
WEPA countries conducting regular monitoring, evaluate

public water bodies. Table 1.4. provides a summary of
the evaluation methodology.

results of national ambient water quality monitoring for
Table1.4. Evaluation methodology for water quality monitoring in the selected Asian countries
Country

Evaluation Methodology

China

Classification of monitoring station based on results of monitoring and Environmental Quality Standard(Surface water, marine water and groundwater)Indonesia

Achievement rate of environmental standard for water in public water zones(Surface water)

Japan

Achievement rate of environmental standard for water in public water zones(Surface water, marine water and groundwater)

Republic of Korea

Achievement rate of environmental standard for water in public water zones (surface water and groundwater)

Malaysia

Classification of monitoring station based on monitoring results and Water Quality Index (WQI)(calculated by monitoring results of 6 indicators: DO, BOD, COD, NH3-N, SS, pH)(Surface water and marine water)
Percentage of samples exceeding the national guideline for raw drinking water quality (groundwater)

Philippines

Achievement rate of environmental standard for water in public water bodies and rating based on the achievement
rate of each water body
(Surface water and marine water)

ThailandClassification of monitoring station based on monitoring results and Water Quality Index (WQI)(calculated by monitoring results of 5 indicators: DO, BOD, Total Coliforms Bacteria, Fecal Coliforms Bacteria, NH3-N)(Surface water and marine water)

Viet Nam

Comparison of monitoring result with ambient water quality standard (surface water and marine water)

The evaluation methodologies applied in these countries

use designated for a water body under investigation iscan be roughly divided into two types. The first involves

suitable or not can be identified at the monitoring

setting classes of water bodies in advance, as practiced

stations. Ministry of Environmental Protection thein Japan, Republic of Korea, and Philippines. In thisRepublic of China indicates how many monitoring

method, based on the results of water quality monitoring,stations are categorised into each category in the annual

governments determine whether each water bodyreport.

satisfies the Environmental Quality Standard or not,which is used to express the overall water environmental
standard for these countries as a percentage. By using
this evaluation method, whether the water body issuitable for the water use determined in advance can beevaluated.
The second type involves categorizing monitoring
stations based on the results of water quality monitoring
and classification in the Environmental Quality Standard.
For example, in China, river sections are categorised into

16

In Malaysia and Thailand, the same concept for evaluation
is applied, but they use the Water Quality Index (WQI)
instead of the classification within the Environmental
Quality Standard. WQI is calculated by formulas developedin these countries (see Box 1.1). Both governments also
provide results of national water quality monitoring using
this index on an annual basis.
In Viet Nam, results of water quality monitoring are simply
compared with the ambient water quality standard.

six classes (I, II, III, IV, V and worse than V) based on the

Results of water quality monitoring shown in monitoringclassification stipulated in its Environmental Quality

reports of selected WEPA partner countries are illustrated

Standard. Based on this evaluation, whether the waterin Figure 1.2.

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2015

Chapter1 Outlook on Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Box 1.1. Water Quality Index used in Malaysia

In Malaysia, sub-index values are calculated by the formula for the 6 indicators DO, BOD, COD, NH3-N, SS and pH,then summed with weighting factors specific to each sub-index, as shown in the following formula.
WQI = (0.22* SIDO) + (0.19* SIBOD) + (0.16* SICOD) + (0.15* SIAN) + (0.16* SISS) + (0.12* SIpH)
where:
SIDO = Subindex DO (% saturation)
SIBOD = Subindex BOD
SICOD = Subindex COD
SIAN = Subindex NH3-N
SISS = Subindex SS
SIpH = Subindex pH
0<=WQI<=100
DoE Water Quality Classification based on WQI
Clean: 81-100, Slightly Polluted: 60-80, Polluted: 0-59
(Source: Department of Environment, Malaysia 2012)

Disclosure of Ambient Water Quality
Monitoring Results
The results of monitoring are evaluated annually in many
countries for information disclosure and policy evaluation.
The state of water quality is mainly reported to thegeneral public via annually published environmental
quality reports, and the following countries enable thepublic to access environmental reports giving
comprehensive assessments of water quality on
websites: China, Japan, Republic of Korea, Malaysia,
Thailand, and Viet Nam.
In some countries, such as China, Republic of Korea,
Thailand and Vietnam, the public can view real-timemonitoring data on a website, which is uploaded fromcontinuous monitoring stations. Other countries such as
Japan also utilise a website to publish results.

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 201517

China
100%

100%

80%

80%

>V

>V

60%

IV,V

60%

IV,V

40%

I-III

40%

I-III

20%

20%

0%

0%
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 20132003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013

Year

Surface waterYear

Lake Water

Thailand

100%

>IV

80%

100%
Highly Deteriorated
80%

Deteriorated
Fair

60%

Good
40%

IV

60%

III

40%

II

20%

I

0%

Excellent

2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Year

20%

Marine Water
2012

2011

2010

2009

2008

2007

2006

2005

2004

2003

2002

2001

2000

1999

1998

1997

1996

0%

Surface water
100%
Highly Deteriorated

80%

Deteriorated

60%

Fair
Good

40%

Excellent
20%

Japan
2012

2011

2010

2009

2008

2007

2006

2005

2004

2003

2002

2001

2000

1999

1998

1997

0%

Republic of Korea

China

Marine water

Cambodia
BOD (mg/L)
7

MK River Upstream (Chrouy Changvar)
MK River Downstream (Kien Svay)
Bassac River (Ta Khmao)
PP Port (Tonle Sap River)

6
5

Viet Nam
ThailandPhilippines

Cambodia

4
3

Malaysia

2Standard: 1-10 (mg/L)

1
0

2004

2006

2008

Indonesia

2010

Malaysia
100%

100%

80%

80%

Polluted

60%

Slightly Polluted

40%

Clean

Moderate

40%

Good
Excellent

20%

20%
0%

Poor

60%

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

Surface water

0%

2010

2011

2012

Marine water

Figure1.2. Situation of water quality in surface water or marine water of selected WEPA countries(Source: See References)

18

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2015

Chapter1 Outlook on Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Japan

Republic of Korea

100%

COO

T.P

BOD

Compliance rate

90%
80%

Paldang

70%

4.0

60%

3.0

50%

0.070
0.060
0.050
0.040

2.0

40%

0.030
0.020

1.0

30%
20%

OverallRiversLake and reservoirs

0.010
0.000

0

Coastal areas

00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12

10%
0%
1974

1979

1984

1989

1994

1999

2004

2009

Year

River, Lakes and Marine Water

Daecheong
5.0

0.040

4.0

Indonesia

0.030

3.0

0.020

2.0
2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

0.010

1.0

70%
60%

0.000

0

50%

00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12

40%
30%
20%

Mulgeum

10%
Tortal Coli

Fecal Coli

H2S

Free chlorine

Parameters

Detergent

Oil & grease

Phenol

T-P

NO3

NO2

COD

BOD

DO

TSS

pH

TDS

0%

Viet Nam
mg/L

2005

2006

2007

2008

QCVN 08:2008(A1)

2009

8.0

0.016

6.0

0.012

4.0

0.080

2.0

0.040

0

0.000

00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12

QCVN 08:2008(B1)

16
14

Juam

12
10
8
6
4

4.0

0.020

3.0

0.015

2.0

0.010

1.0

0.005

2
0

Red River
Hanoi

Lam RiverNghe AnCam RiverHai Phong

Huong River
Hue

Han River
Da Nang

Dong Nai River Sai Gon River
Dong Nai
HCMC

Han River
Da Nang

Hau River
Can ThoRiver Water (BOD)
mg/L

2007

2008

2009

2010

0

QCVN 08:2008 (A1)2011

00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12

0.000

Four Major River Waters

QCVN 08:2008 (B1)

70
60
50
40
30

Philippines

20
10
0

Muong Te
Reservoir

Thai
NguyenVi Xuyen
Lake

Goong
Lake

Tinh Tam
Lake

Bau Tram
Lake

Lai Chau

Ho NuiCoc

Nam Dinh

Vinh

Hue

Nam Dinh

Phu Ninh
Phu Hoa
Irrigational
Lake
Lake
Binh
Tam TraDinh
Quang Nam

Cam Ranh
LakeLong An
Lake

Thanh Nien Dau Tieng
Lake
Lake

Khanh
Hoa

Dong Nai

Lake Water (BOD)
2005

mg/L

2006

2007

2008

100%

Poor

QCVN 08:2009 A(B)

2009

Fair

80%

Good

350

60%

300
250

40%

200

20%

150
100

0%

50

ia

DO

BOD

TSS

TDS

Surface water and Marine water(2001-2005)

R

ac

h

G

An
h

D

in

Ta
u

rg

t

uy

Vu

ie

Q
Ph
u

ng

Th

Tr
a

Ph

an

n
ho
N

uy

ha
N

t

nh
uy

H
Sa

Q

g
D

un

g

Q
ua

An

an
N

a
D

o
C

an
Th
u

ai
g

C

on

H

ng
ga

N

on
D

n

Lo
ua

C

eo
D

t

n

La

So

Sa
m

Ba

c

So
o

D

C
a

ua
C

Tr

Lu

o

0

Marine Water (TSS)WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 201519

03. Wastewater Management

increases in water withdrawal for domestic and industrial
purposes, is also expected to rise.

Status of Wastewater Generation
The following table shows shifts in the amount of water
withdrawal in WEPA countries.

Regarding water withdrawal for agriculture, this varies
among WEPA countries: Cambodia, Indonesia, Republicof Korea, Lao DPR, Myanmar, Philippines, Sri Lanka,First, it is evident that amounts of water withdrawal

Thailand and Viet Nam exhibit a rising trend, while thediffer by country, which may be due to differences intrend in other WEPA countries such as China, Japan,

population, level of industrialization, and size of

Malaysia and Nepal shows a decrease in water

agricultural land.

withdrawal.

Along with population increase, economic development

The situation concerning discharge of agriculturaland improvement in the quality of life, a sharp increase

wastewater into the environment differs by type ofin the amount of water withdrawn for domestic andagricultural activity. Therefore, further investigation isindustrial water is noteworthy in all WEPA countries

needed in order to estimate wastewater generation in

except Japan. In these countries, the amount of domestic

the agriculture sector.

and industrial wastewater generated, which accompanies

Table 1.5. Changes in sectoral water withdrawal in WEPA countries
Country

Sectoral Water Withdrawals (km3) (1980 –1990’s)
Domestic

Industry

Agriculture

Year of Data

Sectoral Water Withdrawals (km3) (2000s)
Domestic

Industry

Agriculture

Year of Data

Cambodia

0.03

0.01

0.49

1987

0.10

0.03

2.07

2006

China

26.27

94.58

404.60

1993

67.60

128.55357.95

2005

Indonesia

4.46

0.74

69.14

1990

13.14

7.36

92.79

2000

Japan

17.37

15.54

58.50

1992

15.66

12.36

54.38

2008

Republic of Korea

6.15

2.60

14.91

1994

6.63

3.06

15.81

2002

Lao PDR

0.08

0.10

0.81

1987

0.13

0.17

4.00

2005

Malaysia

1.40

1.65

9.67

1995

3.89

4.79

4.51

2005

Myanmar

0.28

0.12

3.56

1987

3.32

0.33

29.55

2000

Nepal

0.29

0.00

28.71

1994

0.15

0.03

9.62

2005

Philippine

4.43

2.22

48.77

1995

6.20

8.24

67.08

2009

Sri Lanka

0.20

0.20

9.38

1990

0.81

0.83

11.35

2005

Thailand

1.66

1.33

30.15

1990

2.75

2.75

51.80

2007

Viet Nam

2.17

5.43

46.72

1990

1.23

3.03

77.74

2005

(Source: See Reference)

Identification of Pollution Source

The industrial sector is also responsible for the main

Asian countries, as obtained from national environmental

pollution sources of BOD/COD in many Asian countries

reports of each country or Word Bank reports. Data is

and catchment areas.

limited, and the data year and target area differ fromcountry to country. In China, COD and ammonia nitrate
as sources of pollution load from the agriculture sector
were added to national statistics in 2011.

20

countries and catchment areas of Asia, except China.

Table 1.6 shows pollution sources by sector in selected

Agricultural sources account for a large proportion of
total pollution load in the selected Asian countries. For
example, percentages of COD and ammonia nitrogenloads from agricultural source are 47% and 32% of total

According to the table, the domestic sector accounts forpollution load in China, respectively. However, thethe greater part of the BOD/COD load in selected

definition of ‘agricultural source’ differs according to

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2015

Chapter1 Outlook on Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

country; polluted runoff from agricultural areas ispoint sources are also potential pollution sources inincluded under ‘agricultural source’ in China and Thailand

Asian countries but no data exists for such except for

but not in Malaysia. In Philippines, polluted run-off fromJapan. In order to discuss countermeasures to water

agricultural areas is categorized as a non-point source.

pollution from agricultural and non-point sources in the

Details of agricultural sources are unknown for Indonesia.

Asian region the first step is to enable suitable estimation

In addition, as shown in the example of Philippines, non-of pollution loads from these sources.

Table1.6. Pollution source by sector in selected WEPA countries
Country

Pollutant

Pollution load
(tons/year)

Pollution source by sector

25.0 million

Domestic source: 38%
Industrial source: 14%
Agricultural source (Fishery, Stock Farming, Cultivation): 47%
Collective treatment facilities: 1%

Ammonia nitrogen

2.6 million

Domestic source: 56%
Industrial source: 11%
Agricultural source (Fishery, Stock Farming, Cultivation): 32%
Collective treatment facilities: 1%

Japan(Tokyo Bay)

COD

66.8 thousand

Domestic source: 68%
Industrial source: 20%
Other source: 13%

Japan(Ise bay)

COD

57.7 thousand

Domestic source: 47%
Industrial source: 41%
Other source: 12%

Japan(Seto Inland Sea)

COD

43.1 thousand

Domestic source:70%
Industrial source: 22%
Other source: 8%

Japan(Osaka Bay)

COD

66.8 thousand

Domestic source: 68%
Industrial source: 20%
Other source: 13%

4.2 million

Domestic source: 33%
Industry: 27%
Agriculture-Livestock: 29%
Non-point sources: 11%

COD
China

Philippines

BOD

Malaysia

BOD

0.4 million

Sewerage treatment plants: 49%
Manufacturing industry: 45%
Animal Farm(Pig farm): 4%
Agro-based Industry: 2%

ThailandBOD

2.3 million

Household: 42%
Industry: 44%
Agriculture (Pig farms, Cattle farms, Aquaculture, Cultivation): 14%

Indonesia(Jatunseluna River Basin)

BOD

0.2 million

Domestic: 58%
Industrial: 18 %Agricultural: 15%(Source: See References)

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 201521

Wastewater Quality Control (Effluent Standard)

while local governments may establish stricter effluent

Quality Control is a basic approach for management ofstandards when the national standards are considereddomestic and industrial wastewater in WEPA countries. As

to be insufficient to achieve water quality targets.

shown in the following table, all countries have set national
effluent standards except Myanmar, where national effluent
standards are now under consideration (except for Yangon,
which has a standard).

In Cambodia different effluent standards can beestablished in accordance with the proximity of pollution
source to sensitive environmental or ecosystemconservation areas.

China, Lao PDR, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Thailand and Viet Namclassify effluent standards by type of industry.

Since 2000, China, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Malaysia and Sri
Lanka have introduced or revised effluent standards to

In Japan, uniform effluent standards are established,strengthen effluent management.

Table1.7. Effluent standards in WEPA countries
Country

Industry

Domestic

Remarks

Cambodia
Domestic: for urban wastewater treatment facilities

China
Indonesia
Japan
Republic of Korea

Domestic: For urban areas

Lao PDR
Malaysia
Myanmar--

Yangon has effluent standard; establishment of national standard isunder discussion by national government

Nepal

Domestic: unknown

Philippines

Domestic: municipal wastewater

Sri Lanka
Thailand
Viet Nam

Domestic Wastewater Treatment –Current Situation and Issues

alone cannot be used as the basis for comparing different

For domestic wastewater treatment, centralized aerobic

countries because calculation methodologies varytreatment by sewerage plants and individual anaerobic

according to the country.

However, it must be stressed that the coverage ratio

treatment via septic tanks are mainly used in Asian
countries, particularly in urban areas.

On-site treatment (septic tank)
In areas without access to sewerage treatment services,Centralized approachon-site treatment using individual septic tanks is common,

Aerobic sewerage treatment is the typical approach forespecially in urban areas. Table 1.8 illustrates the coverage

domestic wastewater treatment, particularly in urban areas

rate in selected countries and cities. While data is notof Asian countries. Figure 1.3 shows the latest seweragecomplete for all countries in general, it can be seen that intreatment coverage rates for domestic wastewater incountries where coverage rates of sewerage treatment are

WEPA countries. As a result of investment the sewerage

low, the coverage rate for septic tanks is particularly high intreatment coverage in the Republic of Korea and Japanurban areas. Treatment using individual septic tanks has

currently exceeds 80%; the rate in Malaysia (peninsular

issues in the respect of prevention of water pollution. One

Malaysia and municipalities only) and urban areas of China

issue is the BOD removal rate for septic tank treatment,

falls in the 60–70% range and Thailand’s coverage rate falls

which is 30–60% based on results from several studies, ain the vicinity of 20%. In comparison, the coverage rate ofrate lower than that for sewerage removal using aeration.

sewerage treatment facilities in other WEPA countries is

In addition, septic tanks in some Asian countries treat only

still less than 5%.

black water; grey water, which has a high BOD pollutionload, is discharge untreated.

22

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2015

Chapter1 Outlook on Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Sewerage Treatment Coverage（％）

100

80
Sewerage Treatment Coverage(Black Water and Grey Water)

60

40

20

(2
01
M
0)
ala
*
ys
ia
(2
01
Th
0)
ail
**
an
d
(2
00
Vi
8)
et
na
m
(2
01
Ph
0)
ilip
pin
e
(2
M
01
ya
0)
nm
ar
(2
01
Ne
0)
pa
l (2
0
10
In
do
)
ne
sia
(2
Ca
01
m
0)
bo
dia
La
(2
o
PD 010
)
R
(2
01
Sr
0)
iL
an
ka
(2
01
0)

(2
01
4)

Ch
ina

Ja
pa
n

Re
pu
bli
co
fK
or
ea

(2
01
1)

0

*Chinese data is only for urban area**Except in Sabah and Sawawak provinceCountry (Year)

Figure1.3. Service coverage rates of sewerage treatment in WEPA countries(Source: See References)

Sewerage Treatment ratio (%)

Table1.8. Septic tank coverage rate
in selected WEPA countries, by area
Country

Viet Nam

Year

2008

Malaysia

2010

Indonesia

2011

Philippines

2010

100

Area

Coverage Rate (%)

National Average

41

Urban Area

79

Rural Area

26

National Average

21

National Average

60

Jakarta

93

Manila71(Source: See References)

Issues concerning construction of domestic wastewater
treatment facilities
In order to mitigate and prevent water pollution, domestic
wastewater (both grey and black) should be adequately
treated using high-performance treatment processes withhigh rates of pollution removal, especially in areas without

Republic of Korea
80

China*Japan

Malaysia**
60

40

20

ThailandPhilippines, Indonesia, Viet Nam, Cambodia, Lao PDR,
Myanmmer, Nepal, Sri Lanka

0

10,00020,00030,00040,00050,000GDP per Capita (curent-USD)* Sewerage treatment ratio of China is only for urban area**Sewerage treatment ratio of Malaysia is except for Sabah and Sawawak province

Figure1.4. Relationship between sewerage treatment coverage
ratio and GDP per capita in WEPA countries(Source: See Reference)

access to sewerage treatment. However, according to UN
data (UNDP 2006), the construction of sewage treatment
plants is two to three times more costly than the installation

Issues regarding operation of domestic wastewater
treatment facilities

of septic tanks. In fact, examining the relationship between

Operational issues of sewerage treatment plants following

the coverage ratio for sewerage treatment in WEPA

construction and entering operation have been reported incountries and per capita GDP (see figure 1.4) reveals asome Asian countries. Cases have been observed wherecertain positive correlation. In most Asian countries whereresidents not wishing to pay sewage fees do not connect

the coverage ratio for sewerage treatment is still low, theto the service despite living in the coverage area.

per capita GDP remains below 4,000 USD, thus the

Accordingly, inflow falls short of the treatment capacity.

construction of large-scale sewage treatment plants, which

Moreover, the inability to collect sewage treatment fees

are more costly than septic tanks, is not an economicallyfrom most treatment plant users in Thailand has resulted infeasible option in these countries.

the use of public finances from local governments to cover

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 201523

operational costs. In recent years, more regional

requirement of the EIA related guidelines. For cases ofgovernments have called for more to be done in order tonon-compliance, all countries have already introduced

collect sewage treatment fees, and central governments

systems for inspection, governmental guidance andare working on setting regulations therefor. Nevertheless,penalties to correct them. However, such measures

many difficulties remain in actual fee collection.

against non-compliance are not always effectively
implemented for various reasons, including but not

Industrial Wastewater Regulation-Current Situation
and Issues

limited to delays caused by procedural deficiencies,

Industrial wastewater has been identified as one of theovercome such deficiencies in current non-compliancemajor causes of water pollution in WEPA countries,

measures, Indonesia, Japan and Viet Nam recently

although its load on water bodies differs from country torevised their laws or regulations.

uncooperative companies, and weak penalties. To

country. With the aim of preventing or mitigating such
water pollution all WEPA countries have established

Institutional arrangement

management systems in efforts to enable control overIn general the environmental line agency (environment

wastewater discharged from industry. However, challenges

ministry) is in charge of pollution control. However, theremain in implementation for many of the countries.

responsibility to control industrial wastewater is also vested
in industrial and economic development sector agencies inIndustrial wastewater in the region

some countries, and this leads to overlapping

The industrial sector is not always the largest contributor in

responsibilities. For industrial zones or special economic

terms of organic pollution load in WEPA partner countries

zones containing agglomerations of factories, different

such as China, Philippines, Malaysia and Thailand as

laws and regulations are often applied, and instalment of

already discussed. This is partly because these countries

centralized wastewater treatment facilities is mandated

tackled industrial wastewater from the late 1970s and early

under such laws or regulations. Different agencies, such as

80s, by which wastewater from factories – especially large

industrial estate authorities, handle water pollution control

scale factories and those in industrial zones – was treatedin such special zones in many countries. In most countries

to comply with pollution control regulations. However,industries are required to provide notification to designatedindustrial wastewater remains a major source of waterauthorities (at the national or local level) or apply forpollution in certain industrial wastewater management

approval or permits therefrom before commencing

basins, where inadequately treated wastewater is emitted.

operations that discharge effluent, the requirements for

In addition to organic pollutants, toxic substances contained

which vary by type and size of industry.

in industrial wastewater are of high concern to policymakers
in the region.

Effluent monitoring
Monitoring of effluent quality is a key tool to check

Laws and regulations

compliance with effluent standards at factories. In principle,

To prevent or mitigate pollution from untreated or partly

all owners of pollution sources are obligated to monitor

treated industrial wastewater, all WEPA partner countries

effluent quality throughout the WEPA partner countries.

have legislation in place; most countries have set up
effluent standards that the industrial sector must comply
with.

certain volumes of effluents. On the other hand,

The Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a tool

monitoring is not always conducted by the owners orused to avoid pollution before the start of operations. For

managers despite their obligation to do so, and results

example, all industries are required to obtain an

are not always stored for easy access or do not reach theEnvironmental Compliance Certificate, which is issued

intended authorities. This means authorities can neither

under the Decree of Environment Impact Assessment

assess the state of compliance nor effectiveness of any(No.112/PM) for their operations. Cambodia’s Sub-measures taken. Keeping records of monitoring results

Decree on Environmental Impact Assessment also

was not an obligation placed on business entities inrequests all development activities and investments thatJapan until a revision to the Water Pollution Control Law

require approval from the Council of Development ofin 2010 mandated the recording and storing of results,

Cambodia (CDC) and industries that have obtained thewith penalties applied in the event of non-compliance.

certificate to follow the monitoring and reporting24

In Republic of Korea and Thailand, on-line monitoring of
effluent was introduced for pollution sources withWEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2015

Chapter1 Outlook on Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Encouraging industry to comply with regulations

but also wastewater volume and quality data – isPenal systems are sometimes ineffective in promoting

insufficient in partner countries, especially in terms ofcompliance; instead, governments attempt to do this using

institutional arrangements covering pollution control

other measures.

only recently formulated or in countries with as-yet low

One of such measures is the PROPER program(Corporate Environmental Performance Rating Program)in Indonesia, which encourages industries to comply
with environmental regulations by publishing theirenvironmental performance, including whether theymeet designated effluent qualities or not.
Japan has introduced provisional effluent standards oflower severity for specific types of industry that do notcurrently meet the original standards, in order toencourage technical improvements over certain periodsof time.

levels of industrial activity. In particular, information on
small and medium-sized industries is difficult to obtain
despite the high likelihood that they pollute local water
bodies. The lack of systematically organised and stored
inventory data may prevent effective or strategicplanning and implementation of control measures.
Accessibility of information: Lack of willingness to share
information, as well as lack of information itself are also
barriers for planning and implementation due to thesensitivity surrounding industrial wastewater
management, as witnessed by the WEPA secretariat in
its industry sector interviews. There is a sense of mistrust

Malaysia also has rules to exempt the immediate needand paranoia concerning how data will be used, i.e., afor compliance with effluent standards for treatment

worry that data thought confidential may be used tofacilities under construction or being upgraded.

‘name and shame.’ Further, data sharing between
governmental agencies takes place, which illustrates

Common challenges

weak coordination and can also complicate data

Through surveys and interviews the following common

collection by WEPA Focal Points in partner countries, as

challenges among many countries were identified, withthey have to go through separate sectoral ministries toparticular focus on the stage of implementation affected.

obtain the data.

The figure on the following page also shows challenges
identified by partner countries in the procedures to regulate
industrial wastewater.
Deficiency of laws, lack of detailed rules for implantation:
In some cases, different laws and regulations related toindustrial wastewater management have different
obligations, which can lead to confusion on the ground.
Some countries need detailed rules or guidelines for
implementation; for example, if there are no guidelines

Lack of human resources: Lack of human resources innational and local government to enforce regulations isoften pointed out by partner countries, not only in termsof staffing levels but also implementational capacity.
Lack of finances: In particular, finances are needed toestablish databases and inventories, as well as toconduct effluent or ambient water monitoring to checkon the state of compliance.

and industry uses different effluent monitoringassessment of effluent quality data less reliable and less

Efforts toward Strengthening of Wastewater
Managementcomparative, this will create problems in proving non-

China, Japan, and Republic of Korea apply the Total Pollutant

compliance.

Load Control (TPLC) system to the whole country or specificprocedures and analytical methods that make theWeak coordination among agencies: There are at least
two ministries (covering environmental and industrial
sectors) at the national level related to industrial
wastewater management, which creates overlapping
responsibilities, weak coordination and conflicts ofinterest (i.e., industrial development vs. environment
conservation) that may negatively affect implementation
in some countries.
Availability of information: Information of industries andwater bodies in addition to effluent control via wastewater
quality control, as shown in the following table.
Table 1.9. Situation of TPLC system in selected countries
Country

Targeted Area

Targeted Pollutant

China

Whole Country

COD, NH3

Japan

Tokyo Bay, Ise Bay,
Seto Inland Sea

COD (Mn), TP, TN

Republicof Korea

Nakdong River, Geum River,Yeongsan River, Seomjin River

BOD, TP

their wastewater – not only number and type of industry

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 201525

Low awareness on environmental
conservation of industries/local people

Duplication of laws andregulations/no detailed rules/
weak punishment systemagainst non-complianceWeakpunishments
Capacity of person in charge inindustrial estates/economic zones
sometimes delays or stalls progress

Weakcoordination
betweenagencies indifferent sectors

Insufficient number
and capacity of
persons in charge

Insufficient numberof staff, technicalknowledge of staff,
or monitoring
facilities

No standards/
official methods tomonitor/measure

Punishment

Laws andregulations
No monitoring,no reporting

Notification/
Registration/
Requests for
permits orlicences

Difficult to knowwhether all targetedindustries areregistered (esp. SMEs)

Receive
document/
Approval

Maintainandrecord theinformation/
data

Monitoring
andreporting

Maintainorrecord theinformation

No systematicrecords or database

Check/
verificationofreport/effluent

No systematicrecording of theinformation

Maintainorrecord theinformation

Improvement
plan

Guidancefor
noncompliance

Lack ofcooperation
at company

Inspection
Insufficient
staff

Complaints fromlocal people

Action by
government
Action byindustries

Duplication of responsibilities,
weak coordination, etc.

Regulatory Authorities (governments)
Figure1.5. Challenges in industrial wastewater management based on interviews and literature review

26

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2015

Chapter

2

Country Profiles ofWater Environmental Managementin WEPA Countries2.1 Cambodia

01. Country informationseason, swelling to approximately 13,000 km2 with anaverage depth of 8-10 m because of the increase of water

Table 2.1.1. Basic indicators

flow from the Mekong River.

Land area (km2)

181,035 (2013)

Total population

15.1 million (2013)

GDP (current USD)

15.2 billion (2013)

Per capita GDP (current USD)
Long-average precipitation (mm/year)
Total Renewable Water Resources (km )the rainy season. That said, most parts of the country
encounter water shortages especially for domestic and1,904 (2009)

irrigation uses during the dry season because of insufficient

Total Annual Freshwater Withdrawals(billion m3)
Annual Freshwater
Withdrawals by
Sectors

Tonle Sap River, Bassac River and other tributaries during

1,007 (2013)

476.1* (2009)

3

With this unique hydrological system, the country has
an ample supply of water mainly from the Mekong River,2.2 (2006)

infrastructure development such as for water storage,
reservoirs, canals and irrigation systems. Water in
Cambodia remains regulated only in part, resulting in an

Agriculture

94% (2006)

overabundance of water during the rainy season and a

Industry

1.5% (2006)

deficiency in the dry season.

Municipal(including domestic)

4.5% (2006)*Estimated(Source: See Appendix)

Groundwater availability is estimated to be 17.6 billion
m3, which is primarily used for household water supply andfor irrigation. A major emerging player in groundwater

02. Major Water Basins in Cambodia
Lao PDR

Thailandextraction is the industrial sector, located on the outskirtsof the capital and provinces (Sokha 2005). The alluvial
deposits of the Tonle Sap and Mekong flood plain/delta are
believed to be excellent shallow aquifers that have highrecharge rates. Data and information about groundwaterand its utilisation is still insufficient, but shallow wells could
be used in an estimated 48,000 km2 of the country (Sokha
2005).

Tonle Sap
Grate Lake

04. State of Water Quality

Tonle Sap
River
Phnom Penh

MekongRiver

In general, the surface water in Cambodia meets theVietnamBassac River
Gulf of Thailand

Figure 2.1.1. Major rivers in Cambodia

national ambient water quality standards—meaning waterin the country is not polluted. However, water quality has
been under threat in some areas especially during the dry
season due to the inflow of untreated effluents to public
water bodies from urban activities as well as agricultural
run-off. Development activities also cause water quality to28

03. State of Water Resources

deteriorate—for example, the conversion of wetlands and

The Mekong catchment makes up about 86% of Cambodia’s

pollution from agricultural run- off that contains

land area. Tonle Sap Great Lake (TSGL) has two flow

agrochemical residues (MoE 2009). Various pollution

directions: 1) In the dry season - water of TSGL drains into

sources such as untreated wastewater from manufacturing

the Mekong River, 2) In the rainy season - water of theand mining, service and tourism industries, solid and liquid

Mekong River drains into the TSGL. The lake is about 2,500

wastes discharged from slaughterhouses and livestock

km2 in size and has a depth of 1-2 m during the dry season.

farms, as well as transportation by waterways, also have a

However, its size considerably changes during the rainy

major impact on water quality in the country.

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2015

forest to agricultural lands increases the risk of waterChapter2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

quality standards of BOD (under 10mg/L). Monitoring

According to Cambodia’s Annual Environmental Reportresults of other parameters at different monitoring points

2013, the water quality in public waters has been assessed

are also shown in Figures 2.1.2 to 2.1.6.

as good overall and water pollution is not considered to bea significant problem (MoE 2010). The officers of theTable 2.1.2. Values of BOD in Mekong RiverYear

BOD Value (mg/L)
Min. value

2009

3.80

0.20

River (e.g. Chroy Changvar, Phnom Penh Port, Stoung

2010

4.80

0.27

Chouv, and Kien Svay). Table 2.1.2 shows the biochemical

2011

6.50

0.10

oxygen demand (BOD) values observed by recent water

2012

4.20

0.55

2013

6.87

0.30

Environment (DoEPC/MoE) of Cambodia conduct water
sampling each month at designated stations in the Mekong

quality monitoring results in the Mekong River, whichindicates that the river quality satisfies the ambient water

Ambient Water Quality
Standard for BOD

Indonesia

Max. value

China

Department of Environmental Pollution Control, Ministry of

Cambodia

River water1 – 10 mg/L

(Source: MoE 2014)

Japan

pH

TSS (mg/L)
700

8

600

7.8

500

7.6

7

Standard: 25-100 (mg/L)

400

7.4
7.2

Republic of Korea

8.2

300

Standard: 6.5-8.5

200

2004

2006

2008

2010

Figure 2.1.2

0

2004

1000

7

2006

2008

2010

5

Myanmar

800

6

600

4

400

3

200

Standard: 2.0-7.5 (mg/L)
2004

2006

2008

2010

Figure 2.1.3

0

2004

Nepal

0

2010

Malaysia

Conductivity ( μs/cm)

8

1

2008

Figure 2.1.5

DO (mg/L)

2

2006

Lao PDR

100
0

Figure 2.1.6
Philippines

BOD (mg/L)
7
6

4

MK River Downstream (Kien Svay)

3

Bassac River (Ta Khmao)

2

PP Port (Tonle Sap River)

10

ThailandMK River Upstream (Chrouy Changvar)

Sri Lanka

5Standard: 1-10 (mg/L)
2004

2006

2008

2010

Figure 2.1.4
Viet Nam

Figures 2.1.2. to 2.1.6. Water quality monitoring results for different parameters at major monitoring points(Source: Sokha 2011)

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 201529

Lakes and reservoirs
According to various literature, the general level of pollution

05. Frameworks for Water Environmental
Management

in lakes on average remains low, although water pollution
has been locally identified in and around floating villages.

Legislation

Since 2009, the MoE has started taking water samples to

The current legislative framework for water environment

check the water quality of lakes. The results of monitoring

management in Cambodia is shown in Figure 2.1.7. Theof the chemical oxygen demand (COD) show that theprotection and promotion of the environmental quality andmaximum value in 2010, 2012 and 2013 exceeds ambient

public health is the objective of natural resource management

water quality standards (Table 2.1.3).

including water (Article 1, Law on Environmental Protection
and Natural Resource Management). The Law on Water

Table 2.1.3. Water quality in Tonle Sap Great LakeYear

COD Value (mg/L)

Resources and Management (2007) includes aspects ofAmbient Water Quality
Standard for COD

water quality management, such as requiring wastewater

Max. value

Min. value

2009

4.80

1.27

2010

8.57

1.00

2011

6.83

2.20

2012

9.90*

3.60

water quality, quantity and ecological balance are

2013

8.40*

3.13

endangered (Article 23).

discharge licenses or permission for activities that could
have negative impacts on water quality and human andecosystem health (Article 22), as well as designations for

1 – 8 mg/L

dangerous or restricted zones for water use where the

The details on water environmental conservation*The Max. value observed occurs once a year within the dry season (between
March and May). Water sampling is taken once a month at one specific location.
(Source: MoE 2014)

measures are explained in the Sub-decree on Water

Coastal water

Law on Environmental Protection and Natural Resources

Cambodia’s coastal shoreline is 435 km long on the Gulf ofManagement. The sub-decree aims to regulate various

Thailand, and the seaward boundary of the coastal zone

activities that could pollute and/or have already polluted

has been delimited as the outer limit of the country’s

public water areas (e.g. rivers, lakes, groundwater and sea

exclusive economic zone with an area of 55,600 km . The

water). Ambient water quality standards for human healthlandward boundary of the coastal zone has not yet been

and bio-diversity (Article 7), as well as effluent standards forsatisfactorily defined, but it is currently considered to bepollution sources (Article 4) are set by this sub-decree.

about 5 km from the shore. The coastal zones are situated

Other elements of the sub-decree include the monitoringin the four provinces of Koh Kong, Kampot, Sihanoukvilleof pollution sources and their effluents (Chapter 4),

and Kep municipalities. In general, the coastal water ismonitoring of public water areas (Chapter 5), and inspection

considered to be of fairly good quality, but development

rules (Chapter 6). Other sub-decrees under the Law onactivities such as those in the economic zones and seaports

Environmental Protection and Natural Resources

may exert a negative influence on coastal water and coastal

Management, such as the Sub-decree on Solid Wastes andecosystems if the sound management of solid and liquid

the Sub-decree on Environmental Impact Assessment

wastes generated from those activities is not properly

Process, also contain articles related to water environmental

implemented. According to the results of monitoring inconservation.

2

Pollution Control, which was established in 1999 under the

2005-2006, water quality had not deteriorated in terms ofCurrently, two new pieces of legislation are being

total suspended solids, dissolved oxygen, biochemical

drafted in relation to water quality management, namely

oxygen demand, total nitrogen and total phosphorous

the Law on Environmental Pollution Management by the(MoE 2006).

MoE and the Sub-decree on Water Quality by the Ministryof Water Resources and Meteorology (MoWRAM). The

Groundwater

draft Law on Environmental Pollution Management will

The data on groundwater quality is very limited, but arsenic

stipulate the process related to monitoring and control ofcontamination of groundwater was identified by a national

water, air and soil pollution.

drinking water quality assessment in 2000 in someprovinces located in the Mekong, Bassac and Tonle Sap
River basins (Arsenic Center of Cambodia 2010) wheredependency on groundwater as the source of domestic
water is as high as 62-100% (MoWRAM 2008).

30

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2015

Chapter2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Cambodia

Law on Environmental Protection andNatural Resources Management(December 1996)

Draft Law on Water Supply andSanitation of the Kingdom of Cambodia

Law on Water Resources
Management (2007)

China

Drinking Water Standard (2004)

Sub-Decree on Water Pollution Control(April 1999)

National Policy on Water Supply andSanitation (February 2003)

Indonesia

Sub-Decree on Solid Waste Management(April 1999)

National Water Resources Policy in theKingdom of Cambodia (January 2003)

Sub-Decree on Environmental Impact
Assessment Process(August 1999)

Japan

Policy Framework-Water Supply andSanitation of the Kingdom of Cambodia(February 2001)

Figure 2.1.7. Legislative framework on water environmental management in Cambodia

Institutional arrangement

Republic of Korea(Source: MoEJ 2009)

to factories which use chemical substances and otherpollutants to treat its wastewater prior to discharge toof the environment and natural resources* in the country

receiving waters (MoE 2009). Local authorities such as

based on the Law on Environmental Protection and Naturalprovincial and municipal environmental departments are in

Resource Management (Article 9). Details of the ministry’s

charge of water environmental management, such as

responsibilities are described in Box 2.1.1 Under thewater quality monitoring.

1

Lao PDR

The MoE is responsible for the protection and management

nation’s environmental legislation, the MoE issues orders
MalaysiaBox 2.1.1. Responsibilities of Ministry of Environment of Cambodia under the Law on Environmental
Protection and Natural Resource Management

for specific uses such as national drinking water quality

set by the Sub-decree on Water Pollution Control. There arestandards.

Philippines

but the water quality is assessed by standards designated

Ambient water quality standards for public water areas are

Nepal

Ambient water quality standards

MyanmarAssess the environmental impact (EIA) to all existing and proposed projects/activities (Article 6)
Research and assessment of the environmental impacts on natural resources (Article 9)
Provide recommendations to other concerned ministries to ensure conservation and rational use of thenatural resources (Article 9)
Develop inventories of pollution sources (Article 12)
Develop sub-degrees to prevent and reduce pollution (Article 13)
Monitor pollution sources and natural resource development activities (Article 14)
Conduct inspection of pollution sources (Article 15) and order improvement in case of violations (Article 20)

The MoE is responsible for the regular control andrespectively. The second is water quality standards formonitoring of water pollution in public water areas

public health, which designates standard values for 25

throughout Cambodia (see Box 2.1.1). The details ofparameters that have harmful effects on human health.

parameters monitored are shown in Table 2.1.4. Although

There are no ambient quality standards for groundwater,

decentralisation has led to local governments andViet Namparameters) and coastal water (seven parameters),

Thailandfor rivers (five parameters), lakes and reservoirs (seven

Monitoring of ambient water quality
in public water bodies

quality standards for biodiversity conservation designatedSri Lanka

two kinds of water quality standards. The first is water*1 Natural resources include land, water, airspace, air, geology, ecological systems, mines, energy, petroleum and gas, rocks and sand, precious stones,
forest and forest products, wildlife, fish, and aquatic resources (Article 8, The Law on Environmental Protection and Natural Resource Management)

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 201531

departments handling various tasks, the main constraint toperiodic report of the results to the MoE. However, some

this process is a lack of experienced officials andindustries do not comply with this regulation. Therefore,

laboratories for water quality analysis. Therefore, central

the MoE regularly conducts on-site inspections to checkofficials of the MoE continue carrying out these tasks inwhether the business operators are in compliance withconjunction with local capacity building and institutional

effluent standards by taking and analysing water samples

capacity development.

of the effluent and also treated water. There are two types

Table 2.1.4. Current status of water quality monitoring by
the MoE
Parameter
monitored

BOD, DO, pH, Temperature, TSS, Coliform, TP,
TN, Cr.+6

Sampling
sites

Phnom Penh Port, Chroy Changva, Ta Khmoa,
Kien Svay, Stoung Chenit, Stoung Sen, Stoung
Siem Reap, Stoung Sangke, Stoung Pursat,
Kampong Loung, Chhnok Trou, SESAN River,
SEKONG River, Kampong Chhnang andKampong Cham

Frequency

Once a month(Source: Data from the focal person in 2014)of monitoring programmes in place at the pollution sources:(i) regular effluent monitoring at normal factories and hotels
that is conducted within an interval period of 90 days; and(ii) regular effluent monitoring at factories that use
chemicals and/or chemical compounds for production thatshould be conducted in an interval period of 45 days.

Non-compliance Measures
When a violation of effluent standards is found, the MoE
issues a written order to industries to correct current
activities to comply with the standards. Industries are fined

Under the Water Quality Monitoring Network (Mekong

and punished for violations in the monitoring and reportingRiver Commission (MRC) Program), MoWRAM also takesof, and compliance with effluent standards stipulated underwater samples monthly at designated stations in rivers andthe Sub-decree on Water Pollution Control if they do not

relevant tributaries for analysis and reports back to MRC via

respond to the orders issued by the MoE.

the Cambodia National Mekong Committee (CNMC). The
parameters monitored are temperature, pH, TSS,
conductivity, Ca, Mg, Na, K, Alk, Cl, SO4 , Tot- Fe, Si, DO,
COD, Mn, NO3-N, NH4-N, PO4-P, and Tot-P. The monitoring
results are made public via database and upon request.

06. Recent Development of
Water Quality Management
Many developing countries in the region pointed out that

Water quality samples are taken on an ad-hoc basis tothe lack of data on ambient water quality and effluent fromcheck that groundwater quality satisfies standards forpollution sources is a barrier to the promotion of water

drinking water and household use, as the country does not

quality management. Cambodia is no different in thisyet have a regular groundwater quality monitoring system

respect. The Cambodian government has worked toin place.

strengthen the monitoring and assessment of ambient andeffluent water quality for more than 15 years to improve

Effluent Standards

and build upon the scientific basis for better management

Aiming at managing effluents discharged from pollutionof water quality. For example, MoWRAM started monthly

sources, the Effluent Standard for Pollution Sources

water quality sampling at public water areas in 1993. The

Discharging Wastewater to Public Water Areas of Sewers

MoE also conducts a routine monitoring programme atwas established under the Sub-decree on Water Pollution

various areas and has conducted ambient water quality

Control. Standard values are set for 52 parameters, such as

monitoring since 1999. Such monitoring practices form thetemperature, pH, BOD, heavy metals, agriculturalscientific basis for improvement of water quality

chemicals,and organic solvents. In principle, the standards

management policy, developing strategic and action plans

are applied to all industries and other pollution sources

and specific measures in the future (Sokha 2011).

designated by the sub-standards. For areas that require
special treatment for protection of human health andbiodiversity, the MoE can establish separate effluent

07. Existing and Future Challenges

standards for pollution sources in the area (Article 5 of theBased on the current state of water quality management in

sub-decree).

Cambodia, a few key management challenges are identified
as follows:Effluent Monitoring32

1. Weak legal framework such as a lack of water quality

Under the Sub-decree on Water Pollution Control, allstandards for specific beneficial uses such as humanbusiness operators must self-monitor effluent and submit ahealth and recreation.

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2015

Chapter2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Cambodia

2. Lack of a specific water quality management policy,
strategy and master plan.
3. Insufficient equipment for laboratory and field testing
which becomes a barrier to the appropriate managementof water quality.

China

4. Shortage of technical officers at both the national andlocal levels with expertise who can carry out adequate
water quality management.

Indonesia

5. Budget limitations of government, especially for the
improvement of capacity of laboratories in terms offacility infrastructure/equipment and human resources.
6. Weak coordination between stakeholders, especiallyindustries that are responsible for protecting andJapan

improving water quality in Cambodia. Facilitation ofcommunication and data sharing must be promoted.
7. Insufficient technical capacity both at the national andRepublic of Korea

local levels, such as water quality monitoring anddecentralised domestic wastewater treatment
technologies, require international support.
8. Low awareness by stakeholders and local communitiesof the maintenance and protection of the water

Lao PDR

environment commonly resulted in less participation by
them.

Malaysia
Myanmar
Nepal
Philippines
Sri Lanka
Thailand
Viet Nam

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 201533

2.2 China

01. Country information

because of its large population, which is equivalent to onefifth of the world’s average. In addition, the water resources

Table 2.2.1. Basic indicators

in China are unevenly distributed—rich in the southern

Land area (km2)

9,600,000 (2010)

Total population

1,357 million (2013)

GDP (current USD)

9,240.2 billion (2013)

Per capita GDP (current USD)

6,807 (2013)

Long-average precipitation (mm/year)

two-thirds of China’s cities are short of water, and in morethan 110 cities, the situation is dire (MWR 2011). Megacities such as Beijing and Tianjin are also facing serious
water shortages (World Bank 2008).

645 (2009)

Total Renewable Water Resources (km )

2,840 (2009)

Total Annual Freshwater Withdrawals(billion m3)

554.1 (2005)

3

Annual Freshwater
Withdrawals by
Sectors

areas and poor in the northern areas (MWR 2011). About

04. State of Water Quality
According to the State of Environment Report 2013

Agriculture

64.6% (2005)

published by the Ministry of Environmental Protection

Industry

23.2% (2005)(MEP) of the People’s Republic of China (PRC), surface

Municipal(including domestic)

12.2% (2005)(Source: See Appendix)

water across the country is slightly polluted. The pollution
in some parts of urban rivers remains serious (MEP 2014a).
The state of surface water quality is evaluated andexpressed in grades for environmental standards for

02. Seven Major River Basins in China

surface water which range from Grade I to V (Table 2.2.2).
The state of sea water and groundwater are evaluated andexpressed in grades for sea water quality standards andSonghua River

environmental quality standards for groundwater,
respectively (Table 2.2.3 and 2.2.4).

Liaohe River

River water

Beijing

Yellow River

Haihe River

Based on the results of national monitoring, water qualityof the ten major watersheds (Yangtze River, Yellow River,

Huaihe River

Pearl River, Songhua River, Huaihe River, Haihe River, LiaoheRiver, rivers in Zhejiang Province and Fujian Province, rivers

Yangtze Riverin Northwest China and rivers in Southwest China)
categorised as Grade I to III was 71.7%, that of Grade IV to

Pearl River

V was 19.3%, and that worse than Grade V was 9.0% (MEP
2014a). Compared with figures in 2011, the water quality
has significantly improved (Table 2.2.5). Figure 2.2.2 shows
the details of the state of each of the ten major rivers in
2013. Specifically, the water quality of the Yangtze River,the Pearl River, rivers in Zhejiang Province and Fujian

Figure 2.2.1. Seven major river basins in China

Province, in Northwest China and rivers in Southwest China
was good or fair. The quality of the Yellow River, Songhua
River, the Huaihe River and Liaohe River was slightly

03. State of Water Resources

polluted and that of the Haihe River was intermediately

The total volume of water resources in China ranks sixth

oxygen demand (COD), permanganate index and 5-day

among all the countries in the world. The per capita volume

biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5) (MEP 2014a).

is low at about 2,100 m3 (World Development Indicator)

34

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2015

polluted. The main pollution index observed were chemicalChapter2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Table 2.2.4. Grades for Groundwater Quality Standards
Description

I

Reflects the background low contents of nature chemicalcomponents of groundwater.

Mainly for drinking water resources in first-class protectedareas, protected areas for precious fish, and spawningareas for fish and shrimp.

II

Reflects the background contents of the nature chemicalcomponents of groundwater. It is applicable to various
purposes.

III

Mainly for drinking water resources in second-classprotected areas, protected areas for fish, and swimmingareas.

III

Based on the benchmark value of human health.
It is primarily applicable to concentrative drinking water
sources and industrial and agricultural use water.

IV

Mainly for industrial water resources and recreational use
in which people do not contact water.

IV

V

Mainly for agricultural water resources and water areas
required for landscape.

Based on industrial and agricultural use waterrequirements. It is primarily applicable to industrial waterand partial agricultural use water. After it is properly
processed, it is applicable to drinking water.

V

Not applicable to drinking water. The selection of such
category of water depends on other purposes.

Description

I

Mainly for headstream and the national nature preserves.

II

Indonesia(Source: Environmental Quality Standard for Surface Water)

China

Grade

Grade

Cambodia

Table 2.2.2. Grades for Environmental Quality Standards
for Surface Water(Source: UNEP 2010)

Table 2.2.3. Grades for Sea Water Quality Standards
III

Suitable for marine cultivation, bathing, marine sport orrecreation activities involving direct human contact withmarine water, and for sources of industrial use of water
related to human consumption.

III

Suitable for water resources for general industrial use.

IV

Suitable only for harbors and ocean development activities.

Table 2.2.5. Water quality of the ten major watersheds
in 2011 and 2013
Grade
I-III

Year

Grade
IV-V

Worse than
Grade V

Note

2011

61.0%

25.3%

13.7%

Based on surface water
quality monitoring of 469
sections (Source: MEP 2012a)

2013

71.7%

19.3%

9.0%

(Source: MEP 2014a)

Republic of Korea

Description
Suitable for marine fishing, marine nature preserves andprotected areas for rare or endangered marine organisms.

Japan

Grade

(Source: MEP 2007)

Lao PDR

100
80
I-III

Malaysia

60

IV, V

40

worse than V

0

YanztzeRiver

Yellow
River

Pearl
River

SonghuaRiver

Huaihe
River

Haihe
River

LiaoheRiver

Figure 2.2.2. State of river water quality of the ten big water systems in 2013

RiversRivers inin Zhejiang Southwest
Province and China
Fujian Province

Myanmar20

InlandRiverswas heavily polluted. COD and total phosphorus (TP) andTable 2.2.6 shows the state of water quality in 61 major

permanganate index were the major pollution index.

lakes and reservoirs based on the national water quality

Among the 61 monitored lakes and reservoirs, Dianchi Lakemonitoring programme. The water quality of more thanin Yunnan Province was categorised as heavy pollution

60% of them was categorised as good or fair, about 10%

whose nutrition index higher than 60 (MEP 2014a).

Philippines

Lakes and reservoirs

Nepal(Source: MEP 2014a)

Sri Lanka

Table 2.2.6. Water quality of major lakes and reservoirs in 2013
Type ofwater bodies

Number ofwater bodies

Good

Slightlypolluted

Fair

Intermediately
polluted

Heavilypolluted

0

0

2

0

1

Important lakes

31

5

9

10

1

6

Important reservoirs

27

12

11

4

0

0

Total

61

17

20

16

1

7

Percentage in 2013

(61)

28

33

26

2

11

Viet Nam

3

ThailandThree lakes**Three lakes: Taihu Lake, Dianchi Lake and Chaohu Lake
(Source: MEP 2014a)

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 201535

Coastal water

Liaming

Beijing

Seawater in China is overall in good condition with 66.4%
Ianjinof coastal areas classified as Grade I and II according to thenational sea water quality standard and 15% as Grade III
and IV (Figure 2.2.3). In terms of coastal seawater quality of

Shandong

the four major areas, the Yellow Sea, South China Sea andthe Bohai Sea was good, fair or average, while the East
China Sea had poor water quality (MEP 2014a).

Jiamgsu

GroundwaterAnhui

The results of groundwater quality monitoring in 2013shows that 43.9% of 4,778 monitoring points were
Grade I
Grade II
Grade III
Grade IV
＞Grade IV

assessed as “poor” in quality and 15.7% as “very poor”(MEP 2014a) (Figure 2.2.4). The major pollution index weretotal hardness, iron, ammonia nitrogen, nitrite nitrogen,nitrate nitrogen, manganese, total dissolved solids, sulfate,

Jiargxi

Guangxi

Zhejiang

Fujianfluoride, and chloride etc.(MEP 2014a). In 2011, MEP
issued the National Plan for Groundwater Pollution

Shanghai

Guangdong

TaiwanPrevention and Control. According to this plan, theinvestigation on the status of groundwater pollution isundertaking across the country which is planned to befinished at the end of 2015.

Wastewater and major pollutants
The total discharge of wastewater from industrial sources,
municipal domestic sources in urban areas and agricultural

HainanIslands in South
China Sea

Figure 2.2.3. State of coastal water quality inmainland China in 2013
(Source: MEP 2014 a)sources has increased, while COD and ammonia nitrogenis on the decline. The total discharge of wastewater in
China in 2013 was 69.54 billion tons: 20.98 billion tons fromindustries and 48.51 billion tons from domestic sources.
The discharge is an increase of approximately 5% from

Very good

2012 (65.92 billion tons). Since 2011, the ChineseGood

government has monitored COD and ammonia nitrogen

Betterdischarge from agricultural sources including plantations,Poor

fishery and livestock farming. The total discharge of COD

Very poor

was 23.527 million tons which is a decrease of 5.9% from2011 (24.998 million tons). 48% of the COD was discharged
from agricultural sources; 58% of ammonia nitrogen wasfrom municipal domestic wastewater (MEP 2014b).

36

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2015

Figure 2.2.4. Groundwater Quality Monitoring Results in 2013
(Source: MEP 2014)

Chapter2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Institutional arrangements

Cambodia

05. Frameworks for Water Environmental
Management

The Ministry of Environment Protection (MEP), which was
upgraded from the State Environmental Protection
and control environmental pollution in the country throughliving environment as well as pollution control, is theoverall supervision and coordination of environmental

responsibility of the state according the Constitution of theprotection management. Provincial and municipal

People’s Republic of China. The Environmental Protection

governments also play important roles in pollution control

Law of the People’s Republic of China stipulates thewith local legislation and standards.

Indonesia

Administration (SEPA) in 2008, has the mission to prevent

Protection and improvement of both the ecological andChina

Legislation

objectives of water environmental preservation as “toresources and the conservation of marine resources,

The national five-year plan for economic and social

maintain the ecological balance and enhance thedevelopment is the country’s principle policy document

development of modern socialism.” Figure 2.2.5 shows thewhich also includes targets for water environmental

outline of legislation regarding water quality control inmanagement. In addition, a national five-year plan for water

China. The Environmental Protection Law of the People’s

pollution prevention and control in major river basins was

Republic of China was amended in 2014 and put into effectestablished as a key policy document for water

since 1 January 2015. For surface water and groundwater

environmental management.

Republic of Korea

Water environmental management policyJapanensure human health, maintain the effective use of water

quality control, the Law of the People’s Republic of China
The Environmental Quality Standards for Surface Water

quality standards and water pollutant discharge standards

stipulates standard values for 24 basic parameters in thewere established. For seawater, the Marine Environment

five above-mentioned grades. The Quality Standard forProtection Law of the People’s Republic of China was

Groundwater stipulates standard values for 39 parameters,

established in 1982. Seawater quality standards were set

and 35 parameters in the Sea Water Quality Standard.

up under the Marine Environment Protection Law. In

Water Quality Standards for Fisheries and Standards for

addition to these laws, regulations and administrative

Irrigation Water Quality were established as additional

decrees/rules related to water pollution control, such as thewater quality standards.

Malaysia

Ambient water quality standards

in 2008 under which ambient surface and groundwater

Lao PDRon Prevention and Control of Water Pollution was amended

Interim Measures on the Collection of Pollution Discharge

Monitoring of water quality in public water bodies

MyanmarFee, also exist.

Water quality monitoring is conducted in stations
established across the country to check the water quality
Environmental Protection Law

Law on Prevention and Control of Water Pollution

monitoring was implemented in 409 stations for 204 rivers,
182 cities with 4,110 stations for groundwater, 26 lakes,
and 279,225 km 2 of coastal areas (MEP 2011a). The
analytical methods for water quality are provided in eachwater quality standard (Environmental Quality Standard for– Environmental Quality Standards for Surface Water– Quality Standard for Groundwater

Surface Water (GB3838-2002), Quality Standard for– Water Quality Standard for Fisheries– Standards for Irrigation Water Quality(Source: MoEJ 2009)

Standard (GB3097-1997)).

Effluent standards
Effluent quality of domestic wastewater at the discharge
points of urban wastewater treatment plants is regulated

ThailandFigure 2.2.5. Legislative Framework for Water Quality

Groundwater (GB/T14848-93) and Sea Water Quality

Sri Lanka

Marine Environment Protection Law

Other Water Quality Standards

Philippines

Water Quality Standards

Conservation of Water Quality in Sea Water

Nepal

Conservation of Water Quality in
Surface Water and Groundwaterof rivers, groundwater, lakes and seawater. In 2010,by the Discharge Standard of Pollutants for Municipal
Wastewater Treatment Plants (GB18918-2002). The
Integrated Wastewater Discharge Standard (GB 8978-1996)

Viet Nam

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 201537

regulates effluent levels for industrial wastewater. However,for industries constructed before 31 December 1997 andfor various types of industries such as iron and steel andafter 1 January 1998 in the Integrated Wastewater

meat packing industries, which are not covered by the

Discharge Standard (GB 8978-1996). Since 2008, more thanabove standard, individual standards were established.

ten new effluent standards were added to the existing

Different target values for specific pollutants are designed

standards (as of October 2011) (MEP 2011c).

Box 2.2.1. Main measures taken to meet the pollution reduction targets

Pollution control regulations such as a stricter EIA process, total discharge pollution load control, and an examination
system for water quality of trans-boundary river sections of the main river basins, as well as the enforcement system
for these instruments, including performance appraisal methods of local governments, could be construed as one of
the main effective measures behind China’s achievements to date.
Specifically for the EIA process, MEP has reinforced stricter rules for construction projects that impact water
quality. In the river basins and regions that have not met reduction targets, approvals for new investments and plant
expansion were restricted. As well, plants that did not meet water quality standards within a certain time frame wereclosed down. The process has gained legal validity as it was stated in the Article 18 of the revised Law of the People’s
Republic of China on Prevention and Control of Water Pollution in February 2008, that for areas with total dischargeof water pollutants over the prescribed level, the government shall suspend the examination and approval of EIA
documents for construction projects.
In addition, by replacing the previous pollution concentration based approach, the total discharge pollution load
control approach was adopted to take into account the carrying capacity of the pollution receiving water bodies
when discharging wastewater. In its implementation, discharge load permits were issued to polluters, discharge feesfor emissions above standards were levied, and enterprises violating the relevant regulations were closed down. In
order to enforce and implement the above measures, the central government has signed an agreement with local
governments. The agreement makes it obligatory for the local governments to meet pollution reduction targets and ifthey fail to do so, the responsible officials, including the head of the government, will not be promoted and may evenbe demoted. This link between performance evaluation indicators and pollution reduction targets was the newest
initiative taken during the 11th Five-Year Plan.
(Source: World Bank 2008)

06. Recent Policy Achievements
Protecting Water Environment

proportion of river sections of the seven big rivers which

The National 11th Five-Year Plan (2006-2010) has set an

taken to meet the pollution reduction targets are explained

obligatory target of reducing COD emissions by 10% fromin Box 2.2.1.

met Grade III water quality standards increased from 41%
in 2005 to 59.9% in 2011 (MEP 2011d). The main measuresthat of 2005 levels. Since 2006, Environmental Impact
Assessments (EIA) for 822 construction projects failing to

07. Existing and Future Challenges

satisfy water quality control regulations were rejected or38

suspended. Also, more than 20,000 firms that have

China has strengthened its management of the water

discharged wastewater not meeting the requirements ofenvironment that serves as a basis for the soundthe environmental protection law were closed down. As adevelopment of the country. Currently, water environmental

result, during the 11th Five-Year Plan, the amount of COD

management in the country has incorporated additional

discharged decreased by 12.45% compared to that of 2005

strategic management policies in which cultural andlevels, thus meeting the reduction target (MEP 2011b).

ecological aspects, as well as resource-saving aspects, areFurthermore, under the national monitoring programme, by

included. Drinking water source protection remains a

the end of 2010, 80.9% of the river section has satisfied thepriority, and groundwater is taking off as a new priority area

national surface water quality standards. The averagein water quality management in China.

concentration of permanganate value of river sections

As for pollution reduction, the 12th Five-Year Plandecreased by 31.9% compared to that of 2005, and the(2011-2015) set a goal of an 8% reduction of COD discharge

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2015

Chapter2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Cambodia

and a 10% reduction of ammonia nitrogen compared withthat of 2010. Prevention and control of agricultural nonpoint
pollution is also highlighted (MEP 2011d). According to the12th Five-Year Plan for National Environmental Protection(2011-2015) mentioned that among national monitoringChina

spots, the surface water quality worse than Grade V would
be less than 15%, with water quality better than Grade III
among the seven major water systems would reach 60%

Indonesia(the State Council 2011).
COD monitoring in the 11th Five-Year Plan covered
mostly discharges from point sources, and monitoring of
non-point sources will become necessary tocomprehensively address the pollution of the waterJapanenvironment in China. According to the first national
pollution source survey in 2010, over 40% of waterpollutants come from agricultural sources such as the run-

Republic of Korea

off of fertilisers, pesticides, livestock wastes and landfill
leakage. Agricultural pollutants accounted for 57.2% of
total nitrogen and 67.4% of total phosphorous in water(MEP 2010b). These results have led to the adoption of a
new reduction target for ammonia nitrogen. With the

Lao PDR

increase of water for domestic use along with economic
growth, measures in the domestic sector such as
development of sewage treatment plants may beconsidered.

Malaysia

In the 12th Five -Year Plan, reinforcement ofenvironmental protection was identified as a focus.
Specifically, the reduction of heavy metal pollution and air
and soil pollution was highlighted to protect human health

Myanmar(MEP 2011d). From the perspective of the water
environment, pollution from heavy metals is particularly
threatening to the safety of drinking water sources or the
groundwater supply in China. According to the State

Nepal

Council, 18% of the water supply in China is fromgroundwater, and out of 657 cities, more than 40% use
groundwater as the major source of drinking water (Chinese
Government’s Official Web Portal 2011). The pollution ofPhilippines

groundwater remains a serious issue; within the past two
years between January 2010 and May 2011, there were 21
heavy metal pollution incidents including lead poisoning
and damage to the protection zones (Wang 2011). A

Sri Lanka

national plan was adopted by the State Council in August
2011 to protect the safety of groundwater sources andaddress pollution prevention. Under the plan, the local
government will be required to establish a groundwater

Thailandenvironment supervision system by 2015 and pollution
prevention mechanisms by 2020 ( Jin 2011).

Viet Nam

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 201539

2.3 Indonesia

01. Country information

availability on Java in 2000 was just 1,750 m3 per capita, but
this number is expected to fall to 1,200 m3 per capita by

Table 2.3.1. Basic indicators

2020 (MoE 2013). There was a significant upward trend inLand Area (km2)

1,910,931 (2014)

Total Population (person)

249 million (2013)

GDP (current USD)

868 billion (2013)

Per Capita GDP (current USD)
Long-Average Precipitation (mm/year)

2015, it is predicted that this figure will double to 356,575
million m³/year. However, the country is facing a crisis ofunprecedented proportions with the decreasing availability

2,702 (2009)of clean water resulting from environmental degradation

2,019 (2009)

Total Annual Freshwater Withdrawals(billion m3)

113.3 (2000)

Annual Freshwater
Withdrawal by
sectors

demand was approximately 156,000 million m3/year. By

3,475 (2013)

Total Renewable Water Resources (km )3water consumption over the past years; in 2000, total waterand pollution.
The average amount of clean water used by households
in Indonesia is estimated at 110 litres per capita per day.

Agriculture

81.9% (2000)

With a population of 248.8 million people in 2013, theIndustry

6.5% (2000)

drinking water needs for the population of Indonesia

Municipal(including domestic)

11.6% (2000)(Source: See Appendix)

accounts for a minimum of 27.3 million m3 per day (i.e. 9.96
billion m3 per year). In 2012, only 59% of the population wasusing improved sanitation while 85% of the population had
access to improved drinking water sources (WHO/UNICEF
2014).

02. Major Water Basins in Indonesia

04. State of Water Quality
RiversMahakam
BaritoKapuasThere are 5,590 major rivers in Indonesia. Most large rivers

Kalimantan
Salo Walanae
Sulawesi

have experienced pollution due to pressure from various
sources (MOE 2011). Monitoring carried out by the

MalukuPapua

KamparIndragiri
BatanghariMusi

Cisadane
Sumatera
Jakartagovernment during 2008-2012 revealed that the river water
quality is steadily deteriorating, especially on the islands ofJava and Sumatra (MoE 2013). The percentage of theSalo Maros

heavily polluted rivers, as defined by Class 2 Water Quality

Citarum Brantas Bali&Nusatenggara
Bengawan Solo

Indian Ocean

Australia

Figure 2.3.1. Water basins in Indonesia

Criteria in Government Regulation No. 82/2001, was alreadyover 60% in 2008. This further increased to 82% in 2011
but decreased to 75.2% in 2012.
A major source of pollution is untreated domestic
wastewater and waste directly dumped into river bodies.
Among the observed water quality parameters, organic

03. State of Water Resources

loadings and coliform, that are usually related to domestic
sources, did not comply with the Class 2 Water Quality

40

Water resources in Indonesia account for almost 6% of thecriteria in the majority of the cases (Figure 2.3.2). The

world water resources or about 21% of total wateramount of organic matter in the river water in almost all

resources in the Asia-Pacific region. The annual per capita

provinces exceeded the limit of 25 mg/L for chemical

water availability in Indonesia is 16,800 m3, which is higher

oxygen demand (COD) stipulated in Government Regulation

when compared with the world’s average (MoE 2013). But

No. 82/2001. Reducing the pollution from the domestic

the available water is unevenly distributed spatially andsources is the biggest challenge because only 139.69

temporally. According to a report by the Indonesian Drinking

million kg, or 5.4% of the total daily domestic loads can be

Water and Environmental Health Work Group, water

managed at present.

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2015

Chapter2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

(%)

2009

2010

2011

2012

Cambodia

2008

70
60
50
40

China

30
20
10

Indonesia

Tortal Coli

Fecal Coli

H 2S

Free chlorine

Detergent

Oil & grease

Phenol

T-P

NO3

NO2

COD

BOD

DO

TSS

TDS

pH

00

Japan

Parameters

Republic of Korea

Figure 2.3.2. Percentage of water quality parameters not compliant with Class 2 Water Quality Criteria in Government
Regulation 82/2001(Source: MoE 2013)

Another major cause of water pollution is wastewaterLakes and reservoirs

as agriculture, textiles, pulp and paper, petrochemicals,on the water quality in lakes from various sources such as

mining and oil and gas. Intensive monitoring through thedomestic activities, agriculture, livestock, forestry, industry,

Program for Pollution Control Evaluation and Ratingetc. Water quality monitoring in 15 lakes in the priority list

(PROPER) and the permit system managed to reduceof the government revealed that 12 lakes were in a

pollution loads. From 2010-2012, water pollution loads fromeutrophic state while three lakes were even hyper-eutrophic

industrial sources were reduced by 19.89 billion kg, or(MoE 2013). However, 2012 monitoring in five of the twelve

52.3% of the total amount of industrial organic wastewater.

eutrophic lakes found slight improvements in two lakes

Other pollutant sources outside of Java and Sumatra include(Batur and Lake Singkarak) (Table 2.3.2).

Malaysia

Similar to conditions in rivers, there is significant pressure

Lao PDR

from the industrial activities of small-scale industries suchfrom illegal logging and farming (MoE 2011). Pollution loads
from these sources are difficult to monitor and manage.
In addition, the water quality of rivers in West Java is in

Table 2.3.2. Trophic state and water quality of
the five lakes in 2012
Lakes

Trophic state

Water quality

Lake Tempe

Hypertrophic (based on total-P)
Oligotrophic (based on total-N)

were categorised as Class D, which indicates extremely

Lake Batur

Mesotrophic

Heavilypolluted
Lightlypolluted

Lake Singkarak

Eutrophic at the inlet(based on total N and P)
Mesotrophic at the middle(based on total N and P)

Polluted

Lake Kerinci

Eutrophic(based on total N and P)

Lightlypollutedpoor water quality. Around 80% of the water in the Ciliwung
River and 60% of the Citarum River has been contaminatedby domestic waste and the remaining 20 to 40 per cent of
the waste comes from small-scale businesses (livestockand farming) and industry, respectively (MoE 2013). At the
Citarum watershed, not a single location meets the water

Sri Lanka

Ciliwung, Citanduy and Cilamaya, showed that all rivers

seven rivers, the Cimanuk, Citarum, Cisadane, Kali Surabaya,

Philippines

Lightlypolluted

Nepal

Lake Toba

Eutrophic (based on total-P andchlorophyll-a concentration)
Oligotrophic (based on total-N)

critical condition. The results of research conducted on

Myanmaragriculture and land erosion, which have resulted in part

(Source: MoE 2013)

Power together with the Research Center for Natural

demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD) andResources and Environment (PPSDAL) Padjadjaran

suspended substances at all locations, especially the

University, Bandung in 2004, indicate that the water quality

parameters of dissolved oxygen which is an indicator of theof Saguling reservoir was already above the normal

health of a water body, were at very low levels, with somethreshold. The content of mercury (Hg), for example,

readings even plunging to zero in locations such as Sapan,

reached 0.236 mg/m3. In fact, the standard, safe rate is

Cijeruk, and Burujul Dayeuh.

0.002 mg/m3 (MoE 2011).

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2015

Viet Nam

The results of research conducted by PT Indonesia

feacal coliform, dissolved oxygen (DO), biochemical oxygen

Thailandquality criteria for Class II water quality. The high content of41

Coastal water

resources must be managed comprehensively andIndonesia is the largest archipelago in the world withintegrally with an environmental concept, with the aim of

13,466 islands, about 5.8 million km2 of sea area and 81,000

realising the benefits of sustainable water resources.

km of coastline. Pollution threatens the Indonesian seas.

Towards this end, water has been recognised as having an

Some parts of the coastal areas are vulnerable to oil

important function in achieving this development andpollution as 36 incidents of oil spills were reported during

maintaining the well-being of humans and other creatures,

1997-2012 (BPS 2012). According to the State of theand that it needs to be wisely managed for the benefit ofEnvironment Report of Indonesia 2012, monitoring data

both present and future generations, as well as to achievefrom several marine ports (Tanjung Priok - Jakarta; Ciwandan

an ecological balance. Figure 2.3.3. shows the basic- Banten, Gorontalo and Parigi, Gulf of Tomini) and tourism

legislative structure for water environment management.

areas (Gulf of Tomini, Parigi-Palu and Pahuwato-Gorontalo)

Environmental acts and regulations were introduced in theshow low clarity (<3m), and high concentrations of

1980’s in Indonesia, such as the Law No. 4/1982 on

ammonia, total suspended solids (TSS), offshore oil andEnvironmental Management. The successor of the firstgrease, and phenol, which exceed the marine water quality

environmental management law, the Basic Law concerning

standards for harbour areas (Decree of the State Minister ofEnvironmental Management Law No. 23 of 1997, wasthe Environment Number 51 of 2004 Concerning Marine

replaced by the Law Concerning Environmental Protection

Water Quality Standards). In particular, phenol concentrations

and Management Law No. 32 of 2009. Outlined in this law

in 2012 have increased compared to the monitoring results

were the following goals (Article 3):of 2011.

(a) protecting the country from environmental pollution and/In the northern coastal areas of West Java, damaged

or damage;areas are characterised by the destruction of mangrove(b) assuring human safety, health and life;

forests, coastal erosion and the siltation of rivers that have(c) assuring the continuation of human, animal and plant life

an impact on boat traffic events. The level of abrasion thatand ecosystem conservation;

occurs on the south coast is around 35.35 ha/year and about(d) conserving environmental functions;

370.3 ha/year on the north coast, with a seawater pollutant(e) achieving environmental harmony, synchronisation andindex between 7.391 and 9.843, indicating heavy pollution(MoE 2011).

balance;( f ) ensuring justice for the present and future generations;(g) fulfilling and protecting the right to the environment;

Groundwater(h) controlling the utilisation of natural resources;

Groundwater is an important water source due to its large( i ) realising sustainable development, andpotential volume, amounting to 30.61% and the potential( j ) anticipating global environmental issues.

of groundwater basins is promising on several islands, witha total area of 723,629 km2 and a total basin capacity of

The Management of Water Quality and Control over

308,288 m3 (MoE 2013). The Decree of Health Minister No.

Water Pollution Government Regulation No. 82 of 2001 is

416 of 1990 concerning the provision and control of water

the principle law for water quality management which

quality stipulates quality standards for groundwater.

focuses on controlling water pollution. Under this law,

According to the Jakarta State of the Environment Reportwater quality classifications were defined.

2006, about 39% of monitoring wells in the Jakarta area,
which are mostly located in densely settled areas, have

Institutional arrangements

concentrations of E. coli that exceed standards

In Indonesia, there are several ministries dealing with water(Environmental Management of DKI Jakarta 2007).

management, such as the Ministry of Environment (MoE)and the Ministry of Public Works (PU). The MoE is responsible

05. Frameworks for Water Environmental
Management

for water quality management and pollution while the
Ministry of Public Work deals with water resource
management especially focusing on quantity and water

Legislation

In 2015, the Ministry of Environment was integrated

is to enable environmentally-sustainable development.

with the Ministry of Forestry to become a new ministry, theIntegral water resources management is regulated by Law

Ministry of Environment and Forestry.

No. 7 of 2004 on Water Resources, which states that water

42

uses.

The objective of environmental management in Indonesia

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2015

Chapter2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Cambodia

Law Concerning Environment Protection and Management Law No. 32 of 2009

Water quality criteria (for inland water)

Decree of the Minister of Environment Number
112 of 2003 Concerning the Standard Quality ofWastewater for Commercial and/or Domestic Activities

Decree of the State Minister of theEnvironment Number 51 of 2004 Regarding
Standard Quality of SeawaterIndonesia

Conservation of Water
Quality in Marine Water

China

Conservation of Water
Quality in Inland Water

Decree of the Minister of Environment
Number 51 of 1995 Concerning Quality
Standard of Liquid Waste for Industrial Activities

Management of Water Quality and Control
over Water Pollution Government Regulation
Number 82 of 2001

Water quality criteria (for marine water)

Other Decrees

Effluent standards

Japan

Figure 2.3.3. Legislative chart for water quality management(Source: MoEJ 2009)

Water quality standards

The National Medium-Term Development Plan (2010- 2014)

Water quality criteria (WQC) were set as the benchmarks

set the following numerical targets related to thefor water quality conservation under the Management ofconservation of the water environment:

Water Quality and Control over Water Pollution Government
Regulation Number 82 of 2001. These criteria are theDecrease in pollution levels by 50%

minimum standards set by the national government; local

Cessation of environmental degradation in 11 priority

governments are free to set their own criteria, even stricter

watersheds

values than those established by the national government,

According to the State of Environment Indonesia 2010

using local settings as a base, and may include additional

prioritised for restoration:

parameters not included in national criteria.

Malaysia

report, the following rivers and lakes were specifically

Lao PDR

Reduction of pollution load from 680 industries

Republic of Korea

Water environmental management policy

WQC sets standard values for 45 parameters in fourclasses which are determined based on the type of water(1) Ciliwung

categorised into classes, and the state of water quality in(2) Cisadane

the country is evaluated based upon whether values(3) Citarum (West Java); Solo (Central Java)

comply with values listed in Class II. For marine water(5) Progo (Yogyakarta)

quality conservation, seawater quality standards are used

(6) Siak (Riau)

as the benchmark for water quality, under the Decree of the(7) Kampar (Riau)

State Minister of the Environment Number 51 of 2004

(8) Batanghari (Edinburgh)

Regarding Standard Quality of Seawater. The three kinds of(9) Musi (South Sumatra)

standard quality of seawater are set based on the usage or

Nepalusage (Table 2.3.3). However, rivers have not fully been
MyanmarRivers:Philippines(10) Barito (southern central)(11) Mamasa (South Sulawesi)

Table 2.3.3. Classes of inland water quality(1) Limboto (Gorontalo)

Class I

Water that can be used as raw water for drinking water,
and/or other usage that requires the same water quality
for such usage.

Class II

Water that can be used for water recreation, infrastructure/means, freshwater fish farming, animal husbandry, water
for irrigating gardens, and/or other usage that requires thesame water quality for such usage.

Class III

Water that can be used for freshwater fish farming, animalhusbandry, water for irrigating gardens and/or other usagethat requires the same water quality for such usage.

(2) Toba (North Sumatra)(3) Tempe (South Sulawesi)(4) Tondano (North Sulawesi)(5) Maninjau (West Sumatra)(6) Singkarak (West Sumatra)(7) Poso (Central Sulawesi)(10) Batur (Bali)(Source: MoEJ 2009)

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2015

Viet Nam(9) Swamp Dizziness (Central Java)

Water that can be used for irrigating gardens and/orClass IV other usage that requires the same water quality for suchusage.

(8) Matano (South Sulawesi)

ThailandUse

Sri LankaClass

Lakes:

43

characteristics of seawater: standard quality for harbour

values for wastewater quality standards by individual

waters, marine tourism, and marine biota. As with water

regulations. Local governments such as in DKI Jakarta,

criteria for surface water, local governments are permitted

West Java and Jogjakarta established stricter wastewaterto set stricter standards. One example is the Regulation ofquality standards than the national government.

the Governor of DKI Jakarta Province No.93/2006, whichapplies stricter standards for capitals of provinces and thespecial region of Jakarta (DKI Jakarta Province).
As of January 2012, the Ministry of Environment of

06. Recent Developmentin Environmental Management

Indonesia is drafting a new government regulation revising

The Environmental Protection and Management Law No.

the existing Government Regulation No. 82 of 2001 to

32 of 2009 was established in 2009. The law is morereflect the more recent Regulation No. 32 of 2009. The

comprehensive than its predecessor, Environmental Law

draft was completed and is awaiting approval. (Information

23 of 1997 (Syarif 2010). It introduces several new principles

from the focal person of Indonesia).

such as precautions, harmony and equilibrium of theenvironment, eco-regions, biological diversity, participation,

Monitoring of water quality in public water bodies

local wisdom, good governance, and regional autonomy

Water quality monitoring schemes are determined under(Article 2). To strengthen pollution source control, the law

the Management of Water Quality and Control over Water

introduced new stricter provisions. Some examples are as

Pollution Government Regulation as follows:

follows:(1) Monitoring of water sources in the regency/municipal

Introduction of the environmental permit system andregion is carried out by the regency/municipal government

guaranteeing funds for restoration: Environmental(2) Monitoring of water sources in two or more regency/

permits were introduced in addition to environmental

municipal regions within one province is coordinated byi m p a c t a s s e s s m e n t s t a t e m e n t s ( A M DA L ) o r

the provincial government and is carried out by eachenvironmental management and monitoring efforts

regency/municipal government(UKL-UPL) (Article 36-41). All businesses activities which(3) Monitoring of water sources in two or more provincial

require AMDAL or UKL-UPL are required to obtain anregions and/or water sources on the border with otherenvironmental permit issued by the Minister of thecountries is observed by the national government.

Environment, governor and/or mayors (Article 36). In
addition, the Environment Permit is a requirement toWater quality observation is carried out at least once

obtain business operation permits. This means thatevery six months and results are submitted to the minister.

businesses must stop operations if their environmental

The mechanisms and procedures for water quality

permits are revoked. The permit can be recalled even ifmonitoring are stipulated further in detail through afalse statements are found in submitted documents. The

ministerial decree.

environmental permit holder is required to “provide

Since 2004, 33 Regional Environmental Impact Control
Agencies in the provinces have monitored water quality
parameters in 40 rivers in Indonesia.

Effluent standards
National wastewater quality standards are specified with aministerial decree by taking into account suggestions from
related government agencies (Management of Water
Quality and Control over Water Pollution Government
Regulation). As with water quality standards, the provincial

44

guarantee funds for the restoration of the environmental
functions” (Article 55).
Environmental risk analysis: All businesses and/or
activities which may cause serious environmental
impacts are required to conduct an “environmental
analysis” which is composed of “risk assessment,” “riskmanagement” and “risk communication.” Details of theanalysis will be stipulated by government regulations in
the future (Article 47).

government can specify the same or tighter wastewater

Environmental audit: Periodical environmental audits

quality standards than the national wastewater quality

become a requirement for businesses and/or activities

standard.

which have high potential for negative environmental

In 2001, the government set up the first effluent

impacts. Personnel in charge of non-compliancestandards for 14 industrial activities. By 2005, this number

business/activities are also requested by the Minister ofincreased to 21 by the Decree of the Minister of Environment

the Environment to conduct environmental audits.

Number 51 of 1995 Concerning Quality Standard of Liquid

Certified environmental auditors carry out audits (Article

Waste for Industrial Activities. The minister determines the

48-51).

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2015

Chapter2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Strengthened penalty for non-compliance: The new
Cambodialaw stipulates stricter administrative and criminal
penalties for non-compliance with provisions stipulated
in relevant laws, including environmental standards/
criteria and effluent standards.

China

In addition to strengthening provisions related tobusinesses, the law includes provisions to incorporate

Indonesia

environmental concerns in development plans andeconomic activities by governments (Article 42 and 43) andpromote public participation.
As stated in the previous section, the Ministry ofEnvironment and Forestry was established in 2015 byJapan

integrating the Ministry of Environment and the Ministry ofForestry. Regulation of the President of the Republic
Indonesia Number 16 of 2015 on the Ministry of Environment

Republic of Korea

and Forestry prescribes the responsibility of eachdepartment in the new ministry as the duty of the directorate
generals or agencies. Regarding water environmental
management, the Directorate General of Control of
Pollution and Environmental Damage holds the duty toformulate and implement policies on the prevention and

Lao PDR

restoration of water pollution in the document.

07. Existing and Future Challenges
Malaysia

To achieve and promote better water environment
management in Indonesia, several attempts will be required
such as:MyanmarCreate incentives for industries to comply with theexisting regulations
Ensure implementation of waste management in rivers

Nepal

Develop and implement water quality restoration policy
instruments
Strengthen database and information systems, andPhilippines

improve capacity building activities in the laboratories
Introduce spatial regulations and promote the involvementof all stakeholders in the process of spatial planning in aparticipatory manner

Sri Lanka
Thailand
Viet Nam

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 201545

2.4 Japan

01. Country information

which calculated by multiplying the annual mean
precipitation by the land area and dividing it by the total

Table 2.4.1. Basic indicators

population, is about 5,000 m3/person/year. This is one third

Land Area (km2)

377,962 (2013)

Total Population (person)

127.3 million (2013)

GDP (current USD)

4,919.6 billion (2013)

Per Capita GDP (current USD)

year.
In respect to the amount of available water resources
per capita, it is about 3,400 m3/person/year, which is less

38,634 (2013)

than half of the world’s average, which is about 8,000 m3/

1,690 (2005)

person/year. Moreover, most of the available waterLong-Average Precipitation (mm/year)
Total Renewable Water Resources (km )

430 (2011)

Total Annual Freshwater Withdrawals(billion m3)

82.4(2008)

3

Annual Freshwater
Withdrawal by
sectorsof the world’s precipitation per capita, 16,000m3/person/

Agriculture

66% (2008)

Industry

15% (2008)

Municipal(including domestic)

19% (2008)(Source: See Appendix)

resources is discharged to the ocean without utilisation
because Japan has a steep topography, very short streams
as well as intensive rainfall in the rainy and typhoon seasons.

04. State of Water Quality
The main objectives of protecting the water environment
in Japan are the protection of human health and theconservation of environment. In order to achieve the02. Major Water Basins in Japan

objectives, environmental standards for ambient water
quality have been established in the Basic Environment

Ishikari River

maintained in public waters. There are two kinds ofMogami River

Tokachi River

Shinano River

Chikugo River
Ariake Bay

environmental quality standards (EQS) for water: those forhuman health which are uniform standards applicable toTenryu River
Kiso River
Lake Biwa
Yodo River
Seto Inland Sea
Gouno River
Ota River

Law as the acceptable water quality levels that should be

Hokkaido

Kitakami River
HonshuTokyo

Shikoku

KyushuLake Kasumigaura
Tone River
Ara RiverTokyo Bay
Tama River
Fuji River

all public water bodies throughout the country and thosefor the conservation of the living environment that is
applied to all public water bodies.

Rivers, lakes, reservoirs and coastal water
In most locations, EQS for human health have been
attained with a 99.2% compliance rate in fiscal year 2013.

Ise Bay

EQS for conservation of the living environment have been

Shimanto River

achieved with an 87.3% rate of compliance for biochemical
oxygen demand (BOD) or chemical oxygen demand (COD),

Okinawa

Figure 2.4.1. Major public water bodies in Japanthe representative water quality indicators of organic
contamination. Compliance rates by types of water bodies
were recorded as 92.0% for rivers, 55.1% for lakes andreservoirs, and 77.3% for coastal waters. Although the

03. State of Water Resources

reservoirs remains low (Figure 2.4.2).

Japan is located in the eastern monsoon region of Asia

The compliance rate for total nitrogen and total

and is famous for having one of the highest rainfall

phosphorus for lakes and reservoirs was low at 50.4%. In

accumulations in the world. The annual mean precipitation

contrast, the achievement rate for total nitrogen and total

is 1,690 mm, which is equivalent to about twice the world

phosphorus in coastal waters was 88.6%, which is higher

annual mean precipitation (inland area, 810 mm). On therate than the previous year’s.

other hand, the total amount of precipitation per capita,

46

compliance rate for rivers is high, the rate for lakes and

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2015

Chapter2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Compliance rate (%)

Cambodia

100
90
80
70
60

China

50
40
30
20

RiversLakes andreservoirs

Coastalareas

Indonesia

Overall

10
0
4

77

7
19

80

19

83

19

86

19

89

19

92

19

95

19

98

19

01

19

04

20

07

20

10

20

13

20

20

Fiscal YearJapan

Figure 2.4.2. Shift in environmental standard compliance rate (BOD and COD)
(Source: MoEJ 2013a)

nitrogen show rates exceeding standards. (Figure 2.4.3)

Of the 3,655 wells that were tested in 2012, 224 exceeded

The main causes are considered to be nitrogen load fromstandards for some EQS. The ratio of excess is 6.1%.

excessive fertilisation, inappropriate livestock excreta

Among others, the values for nitrate nitrogen and nitrite

treatment facilities and domestic wastewater.

Republic of Korea

Groundwater

Environmental standard excess rate (%)
7

5
4

Lao PDR

Nitrate nitrogen and nitrite nitrogen
Arsenic
Flourine
Tetrachloroethylene
Trichloroethylene
Lead

6

Malaysia

3
2
1

89

19

90

19

91

19

92

19

93

19

94

19

95

19

96

19

97

19

98

19

99

19

00

20

01

20

02

20

03

20

04

20

05

20

06

20

07

20

08

20

09

20

10

20

11

20

Myanmar0

12

20

Survey year

Nepal

Note 1. Because wells measured in general survey differ by year, the results cannot be simply compared.
(Surveys are not necessarily conducted on the same wells each year.)
Note 2. Environmental standards related to groundwater contamination were established in 1997. Standards preceding
this year are considered evaluation criteria. Moreover, in 1993, the evaluation criteria for arsenic was revised from “under
0.05 mg/L” to “under 0.01 mg/L”, and for lead from “under 0.1 mg/L” to “under 0.01 mg/L”.
Note 3. Nitrate nitrogen, nitrite nitrogen and fluorine were added to environmental standard items in 1999.

Philippines

Figure 2.4.3. Environmental standard excess rates for groundwater (by item)(Source: MoEJ 2015)05. Frameworks for Water Environment
Management

sets provisions for water quality conservation such as

Legislationand the total pollutant load control system. Other laws

The purpose of the Basic Environmental Law is to “ensure

related to the conservation of public water bodies arehealthy and cultured living for both the present and futureshown in Figure 2.4.4.

effluent regulations from factories and businessthe Sewerage Law was enacted in order to construct

Law). The EQS for water were established by the Basicsewerage systems. In addition, the Johkasou Law, on-site

Environmental Law as the administrative targets of ambient

packaged household wastewater treatment plant for areas

water quality.

without access to sewerage treatment, was established toprotect human health and preserve the living environment

Viet Nam

As a measure of domestic wastewater management,

welfare of mankind “ (Article 1 of the Basic Environmental

Thailandgenerations of the nation as well as to contribute to the

The Water Pollution Control Law, enacted in order to

Sri Lanka

establishments, continuous monitoring of water quality,

define the regulations for their installation, inspection,
desludging and manufacturing.

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 201547

total zinc, nonyl phenol and linear alkylbenzene sulfonicConservation of Water
Quality in Public Water
General Measures

Basic Environment Law
Environmental Quality Standards for
Water Pollutants
Water Pollution Control Law
Factory effluent control, notification offactory establishment, monitoring orders,continuous monitoring.
Measures for household wastewater
Sewerage Law
Construction of sewerage
Johkasou Law
Installation of Johkasou, regulation ofdesludging and production,
registration system of Johkasou
installation worker, licence system ofJohkasou desludging technician, etc

Special Measures in Enclosed Water Bodies
Lakes and Reservoirs

Law Concerning Special Measures for
Preservation of Lake Water Quality
Planning of Plan for the Preservation of
Lake Water Quality, Special Regulations

Estuaries

Water Pollution Control Law
Control of total pollutant load, andcountermeasures against eutrophicationacid and its salt were registered in 2003, 2012 and 2013,
respectively.
Monitoring of public water bodies and groundwater
According to the Water Control Law, prefectural governors
are required to conduct regular monitoring of public water
bodies and groundwater and report to the MoE as well as
inform the public of the state of water pollution in public
water bodies and groundwater. Prefectural governments
prepare monitoring plan and carry out regular water quality
monitoring in cooperation with relevant national
government organisations based on monitoring methods
specified by the MoE. Monitoring results at approximately
7,000 locations in public water bodies nationwide are
publicly released on the MoE website (Figure 2.4.5).

Seto Inland Sea
The Law Concerning Special Measures for Conservation of the
Seto Inland Sea
Ariake Sea/Yatsushiro Sea
The Law Concerning Special Measures for the Restoration of
the Ariake and Yatsushiro seas

鍋川

伝右川

菖蒲川
大場川

荒川

Potable Water Sources
Law Concerning Special Measures for the Protection of Water
Quality in Water Resources Areas for the Purpose of Preventing
Specific Trouble
Groundwater Quality
Conservation
General Measures

石神井川
坂川

Basic Environment Law
Environmental Quality Standards for
Groundwater
Water Pollution Control Law
Regulations for toxic substances fromfactories, purifying orders for polluted
groundwater, and continuous monitoring

綾瀬川
妙正寺川

仙台堀川

Sound Water Cycle
Basic Law on Water Cycle
Holistic and integrated implementation of policies on water cycle
Other Laws Related to Water Environment
Law Concerning Special Measures against Dioxins
River Law
Drinking Water Sources Law
Water Supply Law
Law Rrelating to the Prevention of Marine Pollution andMaritime DisasterFigure 2.4.4. Schemes of legal system for water
environmental management in Japan(Source: MoEJ 2009)

北十間川

神田川

古川

墨田川

大横川

小松川 境川

旧中川

荒川

新中川

左近川

じゃほうがわ旧江戸川

河川水質測定地点

立合川

凡例【BOD（75％値）】

1.1mg/L～2.0mg/L
2.1mg/L～3.0mg/L
3.1mg/L～5.0mg/L
5.1mg/L～8.0mg/L

Figure 2.4.5. Comprehensive information site on
the water environment(Source: MoEJ 2011)

Ambient water quality standards

Effluent standards

Nationwide uniform standard values were set for 27 items as

Based on the Water Pollution Control Law, uniform effluent

the EQS for water related to protection of human healthstandards were established for 28 items related to protection(environmental items). In 1971, the EQS for water wereof human health, which are applicable to factories andestablished. Meanwhile, the EQS for water related to thebusiness establishments. Meanwhile, effluent standards forconservation of the living environment (living environment

15 items related to the living environment target only those

items) include environmental standards set such as for BOD,

factories and business establishments with daily effluent

COD, and DO. Total nitrogen and total phosphorus are also

volumes exceeding 50m3 per day. Local governments

included in the living environment items due to prevention of(prefectures and ordinance-designated cities) may establish

eutrophication in lakes and coastal waters.

stricter effluent standards than the national uniform

Moreover, as indicators of ambient water quality
standards for the conservation of aquatic living resources,

48

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2015

standards when the national standards are considered to be
insufficient to achieve water quality targets.

Chapter2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Total Pollutant load control system (TPLCs)

pollutant loads flowing into the selected enclosed coastal

areas are required to measure and record pollution loads inwaters, namely Tokyo Bay, Ise Bay, and the Seto Inland Sea

discharged wastewater. Governors of prefectures andwhere it is difficult to achieve EQS for water by regulating

mayors of ordinance-designated cities can require reports

discharge based on only concentrations of regulated

to be submitted and conduct inspections of factories andsubstances. Under the system, the national government

business establishments on wastewater treatment

sets targets for pollutant loads every five years (one phasemethods and the quality/amount of wastewater in order tofor five years), and relevant prefectures establish reduction

prevent violations. They are also authorised to takeplans that set targets for each emission source and stipulate

administrative measures in the event that violations are

the methods necessary to meet targets.

found, such as issuing orders for improvements according

Indonesia

mechanism to improve water quality by reducing total

establishments located in total pollutant load control target

China

The total pollutant load control system is a discharge control

business establishments. The factories and business

Cambodia

The Water Pollution Control Law stipulates monitoring
and recording of the quality of effluent from factories andto the outcomes of reports and inspections.

Japan

To date, COD loads has been steadily reduced in target
water bodies since 1979 (Figure 2.4.6). Figure 2.4.7 shows

Republic of Korea

COD generated loads (tons/day)
1,012

1,000

95

Others800

Industrial

Domestic

82

746
72

429
367

200

115

0

Ise Bay286
30 24759 28 211 183 177
25
52
23
22
42
290
36
36
243
197 167
144 124 119

79 1984 989 994 000 005 009 014t)
2
2 rge
2
2
1
1

19

( ta

307
286 272
37
246
35
221
34
29
119 10127
97
83 76
151 150

141 134 118

Seto Inland Sea

67

561

356

55

309

468 472
56
54

286
245

186
22 158 146
20 19
65
57
56
99
81
71

79 1984 989 994 000 005 009 014t)
1
2
2
2 rge
1
2

19

( ta

488

444

400 365319

261

193 215

Osaka Bay

221 201

144
118
10
9
32
26
102 8379 984 989 994 000 005 009 014t)
1
1
2
2
2 rge
2
1

19

( ta

116
10
26
80

05 009 014t)
2
2 rge

20

Malaysia

324

Tokyo Bay413
40 35583 36
76

Ise Bay672

Lao PDR

400

477
38

Tokyo Bay

838

89

600

Osaka Bay

Seto Inland Sea

900

Fiscal year

( ta

Myanmar

Note: Figures for 1979-2009 are actual. Figures for 2014 is the reduction target

Figure 2.4.6. Challenges in pollution load and target value (in terms of COD)
(Source: provided by MoEJ)

東京都

6.1
5.2 5.4
4.4
7.3

6.2 5.2
5.3
4.2
3.8

4.5

4.1

4.0

4.4

3.7

5.0
4.6

3.9
3.9

4.0

神奈川県
3.1

千葉県

4.3

3.7

3.1

凡例
（mg/L)

2.9
2.5

千葉県

2.2

1.7

凡例
（mg/L)

1.5 - 2.0
2.0 - 2.5
2.5 - 3.0
3.0 - 3.5
3.5 - 4.0
4.0 - 4.5
4.5 - 5.0
5.0 - 6.0
6.0 <Thailand2006 - 2008 (average)

Viet Nam

1982 - 1984 (average)

3.0

2.4
2.2

1.5 - 2.0
2.0 - 2.5
2.5 - 3.0
3.0 - 3.5
3.5 - 4.0
4.0 - 4.5
4.5 - 5.0
5.0 - 6.0
6.0 <

2.9

Sri Lanka

2.7

3.4

2.7

2.9

2.4
2.3

3.3

3.5

3.8
3.3
2.8
3.3 3.4 3.2

5.2 4.1

3.8

3.3

Philippines

神奈川県

3.6

3.5
4.3 3.4

4.8

4.5

Nepal

東京都

Figure 2.4.7. COD concentration in Tokyo Bay(Source: provided by MoEJ)WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 201549

the improvement of COD concentration in Tokyo Bay, forinstallation of new Johkasou as well as converting tandoku-

example. Nitrogen and phosphorus loads have also been

shori Johkasou*3 into gappei-shori Johkasou*3 effectively.

reduced since there items are covered by the system in

The MoEJ has several subsidy programmes for the

2001. In July 2011, Japan set forth the basic policy of theinstallation of Johkasou. In the “Johkasou Installation

7th phase total reduction of which target year is 2016.

Promotion Programme”, municipalities provide financial
support to homeowners installing Johkasou. In theDomestic Wastewater Treatment
and Installation of Johkasou“Municipal Johkasou Installation Programme,” theThe percentage of people with access to domestic

Johkasou. In addition to the subsidy for the installation ofwastewater treatment facilities*1 was 88.9% at the end of

Johkasou, the government financially supports the removal

FY 2013 in Japan (except in Fukushima, some of theof tandoku-shori Johkasou to promote the convertion ofmunicipalities where the survey was not available due totandoku-shori Johkasou to gappei-shori Johkasou.

government offers a subsidy to municipalities installing

the Great East Japan Earthquake).

Among sewerage treatment systems, rural sewerage

As shown in Figure 2.4.8, the percentage of people

systems and the Johkasou system, it is important not onlywith access to domestic wastewater treatment facilities isto develop domestic wastewater treatment facilities

low in the municipalities with small populations. In addition,effectively and appropriately, corresponding to theJohkasou is suitable for low density areas. Consideringchanging social conditions, but also to renovate, renew andthese situations, the installation of Johkasou should be

operate the existing facilities effectively, considering

more important in the domestic wastewater treatment intechnological and financial aspects of these systems forthe near future of Japan. Moreover, considering the future

the sustainable management of domestic wastewatersocial conditions such as low birth rate and longevity, andtreatment facilities.

*2

Percentage of people with access to domestic wastewater treatment facilities (%)

population increase, it is inevitable to promote theAt the End of FY 2013

99.5%

100

93.1%

92.0%

S:86.8%

S:83.4%90

S:99.0%88.0%
S:75.6%

80

82.5%
S:62.9%75.6%
S:48.7%70

Domestic Wastewater
Treatment System (Total)

60
50

Percentage of people
with access todomestic wastewater
treatment facilities
National Average:
88.9%

40
30

C:0.5%
R:8.1%

20

R:4.6%

10
0Population

J: 0.3%More than
1 million

R:0.5%
J:5.6%
0.5-1
million

R:1.0%

R:2.7%

J:7.4%

J:9.5%

0.3-0.5
million0.1-0.3
millionJ:14.7%

J:18.3%50-100thousands

Under 50thousands*S: Sewerage system, C: Community sewage treatment system, R: Rural sewerage systems, J: Johkasou system

Figure 2.4.8. Percentage of people with access to domestic wastewater treatment facilities by size of municipality(Source: MoEJ 2014)*1: The domestic wastewater treatment facilities do not include facilities that treat only black water and discharge grey water into the environment without
treatment.
*2: A decentralised domestic wastewater treatment system widely used in rural areas of Japan. It can treat both black water and grey water and obtain a highquality of effluent with aeration (less than BOD 20mg/L according to the structural standard). The advanced type of Johkasou, which can remove nitrogen or
phosphorus is recently widely prevalent. The Johkasou Law modified in 2005 defines the effluent water quality standard for Johkasou.
*3: Tandoku-shori Johkasou is an old type of Johkasou treating only black water. Because this type does not treat grey water, Johkasou means gappei-shori
Johkasou that treats both black water and grey water, and tandoku-shori Johkasou is deemed as Johkasou. As the tandoku-shori Johkasou does not treat grey
water, the removal rate is low and the pollution load is eight times as much as the gappei-shori Johkasou. Therefore, new installations of the tandoku-shori
Johkasou were forbidden based on the modified Johkasou Law of 2000. Although the number of tandoku-shori Johkasou is now decreasing, there are still aboutfour million five hundred thirty thousand facilities in Japan at the end of FY 2012. The issue of how to convert tandoku-shori Johkasou into gappei-shori
Johkasou is very urgent.

50

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2015

Chapter2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

The majority of leaks are caused by the deterioration of
Cambodia

06. Recent Development of
Water Environment Management

production and storage facilities or by unintentional humanerror during use of the production facilities.
Considering these facts, requirements to issue

various revisions of the Water Pollution Control Law havenotifications related to the installation of facilities weretaken place according to the times and demands of society.

expanded to include the installation of facilities that not

Major revisions made in recent years are summarised below.

only use toxic substances, but also store them. Additionally,

China

The establishment of ambient water quality standards andin order to prevent underground seepage of polluted water,compliance with standards related to structures and

The number of water pollution accidents has been on thebusinesses. (Figure 2.4.9)

Indonesia

Expansion of the range of measuresin the event of accidents(2010 revision of the Water Pollution Control Law)requirements for periodic inspection and records of facility
structures and methods were newly imposed on

rise in recent years. While the chemical substancesJapandischarged by water pollution accidents are wide-ranging,
the Water Pollution Control Law targets only polluted watercontaining toxic substances to be covered by the Water

Republic of Korea

Pollution Control Law and oil in the event of accidents. To
fill in the gaps between reality and the measures stipulated
in the Water Pollution Control Law, the 2010 revision of thelaw expanded the target substances subject to emergency
measures and reporting requirements of factories andbusiness establishments in the event of accidents. The

Lao PDR

revision added “specified facilities that use harmful
substances” as target facilities which manufacture, store,
use or process substances that are dangerous to humanwater areas in large quantities.

Figure 2.4.9. Underground infiltration of hazardous
substances from production facilities

Malaysia

health or the living environment when released into public(Source: Provided by MoEJ)

Because the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant

behaviour by businesses and major corporations that

produced serious environmental pollution caused byfalsifyied records on the measurements of effluent loads

radioactive materials during the Great East Japanand quality. To mitigate this behaviour, the revision requires

Earthquake on March, 2011, radioactive materials in publicbusiness establishments to retain monitoring records for awater bodies and groundwater monitoring was

set period of time. Additionally, new penalties were

implemented. The results of the monitoring are evaluatedestablished for businesses that violate these requirements

and disclosed periodically by knowledgable persons.

Philippines

In recent years, there was a string of cases of inappropriate

Nepal

Monitoring of radioactive materials(2013 revision of the Water Pollution Control Law)

MyanmarEstablishment of penalties for unrecorded
measurements for wastewater(2010 revision of the Water Pollution Control Law)by failing to record, retain or falsify records.

Enactment of the Basic Law on Water Cycle (2014)
Proactive measures to prevent groundwater pollution(2011 revision of the Water Pollution Control Law)

The Basic Law on Water Cycle was enacted as a new law in

Groundwater is an invaluable freshwater resource thatand united manners. Because the policies on water cover aaccounts for approximately 25% of the municipal water

variety of matters such as water supply, sewerage system,

supply. It is difficult to detect the causes of pollution

water control, environmental conservation, irrigation andbecause of the complicated migration pathway of

industrial water management, different ministries havegroundwater, and recovering water quality is almost

responsivity of their implementation. The headquarters forimpossible as natural purification is not as prevalent.

Water Cycle Policy mentioned in the Law is expected to

groundwater contamination due to leakage of toxic

effectively in order to maintain and restore sound water

substances from factories and business establishments.

cycle in the future.

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2015

Viet Namfacilitate the implementation of policies holistically and

ThailandEach year, surveys have confirmed cases of

Sri Lanka

order to advance the policies related with water in synthetic

51

Based on this law, the government of Japan is planning

Creation of “sato-umi”

to prepare a master plan on the water cycle for actions

A sato-umi, or “local seaside” is defined as “a coastal area

required over the next five years.

where biological productivity and biodiversity haveincreased through human interaction.” It is an important

07. Existing and Future Challenges

ocean area that has supported not only marine anddistribution industries, but also the local culture andNew approach for wastewater management

exchange with other areas for many years. In a healthy

Because industrial wastewater includes diverse chemicals

sato-umi, the circulation function of materials iseven in low levels, it is quite difficult to grasp the impact ofappropriately maintained due to the integrated

trace chemical substances, transformation products

comprehensive management of land and coastal zones byproduced in industry, intentionally or not, and chemicals

human being. With the preservation of the rich and diverse

with the combined effect by current wastewater regulation

ecosystem and natural environment, sato-umi provides thefor individual chemical substances.

country with a wonderful legacy, and therefore, is a focal

Therefore, the introduction of a new wastewater

point in the protection of the water environment.

management method of utilising the bioassay in analysing
and evaluating the impact of chemicals on the water

Initiatives on global water issues

environment and their toxicity comprehensively is now

Japan’s water environment is closely related to the global

being discussed in Japan. For example, bioassay test forwater environment. Japan has experience in overcoming

industrial wastewater may provide necessary information

serious water pollution. Thus, it is important to contribute toin deciding whether or not the industrial wastewater will

the preservation and improvement of the water environment

influence the risk of ecosystem damage.

in other countries including developing countries by utilising
includinga developed framework and technology. As such, Japan will

hexamethylenetetramine was discharged in the upper

On

May

2012,

wastewater

utilise its technologies and knowledge to promote initiatives

course of the Tone River. The water polluted byin international cooperation, such as institutional transfer

hexamethylenetetramine produced formaldehyde as a by-

and technology support.

product during the water purification process. It caused

Considering these situations, the Japanese

cuts in the water supply for a long time widely, whichgovernment will continue to conduct the “Water

affected three hundred and sixty thousand households andEnvironmental Partnership in Asia (WEPA)” as well aseight hundred and seventy thousand people. The risk

public-private partnerships for the promotion of Japanesemanagement of such disinfection by-product precursors is

wastewater treatment technologies in other countries.

now strengthened by the monitoring of industrial
wastewater by the ministries and agencies responsible for

Biodiversity odiversity

Improvement of water quality of lakes and reservoirs

Appropriate nutrient salts
Healthy substance circulation
Water quality and bottom
sediment

Although the water quality of lakes and reservoirs is

Ecosystem

gradually improving, the actual achievement rate ofDiversity and productivity
Resource managementfishing operations

environmental standards is low at around 50%. Many

Three elements that
support preservation
and restoration

Substance
circulationwater supply and industrial waste disposal.

Contact

Coexistence with nature
Regional cooperative
effortSATOUMIissues have emerged such as decreased native species
and a decline in hauls of fish due to changes in ecosystems,
impediments to water use due to the occurrence of foulodours and filtration obstacles, as well as a weakening of
the relationship between people and lakes due to decreased
contact. In the future, new water quality indicators that
respond to the actual needs of the country’s residents, aswell as targets that reflect the natural conditions andpurpose of each water body should be examined further. It
is important to promote measures for both lakes themselvesand catchment areas that utilise natural purification
mechanism, following efforts to elucidate contamination
mechanisms of lakes and reservoirs.

52

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2015

Activityspheres

Entities that
perform activities
Fishermen and other coastal
residents Urban residents
that use the ocean
Residents ofwatersheds(mountains,rivers,fields and oceans)

Fishing villages and cities
Watershed (mountains,rivers,
fields and oceans)

Sustainability

Two elements that support hands-on action

Figure 2.4.10. The Concept of “Satoumi”(Source: provided by the focal point in 2012)

Chapter2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Cambodia
China
Indonesia
Japan
Republic of Korea
Lao PDR
Malaysia
Myanmar
Nepal
Philippines
Sri Lanka
Thailand
Viet Nam

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 201553

2.5 Republic of Korea

01. Country information

economic growth, the total water use has rapidly increased
6.6 times between 1965 and 2003 (MoE 2011). Seasonal

Table 2.5.1. Basic indicators

variations in water availability are also a challenge for theLand Area (km2)

99,700 (2009)

Total Population (person)

50.2 million (2013)

GDP (current USD)

1,304.6 billion (2013)

Per Capita GDP (current USD)
Long-Average Precipitation (mm/year)

events during the rainy season and droughts in months
with less rain, especially the spring, are critical issues
facing the country. The trend over the past century shows

1,274 (2009)

an increase in the fluctuations of annual precipitation and69.7* (2009)

Total Annual Freshwater Withdrawals(billion m3)

25.5* (2002)

Annual Freshwater
Withdrawal by
sectors

annual precipitation falls during June and September. Flood

25,977 (2013)

Total Renewable Water Resources (km )3country’s water management. About two-thirds of theintensification of floods and drought events (MoCT 2007).
There are four major river basins in Korea, namely the Han,
Geum, Nakdong and Youngsan-Seomjin. Most of the lakes

Agriculture

62%* (2002)

and reservoirs are man-made. The potential of groundwaterIndustry

12%* (2002)

resources of the country is approximately 11.7 billion m3/

Municipal(including domestic)

26%* (2002)* Estimated(Source: See Appendix)

year. The total amount of groundwater use is about
3.98billion m3/year which is mainly used for domestic (44%)
and agricultural purposes (50%) (MoE 2013a).

02. Major Water Basins in Republic of Korea

04. State of Water Quality
RiversAll streams nationwide are classified into 114 sectors andPaldang Lake

Seoul

Han Riverwater quality targets have been established for each. The
water quality in the country has improved overall since the

Inchonlate 1990s. Figure 2.5.2 shows the trend of water quality inselected points in four major river systems (Paldang (Han),
Nakdong River

Geum River

Mulgeum (Nakdong), Daescheong (Geum), and Juam
(Youngsan-Seomjin)) in terms of biochemical oxygen
demand (BOD). While the trend of BOD value shows an

Sumjin River

Youngsan River

improvement, chemical oxygen demand (COD) values havenot significantly improved (Figure 2.5.3). An increase of nondegradable organic pollutants from non-point sources andKwangyang Bay

chemical compounds are considered to be a reason behindthe lack of improvement for COD levels (MoE 2013b). Total

Figure 2.5.1. Major water bodies in Republic of Korea

phosphorus (TP) also increased, which caused algae bloom(MoE 2013b).
A survey on aquatic ecosystem health was started in

03. State of Water Resources

2007 at the four major rivers and other major rivers. The

The Republic of Korea is a thirsty country: the country’s perfair, average, and poor) according to an index using six

capita water availability is about 540 m (MoCT 2007) whichelements, namely attached algae, fish, benthic macro-is far lower than the world’s average and that of southern

invertebates, inhabitation/waterside environment, andand eastern Asia which are about 6,400 m3 and 3,100 m3,

organism’s habitat.

3

respectively (FAO 2012). Due to the population and54

rivers are categorised into four different grades – optimum,

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2015

Chapter2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Similar to the river water quality, the COD value
concentrations also show an increasing trend in recent

05. Framework for Water Environmental
Management
The basic law for the environmental management policy ofwater quality trends in terms of COD and TP in selected

the country is the Framework Act on Environmental Policy

reservoirs. Green Algae is one of the critical environmental

under which environment quality standards are established.

issues of the country.

The major objectives of water environmental management

China

years in lakes and reservoirs. Figure 2.5.4 and 2.5.5 show

Cambodia

Lakes and reservoirs

in Korea under the Water Quality and Ecosystem
the environment, as well as the preservation of clean water

failed to meet groundwater quality standards out of a total

and aquatic ecosystems. The act outlines the framework forof 4,879 samples. The major parameters showing non-water environmental management of the country. Specificcompliance are total coliform, nitrate nitrogen, TCE andacts have been established for the four major rivers, which

PCE, which are detected in industrial and urban residence

form the basis of the country’s restoration project for theseareas. (MoE 2013b)

rivers. Figure 2.5.6 shows the legislative framework relatedJapan

Conservation Act are the protection of people’s health and

The survey conducted in 2011 showed 8% of the samples

Indonesia

Groundwater

to water environmental management in the country.

Geum (Daecheong)

6
4

6
5
4
3

2

2

1

1
2000

2002

2004

2006

2008

2010

2012

0

1996

1998

2000

2002

2004

2006

2008

2010

Figure 2.5.3. Changes in COD values in the four majorbasins (1996-2012)(Source: MoE 2006, 2011, 2013a)(Source: MoE 2006, 2011, 2013a)

5

3

T-P

2

0.05
0.04

0.02
0.01
2000

2002

2004

2006

2008

2010

0

0.07
0.06
0.05

3

0.04
2

T-P

0.02

1
0

0.03

Philippines

0.03

1

COD

4
COD (mg/L)

0.06

0.08

Nepal

COD (mg/L)

0.07
T- P (mg/L)

COD

4

0

5

0.08

2012

MyanmarFigure 2.5.2. Changes in BOD values in the four majorbasins (1996-2012)

Malaysia

1998

Youngsan-Seomjin (Juam)

7

3

1996

Geum (Daecheong)

Lao PDR

50

Nakdong (Mulgeum)

8
COD(mg/L)

Youngsan-Seomjin (Juam)

7

Han (Paldang)

9

T- P (mg/L)

Nakdong (Mulgeum)

8
BOD(mg/L)

10

Han (Paldang)

9

Republic of Korea

10

0.01
2000

2002

2004

2006

2008

2010

0

Figure 2.5.5. Change of water quality in Daecheong Dam 1(Source: MoE 2011 and the data provided by the focal point in 2012)(Source: MoE 2011 and the data provided by the focal point in 2012)

Sri Lanka

Figure 2.5.4. Change of water quality in Paldang Dam 2

ThailandBox 2.5.1. Some facts on pollution sources• In 2010, daily industrial wastewater discharge amounted to 5,229 tons, which was generated from 48,266 unitsof discharging facilities.

Viet Nam•The daily amount of animal manure accounts for 118,000 tons. Only one per cent of the total wastewater volume
comes from animal manure, but it contributed to 37% of the total pollution loads.
(Source: MoE 2013b)

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 201555

Framework Act on Environmental Policy
Conservation of Water Quality in Inland Water
General Measures

Environmental Standards for Water Quality Aquatic Ecosystem

Water Quality and Ecosystem Conservation Act

Special Measures in Specific Rivers- Standards for protection of human health (Rivers and Lakes)- Standards for conservation of the living environment (Rivers)- Standards for conservation of the living environment (Lakes and Marshes)
Groundwater Quality Standards

Act Relating to Han River Water Quality Improvement & Community Support
Act on Nakdong River Watershed Management & Community Support
Act on Geum River Watershed Management & Community Support
Act on Yeongsan & Sumjin River Watershed Manage-ment & Community Support

Conservation of Water Quality in Coastal Waters
Marine Environment Management Act

Coastal Water Quality Standards- Standards for protection of human health- Standards for conservation of the living environment

Other Laws Related to Water Environment
Water Supply & Waterworks Installation Act
Water Supply and Waterworks Installation Act
Sewerage Act
Management of Drinking Water Act
Act on the Management and Use of Livestock Manure

Figure 2.5.6. Legislative chart for water quality management(Source: MoEJ 2009 modified)

Basic policy direction of the water environmental
management

the Water Environment Management Master Plan. Under

The recent policy direction of the country included theour children can swim with aquatic life,” the following

following principles (Yu 2010): Creation of an ecologicallyindicators are included in the master plan (Yu 2010):

healthy water environment; Protection of water quality

Increase water quality improvement (compliance ratio)

against harmful substances; Application of advanced waterfrom 76% to 85%; Increase sewerage treatment coverage

quality standards and assessment methods; Reinforcing

from 81% to 90%; Restore 25% of non-natural stream tothe national water quality policy for lakes, coastal areas andnatural stream; Increase basic criteria of water quality fromestuaries; Full-scale implementation of the total pollution

9 to 30 parameters, and; Conserve 30% of buffer zones

load management system; Focus on the management of

which were purchased in the upper stream as the Riverine

non-point sources and pollutants from livestock farms;

Ecobelt. The Ministry of Environment is responsible for

Improvement of the functions of the water cycle andwater quality and ecosystem management at the central

reinforcing water demand management, and; Rationalisinglevel. The ministry also develops and implements plans forinvestment in environmental infrastructure and efficientthe drinking water supply and wastewater treatment, as

investment. The Ministry of Environment has set up

well as river restoration.

the objective to “create a clean water environment where

objectives and targets for the period of 2006-2015 under
Table 2.5.2. Key Water Environment Management Policies in Korea
Name

Contents and policy measures

Comprehensive measures for supplying
clean water

Packaged water management measures including water quality, drinking water supply andother elements of water source conservation.

Comprehensive Water Quality Improvement
Measures on Four Major Rivers

Packaged measures to improve the status of water in four major rivers which includes total
water pollution load management systems, designated riparian buffer zones, water user
charge and watershed management funds.

Master plan for water environment
management

Follow-up actions of the Comprehensive Water Quality Improvement Measures on Four
Major Rivers, which includes sub-river basin management systems(Source: MoE 2013b )56

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2015

Chapter2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Effluent standards
Ministry of Environment based on the Water Quality andhealth (20 parameters such as Cd, As, and PCB), which is

Ecosystem Conservation Act (Article 32). Currently effluent

applied to both rivers and lakes. The second is standards

standards have been set for discharged water from bothfor the living environment (the residential environment

public and private sewage treatment plants.. Similar tocriteria) that were set for rivers and lakes/mashes,environmental standards, provinces or “Do”can set up local

respectively. The standards for the living environment for

effluent standards where necessary. After 2012, therivers include 9 parameters; standards for lakes/marshes

standard for TP was strengthened to address eutrophication.

Indonesia

Effluent standards are set by an Ordinance of thewater. The first is standards for the protection of human

China

There are two kinds of water quality standards for surface

Cambodia

Ambient water quality standards

include 10 parameters in seven categories (MoE 2013b).
The number of parameters increased responding to theconcerns on hazardous chemicals.

Effluent monitoring
In principle, the effluent quality should be monitoredaccording to water usage purpose. Drinking water standards

A computer network of effluent monitoring measurement

established under the Drinking Water Management Act aredata was introduced in the wastewater treatment facilities

applied for drinking water use with 47 parameters. For

and specific wastewater discharging facilities. Through theother purposes such as domestic, farming and fisheries

Tele-Monitoring System (TMS), real-time data can be

and industrial uses, groundwater standards are used toobtained. The collected data is utilised for promoting

evaluate the groundwater quality. According to the use,credibility of the wastewater discharge fee (MoE 2013b).

there are 14 to 19 parameters set in the standards (MoE

The ratio of facilities with TMS is only 4.3% but it covers

2013b).

95% of the total discharge volume of wastewater. 98% of
public wastewater treatment facilities are under the TMS,
while 73% of the private sector has the system. The TMS

standards than the national standards where necessary inhas contributed to the reduction of pollution loads (Figure

consideration of local environmental conditions (Article 10

2.5.7).

Lao PDR

Special metropolitan cities, provinces or “Do” canestablish more stringent or expanded environmental

Republic of Korea

by those who need to comply with the effluent standards.
Japan

For groundwater, different standards are applied

Monitoring of water quality in public water bodies
and groundwater
network. Monitoring categories include 26 items for rivers,

T-P (ton)T-N (ton)2008

SS (ton)2009

30 for lakes and marshes, and 20 for groundwater. In
particular, there are 52 automatic operating monitoringmeasuring five common items such as DO, TOC, pH and 17
optional items, including VOC. For more efficient inspection,

2010

COD (ton)

2011

BOD (ton)0

20000

monitoring spots are classified according to usage: riverwater and river water flowing through cities.

100000Philippines

water, lake water, drinking water, irrigation water, industrial

40000
60000
80000
pollution loads (tons)

Nepal

stations for surface waters. Water quality is monitored by

Myanmar

Water quality is monitored through a nationwide monitoring

Malaysia(3) Framework Act on Environmental Policy).

Figure 2.5.7. Reduction of Pollution Loads at the Facilities
with TMS(Source: MoE 2013b)

For groundwater, there are national monitoring
If non-compliance of effluent standards is discovered,network managed by local entities including cities,

the Minister of Environment will give the improvement

provinces and local environmental agencies.

order to the business establishment. If the businessestablishment cannot comply with the required quality of2012 for the effective control of water pollution at 16 weirs

effluent, it is subject to a suspension of operations andof four major rivers, which provides chlorophyll-a

penalties.

ThailandThe water quality forecasting system was started in

Sri Lanka

networks managed by four line ministries and a local

concentration and water temperature readings for sevendays. The short-term (a week later) and three-monthtake action (MoE 2013b).

The total maximum daily load system contributes toViet Nam

forecast is provided to the agencies managing water toTotal maximum daily load system (TMDLs)
the improvement of ambient water quality by setting

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 201557

reduction targets for pollutant loads, in addition to

Minister’s Office and in cooperation with related ministries.

conventional concentration-based regulations. Under the

The comprehensive measures contain three major policy

system, designated pollution sources must keep pollutant

fields: policy system improvements, pilot projects on theloads within a “total maximum daily allowable load,” whichconstruction and management of non-point source

is decided based on scientific fact and in consideration ofpollution treatment facilities and research and public

local conditions of all target areas such as specific beneficial

relations. Under the measure, highly vulnerable areas

water uses. Currently, TMDLs have been applied to three

against non-point sources are designated as non-point

major rivers, namely the Nakdong, Geum, and Yeongsan

source control districts, which include Soyang Lake, Doamsince 2004. The current target parameter is BOD, and T-P

Lake, Imha Lake, and Gwangju metropolitan city (Yu 2011).

will be added as a target parameter in the near future.

The first phase (2004-2005) focused on policy system

TMDLs will be enforced in the Hang River from 2013 (Yuimprovement and pilot projects; the second phase (2006-2011).

2011) focused on best-fit management projects for majorriver basins of the four major rivers. As of March 2011, 43

Measures for non-point source pollution

non-point source reduction facilities have been installed on

It is projected that the contribution ratio to water pollution

a pilot basis for different land use types including urban

from non-point sources will exceed that of point sources

areas, farmland and parking lots (Yu 2011). The secondand reach 68-75% by 2020 (MoE 2012). To cope with non-Comprehensive Measures for Non-point Source Pollution

point sources, the Comprehensive Measures for Non-point

Management (2012-2020) was established to continue theSource Pollution Management in the Four Major Rivers wasefforts to address non-point source pollution.

established in 2004 under the leadership of the Prime

Box 2.5.2. Sewage systems in Korea

The volume of generated wastewater was about 6.8 billion tons in 2011. The Water Circulation Use Master Plan
in 2007 set the target of reuse of wastewater at 1.24 billion tons per year until 2016. To ensure proper actions for
wastewater reuse the “Guidebook on Reuse of Treated Wastewater” was published in 2007 which guides waterreuse planning, implementation, operation and management of reusing wastewater, which was further strengthenedby the Promotion and Support for Waste Reuse Act enforced in 2011.
90.9 % of the population was covered by sewer systems in 2011. The total capacity of the sewage system in the
country is 2,522,800m3/day through 505 public sewage treatment facilities that have a capacity of 500m3/day or moreand 2,858 facilities with less than 500m3/day.
Special measures are taken to ensure sources of water. KRW 1.17 trillion was invested to conserve multi-purpose
dams located in 28 cities from 2004 to 2011 from the national budget, and 434 public sewage treatment facilities
were constructed in 2011. Under the Sewage Act, amended in 2012, the Watershed-Sewage Maintenance Planshould be designed to ensure efficiency of construction and maintenance of the sewage system, which targeted 30
watershed plans by 2015.
(Source: MoE 2013b)

58

Water environmental management at basin level

Measures to address algal bloom

The basin management approach has been promoted in

Algal bloom is one of the major pollution issues in Korea

the country such through the water quality improvement

and efforts to address nutrients such as nitrogen andproject for the four major river basins. To promote thephosphorous from point and non-point sources have been

approach, “Riparian Buffer Zones” are designated to control

made. Such efforts include the installation of more

the construction of new facilities casing water pollution

wastewater facilities to treat T-P and the strengthening ofsuch as restaurants, lodgings, public baths, factories andthe effluent standards of T-P. The amended Water Quality

livestock barns. Water use charge was introduced to theand Ecosystem Conservation Act designated “reservoirs

end-users of raw water and municipal water supply systemneed intensive management”, which are reservoirs with abased on the amount of use of water. With the revenue

capacity of more than 10 million m 3 or reservoirs forfrom the water use charge, Watershed Management Fund

agriculture of which the quality status is “slightly poor”

was established at basin level to promote water(Grade IV), or other reservoirs worse than “average” (Gradeenvironment projects and actions.

III) require better management. The government requested

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2015

Chapter2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countriesof the pollution load, especially that of nitrogen andmentioned before and algae alert system (established inphosphorous in reservoirs, and the implementation of1998) equipped at 22 lakes is expected to enable

comprehensive water environmental management

governments and local stakeholders to take appropriate

measures at the basin and sub-basin levels are major

preventative actions against algae bloom issue. (MoE

issues that water environmental management policies may

2013b)

strongly highlight in terms of surface water. Responses toChina

implementation of water quality improvement. Reduction

these reservoirs. The water quality forecasting system

Cambodiathat measures be taken to improve the water quality on

the socio-economic changes, such as the ongoing marchof the aging society and continuous urbanisation, are

Korea has been challenging water pollution issues throughmanagement and a comprehensive and/or integrated

various measures. Improvement measures and projects

approach has been reinforced not only through strengtheningthat are conducted under the Four Major Rivers Restoration

policy measures but also through the encouragement of

Project and other related policies are aimed at ensuring theparticipation by the public in the management.

Indonesia

06. Existing and Future Challenges

issues that need to be considered in the water environmental

Japan
Republic of Korea

Box. 2.5.3. Environmental Policy Direction 2015

The Ministry of Environment set their policy direction of the year and that of 2015 includes the following water
environment related agenda.
Issue• Creation of artificial washland to reduce the inflow of water pollutants affecting
algae generation in the Four Major rivers• Improvement of algae monitoring system such as a real-time monitoring and 3D
automatic measurement• Facilitation of communication with citizens• Expansion of the algae bloom warning system from streams and lakes to rivers• Supply of water treated with advanced purification technology to 1.24 million
citizens

Industrial Waste
Water & Sludge

Zero Marine andOcean Discharges• Facilitation of in-land waste treatment by providing funds for waste treatment

Malaysia

Actions

Restoration of upperstreams of small rivers

Lao PDR

PolicyGreen Algae

facilities• Utilization of recycled resources exchange(in collaboration with the Ministry of Oceans and Fisheries)(Licensing System)

MyanmarEnvironmental
Management• Integration of 9 Licensing Systems into one,
• Provision of tailored management services• Enactment of the ‘Act on Integrated Management of Environmental Pollution
Facilities’ to simplify licensing system

Nepal(Source: http://eng.me.go.kr/eng/web/board/read.do?pagerOffset=0&maxPageItems=10&maxIndexPages=10&searchKey=&searchValue=&menuId=20&orgCd=&boardId=492190&boardMasterId=521&boardCategoryId=&decorator=)

Philippines
Sri Lanka
Thailand
Viet Nam

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 201559

2.6 Lao PDR

01. Country Information

capita annual water availability is approximately 50,982 m3,
which is the highest among the WEPA partner countries.

Table 2.6.1. Basic indicators

However, because of insufficient development of waterLand Area (km2)

236,800 (2005)

Total Population (person)

6.8 million (2013)

GDP (current USD)

11.24 billion (2013)

Per Capita GDP (current USD)
Long-Average Precipitation (mm/year)
Total Renewable Water Resources (km )Total Annual Freshwater Withdrawals (billion m3)

Annual Freshwater
Withdrawal by
sectors

remains limited.
Similar to other Southeast Asian countries, seasonal
distribution of water resources is uneven in Lao PDR—

1,661 (2013)

about 80% of annual precipitation occurs during the rainy

1,834 (2009)season (May to October) and 20% in the dry season

333.5* (2009)3

infrastructure, the water supply capacity of the country

3.5* (2005)

Agriculture

91%* (2005)

Industry

5%* (2005)

Municipal(including domestic)

4* % (2005)* Estimated(Source: See Appendix)(November to April). In the Se Bang Fai, Se Bang Hieng and
Se Done Rivers that flow through the central to southernparts of the country, the river flow decreases in the dry
season to 10-15% of the annual average.
There are 12 main river basins in Lao PDR (Figure
2.6.1). Laos lies almost entirely within the Mekong Riverbasin while its tributaries contribute the equivalent to 35%of the average annual flow and accounts for 25% of thecatchment area of the basin (MRC 2005).
In 2012, 65% of the people were using improved

02. Major Water Basins in Lao PDR

sanitation while 72% of the population had access toimproved drinking water sources (WHO/UNICEF 2014).

04. State of Water Quality

Nam ThaNam OuNan Suang
Nam MaGulf ofTongking

Surface water quality in Lao PDR is considered good,
although deterioration is observed in the rivers/tributaries
in urban areas because of increasing untreated or

Nam Khaninsufficiently treated wastewater and wastes. No urban
centres, including the capital Vientiane, have comprehensive

Nam Ngum

Vientiane

Nam Ngiep

Nam Kading

piped sewerage systems nor wastewater collection,

Sebangfay

treatment and disposal systems. At the Mekong River

Sebanghieng

Mekong River
ThailandSedoneSekongd o wn s t r e a m f r o m V i e n t i a n e, f o r exa m p l e , l o w
concentrations of dissolved oxygen (DO) have been
observed (MRC 2010).
Mining activities and hydropower generation are themajor sources of degradation especially in terms of
sedimentation. Wastewater or water run-off fromagricultural activities are also potential sources of highFigure 2.6.1. Water basins in Lao PDR

nutrients and toxic chemicals originated from fertiliser and

03. State of Water Resources

areas is another cause of concern for water quality,

Lao PDR has rich water resources. Average annual rainfall

and infectious wastes are disposed in the same place asat higher elevations in the southern part of the country isother wastes, but landfill sites are not monitored for theabout 4,000 mm and 1,300 mm in the northwest valleys.

impact of leachate on groundwater quality and runoff into

The national population is approximately 6.8 million. Per

surface water (river and lakes) during the rainy season.

pesticide use (MRC 2010).
Inadequate management of the solid waste in urban

60

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2015

especially in the rainy season (MoNRE 2012). HazardousChapter2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Riversespecially in the wet season. Figure 2.6.2 shows seasonable

the human impacts on the river water quality is increasingchanges in sedimentation observed in Luang Prabang in(Table 2.6.2). The results of periodic and longitudinal

the north region of the country.

Cambodia

Sediment is the primary quality problem in the country,

River water quality in Lao PDR is good in principle, althoughmonitoring conducted from 2009 to 2010 at the mainstream

10mg/L to 35mg/L (Phonvisai 2011). The results ofmonitoring by the Mekong River Commission (MRC) showthat water quality is polluted in urban areas. At themonitoring points near Vientiane, nutrients and phosphorus
levels, as well as ammonium levels, increased between(2010) pointed out that pollution levels may worsen if

14000

2000

12000
10000

1500

8000
1000

6000
4000

500

2000

0
Jan Feb mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Japan

2000 and 2008 (MRC 2010). The report from the MRC

16000

Discharge (m3s1)

biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) figures ranging from

2500

Indonesia

Suspended sediment concentration (mg/L)

Ke and Hong Xeng Rivers in Vientiane province show

Chinaof the Mak Hiao River and its major tributaries of the Hong0

irrigation projects) reduce river water flows.

Republic of Korea

Figure 2.6.2. Seasonal variation in water and sediment
discharge of the Mekong at Luang Prabang, Lao PDR

human activities upstream (e.g. dam operations and(Source: MRC 2010)

Table 2.6.2. Levels of Human Impacts on Water Quality and Water Quality Class for theProtection of Aquatic Life during 2007-2011 at the Mekong, Lao PDR Water Quality Monitoring Stations
Monitoring sites

Human impacts on water quality

Water quality class for the protection of aquatic life

2009

2010

2011

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

Houa Khong

C

B

B

C

B

A

A

A

A

A

Luang Prabang

B

C

B

C

B

A

A

A

A

A

Vientiane

C

C

B

C

A

A

A

A

A

A

Savannakhet

C

C

C

B

C

A

A

A

A

A

Pakse

B

B

B

C

A

A

A

A

A

A

Malaysia

2008

Lao PDR

2007

Myanmar

Notes: Impacts (A: Not impacted; B: Slightly impacted; C: Impacted; D: Severely impacted)/
Water quality for aquatic life (A: Excellent quality; B: Good quality; C: Moderate quality; D: Poor quality)(Source: Ly and Larsen 2012)

Lakes and reservoirs
common in the lowland-floodplains in Lao PDR. Thesewater bodies are usually shallow and vary greatly in size
plants, molluscs, crustaceans, amphibians and reptiles.
Currently, data on the water environment in lakes andreservoirs is available only on a project basis in Lao PDR.
the reservoirs of the Nam Ngum dams (Nam Ngum 2 andNam Ngum1) from 2006-2011 as a part of a hydropower

ST-1
ST-2

B.Pha Yaeng Tai
B.Pha Yaeng Neua
B.Lak 37
B.Lak 33
Nam Tong
Nam Koung
B.Lak 24

Nam Ngun

Huay Dokmal

Huay Kal

Huay Pamom

ST-5
ST-6

Water Sampling Station(standard if more than 6mg/L) (Figure 2.6.4). Total

ST-7

NN1 dAM sITE ST-9

Viet Nam(0.05mg/L). Fertilisers and detergents are suspected as theNN2 Dam Site
Nam BakST-8

phosphorus levels in some stations in 2009 also highly
exceeded the national standard level of the country

Naw NgumThailand(DO) levels in some stations show a decreasing trend

B.NaTou

Nam Modevelopment project. The results of monitoring at the ninestations (Figure 2.6.3) illustrates that dissolved oxygen

ST-4

ST-3

Nam Ngun
B.KomeeB.NaLuang

Sri Lanka

For example, water quality monitoring was conducted in

B.Phone Xay Neua
B.Phone Xay Kang
B.Phone Xay Tai
B.Koua Lek

Philippines

during the year. They are habitat for many types of aquatic

B.Phone Khan
Nam Muay
B.Phone Keo
B.Phone thong
B.Houay XayHhan
B.Vleng Keo

Nepal

Perennial ponds, marshes and oxbow lakes are fairly

Figure 2.6.3. Monitoring stations of the Nam Ngum Dams
(Source: Komany 2011)

potential sources of pollution (Figure 2.6.5).

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2015

61

DO (mg/L)
10.0

Station 1
Station 2
Station 3
Station 4

5.0

Station 5
Station 6

DO at station 1-9
0.0

Station 7

Jul Sep Nov Jan Mar May Jul Sep Nov Jan Mar May Jul Sep Nov Jan Mar May Jul Sep Nov Jan Mar May Jul Sep Nov Jan
06 06 06 07 07 07 07 07 07 08 08 08 08 08 08 09 09 09 09 09 09 10 10 10 10 10 10 11

Station 8
Station 9

During Period

Figure 2.6.4. DO levels at monitoring stations at the Nam Ngum Dams
(Source: Komany 2011)

Total P (mg/L)
1.00

Station 1

0.80

Station 2
Station 3

0.60

Station 4

0.40

Total P at station 1-9

Station 5
Station 6

0.20
0.00

Station 7
Jul Sep Nov Jan Mar May Jul Sep Nov Jan Mar May Jul Sep Nov Jan Mar May Jul Sep Nov Jan Mar May Jul Sep Nov Jan
06 06 06 07 07 07 07 07 07 08 08 08 08 08 08 09 09 09 09 09 09 10 10 10 10 10 10 11

Station 8
Station 9

During Period

Figure 2.6.5. TP levels at monitoring stations at the Nam Ngum Dams
(Source: Komany 2011)

Groundwater

ensure the sustainable socio-economic development of

Groundwater information including resource potential,

the country (Article 1). To reflect the changes in socioeconomic

uses and quality is very limited in the country. Since surface

conditions domestically and internationally, and from thewater is abundant for supply, groundwater is regarded as anecessity of clarifying responsibilities in reorganised

source only when and where surface water is not available

ministries, the EPL is now under revision. The EPL will

(Chanthavong 2011). However, groundwater is an importantstrengthen the provision on environmental monitoring andsource for domestic water, small scale irrigation and small

inspection, and the articles on environmental impact

scale industries. Groundwater is also used as a source forassessment (EIA). The Ministry of Natural Resources andurban water supply although it covers only about 5% of theEnvironment (MoNRE) will be given full authority in review,

total water production volume (If spring water is included inapproval and inspection in the EIA process. In addition,

this definition, about 20% of the total water production islegal requirements for strategic EIA will be included in the

covered by subsurface water.) (Chanthavong 2011).

law to ensure that environmental and social impacts are

According to the Lao Social Indicator Survey (MoH and LSB

carefully taken into account in the project development2012), about 32% of the Lao households are found to beprocesses. The revised version of the law was submitted inusing groundwater or springs for drinking purposes. As for2009 and it is under discussion by the National Assembly

quality, arsenic contamination has been detected near theas of November 2011 (Phonvisai 2011).

border of China (MRC 2010) and in Attapeu province.

The Law on Water and Water Resources which waspromulgated in 1996 stipulates the principles on the62

05. Frameworks for Water Environment
Management

management, utilisation and development of water. The

Legislation

environmental sustainability. However the law is not clear

The Environmental Protection Law (EPL) adopted in 1999 ison the issue of water supply and wastewater. In response

the basis of water quality management in the country. EPL

to this, a draft new “Water Supply Law” was developed by

specifies a set of rules for conservation of the environment

the Ministry of Public Works and Transportation (MPWT)

to protect human health and natural resources and towith the assistance of the World Bank. The Water Supply

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2015

purpose of the law is to secure the quantity and quality ofwater by meeting people’s needs as well as ensuringChapter2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

framework for the new water resources policy was

2009. As most of the stipulations in this law focused mainly

submitted in May 2009 and as of November 2011, is

on water supply services, provisions on sanitation andawaiting approval (Phonvisai 2011).
Other laws such as the Forest Law and Mining Law arereflect these changes, a revision of the Water and Water

also relevant to water environmental management as

Resources Law has started with the assistance from theshown in Figure 2.6.6.

Chinasewerage are planned to be stipulated by a decree. To

Cambodia

Law was approved by the National Assembly in November

Asian Development Bank (ADB). The final draft of theManagement Instruments

Indonesia

Policy Framework

Supporting Tools

Constitution
Water and Water Resources Law

Japan

Prime Ministerial Decree on the
Implementation of the Water andWater Resources Law

National Water Sector Strategy
and Action Plan

Environment Protection Law
National Environment Strategy
and Action Plan; EIA Regulation;
Regulations on the Monitoring
and Control of Wastewater
Discharge Environment Standard

Republic of Korea

Prime Ministerial Decree on the
Implementation of theEnvironment Protection Law

Forestry Law
Regulations related to forestry
and biodiversity: National
Biodiversity Conservation Areas
and Aquatic Resources

Decree on the Implementation ofLand Law

Regulations related to wetlands,
land uses and titles

Lao PDR

Prime Ministerial Decree on the
Implementation of the Forestry Law

Land Law

Prime Ministerial Decree on the
Implementation of the Agriculture
Law

Regulations related to Agriculture
Extension, Livestock and Fisheries

Malaysia

Agriculture Law• National Water Sector
Profile• Lao Environment Monitor• Other Relevant Date andInformation• Relevant Training andAwareness Program

Mining Law

Regulations related to Mining
Extraction and Management

Electricity Law

Environmental Management
Standard for Electricity Projects

Hygiene and Disease Prevention Law

Drinking Water Standard

Philippines

Regulations and standard
related to wastewater discharged
from industry and handicrafts

Nepal

Industrial Processing Law

Myanmar

Regulations related to Water
User’s Association, lrrigation
O&M, Supply and Drainage, etc.

Water supply and Sanitation, andStandard

Sri Lanka

Urban Planning Law

Regulation related to Urban
Planning, Housing, Domestic
Drainage System and Designs

ThailandFigure 2.6.6. Legislation system on water environmental management in Lao PDR(Source: MoEJ 2009)

the Geology Department, and the Protection and

In June 2011, MoNRE was created by merging the Water

Conservation Divisions of the Department of Forestry

Resources and Environment Administration (WREA), part

(MoNRE 2011). The Department of Environment mainlyof the National Land Management Authority (NLMA) andmanages water environments, and is responsible for

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2015

Viet Nam

Institutional arrangement

63setting ambient water quality standards and effluent

Table 2.6.3. Surface water quality standard

standards. The roles and mandates of each department areNo.

Parameter

still under final consideration as of November 2011.

1

Colour, Odour, Taste

2

Temperature

3
4of Lao PDR were issued on 7 December 2009. Water quality

5

standards were established through the initiative of MoNRE
in consultation with thirteen relevant organisations.

Standard Value-

Natural Level°C

Natural Level

pH

-

5-9

DO

mg/L

6

CODCr

mg/L

5

6

BOD5

mg/L

1.5

7

Coliform Bacteria

MPN/100 mL

5,000

8

Faecal Coliform

MPN/100 mL

1,000

9

NO3-N

mg/L

< 5.0

10

NH3-N

mg/L

0.2

The standard is rather ambitious in that it currently is very

11

C6H5-OH

mg/L

0.005

difficult to observe water quality that satisfies the standard

12

Cu

mg/L

0.1

(Phonvisai 2011). For example, a 1.5 mg/L standard value

13

Ni

mg/L

0.1

for BOD5 is generally only found in mountain streams in

14

Mn

mg/L

1.0

rural areas. Thus for project studies such as the Master

15

Zn

mg/L

1.0

16

Cd

mg/L

0.005

17

Cr+6

mg/L

0.05

Standards for drinking water quality, drinking water

18

Pb

mg/L

0.05

quality in covered containers and groundwater for drinking

19

Hg

mg/L

0.002

purposes were developed under the same National

20

As

mg/L

0.01

21

CN-

mg/L

0.005

22

Radioactivity - Gross α

Becquerel/L

0.1

23

Radioactivity - Gross β

Becquerel/L

1.0

24

Total organochorine

mg/L

0.05

25

DDT

μg/L

1.0

Monitoring of water quality in public water bodies

26

αBHC

μg/L

0.02

According to the Agreement on the National Environmental

27

Dieldrine

μg/L

0.1

Standards in 2009, the Department of Environment is28

Aldrin

μg/L

0.1

29

Heptachlor and Heptachlor
epoxide

μg/L

0.2

30

Endrinμg/L

ND

Ambient water quality standards
Revisions of environmental standards have been ongoingsince 1999. The revised National Environmental Standards

Ambient water quality standards are surface water
quality standards and groundwater quality standards. Since
standards for surface water did not exist in Lao PDR in thepast, it is completely new. Details are shown in Table 2.6.3.

Plan for Water Environment Improvement Project inVientiane capital, BOD values reflecting reality were used
(Phonvisai 2011).

Environment Standards. They were mainly developed by
the Department of Hygiene and Prevention under the
Ministry of Health in cooperation with World HealthOrganization (WHO) and the United Nations Children’s
Fund (UNICEF).

responsible for the administration and monitoring activitiesof the agreement throughout the country (WREA 2010). It
also states that the Department of Water Resources is
responsible for coordinating with other authorities to
conduct surveys, and evaluate and monitor the quality ofsurface water and groundwater. Currently there is no
regular structured monitoring of water quality in Lao PDR,
however, some agencies carry out water quality monitoring
and laboratory analysis as necessary (Table 2.6.4).

64

Unit

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2015

(Source: WREA 2010)

Chapter2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Table 2.6.4. Public agencies conducting water quality monitoring
Institution

Type of Samples

Ad hoc testing

24 parameters(Organic compounds andpesticides)

Ministry of Energy and Mines

Surface water from Hydropowerdams

Ad hoc sampling

Almost 8 parameters(Including temperature, pH, DO,
COD, etc.)

Environment Department (MoNRE)

Wastewater (urban/industrial)

11 (Vientiane municipality)
3 (Vientiane province)

4 parameters(TSS, TDS, BOD, and pH)

Ministry of Industry and Commerce(MIC)

Industrial effluent(Samples collected by Dept. of
Irrigation or MoNRE)

Ad hoc sampling

Parameters monitored aremainly related to industrial
waste monitoring

Ministry of Public Health

Rural water supply

Ad hoc testing for groundwaterand newly drilled bore holes, andsurface water resources used inpublic water supply

7 parameters( Fe, Cu, Ba, pH, Ec, TDS, NO3 )Republic of Korea

Surface waterJapan

Ministry of Public Health, Pesticide
Laboratory

Indonesia

14 parameters(DO, dissolved salts, nutrients,and organic matter)(Plans for As, Hg, Cd, and Pb)

China

Parameters Monitored

23 Ad hoc samples taken fromsurface, ground and waste wateras required

Cambodia

Number of Stations

Dept. of Irrigation
Surface water Groundwater(Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry) Industrial wastewater(Analysis is conducted in Water
Quality Laboratory)(Source: Komany 2008)

2) standards for specific industries, 3) effluent standards

The following effluent standards are stipulated under thefor pig farms, 4) gas station effluent standards, and 5)

National Environmental Standards issued in December

wastewater discharge standards from urban areas (WREA

2009: 1) general industrial wastewater discharge standards,

2010). Details are shown in Table 2.6.5.

Lao PDR

Effluent standards

Table 2.6.5. Effluent standards
Types of Standards

Standards for specific industries

1.Standards for factories that contain organic substances
2.Standards for factories that contain inorganic substances (metal plating)
3.Standards for battery producing

Myanmar

General industrial wastewater discharge standards

1.Standards for general industries
2.Standards for sugar cane factories
3.Standards for textiles and garments factories that dye yarns
4.Standards for pulp products
5.Standards for paper products
6.Standards for slaughtering factories

Malaysia

Name of standards

Nepal

Effluent standards for pig farms
Gas station effluent standards
1.Wastewater discharge standards
2.Wastewater treatment standards for public areas

Philippines

Wastewater discharge standards from urban areas(Source: WREA 2010)classified according to the number of rooms and volume ofprovision of the agreement will be warned, fined or subject

discharged wastewater. Buildings such as residences,to criminal punishment (WREA 2010). Also under thetemples, schools, offices, markets and restaurants are also

Regulation on Wastewater Discharge from Industrial

classified according to floor area. For the wastewater

Processing Factories issued in 2005 by the Ministry oftreatment standards for public areas, classifications are inIndustry and Handicrafts (currently the Ministry of Industry

place for areas such as historical sites, public parks, waterand Commerce), all industrial factories are required toparks, and marshes and ponds.

obtain approval and major factories also need to submit

ThailandThe Agreement on the National Environmental
Standards in 2009 states that those who violate the

Sri Lanka

For wastewater discharge standards from urban areas,buildings such as hotels, dormitories or hospitals are

Viet Nam

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 201565

treatment and management plans. They also are required

07. Existing and Future Challenges

to install wastewater treatment systems and the necessary
facilities to monitor and analyse water samples, as well as

Although water quality is, in general, in good condition in

frequently monitor and analyse wastewater and report

the country, it has deteriorated in major urban areas. No

results to the director of the industry department of theurban centres, including the capital Vientiane, haveministry or respective province. The staff of the industry

comprehensive piped sewerage systems or wastewater

department as factory environmental inspectors arecollection, treatment and disposal systems. The water

permitted to enter all areas within factories to inspect,

quality of urban rivers may further deteriorate in the nearobserve, measure, sample and monitor wastewater

future because of the inflow of untreated wastewater ofdischarged into public water bodies. If violations are found,which volume will increase according to urban growth.

certifications for wastewater discharge will be suspended

The government of Lao PDR has been developing andand the director of the industry department may suspend

revising environmental management frameworks such asor terminate wastewater discharge until improvement andthrough the revision of relevant laws. However, there arecompliance is confirmed. The penalty for violation of thechallenges in their implementation. For example, various

regulations is set out as follows: (1) first stage: warning,

ministries and departments carry out water quality

suspension of import/export, suspension of production, (2)management such as monitoring and analysis

second stage: fine of five to ten times the amount of the

independently and do not share results. Also, there arecertification fee, and (3) third stage: fine of 10-15 times theoverlaps in the laws. For example, there is duplication

amount of the certification fee and penalties for otheramong the Regulation on the Wastewater Discharged fromrelevant regulations (Phonvisai 2011).

Industrial Processing Factories, EPL, EIA regulations andthe Decree on EIA for the Industrial Sector in requiring

06. Recent Developments
in Water Environmental Management

approval of environmental management plans for factories
that discharge wastewater. It has been reported that the

A series of ambient water quality standards (groundwater

wastewater discharge certification system is currently not

and surface water) were established in 2009.

in operation and inspection is conducted according to each

Measures to control effluent from industry have beenstrengthened, which included the introduction of effluent
standards in 2009.

regulation (Phonvisai 2011). Capacity and systematiccoordination procedures among responsible agencies foroverall water quality monitoring and management need tobe established. Recent organisational restructuring ofCurrently the Environmental Protection Law is awaiting

MoNRE is expected to promote and strengthen water

approval of revision. The revision will include theenvironmental management in Lao PDR.

strengthening of water quality monitoring and inspectionof pollution sources and the introduction of strategic
environmental assessments.
The Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment wasestablished in 2011.

66

environmental compliance certificates, and submission/

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2015

Chapter2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Cambodia
China
Indonesia
Japan
Republic of Korea
Lao PDR
Malaysia
Myanmar
Nepal
Philippines
Sri Lanka
Thailand
Viet Nam

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 201567

2.7 Malaysia

01. Country information

particularly to the east coast states of peninsular Malaysia
and western Sarawak, whereas the Southwest Monsoon

Table 2.7.1. Basic indicators

normally signifies relatively drier weather (MoSTI 2010).

Land Area (km2)

330,336 (2013)

Total Population (person)

29.7 million (2013)

GDP (current USD)

313.2 billion (2013)

Droughts occur occasionally coinciding with the El Niño
phenomena. The most prominent droughts happened in
1998. Droughts are managed through the monitoring ofdry events by the Department of Irrigation and Drainage.

Per Capita GDP (current USD)

10,538 (2013)

Floods are managed through various flood mitigation

Long-Average Precipitation (mm/year)

2,875 (2009)

strategies using structural and non-structural means.

Total Renewable Water Resources (km3)580* (2009)

Total Annual Freshwater Withdrawals(billion m3)

11.2* (2005)

Annual Freshwater
Withdrawal by
sectors

Surface water provides 97% of water supply for domestic,
industrial and agricultural use. About 80% of the water
withdrawn from the river system is used for irrigation

Agriculture

22.3%* (2005)

purposes. In the future, the percentage of water use forIndustry

42.8%* (2005)

domestic and industrial uses is expected to command a

Municipal(including domestic)

34.8%* (2005)* Estimated(Source: See Appendix)

bigger share of the water withdrawn from surface water
sources. Potable water supply coverage extends to mostareas throughout the country with the exception of a few
isolated spots where water supply network coverage

02. Major Water Basins in Malaysia

remains difficult or inaccessible due to physical or
geographical factors. Groundwater wells or rural watersupply scheme systems will be provided in those spots.

Kinabatangan River

Perak River
Kelantan River

South China Sea

RiversBruneiBaram River
Kuala
LumpurBernam River

Pahang River

04. State of Water Quality

Rajang River

The Water Quality Index (WQI) is used to evaluate thestatus of river water quality. The WQI for river water quality
is calculated using the values of six parameters: DO, BOD,
COD, NH3-N, SS, and pH (DoE 2012), and according to theindex the status of water quality is classified into three

Singapore
Indonesia

categories: clean, slightly polluted, and polluted. Figure
2.7.2 shows the ratio of river monitoring stations undereach category from 2005 to 2013. Figure 2.7.3 and Figure

Figure 2.7.1. Major rivers in Malaysia

2.7.4 also show the ratio of river monitoring stations under
the three categories in the past five years (2005-2013) interms of BOD and ammoniacal nitrogen respectively.

03. State of Water Resources

Compared with values in past few years, the ratio of

There are ample water resources in Malaysia with seasonal

compared to the previous years, while that of NH3-N shows

variations. Most areas in peninsular Malaysia, Sabah anda decreasing trend during the same period. Analysis of

Sarawak in particular, receive a national average rainfall ofheavy metals in 2013 revealed that all samples complied

2,500 mm and 3,500 mm respectively. The weather inwith Class IIB of Water Quality Standards for lead (Pb) and

Malaysia is characterised by two monsoon regimes,

cadmium (Cd), and almost all samples for zinc (Zn). The

namely, the Southwest Monsoon from late May tolowest compliance ratio of Class IIB was for arsenic (As),September, and the Northeast Monsoon from November

but the ratio was 98.15% (DoE 2012).

to March. The Northeast Monsoon brings heavy rainfall,

68

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2015“polluted” rivers in terms of BOD increased in 2013

Chapter2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Clean

90

Slightly Polluted

80

Polluted

(%)

70

58

57

60

63

58

53

50
30

28

20

15

31

0

10

34

8

8

9

estuary monitoring stations in 2013. The marine water59

quality is evaluated by the Marine Water Quality Index

58(MWQI) which is calculated based on seven parameters,

36
13

32

34

8

7

37

namely DO, NO3, PO4, NH3, faecal coliform, oil and grease
and TSS. The trend of MWQI shows that most of coastal
monitoring stations are categorized as having “Moderate”

52005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
Year

Figure 2.7.2. The ratio of river monitoring stations
by WQI categories(Source: DoE 2014)

water quality from 2011 to 2013, while the number ofstations categorized “Good” has decreased from 39 to 15(Figure 2.7.5). The monitoring results showed that bothwater quality for estuaries and islands is degrading (Figure
2.7.6, Figure 2.7.7) during the same period.
180

90

Slightly
Polluted

60
50

Clean

40
30
20

140
120

Poor

100

Moderate

80

Republic of Korea

Polluted70

Number of Stations

160

80

(%)

Japan

100

Good

60

Excellent

40
0

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013 Year

2011

2012

2013

Lao PDR

20

10
0

Indonesia

10

28

38

Marine water quality was monitored at 155 coastal and 76

China

40

59

51

Coastal water

Cambodia

100

Year

Figure 2.7.3. The ratio of WQI in BOD sub-index(Source: DoE 2014)

Malaysia

Figure 2.7.5. Trend of Marine Water Quality Index for
Coastal Areas(Source: DoE 2014)

100

80

90
80

50

Clean

40
30
10
0

60
50

Polluted

40

Moderate

30

Good
Excellent

20

Nepal

20

Number of Stations

Slightly
Polluted

60

Myanmar(%)

70

Polluted

70

10
2010

2011

2012

2013

0

Year

Figure 2.7.4. The ratio of WQI in AN sub-index(Source: DoE 2014)

80
70
50

Moderate

40

Good

30

Excellent

20
10

quality is under eutrophic condition in 62% of the lakes

0

2011

2012

2013

Viet Nam

Resource Management and Teknologi Malaysia, the waterand reservoirs studied (Sharifuddin 2011).

Polluted

60

Thailand

conducted by the Institute of Environment and Water

Number of Stations

90

authorities including owners and operators of each lake/a study on the water quality of lakes and reservoirs

Year

Sri Lanka

100

inventories available for lakes and reservoirs. According to2013(Source: DoE 2014)

Since lakes and reservoirs are managed by different

been conducted by the DoE nor are water quality

2012

Figure 2.7.6. Trend of Marine Water Quality Index for Estuaries

Lakes and reservoirs

reservoir, comprehensive water quality monitoring has not

2011

Philippines

2009

Year

Figure 2.7.7. Trend of Marine Water Quality Index for Islands(Source: DoE 2014)

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 201569

Groundwater
Groundwater quality status was evaluated using the05. Framework for Water Environmental
Management

National Guidelines for Raw Drinking Water Quality from
the Ministry of Health (revised in December 2000) as a

The ultimate objective of Malaysia’s environmental

benchmark. In 2013, 380 water samples were taken frommanagement (including water quality management) is the

105 monitored wells situated in nine different land use

improvement of living standards and the sustainability ofareas, namely industrial, landfills, agriculture, municipal

its citizens’ quality of life. The National Policy on thewater supplies, urban/sub-urban, golf courses, animal burial

Environment approved in 2002 stated “the nation shallareas, rural areas and examining (gold mining). The results

implement environmentally sound and sustainableshow that values exceeding guidelines for As, Fe, Mn, total

development for the continuous economic, social andcoliform, and phenol were observed in all land use areas.

cultural progress and enhancement of the quality of life of

The noncompliance ratio of total coliform was 100% in all

Malaysia” (Ministry of Science, Technology and theland use categories. Other parameters of which exceeding

Environment, Malaysia 2002). In line with the policy, therates are found in all categories include phenol, arsenic,

national policy set eight principles to integrate the economy

iron, and manganese. On the other hand, for chromium,and environment, namely stewardship of the environment;

copper and zinc, all samples satisfy guideline values.

conservation of the nature’s vitality and diversity;
continuous improvement in the quality of the environment;

Pollution Sources

sustainable use of natural resources; integrated decision

The largest contributor of water pollution is sewage – 38%

making; role of the private sector commitment andof daily total load of BOD 5, 33% of SS, and 78% ofaccountability; and active participation in the internationalammoniacal nitrogen (AN). The pollution loads of BOD5

community.

have been decreasing – about 1,021 tons/day in 2010, 848

The Environmental Quality Act (EQA) 1974 is an act

tons/day in 2012 and 758 tons/day in 2013 (Figure 2.7.8,

related to the prevention, abatement and control of

Figure 2.7.9.).

pollution, and enhancement of the environment. The act

manufacturing industries 4%

wet markets 1%

agro‐basedindustries
6%

ordains that the minister, after consultation with theEnvironmental Quality Council, may elaborate regulations
for prescribing ambient water quality and discharge

animal (pig)
farms
25%

sewage38%

standards, and specifying the maximum permissible loads
that may be discharged by any source into inland waters,with reference either generally or specifically to the body ofwaters concerned. Other laws and regulations are also
shown in Figure 2.7.10. As for the nation’s target for water

food services
26%

quality improvement, the 10th Malaysian Plan (2011-2015)
includes efforts to tackle river water pollution, which is the

Figure 2.7.8. BOD5 loads from different sources in 2013
(Source: DoE 2014)

country’s main water source, by addressing major pollution
sources. Pollution countermeasures mentioned in the plan
include the following points (Sharifuddin 2011; Economic

manufacturing industries 1%

wet markets 0%

agro-based industries 9%

Planning Unit of Prime Minister’s Department 2010):- To strengthen the enforcement of effluent standards

animal (pig) farms 9%(sewage and industries) in line with Environmental Quality(Sewage and Industrial Effluents) Regulations

food services 3%- To assess total maximum daily loads for both point andsewage 78%

non-point sources- To revise the Water Quality Index by incorporating otherparameters for more accurate river water classification- To develop the National Marine Water Quality Index

Figure 2.7.9. AN loads from different sources in 2013
(Source: DoE 2014)70

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2015

Chapter2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Innovation for water research and development, theestablished in 2004 as a result of restructuring of ministries,

Ministry of Health for drinking water quality, and local

is in charge of environmental conservation which includes

governments for water planning and development. For

water quantity and quality management. Other ministries

water pollution control, the Department of Environment

and authorities are also involved in water resource(DoE) under the NRE is mainly engaged in the implementation

management such as the Ministry of Water Energy, Greenof the Environmental Quality Act 1974.

China

and sewerage, the Ministry of Science, Technology and

The Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (NRE),

Cambodia

Institutional arrangements

Technology and Water (KeTTHA) for public water supply
Indonesia

Conservation of Water Quality
Japan

General

Republic of Korea

Environmental Quality Act
Environmental Quality Standards for Surface Water
Effluent Discharge Standards

Specific Area
Selangor Waters Management Authority Enactment (1999)
Kedah Water Resources Enactment (2007)
Sabah Conservation of the Environment Enactment

Sabah Water Resources Enactment (1998)
National resources and Environment
Ordinance Sarawak

Lao PDR

Specific Sector
State of Sabah and Sarawak
1. Agriculture
Drainage and Irrigation, Sabah Ordinace (15/1956)
Drainage Works Ordinance Sarawak (1966)

2. Forestry
National Forestry Act (1984)

2. Forestry
Sabah Forest Enactment (1965)
Forest Ordinance Sarawak, Cap126

6. Mining
Mining Enctment (1936)
7. Local and Regional Planning
Town and Country Planning Act (1976)

6. Mining
Mining Enactment (1960 Sabah)
Mining Enactment (1949 Sarawak)
7. Local and Regional Planning
Town and Country Planning
Enactment Sabah Cap 141
Town and Country Planning Sarawak Cap 87
8. Others
Local Authority Enactment, Sabah Ordinance (11/1961)
Local Authority Ordinance Sarawak Cap 117

Thailand9. Others
Local Government Act (1976)
Street Drainage Building By law (1974, 1994-R)
Geological Survey Act
Ministerial Function Act (1969)

5. Domestic Water Supply
Water Services Industry Act

Sri Lanka

8. Fishery
Fisheries Act (1963)

4. Land Management
Sabah Land Ordinance (1930)
Sarawak Land Code (1958)

Philippines

5. Domestic Water Supply
Water Service Indutry Act

3. Control of Rivers
Sarawak Water Ordinance,
Sarawak Riverine Transport Bill (1993)

Nepal

4. Land Management
National Land Code (1965)
Land Conservation Act (1960)
Earthwork by laws

Myanmar

3. Control of Rivers
Water Acts (1920), Reviewed (1989)
River Rights Enactment of Perak
Kelantan River Traffic Enactment (1955)
Pahang River Launches Enactment 6/49

Malaysia

Peninsular Malaysia
1. Agriculture
Irrigation Areas Act (1953)
Drainage Works Acts (1954)

Viet Nam

Figure 2.7.10. Legislative chart for water quality management(Source: MoEJ 2009)

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2015

71

Ambient water quality standards

Ambient water quality monitoring

National Water Quality Standards (NWQS), which are

The Department of Environment (DoE) of the Ministry of

applied to surface waters, set out standard values for 72

Natural Resources and Environment (NRE) conducts

parameters in six water use classes (Table 2.7.2). The goalmonitoring programmes for rivers, marine waters andis not to meet the standards of a particular water class ingroundwater. The state of water quality monitoring

all surface waters, but to improve water quality gradually in

conducted by the DOE is shown in Table 2.7.3.

order to meet the standards of a water class higher thanEffluent standards

the current class.

The National Environmental Quality Act 1974 states that
Table 2.7.2. Water quality classes in the National Water
Quality Standards“no person shall, unless licensed, emit, discharge orClasspollutants or wastes into any inland waters in contravention

Uses

I

Conservation of Natural Environment
Water Supply I: Practically no treatment necessary
Fisheries I: Very sensitive aquatic species

IIA

Water Supply II: Conventional treatment required
Fisheries ll: Sensitive aquatic species

IIB

Recreational use with body contact

III

Water Supply lll: Extensive treatment required
Fisheries lll: Common, of economic value, and tolerant
species; livestock drinking

IV

Irrigation

V

None of the above

deposit any environmentally hazardous substances,of the acceptable conditions specified under Section 21”(Section 25, National Environmental Quality Act 1974). In
2009, Environmental Quality (Sewage and Industrial
Effluent) Regulations 1979, which set rules and procedures
related to effluent discharge, was replaced by new three
regulations: Environmental Quality (Sewage) Regulations,
Environmental Quality (Industrial Effluent) Regulations andEnvironmental Quality (Control of Pollution from Solid
Waste Transfer Stations and Landfills) Regulations. Underthe regulations, sewage discharge standards, industrial
effluent discharge limits and leachate discharge standards(Source: DoE 2011)were established (DoE 2010).

For marine water quality, the Malaysian Marine Water

Effluent monitoring

Quality Index (MWQI) was established with seven sub-Monitoring of effluent, recording and maintenance of theindexes.

monitoring results are obligations that all premises are

Groundwater quality standards for Malaysia have notrequired to fulfill under the new environmental regulations

been established, but considering the potential ofon sewage and industrial effluents. Analytical methods andgroundwater as an alternative source of surface water, theparameters to be monitored are designated. All premises

National Guidelines for Raw Water Quality is referred as theare required to submit monthly effluent discharge reports tobenchmark for evaluating groundwater quality monitoring

the DoE. For the monthly report, an online reporting system

results.

is available, as well as hard-copy submission. Authorised

Table 2.7.3. Water Quality Monitoring conducted by DoE in 2013
Number of monitoring stations
Rivers891 manual monitoring stations* (477 rivers), 6,057 samples
10 continuous monitoring stations*Manual monitoring stations consists of 801 ambient and baseline stations, 55 new stations locatedupstream of selected water intakes, 35 stations from the River of Life project.

Groundwater

105 wells (78 in Peninsular Malaysia, 12 in Sarawak and 15 in Sabah)

Coastal waters

155 coastal monitoring stations, 648 samples
76 estuary monitoring stations, 334 samples
90 islands monitoring stations, 327 samples(Source: DoE 2014)72

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2015

Chapter2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Cambodia

DoE officials can carry out inspections of all premises,
including surprise inspections, to ensure compliance withall the provisions in the act. Non-compliance of theregulations results in immediate penalties to polluters. As ameasure to improve effluent quality, Industrial Effluent

China

Treatment Systems (IETS) were introduced which aim topromote the optimal operation and maintenance of effluent
treatment by enabling preventive or corrective actions

Indonesia

through monitoring of the treatment performance withcertain parameters. Through IETS, companies can benefit
from the early identification of deficiencies, identification ofproper dosages for chemicals (Keong 2008) and increasing
opportunities to identify preventive actions (How 2008). TheJapan

DoE provides technical guidance to promote IETS. Within
an industry, a competent person who is certified by the
director-general of the DoE should be on duty to supervise

Republic of Korea

IETS. IETS are expected to encourage industries to be moreproactively engaged in pollution control without strong
enforcement action by the public sector.

06. Existing and Future Challenges

Lao PDR

The Environmental Quality Act 1974 was successful in
reducing pollution to a certain extent with control of point
and non-point sources, and the continuous monitoring and

Malaysia

assessment of the water environment. However, there arestill many challenges that need to be addressed. The
direction of water environmental management has alreadybeen incorporated in the 10th Malaysian Plan. The following

Myanmarelements are also considered essential to ensure a better
future for the water environment in the country: promoting
water environmental management at the basin level,
including river basin modeling; consideration of localised

Nepalwater discharge standards in accordance with the capacityof individual water bodies; and, strengthening effluent
management policy to improve water quality conditions. Inline with this, self-regulation approaches to pollution

Philippines

control should be further promoted by: identifying
groundwater potential for areas where surface water islimited or unavailable; achieving better management oflakes and reservoirs, in which the roles and responsibility of

Sri Lanka

relevant stakeholders is clarified. Further studies andproper data management are required to fulfill this target.

Thailand
Viet Nam

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 201573

2.8 Myanmar

01. Country information

03. State of Water Resources

Table 2.8.1. Basic indicators

Myanmar has an abundance of water resources. However,Land area (km2)

676,578 (2011)

Total population

53 million (2013)

GDP (current USD)

56.8 billion (2013)

the spatial and temporal distribution of water resources isuneven.
The average annual rainfall is about 2,341 mm, most ofwhich is concentrated during the southwest monsoon

Per capita GDP (current USD)

1,113 (2013)season (May-October). As with the temporal distribution ofLong-average precipitation (mm/year)

2,091 (2009)

rainfall patterns, about 80% falls during the monsoon

Total Renewable Water Resources (km3)

1,168 (2009)

Total Annual Freshwater Withdrawals(billion m3)

33.2 (2000)

basins is approximately 737,800 km2. The country’s two

Agriculture

89% (2000)

major natural lakes are Inle Lake and Indawgyi Lake. As well

Industry

1% (2000)

as natural water bodies, constructed engineering structures

Municipal(including domestic)

10% (2000)

Annual Freshwater
Withdrawals by
Sectors(Source: See Appendix)

season and 20% in the dry season.
The catchment area of Myanmar’s eight principal river

can reserve 15.46 km3 of surface water.
The potential volume of groundwater resources in the
country is 580 km3 and the estimated total renewable

02. Major Water Basins in Myanmar

volume is 1,046 billion m 3 (river basin level annual
groundwater potential is shown in Figure 2.8.2.) Total water
development is 33.2 billion m3, which represents only 3%of the total renewable water resources in Myanmar.

Putao

China

Mekong River

Chindwin River

Approximately 91% of the total water withdrawal comesfrom surface water and 9% from groundwater. Groundwater
is mostly used for domestic purposes and the irrigation ofvegetables and other high value crops.

Thanlwin(Salween)
River
Mandalay

Tanintharyi
River Basin
48.3

Sittaung

SittweNaypyidaw River

Ayeyarwady(Irrawaddy)River
Bay of Bengal

Rakhine River Basin
51.4

Yangon(Rangoon)

ThailandBasseinMoulmein

ThanlwinRiver Basin
88.3
Chindwiin
River Basin
8.7
Mekhaung River Basin
70.8

Andaman andNicobar Islands

Figure 2.8.1. Major rivers in Myanmar

74

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2015

Sittaung River Basin
34.9

Lower
Ayeyarwaddy
River Basin
163.9

Upper
Ayeyarwaddy
River Basin
113.9

Figure 2.8.2. Annual groundwater potential (km3) in river basins(source: MoEJ 2009)

Chapter2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

DO

Fe

Na

Cl

Inland surface water

Ayeyarwaddy River

4.02

0.45

0.57

0.30

Myanmar is heavily dependent on inland surface water

Chindwil River

4.17

0.01

0.69

0.52

bodies for domestic use, agricultural irrigation and industrial

Thanlwin River

3.56

0.02

0.62

0.35

production. Surface water is vulnerable to pollution that is

Sittaung River

4.19

0.50

0.77

0.62

intrinsically linked to inadequate sanitation. Monitoring(Source: Data from the focal person in 2011)

RiversChina

Table 2.8.2. Water quality in selected rivers (mg/L)
Cambodia

04. State of Water Quality

data for water quality in the Ayeyarwady River, Chindwil
in these rivers is suitable for irrigation purposes (Table
2.8.2). However, the quality of some surface water bodies

Table 2.8.3. Water quality in Inle lake
Parameters

Value

RemarksHigh

PO4-P (mg/L)

0.0078-0.28

High

NO3-N (mg/L)

0.7-0.9High

fertilisers and the discharge of untreated waste (Table

DO (mg/L)

0.6-8.6

2.8.3, Box 2.8.1). In addition, both coliform and E. coli

Coliform bacteria (CFU)

18-137

Unfit for drinking

0-23

Unfit for drinking

ecosystems. High levels of phosphate and nitrate and low
levels of dissolved oxygen (DO) were measured in Inle
Lake, which is most likely caused by runoff of agricultural

Ca (mg/L)

bacteria exceeded standards, making the water of Inle Lake

E. Coli (CFU)

unfit for use as drinking water.

(Source: Khin Lay Swe 2011)

Republic of Korea

Alkaline

pH

Japan

7.8-8.0
30.0-50.4

were inadequate both for human health and aquaticIndonesia

River, Thanlwin River and Sittaung River revealed that water

Lao PDRBox 2.8.1. Water Environment in Inle Lake

Malaysia

Inle Lake, the second largest lake in Myanmar, serves as the sole source of domestic water. Water quality of the lake
is impacted by various factors. Among them, deforestation and more intense agricultural activities on its westernand northern watershed areas have brought in increasing amounts of silt and nutrients into the shallow lake. It wasreported that concentrations of PO4-P, NO2-N, and NO3-N were relatively high, leading to a eutrophic state. The directdischarge of domestic wastewater is another cause of water pollution. A high number of coliform bacteria wasreported, indicating that the lake water was unfit to drink The Ministry of Environmental Conservation and Forestry(MoECAF) has prepared a five-year action plan (2010-2014) for the Environmental Conservation and Sustainable
Management of Inle Lake, which has been implemented by different agencies. For example, the Forest Department
is implementing reforestation, soil and water conservation awareness-raising activities. The Irrigation Department isundertaking water quality monitoring and the dredging of silt. The government introduced the use of latrines with theassistance of WATSAN of the Community Water Supply and Sanitation project with the aim of addressing the specificproblem of pollution in the lake.

Myanmar(Source: Than 2007; Akaishi et al. 2006, MoECAF, 2014)

Nepal

uncontrolled use of pesticides and fertilisers) have lead tofor economic activities, there is increasing pressure on

the decreasing availability of freshwater. Additionally,groundwater extraction. Unrestricted groundwatersalinity intrusion has been reported in the inland areas

extraction can result in land subsidence and saltwateralong the tidal reaches of the Ayeyarwaddy River system,

intrusion, and therefore, the groundwater must be

and monitoring of the Ayeyarwaddy in the dry zone shows

controlled and managed appropriately. As well, surface

excessive pollution, particularly in summer.
Salinity intrusion is also a critical problem in the

integrated way in order to ensure the recharge ofcountry, particularly in the Delta Region, the third mostgroundwater aquifers. Moreover, the rising water

populated area in Myanmar and where most rice isrequirements of the country’s rapidly expanding urban andcultivated. The Figure 2.8.3 shows the degree of intrusion.

Thailandwater should be managed along with groundwater in an

Sri Lanka

agricultural effluents (the latter associated with theWith increases in population and a greater need for water

Philippines

Groundwaterindustrial centres, especially in Yangon City, and thecontamination by pollutants from industrial, municipal andViet Nam

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 201575

Yandoon

4.4.2007
20.3.2007
4.3.2007

Pathein
MaubinYangon05. Frameworks for Water Environment
Management
Legislation
Myanmar has no specific laws to control water pollution.
There is a general provision in Section 9 of the Public Health
Law of 1972, which empowers the Ministry of Health toBogalay Pyapon

carry out measures relating to environmental health, suchas garbage disposal, use of water for drinking and otherpurposes, radioactivity, protection of air from pollution, andLabuttafood and drug safety. However, detailed provisions do notexist to ensure more effective and comprehensive
regulation of these matters. As well, there are no provisions
for pollution control in the regulation of hotels and tourism.
Figure 2.8.3. Degree of penetration and saline fronts
measures in summer 2007
(Source: Ra 2011)

Although the Burma Port Act of 1908 contains a paragraphabout harbour pollution, this merely focuses on the
detriment to navigation. The only control of water pollution

Table 2.8.4. Myanmar’s legal framework with environmental implications

No

Legislations [ Specific descriptions on water quality control ]1

Penal Code, 1860
[Person(s) who voluntarily pollute the water of public springs or reservoirs so as to render it less fit for the purpose for which
it is intended, shall be punished with imprisonment or be levied a fine for polluting bodies of water within the municipal
jurisdiction]

2

Yangon Waterworks Act,1885

3

Canal Act, 1905

4

Yangon Port Act, 1905

5

Port Act, 1908

6

City of Yangon Municipal Act, 1922
[Penalties for polluting bodies of water within the municipal jurisdiction]

7

Emergency Provisions Act, 1950

8

Factories Act, 1951
[Industries shall provide their own treatment plants to remove or reduce potential pollution from wastewater before
discharging effluent]9

Territorial Sea and Continuous Zone Law, 1977

10

Law Relating to the Fishing Rights of Foreign Fishing Vessels, 1989

11

Myanmar Marine Fisheries Law, 1990

12

Pesticide Law, 1990

13

Fresh Water Fisheries Law, 1991

14

Development Committees Law, 1993
[Amendment to City of Yangon Municipal Act, 1922 including proper disposal of sewage and pollutant water]

15

Myanmar Hotel and Tourism Law,1993[Includes standards for construction of wastewater treatment plants for proper disposal wastewater to public drainage canals]

16

Protection of Wild Animals, Wild Plants and Preservation of Natural Areas Laws, 1994
[Restrictions on wildlife sanctuaries and reserved forests for controlling of water quality in upstream watershed areas]

17

Myanmar Mines Law,1994[Prohibits mining works in upstream watershed areas]

18

Conservation of Water Resources and River Law, 2006
[Control of water resources, such as surface water and groundwater, and riverine management]

19

NCEA Law for Myanmar Environmental Protection and Conservation (The law has been drafted but not approved.)(Source: MoEJ 2009)76

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2015

Chapter2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

respective sectors such as health, irrigation, mining,

require that new investment projects have wastewatertransport and industry (See Table 2.8.5). For example, thetreatment systems. River and lake pollution from sewage,

Yangon City Development Committee (YCDC) is responsible

industrial waste and solid waste disposal are serious

for water quality management in the former capital (Raproblems in Myanmar, but are not explicitly regulated by a2011).
In September 2011, the Ministry of Forestry wasenacted. The draft law on environmental protection is now

renamed as the Ministry of Environmental Conservation

awaiting approval by the government.

and Forestry. The new ministry will be responsible for theAfter the law is officially approved, it is expected thatnational environmental standards will be set up.

Indonesia

particular law, so new laws relating to pollution must be

China

responsible for water environmental management within

the Myanmar Investment Commission. These guidelines

Cambodiain the country is through guidelines issued in June 1994 byimplementation of the draft environmental protection law.
However, clarification of the responsibility of different
ministries may remain an issue in the promotion ofenvironmental protection in the country, including water

There are different government organisations that arepollution control.

Japan

Institutional arrangement

Ministry of Environmental Conservation
and Forestry

Department of Environmental Conservation

Environmental conservation and management

Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation

Irrigation Department (ID)

Provision of irrigation water to farmland

Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation

Water Resources Utilization Department(WRUD)

Rural water supply

Ministry of Transport

Department of Meteorology and Hydrology

Water assessment of major rivers,
data collection and analysing

Ministry of Livestock, Fisheries andRural Development

Myanmar Fishery Enterprise

Fishery works, monitoring and controlling water
bodies

Ministry of Health

Department of Health

Environmental health, water quality assessment
and control, monitoring water quality

Ministry of Progress of Border Areas andNational Races and Development Affairs

Department of Development Affairs (DDA)

Domestic and rural water supply and sanitation-

City Development Committee(Yangon / Mandalay / Napyidaw City)

City water supply and sanitation,water conservation and protection works

Myanmar

Related responsibilities

Malaysia

Agency/Department

Lao PDR

Ministry

Republic of Korea

Table 2.8.5. Existing institutional framework for water environment management(Source: Sein Aung Min 2014, Khin Ni Ni Thein 2013)

disposal of wastewater from residential, office buildings

agrochemical solid and liquid wastes. In principle, local cityand factories is the responsibility of the Ministry ofdevelopment committees are responsible for the protection

Environmental Conservation and Forestry. The governmentof water quality. Rapid industrialisation has increased

banned the use of some toxic pesticides, encouraging

pressure on the environment in many cities, such as theinstead the utilisation of conventional biofertilisers as aformer capital city of Yangon. The direct discharge ofsubstitute for chemical fertilisers to mitigate agricultural

untreated industrial wastewater into rivers and streams isbased water pollution. Ministries and departments are

the major cause of pollution. In addition, untreated or

currently working to strengthen water quality management

insufficiently treated industrial wastewater is discharged

to address the deterioration of water quality in public

into the municipal sewage system, which further

waters. National drinking water quality standards havecomplicates the problem. The National Commission forbeen developed but have yet to be approved. Currently

Environmental Affairs (NCEA) and NGOs proposed effluent

water quality is evaluated based on the World HealthThailandmunicipal wastewater, solid waste, and industrial

Sri Lanka

factories, but it has not yet been approved. Control of thePhilippines

standards for the proper disposal of wastewater from

The main causes of deteriorating water quality are untreated

Nepal

Water quality standards

Viet Nam

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 201577

Organization (WHO) and the Food and Agriculture

The National Water Resources Committee (apex body in

Organization (FAO) standards. Water quality control

Myanmar) was established by a presidential decree inmeasures are looked at on a case by case basis, especially

July 2013.

in the production of bottled drinking water. Arsenic andother parameters have been tested in collaboration with
the Water Resources Utilization Department (WRUD),
Department of Development Affairs (DDA), and the United
Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF).
The Environmental and Sanitation Division under the
Ministry of Health is jointly implementing a programme onwater supply systems with health institutions and carryingout a Water Quality Surveillance and Monitoring System
Pilot Project in the former capital city of Yangon.

Water quality monitoring

Public awareness through community involvement is a
key issue on the subject of water use, efficiency andconservation. Social development and public educationand information programmes lead to an increasingly
knowledgeable public that wants to be involved in thegovernment decision making. Training in nurturing
forests, producing firewood substitutes and distributing
leaflets on reforestation technology is provided toeducate the local people in forest conservation practices.
The government has designated July as the Month ofPlanting Trees for communities countrywide.

There are no specific regular monitoring programmes for

The YCDC has enacted Law No. 6/99 to improve water

ambient water quality in the country. Similarly, water quality

distribution systems, including leak detection,

monitoring is conducted by different governmental

construction, repair and maintenance of city water

agencies in line with their own respective purposes.

mains, changes in plumbing codes and prosecution for

In 2006, the Irrigation Department instituted water
quality monitoring for both irrigation and potable water
purposes at 15 stations in four rivers, namely the
Ayeyarwaddy (8 stations), Chindowin (3 stations), Thanlwin(2 stations) and Sittoung (2 stations). Sixteen parameters
are monitored seasonally (twice a year): pH, ECw, turbidity,
temperature, total hardness, TDS, salinity, SAR, RSC,
Ca++, Mg++, K+, Co3+, HCO3, SO4 and Cl. The Irrigation
Department also monitored salt water intrusion in the delta
area during the summer season.

Effluent standards
The YCDC convened a meeting in July 2001 to introduce

illegal connections.
Some effective measures were taken to conserve
agricultural water, such as adjustment of cropping
patterns, water supply scheduling, improvement ofirrigation facilities and management, land leveling, water
pricing, canal lining and proper use of fertilisers andpesticides. Rehabilitation works for existing irrigation
facilities were carried out for efficient use of waterinstead of building new structures. Programmes that
promote irrigation efficiency directly equate increased
efficiency with savings for farmers (reduced energy,
labour or cost) or improved productivity.

proposed environmental standards for Yangon, including

Laws and regulations related to water resource andstandards on air, noise, wastewater effluent and toxic

environmental management are reviewed in line withchemicals. Similarly, governmental departments in theenvironmental assessments.

YCDC have set their own standards with regard to theprotection of environmental areas in which they are fully
involved. The main objective of the National Commission

07. Existing and Future Challenges

for Environmental Affairs is to conserve the environment

A number of agencies are responsible for implementing

and prevent its degradation when utilising water, land,

water supply and sanitation schemes, which should ideallyforest, mineral, marine and other natural resources. The

be carried out in an integrated manner. Coordination

current measures mentioned above are in line with themechanisms among the various agencies should be

National Environment Policy of Myanmar initiated by thestrengthened to promote more effective management of

National Commission for Environmental Affairs.

the programme.
Improvement of water use efficiency is an important

06. Current Actions Taken
in the Water Sector

factor for water conservation in the irrigation sector to
reduce both water consumption and pollutant discharge byenterprises (point sources) and farmlands (non-point

The Sustainable Water Resources Development
Standing Committee was formed on 19 Nov 2012 for the
special economic zones.

78

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2015

sources).
The main sources of deteriorating water quality are
sewage, solid waste, industrial and agrochemical waste.

Chapter2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Cambodia

Water conservation through water quality protection isundertaken by the relevant city development committees.
In fact, the control of wastewater is both a municipal andan industrial problem. In cities undergoing rapid
industrialisation, the municipal treatment issue is still

China

complicated. Thus stricter laws to control water quality
should be imposed. In the agricultural sector, thegovernment has banned the import of some toxic pesticides

Indonesia

and encourages the use of conventional biofertilisers as a
substitute for chemical fertilisers to mitigate water quality
deterioration.
Deforestation in catchment areas and around water
resources causes serious degradation of water quality andJapanquantity. The resulting topsoil loss and land degradation by
gully and sheet erosion leads to excessive levels of turbidity
in the incoming water and to offsite ecological and physical

Republic of Korea

impacts from deposition in rivers and lakebeds. The silt andclay fractions, which carry absorbed chemicals, aretransported by the sediments into the aquatic system.

Lao PDR
Malaysia
Myanmar
Nepal
Philippines
Sri Lanka
Thailand
Viet Nam

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 201579

2.9 Nepal

01. Country information

Three types of river systems can be found in Nepal
based on their discharge capacity. The first type is the four

Table 2.9.1. Basic indicators

major river basins, namely the Mahakali, Karnali, Sapta-

Land Area (km2)

147,181 (2008)

Total Population (person)

27.8 million (2013)

GDP (current USD)

19.3 billion (2013)

Per Capita GDP (current USD)

Gandaki and Sapta-Koshi, with their origins in the Himalayas,
and these account for around 80% of the annual runoff.
The Babai, West Rapti, Bagmati, Kamala and Kankai are
medium-sized river basins accounting for about 7% of

694 (2013)

annual runoff. The smaller southern river basins—the

Long-Average Precipitation (mm/year)

1,500 (2009)

Bering, Balan, Khutiya, Pathraiya, Lal Bakaiya, Ratu, Sirsia,

Total Renewable Water Resources (km3)

210.2* (2009)

Total Annual Freshwater Withdrawals(billion m3)
Annual Freshwater
Withdrawal by
sectors

9.5 (2006)

Manusmara and Banganga, have origins in the Siwalik Hillrange (WECS 2011) and are without water during the dry
season. A recent assessment has identified 5,358 lakes inAgriculture

98.1% (2006)

Nepal (NLCDC 2009). This includes high altitude glacier

Industry

0.3%(2005)

lakes in the Himalayas, natural lakes as well as ponds,

Municipal(including domestic)

1.6% (2006)* Estimated(Source: See Appendix)

dams and other small wetlands. Available surface water isestimated to be 225 billion m3 (WECS 2011). Groundwater
potential is high in the country and the annual extraction
potential is about 12 billion m3. People living in the Terai

02. Major Water Basins in Nepal(lowlands) and inner valleys in the hills and mountains
extract groundwater for domestic use and for irrigation.

Mahakali

Karnali

Water resources in Nepal can be profitably utilised forhydropower generation, irrigation, domestic uses,

West Rapti

China

aquaculture and recreational fisheries. Of the above,

Gandakihydropower development has become an attractive option
Bagmatias a major energy source. The theoretical hydropower

Koshi

Kamalapotential of Nepal is 83,000 MW, of which 45,610 MW is
Kankai

Kathmandu

Babai
India

Other Southern Rivers

Figure 2.9.1. Water basins in Nepal

regarded as economically feasible. Compared to its huge
potential, current generation capacity is very low (<2%)(WECS 2011).
In 2012, only 37% of the population was using improved
sanitation while 88% of the population had access toimproved drinking water sources (WHO/UNICEF 2014).

04. State of Water Quality
Water quality data available for the country is very limited,

03. State of Water Resources

but water quality of public water bodies is generally
considered good except in urban areas. Urbanising areas,

Nepal is rich in water resources. The mean annual

including the capital Kathmandu, are facing the degradation

precipitation is 1,530 mm, with a range of more than 6,000

of water quality which is caused by an increasing volume ofmm along the southern slopes of the Annapurna range inuntreated or insufficiently treated domestic and industrial

central Nepal to less than 250 mm in the north-central

wastewater, as well as waste dumped directly into rivers

portion near the Tibetan plateau. The snow-capped

and lakes. The increased use of fertilisers and pesticides is

Himalayas are the main source of rivers in the country,

also putting critical pressure on water quality, especially inespecially, during the dry season (WECS 2000). There are

the rural areas. Insufficient access to sanitation facilities

about 6,000 rivers in Nepal with a total drainage area ofalso leads to negative impacts on water quality in both

191,000 km , 74% of which lies in Nepal (WECS 2011).

surface and underground waters. In the rainy season,

2

80

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2015

Chapter2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

different stretches of the Bagmati River. In the current state,

due to erosion. Water-borne diseases are common in thewater downstream of the Bagmati River flowing into the city

rainy seasons in rural areas due to contamination fromareas is not suitable for either drinking, recreation orunsafe sanitation.

irrigation purposes. Untreated domestic wastewater is

Cambodiasedimentation becomes a problem especially in rural areas

considered to be the main cause of pollution in the river,oxygen demand (BOD) load (NTNC 2009). In addition,in the majority of the river systems, which receive hugedomestic and industrial waste dumped into the river andamounts of sedimentation each year during the wet season.

wastewater from livestock farming have also been identified

Except for high sedimentation, most of the rivers in general

as major sources of pollution (NTNC 2009). Besides theare considered good quality. However, the rivers flowing

increasing pollution loads from various sectors, development

through cities are getting polluted due to the lack of proper

activities such as sand mining, encroachment of river banks

waste and wastewater disposal and management. The

and improper river bank protection works have also caused

Bagmati River is one of the most polluted rivers in Nepal.

sedimentation issues.

Japan

Erosion is one of the main causes of water quality changes

Indonesia

which accounts for about 42% of the total biochemical

China

RiversFigure 2.9.2 shows the recent state of water quality data at

Republic of Korea

Turbidity (NTU)

250

Dissolved Oxygen (mg/L)

10
9
8

200

7
6

150

Lao PDR

5
4

100

3
2

50

ijal
dar

Sun
Upstream

Downstream

0

ijal

dar

Sun

a

arn

Gok

ori

esw

Guh

a

ang

Tilg

Upstream

al

ang

am

Sin

*
wan oharan
Ma
Downstream

bha

Min

Myanmar

300

n
a
ri
a
al
a*
arn
swo ilgang mang bhawa noharaT
Gok Guhe
a
n
i
n
i
M
M
S

Malaysia

10

COD (mg/L)

200

23/04/2014

150

15/10/2014

100

20/10/2014

50

24/11/2014

Philippines

02/02/2014

Nepal

250

0

Sri Lanka

al
an
ga
ori
na
ijal
ra*
dar Gokar uhesw Tilgan amang bhaw noha
Sun
G
Ma
Min
Sin
Upstream
Downstream

Figure 2.9.2. Water quality at different stretches of the Bagmati River observed in 2014(* sampling point is located immediately downstream where the Manohara tributary merges with the Bagmati River)the dry season satisfied four parameters (pH, TDS, DO andBOD) in WHO guidelines (CBS 2008), although it is based onmonitoring. The latest environment statistics for Nepal

1998 data.

Viet Nam

The availability of water quality data for other river
basins is very limited due to the lack of regular water quality

Thailand(Source: High Powered Committee for the Integrated Development of the Baghmati Civilization website<http://www.bagmati.gov.np/bagmati-water-quality-test-report.php>)(2008) indicate that water quality in eight major rivers during

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 201581

Lakes and reservoirs

officially stating the need for environmental protection.

Similar to river water quality, lake water in the country is

Since the 1980s, various acts related to the environment

generally good in quality, but some lakes under pressure

and water were enacted such as the Water Resource Act

from economic development and population growth(1992) and Environment Protection Act (1996). The

experienced water quality degradation. For example,

objectives of environmental protection in the country are to

eutrophication was observed in Phewa Lake and otherprevent adverse impacts on human and natural ecosystems

wetlands located in the south Terai region, which has also

and conserve natural resources to achieve sustainable

led to the destruction of local ecosystems. The following

development (Environment Protection Act 1997). The

table shows the water quality in selected lakes based on

Environment Protection Act (EPA) is an umbrella law which

different studies.

covers the basic principles and measures to counteract
environmental degradation, such as environment impact
assessment, issuance of pollution control certificates,

Table 2.9.2. Water quality condition of selected lakes
Parameters

Unit

Phewa

BegnasRupa

Gosainkunda

BOD

mg/L

2

2

2.68

Not available

Total Nitrogen

mg/L

260

233.6

176.4

210

P-PO4

mg/L

30

18.7

23.3

3

Chlorophyll

mg/L

8

5.5

6.5

1.2

(Source: CBS 2008)

environmental inspections, compensation systems foradverse impacts and environment protection areas. In
terms of water environmental management or waterpollution, there is no one particular law. In addition to the
EPA and Environment Protection Rules which stipulate theoutlines and rules for pollution control and environment
impact assessments, the National Water Resources
Strategy (2002) and the National Wetland Policy (2003) also

Groundwater

indicate the importance of developing and strengthening

Both shallow and deep groundwater in Nepal is at risk ofenforcement of environmental protection related

contamination. Shallow groundwater is polluted byregulations and standards. The outline of the legislations

pathogenic bacteria, pesticides, nitrate and industrial

related to water environmental protection is illustrated in

effluents from industrial and domestic pollutants. Pesticides

Figure 2.9.3.

and nitrate contamination has mostly resulted from the use

There are also several related acts which could helpof inorganic fertilisers and pesticide sprays in the agricultural

reduce environmental impacts on rivers and lakes. These

sector. Unplanned urban development and insufficient

include acts related to land use, building codes, waste

waste management facilities are the main causes ofmanagement, and conservation and protection of natural

groundwater pollution in rural areas (Sharma et al. 2005).

resources and cultural heritages (Table 2.9.3).

Deep groundwater in Kathmandu and the Terai is largely
anaerobic and vulnerable to increased concentrations ofInstitutional arrangement

iron, manganese, ammonium and arsenic. In the deep

The Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment isaquifers of the Kathmandu valley, iron concentrations are in

responsible for environmental protection by managing andthe range of < 0.5–0.9 mg/L and manganese concentrations

coordinating the country’s environmental protection

are in the range of < 0.1–0.7 mg/L. Deep aquifers in thepolicies and measures. The Department of Hydrology andTerai become anaerobic due to overlying, poorly permeable,

Meteorology (DHM) under the ministry implements andthick layers of clayey soil. According to the Department of

coordinates the monitoring of river hydrology, climate,

Water Supply and Sewerage (DWSS), arsenic was detectedagro-meteorology, sediment, air quality, water quality,

in tube-wells all over the Terai district. In over one million

limnology, snow hydrology, glaciology, and wind and solar

tube-wells arsenic was detected in the range of 0-10 ppb,

energy. As for water, the Water and Energy Commission

about 58,179 tube-wells have 11-50 ppb and some 18,799

Secretariat (WECS) takes on the role of an apex body for

tube-wells have arsenic above 50 ppb (CBS 2014).

national planning related to water and energy through theformulation and provision of assistance to water and82

05. Frameworks for Water Environment
Management

energy related policy and strategy development. WECS is

Legislation

various ministries and line agencies at the national level

National awareness of environmental concerns emerged inthat promote water and environmental management and it

the 1980s with the Sixth Five-Year National Plan (1980-85)

is necessary to coordinate the work of these ministries.

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2015

also mandated to ensure sustainability by integrating theenvironmental agenda into development policies. There areChapter2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Cambodia

Water Resources Act 2049 (1994)
Water Resources Regulation 2050 (1995)

Environment Protection Rules2054 (1997)

China

Environment Protection Act 2053 (1996)

Nepal Drinking Water Quality Standard (Nepal Gazette 2005)
Nepal Water Quality for Irrigation Water (Nepal Gazette 2008)
Nepal Water Quality for Aquaculture (Nepal Gazette 2008)
Nepal Water Quality for Livestock Watering (Nepal Gazette 2008)
Nepal Water Quality for Recreation (Nepal Gazette 2008)
Nepal Water Quality for Industries (Nepal Gazette 2008)

Aquatic Animals Protection Act 2017 (1961)

Indonesia

Soil and Watershed Conservation Act 2039 (1982)
Nepal Water Quality for the Protection of Aquatic Ecosystem(Nepal Gazette 2008)

Industrial Enterprise Act 2048 (1993)
Japan

Local Self Governance Act 2055 (1999)

Figure 2.9.3. Outline of legislation system related to conservation of the water environment in Nepal
Republic of Korea(Source: Created by the WEPA Secretariat)

Table 2.9.3. National policies/legislations/strategies related to water environmental conservation
SectorLegislation- Nepal Biodiversity Conservation Strategy 2002
- Forest Sector Policy 2000
- National Wetland Policy 2003

Wastes- Solid Waste Management Act, 2011
- Solid Waste Management Policy 1996

Industries/Services- Industrial Policy 1992
- Tourism Policy 1995
- Hydropower Development Policy 2001

Agriculture- Irrigation Regulation 2000, Irrigation Policy 2003 & 2013

Others (administrative rules)- Local Self Governance Act 1999 and Regulation 1999

Philippines

Other natural resources

Nepal

Water Supply and Sanitation- Rural Water Supply and Sanitation National Policy 2004
- National Drinking Water Quality Standards 2005 (NDWQS 2005) and Implementation Directives for
NDWQS, 2005
- Urban Water Supply and Sanitation Policy 2009
- Sanitation and Hygiene Master Plan 2011

Myanmar

Water- Water Resource Act 1994
- Water Resource Regulation 1995
- National Water Supply Sector Policy 1998
- Water Resource Strategy Nepal 2002
- National Water Plan 2005
- Water Induced Disaster Management Policy 2006
- Integrated Water Resources Policy 2014 (Draft)

Malaysia- National Environment Act 1996 and Regulation 1997
- The National Conservation Strategy 1988
-Climate Change Policy 2011

Lao PDR

Environment (overall)

Sri Lanka
Thailand(Source: Created by the WEPA Secretariat with inputs from WEPA Focal Point for Nepal)

Viet Nam

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2015

83

The Local Self Governance Act (LSGA) 1999 allows
village development committees (VDCs), district

06. Recent Developments
in Water Environmental Management

development committees (DDCs) and municipalities moreautonomy to manage local natural resources and to

In the past two decades, the Nepalese government has

integrate environmental resource management andstrengthened legislation both in the water andenvironmental planning.

environmental sectors. In water environmental
management, both sectors are closely interlinked but

Ambient water quality standards

require further coordination. Effluent standards were set up

Ambient water quality standards were established underin the past three years as prescribed in the National Water

EPA (Article 24). There are two standards for different

Plan (Box 2.9.1). The government has also appointed

purposes, namely the Nepal Water Guidelines forenvironmental inspectors since 2008 as stipulated in the

Recreation and the Nepal Water Quality Guidelines forEnvironment Protection Act 1996 and the Environment

Protection of Aquatic Ecosystems.

Protection Regulation 1997, but the number of theinspectors is considered inadequate. The framework of

Effluent standards

water environmental management already set up in the

Effluent standards for different pollution sources are alsocountry is facing enforcement and implementation issues.

set up under the EPA as follows:
Tolerance limits for industrial effluent discharged into

07. Existing and Future Challenges

inland surface waters (generic)Tolerance limits for specific industrial effluent discharged
into inland surface waters (for nine industrial sectors,
namely tanning, wool processing, fermentation,
vegetable ghee and oil, paper and pulp, dairy products,
sugar milling, cotton textiles and soap industries)

environmental management in Nepal. The next step to betaken is the implementation of the nation’s regulations andrules. Lack of sub-ordinances enabling legislation andintegration among related legislation and policies are major
obstacles to achieving a comprehensive framework forTolerance limits for industrial effluent discharged into

water environmental management. The lack of regularpublic sewers

water quality monitoring is a constraint to the development

Tolerance limits for wastewater discharged into inlandsurface waters from combined wastewater treatment
plants (CWTPs)

Water quality monitoring
Systematic ambient water quality monitoring is notconducted in public water bodies in the country, althoughwater quality is monitored by different ministries andagencies for different purposes (e.g. water quality
monitoring and surveillance under the Implementation
Directives of the Drinking Water Quality Standards 2005).
Regular monitoring of the water quality of the Bagmati
River is being done by the High Powered Committee for the
Integrated Development of the Baghmati Civilization, which
has also started publishing the data for the general public
since February 2014. Water related database development
is also set out in the action plan of the National Water Plan.
The Department of Hydrology and Meteorology under the
Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment monitors
river and lake water quality.

84

A framework of management was set up for water

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2015of a scientific basis for policy making, implementation andreview. There is a pressing need to coordinate institutions
and develop institutional and human capacity to promotewater quality monitoring not only in major cities but also
across the major river basins. To improve the present stateof Nepal’s water environment, it is important to issue legal
instruments which facilitate a feeling of ownership in orderto improve the water environment. As well, an environmental
database must be developed, and regular monitoring
carried out to enforce legislation and ensure compliance.

Chapter2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

CambodiaBox 2.9.1. Implementation of water environmental related action set by the National Water Plan (2005)

China

The National Water Plan (NWP) 2005 has different sectoral policies—hydropower development, irrigation, anddrinking water supply and sanitation. Recognizing the importance of sustainable development principles for thecountry’s development, NWP incorporated environmental sustainable principles*1 and included four actions related
to water quality management as follows.

Indonesia(a) Development of water quality standards/guidelines for irrigation, drinking and recreational purposes(b) Establishment of water quality standards/guidelines for ecosystems maintenance(c) Development of standards/guidelines for the discharge of municipal and industrial wastewater(d) Establishment of minimum in-stream and outflow in important aquatic ecosystems

Japan

NWP also has special provisions in its environmental management plan (Part D). The environmental management
plan is “a strategic document which deals with a plan for the implementation of environmental protection measures,monitoring and auditing programmes, institutions and procedures.” The actions introduced under NWP would
have an impact on various environmental issues. The summary table of environmental issues included some water
environmental conservation aspects such as downstream water pollution and groundwater quality, sedimentation,water pollution and sanitation, and impacts on aquatic ecosystems.
The environmental management plan aims to ultimately contribute to maximizing positive impacts and minimizing
adverse effects in environmental sustainability in water development/conservation actions. Municipalities, local
communities and the private sector are expected to play an increasing role in the utilization and sustainable use ofgroundwater.

Republic of Korea
Lao PDR*1 Definitions and principles of environmental sustainability in NWP include the following elements:
a. to protect, conserve and manage natural resources and ecosystems while orienting technological, economic and institutional changes
to meet the needs of the present and future generations;b. to ensure the rate of consumption of natural resources does not exceed the rate of their regeneration;c. to include consideration of all aspects of the water cycle and all uses for sustainable water resources.
(Source: Government of Nepal 2005)

Malaysia
Myanmar
Nepal
Philippines
Sri Lanka
Thailand
Viet Nam

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 201585

2.10 Philippines

01. Country informationand considered significantly important in terms of theircontribution to socio-economic development and in

Table 2.10.1. Basic indicators

sustaining ecological stability. As a major source of waterLand area (km2)

299,404 (2006)

Total population

98.39 million (2013)

GDP (current USD)

272.1 billion (2013)

Per capita GDP (current USD)
Long-average precipitation (mm/year)

government considers these river basins as a priority forprotection, conservation and sustainable use. At the sametime, these basins are recognised as highly vulnerable to2,765 (2013)

climate change, hence, major water-related hazards such

2,348 (2014)

as river inundation, flooding, landslides, soil erosion andTotal Renewable Water Resources (km )479 (2014)

Total Annual Freshwater Withdrawals(billion m3)

81.6 (2009)3

Annual Freshwater
Withdrawals by
Sectors

for agriculture, industry and domestic needs, theAgriculture

81.6% (2009)

Industry

10.1% (2009)

Municipal(including domestic)

7.6% (2009)(Source: See Appendix)

drought have become very evident. This has made them apriority for rehabilitation and sustainable management.

03. State of Water Resources
The Philippines enjoys abundant water resources withwater availability of 5,302m 3/year/capita, although its
availability is subject to geographical and seasonal

02. Major Water Basins in the Republic of
the Philippines (the Philippines)

imbalances. There are 18 major river basins with 421
principal river basins and 79 natural lakes (Cuna 2011). The
coastal line is 17,460 km and about 64 out of 79 provinces
are located in the coastal areas (Cuna 2011).

Abulugand also an important resource for fishing and transport.

Luzon

Abra

CagayanAgno

Pampanga

Manila Bay

ManilaPasig Laguna

Seven Lakes of
San Pablo

Taal Lake

Bicol

MindoroNaujan Lake

Samar

Palawan

Sebu

NegrosIlog Hilabangan
Tagoloan

Lake Wood

Layte

Lake Mainit
Mindanao

Agus

Groundwater is also an important source for domestic
and drinking use in some regions, contributing 14% of thetotal water resource potential, while about 50% of drinking
water sources or 86% for piped water supply systems
depend on groundwater.

deteriorated. According to monitoring data of the national

AgusanLake Lanao

reservoir with an aggregate area about 50,000 km2.

the water demand has increased while water quality has

Bohol

CagayanMeanwhile, the country also has an extensive groundwater

Due to population growth and economic development,

Panay
Panay
JalauoSurface water is the main water source of the country

Tagum
Libuganon
Davao
Buayan Malungan

government, access to clean water is an issue in someareas of the country especially during the dry season. Such
areas include Metro Manila, Central Luzon, Southern
Tagalog and Central Visayas.

04. State of Water Quality

Mindanao

Figure 2.10.1. Major river basins in the Philippines

Water classification or reclassification is a very importantcomponent in water quality management in the Philippines
as effluent standards are interpreted with respect to it. The

86

The country has about 421 principal river basins with morewaters are classified primarily based on beneficial uses thatthan 40 square kilometres of drainage area. The 18 biggest

are expected to last at least for the next ten years. In theriver basins with drainage areas greater than 1,400 square

Philippines, the Department of Environment and Naturalkilometres are typologically classified as major river basins

Resources (DENR) - Environmental Management Bureau

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2015

Chapter2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

has classified a total of 632 water bodies that have been

fresh surface water, coastal and marine waters accordingclassified in terms of best usage and water quality to be

to DENR DAO 24, series of 1990. This is to maintain its

maintained. Of the 421 principal rivers identified by thewater quality according to its best use such as residential,

National Water Resources Board (NWRB), 283 or 67.22%

agricultural, aquacultural, commercial, industrial,

were classified.

navigational, recreational, wildlife conservation andAccording to DAO 34 series of 1990, water bodies are

China

aesthetic purposes. According to Cuna (2012), the EMB

Cambodia(EMB) undertakes the classification or reclassification ofclassified into nine classes as follows:

Water bodies

Classification
Class AAFor fresh surface waters(rivers, lakes, reservoirs, etc.)

Class BClass D(particularly those designated for tourism purposes)• Fishery Water for the propagation and growth of fish and other aquatic resources• Recreational Water Class II (Boating, etc.)• Industrial Water Supply Class I (For manufacturing processes after treatment)• For agriculture, irrigation, and livestock watering, etc.
• Industrial Water Supply Class II (e.g. cooling, etc.)• Other inland waters, by their quality, belong to this classification• National marine parks and reserves established under Presidential Proclamation 1801,(other existing laws), and/or declared as such by appropriate government agency.

Lao PDRClass SA

Recreational Water Class I• For primary contact recreation such as bathing, swimming, skin diving, etc.
Republic of Korea

Class C

Beneficial use
Public Water Supply Class I• Intended primarily for waters having watersheds, which are uninhabited and otherwise
protected, and which require only approved disinfection to meet the Philippines National
Standards for Drinking Water (PNSDW)
Public Water Supply Class II• For sources of water supply that will require complete treatment(coagulation, sedimentation, filtration and disinfection) to meet the PNSDWJapanClass A

Indonesia

Table 2.10.2. Classification of water bodies• Waters suitable for the propagation, survival and harvesting of shellfish for commercial
purposes.

Class SB

(Areas regularly used by the public for bathing, swimming, skin diving, etc.)

Class SD

• Industrial Water Supply (For manufacturing processes after treatment, cooling, etc.)• Other coastal and marine maters, by their quality, belong to this classification

Major pollution sources for surface and coastal waters

ratio is shown in Figure 2.10.2. Among non-point sources,
BOD.

Domestic
sources
33%(Source: DENR-EMB 2007)2010% Change

Marikina River

18.2

31

Increased by 70%

Paranaque River

42

38

Improved by 10%

Balili River

14.8

37

Increased by 150%

Meycauayan River

38.2

59

Increased by 54%

Marilao River

32.3

24

Improved by 26%

Bocaue River

12.2

11

Improved by 10%

Imus River

8

12

Increased by 50%

Ylang-ylang River

24.4

119

Increased by 388%

Anayan River

8.9

4

Improved by 55%

Iloilo River

2.4

12

Increased by 400%

Luyang River

2.4

4

Increased by 67%

Sapangdaku River

7.6

6

Improved by 21%

Viet Nam

Figure 2.10.2. BOD loads from key potential pollution sources

2003

ThailandAgriculture-Livestock
29%

Annual average of
BOD (mg/L)

Sri Lanka

Non-point sources
11%

RiversPhilippines

agricultural runoff is the major source at 74% in terms ofTable 2.10.3. Change in BOD levels of selected priority
rivers from 2003-2010
Nepal

point sources. The type of point source and contributing

MyanmarClass SC

• Fishery Water Class II (Commercial and sustenance fishing)• Recreational Water Class II (For boating, etc.)• Marshy and/or mangrove areas declared as fish and wildlife sanctuaries

in terms of biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) load are

Industry
27%

Malaysia

For coastal and marine waters(coastal, offshore, estuarine,etc.)
As amended by DAO 97-23• Coral reef parks and reserves designated by law and concerned authorities• Fishery Water Class I (Spawning areas for milkfish (Chanos chanos) and similar species)• Tourist Zones (For ecotourism and recreational activities)• Recreational Water Class I(Source: Data provided by focal person in 2011)

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2015

87

Rivers

Coastal Water

The EMB conducted inland surface water monitoring for

Coastal and marine waters cover an area of about 266,000

rivers and lakes since 2001 and prioritised 19 rivers for

km 2, including bays and gulfs. The country coastline

monitoring under the Sagip Ilog (Save a River) Programme.

stretches to about 36,289 km, which is considered as one

The prioritised rivers are expected to satisfy 30%of the longest coastlines in the world. It is also estimatedimprovement in BOD and DO (dissolved oxygen) values bythat about 54% of municipalities in the country are in the2010, compared with 2003 monitoring results. Table 2.10.3

coastal zone and where around 62% of the population, live

shows the percentage of change in BOD values in selected

and are directly dependent on coastal and marine resources

priority rivers in 2003 and 2010. According to the monitoring

for their livelihood (Naz 2013).

results, signs of improvement in BOD levels were observed

The quality of marine and coastal water is relatively goodin the Paranaque, Marilao, Bocaue, Anayan, and Sapangdaku

with the exception of Cansaga Bay in Region 7, where DO

Rivers. However, the targeted 30% improvement for BOD

levels are lower than 5 mg/L in all monitoring stations. Twenty-

was only observed in the Anayan River. At the same time,

six coastal monitoring stations showed DO compliance ofincreasing trends for BOD levels were observed in many

54% with good quality, 46% of fair quality and 0% for poor

priority rivers, such as an increase of 400% in BOD levels in

quality (DENR-EMB 2007). In terms of fecal coliform, 34 out

Iloilo River in 2010, compared with monitoring results inof 41 priority bathing beaches meet the Class SB water

2003. Monitoring data also showed that about 80% ofquality value of 200MPN/100mL (DENR-EMB 2007).

monitored rivers surpassed the DENR criterion of DO

Groundwater(5mg/L) for Class C water.

The status of groundwater quality is assessed through the
(%)
100

n=84

n=88

n=92

n=69

n=77

90

17

15

17

23

18

Philippine National Standard for Drinking Water Under the
Tap Watch Program of the EMB which monitored 88 shallow
wells in the country. Of these, only 21 sites met the potable

80

groundwater quality standard, while 27 failed the fecal

70

Non-complied
Complied

60
50
40

83

85

77

83

82

sites required further testing to confirm portability. Nitratelevels were monitored in Metro Cebu and Central Mindanao.

30

Not many sites were contaminated. Studies conducted for20

salinity levels in Metro Manila and Metro Cebu showed an

100increase in salinity in some locations in Metro Manila. Over2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

Figure 2.10.3. River water quality compliance ratio of
DO values in Class C (2006-2010)(Source: Calculated from EMB monitoring data)

abstraction is considered to be the cause.

05. Frameworks for Water Environment
Management

Lakes and Reservoirs

Legislation

There is a total of 79 natural lakes within the country, mostly

Figure 2.10.4 shows the evolution of water quality policies

utilised for fish production. Laguna Lake (Laguna de Bay) is

and legislation in the Philippines for water environment

considered as the largest with a total area of 3,813.2 km2

management.

and also an important water body that supports thousands

The Philippines has an extensive body of water-relatedof fishermen residing in Metro Manila. It is also being

legislation that provides the legal basis for policies andconsidered as an alternative to the Angat Dam as a main

regulations concerning water resource management of thesource of potable water in Metro Manila. Therefore, thecountry, including the Sanitation Code 1975, the Water

rehabilitation and improvement of the water quality of thisCode 1976, the Environmental Impact Statement Systemlake is a priority for the government.

1978, the Local Government Code 1991, the Environmental

The main sources of pollution in the lake are domestic

88

coliform standard for drinking water. An additional forty

Code 1997 and the Clean Water Act of 2004 (Figure 2.10.4).

(77%), agriculture (11%) industry (11%) and forestry (1%).

In addition to the laws/regulations shown in the Figure

According to current water quality classifications, the2.10.4, there is other legislation related to water environmental

central zone of this lake is fit for fisheries and the west bay

conservation, such as the Philippines Environmental Policy

for irrigation. However, peripheral portions in the west bay(PD1151) and the Solid Waste Management Act (RA9003).

are heavily contaminated with high sediment loads and

EMB is the governmental agency responsible for waterhigh levels of coliform counts.

conservation and protection.

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2015

Chapter2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Cambodia

Republic Act No.
7160 of 1991,
known as the
Local Government
CodeDisaster Risk
Reduction
And
Management
Act of 2010

IndonesiaJapan

Wa ter Code of
the Phi lippines(1976);
Pres i dential
Decree 1067 of1976

Environmental
ImpactStatement
System (1978);Presidential
Decree (P.D)
1586 of 1978

ClimateChangeAct of 2009

China

Environmental
Code (1997)

Clean Water
Act of 2004

Republic of Korea

Sanitation Codeof the Philippines (1975);
Presidential Decree (P.D.) 856
of 1975

Figure 2.10.4. Evolution of water quality policies and legislation in the Philippines

Conservation of Water Quality

Lao PDR

Conservation of Water Resources
RA 3931 (1964) as amended by PD 984 (1976) as replaced by RA 9275
Clean Water Act of 2004
Objective: To protect, abate and control pollution of water, air and land.

DAO 35 (1990) Revised Effluent Regulation- Objective: These rules and regulations shall apply to all industrial and municipal wastewater effluent

Malaysia

DAO 34 - Revised Water Usage and Classification Water Quality Criteria- Objective: Shall classify all bodies of water and comply with the water quality criteria

Conservation and Protection of Laguna Lake

Marine Water Resources Protection

PD 979 Marine Pollution Decree of 1976
Objective: To control pollution discharge from ship

Conservation of Water Resources Ownership,
Development and Exploitation

PD 1067 Water CodeConsolidate legislation relating to ownership,
development, exploitation and conservation of water resources

Myanmar

RA 4850 (1966) as amended by PD 813 (1975), PD 927 (1983)
Objective: To promote, and accelerate the development and balanced growth of
the Laguna lake area with due regards for environmental management and control,
preservation of undue ecological disturbance, deterioration and pollution

Nepal

Figure 2.10.5. Legislative chart of water quality management(Source: MoEJ 2009)

Natural Resources (DENR) is the lead agency in charge of

employ an integrated, holistic, decentralised andwater resource management. Besides, the responsibility ofparticipatory approach. Figure 2.10.5 shows the conceptual

planning and managing water resources in the Philippines

framework of the water environmental management underis shared among several government departments, bureaux

the Act. The Philippines has many water-related laws, but

and agencies. In addition, local government units (LGUs)

their enforcement is weak and beset with problems thatare required to provide water supply systems, communal

include inadequate resources, poor databases, and weakirrigation facilities, implement social forestry and local flood

cooperation among different agencies and Local

control projects, and are under the supervision and control

Government Units (LGUs).

of the DENR (SEPO 2011).

Institutional Arrangements

involved in water environmental management in Philippines

There are a number of institutions and agencies involved inare presented in Table 2.10.4.

ThailandPhilippines. However, the Department of Environment andfor water quality management in the Philippines, andSri Lanka

the local, regional, national and even global levels in thePhilippines

The Clean Water Act (RA 9275) and its Implementation
Rules and Regulations (DAO 2005-10) provide a framework

Viet Nam

A number of key national government agencies

overseeing the water governance at all levels, ranging fromWEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 201589

Table 2.10.4. Key governmental agencies involved in water environmental management in Philippines
Department

Line Agency

National Economic and Development Authority (NEDA)

Department of Environment
and Natural Resources(DENR)

Functions
Coordinates the preparation of national/regional/sectoral development policies
and investment programmes, including those on sanitation.

National Water Resources
Board (NWRB)

Administers/enforces the Water Code and serves as the lead coordinator forwater resources management programmes.

Forest Management Bureau(FMB)

Formulates/implements policies and programmes for the protection,
development, and management of forest lands and watershed areas.

Environmental Management Sets and enforces water quality and effluent standards, criteria and guidelines
Bureau (EMB)
for all aspects of water quality management.

Department of Agriculture(DA)

Department of Health (DOH)

National Irrigation
Administration (NIA)

Undertakes water resource projects for agricultural irrigation and other purposes,
such as flood control and drainage, hydropower development, etc.

Bureau of Soil and Water
Management (BSWM)

Formulates/implements policies and programmes for the protection of existingand potential sources of soil and water for agricultural development.

Bureau of Fisheries andAquatic Resources (BFAR)

Establishes plans for the proper protection and management of the country’s
fisheries and aquatics resources.

Environmental HealthService (EHS)

Regulates drinking water quality supervises the general sanitation activities andcountrywide surveillance of drinking water sources to protect public health.

Programmes and manages the National Sewerage and Septage Management
Program. DPWH is n ow the lead agency for the urban sanitation sector. It is also
Department of Public Works Environmental and Social
responsible for planning, design, construction and maintenance of infrastructureand Highways (DPWH)
Services Office (ESSO)
facilities (including water resources development systems) and other public
works.
Provides capacity building programmes for LGUs in preparing local water supply
Department of Interior andWater Supply and Sanitationand sanitation plans, providing information on available sector programmes, andLocal Government (DILG)
Unit
facilitating access to financing for water supply and sanitation projects.
National Power Corporation(NPC)

Develops and manages electric generation facilities including but not limited to hydroelectric dams andundertakes other activities related to watershed management.

Metropolitan Waterworks
and Sewerage System(MWSS)

Regulates water concessionaires’ rates and service standards in Metro Manila and maintains existing assets
and infrastructure.

Local Water Utilities
Administration (LWUA)

Promotes/finances/regulates the construction and operation of local water utilities outside Metro Manila.

(Source: See references)

Water Environmental Policy

partnership with the private sector through MoUs); TAP

To conserve water quality and mitigate water pollution,

Watch Programme (monitoring programme for drinking

various programmes have been implemented, whichwater in poor communities); Industrial Eco Watch Programme

include the SAGIP ILOG Programme (Ilog River conservation(rating programme for environmental performance); Beachand restoration programme linked with LGUs, NGOs andWatch Programme (monitoring of tourist beaches); and theother interested parties); LINIS ESTERO Programme (clean-

Philippine Environment Partnership Programme (supportingup programme of creeks and esteros in Metro Manila inself-regulation efforts in industries) (Cuna 2011).

Designation of Water Quality Management Areas (WQMA)
Non-Attainment Areas (NAA)

Integrated Water Quality Management Framework

NatI. Sewerage and Septage Management Program
Classification/Reclassification
Groundwater Vulnerability Mapping
WQ Guidelines

Water Quality Management Action Plan (WQMAP)

Effluent Standards
Categorization of Industry
Waste water Charge System
Discharge Permits

Households

Industries

Other Non-Point Sources

Financial Liability
Programmatic EIA
Incentives and Rewards
Prohibitions/Sanctions/Actions

Figure 2.10.6. Conceptual framework of water quality management under the Clean Water Act

90

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2015

Chapter2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

necessary for the effective implementation of the Clean

new water quality management framework.

Water Act. WQMA applies the concept of basin

Cambodia

The following are some examples of key features of the

management, which will also be beneficial for water quality
management. Reasons for this include (1) the manageable

Water Quality Management Areas (WQMA) are a newsize of planning and management areas which have similarfeature of water environmental management introduced byphysical conditions, (2) enabling focused management and

the Philippines Clean Water Act of 2004 or Republic Act No.

actions to address specific issues in each area, and (3) ease9275, which intends to strengthen and promote efficientof monitoring water quality (Tuddao 2011).
a number of WQMAs within the jurisdiction of LLDA

or geographic conditions (Tuddao 2011). Governing boards,(Figure 2.10.7), including the Sinocalan-Dagupan riverwhich are composed of relevant stakeholders in eachsystem in Pangasinan, the Tigum-Aganan watershed,

WQMA and chaired by DENR regional offices, are

Marilao-Meycauayan-Obando river systems, Iloilo-Batiano

responsible for the development of strategies to coordinate

river system in Visayas, and Sarangani Bay and Silway River

policies, regulations/local legislation, and other measuresin Mindanao, etc. (EMB, 2014).

Pinacanauan de Tuguegarao

Sinocalan Dagupan River System

San Juan River

Marilao-Meycauayan-Obando River System

Areas Within LLDA Jurisdiction

Ylang-ylang - Rio Grande River System

Lake Buhi

Republic of Korea

Balili River(DAO 2013-05)

Japan

As of June 2014, the DENR and the NWRB designatedhave similar hydrological, hydro-ecological, meteorologicalIndonesia

and effective water quality management at local levels that

China

Designation of Water Quality Management Areas(DAO 2013-06)(DAO 2011-14)(DAO 2012-04)(DAO 2008-2007)(RA 9275)

Lao PDR(DAO 2013-02)(DAO 2013-04)

Calapan River

Ormoc Bay(DAO 2013-03)(DAO 2013-21)

Tigum-Aganan Watershed

Butuanon River(DAO 2008-18)(DAO 2014-25)(DAO 2009-11)

Malaysia

Ilo-ilo - Batiano River System

Cagayan de Oro(DAO 2013-18)

Taguibo River(DAO 2012-11)(DAO 2013-01)

MyanmarTumaga River

Davao River(DAO 2013-04)

Sarangani Bay(DAO 2010-12)

Silway River(DAO 2010-12)

Designated WQMA

Figure 2.10.7. Designated water quality management areas
Nepal(Source: EMB 2014)

their pollution loads such as through the modification of

In cases where specific pollutants exceed water quality

the production process and investment in pollution control

guidelines, DENR shall designate these areas astechnologies. DENR also issues discharge permits for“nonattainment areas.” In the designated areas, pollution

wastewater, which includes the allowable value of bothcontrol measures are strengthened to comply withquantity and quality of effluents, compliance schedule andstandards. For example, new sources of pollution will notmonitoring requirements.

Philippines

Designation of non-attainment areas

Sri Lanka

be allowed in the non-attainment areas without plans to
reduce total pollution loads from a facility below the

Incentives and rewards

guideline value.

For outstanding and innovative projects, technologies,

The wastewater charge formula was established in 2005

entities from the National Water Quality Management(DAO 2005-10) on the basis of payment to the government

Fund. Incentives for industries are also provided, such as

for discharging wastewater into water bodies in all watertax and duty exemptions for industrial wastewater

management areas. It is expected that the system is to betreatment/collection facilities.

Viet Namprovided to individuals, private organisations and other

Thailandprocesses and techniques, and activities, rewards are
Water pollution permits and wastewater charge system

an incentive for those who discharge pollutants to reduce

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 201591

Ambient Water Quality Standards

and SD and other coastal waters which are not classified.

According to the classification under the DENR AO No. 34

The same parameters as in a. were considered with theSeries of 1990 (Table 2.10.1), the following water quality

exception of settleable solids.

criteria has been set up for freshwater, coastal and marine
water, respectively: (1) Water Quality Criteria for
Conventional and Other Pollutants Contributing to
Aesthetics and Oxygen Demand (2) Toxic and other
Deleterious Substances (for the protection of public health).

d. Interim effluent standards for BOD applicable to old or
existing industries producing strong industrial wastes(1990-1994).
e. Effluent standards for new industries producing strong
wastes upon effect of the regulations and for all

Monitoring of water quality in public water bodies

industries producing strong wastes starting 1 January

EMB and its regional offices conduct regular water quality

1995. The standard was based on BOD of raw wastewater.

monitoring throughout the country based on the parameters

The standard covers old or existing industries producing

indicated in DAO 34. From 2001 to 2005, 238 water bodies

strong waste whose wastewater treatment plants havewere monitored either for classification or for regular water

yet to be constructed.

quality monitoring. Depending on the resources, monitoring
for these waters bodies is carried out monthly or quarterly
according to the DENR-EMB Water Quality Monitoring
manual (2009).

Effluent standards
Section 14 of the Clean Water Act requires owners or
operators of facilities that discharge regulated effluents tosecure permits to discharge. Discharge permits are legal
authorisation granted by the DENR to discharge wastewater,
provided that the discharge permit specifies among others,
the quantity and quality of the effluent that said facilities
are allowed to discharge into a particular water body,compliance schedule and monitoring requirements. DENR
can also suspend and revoke permits when business
entities are not in compliance with the rules and regulations
and/or permit conditions. Effluent standards (DAO 35,
1990) are set as follows:

To set Industry-Specific Effluent Standards (ISES), a draft
has been prepared with the revision of the current Industrial
Effluent Standards. However, the draft is still subject torevisions. The Clean Water Act does not have standards for
effluent discharges to land, but mandates that effluent
emitters not affect the usability of land and groundwater
resources. For effluent discharged for irrigation and otheragricultural purposes, emitters should meet the guidelinesof the Department of Agriculture (DA).
Effluent monitoring
Effluent monitoring must be carried out by those who are
required to comply with effluent standards, in principle. A
manual on effluent monitoring was issued by DENR-EMB
in 2009. In order to determine compliance by industrial
establishments, a series of surveys and follow-up
inspections are conducted by personnel in DENR’s sixteen
regional offices.

a. Effluent standards for conventional and other pollutantsin Protected Waters Category I and II and in Inland
Waters Class C. Standards were set for the following:

06. Recent Developments inWater Environmental Management

colour, temperature, pH, COD and settleable solids,
BOD, TSS, TDS, surfactants (MBAS), oil and greases,

The Philippine government now focuses on the mitigation

phenolic substances and phenols. These standardsof water quality deterioration as a priority, mostly due toapply to protected waters (both fresh and marine waters)

domestic and industrial pollution sources, in highly

and inland waters.

urbanised centres, particularly Metro Manila using

b. Effluent standards for toxic and other deleterious
substances (maximum limits for the protection of public- The government and the two private Water Service

health). For this category, effluent standards are set for

Utilities/Watern Concessionaires (Manila Water

arsenic, cadmium, chromium, cyanide, lead, mercury

Company and the Maynilad Water Services, Inc.) are(Total), PCB and formaldehyde. Different standard values

now fast tracking the completion of the installation offor each substance are set in accordance with water

domestic wastewater treatment facilities/plants inclassification. Stricter values are applied to “new planned

Metro Manila to achieve 100 per cent coverage.

industries.”

92

ecosystem approaches:- Strict monitoring of the compliance of Industries toc. Effluent standards for conventional and other pollutants

Clean Water Act on the provision of complete industrial

in Inland Waters Class D and Marine Waters Class SC

wastewater treatment plants and imposing immediate

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2015

Chapter2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries- Implementation of the Polluters Pay Principle

management strategies and master plans is a challengethat the country will face in the near future.

(Developing market-based instruments, payment of

The need to address climate change concerns and theirfees on wastewater discharges).

impacts on water resource management in thePhilippines.

China

Strengthened partnership with the private sector/

Cambodiasanctions and penalties to violators of the law.

business groups in water environmental management:- Principle of Corporate Social Responsibility (shared

Indonesia

responsibility, common vision).
- Adopt a River/Esteros/Bodies of Water Program (Nowcovers some 300 Corporate/Business Groups (BGs)
nationwide committed to support the government inJapan

the river clean-up effort and restoration of at least one
BG per river within a specific time frame.

Republic of Korea

Strengthened government monitoring system on thecompliance to Clean Water Act by the industries andother stakeholders, through capacity building and private
and public investment, including the implementation ofa strict Self-Monitoring System in water environmental
management.

Lao PDR

07. Existing and Future Challenges

Malaysia

There are various challenges being faced in water
environment management including the following
elements:
Challenges in water quality management include the

Myanmarlimited availability of funds and investments, which should
be facilitated for effective and efficient enforcement of therequirements of the Clean Water Act 2004.

Nepal

Water quality monitoring should be strengthened
through capacity building, and ensuring the necessary
resources and infrastructure.

Philippines

Developing a systematised technical and operational
approach to water environment monitoring.
The necessity to improve coordination and basic water
environment data collection system for an efficient and

Sri Lanka

effective flow of information.
Strengthening institutional mechanisms and sustaining
multi-sectoral participation in water quality management

Thailandis necessary to promote water quality management.
The need to address water quality decline throughecosystem approach.

Viet Nam

Water quality management at the basin level should bepromoted. Integration of water quality management
strategies and action plans with basin level development/

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 201593

2.11 Sri Lanka

01. Country Information

03. State of Water Resources

Table 2.11.1. Basic Indicators

There are three different climatic zones in the country: wet,Land Area (km2)

65,610 (2014)

Total Population (person)

20.5 million (2013)

GDP (current USD)

67.2 billion (2013)

intermediate and dry. Annual rainfall for each climate zone
is over 2,000 mm/year for the wet zones, between 1,5002,000 mm for the intermediate zones and 1,500 mm/year
for the dry zones (IGES 2007). These different climatic

Per Capita GDP (current USD)

3,280 (2013)

zones constitute a unique natural feature of the country.

Long-Average Precipitation (mm/year)

1,712 (2009)

There are 103 natural river basins in Sri Lanka, with a total

Total Renewable Water Resources (km3)

52.8* (2009)

Total Annual Freshwater Withdrawals(billion m3)
Annual Freshwater
Withdrawal by
sectors

13 (2005)

length of about 4,500 km (UNESCO and MoAIMD 2006).
The largest river is the Mahaweli River which is 335 km longand 10,448 km2 (MENR and UNEP 2009). In addition, there

Agriculture

87.3% (2005)

is a significant number of reservoirs including ancientIndustry

6.4% (2005)

irrigation reservoirs and recently constructed multi-purpose

Municipal(including domestic)

6.2% (2005)* Estimated(Source: See Appendix)

reservoirs with a total area of 169,941 hectares (Table
2.11.2).
Table 2.11.2. Estimated reservoir areas in Sri Lanka

02. Major Water Basins in Sri Lanka

Ma OyaPadawiya Tank

Kala Oya

Mahaweli Ganga

Kaudulla Tank

RajanganaReservoir
Mundal Lagoon

Major irrigation reservoirs(ancient)

73

70,85041.7

Medium scale reservoirs (ancient)160

17,001

10>10,000

39,271

23.1

N/A

4,049

2.4

7

8,097

4.8

13,6508.0

Other

17,023

10

Total area

169,941

100

Negombo Lagoon
Lunawa Lagoon
Bolgoda Lake

KelaniGanga

Upland hydroelectric reservoirs(recent)
Mahaweli multipurpose systemof reservoirs(%)(Source: MENR and UNEP 2009)

Groundwater resources in the country are estimated atabout 7,800 million m3 per year (IGES 2007; MENR and

Parakrama
SamudraMaha Oya

Flood plain lakes(ha)

Madura Oya

Kala Wera
Minneriya Tank

Chilaw Lagoon

Percentage

NumberMinor scale reservoirs (ancient)
Bay of Bengal

Area

Type of Reservoir

Madura Oya
Reservoir
Victoria Reservoir

Randenigala
Reservoir

Rantambe
Reservoir

Kalu Ganga Uda Walawe
Reservoir

Sri Jayewardenepura
Gin Ganga
Kotte

NilwalaGanga

WalaweGanga

UNEP 2009; Nandalal 2010). Groundwater is the major
source of water especially in rural areas, and it is estimatedthat about 72% of the rural population relies on groundwater
for domestic use (Nandalal 2010).

04. State of Water Quality
Concerns on water pollution such as contamination bynitrate and bacteria were pointed out in underground andsurface waters. These were mainly due to untreatedwastewater or insufficient wastewater treatment andinadequate sanitation systems, toxic chemicals from

Figure 2.11.1. Major water bodies in Sri Lanka

94

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2015

Chapter2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

and Ocean Resources reported that the organic pollution inlakes/reservoirs (UNESCO and MoAIMD 2006). The

seawater of the Beruwala and Unawatuna areas attributed

population coverage by the central wastewater treatment

to high BOD values throughout the year (MENR and UNEP

facilities in Sri Lanka is less than five per cent and onsite2009).

Cambodiaindustrial and agricultural activities and eutrophication inseptic tanks are common among urban dwellings.

wastewater into waterways. Water quality in the Kelani

Nandalal 2010). Nitrate is also identified in coastal aquifers

River, which is one of the major water sources for Colombo,

such as in Jaffna (north coast) and Kalptiya (western coast)

is considered to be threatened by untreated or insufficiently

because of excessive fertiliser use and untreatedtreated wastewater (Ratnayake 2010) and solid waste.

wastewater (Nandalal 2010). High salinity is also an issue

Expansion of sand mining activities also affects the riverespecially in coastal zones, which is exacerbated bywater quality such as increasing its turbidity, decreasing

excessive groundwater use. Fluoride and arsenic, whichwater flow and accelerating saltwater intrusion. Saltwater

are naturally occurring, were identified in some areas of the

intrusion accelerated by sand mining activities in the Kelanicountry (Nandalal 2010). A study in Vavuniya conducted inRiver affected the drinking water supply (MENR and UNEP

2009 by the University of Peradeniya also identified2009) and court cases over sand mining increased fromcontamination by fluoride, nitrate and faecal coliform in

709 in 2002 to 2,496 in 2005 (MENR and UNEP 2009).

many monitoring points (Herath 2014). In addition, theAccording to the monitoring data by the Central

contamination of shallow groundwater, which is the major

Environment Authority (CEA) in 2010 and 2011, the water

source of drinking water in some regions, has become aquality of these rivers is considered moderate to good,social issue that is suspected as being caused by industrial

although not all parameters met the interim ambient water

wastewater.

Lao PDR

systems such as pit latrines (MENR and UNEP 2009;

Republic of Korea

pathogenic pollution mainly caused by poor sanitation

dumping of domestic and industrial wastes and untreatedJapan

A common groundwater quality problem in the country is

The main cause of water pollution in urban areas is theIndonesia

RiversChina

Groundwater

quality standards (MoEJ and IGES 2012).

A study conducted by CEA in 2009 and 2011 at three lakes

05. Framework for Water Environmental
Management

benefit of the community is the responsibility of the state(MoEJ and IGES 2012). Another study showed the mean

(Article 27(14)) and that every person in the country has avalue of chemical oxygen demand (COD) at the

duty to“protect nature and conserve its riches”(Article 28).

Boralesgamuwa Lake located in the suburban area ofSurface water resources-rivers, streams and lakes, areColombo conducted April to July 2012, ranged from 14.7

under the control of the government under the Crown

mg/L to 112 mg/L and that of biochemical oxygen demand

Lands Ordinance and the Constitution. The Haritha Lanka(BOD5) from 3 mg/L to 6.75 mg/L. The results showed that

Program, approved in June 2008, is the current basic

at most of monitoring points, the value of these parameters

national policy document for environmental conservation inexceeded the proposed ambient standards by the CEA forthe country. The policy aims to promote sound environmental

drinking purposes, and various factors are considered to

management in Sri Lanka by balancing the needs for social

contribute to this such as the dumping of wastes, effluentsand economic development and environmental integrity.

from septic tanks and sewage, draining of canals andThe“National Action Plan for Haritha Lanka Program”wasindustrial discharges (Herath 2014).

prepared in the same year, based on the program. The

Sri Lanka

CEA in terms of BOD and COD except the Kandy Lake

Philippines

preservation and improvement of the environment for the

Nepal

The Constitution of Sri Lanka states that protection,

quality was good and met proposed ambient standards by

Myanmar(Bolgoda, Kandy, and Gregory)shows that the lake water

Malaysia

Lakes and reservoirs

action plan includes steps to be implemented between
Sustainable Development (NCSD) (Box 2.11.1). The

number, although water pollution in coastal water bodies

proposed strategies and actions in the Haritha Lanka

has grown over the past few decades due to rapid

Programme are a concerted effort of all relevant ministries

development activities and human settlements both in andand stakeholder institutions. As for the environment

outside coastal areas. The Coastal Resource Management

pollution control domain, the Central Environment Authority

Project (CRMP) implemented by the Ministry of Fisheries(CEA) prepares five-year action plans.

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2015

Viet Nam

2009-2016 under the supervision of the National Council for

Studies on the coastal water quality in Sri Lanka are few in

ThailandCoastal water95

Box 2.11.1. Water environmental conservation related targets in the National Action Plan for
Haritha Lanka Programme

Among ten missions under the National Action Plan for the Haritha Lanka Programme, Mission 7 (Water for All andAlways) and Mission 9 (Greening Industries) include specific strategies related to water environmental management.
For coastal and marine water bodies, Mission 4 (Wise Use of the Coastal Belt and Surrounding Sea) includes related
actions.
Mission 7
Strategy 4: “Keep drinking water sources free from contamination through proper zoning and control measures” is
one of the most popular water quality related targets. Actions include the strengthening of inland water monitoring,
identification of pollution sources, promotion of central wastewater treatment plants and developing water
conservation areas.
Strategy 6: “Strictly enforce the polluter pays principle for water pollution industries/activities” outlines actions
related to the Wastewater Charge Programme (WCP) which will be introduced by an amendment to the National
Environmental Act. In addition to actions related to institutional arrangements for the introduction and implementationof the WCP, the promotion of cleaner production principles and surveys on prescribed activities in the National
Environmental Acts are also included in the strategy.
Strategy 8: “Reduce fertiliser leaching and eutrophication” is a target to reduce pollution loads from agriculturalactivities. Soil erosion control is also included in the strategy.
Mission 9
Strategy 1: “ Consolidate Cleaner Production in Industries” aims to reduce the amount of resources wasted andminimise water usage in industries. The promotion of environmental and social responsibility in small and mediumsized enterprises, and the appreciation and reward programmes for industries with good environmental performanceare examples of actions included under this strategy.
Strategy 2: “Establish eco-industrial parks,” Strategy 3: “Certification of industries mostly related to ISO 14000
certification.”
Strategy 4: “Greening the supply chain” and Strategy 6: “Incentives for environmental friendly investments” are notdirectly related to water quality conservation, but the actions under these strategies could contribute to the reductionof environmental loads from industrial activities.
(Source: NCSD and Presidential Secretariat 2009)

Legislationon the environment under the National Environment

The National Environmental Act (NEA) No. 47 of 1980

(Amendment) Acts No. 56 of 1988 and No. 53 of 2000.

(amended as Act No. 53 of 2000) is the country’s basic law

Industrial water pollution control is regulated under theprotecting the environment in the country. Under the Act,

provisions of the NEA by the CEA. In addition, there are

National Environmental Regulations were set up to stipulatedifferent governmental agencies related to water

wastewater quality standards to protect water quality inenvironment management. The MEPA is in charge of the

public water bodies. There is also a regulation on

management of the coastal and marine environment. The

environment impact assessments (EIAs). Other acts andNational Water Supply and Drainage Board (NWS & DB) is

ordinances related to water environmental management

responsible for the water supply and sewerage treatment

are illustrated in the following figure.

and management in the country. Other organizations thatare responsible mainly for water resource management

96

Institutional arrangements

include the Department of Irrigation, Water Resources

The Ministry of the Environment is the national authority

Board, and the Mahaweli Development Authority.

that formulates policies and guidelines for the conservation

Governmental organizations related to construction,of the environment and natural resources in Sri Lanka.

engineering services, housing and common amenities

Under the ministry, there are six agencies that aresuch as the Condominium Management Authority, National

responsible for policy implementation, including the CEA

Housing Development Authority, and the Board ofand the Marine Environment Protection Authority (MEPA).

Investment (BOI) of Sri Lanka are not directly related to

The CEA is was established in 1981 as the authority withwater environmental management, but they regulate

regulatory powers for activities that have adverse impacts

development/industrial activities which affect the condition

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2015

Chapter2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Environmental Act. They also regulate and control on-siterole in water environmental management. They are

sanitation systems such as pit latrines and septic tanks;

responsible for regulating low-impact industries andpublic health inspectors are in charge of these tasks.

Cambodiaof water quality. Local governments also play an important

activities prescribed by orders issued under the National- Effluents discharge standards Gazette No. 1534/18
and the prescribed activities for which a license isrequired in Gazette No. 1533/16- Prescribed projects in Gazette No. 772/22 which

under the sections 24C and 24D of the National
Environmental Act No. 47 of 1980

Management of specific areas

Water resource development/management- Irrigation Ordinance Chapter 453- National Water Supply & Drainage Board Act No.2 of 1974
- Water Resources Board Act No. 29 of 1964

Other acts related to water environmental management- Urban Development Authority Act No. 41 of 1978 as amended
from time to time
- Greater Colombo Economic Commission Law No. 4 of 1978 as
amended by Act No. 49 of 1992

Republic of Korea- Local Authorities Act(for municipal and urban councils and Pradeshiya Sabah)Marine Pollution Prevention Act of No. 35 of 2008
Coast Conservation Act No.57 of 1984 as amended
by Act No. 64 of 1988Japan

apply the EIA process- EPA - Environment Protection Areas declared

Marine and costal water quality

Indonesia- Constitution of the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka- National Environment Act No.47 of 1980 as amended by
No. 56 of 1988 and No. 53 of 2000

China

Environmental Conservation (Overall)- Mahaweli Authority Act No. 23 of 1979
- North Western Provincial Environmental StatuteNo. 12 of 1990

Lao PDR

Figure 2.11.2. Laws and regulations related to water environmental management(Source: created based on the information from CEA)

that formulates policies and guidelines for the conservationwater environmental management, but they regulateof the environment and natural resources in Sri Lanka.

development/industrial activities which affect the condition

Under the ministry, there are six agencies that areof water quality. Local governments also play an important

responsible for policy implementation, including the CEArole in water environmental management. They are

and the Marine Environment Protection Authority (MEPA).

responsible for regulating low-impact industries and

The CEA is was established in 1981 as the authority withactivities prescribed by orders issued under the National

regulatory powers for activities that have adverse impacts

Environmental Act. They also regulate and control on-siteon the environment under the National Environment

sanitation systems such as pit latrines and septic tanks;(Amendment) Acts No. 56 of 1988 and No. 53 of 2000.

public health inspectors are in charge of these tasks.

Nepal

Investment (BOI) of Sri Lanka are not directly related to

MyanmarHousing Development Authority, and the Board of

The Ministry of the Environment is the national authority

Malaysia

Institutional arrangements

Industrial water pollution control is regulated under thedifferent governmental agencies related to water

There are no ambient water quality standards orenvironment management. The MEPA is in charge of theclassification of water bodies in Sri Lanka. Surface water

management of the coastal and marine environment. The

quality is evaluated by potable water standards (SLS 614)

National Water Supply and Drainage Board (NWS & DB) isand also by proposed ambient water quality standards that

responsible for the water supply and sewerage treatment

were prepared by the CEA and is currently in the process ofand management in the country. Other organizations thatbeing approved. The proposed ambient water quality

are responsible mainly for water resource management

standards cover only surface water quality.

Sri Lanka

Ambient water quality standards

Philippines

provisions of the NEA by the CEA. In addition, there are

Thailandinclude the Department of Irrigation, Water Resources
Monitoring of water quality in public water bodies

Governmental organizations related to construction,

There is no regular monitoring of surface and undergroundengineering services, housing and common amenities

water quality except for the monitoring of water intake

such as the Condominium Management Authority, National

quality conducted by the National Water Supply and

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2015

Viet Nam

Board, and the Mahaweli Development Authority.

97Drainage Board. The CEA has ambient water quality

the National Environmental Act. EPLs are issued by themonitoring projects for different river basins such as the

CEA based on the National Environmental Regulation

Kelani River. The Irrigation Department and otherNo.1533/16 and No. 1534/18 of 2008. One hundred andgovernmental entities such as the Mahaweli Authority

thirty eight activities in total are mandated to obtain EPLs

monitor water quality under their own programmes.

by governmental notification (Gazette No. 1533/16, 2008),
and the list of activities was revised in 2012. Upon theEnvironmental protection license systemrevision, the CEA is authorised to issue EPLs for theEnvironmental protection licenses (EPLs) are required for

majority of licenses to industries (CEA 2013). These

all entities in the country which discharge wastes into theactivities are divided into three categories according toenvironment, prescribed by a regulation published underpollution load levels as shown in the following table.

Table 2.11.3. Categories of Environmental protection licenses and implementation bodies
Category

Activities under the category

Category A

80 high polluting activities

Category B

33 medium pollution activities

Category C

25 low pollution activities

Implementing body*
Provincial Offices of the CEA
Local Authority* The BOI has the authority to grant EPLs for the activities registered under the BOI Act.
(Source: CEA 2013)

In principle, EPLs are issued for water discharging

implementation problems, a new standard was drafted as

activities that comply with national effluent standards

a result of a series of stakeholders’ meetings in 2012 in(Ratnayake 2010). In 2012, 896 new EPLs were issued andwhich more discharge mode was added than the existing

1,342 EPLs were renewed by the CEA. In addition, 44 newones (CEA 2013). Noncompliance actions shall be subject

EPLs were issued and 332 were issued by the BOI (CEA

to a fine or imprisonment based on the National2013). Upon public complaints, the CEA investigates

Environmental Act.

industries in terms of their pollution control systems. In
2012, the CEA investigated ten out of 30 complaints

Effluent monitoring

received regarding the industrial activities approved by the

In principle, the effluent quality should be self-monitored by

BOI and 12 complaints out of 50 non-BOI activities.

the discharging industries. However, not all industries have

Corrective actions were taken based on the results of themonitoring facilities and the CEA occasionally monitors

investigations (CEA 2013).

effluents discharged from industries/activities that aresuspected of noncompliance with the effluent standards. It

Effluent standards

also checks effluent quality based on the complaints

Different kinds of effluent standards were set based on thereceived from the general public.

point of discharge and the type of effluent as follows.
General standards for discharge of effluent into inlandsurface waters
Tolerance limits for industrial effluents discharged onland for irrigation purposes
Tolerance limits for discharge of effluents into publicsewers with central treatment plants
Tolerance limits for industrial and domestic effluentsdischarged into marine coastal areas
Tolerance limits for effluents from rubber factories
discharged into inland surface waters
Tolerance limits for effluents from textile industries
discharged into inland surface waters
Tolerance limits for effluents from the tanning industry

Table 2.11.4. Number of Samples Analysed by the CEALaboratory
PurposeNumber of
Samples

EPL

132

Legal

19

Complaints

46

Monitoring

31

Common Wastewater
Treatment Plant

36

Industry (commercial)

145

Other Commercial

95

Surface waters

408

Total

912

Since current effluent standards (Regulation No. 1534/18 of2008) are not suitable to the local socio-economic andenvironmental conditions and therefore have resulted in

98

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2015

(Source: CEA 2013)

Note
Provision of analyticalservices to the activitiesprescribed under EPLs.

Including monitoring
under the monitoring
programme of the
CEA such as in the
Kelani River and
Boralesgamuwa wewa.

Chapter2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

national government agencies, as well as 13 local

The National Green Award Programme started in 2012 withgovernments located in the Kelani River basin and otherthe objective to “evaluate and encourage greener

local stakeholders.

Cambodia

National Green Awards 2012

approaches and performance in environmental
enhancement in industries, schools and local authorities or

07. Existing and Future Challenges
There was positive progress in the development of a water

country. Maintaining the quality of water bodies is a prime

quality management framework in past decades in Sri

importance for the beneficial use of the people.

Lanka, such as the empowerment of the CEA in terms ofIndonesia

to promote environmental awareness for the people in theChinaother institutions” (CEA 2013). This Programme is expected

pollution control and environmental management. On the

06. Recent Development of
Water Environmental Management

other hand, water pollution issues were identified in someareas and various challenges remain to ensure theimplementation of water pollution control measures.
quality and quantity are managed by different agencies

mitigate water pollution and conserve biodiversity ofbased on their area of interest. Water pollution control is

freshwater bodies in a comprehensive manner. Under the

mainly managed by the CEA, but the coordination amongprogramme, a pilot project was conducted for the Kelani

relevant agencies should be strengthened to ensure

River which is the main drinking water source for thecomprehensive and more effective water management inwestern province. The Pavithra Ganga project in the Kelani

the country.
Strengthening legislation: Ambient water quality

awareness programmes for industries especially on cleaner

standards and classification of water bodies should be

production, awareness programmes for school children,

established to strengthen water pollution control. Draft

waste audits by the ministry in collaboration with local

ambient water quality standards and revised effluent

authorities, and tree-planting along river banks.

standards are now awaiting approval. The EPL system wasunder the project. Water quality has been monitored at 12

reviewed and revised to strengthen it and its implementation
should also be strengthened.
Scientific data: Lack of baseline data is one of thehave been made public through water quality information

critical challenges in promoting water quality management.

boards set up at selected locations along the river. The

The availability of data, as well as accessibility to data

information boards help local people gain an awareness ofstored in different institutions is an issue. Financial andthe state of water quality in the river.

institutional arrangements should be improved to establish

Myanmarlocations, and since 2003, water quality monitoring results

The project is a good showcase of comprehensive

Malaysia

Water quality monitoring has been also strengthened

Lao PDR

River included various activities such as the promotion of

Republic of Korea

Institutional arrangements: Water resources both inin 1998 by the Ministry of Environment of Sri Lanka to

Japan

The Pavithra Ganga (Clean River) Programme was initiatedsystematic data collection and periodical analysis systems.
Nepal

water environment management with the participation ofPhilippines

Box. 2.11.2. Challenges to address groundwater pollution

In the WEPA workshop on wastewater treatment conducted in February 2015, participants from Sri Lanka came tothe conclusion that unclear ownership that resulted in unclear management responsibility is a major cause of policy
challenges to address groundwater pollution. The following detail examples of the challenges were identified.

Sri Lanka• Groundwater is not clearly defined in the existing legislation.
• Responsibility for investigation and development and regulation of groundwater is not formally assigned to any
agency (Fifty legislative enactments & forty-two institutions).

• There is neither a coordinated groundwater information programme nor a proper groundwater planning system.
Thailand• When a considerable body of information on seasonal behavior and quality is available, there is no institutional
authority for control or regulation of the resource.

• There is no legal basis for groundwater allocation.

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2015

Viet Nam• There is no public information or awareness programmes regarding groundwater.

99

2.12 Thailand

01. Country information

03. State of Water Resources

Table 2.12.1. Basic indicators

Based on geographical characteristics, Thailand can be

Land area (km2)

513,116 (2011)

Total population

67.01 million (2013)

GDP (current USD)

387.25 billion (2013)

divided into 25 river basins (Figure 2.12.1). The total volume
of water from rainfall in all river basins in Thailand isestimated at approximately 800,000 million m3, of which
75% is lost through evaporation, evapotranspiration and

Per capita GDP (current USD)

5,779 (2013)

infiltration. The remaining 25% constitutes the runoff that

Long-average precipitation (mm/year)

1,622 (2014)flows into the rivers and streams. The available water

Total Renewable Water Resources (km3)

438.6* (2009)

Total Annual Freshwater Withdrawals(billion m3)

57.31 (2007)

Annual Freshwater
Withdrawals by
Sectors

quantity is about 3,300 m3/capita/year (Office of National
Water Resources Committee 2000).
Groundwater is an important source of water supply inAgriculture

90.4% (2007)

Thailand. Twenty per cent of the public water supply andIndustry

4.8% (2007)

75% of domestic water are derived from groundwater

Municipal(including domestic)

4.8% (2007)*Estimated(Source: See Appendix)

resources. The groundwater system in Thailand is mainly
recharged by rainfall of about 40,000 million m 3 andseepage from rivers. It was estimated from previoushydrological balance studies that about 12.5 to 18% ofrainfall would reach the aquifers. Both the government and02. Major Water Basins in Thailand

the private sector undertook more than 200,000
groundwater well projects with a total capacity of about
Khong

Kok

Nan
Wang

Khong
Chi

Ping

Pasak

Sakae Krang
Tha Chin

Mun

Chao Phraya
Phetchaburi

person in 2012).

Yom

SalweenMae Klong

7.55 million m 3/day (information from the WEPA focal

Bangkok

Prachinburi
Tonele Sap
Eastern Coast

Western Coast

04. State of Water Quality
Surface Water
According to the Pollution Control Department (PCDMoNRE, 2014), the surface water quality monitoring was
conducted on 52 water resources in 2012, which weredivided into 48 major rivers and four standing surface water
sources including Kwan Phayao, Bueng Boraphet, NongHan, and Songkhla Lake. Water quality is evaluated by

Bang PakongSouth-East Coast

making comparisons to surface water quality standards
and the Water Quality Index (WQI) by the Pollution Control

Tapi

of Department (PCD) under the Ministry of Natural Resource

South-West
Coast

and Environment (MoNRE). According to the results fromSongkhla Lake

good, fair and deteriorated conditions, representing 34%,

Pattani

366 water monitoring stations, the water quality was in
48% and 18%, respectively. The details of the surface
water quality status at major water resources nationwide of

Figure 2.12.1. Map of major river basins in Thailand

1997-2012 period are presented in Figure 2.12.2.
The overall water quality in major rivers showed adeteriorating trend. Compared to 2011, water resourcesthat were in excellent condition were not found in 2012(accounting for 2% in 2011). Water resources with good

100

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2015

Chapter2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

considered the main sources contributing to theof water resources in deteriorated condition increased

deterioration of surface water quality in Thailand, especiallyfrom 15% to 18% (PCD-MoNRE 2014). In addition, thein terms of fecal coliform bacteria (FCB), total coliform

assessment of changes in water quality over the 16-year

bacteria (TCB) and ammonia-nitrogen (NH3-N). Currently,

period (1997-2012) showed that water resources with good

there are several key ministries involved in managing water

quality tended to decline while water resources with fairquality problems, including the MoNRE, the Ministry ofand deteriorated quality increased.

Interior, the Ministry of Agriculture and cooperatives, theMinistry of Industry and the Ministry of Public Health.

(%)
100

2
17

14

14

11

14

11
23

80
70
60

38

36

16

12

22

28

29

25

35

36

43

15

18

28
37

21

45

52

37

45

49
51

50

48

Highly Deteriorated

40
30

51

48

53

44

56

39

32

43

Fair
43

10
5

0
1997

1998

37

26

1999

2000

2001

2002

1

1

2

2003

2004

2005

35

34

32

1
2006

34

Good
Excellent

2

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

Lao PDR

20

Deteriorated
60

Republic of Korea

32

2
15

Japan

90

Indonesia

Untreated wastewater from households, agriculture
and livestock, and industrial factories, due to lack ofChina

capacity of existing wastewater treatment plants, aresimilar to 2011 (34% and 49% respectively). The proportion

Cambodia

and fair qualities represented 34% and 48% respectively,

2012

Myanmar

Remarks: “Excellent“ to “Highly Deteriorated “corresponds to the following:
Excellent: Surface water quality standard Class 1 and Water Quality Index (WQI) 90-100
Good: Surface water quality standard Class 2 and Water Quality Index (WQI) 71-90
Fair: Surface water quality standard Class 3 and WQI between 61-70
Deteriorated: Surface quality standard Class 4 and WQI between 31-60
Highly Deteriorated: Surface water quality standard Class 5 and WQI between 0-30

Malaysia

Figure 2.12.2. Trend of surface water quality at major water resources nationwide 1997-2012(Source: PCD-MoNRE, 2014)

and analysed in accordance with surface water quality

stations of 168 and 170 respectively. The Marine Water

standards issued under the Enhancement and Conservation

Quality Index (MWQI), which was developed by theof National Environmental Quality Act 1992. There 23

Pollution Control Department, is used for assessing theparameters were analysed, including temperature, acidity

total marine water quality. The MWQI values range between– alkalinity (pH), dissolved oxygen (DO), biochemical

0-100. Assessment is based on information of eight marine

oxygen demand (BOD), total coliform bacteria contamination

quality parameters which are dissolved oxygen (DO), total(TCB), fecal coliform bacteria contamination (FCB), nitrate-

coliform bacteria (TCB), phosphate-phosphorus (PO43 -P),

nitrogen (NO3-N), ammonia-nitrogen (NH3-N), heavy metal

nitrate-nitrogen (NO3-N), temperature (Temp.), suspension(SS), acidity-alkalinity (pH), ammonia-nitrogen (NH3-N).

zinc (Zn), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), lead (Pb), mercury

However, for pesticide and toxic elements such as mercury(Hg), arsenic (As), and chlorinated pesticides such as DDT,(Hg), cadmium (Cd), total chromium (Total Cr), hexavalent

Alpha-BHC, Dieldrin, Aldrin, Endrin, Heptachlor Epoxide

chromium (Cr6+), lead (Pb), copper (Cu), cyanide (CN-) and(PCD-MoNRE 2014).

PCBs, if concentration values exceed the marine water

Thailandgroup such as copper (Cu), nickel (Ni), manganese (Mn),

Sri Lanka

during February-March and June-August with total sampling

Philippines

the coastal water quality was examined twice in 2012
Nepal

For the purposes of water quality monitoring andevaluation, water samples were collected four times a year,

quality standard, the MWQI will promptly become “0”.
Based on the results of analysis, the coastal water quality

According to the Thailand State of Pollution Report 2014,

was rated as good, fair and deteriorated, representing

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2015

Viet Nam

Coastal water101

of rivers and canals due to the impacts from households

15%, 78% and 6% respectively.
Good coastal water quality was found in the westernand communities living along the coastal areas having

coast of the Gulf of Thailand. Meanwhile, highly deteriorated

coastal aquaculture and discharging of untreated domestic

water quality could be found in the inner Gulf of Thailand, in

wastewater (PCD-MoNRE, 2014). Figure 2.12.3 shows afront of a dye factory in the province of Samut Prakan. The

deteriorating trend in coastal water quality over the 16-year

deteriorated water quality was mostly found in the estuaries

period (1997 – 2012).

100
90

10

13

13

5
13

4

1
6

20

49

39

33

45

60
57

50
40

20

1
6

25

36

29

5
5

5
6

34

34

52
43

25

31

1
6

3
9

50

49

Fair

47

43

Good
36

Excellent

24

15

5

2
1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

Highly Deteriorated
Deteriorated

48
51

39

1997

1
2

78

49
30

3
7

44

61

10
0

45

1
9

69

17

30

4
5

29

80
70

3

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

Figure 2.12.3. Coastal marine water quality nationwide 1997-2012(Source: PCD-MoNRE 2014)

Groundwater

rivers and other bodies of water after undergoing

The country’s groundwater potential is substantial in

primary treatment or no treatment at all. It was estimatedgeneral, except for the eastern region. The lower centralthat approximately 15 million m3/day or 2.77 million kg ofplain area has the largest potential of groundwater

BOD/day of wastewater generated by the population

resources, particularly in the Bangkok Metropolitan Region

across the country is discharged into receiving waters

and surrounding provinces. Groundwater in the region has

and the environment. This includes the 2,008

been exploited to meet growing water demand and has

municipalities considerably generating approximately

caused severe land subsidence problems. Regarding water

3.8 million m3/day, Bangkok Metropolis and Pattaya city

quality, contamination in groundwater by natural iron andgenerating about 2.7 million m3/day, and the areas ofmanganese was commonly found in several areas ranging

5,767 local administration organisations contributing

from small to large amounts, especially in groundwater

about 8.5 million m3/day.

sources that were located near mines. Additionally, in someareas of the northern, eastern and western regions ofThailand, fluoride contamination could be found to exceed
the groundwater standards. Also, a groundwater salinity
problem was detected in certain areas of the northeasternregion, coastal areas and river estuaries that flowed into
the seas. Also, a groundwater hardness problem wasfound in limestone aquifers in places such as Saraburi andNakhon Ratchasima etc. (PCD-MoNRE 2014).

1022) Industrial wastewater: Industries which discharge
processed wastes including by-products of various
types of industrial operations. At present, manyindustries are located in high population density areas ormixed with residential areas in the city. Across thecountry, there are more than 120,000 industrial
establishments of varying sizes, carrying on a wide
range of activities, located within the Inner Gulf. They
produce a range of products.

Sources of Water Pollution3) Agricultural activities: Agricultural activities such as the

The main sources of water pollution can be divided into

use of chemical fertilisers, pesticides and animal wastes

three types as follows:from feedlots. A considerable part of the fertiliser used for

1) Domestic wastewater: The general public which

rice paddy fields is washed away by irrigation water andgenerates domestic sewage that is discharged intoflows into rivers, estuaries, or other bodies of water. ThisWEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2015

Chapter2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Development Plan (2012-2016) continues to emphasisewater hyacinths. This unwanted plant grows very fast,

maintaining balances within the ecosystem by focusing on

covering major areas of water bodies.

managing natural resources and the environment through ashift of the development paradigm and participation by

ensuring consistency between trade practices andenvironmental protection and conservation underenvironmental protection (NESDB 2011). The national plansustainable development principles and elimination ofdoes not include a detailed implementation or action plan,pollution which affects human health and welfare is theand in order to bring the plan’s environmental strategies

responsibility of the state (Section 5, part 8). Since 1992,

into action, the related agencies have to formulate

the five-year national economic and social development

programmes, projects and measures based on the national

plans have emphasised environmental conservation of theplan (Box 2.12.1).

preparing for climate change and natural disasters, andcountry. The Eleventh National Economic and Social

The environmental policy on water pollution control for 2010-2014 was approved by the National Environmental
Board on 30 October 2009. The summary of this policy is shown below.

2) Rehabilitate existing municipal wastewater facilities
3) Build wastewater treatment facilities where there is awater pollution crisis

Myanmar5) Enforce Polluter Pays Principal (PPP): Producers ofpolluted water must be responsible for paying for the
management of water pollution

Phase 1 : 2010-2011
Phase 2 : 2012-2016
Phase 3 : 2017-2031
Phase 4 : 2032-2041

Malaysia4) Unite the Metropolitan Waterworks Authority andWastewater Management Authority

Prioritizing operational areas:
Classifying wastewater management based on the
result of prioritization of river basins and importance ofmunicipal areas, which will help establish implementationplans into four phases as below (in order of priority):

Lao PDR

Policy:1) Reduce BOD loads from domestic wastewater byusing Grease Traps and On-site method

Republic of Korea

Box 2.12.1. Water Environmental Management Policy in ThailandJapan

The Constitution of Thailand (2007) stipulates thatbe addressed, including creating a low-carbon society,Indonesia

local communities. Under this approach various issues will
China

05. Frameworks for Water Environment
Management

Cambodiafertiliser causes eutrophication and supports the growth of6) Promote and support private sector/public participationin co-investing and solving water pollution problems(Source: Information from the WEPA focal person in 2012)

Nepal

Establishment of a multi-agency Pollution Control

Environmental Quality Act (EQA) in 1992 is the basic law forCommittee for pollution control matters, including

environmental conservation in the country which defines

enactment of discharge standards.

the authorities and responsibilities regarding environmental
protection. Some key features of the EQA are as follows:

resources will be drawn to solve environmental problems
in priority areas.

Plan, duties of government agencies to implement theplan and for provinces to prepare action plans.

Thailand, the regulations can be grouped into three
categories as follows:
The application of the environmental impact assessment(EIA) to determine the impact and mitigation plan fordevelopment projects of various types and sizes such as
dams with a storage volume of 100 million m3 or more,
irrigation projects of 12,800 ha or more, hotels or resorts

declare Pollution Control Areas (PCAs) or Conservation

with 80 rooms or more, thermal power plants with theand Environmentally Protected Areas when justified from

capacity of 10 MW or more, all sizes of mining projects, etc.

an environmental point of view.

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2015

Viet Nam

Provision for the National Environmental Board (NEB) to

Thailand

Formulation of a National Environmental Management

In order to control and manage water quality problems in
Sri Lanka

Establishment of the Environmental Fund, from which

Recognition of the Polluter Pays Principle.

Philippines

The Enhancement and Conservation of the National

103

The establishment and application of effluent standards
such as industrial effluent standards, domestic effluent
standards, and effluent standards for pig farms and fish/
shrimp farms, etc.

CONSERVATION OF WATER QUALITY IN PUBLIC WATERSENHANCEMENT AND CONSERVATION OF NATURALENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY ACT (NEDA 1992)

The ambient water quality standard and classification
based on the state of water quality, socio-economic

AMBIENT WATER QUALITY STANDARDS

aspects and availability of treatment technologies.

- Surface Water Quality Standard- Coastal Water Quality Standard- Groundwater Quality Standard

The outline of legislation related to water environmental
management in Thailand is shown in Figure 2.12.4.

Institutional arrangement
According to the EQA, PCD and the Office of Natural
Resources and Environmental Policy and Planning (ONEP)
under MoNRE are responsible for wastewater management
by undertaking national and regional water quality
management planning and facilitating local authorities intheir responsibilities for their own wastewater management.
Under the EQA, the PCD establishes effluent standards forpollution control from point sources in order to meetambient environmental quality standards.

EFFLUENT STANDARDS- Industrial Effluent Standard- Building Effluent Standard- Housing Estates Effluent Standard- Municipal Wastewater Treatment System Effluent
Standard- Effluent Standards for Pig‐Farm- Gas Station and Oil Terminal Effluent Standard- Effluent Standards for Coastal Aquaculture- Effluent Standard for Blackish Aquaculture- Effluent Standard for Inland Aquaculture- Water Characteristics Discharged into Irrigation System
GROUNDWATER ACT- Groundwater Quality Standard- Water Characteristics Discharged into Deep Wells

Ambient Water Quality Standards
Surface water quality standards
This standard was the first ambient water quality standard

OTHERS LAWS, REGULATIONS RELATED TO WATERQUALITY CONSERVATION

established in 1994. Surface water quality standards wereTHE FACTORIES ACTestablished for 28 items under five classifications of water- Regulations of Industrial Pollution Control Facilities

bodies which were designated according to water usage
as shown in Table 2.12.2. The General Water Quality Index
was established as an indicator to promote people’s
understanding of water quality, which was calculated withthe values of eight parameters (pH, DO, BOD, TS, FCB,
NO3 , TP, SS). These standards are the national minimum

THE PUBLIC HEALTH ACT
THE HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES ACT
THE PUBLIC CLEANSING ACTBUILDING CONTROL ACT

standards.
Figure 2.12.4. Legislative chart for water quality
management(Figure was prepared by IGES based on information from the official websiteof Thailand Pollution Control Department: http://www.pcd.go.th/about/en_
ab_mission.html)

Table 2.12.2. Surface water quality standard classification
Class

Objectives/Condition

Beneficial Use

Class 1

Extra clean fresh surface water resource
used for:(1) Conservation not necessary pass through water treatment process; requires only
ordinary process for pathogenic destruction(2) Ecosystem conservation where basic organisms can breed naturally

Class 2

Very clean fresh surface water
resources used for:(1) Consumption which requires ordinary water treatment process before use(2) Aquatic organism of conservation(3) Fisheries(4) Recreation

Class 3Medium clean fresh surface water
resources used for:(1) Consumption, but passing through an ordinary treatment process before use(2) Agriculture

Class 4

Fairly clean fresh surface water
resources used for:(1) Consumption, but requires special water treatment process before use(2) Industry

Class 5The sources which are not classified inclasses 1-4 and used for:

Navigation(Source: MoEJ 2009)

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Housing Estate Effluent Standard

There are 30 parameters designated for coastal water

These standards regulate effluent from housing estates

quality standards in six classes, determined according towhich are classified into two categories: those with theusage (6 classifications). Different classifications arenumber of units exceeding 100 but less than 500, andapplied for the west coast of Phuket Island.

those with over 500 units. Regulated parameters include
dissolved solids, sulfide, TKN and fat, oil, and grease.

China

pH, BOD, suspended solids, settleable solids, total
Groundwater quality standard

Cambodia

Coastal water quality standards

The parameters included in groundwater quality standards
Municipal Wastewater Treatment System Effluent
Standard(9 parameters) and others (4 parameters).

This is a new standard established in 2010. There are six

Indonesia(15 parameters), heavy metals (10 parameters), pesticides

are divided into four groups: volatile organic compounds

parameters in these standards, namely pH, BOD, SS, TN,

Under the EQA, the government conducts monitoring of

Gas Station and Oil Terminal Effluent Standard

the receiving water quality to maintain quality. There are 620

There are four parameters in these standards, namely pH,

general monitoring stations and 39 automatic monitoring

COD, SS, and fat, oil, and grease.

stations in 48 main rivers in the country and water quality
Agriculture

and dry seasons. The methods of water sampling andEffluent Standards for Pig Farms

analysis should follow the Standard Method for the

In consideration of the contribution of pig farms to water

Examination of Water and Wastewater (1998) (Yolthantham

pollution such as in the Tha Chin River and Bang Pakong2011). The monitoring results of ambient water quality

River, standards were established in 2001. The parameters

conducted by the government are summarised and madedesigned by the standards include pH, BOD, COD, SS, andavailable to the public through publications and online.

TKN and different values are applied to Type A (more thanEffluent standards
Based on the EQA (Section 32), a series of effluent

Othersstandards have been set up as follows:Effluent Standards for Coastal Aquaculture

Industry

Effluent Standards for Inland Aquaculture

Industrial Effluent Standards

Water Characteristics Discharged into Irrigation System

Standards are applied to factory Group II and III categories

Water Characteristics Discharged into Deep Wells

and 12 heavy metals. Regarding effluent quality control, theTThe EQA requires the owner or possessor of point sources

Regulations of Industrial Pollution Control Facilities (1982)

of pollution designated under the act to monitor the

stipulates that specific industrial plants must havequality of effluent and collect statistics and data, as well as

supervisors and machine operators responsible for pollution

submit notes and reports (Section 70 and 80). The types of

prevention. Such industrial plants include those using heavy

effluent to be monitored are categorised into four types:

metals in production processes, discharging wastewater at

sewage-swine farms; land development, industrial estateshigher than 50m3/day and having a heavy metal content inand industrial zones, and Class A buildings (hotels,

the discharged wastewater at designated values.

hospitals, condominiums, department stores, markets andrestaurants). The point sources of water pollution were also
monitored in three river basins: the Chao Phraya, Tha Chin,

Building Effluent Standards

and Bang Pakong.
If the capability to treat or dispose wastewater fails tohotels, hospitals, schools and academic buildings, public

meet applicable standards, the owner has a duty to modify

and private offices, department stores, fresh markets andor improve it in conformity with the pollution control

restaurants, is regulated under these standards. Regulated

official’s directions. Fees, fines and civil liability and penal

parameters, depending on the building’s size, include pH,

provisions are applied if violations are found or the owners

BOD, suspended solids, sulfide, TKN, and fat, oil, and grease.

refuse to comply. It is a promising trend that all the sectors

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2015

Viet Nam

Effluent from each type of building, namely apartments,

Thailand

Domestic and Commercial

Sri Lanka

Effluent monitoring

Philippines(1992). The standard value is designated for 15 parameters

Nepal

and all industrial estates under the Factory Act B.E.2535

MyanmarEffluent Standards for Brackish Aquaculture

Malaysia

600 livestock units) and Type B (60-600 livestock units).

Lao PDR

samples are taken three to four times/year during the wet

Republic of Korea

TP and fat, oil, and grease.
Japan

Ambient water quality monitoring inpublic water bodies

105are willing to comply with the standards as it can bewater basin areas, namely the Lower Chao Phraya,

advantageous for business agreements as well as for better

Lower Tha Chin or dense communities, in order toenvironmental quality which reflects the quality of life.

prevent pollution.
- Rehabilitating water quality after emergency accidents

06. Recent Developments inWater Environmental Management

cause by discharge of pollutants in the environments
by some establishments, resulting in severe
environmental damage in wide areas.

A number of measures and mechanisms for pollution- Encouraging the reduction of pollution released frommanagement were implemented in 2012, focusing on

sources such as generating renewable energy fromcontrolling and managing pollution sources by establishingwaste and wastewater, driving the best practices instandards, ministerial regulations, ministerial notification

environmental management, applying environmental

and regulations for controlling and resolving various types

management standards, e.g. ISO 14000 or MSM 2008,of pollution as well as preparing plans and measures to

to maximise the capacity of community wastewater

tackle pollution issues in major areas. In addition,

treatment system and promoting environmental

management also involved supporting and promoting

friendly aquaculture.

Local Administrative Organizations to establish their own- Setting up a preventive plan for water pollution in

wastewater in the areas and encouraging government and

ASEAN level and cross-border transportation in

private sectors to establish environmentally friendly
production processes and products.
The following master plans, action plan, guidelines andmeasures have been promulgated recently (PCD-MoNRE
2014):

preparation for the ASEAN community.
- Promoting and implementing the operation principle,“the beneficiary is the payer”, such as wastewater
treatment fee and water resource usage fee.
- Supporting the use of the principle of wastewater- Master Plan for Development and Conservation ofmanagement at its sources together with the

Groundwater Sources and Environmental 2012-2016.

application to acquire a license for operating harmful- Action Plan for Environmentally Friendly Aquaculture
B.E. 2012-2016.

activities.
- Encouraging the government buildings to follow the- Master Plan for Water Resources Management.

laws regarding wastewater management at the- Measures on Wastewater Management from Fishingsources in order to set a good example in water

Pier, Jetty and Fish Market.

pollution management.

- Guidelines for Pollution Management from Community- Encouraging tour operators and other operators in the

Industry and Small Industry for Local Administration.

tourism industry in the area to comply with theenvironmental standards at tourist attractions in order

In addition, the following policies for further improvement

to maintain and enhance the value of the attractions.

of water quality management have been proposed (PCDMoNRE 2014):- Promoting and supporting Local Administrative

07. Existing and Future Challenges

Organizations (LAO) to set up wastewater treatment

Water environmental management in Thailand has been afacilities in the communities.

priority for the country since 1992, in particular. Legislative- Allocating budgets to support LAOs in implementing

frameworks have been developed and improved towastewater treatment systems that are consistentpromote implementation. The following aspects arewith the problems and management capacity of thepointed out as key issues for improvement and further

Local Administrative Organizations.

promotion of water environmental conservation efforts- Assigning LAOs to issue local regulations regarding(Yolthantham 2011).

the wastewater service fee in order to generatesufficient income for system operation and continuous

Strengthening wastewater treatment

maintenance.

Promotion of wastewater treatment remains a challenge in- Promoting the establishment of good environmental
management in swine farms and aquacultures.

106

water environmental management in Thailand. In urbanised
areas such as Bangkok, water pollution mainly caused by- Establishing appropriate areas for industrial

domestic wastewater remains a serious problem anddevelopment, such as restrictions on the construction

therefore, sewage development has been promoted toor expansion of buildings or factories in the criticalmitigate water pollution. However, there have been a

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2015

Chapter2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

maintenance, tariff setting and collection.
To solve such problems and to ensure that the existing
and future wastewater treatment systems can be operated
and maintained effectively and sustainably, the Polluter
Pays Principle (PPP) has been introduced and user charges
imposed.

Promotion of public participation andvoluntary approach
In the policy of the country, public participation andvoluntary approaches by the private sector are encouraged
to improve water quality in public waters. There are a lot of
positive actions related to public participation. However,the communities and people still lack an understanding ofwaste water problems and awareness to protect theenvironment. Regarding the promotion of voluntary
approaches by the private sector, a green procurement
project for small and medium enterprises (SMEs) is now

Promotion of the basin management approach
Promotion of the basin management approach is an(Source: Information from the WEPA focal person in 2012)

Malaysia

emerging challenge for water environmental management,

Lao PDR

under development by the Thai government.

Republic of Korea

New directions for urban water quality management
are being considered based upon the assimilative
capacity of receiving waters, budget availability,and prioritized projects within the basin-wide
approach. The most flexible means of water
quality management are being practiced such as
simulation models, geographic information systems,
and database management systems. Waste loadallocation is being considered based upon theassimilative capacity of water bodies and guidelines
to attain receiving water quality standards.
For areas where water pollution is serious, theMinistry of Natural Resources and Environment(MoNRE) set basin-level policies, which include the“Master Plan of Songkhla Lake Basin Development(2002)” and “Preventive Measures and Solving
Water Quality in Chao Phraya, Bang Pakong, andTha Chin River Basins (2007).” As a project-based
activity, MoNRE “Prevention and Reclamation ofWastewater Problems in Lamtakong River Basins”
was started in collaboration with other related
ministries and local and regional authorities. Thus,
river basin management approaches are being
practiced, such as in the Tha Chin River Basin.
Details can be found at http://welcome.to/thachin.

Japan

knowledgeable staff, enough funds for operation andIndonesia

Box 2.12.2. River Basin Management Approach

China

wastewater treatment facilities, including the lack of

Cambodia

number of challenges in the operation and maintenance ofand water quality and water quantity management should
be integrated to improve water quality by promoting thebasin approach. The integration of various activities andMyanmarpolicy measures related to water environmental
conservation should also be built upon current efforts andaddressed further. Actions at the basin level are encouraged
in community projects to promote such positive actions

Nepal

through the coordination of local actions, as seen in the
Tha Chin River basin ( Box 2.12.2.).

Philippines
Sri Lanka
Thailand
Viet Nam

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2015107

2.13 Viet Nam

01. Country information

03. State of Water Resources

Table 2.13.1. Basic indicators

Viet Nam has a large river and canal network that includes

Land area (km2)

330,972 (2013)

Total population

89.71 million (2013)

GDP (current USD)

171.4 billion (2013)

more than 2,360 rivers that exceed 10km in length,
including 109 main rivers. Viet Nam has 16 river basins,
including the Red and Thai Binh, Bac Giang-Ky Cung, Ma,
Ca, Gianh, Thach Han, Huong, Vu Gia-Thu Bon, Tra Khuc-Ve-

Per capita GDP (current USD)

1,911 (2013)

Tra Bong, Kon-Ha Thanh-La Tinh, BaSesan, Srepok, Dong

Long-average precipitation (mm/year)

1,821 (2014)

Nai-Sai Gon, Cuu Long and a group of river basins in the

Total Renewable Water Resources (km3)

884.1 (2009)

Total Annual Freshwater Withdrawals(billion m3)

82.0 (2005)

Annual Freshwater
Withdrawals by
Sectors

southeast region. As a result, the country has an abundanceof surface water resources. The total volume of surface
water of the river basins in Viet Nam is about 830-840 km3/

Agriculture

94.8% (2005)

year, but only about 310-315 km 3 (37%) is within the

Industry

3.7% (2005)

country, while 520-525 km 3 (63%) is generated from

Municipal(including domestic)

1.5% (2005)(Source: See Appendix)

neighboring countries (MoNRE 2014).
Although Viet Nam enjoys abundant surface water
resources in general, unfortunately these surface water

02. Major Water Basins in Viet Nam

partly due to an uneven rainfall distribution. According to
the State of Environmental Report 2010 (MoNRE 2010), the

China

Cau

resources are unevenly distributed across the country,

annual total flow of the Mekong River is about 500 km3,
Bang Giang-Ky Cungaccounting for about 59% of the total annual flow of allrivers in the country. The total flow of the Red River is about

Hanoi

Red and Thai Binh

(4.3%). It is estimated that about 60% of total water flow isNhue Day

Lao PDR

distributed in the Cuu Long River delta, where 20% of the

Ma-ChuCacountry’s population lives. In addition, rapid urbanisation

Eastern Sea

and the prolonged dry season cause serious water
shortages in many areas of the country.

Gianh

It is predicted that Viet Nam will be one of the countries

Thach Han
ThailandCambodia

126.5 km3 (14.9%) and of the Dong Nai River is 36.3 km3Huong

most vulnerable to climate change and likely to faceThu Bonsignificant impacts from it. The Fourth Assessment of theSesan

Tra Khuc

SrepokKone
Ba

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change characterised
Viet Nam as a “hotspot of key future climate impacts andvulnerabilities in Asia” (Cruz et al. 2007; IFAD 2014). Climatechange is considered to cause huge impacts on the
country’s water resources. Accordingly, the total surface

Dong Nai-Saigon

water resources in the country are predicted to decrease
up to 96% by 2025 and 91% by 2070 (MoNRE 2006).
Cuu Long
Gulf of Thailand

In addition to surface water, groundwater is also an
important water supply source for domestic, industrial andagricultural activities. According to MoNRE (2010), between
35% and 50% of the total water supply to all cities in the

Figure 2.13.1. Map of major river basins in Viet Nam

country comes from groundwater reserves. Groundwaterin Viet Nam is rather plentiful due to abundant rainfall which
is distributed widely across the country. Currently, there are

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state of water resources in terms of both quality andCatchment area
(km2)

Total annual flow
(km3)

Red and Thai Binh

169,020135

Bac Giang-Ky Cung

13,2609.4

Ma28,40018

Ca29,930

23.5

Gianh

Organic pollution from both domestic and industrial

4,680

8.14

wastewater has affected many rivers and lakes across theThach Han

2,550

4.68

country. In some areas, organic pollution has reached a

Huong

3,300

5.64

serious level, particularly in the lower sections of large

Vu Gia-Thu Bon

10,35020.1

rivers as well as small rivers, ponds, lakes and canals within

Tra Khuc-Ve-Tra Bong

5,200

6.19

cities. However, the pollution level depends on the hydraulic

Kon-Ha Thanh- La Tinh

3,640

2.58

character of the flow. It is highest in the dry season whenSesan

11,45012.9

the flow in rivers is reduced. It also strongly depends on the

Srepok

18,20013.5

degree of control of waste discharged into the surface

Ba

13,900

9.5

resources. Currently, most waste sources released into

Dong Nai-Sai Gon

40,29437

river basins are almost uncontrolled which results in

Cuu Long (or Me Cong)

761,417475

seriously polluted surface water.

Group of river basins insoutheast region

15,7609.16

Name of river basin

quantity.

04. State of Water Quality

and Ho Chi Minh City pump the largest amount of

Meanwhile, it is also estimated that more than one million

groundwater. The average depth of drilled wells is less thancubic metres per day of untreated industrial wastewater is

100 m for those in the northern, central and the central

discharged directly to receiving water bodies, accounting

highland plains and more than 300 m for drilled holes in thefor about 70% of the total industrial effluent discharge

Mekong delta. Total estimated reserves of groundwater in(World Bank 2012).

pumping capacity of urban water supply plants is aboutRivers and Lakes

1.47 million m3/day. However, in reality they can use only 60

In general, the quality of the surface water in river sections-70% of their designated capacity.

which run through urban centres, industrial zones anduntreated waste water from these sources. Monitoring

Mekong delta, the problems of falling water tables,

results showed that the content of pollutants in major rivers

associated land subsidence and salinity intrusion havein the country such as the Red River (Hanoi), Cam River (Haibeen reported.

Phong), Lam River (Nghe An), Perfume River (Hue), Han
River (Da Nang), Saigon-Dong Nai River (Ho Chi Minh City),role in poverty alleviation and food security, and remains an

Tien River (Tien Giang) and Hau River (Can Tho) haveimportant sector of the country’s economy, contributing

exceeded the permitted levels by 1.5 to 3 times (MoNRE

about 21% of GDP. However, it is also the sector that2010). This situation has continued for many years,

consumes the largest amount of water resource. Annual

seriously affecting people’s lives and the surrounding

freshwater withdrawals for agriculture account for theenvironment.
Most of lakes, ponds, canals and rivers in all cities’Nam, up to 95%. Also, in the last decade the demands forinner precincts and districts are seriously polluted. The

domestic and industrial water use are increasing andpollution has exceeded the permitted level and many ofcausing a depletion in water resources.

rivers and canals have become wastewater discharge
canals. In addition, many lakes in inner cities are affectedby eutrophication. The surface water in these lakes

untreated domestic and industrial wastewater andbecomes muddy and smells strongly which spoils the

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2015

Viet Nam

Other pressures are due to the rapid increase of theurban population, inadequate solid waste management,

Thailandlargest percentage of total freshwater withdrawals in Viet

Sri Lanka

In Viet Nam, agriculture continues to play an important

Philippines

mining areas decreases considerably after it receives

some areas of the country such as in Hanoi and in the

Nepal

Recently, due to overexploitation of groundwater in

Myanmarthe country reaches nearly 20 million m , and the total
3

Malaysiawith a total capacity of 670,000 m 3/day (Tien 2014).

Lao PDR

2013, there are 24 wastewater treatment plants in operationindustrial activities. Most of them use drilled wells. Hanoi

Republic of Korea

Nam is treated properly (World Bank 2013). Until December

in cities and towns operating to supply water to people andJapanmore than 300 water plants and smaller water supply units

Indonesia

about 10% of the total generated urban wastewater in Viet

China

Based on the recent report of the World Bank reviewing
urban wastewater in Viet Nam, it is estimated that only

(Source: MoNRE 2012)

Cambodia

deforestation. Development activities are also affecting theTable 2.13.2. River basins in Viet Nam

109cities’ environment and appearance. Monitoring results

B2 (applicable for waterways and other purposes, which doshow that some parameters have exceeded the National

not require good water quality).

Technical Regulation on surface water quality 08:2008/
BTNMT, type B2.

According to the water quality monitoring conductedby the Center for Environmental Monitoring under the Viet

In the three most polluted river basins, the Cau, Nhue-

Nam Environment Administration, the water quality in the

Day and Dong Nai, monitoring results show that the water

Nhue-Day River is currently heavily polluted, especially thequality has decreased year by year and many water

COD, BOD5, NH4+ parameters, which exceed the QCVN 08:

parameters also failed to meet the National Technical2008/BTNMT, type B1 standard many times, particularly

Regulation on Surface Water Quality 08:2008/BTNMT, type

during the dry season.

mg/L
16

2005

2006

2007

2008

QCVN 08:2008(A1)2009

QCVN 08:2008(B1)

14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0

Red River
Hanoi

Cam RiverHai Phong

Lam RiverNghe An

Huong River
Hue

Han River (1) Han River (2)Da Nang
Da Nang

Dong Nai River Sai Gon River
Dong Nai
HCMC

Hau River
Can ThoFigure 2.13.2. Changes in annual average BOD5 content in major rivers (2005-2009)(Source: MoNRE 2010)

CAU RIVER BASIN

NHUE-DAY RIVER BASIN

DONG NAI RIVER BASIN

Natural area: 6,030 km2

Natural area: 7,665 km2

Natural area: 37,400 km2

Annual flow: about 4.5 billion m3

Annual flow: about 28.8 billion m3

Annual flow: about 36.6 billion m3

Provinces located: Bac Can,Thai Nguyen, Vinh Phuc, Bac Ninh,
Bac Giang, Hai Duong and Hanoi

Provinces located: Bac Can,Thai Nguyen, Vinh Phuc, Bac Ninh,
Bac Giang, Hai Duong and Hanoi

Provinces located: Dac Nong,
Lam Dong, Binh Phuoc, Dong Nai,
Binh Thuan, Ninh Thuan, Tay Ninh,
Binh Duong, HCM City, Ba Ria –Vung Tau, Long An

Figure 2.13.3. Basic characteristics of three most polluted river basins in Viet Nam(Source: MonRE 2006)

A number of major pollution sources in these basins

Besides river systems, natural lakes in Viet Nam

were identified, including industrial waste (mainly mining

currently play a role in regulating storm water. Several big

industry, metallurgy industry, food processing, paper

lakes are considered the lungs of the cities. However, theindustry), domestic wastewater, craft village waste andlake systems have been severely contaminated recently by

medical waste, which have enormously impacted on theorganic pollutants from domestic wastewater and solid

water quality in the river basins as well as public health.

waste discharged by people who lack environmental

According to the statistics and the assessment of theprotection awareness.

Ministry of Health and Ministry of Natural Resources andWater quality in the river sections, lakes located in theEnvironment, on average about 9,000 people die each year

inner cities as well as major urban areas have been polluted,

in Viet Nam due to poor water and sanitation conditions.

mainly by organic contamination. Most of the water quality

Every year, nearly 200,000 cases of newly discovered

parameters of the inner lakes inside Hanoi city havecancers are reported, and unfortunately one of the main

exceeded QCVN 08:2008/BTNMT, type B2.

reasons for the cancers is due to the use of contaminatedwater (VACNE 2014).

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Chapter2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

mg/L

2007

2008

2009

QCVN 08:2008 (A1)2010

QCVN 08:2008 (B1)80
70

Cambodia

2006

90

60

China

50
40
30
20
0

Song Hong(Chem)

Song Hong(Duyen Hai)

Song Duong(Duong bridge)

Song Ca LoSong Nhue(Gia Tan-Dong Anh bridge)

Song Day(Mai Linh bridge)

Indonesia

10

Figure 2.13.4. Annual average COD in major rivers inside Hanoi city in the 2006-2010 period

mg/L

2007

160

Japan

(Source: MoNRE 2012)

2008

2009

2010

QCVN 08:2008 (A1)2011

QCVN 08:2008 (B1)

Republic of Korea

140
120
100
80
60

Lao PDR

40
20
0

Nghia Do

Phuong Liet

Tuu Liet
Lu RiverDinh Cong

Cau SetSet River

Figure 2.13.5. Annual average COD in some inner rivers belong to Nhue – Day River basin in the 2007-2011 period(Source: MoNRE 2012)

mg/L

2008

2009

2010

2011

QCVN 08:2008 (A1)QCVN 08:2008 (B1)6050Myanmar2007

70

Malaysia

Cau Moi
To Lich River

40

Nepal

30
20
10
Muong Te Thai Nguyen Vi Xuyen
Reservoir
Lake
Lai Chau

Ho Nui Coc Nam Dinh

Goong Lake Tinh Tam
Lake
Vinh

Hue

Bau Tram
Phu Ninh
Phu Hoa Cam Ranh
Irrigational Lake
Lake
Lake
Lake
Tam TraNam Dinh Quang Nam Binh Dinh Khanh Hoa

Long An
Lake

Thanh Nien Dau Tieng
Lake
Lake
Dong Nai

Philippines

0

Figure 2.13.6. Annual average BOD5 in some major lakes across the country in the 2007-2011 period
Sri Lanka(Source:MoNRE 2012)

Box 2.13.1. Water quality in 4 main rivers and lakes in Hanoi city

(Source: ADB 2013)

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2015

Viet Nam

are highly elevated (150 to 300 mg/L); and the ammonia(NH4+) content is up to 20 times higher than permitted
levels. The dry season pollutant loads are higher than in
the wet season; however, sediment loads are higher inthe wet season. Most of the lakes in Ha Noi are seriously
polluted with high BOD (15 to 45 mg/L), suspended solids(100 to 150 mg/L) and low DO levels (0.5 to 2.0 mg/L).

ThailandWater quality monitoring in four main rivers and lakes
in Ha Noi indicates poor and worsening water quality.
Concentrations of biological oxygen demand – five days
(BOD5), chemical oxygen demand (COD), heavy metals
and coliforms in To Lich, Set, Lu and Nhue Rivers typicallyexceed QCVN criteria by three to four times, dissolved
oxygen (DO) levels are low, levels of suspended solids

111

Table 2.13.3. Classes in surface water quality standards
Class

Objective of use

A1

Good for domestic water supply and other purposes in A2

A2

Good for domestic water supply, but suitable treatment technology must be applied; conservation of aquatic life orother purposes in B1 and B2

B1

Good for irrigation and other purposes with demand for similar quality water and other purposes in B2

B2

Good for water transportation and other purposes with demand for low-quality water

Coastal Water

ammonium (NH4+, ranging from 0.05-8.7ml/L), E.coli andPopulation growth in coastal areas has increased thecoliform exceed groundwater quality standards in somequantity of solid waste and wastewater that is discharged

areas (Do Nam Thang, pers. comm.).”into the environment and the sea through rivers and canals.
The quantity of waste is highest in coastal cities and towns
where socio-economic activities have developed and

05. Frameworks for Water Environment
Management

attract more labourers from other cities and provinces.
Currently, there are almost no treatment systems for solid

Article 53 of the new Constitution 2013 states that “Thewaste and wastewater in the coastal cities. As a result, theland, water resources, mineral resources, wealth lying

pressure of waste discharging into the coastal environment

underground or coming from the sea and the air, otherhas become very serious.

natural resources, and property invested and managed byWastewater is also discharged from ocean-going

the State are public properties, coming under ownership byships, other maritime facilities, shipbuilding and repair

the entire people represented and uniformly managed byplants, seaports, and freight yards and stores. Industrial

the State.” The Constitution is the basis of environmental

wastewater discharged from these sources contains

and water resources protection in the country.

significant mineral oil, detergents and heavy metals that

In addition, under the new Law on Water Resources

seriously threaten the quality of seawater and wastewater

2012 (Decree No. 17/2012/QH13; replaces the previous

receiving areas. In recent years, about 400 units of

Law on Water Resources 1998 under Decree No. 08/1998/

international shipping pass through the Hai Phong-Quang

QH10), issues relating to the protection of water resources,

Ninh seaport complex every month and the discharged

including responsibilities for the prevention of waterballast water is estimated at about 430,000-710,000 m3.

deterioration and depletion, and control of water quality,

Also, sea accidents can cause chemical and oil leakage

are significantly highlighted in Chapter 3 of the Law. Apart

which affects the marine and coastal environments. In

from this new law, a number of other laws (Environmental

addition, the rapid development of coastal industrial zones

Protection Law, Mineral Law, Land Law and Biodiversity

and economic areas (which make up 79% of industrial

Law), decrees, decisions, circulars and strategies on waterzones in the whole country) has also put more pressure on

resources management have been promulgated tothe marine environment (MoNRE 2010).

complete the national legislation related to water
environmental management in Viet Nam.

Groundwater

112

In general, the underground water quality is fairly good andInstitutional arrangement

can satisfy the demands for water use. Meanwhile,

State responsibilities for water resources management ofgroundwater in some other areas is facing saline intrusion

the government, ministries and ministerial-level agencies,

on a large scale, especially in the Mekong delta areas, ascity and the provincial people’s committee, district andwell as serious microorganism and heavy metal pollution,commune people’s committee were clearly stated in thesuch as in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh city, as a result of

new law on Water Resources 2012. Accordingly, theunplanned pumping and lack of protection of water sources

government shall perform the uniform or overall state(MoNRE 2010).

management of water resources.

Salinisation is a common groundwater problem in

Meanwhile, the Ministry of Natural Resources andcoastal zones due to seawater intrusion accelerated by theEnvironment (MoNRE), which was established in 2002,

uncontrolled and indiscriminate exploitation of groundwatershall take responsibility before the government for the

by industries and households. In a text message to thestate management of water resources, including theauthor on 12 August 2011, Do Nam Thang states that

promulgation of technical regulations, standards on water“according to groundwater monitoring, iron (Fe),quality and obligation for water quality monitoring of publicmanganese (Mn, ranging from 0.18-71mg/L), P-PO 4,

water bodies, management of river basins nationwide,

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2015

Chapter2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

level, and other relevant ministries and ministerial-levelthe functions, tasks, powers and organisational structure ofagencies to ensure the smooth implementation of legal

MoNRE. In addition, MoNRE also acts as the standing body

documents and measures to protect water resources asof the National Council of Water Resources, the Viet Namprescribed by the Law, including the supervision of the

Mekong River Commission and other river basin

exploitation, use and protection of water resources and theorganisations nationwide.

prevention, control and remedy of harmful effects caused

Furthermore, MoNRE is also responsible for theby water on river basins, as defined in the Article 72, Law
on Water Resources 2012.

(Law No. 17/2012/QH13)

Co-coordinating(Amended in 2013)(Supported by
DoNREs under PC)

LAW ON WATERRESOURCE 2012

(Article 71, Law on Water Resource 2012)

District, Commune-Level People’s Committee(Article 71, Law on Water Resource 2012)

Ministry of Construction, Ministry of Transport, and Ministryof Finance, Ministry of Planning and Investment, Ministry of

and Rural Development, Ministry of Industry and Trade,

Home Affairs. Roles and responsibilities of these ministries

Ministry of Health, Ministry of Science and Technology,

are briefly described in the Figure 2.13.7 and Table 2.13.4.

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2015

Viet Nam

Other ministries that may influence or effect water
resources management include: the Ministry of Agriculture

Thailand(Source: Prepared by IGES based on information from the relevant decrees)

Sri Lanka

Figure 2.13.7. State responsibilities for water resources management in Viet Nam

Philippines

Note: MoNRE: Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment; MARD: Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development; MOC: Ministry of Construction;
MOHA: Ministry of Home Affairs; MOH: Ministry of Health; MOST: Ministry of Science and Technology; MPI: Ministry of Planning and Investment;
MOF: Ministry of Finance; MOIT: Ministry of Industry and Trade; MOT: Ministry of Transport; PC: City or Provincial People’s Committee.

Nepal

Other Relevant Ministries, including MARD (Decree No.
01/2008/ND-CP), MOIT (Decree No. 189/2007/ND-CP),
MOH (Decree No. 188/2007/ND-CP), MOC (Decree No.
17/2008/ND-CP), MOT (Decree No. 51/2008/ND-CP),
MOF(Decree No. 118/2008/ND-CP), MPI (Decree No.
116/2008/ND-CP), MOHA (Decree No. 61/2012/ND-CP),
MOST (Decree 20/2013/ND-CP)

MyanmarDecree No.
201/2013/ND-CP
detailing theimplementation ofsome articles in
the Water
Resources Law

City, Provincial-Level People’s Committee
Related Ministries (Decree No.81/2007/ND-CP;
Decree No. 178/2007/ND-CP)(Law No.
17/2012/QH13)

Malaysia

Co-coordinating

Lao PDR(Decree No.
25/2008/ND-CP;
Law No.
17/2012/QH13;
Decree No.
21/2013/ND-CP)

1992
CONSTITUTION- State management of water resources, andriver basins nationwide.
- Promulgate and implement legal
documents on water resources.
- Promulgate technical regulations,standards on ambient water quality andunit prices on water resource planning,
basic survey, exploration, exploitation, use
and protection;- Water quality monitoring for public
water bodies nationwide, etc.

Republic of Korea

MoNRE

Overallmanagement ofwater resources

Japan

GOVERNMENT OF VIETNAM

Indonesia

uniform coordination of activities of the people committees

China

at all levels, including city, provincial, district and commune

Resources 2012 and Decree No. 25/2008/ND-CP defining

Cambodiaaccording to the Article 70 in the new Law of Water

113

In implementation, local governments play antakes a leading role in the promotion of environmental

important role in environmental management. The

conservation activities through the implementation of

Department of Natural Resources and Environment

environmental regulations and provision of guidance.

(DoNRE) under the city or provincial people’s committee
Table 2.13.4. Responsibilities of other relevant ministries for water resources management
Relevant Ministries

Responsibilities

Ministry of Agriculture and Rural
Development

Manages rural water supply and sanitation; manages water for irrigation and aquatic production;
flood, storm and disaster prevention; fishery, cultivation land management; management ofhydraulic engineering and dikes

Ministry of Construction

Manages urban public works; design and construction of urban water supply, drainage and urban
wastewater works

Ministry of HealthManages drinking water quality; responsible for preparing and supervises water quality standards
and regulation (drinking and domestic)

Ministry of Science and Technology

Appraises the draft and publicises the water quality standards prepared by MoNRE

Ministry of FinancePrepares policies on taxes and fees for water resources; allocates state budget

Ministry of Planning and Investment

Checks and provides instructions to other ministries and sectors on the preparation andimplementation of the strategies on socio-economic development; allocates, plans and invests;
coordinates international relations

Ministry of Transportation

Manages and develops the transportation on water; manages aquatic engineering and portsystemMinistry of Industry and Trade

Develops hydropower via the Viet Nam Electricity Corporation (EVN)(Source: Prepared by IGES based on information from the relevant decrees defining functions and responsibilities of each relevant ministry)

114

Ambient Water Quality Standards

increasing requirements. The project has built a system for

Ambient water quality standards are established for surface

environmental monitoring database, integrating informationwater, coastal water and groundwater.

and communication tools to receive online monitoring

The Center for Environmental Monitoring (CEM) underdata, extract reports and share information on thethe Viet Nam Environment Administration (VEA), wasenvironmental monitoring portal. However, in order toestablished under Decision No. 188/QD-IDU on 23/3/2010

access this database, users require permission and mustof the VEA. The CEM assists the VEA in organising,obtain a username and password from the VEA (Figure

implementing tasks of national environmental monitoring,

2.13.9).

construction and environmental data management,

Depending on the monitoring programmes, theapplications of information technology in environmental

following water parameters have been analysed initiallymonitoring, building reporting on environmental quality in(about 20 parameters), including: pH, temperature, SS,

the functional framework of the VEA. The CEM is a leading

turbidity, EC, ORP, DO, COD, BOD5, NH4+, NO3-, PO43-, SO42-,

centre in the national environmental monitoring network.

Cl-, coliform, heavy metals (Pb, Ni, Cd, Cr, Hg, As, Mn, Fe),

Since 2005, a number of regular monitoring programmes

oil, phenol and trace pesticides. Later on, additional

were carried out by the Center for Environmental Monitoring.

parameters have been recommended and added, including:In order to improve the effectiveness of thesurfactants, oil & grease, Aldrin+Dieldrin, Enrin, BHC, DDT

management of monitoring data, from 2003, the Center for(Endosufan (Thiodan), Lindan, Chlordane, Heptachlor),

Environmental Monitoring (CEM), VEA, has developed theParation, Malation, (2,4D; 2,4,5T; Paraquat), E.coli (CEM,

first version of a software for the management of2014).

environmental monitoring data. By the year 2009-2011,

Monitoring data is used to review and revise policies

under the framework of the investment project to build theand measure for water quality conservation. MoNRE

information network system, the software has been further

annually issues the National State of the Environment

developed into a new system, synchronised to meet theReport in which major data is made public.

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2015

Chapter2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Cambodia

CONSERVATION OF WATER QUALITY IN VIETNAMLAW ON ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION 2014

China

LAW ON WATER RESOURCES 2012
AMBIENT WATER QUALITY STANDARDSQCVN 09:2008/BTNMT – National Technical Regulation on Ground Water Quality
QCVN 10:2008/BTNMT – National Technical Regulation on Coastal Water Quality

Indonesia

QCVN 08:2008/BTNMT – National Technical Regulation on Surface Water Quality

QCVN 38:2011/BTNMT – National Technical Regulation on Surface Water Quality for Protection of Aquatic Lifes
QCVN 39:2011/BTNMT – National Technical Regulation on Water Quality for Irrigated Agriculture

Japan

QCVN 44:2012/BTNMT – National Technical Regulation on Off‐Shore Water Quality

EFFLUENT STANDARDSQCVN 11:2008/BTNMT – National Technical Regulation on Aquatic Products Processing Wastewater
QCVN 12:2008/BTNMT – National Technical Regulation on Pulp and Paper Mill Wastewater
QCVN 13:2008/BTNMT – National Technical Regulation on Textile Industry Wastewater
QCVN 14:2008/BTNMT – National Technical Regulation on Domestic Wastewater

Republic of Korea

QCVN 01:2008/BTNMT – National Technical Regulation on the Effluent of Natural Rubber Processing Industry

QCVN 40:2011/BTNMT – National Technical Regulation on Industrial Wastewater
QCVN 28:2010/BTNMT – National Technical Regulation on Medical Wastewater
QCVN 29:2010/BTNMT – National Technical Regulation on the Effluent of Petroleum Terminal and Stations

Lao PDRQCVN 25:2009/BTNMT – National Technical Regulation on Wastewater of the Solid Waste Landfill Sites

QCVN 35:2010/BTNMT – National Technical Regulation on Discharged Produced Water for Offshore Oil and Gas Facilities

OTHERS RELEVANT LAWS, DECISIONS, DECREES, CIRCULARS, ETC.

(Source: Prepared by IGES based on information from the relevant Laws, Standards, Decisions, Decrees, Circulars, etc.)

Nepal

Effluent Standards

MyanmarFigure 2.13.8. Relevant laws, standards for conservation of water quality in Viet Nam

Malaysia

QCVN 52:2013/BTNMT – National Technical Regulation on Wastewater of Steel Industry

There are various effluent standards in Viet Nam as shownin Figure 2.13.8, including domestic, industrial and medical

Philippines

wastewater. In general, industries are required to carry out
environmental impact assessments (EIA) and will have tocommit to self-monitoring four times/year, in accordancewith a circular issued by the national government. Twice a

Sri Lanka

year MoNRE, VEA or/and DoNRE conduct inspections ofcompliance with the industrial effluent standards. The
inspection is carried out with prior announcement and not
more than twice a year. In cases where a violation is
Public Security have authority to conduct compulsory
investigations without prior notice, and therefore havemore opportunities to identify possible non-compliance.

Figure 2.13.9. Real-Time Environmental Monitoring Portalof Nhue-Day River Basin by VEA(Source: Picture was taken from the following website: http://lvsnhue.cem.
gov.vn/; dated 24/02/2015) Standards, Decisions, Decrees, Circulars, etc.)

Thailandsuspected, “environmental police” from the Ministry ofViet Nam

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2015115

06. Recent Developments inWater Environmental Management

Decree No. 25/2013/ND-CP dated 03/29/2013 onenvironmental protection charges for wastewater. This
Decree replaces Decree No. 67/2003/ND-CP dated

Developing the Central Party ’s resolution on

13/06/2003, No. 04/2007/ND-CP and 26/2010/ND-CP.

environmental protection: Resolution No. 24-NQ/TW by

Under this new decree, (i) For daily-life waste water, thethe Central Executive Committee, Viet Nam Communist

environmental protection charge rates shall be calculated

Party issued on 3 June 2013: “Active in response toin percentage (%) of the selling price of 1m3 of clean

climate change, improvement of natural resource

water but must not exceed 10% (ten per cent) of non-VAT

management and environmental protection.”clean water selling price; (ii) meanwhile, for the industrial

Accordingly, the problem of climate change and thewastewater, the pollution substances or parameters

environment is a global issue. Therefore, responding tocalculated for charge have been reduced from 6 to 2

climate change, environmental protection must be

parameters, including chemical oxygen demand (COD)

placed in the global context. Actively responding toand total suspended solids (TSS). Fixed and variable fees

climate change, enhancing resource management andhave been applied and increased about 5-6 times.

protecting the environment are critical issues which havegreat influence, close connections, interactions, andaffect the sustainable development of the country. These

07. Existing and Future Challenges

are also the foundation for planning guidelines andViet Nam has developed its water quality management

policies for economic development that ensure national

system since 1990s. In 2000 in particular, the environmental

defense and security and social security. Strengthening

legislation of the country was amplified—refining

environmental protection should be in harmony withenvironmental and effluent standards, strengthening non-nature and in accordance with the laws of nature, while

compliance responses and applying environmental

prevention is the key. The combination of controlling

protection charges. Now, Viet Nam must work on ensuring

pollution, improving the environment, nature conservationand enforcing implementation by strengthening systems

and biodiversity all focus on the protection of the people’s

and the capacity of water environment management byhealth as the primary objective; The resolution on

addressing the following challenges (Nguyen 2010; Ngaenvironmental protection firmly rejects the projects that2011).

cause environmental pollution and affect public health.

To further improve legislative systems, including

The amended Environmental Protection Law 2014 waselimination of overlapping or uncoordinated provisions in

adopted by the National Assembly (NA) session and will

water resources management, especially amongtake effect from 1 January 2015. This is considered andifferent ministries, sectors and local authorities.

important legal framework for addressing the current
deficiencies in environmental protection. According tothe Vice-Minister of Natural Resources and Environment
Bui Cach Tuyen, the new law overcame limitations andshortcomings of previous legislation, added some new

To promote the basin-management approach: Improveand strengthen water environment management at thebasin level, both within the country and transboundary
river basin management.

content in terms of green growth, climate change andTo pay attention adequately and provide investments

environmental security and harmonised regulations withfrom government, business sector and public must be

the country’s international commitments (Hop 2015).

given to further improvement of wastewater treatment

The new law stipulates that all agencies, organisations,systems, both domestic and industrial wastewater.

households and individuals would be responsible forenvironmental protection. In addition, the new law also

To choose and introduce appropriate technology toclarifies the powers and responsibilities among line

improve water quality, especially the introduction ofministries, of localities and departments in controlling

wastewater treatment technology which is appropriate

water pollution in basins and rivers.The amended law

for different local settings.

also focuses on environmental protection principles inharmony with socioeconomic development, social
security, ensuring children’s rights, conservation anddevelopment and climate change (VEM 2014).

116

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2015

To socialize and mobilize community participation in theenvironmental protection in general, water environmental
protection in particular is still very weak. According to a

Chapter2 Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Cambodiasurvey conducted by the Viet Nam Environment
Administration (10/2010), over 90% of respondents said
that they had too little information about the environment
and that the problem belongs to the state management
agencies at the Central and local levels.

China

To enhance awareness and commitment from both the
public and industrial sectors on further improvement onwater environmental management issues is essential.

Indonesia

To strengthen compliance: Redouble inspection,
improvement and strengthening of technical andadministrative guidelines, socialisation of environmental

Japan

protection and sustainable development, further
strengthening of administrative sanctions against
noncompliance.

Republic of Korea

To improve institutional capacity at the national and local
level to implement water quality management, especiallyin the field of water quality monitoring, control andinvestigation of pollution sources, how to impose
sanctions at the ground level, etc.

Lao PDR

To develop a sound information base: Develop reliable
information systems of the state of water quality andmanagement.

Malaysia

To increase the budget for environmental protection:
Target is 2% of the total state budget allocated forenvironmental activities.

Myanmar
Nepal
Philippines
Sri Lanka
Thailand
Viet Nam

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2015

117

Appendix

Selected social, economic and water related indicators
in WEPA partner countries
COUNTRYGEOGRAPHY 1

Land Area(km2)

Cambodia

China

Indonesia

Japan

Korea
(Republic of)

Lao PDR

Malaysia

Myanmar

Nepal

Philippines

Sri Lanka

Thailand

Viet Nam

181,035 a(2013)

9,600,00 b(2010)

1,910,931 c(2014)

377,962 d(2013)

99,700 e(2009)

236,800 f(2005)

330,336 g(2013)

676,578 h(2011)

147,181 i(2008)

299,404 j(2006)

65,610 k(2014)

513,119 l(2011)

330,972 m(2013)POPULATION 2

Year

ECONOMY 3

GrowthGrowthGrowthTotal Population
Urban Population
Rural Population
Rate inRate inRate in(person)(person)(person)
20yrs
20yrs
20yrs

1990

9,057,339

2010

14,364,931

1,408,054
59%

2,845,693

7,649,285
102%

11,519,238

51%

Year

GDP
(current USD)

1993

2,533,727,592

2010

11,242,266,334

PerGrowth Capita
Rate in GDP
20yrs (current
USD)
251
344%

783

2013

15,135,169

3,075,315

12,059,854

2013

15,238,689,686

1,007

1990

1,135,185,000

300,165,618

835,019,382

1990

356,937,329,023

314

2010

1,337,705,000

2010

5,930,502,270,313 1561%

4,433

2013

1,357,380,000

2013

9,240,270,452,047

6,807

1990

178,633,239

1990

114,426,498,045

2010

240,676,485

2010

709,190,823,320

2013

249,865,631

2013

868,345,652,475

1990

123,537,000

1990

3,103,698,099,973

25,124

2010

127,450,459

2010

5,495,387,182,996

77% 43,118

2013

127,338,621

117,776,764

9,561,857

2013

4,919,563,108,373

38,634

1990

42,869,283

31,656,393

11,212,890

1990

284,757,121,058

6,642

2010

49,410,366

2010

1,094,499,350,178284% 22,151

2013

50,219,669

2013

1,304,553,972,502

25,977

1990

4,244,520

2010

6,395,713

18%

658,498,663

119%

721,691,798

120,155,328

124,000,049
120%

130,559,790

15%

115,370,704

40,484,877

28%

12,079,755

8,925,489

-57%

-20%

8,914,493

655,227
2,118,452-3%

27,994,720
21%

41,305,176

51%

120,521,157
119,305,841

95,542,280
3%

-19%

635,688,202

54,633,190
35%

679,206,337

3,589,293
223%

4,277,261

19%

1990

865,559,856

2010

7,181,441,152

2,947

1,123

6,769,727

2,468,852

4,300,875

2013

11,242,526,454

1,661

9,068,034

9,143,063

1990

44,023,808,215

2,417

2010

28,275,835

2010

247,533,525,518

2013

29,716,965

21,777,781

7,939,184

2013

313,159,097,401

10,538

1990

42,123,003

10,349,622

31,773,381

1990

2,788,000,000

68

2010

51,931,231

2010

45,428,000,000 1529%

742

2013

53,259,018

2013

56,759,000,000

1,113

1990

18,111,200

2010

26,846,016

2013

27,797,457

4,969,351

1990

61,948,688

30,100,867

2010

93,444,322

2013

98,393,574

43,916,004

54,477,570

1990

17,015,000

3,159,005

13,855,995

2010

20,653,0002013

20,483,000

1990

56,582,726

2010

66,402,316

2013

67,010,502

32,126,845

1990

66,016,700

13,371,683

2010

86,932,500

2013

89,708,900

23%

16,309,003

58%

17,579,204

51%

21%

4,516,037

42,288,228

3,783,836

40%

20%

32%

26,420,525
28,984,049

98%

8,754

3,627,559,252

2009

15,994,094,607

22,828,106

2013

19,294,348,174

694

31,847,821

1990

44,311,595,230

715

2010

199,589,447,424

2013

272,066,554,886

2,765

1990

8,032,551,173

472

2010

49,567,521,670

2013

67,182,015,336

51,156,094

16,869,164

35%

61%

22%

39,933,825
76%

462%

1990

22,329,979

16,734,611

16,648,901
29,270,141

12%

16,507,634
182%

3,748,389

17%

35,622,228-10%

35,679,814

1,603,566
48%

8,224,875

350%

517%

596

2,136

2,400

85,343,189,321
318,907,930,076

34,883,657

2013

387,252,164,291

5,779

52,645,017

1990

6,471,740,486

98

60,511,975
60,724,851

15%

233%

451%

262%

991%

197%

199%

408%

3,280

2010

-7%

72%

200
341%

1990

37,132,175

360%

204
730%

18,211,097

121%

1312%

3,475

1990

20,050,960

212%

641
520%

2013

55%

GrowthRate in
20yrs

1,508
274%

4,803

2010

115,931,749,905 1691%

1,334

2013

171,390,003,229

1,911

218%

1261%

1. a. From National Strategic Development Plan 2014-2018. b. From China Statistical Yearbook 2010. c. From Statistik Indonesia 2014. d. From the Japan Statistical Yearbook 2015. e. From the Statistics Korea
2009. f. From the Year Book 2005 of Lao Statistical Bureau. g. From the official website of Department of Statistics of Malaysia. h. From the Health in Myanmar 2011. i. From the country profile in the official
website of the Government of Nepal. j. From the Tourism Investment Portfolio of Department of Tourism of the Philippines. k. From the Statistical Abstract 2010 of Sri Lanka. l. From the 2008 Core Environment
Report of National Statistical Office of Thailand. m. From the official website of the General Statistics Office of Vietnam.

120

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2015

Appendix

WATER RESOURCES 4LongAverage
Precipitation(mm/year)

1,904

645.0

2,702

1,668

1,274

1,834

2,875

2,091

1,500

2,348

1,712

1,622

1,821

Total
Renewable
Water
Resources
(km3)

Year

476.1*

2006

2,840

2,019

430

69.7*

333.5*

580*

1,168*

210.2*

479

52.8*

438.6*

884.1

Achievements of Waterand Sanitation
Goals of MDGs 6

WATER USE 5

Total Annual
Freshwater
Withdrawals(billion m3)

2.2

Annual Freshwater
Withdrawal by sectors (%)

Agriculture

Industry

Municipal
including
Domestic

94.0

1.5

4.5

Domestic Wastewater Treatment

Dringking water(Improved %)Sanitation Facilities(Improved %)

urban

rural

urban

1990

32.4

19.5

17.7

0.0

2000

57.0

38.0

43.3

10.2

Year

2012

93.9

65.6

81.6

25.5

500.0

83.0

10.0

7.0

1990

96.7

56.0

47.8

15.1

2005

554.1

64.6

23.2

12.2

2000

97.5

70.4

60.9

35.5

2012

98.4

84.9

74.1

55.8

1990

74.3

93.1

0.5

6.4

1990

89.6

61.0

61.1

23.7

2000

113.3

81.9

6.5

11.6

2000

91.2

68.0

65.8

33.6

2012

93.0

76.4

71.4

45.5

1992

91.4

64.1

17.3

18.6

1990

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

2001

90*

63.1*

17.6*

19.3*

2000

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

2012

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

2002

25.5*

62.0*

12.0*

26.0*

1990

97.0

-

100.0

100.0

2000

98.1

75.3

100.0

100.0

2012

99.7

87.9

100.0

100.0

3.5*

91.4*

4.9*

3.7*

1990

-

-

-

-

2000

72.2

37.9

66.1

17.2

2012

83.7

64.9

90.4

50.5

1990

10.1*

82.0*

9.9*

8.1*

1990

94.3

82.1

88.4

80.5

2005

11.2*

22.3*

42.8*

34.8*

2000

98.5

93.1

93.7

89.9

2012

100.0

98.5

96.1

94.6

1987

28.3*

98.6*

0.4*

1.0*

1990

80.1

47.6

-

-

2000

33.2

89.0

1.0

10.0

2000

85.5

59.9

78.9

53.7

2012

94.8

81.1

84.3

73.9

2000

9.7*

97.5*

0.4*

2.1*

1990

97.4

63.4

34.3

3.5

2006

9.5*

98.1*

0.3*

1.6*

2000

94.2

74.4

41.9

17.2

2012

90.3

87.6

51.2

33.7

2009

81.6

82.2

10.1

7.6

1990

92.2

75.4

69.4

45.2

2000

92.4

83.3

74.4

57.3

2012

92.5

91.2

79.4

69.4

1990

9.8

96.0

2.0

2.0

1990

91.6

62.6

78.1

65.4

2005

13.0

87.3

6.4

6.2

2000

95.0

76.4

80.3

78.4

2012

99.1

92.9

82.9

93.9

1990

96.3

82.3

87.2

79.5

2000

96.5

89.5

88.2

92.7

2007

57.3

90.4

4.8

4.8

Sewerage
Treatment
Coverage(%)

Remarks

2010<5

estimated by WEPA

2010

72.9

only for urban area

2010

<5

estimated by WEPA

2014

80

2011

91

2010

<5

estimated by WEPA

2010

66

except in Sabah and
Sawawak province

2010

<5

estimated by WEPA

2010

<5

estimated by WEPA

2010

<5

estimated by WEPA

2010

<5

estimated by WEPA

2008

23

2010

<5

rural

1990

2005

Year

2012

96.7

95.3

88.7

95.9

1985

45.3

89.8

6.3

3.9

1990

89.9

54.4

64.1

30.6

2005

82.0

94.8

3.7

1.5

2000

93.6

72.2

77.3

47.0

2012

98.2

93.6

93.1

66.6

estimated by WEPA

2. From the World Bank’s World Development Indicator Database. 3. From the World Bank’s World Development Indicator Database except for the figures for Myanmar. For Myanmar, from IMF World Economics
Outlook Database September 2011 and October 2014. 4. From the FAO Main AQUASTAT Country Database. 5. From the FAO Main AQUASTAT Country Database. 6. From World Health Organization/the United
Nations Children’s Fund Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation. * Estimated.

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2015

121

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126

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2015

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MoEJ (Ministry of the Environment of Japan).2009. WEPA Outlook
on Environmental Management Strategies in Asia. Hayama:
Institute for Global Environmental Strategies.
Yu, Soon-Ju. 2010. “Progress of Water Environment Management
and Future Challenges in KOREA.” Presentation at the 6th
WEPA Annual Meeting, Tokyo, Japan, 24 February.
Chapter 2.6 Lao PDR
Chanthavong, Phouvong. 2011. “Groundwater for Water Supply
in Laos.” Presentation at the Launch Meeting of Asia-PacificWater Forum Knowledge Hub for Groundwater Management,
Bangkok, Thailand, 2 June.
Komany, Souphasay. 2008. “Water Quality Monitoring andManagement in Lao PDR: The Case Study of Nam Ngum
River Basin.” In Oral Presentation Proceedings, the 3rd WEPAInternational Forum on Water Environmental Governance inAsia, Tokyo: Ministry of the Environment of Japan.
Komany, Souphasay. 2011. “Water Quality Monitoring at Reservoirof Nam Ngum 2 Hydropower Dam and Upper Reservoir of
Nam Ngum 1 Hydropower Dam.” Presentation at the 3rd
WEPA International Workshop, Manila, the Philippines, 21
September.
Ly, H., and H. Larsen. 2012. 2011 Annual Water Quality Data
Assessment Report. MRC Technical Paper No. 40., Vientiane:
Mekong River Commission.
MoEJ (Ministry of the Environment of Japan).2009. WEPA Outlook
on Environmental Management Strategies in Asia. Hayama:
Institute for Global Environmental Strategies.
MoH and LSB. 2012. Lao Social Indicator Survey 2011-2012.
Vientiane: Ministry of Health (MoH) and Lao Statistics Bureau(LSB).
MoNRE (Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment of Lao
PDR).2011. “MoNRE Plan for 2011-2015.” A Presentation
Material on 11 July. http://www.rtm.org.la/documents/SWG/

Agriculture/MoNRE%20Plan%20for%202011-2015.pdf.
Accessed 20 January 2012.
____. 2012. Lao Environment Outlook 2012. Vientiane: Ministry of
Natural Resources and Environment (MoNRE).
MRC (Mekong River Commission). 2010. State of Basin Report
2010. Vientiane. http://www.mrcmekong.org/assets/
Publications/basin-reports/MRC-SOB-Summary-reportEnglish.
pdf. Accessed 20 January 2012
MRC. 2005. Overview of the Hydrology of the Mekong Basin.
Vientiane: Mekong River Commission.
Phonvisai, Phengkhamla. 2011. “Water Quality Monitoring in
Vientiane Capital City.” Vientiane: Unpublished material.
WHO/UNICEF. 2014. Progress on Drinking Water and Sanitation:2014 Update. WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for
Water Supply and Sanitation, Switzerland: UNICEF and World
Health Organization
WREA (Water Resources and Environment Administration of
Lao PDR).2010. Agreement on the National Environmental
Standards.Vientiane.
Chapter 2.7 Malaysia
DoE (Department of Environment, Ministry of Natural Resources
and Environment of Malaysia). 2010. Environmental
Requirements: A Guide for Investors 11th Edition. October.
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A-Guide-For-Investors1.pdf. Accessed 10 January 2012.
____. 2011. Environment Quality Report (EQR) 2010. Kuala Lumpur.
http://www.doe.gov.my/portal/publication-2/browse/
Publication%20-%20Penerbitan/. Accessed 10 January 2012.
____. 2014. Environment Quality Report (EQR) 2013. Kuala
Lumpurhttps://enviro.doe.gov.my/view.php?id=15791.
Accessed 1 March 2015.
Economic Planning Unit of Prime Minister’s Department. 2010.
10th Malaysian Plan 2011-15. http://www.pmo.gov.my/
dokumenattached/RMK/RMK10_Eds.pdf. Accessed 10
October 2011.
How, Tan Sieow. 2008. “Success Story on Benefits and Issues in
Implementing Performance Monitoring of Industrial Effluent
Treatment Systems (IETS).” Industrial Effluents Issue 1/2008:22-28.Kuala Lumpur: Department of Environment, Malaysia.
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e-magazine01A4.pdf. Accessed 20 October 2011.
Keong, Loh Chee. 2008. “Success Story on Benefits and Issues in
Implementing Performance Monitoring of Industrial Effluent
Treatment Systems (IETS).” Industrial Effluents Issue 1/2008:
12-21.Kuala Lumpur: Department of Environment, Malaysia
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e-magazine01A4.pdf. Accessed 20 October 2011.
Ministry of Science, Technology and the Environment of Malaysia.
2002. Dasar Alam Sekitar Negara (National Policy on theEnvironment).http://www.doe.gov.my/portal/wp-content/
uploads/2010/07/dasar_alam_sekitar_negara.pdf. Accessed 10
October 2011.
MoEJ (Ministry of the Environment of Japan).2009. WEPA Outlook
on Environmental Management Strategies in Asia. Hayama:
Institute for Global Environmental Strategies.
MoSTI (Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation of
Malaysia).2010. Official Portal Malaysian Meteorological
Department. http://www.met.gov.my/index.
php?option=com_content&task=view&id=69&Itemid=160&l
ang=english. Accessed 23 February 2012.
Shariffuddin, Syazrin Syima. 2011. “Progress of water environmental
governance/management and future challenges in Malaysia.”
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Chapter 2.8 Myanmar
Akaishi, Fumiko., M. Satake, M. Otaki, and N. Tomonaga. 2006.
Surface Water Quality and Information about the Environment

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2015127

Surrounding Inle Lake in Myanmar. Limnology 7(1): 57-62.
Khin Lay Swe. 2011. “Development of Clean Water and Sanitationin Inle Lake, Myanmar.” Presentation at the Seminar on
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MoECAF (Ministry of Environmental Conservation and Forestry of
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Ra, Khon. 2011. “Water Quality Management at River Basin in
Myanmar.” Presentation at the 3rd WEPA International
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August 2011.
Sein Aung Min. 2014. National Water Resources Management in
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Than, Mu Mu. 2007. “Community Activities Contribution to Water
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Zaw Lwin. 2014. Ayeyarwady Integrated River Basin Management
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Accessed 10 September 2011.

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Chapter 2.10 Philippines
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Cuna, Juan Miguel T. 2011. “Current Policy Responses to Attain
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Kearton, Ross; Ner, Salvador; Ancheta, Christopher; Alvarez, Victor
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