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REPORT OF THE

UNITED NATIONSSCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE
ON THE
EFFECTS OF ATOMIC RADIATIONGENERAL ASSEMBLY

OFFICIAL RECORDS : TWENTY-FOURTH SESSIONSUPPLEMENT No. 13 (A/7613)

.

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UNITED NATIONSNew York, 1969

NOTE
Symbols of United Nations documents are composed of capital letters
combined with figures. Mention of such a symbol indicates a reference to a
United Nations document.

AN.VEXES
Annex AR\DIO-ACTIYE CONTA.11INATION OF THE

E:'.\-VIRO~:.HENT

BY NUCLEAR TESTSCONTENTS
Paraarap/is

I. I NTRODTJCTION
If.

.•..•..••••••.•.•..•.•.......•

1-5

RECENT DATA ON ENVIRONMENTAL
CONTAMINATION •..••••••••.•.••••••••.•••••

6-34

A. Airborne and deposited artificial
radio-acti-l:ity .......................... .

6-26

l. Atmospheric injections .............. .
2. Inventories ......................... .
(a) Strontium-90 and caesium-137 .. .
(b) Carbon-14 ..................... .
(c) Plutonium-238 .................. .

6-9
10-13
10-11
12
13

3. Deposition .......................... .
(a) General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... .
( b) Relative deposition on land and

14-26
14-20

ocean ......................... .

21-26

B. Artificial radio-actfr:ity in food and tissues ..

27-34

1. Strontium-90....................... .
2. Caesium-137 ........................ .
3. lodine-131 .......................... .
4. Carbon-14 .................•.•..•....

Ill.

Paraarap/1s(ii) Strontium retention functions(iii) Observed ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . .
(b) Food-chain mechanisms . . . . . . . . .
(c) Transfer iunctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
(i) Transfer coefficient-deposit todiet ...................... .
(ii) Transfer coefficient-diet totissue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
(iii) Dose-rate factor . . . . . . . . . .
2. Caesium-137 .. . . . . . . . . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . .
(a) Caesium-137 in food chains . . . . .
(b) Transfer from deposit to diet . . . .
(c) 1fotabolL<m of caesium-137 in the
body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
(d) Transfer from diet to body . . . . .
(e) Dose-rate factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
(f) Subarctic regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3. External radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4. Carbon-14 .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .
5. Iodine-131 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
(a) Iodine-131 in food chains . . . . . .
(b) Metabolism of iodine-131 in the
body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
( c) Dose-rate factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6. Other nuclides . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

27-29
30-31
32-33
34

ASSESSMENT OF RADIATION DOSES FROl{
EN\"IRO::-llCENTAL CONTAMI:NATI0::-1 •.•••••....•

35-238

A. Geneml............................... .

35-52

I. Concept of the dose commitment ...... .
2. Definition of the dose commitment ... .
3. General problems of estimating dose
commitments ........................ .

35-39
40-43

53-89

I. Introduction ........................ .
2. Specific transfer functions ........... .
(a) Transfer from primary source toatmosphere (P 01 )(b) Transfer from atmosphere to earth's
surface (P 12 ) .••••...•••••.•••••(c) Transfer from deposit to diet (P 13 )(d) Transfer from diet to tissue (P 3 .1)(e) Transfer from tissue to dose (PH)(f) Dose from e..xternal radiation (Pu)

53-58
59-89

C. Transfer of specific 1111clides ............ .
I. Strontium-90....................... .
(a) Metabolism in man ............ .
(i) Distribution of strontium-90
in the body ............. .

I.

122-140
141-151
152-162
163-192
165-168
169-li7
liS-181182-189190
191-192
193-199200-211212-216214
215
216
217-218

D. Dose com111itme11ts from e.rternal a11d i11ternal
co11taminatio11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219-238

44-52

B. General transfer fu11ctio11s ............... .

95-105106-115
116-121122-162

l. Introduction . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .
2. Distribution of world-wide deposit of longlived radio-nuclides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3. Dose commitments to group I (a) populations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
(a) Internal dose commitments . . . . . .
(i) Strontium-90 . .. .. . .. . .. . . .
(ii) Caesium-137 .. .. . . .. . . . . . .
(iii) Carbon-14 .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .
(iv) Strontium-89 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
( b) External dose commitments .... .
(i) Caesium-137 .............. .
(ii) Short-lived nuclides ....... .
4. Dose commitments to populations of group
I(b) and group II . . . . . . . . . . ...... .

59-60
61-64
65-75
76-80
81-87

88-89
90-21890-16290-115219-222223
224-230224-228224
225
226-227

Z?-8229-230229
230
231-238Paae

TABLES

91-94................................ .

REFERENCES

Introduction

45
58

into the environment from reactors and fuel reprocessing plants and by industrial, medical or research applications of radio-isotopes contribute much less to radioactive contamination and will not be considered in thisreport.

1. Debris from nuclear tests in the atmosphere is
still the major radio-active man-made contaminant of
the environment. By comparison, the gaseous andliquid wastes presently discharged in limited amounts
13and no evidence was found that radio-activity had
spread from the immediate vicinity of the place ofaccident. 29

2. Although several nuclear devices have beentested since the last report of the Committee, 1 thesehave not added significantly to the global inventoryof long-lived radio-active material in the biosphere.
Furthermore, since the last report was prepared(June 1966), the rate of deposition of nuclear debris
from the atmosphere has decreased substantially,
thereby simplifying considerably the problem of predicting the future levels of the long-lived radio-nuclides
in the food and tissues of man to be expected fromtests carried out so far.

2. Inventories(a) Strontium-90 and caesium-137

10. No significant amounts of nuclear debris were
injected into the atmosphere bet\veen 1963 andmid-1967, and the stratospheric content of long-lived
nuclides has consequently decreased steadily. Thus, inthe period 1963-1966, the total content of strontium-90
in the atmosphere decreased at an approximately constant rate with an apparent half-life of about one
year. 30 • 31 The same half-life was found for the manganese-54 presumably produced in the 1961 and 1962
test series presumably produced in the 1961 and 1962
altitudes in 1962 sho\ved a somewhat smaller rate ofremoval with a half-life of about 17.5 months. It isestimated that the explosions in 1967 added 170 kilocuries and 0.6 kilocuries of strontium-90 to the stratosphere of the northern and southern hemispheres. respectively, while those in 1968 added a further
160 kilocuries and 240 kilocuries 32 • 33 (figure 1). Because of the small amount of debris from earlier tests
still remaining in the stratosphere in 1968. these recent
additions have increased the stratospheric inventory by
about 50 per cent. However, they have only added anamount equal to about 4 per cent of the global inventory (deposited plus stratospheric) due to the earlier
tests.

3. Moreover, the results of extensive and comprehensive surveys carried out in a number of countries
have contributed considerably to our knowledge of thelevds of Jong-lived radio-nuclides in man and foodchains in those countries, as well as to our understanding of the many and complex processes involvedin the transfer of radio-activity to the human body.
4. In the present report, the impact of these recent
developments on the assessment of the effect of nuclear
fall-out on man is reviewed in detail. In particular, theradiation doses to which man has been committed are
estimated from the results of the series of measurements
now available.
5. Although the estimates of the doses thus obtained
do not differ significantly from the previous ones. theCommittee now has increased confidence that they
are representative of the doses to which humans havebeen committed. at least for those populations in the
countries and areas from which the results of measurements are available.
II.

11. The 137 Cs/90 Sr ratio in nuclear debris mayvary to some extent. depending not only upon theparticular processes taking place in the nuclear devices
but also upon fractionation phenomena. However. observations on the 1 3 7 Cs/90 Sr ratio in atmosphere anddeposit in the years 1966-1968 have not revealed any
systematic trend, and, for the purposes of estimating
global inventories, it can be assumed that its value isRecent data on environmental contaminationA.

AIRBORXE A!\l> DEPOSITED ARTIFICIALRADIO-ACTIVITY

1. Atntospheric injections

1.6.12, 13, 34-36

6. Si..x nuclear devices were exploded above groundin central Asia during the years 1966-1968. Aftereach test in 1966 and 1967, increases in surface-air
activity were observed in Japan \vithin a few days. 2 •7
and in North America8•11 and Europe12 • 13 within thefirst two weeks. The debris from the explosion inJune 1967, on the other hand, was observed at thesurface after some months. Reports describing the behaviour of the debris from the 1968 test are not yet
available.

(b) Carbon-14

12. The content of artificially produced carbon-14 in
the stratosphere decreased from (36 : 8) 102 7 atoms
at the beginning of 1963 to (17-+-4) 1027 atoms at
the beginning of 1%5.37 No recent data on the stratospheric content in the southern hemisphere are available, but the indications are that the decrease has beensmall since1965. The tropospheric content ofcarbon-14 in the northern hemisphere has gradually
decreased since the years 1963-1964, when ma......:imum
concentrations of about 100 per cent of the naturallevel were observed, to about 65 per cent in 1967.38
In the southern hemisphere, the concentration has
gradually increased as a consequence of interhemispheric mixing so that the tropospheric concentrations
were about the same in both hemispheres in 1967.38
No observations on the effect of the explosions in 1967
and 1968 on the carbon-14 levels have been reported.

7. Five nuclear devices were exploded above groundat the Tuamotu Islands in the south Pacific during thelast half of 1966. three in mid-1967 and five between
July and September 1968. Increased surface activities
were observed in South America, 14 • 15 South
Africa. 12 • 13 • 16 Australia 1" 22 and New Zealand23 •25lvithin a month after each explosion.
8. Temporarily increased surface-air activities havebeen observed from time to time. The composition of
the radio-actfre material suggests that it has originatedfrom underground explosions. 2 6- 28(c) Plutonhtm-238

13. The burn-up of the radio-isotope power source
SNAP-9A in the upper atmosphere in April 1964
released 17 kilocuries of plutonium-238. 39 , 40 Becauseof the high altitude of injection and the small particle
size of the debris, the rate of depletion of the upper
stratosphere was small during the first years, the apparent half-life being about ten years. 41 The rate of

9. In January 1968. an airplane carrying nuclear
weapons crashed on the ice in a sparsely populatedarea near Thule off the coast of northern Greenland.
).fost of the radio-active material. mainly consistingof plutonium-239. was spread over an area of approximately 12,000 m~. There was no nuclear explosion

14

28

28

x

26

26

24

22
20
19

18

16
14
12

l( Balloon dcta
- - - Mean tr:>p<>pause

107~5_.._.__.__.__.____.___.....,....__.__.__.'---'L...-L.....JL...-L...-L...-.l.-.l.-.l.-.l-..L......l-~..J........J........J........J......~6·5---1.l--J10

65

55

45

'35 -

25

15

N

5 0 5

15

25

35

45

55

Latitudes

Figure 1. OOSr concentration contours, August 196732 (pCi (100 scm)-1,
where 1 scm = 1.226 kg air)deple~on. has gradually increased. and the apparent
half-life m the stratosphere after 1966 has been estimated to be between two and three years. 42 • 43 Measured upper-air concentrations accounted for about
3 kilocuries in the northern hemisphere and 8 kilocuries in the southern hemisphere in mid-1967, 4 2 andthe cumulative deposit to the end of 1967 was estimatedto be 2.2 kilocuries and 4.7 kilocuries in the northernhemispheres. respectively. 43

occasionally been observed in the northern hemisphereand vice versa. 18 • 45 • 46
17. Fresh nuclear debris consists of a mixture of alarge number of beta- and gamma-emitting nuclides.
The composition changes with time and may also beaffected by fractionation of the debris. The total beta
activity or the amount of any single nuclide will, forthat reason. not give a quantitative measure of thedeposit occurring soon after an explosion. However,the content of barium-140 in ground-level air or precipitation can be used as a convenient indicator of theamount of fresh deposit, as it can easily be measured
by gamma-spectrometric methods and also because it
has a half-life of the same order of magnitude as
iodine-131. which is the nuclide of main concern as
regards doses from fresh deposit. Debris from the
explosions in central Asia has normally been ob1;erved
at ground level in the northern hemisphere during thefirst month after explosion. 13 • 45 The levels have beenmoderate. peak values of barium-140 observed in the
United Kingdom between 1966 and 1968 ranging
from 0.01 to 0.1 pCi kg-1 in ground-level air. The
ground-level activities in the southern hemisphere dueto the explosions in the south Pacific have shown
barium-140 peak values of about 1 pCi kg-1 in South
Africa, 13 Australia19 and Argentina. 15 Occasional hightotal beta activities in ground-level air have been observed in Japanu· 7 and North America. 0

3. Deposition(a) General
14. In the period 1965-1967, the annual depositionof strontium-90 decreased by about 50 per cent per
year in the northern hemisphere and by a somewhat
smaller amount in the southern hemisphere. 13 • H The
latitudinal variation was, in general, the same as
earlier, with the highest deposition in the middle latitudes of each hemisphere (figure 2). In the northernhemisphere. a pronounced seasonal variation with maxima in spring was observed throughout the period(figures 3 and 4). A similar but less pronounced
variation was also observed in the southern hemisphere.

15. l\Iost of the strontium-90 and caesium-137
deposited up to the middle of 1967 was due to explosions occurring before 1963. In the second half of1967, steadily increasing lH(e/137 Cs ratios in tl:enorthern hemisphere indicated that a larger part ofthe long-lived nuclides came from recent e.xplosions.13
It has been estimated that about half of the long-lived
nuclides deposited in the northern hemisphere in 1968
came from recent e.xplosions. 13

18. The global annual deposition of strontium-90
has been estimated from the results of two worldwide networks operated by the United Kingdom Atomic
Energy Research Establishment (AERE) and theUnited States Atomic Energy Commission Health and
Safety Laboratory (HASL). Statistical analysis ofdeposition data indicated that the latter network had
underestimated the deposition by as much as 20 per
cent, 47 and this has nO\V been confirmed. 48 • 49 The
cumulative global deposition at the end of 1966 was,from the AERE network, 12.5 megacuries 48 and after
allowing for the collection efficiency of the sa~plers.
12.6 megacuries 48 from the other network.

16. The nuclear atmospheric explosions occurring
between 1966 and 1968 have all resulted in depositionof short-lived fission products. A study by Hardy45
on 89 Sr/90 Sr ratios in deposition indicates that most of
the deposition occurring within the first half-year afteran explosion is deposited in the hemisphere where theexplosion took place. However, small amounts of fresh
dehris from explosions in the southern hemisphere have
15

(!)

"U
:::i

.....

:.=0

lD'

oo

_J

10°

200

30"
40:
50"

s
1966

1967

Figure 2. Monthly zonal average deposition of 90Sr by latitude and time, 1966-196744 (mCi km-'.! per month)tion of strontium-90. The value of the ratio to be used
for estimating global inventories of caesium-137 wasdiscussed in paragraph 11.

19. The cumulative deposit has been independently
estimated from the results of a world-wide sampling
programme of strontium-90 contents of soils~ 0 to be
13 megacuries. The cumulative deposits from 1958 to1967 are given in figures 5 and 6 and table I. Table IIsummarizes the strontium-90 inventory from 1963 to
1967, as derived from upper-air and deposition data.

(b) Relative deposition 011 land and ocean
21. Deposition in the oceans was discussed in detailin the Committee's 1966 report. 51 The main concern inthis connexion was that large differences in deposition rates between oceans and land could, if unrecognized, give rise to significant errors in the estimatesof the global inventory. Although this did not directly
affect estimates of the dose commitments to the world's

20. No comprehensive information on global
caesium-137 deposition comparable to that on strontium-90 is available. For most practical purposes. it issufficient to assume a constant 137 Cs/90 Sr ratio and so
calculate the caesium-137 deposition from the deposi-

NORTHERNll""HEMISPHERE

I·~ ~·1 ~..
r. :' . -\ } '~:: I -\:1:, /

.

II

_,

~

:'•'. ,: ·~: I•"'._}~.. : ~ ,'
!..'

::
'I

~ I t\

I'··V '\J

i._ SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE

11958 195919601961

19~2 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967

Figure 3. :Monthly 90Sr deposition44

16-

NIO'[
so·~

40•;-

20·'r

o·1~-~=-;;;,....-'~~~""-~~-r~~?':::~-"-====~l"="

20·~
40·~

seo·t

·~·~'--~.l..-~-'--~-'--~--'-~-'-~~~--"~~'--~..L-~-'-~---~~~~~~~--'~--'~~'--~-'-~-'-~-'-'

Ja: Atmospheric rut•

Fig11rc 4. 00 Sr concentrations in surface air based on observations made between 35'W and 155'\Vl•~(dpm per 1,000 scrn, where 1 SClll = 1.226 kg air)

population, it was felt that the possibility of large systematic errors in assessing the inventory needed to bestudied closely. The e..xperimental data on this subject
are still somewhat contradictory.
·
22. The evidence for excess strontium-90 fall-out
in the oceans comes primarily from the sea-watermeasurements themselves which, when integrated overthe entire volume of the oceans, result in an estimateof the inventory substantially larger than that extra-

polated from land measurements. Systematic observations of strontium-90 concentrations in surface waterof the north Atlantic have also suggested that the rateof deposition there is higher than over land.5 z• 53
23. However, the possibility of large differences
between land and ocean deposition is unlikely becauseof other considerations. The most compelling is thatthe estimates of the global strontium-90 inventory, 54
when corrected for radio-active decay, have been virtually constant during the period 1963-1967 (table II).
As the estimates of the deposit were based on measurements made at land stations, a considerably higher deposition onto the oceans should have resulted in systematically decreasing estimates of the total inventory.

13

12
II

10

24. Studies of the cumulative deposit of strontium-90
onto ocean shores in Norway and Iccland55 also failto show any significant difference between the deposit
close to the sea and some kilometres inland. In addition. an experiment carried out at Crater Lake, Oregon,
United States. showed that there was no measurable
difference in strontium-90 deposition onto a fresh-water
surface of about 60 km 2 compared to that onto adjacentland. 56 These results suggest that. if there is enhanced
deposition of strontium-90 onto the oceans, this may
not be due to different conditions of strontium-90

,9

e

]7
56

Js

~4

~IT-U-=H=FT-lfl

Figure 6. Isolines of cumulative 90Sr deposits based on analyses of soils collected 1965-196750 (mCi km-2)

17

removal from the lower truJ.Josphere over the oceansfrom those over land.
25. KaroJ•i studied the deposition of radio-active
aerosols from the troposphere· onto the land and sea
surfac.:es, using a quantitative meteorological modeland data on surface-air concentrations. His computations from the model indicate that, within a zonal belt.
the average rate of deposition on land and on the sea
should be the same.
26. In view of the above considerations, the fall-out
over the ocean per unit area in each latitude band isassumed. as in preYious reports and for the purposesof the Committee. to be equal to that over the land.

9lower curve: Averagefor several coun'tries(figure 18)a:····.

7

f \

: :

6

5

B.

Upper three curves: Denmark

ARTIFICIAL RADIO-ACTIVITY JN FOOD AND TISSUES

1. Strontium-90

4

27. The le\'els of strontium-90 in milk and whole
diet in the period 1966-1968 are shown in tables III
and IV, respectively. In the northern hemisphere,levels have been declining steadily from the peaks of
1963. Based on annual averages. the over-all decline
up to 1968 has been by a factor of between three andfour. In the southern hemisphere. maximum contamination levels were reached somewhat later, and the subsequent decline has been less marked. Levels are still
generally higher in the northern hemisphere than they
are in the southern hemisphere, though the difference
had narrowed considerably by 1968. In some areas,
particularly the Faroe Islands and Iceland, levels ofstrontium-90 in milk and diet are significantly higher
than the average values typical for most of the northern temperate zone. As already indicated in earlier
reports, these elevated levels are mainly due to highrainfall and poor soil conditions. particularly low calcium content.
28. The decline in strontium-90 levels reflects thedecrease in the annual rate of deposition, which by1968 was very small, so that levels of strontium-90
in food-stuffs during that year were largely due toabsorption from the accumulated deposit in soil. It is
to be expected that the further decline in contamination levels will. from now on, be much slower. as they
will follow the processes of decay and leaching ofstrontium-90 in soil.
29. Strontium-90 levels in human bone (table V)
are also declining. As expected, the highest rate of
decline has been observed in bone from the younger
age groups (figure 7), but measurements on adultvertebrae from the northern hemisphere have also
indicated declining levels from the peaks e.'i:perienced
in 1965 and 1966. In the case of Denmark, for example,
110
Sr/Ca ratios in adult vertebrae in 1968 were about
25 per cent lower than the peak levels observed in
1965. Measurements of the levels in other hones,
particularly in the slower metabolizing long-bone shafts.
are less plentiful. but there is an indication that the l 9(iglevels may be slightly lower than those in 1967
(figure 7).

i

:
0-4yf

!

\:
i

\

I \

3

2

~
-----~ Adults - long boneso~~~~~~~~~-'-~~~~

l~IWl~l~l™l~lmlWI™

Figure 7. Time variation of 90Sr/Ca ratios
in human bone for various age groups

in some countries of the northern hemisphere have increased since the middle of the vear as a result of
deposition from recent nuclear e.'\'.piosions.;;;, 58 The observations of the caesium-137 content of whole diets,
summarized in table IV. indicate that levels have variedin the same way as they have in milk. In someregions of the world (for example. in some parts ofFlorida (United States) .u 9 New Zealand, 23"25 Norway.'11 the lJkrainian Soviet Socialist Republic 60 andand the United Kingdom,i and in the Faroe Islands 6~
and Jamaica63 ). levels of caesium-137 in milk, and inseveral areas (for example, Florida59 and the Ukrainian
SSR), levels in meat, are substantially higher thanthe corresponding latitudinal averages. These higher
levels are possibly due, as in the case of strontium-90.
to a combination of high rainfall and specific soil
conditions.
31. Changes in dietary contamination haYe beenreflected in changes of caesium-137 leYels in man(table VI). The mean body burdens in 1967 haveusually been about 30 per cent of the 1964 Yalues. The
smaller decrease of body burdens compared with thatin milk le\·els, is mainly due to the fact that part of thediet is produced the year before consumption. The exceptionally high body burdens obsen·ed in subarctic
regions persist, and it seems that the relative rate ofdecrease is smaller than that in temperature regions
as a \\"hole.

2. Cacsi11111-137
30. The annual mean levels of caesium-137 in milk
declined steadily in the northern hemisphere from 1965
to 1967 (table III). The le,·els in 1967 were of theorder oi 10-20 per cent of the 1964 peak Yalues. In
the southern hemisphere. the decrease has been smaller.
The aYailahle 1968 data indicate that the levels in milk

3. !odinc-131
32. The atmospheric tests carried out in the southernhemisphere during the years 1966-1968 resulted inmeasurable iodine-131 levels in milk in South America,

18

I
1
I

!
I

4. Carbon-14

Africa and the south Pacific region (table VII). The
highest integrated level reported from one explosion
series was 27 nCi d 1-1 in the Buenos Aires area in thesecond hali oi 1966.

34. The concentration of carbon-14 in the humanbody has been steadily approaching tropospheric levels.
Since 1966, the body content has been approximately
in equilibrium with the nO\Y slowly decreasing tropospheric le\-els arising from injections before 1963
(figure 8). 66

33. In the northern hemisphere, detectable levels
of iodine-131 were observed in Japan after atmospheric e..xplosions in 1966 and 19675 • 7 and in the
United Kingdom in January 1967.65
120
T1·opospheric level (Ncirdkop,:))

100

c4l
u

1..

x Humon blood (subject No. 1, born 1937)
0 Humon blood {subject No. 2, born 1937)
0 Humon heir (subject No. 3, born 1962)

80

4l

~
4l

>

~

60

0

m
oD
oDxOx

E
1..
0

c
4l

>
0
..a

40

@'< x
D

0

"'"'u4l
x

4l

u

0:

0

20

"<I"

Figure 8. HC concentration trends in the troposphere and in human blood and hair in Scandinavia66

ID. Assessment of radiation doses fromenvironmental contaminationA.

natural radiation is a convenient reference for thispurpose.
38. If, however, a source gives rise to radiation at
a varying rate, it is convenient to integrate the mean
per capita dose rate over an infinite period of time.
As long as the dose thus calculated is finite, someindication of the relative risk can be obtained fromthe ratio of the dose to that delivered over a finite
time interval (for example. one year) by a reference
source such as natural background.
39. As a measure of the mean integrated doses. theCommittee in its 1962 report 67 adopted the concept ofthe dose commitment proposed by Lindell. 68

GENERAL

1. Concept of the dose commitment
35. 'When a group of persons is exposed to radiation,
it is often desirable to estimate the expected frequencyof the injurious effects that may follow. If dose andeffect are linearly related and there is no threshold,neither the individual doses nor the time distributionof the dose need be known, and the frequency is
obtained from the product of the average radiationdose received and the rate of induction of the biologicaleffect of interest per unit of dose. It is called the absoluterisk and represents the probability that the average
individual will show the effect after receiving a givendose.

2. Definition of the dose commitment

40. The dose commitment was defined bv the Committee in the annexes of the 196469 and 196670 reports.
In the latter. it was defined as follows: ", .. the dose
commitment to a given tissue is ... the integral overinfinite time of the average dose rates delivered to theworld's population as a result of a specific practice,e.g. a given series of nuclear e.xplosions. The actual
e:-po:;ures may occur over many years after the explos10ns have taken place and may be received by individuals not yet born at the time of the explosions...".
41. "When a population is exposed to ionizing radiation, the tissues of individual members receive radiation
doses. the magnitudes of which depend on complex

36. However, since the rate of induction of certain
effects may vary with dose and dose rate. the actual
rates of induction at the levels of radiation to whichhuman populations are exposed cannot necessariiy be
specified. and thus absolute risks cannot be estimated.
37. For doses of a similar order of magnitude.
however. and as long as linearity may be assumed. an
approximate comparison of the risks from two sources
can be made by considering the ratio of the radiation
doses delivered to the same tissue by each source
during the same time interval. The dose rate from19

phvsical and biological fac~ors. If R,( t) is the dose
rate to the tissue under consideration received attime t by an individual i born at time f;. the dose
received up to time t is

At time t. each cohort 8 contributes a fraction
f(t.8)N(e)1·(8) d8N(t)to the total population, and the mean population dose
rate will therefore betfD;(t) =

R;(T)dT,

f

t

(1)

R(t) =f;

R(t,8)f(t.B)N(8)1•(8)d8N(t)

from which the dose commitment as defined in paragraph 43 is obtained.

47. Equation (9) simplifies considerably in thespecial case of a stationary population in which birthrate 1• and a\'erage life span ttm are constant and related

(2)

by

1

and the average dose received up to time t by the
population isso thatf

R(T)dT.

(3)"'

Dp( co) =_!_!

-00

11,,.

Ec(co)=

48. The numerical values of Ee( co) /11 01 and D 11 ( oo)in real populations are practically the same for all
nuclides of interest in the present conne.......ion, with the
exception of strontium-90. where the difference is, at:nost, 20 per cent. Ee( :t.:i) /um can therefore be used as
an approximation for the dose commitment. as thishas some advantages. Firstly, its value is easier toestimate than that of the dose commitment itself. and.
secondlv, the numerical estimates obtained are less sensitive to' assumptions concerning the demographic characteristics of the population.

3. General problems of estimating dose commitments

44. The age structure of a population is defined bythree functions of time:N ( f) = the total number of people in the population at time t:
1·( t) = the birth-rate at time t:f (t,()) =the probability that a person born at time() is alive at time t.
For the purposes of the present discussion, these threefunctions will be regarded formally as being continuous.

.+9. The dose commitment to specific tissues may
require special treatment. For example, the dose to the
gonads is associated with the genetic risk only to theend of the reproductive period. The genetic dose commitment is obtained therefore by replacing the survival
function f(11) with a corresponding fertilitv function
f11 (11). If all births are assumed to occur at· the mean
reproductiYe age 1111 of the parents. then

45. The size of a cohort born in a small time inten-al
d8 around time 8 is then(5)

!11(11) = 1,
fu(11) = 0.

and the size at some later time t will be

(6)

(13)

o

t
R{r.e)f(r,())d •.

when u ~ 11 11 :when it> 11 9 •:;o. In many cases, theie is an appreciable lag
between the receipt of a dose and the overt manifestation of biological damage. The effect of this lag
canbe roughly taken care of by replacing the mean life
span 11,,, hy 11,,, - o. In practice, however. the distribution of lag times. particularly at low dose rates, is
not well enough known to make it possible to allow
for this effect in the calculation. and it is therefore
usually neglected.

46. If the mean dose rate at time T to the lh·ing
members of the cohort is R (•,8), the mean dose accumulated up to time t will be

f

(12)

D(::t.l,())dB

is the mean infinite dose integral over all cohorts. In
the case of a single individual. D;( ::t.l) = E 1( co).

(4)

and is called the dose commitment.

D(t8) =

f

-00

-co

,\T(())1·(8)d8.

Um

::t.l

co

R(T)dT.

R(t,8)f(t,8)d8dt =_!_Ee( oo ). (11)where

43. The average dose received by the population,
accumulated over infinite time, is

f

f

oc

-oo -oo

The use of - oo as the lower integration limit in equation ( 3) conveniently avoids the need to define the timescale relative to the exposure.

=

(10)

•'=-UmtDp(co)(9)-co

where R ;(T) can assume values other than zero only
during the individual's lifetime.
42. If. at time T, the population consists of N(T)individuals, then the average dose rate at that time is,summing over all is.

Dp(t) =

(8)

(7)

(I

20

population. The dose commitment is then obtained as
the average of the dose commitments to the relevant
5ubpopulation.s. appropriately weighted by subpopulation size.

51. The radiation doses received by fcetuses are
not normally included in the dose commitment. Not
only is the contribution extremely small, but the typeof damage suffered, as well as the relatiYe tissue
sensitivities. may not be the same at this stage as theymax be later in life. It maY be useful therefore todefine a separate dose comn1itment for the fcetal subpopulation. Thus,

B.

1. Introduction

53. Doses due to environmental contamination from
nuclear tests are delivered to tissues from sources insideand outside the body. In the latter case. the dose commitment can. in principle, be estimated straightforwardly. following the general procedures discussed
in the previous section. In the case of doses resulting
from radio-nuclides deposited within the body. thecalculations are complicated because there is no practical way of measuring tissue doses directiy from such
sources. The primary measurement therefore is theburden of the nuclide in the body or tissue rather thanthe dose rate. and the latter must be calculated fromphysical principles and the distribution of the source
within the body.
54. Calculating the dose commitment then becomesmainly a problem of predicting changes in the amounts
and distribution in the bodv of the relevant radionuclides. In practice, this may involve not only considerations of the metabolism of the nuclides in variousorgans and tissues but also in food-stuffs. The chain of
events leading from the primary injection of radioactive material into the atmosphere to irradiation oftissues can be represented schematically as follows:coD 1(oo) =f

R 1(.)d•,GE:NER-.\L TR..\XSFER FUXCTIOXS

(1+)

-co

where R1 ( co ) is the mean dose rate delivered to the
fcetus during an age interval D.tt in which the fcetus
is susceptible to a particular type of damage; otherwise. R 1( •) = 0. The size of the subpopulation isl'N 6.u. Fcetal rates from external sources and frominternal sources that are reasonably uniformly distributed will be about the same as those received by themother so that, for these sources, D 1( oo )=<Dp( oo ). To
estimate the dose rates to the foetus from particularraclio-nuclides. the distribution of these radio-active
sources in the mother and in the foetus must be known.
52. Although the dose commitment has mainly been
applied to the case of exposure of the world population to radiation from nuclear tests. the concept is, in principle. applicable .to other cases. For estimating the valueof the dose commitment, however, it may be necessary
to take into account various specific properties affecting the distribution of dose among members of theInhalation.l.

Input ~ Atmosphere~ Earth's surface~ Diet~ Tissue~ Dose

(0)

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)
i

External irradiation
be given in parentheses immediately following thesymbol P. In some sequences, intermediate steps may
not be involved, and this will be indicated by thenumeric suffLxes attached to the symbol P. For example.
the case of external radiation in which diet and tissue
steps are not involved will be referred to as P 25 • On
the other hand. cases will arise in which an intermediate step. although involved. may not in practice
be treated separately in the calculations. This will be
indicated by the use of a single symbol P with a suffix
showing the numbers of all the steps implicitly included.
For example. P 934 indicates the ratio of the infinitetime integral of the levels in tissue to the infinitetime integral of the fall-out deposit.
58. The units in which the values of the P coefficients will be expressed vary with the specific nuclide
and with the nature of the quantities being linked.

Some of the possible simultaneous pathways are shownin the diagram, indicating the possibility that several
steps may be bypassed.

55. Since the dose commitment from a given sourceis the integral over infinite time of the mean per capita
dose rate resulting from that input, steps in the sequence
from input to the final dose commitment can be conveniently described in terms of the ratios of theinfinite integrals of appropriate quantities in step j of
the sequence to the infinite integral of the appropriatequantity in the preceding step i. These ratios define
the transfer coefficients PiJ that appear as links in thepathway from input of radio-activity into the atmosphere to the subsequent radiation dose to man.
56. The tissue dose from a given source, acting
through a given sequence or chain of events, is the
product oi the input from that source and of all the
relevant transfer coefficients. The total dose rate to
the tissue is then the sum of the doses contributedby each sequence. For instance.
Dose= Input r(P 01P12P!3P3.1P 4 J)
(Po1P1 4P 4 s)
(Po1PHP2s)](15)
57. Reference will sometimes be made to the valueof the coefficient obtained when numerator and denominator have been integrated to some finite time. In
this case. the general symhol t or a specific year will+

2. Specific transfer functions(a) Transfer from primary source to atmosphere (P 01 )59. A source of radio-active environmental pollution,such as a nuclear explosion, is characterized by the
production rate U of the nuclide considered. Depending
on conditions. variable amounts of the radio-active
materials are released into the environment. If therate of release into the atmosphere is vV, the transfer
coefficient P 01 is defined by

+

21

Cf.)

f

(20)
Wdt

-Cf.)

IW

Cf.)

JU

Pot=

f

which, if the area is the whole globe, can be used toestimate the dose commitment from the mean global
deposit. The ratio G, = F,/F.• is called the geographicalfactor and can be used to describe local variations indeposit.

(16)

Udt

-Cf.l

(Subsequently, I will be used as a shorthand notationoo ) .
for integration over time from - oo to(c) Transfer from deposit to diet (PH)+65. The levels and time distribution of radio-activity
in food-stuffs are determined by a number of complex
processes occurring in the biosphere. The over-all
effect of these processes is summarized by the transfer
coefficient Pt! defined by

60. In the case of nuclear explosions, information
on P 01 is often lacking, and in practice the dose commitment is estimated from IW, i.e., the total amountof radio-active material injected into the atmosphere.
(b) Tmnsferfrom atmosphere to earth's surface(PH)
61. The subsequent atmospheric inventory depends
on the rate of removal by deposition onto the earth's
surface and on radio-active decay. The transfer coefficient P n is defined by!Fr
P 11 = IWIC

where C is the mean dietary content of the nuclide
considered and IC. consequently, the total integrated
dietary content. Often a direct estimate of P 13 cannot
be made, and it is then necessary to consider moreclosely the processes involved. For this purpose, it isconvenient to use a transfer function.

(17)

66. If dC ( t. ) is that part of the radio-active concentration in the diet at time t that is attributable tothe amount of radio-activity Fr(r)dT deposited during
the interval dr at time r, the transfer function is definedaswhere Fr is the rate of deposition in units of radioactivity per unit time, and !Fr is thus the total integrated deposit.
62. The numerical value of Pa depends on the timelag between injection and deposition. If this time lagis small compared to the radio-active half-life of thenuclide considered, Pu is close to one. As the mean
residence time of debris injected into the stratosphereis, at most, a few vears and the residence time in the
troposphere is a fe~ weeks, P 11 for long-lived nuclides,
such as strontium-90 and caesium-137, can for practical
purposes be taken to be unity. For short-lived nuclides.
explosion yield, height of injection. particle-size ofthe debris, etc. have a considerable influence on the
numerical value of Pu. For nuclides, such as carbon-14,
that appear in gaseous form, no meaningful P n canbe defined.

K(t J _ _1_acrt.TJ
,T
Fr(T}
OT '

t

C(t) =

Fr(T)dT(18)

and the cumulative deposit bytf-(t-T)/Tp
Fr(T)edT,

K(t::-)Fr(T)dT.

(23)

67. Many important processes affecting transfer
through the biosphere have a pronounced yearly cycle.
The effects of this periodicity can be largely smoothed
out by taking yearly averages of C(t) and Fr(t).
Vvhen K (t,T) is derived from such yearly averages, it
is generally assumed that the value of K(t .•) is determined by the time lapse t-T = 11. The integrated
dietary level is then obtained by summing over alltimes the annual mean amounts in the diet. or-Cf.l

Ftt(f) =

f

-oo

t

f

(22)

where K(t,T) is subject only to the assumption thatthe transfer processes are unaffected by the consequent
radiation doses received in the biosphere. The levelof activity in the diet at time t, being the sum of theremaining portions of all previous deposits, is therefore

63. The integrated deposit up to time t is defined by

F{t) =(21)

Pu=IFr'

(19)
00

Cf.)

Cf.)

-Cf.l

IC= f

where Tp is the radio-active mean life.

C(t)dt = f

64. Deposition and population density vary widelyover the earth's surface. and, for that reason, weighting
factors must be applied when relating mean deposition
to dose commitment. If F.{ is the mean deposition insome area A consisting of a number of regions i withdeposition F 1 and population N 1, a population factor isdefined as

K(u)duf Fr(t)dt

0

-Cf.l

-0';)

Cf.)

=!Fr

f

K(u)du.

(24)

0
68. If yearly average are used and it is desired toderive an explicit form for the function K(u) from the22

levels measured in individual food-stuffs and the annual
deposit, the periods selected for averaging should bechosen w1th care. For example. when a calendar year
is selected, it may become necessary to introduce
additional terms to allow for the fact that the fodder
used in one year may have been produced during a
preceding year. Similar problems can also arise in thesouthern hemisphere because the time of harvest thereis spread over two calendar years. Such additionalterms are necessary to obtain reliable predictions of
future national contamination levels, but, for estimating transfer functions applicable to larger areas fromwhich no measurements are available, results averagedo,·er periods much longer than a year are greatly tobe preferred.

current deposition and the accumulated deposit in soil.
respectively, and where A is the rate constant of theassumed exponential process by which the nuclide isremoved from soil so that T,,. is the mean residence
time equal to A-1.
73. The methods available for determining theYalues of Pr and pa,, as well as the limitations of applying
an over-simplified model. were discussed in the Committee's 1962 and subsequent reports. It \vas shown
that. in general. the contributions so far have been
largely determined by current deposition. This meansthat the values of p6 and T 111 could not be estimatedreliably.
74. Since the Committee's last report, the annual
amounts of fall-out have declined sufficiently to makethe short-term effects negligible, and estimating a
numerical value of P!, is now easier. Thus.

69. \Vhen deposition occurs in a time period shorter
than a year. the consequent level in diet may dependon the time of year when deposition occurs as well ason the elapsed time. In this case,
K(f.T)= K(t1,f-r) = K(t .tt),
1fwhere t 1 is the middle of the deposition period. The
integrated dietary level is thenfC(t)dt =

-oo

f

00

C(t)dt+f

C(t)dt,

(32)

I'

-oo

and if t' is selected so that Fr(t') = 0, then. follo\\;ng
the Committee's previous assumptions.

00

JC= !Fr

t'

00

(25)

K(r 1 .11)d11.

(26)

(33)

0

and the dietary levels at some later time T are then

70. The transfer coefficient K(t,r) has been definedfor total diet. In practice. diets are composed of various
types of food-stuffs to which different transfer functions may apply. Analogous functions can be derived
for each dietary component. If these are denoted by
K.(11). thenC(r) =pd Fd(t') e - A(• - t')(34)

so that
00

f

(27)

C(i)dr=PdF,J(t')A- 1=C(t')T,,.

(35)+ C(t') Tm·

(36)

t'

and

and

IC=

!Fr~a,

f

t'

00

00

K,(11)d11.

IC=

(28)

f

C(t)dt =-oo0

72. Very little is known quantitatively about the formof the transfer function K ( u), particularly for 11 longer
than a few years. which may be much shorter thanthe period of interest. In its previous reports. theCommittee assumed that

=pd e -:i.u u > 1 year

(30)

-00

75. The present formulation has the important
advantages that (a) the estimate of IC thus obtained
is less sensitive to errors introduced by the assumptions and becomes increasingly independent of theassumptions as t' increases and ( b) the integral on theright side of the equation can be considered a lower
limit of the estimate of IC, while, if Tm in the second
term on the right is taken to be the radio-active mean
life, then the sum of the two terms is the ma..ximum
value that IC could attain. It is therefore possible toapply limits to the numerical estimate of Pu since

71. The levels of a radio-active nuclide in diet may
be e_xpressed in any convenient units. such as activity
per unit mass. activity taken in per day or activity perunit mass of some stable element.

(29)

C(t)dt

The first term on the right is obtained by summing
the measured dietary levels up to time t'. 71

where ~ is the fraction that component i contributes
to the total diet and the summations are over-all components.

K (u) = Pr+ Pde-;\" 0 < u < 1 }•ear

f

t'

f

C(t)dt/F(t') <P 13

-00

and
(31)

(37)

where Pr and Pd are constant factors of proportionality referring to the transfer into food-stuffs from the23

is the dose rate received by the organ or tissue ofinterest, the dose-rate function is defined by( d) Tran sfer from diet to tissue ( P s4)
76. The transfer coefficient Ps 4 is defined by

IQ
PH= JC.

R;(t)g;(t) = Qi(t) •(38)

The organ or tissue of interest need not necessarily be
the same as that containing the nuclide. The dose-ratefunction is only valid for a given distribution of thenuclide in the body. If different parts of the body havevarying metabolic properties resulting in timedependent changes in the distribution of the nuclide, thedose-rate function will also change with time. An
e.xample of this type of behaviour will be discussed laterin connexion with strontium-90 in the skeleton.
83. The average dose-rate function for a cohort issimilarly defined as
R(t,O)
g(t,8)(45)
Q(t,8} ,where Q is the population mean level of radio-activity
in a given organ or tissue. The level of radio-activity
may be expressed in different ways, such as total
amount of radio-activity, activity per unit mass oforgan or activity per unit mass of some stable nuclide
in the organ.

77. When a given amount of a radio-nuclide enters
the body, a varying amount becomes deposited in the
different organs and tissues. Subsequently. throughboth radio-active decay and biological elimination. thelevels in the different parts of the body decline. If
dQ ( t:r) is that fraction of the radio-activity in a given
organ or tissue at time t following the intake of anamount C ( r) d, during the interval d-;- at time r, we
can define a general transfer function. m,( t, r) as
11n; ( t,r)

= C{r)

oQ(t.-;-J~.

where Q(t,0) and R(t,8) are, respectively, the level ofthe nuclide in the organ or tissue of interest and thedose rate at time t averaged over the living membersof the cohort 0.
84. In most cases, g(t,8) can for practical purposes
be regarded as a constant g so thatc•..,9 )78. The level of activity in the organ or tissue attime t is obtained by summing the contributions fromall earlier intakes, that is,P4s=g.

=I

C{r)m;(t,.r)dr.

(40)

-00

R(t.8) = Q(t,O)g(t,8),

Since it can be assumed that, at the low levels ofactivity in the body resulting from nuclear weapons
tests. the various metabolic processes are unaffected by
the radiation doses received. equation ( 40) is generally
valid.
79. An average function n~{t,r,O) can similarly be
defined for the members of a cohort 8 so that

=

f

t

R(t,0)(41)
D(l,O}

where Q( t,O) is the mean level of the nuclide at time
t in members of the cohort.
80. The mean level weighted by population at time
t is. in analogy to the mean population dose rate as
defined in equation (9).

f
-

(48)

=ft f(fO}g(O)lflt' C(o}m(f,,,O)d, dt (49)in which it is convenient to change the order of integration to obtain the equivalent e.xpression

D(i,O} =t

Q(t,(1)f{t/J)N{8)v{O)d0
N(t)C(r)m(t,r,.8)dT

8()Q(t) _-f= g(t,8)and e:quation (7)C{r)m{f;r.8)dr,(47)

and thus, according to equation ( 41),t

Q(t,8)(46)\Vhen g( t,8) varies considerably with age, it is usuallymore convenient to calculate P 3 4s directly.
85. The mean cohort dose rate is, from equation(45), given by

t

Qi(t)

(44)

• ( 42 )

je lj
C(f)

f(<,O}g(<,O}m(d,O)d,] dt'. (SO)t'

86. Adding together the mean doses for all thecohorts in a population givesco( e) Transfer from tissue to dose P ~5t

81. If an integrated radio-activity level IQ resultsEc(t)in a dose commitment Dp(co). the transfer coefficient
P 4, is(43)/ /C(l'J

In this case, the corresponding transfer function is thedose-rate function g.
82. If Q;(t) is the level of a radio-nuclide in a given
organ or tissue of an individual at time t and R;(t)

-cc

0

[j
t'

=

f

D(t,6)d8 =-cof(o,O)g(o,O}m(o,1',0}do ]dt'dO. (51)-

\Vhen the fractional survival of the men1bers of acohort depends only upon age and is therefore inde-

24

!

=

=

pendent of 8, then f(r.8)
f(•-8)
f(it) where u
is the age of the cohort at time t. Similarly, when
physiological processes and dietary habits are also constant in time and depend only upon the age of thecohort.
(52)
g(r.8) = g(7' - B) = g(!t)
andm(r.t'B)= m(r - 8,t' - 8) = m(u,n'),(53)

where n' is the cohort age ar time t'. Equation ( 51)
can then. after integrating to infinity over all cohorts .
be written
co co

00

Ee( oo) =-J JJ

f(11)g(u)m(u.u!)dud11', (54)C(t)dt0 u'

com which the double integral is constant m time sothat
00

Ec(oo)=A1f C(t)dt

(55)

-co

with
co co

A1 =

g(u)f(11)m(u,u')dudu'.

(56)

1

87. Thus. in principle, the value of Ee( co) can be
estimated if the value of the constant A1 and the accumulatecl lenls of the nuclide in the diet are known
and if the physiological and demographic properties ofthe population considered in deriving equation (54)are generally valid. Combining equations (11) and (55)and bearing in mind the considerations in paragraph 48,
it follows that(57)
The practical problems of evaluating the constant Ai
and applying equation ( 57) . to real po~ulatioi:s v~ry
markedly according to the different rad10-nucl1des mvolved and will be left to later sections.
(£) Dose from external radiation (Pu)

88. If a deposit IF, results in a dose commitment
due to external radiation of D pext ( oo), the transfer coefficient P 2s is_ Dpe~1( oo)P !.5 IFr.

( 5S)

89. The corresponding transfer function is defined as

1h(t,r)

TRANSFER OF SPECIFIC 1\U'CL!DES

1. Strontium-90(a) .iJJetabolism in mall
90. In preYious reports, the time imegral of thestrontium-90 body burden ·was estimated from thetime integral of the levels of the nuclide in diet using
a theoretical model of uptake and elimination of calcium in bone together with a proportionality factor(observed ratio) allowing for the differential transfer
of calcium and strontium from diet to bone. Bv contrast, in the present report. the time integral ·of the
body burden is estimated from the levels of strontium-90
measured in human skeletons. This method depends
more critically on knowing how strontium-90 is distributed and retained in the skeleton. The experimental foundation for the values of the parameters to
be used in the ne\v method of estimation are reviewed
in the following paragraphs. It will be shown laterthat the estimates of the diet to bone transfer coefficient Ps 4 obtained by the two methods agree wellwith one another. To make for easier comparison of
the relative merits of the two methods. a brief summary of the use and limitations of the .concept of theobserved ratio and other aspects of the relative transfer of calcium and strontium through food chains arealso reviewed in the following sections.

(i) Distribution of strontium-90 .jn the body

JJ
0 lt

C.

= F,(r)oR(t.r)OT(59)

in analogy with transfer functions discussed earlier.
In practice. h(t,;) is normally approximated by-)-J.
-1\j(t-•) ,i t,. 10 ,e
I(

(60)

where h<>1 is a dose-rate conversion factor, accounting
for the averacre effects of weathering. shielding bybuildings, etc., ~n which the properties of h(t,r) depend
in a complicated manner.

91. More than 99 per cent of the calcium. stablestrontium and strontium-90 in the body is found in
the skeleton. 71 The small amount of experimental information available suggests that stable strontium is
distributed uniformly throughout the various bonesof the skeleton.7 2 Similarly, strontium-90 in the skeletons of children and adolescents appears to be uniformly distributed, although no systematic studies
have been carried out on a large scale. In contrast,
the distribution of strontium-90 in the adult skeleton
is not uniform, the highest 90 Sr/Ca ratios being foundin those bones, such as vertebral bodies and ribs,
which are predominantly trabecular, and the lowest in
those. such as femoral shafts. that consist predominantly of compact bone.
92. To compare measured 90 Sr/Ca ratios in adultbones from countries in which different types of bone
have been collected. normalization factors are required.
The normalization factor for a given bone is the ratioof the 90 Sr/Ca ratio in that bone to the 90 Sr/Ca ratio
either in another bone, selected as standard, or in thewhole skeleton. Several investigators have measured
normalization factors. and their results are comparedin table VIII and figure 9.
93. The number of samples in some cases is small,intraskeletal relationships have not always been measured on the same individuals and there have beendifferences in methods of computation used by different
workers so that these observations are difficult tointerpret.
94. There are ·wide variations between individuals
as shown. for e..'i:ample. by a recent study in Czechoslovakia73 in which 90 Sr/Ca ratios in vertebrae andfemoral shafts of the same individual were compared.
In the fifty-four individuals e..'i:amined, the correlation
between the 90 Sr/Ca ratios in the two bones was only
0.3. which, though significant at the 95 per cent probability level, does indicate that normalization factors

5.0

2.0

.,,.
0u

]
...,c

Jl
~

1.0

.:
.,

..._

0

~

>
.!:!

/ F e m u r shoft/Whol: skeleton~ .- ..- ..- .-

a

~

o"'

0.5

\

""

.--

\

-.
--·

\
\

/\'..
Femur shoft/Vertebroe/·----· +

\

/

/'

\\

"'

,//,/

\

,/

-~/

\

'£ .. - -

0.2

0.1
1956

1958

1960

1962

1964

Vertebrae

Vertebrae

Ribs

Femur
shaft

Femur
shaft

Whole
skeleton

Ribs

Whole
skeletonWholeskeleton

Vertebrae

1966

1968

Czeci-.os lavaki/3
Fron;e

+

li9

x

4 178
Soviet Union (Moscow>7 ••United States (New York City) Jn

c

•

.

0

v

•

•

0

"'

Figure 9. Variability of normalization factors as reported by different workers"
a Li.nes connect comparable measurements for case of reading and arc not meant to imply any systematic
variation in time.

respectively, the third one to a half-life of at Iec:stseveral hundred days. However. the physical .half-lifeof strontium-85 is sixty-five days, and retention can
only be followed experimentally for periods up to
about 500 days.

measured on and applied to a small number of samples
may be misleading.
(ii) Strontium retention functions

95. Adults. Experiments on human subjects inwhich strontium retention has been measured directly
by whole-body counting oi strontium-SS or inferredfrom total excretion. together with measurements madeon subjects accidemally contaminated with strontium90, show that strontium retention can be described bya sum of exponentials such as
R(t)=A1r-,\it +Are -,\ 1 t +A.1e -,\ 3 t.

97. Longer-term retentions haYe been followed by?-.Hiller et at.•~. •c and by \:Venger and Soucas77 usinga group of luminous dial painters accidentally contaminated with strontium-90. \Venger and Soucas
found one subject who. just after intake ceased. wasexcreting strontium-90 ,\·ith a half-life of about 300
days, while another subject, studied 940 days after
intake ceased. showed a half-life of about 2.500 days.
:.\fi.iller studied a group of fifty-two persons for about
2. 500 days (just over six years) and found t~at !heexcretion curye could be separated into a tract10n
with a ha!f-life of about 700 days and one with a hali-(61)

96. The first two time constants correspond tohalf-li\·es of two or three days and ten to twenty days.

26

Jife of about 6.000 days. Rundo's described measurements made on a man with a twenty-year history of
exposure to radio-active materials. \Vhen his estimated strontium-90 content was plotted semiJog-aritlunically against time from 1957 to 1967. a goodst;aight line was obtained, corresponding to an eifectfre half-life of 4.2 years and indicating a biological half-life of 5.1 years (1.870 days).

During a period of chronic intake of strontium-90.
however, the long-term excretion will have components corresponding to the 0.08 y-1 elimination rate
constant for »ertebral-body-like bone and to the 0.02 y- 1
rate comtant for femur-shaft-like bone. However, in a
recent study. 54 a model slightly different from thatused for estimating the 0.08 y-1 and 0.02 y-1 replacement rates has been introduced, \vhich yields replacement rates lying between 0.03 and 0.04 y-1 for \'ertebrae and between 0.02 and 0.03 for ribs.
IW. Ii the strontium-90 levels in bone are integrated over decades as is usual when calculating thedose commitment, the contributions from terms having time constants corresponding to half-lives lessthan a year or so are small and can be neglected. On
the other hand, evaluating the long-term e..xcretion
rate constant from an analysis of year-to-year variations in the annual mean levels in bone of strontium90 due to weapons testing is difficult because of thefast initial excretion.
105. lwveniles. \\That has so far been said applies
to adults, and it is not known whether and to what
extent these considerations apply to children and adolescents (age < 20). Attempts have been made toestimate strontium-90 excretion rates for children fromthe relatively small amount of data available on levels
in bone and in diet. 83 • 85• 86 The results obtained areshown in figure 10. In these studies it is implicitly

98. Although this spread in the estimates is due inpart to individual variation. there are probably also
differences in the computational methods used by different investigators as well as differences in the historyof contamination between subjects.

99. Alternatively. the results of retention experiments can be fitted to a function of the form
R(t) = Ae - At +Et- C.

(62)

where R(t) is the retention t days after intake. B is
the fraction of the intake that is retained at one day
and released as a power function of time and C is aconstant less than unity. So far as the dose commitment is concerned. the exponential term is of no consequence. since ,\ corresponds to a half-life of a few
days only. The power function alone gives a good fit
to the strontium-SS retention for periods from twentyor thirty days after the uptake to about 500 days.
Miiller reports that it still fits after 2,500 days.
100. Since B varies. depending on whether the
nuclide is injected directly or is taken by mouth. thepower function retention should be represented by~ 80.--~~~~~~~~~~~~~-.

-~ 70 1

- - - Beninson e~o F leteher:;.:=A

R(t) =fa Et- C.

Rivero83 - -..,,u~ 50

(63)

~ 40

where f 4 is the fraction absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract into the blood. Experimental values forthe parameters fa, B and C vary from person to person
as reported by the same investigator and also between
investigators.

::" 3J.ii 201
0 10.~101. Several workers 70 • 80 have studied small groupsof subjects and obtained estimates of B. fa and/or
the product f 11 B. The considerable variation foundamong the results of different workers is probably
due not only to the small samples studied but also,
in cases of ingestion, to differences between e.xperimental conditions. Typical values of the parameters0.5. C 0.2.
are fa= 0.2, B

=

or.85

:J.86

~

.;;

o.___._--''---'---''--......_.....:.~--'-----L~-'---'

0

6

10

12

14

16

18

20

Age in yeo~s

Fig:ire 10. Fraction of body burden excreted per year as a
fu.T1ction of age

assumed that annual e..'l\:cretion rates are a functionof age only and that, at any given age, strontium-90
is eliminated at the same rate regardless of the timeat which the strontium-90 was originally laid dmvn.
These assumptions would be strictly correct with asimple e..xponential excretion function but might be apoor approximation if e..xcretion followed a power law.

=102. Measurements of stable strontium in adults 72
suggest that metabolic equilibrium is established,
and this is incompatible with a power-law function.
Marshall 81 postulated that there is a transition froma power-law to a mono-e..xponential function occurring
t11 years after a single intake and that the time constantof the e..xponential ,\ is related to the constant C in
the power function by the relation A.= C/tw He estimated that. for humans. t 11 is about 3,000 days which,combined with a value of C = 0.2. gives A. =0.025 y-1 •(iii) Observed ratio
106. The observed ratio between bone and diet isthe proportionality factor expressing the relationshipat a steady-state between the 90 Sr/Ca ratio in bone
and the ratio in which the two elements are available
from the diet from which the bone is derived. The
observed ratio is, within a limited range. independentof the calcium concentration.
107. Interest in the obsen•ed ratio rests mainlv inthe possibility that, through its use, the levels of90
Sr /Ca in bone may be estimated from known levels
in diet. The observed ratio can be measured only insystems at a steady-state or where the strontium and103. Bryant and Loutit82 and Rivera and Harley 83
estimated that the fractional replacement rates of stablestrontium in adult vertebral bodies and femur shafts
are 0.08 y- 1 and 0.02 y-1 • If the body is in strontium
balance. these values must be equal to the rates of
e..xcretion of the element from these bones, implyingthat the final mono-exponential function following asingle intake has a biological time constant of 0.02 y-1
which is in close agreement with Marshall's estimate.

2i112. Knizhnikov and :i\Iarei 88 have measured observed ratios for both stable strontium and strontium90 between bone of still-born and maternal diet in the
SoYiet Union. finding a vaiue of 0.08 for the former
compared with 0.05 for the latter. They suggest thatthe difference is due to the difference in availability
between strontium absorbed from soil and that deposited on the surface of cereal grain. A di.llerent interpretation is, however, possible if it is assumed 84
that only a fraction of the strontium and calcium deposited in the fcetus comes irom the maternal diet. therest being derived from the maternal skeleton.

calcium being introduced cannot be confused with that
already present. Two methods have been used to estimate the observed ratio for adults :87 (a.) measuring
the ratio of stable strontium to calcium in the dietand in bone; (b) administering simultaneously radioisotopes of both strontium and calcium. In thesemethods, it is assumed that the person has consumed
a diet wii.h a constant stable strontium to calcium
ratio and that the system is at equilibrium.
108. The observed ratio obtained from doubletracer e...--.:periments (simultaneous administration ofradio-active calcium and strontium isotopes) is notcritically dependent upon the interval between intake
and measurement, provided sufficient time is allowed
for removal of the fractions associated with soft tissues
rather than with bone.

113. Carr et a/. 8fJ measured 90 Sr/85 Sr ratios inurine of subjects fed for four weeks on a diet containing whole-grain bread baked from wheat grownon soil contaminated with high levels of strontium-90
and milk from a cow injected with strontium-SS prior
to milking. Close agreement between the urinary anddietary isotopic ratios suggests that strontium availability is not affected by the composition of the diet.
This experimental result does not conflict with thesuggestion of Knizhnikov and Marei. because thestrontium-90 in the cereal grain was derived from soil
rather than directly deposited.

109. Values of the observed ratio estimated fromstable strontium to calcium ratios in bone and dietfor a number of countries are shown in table IX. The
range is from 0.15 to 0.33 with an average of 0.22.
110. Values of the observed ratios as a functionof age in juveniles have been estimated from strontium90 to calcium relationships, and the results obtained
are shown in figure 11. However these estimates havebeen derived from the estimates of annual excretion
rates referred to in paragraph 105, and therefore the,·alidity of the results thus obtained depends on ex-

114. The 90 Sr/Ca ratios in diets for }foscow and.New York City are plotted in figure 12. The average

80.--------------.

0\0.7.----------------.

0.6

I

85

a

Senir,5onxColoulated from Fletcher et ol. 80

o. River"a 83--·- 50
a

-

'.§

~

~ 0.4

~ 0.3

0.2

o

~

Diet
(Moscow)

40

~

.
a

c

~c

"'
c

~

-,_

-;

\

t

\
\
\,

60

o:s ~
.,,0

i \

70

0

c

7

:J

0

>

o~
0-

s
"

I'"-.

30

f
I

0 0
0
0
0 ~
x
voo
x
x

0

0

0

I

20

00

I

0

~

Di!!I
\_(Now York Cay)

'

0

c

~

0
0-

\

Vel'"tebrot!

(Moscow)' ·..,_

~

3

x "
10

0.1

..,,

)(

x

10

12

14

16

18

2'J

Figure 12. 90Sr/Ca ratios in whole diet and adult human vertebrae
in 1foscow'4, 180 and New York CitylSl

Age in ye'Jr$

Figure 11. Value of the observed ratio for juveniles

diet levels for the two cities during the years 19631966 are in the ratio 2.5. but the average levels in
adult vertebrae during the same period (also shownin figure 12) are in the ratio of only 1.3. implyingthat in l\foscow the obseryed ratio for strontium-90
is nearlv half that in New York Citv. On the other
hand, the observed ratios for stable strontium are very
nearly equal for the two cities (table IX).

cretion being a mono-exponential rather than a powerfunction of time.
111. Effect of diet compositio11 011 obser1:cd ratios.
A number of factors associated with diet composition
that may alter the value of the observed ratio have beenstudied experimentally with laboratory animals. 67
Attempts to demonstrate similar effects in man. however, have generally led to inconclusive results. \Vhenmeasurements are made on leYels of strontium-90 fromfall-out, the experimental conditions can rarely be defined properly. and the results are difficult to interpret.

115. Knizhnikov and ::-.Iarei 55 ha\·e also suggested
that fluorine in drinking water may reduce the valueof the observed ratio. Their measurements show stablestrontium ob.sernd ratios declining from 0.18, \\'hen28the fluorine content is low. to half this nlue when the
fluorine concentration is about 1.5 parts per million.
Conflicting results ha\"e been obtained bv otherworkers. 00 howe,·er. and a proper assessment is not
yet possible.
( b) Food -chain 111echa11 isms
116. Because of the diversity of food-stuffs entering
human diets and the many \vays in which they are
produced, prepared and combined in different areasof the world. a comprehensi\-e quantitative descriptionof the transfer of strontium-90 through food chains
would be comple."'i:. Further limitations are imposed
in practice by the lack of detailed information concerning the calcium intake of a large fraction of theworld population. the levels of strontium-90 in the
different food-stuffs and the effect of local climaticand agricultural practices on transfer processes.
117. To overcome these problems, the Committee
in its 1962 report classified food-stuffs into four broadtypes-milk. cereals. starchy roots and vegetablesfor each of which a representative value of the transfer
coefficient was derh·ed from data then available. Likewise, total diets were classified into three main types
depending on the proportions contributed to them by
the different food-stuff classes. \Veighted mean transfer
coefficients were thus obtained for each diet-type.
When further weighted by the size of the population
consuming them and the level of the strontium-90
deposit for the latitude where the food-stuffs were
produced. these coefficients could be combined to givea weighted global mean transfer coefficient.

!n

_120.
the case of food-stuff;; obtained from plants,
d1fficult1es arise because of the variabilitv in the reported results of measurements of the calcium as well
as of the strontium-90 content, and :-ecent e..xperiencehas shown that contamination leve!s expressed in
activity per unit mass of calcium are often more variable than when expressed as activity per unit massof the commodity. _-\ number of factors undoubtedly
contribute to the Yariability, including, particularly.
errors of sampling. for the calcium contents of plants\ctry according to variety, local soil conditions, cultivation methods and local climate.
121. In the tropics and subtropics, soils deficientin calcium are common.91 Though of low fertility,
these soils are used for food production. From such
soils. 00 Sr/Ca ratios in vegetable produce may be significantly higher than would be predicted by empirical
relationships established in temperate zones. Nevertheless, this effect is probably offset by the appreciably
lower accumulated deposit of strontium-90 in the tropical zone. and, for the purposes of this report. it will
be assumed that the integrated diet levels will not
exceed those estimated for the populations living in
the northern temperate zones where the averagestrontium-90 deposits are maximal.
( c) Transfer functions( i) Transfer coefficient-deposit to diet122. When the 90 Sr/Ca ratios in individual foodstuffs are known, values of Pu can be estimated by themethod described in paragraph 74.
123. Mill?. The 110 Sr/Ca ratios in milk from areas
or countries in the northern temperate latitudes areshown in table X. There is some scatter among theindividual results. reflecting the changing patterns ofdeposition rates and weather from year to year andfrom place to place. Nevertheless, over a reasonably
long averaging time, the effects of these variations
are largely smoothed out.

118. In the 1962 and subsequent reports. the global
transfer coefficient thus obtained was used to estimate
the 90 Sr/Ca ratio in new bone from the world-wide
mean deposit and the observed ratio bet>veen bone anddiet. The limitations of this approach were discussed
in the 1%2 report (anne..x F, paragraphs 12 and 18).
and the inherent uncertainties were pointed out.

119. In its 1962 report, the Committee also emphasized that the transfer coefficients would be reliable only when applied over large areas. This conversely implied that transfer coefficients could only bereliably estimated from results averaged over wide
areas. For this purpose, means weighted by production
or population must be used. as simple arithmetic meansof survey results obtained over wide areas where there
e..xist different climatic and agricultural methods may
be misleading.

124. The value of P1 3 (milk) has been calculated
from the average annual levels shown in the lastcolumn of table X and from the average integrated
deposit for the latitudinal band, 65 mCi km-~ (figure13). The average milk level integrated to 1967 is 137
pCi y (gCa)-1 • Taking the observed level in 19679 pCi (gCa)-1-and assuming a mean life of strontium90 in soil of twenty-one years, the integrated level inmilk subsequent to 1%7 will be 189 pCi y (gCa)-1 •

80

SOUTH

NORTH

Figure 13. Average latitudinal distribution of deposited OOSr from analyses of soils
collected 1965-196750

29

mass basis, but no data on calcium contents were
given. Rice is milled and polished, and these processes
remoye some of the ininerals and, particularly. muchof the strontium-90 content. The Japanese results indicate that 90 per cent may be removed this way.

Consequently, the integrated level in milk over all time
due to tests carried out prior to 1963 will be 137
189= 326 pCi y (gCa)-1 , corresponding to P 23 (milk)
5 pCi y (gCa)-1 per mCi km- 2 •125. The above calculation is based on data from
relatiYely large but well-defined milk sheds or, in thecase of the larger countries. on mean levels weighted
either by production or by population. Other cases.
where mean levels have not been weighted, have been
omitted since the results are not necessarily indicativeof the milk consumed by the general population. Also
omitted from the calculations are the 90 Sr/Ca levels
in Japanese milk which, because of the use of special
cattle feed, are not typical of the latitudinal band as awhole.
126. The countries renresented in the calculation
contribute about 58 per ·cent of the total European
production and 46 per cent of the total production in
the northern hemisphere. If the 90 Sr/Ca ratios observed in the milk of Moscow and the Ukrainian
Soviet Socialist Republic could be taken as representative of milk produced in the Soviet Union, the estimateof Pu (milk) would represent about 70 per cent of
the total milk production of the northern hemisphere.
most of which is produced in the latitudinal band
40-60°N.
127. Similar calculations for the southern hemisphere are not as useful at present because the annual
deposition there in 1967 was still significant comparedwith the accumulated soil deposit. Only about 10 per
cent of the world milk production comes from thesouthern hemisphere, and of this about half is producedin the band of maximum deposition (30-50°S) which
includes, principally, Argentina, New Zealand and themore densely populated region of Australia. Cumulative levels ( unweighted means) in milk relative to the
cumulative deposit in these countries are comparablewith the corresponding levels in the middle latitudesof the northern hemisphere. suggesting that the valuesof Pu (milk) in the south are also comparable withthose obtained for the north.
128. Other food-stttfjs. Other food-stuffs, mainlyof vegetable origin, include cereals. vegetables andstarchy roots. Since starchy roots are of minor importance, they will not be considered further. Riceis the staple food of about half of the world population, and nearly 1,000 million people rely on it foralmost all of their caloric requirements. The only systematic studv on rice contamination. however, is thatreported from Japan95 where production amounts toabout 7 per cent of the \vorld total. Rice is particularly
difficult to sample reliably because. being predominantly
a subsistence food crop, more than half of the world
harvest and as much as three-quarters of the harvest
in indh-idual countries never enter markets but are
consumed on the farms where the crops are grown.
129. The results obtained in Japan may not be
typical oi the Far East in general. J\Iost of the riceconsumed in the world is of the long-grained indica\"ariety, whereas in Japan it is the round or shortgrained japonica variety that is grown. and Japanesemethods of cultivation are unique. The levels of contamination vary widely. In 1961. when deposition rates
were low. individual measurements in Japan Yaried bya factor of two when expressed on a per unit mass
basis and by a factor of 4.5 when expressed relative tocalcium content. In 1963 and 1964, the range varied
by a factor of seven for levels expressed on a per unit+=

130. Japan is the only country where the levels ofstrontium-90 contamination in wheat and rice can becompared. The results show that. on a per unit mass
basis, polished rice contains between one-thirtieth andone-fortieth of the amount of strontium-90 of wholegrain wheat, while. on a per gramme of calcium basis,the relative contents vary between one-fifth and onetenth.
131. The reported strontium-90 contents of wholegrain wheat from countries in the northern temperatezone are shown in figure 14. The levels obsen•ed in.(()()A

0o Ccnocb 182,183
300

A

Denmark

O

Japan 184

176

v Union of Soviet Socialist Republics 185
x United Stoles of America 186

0

'==
~

v

200

/;.

0

100

0

0

x
v

A

c

0
0-

"

x

0

A

6'

~

0

v

'

x

0

"""

0

.2

"

""

~
D

'c

~
D

1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 i962 1963 i964 1965 1966 1967 1968

Figure U. llOSr content of whole wheat grain in the northtemperate zone

North America are generally lower by a factor of two
than those of Europe. Few sets oi data on levels in
wheat and the corresponding deposition cover a sufficient period to allow a meaningful integration. Sinceusing the high leYels from Denmark would lead to aconser.-ati\'e estimate of Pu (wheat), and since thatcountry has furnished fairly complete results, the estimate of P is (wheat) has been based on these data.
If a Yalue of 40 pCi kg-1 is taken for each of the years
1955-1958. the cumulative levels up to 1967 are 1,050
pCi y kg-1 . The level in 1967 was 34 pCi kg-1 "·hich,"·ith a mean life of twenty-one years for strontium-90
in soil. implies future levels integrated to infinite timeof about 700 pCi y kg- 1 • Thus. the total expected contamination in wheat is 1.750 pCi y kg-1 • and this.
combined with an average deposition of 65 mCi km-:?
for the latitudinal band, gives a value of P 28 (wheat)30

= 27 pCi y kg- 1 per mCi km-~. An average value of0.33 gCa kg-1 in wheat then gi\"es P 23 (wheat) = 81
pCi y (gCa)-1 per mCi km-2 •132. :\ comprehensi\"e study of contamination inother cereals-n'e, oats and barlev-is also available
from Denmark.· The results imply: that the value of
P~: is the same for the four grains when contaminationis on a per unit mass basis. \vhereas for oats it is about
half that for wheat, rye and barley when expressedin terms of 90 Sr/Ca ratios.

40

l~J

,• 0 N..thorlar.d; 167

J \0 Union of Sc'.ri-:ot Sociclist RKr...bli::s1281129 f
'

I
I
I

~. Ur.ired Ki:;;-:lc:"!"I 189

t

..

•

\

I
I
I

, _ Wi1ite ilour

I
I

I
I

I

I

I
I

I
I

30

133. \Vhile milling removes about 80 per cent ofrhe strontium-90 contamination acquired by direct
deposition and about 50 per cent of the calcium. only
about two-thirds of the stable strontium are removedby milling. 96•90 implying that the resulting decontamination will be less when most of the strontium-90 comesfrom soil. Since milling removes two-thirds of thestable strontium. the integrated future level in whiteflour, assuming 70 per cent extraction, is
700

74 . .&,.A D•·nmcrlt 176

/

~

I

I

f

I

I
f

I
I

f

'

..

:

I

O

\

/

~ 20

I

'i.

fO

:

,,

Mixed ;ree;.

/.vegetables

/

I
I

I
I

,,

lO/~ = 333 pCi y kg- 1•

I

.I

10

Similarly, since milling removes about four-fifths of thestrontium-90, the corresponding integrated level up to1967 is1.050

10/~ = 300 pCi y kg.I

1.

Thus, combiI1ing the two contributions and dividing
by the mean integrated deposition for the north temperate zone (65 mCi km-2 ) gives a value of Ps3 (;vhite
flour) of approximately 10 pCi y kg-1 per mCi krn-2 ,corresponding to 50 pCi y (gCa)-1 per mCi lan-2 if thecalcium content of white flour is taken to be 0.2 g
kg-1 • Similar values of P~ 3 are implied by results ofstrontium-90 measurements in Argentina and Australia;
the quantitative assessment is, however, difficult because of the relatively high rates of deposition in thesouthern hemisphere during the year of observations(1967).

Figure 15. nosr content of gret!n vegetables and white flourin the north temperate zone

assumed that contamination levels increased linearly
from zero at the beginning of 1954 to the earliest
recorded measurements. the data given in figure 15,
when treated by the method given in paragraph 74,
can be shown to correspond to a value of P !3(vegetables) equal to about 5 pCi y kg- 1 per mCi krn-2 •The calcium contents of green vegetables are variable,
but for present purposes a value of 0.33 gCa kg- 1 isreasonable so that P s3 (vegetables) is equal to about 15
pCi y (gCa)-1 per mCi km-~.

134. The levels of strontium-90 contamination ofgreen vegetables have been measured in a few countries
in Europe. Australia, Ja pan and the Soviet Union(figure 15). However, some surveys were discontinued
before deposition rates became negligible. Most werestarted in the early si..-x:ties. thus missing some contributions from the earlier years, and all were confined torelatively few types of vegetables. The results fromJapan and the Soviet Union are only available on a perunit mass basis. Representative sampling is very difficult
because of the large number of varieties grown. thedifferent sizes of crops grown and harvested at various
times of the year in different countries and the variable
calcium contents of different types of vegetables.

136. The values mentioned in paragraph 135, however. cannot be used in other areas where types ofplants consumed, soils. climate. number of crops andharvest times are different.
137. Whole diet. T11e assumptions underlying the
calcuiations above imply that the relative amounts ofstrontium-90 in the different types of food observedin 1967 will henceforth remain constant. The ratio of
90 Sr /Ca in diet to that in milk in several countries in1967 varied between one and 1.5 (table XI). With theabove-mentioned assumptions, P ! 3 (diet) could be
estimated to lie behveen P 23 (milk) and a value one
and a half times higher. namely, between 5 and 7.5
pCi y (gCa)-1 per mCi k'Til-2 •

135. Also shown in figure 15 are the le\'els ofstrontium-90 in white flour observed in Denmark andthe Netherlands. These suggest that. when depositionis high, green vegetables will contain much less strontium-90 per unit mass than white flour. although thereverse appears to be the case when contamination ismainly derived from the soil. It is to be expected therefore that, in the future. levels of contamination perunit mass will be higher in vegetables than in flour.
However, differences by a factor of three or four are
to be found between individual types of vegetable, andthe exact relationship will consequently vary with thecomposition of the mixture of vegetables. If it 1s

138. The transfer coefficient P 2~ for total diet canalso be estimated from the P :.1 factors for individual
food-stuffs and the corresponding contributions fromeach food-stuff to the total calcium intake. In a typicalhigh-milk-type diet, these contributions are roughly
SO per cent for milk. 5 per cent for white flour and 15
per cent for vegetables. The value of Pu (diet) cantherefore be estimated. from equation (28) and theestimates of P 23 ior the three types of food-stuffs, to be31

9 pCi y (gCa)-1 per mCi km-2 , in acceptable agreementwith the estimates presented in paragraph 137.

cc

00

A1

139. Estimates of P 23 (whole diet) for the highmilk-type diet are insensitive to errors in the estimatesof P, 3 for cereals and vegetables. Obviously, for dietsin which milk is a less prominent component, theestimates would be more sensitive. Similarly, errors
introduced by using the simplifying assumption thatstrontium-90 is depleted from the soil reservoir by ane.'i:ponential process having a mean rate constant of
4.5 per cent removal per annum cannot exceed a factor
of about two. Thus. in the case of milk, for example,
the strontium-90 levels already observed would leadto a value of P!J equal to 2.1 pCi y (gCa)-1 per
mCi km-2 (paragraph 124) even if no further uptake ofthe nuclide from the soil occurred. On the other hand,
if radio-active decay (about 2.5 per cent per annum)
were the sole removal process, the value of P!3 could
not e.-.::ceed 8 pCi y (gCa)- 1 per mCi km-2 • The marginof error is even smaller with other food-stuffs because
the fraction of the time-integrated levels obtained byextrapolation is smaller.

=fff{it)g(u)m(u, u')dudu',

0 'u'
can then, after introducing assumptions ( d) and ( e),be written
1lm

llm 11mAi=ff
0m(u,u')dudu' = yfFm{tt')du'.

(65)

0

tt'

where
Um

F 111 (1t') =

f

(66)

m(11,u')d11,

11'

and is called the dose-increment factor.
143. Lindell defined an average dose-increment factor as

140. For the purpose of this report the value ofthe transfer ccefficient P ~ 3 (whole diet) for the highmilk-type diet is taken to be 9 pCi y (gCa)-1 per
mCi km-2 •11m

1

Fm =11-m-;· F,,.{tt')du'(67)

0(ii) Transfer coefficient-diet to tiss11e

so that141. To estimate the transfer coefficient P 3 ~, Llndell 68
introduced fiye basic assumptions :(a) strontium is incorporated into bone at a rate
directly proporJonal to the rate of calcium incorporation;( b) the 00 sr /Ca .ratio in new bone is proportional
to the 90 Sr/Ca ratio in the diet from which it isderived. The proportionality factor is independentof age and, for the purposes of calculation, is taken
to be equal to the observed ratio (OR) in adults
under steady-state conditions ;( c) strontium-90 is eliminated exponentially witha time constant independent of age:

(68)

=

0 < lt < 1lm
U;:;::::: !lm;f(u) = 0f

G: = -( e) the close-rate function y is constant.

142. If strontium-90 levels in diet and bone areexpressed in °0 Sr/Ca ratios, it follows from the first
three assumptions thatm(11.11')=0R ~r;::j e-l~i{u-u'J.

a{tt')= cf>{11'){1 + k u')
0

flm

1lm

ff

S(t',it)dudt'.

(69)

0

The strontium-90 in the bone at time t will further
contribute to the e..xposure so that. if it is assumed thatthe nuclide is eliminated exponentially. the integrated
future levels due to the amounts ingested up to time
t will be

(64)

-f f

Um 1Cm

+ ,\

11'

1

-:>'.)

where tt' is the age at time of uptake: 11. the age atsome later time: B(11) the mass of calcium in thethe rate of strontium-90
skeleton at age 11: ki = ksr
loss; and a the rate of calcium incorporation given bya{u') = !? 0 Ba=

144. Alternatively, if measurements of 90 Sr/Ca
ratios in human bone are available for all age groups
in the population, P 3 .1, can be estimated directly, and
Lindell's first two assumptions can be avoided. The
strontium-90 level integrated up to some time t is( d) all members of the population have the samemean life span ttm so thatf(u) = 1=

Since, according to equation ( 57), P 8 ~P .1,s
A 1 /ttm
and since y
P 4s. then P3 4 Fm OR. In its previous
reports, the Committee adopted values of 0.6 and 0.25
for F,,. and OR. respectively, corresponding to
P 3 ~ -:--- 0.15. Lindell 68 showed that Fm is not criticallysensitive to the value of the mean life span nor to thenumerical values assigned to k 0 and ks,. as long as they
are about the same order of magnitude.

1
H:=llm0> 20c-"1 (u-u"Jdudu" (70)S(t,u") B(u")
B{tt)
'

11"

where 11" is the age at time t and u is the age at somelater time.

0 < u' ~ 20

in which !? 0 is a constant, .p(u') is a growth fnnction
and Ba is the mass of calcium in the adult skeleton.
The constant A 1 • defiined by equation (56) as

145. It follows then that the integrated strontium-90
leYel in bone due to the amounts ingested through dietup to time t is G:
H1. Hence,+32

in bone in each age group. summing the products
over the whole population and dividing the sum byllm as in equation (73).
147. In practice, the number of samples of bone
a\"ailable in each yearly age group is too small. andtherefore average integral weighting factors are calculated for groups of ages. Thus. all samples frompersons twenty years of age and over are combined
to obtain a single average value for adults, and samples
from children and adolescents in the age range fiveto nineteen years are similarly combined. For ages
between zero and four years, it is preferable to haveresults of bone analyses for each individual year ofage. and these are available from a number of countries.

(71)
where
t

f

C: =

(72)

C(t')dt'.

-coEquation (70) can be written
'ltm

1

f

H 1=tlm

S(t.11 11 )TF(11")d11 11 ,

(73)

0

148. Values of H 1 have been estimated for adultvertebrae assuming kar = 0.1 y-1 for this type of bone.
The reasons for choosing vertebrae rather than wholeskeleton are discussed in paragraph 159. The samevalue of ksr was assumed for children. Although there
is no experimental evidence to support this assumption,
the value of H: obtained does not depend critically on
it, both because the effect of calcium accretion during
growth is large and because the integrated levels up
to twenty years of age contribute less than 25 percent to the integrated levels of the whole population.

where
!Im

W(u") =

f ;~::?

c-1.:/u-u"J

du

(74)

11"

and is called the integral weighting factor. It has been
evaluated for several values of k 1 in adults combinedwith various e.xcretion functions in children. The results are shown in figure 16.

149. The values of P 3 , for each of the years inwhich data are available have been calculated forAustralian vertebrae and are tabulated. together withthe values of G1. H, and C1, in table XII. From thisit can be seen that, except for the first year or two,
PH is. as expected. reasonably constant, the mean value
from 1961 to 1967 being 0.21. Apart from possible

146. The integral weighting factors are strontium-90
bone burdens integrated over the balance of life for an
initial strontium-90 burden of 1 pCi (gCa)-1 at ageu". The value of H1 can therefore be obtained for any
year by multiplying the appropriate integral weighting
factors by the corresponding u0 Sr/Ca ratios observed
20

15

10

k from 0-20 os given by Fletcher.£!!!!. (f;gur& 10)
1_..:............. ····
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Age at time of vptoke ~)in years

Figure 16. Variation of integral weighting factor W(ri") in bone with age of uptake 11"

and 90Sr e.xcret:on rate constant33

errors (mostly due to sampling) in the original data,
the greatest source of uncertainty is the value of theexcretion rate for strontium-90. In the absence offurther large-scale tests. it will soon become evident
whether the value oi 0.1 y-1 is reasonable or not. for,if the true value is greater or less than this, then thevalues of P 3 .; obtained in future years will either decrease or increase systematically.

from the average levels in milk of the countries in thesame geographical area (table X) multiplied by theaverage diet-to-milk ratio for this diet type (table XI).
The results are shown in table XIII.
151. The mean value of P 34 equal to 0.2 thus
obtained agrees \vith that previously calculated fromthe Australian data. The s0 Sr/Ca ratios measured invertebrae from Poland and the Soviet Union, also
shown in figure 17, lie \vithin the limits of variabilityof those from countries in which milk is a relatively
more important dietary constituent. Despite differencesin the levels of dietary contamination in these twocountries. the corresponding levels of strontium-90 inbone weighted by population and integrated to 1967
are also about the same, though the corresponding value150. A value of P 34 was also calculated for thosecountries in the north temperate latitudes in which milk
contributes a large fraction of the total dietary intake
of calcium. For this purpose. the reported 90 Sr/Ca
ratios for each age group were averaged over all thecountries from which sufficient data were available(figure 17), and the integrated diet levels were obtained

3.5,-------------------------.
a

7.

6.0

0

.no

A9• ra.oge(vertebra=)

3,0

f:~
: \

Age rans- 0-4 y

2.5

s.o
2.0

h>

4.0

~
~

0

~

'0

0

0

"

g_ 1.5

...

J.O

<>

1.0

..

2.0

/~ 0

1.0

A

,,,..-

0.5v/".... ,,
"

v

0

1954

0
1954

Vi56

1958

1960

1962

1964

1966

/

/

...

A

.:.

,,-'

/

1956

1958

1960

1962

1964

1966·

1968

1968

O Ccncda 190,191
A Der.mork 176

v Fe:!erol Republ:cor Gonnony 195-197

0 Frc".ee 179+Pclcnd 198-201
x Ur:ion cf Soviet Soc.iolist Rep..ibli:.$ (IJ.01cowfi.!,l7S• Unire-d Kingdom (Adult!> - Wt::st Landen; oiher :::gcs -· Nction:::I) lS'2
O U-ihd States (New Y~rk City) SJ,193,194

1~66

1968

Figure Ii. 90Sr/Ca ratios in human bone ;amples in the north temperate zone

34

----

-

Japan are compared with those from France and theSoviet Union (figure 19), it can be inferred thatstrontium-90 levels in skeletons from Japan tend tobe somewhat lower than ilie average for the latitudinalband as a whole.

oi P:q would be about a factor oi three lower. The
relative strontium-90 levels in adult skeletons forcountries in which bones other than vertebrae havebeen sampled can be estimated from the data in figures
18 and 19. Thus, levels in tibia from Finland are very(iii) Dose-rate factorl .O

o Tibic (Finlond)152. Aduits. The mean dose rates to active bonemarrow and endosteal tissue applicable in the caseof uniform contamination of the skeleton with strontium-90 have been calculated by Spiers. 317 However,in what has so far been e..""<perienced. skeletal contamination in adults has been manifestly non-uniform. 90 Sr/Ca
ratios in typical trabecular bone (vertebral bodies)
being more than three times higher than those foundin typical compact bone (femur diaphyses). Since thedose rates to bone marrow and endosteal cells arelargely due to the strontium-90 contained in trabecularbone. averaging the strontium-90 body burden throughout the whole skeleton underestimates the 90 Sr/Ca
ratio and, hence, the dose.

" Femu- (United Kingdom)"'Femur shcft (So,iet Union, Moscow)

'~
0

~ 0.5
Ii,

153. The magnitude of the error introduced when
the skeleton is non-uniformly labelled can readily beascertained by separating the dose contributions fromstrontium-90 in trabecular and cortical bone and thenweighting according to the 90 Sr/Ca ratios in the twobone types.

o~~~~~_._~.___._~...___.,~-'-'

1960

1962

1964

1966

1968

Figure 18. 90Sr/Ca ratios in long bones

similar to those measured in femur from the United
Kingdom and the Soviet Union (figure 18). On theother hand, when levels of strontium-90 in ribs from154. The results of the calculations are given intables XIV and XV for bone marrow and endosteal
tissues, respectively. From table XIV it is seen thatthe bone-marrow dose rates arise from two separate
sources, that is, from the strontium-90 in the two bonetypes, trabecular and compact, as follows:

2.0

0.369 mrad y-1 per pCi (gCa)-1 in trabecular bone0.180 mrad y-1 per pCi (gCa)-1 in compact bone.
Similarly, from table XV it is seen that the dose rates
to endosteal cells are
0.678 mrad y-1 per pCi (gCa)-1 in trabecular bone0.206 mrad y-1 per pCi (gCa)-1 in compact bone.

1.5

If the skeleton is uniformly labelled at 1 pCi (gCa)-1,
then the bone-marrow and endosteal-cell dose rates
are. respectively, 0.369+0.180 or 0.55 mrad y-1 per
pCi (gCa)-1, and 0.678+0.206 or 0.88 mrad y-1 per
pCi (gCa)-1 • To the latter figure Spiers added a contribution (0.25 mrad y-1 per pCi (gCa)-1 ) due to the dosedelivered to the endosteal tissues in shafts of longbones. Since this correction was not based on direct
experimental data, it must be regarded as an arbitrarysafety factor leading to an over-estimate of the doserate factor.

!..0

~ 1.0

~

155. For the non-uniformly labelled skeleton. it isassumed that the 00 Sr/Ca ratio found in vertebral bodies
is representative of the levels in trabecular bonethroughout the skeleton. whereas that in femoral
diaphyses is representative of compact bone. From theempirically observed normalization factors in 1967(table VIII) . the levels in vertebral bodies andfemoral diaphyses are, to one significant figure, 2 and0.6 pCi (gCa)-1 , respectively, when the average 00 Sr/
Ca ratio in whole skeleton is 1 pCi (gCa)-1 •

0.5

1960

1962

1964

156. The weighted mean dose-rate constant to thewhole active bone marrow, when the average 90 Sr/Ca
ratio in whole skeleton is 1 pCi (gCa)-1 , is then calculated as follows:

1966

Figure 19. 90Sr/Ca ratios in adult ribs

35

pelvis, clavicles and scapulae-which. however, havenot been used in bone surveys. The dose-rate contribution of vertebrae is only slightly less, and these
two types of bone together contribute 60 per cent of
the total dose rates to bone marrow and endosteum.

Trabecular bone
contribution=2.0 0.369=0.74 mrad y-1
Compact bone
contribution=0.6 0.180=0.1 l mrad y-1
Total=

0.85 mrad y1-

160. Strontium-90 is assumed to be uniformly distributed in the skeletons of children and adolescentsso that, in the past. normalization factors have been
applied only to measurements obtained from bones of
persons more than twenty years of age. This has meantthat average 00 Sr/Ca ratios for whole skeletons haveshown a sharp discontinuity at age twenty which is
not plausible on physiological grounds. The use of00
Sr/Ca ratios in adult vertebral bodies largely removes
the discontinuity in a rational way.

so that. with a concentration of 1 pCi (gCa)- 1 in vertebral bodies. the dose rate to the whole active marrowis 0.43 mrad y-1 •157. Similar arguments apply to the dose to thewhole endosteal tissue (except the long-bone-shaft
endosteum) . the weighted mean tissue dose rate towhich is calculated as follows :Trabecular bone
contribution=2.0 0.678=1.36 mrad y-1
Compact bone
contribution=0.6 0.206=0.12 mrad y-1
Total=

161. Children. Spiers has applied methods similar
to those used for adults to calculate dose-rate factors
for children. However, the experimental material available to him was very much smaller. consisting only ofa vertebra and a femur from a five-year-old child.

1.48 mrad y-1

so that. with a concentration of 1 pCi (gCa)- 1 in vertebral bodies. the dose rate to endosteal cells is
0.74 mrad y-1 • If the long-bone-shaft endosteum contribution is added, the mean dose-rate factor can beshown to be 163 mrad y-1 per pCi (gCa)-1 averaged
O\'er the whole skeleton. or 0.82 mrad y-1 per
pCi (gCa)-1 in vertebral bodies.
158. The dose rates for the whole of the skeleton
and the whole of the bone marrow are then(a) No11-u11iform.

(b) Uniformn ....

Bone narrow

Endostcal tissue

0.43 mrad y-1 per
pCi (gCa)-1 invertebral bodies

0.82 mrad y-1 per
pCi (gCa)-1 invertebral bodies

0.55 mrad y-1 per
pCi (gCa)-1 inany bone

1.13 mrad y-1 per
pCi (gCa)-1 inany bone,162. The dose-rate factor calculated by Spiers forbone marrow in a five-year-old child is 0.82 mrad y-1
per pCi (gCa)-1 , or about 1.5 times the corresponding
value for adults with uniformly labelled skeleton. It is
not known how this value changes for other ages between birth and twenty years of age. No corresponding
estimate oi the dose-rate factor for endosteal cells inchildren is given. However, when estimating the dose
commitment of the whole population. the value of thedose-rate functions for adults can, with little error, betaken to be constant with age.
2. Caesium-137
163. The
dose
commitment
fromingested
caesium-137 is easier to estimate than is that fromstrontimn-90. because caesium-137 can. for dosimetricpurposes, be considered to be distributed uniformly inthe body and because it is e...xcreted rapidly. In contrast to strontium-90, the long-term uptake of
caesium-137 into diet from soil in temperate regions
is generally less important than direct deposition onvegetation. The total dietary intake of caesium-137
can be estimated more reliably therefore from directly
measured levels, since only a relatively small allowance for long-term uptake is necessary.

a. The dose-rate factors for uniform distribution of strontium90 given here are the same as given in Table 6 of publication
11 of the International Commission on Radiological Protection.

where the non-uniform factors apply during at least
some part of the lives of those in the population who
were adults or late teenagers during the periods of
ma.\.-imum fall-out levels and 'vhere the .uniform factors
apply to those who were children or yet unborn atthat time. For present purposes, however. the closerate factors for uniform distribution can be applied
without serious error throughout the period for which
the dose commitment is calculated.
159. There are, however, several advantages tousing strontium-90 levels in vertebral bodies for calculating the dose commitment. Vertebral bodies are aconvenient source of autoptic bone material and haYe
been widely used in a number of countries. As discussed
earlier. there is uncertainty about the values of normalization factors and. particularly, about their future
time course. Applying dose-rate factors for vertebral
bodies makes it possible to use most of the data directly
without multiplying the results by factors that tend to
be arbitrary. that may vary with time and that require
further assumptions. According to data given by Spiers,
vertebral bodies contain more than 40 per cent of theactive bone marrow in adults and nearly the same
fraction of endosteal cell5. Thus, vertebral bodies contain a larger fraction of the critical tissues than any
other group of bones. although the largest fractiom.1
dose-rate contribution comes from the flat bones-

164. Caesium-137 and strontium-90 produced by
nuclear explosions in the atmosphere are transported
to the earth's surface without fractionation. as shown by
the relative uniformity of the observed 137 CsJ1>0 Sr
ratios in air and deposit.12, 13, 3-!-36, io1(a) Caesium-137 in food c!zains
165. The main dietary sources of caesium-137 aremilk. meat. vegetables and cereals. 64 In some regions,fish from inland lakes is locally important.102 • 3l6 In
general. however, levels tend to be highest in meat andcereals and lowest in vegetables. 103 Direct comparisonof intakes between different regions thus requires observations on representative diets (table IV).
166. \Vithin areas \Yith reasonably uniform deposition and with similar soil types, levels in different
food-stttffs are fairlv closelv correlated. 60 • 104 -:\ifeasurements on a singie item can therefore be used todetect regions where large deviations from no'."mal may
occur. Milk is convenient for this purpose. as representative samples can be obtained easily and analysis
36-

at production level they remain unchanged in any
gh-en year. If the dietary levels are integrated overa number of vears, t11e effect of such variations cancel
out, but there may remain a long-term change in the
proportions by which different types of food contribute to diet. if there is a real difference in the soil
uptake bet\Yeen plants.

is simple. A large number of milk analyses from different regions have been reported (table III).
167. \Vhen allowance is made for differences indeposition. levels of caesium-137 in diet and milk as arule vary by relatively small amounts between those
reo-ions from which data haYe been available. Observari;ns from regions with non-western diets are. howe,·er. scarce, and no definite conclusions can be drawn
about average levels in these areas.
168. Exceptionally high values have been observedin reindeer and caribou meat in subarctic regions. The
special conditions in these regions are discussed separately in paragraphs 191 and 192. High milk concentrations have also been observed in other areas(paragraph 30) wher~ the hig}ler .uptake ~eem~ mainly
to be due to predominance ot s01ls low 111 m1caceous
clay and exchangeable potassium so that pastures arepoor and/or high in organic matter. In addition. highprecipitation may in so.me cases (for ex~mple. in mouz:tainous areas) result m enhanced caesmm-137 deposition and uptake. Tracer experiments indicate that uptake of caesium-137 from red. lateritic and alluvial
soils common in the tropics and subtropics is considerably higher than uptake from the clay soils of temperate regions, but no measurements in local foodproducts or people in the tropics are available. 64 • 105

172. If observations on dietan· leYels are aYailable
for most of the deposition period: P 2 .~ can be estimateddirectly by means of the relation

t

f

1

C'(•)d.

..:.t_ _ __

(76)

F(t)

where C' is the part of the dietary level due to deposition before time t. The first term to the right \vill becalled Ps 3 (t). Observations on total diet are nowhereavailable for the whole period of interest, but they canbe inferred from observations on bodv content, as theintegrated body content over a reasonably long time
is directly proportional to the dietary intake (paragraph 182). For e..xample, Gustafsson and Miller109 • 316
give the integrated dietary intake of caesium-137 for theyears 1961-1967 in the Chicago area as 180 pCi y(gK)-1 • The total uptal(e can then be estimated bymultiplying this value by the ratio between the integrated body levels in the years 1953-1967 and thelevels in the period 1961-1967, giving 275 pCi y (gK)-1 •The total mean deposition of caesium-137 in Chicago
up to 1967 was about 85 mCi km-:!. and thus
P 23 (1967) = 3.25 pCi y (gK)- 1 per mCi km-~.

169. The transfer of caesium-137 to diet is normallycharacterized by high uptake during the first years after
deposition and by a relatively small uptake subsequently. 6 4 No quantitative description of the transferfrom deposit to whole diet has so far been attempted.
However, in its 1964 report, the Committee acceptedthat the transfer to milk could be described by thefollowing equation originally applied to British data by
Bartlett and Mercer :1 06

173. To estimate the second term to the right ofequation (76). some assumptions regarding the longterm uptake must be made. It is generally assumed
that the dietary level caused by a given deposit decreases with time at least at a rate corresponding to
the radio-active decay. An upper limit to the value isthus obtained by multiplying C(67) by the radioactive mean life Tm which, with the Chicago data, gives
a value of 4.4 for the second tem1 so that P 2s = 7.65
pCi (gK)-1 per mCi km-2 •+ P'ac [Fr{t-1) + Fr(t-2)]. (75)where C(t) denotes the caesium-137 concentration in
milk, F,.(t) the mean deposition rate in year t, andP'r and P'2c are constants determined empirically fromobsen,ed levels. Equation (75) gives a transfer coefficient P u=P'r+2P'2c and corresponds to a transfer
function (paragraph 66) with K(O) = P'r· K(1) =K (2) = P'2c and K (11) > 2 = 0. The uptake after morethan two years is thus formally neglected.

174. Since a considerable part of the 1967 dietarylevels was due to uptake from caesium-137 deposited in
the years 1965-1967, this method over-estimates thesecond term. In the following paragraphs, an estimateof the proportion of the dietary level in 1967 resulting
from deposition in 1965 and earlier will be made. taking into account the special deposition pattern during
the years 1964-1967. The integrated dietary level due
to deposition before 1965 can then be obtained byextrapolating this proportion. As the cumulative deposit
increased very little during the period 1965-1967. thise..xtrapolated term can be used as an estimate of170. More elaborate models have been used todescribe the relationship between levels in deposition
and in milk by Bartlett and Russell 107 • 108 and byothers. 104 In these models, the long-term component
has explicitly been taken into account by assuming
K (u) ;;:::: 2 = pae-"/Tin, where pa is a constant derived
from tracer e..xperiments.
171. Milk levels show a pronounced yearly cycle
depending on deposition rates and agricultural practice, but the yearly mean level is representative ofthe dietary intake in that year. Meat and grain products, which provide about half of the caesium-137 intake
in western-type diet, are often stored and may thus berepresentative of an earlier fall-out situation. The relative contributions of different types of food-stuffs consumed therefore vary with deposition rates, even though
C(66)
C(67)

f

C(.)d.
I(b) Transfer from deposit to diet

C{t) = P'rFr{t)~17 5. The ratio between the dietary levels Ill 1966
and 1967 can be written

L(66) + K(2) Fr(64) + K(1) Fr(65) + K(O) Fr(66)= L(67) + K(2) Fr(65) + K(l) Fr(66) + K(O) F,(67)'

37

(77)

varies between less than fifty and more than 200 days
and seems to depend on body weight. sex and dietary
habits. 111 • 112 Even within a relatively homogeneousgroup, the variability in half-life is considerable.113
The half-life in children is shorter than in adults andis of the order of ten days for new-born infants. 100
Based on published data. McCraw114 gave the empiricalequation T 'f::
12.8 (u'f::e-") days, \vhere 11 is age
in years. There has been some indication that a smallpart of caesium might be fixed in bone with longresidence time. 109 but no quantitative .obser\'ations
have been reported.
179. The average body content of caesium-137 in a
population at a given time varies with individual valuesof the biological half-life and with dietary habits. The
observed caesium-137 levels (in pCi (gK)- 1 are 20-30
per cent lower in women than in men. 11 "·119 Levels inchildren are. as a rule, lower than in aclults. 10n. 110. lJ 7
For estimating the dose commitment, it will beassumed thatthe caesium-137 level (in pCi (gI{)-1 )in children is the same as in adults. an assumption
which probably results in a small over-estimate of the
population average.
180. Although the most accurate determinations of
caesium-137 body burdens are by whole-body counting,this method has limitations, as most body counters areimmobile. For that reason. measurements on humanblood, urine, etc. may serve as a useful supplement towhole-body counting in regions where representative
whole-body measurements are not fe.'lsible. Suchmethods also make it possible to use pooled samples
from a large number of individuals. and this may be
important in regions where there is reason to suspectlarge variations due to unknown ecological factors.
181. The relation between caesium-137 concentration in blood and body burden has been studied by
Yamagata120 who has also made an extensive surveyof body burdens using blood samplesY 1 • 1:! 2 Recently
a study by Jaakkola et al. 1 ~ 3 has shown a very goodcorrelation between body burden expressed in nCi(gI()-1 and blood concentration and a much poorer
correlation with caesium-137 concentrations in twentyfour-hour urine samples. The results indicate, however,that pooled urine samples from at least twenty individuals give a reasonable estimate of the average
body burden. These results are confirmed by similar
investigations made by Ramzaev et al. 12" The caesium137 concentration in human hair has also been foundto be well correlated with body content. 1 '.!G, 318

where L(66) is the uptake in 1966 due to depositionin 1963 and earlier and L(67) the uptake in 1967 from
deposition in 1964 and earlier. It will be assumed
that these terms are directly proportional to the cumulative deposit in 1963 and 1964, respectiYely. The annual
deposit in the northern hemisphere decreased by about
50 per cent per year110 from 1964 to 1967. The factthat
Fr(66)
Fr(65)
F,(64)(78)= Fr(67)=
F,.(65)Fr(66)
implies that
C(66)Fa(63)
k[F,.(64)Fr(65)
Fr(66)]C(67)Fa(64)k[Fr(65)
F,.(66)
F,(67)]'
(79)

+
+

+
+

+
+

where k is a constant reflecting the rate of uptake fromcomparath·ely fresh deposit. In order to avoid the lag
effects discussed in paragraph 171, milk rather than
total diet was chosen to estimate /?.
176. \Vhen the pertinent deposition and milk data
for the United States are inserted in equation (79),
it is found that k = 33, implying that somewhat
less than 20 per cent of the milk level in 1967 wasdue to deposition before 1965. The future dietary content due to deposition before 1965 can thus be estimatedas 0.2 C (67) T' m· where T'm is the effectfre mean
residence time in soil. The sum of this term and theobserved integrated dietary content up to 1967 gives
an over-estimate of the total integrated dietary content
due to deposition before 1965, as the effect on dietduring the years 1965-1967 from deposition in thisperiod is included. As the integrated deposit increased
very little between 1965 and 1967, this over-estimate
is small. however. Pu is obtained by dividing the total
integrated dietary content thus obtained by the integrated deposit at the end of 1964. The pessimistic
assumption that T' m is equal to the radio-active mean
life (forty-four years) gives an estimate of P2.~
4.1
pCi y (gK)-1 per mCi km-::.

=177. A fairly large number of observations on the
body content of caesium-137 are available, and the dose
commitment can then be estimated, without kno\vledgeof P 23 , from the ratio P2.1/P~3(f) (paragraphs 172 and186). Since
00

J

C'(T)dTPu
P 23 (t)

-oc

+

=

(80)

(d) Tra11sfe1· from diet to body
182. The short reside!1ce time of caesium 111 thehuman body (T",, 1) implies that the ratio between
integrated body content and total dietary intake oversome extended period of time (more than, say, twoyears) will be a good estimate of the transfer coefficient P ~.1 , that is,tJ

C(.,.)dT-:othis ratio can be estimated for different regions in thenorthern hemisphere. using. for example, milk data
and the method indicated in paragraphs 172 to 174.
This method has the advantage that information on
local deposition is not required.

JQ(·}d· r~:.)d.
-'.'.(.)

P,n=-----(c) Metabolism of caesium-137 ·in the body

::.o

J

178. Caesium-137 ingested by man is rapidly distributed in the body. about 80 per cent being depositedin muscle and 8 per cent in bone. 100 About 10 per centis rapidly excreted, and the remainder is excreted ata slower constant rate. The observed half-life in adults-xwhen~ t ;?;: 2 y.

38

C(,)d•+ .l tI
f1

f1

C(;-)d.

(81)

comparing integrated body burdens. As, in the northern hemisphere. the deposition rates have varied fairly
uniformly with time and as body burdens up to 1967
have mainly been due to short-term uptake, the ratios
between body burdens in different parts oi the hemisphere in the same time periods should be directly proportional to F(67) Pm(67 ).

183. The coefficient P 34 can be estimated directly,
usinu data from the United States 103 • 1011 and Denmark.12-i Expressed in picocuries of caesium-137 per.,.ramme of potassium. the integrated body content of~dults in the Cnited States during the years 1961-1967~·,·as 500 pCi y (gK)- 1 and the corresponding dietary
2.8. For Denintake 180 pCi y (gK)- 1 so that P !~mark. the integrated body content during the years
1963-1967 was 533 pCi y (gK)-1 and the dietary intake
184 pCi y (gI()- 1 • giving Pa 1 = 2.9. In this case, P3 4
can be regarded as dimensionless.

=189. Body burdens in different regions and ratios
relati\"e to Gustafsson·s and :Miller's values are given
in table VI from which it is seen that. with the exception of the regions discussed in paragraph 168, theratios in the northern hemisphere lie between one andtwo with most values around 1.5. the only exception
being Ja pan with a value of 0.6. It is notable thatthe ratios in northern Europe tend to increase at theencl of the period. indicating that the long-term contribution is somewhat higher than in the United States.
This increase is modest. however. and it seems reasonable to assume that the long-term contribution
after 1967 is of the order of 25 per cent of the total.
as in the United States. Studies of the dietary intake
in the different parts of the Soviet Union 12 ;· 128 indicate that the levels in the i\Ioscow and Leningrad
areas. from which body burdens have been reported.
are reasonably well representative of the entire Soviet
Union.

IS.+. AlternatiYely. body contents and dietary intakes
can be expressed in terms of total activity. Because
the integrated body content, when so expressed, isequal to the total dietary intake multiplied by the fractional inhke f1 and by the caesium-137 mean life in the
body T",,.,
P~4 =f1T"...

(82)

and is thus expressed in units of time. Since fractional
intake is close to one, 71 P 3 ~ is close to the mean residence time in the body. Taking the total content of potassium in the body as 140 grammes and a yearly intake of
1.400 grammes, and using the same data as in the previous paragraph, the values of P 3 .1 then become 0.27 and0.3 I year for the United States and Denmark, respectively. corresponding to a mean biological residence
time of about 100 clays. The value of the transfer
coefficient thus obtained differs from that obtained in
the previous paragraph by the ratio of the potassium
body content to the potassium yearly intake or byapproximately 0.1 y-1.

( e) Dose-rate factor
190. According to Spiers. 100 a caesium-137 bodycontent of 1 ?Ci (gK)-1 gives a dose rate of 18 /Lrady- 1 for a man weighing 70 kilogrammes and 15 /Lrad
y-1 for a child weighing 8 kilogrammes. If the caesium137 body content is expressed as pCi (gK)-1 , the doserate function g(tt) is thus approximately independentof age, and it will be assumed that

185. 'When observations on total deposit and integrated body burdens are available, numericalestimates of the factors P J3 and P 34 are not necessary
if the body can be assumed to be in equilibrium withthe diet, as in that case the dietary step can be bypassed and the deposit linked to body burden by meansof a transfer coefficient P 1 ::~· In the Committee's 1964
and 1966 reports. P,J 4 was estimated from the following equation relating body burden and deposit:

Q(t)

PH

Pup= P23~P1,s = 0.20 mrad per mCi km-2 •+ 2P~e.

191. Caesium-137 levels in the food-stuffs producedin subarctic regions are generally higher than those
expected from the amounts of the nuclide deposited
per unit area and are especially high in reindeer andcaribou meat, as well as in fish from lakes with water
low in mineral content. 1 :?11 The body burdens of caesium-137 in individuals eating large quantities of reindeer or caribou meat are more than ten times higher
than the local population average, 130-132 as shown intable VI.

(84)

186. A more direct estimate of P2::~ can be obtained
from

t

cc

f
p

u 4

=

f

Q(;)d;
P!.t-cc

F(CF:J)Pu(t)Q(r)d;-~F(t)( 85 )

192. Levels of caesium-137 in reindeer and caribou
are high because the lichens, which are an importantfood for these animals during winter, effectively entrap
and retain a substantial proportion of the deposit falling
onto them. The apparent half-life of caesium-137 inlichens due to grazing and leaching varies from 2.5 tofifteen years 133- 130 so that estimates of the dose commitment for these regions are uncertain. 1'1iettinen and
Rahola 131 have calculated average integrated bodyburdens of about 30 nCi y (gK)- 1 for Finnish Lapps(reindeer breeders) during the years 1961-1968. Assuming an apparent half-life of between 2.5 and fifteen
years. the long-term contribution after 1968 is from12 to 75 nCi y (gK)-1 • Thus. the total integrated body187. The United States data discussed in paragraphs 172 to 175 give. as a conservative estimate,

Pu4 =

4.1
325

744

85 =

(88)

(f) Subarctic regions

where P,. and Psc were empirical constants. Thisequation is analogous to equation (75) and

P,.

(87)

which, combined with the estimate of Pu1, from theUnited States data, gives= P,. F,.(t) + P:c (F,.(t -1) + F,.(t - 2)). (83)Ps.14 =

= 18 /Lracl y-1 per pCi (gK)-1

11 pCi y (gK)- 1 per mCi knr2 ,(86)which is consistent with the value obtained by multiplying Pu, as given in paragraph 176 by P ::' asobtained in paragraph 183.
188. A study of the variation of P 1 3 ~ in different
parts of the northern hemisphere can be made by39

burden should be from 40 to 100 nCi y (gK)-1, or
about 100 times the average for the northern hemisphere.
3. External radiation

193. The exposure from gamma-emitting nuclides
deposited on the ground was discussed extensively in
the Committee's 1962 and 1966 reports, and the methods
used earlier for estimating the corresponding dose
commitment are still valid.
194. Theoretical and experimental studies on thetransmission of gamma radiation from radio-active
deposits make it possible to calculate the resulting air
dose, provided the properties of the ground and the
distribution of radio-activity in the top layer are
known. 13 6-189 However, as this information is largely
unavailable. estimated air doses are only approxima.te.
No new data regarding shielding by buildings andscreening by the human body warrant any change in
the Committee's earlier estimate140 of a combined shielding and screening factor of 0.2.
195. The effect of the radio-activity distribution in
the top layer on the dose-rate conversion factor has
been assessed for the case in which the activity decreases e."ponentially with depth. 187-1 39 \Vhen the rela......ation length l (which corresponds to the depth atwhich the activity has decreased by a factor of e)
increases from zero (i.e., plane source) the dose-rate
factor initially decreases rapidly but subsequently rather
slowly. When l increases from 1 to 3 centimetres, thedose-rate factor for caesium-137 decreases from 60 to
40 per cent of the plane-source value. 137 From suchcalculations and studies of the actual distribution,Hl, 142
it can be deduced that ground roughness and weatheringresult in a reduction factor of from one to 0.3 as compared to a plane source.
196. As the short-lived nuclides deliver most of theirdose contribution within a relatively short period oftime, no reduction factor for soil penetration is required.
As regards caesium-137, the main dose contribution
occurs after the nuclide has penetrated into the soil.
In order to take account of this, a soil shielding factor
is applied for caesium-137. The value of this factor istaken to be 0.5. The dose-rate factors given by Beck188
are used (table XVI). The largest contribution to thedose commitment from external radiation comes from caesium-137. As the ia•cs,11' 0 Sr ratios in deposit are :airly
constant. the caesium-137 e."ternal dose commitment
can be estimated from either caesium-137 or strontium-90 deposition data.
197. Measurements of air doses due to deposit from
nuclear e."plosions have been reported from Japan. 143• 144
the United Kingdom 145 and Sweden.146 The yearlymean exposures. ranging from 4 to 12 milliroentgens inJapan. from 4 to 6 milliroentgens in the United Kingdom
and from 6 to 9 milliroentgens in Sweden. baYe notvaried appreciably between 1965 and 1967. In Japan.
comparatively high exposures were obserYed during theperiod December 1966-January 1967. presumably due
to fresh debris from tests in central Asia.
198. Estimates of exi.ernal doses based on deposit
measurements have been reported from Argentina15 andAustralia. 17 - 19 In Argentina, doses to gonads and bonemarrow from short-lived nuclides deposited after the
1966. 1967 and 1968 tests in the south Pacific \Yereestin~ated to lm·e been 4.9. 0.9 and 1.3 millirads.
respectively. In Australia, the corresponding doses werewe!I befow 1 millirad.

40

199. While deposition of shorter-lived nuclides during the years 1965-1967 was all due to tests carriedout in that period. that of the longer-lived nuclides
included a contribution from earlier tests which cannot
easily be isolated and which have already been includedin the estimate of the external dose commitment given in
the 1966 report. The Committee estimates that theexternal global dose commitment due to short-lived
nuclides from tests between 1965 and 1967 is. at most.
2 per cent of the external dose commitment from tests
up to 1964.

4. Carbon-14
200. Because carbon-14 circulates in nature and its
radio-active half-life is long compared with that of theother long-lived nuclides, strontium-90 and caesium-137,
the dose from carbon-14 will be received over a verymuch longer period of time. It is therefore convenient
to consider the dose commitment due to carbon-14 in
two ways, namely, the total dose commitment itself
and that fraction of it which will be delivered up to
the year 2000. when most of the dose commitment
from the other long-lived nuclides will have been delivered. It is the numerical value of the latter fraction
which is usually added to the dose commitments dueto the other nuclides to obtain the over-all dose commitment from weapons tests so far carried out. but it
must be remembered that there will be a further, andlarger. contribution from carbon-14 which \Vill bedelivered after the year 2000.
201. Most of the carbon-14 produced by nuclear
explosions has been injected into the stratosphere where
naturally produced carbon-14 also originates. Transport
processes arc thus essentially identical for natural andartificially produced carbon-M. If it is assumed that
present levels of natural carbon-14 on earth reflect a
steady-state condition and that the carbon balance will
not change appreciably in the future, it is possible toestimate the dose commitment without any specificassumptions regarding transport processes, population
structure. etc. by means of the expressionw

Dp( C()) ='Yo - S •(89)

where y 0 is the dose rate due to natural carbon-14, B
is the production rate oi natural carbon-14 and W is
the amount of artificially produced carbon-14. 67
202. The exchange processes determining the biospheric levels are characterized by a rapid exchangewith time constants of the order of a few Years at mostbetween different parts of the atmosphere. biosphereand ocean-surface layer. The transfer into deep oceanand humus is a slower process with time constants of
the order of tens of years. and the back-transfer to theatmosphere is still slO\ver with time constants of mam·hundreds of years.14 7• 145 After a few years. the atmospheric and biospheric levels due to an atmosphericinjection will thus decrease at a rate mainlv determinedby the transfer to deep ocean and humus. and the effectof a back-transport will be quite small. at least during
the first fifty years. This is the situation obtaining now,
since no significant additions to the artificial carbon-14
inventory have been made since 1962.
203. Quantitati\·e studies of the transfer processes
usually rely on compartment models with first-orderkinetics. Complicated models have been applied,H9-151
but. for the purpose of estimating the dose commitment
up to the year 2000. a model with four comparhnents

is sufficient: (a) stratosphere: ( b) troposphere andbiosphere.: (c) ocean-surface layer; and (d) deep ocean·and humus. 152 The errors introduced by using thissimplified model are small compared to the errors due
to uncertainties in estimates of the exchange coefficients.
204. The e.."\:change of artificially produced carbon-14
between different parts of atmosphere and the oceans
has recently been studied by Nydal,119 who estimatedthe stratosphere-troposphere exchange coefficient to be
0.5 y-1 . in agreement with earlier estimates.152 He
further found a mean residence time of four years in
the troposphere. a value also obtained by Young andFairhall.1"° From estimates of the net production rateof carbon in land plants. 153 it can be concluded thatthe largest part of the carbon dioxide in the atmosphereis taken up by the oceans.
205. Estimates of the rate of uptake by deep oceanand humus are, at present, mainly based on observations of the natural carbon-14 balance. 147 •148 The exchange coefficients thus derived refer to ·well mi.xed
compartments. and it cannot be assumed that they arequantitatively applicable in the present connexion.
206. ·when the exchange coefficients discussed inparagraphs 203 to 205 are applied to the four-compartment model, it follows that an injection of 10 27
atoms of carbon-14 in the stratosphere leads to a concentration in the troposphere (expressed in per centof the natural level) of

l(t) = 0.16e-0.ooom+1.96 e-0.om
2.84 e-O.W - 4.96 e-0· 681 ,

+

(90)

where t is the time after injection in years. The firstterm allows for radio-active decay. The time constantsin the 1ast two terms of this expression are mainly
determined by the rapid exchange processes in atmosphere, biosphere and ocean-surface layer, whereas
the time constant in the second term to the right isdetermined by the. slower processes discussed in paragraph 205.
207. By the end of 1967, no major atmospheric injections of carbon-14 had occurred in four years. It isfound from equation (90) that the second term to theright represents about 80 per cent of l(t) when t is
between four and forty years, and the approximate integrated tropospheric level for the years 1968-2000 is,therefore, obtained by assuming that C(t) decays witha time constant 0.029 y-1 in this period. Thus,
2ooa

J

32

l(t)dt = C(1967)

1968

J

e-0.0291dt=21 l(1967) (91)0208. As was pointed out in paragraph 205. theexchange coefficients determining the time constant0.029 are tentative. The integrated tropospheric level is.
however, not very sensitive to the value of the time
constant. If its true vah1e is in the range 0.01-0.06,
it is found thatl(t)dt = (20 : 7) C(1967).

+

210. As the e.."\:change between tropospheric air, foodproducing plants and land animals is rapid. human bodylevels have follo\ved tropospheric levels with a delay of
one to two years. 1;;4 • 155 :i\foasurements on human bloodand hair indicate that equilibrium has been virtually
established since 1965 15G (figure 8). and it can thus beassumed that the integrated body burden up to theyear 2000 is the same as the integrated troposphericcontent. The dose commitment up to the year 2000 isthus obtained from equation (92) by multiplying by
the dose-rate constant y 0 •211. The dose rate due to the natural carbon-14
produced per year is 0.7 mrad y-1 in bone marrow andsoft tissue and 0.9 mrad y-1 in cells lining bone surfaces.100

5. Iodine-131
212. Iodine-131 has a short radio-active half-life
so that its presence in the biosphere is important only
during the first few months immediately following a
nuclear explosion. This means that appreciable mi.'Cing
does not occur before deposition and that the actual
fall-out pattern depends very much on the weather
during the first week or so following the e..xplosion.
Because deposition patterns are so variable and unpredictable. doses can only be calculated if the levels of
the nuclide in food are measured directly or if the local
transfer coefficients and deposit are known. Since theseare often not available from large areas of the world,
it is not possible to estimate dose commitments on
the global scale but only those to local groups of persons
whose food supplies have been adequately monitored.

213. If dose commitments are required, it is essential
to have ready a monitoring system whereby representative dietary samples can be obtained and analyzed
rapidly. In those areas where milk is a major dietarycomponent, it has been found that. within a specified
region. there is usually a strong correlation between
the concentration of barium-140 in ground-level air
and iodine-131 concentration in milk. Since it is comparatively simple to obtain air samples, such a measurement can be used to trigger full milk sampling systems.

(a) Iodine-131 in food chains
214. ·where it is a major dietary component, milk
dominates as a source of iodine-131 ingestion. In areas
where little milk is consumed, the main sotrrce of
iodine-131 intake is probably vegetables.a~. 213 Once
deposited on grass. iodine is removed by various processes such as cropping, leaching and volatilization.
Several studies have indicated an effective half-life of
three to six days.157 The efficiency of transfer fromgrass to milk depends on many factors associated withlocal farm practices. During winter, transfer will obviously be negligible in areas where cows eat stored
feed. Breed of herd. season. demity of herbage and milkyield may affect the transfer appreciably. 64 · 158. rno

2000

J

Nydal149 (figure 20) to be 510 and 390 per cent yearof natural carbon-14 in the northern and southernhemispheres, respectively. In both hemispheres, theconcentrations in 1967 were about 65 per cent of thenatural level. Thus. the integrated level up to the year
2000 is estimated to be about 510
21 X 65 = 1.875
in the northern hemisphere and 1.750 in the southernhemisphere, or about 1.800 per cent year of carbon-14
globally.

(92)

1968

209. The integrated tropospheric concentrations up
to 1967, inclusive. can be estimated from data summarized in the Committee's 1964 report 1 ;;:: and by
41

80
~

c

Q)

u

I

'1..

Q)

a..

I

a

Q)

>
Q)

-~--~.!

60

A

0

E
I..

e

0

,

••

i

c

i

Q)

>

0
..!l
0

"'"'
Q)

40

u

0

28°-71° NCl

9°-1s N

2 STATIONS

21' s
1a0 -41' s

MADAGASCAR

0

x
Q)

,,.

u

~

&

1963

1964

1965

6 STATIONS

3 STATIONS

1966

1967

Figure 20. 14C \'ariation in the troposphereH9(b) :11 etabolisnt of iodine-131 i11 the body215. Iodine-131 is concentrated in the human thyroid
which receives a dose many orders of magnitude greaterthan any other organ.10° For a given dietary intake, theresulting dose to the thyroid is at least ten times higher
in six-month-old infants than in adults, although thetotal iodine-131 content of the thyroid is abont thesame.100-102

218. Studies on other nuclides produced by nuclear
explosions, such as sodium-22, manganese-54. krypton-SS, plutonium-239. and tritium, indicate that theinternal dose commitments due to these nuclides areof minor importance. 1 • 1- 10 -1
D.

DosE COMMITMEXTS FROM EXTER~AL AI:\!)IKTERNAL CONTAMIKATION

1. Introduction(c) Dose-rate factor
163

216. In the Committee·s 1964 report,
it wasestimated that an integrated milk level of nCi d 1-1
results in a thyroid dose of 11.5 millirads to children
one to two years of age. in close agreement with later
estimates. Corresponding mean doses for individuals
in age ~roups zero to ten, ten to twenty and twenty toseventy years of age are. according to Neill's andRobinson's data. 162 6.1, 2.5 and 0.7 millirads, respectively.

219. For the purpose of estimating dose commitments, particularly from internally deposited caesium137 and strontium-90. the world population is divided
into three groups:

I(a). Populations lh·ing in regions from which a
relativcl31 large amount of data on contamination by
these long-lived nuclides is available and wheretransfer processes are sufficiently well understood tomake possible 1·easonably reliable predictions of futiwelevels. The regions included are those in \Yhich theprincipal source of caesium-137 and strontium-90 in
the diet is dairy produce, such as \Yestern Europe
and North America in the north temperate zone andArgentina. Australia and New Zealand in the temperate zone of the southern hemisphere.
I(b). Pop11latio11s li<1i11g in 1·cgio11s in the 11ortlzer11

6. Other 111tclides
217. Relatively large amounts of iron-55 were produced in the nuclear test series during 1961 and 1962.
As iron is readily transferred in the biosphere andtaken up by man, relatively high activity levels havebeen observed in the subsequent years. A number ofinYestigations on iron-55 in food chains and in man
have been reported. 164 - 170 Although the body burdens
are comparable to those of caesium-137. the resulting
dose rates are far smaller since the dose-rate factor
for iron-55 is quite sman. 1 0 5

te111perate zone from which a relatir•ely large amountof ewz.'iron111e11tal data is also available but ;_t•hcre so·metransfer processes arc differeHt from those in I (a).
These regions include parts of the Soviet Union andother areas of eastern Europe in which the principal
source of caesium-137 and strontium-90 in diet arewhole wheat and rye. This group also includes the42Ipopulation of Jap~n wI1ich differs. from the eastern
European populations msofar as nee and vegetables
are the principal sources of strontium-90 and caesium-137.
II. Populations i11 the remaining regions of the~t'orld from which almost no environmental data area•:ailable and little is known about transfer processes
through food chains. For these regions, it is thus
necessary not only to predict future levels but also
to estimate past levels. These regions include, inparticular, the tropical and subtropical belt.
220. In addition to these broad population groups.
there are substantial groups of indfriduals for whom
the dose rates may be much higher than typical values
for the temperate zone because of special climatic anddietary factors. An important example is that of thearctic and subarctic regions where people include reindeer and caribou meat and fresh-water fish in theirdiets. As they are a relatively small fraction of theworld's population. the enhanced doses that they receive
do not contribute significantly to the world-wide dose
commitment.
221. The dose commitment due to carbon-14. on theother hand, does not depend significantly on dietaryand social habits, and, since the deposit of carbon-14
is more or less uniform over the globe, it will be equal
for all populations.

Dp( cc) (bone marrow) = 64 mrad in the northernhemisphere= 14 mrad in the southernhemisphere
Dp( C1J) (endostealcells) = 128 mrad in the northernhemisphere= 28 mrad in the southernhemisphere(ii) Caesium-137
225. Since P 234 P 45 = 0.2 mrad per mCi km-2
(paragraph 190),
Dp( cc)21 mrad in the northern hemisphere
4 mrad in the southern hemisphere==(iii) Carbon-14
226. The total dose commitment from carbon-14 isestimated from equation (89). The rate of productionof natural carbon-14 is 2.6 102 6 atoms per year, andthe amount of carbon-14 injected by tests carried out
up to 1967 is 650 1026 atoms so that650
Dp(cc)=Yo2fi·(93)

Since y 0 equals 0.7 mrad y-1 in bone marrow and soft
tissues and 0.9 mrad y- 1 in cells lining bone surfaces(paragraph 211), the corresponding dose commitments
are 180 and 230 millirads. respectively.
227. The fraction of the dose commitments to bereceived by the year 2000 are obtained from equation(92) and the appropriate values of yo. giving 13 millirads to bone marrow and soft tissues and 16 millirads
to cells lining bone surfaces.

222. Dose commitments for the population belonging
to groun I (a) will be calculated first. using equation(16) an.cl the values of the transfer coefficients relevant
to each case, as estimated in the preceding paragraphs.
The special problems arising in the case of populations
belonging to groups I ( b) ::tnd II will then be considered separately.

(iv) Strontimn-89

2. Distrib11tiot1 of world-wide deposit of long-lived
radio-nuclides

228. Internal doses due to strontium-89 are insignificant compared with those from other sources ofradiation.

223. The distribution of deposit over the surface ofthe earth is shown in table XVII. The average integrated
deposit of strontium-90 in the north temperate latitudes
to the end of 1967 is about 65 mCi km-2 , whereas thatof caesium-13i. obtained by multiplying the value forstrontium-90 by 1.6 (paragraph 20), is 104 mCi km-2 •The corresponding values in the south temperate latitudes are 14 mCi km-2 and 22 mCi knr~ for strontium-90 and caesium-137, respectively.

(b) E:i:ternaJ dose co1mnitments(i) Caesium-137

229. From table XVI, the air-dose-rate conversion
factor for caesium-137 is 0.04 mrad y-1 per mCi J..m-2
so that, taking a mean life of caesium-137 of forty-four
years and, as in the 1%6 report, a shielding factor
equal to 0.2, the dose-rate factor is 0.35 mrad per
mCi kn1-2 to gonads, bone marrow and cells lining bone
surfaces. The corresponding dose commitments are 36
and 5 :nillirads in the northern and southern temperatezones. respectively.

3. Dose commitments to group I(a) population(a) hit:mial dose commitn1ents(i) Strontium-90

224. The following values of the transfer coefficientsare used(a) P 23 = 9 pCi y (gCa)-1 per rnCi km-2 (paragraph 140)(ii) Short-lived mtclides
230. The external dose commitment from short-lived
nuclides is taken to be equal to that from caesium-137
as found in the 1966 report. The Committee recognizes
that this is an approximation that may over-estimate
the dose commitment from this source.

=(b) P 3 ~ (vertebrae)
0.2 pCi y (gCa)-1 per
pCi y (gCa)-1 (paragraph 151)(c) P 4s (bone marrow) = 0.55 mrad y-1 per pCi(gCa)-1 (paragraph 158)
P 4s ( endosteal cells) = 1.1 mrad y-1 per pCi(gCa)-1 (paragraph 158)

4. Dose commitments to populations of group I (b)and group II

231. Although, during the period up to 1968, levelsof strontium-90 and caesium-137 in diets of eastern
Europe (as represented by the Soviet Union andThus we obtain
43

Poland) ha.-e consistently been higher by a factor of
between two and three than those in western European
diets. the corresponding levels in human tissues have
only differed fractionally.
232. Because the difference that this observation
implies between the values of the diet-to-tissue transfer
coefficients of the two populations is not well understood,
there is !;Orne doubt concerning predictions of the future
time course of the body burdens, if the present disparity
between the dietary levels of the two groups continues.
However, since future levels must continue to decline,
the levels integrated over future time in group I ( b)populations cannot greatly exceed those predicted forgroup I (a) , because the rate of decline of levels in
the future cannot be less than that determined by therate of radio-active decay. The uncertainty is larger
for strontium-90 since, for caesium-137, a smaller proportion of the total expected dose is yet to be delivered.
233. In the case of Ja pan, measured levels of both
long-lived nuclides in human tissues have been somewhat lower than those found in the corresponding tissuesof populations belonging to group I (a) in the northernhemisphere. Thus. the dose commitments for strontium-90 and caesium-137 calculated for group I (a)populations living in the northern temperate zone
somewhat over-estimate those applicable to Japan. Until
better information is available, therefore. the Committee is satisfied that the dose commitments calculated
for the northern temperate zone are also applicablewithout serious error to populations belonging togroup I(b).
234. It is only possible to speculate about the valuesof dose commitments to populations belonging to group
II. In its previous reports. the Committee had assumed
that leYels of caesium-137 in human tissues would be
proportional to the levels of deposit. though there was
no evidence to support this. Body burdens of strontium-90 were assumed to be proportional to levels ofcontamination in food-stuffs. the btter being estimatedfrom the levels of the deposit using deposit-to-food-stuff
transfer coefficients estimated in the temperate latitudes
and allowing for the different proportions each foodstuff contributed to the diet. The deposit-to-diet transfer
coefficients for both caesium-137 and strontium-90
may be greater in tropical and subtropical areas thanin the temperate zones because of differences in climate,soil and agricultural practices. However, in regions
belonging to group II. the cumulative deposit is smaller
by a factor of between two and ten than it is in thenorth temperate zone. Thus. even though the depositto-diet transfer coefficients for individual foodstuffs may be several times greater than the correspond-

44

ing values in the temperate zones, it seems unlikelythat the levels of contamination in group II dietarycomponents will significantly exceed those observed ingroup I (a). When allowance is made for the different
dietary composition, the most pessimistic assumption isthat the levels in whole diet will. at most, be as highas those observed in eastern European populations.
The Committee believes therefore that the dose commitments estimated for internally deposited strontium-90
and caesium-137 in the northern temperate zone may
be taken as reasonably reliable upper limits for thegroup II population.
235. Estimates of dose per unit deposition due toexternal sources are based on measurements and parameters appropriate to the north temperate zone andmay, because of the effect of different living habits onshielding, be too low for populations living in otherareas. However. the ma.>..--imum error due to this effectcannot e.xceed a factor of two, and, since accurate data
are not available, it will be assumed for present purposes, as in previous reports, that the dose commitment
due to external sources is proportional to the integrated
deposit.
236. The world-wide average dose commitment fromexternal sources is therefore calculated in the following
way. The distribution of the world population andfall-out by latitude is given in table XVII, from which
it has been estimated that the mean deposit over theworld surface is 26 mCi ktn-2 • Since the populationweighting factor Z is 1.56 (table XVIII). the averagedeposit of strontium-90 weighted by population is 40
mCi ktn- 2 and that of caesium-137, after applying theratio 1.6 (paragraph 10), 64 mCi km-2 • Using thesame factors as given in paragraph 227, this corresponds to a dose commitment from external caesium-137 of 23 millirads. The corresponding dose commitment due to short-lived radio-nuclides is also taken
to be 23 millirads (paragraph 230).
237. The dose commitments due to internally deposited carbon-14, strontium-90 and caesium-137 to theworld population are taken to be the same as thoseestimated for the north temperate zone (paragraphs
222-228). As noted in paragraph 234. the doses obtained for strontium-90 and caesium-137 are considered
to represent upper limits of the dose commitments for
those populations that live outside the north temperatezone.
238. Dose commitments estimated for the north andsouth temperate zones, as well as the average for theworld weighted by population are summarized intable XIX.

'!'Alll.E

I.

ANNUAi. ANIJ CtJMULATl\'E WOI!l.ll·WlllJo:

llOSr VEl'OSJTION'J.l(values ill 111egac11rics)
Cum11/ative deposit

Am-iual dtpos-iliou

Soul/1er11
he111isp/1ere

Nortlseru
litmisplsere

l 'rc-1958
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967

-1'-

l.11

0.74
l.lO
0.26
0.35
1.45
2.62
1.66
0.78
0.33
0.17

0.31
0.19
0.17
0.19
0.31
0.33
0.44
0.36
0.21
0.11

TABLE II.

Total

Nortlier11/11111isphere

So11t/1er11
liemisp/itl'lf

1.05
1.29
0.43
0.54
1.76
2.95
2.10
1.14
0.54
0.28

1.7
2.39
3.41
3.59
3.84
5.16
7.62
9.06
9.61
9.70
9.62

0.6
0.83
0.99
1.14
1.28
1.55
1.84
2.21
2.51
2.65

Total

2.3
3.22

4.40
4.73
5.12
6.71
9.46
11.27
12.12
12.35
12.31

2.69

90Sr IN\'ENTORYM(values i11 111egac11ries)
Jlfor.

1963
]11/y

Nov.

ilf al",

J11/y

Nov.

Mar,

J11/y

Nov,

Mar.

1966
lrtly

Stratosphere .. ... ' ............ ' ............
Troposphere .. . ..... ' .....................
Local fall-out ...............................
Glohal fall-out . ...
.... ' ...............

6.5
0.5
2.4
7.2

5.1
0.2
2.4
8.7

3.8
0.2
2.4
9.4

3.0
0.4
2.3
9.9

2.1
0.3
2.3
10.9

1.7
0.1
2.3
11.2

1.3
0.2
2.3
11.5

0.9
0.1
2.2
11.9

0.8
0.1
2.2
12.l

0.6
0.1
2.2
12.2

0.5
0.1
2.2
12.3

TOTAi.

16.6

16.4

15.8

15.6

15.6

15.3

15.3

IS.I

15.2

15.l

..........

16.6

16.5

16.1

16.0

16.1

15.9

16.l

16.0

16.3

16.3

'

Correct1·d for decay to l\farch 1963

1964

1965

Oct,

'""·

0..)

()

()

2.1
12.4

2.1
12.4

0.4
0
2.1
12.4

14.7

14.8

14.9

14.9

16.2

16.3

16.6

16.7

2.2
12.3

15.1

14.9

16.4

16.3

0

Oct.

0.3

0.3
0
2.1
12.3

0.4

1967
]11/y
Apr.

TABLE

III. l?OSr ANO 13iCs IN MILK
u:cs ccmcttdratiou(pCil-1)"'Sr lo calcium ratio(pCi g-1)
Rtgion or country

1965

1966

1967

1968

1965

1966

Argentina ··················
Australia ··················
Austria .....................

6.5
9.2
31
19
19
18
li
115
18
28
30
24

5.2
7
23
13
13
16
12
73
13
21

::i.-

3.8

20
47
138
73

21
28
iO
36
51

33

?"
_;i

26
800
143
58

14
586
106
29

Belgium········· ..........

Canada ....................
Czechoslovakia .............
Denmark............ ······

Faroe Islands ············ ..
Finland ......................
France ····················
Germany-Federal Republic ofGreenland..................

....................
Iceland ····················
India ......................
Israel .....................
Italy ......................
Jamaica ...................
Japan .....................
Mexico ···················.
Nether lands ................
New Zealand ··············
Norway ···················
Panama ....................
Puerto Rico ................
Sweden ....................
Switzerland ············· ...
Hawaii

Ukrainian Soviet Socialist
Republic .................
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics ....................
United Arab Republic .......
United Kingdom ...........
United States ..............
Alaska ..................
Chicago .................
Kew York City ..........
San Francisco ............
Venezuela ············· ....

16

-,

5.3

10

8

8
51
10

17
15
12

9
14
12

108

56
1 100
190
115
130
107

1967

1968

Refcrn1ce,

11

10

20

15

15
24i-250
212,236214
215-219220
124,221,222
202-204
208,209
225,226227
223,224205-207240
210
246,251
228,229230
240
231,232
245
233

34

78
24

61

Dried milk imported from Denmark

7
80

4.3

11

11

3.3
19

2.3
13
9
11

2.0

15
7.9
28

9
6.4
16

11

15
1.5
17
12
40
4.9
8

50
750
24
25
140
270

3

55
107
5.2

60

11

360
37
42
117

4

39

6
18
28

10

8

16
20
15
19
14
14
12
19
9
4.3

12
16
13
12

8
13

11

9
6
8
10

12
9
12

4
13
15

10

69

25

9

14
80
200
56

11

43
40
234
21
21
71
28

184

37
31
181
22
14
46
15

23
146

40

r

_;i

211
240
240
234,235
236
237

78
215

56
90

98
57
57

46
29
34

20
16

20

14

9

51

6
9

20

9

4

12i,239185
242-244
65,238
240
186
240
241
240
240

46

L

TABLE IV. 90Sr AND 137Cs IX TOTAL DIET
mes d.:iJy illt~ke(pCi

HSr to calcfom ratio(pCig-')
Region~ ar~a or country

1965

1966

Austria ····················
Denmark ··········-·····
Faroe Islands ······-·······
Federal Republic of Germany
Finland ....................

40

23

1967

d-'>

1P68

1965

1966

231
193
880
132
340

135
79
500

1967

1968

Refcrc11ccs

Korthern hemisphere..

FranceParis ....................
Southeast ................
Greenland ··················
India (Tarapur) ............
Israel ......................
Japan (urban) .............
Netherlands ·············· ..
Norway .. ·················
Sweden ...................
Ukrainian Soviet Socialist
Republic ·················
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics ...................
United Arab Republic ······
United Kingdom ............
United States ··············
Alaska ..................
Chicago . ·····-···········
Hawaii ··········-·······New York City··-----··-San Francisco ·-··--······

_.,J'

56
36

14
33

10
22

29
21

r_;i

30
34
27
24
22

22
27
15

19
22
9

r_;i

24
21

34

29

28

227
227,252
205-207
251
253
257
233
28

Ii

18
194

89

'297

92

42

63

40

18
12

34

160

38
22

660

221
221
236

28

Survey discontinued

16

29

29

19
21
24

15
10
18
6

18
87
420
132

14
47

28

127
127,128

147

13

45

11

260

35

54
32
57

18
22

84

212,236
124,221,222
202-204
223,224

44
480

12
16
12
6
17
5.5

14
4.3

106
105
140
130
65
170
108

5j

JO

65

3j

242,244256240
240
254,255
240
241
241

Southern hemisphereArgentina ·········-··' .....
.-\ ustralia ······-···········

9
11

7
7

i

5

24

18

IS

249

6

47

TAm,E V.

llOSr/Ca ltATIOS IN HU.MAN DON!'(1111111ber of samples in parentlzeses)
R.1~.11iN1 ill' couut,•y}'car

Bone t,ypc

New-born and/OI' s/il/./IOl'll

0·1 l'ra1·

1 j 1car2 l'<OtS

3 'J'Ca1·s

4 l'C<ll'S

5·19 l'COl'S

19 'J'C<U'S(t1Clults)

Rr.fcrtmc1:s

yn

260

v
v

272

N 01·thern liemisplwre
Canada'.. ' .................. '.

1965
1966
1967

Czechoslovakia.......... ······

1965

2.9
(10)
3.2
(20)
2.8
(9)

7.4
(77)
5.7
(151)
4.0
(141)

8.6
(16)
6.4
(32)
5.4
(44)

10.0
(17)
7.1
(28)
5.2
(35)

7.5
(23)
7.0
(17)
6.2
(20)

6.3
(16)
5.5
(18)
5.0
(15)

4.0
(103)
4.7
(125)
3.8
(138)

3.1
(71)
2.6
(15)
2.6
(59)

4.0
(37)

5.0
(51)

6.9
(10)

3.5
(5)

4.2
(8)

5.5
(3)

4.8

2.2
(141)
1.7
(54)

v
v

220

(56)

v
v
v
v

(10)

2.7
(23)
2.6
(32)
2.1
(42)
1.9
(34)

221

2.7
(32)
2.5
(51)

4.1
(31)
3.5
(35)
2.5
(31)
2.3
(19)

4.8
( 1)
2.1
(2)
1.7
( 10)

5.1
(19)
4.1
(22)
2.1
(14)

2.9
(41)
2.4
(46)
2.4
(23)

0.65
(47)
0.65
(78)
0.72
(131)

Th

258

T

258

T

258

2.7
(13)
2.7
(14)
2.9
(36)

T

261

(43)
1.0
(47)
0.9
(62)

T

261

T

261

v

179

2.1
(56)

v

179

1.0
(20)
0.8
(23)

Re

262

R

262

1968

......................

Denmark

1965
1966

1967
1968

.j>..

00

Finland.......................

1965
1966
1968

Federal lkpuhlic of Germany

...

1\165
1966
1967

France......... ············ ...

1965
1966

Japan

. .. ' .. .... ...... '' ...
''

'

'

2.9
(14)
1.9
(19)
1.8
(22)
1.2

2.9
(34)

p

............. ··········

4.6
(2)

(3)

4.4

(2)

6.2
(JO)
5.5

1.5
(116)

2.9
(15)

5.5
(9)
5.1
(9)
3.6
(9)

2.92
(32)
2.21
(21)

6.8
(47)
4.8
(46)

7.6
(13)
5.3
(13)

3.3
(35)
3.2
(56)

5.1
(13)
3.3
(35)

2.5
(27)
2.1
(27)

11.8

7.4

(3)

(9)

1965

2.2
(12)

1966

l.9

1965

:u

2.5
(92)
2.1
(76)

(4)

(8)
Norway

2.6
(2)

6.6
(25)

5.4
(20)

11.4
(11)

-

-· -

--

l.1

2.2

(69)

272

73

222
124
58

259

\.":-.~

1966

1967
1968

Poland.................. ' .....

..

3.0
(22)
2.8
(17)
2.9
(34)

1965

...............

1965
1965
1966
1967

Union of Soviet Socialist Republics·················· ..

..

1965
1966
1967

+>l.O

1968

1965

1966
1967
1968

All regions······· .............

1965
1966

6.3
(10)
4.4
(14)
4.2
(9)

3.5
(99)
2.5
(132)
2.0
(94)

5.0
(39)
4.1
(81)
3.0
(SI)
2.6
(7)

1.7
2.8
(6)

1.6
(13)
1.2
(18)
0.9
(27)
0.7
(20)

5.6
(9)
5.7

6.8
(8)

4.9
(74)
3.3
(60)

6.5
(8)
4.8
(12)

5.6
(6)
4.1
(7)

5.4
(4)
4.1
(3)

2.S
(23)
2.9
(67)

v
v

263
263

2.7
(58)
.l.2
(5)
2.6
(74)
2.1
(74)

0.9
(23)
1.9
(48)
2.2
(53)
1.6
(108)

Fd

264

v
v
v

264

3.7
(I 559)4.0(I 389)
2.5
(416)
2.10
(871)

1.6
(546)
1.6
(1 032)
1.6
(266)
1,0
(165)

Normalized
lo whole
skeletonc

178

3.5
(39)
3.3
(19)
2.9
(31)
3.1
(42)

2.1
(16)
2.1
(22)
1.9
(54)

v

268

v
v

269

v

243

1.8

1.7

268

(19)
1.6
(16)
1.4
( 11)
1.4
( 14)

1.2
(30)
1.2
(9)

v

(5)
2.7
(3)
1.9
(2)

v
v
v

269

1.8

v

186

(60)
2.1
(61)

v

186

v

186

4.5
(5)

3.3
(13)
2.3
(14)
1.6
(19)
1.8
(1)

3.8
(6)
3.1
(4)
1.7
(3)

3.1
(1)
3.8
(2)

3.9
(22)
3.9

4.1
(12)
4.1
(14)
3.3
(9)

(5)

4.8
(7)
3.2
(6)

3.7

7.2
(2)
6.2
(3)
3.2
(5)

6.7
(6)

3.2
(3)

3.0
(3)
2.9
(4)
1.5
(2)

4.1
(2)
5.0
(I)
4.0
(4)

1.7
(5)
4.8
(18)
4.l
(15)
4.6
(7)

4.3
(15)
4.3
(16)
3.6
(12)

259

259

(16)
7.0
(3)
7.0
(2)
3.2
(5)
3.6
(4)

v

v
v

5.8
(16)
5.5
(48)
4.3
(45)

5.0
(5)
4.3
(80)
4.1
(9)
3.3
(8)

1.3

4.8
(9)
2.3
(1)

(4)
4.3
(10)
3.7
(10)

3.5
(3)

6.1
(8)

3.\

(8)
5.0
(<l)

6.8
(20)

(6)
1967

-· .... '----·

10.0
(9)
6.5
(10)
6.2
(S)

9.1
( 11)

1968
1965

. -·

7.1
(86)

1967

..........

-

2.5
(101)
3.0
(2)
2.2
(90)
2.2
(87)

1966

San Francisco, Cal.

.-

4.0
(3)
6.1
(2)

(37)

United States
New York City, N. Y ........

..

6.8
(4)
5.0
(6)

1966

United Kingdom

,

3.0
(14)
3.2
( 16)
4.5
(2)

2.6
(155)
2.6
( l <J3)
2.7
(93)

1.9

259

264
266

178
178
178

270

(33)

1.2
(23)

1.7
(40)

270
243

TAlll.E

v. OOSr/Ca RATIOS IN HUMAN DONE (co11ti11111~d)(1111111ber of samples iii pare11tlreses)

Nc1<• born and/0Yearl\r11iou or corwfry

01· sli'l/ bo1•110

o.t yea.·

I year·2 years

3 -yrars

4 y,•ari

5·19 years

19 3•ears/Jone type{11d11/ls)

l<le/l·1·t•U£"t•s

So11tlier11 lie111isplicre
Ar~1·11ti11a(littoral area)......

1965
1966
1967

1.6
(12)
1.-1
(26)
1.5
(21)

1968

Austr'alia

1965
1966
1967

t.n

0

r

1.4
(48)
IA
(53)
1.5
1.0
(65)

2.0
(39)
2.1
(30)
1.5
(49)
2.8
(121)
2.0
(171)

1.3
(120)

2.3
(8)
2.0
(IUJ
2.0
(16)
1.8
(15)
3.4
(23)
2.5
(14)
1.7
(18)

2.0
(5)
2.2
( 1.'l)
2.7

1.7
2.0
(12)
1.6

(13)

(15)

2.1

1.9
(15)

(4)

( \())

2.8
( 13)
2.7
(16)
2.2
(8)

n V-V crtcbrac"T-Tibiae
c R-Wbs•t F-Fcmorar Adult vertebrae (Moscow) for years 1965-1968 were 3.1, 2.7, 2.3 and 1.8 pCi (gCa)-1, respecli\•ely.

2.3
( 11)
2.5
(7)
1.8
(8)

15

l.5
(12)
1.5

1.6

(I(>)

( 10)

15
15

1.7
(37)
1.8
(42)
2.5
(9)
2.3
(10)
1.7
(9)

1.5
(102)
1.5
(78)

1.5
(65)

15
0.95
(460)
1.0
(381)
1.0
(276)

v
v
v

24i
z,1t-1249

TAl!Lt: VI.

137Cs llOJlY llURDENS(pCi (gK)-1)

A-Body burden
B-Ratio between United States and local values (acljustecl, when appropriate, to adult average,
assuming the average ratio between male and female values to he 1.3)
Rrgion, arr.a or country

1.ntit11de

Srx

1956

1957

1958

1959

1960

1961

1962

196J

1964

1965

1966

1967

1968

Rrfcr,·uc,•.f

2<)

273

Nor/hem flemis/>lure

United States avera gen ........... 30-so 0 N

MF A

Belgium ........... - 50°N

MF A
ll

Canada (Ottawa) .. ....., 4S"NMF~

Denmark . . . . . . . . . . S5-60° N

MF A

31.5

36.5

47.0

57.0

48.0

32.5

43.0

79.5

140.0

111.5

69.0

-11.0

50
1.04

33
1.02

38
0.91

95
l.20

158
1.13

135
1.21

87
1.2(>

50
1.22

185
1.32

170
1.52
168
I.SI

107
1.54

74
1.81

114
1.08
186
1.45
188
1.69

83
1.20
128
1.62
150
2.18

49
1.20

I 17

76

117

194
1.74

B

109

274

46

127

Federal Republic of
Germany ........ 47-S5°N
28
0.6S

Finland . . . . . . . . . . . . ,..., 60°N

MF~

152
1.91

151
1.08
249
1.55
211
LSI

l'rance . . . . . . . . . . . . . - S0°N

MF A

118
1.48

227
1.62

Israelhl

Karlsrnhe

.....

MF A
B
A
M

Nor<lrhein-Westfalen ........

B

,_..

(.Tl

Italy
Japan

............. -35°N

n

MF A

............. 30-45°N

MF A

Norway ........... -60°N

278
·18

ii

MF A
JI

Sweden ............ -60°N

MF~

Switzerland . . . . . . . . - 50°N}.IF A

74
1.30

68
1.42

5-1
1.66

45
1.05

157
1.98
111
1.40

B

279
280

93
0.58

n

Poland ............ SO-SS N

0275-277

107
1.35

n

1!F

1.64

A

·.w°N

..............

75
0.94

164
1.17
205
1.46
185
1.32

77

54
0.68

281-282

0.60
430
3.85

290
4.20

28

185
1.66
187
1.68
161
1.44

71
139
2.02
92
1.33

1.73
107
2.61

263.28374

so284,28S116

1.22

Union of Soviet Socialist Hcpuhlics ..
:Moscow

Lc11i11grarl....... -ss N
0

A

n

~IF~

... '.

Unitcrl Arab Republic ..........

M

-JO'N

A

181
2.28
145
l.83

258
1.8'4
174
l.:?4

286
142
1.27

<>2

68

1,.1,l

1.66

2J.5

11.~,W7

1·1.5

288

TAkl.E VI.

J.17 Cs uouy llUHl!E:N'S ( cm1ti111ml)

Se.r

1956

1951

1958

19.S9

1960

1961

1962

1963

1964

United Kinwlom .. , 50-60°N

~IF ~

32

37

48

58

35

81

155

1.01

l.02

1.02

49
1.02

36

l.0.2

50-60"N

F..\

55
1.32

57
l.13

50
l.l7

llrm·qu 1 are11 or coulilry

United Kingdom

J.atit11dc

U niled Kingdom ... 56-60"N

H

:M

1.11
33
l.15

0.81

44
l.15

J.(>2

92
I.31

l.ll

149
1.21

A
B

H/611

Rcfer,•uces

1966

1967

77

38

1.11

0.93

60
0.99

33
0.92

118

148
l.!6

89

45

118

1.12

0.96

6(100

4900

1965

150

I.JS
109

l.10

289,290

Sulmrrlir reyioush
Alaslrn ( .t\naklllvnk
65-70"N' ....
'uss)

Arctic(Eastern
Eskimos)(Central
Arctic....
... -· ..

gsl<i mos)

1-J

M

A

M

A

:u

A

3000

4 500

9 JOO

291,292

4 300

293

5800

29.)

11 OOO

65-70°Nl{eindcer hrccilt·r.~,
Laplarni ' .. ''JI

A

ri0-7tJ°N

C:rnadaFinland

~I

3600

4600

8900

JO 300

8900

6300

5 900

131

Union of Soviet S!I·
cialist Retlublii.:~ 65-/0"N

Jl OOO( l~cimlcer hrecd·
er~. N cncls dis~I

lrkt)

1.12

A
Soulhertt llemisp/iel'r

Argc11ti11a. ' ..

30-41l°S

A

Australia. ' ..

. J0-40"SA•Average lmdy lmrdrns for the years 1953, 1954 and 1955 were 2.0, 7.0 and 14.5 11Ci (gK)-'l.
" A vcragc spring to summer \'alue~ for groups largely subsisting on reindeer or caribou meat.

,.....-

65

31

20

16

IS

42

37

18

294

T,\BLE VII.

1311 I:-1 :liIILK AXD THYROID DOSESTime integral •f mJ

lnteg1·ated thyroid
doses to infaa:sconcentratioJ' fa. milk(PC' d l-1)_..\.rgentina
7 602
Bariloche ········-···· ········
26995
Buenos Aires .................
15 028
Salta ····· ··················.
Australia
11 OOO
Malanda (Highest) ...........
1500
Hobart-Launceston (Lowest) ..
4000
Chile (Santiago) ···············
400
Colombia (Bogota) ·············
2 500
Ecuador (Quito) -···············Fiji (Sm-a) ..................... 12 600-15 OOO
13 OOO:Madagascar (Diego Suarez) ....
1 OOO
New Zealand ...................
Peru
6000
Lima ..... ···················
Tacna ····-··--····· ..........
Society Islands(Papeete, Tahiti I.) ·····-···.
> 7300'Vestern Samoa (Apia) ---·---··(mrad)

1967

1968

1966

196i

1968

Rcfe,.enct.s

1392
4346
1800

2477

88
312
174

16
50
21

29

15
15
15

10 360
380

4540
790

1r
-1
17
46
5
29
146-174
150
12

120

1966

Region, area or country

6500
4000

9
5

53
9
<10
<10
<10

22

80

4

?~

_,)

?o
_,)

70

50
120

55

23

TABLE VIII. RELATI\'E DISTRIBUTIO~{ OF 90Sr IN ADt;LT SKELETOK
A - samples not necessarily taken from same individuals

Date

Ri1's

Femur
diaphyses

Whaleskelet011

Whaleskclctou

Wlwle
skeleton

1.5

0.8
0.5
0.45

1956 ···············-·· ....... 3.4
1957 ............ ······ ...... 1.8
1958/1959 ................... 2.1
1959 ................ ····· ...
1961 ........................
1963 ························
1963 ........................ 1.5
1964 ························
1965 ........................
1965 ........................
1966 ···-············-···· ...
1967 -·············. ······ ... 1.9
1968 ................. ········TABLE IX.

1.1

1.4

1.0

0.5

0.6

0.75

Vertebrae

Vertebrae
Fe-mtir

Ribs

diapllyscs

2.3
1.6

4.3
3.6
4.7
5.6
3.1

1.5

2.1
1.6
1.4
1.5
1.4
1.7
1.7
1.4
2.5

Numberofsamplts References

3.1
4.7
2.9
2.7

2
9
59

177
177
177
296
296
179
74
179
179
74
179
74
73

11
4

A
A
A
A
A
A
40
54

BoxE/DlET OBSERVED RATIOSRegion or countr1

Observed ratW

Australia .......................................... .
Canada .................................. · · · · · · · · · · · ·Denmark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......................... .
Japan .............................................. .
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (lfoscow) ....... .
United Kingdom ................................... .
Uni:ed States ...................................... .
Chicago .......................................... .
New York City ................................... .
San Francisco .................................... .

0.33
0.24-0.26
0.33
0.13-0.16
0.20
0.23-0.25
0.18
0.16-0.20
0.15
0.17
0.22

o. Calculated from data published in references 247-249, 297-303.
b Stable strontium in diet from reference 176 and in bone from reference 304.

53

H,295

295

>84

Vert•brae

22
22
14,29.5
14,29.5
14,29523
14,295

References
ll

305
b

306,30788
308,309
310
311
312
312
312

TABLE x. Axxi:AL AVERAGE 90Sr/Ca RATIOS IN ~m."K BY COUXTRY OR AREA IX THE XORTH TDIPER.ATE ZOXE
pCi (gCa)-1
Countr:,: t>r areac~echo·slova·

Ca11ada"' kia2.."0

Year

1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968

Den·

tnarkI':a

9
4

26
28

19
13
10
8

21
20
18
12

4
12
24

r_;:,

17
12
9

Federal
Republicof
Gcr·
ma11y111

3
4
6
5
9
7
6

U11ited States of America
Ukrai·
Net/1cr· 11ian
Fili·
land""" Fra11cell• lauds"" SSR""'

7
6
13
22
23
18
13
10
9

11

26
27
24
16
12

T.-\l!LE XI.

9
25
22
17
15
9

24
19
14
12

Argentina .........................
Australia .........................
Denmark ······ ....................
Federal Republic of Germany ......
Finland ...........................
France ............................
Norway ............. ··············
Sweden .......... ············· ....
United Kingdom ········ ...........
United States .....................

+

P3~.............

7
11
19
19
14
11
9

28

19
12
9

8
19
23
17
10
5

3.5
5.0
5.3
62
8.5
6.5
5.6
11.0
232
22.5
17.4
12.7
9.4

Total 1955-1967

137

5
8

7
7
8
6
9
17
16
12
9
8

1964

1965

1966

1967

1.8

1.5

1.1

1.0
1.7
1.6

1.3
0.9
1.3
1.7
1.8

1.3
0.9
1.2
1.8
1.6
1.0
1.3
1.5

1.3
1.2
1.2

1.4

1.5

2.1
3.6
2.3
3.0

2.0

1.3
1.3

Hawaii ............................
India .............................
Japan .............................
Union of Soviet Socialist Repulilics ..

Population average nosr/Ca ra~io
Levels integrated to year t-1: C 1_ 1
Levels integrated from t to oo : H 1 .
Gt-I
Ht . .. .. .. . ....
. ...
Dietary lcYel integrated to t ....

8
6
4
13
23
18
14
15
8

27
20
J1
9

1963

Year (t)

4
6
6
7
10
6
6
12
26

:Mean

11

8
7
12
26
23
19
12
10

4
4
6
6
4

RATIO OF 90Sr/Ca RATIOS IX WHOLE DIET AND IN MJLK236

Country

TABLE XII.

Uuited,\it:W
USSR
J(inp·
Whole
York Salt Lake
Mosco1u3G dom18S Count,-,"• Chicap,,:tl• Cil~·•ll Ci1y1ao

0.9
1.2

0.9
1.4

1.3
1.4
1.0
1.4

1.6

2.2

3.5

2.1
2.3

2.2
3.1

2.3
3.7

Mean for1963-1967

1.4
1.0
1.4
1.6
1.7
1.2
1.3
1.5
0.9
1.4

1.3

2.3
3.6
2.2
3.0

ESTIMATION OF p !! FROM BOXE ~!EASUREME::o;Ts IN AUSTR:\LlAa
1956

1957

1958

1959

1960

1961

1962

1963

1964

1965

1966

1967

.26

.28
.26
1.92
2.18
8.3
.26

.19
.54
1.22
1.76
12.4

.30
.73
1.91
2.64
17.2
.15

.32
1.03
2.14
3.17
21.6
.15

.63
1.35
4.45
5.80
26.3
.22

.66
1.98
4.64
6.62
32.1
.21

.76
2.64
5.30
7.94
38.5
.21

.84
3.40
5.83
9.23
47.6

1.21
4.24
S.40
12.64
58.3
.22

1.26
5.45
8.87
14.32
65.5
.22

6.71
8.31
15.02
71.5
21

1.6.3
1.63
4.5
.36

.14

.19

° From data given in references 247-249, 297-303.

54lTAllLE XIII.

Year (t)

1955

1956

1957

19511

1959

1960

1961

0

0.17

()

()

0
0

l.14
1.14
4.90
0.23

0.28
0.17
1.89

0.44
0.45
3.00
3.45
19.30
0.18

0.65
0.89
4.23
5.12
28.00
0.19

0.70
1.54
5.46
7.00
40.00

1.01
2.33
7.10
9.43
49.00
0.19

1.21
3.34
8.60
11.94
57.00
0.21

... ...... ... .... .. ..

Levels in clieth integrated to I ....

P:i,

No1rr1-1 TEMl'ERA'fE LATITUDES"

195'

Population average HO Sr/Ca ratio
Levels integrated lo year 1-1: G 11
Levels integrated from I to co: lf 1

c,1 +11-t

EsTIMA'fION ol' l',,_1 FROM uoNE MEASUREMENTS IN............................

2.06
11.90
0.17

().18

1962

1.32
4.55
9.42
13.97
72.50
0.19

1963

1964

1965

J.73
5.87
11.95
17.82
104.50
0.17

2.88
7.60
19.57
27.17
135.30
0.20

3.33
10.48
23.06
33.54
158.50
0.21

1966

1967

2.78
13.81
19.91
33.72
175.900.19

2.32
1(1.5916.73
33.32
188.10
0.18

1968

1.92
18.91
13.92
32.83
200.000.16

a From clata given in figure 17.
''Dietary levels obtained from milk levels (table X) nm Hi plied by 1.4.

TAUl.E XIV.

VALUES OI' D,./D 0 • FOR CORTICAL AND TRABEC\71.AR DONE IN ADUL'r s1-a:r.ETON:n7
Trab~·cu/tlr bout•

(./\

t.n

G1·011ps ofBasis of

bm1es

calc11/atio11

Hip bone
Scapulae
Clavicles

F1·actio11of bo"ciw:.•ol'l'ed

Trabccular
contribution'J5mID o

0.6

0.189

0.11340.4

0.114

0.0456/1Iea11

Hip bone

Corlfrnl lit•Hi'

Mea11

Marr·ow

f1·ad;on,t,,.

t,,.D,,/D 0

Co,.tfral
Co-1:lri brttiou
0

DID
Ill
0

0.03260.051

0.03060.0131

0.072

0.0288l1'1111·ro·w
f,-acti'ou,

t,,.

f

Ill

Ji111 //)

0.0088

"

0.287

0.287

0.0083

CraniLJm

Crnni11111

1.0

0.120

0.12000.119

0.01-13

0.272

o.:mn

O.lllJJ{ibslvlan<liblc

Rihs

1.0

0.138

0.13800.114

0.01570.136

0.1360

0.114

0.53

0.161

0.08530.00490()0.00.160.060

0.02820.05250()0.032-1
0.0155

SICl'lllllll

l111111criJ7 e11111r
Fc111ora

0.0:.7

0.057
0.47

0.1.H

0.0630

1.0

0.124

0.124

0.001(1Vertebrae
Lumbar1•ertebra

0.423

0..123()

Sac1·11111

ToTA!. 0.1367
n JJ,, is the dose rate to a very small tiss11e:-tilletl cavity. It is nsnally taken to be 2.7
mracls y--1 per pCi (gCa)-1. lJ,,. is the mean dose rate to the hone marrow. Therefore, thehone marrow close rate factor due to slrontium-90 in lrahecular bone is 0.1367 2.7 = 0.37

mrads y-1 per pCi (gCa)-1 ancl that from stronti11m-IJO in enrtit"al2.7 = U.18 mrad y-1 per pCi (gCa)-1.

To'l'AI. ().()(i(1()

l>nne is 0.0666

TABLE xv. VALUES OF D 8 /IJ0 8 FOR CORTICAL AND TRABECULAR BONE IN ADULT si::ELETo:-;317

Groups ofbOtUS

Trabtc1dor boneFrac·tion of

Basis

bmle
cor"!..za.
in:ion
TJO/ved

0.6

Mton

Trabecidor
contribution

DID
•
0

0.299

0.179

HipboneScapulae
Clavicles

Hipbone
0.4

0.238

0.095

Cranium

Cranium 1.0

0.200

0.200

fraction,f,Endasteal
frr:dion,

Mean

fD
ID 0
• •

eorlicolcqntribution

DID
•
0

0.05450.051

0.0306

f.

1.0

0.229

0.229

Humeri

0.53

0.284

0.150

Femur

0.304
0.02880.072

0.02880.140

0.0280

0.272

0.272

0.140

0.03810.134

0.0307

0.136

0.136

0.134

0.01820.0090000.00S8

0

0.060
0.47

0.256

0.120

Lumbar 1.0
vertebra

0.258

0.258

!DID
• •
0

0.00930.304

Ribs
Mandible Ribs
Sternum

FemoraCortical bo11e

Ernlostt:al

0.060
0.00720.060

0.0282

0.0934000.0017

Vertebrae
0.362

0.362

0

SacrumTOTAL 0.2516

TOTAL 0.0761

a D 0 is the dose rate to a very small tissue-filled cavity. It is usually taken to be 2.7 mrads y-1 per pCi (gCa)-1.D• is themean dose rate to the endosteal tissues on the surface of the trabeculae. Therefore, the dose-rate factor to cells lining bone surfaces due to strontium-90 in trabccular bone is 0.2516 2.7 = 0.68 mrads y-1 per pCi (gCa)-1 and that from strontium-90 in corticalbone is 0.0761 2.7 = 0.21 mrads y-1 per pCi (gCa)-1.

TABLEA\TI. AIR-DOSE CONVERSIO!'i" FACTORS FOR A PLANE SOURCE138
mes,,. Cs

lHRu

111Sb

•lMn

"Zr

'-"Bo

wee

! 01

Dose-rate conversion factor
KJ Bl mrad y-1 per mCi
knr2 ....................

0.079

0.006

0.032

0.063

0.109

0.358

0.349

0.009

0.073

Mean life Tm; years ········

44.0

1.13

1.44

3.90

1.24

0.257

0.051

0.129

0.157

KJ BJ Tm; ......... ········

3.48

0.007

0.05

0.25

0.14

0.09

0.02

0.001

0.011

Ru

• The conversion factors include dose contributions from daughter nuclidcs.

TABLE XVII. LATITUDINAL POPULATION A?\D FALL-OUT DISTRIDUTIOX50, 315

Arca
Lotitudt(Mm')

70-SQ•N ............
60-70°N ....... ···-·
50-60°N ············
40-so N ............
30-40°N ............
20-30°N ............
10-20°N ............
0-10°N ............
0-lO°S ············
10-20·s ············
20-30°5 ... ·········
30-40°5 ·········-·.
40-so·5 ... ·········
so-<io 5 ............

11.6
18.9
25.6
31.5
36.4
40.2
42.8
44.l
44.1
42.8
40.2
36.4
31.5
25.6

0

0

Popu/aticn(Pet' cent)

0.4
11.9
17.7
23.4

-"·8.4

?"?

4.0
4.2
1.7
1.5
1.4
0.1

Total "Srdeposition
1964-1967(mCi km·=)

Cumula.tivt HSr

8.8
18.9
20.1
14.6
11.1
8.9
5.7
3.5
2.9
5.1
6.2
7.6

26.1
63.8
66.6
42.4
34.0
9.1
4.7
9.4

deposition
to 1967(mCi km-•)

6.4

8.1
13.6
13.6

Totol"Srdepositionl966-mid-l96B(mCi l..1?1· 2)

1.7
3.5
4.9
10.5
9.2
7.6
4.2
5.6
3.8
14.1
30.i
19.7
11.9
1.8

56

I::-.:-TABLE XVIII.

EsTDlATES OF FACTOR Z"°Sr 1964-1967

to 1967

sosr 1966·
mid-1968::--lean deposition, F(mCi km-~)

11.5

42.0

6.3

"i.N;Ftf"J.N,

14.3

42.8

7.8

z

1.24

1.02

1.24

::--rean deposition, F(mCi km-2 )

4.4

9.0

12.3

i.N 1FJ"J.N,

4.2

9.3

12.9

0.95

1.04

1.04

OOSr CU11?t1fa!i-Z.'C

Northern hemisphere

Southern hemisphe1·ezGlobal~Iean deposition, F(mCi km-2 )

7.9

25.5

9.3

"i.N1FJ'2,Ni

13.4

39.8

8.3

1.69

1.56

0.89

z

TABLE XIX.

Dosi;; COMMITMENTS FR011 NUCLEAR TESTS CARRIED OUT BEFORE 1968
Dose commitments (mrad)
Pre.sent estimates

Source of radiatior,

TissueGonads... .... ........... ............... External Short-lived
Internal

r11cs
ia1cs

HQ>

ToTALcCells lining bone surfaces... -····· .......

External
Internal

Short-lived
137Cs
oosr
13<Cs
HCb
89Sr
TOTALCr·:·

Bone marrow ······················ ·····

External
Internal

Short-lived
137Cs
DO Sr
137Cs
HCb
snsr
TOTALC1

1966 EstimatesNorth
temperate:one

Soutlitemperate.cone

Whole world

Wr.ole world

36
36
21
13

8
8
4
13

23
23
2ln
13

23
25
15
13

110

33

80

76

36
36
130
21
16
<1

8
8
28
4
16
<1

23
23
130a
2ln
16
<l

240

66

220

240

36
36
64
21
13
<1

8
8
14
4
13
<I

23
23
64•
z1a
13
<l

23
25
78
15
13
0.15

170

51

140

150

23

25
156

15
20
0.3

a The dose commitments to internally deposited 90Sr and L37Cs given for the north temperate zone are considered to represent
upper limits of the corresponding dose commitments to the world population.
b As in the 1964 and 1966 reports, oniy the doses accumulated up to year 2000 are given for HC; at that time, the doses fromthe other nuclides will have essentially been delivered in full. The total dose commitment to the gonads and bone marrow dueto the HC from tests up to the end of 1967 is about 180 mrads, and that to cells lining bone surfaces is about 230 mrads.
c Totals have been rounded off to two significant figures.

57

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