REPORT OF THE

UNITED-NAXI-ONS .

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EFFECTS OF !iit}ifffHiADIATION.. : . . .

·'GENERAL ASSEMBLY
OFFICIAL RECORDS : SEVENTEENTH SESSIONSUPPLEMENT No. 16 {A/5216}

New York, 1962

NOTE
Throughout the present report and the annexes thereto, references to theannexes are indicated by a letter followed by a number: the letter denotes the relevant
annex and the number the paragraph therein. Within each annex, references to its
scientific bibliography are indicated by numbers.
Symbols of United Nations documents are composed of capital letters combined with figures. Mention of such a symbol indicates a reference to a United
Nations document.

h we ut··m,.

ANNEX FENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION
Content&
Page
INTRODUCTION•••• •• • • • • • •• • •• ••• • •• • •• •• • • •• ••• • •• •• • • •• • •• •• • ••• • •

233

Part

I. PRODUCTION AND TRANSPORT OF NUCLEAR WEAPON DEBRIS •••••• , , •••• , • 234
II. TRANSFER OF RADIO-ACTIVE MATERIAL THROUGH FOOD CHAINS INTO THE
HUMAN BODY • , , • , •• , , , • , •• , ••• , , , , , • , •• , , • , , • , • , •• , • , • , • , • • • • • • 287
III. EXPOSURE DATA • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 347
IV. DISPOSAL OF RADIO-ACTIVE WASTES AND RELEASES FROM ACCIDENTS IN
NUCLEAR REACTORS • , • , , •••••••• , •• , •••••••••••• , • , • • • • • • • • • • • • • •365

ANNEX FENVIRONMENTAL CONTA..~IINATION

Introduction

andPART I

Production and transport of nuclear weapon debris

CONTENTS
P1Jragraphs

lnir!Jduction ...•.. , ....•..••.••..•.•.••.. , • • . • . • . . •Part I. Production and transport of nuclear weapon
debris ...........•••••••.•..........•.•....... , • .

I. PRODUCTION OF RADIO-ACTIVE DEBRIS IN NUCLEAREXPLOSIONS ••...••.•.•••.•. , • , •........••. , • .
Fission products • . . . • . . . . • • • . . • . . • . .. . • • .. • . . • •Production . . . . . • . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . .
Decay characteristics . . . • . . . . • . • . . . . . . .. .. . • . •Fissionable materials and induced activity. • . • • • • •General . . . . . .. .•• . .• • .. .. •• .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . •Fissionable materials • • . • . . . . • . . . • . . • . • • • • . . • .
Tritium .. . . . . . . .. .. . .. ... .•• .. . •. . • .. •• . . . . .
Induction in the bomb casing..................
Induction in the environment........... . • • • . . •Carbon-14 • . . . . . . • • • . . . • . • . . . . . . . • • . . . . . • • • . .
Physical properties of substances present in theradio-active debris .•...•... , , .......••• , • , •• ,Atmospheric explosions . . . . . • .. . . . . . .. • . . .. . . .
Near surface explosions ........ ,..............
Surface or shallow underground explosions....
Other explosion types. • • • • • • • • • • • . . • . . • . . • • • • .
Chemical properties of weapon debris and fractionation . . . . . • . . • . . • . • • . . • • • . . . . . . . . . . • • • . • .
Debris solubility . • • . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fractionation • . . . . • . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • . .
II. INJECTION AND TRAXSPORT OF RADIO-ACTIVE DEBRIS..
Introduction . . • . . . . . • . . . . . • . . . . . . . • . . . . . . • . • • . .
The atmosphere..............................
Types of fall-out........................ • • . . •Injection of radio-active debris into the atmosphere
Partitioning . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . .
Injection •..••••.•..... , .•..... , .•.•.. , .. , , • .
Movement of debris in the stratosphere...........
General . . . . .. . .•. . ••. .•. •••••.•.... .. . • . • • . .
Gravitational settling • .. • .. • • • • . • • • . • • .. . • • • • .
Diffusion . . • . . . . . • • . . • • • • • • • . • • • . . • . • • • • • . • • .
The stratospheric reservoir....................
The Brewer-Dobson model....................
The Spar-Feely model . . • . . • . . • • . . . . • . . . . . . . . •Half-removal times . • . . . • . • . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . .. .
Stratospheric aerosols . .. • . . • • . . . . . . • . • . . • . . . .
Transport from stratosphere into troposphere. . . . .
Transport through the tropopause. . . . . . . . • . . . • •Tropopause movements . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . •Disturbance of the tropopause........... • • • • . •Transport through the tropopause gaps .. ,......

P1Jragraphs

1-6

The troposphere . . . • . . . . • . . . . . • . . . . • • . • . . . . . . . .
Horizontal movements • . . • • . • . . • • • . • . • • • . . • . •Survey of air measurements...................
Air concentrations above ground level. . . . • . . • . .
Air concentrations at ground level..............
Capture of debris in precipitation..............
Dry removal of debris.........................
Half-removal time . . • . . . . . . . • . . . • • • . . . • • . . • . •Carbon-14 .....•.. , .. . • . .. . . • • . • • • • • • .. • • • • . . . .
CH in the stratosphere . . . • • . . . • • • . • • . . . • . . . . . .
CH in the troposphere. • . . . • • • • . • • • . . • . • . . . • . . .
Carbon cycle in nature... . . . . . • • • • • • • . . . . . . . . •Movement of carbon in the carbon cycle •••.... ,

7-120
7-30
11-15
11-13
14-15
16-22
16
17
18
19
20
21-22

III. DErosrrION OF BADIO-ACTIV"E FALL-OUT •.•..•••••..•
Rate of fall-out deposition ........•...•.•• , ••••.•
Methods of measurement ..........••.•.•.••...
Relation to airborne activity •••...••.•.•••••...
Relation to debris concentration in rain •••••...
Relation to total precipitation ...•••.•.•••.••...
Dry deposition .•.•.....••.•••.••..••••..••••.
Measurements of Srllo and Csl.31 ••••••.•••.••..
Measurements of short-lived nuclides ..•.......
Tritium ..••••. , ...••.......•.•..........•..•
Accumulated fall-out deposit .....••.•.....•.....
Deposition of Sroo ........................••..
Other nuclides .•. , .......•..•..•.............
Local factors influencing deposition •••.•.•.....
Deposition and transport in water ..•..••.....••..
The oceans .........•.•.....••......•...•••.•
Lakes and rivers ......•....•...••..........•..

23-26
23
24
25
26
27-30
27
28-30
31-71
31-33
31
32-33
34-37
34-35
36-37
38-47
38
39

53-60
53

54
55

56
57-58
59
60
61-71
61
62-64
65-67

68-71
72-93
74-83
74
75
76
77

78-79
80-81
82
83

84-89
84-87
88

89
90-93
90-92
93

IV. PREDICTIONS OF FUTURE LEVELS ••••• , ••••••••••••• 94-120
Inventory of SrDo .• , ...•.•...•.. , ..••. , .....•... 97-99
100
Other inventories ..........•....•..............
CH inventory ...•.......•....•.••.••...... · · • · · 101-1()4
Prediction of future fall-out. ................... . 105-120
General •...•............•••.......•.......•. 105-106
Sr 9 o and Cs 13T ............•.•................. 107-108
Deposition of Sr9o and Csl.31 from tests up to the109
end of 1960 ..........••....•.••............•A model illustrating deposition of Sr9o and Cs131
from a pattern of tests subsequent to 1960 ..•. 110-114
CH from tests up to the end of 1960 .•....•.•... 115-118
cu from continued testing .................... . 119-120

40
41
42-43
44
45-46
47
48-52
48-49
50
51
52

TABLESREFERENCES

Introduction

1. The explosion of nuclear weapons results in the release of radio-active debris. In the case of a nuclear
explosion in the atmosphere much of this debris will forsome time be found as airborne activity usually aggregated into small particles although some gaseous activity
is also present. The airborne activity is gradually de233

herent complexity of the subject and the incompletenessof our knowledge of the mechanisms involved and theexact conditions of testing. However, since the previous
report of the Committee, much information has beenobtained relating to the dissemination and passage ofdebris from nuclear weapon tests through the biosphere.

posited on the surface of the earth and this deposit isusually referred to as fall-out. Fall-out constitutes themost important source of environmental contaminationfrom nuclear weapons tests. Other sources, e.g. the pollution of the atmosphere by airborne activity and the oceans
by water soluble debris will also be discussed in thisannex.

6. This annex has been arranged as follows :2. The first nuclear explosion occurred in 1945. The
rate of testing was especially high over the years 1954
to 1958; from November 1958 to August 1961, on theother hand, the rate was extremely low. The environmental contamination arising from this testing is themain subject of study in this annex. Data relating to thelarge-scale testing after 1 September 1961 are still too
incomplete to permit a detailed evaluation of the consequent contamination.
3. The contamination of the environment !Ubjects man
to radiation from sources which may be categorized conveniently as follows :(a) External source! consisting of the accumulated
deposit of fall-out on the earth's surface;( b) Internal sources arising from : ( 1) the ingestionof certain radio-nuclides which enter readily into foodchains and are absorbed by man to a relatively great
extent; and (2) the inhalation of airborne particulatematerial which is deposited in the lungs.

!. PRODUCTION AND TRANSPORT OF NUCLEAR WEAPONDEBRISThis section deals with the production and dissemination of radio-active debris from nuclear weapons, withsuch measured rates of deposition and total amounts ofdebris accumulated in the atmosphere and on the earth
as are necessary to evaluate the irradiation from externalsources and from inhalation, and with estimates of rates
and amounts to be expected in the future under specified
conditions.
II. TRANSFER OF RADIO-ACTIVE MATERIAL THROUGH
FOOD CHAINS INTO THE HUMAN BODY

This section summarizes measured levels of radionuclides in food and the human body as well as the present knowledge regarding the mechanisms through whichthese radio-nuclides are transferred from fall-out deposits to the human body and their possible future concentrations in the body.

III. EXPOSURE DATA

4. The discharge of radio-activity from atomic energy installations, hospitals and other premises, may also
cause external and internal irradiation of certain populations. These populations are small and localized compared with those exposed to contamination from nuclear
weapons.

This section evaluates the irradiation of human populations as calculated from the data in the previous sections.

5. This annex presents the available data and estimates the present and future levels of the environmental
contamination and the doses received. The estimates are
subject to considerable uncertainty because of the in-Both routine and accidental releases are described, including type and amount of wastes, and the ensuing doses
to human populations are estimated.

IV. DISPOSAL OF RADIO-ACTIVE WASTES AND ACCIDENTALRELEASES OF RADIO-ACTIVITYPART I

Production and transport of nuclear weapon debris
10. The main contamination of the environment iscaused by the radio-active fall-out deposited on the
ground. An important characteristic of most fall-out is
its particulate nature. These particles are formed when
the fire-ball created by a nuclear explosion cools off andthe processes and materials involved determine to a large
extent the physical and chemical properties of the fallout.

I. Production of radio-active debris in nuclear
explosions
7. The radio-active components of nuclear weapon
debris are mainly produced through the process of fission. Certain heavy nuclei, like those of U 235 and Pum,
disintegrate (fission) into two lighter nuclei under the
influence of neutrons. These fission products are mostly
unstable and undergo radio-active decay. During theprocess of fusion (i.e., the collision and fusing of lightnuclei giving a release of energy) used in large-size
nuclear weapons, essentially only one radio-active product is released, namely tritium.
8. The fissionable materials themselves are radioactive, as also is tritium, sometimes used in explosives
based on nuclear fusion. Not all of these materials areused up in an explosion and they thus will be found in
the radio-active debris.
9 .. An ~xcess of free neutrons is produced in connexion with both fission and fusion reactions. Within a~raction _of <: s~cond these neutrons are captured eitherm matena~s 1ns1de the weapon or in the environment of
the explosion. In this way a variety of induced radioactive materials are formed.

FISSION PRODUCTS

Production

11. When a heavy nucleus undergoes fission, two
new nuclei are usually formed, which in the majority ofcases are of unequal mass. This splitting of a heavy
nucleus may occur in a number of ways and as a result
the fission products formed range in mass from about
70 to 170 atomic mass units. The primary products
formed are as a rule unstable and decay to form new
nuclides which in turn may be unstable. The fission reaction thus results in the formation of a large number ofdecay chains, 1 three examples of which are given below
for future reference (para. 28) :234

/153 2.8 hr Kr 88 +neutron
Chain 89: 4.4 sec Br'\.853 3.2 min Kr-+15.4 min Rb-+50.5 day Sr-+Stable Y
4.59
4. 78
4. 79
/153 3.2 min Kr 59 + neutron
Chain 90: 1.6 sec Br'\.853 3.3 sec Kr-+2. 7 min Rb-+28 y Sr-+64.3 hr Y-+Stable Zr
5.0
5. 77
5. 77
/43 Xe 138+ neutron

Chain 137: 24.4 sec I/'\.963 3.9 min
6.00

923 2.57 min Ba

Xe-+30 yCs!
6· 15 '\. 83 stable Ba(1)

The half-life of each nuclide is given immediately preceding its symbol. The figure below some of the symbols
refers to the fission yield (i.e., the per cent probability
per fission of forming the nuclide) in thermal neutron
fission of U 235 •whereA, = activity of the fission-fragment mixture t unitsof time after the explosion;
A1 = activity of the same mixture when t = 1 unit oftime;n = a parameter which depends on the age of thefission products.

12. In most cases the last two or three members of adecay chain are formed mainly from the decay of precursors, i.e., these products have only small independent
yields (they are not readily formed as primary fission
products). As a consequence the total yield of these latemembers is close to the chain yield except in those cases
where branching occurs, as in chain 137.

Formula ( 1) is approximately valid for a mixture offission products formed in a single e.xplosion. For simultaneous thermal neutron fissions of um, for example,
the law describes the gross beta decay to within 15 percent over the time period from one hour to two hundreddays if a value n = 1.15 is chosen.H For the fission
products in weapon debris however, much larger deviations are observed, especially for the gross y-decay. 16- 20

13. The yield of any given fission fragment varies
considerably according to the nature of the fissionable
nucleus and the energy of the neutrons causing thefission. 1 - 9 Table I gives numerical values for the fission
yields of certain radio-nuclides resulting from the fissionof nuclei of various heavy atoms. The table shows, forexample, that the fission yield of Sr110 varies from 2.2
per cent for Pu239 to 6.8 for Th 232 • Since a combinationof different fissionable materials may be used in experimental atomic devices, the actual fission yields are likely
to be somewhat different when such devices are exploded.
The last two columns in table I give data from measurements on particular examples of weapon debris. 1- 9 Fromdata like these the production of Sr90 and Cs187 in past
weapon tests has been calculated. Figures of 1.00 Mc Sr00
and 1.70 Mc Cs13 ' per 10 megaton of fission energy areusually assumed. Later measurements 9 indicate valuesof 1.09 and 1.73 Mc respectively. Individual tests may
show fairly large deviations from these values.

Decay characteristics
14. As has been mentioned, the explosion of nuclear
devices based on fission of heavy nuclei produces a mixture of nuclides with a wide range of mass numbers.
In all, more than 200 nuclides are formed, 10- 14 most ofthem radio-active, having half-lives ranging from lessthan a second up to many years (in a few cases millionsof years, i.e., essentially non-radio-active nuclides). Thisfission product mixture decays under the emission ofbeta and gamma rays, the gross activity thus decreasing
with time. Since the decay constants of the various
nuclides differ widely (figure 1), it is obvious that thevariation with time of the mixture's activity cannot be
expressed by a simple exponential law. It has been foundthat the gross decay varies inversely with a power of thetime elapsed from the moment of explosion (fission),
i.e., according to the empirical law of Way and Wigner 1 ~:°"7•

Figure 1. Decay of a fission product mLxture

235

The Way-Wigner law is still useful though, as a simple
method of distinguishing nuclear weapon debris fromnatural radio-activity and as a rough means of estimating
the age of fresh debris.
15. The radiation from fission product mixtures has
been studied in some detail theoretically 4 • u, 2 0-2 s and experimentally.29-32 It has been found that they-spectrum
gives a reasonably accurate identification of a fission
product mixture, its age and in some cases its mode oforigin. The average y-energy is usually within 0.64 +0.10 MeV but the intensity of individual y-energies mayvary to a large extent, for example three years after
fission, the total number of gamma quanta per minutefrom 14 MeV neutron fission of U 238 is 80 per centhigher than the value from thermal neutron fission of
U 235 • The theoretical ratio of beta to gamma decays isfound to be close to 1 for fission products less than one
month old, but rises to a maximum of between 3 and 7
three years after fission.'
FISSIONABLE MATERIALS AND INDUCED ACTIVITY

General16. In a nuclear explosion a large number of neutrons

U238 +n----+

U239·---~

24 minThe induced activity of Np 239 is often found to be of
the same order as the gross beta activity of the fission
product mixture in fresh weapons debris.18120• 33 For thesame time period, i.e., ten to twenty ·days after an explosion, it has also been demonstrated 3' that another induced
activity is present in some debris, namely um formed
through a ( n, 2n) reaction in U 238 in certain weapons.
The presence of this nuclide may be taken as an indication of the explosion of a thermo-nuclear weapon. 33
Finally, multiple neutron capture may occur in the fissionable materials, giving rise to small amounts of transuranium elements of atomic number as high as 100.35 • 116

are released. All of these neutrons are very short-lived,
being captured immediately by surrounding nuclei. This
property of the neutrons, apart from being essential forthe creation of the chain reaction that produces the energy in the explosion, gives rise to various types of induced radio-activity-in the fissionable materials, in thebomb case and in the environment of the e..xplosion. Mostof the induced activities are of little biological significance, either because of short half-life or low yield.
Those of importance will be treated in detail in the following paragraphs.
Fissionable materials

17. Weapons based on nuclear fission contain· materials which are alpha-emitters, e.g. U 235, Pu239 and U 238 •Plutonium is the most important among these from thepoint of view of its possible biological effects. In aweapon in which the fissile material is plutonium, muchof this remains unchanged after an explosion. Plutonium
may also be produced in a nuclear explosion by thereaction :33

N J>229'----+
2.3 daysaPu 239---~24,000 yearth's surface, about 50 per cent of the neutrons may
reach the earth's surface and react with the nuclei of
elements in the soil. As a result radio-nuclides of many
elements are formed. 23 ,-1 3 ,+i. They include Si3 1, Al~ 8 andNau which have short half-lives and also the comparatively long-lived Zn65 , Fe55 , Fe59 and Mn 5' etc. This
neutron capture in mineral substances is predominant in
an underground explosion. In the case of an undenvater
explosion, most of the neutrons will be absorbed by thewater and by substances dissolved in it. The major
product is inactive H 2 but radio-active isotopes of Na,
K, P, Cl, Mg, Sand Cd are also formed as well as Zn85
etc. mentioned above."' 3 • 45 When the explosion occurs
high in the atmosphere, practically all the neutrons areabsorbed by the nuclei of nitrogen with the formation of
the long-lived radio-nuclide cu.

T ritimn

18. Tritium may either be present as such in a weapon
or be produced in the explosion by one of the thermonuclear reactions involved.37 • 38 Although the maximum
energy of the tritium /3-decay is only 18 KeV, the long
half-life of 12.5 years and the biological significance ofhydrogen makes some consideration of its importancedesirable.

Carbon-14
21. The quantity of C1 • formed in a nuclear explosion/is determined by the number of surplus neutrons enter!
ing the atmosphere. The production of C14 will depend
therefore on the type of nuclear device exploded andalso on whether the explosion took place on the surfaceof the earth or high in the atmosphere. A "surface" test
will produce approximately 50 per cent of the CH thatwould be produced by the same device in the "air" test,
because about one half of the escaping neutrons will be
captured in the soil or water rather than in the atmosphere. Practically all tht; neutrons escaping from the
exploding nuclear device will produce C14 when they areabsorbed by the atmosphere ..w
22. Estimates of the neutron yield per megaton offission in fission devices have ranged from about 1.5 to
3 X 1026 for various fissionable materials. A value of
2 X l0 2 a neutrons per megaton has been adopted in thisannex. An even wider range of values has been estimatedfor fusion devices depending on their design. Leipunsky37•4' has found a range of 1.5 to 22 neutrons for anenergy release of 180 Me V for different fusion reactions.
This may be estimated as 2.2 - 32 X 1026 neutrons per

Induction in the bomb casing

19. Neutrons captured in the bomb casing and othernon-fissile materials in a nuclear weapon induce a number of other activities. Radio-active iron and zincnuclides have been found in weapon debris 39 as haveamounts of Mn 5' , Co57 , Co 58 and Co60.•a-. 2 These substances are of little biological importance in comparison
with the fission products. In some weapon tests, sufficient characteristic activities of Rh 102 and W 185 have been
produced to serve as tracers for the movement of airborne debris.
Induction in the environment

20. The nature of the activity induced in the environment of a nuclear e..xplosion depends on the nature of theenvi;onment. In a ground surface explosion, or an explosion at such a low height that the fireball touches the236megaton. Libby4 8 • • 9 suggests a value of 3.2 X 10:s neutrons per megaton of fission and fusion, weighted according to nuclear testing prior to 1958. Machta50 gives
a figure, based on United States test experience, of
2 X 1026 neutrons per megaton of total (fission andfusion) yield for an air burst and 1 X 1026 neutrons per
megaton for a ground burst. These latter values are
based on the assumption that equal yields of fission andfusion were employed and are estimated by Machta tohave an uncertainty of a factor of 2. For explosions prior
to 1959, an assumption that 2 X 102° atoms of C14 areformed per megaton of total yield agrees closely withexperimental data on the increase of atmospheric C 1-t.

place, huge amounts of soil or water are mixed into thefireball. The particles formed are usually large (up to2 mm) with an irregular distribution of the radioactivity, sometimes on the surface and sometimes
throughout the volume of the particle. The specificactivity is lower than in the previous cases. 60 However
some small (0.1 µ.) high specific activity particles are als~
to be found. 51

Other explosion types
26. An underwater e.xplosion in deep water initiallycreates the same type of particles as those found after
an atmospheric explosion. Many of the particles are
however soon captured by water to form slurry drops(para. 24). In an underground explosion where thefireball is contained and does not break through to thesurface to form a crater, it has hitherto been found thatthe fireball vapour condenses and mixes with melted
ground material which subsequently solidifies. The resultfor 1-20 kiloton weapons is that 200-500 tons of rockfuse with every kiloton yield of fission products. 61 Someof the gaseous debris does not take part in this process
and has occasionally been found to vent to the surface
and enter the atmosphere. In a very high altitude e.xplosion it is to be expected that the fireball vapour leaves thepoint of the e..xplosion too rapidly for appreciable nucleation or particle formation to occur. The weapon
debris will therefore be either gaseous or made up of
extremely small particles, e.g. clusters of some hundredsof atoms. 62

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES PRESENTIN THE RADIO-ACTIVE DEBRIS

Atmospheric explosions
23. When a nuclear weapon is exploded, an aerosolof radio-active particles is usually formed. Two processes
are involved in this particle formation :51 the heating ofmaterials brought into the fireball and the condensationof vaporized materials. The relative importance of thesetwo processes varies with the weapon yield and the environment of the explosion. In an atmospheric e..xplosion,i.e., an explosion in the atmosphere at such an altitude
that the fireball does not touch the ground, the condensation process is all-important. The contents of the fireball
will consist of the ·vapours of the fissionable elements
and their products and of other materials used in building the atomic device. As the fireball cools down, thesevapours oxidize and then condense to form tiny, solid
aerosol particles. 52 • 53 A prominent constituent of thefireball is often iron vapour, and then many of the particles formed are small, black spheres of magnetite(Fe3 0 4 ) that are homogeneously radio-active as a resultof the incorporation of mainly fission products. The size
distribution ranges from 10 µ. down to 0.01 µ., the mostprobable size perhaps being 0.2 p.54 for a kiloton explosion. The specific activity is high, in one case a 4 µ.
particle has been found having an activity of 5 X 10-9
curie 40 days after its formation. 55

Near smface explosions
24. The situation becomes more complicated in thecase of a near surface explosion, i.e., when the fireballintersects the ground or water surface to a small extent(e.g. a tower shot), because large amounts of soil, wateror iron are included in the fireball. 51 The same kind ofparticles present in an air explosion are found, but they
are often attached to the surfaces of much larger irregular particles of unaltered soil material, or in the case of
a water explosion they have been captured by water toform slurry drops ranging in diameter from about 50
to 250 µ.. Often, these larger particles have been heated tothe melting point and the originally surface-bound radioactivity then distributes more or less homogeneously
through the volume of the particle, which is spherical inshape with a diameter of about J4 to 1 mm. The colour ofthese particles varies from black (iron) to transparent(silicate) with intermediary examples of red or brownish
colours (indicating a mixed composition).111. The specificactivity is again high and may range up to the values
found in air explosions.17• sa-a 9

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF WEAPON DEBRIS AND
FRACTIONATION

Debris solubility
27. The solubility of the debris is very sensitive to thecomposition of the explosion environment, including thestructural materials of the device. Regardless of theweapon yields, 63 air explosions produce small particles
with high solubility. Solubilities in water of up to 30
per cent and in 0.1 N HCL of close to 100 per cent havebeen found. 19 Ground surface explosions produce a large
fraction which is highly insoluble but also a smaller
amount of particles similar to those from an air explosion.19 Explosions in deep water give particles which arehighly soluble (i.e., more than 90 per cent) whether thedebris is associated with large amounts of water andfalls close in or is more widely dispersed. 51 Shallow
water explosions finally give particle solubilities intermediately to these extremes. In general, stratosphericdebris is completely soluble and has been shown to becompletely available to animals.M-66

Fractionation
28. The process of particle formation takes place in
only one or a few seconds after the e.xplosion of a kiloton
weapon, and even in a megaton e..xplosion the delay isless than a minute. As has been pointed out earlier(para. 11) some of the fission chains start out with agaseous or volatile precursor (e.g. isotopes of Kr, I or
Xe). Table II shows the percentage of some mass chainsthat may be in gaseous form during the early period
after an explosion.67 • 68 Substantial fractions of somemass chains are gaseous and this has an important effe~ 9on the distribution of individual nuclides among theaerosol particles that grow out of the supersaturated
vapours of the rising cloud. Such distribution differences
are referred to as fractionation. This phenomenon is

Surface or shallow underground explosions
25. In the case of a surface or shallow underground
explosion, i.e., when appreciable crater formation takes
237

very complex and not completely understood, although
it has been studied both theoretically10 and experimentally.11, 19, s2, s1, sa,68, 61-s9, 11-1s It is to be expected in general that fractionation would increase with a decrease ineither the explosion yield or the height of burst. 68 Exceptions to this rule have, however, been found.
29. Considering specific radio-nuclides it has been
observed03 that the ratio of Sr90 to total fission productactivity increases with decreasing particle size, and that
Sr90 associated with large particles is concentrated in athin surface layer. As a result, all of the Sr90 may bewater soluble even when appreciable fractions of otherradio-nuclides are not. Sr8 9 , 1131 and Csm are likely to
fractionate even more strongly than Sr90 (table II) andthis bas also been found to be the case. 68 Correspondingly,
nuclides such as Zr90 + Nb 95 concentrate preferentiallyin large particles of refractory material, e.g. iron oxide
or silica.
30. In table II the percentage of some induced radionuclides that is in gaseous form is also shown together
with the fission products. From the data it is to be expected thatand Np 239 will not fractionate, whereas
tritium and C14 will. This is especially true for C1' as it
is formed outside the fireball to a large extent. It is also
likely that this C1'' is rapidly converted to CO and C02
which will then move upwards with the hot gases fromthe explosion.

um

II. Injection and transport of radio-active debris
INTRODUCTION

The atmosphere
31. The structure and characteristics of the earth's
atmosphere strongly influence the transport and deposition of injected radio-active debris. Figure 2 gives a very
schematic picture of the structure of the atmosphere. In

the troposphere, cloud formation, precipitation andturbulent mixing are important phenomena. The stratosphere has a more stable structure because of the temperature distribution. The boundary between troposphereand stratosphere is known as the tropopause and lies at
an altitude of about 16 km in equatorial zones and 11 km
in temperate and polar regions. There are always two
main breaks in the tropopause of each hemisphere (onlyone breal{ is shown in figure 2), the first one between thepolar and middle latitude tropopause and the second
between the middle and tropical tropopause. In association with each gap there is a jet stream, a zonal windof high velocity.
Types of fall-out
32. Particulate radio-active debris injected into theatmosphere is to a large extent deposited on the earth's
surface as fall-out. Gaseous debris, e.g. P 31, Kr85 andCH02 may also reach the surface of the earth. Conventionally, three different types of radio-active fall-out arerecognized-local (or close-in), tropospheric, and stratospheric:(a) Local fall-out takes place near the point of explosion and within about one day. It is significant especially in connexion with surface or near-surface bursts;(b) Radio-active debris that is injected into thetroposphere and carried around the world is depositedon the earth's surface as tropospheric fall-out. As longas this activity is airborne (about one month) it is referred to as tropospheric debris ;( c) When debris injected above the tropopause is
finally deposited on the ground (which may take one orseveral years) it is referred to as stratospheric fall-out.
Stratospheric debris will naturally be observed in the
troposphere some time before it deposits.

33. Gaseous debris usually resides in the atmosphere
for a longer time than does particulate debris injected at
the same time and place. The atmospheric processes ofremoval are complex and variable; for instance, !181 mayreach the ground absorbed on particles, dissolved inprecipitation. through gaseous impaction or direct absorption in the pulmonary tract from inhalation of air.
INJECTION OF RADIO-ACTIVE DEBRIS INTO THE
ATMOSPHERE

Partitioning
34. The partitioning of the radio-active debris between
local, tropospheric and stratospheric fall-out depends
upon three factors governing the injection: weapon
yield, height of burst, and the meteorological conditions.
Figure 3 gives some dimensions of the radio-active cloud
as seen about ten minutes after a surface explosion. 74 • 7 5
The figure shows that the radio-active aerosols fromsurface explosions with yields greater than 100 kilotonsof TNT may rise considerably higher than the tropopause. This becomes true for even smaller weapon yields
when the explosion takes place high up in the air, andfor an atmospheric explosion above the tropopause ofcourse all the activity is stratospheric.

TROPO$Ft!ERE

-30"C

90
N

60

Degrees latltiJ.ii11
Figure 2. Structure of atmosphere in July90s

35. Direct measurements of the partitioning of debris
between local, tropospheric and stratospheric fall-out arevery few and uncertain. Some values have however been
postulated"6 • 49 • • 0 -•s and a summary of these is given intable III.7 9 The data are very approximate in nature.
They apply only to the gross activity and not to individual
radio-nudides like Sr90 and Cs 137 -..vhich may partitioninjection. Based on the limited data available, one approach is to compare the activity levels from the injections of the autumn of 1958 with those of 1961. However, the first months of deposition are not typical of theannual pattern of fall-out because it is expected that thecharacteristic peak of debris \vill appear only in thespring of 1962. Only after the measurement of thisspring peak at many places of the globe and the evaluations of these results can the 1961 injections be reliably
estimated. Data available (as of March 1962) include
measurements of deposition of Sr90 for three months of1961 (October, November, December) in Tokyo84 andfor one month (October) in Abingdon (United Kingdom)85 and in four towns of the United States. 811 Mostof these measurements showed that the rate of Sr90 deposition in 1961 is less than in the same months of 1958.
There are data about the Cs137 deposition only in Toh.70
in the same months. The rate of Cs 137 deposition for twomonths was higher and for one month less thm in 1958.
Measurements of short-lived activity in air, e.g. in the
United Kingdom 85 and Japan, 87 showed that levels rose
sharply in September 1961 to levels of the same order
as in corresponding months in 1958. Notwithstanding
the obvious scarcity of data as a basis for long-term
extrapolations, the similarity of the character of fall-out
levels from the tests in 1958 and 1961 permit an estimateof the 1961 injection as near to the 1958 autumn injection. During 1959, a global integral from monthly
collecting sites gave 0.86 Mc Sr90 from the autumn tests. 88
This, combined with an estimate of the corresponding
portion of the stratospheric reservoir, gave a total of
about 1 Mc Sr90 ( 10 MT fission) ; a figure in reasonableagreement with injection estimates of 0.6 Mc8~ and 1.2
Mc.~ One might assume that this figure of 1 Mc is anunder estimate of the 1961 injection, bearing in mind
that fall-out could be distributed over a longer time than
was the case after the 1958 injection.

60'i-:- 50
r

j

~

;

~

'ii

E

II
~

..

ll

~ :io
l

l

50

100 :200 • -'ODi:2·

s I 10 . J)

M.rot...
T...1--n yiald (TNT f'l\llYal.nl) •Figure 3. Approximate nuclear cloud dimcnsionsTs

differently because of fractionation phenomena, giving
smaller contributions to the local fall-out in relation to
the gross activity. For induced activities, even more
extreme conditions may apply. Tritium and C14 , forexample, contribute a different proportion to the close-incontamination than does activity induced in the soil.
Injection
36. For theoretical predictions of fall-out from
nuclear e..xplosions, it is necessary to know the quantityof radio-active products injected into the atmosphere.
This quantity is determined not only by the energy yieldof an explosion, but also by two quantities dependent on
the construction of the nuclear weapon concerned: thefi~sion-fttsio!l r_atio which gives the amount of fission
products, and the .Ileutron yield per unit of thermonuclear energy which gives the C14 production. Suchvalues of these coefficients which have been published are
not supported by published experimental and theoreticalevidence. Therefore, at present, the Committee's calculations of past injections are based on the measurementof deposition of debris and of inventories of the atmosphere during sufficient periods of time after the explosion. With respect to the explosions produced before
1961, an estimate has been published 46 • 80• 81 of the fission
and neutron yields of all the explosions based on postulated values of fission-fusion ratio and neutron yield.
This estimate is given in table IV. With the help ofcoefficients from table III, the stratospheric injection of
explosions prior to 1961 is estimated as 68 megaton offission energy yield, i.e., 6.8 Mc Sr90 and the quantityof cu atoms as 24 X 1027 • The amounts of Sr90 and CH
agree reasonably well with the measured Sr90 deposit(table XIV) and in the atmosphere (table XVI) as wellas with the amount of ea appearing in the atmosphere(table XVII). This shows that the over-all values ofcoefficients and energy yield accepted in references.e• 80 • 81
are not in contradiction with experimental figures for
Sr110 and C1 "' although other combinations are possible.
There are estimates of the yield from the 1961 e..xplosions(total energy yield-120 megaton, fission energy yield25 megaton).82 • 83 The correctness of this estimate of thestratospheric injection from the 1961 explosions is as yet
unknown, as sufficient time has not elapsed to allow
measurement and evaluation of the inventory. The
principal considerations given at the beginning of thisparagraph ·are applicable to this estimate.
37. At present there are not sufficient data on fall-out
from the 1961 tests to make an accurate estimate of the

MOVEMENT OF DEBRIS IN THE STRATOSPHERE

General38. Different theories have been put fonvard in recent
years regarding the mechanisms responsible for thetransport of radio-active debris within the stratosphere.
It is generally agreed, however, that the factors that are
most important comprise advection, diffusion (usually
turbulent) and gravitational settling of particles. The
first of these processes, the mass movement of air, is themost rapid with wind speeds of even more than 100
km/hr90 in the east-west directions. These zonal winds
distribute radio-active debris in a latitudinal band of thestratosphere circling the earth within a few days to si..,..
weeks after the injection. Vertical movement is notnearly as rapid because of the thermal stability of thestratosphere, and horizontal movement of stratospheric
air streams from north to south (and the reverse) is also
insignificant in comparison. This will be discussed further in paragraph 42.
Gravitational settling

39. Gravitational settling of debris particles may be
important during the first one to two months after an
injection but there are indications that it plays a roleeven for older debris. 01 • 92 One estimate93 shows that atheights of about 20-30 km the fission product activity
may be associated with very small aerosol particles offrom 0.055-0.095 microns. According to another estimate, 94 the particle dimensions at these altitudes vary239

between 0.02-0.2 microns. Direct measurements 95 haveshown most particles to be less than 0.2 i:iicrons and it isthus in general to be expected that the size range shouldbe 0.01-1.0 microns some months after injection.06 • 97
Below 30 km such small particles settle extremely slowly
by the action of gravitati~nal forces and. it maY: therefoi:ebe inferred that the particles move mamly with the air
masses in which they are suspended. 18 Above 30 km, on
the other hand, settling may occur more rapidly owing,among other things, to the low air density. 62

Diffusion
40. With regard to the importance of diffusion as atransfer mechanism of nuclear weapon debris, there
seems to be rather firm evidence that the rate of diffusive
mbcing is smaller in the stratosphere than in the troposphere. 7s, o8

The stratospheric reservoir
41. Apart from the early time period, when gravitational settling may remove some of the activity, the different processes of removal thus all appear to be rather
slow in comparison with the zonal advection. It is therefore generally agreed that radio-active debris injected
into the stratosphere may remain there for some time,
constituting a reservoir that is only gradually depleted
when activity moves down into the troposphere and fromthere to the surface of the earth. If rapid mixing andconstant fractional removal per year is assumed, therate of depletion may be expressed by giving a hal~­removal time of the stratosphere, T 0 . 5 (the mean residence time Tm is often used alternatively, the relation
being Tm X ln 2 = To.~). Only data of a very approximate nature 33 •9 g were available for the 1958 report, and it
was stated that "the mechanism of transfer from thestratosphere to the troposphere is not completely understood" .100 As no direct measurements of the stratosphericreservoir were available, its size was estimated from themeasured rate of fall-out and an assumption of 10 year~
was made for the mean residence time. This value wasrecognized as an upper limit ( 5 years being more probable) and was adopted mainly because it gave a conservative estimate of the size of the reservoir. The situation has improved in subsequent years to a large extent
through studies of the atmospheric transport of weapon
debris. These studies will be described in the following
paragraphs.
The Brewer-Dobson model

43. Several modifications of the Brewer-Dobson
model have been proposed. 741 • 107-m Clearly the only wayof resolving the question of stratospheric transport isthrough actual measurements in the stratosphere. Many
results of such measurements have now been reported. si, s3, 8s, 1os, 11._1 s1 Using the nuclear weapon debris
as a tracer it has been possible to map the meridional
movement up to altitudes of about 30 km. This information is gathered both through measurements of actual
concentrations of such fission products as Sr~, Sr81\
Ce 1 « and of induced activities such as C14 , W1 85 andRh 102 • Studies of the change with time of the ratio ofthese activities have also proved useful in evaluating thetransport mechanisms. The ratio Sr89/Sr9° for instancedecreases in a known way with time after fission andits measured value is therefore a better indication of thedebris age than are data on nuclide concentrations only.
In figures 4 and S the stratospheric distribution of Sr90
and W1 85 in the period May-June 1959 and 1960 are
shown. 152 It is apparent that the ma.ximum Sr9° concentration in 1959 over the equatorial tropopause had vanished in 1960 and there were instead less intense maxima
in the polar regions. Although this is consistent with one
version105 of the Bre\ver-Dobson model, the data on W1 85(figure 5) are not. This nuclide was injected in thetropical stratosphere in 1958 and since then (as of themost recent measurements in June 1960) the maximum
concentration has remained stationary over the equatorial region. In addition measurements on Rh102 shown 2that the polar maxima of Sr'° in 1960 were to someextent due to debris injected in 1958 with one explosion
at 30 km (this injection was about 3.0 Mc of Rh102 andthe nuclear cloud rose much above 30 km and probably
into the mesosphere). This debris has gradually moved
downward and poleward. The modified Brewer-Dobsonmode1 105 has therefore met some additional objections

100

.,

eo--._,.I"""'----"

42. The first efforts to explain the mechanism ofstratospheric transport of radio-active debris were madeby Machta 101 and Stewart. 102 Their proposal is based ona model originally proposed by Brewer103 and Dobson 104
to explain the stratospheric distribution of water vapour
and ozone. This model assumes that besides the rapid
zonal air movement there is a slower meridional circulation of tropospheric air. This air is heated in the tropical regions and carried up into the stratosphere whereat altitudes around 30 km105 it moves polewards, sinks
and re-enters the troposphere in late winter and spring.
This model is consistent with such experimental findings
about the ground deposition of fall-out as: (a) a seasonalvariation of fall-out rate: ( b) a maximum fall-out deposition in middle latitudes; ( c) a greater deposition in the
ported. 31, 33, 8 8 , 1 0 5 , 11...1u Using the nuclear weapon debris
injected into the lower polar as compared to the lower
tropical stratosphere. Supporting evidence has also beenfound in measurements of the deposition of naturally
produced Be 7 • 106-108!IO

UTITllDC

Fig"re 4a. Stratospheric distribution of Sr90 in dpm/103 SCF(= 0.016 µµ.c/m3) during May-June 19591 5 2

10

ICJ"'

a

.,.

za-

""

'"°"™
LATITU:lE
Fig"re 4b. Stratospheric distribution of Sr90 in dpm/10 3 SCF(= 0.016 flµc/m3) during May-June 19601:;2240

basis for describing the removal of weapon debris fromthe stratosphere. There are three parameters that govern the removal of injected debris: altitude, latitude andtime of explosion. If the measurements are interpreted
in terms of half-removal times these are found to varyalso with time after injection, becoming increasingly
longer. This is indeed to be ex.pected as the stratosphereis not uniformly mixed and as the rate of removal isseasonal and localized rather than uniform in time andspace. The concepts of half-removal time and mean residence time thus have very limited usefulness. A numberof estimates of half-removal times have been given in
the literature. 12s, l 53- 155 Some estimates (pertaining to removal of the first half of the injection) have been proposed based on stratospheric measurements : 1~• 1. 52

lO
~

""

LATITUOfi

l!O'

Figure Sa. Stratospheric distribution of w1s5 in dpm/103 SCF(= 0.016 /l/lc/m3) corrected to 15 August 1958, during MayJune 1959152

MimthsLower polar stratosphere (autumn injections)5Higher polar stratosphere ......................... 12
Tropical stratosphere up to 20 km .•.............. 10
Tropical stratosphere 20-30 km .................... 20
Tropical stratosphere 30-45 km. . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . 30
Mesosphere above 45 km ....•..................... 60

The uncertainty of these figures is great, at least SO percent and sometimes maybe 100 per cent. Until there is amore complete understanding of the meteorologicalfactors that influence stratospheric transport of debris
the values cited above should be considered tentative andused with caution. It has, for example, been pointed
out153 that debris injected into the lower, temperate
stratosphere may be removed within a matter of hours
under exceptional circumstances. The figures for altitudes above 30 km are based only on extrapolations ofmeasured data. Despite these uncertainties it has been
said that the upper limit is probably ten years for debris
injected anywhere in (or falling on top of) the atmosphere.152 Similar values are not available for the southern hemisphere, since the northern hemisphere stratosphere acts as a continuing source of debris passing into
the southern hemisphere. Two seasonal trends may also
be emphasized: the more rapid transport of debris fromthe tropics into the winter hemisphere than the summer
hemisphere and a downward transport of high altitudedebris to the vicinity of the polar tropopause in late
winter. That much is still unknown about the transportmechanisms at high altitudes can be inferred from thefact that there is only one observation published on therise of a cloud from a high altitude explosion. 156

10 ....

.

I
20'

""

LATITUO~

20'

Figure Sb. Stratospheric distribution of w1s5 in dpm/103 SCF(= 0.016 µµ.c/m 3 ) corrected to 15 August 1958, during MayJune 1960152

as a result of the high altitude samplings. Possibly theseand other objections may be overcome through the further modifications suggested by Goldsmith and Brown. 113
A basic uncertainty in dealing with this problem is thelack of data from above 30 km altitude.

The Spar-Feely model
44. One difficulty with the unidirectional poleward
flow postulated in the Brewer-Dobson model is the finding that although an injection of debris into the tropicalstratosphere is noticed after some months in temperate
and higher latitudes, there is also a southward movementfrom polar injections. 152 Evidence of this151 was the collection at 20 km at 30° N on 4 October 1961 of debris
from an explosion injected in the polar region sometime between 10 and 15 September 1961. The total
beta activity was about 40,000 dpm/m 3 and later samples
showed even higher concentrations. In order to explain
this and other results discussed previously, Spar andFeely'141 • 144• 145 have proposed the existence of a bidirectional, diffusive e,'{change rather than a unidirectional,
mass flow in the stratosphere. Actually two phenomena
may be involved in this model, only one of which is diffusion, the second being that the zonal winds are notstrictly zonal but show a meandering pattern, the effectbeing larger in temperate and especially polar latitudes
than close to the equator.

46. Although the half-removal time is based on a simplified concept of the mechanism of atmospheric decontamination, some estin1ate is useful in determining which
short-lived fission products may reach the earth's surface before they have fully disintegrated in the stratosphere. The percentage of relatively short-lived radioisotopes (Sr811 , Y 91 , Zr95 , Ru106, !1 31 , Ba140, Ce1 -n, Ce1~)
falling out from the stratosphere onto the earth's surface
increases as the stratospheric half-removal time diminishes.

Stratospheric aerosols
47. In connexion with the measurements on stratospheric debris it has been found157-uo that there exists anatural aerosol layer extending from the tropopause up
to about 25 km with a ma-ximum concentration around
20 km of aboot 1 particle/cm 3 • The particles are mostly
composed of ammonium sulfate or persulfate and haveradii in the range from less than 0.1 to 1.5 microns.
It has been estimated161 that weapon debris has a coagu-

Half-removal times

45. Present meteorological evidence is evidently insufficient to permit a definite choice as to what model best
represents the characteristics of the stratosphere. However, the measurements referred to have given a better
241

Ia.tion half-life with this natural aerosol at 20 kill of 20,
80 and 280 days for particle sizes of 0.005, 0.01 and 0.02
microns. It may thus be that small radio-active particles
are incorporated into the natural dust background before
they are removed from the stratosphere. This may havesome effect on the rate of removal, especially of debris
from high-altitude explosions that is of very small particle size. It has also been suggested that the influenceof~olar rad_iatig_n on particle transport may be decisive,
especially in the ~rly_ex~atl_sion stages_of_ the- radioac~clo_ud.162 The significance of these two processes
can at present not be evaluated from experimental data,
however.
TRANSPORT l"ROM STRATOSPHERE INTO TROPOSPHERE

Transport through the tropopause

48. The characteristics of the tropopause probably
play a crucial role in the stratosphere to tropospheretransfer of radio-active debris. Danielsen163 has madean extensive study of the tropopause concept and demonstrated that it is not that of a "membrane" preventing
mass flow of air. Rather, the tropopause should be defined as a surface lying between one high-stability region(the stratosphere where the temperature increases withaltitude) and a region with low stability (the troposphere
where the temperature decreases with altitude). If isentropic surfaces are calculated from measured data on
temperature and pressure, it is found that these surfaces
may intersect the tropopause. 153 This means that mass
movement of air is possible across the tropopause, although this may not occur to the extent necessary to
explain quantitatively the transport of debris from thestratosphere to the troposphere. However, isentropic airtransfer in combination with rapid vertical diffusion may
explain the steep gradient of airborne activity concentration immediately above the tropopause (figure 6).10530...............
25..................

.........~,.
.....,.
I

20.........

iaos

49. Diffusion across the tropopause may occur but isprobably of little importance.143 It has been shown17 thatfor fresh debris, gravitational settling of 5 micron size
particles is faster than diffusion into the troposphere.
As the debris gets older, gravitation plays less of a role,
although the existence of the natural aerosol layer(para. 47) may still promote some settling of debris.
Tropopause movements

50. There is a seasonal movement of the tropopause(figure 2) that could account for much of the transfer
of debris to the troposphere. This movement is noticeable
in the temperate latitudes and of particular importancein the polar regions where the tropopause vanishes during
arctic and antarctic winters.164 It is then sometimes notedthat the temperature continues to decrease with altitude
even above 10 km and turbulent mixing may therefore
take place to very high altitudes. In the polar and temperate regions large volumes of the lower stratosphere
may thus be incorporated each spring within the troposphere. This trend is reversed in the autumn.
Disturbances of the tropopause

51. Staley153 has pointed out that in connexion withlarge-scale atmospheric disturbances in temperate andpolar latitudes, vertical air transport may occur from thelower stratosphere and down to an altitude of 1-2 km,
i.e., the lower troposphere. Although this observation isbased on only one example of an e>.."tratropical storm thatwas considered typical, there is some evidence in supportof Staley's finding. Miyake et al.m-i<1s have found a goodcorrelation both between the incidence of an extratropical disturbance and high radio-activity in air and rain
and between the frequency of such disturbances (asmeasured at the 500 mb level) and the global Sr9° deposit (figure 7). For the second correlation to be meaningful the stratospheric concentration of debris close to
the tropopause should be fairly constant with latitude.
This assumption seems reasonable from figures 4 and 5.
Additional support may be found in the fact that a stuayof the stratosphere between 30°-90° N in the spring of195958 showed the net zonal removal to be approximately
pro~ortional to the area of the zone, i.e., a curve of ashape similar to figure 7 (except between 30°-40° N).
Transport through the tropopause gaps.....

52. The possibility of mass transfer of air and debris
through the tropopause discontinuities or "gaps" (figure 2) ~as been extensively referred to in the literature.
Accordmg to Staley, 153 however, "there is no meteorological evidence that jet streams must flow downward" .
Direct sampling in the gap region 116 shows some mixingof stratospheric and tropospheric air but the magnitudeof the phenomenon is not impressive as judged fromthese data.

1i

~

l< 15

.!:

THE TROPOSPHERE

7.5

H orizo1ital movements

53. The transport of radio-active aerosol clouds within
the troposphere has been extensively studied. 169 It has
been found that the radio-active clouds from e.xplosionsof comparatively low power, reaching altitudes of between 7 and 11 kilometres, enter the zone of persistenthorizontal winds. Horizontal air stream speeds in thiszone are usually so high that radio-active clouds can circle
the earth within two or three weeks, or even less. Direct
observation from aircraft of the movements of a corn-

Sr90 d/mln/m3 air

Figure 6. Vertical distribution of Sr11o at various latitudes
July 1957-June 195g1os'

242

sr-90mc/km.2°lo30

Sr 90 depoeition

0

W 0 E
20

00

--){--

25·---A---- OOO 'IC
15

15
10

10
5

I

I

I

I

I

I

_.,.. .P

0

0

90

80

70

60

JI)

50

30

20

10

0

°H
LatitudeFigure 7. Frequency distribution of trough at SOO mb and fall-outlsa(45'0 N), 182 in Panama (10° N),183 and in England(52° N) 181 on 23, 24 and 28 February respectively, andfinally in Sweden ( 60° N) 185 and Czechoslovakia( 50° N) 158 on 1 March 1960. In another case it has
been suggested that tropospheric debris from injections
at about 70° N appeared in about a month in Australia( 15° S). 187 It is perhaps possible to generalize about the
average distribution from repeated tests at the same siteand say that tropospheric debris tends to produce a maximum air concentration displaced towards temperate latitudes irrespective of the test site location. 76 • 1 88 But itshould in any case be realized that only evaluations of thesynoptic situation can give a detailed explanation of results such as those shown in figure 9. 189

pact radio-active cloud170 • 111 has shown that the cloud
lengthens in the direction of movement and in some cases
may divide into independent sections where there is asteep wind speed gradient with altitude (figure 8).m
The assertion is sometimes made that tropospheric debris
distributes in the general latitude in which the e..-..;:plosion
occurred.*8 • 4n,irs,m As is evident from figure 8, this is agreat oversimplification. Recent measurements haveshown that a tropospheric injection at latitude 27° N
on 13 February 1960 was found in the ground level airin Ghana (5° N) on 14 February, 175 in Cairo (30° N)
the next day, 110 • 177 in Bombay (20° N), 178 and Crimea(45° N) 179 on 16 February, in Japan (35° N) 180 and
Israel (32° N) 151 on 17 February, in Romania

Figure 8. Early history of the Mike cloudHZ

243

Figure 9. Total beta activity in surface air (µµc/mS)189244

Survey of air mearnrements

Air concentrations above ground level
55. There are at present relatively fe\v data on activity concentrations in tropospheric air above groWld
level.aa, 1u, 118, 1ss, 20•, 2s3, 201,21s Table yi9s, 201 gives somedata on the average concentration of Sr90 and Csu• in theatmosphere over the USSR in 1955 and 1956. Figure 10
shows the variation of Cs137 with altitude and time, giving
some stratospheric and ground level measurements forcomparison. 115 • 211 • 2 • 5 A seasonal variation of airborne
debris is clearly demonstrated as well as an increase inconcentration with altitude.

54. A large number of measurements of weapon debris
in tropospheric air are now available. 33 • 69 • 8 s,u._ru,:ia5uo,154·1•S-218 niiost of these data relate to measurementsof the total beta-activity of fission products. The principal shortcoming of these latter studies is that the age ofthe investigated activity, with rare exceptions, remains
unknown ; the energy spectrum of the radiation and thenuclide composition of the activity is then also unknown.
It is therefore impossible to utilize these data either foran accurate evaluation of health hazards (F III) or foran explanation of tropospheric transport of debris. Inview of the large amount of work that has been done
the world over in measuring total ,8-activity of air (andrain, para. 74) one might express the hope that the general uselessness of total ft-measurements might be more
widely realized and modifications introduced in future
measurement programmes so as to yield meaningful
results. In consequence, the data on airborne activity
reviewed here will pertain only to measurements giving
some indication of the age or composition of the fission
product mixture.

J1)1C cs

137

Air concentrations at ground level
56. Measurements of air concentrations at groundlevel are much more numerous than those at higher altitudes. Existing determinations of Sr9° show the same
seasonal variations as observed for Cs 137 (figure 10)
although the effect is much less marked for the southernhemisphere. Go, 121,154, 192, 20s, 21s, 21s, 220-221, 220, 231, 2a3, 2a• It isalso evident that the northern hemisphere has a considerably higher amount of airborne activity than thesouthern part of the globe, but this difference decreased..
.

per kg ol air:•

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A~

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..

:.
o,01r-~~~-r-~~~-+~·~~~--:.:-:l"""-l--\f--+-r~--11---"'11-1-~+-~+1~--!1t.HL-J-~~-'"·~·::.i..~--4~,__-k'--~.:.---1::·.....::··.

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level
~001'-----:=:~...L....-~~~.J_~~~...l...-~~~....L.~~~-1-~~~-L~~~--1~~~--l~~~:.......IL-~~--'

1952

1953

1954

F ig"re

1955

1956

1957

1958

10. Cs137 in air over the United Kingdom 115, :r.r, 21s

245

1959

1960

1961

from 1959 to 1960, presumably because of the rapid
fall-out of the debris injected in the polar stratospherein 1958. As the number and distribution of the sampling stations does not represent a truly world-wide
network a detailed evaluation of the global situation isdifficult. The latitudinal distribution of different nuclides has been studied in some detail and results of themeasurements are given in figure 11 212 • 220•25 o,u 2 whichshows a minimum close to the equator and higher concentrations in temperate latitudes. The time variation of
Cs 137 was exemplified in figure 10 and a large number ofstudies are now available both on this nuclide1H, 115 •186•
205, 211-2:8, 2so and on others.120, 1s5, 20s, 2111-22r, 233, :ro wisi
and W 185 produced in the summer 1958 equatorial tests
and Rh102 produced in the 1958 high-altitude equatorial
tests provided unique tracers and made possible the subsequent identification of debris from these tests. Using
this technique, it has sometimes been possible to partition
the airborne activity between different stratospheric injections. Fi~re 12 shows such data281 for Cs137 in air
in the vicinity of Chicago. It is of interest to note thatdebris from injections into the very high equatorial
stratosphere was not observed in appreciable quantities
at ground level until more than a year281 •zs 2 after injection.

100

ME
8

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CD

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J
1958
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1959
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1960
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1961

Figure 12.Partition of Cstar in surface air near Chicago, USA:s1(a) Aerosol particles may act as condensation nuclei
for water vapour. 290•291 This effect has been shown to bei;mall at least for debris consisting mainly of silicates oriron oxide ;292
( b) The vapour pressure gradient arou~d a growing
raindrop or snow crystal may induce capture of aerosol
particles. Facy293 - 295 has shown that this phenomenon
may be important for particles smaller than 0.1 micron;( c) Inertial capture of particles through impaction\irith falling raindrops and snowBakes.2EH;- 29 s This effecthas been shown to be of importance only for particle sizes
greater than 5 microns ;299 •3 00(d) Capture by Brownian motion has been demonstrated to be very effective for particles less than 0.01
micron but becomes unimportant for sizes over 0.1
micron ;isr
( e) Other alternatives have also been discussed 7e but
seem to be of negligible interest.
Evidently aerosol particles in the range of 0.1-5. microns
may not be removed by scavenging as efficiently as areother sizes. Independent evidence of this is furnished bymeasurements on tropospheric aerosols. 301- 304
58. Attempts to establish a correlation- between theconcentrations of debris in ground level air and in rain
have met with varying success. There is usually little or
no reduction in the ground level air concentration duringrain, 213 • 801 · 305 •306 but prolonged, heavy precipitation canlower the air concentration appreciably. 301 · 308 Furthermore, the activity of raindrops from a natural rain cloudhas been found to be the same at an altitude of about
2 km as at ground level. 309 This means that the mechanism whereby fine aerosol particles are captured by falling raindrops is not very efficient. The scavenging effectof falling snow may, however, be greater. Effective
scavenging by aerosol capture apparently occurs during
the formation and subsequent growth of the raindrops.
Other data in figures 13 310 and 14166 show that there is a
general tendency for the activity concentration to decrease as the amount of precipitation in a sample inincreases.102 This can be e..xplained either by assuming
nucleation to be of primary importance and the larger
drop size of a heavy rain giving more diluted concentrations than in a slight rain, or it may be postulated
that drop growth is more important, a greater rate of

Figurt 11. Latitudinal distribution of some fission products inground level air212,220,2so,•12

Capture of debris in precipitation
57. A relationspip has been established between meteorological factors and the concentration of debris intropospherical air and rain.153 • 10 s-168•283- 286 It has beenshown for instance that increased concentrations of fission product ratio-activity in ground level air has accompanied the passage of anti-cyclones. i.e., higher pressures and descending air currents. The formation of"stagnant zones" at the confluence of cyclonic and anticyclonic currents is also conducive to more intense deposition of aerosols on the earth's surface. It is apparent
from this and other work 33 •10 that removal of aerosol
particles occurs much more rapidly than in the stratosphere. The main reason for this is the scavenging effectof tropospheric precipitation. Although the effect is notunderstood in detail, several mechanisms have beenrecognized as possible explanations of the scavenging
process :1s,281-2s9

246

£.
E

.s
....tJc

July 3, 1g5s
15

s..

~
:~

....u

"'

c

f

i

!

10

20

Figure 13. Fluctuations in rainfall rate (mm/h, upper curve)
and fluctuations in specific activity (arbitrary units, lower
curve) versus time in the Netherlandsa10.: . . :. ""°" "''-'
.:
''
'

..
:

May 1954 - February 1956
C 40p14c of sr90/IDJ.
cold front

o warm front
x

..:

tcatp

''

t

®

i
!. """'""" .....-,.
~,

l.C:l»I...

~!

Figure 15. Results of measurements of fall-out materials during
the period September 1956-January 19602~3
Curve A: Concentration of fall-out materials in the lower
stratosphere over SE Norway. Each point represents the resultof one measurement.
Curve B: Monthly average concentrations of fall-out materials in air near ground level. Each point represents an averagevalue of measurements from 9 stations.
Curve C: Monthly average concentrations of fall-out materials in precipitation. Each point represents an average value of
measurements from 12 stations.

=

•

H57

!HT

i

typhoonRa.1nfall amount (mm)Figure 14. Variation in specific activity of rainwater withamount of precipitation in JapanlM

rainfall depleting the airborne activity inside the rain
cloud. A third possibility is that the evaporation of falling raindrops is greater in a heavy than in a light rain.
Whatever the detailed explanation, it is found that on
the average over a long time there is a good correlation
between ground level air and rain concentrations (figures
15 and l6). 2 s3 ,m This is a reflection of the fact (figures
10 and 16) that the concentration of debris in the air at
ground level closely follows the activity fluctuations inhigher tropospheric air most of the time.

Dry removal of debris
59. The scavenging action of precipitation is not the
only process that removes radio-active debris from thetroposphere. Gravitational settling may occur, especiallyfor freshly injected debris. It may also be of some importance even for older debris, however, since there isindication that the presence of natural or industrial
aerosols in the ground level air increases the concentration of airborne activity9 7 • 311 • 312 presumably through coagulation which, as discussed previously (para. 47), may
be quite rapid for submicron particles. This conclusion
is only tentative, as other e.xplanations are possible313
and the effect sometimes is absent.135 Impaction, verticalmass movement and eddy diffusion of air are other
247

.....

Gl!!lUllO Ll'l·ll.
C.Jl\11.TOH-~

a ClPOSITIOH ~l.l.ll.15£0 'TO Mi-'H ..INU.ll. 0.tMf.lLL

05ca.

Figure 16. Annual variation of Cs1s1 in air and rain27SC14 in the tropospherefactors contributing to the removal of debris from thetroposphere. All these factors are, however, best discussed in connexion with measurements of fall-out deposition on the ground (para. 78).
Half-removal time
60. The rate at which tropospheric air is cleared ofaerosols is conveniently expressed in terms of a halfremoval time. Because of the greater rate of mixing in
the troposphere, this concept is more applicable here
than in the case of the stratosphere. A summary of available evidence76 indicates a value of about twenty toforty days as a realistic half-removal time for debris injected in the troposphere above the rain-bearing layers,i.e., about 4 km.

CARBON-14*

CH i1I the stratosphere
61. An extensive series of stratospheric C02 samples/
have been collected by the United States Atomic Energy
Commission150 in conjunction with the ASHCAN
project. The stratospheric contents of C14 at various
periods of time ,have been computed from these data
and are given in table VI. The estimated accuracy is + 30
per cent.
•For discussion of C14 see also annex E.

62. The first experimental verification of increased C14
levels due to nuclear tests \vas reported in 1957 ;314 thedelay behveen substantial production in 1954 and experimental verification of an increase in specific activityof the troposphere being due to the hold-up in the stratosphere. Subsequently, this increase has been followed byvarious workers 31 ~ 829 who have shown that by mid-1959
the increase in the northern hemisphere troposphere wasabout 27 per cent and in the southern hemisphere troposphere 18 per cent. The rate of increase with time in
the troposphere of the two hemispheres, is shown infigure 17 and is consistent with that expected from mixing into the troposphere from a stratospheric reservoirof 04, the content of which has been increasing withtime. In 1960 a decrease in cu levels was reported. 3 <ro,ss.z
The C14 produced from high yield explosions is virtually
all transferred to the stratosphere as shown by the measurements of C14 activity of ground level air in the Philippines before and after the United States Castle test series
in early 1954.333
6~. The measurements of 0 4 activity of tropospheric

air have been made cither by direct separation and collection of C02 from the air _9r by using contemporaryplant material It has been generally assumed that the
0 4 activity of contemporary plant material' reflects directly the activity in the troposphere but this may not+30

4
NORTHERN HEMISPHERE
TROPOSPHERE

3

+20

x

0

~

>
-f
0

;r:::
.,.

2

+10
SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE
TROPOSPHERE

1956

1957
YEAR

Figure 17. Tropospheric inventory of artificial CH

248

necessarily be so for trees, since it is possible that significant fractions of the carbon in the young leaves has
been derived from sources which have been stored forsignificant periods in the trunks or roots. 3 ,z 7 Although
little information is available, it may perhaps be concluded that analyses of annual plants provides more
information on the current C1' activity in the troposphere. Thus, while CH activity measurements of contemporary biospheric materials usually give the samevalue as obtained for ground level air, care is needed in
the interpretation of this type of measurement.
64. The greater increase observed in the troposphereof the northern hemisphere compared to the southernhemisphere is as e.xpected, because all large-scale injections of artificial C14 have been into the northern hemisphere stratosphere. However, the present difference
between the tropospheric C14 levels in the two hemispheres would level out in the absence of testing in a
few more years owing to the inter'-hemispheric exchangeof air masses. 319• 334 Evidence also exists for a small but
positive latitudinal effect in ea levels of the northernhemisphere troposphere during the period 1956-1959 335
Carbon cycle in nature
65. Considerable study of the carbon cycle in natureand the distribution of cu 334 • 33s- 353 has been undertaken in the last decade. As a result of biological processes
and of circulation in the oceans, the carbon which is contained in the atmosphere, in living matter and in theoceans is cycled at a rate that is very rapid on a geologic
time seale (time scale of the order of a few hundred toa few thousand years). The main reservoirs of carbon
that are generally considered in order to determine thepresent and the future distribution of cu, and the relative sizes of these reservoirs, are given in table VII.
66. The amount of carbon in the atmosphere and thetotal amount of carbon in the carbon cycle are knownwith reasonable accuracy (within 10 per cent); however, the figures given in table VII for the amounts ofcarbon involved in the biosphere, humus and surface
waters of the ocean could be subject to considerable error(up to 50 per cent).
67. The rate of carbon e.xchange between the reservoirs of the exchangeable system varies from three toseven years for the mean life of a carbon dioxide molecule in the atmosphere 315 • 316 • 3 :w. 350 • 351 • 361 to approximately 1,000 years for the mean life of a carbon dioxide
molecule in average deep ocean water before its transfer
back to the atmosphere317 • 350 (para. 71). In the case of
the sedimentary system, e.xchange of the carbon withthat of the atmosphere takes place only very slowlytime scale of the order of millions of years 334 • 343-andhence the C 14 content of the sedimentary system is negligible.

M oveme11t of carbon itt the carbot1 cycle
68. Prior to 1900, the C14 distribution within the carbon cycle was in a ''steady state", for although the carbon
in the various reservoirs did not have the same cu
specific activity. the cu specific activity in any given
reservoir was constant with time. Since 1900, however,
mankind has upset this steady state situation in two ways.
First, the combustion of coal and oil has added to theatmosphere an enormous amount of "CH-free" C02
which has reduced the C1' specific activity of the atmosphere and those reservoirs in rapid exchange with it(~~ffect). 339 • 3 e. Secondly, in recent years the testing of atomic weapons has added noticeable amounts ofCH02 to the atmosphere, thereby increasing the C1 ' specific activity of the atmosphere and those reservoirs in
rapid e.xchange with it.
69. There are, therefore, three time periods over whichmeasurements of C14 specific activity may be used toassist in the determination of the dynamics of carbon
cycle. These time periods are :(a) Prior to 1900, steady state distribution of ci..;( b) 1900 to 1952, Suess Effect decrease of C14 specific activity;( c) 1952 to the present, C14 incorporated from nuclear weapons and a smaller fraction incorporated fromtlie operation of reactors.
70. A convenient method of investigating the dynamics of the carbon cycle33 'i 35 <>--352 • 363• 365-367 is by mathematical analysis of a model consisting of various reservoirs in the e.xchangeable system between \vhich transfer
of carbon is assumed to be determined by first order rate
constant and within which mixing rates are assumed to
be rapid compared to the transfer rates. The values ofthe various exchange constants are not known accurately,
so there is corresponding uncertainty in predicted levels.
71. The exchange of carbon between the atmosphereand the surface ocean·· is the main process which determines the distribution of added o• in the carbon
cycle. Considerations of the three separate time
periods3u, 35o, 862 • 368 referred to in paragraph 69 lead toestimates of the mean life of a C02 molecule in theatmosphere, before transfer to the ocean, ranging fromthree to seven years. A less important role is played by
the transfer of carbon from the atmosphere to the land
biosphere. Investigations of the process of photosynthesis in the biosphere 3 •:1-345 suggest that the mean life ofa C02 molecule in the atmosphere before its entry into thebiosphere is of the order of thirty years. The average ageof deep ocean water relative to surface ocean water isoi the order of 1,000 years.31e,n1,aa~nm. Deposition of radio-active fall-out
72. Data on air concentrations were given in the previous section and here experimental values of fall-out
deposited in soil and water will be reviewed. These concentrations vary with time and from region to region.
Whenever possible, therefore, data on the concentrationof radio-isotopes include reference to the geographicalco-ordinates and the time of collection. The curves andgraphs attached may be used for rough quantitative
assessments.
73. The process of fall-out deposition is in generalterms the result of the action of atmospheric phenomena(precipitation and wind) at the ground surface. It is
customary to distinguish between wet and dry deposition,
the first process comprising the impaction of debris contained in rain, snow, etc., on the surface of the earth, thesecond being the impaction of the debris particles themselves. The wet deposition is usually the more important
process except in arid regions where the dry deposit may
predominate.
RATE OF FALL-OUT DEPOSITION

Methods of measitrement

74. Fall-out rates have been studied in many parts of
the world for many years using a variety of methods.
Sampling techniques have included funnel and pot col249

lectors, often in combination with an ion exchanger,
sticky paper and gauze trays, to mention the more important methods used for the collection of wet and dry
depositions. Sampling techniques were discussed in theprevious report of the Committee and the differences incollection efficiency described. Subsequent measurementson these samples have employed both advanced techniques of radio-chemistry and gamma-spectrometry as
well as simpler measurements of total ,8-activity. As inconnexion with airborne activity (para. 54) it may again
be stated that measurements that give only the total [Jactivity with no indication of the age or composition of
the fall-out are of little value for the interpretation of theresulting health hazards. 312 Again, therefore, greater
emphasis will be placed upon data specifying fall-out
composition.

fairly good correlation with airborne activity (figures
15 and 16). This fact and the assumption made in theprevious paragraph of a relation between airborne
activity and fall-out rate suggest that only a poor correlation should exist between fall-out rate ( approximately equal to amount of rain X concentration in rain)
and the total amount of precipitation. This is indeed
found to be the case when data are studied as a functionof time at one place. 202• 505 Figure 18 shows monthly datafrom the United States 374 and figure 19 gives yearly
averages from the United Kingdom m both based on
measurements of Sr9° in rain. In addition tables VIII
and IX give values for Sr9° and some other nuclides. It isof special interest to compare figure 19 with the data on
airborne activity from the same place (Milford Haven)shown in figure 10. The approximately uniform increasein Sr9° accumulation over the period 1956-1958 corresponded to a uniform air concentration over these same
years. In 1959 there was a threefold increase in the airconcentration corresponding to a sharp rise in Sr9° deposition rate in spite of the fact that the yearly precipitation was almost constant. The low air values in late 1959
and 1960 finally gave rise to an abrupt decrease in thefall-out rate.

Relation to airborne activity

75. The deposition of fall-out has been shown veryclearly to result mainly through precipitation falling onto the earth's surface. 33 • 120• 144 • 373 As most precipitation
originates in the lower troposphere, the rate of fall-out
in any particular region should as a rule be determinedby the tropospheric airborne activity. It is important inthis connexion to distinguish between short- and longterm conditions. Short-term (daily) variations in deposition do not correspond too closely to the short-term
variations of the same nuclides in the air. In certain
cases, a decline in the fall-out rate of Ce1 H, Cs137 and
Sr-8° coincided with an increase of their concentration in
air. 226 If, on the other hand, long-term conditions are
considered, one would expect an averaging out of mostchance fluctuations in the concentration of airborne
activity and of most differences in the properties andorigin of the clouds bringing rain to the area concerned.

Relation to total precipitation

77. If there is thus a poor correlation between total
rainfall and fall-out rate at one place as a function oftime, there exists- a good correlation between the sametwo quantities for different places over the same time
period.120 • 876 • 377 This is true at least for limited areas ofhomogeneous climatic conditions, but the conclusion may
also hold when points at great distances are compared.
Miyake et al. 187 • 168 have shown that it may be possible todescribe global deposition of Sr90 with an empiricalformula:Fd = C(l - e-2P + 0.06P)
where Fd is the deposition, C is the amount of airborne
radio-activity in the rain-bearing air column above unit
surface area and P the rainfall amount. If C is taken as
0.054 me Sr9°jkm 2 in the northern temperate zone and as

Relatio~i to debris concentration in rain

76. As was shown earlier (para. 58) the specific concentration of activity in rain varies with the amount ofprecipitation in the individual rainfall (figures 13 and14). Yet, taking monthly averages, this effect was foundto be less important, the rain concentrations showing a

zoo

3

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3

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VII

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IX

x

XI

XII

II

1958

Ill

IV

V

VI

VII

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IX

X

1959

Figure 18. Rainfall (dashed line) and rate of fall-out in Westwood, New Jersey, USASH ·

250

XI

XII

1956

1957

1958

1959

1960

0.18 mcfkm2 cm

25

0.01 mcfkm2 cm

20

!

15

.....
0

II)

0,03 mcfkm2 cm

0

E

10

s

•
Figure 19. Cumulative Sr 90 as a function of cumulative rainfall (Milford Haven, United Kingdom) sr 5

0.007 me Sr90jkm2 in the tropical region between 15° N
and 20° S then the fit between theory and data is as shownin figure 20. Examples of limited areas 376 •371 are shownin figures 21 and 22 based on quarterly data of SrS-O andin figure 23 relating the fall-out of Cs137 over several
years with the precipitation in that same period.120 The
points in figure 23 correspond to different places in
Nonvay and Sweden. Even within limited areas exceptions to this rule have however been found, giving forexample 3 T 8 in 1958 monthly averages of 54 and 69
mc/km 2 of beta activity in two places where the averagemonthly rainfall was 306 and 47 mm respectively. Thisparticular finding, however, is not conclusive, as it isbased only on a total beta measurement.

I0al Winter

0
v

30

~

0

8

ff' 0 0~00

o ooooli;, C oCf3
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i "values

4.0

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0

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X~x/ ~
10000

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o..._....__._~~~~_._--1.~.._,...i..,..~-=--'"~~

nn preclpllatiQn 19SJ.19S9

500

Figure 20. World-wide Sr9o fall-out and amountof precipitation1er, 1es
I : C 0.054 me Sr&ojlan2 in temperate zone
II: C = 0.007 me Sr 9 0/km 2 in tropical zone

.

1,000

Rainfall mm /. 3 month

Figure 21. The relation between the quantity of Srl>O and thequantity of rain deposited per unit area. of ground during
three months (United Kingdom, 1958)376=

251

measuredvaluesa: esll7Jla1

a 1 Winterx 2 Spring!

• 3 Summer

t. 4 Autumn£ 3.0

6 i::0

IO

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7D

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€!'~
E 2·0
•

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1.0

50

40

1.000

500

311

Rainfall mm/ 3 month

Figure 22. The relation between the quantity of Sr9 0 and thequantity of rain deposited per unit area of ground during
three months (Japan, 1958)3TT

Dry deposition
78. Dry deposition of fall-out may occur in at least
three different ways. Gravitational deposition may be important for fresh fall-out. Observations in Cairo 178 • 177
two days after a tropospheric injection and in Bombay 178
one day later showed intense fall-out ( 100 and 170
mcjkm2 of total beta activity respectively) despite thecomplete absence of rain. The calculated amount of longlived activity was very small, however, for example lessthan 0.01 mcjkm2 of Cs131 • Another dry process is theinertial deposition of aerosol particles associated with theflow of air over objects on the ground37 9 • 381 mainly grass
and leaves of trees. A third mechanism, finally has been
described by Facy 2 u1 • 293 • 295 proposing that deposition
may take place by the nocturnal diffusion of water

10

icoo

ZaJJ

•axi

m1

!ilXl

~ •

7lllJ

am

mi

- plCipibtiol f!Oll l J_, 1955 Ill Amllii• dal9

Figure 23. Correlation between Cs137 soil activity andrainfall in Swedenuo

vapour from the atmosphere into the soil 382 • 383 or on toherbage.
79. The quantitative relationship between "dry" and"wet" fall-out of radio-active aerosols on different partsof the earth's surface depends on climatic conditions. For
example, in an area with comparatively heavy precipitation, such as Norway, the average monthly proportion

2.5

2.0

~

g

... 1.5
E

a.

rt

e

;.. 1.0
Cl)

u

E

0.5

1954

1955

1956

1958

1957

Figure 24. Monthly fall-out rate of Sr

252

90

1959

in New York City9

1960

1961

1.6 .

l.S
l •.f

1.3
·1.2

1.1

1.0

..;:

c
0
E

.

0.9

• o.s
Q.

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E

;Js
.u
E

o._._i...._.~-"...L...L...L...i....._.i.-..__1...1-.1...J.....1....1...&...L..i.-.i....__~~~........__....._..._.._-.~""""'--....................

v Vl ·VU VIII· ix x XI X11
1957

l II Illj

wv

VIVIIVlll lX

1958

x xi Xll I 11 m IV v VI VIIVIIl IX x· XI XII.

IFigure 25. Average monthly fall-out rate of Sr90 in USA11of "dry" fall-out between November 1958 and September 1959 ranged from about 10 to 72 per cent. This is
likely to have included some gravitational settling of thelarger particles present shortly after a test. The average
proportion of "dry" fall-out during that period was about
30 per cent.120

f

1959

2.0

I II ll1 IV v· VI vuvm IX x Xl XIl

t960 -

Months and years

7

e. o.c..0or ma-Fol>nqy 1959

!

-

.;;

Adval doposltlQQ
Riilnfoll Cl>rlec!l<rl~ 1.0

Measurements of S~ 0 and Cs137

80. The Committee has received a large number ofreports giving data on the fall-out rate. The following
references give measurements Of Sr9°. 31 •50•1Al 2 , 115-llll, lM,
l Ta, 214, 1&2, 1ae, 200, 2o.s. 201, 2oe, 21-s, 224, 22s-2-41, 3T5-31s. a&5-•13 Some
examples will be found in figures 24 and 25 and tables X
and XI. For Cs137 the following references may becited :so, 102, 11e, 224, 22e, 221, 232, 234, 235, s15, 376,384-3$4 and forother nuclides, like Sr' 9 , Ce1"", Zr95 etc. :50• 1° 2· us, 11 9 • 20s,
21e, 220, 221, 2ao, 232-235 Tables XII and XIII containsome of these data. A survey 88 • 116 •138 •276 of the average global distribution of Sr9° is given in figures 26
and 27. The latitudinal variation of the fall-out rate
shows changes with time that are consistent with a short
residence time of polar injections. Spring maxima areevident in both hemispheres, occurring in March to May
in the northern and in September to November in thesouthern hemisphere. As the number of sampling stations within each latitude band does not constitute a representative selection with regard to geographic differences in annual rainfall, two curves are shown for eachtime period, one giving the arithmetic mean of observed
values, the other a mean weighted for annual rainfall.

3.0'

1.0

O_;LI.-,1--L...-L--:l,--..J..~.1.---1~..J..~.1.,_-,,1,-~i--.I...~~

90° 60°

30° •

South

Figure 26a,b. Global distribution of SrBo ss,11e,13s,.2TG

253

c,

June~st 1959

Actual deposition
Corrected for mean :raintall

2.0

l.O

e. December l959-FebN&17 1960

f. March-Hq 1960---------g, May-June 1960--------h.· July-August 1960

i. September-October 1960

j, November-December 191$>

North

South

Figu,.e 26c-j. Global distribution ·of Sreo 88,110,l38,2rs

From figure 27 a fairly good correlation between airborne activity and fall-out rate can be inferred, as was
suggested in the previous discussion (paras. 75 and 76).
81. Measurements of Sr90 and Cs131 could be complementary if the ratio Cs 131/Sr9° were known. This ratio
usually lies between 1.5 and 2.0 although occasional
values lying outside these limits have been observed. The
determination of Sr90 involves a complicated chemical
analysis and Cs 131 samples have been found to requireconsiderable care in the collection technique if errors
larger than 50 per cent are to be avoided.11 5 It is therefore not surprising that the Cs181/Sr90 ratio, which according to some measurements has an average value of
1.7,283 • sa,.n•,• 15 in other cases has been reported to be
2.8 with single values up around 8. 885 All of these deviations need not be analytical errors, as it is evident fromtable I that the Cs187/Sru 0 ratio may vary between 0.93
and 3.05 for different modes of fission. In addition it
has been shown that fractionation 185 and differing transport properties of different size particles may play anunportant role. iii., 2so, :a1254

M easm·ements of short-lived nuclides

82. The seasonal variations observed in the Sr90 andCs137 fall-out rate are not necessarily found with respect
to more short-lived nuclides like Zr9 5 , Sr8 9 or Ba1 • 0 •Here the time of injection becomes more important since
the deposition is largely tropospheric. In the case of pn
no deposition may be observed later than about twomonths after injection. Figure 28160 • 416 shows the variation of Sr89 fall-out from 1956 to 1959.
Tritium

83. A number of studies have been made on the atmospheric transport and deposition of tritium.'11- ' 28
It has been found that tritium is deposited mainly
through the action of precipitation, rain and snow containing tritiated water. In figure 29'17.-us the fall-out rateof tritium from 1951 to 1960 in the vicinity of Ottawa,
Canada, is shown. The values for 1951-1953 correspondto the natural background (E 56) whereas in 1954 themaximum found in individual rains is more than 100

19!581953

1960

ACCUMULATED FALL-OUT DEPOSIT

0.2 J F M A II J J A 5 0 N 0 J F M A M J J A S 0 N D J F II A M J J A S O N D

Deposition of Sr90
..:

c
l
.....

..
..e

0.1

84. The cumulative deposit of different nuclides iscustomarily measured in either of two ways, throughextended measurements of fall-out rate or through radio-chemical separation of the activity in soil samples.
The first method is preferred for short-lived nuclides
like !1 31 and Ba140 ; the second method is considered tobe more precise for Sr90 and Cs 13 ', but most often both
sources of information are used for the latter nuclides.
Extended measurements of fall-out rate have been presented in previous paragraphs. Integrating the rate gives
the deposit and the results of such a procedure are shownin figures 30-32.166 • 226 •ms, 375 • 378 • 430•431 There is a large
amount of data currently available (December 1961) on
radio-chemical analyses of soils for Sr80 content. 9 e, 10 2.119 ,SURFACE DEPOSITION~ 0.05
0

2'
cl'i
0.01

0.009
10

.

-

North9r" H1mhpb1:re- - · Southern Htlftltpb:u•-a0u ;, 174, ie2, 196, 201, 2u-221. 236-239,2-'2-2•4, 38-t, as1. 393 1 s9e, 402, •oa-...11.
NRL. AVERAGE AIR
CONCENTRATION

8:;;:
c

e.....

.

O.IS

'a
I

~

o.._.,±-t~r.t-'.rt-+t-t-t-HH-f-+-++-+-l-HH-f-+-+f~-1-1-+-~
JFWAMJJASONDJFMAMJJASONDJFWAMJJASOHD

1958

1959

432443 The error of most of these data is considered
not to e..""<ceed + 10 per cent as a result of the radiochemical separation. On the basis of 1960-61 data aneffort has been made to draw a map of the world-wide
distribution (figure 33). Only in North America are thedata numerous enough to allow the drawing of isolines.
85. If the soil data are extrapolated through the useof rainfall values and the correlation between rainfall
and fall-out rate (para. 77) it is possible to constructmore detailed maps, 390 but the accuracy of this procedure
is perhaps not too great. For North America it has beenpossible in this way to showff' higher Sr9° levels due totropospheric fall-out from the Nevada Test Site injections. Figure 34 shows the Sr9° e..'Ccess above the world
average from this cause. The figures have been arrived
at through subtracting from the total Sr110 deposit a constant value corresponding to the stratospheric fall-out.
Recent observations 445 indicate that this procedure maylead to an overestimate of the tropospheric fall-out.
86. The Sr90 data may be combined in 10° latitudinalbands to show the average world-wide distribution(table XIV). The data of table XIV is shown in figure 35. This obviously gives a less detailed picture than
413

1960

Figure 27. Global fall-out rate and surface
air concentration210

times higher. From data like these it has been concluded418' 424 • 428 that the atmospheric half-removal time
is no greater than thirty-five or forty days for tritium.
Essentially this conclusion holds only for tritium contained in water molecules, but the existence of a large
stratospheric reservoir of tritium in the form of hydrogen molecules is not likely as judged from measurements
on stratospheric hydrogen.429

•

30

20
N

E

~
~
u

E

Figure 28. Rate of fall-out of Sr89 in Milford Haven, United Kingdom102, 31'5, 3T6, au

255

sooo

!!

·c:::>

1000
1100
800
700

e

SOO

:s:

400

~

·=t!

300

"c
.::

200

~

0

too

CJ

u

c
0

u

e

~

jE

100
90
80
70

eo
so
Three-month average tritium
concentration in rainfall

40
30
3'SfE

Tritium concentrationin river water (Ottawa River)-e-0-

Measured tritium concentrationsin individual rainfalls

20

101-------1------_,;1----_:_--(-S!._----l-------if-------il-------il-------i-------;~-----1951

1952

!953

1954

1955

1956

1958

1957

1959

l~O

Years

Figure 29. Tritium in rain and river waters in Canada417,ns

taken, for example, at twelve different points of therelatively small island of Hokkaido differed in Sr9° content by a factor of more than ten.436 Such variations could
arise in two ways. Topographic factors may cause
marked differences in the deposition of rain and hence offall-out over small areas; furthermore, after it has been
deposited, activity may be displaced by the movement of
surface water and wind.

a map, the high values, for example, on the west coastsof Norway and the state of Washington, United States,
raising the latitudinal mean only slightly. In addition,
the values in some latitude bands are based on highly
limited numbers of measurements and consequently theerror in the average may considerably exceed the 10 per
cent396 error in measurement.
87. It is finally possible to integrate the latitude distributions of Sr90 for different years and to arrive at
values for the total deposition as a function of time.
This yields for 1956 a figure of 1.4 ± 0.4 Mc Sr9°, whilefor 1958 the value is 3.1+1.0, for 1959 5.4 + 1.6 and5.4 + 1.6 for 1960. The uncertainty is obviously great
and a much closer network of sampling stations (outside
North America) is needed if better data are wanted.
It has been found that a correction factor of 1.18 applies
to such determinations of Sr90 as only 85 per cent of thestrontium present is extracted on the average. Thisfactor applies to broad average values but should not
be used to correct individual values. Here, therefore, it
has been used in giving the average figures above but allother Srti0 data given are uncorrected.

DEPOSITION AND TRANSPORT IN WATER

The oceans

90. The fall-out activity in the oceans arises mainly
from three sources : deposition of tropospheric andstratospheric fall-out, close-in fall-out from land andwater surface explosions, and rainwater run-off carriedby rivers into the oceans. The two first effects presumably dominate the deposition of fall-out over the sea, thefirst perhaps being 1.5-2 times greater per surface area
than over land, as judged from measurements in theBlack Sea region. 311 Activity deposited on the water surface rapidly mixes down to about 100 m depth.• 5 ° From
there downwards the rate of exchange is much slower.4 51
For this reason and because of the surface movementof ocean water, the variation of water concentrations offall-out with time, place and depth is extremely complex.

Other nuclides

88. Soil data on nuclides other than Sr90 may be foundin the literature 431 • -Hs-u9 and some are given in table
XV. These values are based on gamma spectrometricalmethods.

91. Measurements of total ,8-activity as well as Sr90
and other nuclides have been reported. 224 , 201• ~M, 2ss, atia,
4 4 5
r.i s Values 451 ··"61 of around 4 µ.µ.c Sr1°/100 1 in thenorthern Atlantic and a corresponding value of 2 in thesouthern Atlantic have been reported. The concentration
at 50-1.000 m was about half the surface values but

Local factors infiuen.cing deposition'89. It should finally be pointed out that local differences of fall-out deposition may be found. Soil samples

256

100

NEW YORK(276)

30

N

E

~

!:?

u

so

u

E

2S

TOKY0(166)

1957

1958

1959

1960

YEARS

Fig11re 32. Accumulation of Cs131 in soil of Japan•a1

20

...

1959 in the eastern Pacific. Similar results have beenfound for Cs1 :r..462 • 463
92. Variations in tritium concentration were also observed in seawater.418 In samples collected from the surface of the sea at a number of widely-spaced points
ranging from Arctic latitudes (74° N, 91° W) to 47° N,
47° W, the tritium concentration in the second half of1954 and the beginning of 1955 fluctuated between 4.2
and about 3 tritium units.* The data are too limited toallow any conclusions to be drawn about the world-wide
conditions.
Lakes and rivers
93. Data also exist for lake and river waters the world
over. 211, 225, 230-2as, 2•2-2H, 203-210, 4o~s In general values
around 0.1-1 p.p.c Sr90 and 0.05-0.2 µ.p.c Cs 137 per litre
water are found, 237 • 468 but both higher and lower values
are occasionally observed. There is a trend in concentration similar to that of the fall-out rate. but the variations
with time in any one lake or river are smaller, as could
be expected. It has been estimatedm·• 89 that the run-offof Sr9° by rivers to the sea is about 1-10 per cent andthat of Cs 137 2-6 per cent of the yearly deposition but thi3
value is likely to vary between different water sheds.
The amount of Sr9° in ground water, finally. is usually
too small to be detectable. 488 l\ Ieasurements of tritium
concentrations in ground water samples collected frombores at a depth of 40-50 mm showed that, between
February 1954 and July 1959, the tritium concentration
fluctuated behveen about 1.4 and 0.4 tritium units, i.e.,
was appreciably lower than in sea water and very much
lower than in rain water.

I!

$.

°j;
u
E

15

LENINGRAo(226l

10.

BOMBAy(430)

s

1957

1958

1959

1960

YEARS

Figure 30. Variation with time in the cumulative Sroo fall-out

1

Zll

~Ill

..

~

~:

IV. Predictions of future levels

K1oi--~-t~~-t-~~-t----1t-'tt:zdllll'l----r-T~;-~--,zo(

Figure 31. Cumulative deposition at Milford Haven,
United Kingdom 3 7 5 , 37 6

further down at 2,000-3,000 m no strontium was discovered. Higher values have been found in the western
Pacificm varying between 80-310 µ.µ.c/100 l of surface
water in 1957-59. At 5,000 m' 53 the values were about
one-tenth those at the surface while at 6,000 and 8,000 m
no Sr90 was found. .m, • 03 Lower values were found in

94. It is obvious from the discussion in the three previous sections that the process of fall-out deposition on
the earth's surface is e.xtremely complex. It therefore
follows that the task of forecasting the deposition is very
difficult. This has indeed been found to be the casealready in connexion with predictions of local fall-out
although this phenomenon is of short range and duration in comparison with the world-wide fall-out. There
are two separate problems to consider in this conne.xion :• (a) prediction of future fall-out from past testing;( b) prediction of future fall-out from hypothetical
future testing.
*I tritium unit = 10-1 8 H3 atoms/hydrogen atom.
257

~~ ..~o

N
tTt

00

.;'

.....

y

\Jl5.B..

J) 6.J~.6- •~••"'d•f""'" ,,....,..,..,,., •r •e«pla11c•
ln1ranut. fl11•1I",.,,.i1..r:1ro-. '""'•"a- Jm,PJ.,
kl' lh• Un1'"1 N•''"'"'
er• nnf, fn "''"'

The- ...,,.,.,.,.

nol

MAP NO, 1154 REV.I

MA'I'

Ullllf.D NATIONS

llflt

Figure 33. Sroo mc/km2 in 1960-1961

dtf#tmol"ird mul '"'''

30

1950

20

.........

10

•1958

Figure 34. Srll<> in USA soils from tropospheric fall-out4H

95. The first problem can be given an approximate
solution on the basis of experimental measurements.
An inventory of present activity levels in the atmosphere,on the ground and in the oceans can be established towithin about a factor of 2. The future changes in thesereservoirs may then be forecast to give a picture of theaverage world-wide deposition of fall-out in years tocome ..Also 0e .lati~udinal and to a ce~ain extent the geographical distnbubon may be described in an approximate manner.

20
Sou1h

60

Fig1tre 35. Mean concentration of Sreo in soil at
different terrestrial latitudes

Because so many assumptions must be made, no precise
calculation is possible, especially as any nuclear devices
t~sted in the future and the conditions of these tests may
differ substantially from the past atomic tests with which
we are familiar. These considerations must be clearly
realized before any conclusions can be drawn from thefuture predictions that are presented in the following
paragraphs.
INVENTORY OF SR90
97. Measurements of the atmospheric concentrations
from close to the ground up to 30 km have been evaluatedto give the inventories shown in table XVI.162 • 470 Dataon deposition may be taken from soil measurements(para. 84) and integrations of the fall-out rate. 880 11a, u8,
152 278•
All these data are summarized in figure 36. Owing

96. T~e second problem cannot be solved in this way;
the solution has to be based on assumptions. And a large
number of assumptions are necessary to give an answer.
To mention the more important ones:(a) Total amount of testing;( b) Types of weapons;( c) Weapon yields ;( d) Heights of burst;( e) Season when bursts take place;(f) Test site latitudes;(g) Meteorological conditions.
Megacurie Sr90

io40

0 Soil measureu:ents
f?j Atmosphere measurements·TotaJ.

_,..,,Precipitation.measurements

[. •

5

[J

Figure 36. Inventory of Sr&a

259

to radio-active decay the total amount of Sr>° continuously decreases with time at a rate of 2.5 per cent peryear.
98. A closer analysis of the data in figure 36 reveals
that from the end of 1958 to mid-1961 the stratosphericreservoir diminished from 1.5 to 1.0 Mc of Sr9°, i.e.,a difference of 0.5 Mc. Over the same period of time aworld-wide deposition of about 1.5 Mc can be inferredfrom soil and rain measurements. As there were noappreciable injections of Sr90 during this time, the data
are inconsistent. If, as has been suggested, there is ahigher deposition over the oceans than over dry land,
this discrepancy would be even greater.

102. The data shown in figure 17 for the increase of
the C14 activity in the tropospherrwere obtained bymeasurement of the increase of C1 activity relative tonatural C14 activity. No measurements above 30 km areavailable however. Conversion to atoms of C14 was doneon the following basis: the troposphere contains fivesixths of the mass of the atmosphere, the C02 content of
the atmosphere is 310 ppm by volume, and the specificactivity of natural carbon. is 14 + 1 dpm/g. The troposphere of each hemisphere thus contains 15 X 10 21 atomsof cosmic ray produced C14 and each 1 per cent increase
corresponds to the addition of 0.15 X 102 7 atoms of C1'
to the troposphere.

99. The discrepancy in the inventory data is most
likely explained by inadequacies in the sampling system:(a) No samples taken above 30 km in the stratosphere;(b) Too few samples in the northern polar stratosphere in 1958 and 1959;( c) No deposition samples reported for large areasof the world, especially the oceans (figure 33).

103. The amount of artificial C14 in the biosphere andsurface ocean;(:annot be accurately determined by direct
measurements at the present time and hence must be
calculated using e..xchange constants and reservoir size
data as deduced from the studies of the carbon cycle.
Computed values for the C14 content of the biosphere andocean, along with the stratospheric and tropospheric contents as indicated by experimental data, are given intable XVII for 1 July 1957, 1958, 1959, and May-June
1961.

Thus it is possible only to speculate about the actual
situation. One possibility is that the stratosphere above
30 km contains older debris than hitherto assumed. This
assumption is supported by the observation 277 • 281 thatabout 50 per cent of the Cs 137 in ground level air in lc.te
1960 could be from injections earlier than 1958. On theother hand, stratospheric measurements152 of the ratio
Cem/Sr90 (which varies with the age of the debris) do
not show any appreciable influx of older debris fromabove30km.

104. The value of 14 X 102 7 atoms for the total artificial C14 inventory for 1 July 1958-appears reasonably
well established. 3111• m An estimate of the C14 production
from that date up to 31 October 1958 may be obtained
from the data given· in the hearings of the United States
Joint Committee on Atomic Energy. 80 This leads to an
expected production of an additional 5-8 x 1027 ea
atoms in that period, i.e., a total inventory of 19 to
22 X 102 7 C 14 atoms as of October 1958. Using theexperimentally determined value of 9 X 102 7 C1 4 atoms
as of 1 January 1957, Hagemann et al. 411 estimate a total
inventory of 25 X 102 7 C14 atoms for 31 October 1958.

OTHER INVENTORIES

100. The measurements reported on Cs137 are too few
and limited in scope to allow the establishment of an
inventory similar to the one for Sr9°. The same can also
be said for a number of other nuclides, like Sr89, Zr9 5and eem, that are of some importance as possible healthhazards. In the case of Cs 137 the production in relation
to Sr110 can be estimated within fairly narrow limits andas this ratio stays almost constant with time, an inventoryof Csu 1 may be arrived at in an indirect way. This procedure is however open to question both because of varying production ratios (table I) and because of the possible importance of fractionation phenomena. Yet thisapproach is the only possible one at present. For
Cs137/Sr90 a value of 1.7 is usually assumed and thisvalue is also adopted here. A simple multiplication of all
srio data by 1.7 will therefore describe the Cs137 inventory according to paragraphs 97-99.

PREDICTION OF FUTURE FALL-OUT

General105. The first requisite of an accurate prediction isan accurate inventory. A second necessary condition is arealistic model that describes the complex transport situation. As is apparent from the foregoing discussions,
there is appreciable uncertainty on both of these points.
Any future prediction will of course inevitably beaffected by this. One conclusion may therefore at thepresent time be that there is no need for adopting a complicated, mathematical treatment of the prediction
problem. A simple approach, although more approximate, will be in better line with the uncertainties in thedata.

cu INVENTORY
101. From the measurements of cu levels in the tropo-106. In the 1958 report of the Committee the prediction of future fall-out was based on the simple exponential model, i.e., assuming a constant fractional removalof debris from the atmosphere. The deposition F d ( t)and the rate of fall-out Fr(t) were determined by theequations:sphere and the stratosphere;the artificial C14 inventory
may be computed and compared to that calculated fromdata on the total energy yield of nuclear weapons, as
given in paragraphs 36 and 37.

Fr(t) = Fr(O) • e->.t • e-i;+

1260+\Tm [ 1 - e->-t • e--:f-..

lwhere Fd(O), Fr(O) and Q(O) give the deposit, fallout rate and atmospheric inventory at the start of theprediction period (t = 0). Tm is the atmospheric mean
residence time, ;\ the radio-active decay constant and n
the rate of injection of debris.

35

30

Sr9° and Cs 131• soil dai.
90
- - - 6McS1,-,1

107. For nuclides like Sr90 and Cs 137 which have halflives much longer than the mean residence time in thestratosphere, the ultimate deposition on the ground isrelatively independent of the value assumed for the residence time. Effects that depend only on the magnitudeof the total deposit (e.g. uptake by plant roots) thus
vary only little with the assumed residence time.
108. Rate-dependent processes (e.g. uptake by plantleaves and plant base absorption) are directly affectedby the residence time. Assuming a short residence time,
there will practically be only one year that is characterized by a marked effect. For a longer residence time,several years would show a less marked effect. The overall dose delivered over several years will not vary appreciably with different residence times.

10

Deposition of SrR 0 and C~J 7 from tests up to
the end of 1960s109. The deposition of Sr90 from these tests waslargely completed by mid-1960 and was about 5.4 Mc
Sr90 (para. 87) and the atmospheric reservoir was about
1.2 Mc ·(table XVI). The injections of 1959 and 1960
were small enough not noticeably to influence the global
distribution of Cs137 and Sr90 • The Sr9° deposit from
weapon tests carried out up to 1960 is predicted to reacha ma."Cimum value of 5.8 Mc Sr90 in 1964 and then to
decay with a 28-year half-life (figures 37 and 38).

"

I
I

D

19SO

'

1960

1970

1980

l!/90

2000

2010

2020

110. As was pointed out in paragraph 36, for theoretical predictions of fall-out from nuclear explosions
it is necessary to know the quantity of radio-active products injected into the atmosphere. At present there are
not sufficient data on fall-out from the 1961 tests (para.
37) to make an accurate estimate of the injection fromthose tests. In addition, there is no way in which theCommittee can predict the pattern of future testing andtherefore no way of predicting the actual fall-out levels
from any such tests. Accordingly, as an illustration, theCommittee has chosen a model for the estimation of-.

lojoction,---------------------' ------------~~~~~----------

I
I•I

fqullibrhm fall-I rate

.,.,.

II

~

":;;
u

"" 0.5
-=-

~

•

I
I
I

I
I
I
I
I
I
I

roln data- - - 6·McSr90;sy
Tosts 1nding end al

1960

•

:zo.co ,_fall-out from tests conducted after the end of 1960, in
which large-scale testing is resumed in the year 1961
with an injection of 1 Mc Sr90 and 1028 atoms of C1'
and continues for specified periods with the same annual
injections of Sr90 and cu. Within this context, fourcases are considered :(a) Tests are discontinued at the end of 1961 ;( b) Tests are discontinued at the end of 1962;( c) Tests are discontinued at the end of 1965;( d) Tests are continued indefinitely.
111. It is assumed that the stratosphere is cleared
according to an exponential law with a half-removal timeequal to 2~ years. The results of calculations for Sr"I'
are given in figures 37 and 38. Cs 137 activity is calculated
assuming it to be 1.7 times the Srio activity.

A model illustrating deposition of SrR 0 and csin from apattern of tests subseq1tent to 1960

1.0

2030

Figu,.e 37. Future deposition of Sr-90

1961
1967

oL-~'~..L.~~:t.::::=-:::::-.JL..-~-l~~.....L~~...l-~~..L.~~J.-~--l---~1'11\0
1970
19110
1990
2opo
2010
:mo

1950

Figure 38. Future fall-out rate of Sr90

261

112. The latitudinal distribution of future fall-out
would be expected to follow the general pattern of
figure 35. A larger fraction of debris from polar andtemperate latitude injections is deposited in the northernhemisphere. In the past this has amounted to about 15
per cent more for polar injections than for equatorial
injections.

(c) There will be a further fall with a half-period of
about 1,000 years-owing to equilibration with the deep
ocean. When equilibration is complete, the C1• level inthe troposphere will be approximately 1 per cent above
normal;( d) This 1 per cent increase above norm:l will thendecay with the mean life of C14-8,000 years.

113. On these assumptions the maximum deposit
from tests completed by the end of 1961 should occur
in 1966 and be about 6.5 Mc. The rate of fall-out couldin 1962, however, be higher than 0.7 Mc (figure 38)
but would then be correspondingly less in subsequent
years. In figures 37 and 38 curves have been drav.-n corresponding to tests being discontinued at the end of 1961,
1962 and 1965. These curves give no indication whatsoever of the actual extent of future weapon testing.

117. Figure 39 shows the biospheric level of artificial
C14 expected on the basis of both a 5 and a 2 reservoir
model for the following conditions : addition of 22 X ion
atoms of C14 ; average residence time of C1• in thestratosphere before transfer to the troposphere-fiveyears; average residence time of cu in the troposphere
before entrance into the biosphere-thirty years; average residence time in the troposphere before transfer tothe surface ocean-five years ; average residence time inthe surface ocean before transfer to the deep ocean1,000 years. The value of 22 X 102 7 atoms of 0,* represents a probable value for what has been injected as ofthe end of 1960 (para. 104 ).

114. For short-lived nuclides, a long delay between
injection and deposition will give time for considerable
radio-active decay. Early deposition will however bring
down measurable amounts of short-lived nuclides. This
early deposition has taken place largely in the hemisphereof injection. Probably the residence times for polar andtemperate injections are shorter than for equatorial injections, and the doses from short-lived isotopes will
be greater for polar and temperate injections than forequatorial injection. Radiation doses from the fall-outof these isotopes have been calculated in annex F,part III.

400

200
100
60
40

C1 ' from tests up to the end of 1960

115. The present distribution of the inventory of artificial cu from tests of nuclear devices to date.'is knownwith an accuracy of probably + 20 per cent. Before thedose received by biospheric material from this added cu
can be calculated, future biospheric levels of artificial
C 14 must be deduced. This can be done mathematically,
but the accuracy is limited by the uncertainty in theknowledge of the exchange rates between reservoirs andthe total C14 content of these reservoirs.

.

u-;; 10!i~

0.6116. A limited ,amount of data on ea troposphericlevels for 1960 47~ has come to the attention of the Committee. From the available information, it now appears
that the tropospheric levels resulting from the injectionof CH by nuclear testing up to the end of October 1958
may be described as follows:(a) A peak C1 4 increase of about 30 per cent above
normal-was reached in the northern hemisphere troposphere in late 1959, and levels are now decreasing, being
about 25 per cent above normal in the troposphere ofboth hemispheres in late 1960;( b) There will be a fall with a half-period of several
years to between 10 and 20 per cent above normalowing to equilibration with the biosphere and surface
ocean;

0.9
0:2

y.... altfl 19sg,
0;1
0 ·S 10

Nro

40

100

200

400·

1000

2000

4000

10;000118. In the simpler 2 reservoir model, the exchangeof carbon between stratosphere, troposphere and surface
oceaiY'is assumed to be rapid and they are considered asa siiigle reservoir which is in exchange with the deep
ocean. The resulting mathematical expression, according
to this mode, for the future atmospheric and biosphericlevels will be :K 1 , Ku are the exchange rates of reservoirs I and II.
Index o stands for natural C 14
Q = number of atoms formed
or in numerical form, the addition of 22 x 102 7 C 14
atoms to the atmosphere can be expressed as

If all quantities of C14 are to be expressed as fractionsof the natural C14 level. we shall, dividing by N 10 ,obtain the following results:§

20

Figure 39. Future levels of CH from nuclear tests= _Q_. f(t)

Nro
where
N r. N 11 are the total number of atoms of C 14 in reservoirs I and II+

N = 25 (0.96 e-o· 0209 t
0.04 e-o.oooim)
where N is expressed as a percentage of the natural
C 14 level.

262

C1 • from contimted testing
119. The rate of testing and/or the rate of injectionof cu atoms into the atmospher~ varied considerably inthe period before cessation of nuclear testing. In paragraph 103 and table XVII we see that the total C14 inventory as of 1 July 1957, 1 July 1958 and 1 July 1959
was 10.5, 13.8 and 21 X 102 ' atoms respectively. We
shall now consider a hypothetical case of continued testing which results in an average annual production of 1~ 8
CH atoms per year.

If the quantity of cu is expressed as a fraction of thenatural C 14 level we shall, dividing by N 10 , get aformula, as follows:
N1 (t)
N10

where N is expressed as a percentage of the natural c1 4
level. This means that under these conditions, the biospheric level would be expected to increase over the next
one or two hundred years to a value of about four times
its natural C14 content, and then increase much more
slowly over tens of thousands of years to a value of theorder of thirty times the natural C14 level (figure 39).

owhere B = annual injection of C 14 , or in numericalform with an annual rate of production of 1028 atoms

cu

TABLE I.

+ 3,650 (1 - e-<>.ooowt)

N = 525 (1 - e-<>.0209 1)= ~ Jtf(t)dt
N10120. The future distribution of this additional C1"'/
could be found by estimating the content of each rese~voir at some future time on the assumption that it contains the CH from each of the previous years as estimated by either the 5 reservoir or 2 reservoir model
analysis (paras. 117 and 118). On the basis of the tworeservoir model and continued injection of C1\ the futureatmospheric and biospheric levels at any time ( t)will be:FISSION YIELD OF CERTAIN RADIO-NUCLIDES RESULTING FROM THE FISSION OF
HEAVY NUCLEI BY THERMAL AND FAST NEUTRONsl- 9

Fissi<m ;ykl;J (3) from fisrims by thermal neutrcms, fisrims ~mneutrons Uast) and uulrOns 111ilh enern of 14.6 Me

Fissitmprodut:I

Kra •....•.••
Sr" .........
Sr10 •••••••••
ye1 ••...•••..
Zr15 •••••••••
Ru101. • ••.•••
Ru1°' ••••••••
Sbll' .•.•.....
1m ...•.•••..
Te 112 ••••••••
Jlil ••••••••••

Ce117 ••••••••
BaU0 0 • • • • • • •eeu1 •••.••..
CelH •• ••••••

Half.life

10.6
50.5
28
58
65

uu•

UU'
(fas()Pu"'(fas()

0.30
4.79
5.77
5.4
6.2
3.0
0.38
0.011
3.1
4.7
6.9
6.15
6.35
6.0
6.0

0.25
4.15
4.38
. 5.21
6.72
3.97
0.47
0.059
3.11
4.44
6.02
6.18

0.07
1.44
2.23
2.69
5.12
6.25
6.17
0.123
4.85
6.32
6.19
6.8
5.0
4.65
3.66

(thermal)

years
days
years
days
days
days

7
1.01 years
2.0 years
8.05 days
77 hours
20.8 days
years
30
12.8 days
days
33
days
288

TABLE II.

5.79
5.29

4.76

um

um

um

(fast)

Th"'(fast)(14 MeV)(14 MeV)

0.14
2.81
3.2
3.68

6.7
6.8
7.2

0.42
4.2
4.5
4.64
4.69

0.25
3.2
3.1
3.78
5.40
4.89
3.11
0.65
5.29
4.7

S.7

6.6
2.7
0.024
3.33

4.7
5.72
6.2
5.7
S.62

4.5

0.16
0.042

3.5

1.58
0.48
4.02
4.2
5.4
5.10
4.16
4.47
3.3

1.2
2.4
6.3
6.2
9.0
7.1

TID SSSS

5.71
4.65
4.45
3.3

Ti= aftn fisrims

89 ...•....••.••••..•...........•......•.•••..............
90 ...•....•............•.........••....••••.........•..•.
95 • ••••••••••••.••••••..•.......•....••.••••......•.••...

103 ..•..•..•.•.•.•..•...•.......•........•.........••.....
131 .......•.•...•..•...............•...•.•.•....•....•..•.
132 ......•................•...............••.•.•..••..••...
137 •.•••.•..•....•.........••••......•....•..............•
140 .......•..........•..................•.................
141 ..•.•.••...•.................•..........•....•..••...••
144 .....•...........•.•..................................•

Other nuclides
Ha ••••••.•••.......•.•....••.•..•••...•.......••..••.•.

cu .................................................... .

U"'r ...•..................................•••..•..•..•..•
Np2:n •••••••••.•.•...•....••..•••••.....•••••.•.•••..•..

263

17 sec.

35 see.

100
100
20

100

100
94
0

100

99

0
65
100

10

100
90
30
0

100
100
0
0

100
100
0
0

100
96

2.56
3.50
3.76
5.07
5.20
2.44
0.29
2.89
4.24

5.76

5.57
5.18
4.58
4.69

4.42

J sec.

100
60
100
75

15
0
100
100
0
0

(117)

2.93
3.5
3.65
5.17

4.88

PERCENTAGE ~·RACTION OF MASS CRAIN IN GASEOUS OR VOLATILE FOR~7,68

HASL

TABLE Ill.

ESTIMATED PARTITION PERCENTAGE OF DE.BRIS (FISSIO~ PRODUCTS) BECOllU!iG LOCAL,
TROPOSPHERIC AND STRATOSPHERIC FALL-OUT BY TYPE OF SHQT79

Troposphaic

Loeal

Air.....................................
Land surface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Water surface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Deep underwater. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Contained underground .................. .
Low tower .............................. .
High tower ............................. .
Balloon •.......•........................

TABLE JV.

O
79
20
100

Shol siu under I MT

sphaicLoeal

Troposphaic

99
20
79
0

0
80
20
100
100
80
80
0

100
20
80
0
0
20
20
100

Stralo-1
1
1

0

FISSION AND FUSION ENERGY YIELDS OF NUCLEAR DEVICES46, 81
Fission 'Yield (mttatons)

Fusion :yi<ld (meialon.r)

Air usu

Sur/au U.uAir U.ts

Sur/ate um

0.19

0.57
37
7.5
9
0.07

5.4
26

22
9.5
19

31.4

50.5

1945-1951 ................................. .
1952-1954 •.•...............................
1955-1956 ......•...........................
1957-1958 ................................. .
1959-1960 ................................. .
TOTAL

TABLE

°""

Shcl siu equal lo or
I MT

T'YPe of shcl

1

5.6
31
37.79

54.14

v. MEAN CONCENTRATIONS OF Cs13195T AND
SrUO IN THE ATMOSPHERE
20OVER THE USSR•

T

Conctn·Dau ofsamplinc

May 1955 ............... .
July-August 1956 ......... .
March-April 1954 ........ .
March-May 1955 ......... .
December 1955 .••........
April·July 1956 ..•........
August-December 1956 .....

esm

eew

of air

Sr"

Sr''(0.005)*5(0.006)*3.5µµ curiu/111' µµ curies/m•of air(in mdres)Over European USSR
From 3,000 to 7,000
0.026Over Far Eastern USSR
From 3,000 to 7,000
0.020
Average over USSR
From 3,000 to 7,000
From 3,000 to 7,000
7,000
7,000
5,000

Rislio of numbdof aloms

Conctn·lralion a/lrtUion of
caesium-137 slronlium-90

Allihl4e of
IJdiril'Y
sample0.0014
0.014
0.013
0.018
0.011

0.34
0.44
0.25
0.35-0.74
0.4•Values in parentheses are calculated.

TABLE VJ.

STRATOSPHERIC CONTENT OF ARTIFICIAL R..o\IJIO-cABBON1so

Rlldiotarbos

Radiocarbon

conln&I

conltnl(10'' cu

(I<F' CH

Dale

1 July 1955,.....................................
1January1956 ....................•.............
1 July 1956......................................
1 January 1957.... . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . .

Datealoms)

8.6
8.0
5.6
6.6

1 July 1957......................................
1 January 1958... . . . . • . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . • . • . • . • • • .
1 July 1958......................................
May-June 1961 (preliminary data)..................

264

alanu)

7.4
6.1
8.4
8.0

TABLE VII.

DISTRIBUTION OF CARBON ON THE EARTH AND CH CONTENT OF RESERVOIRSIN THE EXCHANGE.ABLE CARBON CYCLE

Carbon rtsenofr

Resnwir

Atmosphere ..•............................
Biosphere (terrestrial) ..................... .
Humus ..........•........................
Surface waters of ocean (above thermocline). . . .
Remainder of ocean (deep ocean water). . . . . . .

Mass of c1>rbon(g/cm' ofearth's surfau)

Normal invenlor:Jof 0' aJom.s

0.125
0.06
0.20
0.18
7.50

36 x 1027
18 x 1017
x 10 2750 x 10"
1,950 x ion

TOTAL, in "exchangeable" system

8.1,...,z,100 x lon

Sedimentary carbon ................................. .
Organic carbon in sediments .......................... .
Coal, oil, etc ...........................•.... , ....... .

3,500
1,300
1.4

I
II

TOTAL, carbon in ("sedimentary'' systems)

so

4,800

TABLE VIII. DATA ON THE SPECIFIC CONCENTRATION OF Sr90 AND THE RELATIVE CONCENTRATIONOF CAESIUM-137, STRONTIUY-89 AND CERIUY-144 rn RAINFAU. IN THE UNITED KlNGJ>0!\£278,375,3114
Milford Haven area

Time

Rainfallcm

Speci/Uconuntralionof strontium-90
in rainwala
miaomicrocMries
litre

Up to the end of1954 .........
1955 •..••.•.. 82.51
1956 .•.•..... 78.77
1957 ......... 90.21
1958 ......... 115.37
1959
I ..........
II ..........
III ..........
IV ..........

8.00
1.30
8.18
5.84
v .......... 1.83
VI. .........
3.02
VII ..........
6.12
VIII ...•......
3.07
IX ..........
0.71
x .......... 21.91
XI .......... 29.03
XII .......... 16.23
TOTAL, in 1959 105.24

1960
I. .........
II ..........
III. .........
IV ..........

13.58
8.94
4.52
7.54
v .......... 3.84
VI. .........
2.64
VII .......... 10.30
VIII. .........
8.48
IX .......... 20.42
x .......... 14.42
XI .•........ 20.37
XII. . . . . . . . . . 13.45
TOTAL, in 1960 128.50

1961
I. .........
ll ..........

III ..........
IV ..........

v ..........

VI ..........
VII ..........
VIII •••....••.

11.55
6.93
3.99
11.94
4.56
4.95
4.44
10.46

AmounJ ofstron!ium-90.
fall-outon earlh's·i:1r

me km'

Pr~tionPr",J.jjiow

35
23
16
13
8.1
4.6
2.9
1.6
0.7
0.5
0.4

Cs /Sr.,S/SrM

Pr~ionCe"/S,.1

1.97
2.42
2.47
2.60
5.04
6.1
25
12.2
16.8
29.3
25.8
10.2
5.9
8.0
1.21
1.01
1.18

0.49
0.33
1.00
0.98
0.54
0.78
0.62
0.18
0.056
0.27
0.29
0.19
5.73

1.8
1.3
1.7
1.7
1.4
1.3
1.6
2.0
1.0
1.9
1.9
2.1

1.22
1.62
2.34
2.78
5.54
3.71
2.0
1.65
1.00
0.54
0.59
0.60

0.166
0.15
0.11
0.21
0.21
0.098
0.20
0.14
0.20
0.078
0.12
0.080
1.77

1.7
1.9
1.4
1.7
1.7
1.5
1.5
1.1
1.6
1.7
1.6
1.8

0.95
1.88
2.2
2.3
3.4
1.66
1.80
1.10

0.110
0.130
0.088
0.27
0.153
0.083
0.08
0.115

1.8
1.4
1.8
1.6
1.7
1.9
1.6
1.7

265

0.5
2.0
0.4

19
24
17
20
25
43
11
11
12

7
8
7.5
4.0
5.3
6.3
4.9
2.3
3.3
5.1
3.4
3.6

3.0
2.7
3.0
2.0
"'3.6
3.4
3.0
2.9

TADLE IX.

AvlmAGE CONCENTRATION OF STRONTIUM-90 IN RAINFALL PER QUARTER278 • 8 7 6A•eTat•

No.

1
2
3
4
5

6
7
8
N

~

9

10
11

12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
M

slalionLalil11deLongilud1

Tromso ......•.............
Do<lo ...............•..•...
Reykjavik ..................
Kinloss ....•................
Sylt .......................
Liverpool ...................
Snowdon L ..................
Abingdon ...•............•..
.Milford Haven ..............
Felixstowe ..................
Esquimalt ..................
Linz .......................
Gosausce .............••....
Ollawa .....................
Gibraltar .............•••...
Akrotiri (Cyprus) ...........
Cacnwood ..................
Palisadoes ..................
Lagos (Nigeria) ........•••..
Singapore ...............•..
Suva (Fiji) .............•..•
Melbourne ..................
Ohakca ..................•.
Port Stanley, ...•..... , ... , ,69°42'N
67°17'N
64°10'N
57°39'N
54°54'N
53°04'N
53°04'N
51°41'N
51°41'N
51°58'N
48°30'N
48°20'N
47°40'N
45°20'N
36°10'N
35°00'N
18°1.3'N17°56'N
06°30'N
01°19'N
18°05'S
37°45'540012'551°42'5!9°0l'E
14°22'E
22°00'W
03°34'W
08°17'E
04°01'W
04°01'\V
01°18'\V
05°09'W
01°02'E
123°00'W
14°30'E
13°30'E
75°41'W
05°21'W
33°23'E
76°35'W
76°47'W
03°40'E
103°49'E
178°28'E
144°50'E
175°23'Es1°s21w

precipitat ion
tm

70
90
80
70
50
85
350
65

µµc Sr"/lilreµµc Sr"/lilroµµc Sr"/litro

I

II

III

IV

I

II

III

IV

I

II

24.5
20.8
13.5
9.5

21.8
52.9
15.6
17.8
24.6
18.9
20.7
18.6
20.3
22.2
28.8

4.4
5.8
3.4
8.9
7.7
8.3
8.3
7.4
7.7
6.3

1.4
2.6
1.2
1.16

2.89
4.42
3.0
1.79

4.5
5.4
3.6
5.1

2.12
3.4

1.41
1.0

1.0
1.38

3.8

1.62

0.61

1.10

2.4

1.36
1.44
1.69

1.51
1.60
1.71
2.02

4.0
2.60
3.50

1.22
1.90
2.00
3.20
2.0
2.2

0.52
0.74
0.60
0.97
0.58
1.17
0.97
0.82
1.3
0.68
1.64
0.37
0.11
0.25
0.10
0.4
2.3
1.31
1.02

0.80

5.6

1.63
1.61
1.52
1.55
1.80
2.6
2.1
2.3
2.6
15.8
No rain
0.68
0.32
0.59
0.15
0.56
0.91
0.79
0.89

11.4
14.6
11.2

95

13.4

55

14.9
8.8

80
80
250
100

1961

1960

1959

annualSampletalleelion

12.8

90

11.7
13.8
17.8

40
280
80
250
240
290
65
100
65

8.3
13.5
3.6
1.1
<0.3
1.6
1.1
1.1

9.8
28.1
32.8
90.0
9.0
7.2
2.0
0.45
<0.3
5.0
1.0
1.3

5.4
5.7
2.9
9.4
No rain
1.4
8.0
0.83
0.35
0.25
1.0
1.2
1.4

1.62

1.22
1.75
1.72
5.8
2.2
1.99
1.14

0.6
0.47
0.06
0.37
1.7
1.1

0.64

0.62
1.06
0.10
0.19
1.2
0.72
0.76

3.6

5.1
6.2
4.0
3.9
4.4
5.2
2.9
1.23
0.58
0.36
0.09
<0.2
0.43
0.63
0.60

1.20

1.14
1.12
1.31
1.09
1.86
1.91
2.3
3.4
2.7
<1
0.6
0.16
2.2
1.4
1.0

2.7
1.35
2.5

1.95

TAllLE

Ritlunond
USA

MilfordllavenUK

x. RA1·E OF S~O FALl.·OUT mcjkm2 AND MONTH 207, 226, 281, 2BU, 278, 873, 880, sg,, u.oa

/Jpra
llaly

[41nfo:rad
USSR

-

0.25
0.21

BuenosAius
A111nli><a1957
I. •...............

II .................
III .................
IV .................

v................

N

0\
'l

VI .................
VII .................
VIII •..•..•..........
IX ..•..............
x .................
XI..o •.............
XII .................
1958
I. ................

II .................
III. ................

IV .................
V .................
VI •................
VII .................
VIII .................
IX .................
x .................
XI .................
XII .................

-

-

0.23
0.22
0.45
0.6
0.16
0.28
0.24
0.12
0.36
0.30
0.03
0.15

-

-

-

-

0.33

-

0.10
0.11

-

-

-

0.09
0.13
0.22
0.53

-

-

-

Richmond
USA

Japar<

-

~

-

-

0.03
0.21
0.14
0.07
0.11

1959
I. ................
II. ................
III .................
IV ...•.............

v.................

VI ...•.............
VII .................
VIII .................
IX ..•..............
x ...••............
xI .................
XII .. : ..............

Milford
UK

Jspra
//aJy

unln1rad
US R

0.57
0.52
0.23
0.13
0.06
0.01
0.02
0.00
0.02
0.01
0.00
0.03

0.49
0.33
1.00
0.98
0.54
0.78
0.62
0.18
0.06
0.27
0.29
0.19

0.63
1.66
3.90
6.20
3.10
0.80
0.15
0.20
0.08
0.05
0.08
0.10

0.45
0.28
0.15

0.10
0.11
0.12
0.02
0.02
0.00
0.01
0.01
0.00
0.01
0.03

0.17
0.15
0.11
0.21
0.21
0.10
0.20
0.14
0.20
0.08
0.12
0.08

-

-

HaPaK

-

-

Bue Hos
Airti
Arienli><a

-

1960

-

-

0.21
0.34
0.15
0.28
0.94
0.52
0.62
0.51
0.58
0.35
0.29
0.61

o.55}
0.60
0.50
1.60
1.45
1.25
1.10
0.25
1.05
0.46
0.40

0.48
0.16
0.72
1.16
0.78
0.25
0.23
0.30
0.44
0.20

{
-

-

-

0.15
0.13
0.13
0.22
0.65
0.33
0.46
0.34
0.14
0.44
0.32
0.49

I. ................

II .................
III .................
IV .................

v.................
VI ...••.......•....
vn .................

VIII. ................
IX ..•..............
x .................
XI ..................
XII .................

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

0.05
0.05
0.09
0.04
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.04
0.11
0.18
0.07
0.07

Japan

0.33
0.12
1.02
1.12
1.86
0.78
0.14
0.17

TADLE XI.

N

83

AVERAGE QUARTERLY FALL-OUT OF STll.ONTIUM-90 ON THE EA.R.TH'S SUIU'ACESTa

No.

Sampling station

Latit1<deLongitudecm

1

Tromso ........................
Bodo .•........................
Reykjavik .....................
Kinloss ...............•........
Sylt .••...................•....
Liverpool. .....................
Snowdon L .....................
Snowdon U ....................
Abingdon .•...•...•.•...•......
Milford Haven .................
Felixstowe .....................
Esquimalt. ....................
Linz ..........................
Gosausce ......................
Ottawa ........................
Gilbraltar ......................
Akrotiki. ......................
Cacnwood ...............•.....
Palisadocs .....................
Lagos .........................
Singapore ......................
Suva ..........................
Melbourne •....................
Ohakea ...................... ·.
Port Stanley ............•......

69°42'N
67°17'N
64°10'N
57°39'N
54°54'N
53°21'N
53°04'N

19°01'E
14°22'E
22°00'W
03•34•w
08°t 7'E
02°58'W
04°01•w

70
90
80
70
50
85
350

51°41'N
51°41'N
51°58'N
48°30'N
48"20'N
47°40'N
45°20'N
36°10'N35° N
17°13'N
17°56'N
06°30'N
01°19'N
18°05'537°45'540°12'551°42'501°18'W
05°09'W
01°02'E
123°oo•w
14°30'E
13°30'E
75°41'W
05°21'W
33°23'E
76°35'W
76°47'W
03°40'E
103°49'E
t78°28'E
144°50'E
175°23'E
57°52'W

65
95
55
80
80
250
100
90
40
280
80
250
240
290
65
100
65

2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25

A•.raie caesium-137 /slronlium-90 ratio Ptr auarurAi•era11• Jironlium-90 fall-oul Per auarler me/km•

Ar.rageann1<alprecipitation

19(}0

1959

10.6
4.57

II

Ill

IV

1

4.6

1.78
2.7
1.29
0.76
0.68
1.02
2.46
1.97
0.74
0.76
0.51
0.39

0.25
0.48
0.52
0.19

0.86
1.03
0.37
0.27

0.38
2.18
3.32
0.34
1.09

0.31
1.70
1.73
0.26
0.55

10.7

2.59
2.14
1.61
3.55
1.28
9.40
9.91
9.46
6.62
1.75
1.73
2.34
2.21
0.97
1.28
1.4
4.54
-5.06.3
3.6
2.26
4.69
2.89
8.39
0.27
10.8
3.25
0.32
1.06
1.85
0.70
0.28
0.95
0.25
0.4
0.24
o.54
0.23
0.33
0.28
0.18
1.13

1.5
3.3
0.77
0.47
0.12
0.2
0.51
0.17
0.22
0.17
0.17
0.14

0.35
0.47
0.26
0.24
0.65
0.53
0.69
1.4
1.18
0.49
0.37
-2.590.16
0.085
p.19
0.11
0.0:>
0.046
0.21
0.20
0.12
0.29
0.15
0.17
0.11
0.09

II

0.98
0.74
0.40
1.35
1.41
0.54
0.50
0.28
0.40
0.97
2.00
0.70
0.28

19<f0

Strontium·
90 fall-out in
1959 me/km'

1

II

1/1

IV

I

17.23
19.14

1.7
1.5
1.4

1.9
1.6
2.0
1.7
1.6
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.8
1.7
1.9
2.3
1.8
2.0
2.9
2.0

1.8
2.7
1.9
2.4

1.7
1.5

4.22

1.4
1.4
1.3
1.6
1.6
1.6

1.1
2.1

1.6
1.4

1.7
1.8
1.5
1.3
1.5

2.1
1.9
1.4
1.9
1.5

1.6
1.8
1.6
1.8
1.7
1.4
1.1
1.5
1.8
1.5
2.6

6.23
23.95
21.37
4.56
6.40
6.80
13.73
8.41
12.34
15.46
1.74
3.17
1.85
1.07
1.24
0.90
0.69

1959

1.6
1.5
1.4
1.7
1.6
1.4
1.8
1.7
1.6
t.9
1.5
1.7
1.5
-1.61.5
1.7
1.8
1.4
t.7
1.6
1.0
1.6
. 1.6
1.9
1.4
2.0
1.3
1.5
1.4
1.9
1.8
1.6

1.6
1.4
L9

1.9
0.9
1.5
t.7
2.2
1.8
1.4
1.7

2.0
2.4
1.7
1.8
1.7
2.3
1.9
1.6
4.0
2.1
1.6
-1.41.7
1.5
2.0
2.4
1.4
1.4
2.2
1.7
1.9
2.2
1.5
1.6
1.9
2.5

II

TABLE XII A.

EXPERIMENTAL DATA ON FALL-OUT OF CERTAIN RADIO-ISOTOPES IN 1957 ON THE EARTH'S SURFACE
IN THE LENINGRAD AREA201

Total
beta-

CeTium-141

Fall·ovl sampli"t period

1957
I ......................................
II ......................................
Ill ......................................
IV ......................................

v ......................................

VI ......................................
VII ......................................
VIII ......................................
IX ......................................

x ......................................

XI ......................................
XII ......................................

me/km'

me/km'

21.4
23.7
20.4
118.4
70.0
34.5
19.5
39.3
119.5
92.8
18.9
27.9

2.49
9.73

Average fall-out per month, 1958 .............

TABLE XII B.

Fall-cul samplinr /!triad

50.5

total

me/km•

11.06
8.2

22.5
9.63
1.86

Total for year with extrapolation for missing
months ..................................

YUrium-91

3 ofatlii,.ily

18.9
10.4
9.9

Stro1ltium-89

CeTium-144

3

me/km'

3

me/km I

3

0.8

3.7

0.12

5.9
9.5
1.43
4.3
20.2
15.4
12.2
7.2
3.9
9.9

2.4
1.6
1.1
3.8
12.6
0.64
3.1
3.77
27.3
4.47

11.2
6.9
5.6
3.2
18.0
1.86
15.9
9.6
22.8
4.8

7.58
1.87

7.9

5.91
9.40
3.03

5.0
13.4
8.8

3.96

14.2

3.22
6.10
4.08
1.37
4.8

8.2
5.1
5.2
7.3
17.2

1.1

1.0
1.5
3.9
6.0
14.4
6.6
7.4
2.7

75.0

49.7

70.7

57.7

6.25

4.14

5.89

4.81

EXPERIMENTAL DATA ON FALL-OUT OF CERTAIN RADIO-ISOTOPES ON THE EARTH'S SURFACE
IN THE LENINGRAD AREA IN 1958207

Ccrium-141

Total belo·
actiPilyme/km•

me/km•

3

3.47
4.04
3.34
8.14
12.50
29.60
9.86
5.67
2.31
13.30
18.76
2.68

11.2
15.7
7.9
14.3
9.3
15.2
10.5
10.2
7.8
6.2
8.0
2.2

Ruthenium-103

Zirconium

Cerium-144

me/km'

3

me/km'

3

3.43
3.57
2.14
3.76
7.77
13.80
5.87
3.71
1.45
6.66
12.85
3.42

11.1
13.9
5.1
6.6
5.8
7.1
6.3
6.7
4.9
3.1
5.5
2.8

3.02
4.03
3.36
7.00
12.71
21.47
7.58
4.20
2.31
10.42
16.67
5.81

9.7
15.7
7.9
12.3
9.5
11.1
8.1
7.6
7.8
4.8
7.2
4.7

me/km•

Ccusium-137

3

me/km'

3

1.33
2.03
1.19
0.90
1.53
0.94
0.46

0.99
1.05
1.30
1.60
5.20
0.40
0.20

1958
I .......................
II .......................

III .......................
IV .......................

v .......................

VI .......................
VII .......................
VIII .......................
IX .......................

x .......................

XI .......................
XII .......................

31.0
25.7
42.3
56.87
134.2
194.2
93.5

55.5
29.64
216.2
233.3
124.0

Total for year with extrapolation for missing months .....

Fall-out
sampli"t
9aiod

Total

wto-

4.94

5.0 {

5.21
14.90
10.58
4.82
3.20
2.04
5.21
8.59
3.01

9.2
11.1

5.5
5.2
5.8
6.9
2.4
3.7
2.4

113.7

68.4

98.6

62.5

14.4

9.47

5.70

8.21

5.21

1.20

Average fall-out per month,
1958 ...................... 103.00

TABLE XII c.

}

EXPERIMENTAL DATA ON FALL-OUT or CERTAIN RADIO-ISOTOPES ON THE EARTH'S SURFACE
IN THE l.E.."'!INGRAD AREA IN 1959207

C<rium-141

actirity
me/km'

me/km'

155.9
89.3
42.4

19.20
6.60
1.23

Ruthe1lium·IOJ

3

me/km'

12.3
7.4
2.9

22.97
6.67
2.63

Zircanium-95

3

me/km'

14.7
7.5
6.2

22.89
10.66
4.36

Cerium-144

3

me/km'

14.7
11.9
10.3

10.95
8.31
4.05

Ccurium-137

3

me/Inn'3~li<ni
/Sr"

7.0
9.3
9.6

1.54
1.07
0.57

0.99
1.20
1.34

3.4
3.8
3.8

1959
I. .............
II ..............

III ..............
Total for firstquarter 1959 ....

Average fall-out
per month in firstquarter 1959 .... ,...,, 0.95

270.03

322.7

379.1

23.31

3.18

0.90

-1.01

,..., 1.26,..., 0.77

1.05

269

TABLE XIII. MEAN MONTHLY FALL-OUT OF SOME RADIO-ISOTOPl!:S IN THE VICU.""1TY
OF RICHMOND (USA) 396
me/km'
Dole of so,,.plt

1959
I. ............
II .•...........
Ill .............
IV .............

v.............

VI. ............
VII •............
VIII. .•..........
IX ..............

x .............

XI .............
XII .............

srn

Sr•/Sr11

(:elU

Pu"'

14.7
17.2
2.6
1.2
0.37
0.029
0.058
0.009
0.024
0.004
0.003
0.021

1960
!. ............

0.080
0.075
0.56
0.012
0.005
0.001

II .............
Ill. ............
IV ..•..........

v.............

VI. ............
VII •............
VIII •..•.........
IX .........•.••

0.84
0.74
0.83
0.15
0.12
0.029
0.038
0.054
0.018
0.098
0.13

0.00290.00150.00170.00050.00050.00090.00060.00120.00020.00030.0017x .............

XI. ............

3.8
2.3
0.85
0.39
0.31
0.12
0.050
0.015
0.018
0.014
0.012
0.016

30
31
13
10
6.9
6.0

0.043
0.021
0.017
0.005
0.005

0.90
0.81
0.10
0.58
0.33

2.6
1.5
0.96
3.0
0.74

1.00

TABI.EXIV. VAJUATIONS IN THE MEAN STIW?."TIUM·90 CONCENTRATION IN THE SOIL AT DIFFE.RE~"T LATTrUDES
r,.creose In
quo11lity ofslro11lium-90
dmn1 periodfrom1956 to 1958

Q~antityofslronlium-90
at the firsthalf of 1958

Quantity a/slrontium-90
al themiddle of. 195901<01<li!y ofstronlium·90
attlsemiddle of1960

Area af~°'znu/aceNo.

Latitude

Aleta cme/km'

Megac

me/km'

Mega cme/km'

Meiac

me/km•

10' km•

1
2
3
4
5
6
7

80°-70°N .................
70°-60°N .................
60°-50°N •................
50°-40°N .................
40°-30°N .................
30°-20°N •................
20°-10°N •................
10°- O"N .................
0°-10°5 •................
10·-20°s .................
20°-30°s .................
30°-40°5 .................
40°-50°5 .................
50°-60°s .................
ToTAt. Mcgacuries

0.03
0.08
0.16
0.23
0.19
0.24
0.09
0.03
0.04
0.06
0.06
0.07
0.09
0.07
1.43

2.2
4.1
6.4
7.4
5.3
6.0
2.2
0.8
1.0
1.3
1.4
1.8
2.9
2.9

0.03
0.17
0.26
0.43
0.36
0.47
0.17
0.10
0.12
0.08
0.10
0.11
0.12
0.09
2.60

3.1
9.5
10.3
13.6
10.1
11.6
4.1
2.3
2.7
1.8
2.4
3.1
3.8
3.6

0.22
0.30
0.76
0.81
1.04
0.40
0.22
0.27
0.12
0.14
0.15
0.15

11.6
11.8
24.1
22.3
25.9
9.4
5.0
6.1
2.8
3.5
4.1
4.7

0.25
0.43
0.76
0.87
0.93
0.33
0.17
0.24
0.13
0.17
0.18
0.15

13.2
16.9
24.1
24.0
23.2
7.7
3.8
5.4
3.0
4.2
5.0
4.7

11.1
18.9
25.4
31.6
36.3
40.1
42.7
44.3
44.3
42.7
40.1
36.3
31.6
25.4

8
9
10
11
12
13
14

270

4.58

4.61

TABLE

xv. CONCENTRATIONS (mc/km2) OF GAltMA-RADIATING FISSION FRAGMENTS IN son. SAltPLESCOLLECTED IX THE VICINITY OF CHICAGO, USAUS
CsUT

Radi&-mulidt

Zr" - Nb"
65-35 days

JO :years

Ru1Dt
1 :yearv .......................
x .......................

69
75
89

13.5
13.0
14

80

36
120

38

XL ......................
XII. ......................

280
380
400
360
290
230
170
140
100
77

49
52
54
57
58
61
66
74
72

1960
II .......................
III ••......•..............
IV •......................

58
43
35

Ru'"

c,111

Ce"'

40 daysJZ daysZ90 days

69
69

67
77
92

42
46
54

100
106

17

65

50

25

58
81

13
31

23
6
15

96
83
104

127
89
71
46

223
156
103
70
43
29
19

435
560
590

72

240
310
340
450
463
340
385
370
380
390

76
75
76

380
365
350

1957

VII .......................

67

cJ2

1958
III. ......................
VI ............ ···········IX .......................

1959
III. ......................
IV •......................

v .......................

VI. ......................
VII .......................
VIII .......................
IX ........•....•...•...•.

x .......................

TABLE XVI.

35
20
11

655
700
655
680
740
710
660
615
620

635

APPROXIMATE $r9<> ATMOSPHERE INVENTORIES (IN MEGACURIES)162,4TO

HeithlNor. 57-Dee. 58

Jan. 59-Aui. 59

StPI. 59-Dte. 59

Jan. 60-May 60

May60

Nor. 60

May61

Above 30 km .•..•........
20-30 km ................
Tropopause-20 km •..•.••

0.20 ± 0.04
0.15 ± 0.05
0.61±0.09

Northern hemisphere0.17 ± 0.04
0.20 ± 0.04
0.27 ± 0.08
0.30 ± 0.08
0.38 ± 0.06
0.33 ± 0.05

0.13 ± 0.04
0.25 ± 0.10
0.37 ± 0.06

0.14
0.23
0.25

0.13
0.20
0.24

0.12
0.14
0.19

TOT.IJ.

0.96 ± 0.20

0.85 ± 0.16

0.80 ± 0.15

0.75 ± 0.15

0.62

0.57

0.45

Above 30 km ...••........
20-30 km•••••...•.......
Tropopause-20 km .•.....

0.20 ± 0.04
0.11±0.03
0.22 ± 0.03

Southern 'hemb.pliere
0.16 ± 0.04
0.19 ± 0.04
0.17 ± 0.06
0.15 ± 0.05
0.13 ± 0.02
0.16 ± 0.08

0.12 ± 0.04
0.13 ± 0.05
0.27 ± 0.08

0.14
0.23
0.19

0.13
0.20
0.24

0.12
0.14
0.26

TOTAL

0.53 ± 0.13

0.47 ± 0.10

0.52 ± 0.13

0.56

0.57

0.52

0.03

0.03

0.03

0.03

0.02

0.03

1.52 ± 0.33

1.35 ± 0.26

1.30 ± 0.28

1.21

1.16

1.00

TABLE XVI!.

0.49 ± 0.13

GWbal troposphere
0.03
World total
1.32 ± 0.28

DISTRIBUTION OF CH BETWEEN RESERVOIRS AND TOTAL INVENTORYAS OF JULY 1957, 1958, 1959, AND MAY-JUNE, 1961
CH conltnl In units of 10" ""'"'~&senoir

1Jxly1957

J July 1958

I July 1959

Ma-y.Ju'M 1961.,..

Stratosphere ................
Troposphere ................
Ocean .••••................
Biosphere ..................

7.4
2.5
(0.5)
(0.1)

8.4
4.0
(1.2)
(0.2)

(10-13)
6.7
(2.2)
(0.4)

8.0
13.0
(6.2)

TOTAL

10.5

13.8

(19-22)(27)• Computed values in brackets, other experimental data.

'"* Preliminary data.

271

REFERENCES
1. Katcoff, S., Fission product yields from neutron-

portA-4130-456 (1960) ;v.e. United Nations document A/ AC.82/G/L.491.
18. Koyama, S., Neptunium-239 content in the radioactive rain water collected in Japan during theperiod of 1954-1958: A graphical method of determining the Np-239 content and of estimating
the date of nuclear explosion. J. Fae. Sci., Niigata
Univ. Ser. I, 2: 107-109 (1960); v.e. United Nations document A/AC.82/GfL.390.
19. Larson, K H., J. W. Neel, Summary statement offindings related to the distribution, characteristics
and biological availability of fallout debris originating from testing programs at the Nevada testsite. University of California report UCLA-438(1960).
20. Horak, J., The time dependence of the man-maderadioactivity of atmospheric precipitation. Geophys. Inst. Czech. Acad. Sci.; v.e. United Nations
document A/AC.82/GfL.505.
21. Moteff, J., Energy spectrum of ~ammas from fission products. Nucleonics 13 (5): 28-31 (1955).
22. Clark, F. H., Decay of fission product gammas.
Report NDA-27-39 (1954).
23. Bjornerstedt, R., K. Low, S. Ulvonas, Products ofsimultaneous fissions. United Nations document
A/AC.82/G/R.15.
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284---- -----=-- :-::-_·_-_---- -- -Haj'lt CCCP, MocKBa (1960); v.e. ~o&prnHT OOH
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436. Abe, S., Y. Ueno, T. Yamaguchi, Local changes in
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440. Haggroth, S., Determination of Sr9° in dried milk,
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v.e. United Nations document A/AC.82/G/L.438.
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contribution of short-lived isotopes and hot spots
to radiation exposure in the United States from
nuclear test fallout. USAEC report TID-8527.
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448. 1.0w, K., I. 6. Andersson, The fission products
Zr9 5 and Nb 95 in Swedish soils. United Nations
document A/AC.82/G/L.303.
449. I.Ow, K., K. Edvarson, The content of Cs137 andZr95 plus Nb 95 in Swedish soils. FOA 4 Rapport
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450. Shelton, F., Statement before the Joint Committee
on Atomic Energy, US Congress, May 1959.
451. Miyake, Y., K. Saruhashi, Y. Katsuragi et al., Penetration of artificial radioactivity in deep waters of
the Pacific and vertical diffusion rate of sea water.
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A/AC.82/G/R.56.
453. Miyake, Y., K. Saruhashi, Y. Katsuragi et al.,Cesium-137 and strontium-90 in sea water. J. Rad.
Res. 2: 25-28 (1961); v.e. United Nations document A/AC.82/G/L.686.
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pap;noaITTmm:mrn

11e~ecTBan.

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MocIIBa (1961); v. ~o:itpreJIT OOH A/AC.82/G/L.704.
455. Miyake, Y., On the distribution of radioactivity inthe sea around Bikini Atoll in June 1954. Pap.
Meteorol. Geophys. 5: 253 ( 1954).
456. Miyake, Y., Y. Sugiura, Radiochemical analysis ofradionuclides in sea water collected near Bikini
Atoll. Papers Meteorol. and Geophys. (Japan) 6:
33-37 ( 1955).
457. Bowen, V. T., T. T. Sugihara Strontium-90 in
North Atlantic surface waters.' Proc. Nat. Acad.
Sci. 43: 576-580 ( 1957).
458. Yamagata, N., S. Matsuda, Cesium-137 in the
coastal waters of Japan. Bull. Chem. Soc. Japan
32: 497 (1957).
459. Miyake, Y., K. Saruhashi, Distribution of manmade radioactivity in the North Pacific throughsummer 1955. J. Mar. Res. 17: 383 (1958).
460. Sugihara, T. T., H. E. James, E. J. Troianello
et al., Radiochemical separation of fission products
from large volumes of sea water. Anal. Chem. 31:
44-49 (1959).
461. Bowen, V. T., T. T. Sugihara, Strontium-90 in themixed layer of the Atlantic Ocean. Nature 186:
71-72 (1960).
462. Folsom, T. R., G. J. Mohanrao, P. Winchell, Fallout caesium in surface sea water off the California
coast (1959-60) by gamma-ray measurements.
Nature 187: 480-483 (1960).
463. Folsom, T. R., G. J. Mohanrao, Measurement of
fallout cesium in the Pacific Ocean and in terrestrial effluents likely to alter coastal waters. Intern.
Assn. Phys. Oceanography (1960).
464. Miyake, Y., Strontium-90 in Western North
Pacific surface waters. Pap. Meteor. Geophys. 11 :
188 (1960).
465. Bowen, V. T., "Statement of Dr. Vaughan 'f.
Bowen, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution,
Woods Hole, Mass.", pp. 234-251 in Applicationsof Radioisotopes and Radiation in the Life Sciences. Hearings before the Subcommittee on
Research, Development and Radiation. Congressof the United States, Eighty-Seventh Congress,
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(1961).
466. Bizollon, C., J. Moret, P. Berger, Deux ans decontrole de la radio-activite du Rhone et de la
nappe phreatique. Bull. Inst. Nat. d'Hygiene 16:643-664 (1961); v.e. United Nations document
A/AC.82/G/L.658.
467. Mahmoud, K. A., M. K Molokhia, A. T. A. Abdel
Fattah, Strontium-90, stable strontium and stable
calcium in soil, food items, water and human bonein Egypt. United Nations document A/AC.82/G/
L.665.
468. Yamagata, N., The concentration of Sr90 and
Cs187 in land waters in Japan. United Nations document A/AC.82/G/L.690.
469. Menzel, R. G., Transport of strontium-90 in runoff. Science 131 : 499 ( 1960).
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ence 130: 542-552 (1959); v.e. United Nations
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286

meridian. ·wMO Technical Note No. 43: 35-45(1961).
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Willis, E. H. Personal communicati.on.
Olsson, I. Personal communication.

ANNEX F

Ei"lVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION (continued)
PART IITransfer of radio-active material through footl. chains into the human body
CONTENTSParagrapli.r

I. INTRODUCTION ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Radio-nuclides of importance •..•...............
Methods of investigation ....................... .

1-7
2-3
4-7
II. STRONTIUM-90 •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
9-121
SrDO in food chains .•.......................•... 9-36
9-12
Relationships between strontium and calcium ..•Soils and plants .••.••....•...•............... 13-25
Absorption of Sr9o from the soil •........•.. 14-20
Direct contamination of plants ..•.•••...•... 21-24
Relative importance of different routes of con25
tamination ........••.........•....•......
26
Aquatic food chains ...•..•................•..
Milk and animal products .................... . 27-30
Metabolic behaviour in man ...........••...... 31-36
Measured levels of Sr9o in diet ...............•.. 37-79
General considerations ...................... . 37-40
Estimates of the ratio of Sr9° to calcium in the
total diet .•..................•............•. 41-49
Contributions of Srso by individual components
to the total intake •..•......•.•...••.......•
50
Factors causing intake to vary from the average 51-61
SrDo in individual foods ••.•..•..•.•.••...••... 62-79
Mille .......•••..•.......•..••.......•..•.• 63-66
Cereals .....••.......••..••..••.•.•.••.•... 67-73
Vegetables ..••...••......•......•......... 74-76
Fruit .•.•.••.•...•..••.••.••.......•.••....
77
Meat, eggs and fish .......••.•..•....•.•...•
78
Tea ••••.•.••.•....••.••..••..•••...•.•...•
79
Measured levels of Srso in human bone •....•.... 80-91
Effect of age ...••••..••..•..•••...•.•.....•. 82-84
Geographical location •........•••• , .•.•.•.•.. 85-87
Trends with time ••.••..••.........•.••.•... , 88-89
Observed ratio (bone/diet) from measurementsof Sr 9o in bone ••..........•••.....•.••.•.• 90-91

Paragraphs

Evaluation of mean levels of Sr9o in diet andbone . . . . • • • . • . . . . . • . • • • • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92-102
Evaluation of Sr9° to calcium ratios in total diet,
1958-1960 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . • • • . . . • . . . . • . 94-99
Comparison of calculated and measured Sr9o inbone ...................•.....••........... 100-102
Future levels of Srso in diet and man ..•......... 103-121
Method of evaluation ......................... 105-107
Estimated values of proportionality factors .... 108-119
Calculated future levels ...................... 120-121

III. CAESIUM-137 •.........•.••................•... 122-150
Cs131 in food chains ............................ 122-132
Relationships between caesium and potassium . . 122
Soils and plants .............................. 123-127
128
Aquatic food chains . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . .
Transference into millc . . • . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Metabolic behaviour in man and mammals .... 130-132
Measured levels of Cs1ar ....................... 133-145
Cs1a1 in the total diet . • .. • • . . . . • • . • . . . . . . . . . . 134-135
Cs1a1 in millc • . • . • • . . . • • . • . . . . . • • • • . . . . . . • . • . 136-138
Cs1s1 in other foods • . . . . . . . • • • . • . . • . • . . • . • • . 139
Measured levels of Cs1s1 in the human body •.. 140-144
Evaluation of mean levels of Cs137 in the humanbody . . . . . . . • . . . . • • . •. . . . . . . • . . . . • • . . • . . . • . 145
Future levels of Csl37 in diet and man ••..••.•••• 146-150

IV. SHORT-LIVED RADIO-NUCUDES •••••••••••••••••••• 151-156
Radio-nuclides of importance •.••••...••..••.•••• 153-154
Measured levels •.•.•.•..•.•••••..•.•.••••••••• 155
156
Future levels .......•.••......••••••...••..••.•TABLESREFERENCES

I. Introduction

R.ADIO-NUCLIDES OF IMPORTANCE

1. Since the Committee's 1958 report, much information has been obtained on the levels of radio-nuclides in
man and in foodstuffs and on the mechanisms by which
they are transmitted through food chains. Many countries publish information on the former regularly, anddetailed reviews of some aspects of the passage of fission
products ~rough food chains are available. 19 •119 Thispart of the annex summarizes the present state of knowledge in this field, emphasizing those factors which are
relevant to the assessment of the exposure of humanpopulations. While the measured levels of radio-nuclides
described in this section apply only to fall-out from
nuclear e..'i:plosions, it will be appreciated that the generaldescription of food chain behaviour is applicable also
to other releases of the radio-nuclides treated. These
releases are described in part IV of the present annex
and the behaviour of 0 4 is discussed in parts I and III.

2. Many radio-nuclides are produced by the explosionof nuclear weapons (FI, 11-13) and a limited numberof them are important as sources of internal radiation in
the human body. The potential importance of radionuclides in this respect is determined by:(a) Their production yield and half-life. Radionuclides with relatively high yields and moderate to long
half-lives include those of the rare earths, zirconiumniobium. ruthenium-rhodium. iodine. caesium and thealkaline. earths, especially strontium ·and barium;(b) The rate at which they enter into food chains
after being deposited on the earth's surface. All radionuclides may be ingested by man or by domestic animals
after direct deposition onto the aerial parts of plants
but the isotopes of strontium are more readily absorbed
from soils by plants than are other fission products. Thishas been shown by experiments with separated radio-287isotopes and with debris from nuclear weapons ;153 • 1°"·1611-167( c) The extmt to which they enter into foods of animal origin. Strontium, caesium and iodine are relatively
readily transferred into milk and caesium into meat.
This also has been demonstrated by experiments withseparated isotopes182•187•220 • 223 •287 and with debris from
nuclear weapons. 219 The importance of these radionuclides is also emphasized by experience with fall-out
distributed worldwide as a result of the testing of nuclear
weapons ;19( d) The extent to which they are absorbed from thegastro-intestinal tract of man. Strontium, iodine andcaesium are well absorbed but radio-isotopes of the rareearths, the actinides and noble metals are absorbed to avery small degree. 19 All radio-nuclides in the diet,whether or not they are absorbed, will contribute to theirradiation of the gastro-intestinal tract;( e) The fraction deposited in the critical organ in
man and the time for which it is retained. Radiostrontium is deposited in bones and some part is retained
there for a period of years. Sr90 is the strontium nuclideof major biological significance because of its long halflife, but it may be necessary to give some consideration
to Sr8 9 in periods when the major part of the fall-out
is of relatively recent origin. Caesium-137 is generally
distributed throughout the body and the major portionis retained with a half-life of some months. Iodine
isotopes are concentrated in the thyroid gland but, owing
to their short half-lives, are of importance only inperiods of fresh fall-out. Major attention is devoted to
Sr&0 and Cs 137 when long-term effects are being considered.
3. Pu= 311 is not considered in detail because it is absorbed to a negligible e>..i:ent from soil by plantsm andis very poorly absorbed from the gastro-intestinal tractof animals and man. 288 Estimates made in the United
Kingdom in 1959 at the period of highest air contamination suggested that the ingestion of Pu 2311 in food was
negligible, while the Pu239 inhaled amounted to 10-2µJLC
per day per person. 98 Similarly it was calculated that in
the United States over the period 1954-1958, the amountof Pu m entering· the diet was only 1/3,000 of that inhaled."120in the body can be measured by in vivo counting but thelimited number of whole body counters and the factthat they are usually immobile have hitherto made itdifficult to obtain representative information for large
populations; the introduction of mobile counters may
reduce this limitation. The measurement of Cs137 in postmortem samples may enable the radiation dose to individual tissues to be more precisely determined.
6. The measurement of the levels in diet provides corroborative evidence of the levels in the body. When therelationship between the level of the radio-nuclide in thediet and in the body has been well established for a few
areas, body levels for other areas where direct measurements are inadequate or unavailable can be estimatedfrom analyses of the diet. It has recently been suggested
that the monitoring of urine can serve as an alternative
method for estimating the current intake of Sr 00 andCs 137 , but the practical value of this procedure has not
yet been established. m, 21e, 2so
7. The sampling of food also offers a method of rapidly detecting changes in the levels of intake and ofdetermining the chief contributors of radio-activity t~
the diet. The levels of radio-nuclides in fall-out andfoodstuffs can be correlated and the results related toparticular local agricultural and climatic conditions. By
relating levels in the body and in diet to the pattern andamount of fall-out some estimate can be made of possible future levels.

8. In order that these relationships should not be
purely empirical, knowledge is required of the mannerin which the radio-nuclides of interest behave in biological systems and pass through food chains into man. In
the following sections, therefore, a summary of the present knowledge of these subjects is described before thepresent and predicted future levels are given.
D. Strontium-90
Sr90 IN FOOD CHAINS

Relationships between strontium and calcium
9. Sr90 (and Sr89 ) behave in the same manner as thestable strontium normally present in biological systems
and in a manner generally similar to that of calcium, towhich it is related chemically. Stable strontium is present in nature in very small and variable amounts relative
to calcium, and the transfer of Sr110 through food chainsis largely determined by the amount of calcium which
is present. For this reason the concentration of Sr90 inbiological materials is frequently reported as a ratio ofstrontium to calcium (expressed as micromicrocuries of
Sr9° per gram of calcium). This mode of expression isconvenient, as the calcium content of bone and that ofmany other important tissues are relatively constant, andtissue doses can therefore be inferred from the ratio.
Furthermore, because the ratio in bone is largely determined by the ratio in diet, the content of Sr90 in the
total diet, or in its major constituents, is appropriately
expressed in these terms. In other circumstances, however, the expression of results in terms of unit weightor volume is to be preferred.

METHODS OF INVESTIGATION

4. In order to calculate the radiation dose to man, it
is necessary to estimate the content of radio-nuclides inthe body. This can be done directly by the analysis of
post-mortem samples or for gamma-emitting radionuclides by whole body counting, or it can be ascertaiaedindirectly by the analysis of the diet or excreta.
5. Direct measurement can provide more certain information for the calculation of dose and the values
obtained for Sr90 and Cs 137 in man in many areas areadequate for the necessary dose computation. There aresome practical difficulties in sampling the population ina fully representative manner. For Sr90 , samples ofhuman bone must be obtained. In interpreting the results it should be remembered that samples may nothave been obtained from the whole area of interest, andthat, while samples obtained as a result of accidental
death may be assumed to be representative of the population with respect to diet, those from individuals dying
from other causes may not be representative either indiet or in calcium metabolism. The total content of Cs181.JO. While the behaviour of Sr90 is similar to that of
calcium, it is not identical with it and this has led to
the need to express quantitatively in a clearly definedmanner, the relative rates of transfer or utilization ofstrontium and calcium in biological systems. In the pres288

ent report the over-all discrimination is expressed by the"observed ratio" or OR (sample/precursor):*
OR= Sr/Ca ratio in sample
Sr/Ca ratio in precursor
The term "discrimination factor" (DF) is used to express the contribution of individual physiological processes to the over-all discrimination. 124 • 288 The OR may
be a result of any number of discriminatory stages. Thus,
OR= (DF1) (DF2) (DFa) .... (DFn)
The DF values are given appropriate specific names.
When a single stage process is being studied the OR and
DF are, of course, identical, but the OR (milk/diet),
for example, expresses the result of discriminatory processes in gut, udder and kidney. 187 • ~ 2 •11. The true OR can be measured only in systems insteady state or where the strontium and calcium being
introduced cannot be confused with that already present
in the system. It is especially important also to ensurethat the strontium to calcium ratios as measured in the
precursors truly represent the ratios available to theorganism. While the OR obtained in practice may depend to some extent on the method used, it appears thatgenerally comparable results are obtained by the various
possible methods. Three principal methods have been
used: 1 u(a) The measurement of the ratio of stable stro1itimn
to calcium in the prernrsor and sample. This has foundparticular application in determining the OR (bone/diet) in humans where Sr 90 has been present in the dietfor only a short period of time, and where tracer e.xperiments can only be performed with difficulty. The value
obtained reflects any changes in the ratio of stable strontium to calcium in the precursor or in the OR which
may have occurred in the life history; it represents alifetime integrated value. The difficulty of making precise measurements of stable strontium in the presenceof large amounts of calcium and of using this procedureexperimentally has limited its application;(b) The measurement of the ratios of radio-strontimn
and stable calcium. If this method is to be used experimentally it is necessary to supply the radio-strontium
and calcium over the entire life history in order to prevent interpretation from being complicated by the presence of calcium absorbed before the radio-strontium was
supplied. Studies with fall-out Sr90 belong in this category; the difficulties in the derivation of OR (bone/diet values from measurements of fall-out Sr90 are discussed in a subsequent section (para. 90). This method
has been used successfully for the determination of theOR (milk/diet) on the assumption that the Sr90 andcalcium in milk come largely from that ingested in theprevious few days;( c) Alternatively, radio-isotopes of both strontium
and calcium may be used. The radio-isotopes can be distinguished from the stable nuclides which have previously entered the system being studied. Hence the result
is unaffected by the previous nutritional history of thesubject and the necessary feeding time is short. However, the value represents the behaviour only during the*The following nomenclature was adopted in the 1958
report:91
DF (precursor/sample) = Sr/Ca rat_io _in sample
Sr/Ca ratio in precursor
The over-all discrimination factor was considered to be theresult of several individual factors corresponding to separate
stages. However, the alternative nomenclature is widely usedand possesses some advantages.

experimental period. This technique has many advantages in case of measurement by radio-chemistry.
12. Some criticism has been made of the use of observed ratios on the grounds that they may vary whenexperime.ntal conditions are changed. 193 • 19 ' However,the practical use of the OR concept is considered justified178• 201 since in many processes (for example, absorption by plants, secretion into milk, absorption into thebody and deposition in bone) the OR may be very nearlyc.onstant and predi~tabl:. On the other hand, the quantities of Sr90 per urut weight or volume of tissue mav bemuch more variable. In particular, the OR (bone/diet)reflects the contamination in local areas of bone which
are active at the time and is comparable at all ages, except perhaps in the very young. In contrast, the actual
retention of radio-strontium varies markedly with age
and diet and with the degree of attainment of steadv•
state conditions.
Soils and plants
90

13. Sr may enter plants either through their roots
from the soil or by the direct contamination of theirabove-ground tissues. It is important to distinguish between these two modes of entry because the amountabsorbed from the soil is determined by the cumulative
total deposition, while the extent of direct contamination
depends on the magnitude of the recent deposit.
Absorption of Sr0 from the soil
14. Field experiments in the United Kingdom andSweden indicate that, depending on soil type, the ratioof strontium to calcium in plants is likely to be in therange of 1-10 µµc Sr90/g Ca if 1 me Sr90 per km2 ispresent in the soil.135- 137 • 2 °'• 283 The quantity entering
crops each year is usually in the range 0.2 to 3 per centof that in the soil, 19 • 135- 137• 142 • 147• 283 depending on thefactors discussed in the following paragraphs.
15. The effect of calcimn. The quantity of labile* calcium in soil is the most important of the factors determining the extent to which Sr90 is absorbed by plants.
Experiments in Sweden,13 s-138 the United States, 139• uo,m, 145 • 151 the United KingdomH 2 • 147 and the Union ofSoviet Socialist Republics1 H show that the uptake ofSr 90 is greatest in soils of low calcium content. The uptake of Sr9° from these soils is reduced by the additionof lime, but usually not by a factor exceeding 3.19• 129
When soils contain adequate calcium for the growth ofcrops and the cation exchange capacity is largely saturated with calcium, the addition of lime has little or noeffect. Although wide differences exist in the ability ofvarious species to absorb Sr90 , it is well established that
this character is correlated with the ability to absorb
calcium.
16. The results of experiments in water culture showthat the OR (plant shoot/solution) is close to 1 (table 1).
This is also generally true of plants growing in soil
when the strontium is uniformly distributed or whendifferences in the rooting depth of plants are taken into
account. 1 u, 128 Some apparent differences between theratio of strontium to calcium in different species growing under the same conditions have been reported143 butthese are not accepted as typical. 136 Variations in ratiosof strontium to calcium, however, occur between different tissues of the plant. Somewhat higher ratios areusually found in roots and stems than in the leaf tissue
in which the major part of both strontium and calcium*Labile calcium consists of calcium present in the soil solution
together with readily exchangeable calcium with which the solution can be replenished.

289

is normally contain~d. 125 • 126 Th?se f?r fruits are !ewer;
the ratios of strontmm to calcium m wheat gram andedible legumes are about 0.5 of that in leaf ~ssue ;136 ' m
the ratio in wheat flour is about 0.7 of that m the wholegrain.~ 82

17. Varying values for the OR (plant shoot/soil)
have been reported133 •135 but it _is no~ clear t?at 0e
variation was mainly due to the difficulties ?f estimatmg
the relative availability to plants of strontium and calcium in the soil. The conventional extraction procedureswith ammonium acetate may give. inaccurate in_fc;mnation especially in soi}s wh~ch contam lar_g~ quantities ofslightly soluble calcium; m other conditions, however,
useful comparative data ea~ be obtained.12~ The ratios
in which the two ions are available C!1n be e?timated ~o~e
precisely by analysing solution~ with whi.ch ~e s~il 1s
in equilibrium or by equilibratmg the soil with dilute
solutions of calcium chloride. 85 • 131•132•m• 263 Under field
conditions, however, the non-uniform distribution of
the two ions in the soil will normally prevent proper
evaluation.
18. The influence of soil facto~s other than ~alcium.
The extent to which both strontium and calcmm areabsorbed from the soil varies depending on the clay andhumus content. the pH, the concentration of electrolytes
other than calcium, and the moisture content.19•134•144 •u 5
Soil conditions which encourage shallow root development usually cause the absorption of Sr110 to be increased.
. • 144 •146
The addition of organic matter •m.1arge quantities
and of fertilizers may have varymg and complex effects12s, ia1, 1u, u5, 1M, 2se which are, however, usually n?tlarge when these materials are applied at normal agncultural levels.
19. Movement of Sr" 0 in soil. When soil is not disturbed the downward penetration of Sr90 is slow, andeven after several years most of it remains in the upper
few centimetres. 10 · 14° The rate of downward movement
varies with soil type; a low content of ~lay and humus,
a 'high content of elect~olytes and a rapid 1?ovement ofwater increase penetration19•1 63 The mechamsm of movement is uncertain but both mass flow in water and self
diffusion may be involved.m A horizontal movement ~f
Sr96 due to transmission through the roots of plants 1sreported. 157 The repeated cultivation of .soils causes ~edistribution of Sr90 to become progressively more umform throughout the plough layer ;148 the depth to which
it is incorporated in this wa.Y m::y have a marked .effecton the ratio of Sr00 to calcmm m plants. Ploughmg tothe depth of 20 to 30 cm has been four_id to reduce theratio by a factor of up to 3 compared with placement on
the surface, when shallow rooted crops such as rye
grass or kale \Vere grown.m, ur, 253 With more de~plyrooted crops, the effect was sm~ller. Marked reductions
in uptake by several crops with mcreased depth o_f placement have also been noted on a podsol1H and with soybeans in a loamy soil. 145 In laboratory- experiments,
lowland rice, which is normally grown m flooded fields
with a strong development of surface roots, absorbed
more Sr90 when the activity was placed on the surface
than \vhen it was mixed in the upper soil layer. The
reverse was found with upland rice, which is grown in
conditions similar to those in which wheat is grownY 1 • m
20. Changes with time in the availabilit:y of Sr 90 for
absorption. Considerable attention has been given to thepossibility that with the passage of time Sr90 may _be
slowly converted into sparinglv soluble forms whichcause it to be more slowly abso1:bed relative to cakiur:i.
Some i.'lvestigators have found no evidence of this290

effect.151 However, in other soils it has been shown t!iat
a small per cent of Sr90 may cease to be _labile durm_g
three or more years 1 ~ 2 .m and. it is P?ssibl: ~ ~t thiseffect is considerably greater m certain soils. 5 The
present evidence suggests that the fixat~on of. Sr90 is oflittle practical significance from the viewpomt o~ thecontamination of human diet but results over considerably longer periods are necessary for a final evaluation.
Direct contamination of plants
21. Three routes of direct contamination have been
distinguished: Sr90 may be retained on the leaves or on
inflorescences of plants (termed foliar or floral contamination respectively), or it may be trapped by thebasal parts of plants from which it is absorbed without
being incorporated in the soiI (plant .base absOTJ?tion) .10 • 201 These three mechanisms of direct contamination lead to contrasting distributions of Sr90 in different types of edible tissue. Sr90 which enters by plantbase absorption moves upwards through the stem to allaerial tissues like material absorbed through the roots,
but little of that which enters leaves or inflorescences
is redistributed to other tissues.
22. Foliar contamination. The extent to which Sr90
is retained on vegetation depends on both the extent andduration of rainfall and the extent and form of the
exposed leaf tissue.121 •122• 123 Experimental studies usi~gspraying equipment suggest that w~en Sr~0 ?~scends mrain about one-quarter of the deposit may miti~y lodge
on the leaf tissue of permanent pastures which cattle
consume. 227 Absorption into the leaves is relatively ~lowand the superficial material can readily be lost, especiallyin rain.122 In the United Kingdom this may cause only
about one-tenth of the initial deposit to remain after twomonths. 221
23. Floral contamination. Attention was first directedto this process by the fact that the ratio of 90 to calcium
in grain and flour usually exceeded that m vegetabl~
by a considerable factor (tables XI-XYII): C?mpansons of the ratio of Sr9° to stable strontium m different
tissues of wheat grain provided evidence on the mechanism of entry. 84 • 201 · 210 · =~ 5 Since the soil is the sole sourceof stable strontium this ratio would be constant throughout tissues formed at the same time if Sr90 entered only
from the soil. It was found, however, that this ratio wasconsiderably greater in bran than in flour, and this was
ascribed to direct contamination of the outer layers of
the wheat grain. It was calculated that in the United
Kingdom in 1957, an average of 66 per cent ~ad enteredby direct absorption, 84 •:oi while in the Umted Statesvalues of 20 and 90 per cent were obtained in 1959. 210 • 235
An investigation in Japan, where the levels of Sr90 inwheat flour in two years were compared with the fall-out
rate and deposit, suggested that, while in 1959_ 50 per
cent or more of the Sr90 in wheat flour was attnbutable
to the recent deposit, the corresponding figure for 1960
may have been less than 15 per cent. 327 These. results
are consistent with those of experimental studies thatshow that higher concentrations of radio-st:ontium. arefound in the grain of wheat plants spray~d with solutionsof Sr90 after the ears have emerged than m those sprayedearlier· this could be prevented if the ears were protectedfrom the spray by small caps. 159 The much h_igher val~es
which were recorded up to 1960 for the ratio of Sr9 to
calcium in husked (brown) rice tha~ in milled (wli!te)rice have also been attributed to direct uptake. smce
tracer experiments and the measurement of stable stro:i;tium indicate that such a difference could not occur 1f
only soil.uptake were involved. 127 •195S:

24. Plant-base absorption. Some of the material not
directly retained on leans, or leached downwards fromthem, may be washed into the axils of leaves or into
the crown of plants, or the root mat. It may also be
trapped on decaying vegetation where it is available forabsorption by the surface roots. Retention in this way isparticularly likely to occur in permanent pastures. The
Sr90 so trapped is relatively undiluted with the calciumin the soil and in a particularly favourable position forabsorption.19 • :oi•

Relative importance of different routes of contamfoation
25. The rapidity with which Sr9° is transferred fromrain into food chains provides evidence on the magnitudeof direct contamination, because entry by these routes isdependent on the recent deposit, while absorption fromsoil is determined by the cumulative total deposit, though
not necessarily in a simple manner. The extent to which
short-lived nuclides (P 31, Sr5 9 , Ba140 ) were transferred
to milk when relatinly fresh fission products were present in fall-out underlined the importance of direct contamination. 2g1• 251 However, quantitative assessment of
the relative importance of the recent dep06it and of the
cumulative total deposit is rendered difficult by fluctuations in the rate of deposition of Sr90 , differing soil
characteristics, the changing availability of Sr90 as it
penetrates the 1;oil, seasonal and annual variations inagricultural practices, delays between the production andconsumption of food, climatic differences among various
areas, and variable weather at individual locations. These
problems have been discussed elsewhere. 19 The calculations and the validity of quantitative estimates derived
from available survey data are discussed in subsequent
sections (paras. 103-119) .
Aquatic food chains
26. Aquatic food chains have attracted comparatively
little study in relation to worldwide fall-out since aquatic
products provide 'little Sr9° to most diets, even when the
calcium intake from fish is appreciable (see tables V
and XIX). 19 • 33 ·m-m However, information is available
from Japan83 • m, 266 and extensive studielii have been carried out in relation to discharges from nuclear facilities2 65
and to the sites of nuclear weapons tests. 269 These haveshown that Sr9° is accumulated by the calcareous partsof marine organisms-bones, scales, shells-up to a concentration many times that of the environment, but noconcentration of Sr9'> occurs in the flesh of marine organisms even under conditions of chronic exposure. 261• 269
The equilibrium concentration in flesh is usually less than
one-tenth of that in the surrounding water.19• 267 A value
for the OR (flesh or bone/water) of 0.4 was observed
experimentally in fresh water fish and an OR (whole
body/water) of 0.2-0.3 for marine fish can be estimatedby comparing the ratio of stable strontium to calcium infish bone and water. 30 The level of Sr00 in fresh waterorganisms is generally higher than that in marine organisms from corresponding areas (tab le XIX) . A detailed bibliography on this subject is available. 281
Milk and animal products
27. The chief practical interest in the metabolism of
Sr 90 in animals is in the extent to which it may be transferred into milk, and the possible concentrations that
may be found in meat. Experimental studies with animals
can, however, contribute to the understanding of its
metabolism in man.
28. Quantity rransferred into milk. The total quantityof ingested Sr90 secreted into the milk of cows is variable;

291

like the quantity of calcium it is related to the milkyield. 229 • m, m Values ranging from 0.5 to 2 per cent ofa single administration are found.m. 2 w. 2 2J, 2 2'! In comparison with continuous ingestion under normal conditions of feeding, several independent investigations haveshovm that about 0.08 per cent of the amount given daily
is secreted per litre of milk.1 ss,m,m The amount of ingested calcium and strontium appearing in the milk isinversely related to the dietary calcium leveF 2 '1 since theconcentration of calcium in. milk varies little, regardlessof the dietary intake. It may be noted that the percentage
of ingested radio-strontium secreted per litre of goat's
milk is more than ten times the amount in cow's milkowing to the greater proportion of the dietary calcium
secreted into the former.m In man, it was shown in one
investigation with five women that an average of 0.27
per cent of the dietary Sr90 was secreted per kilogramof milk. 168
29. Observed ratio (milk/diet). Knowledge of the OR(milk/diet) is more useful for many purposes than thatof absolute quantities. The available data for this ratio
are summarized in table II. Values range from 0.08 to
0.16 but the majority of more recent experimental measurements fall close to 0.1 and this value may be adopted
for practical purposes. The values are similar in cows
and goats and also in man. The OR (milk/diet) in cows
and goats does not vary significantly with calcium levelsin the diet from one-half to three times the normal level,
nor with increased levels of stable strontium.m The
ratio in milk appears to be about half that in plasma. 124 •m,1sa,u 7• 22 • Hence, it may be assumed for practical purposes that the ratio of Sr90 to calcium in meat is twicethat of milk, if dairy and beef animals have feed with asimilar ratio of Sr9° to calcium.
30. Observed ratios in poultry. OR (sample/diet)values of 0.5-0.6 were found for bone, egg shell and egg
yolk of laying hens; plasma and egg white, however, had
OR values of about 1.5. 2113
Metabolic behaviour in man
31. Absorption and retention of Sr"°. Ingested radiostrontium is absorbed from the gastro-intestinal tract
into the bloodstream, where some of it forms a loose
comple..""< with p~oteins. It e_nter~ bone by excfiange andaccretion; some 1s excreted rn urme and some 1s excreted
in faeces after secretion from the bloodstream into thegastro-intestinal tract. For practical purposes it is important to distinguish ~etween the assi~ila~ion of Sr90
over short periods of time, when retention 111 th~ bo~ywill be governed to some e..'{i:ent by e..'<change reactions m
the skeleton, and over longer periods in which the bones
will approach a state of complete labelling and e..'<change
reactions will cause no net retention. In an adult exposed
to dietary Sr90 , about 20 per cent of ingested radiostrontium may be retained initially but the net retention
decreases to zero as the skeleton becomes labelled underconstant intake. The amount retained therefore depends
on the previous history of the subject in relation todietary intake of radio-strontium.
32. Experimental studies with Sr55 in man haveshown that a mean of 20 per cent of orally administeredstrontium is absorbed from the gastro-intestinal tract;
this compares with 40-50 per cent of Ca45 • However,much variation occurred between individuals. 224 The
kinetics of removal of injected radio-strontium in normal
man has been studied by means of a whole body c?unter;the excretion was characterized at least by three different
rate processes :214

(a) A rapid excretion within twenty to thirty days
ciated with considerable reformation of bone, is of shortaccounting for some 70 per cent of the dose;
duration. Thus, over a period of several years it isprobable that an OR (bone/diet) of about 0.25 would( b) One of intermediate rate, with a half period of
be obtained. This conclusion is supported by the results
about fifty days accounting for 15 per cent;of surveys of Sr90 in diet and bone reviewed later in( c) A stage of chronic retention in which excretion
this annex (table XXIV and para. 100); the average
was low. The findings are consistent with the general
ratio of Sr90 to calcium in the bone of children has been
concepts of the manner in which calcium and strontium
close to, and often slightly less than, one-quarter of thatare deposited in or removed from the skeleton. The
in their diet. Accordingly a value of the OR (bone/diet)over-all data could also be fitted by a power functionof 0.25 is used for prediction of levels in bone.
and are very similar to those previously described forsheep. 223 This type of information is especially important
35. Processes of discrimination from diet to body.
in understanding situations involving accidental shortIt is of interest to estimate the magnitude of the principal
term e.-..::posures. It also forms a basis for interpreting
processes of discrimination which bring about the OR
relationships between the intake of Sr00 and the resultant(body/diet). The measured e.-..::cretion in faeces of Sr85
irradiation of body tissues.
and Ca• 5 orally administered, 218 or studies of stablestrontium and calcium balances811 suggest an approxi33. Observed ratio (body./ diet).* When it is necessary
matelytwofold discrimination in absorption by theto consider chronic ingestion the evaluation of the OR
gastro-intestinal
tract. There is evidence however that(body/diet) appears to be more useful than estimating
this may not occur in infants. 208 From measurements
actual retention. This ratio has been studied for man
following intravenous injection, the I'l<' urinary can bewith a variety of techniques based on different asestimated as 0.70. Thus the OR (body/diet) of about
sumptions:0.25 is mainly brought about by a twofold discrimination(a) Direct experimental observations on the retention
in the gastro-intestinal tract and one of somewhat lessof Sr85 and Ca' 5 have been made. Recent results with . than twofold in the kidney. The OR (bone/plasma) is
213
si>-teen•.
patients suggest an OR (body/diet) of 0.29;
close to unity. 12 •. u 9
earlier measurements based on measurements of blood
36. Observed ratio (foetus/mother). A further implasma gave values of 0.44 and 0.54 for groups of
portant discriminatory process is in placental transportpatients on two different types of diet ;189from mother to foetus. Direct experimental evidence of( b) The measurement of stable strontium to calcium
discrimination
across the placenta is not available forratios in representative samples of bone and diet in
man but values of OR (foetus/mother) for rats andseveral countries gave values for the OR (bone/diet)
rabbits of about 0.5 are reported. 257 Calculation frcm
ranging from 0.16 to 0.25 (table III);extensive measurements of stable strontium in the bones( c) The ratios of Sr9° from fall-out to stable calciumof newborn in the United Kingdom gave a value ofin body tissues or fluids and in diet have also been
about 0.6. 256
examined. The use of the measured values in bone isdiscussed in a later section when a detailed presentation
MEASURED LEVELS OF Sr90 IN DIETof the bone and diet data has been made. An indirect
General considerations
estimate can be made from the OR (milk/diet) of 0.11
measured in women.168 If the OR (milk/plasma) has a
37. Two considerations are of primary importance.
value of about 0.5 in man as in animals (para. 29), an
First, while the experience of the past years has shown
OR (body/diet) of about 0.25 is suggested. The measthat the concentration of Sr00 in foodstuffs may fluctuateurement of the Sr00 to calcium ratio in large samples ofover short periods of time owing to the varying rates
human plasma, though subject to considerable uncerof fall-out, it is more important to consider mean levels
tainty, gave a result consistent with an OR (body/diet)of intake over extended periods. For this reason dataof 0.25.192
in the following tables are summarized where possible
over calendar years. Second, in order to estimate the34. While the OR (body/diet) is reasonably constantratio of Sr00 to calcium in new bone, the total intake ofwith ordinary diets it may change with unusual dietary
19 178Sr90 and calcium in the complete diet or at least in themodifications or age. • In rats, the presence of large
most important components must be h."Tiown. It is therequantities of milk, lactose or lysine or nutritionally abfore necessary to examine the composition of diet and,normal ratios of calcium to phosphorus have been shownfor comparing the intake of Sr00 m different parts ofto alter the OR. 19 • 178 • 288 • 291 • 292 However, double tracer
the world, it is convenient to identify broad dietary
experiments in man do not suggest that the OR is afclasses.
fected by the presence or absence of milk. 189 • 218 Consistent differences in OR, as measured by stable stron38. Diets might be classified in any of the followingtium and calcium, between countries with very different
manners:
diets cannot be established on the limited data available(a) On the basis of the most important contributors(table III). In very young rats124 and calves 223 a higherof Sr 90 • However, the relative contribution of different
OR is observed than in later life. The observed ratios offoods is dependent on the relative quantities of current
strontium to calcium in the bones of very young children
and accumulated fall-out and consequently may varysuggests that the OR may be higher in infants than inconsiderably;
adults. 258 However, their juvenile state, which is asso( b) On the basis of quantities consumed by weight.
• The term OR (body/diet) is more appropriate when the
Frequently, however, certain foods consumed in quite
amount of strontium and calcium retained in the body are estilarge quantities may contribute little Sr00 or calcium tomated from measurements of strontium and calcium in diet andthe diet;in excretions, the term OR (bone/diet) being reserved for thoseestimates based on direct measurement of the concentrations in( c) On the basis of the amount of calciimi contributed
bone. Since by far the greater part of the strontium and calcium
by different foods to the diet. The quantity of Sr00 inin the body are in bone, the values of the OR (bone/diet) anddifferent articles of diet cannot be inferred directly fromof the OR (body/diet) will be closely similar under steadystate conditions.
their content of calcium both because of the variable292•

extent to which plants may be subject to direct contamination (para. 25) and because of discrimination
between strontium and calcium in their passage to animal
products. Nevertheless, the classification of diets interms of the principal sources of calcium has been foundthe most convenient way of examining the effects of
dietary composition on the intake of Sr90 and of predicting future concentrations in diet and hence in bone(paras. 103-121). Hence this method of classificationis adopted in the present report.
39. Information on the calcium content of diets isavailable. 19• 115 For the present purpose, it is more important to consider the relative quantities of calcium
provided by different foods than the absolute amountingested per day. Wide variations exist between different
countries, but three broad dietary classes can be identified, namely:
Class I diets. Dairy produce is the predominant sourceof calcium; this applies to the greater part of North
America, Europe and Oceania. Calcium intakes in theseareas are generally from 800 to more than 1,000 mg perday. In Southern Europe and Latin America, calcium
intakes may be only of the order of 600-700 mg;
Class II diets. Milk provides less than half total dietarycalcium and vegetables approach it in importance, forexample, India, Turkey and Egypt. The total calcium
intake may be only 300-450 mg per day;Class III diets. Dairy produce is a minor source of
calcium, for example, in Japan and other countries of
the Far East. The calcium is derived mainly from vegetables, with cereals and fish making significant contributions. The calcium intake may vary from 200-400 mg
per day.
Approximate model diets for these three classes havebeen calculated from the food survey data from theprincipal countries where they are consumed (table
XXIII) and are used for subsequent calculations. With
only a few exceptions the composition of the diet of othercountries lies between the limits set by these three classes.
40. The data from which these groupings were derived are in most cases derived from gross figures for
production and consumption of individual foods, combined with average values for the calcium content ofthese foods. However, in some cases, the actual calcium
content of the diet may greatly exceed that expected on
this basis.19 • 172 This may be caused by the use of unusual
sources of calcium, for example, the use of crude sea
salt containing calcium for cooking in Ceylon and South
India or the enrichment of bread with mineral calcium(United Kingdom), with groundnut meal and fish flour(Union of South Africa), and with non-fat milk solids(United States).19 Calcium propionate may also be
added to bread as a mould inhibitor. 199 Com (maize)
grain is very low in calcium but when used for tortillamaking in Central America, is boiled with lime water in
the initial stages of preparation. This process greatly
enriches the diet in calcium: in some areas 75 per centof the total calcium in the diet may be obtained in thisway. 19 The chewing of betel leaves may also contribute
substantial amounts of calcium to the diet. When cereals
such as ragi or quinoa, which are rich in calcium, areused, the contribution of calcium to the diet is muchgreater than with other cereals.

The period of time and geographical area covered, thefrequency of sampling, the number of foods sampled
and the method used have varied very considerably andthus the precision also varies. In tabulating the resultsa primary distinction has been drawn behveen thoseanalyses based on continuing sampling and those basedon a single limited sampling over a short period of time.
42. To provide further information on the nature of
the samples and to assist in the evaluation of the results.
the meth~ds .used have been distinguished as follows, 171
and also mdicated in table IV:-(a) The use of values, often countrywide averages,
obtained from separate surveys of the Sr9° content of
the most important dietary constituents, together withestimates of the quantities of these foods consumed, tocalculate the Sr90 content of the complete diet;( b) The calculation of the content in the total dieton the basis of data obtained from the analysis of foods
purchased locally in stores. This method may often be
used in relatively small areas and therefore some caution
must be exercised in applying the results to larger areas;( c) The analysis of composite samples of complete
diet often based on local purchases. The composition of
the diet may be based on dietary surveys or local estimates of "typical" consumption;17( d) The analysis of samples of the complete dietactually consumed by certain individuals or groupsmilitary forces, hospital patients, or volunteers in metabolic studies. These diets may. or may not resemble theaverage diet of the community.
43. In the first two methods the major sources oferror, when accurate knowledge of the average quantities
consumed is available, may be inadequacies in the representativeness of the sampling of the foodstuff for Sr90 •In the last two methods an additional bias may be introduced when estimates of "typical' diets or duplicate
samples of the actual diets of individuals or groups areused, its magnitude depending on the extent to which
the composition of the diet analysed is representative ofthat of the population as a whole. However, the values
from the United States suggest that comparable results
may be obtained by the various methods. 74 • 171
44. North America and Europe. Amongst countries
in which milk is the major calcium source in the diet,the most complete series of estimates of the Sr90 to
calcium ratio in the diet is available from the United
Kingdom and the United States. Variation by a factorof three in the values from different areas of the UnitedStates in 1959 was observed, particularly low values
being observed on the West Coast. The values from
Europe in 1959 and 1960 fell within the same limits.
In the United Kingdom and the United States a rise wasshown from 1957 to 1959 followed by a marked dropin 1960 and early 1%1. This fall was also shown in
Denmark. Values for 1959 and 1960 in Canada werecomparable with the higher values from the UnitedStates.
45. Asia and the Far East. An extended series of estimates is available for Japan. Although the diet of Japanis not typical of that of the Far East. the results forthat country are of particular interest because it is the
only area in which regular surveys have been carriedout where the diet is not of class I. The mean value forthe ratio of Sr00 to calcium in diet rose from 1957 to
1960. No decrease occurred in 1960, probably owing to

Estimates of the ratio of Sr9° to calcium in the total diet
41. Since the previous report, many values for the
Sr9° and calcium content in diet have been published.

293the storage time of the large cereal component. The
values for Japan were lower than those in Europe andNorth America in 1957 but in 1960 were rather greater.
Samples of composite diets, collected over a short periodof time were taken in Viet-Nam in 1959, and Thailand
and Taiwan in 1960. Though wide variation was observed the mean values are comparable with or lower
than those in Europe in the same period and lower thanthose in Japan. In 1%1 the average Sr9° to calcium ratiosof vegetarian meals in India was comparable with theaverage value for total diet in the United States.
46. Africa. In Africa a series of samples, consisting
principally of cereals, legumes and milk, was taken in
1958 in a number of cities. From these the ratio of Sr90
to calcium in the total diet has been estimated, including
and excluding milk. 38 It is suggested that the latter willapproximate the diet of those groups of the African
population who consume little milk. 38 The limited area
and time covered by the survey indicate the need forcaution in using the values. They appear, however, tobe lower than those in Europe and in the United States.
A limited sampling of the diet of the African populationof Southern Rhodesia was made in 1959-1960. The
values were comparable to those found in North America
and Europe in the same period. The mean value for thecomposite diets in the Delta region of the United Arab
Republic in late 1961 was comparable with that foundin the United States earlier in the year.
47. Central America. A series of estimates was
also made for Central America in 1958. The values
found were very low, of the order < 1-2 µ.µ.c Sr90 per g
Ca. The calculations for the total diet were based only
on the analyses of corn, beans and milk. No analyses ofleafy vegetables or fruit were made, so that the dietcannot be regarded as completely examined, but thevalues indicate the general level of Sr90 in the area. The
values of the ratio of Sr90 to calcium calculated for the
total diet for Guatemala and Honduras were particularly low owing to the practice already mentioned ofpreparing maize for tortilla-making by boiling in lime
water. 19• 29 • 55 • 56 This is particularly common in ruralcommunities. In urban communities the values are likely
to be higher since more wheat and rice, or maize boiled
with wood ash, may be used, and therefore the extra
calcium contribution is not obtained.
48. South America. Results from surveys of brief
duration in several countries of South America in 1957
and 1958 are available, as well as analyses of composite
military rations, based on local foods, in two countries
in 1959. Composite diet samples were obtained fromlocal communities in Colombia and Chile in 1960. The
wide variation in the Sr90 to calcium ratios of different
samples is attributed to differences in climate. 319 This isparticularly well shown in Chile where the average forthe dry northern districts (2.4) is only one quarter ofthat from the wetter southern districts (9.6). 319 In
general values for the Sr00 to calcium ratio of total dietin South America are lower than in Europe and North
America.

Contributions of Sr90 by individual components
to the total intake

50. The relative contributions from different components of the diet in 1959 and 1960 in the few countries from which a detailed breakdown is available isshown in table V. In all the countries listed, except forJapan, the diet is of class I and about three quarters of
the calcium (excluding mineral calcium) is supplied
from milk. In contrast, milk usually supplied only froma quarter to a half of the Sr9°, owing to the discrimination against Sr00 in passage into milk (para. 29). The
value was higher in Canada. Cereals, which are particularly subject to direct contamination by fall-out (para.
23). also supplied a major fraction, especially in Denmark and Austria. In these class I diets, leaf and root
vegetables together contributed from 6 to about 30 per
cent of the Sr90 , and meat, fish, egg5 and drinking water
very small proportions. In Japan, where the diet is ofclass III, milk supplies only a small proportion of thecalcium in the diet. and even less of the Sr9°. In 1960
cereals supplied one quarter of the Sr 90 in the Japanesediet and some 65 per cent was attributed to vegetables
and fruit.
Factors causing intake to vary from the average

51. The foregoing estimates are fotthe average intake of the population as a whole. However, there isinterest in the intake of special groups or of individuals,
depending on their dietary habits. Unfortunately, very
little information is available on the variation of dietary
habits among special groups on which estimates might
be based. 19
52. Age. The diet of very young children is of particular interest and in some countries analyses of prepared baby foods have been made. The results are shownin table VI. The values are comparable with those of
normal samples of similar foods. The intake in the dietof infants has been calculated in Germanv. 24 the United
Kingdom, 85 • 2 z7 and the United States,7 1,ios and composite diets have been analysed in the United States. 312
The results indicate that the Sr9° to calcium ratio in thediet of young children, when they are fed on preparedbaby foods or cow's milk. differs relatively little fromthat in the diet of adults (table IV). The same applies
also to older children. 24 • 312 The Sr90 to calcium ratio in
the diet of breast-fed infants will however be considerably lower than that of other groups,2 4 since this ratio
in human milk is approximately one-tenth of that in themother's diet.108 There may also be metabolic differences
between breast-fed infants and those fed on cow's
milk.Zll
53. Quantity of food consumed. Differences in theintake of Sr90 of adults may arise through normal variations in the amount of different foods consumed. Dietary
estimates in the United States suggest that high consumption of the major components of the diet may betaken as approximately twice the average amounts. 112
When the ratio of Sr90 to calcium in an individual fooddiffers little from that in the total diet, alteration in theamount consumed has little effect on the ratio in the
total diet. This is generally the case with milk in countries where substantial quantities of milk are consumed.
54. The effect of increasing the quantity consumed ofcomponents in which the Sr90 to calcium ratio exceedsthat in the total diet is roughly in proportion to the Sr9°
contribution; this is small in diets containing reasonable
quantities of milk. In the United Kingdom it was esti-

49. Oceania. The Sr90 to calcium ratio in the total dietin Australia has been estimated from analyses of milk,
cabbages and wheat. 320 Little change occurred in thelevel between 1957 and 1960. Values were always below
the average for North America and Europe which areregions of similar diet. No marked rise in the level in1959 comparable with that which occurred in the Northern Hemisphere was detected.
294

mated that doubling the intake of root or leaf vegetables
or fruit would have increased the Sr90 to calcium ratioof the total diet in 1959 by only a few per cent. 85 Inspection of the detailed analyses of diet in the UnitedStates195 shows that the highest contribution of Sr90
from any of these three items is only 15 per cent;doubling the quantity of the food consumed would therefore increase the ratio of Sr00 to calcium in the diet by
only a small amount. Where milk consumption is normally small. increasing the quantity of milk consumed
may reduce the average ratio of Sr 90 to calcium in thediet since the ratio in the milk is generally less than thatin other components.
SS. S pec-ial dietary habits. Certain groups may havespecial dietary habits which affect Sr00 intake, One suchis the consumption of unmilled cereals. Attention has
been paid to this particular habit since the ratio of Sr90
to calcium is often much higher in unmilled than inmilled grain (see tables XI-XIV).
56. Because the ratio of Sr00 to calcium is higher inwholemeal bread or flour than in white bread or flour 73 •85 • 2 ~• the replacement of white bread by wholemeal breadin the diet causes the dietary intake of Sr90 to be increased. The effect, however, appears to be relatively
small 198 • 111 except in countries, such as the United Kingdom, where mineral calcium is added to all white flour, 84 •85 227•but not necessarily to wholemeal flour. It may be
noted that cereals supply a relatively high proportion of
the dietary Sr90 in Denmark and Austria, where theproportion of wholemeal flour consumed is greater thanin the United Kingdom or the United States (table V).
57. The milling of rice also has a considerable effecton the Sr90 to calcium ratio of the diet in those countries
where rice is an important food. A total diet sample inViet-Nam containing "unpolished" (presumably unmilled) rice was three times as high in Sr9° per g ofcalcium as was a diet sample containing milled rice. 110

60. The source of drinking water. The concentrationof Sr90 in drinking water may vary according to its
source. The radio-nuclide concentration in rain is reduced by contact with absorptive surfaces and purification in rivers and lakes occurs by sedimentation or
percolation. Conventional processes of water purification
do not remove radio-nuclides to any great extent. 174 A
survey in the United Kingdom showed that well water( 0.02 µ.µ.c/l) was very low in Sr 90 compared with surface
waters (0.3-0.9 µ.µ.c/l) ,169 • 1700 303 Concentrations similar
to the latter ·were measured in suriace \Vater in the
United States 05 • 73 • 1 ' 3 and Japan. 304 Higher concentrations were shown in 1959 following heavy fall-out thanat other timesm, 303 • 30'1 but the intake of Sr90 in drinking
water is unlikely to have exceeded 1 µ.µ.c per day formost of the period and variations in this quantity due tothe nature of the water supply are unlikely to havecaused large differences in the total dietary intake.
61. People drinking water which has not had contact
with the ground surface may have higher intakes of Sr90 •Mean values for Sr90 in cistern water for periods ofsome months ranging from 2-6 µ.µ.cfl have been reported
from the Federal Republic of Germany (1959-1960),
Japan (1954-1957) and the United States (1958-1959).
22 33 78 173
If it is assumed that no decontamination of• • •the rainwater occurs in the collecting system, the concentrations reported for rainwater (F I, table IX) can
also be considered. Comparison of these data with anestimated daily intake of Sr9° in 1959-1960 of the orderof 10 µ.µ.c (tables IV and XXIV) suggests that thedrinking of rainwater would have appreciably increased
the daily intake of Sr90 for short periods in 1959 when
the rate of fall-out was high. However, expressed as anannual average, the increase would have been smallerin 1959, and in 1960 smaller still.

Sr90 in individual foods

62. The limited number of areas from which estimates of the Sr00 content in total diet are available makes
58. Geographical location. Differences in the total
it necessary to find some basis for extrapolation if levels
dietary content of Sr00 , owing to variation in the degree
in other areas are to be inferred. Measurements of indiof contamination of foodstuffs produced in different
vidual foods, when considered in relation to the diet typeareas are difficult to assess since it is unlikely than any
and general distribution of fall-out provide the bestindividual would receive all his intake from the mostopportunity.
highly contaminated sources. In many countries the variation is likely to be largely controlled by the levels inMilk
milk, since it contributes a large proportion of the Sr9°.
Further, variations due to geographical position will be
63. Since milk is a major calcium source in many
more readily reflected in milk which is consumed relaareas of the world and is easy to sample, it has received
tively locally, especially in rural areas, while other foodmore attention than any other component of the diet.
stuffs, such as cereals, are often distributed over very
In some areas regular surveys are in progress or widelarge areas.
spread surveys have been made. Results of these are
given in table VII and descriptions of the surveys in
59. Inspection of the range of values for milk withintable VIII. From many other areas only isolated samples
countries (table VII) suggests that a variation between
are available, sufficient to give some indication of thesites by a factor of 4 is common in moderate-sized areas,
relative levels. These data are summarized in table IX.
with narrower ranges in smaller areas. In larger countries, such as the USSR or the United States, variation _ Values are available from areas accounting for more.
than 90 per cent of the world production.
by a factor of up to 10 may occur. The ratio in the total
diet may be expected to show a less extreme range
64. Data from some regular surveys are plotted inbecause of more uniform contributions from otherfigure 1. In the N orthem Hemisphere, a more or less,sources. A study of twenty-five 'cities in the Unitedsteady rise from 1954 to 1957 was followed by sharper
States in 1959 showed that the Sr90 to calcium ratio inrises in 1958 and especially in 1959. It is interesting to.
the diet ranged from 4.9 to 16.7 with a mean of 11.8.11
note that the increment was roughly similar in most of,Calculation in the United Kingdom in 1959 and 1960
the countries although the 1958 level differed by a factor:
based on the most pessimistic assumption that all items
as much as 5. Subsequently in 1960 the levels £ell off,
often by an amount comparable to the rise in 1959. Inin an individual's diet were obtained from the areas
where highest contamination was found suggested that
1961, levels continued to fall by a variable amount.i
These observations show the partial dependence ~f the.
the average level would not be exceeded by a factor as
Sr90 in milk on the rate of fall-out and are cons1stent1
much as 10. 85• 227
295

Year

Figure 1. Yearly mean concentrations of Srso per g of calcium in milk from
9 countries (from table VII). For details of the surveys see table VIII

with the heavy deposition in the Northern Hemispherein late 1958 and early 1959. In contrast with thesechanges, the levels in Australia and Argentina changed
only slightly. The Southern Hemisphere was not subjected to the heavy increase in the rate of fall-out in
1958-1959.
65. Detailed comparisons of the data in table VII may
be misleading because, even within regular programmes,
the data from year to year are rarely strictly comparable,
since the areas covered and techniques of sampling havechanged as the programmes developed. The values ofspot samples may be greatly affected by the season atwhich they are taken and all values will be affected by
local agricultural and climatic factors. Consequently, inorder to summarize the data so as to show the broad
trends, mean values for large geographical areas havebeen calculated for the years up to 1960 (table X). Meansfor each country have been weighted for production in
calculating the area-wide average in order to represent
more closely the true average in the milk over the wider
area. Sufficient data are not yet available for 1961 to
calculate comparable mean values.
66. Tables VII, IX and X show that a correlation
exists between geographical latitude and the level of
Sr9° in milk. Between 1955 and 1960 the mean values
for the ratio of Sr90 to calcium in milk in each year wereof very much the same order in most of North America
and Europe, including the USSR. The scattered values
from the Mediterranean area, and data from India andJapan were lower than those of North America andEurope. Very low values were recorded in Central
America, especially in its southernmost region. Unfortunately, no data from comparable latitudes are avail-able from Africa or Asia. Low average values were
found in South America, but in the Republic of South
Africa, Australia and New Zealand, the levels were
somewhat higher. On the average, t11erefore, the highest
values were recorded from the mid-northern latitudes,
and tile lowest in the equatorial region, with intermediate
values further south. This general correlation witll latitude is consistent with the known variation with latitudeof the intensity of deposition of Sr00 •Cereals
67. The comparison of cereal data is complicated by
the number of species, differing in structure, growing
season and dietary importance. The range of values isgenerally very wide. General points that may be noted
are that milled cereals normally contain less Sr9° perunit weight or per g of calcium than unmilled, and that
the Sr90 to calcium ratio of both is considerably higher
than that of milk from the same area.
68. Wheat. The major wheat-producing areas of theworld are North America, Europe, the USSR and theFar East. 20 Sufficient data are available to provide a
reasonable estimate of the levels of Sr00 in wheat andwheat products from all these regions e.."X:cept the Far
East (table XI). In the latter the only detailed data arefrom Japan which is responsible for only a very small
proportion of the total production. The most widespread sampling was carried out in 1959. Values werecomparable in the USSR and in Western Europe butwere higher by a factor of 2 or more in North America
and in Ja pan. In the Souiliern Hemisphere. values werehalf or less than those in Europe. Trends from year toyear are difficult to interpret; in the USSR and Canada
296

values changed only slightly from 1956-1959, but in the
United Kingdom they were markedly higher in 1958
than in 1957 or 1959. The reverse was true in Japan, but
a lower value in 1959 than 1958 was recorded also in
the United States and Australia. These inconsistencies
are probably related to the high degree of dependenceof the level of contamination on current fall-out, during
the time the grain is developing.in Little data for 1960
is yet available but markedly lower values than in 1959
were recorded in the United States and Canada. No
significant fall was noted in Denmark and the Federal
Republic of Germany.
69. Wheat floltr. The ratio of Sr90 to calcium is lessin wheat flour than in the whole wheat grain. This is
illustrated in table XIII >vhere the Sr90 content of milling products from Canada, the United Kingdom and theUnited States are tabulated. The Sr90 calcium ratio inflour was approximately one-third to one-half of thatin whole grain and one-quarter of that in bran. All theavailable values for flour are tabulated in table XII.
Differences are shown between areas comparable to thosefound in the whole grain.
·70. Rye, barley and oats. Rye is an important cerealin Northern and Eastern Europe. Data on the Sr90 content are available for Germany, Denmark and the USSR
which are responsible for a major share of the world's
production 20 (table XIV). Mean values were very similar to those for wheat and this encourages the view that
this may also be true in North America for which values
are not available. 'World production of barley is spreadover a large part of the Northern Hemisphere, with someproduction in Oceania and Africa. Only scatteredanalyses are available, probably because in rriany areasbarley is not used directly for human food. Mean values
for barley in Denmark in 1959 were similar to those forwheat; this was also approximately true in the Federal
Republic of Germany in 1956-1958. Values for barleyfrom South America and Africa are very considerably
lower than in the Northern Hemisphere. Few analysesof oats are available, again probably because of the much
lower importance of this cereal in the diet.
71. Maize. Maize is grown in many areas but is ofminor importance in the average diet of North Americanand European countries and extensive sampling has notbeen carried out (table XIV). Analyses in the UnitedStates in 1958-1959 indicate values per kg very much
lower than those in wheat. However, since the calcium
content of maize is very low, the calculated ratio of Sr90
to calcium is lower than that in wheat by a factor of
only 2-3. Comparable values were recorded in Rhodesia
in 1959 and it was calculated that maize may have supplied about half the Sr90 in the total diet of the African
population. 227 In Central America, where maize is also
important in the diet, the ratio of Sr90 to calcium wasvery low in 1958.
72. Rice. Rice is a staple cereal in the diet of many
populations but has been sampled systematically only inJapan (table XIV). The ratio of Sr90 to calcium inbrown rice ( unmilled or under-milled rice) is roughly
comparable to that of wheat from the same area. Millingmarkedly reduced the ratio of Sr90 to calcium in ricegrain in 1956-1957, but in 1960 the Sr9° to calcium ratio
in milled and unmilled rice was similar. In 1960 the Sr90
content of brown rice had decreased to about one-quarterof that in the immediately preceding years because theamount of direct contamination was greatly reduced. The
few values which are given in table XIV for rice fromother areas in Asia are consistent with lower fall-out
rates in tropical latitudes.
297

73. Other cereals. Millet, quinoa and native grainsfrom a few areas where these are used commonly in thediet have been analysed but no wide-spread samplinghas been carried out. None of the samples is particularlyhigh in Sr90 (table XIV).
Vegetables
74. Green vegetables. Recent and extensive measurements of green vegetables are available only for North
America, Europe and Australia (table XV). In 1959 and1960 the mean values in the Northern Hemisphere weregenerally comparable. They were significantly lower inAustralia. The ratio of Sr90 to calcium is normally somewhat higher than that of milk from the same area.
75. Legumes. In many countries where leguminous
vegetables are eaten fresh and are not major items inthe diet, there is no real necessity to consider them separately from other green vegetables. The available resultsfrom the Federal Republic of Germany and the UnitedStates show that mean ratios of Sr90 to calcium in pea
and bean crops are similar to those in leafy vegetables.
In many other areas, however, dried legumes contributea substantial fraction of the total calories and this justifies separate treatment (table XVI). Surveys conductedin Africa and South and Central America in 1957-1958
show that in these areas the ratio of Sr90 to calcium inbeans and other legumes did not exceed 4 and was often
below 2 µ.µ.c Sr90 per g calcium.
76. Potatoes and starchy roots. The available values
for potatoes are given in table XVII. Like green vegetables they normally show ratios of Sr90 greater thanthose of milk from the same area. In 1957-1960, meanlevels of Sr 00 in potatoes in the United States, the United
Kingdom, the USSR and the Federal Republic of Germany were of the same order. Comparison of the Sr90
content per kg and per g of calcium indicates that themean calcium content is very variable. There is wide
variation in the Sr90 content according to region in individual countries ; this shows some correlation with
rainfall. 84 The data from other areas are too few to permit any comparisons to be made. Analyses of types ofstarchy roots which are important in the diet in SouthAmerica have been made (table XVII). A wide-spread
survey in Venezuela in 1958 indicated a mean value foryucca (cassava, manioc) of 22 µ.µ.c Sr 90 per g of calcium with a very wide range. The wide range may haveresulted from a deliberate attempt to discover extreme
values ; the median value of these figures was only 12.
Samples of potato and sweet potato from the same areagave lower mean values.

Fruit
77. The few available data for fruit are summarizedin table XVIII. They are derived from analyses madein only a few countries and include home grown andimported fruits. The nature of the fruits is so variedthat summarization and comparison is difficult. In theFederal Republic of Germany, Denmark and Australia,
mean values of the ratio of Sr90 to calcium for locallygrown fruits appear to be rather higher than for vegetables. Imported fruits, coming from tropical or subtropical areas were often lower in Sr 90 than those from
north temperate latitudes.
lvf eat, eggs and fish

78. Meat, eggs and fish have not been extensively examined because they generally contribute only a little
Sr90 to the diet. Some data are presented in table XIX.
They indicate values of the ratio of Sr90 to calcium in83. The ratio of Sr90 to calcium in newly formed boneof all age gi:oups should be similar, .except possibly invery young mfants (para. 34) provided that the ratioof Sr 00 to calcium in their diet is the same. However.
the ratio in the whole skeleton of adults is considerably
lower than that for children because of the absence ofgrowth and differences in turnover rates. Analyses of thebones of children may be used to give a direct measureof the concentration in newly formed bone. The bonesof the newb.orn have special value since they reflect the
average ratio of Sr90 to calcium in the mother's dietduring the later months of pregnancy. While the dietof pregnant women may differ from that of the average
adult, this difference may be less than between adultand very y~ung children. The variation with age in the
average ratio of Sr90 to calcium in bones is shown infigure 2 which utilizes the very extensive data obtainedin the United Kingdom in 1959. The concentration in
the newborn was a little over 1 µ.µ.c Sr90 per g of calcium.
The highest mean values, in the bones of children 1 to
2 years old, were about four times higher than in the
newborn. The concentration was less in older children
and at the age of 8 years was about the same as irt the
newborn. In adults the value was very low, about' onequarter of that in the newborn if the normalization factorof 0.45 from femur, the bone analysed, to whole skeleton
is adopted.
84. Less detailed data are available from most otherareas so that wider age groups have been used in showing similar data for eight countries in figure 3. It canbe seen that the highest values always obtain in the 0-4
year age group and the lowest in adults but the relative
difference between the 0-4 year age group and adolescents in different countr:ies is variable. Figure 3 also
shows that, between Japan, the United Kingdom and the
USSR, the values for the newborn are more nearlycomparable than are those for the 0-4 year age group.
These apparent differences between countries in therelative concentrations in bones from different age
groups may be due to unavoidable sampling errors but
may also represent real differences in Sr9° and calcium
intake caused by differences in dietary habits in theyoung. In particular, the extent of breast feeding will
have a great influence on the Sr90 to calcium ratio of thediet owing to the discrimination in passage from mother's
diet to milk (para. 28).

meat and eggs generally comparable to or lower than in
milk. The value in marine fish is particularly low· inriver fish it is higher.
'
Tea
79. A beverage which might appear to contributemuch Sr90 to the diet is tea, since some high values for
the Sr90 to calcium ratio in tea have been reported.ss, 1o,s5
However, laboratory experiments suggest that only asmall percentage of the Sr 00 is released into the infusion.8~·~27 The estimated contribution to the diet is small
and comparable to that from drinking water (table V) '.
MEASURED LEVELS OF SR90 IN HUMAN BONE

80. The Sr90 content of a sample of human bone depends on:(a) The rate of deposition of Sr90 in the bone, which~as. ~en determined hitherto primarily by the age of the
md1v1duals. However, when fall-out has continued fora longer period, this factor will be less important;( b) The dietary intake of Sr90 which in turn depends
on the composition of the diet and on the variation intime, and between geographical areas, of the Sr90 in
fall-out. It is thus related to the year of death and thegeographical location.
81. Values for the concentration of Sr 00 in bone froman_y given area show a wide range (table XX). This
anses from the natural biological variation, which also
occurs with stable strontium and the error associatedwith the measurement of the small quantities of Sr90 in
the bone. In the accompanying comprehensive table(table XX), the range of values is shown in those cases
where detailed information is available. Because thenumber of samples is rarely as many as 100, only generalcomparisons can be made between different areas, andthe significance of differences based on small numbersof samples is doubtful.

Effect of age
82. Sr has been present in the environment for a
relatively short period so that a large amount of preformed bone existed in adults and, to a lesser extent, inolder children. In addition to true growth which occurs
only in children, in both children and adults existingbone is, to a variable extent, replaced by new bone; theproportion of bone undergoing such changes is likely
to be very much smaller in adults than in children. A
recent estimate:~& based on the comparison of Sr9° tostable strontium and Sr00 to calcium ratios in different
age groups suggests that the annual skeletal turnoveris nearly 100 per cent in the first year of life and very
high in the second. It falls to about 10 per cent in thethird to eighth year, and to very low values during thesecond burst of growth around puberty. In adults, rateof turnover in ivory bones such as the femur shaft is~:mly about 1 per cent but may be as high as 8 per centm vertebrae.*90

Geographical location

85. The geographical origin of a bone sample may
affect its Sr00 concentration because of variation in thefall-out deposit in different areas or because there areregional differences in dietary habit. In table XXI thedetailed data for 1959-1960 have been summarized forbroad geographical areas, the mean values from individual countries being weighted for total population. The
mean values in table XXI suggest that the Sr~ to calcium ratio in the bones of adults, adolescents and newborn is similar in areas above the latitude of 30°N; thatis, in North America, Europe and Japan. The value for
the 0-4 year old group in Japan, however, appears to berather lower than that of other areas above this latitude.
This may be due to differences in the extent of breast
feeding, but it may be noted that the levels of Sr&° inmilk from Ja pan also appeared to be lower than in North_1\merica and Europe (table VII).
86. For Central America, data are available from only
two countries and a marked difference is shown between
them. Values for Puerto Rico are comparable with those• The difference in turnover rates means that the particularbone chosen for analysis is not important in the case of young
children since the ratio of Sruo to calcium differs little between
different bones but this is not so in adults.35, 98 Analyses of anumber of whole adult skeletons have shown that the relative
c?ncentrations of Sr9o are as follows: vertebra/skeleton 2.1;
n~/skeleton 1.4; femur/skeleton 0.45.so These values were obb:'nc;d from whole skeletons in New York in the years 1958-1959.
S1m1lar values ~ave been .o.btained in the United Kingdom.2M
It has .been considered legitimate to use these factors for otherareas m order to facilitate comparison where different bones
have be.en used for analysis. In table XX, adult bones have been
nom:ialized by the use of these factors, where identification was
possible.

298

..
5

3

3

5

4

3

...~
()

cc
()

tlO
J.<

&

.,,
0

Ji
()

2

::i..
;:I..

1

0

5

10

15

20

20+

AGE AT DEATH, YEAR!
Figure 2. The concentration~£ Sr•o in human bone in the United Kingdom in 1959 in relation to age at death. · ·The number of samples (n) is shown above each age group256

in which regular sampling has been carried out. Similarrises were shown from 1956-1958 in four countries ofNorth America and Europe. Thereafter the time courses
were divergent, with a marked rise in 1959 being shown
only in the United Kingdom. The value for Canada in1960 (no data are available for 1959) was distinctly
lower than that in the United States, both values being
based on a large number of samples. This order is thereverse of that shown by the milk levels in the preceding
years. Only a slight rise was shown in Japan. No consistent change was observed in Australia or Chile. The
general differences in trend between northern and southern hemispheres are consistent with the differences indeposition of Sr90 • The more detailed differences may
depend in part on lack of representativeness in sampling
but may well arise from genuine differences in dietary
habit in the young.
89. Detailed information from the United Kingdom(figure 5) shows a marked increase with time in thevalues for children but no signmcant change withadults. 98 The data in table XX suggest that this was
generally true in other areas.

in the United States, but those for Guatemala are distinctly lower. The latter corresponds with the low intake
of Sr 90 calculated from dietary information (table IV).
From Africa in the latitude band 0-30° N no information is available, but a few values from the Near East
(Israel) suggest levels rather below those in Europe.
Frnm South-East Asia data are few but again suggest
levels lower than or comparable with those from countries further north. Mean values from the Southern
Hemisphere (South America, Australia, Republic ofSouth Africa) are generally lower by a factor of two
or more than those in North America and Europe.
87. Such differences between areas in the Sr90 content of bone correspond roughly with what is to be e.xpected from latitudinal differences in the deposition of
fall-out. It has been noted, however, that the difference
in bone levels are rather less than those in deposition. 319
A major contributory reason is likely to be difference!
in diet, but this cannot be invoked in a comparison of,for example, Australia and North America where thediets are similar. The transport of food from one region
to another may also be important in producing more
unifonn bone levels.

Observed ratio (bone/diet) frotft measurementsof S~ 0 in bone
90. It is not possible to calculate the OR (bone/diet)for adults from fall-out data because of the short time

Trends urith ti1U
88. In figure 4 values for the Sr>° content of the boneof 0-4 year old children are shown for some countries

299

3·

2

1

____

---._

....,

__ ,

r---

I
I

.____ _ o ._____ oUKUSA____ o
Japan

USSR

1

0

Fed. Rep. Germany
PolandBraz.11
Australia.
Figure 3. Concentrations of Sreo per g of calcium in bones from different age groups in 1959, from 8 countries. In each histogramfrom left to right 0-4, 5-19 and> 19 years. Dotted line in 0-4 group shows the level in the new-born (data from table XX)

3
UK

USA
Fed. Rep,
1~~--,-­------

Germany'--""'() Canada.

l-"---+ Chile
1955

1956

1957

f

1958

1959

1960

Year

Figure 4. Sr&o in the bones of young children 0-4 years old 1955-1960 (data from table XX)

which it has been present in the environment, relative
to the period during which the bones of adults have been
formed. This difficulty does not arise with respect toyoung children, but the composition of their diet is veryvaried and is often not well known, so that no detailed
evaluation of the OR froi:n survey data is justified at
the present time.

91. The bones of the newborn, or still births, however, provide an opportunity for estimating the OR(foetus/mother's diet) since relatively large numbersof bones of the newborn have been analysed and muchinformation is available on the adult diet. For different
countries in Europe and North America (table XXV)the values range from about 0.1 to 0.13. This result is
300

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Figure S. The concentration (µp.c per g of calcium) of Sr9o in human bone,
1955-1959, in the United Kingdom
Notes:(i) In each group the mean values are linked by a continuous line and the maximum values by an interrupted line. In the first category the lower continuousline (B) relates to the bones of adults and no maxima are drawn as theydiffer so little from the mean; the upper continuous line (A) relates to themean values and the interrupted line to the maximum values for still-born
infants whose bones are formed indirectly from the maternal plasmas.
(ii) The subscript tables for each category give: (n) the number of individuals;{m) the mean value in µµc per g calcium; (s.d.) the standard deviation of
the values in µµc per g cakium9s

in bone in different areas appear to vary in a generally
similar manner to the levels of Sr90 deposition, particularly in regard to geographical latitude.

in good agreement with that which can be inferred fromexperimental studies on animals; the OR (foetus/
mother) is about 0.5 and when this is combined with
the OR bone/diet of 0.25 a value of 0.125 is obtained.
The variable values for Japan shown in this table may
have been due either to the small number of samples ordifferences in the composition of diet.

93. An attempt is now made to summarize these dataand compare the values found in bone with those predicted from diet. The data are considered as means,weighted appropriately for production or population
over broad areas. A comparison is made between the
Sr90 to calcium ratio in the bones of young children andnewborn in 1959-1960 as representing the newly formed
bone in the population, and the dietary levels in 19581960. It would be preferable to use bone data from 1960
only for comparison but this is not yet available fromall areas. Such data as we have suggest that the increase

EVALUATION OF MEAN LEVELS OF Sr90 IN DIET AND BONE

92. In the previous sections of the present annex,
measurements of Sr90 in individual foods, in total dietand in bone have been presented and discussed. Attention has been drawn to the fact that the Sr90 to calcium
ratios in individual foods, in diets of similar types and301

from 1959 to 1960 was small and that the use of the1959 values for these areas i:3 a reasonable approximation. Values for diet before 1958 are not used because
they are fewer than in later years. It is, in any case,probable that the age distribution of samples of bone in
the 0-4 age group is generally biased to younger ages
owing to the higher mortality rate in the first years oflife; consequently, much of this bone would have been
formed in the period 1958-1960.

Evaliwtion of S~ to calcium ratio in total diet,
1958-1960

94. Measurements for the total diet are available only
from limited areas (table IV). However, by adopting
one food as a reference standard and comparing withit the level in total diet or in other foods, extrapolation
to wider areas is pos;sible. Milk has been chosen as thereference standard not because it necessarily supplies alarge proportion of the dietary Sr9° but because it has
been most widely sampled.
95. Two approaches have been used:(a) A comparison of the estimated levels in total
diet from table IV with those in milk from the same
countries from table VII. The results are given in table
XXII. In diets of class I the Sr0 • to calcium ratio in the
total diet ranged from 0.9 to 2.9 times that in the milk.
The average of all results (excluding Denmark, thevalue for whidi fell outside the usual range) is 1.4. In
Japan (class III) the ratio total diet/milk increased
from 1.4 in 1957 to 3.6 in 1960, since the level in the
total diet increased more than did that in the milk overthis period. From the limited surveys in Central andSouth America values for the ratio of total diet tomilk from 0.9-3.3 are suggested. The single value for
Africa ( 10-13, based on limited sampling in Rhodesia
in 1959-1960) is comparatively high. The diet in thisarea, however, shows quite distinct features.n 1( b) A comparison of the Sr00 to calcium ratio in milk
and in cereals, vegetables and fish, where measurements
were availabl& from the same area in 1958-1960 and
subsequently to compile ratios for the ratio total diet/milk for a number of different types of diet. This calculation may be justified on the basis that while actuallevels of Sr9° in foodstuffs in different areas will depend on the extent of deposition, t:he relative degree ofcontamination of different types of crops may be expected to bear some roughly constant relationship to one
another. Considerable variation may occur because ofdifferences in agricultural conditions and practices, but
if comparisons are made oYer sufficiently large areas,
useful relationships may be established.

96. Three types of diet have been used, based on theclassification according to calcium contributions preTiously established (para. 39). Attention should be
drawn to the fact that this classification applies only tothe diets for which detailed information on the calcium
contributions was available and is not necessarily complete. Since the Sr90 to calcium ratio in unmilled cereal
is much higher than in milled cereal, additional calculations have been made for diets in which 30 per cent or
all of the cereal is unmilled. (This would in fact change
the calcium contribution from cereals to some extent
but this has not been taken into account owing to theapproximate nature of the calculation.)
97. Details of the diets and values obtained are set
out in table XXIII. Values for the calculated ratio total
diet/milk range from 1.5 for diets of class I to 4.2 for302

a diet of class II in which a high proportion of the calcium is derived from unmilled cereal. These values are of
the same order as those calculated from measured levels
in total diet. It must be pointed out, however, that thetwo methods are not entirely independent since someof the data used have already been used in the calcula-.
tion of the total diet values. However, this second
method does permit the inclusion of many more data.
98. This calculation provides an opportunity of estimating the differences that might have occurred in the
Sr90 to calcium ratio in different types of diet. It suggests that in areas of similar deposition of SrP0 the ratio
in diets of classes II anCi III, which have relatively little
mill.::, may have been only about twice that in diets ofclass I. In fact. since much of the area of Asia andAfrica, where diets low in milk are common, has been
one of low deposition of Sr• 0 , the differences are likely
to be much smaller. This is borne out by the measured
levels in total diets in Viet-Nam and Africa comparedwith those for Europe• and North America (table IV).

99. The substitution of unmilled cereal for milled
cereals appears to increase the ratio of Sr9° to calciumin the total diet by at most about 50 per cent; this is arather smaller effect than has been noted for some individual countries (paras. 56 and 57). Mention should bemade here of diets not included in the classification
above in which up to 80 per cent of the calcium in thediet comes from cereals and the rest from vegetables.1 nCalculation from the values given in table XXIII suggest that even in this case the ratio total diet/milk would
not exceed 5-10, the exact value depending on the proportion of the cereal which was milled.

Comparison of calculated and measured S~ in bone100. Table XXIV sets out:(a) Production weighted mean levels in milk for theperiod 1958-1960, based on tables VII, IX and X;(b) Mean levels ia diet for 1958-1960, based ontable IV;( c) Calculated levels in total diet, using the weighted
mean levels in milk and the ratios total diet/milk derived from measured levels in the total diet (table
XXII). Since milk values, other than those used in calculating this ratio, are anilable only in Europe andNorth America, this method cannot be applied to otherareas;( d) Calculated levels in total diet based on mean
worldwide ratios of the Sr9° to calcium ratios in individual foods to milk and the approximate diets, assuming that the cereal was all milled (table XXII). Thishas been applied to all areas except Central America,
where the diet has special features (para. 40) and appears not to be classifiable on this basis ;( e) Calculated ratios of Sr 00 to calcium in new boneon the assumption of an OR (bone/diet) of 0.25. The
basis for this value has been previously discussed ;(f) Calculated ratios of Sr00 to calcium in new boneusing observed values in newborn (table XXI) and assuming that the Sr90 to calcium ratio in foetal bone would
be one-half that in new bone of the mother owing toplacental discrimination (para. 36);(g) Observed levels of Sr90 in the bones of children
0-4 years old in 1959-1960 (table XXI).
101. The approximate nature of these calculations
must be stressed. Nevertheless a very reasonable correspondence of calculated and measured bone levels isfound. In general, measured bone levels are somewhat
iower than those predicted from the diet. Greatest uncertainty must attach to the calculations for Asia and theFar East \vhere systematic surveys are few and wherelarge populations are unrepresented by data. However,
the measured values in bone from these areas are lmver
than in North America and Europe.
102. The generally good agreement between values inbone predicted from dietary surveys and the observed
levels (table XXIV) is of considerable importance fromthe viewpoint of design of surveys of Sr90 in the humandiet. The conduct of survevs which confom1 to strict
statistical principles is labo;ious and expensive even inhighly organized countries; and it is likely to be impossible elsewhere. Present results encourage the view thatthe standard of sampling which has been adopted inmany areas is adequate to show the approximate averagelevel of Sr110 in the bones of large population groups;
furthermore it appears that especially when milk constitutes an appreciable part of the diet, the ratio of Sr9°
to calcium in bone could have been predicted reasonably
from the assay of milk alone. Considerably more elaborate surveys are, however, necessary to elucidate foodchain mechanisms.
FUTURE LEVELS OF Sr90 IN DIET AND MAN

103. In the detailed description of the routes of entry
into food chains described previously (paras. 13-24) attention has been drawn to the importance of alternativeroutes of entry of Sr9-0 into vegetation in addition toabsorption from the soil. This is emphasized by thechanging degree of contamination of milk, vegetables andcereals between 1958, 1959 and 1960 (paras. 62-76)
which can be seen to have been related to the changing
rate of fall-out. Some estimates of the relative magnitudeof direct contamination and of absorption from the soil
have been made. In the United Kingdom, for example,
absorption from the soil was estimated to have contributed only about 40 per cent of the Sr00 in milk in 1958
and 1959, but some 75 per cent in 1960 when the rate offall-out was considerably lower. 247 Estimates of theamount of Sr90 in wheat due to direct contamination
range from 20-90 per cent. 84 • 210 • 236 It is clear then thatboth factors must be taken into account in estimating
future levels in diet and bone under specified conditions.
104. The many factors affecting the relative importance of the rate of fall-out and the cumulative deposition in the contamination of food have been stressed
previously (para. 25). Because of these factors it appears preferable to attempt evaluation for world-wide
predictions on a country-wide basis so that local fluctuations assume less importance.

Method of evaluation

105. In the previous report of the committee and inother publications, 203 • 204 • 247 attempts have been made to
predict the future. levels of Sr90 in diet on the basis ofan expression of the following general form:c = pdFd + PrFr
where
C is the concentration of Sr&0 (µ.µ.c) per gram of calcium
in a food,
Fd is the cumulative deposition of Sr00 (mc/km2 )Fr is the current rate of deposition of Sr90 ( mc/km 2/y)and pd and Pr are proportionality factors.
303

They can conveniently be termed the "cumulative" and"rate" factor respectively. Neither factor can be regarded as a true constant. The cumulative factor willvary with location depending on soil type, and will varywith time a£ the distribution of Sr90 in soil changes(paras. 14-20). It will decrease as leaching and possibly
fixation occurs (paras. 19 and 20). The rate factor isdependent on the many variables affecting foliar retention and contamination, and on the e.xtent of plant baseabsorption (paras. 23 and 24). The reliability of theestimates of the proportionality factors is discussed inparagraph 118.
106. The factors were evaluated for the previous report by means of regression techniques, using data formilk, and preliminary results of experiments in which
Sr90 uptake by crops growing in the field was measured.
There are now considerably more data available forlonger periods of time during which the fall-out ratevaried considerably. More e.xperimental evidence is alsoavailable.
107. A number of methods can be used to evaluate
the two factors using the data set out in tables VII to
XVI! and the estimates of fall-out rate and deposit( F I, figures 37 and 38). The principal method used is to
assume that in late 1960 when the fall-out rate was low,
the contribution of the fall-out currently being deposited to Sr90 in food was insignificant. Thus the cumulative factor may be determined by dividing the measured ratio of Sr90 to calcium in foodstuffs bv the accumulated deposit. Since the fall-out rate was 'not zero,a maximum value is obtained. Where possible, meanvalues for wide areas have been used. This method enables values to be obtained for a considerable numberof areas, especially for milk. The rate factor can thenbe determined by applying the calculated value of the
cumulative factor to the results of previous years when
the rate of fall-out was considerably greater relative tothe cumulative total in the soil. This method has been
preferred as the general basis for evaluation because it
makes it possible to use survey results from wide areas.
Supplementary information can however be obtained inother ways:(a) By regression analysis providing adequate dataon the rate of fall-out, the cumulative deposit and thelevel of contamination in the foodstuff are available.
Such data are available only for milk and in relatively
few areas;( b) By calculating the cumulative factor from theresults of experimental investigations of the absorptionof radio-strontium by crops growing under field conditions. This can be the most precise method for evaluating the situation in any one locality. However, since
results are available only for Sweden136 and the United
Kingdom, 142• 247 they do not provide an adequate basis
for assessing the world-wide situation;( c) By assuming that, in the absence of direct contamination, the ratio of srso to stable strontium in allparts of the plant should be the same. The existence ofa higher ratio in whole grain than in roots, 235 or in brancompared with flour, 84 • 210 indicates direct contamination.
This fraction can be evaluated and compared with theannual fall-out deposit to obtain the rate factor. The
value of the cumulative factor may be determined fromthe difference. Si.nee the assumption must also be madethat none of the Sr90 in flour is due to direct contamination, this method gives ma..ximum values for the cumulative factor and minimum values for the rate factor;( d) The approximate value of the rate factor is also

indicated by laboratory experiments in which radiostrontium was deposited on crops in various stages ofgrowth and the amount in the edible parts determinedat maturity. 159

crimination against strontium in passage into the cereal
grain (para. 16) in adopting a value of 0.5. This issimilar to the mean value from field experiments in the
United Kingdom and Sweden. 158 • 142 Adoption of a valueof 1 would not increase the over-all cumulative factor
for any of the diet types by more than about 10 per cent.

Estimated values of proportionality factors

115. Using this value of the cumulative factor, therate factor has been calculated from the available data
for wheat and rice by the methods described in paragraph 107. Considerable variation between different
years and different areas may be e.xpected since thevalues are based on crude estimates of annual fall-out
rates, while the concentration in the grain is dependent
on the rate during a short period before harvest. For
calculation the rate factor is taken as 20 for whole grain
and 7 for milled cereal. These values are assumed toapply for all cereals.
116. Total diet. The values of the cumulative andrate factors adopted for individual foods are set out in
table XXVII. They have been used to calculate factors
for the total diet weighted according to the calcium
sources in the diet types previously used for evaluationof present and past levels. It should be noted from thistable that the rate and cumulative factors for the various
diets differ only by a factor of about 2. For calculating
future levels a rate factor assuming 20 per cent of thecereal is unmilled has been adopted as a conservative
estimate.
117. Because of the delay in consuming such foods
as cereals and potatoes, these weighted factors will beapplicable only if the rate of fall-out is reasonably constant from year to year. Owing to such delays and thepresence of considerable amounts of imported foods inmany diets, direct determination of the proportionality
factors from measurements of total diet, though theoretically possible, is unlikely to give reliable results at
the present time, since the rate of fall-out has varied
very considerably over the few years (1957-1960) for
which such measurements are available. Such an evaluation will be more useful when data are available for aperiod which is long in comparison with the lag in consumption. However, approximate comparisons can bemade, realizing their limitations. Total diet measurements in the United States in early 1961 indicated anaverage level of 6.7 µ.µ.c Sr90 per g of calcium in total
diet, which on the basis of a deposition of 27 mcfkm2
indicates the cumulative factor for total diet in the
United States to be about 0.25 (diet I), compared withthe previously calculated value of 0.4. In Ja pan, thelatest values in 1960 show a value of 19.3 µ.µ.c Sr9{)/g Ca
in total diet and a deposit of 25 mcjkm2 • Hence thecumulative factor for total diet is 0.77 (diet III). These
values must however include some component from thefall-out rate; this suggests that the values calculated
from the individual foods lead to conservative estimatesof the factors for total diet.

108. Milk. By assuming that in late 1960 or in early
1961 the contribution of Sr00 to milk from current fallout was insignificant, values of the cumulative factor
for several areas have been calculated. Table XXVI
shows that they range from 0.2-0.8. Comparison of thevalues calculated in this manner with the results of regression analysis for areas in the United States and theUnited Kingdom, and the values calculated from field
experiments in the United Kingdom, show that good correspondence between the different methods is obtained.
For the purposes of calculation, a world-wide mean valueof 0.3 will be assumed. Values close to this are achievedfor broad regions by comparing the weighted meanvalues in milk for 1960 (table X) with the average
cumulative depositions in appropriate latitudinal bands(F I, table XIV).
109. The value of the rate factor obtained by comparison with previous years or from regression analyses
when the rate of fall-out was comparatively high, ranges
from 0.3-1.2. A value of 0.8 will be used for calculation.
110. At present, much of the Sr90 in unploughed pasture land remains in the upper centimetres of soil. Field
experiments indicate that with deeper penetration of Sr90
in the soil, the value of the cumulative factor will be
reduced by about one-third. 247 Hence, for the long-term
situation a value of 0.2 is adopted.
111. It may be noted that these estimates show thatthe rate factor is considerably greater relative to the
cumulative factor than appeared from the very limited
data available to the Committee at the time of the previous report, when the rate factor for Perry, New York,was estimated as 0.23 and the cumulative factor as 0.34.
112. Green vegetables. Direct estimates of the cumulative factor for vegetables, calculated from the limited
data available for late 1960 (table XXVI) and fromfield experiments,136 • 142 indicate values ranging from 0.5
to a little greater than 1. The value of the rate factor
from the comparison of 1960 values with those in previous years ranges from zero to 0.8.
113. Potatoes and starchy roots. The values of the
cumulative factor calculated from the limited data for
1960 available, range from 1-3 (table XXVI). Field
experiments.in the United Kingdom and Sweden suggest
a range of 0.7-1.4. The value of the rate factor from acomparison of 1960 values with those of earlier years
is indicated as close to zero. For calculation, thecumulative factor will be taken as 1, the rate factor as
zero. The adoption of somewhat higher values for thesefactors has little influence on the over-all prediction since
the contribution of calcium from this source in all theapproximate diets is very small.

118. Reliability of the values adopted. Before attempting to calculate future levels of Sr90 in the total diet, theaccuracy of these forecasts should be considered. Inaccuracies may arise from:(a) The error associated with the measurement of
Sr90 in foodstuffs and in fall-out deposits, particularly
in regard to the representativeness of the samples;( b) The lack of coverage for certain large areas of
the world which leads to the necessity for ex-trapolation;( c) The fact that annual fall-out values are used
whereas vegetables and cereals are subject to contamina-

114. Cereals. The value of the cumulative factor cannot be derived from the 1960 data because of the extent
of floral contamination (para. 23) which was significant
in 1960 in spite of the low fall-out rate. However, because the rooting depth of cereals and vegetables is often
similar, and the soil is prepared in the same way forboth crops, the value for cereals has been derived fromthat for vegetables. Allowance has been made for dis-

304

~s

tion for only short periods, and the rate of fall-out hasvaried considerably throughout the year;( d) The uncertain pattern of future fall-out particularly in regard to distribution throughout the year.
119. However, the reasonable agreement between estimates made by different methods and for different
areas suggests that the values adopted may provide asatisfactory basis for estimating possible future e..xposures of populations, at least in those regions from which
the basic data were obtained. The values should beapplied only to large regions. They may be open to
considerably greater error if applied to particular
localities.
Calrnlated fitture levels
120. In calculating the levels of Sr90 which may occur
in the future, on the basis of proportionality factors(tables XXVI and XXVII) and predicted levels of
deposition (F I, figures 37 and 38), account must be
taken of the fact that some Sr90 will be lost from the soil
by run-off, leaching and removal in crops; part of the
Sr90 which crops absorb may, however, be returned to theland in organic manure. Moreover, slow fi..xation processes may lead to some reduction in the availability of
Sr9°. These processes are discussed in paragraphs 14-25.
For predicting the world-wide levels of Sr90 in diet, it
is assumed that the net losses of Sr90 will be 2 per centper annum. This is considered to be an adequately cautious average which will not under-estimate the generallevel of dietary contamination. Between different regions. wide variation is to be expected; considerablylarger losses have been estimated for some areas 98 but
elsewhere it seems possible that losses may be considerably lower.
121. Estimated future levels of Sr90 in the threeclasses of diet adopted are given in figure 6 for two of
the cases considered in part I of this annex (FI, 110).
These levels are calculated for the mean diet of large
populations; smaller groups may have intakes differingfrom the average as discussed in paragraphs 51-61. The
levels are calculated for the average world fall-out(F I, 33). If the present pattern of latitudinal distribution were observed in the future, the mean levels in thetemperate zone of the Northern Hemisphere would be
about twice those in the figure, whereas the levels in theSouthern Hemisphere would be lower than in the figure.
A discussion of the factors to be used to calculate values
for different latitudes and to calculate a population
weighted mean diet value for the world is given in annex
F, part III, paragraph 33.
(a) Tests ended in 1961. Figure 6 shows that after
a slight rise the levels in diet will quickly fall off untilvalues of less than 2 p.p.c Sr90 per g of calcium arereached by the year 2000. If tests continued until 1965
the levels in the year 2000 would be near to or less than
3 µ.p.c Sr90 per g of calcium. Thereafter radio-active
decay and removal would cause the level to drop by about
5 per cent per year;(b) Continued testing. Under continued testing thelevels would rise until at equilibrium the levels would
be about three times those calculated for 1960.

30

20

!
~

::.E
~

"

~

Continued fesfing

1 Mc Sr90 per ye11r

~

.

;;;;

.:
§

u

-;;
u

..."'~

-;;-

....

-3

.,._
0

No festing after 1961

"'
10

Ill
II

5

1~60

1970

1980

ma

2000

Equilibrium

Figiire 6. Calculated levels of Sr9o in three diet types (para.

39) under two conditions of testing, following the model
adopted (FI, 110, 114). The values are calculated for world
average fall-out. For values in particular latitudes, see discussion in paragraph 119 and F III, 33.

trometer to make simultaneous measurements of Cs137
and the naturally radio-active K"' 0 has encouraged theexpression of Cs137 concentrations in terms of potassiumin a manner analogous to that used for strontium andcalcium (para. 9). However, while strontium and calcium are interdependent and behave in a relatively similar and regular manner in biological systems, this isapparently not true of caesium and potassium. For example, in absorption by plants, the OR (plant/solution)
may increase by a factor of 2-10 as the concentrationof potassium in the external solution is increased.rn'• 117
Similarly in rats, it has been found that a ninefoldchange in the dietary potassium level causes an almost
proportional change in the OR (tissues/diet). 290 It has
also been shown that, in the animal body, Cs137 andpotassium may be distributed in quite different ratios in
different tissues and organs. 262 • 290•m Since the observed
ratio changes markedly under different conditions, itappears that this concept cannot usefully be applied
for this pair of elements. However, as a matter of practical necessity, values for the Cs137 content of diet andman in the following tables are expressed in terms of
the ratio of caesium to potassium, since this is the method

ill. Caesium-137

CAESIUM-137 IN FOOD CHAINS
Relationships between caesium and potassium
122. The chemical similarity of caesium and potas-sium and the opportunity offered by the gamma spec-305

of presentation in many publications.* The ratio of
Cs137 to potassium is, in fact, the preferable unit in which
to express the content in man, since it correlates betterwith lean body mass, and hence with organ dose, thandoes Cs137 per kg of body weight. This, however, is quite
independent of considerations of the similarity of metabolic behaviour of Cs137 and potassium.
Soils and plants

123. Cs137 , like Sr90 , can enter plants both by directcontamination and from the soil. However, Cs137 is absorbed from the soil to a considerably lesser extent than
Sr00 • Once absorbed, unlike Sr90 , it is readily redistributed within plants, its distribution being relatively
similar to that of potassium.
124. Absorption from soil. Large-scale field experiments, comparable to those with Sr1'0, have not been
carried out for Cs137 • However, the relative uptakes of
Sr00 and Cs137 have been compared in many laboratory
experiments and these may be used as a basis from which
the behaviour of Cs131 in the field may be inferred. Theseexperiments show that Cs137 is less well absorbed fromsoil by plants than Sr00 ; the relative amounts vary withthe soil type. In short-term experiments, with typicalsoils of temperate regions, Cs 137 is absorbed to an extent
only 1/10 or less of that of Sr90 •19 • 135• 149 With the passage of time the absorption of Cs137 relative to Sr 90
decreases, and after three years the quantity absorbed
may be about 1/25, or less, of that of Sr00 • 149 • 283 Marked
differences, however, occur between soils and in somesoils of tropical origin the absorption of Cs137 is considerably greater.283 High uptake of Cs 137 relative toSr90 was also found in lowland rice growing in paddy
soil ;118 this was ascribed to the presence of nitrogen in
the form of ammonium ions.
125. Reaction of Cs1 31 with soil a11d downward movement. The relatively low absorption of Cs137 by plants
is due to chemical reactions which tend to bind it to soil
constituents. 19• 1 35 • 179 Cs137 enters into the crystal structure of micaceous minerals in a manner similar to but notnecessarily identical with that of potassium.135 • 179 • 180
Once bound, caesium is replaced from soils to only asmall e.'\.'i:ent by divalent cations, but more readily bycaesium, ammonium or potassium ions. 180 The additionof carrier caesium can increase the uptake of Cs137 byplants. 118• 135 The addition of potassium may decrease
the absorption of Cs 137 in soils low in available ~otas­
sium; it may, however, have no effect when the available
potassium is high.13'• 135 Owing to this strong binding,the downward movement of Cs137 in soils is considerablyslower than that of Sr1'0 •221 • 212
126. Direct contamination of plaiits with Cs137• Cs137 ,like Sr90 , may enter plants by foliar, floral or plant baseabsorption. Cs137 is retained by the plant surfaces on
which it lodges directly to about the same extent or perhaps a little better than Sr90 , 122 • 158 • 159 and the factors
affecting retention appear to be generally similar. The
relative rates of penetration of Sr00 and Cs137 into tissues
are not known. A very marked difference in behaviour
occurs after absorption because of the ready redistribution of caesium throughout the plant.1 ==· 196
127. Plant base absorption. Little is known regarding
the extent to which Cs137 enters plants by plant baseabsorption. However, it may be noted that although in* These may be approximately converted to other units since
the potassium content is roughly constant in milk (1.4 g/I) andin the human body (2 g per kg of body weight).

306

many areas the ratio of Cs137 to Sr90 in milk decreased
owing to the low rate of fall-out in 1960, 251 in others theratio remained relatively constant from 1959-1960. 2270 242
This may be interpreted as due to differences in pasturemanagement affecting the degree of retention in the root
mat and of incorporation of Cs137 in the soil. It suggeststhat retention of Cs137 in the root mat of permanentpastures may cause Cs 137 to be relatively available toplants for a period of a year or more.
Aquatic food chains128. Experimental studies have shown that Cs 137 may
be concentrated by the flesh of aquatic organisms to adegree one or more orders of magnitude higher than thesurrounding water. 267 However, analyses of Cs137 in fish
do not suggest a very large contribution to the total
content of the diet (table XXXI). 33 • 108 Consequently,
detailed discussion of this aspect is unwarranted.
Transference into milk
129. The metabolism of Cs13 ' in animals has been lesswell studied than that of Sr90 • However, it has beenshown that some 10 per cent of orally ingested Cs187
is secreted into the milk of dairy cows ; this corresponds
to about 1.3 per cent of the amount ingested per litre of
milk. 181 • 182 • 207• 221 The amount of Cs 137 transferred into
milk is slightly greater than that of potassium. 207 • 2 ~ No
information is available on the secretion of Cs187 into
human milk.
Metabolic behaviour in man and mammals
130. Cs137 and potassium are absorbed from the gut
virtually completely, and are mainly distributed in thesoft tissues in the body. The distribution of Cs137 fromfall-out in human tissues has been studied in a numberof post-mortem samples. The results indicated a concentration of Cs137 in rib bones which were free ofmuscle but not of marrow, comparable with that in soft
tissues. 222 • 226 The results were variable and further information is necessary before firm conclusions can be
drawn. When Cs137 was injected into patients, the bones
at autopsy had somewhat lower concentrations of Cs137
than the soft tissue. 297 Studies with mice have indicatedthat Cs 137 concentrates in cartilage. 295
131. At least two exponential processes can be recognized in the excretion of Cs137 from the bodv of most
species including man,• 0 • 2118 • 314 following the administration of a single dose. In man two components are wellestablished : a small fraction ( 10 to 15 per cent) is
excreted with a short half-life (1.0 to 1.5 days) while
the remainder is excreted more slowly. There is considerable variation among individuals, and half-lives as
low as 50 to 60 days 287 • 298 and as high as 150 to 160
days 298 • 314 have been reported. The average appears to
be in the region of 100 to 120 days. 217 • 298 •m This contrasts with the more rapid turnover of potassium, theapparent half-life of which depends very largely on the
dietary intake. •o, 1os,2G•, 2ss132. The rate of turnover in different species is generally related to body size, being particularly rapid insmall animals such as the mouse and rat. :e 3 • 115 Ruminants
form an exception to this rule, however, having a relatively rapid biological half-life.m,m The level of dietary
potassium has little effect on the rate of removal of Cs1111
from the human body ;• 0 an increase in daily potassium
intake produces only a transitory increase in the urinary
excretion of Cs137 , and it subsequently returns to its
former rate.264

MEASURED unLs OF Cs137

133. The gamma-radiation associated with Cs137 can'be distinguished from that emitted by the naturally
radio-active K 40 using a scintillation spectrometer.
Direct estimates of Cs13 ' and potassium contents of living
subject:i, of large samples of diet and of samples ofbuman excreta can be obtained. Since the biological halflife of Cs13 ' in the human body is relatively short, there
is comparatively little variation in the concentration ofCs137 (per kg of body weight or per g of potassium)
between different age groups. Thus measurements on
adult subjects can be used for estimating the dose to thewhole population. It will be recalled that for Srg0 ,measurements on adults were of very limited use, andemphasis was placed on measurements of the concentration in the bones of children and in the total diet. For
Cs13 ' much less importance attaches to the analysis ofdiet or to other indirect methods of estimating body-content, and comparafrv-ely few values are available.
Cs137 in the total diet134. Few estimates of the concentration of Cs187 in
the total diet have been made. Estimates available fromthe United States in 1956-1957 and Canada iri 1959,~ 0 • 108(table XXVIII) indicated an intake of about 60 µ.µ.c per
day and a ratio of Cs 137 to potassium of about 20 µ.µ.c/g
K. In mid-1961, analysis of composite diets in the UnitedStates of America indicated an intake of only 33 µµ.c per<lay.siz In these countries some 60 per cent of the Cs 137
was supplied from milk and 25-35 per cent from meats.
In Japan, analyses on composite diets indicate a total
daily intake of close to 50 µ.µ.c Cs137 per day in 1959 and1960. 330 Approximate calculation from the levels of Csm
in foodstuffs at Gunma (table XXXI) suggests thatperhaps half of the Cs137 was derived from cereals andthat vegetables. milk and meat were other important contributors. In Argentina in 1961 the total daily intake ofCs137 was estimated as 40 f'-µC. 44
135. An alternative to analysis or estimation of
dietary Cs 137 is analy.sis of the mean daily excretion ofCs137 • A few data are available far the United States316
and the United Kingdom.~ 98 In 1957 two American subjects excreted 33 and 40 µ.µ.c Cs 137 per day in the urine ;316
the daily total excretion of one subject in the United
Kingdom was 81 µ.µ.c and 36 µ.µ.c in April 1959 and April
1961 respectively. Two other men excreted 42 µ.µ.c and51 µ.µ.c in April 1961. 298 These values are very similar
to those quoted above as estimates or measurements ofdaily diets.

?erved following those in the rate of fall-out. This is
illustrated. in figure 7 which shows the quarterly meanc~:mc~ntrat1on of Cs131 in milk in several areas. Sharp
nses m the concentration of Cs 137 in milk were shovm in
the United States, Nonvay and India following heavy
fall-out in the spring of 1959. That the peak value was
not as high as in 1958 in the United States in spite ofheavier fall-out may indicate the importance of the distributi~n. of fall-ou~ in ~elation to ~e grazing period indetermmmg levels m milk. Following the drop in fallout rate a sharp decline occurred in the concentrationof Cs137 in milk in the United States and India. whichreached low levels in late 1960. In N onvay the pattern
was different. Although a sharp rise in 1959 was shown
the concentration showed no consistent fall until la.t~1960. This type of difference must be ascribed to differing climatic and agricultural conditions; in particular,
it raiies the possibility of a lengthy hold-up of Cs137 in
the root mat of certain types of permanent pasture.
138. The wide variation with time in the concentration of Cs137 in milk from a single area, and the scarcity
of really representative data which cover a complete
year make comparisons between different areas difficult.
The limited data in table XXIX indicate that levels inNorth America and Europe are comparable, with rather
low levels being shown in Denmark and very high onesin Norway. Values from Japan are also somewhat higher
than in North America; in India and Australia they
are distinctly lower.
Cs13 ' in other foods

139. Some data for Cs 137 in foods other than milk
have already been presented in table XXVIII. Other
data chiefly from a single location in Japan are presented
in table XXXI. It may be noted that wheat from Canada
and cereals from Japan have a ratio of Cs187 to potassiumof the same order of magnitude. The vegetables fromJapan, however, have higher ratios of Cs181 to potassium
than those from North America (table XXVIII). A
comparison of values based on such limited sampling is,however, of doubtful significance. Meat from Norwayshows high contents of Cs137 which are in proportion
to those in milk from the same areas.m Not enough is
known about the metabolism of Cs137 in the cow for theconcentration in meat to be deduced from that measured
in milk, but there will certainly be a correlation assuming
similar feed for dairy and beef animals. The ex:ceptionally high values which are recorded in reindeer meat are
attributed to the grazing of lichens 276
Measured levels of Cs131 in the human body

Cs131 in milk

140. Few whole body counters have been available inrecent years; in consequence, determinations of Cs137
in large numbers of individuals have been restricted to
North America and 'Western Europe. Measurementi
have been made recently also in Japan. \Vhile manyother countries are represented in table XXXIL thedeterminations were carried out on relatively few individuals who were visitors to a laboratory where a counter
was situated. The extent to which such visitors are
representative of their native population depends on theinterval between leaving their country and being measured. and also on the extent to which socio-economic
differences in diet exist. Neither factor can be evaluatedwith the available information. Consequently. in table
XXXII results for visitors to each laboratory have beengrouped together in broad geographicaf regions. Resultsfor indigenous populations of countries in which the136. Measurement of Cs13 ' in food has with few exceptiom been confined to milk, because of its importanceas a supplier of Cs137 to some diets, and because of theease with which it can be sampled. Mean values for Cs137
in milk are set out in tables XXIX and XXX. Regularsurveys of milk have been carried out for some years inNorth America, and have been started recently in a number of countries in Europe. Surveys are also carried onin India, Japan and Australia. The rest of the world isrepresented by isolated samples; no recent results areavailable for large areas of Asia, South America andAfrica.
137. The Cs137 content of milk may be regarded aslargely determined by the current rate of fall-out or therate in the recent past owing to the small quantity of
Cs 137 absorbed from the soil. Large fluctuations are ob307

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.
:

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..

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0

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~
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... 10=~.s

A Norway

....

...

(')

"

t)

5

1957

1959

1958

Y6ll1'

1960

1961

concentrations in milk in three countries
India (Bombay)!"• · · · • · Norway (mean of 3 sites)=· w- - - - · · USA (mean of 10-12 sites)Ul

Figure 7.

Cs117

measurements are carried out are presented separately.
It may be seen that there is good correspondence between
the results of different laboratories where reasonable
numbers of samples are available. Consequently, all results have been summarized by broad geographicalregions in table XXXIII.
141. Geographical variation. The mean values for
those areas in the N orthem Hemisphere where large
numbers of measurements have been made are very
similar. Far fewer values are available for persons representative of the Southern Hemisphere, but the meanvalues (for South America, for example) appear to be
somewhat lower than those from the Northern Hemisphere. There is thus some suggestion of a correlation
with the latitudinal distribution of fall-out, although thisis much less clearly established than for Sr90 in bone.
142. Some local groups have been reported with bodycontents consistently in excess of the averages reported
here. 21 6-= 17 Small groups from Oslo and Bergen in Norway were measured in Sweden: their body contents were
184 and 477 µ.µ.c/g K respectively in 1960. It may be
noted that the Cs 137 in milk in Norway was also foundto be higher than in other areas of Europe (tableXXIX). There is also the possibility that high consumption of goat's cheese may have led to higher body contents.277 Considerably higher values have also been foundin people living in the north of Sweden. m, m Thesehigher values can be ascribed to the eating of reindeer
meat, which is high in Cs137 (table XXXI). It may be

noted that in countries with diets high in milk, a correlation exists between the quantity of milk drunk and the
CslST Content Of the body.lOB, lH, 2'H
143. Trend with time. The trend with time in several
groups of subjects is shown in figure 8. Repeated measurements on two groups of persons have been carriedout in Chicago (United States) and Berkshire (England). They follow an almost identical trend. Meanvalues for random samplings in New Mexico and Germany are higher but in all cases the pattern is similar, arise from 1956 to 1959 followed by a distinct fall through1960 to early 1961. This is consistent with a dependenceof the body content on the rate of fall-out since thelatter declined sharply in 1960. In contrast, the considerable rise in cumulative fall-out over this period was notaccompanied by any comparable rise in body content.
144. The rate of response of the content in the bodyis slow compared with the rate at which changes in fallout occur. This is well illustrated in figure 9 which shows
the changes in Cs131 content of the body and the fall-out
rate in Berkshire (England) during 1956-1960. It resultsfrom at least two factors. The first is the time necessary
for changes in the rate of fall-out to be reflected in thediet. This may be quite short for foods such as milk during the grazing season, but will obviously be much longer
when stored foodstuffs. both animal and human, areinvolved. The second factor is the time necessary forthe body to reach equilibrium with the diet. This isdetermined by the b:ological half-life, which is of the
308

so

60

i.:

.

~
0

.. 40

.

~

tJ

20

l956

1S57

1959

1958

l96D

1961

Tear

Figure 8. Trends with time of es1n in man
X--X: 8 subjects measured repeatedly at Chicagoll'• :u0--0: Subjects measured in Berkshire, England (in later years repeated measurements on the same subjects)m, Ha!::,,.--!::,,.: Subjects living in New Mexico 1
0-0: Subjects from USA; measured at Walter Reed Army Research Centerlll• :1111
e--e : Subjects living in Germany (Fed. Rep. of)

3

120

t..

~
~

:::!.

'<

0
::i.
::i.

e-:

0

§ 80
s::s·

2

~

0
....

Cl

...

,::;

to

.a
t-

c.>

..,
...

et

..

E?

a

?.,,

t,)

1

40

1956

1957

1958

1959

1960

<•--•) and the1961

Figure 9. The relationship between Cst37 in the human body2H,29s
rate of fall-out(--) in Berkshire, England205,2oe,aoo

indicate that over the period 1958-1960 the mean annual
level of Cs137 in the human body did not change morethan ± 25 per cent from the value in 1958. Bearing in
mind the limitations of the data for subjects from regions
other than North America and Western Europe (para.
140), it seems likely that the average values for thebroad geographical regions would also fall within thisrange. Allowing for the number of observations and theorder of four months. Marked changes in fall-out rate
may occur in shorter periods than this.

Evaluation of mean levels of Cs13 " in the human body145. The paucity of data from many areas prevents
any detailed comparison of the levels of Cs137 in diet andcorresponding levels in the human body. The summary
table XXXIII, together with the data set out in figure 8,309

greater proportion of the world's population in the
Northern Hemisphere, it appears reasonable to suggestthat the world average in this period was 60 µ.µ.c Cs13 r
per g of potassium ( + 25 per cent).
FUTURE LEVELS OF Cs137 IN DIET AND M.iu.'l'as!n 1959 when the highest levels of dietary contami-~atton were observed (a calculation on this basis is given

m annex F, part III, paragraph 41).
IV. Short-lived radio-nuclides

146. The levels of Cs13 ' in diet and in the body werelargely determined up to 1960 by the rate of fall-out.
The contribution from the accumulated deposit has beensmall but it will become proportionately larger, either
when the rate of fall-out is very low some time after
the cessation of weapon testing, or if the accumulated
deposit becomes larger in comparison with the rate offall-out owing to continued testing.
147. Present data are insufficient to justify the prediction of future levels of Cs137 in diet by methods similar
to those w~ed for Sr00 • Considerably less experimental
information is available. Moreover, the contribution
from the soil cannot be estimated from the results ofsurveys by assuming an insignificant contribution fromthe fall-out deposit during 1960, as was done for Sr90 ,because the rate factor for Cs 187 is very large relative
to the cumulative factor. The delay which can occur
between the deposition of Cs 131 and its incorporation in
the soil is a further cause of uncertainty (para. 136).
148. In view of these difficulties, alternative approaches have been examined. The approximate estimates of the future doses from C5137 , which are madein the following paragraphs, are based on the relationship between the internal and external dose rates. They
take into account the facts that the accuracy with which
it is necessary to estimate the contribution to the internal
dose from Cs137 absorbed from the soil should be considered in relation to the total dose from this nuclide, andthat the e."(ternal dose depends on the total deposit.

151. Radio-nuclides of 5hort half-life reach measurable concentrations in food only during or shortly aftera series of nuclear weapons tests. The levels reacheddepend very much on the size and altitude of the explosions. Tropospheric debris, which is deposited relatively
quickly, gives rise to proportionately greater levels, particularly of those radio-nuclides with very short halflives, than debris injected into the stratosphere.

152. The amount actually present in the diet will ~greatly affected by the seasonal nature of agricultural
production and the delay between consumption and production of many foods. Because of the short half-lives,
absorption from the soil is unimportant and entry inte
food chains occurs mainly through direct contamination.
Deposition in winter months, if dairy animals are not
grazing and if few crops are exposed, is of less significance than comparable deposition in the summer. Foodstuffs other than those consumed very soon after production contribute a negligible quantity of short-lived
radio-nuclides to the diet. Milk is the major source of
these radio-nuclides in many areas. In other areas where
less milk is consumed, fresh vegetables will be the major
source.
RADIO-NUCLIDES OF IMPORTANCE

153. The following radio-nuclides must be considered:(a) Strontium-89. Sr89 (half-life 51 days) behanssimilarily to Sr90 in food chains. It has a special importance in that comparative measurements of Sr8 9 andSr90 lead to valuable information on the rate of passage
through food chains ;(b) Barium-140. Ba140 ( 12.8 days) is also an alkaline
earth element and is deposited in bone in a similar manner to Sr90 and calcium. However, it is relatively poorly
absorbed from the gastro-intestinal tract. About 0.4 percent of ingested Ba140 is secreted into cow's milk 19 withan OR (milk/diet) of 0.06. 18 ' The OR (bone/diet) in
humans has been estimated as 0.06 ;m( c) I odille. Several radio-nuclides of iodine areformed in fission but, owing to the very short half-livesof most of them, only !1 81 (8.1 days) is of importanceat times more than a few days after fission. psi isreadily absorbed by the gastro-intestinal tract and concentrates in the thyroid gland. About 5-10 per cent of
the ingested dose is secreted in cow's milk.19 • 220 • 2 : 3149. On the cessation of the testing of nuclear weapons. the levels of Cs 137 in diet and in the body would
decline in a manner similar to that observed in late 1959
through 1960. Estimates of the amount of Cs137 absorbed from soil suggest that the level in the diet andbody would within a few years fall to less than 1/10of the levels observed in the year of maximum fall-out.
The external dose-rate would decrease considerably
more slowly.
150. If the effect of continued testing on the contamination of diet is to be evaluated, account must be
taken of the contribution of the increasing levels of
Cs 137 in the soil. Because of the difficulties referred toin paragraph 147, no precise estimate of the actual
dietary levels can be made. However, limits can be set
to the magnitude of the resultant internal radiation dosein relation to the external dose from this nuclide. If fallout were to continue at a steady rate the components ofboth internal and external dose due to the cumulative
deposit must show the same proportional increase. Whilethe cumulative deposit determines the external dose it
has hitherto been responsible for only a very small fraction of the internal dose* (para. 146). It follows therefore that, as the cumulative deposit increases. the internal
dose from Cs13 ' will tend to become smaller relative tothe external dose. Thus an upper limit can be set to the
future internal dose by assuming that the relationshipbetween this and the external dose will remain the same

154. Many other short-lived radio-nuclides passthrough terrestrial food chains to only a small extent
and are not absorbed by man in appreciable amount.
However, some consideration has been given to the possibilities of Ce1 " , Zn 65 or Fe55 , which may be concentrated in marine products, reaching man through thisroute. 19 On the most pessimistic assumptions, however.
the amount absorbed appears to be only a very small
fraction of the total intake of Sr90 •* In some cases, however, absorption from the soil may beconsiderably greater than the average (para. 124) ; in theseareas the cumulative deposit would make a greater contribution
tg the internal dose.

MEASURED LEVELS

155. Measurements of short-lived radio-nuclides infood have been made in comparatively few areas, and310

are mainly concerned with milk. Measurements of these
nuclides in foods such as cereals or root crops, which
are stored for an appreciable period before consumption,is unimportant. The most comprehensive sampling of
milk has been carried out in the United States. Annual
mean levels from 1957-1960 are shown in table XXXIV.
Figure 10 shows the variation of levels with time atthree sites in the United States. The generally similarfluctuations in the levels of the three nuclides measured(Sr8 9 , !131 and Ba140 ) were related to the timina of
nuclear explosions and to the fact that in some a~eas
during the winter, the cattle eat mainly stored food inwhich the short-lived activities have decayed.
(a) Strontium-89. The mean levels of Sr8 9 in milkin the latter half of 1957 and in 1958 in the United States
are shown in table XXXIV. During this period ratiosof Sr8° to Sr 00 in milk, comparable to those in the UnitedStates, were recorded in Canada (1957-1958) and in the
United Kingdom (1958).m By the latter part of 1959
the Sr8 9 had fallen below detectable levels (fig. 9).
Information of Sr89 levels in milk following the renewed
testing of nuclear weapons in 1961 is not yet available.
Some measurements in the United Kingdom in 1958
showed that an appreciable contribution of Sr89 could bemade to the diet by leafy vegetables ;8•' - 1,000(b) Iodine-131. The levels of !1 31 in milk in the
United States which were relatively high in 1957-1958(table XXXIV) rapidly fell, so that the average for1959 was below detectable levels. In September 1961,
the resumption of nuclear testing resulted in appreciablelevels in milk. Measurements made in the United Kingdom and the United States are shown in figure 11. The
initial levels were higher in the United States, but overa ten-week period an average value of a little more than
100 µ.µ.cfl was recorded for both countries;

-...
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1,000,....,...T"T"'T"'T"'T"'T"'T"'T"'T"'T""T"T"T"T"T"'T"T"T.....-r..............,...,...,...................,.....,

Figure 11. Weekly average concentration of !1 3 1 in milk in the
United Kingdom ( - - ) 305 and United States (- - - ) 3 z2 -a 2 •in late 1961

...
u

~

(c) Barium-140. The time course of Bauo in milk
resembled that of !131 in 1957-1959 (fig. 10). The average level in 1959 was below the limits of detection. In
late 1961, levels of up to 300 µ.µ.cjl of milk were recordedin the United Kingdom 305

>-

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u

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.
0

0

a:

FunrRE LEVELS

156. In the absence of testing these short-lived radionuclides quickly decay and become of no significance.
Under conditions of continued testing. an equilibrium
between deposit and decay would be quickly established.
The levels reached in diet would depend on factors relating to the type of explosion and agriculuiral factors, as
discussed in paragraphs 151-152.

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Figure 10. Concentrations of short half-life radio-nuclides inmilk from t.'iree sites in the USA (1957-1959)323

311

TABLE I. STRONTIUM-c.ALCIUM OllSERVED RATIOS IN ABSORPTION BY PLANTS
OR

Aftlhod(J>lanl/solulion)&/t:rttlU

~1

126
124
125
202

Barley •••••••••••••••••• , •••••••••••
Sr", Ca"Ten species ••••••••••••••••••••••••
Sr11, Ca"
Stable Sr, Ca
Tomato •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Five species •••••••••••••• ~ ••••••••
Sr", stable Ca
Wheat ••••••••••••••.••••••••••••.• ·} Sr' 0, stable Ca insand culture
Pea •••••..•...••..••••..............

0.7-1.3
~1

1.1

1.0}
{0.9

144

TABLE II. STRONTIUM-cALCIUM OBSERVED RATIOS (MILK/DIET)
Numberqf
svbjalsOR&/erel<U

Sr'' assay
Sr'° assay
Sr'• assay

Herd
Herd
Herd

0.16
0.09
0.08

184, 185
148
8

Stable strontium,
calcium

Herd
Herd

0.13
0.11

209
148

Radio-strontium, calcium
in different experiments

3-5

0.14

223

Simultaneous dosage
Sr 0 , Ca"

8
2
4

0.11
0.11
0.15

224
187
188

Goat •••••••••••.•••....•.•.•

Double tracer daily
Sr", Ca"

2
8

0.09
0.12

186
224

Man ••••••••••••••••••••••••

Sr" assay

4

0.10

168

MtlhodSptdu

Cow .••••••••.••.•..•..•••.•TABLE III. STll.ONTIUM-c.ALCIUM OBSERVED RATIQS (BONF,/Dn:r) IN MAN
Dt14ilMtlhodStable strontium and calcium in dietand bone •••••••••••••••••••••.••••.

Sr•, Ca", single oral dose •••••••••••••••

Canada •••••••••••••
USA ••..••.•••••••••
United Kingdom .••••
Japan •••.•••••.•••••
16 patients •••.•.•...

312

OR

0.24-0.26
0.18
0.23-0.25
0.16
0.29

284
209

10, 84, 149
101
213

TABLE IV.

RATIOS OF Sr90 TO CALCIUM IN THE TOI'AL DIET

Expressed as µp.c sroo;g calcium
Courdry

Lalilu.U.AreaA.
N. America .•••..••.•.•..••....••••>30°N

Europe .•..... , ... , .• , .......•.•.••> 30°N

T011111

CanadaUSA

Central America ••••.. , ..•.• , •••••.•

S. America •• ; •.••.•••....•..••••.• ,Afdra .............................

j

19S8

19S9

1960

16.1
11.8
(4.9-16.7)
17.7

13.1

A
25 citiesc

New York
ChicagoSan Francisco

A, B (6<Hi1)
B
B

6.5

12.6

A
A
D
A
A

5.5

5.9

c
D
c

2.8

5.2

14.2

19.5

A

3.8

4.1

4.8

4.4

UK
Fed. Rep. Germany

3-4 cities
BombayDelta region> 30°N<30°N<30°N> 20°S

Japan
India
Egypt
Australia< 30°N<30°N<30°N

Viet-Nam, Rep. of
ThailandChina (Taiwan}DDD< 20°N

Costa Rica
GuatemalaHonduras
Nicaragua
PanamaA
A
A
A
A< 10°N< 10°N
<5°s< 20°S< 20°s> 2o•s> 20°sColumbia
Venezuela
Ecuador
Peru
Bolivia
Argentina
Chile

D
A
A(58) D(59}A(57) D(59)< 30°N<30°N
5"N-5°s< 2o•s> 2o·s

UAR
Sudan
Kenya
S, Rhodesia
S. Africa

B.
w
.....
w Asia and Far East •• , ........ , •••• ·{

J9S7

1961

R./ermu

6.7

301
17,273

10.2
7.4
3.4

35, 74
198
237, 308, 309

Valw:s based on continued, often widespread, samplirig

Denmark
Austria
Asia and Far East ...•..•.•.•••.•••. {Africa ..•....•..••......•••••....••
Oceania ..••.•.•••.••.•...•.•..•..•

JJ1/lw4"

9.0
13.6•
11.5
10.6•

11.2
9.2
4.4
6.4

10, 84, 85, 227
24
24, 241
228

11.6
7.0
16.8

255

19.6
4.9°
5.6

28, 243
302
329
320

Values based on single, often very limited, sampling

9.4
7.0
5.2
2.2
0,2b
0.2-0.5
1.2
0.8

1.5

2.3
2.6

6.6
2.8
D
Cairo
Khartoum
Nairobi
Salisbury
Johannesburg•Methods. A: Calculated from widespread sampling of major foods. B: Calculated fromlocalized sampling of major foods. C: Composite diet analysed. D: Actual diet of individuals
or groups analysed. (For fuller descrieion see text, paragraph 39.)b These values have been recalcu ated after consultation with the original author.
• Values representative of composite vegetarian meals.

BB

B
8(58) A(59)B

4.8
3.9(4.7)d2.8(4.l)d3.0(4.9)d
5.1 (8.5)d
3.1 (7.4)d

319

38

4.7
2.0b
6

110
319

319
38
38, 11038, 110
38
38
319
38

10-13'

38, 227
38

d The higher figure is calculated for a diet including no milk.
"The Sr• 0 content of some types of food is estimated by assuming values similar to
those in the UK and USA.
1 This was stated to be an upper limit.

TABLE V,

THE PERCENTAGE CONTRIBUTION OF INDIVIDUAL FOODSTUFFS TO THE TOTAL YEARLY HITAAE OF SrDO
m SEVERAL COUNTRIES, 1959-1960

Values in parentheses are based on indirect evidenceF•d. &p,of
USA (71,zm

Milk product! •••••••••••••..•
Root vegetables and potatoes ••Leaf vegetables ••.•••••••••••
Fruit ••••••••••..•..•.•.••..
Meat •••••••••.•••••.••.••.•Fish ••••.••.•••.••.•.•••••••
Eggs •••••••••••.••...••••.••
Cereals ••••••••••••••••••••••
Tea •••...••••••••....•..•..•
Water ••••••••••••••••••.••..
TOTAL, Sr'° p.µe
TOTAL, Ca g
Sr'° µ.p.e/g Ca ••••.•••...••••.

German~UK (85, ZZ7)

Denmark (2Z8)(Z4)

Avs:NaCanada(301)

Japa11•

(ZSS)

(JJO)

1959

1960

1959

1960

1959

1960

1959

1960

1959

1960

39
3.1
29
7.7

29-51
3-16
7-22•
1-14
2-8b
0.1-0.7
1-4
16-32

57
5.9
5.5
(3.5)

38
3.2
{10.6)
(8.1)
(2.8)

27
4.7
11.3
3.7
1.5

26
12
14
24

51
2.7
3.1
1.6

(0.8)
35
(0.8)

1.0
49
(1.2)

2.3

72
3.8
4.6
4.0
5.2
0.1
0.7
6.6
0.6
1.8

2

13
4.4
4.4

53
7.1
4.6
(2.9)
(3.5)
(0.1)
1.7
15.4
6.5
5.2

6,534
370
17.7

1,349-4,760 3,568
396
383
3.1-12.3
9.0

2,529
396
6.4

1.8
17

(5.6)

6,125
4,040
580
580
10.6
7.0

5,800

4,020
239
16.8

Sr90 m BABY FOODS AND THE DIET OF mFANTSµp.c Sr 90/g Ca
USA•

UKb

Fed.&p.of
Germa1'Jf" 1959

1959

1960

13
18
19

5.4

18

l'.1ilk .......••....•••••.

13

9.8

6.4

Infant diet •••..........•
Adult diet (table IV) .••••

12
13.6

9
9.0

8
6.4

Food based on:
Cereals •..••.........•
Fruits .••.•..•..••••.•
Vegetables •••.••...•••

42

6,170
383
16.1

65
(l)d
(4)
25
3

3,650
187
19.5

vegetables and fruit was found by difference. (Recalculated
from 330.)
d Including eggs.

• Including dried beans and canned vegetables.
b Including poultry.
e The value for the composite diet and for milk, cereals andwater are based on direct measurement; the percentage for the

TABLE VI.

24}

1959 (Aug.)1960 (Jan.)

2.8
26

25

Meats .••••.......•...

1.0
25d
14•
14
11.2

1960 (Aug.)

1.9
16
23
8.1
12d
10•
8.8
10.2

• l'.Ieans of 9-13 samples.71 Total diet value for infants 0.1 years old." l'.!ilk value is for
manufactured food based on milk.
7
b :Means of representative samples of five different types of cereal based foods."· !: The
milk value is the countrywide average for fresh milk. The total diet value is an approximate
upper limit.
e Means of number of samples of different brands and types.n• 118
d Formula milk.
•Evaporated milk.

314

TADLEVII. Sr•o IN MILK

Regular or widspread s11rveys (for description, see table VIII)
The nronb11r of sites isgivm in parentheses, followed, tvhen available, by mariu1um a11d 1ninimum arrnual means. All valtces are oive11 as µµ.o Sroo per g calci11111,
Retioll, COUll/rj/ CW Or«J

LoliluiU

N. America •..••..•.

> 30°N
1.0•

Canada ..........
USA
Desert areas ....
Mid-West ......
Centrnl States ..
East. ....•.....
N. W. coa5t ....
Countrywide
average ......

Europe •.•.......••.

1914

1.4 (I)
1.2

,_..

tn

Ireland ...•.......
France •..........
Fe1d. R11p. Germany
Switzerland .......
Austria ..........
Italy .............
Denmark: .........
Norway ........ ,.
Sweden ..........
Finland ..........
Poland,, .•.......
Czechoslovakia ... ,USSR .•.•....•..•(Moscow) ......

Far East ..•.....•..

1. 7 (!)

1957

1'S9

1959

1960

1961

&f<r•n<1(16, 5-18)•8.7 (Jan.-Mar.)26, 13, 14,258-261

4.3 (5, 2.8-4.0)
11.0 (13, 4.1-26)
10.0 (18, 5.3-18)
14 (10, 8.4-18)
22 (4, 8.8-24)

3.4 (5, 2.7-4.0)
7.6 (12, 3.0-18)
7.2 (28, 3.8-15)
8.2 (19, 4.1-13)
8.8 (2, 8.1-9.4)•3.4 (4, 0.8-6.9)•6.2 (9, 1.8-12)•6.5 (27, 1.5-14)•1.5 (18, 3.3-19)•8.5 (.1, 4.5-12)

8.0

11.3

7.3

*6.6 (Jan.-Aug.)4, 39, 62,
65-73,
75-83,
198, 237,
110-112,248-253,
308, 309

6.3 (6, 4.1-8.2) 5.6 (9, 4.2-7.6)

7.0 (•, 5.2-11)

9.8 (•, 7.3-15)

6.4 (•, 4.2-9.9)*5.9•(Jan.-June)

4 (-, 2-8)
6.7 (1)8
14•s.5 ( < 6)
6.2 (50)
12 (2)

10.4 (< 5)
7.6 (150)
12 (2)•2.1 (1)*6.4 (5, 5.2-7.7)*4.6 (1)}84, 85, 227, 11,115, 305
227,24032
21-25, 241, 310
246
255
31,296
18,22849, 230, 242
27, 11354
233
51
37,50,234

5.5°

6.2°

7.9°

11.6 (13, 5.4-19)

14

7.2 (1)
2. 7 (5, 2.2-4.2)
2.7 (1)
3.8 (1)

8.8 {1)4.0 (4, 2.9-5.5)
3.9 (1)4.8 (1)2.0 (6, 1.1-3.0)
5.8 (9, 2.l-16)
5.0 (U, 2.4-8.5)
6.4 (9, 4.5-9.5)
9.9 (2, 7.4-12)

3.2 (5, 1.7-4.7)
8.0 (12, 3.0-20)
7.9 (24, 3.0-12)
8.7 (12, 6.1-13)
13.0 (4, 8.7-15)

3.4

4.7

5.2

4.1 (1)

3 f-, 3-5)
2.0 (!)(-, 3-14)(I)

3.1 (2)*5.2 (8, 2.2-8.0)> 30°N

Japan:.• ....... ,.

Pacific ......... ••··

19Sd

(14, 6.1-21)12> 30°N

UK ..•...........

(,.)

19JS

•1.9 (6, 1.0-5. 7)•11.0 (1)
*6.8 (1)
6.5
6.3 (2)•3.8 (6, 0.8-5.4)•6.0 (4, 5.0-7.4)
15 (3, 10-29)•*9.7 (1)5.1 (9, 3.4-6.0)
7.2
4.8 (2)•10.0 (9, 2-23)*9.4*9.2 ( < 5)
6.4 (150)
9 (2)10 (26, 8-14)
21 (•. 17-31)
4.0 (4, 2.8-4.7)
15 (11, 9.5-29)b*8.2 (7, 2.S-20)*6.7*6.2 (6, 1.4-12)*5.4 (6, 3-10)*4.4 (13, 2.6-6.3)(Dec. only)

57,243,331*5.o (2)*3.2 (2)*2.3 (2)(J an.-Aug.)70, 71, 237' 309*5.9 c21, o.3-33).(..9 (1)•2.3 (16, 0.6-8.8):Z.6 (1)•o.4 (1)(J an.-J uly)}87, 244,302

0.8

0.8 (Sprin!,!)

270

1.9

2.6 (Jan.-Dec.)

5,6, 7*4.6• (July-Dae.)

.129

20°N

USA (Hawaii) ....

Asia
India ............
(Bombay) .....•

5-30°N
20°N

Central America . ...•

< 30°N

2.3 (1)

Mexico ..• , .......

South America . ••..•> 30°S

1.7d

Argentina ...•....

AfricaUAR (Delta region)
S. Rhodesia(Salisbury) ....•

Oceania .......•••..
Australia •......••New Zealand .....

< 30°N,...., 20"S
> 20°s*3.8 (5)•Not a complete year.
•Samples from manr dekots represe11ting 40 per cent of the country's milk supply.
b Assuming 1 litre o mi! contains 1.2 g of calcium.

*3. 7 (5)

•1.3

•o.9

*4.1 (5)3.7 (5)*3.9 (7)227*4.5 \1)(J an.-j une)

12,239,320
309•Adjusted to be comparable with 13 station~ ~ampled later.
d Results for the first 9 months are from powdered milk, not the regular survey of liquid

milk (S).
•Weighted average for Delta region.

TABLE VIII.

Cou "''" or area

Dot. s/arled
or d11ralio11

Nucli"4smeas11,,d

DESCRIPTIONS OF MAJOR SURVEYS FOR RADIO-ACTIVITY IN MILK

Area

Number ofsiles

Type of sompu

ReJ>orkd bySingle monthly sample from dried milk factory
Daily purchases from store compositedmonthly
Weekly samples of dried milk compositedmonthlyMonthly samples from liquid milk collecting
centreDistributing centres

Radiological Protection Division, Dept.
National Health and Welfare
US Atomic Energy Commission, Health and
Safety Laboratory
US Atomic Energy Commission, Health and
Safety Laboratory
Radiological Health Data, Dept. of Health,
Education and WelfareRadiological Health Data, Dept. of Health,
Education and Welfare
Annual Reports, Lamont Geological Observation, Columbia University (Sr 90 ), Los
Alamos Scientific Laboratory (Cs117 )A.E.R.E., Harwell
Ref. (8)Radiobiological Laboratory, Agricultural
Research Council

Canada ..................... Late 1955

Sr Do

Widespread

USA........................

1954

Sr Do

New York City

1954
1955
1957

Sr DO
Sr'o
Sr'o

Perry, New York
Mandan, N. Dak.
Widespread

5-12

1960

Sr• 0
Cs117
SrDo

Widespread

60

Widespread

25-54

Weekly samples of powdered milk compositedmonthly

1-9
9
Many

1-3

Monthly samples of powdered milkMonthly samples from factory
Liquid milk depots providing 40% of country's milk supply: two weekly samples
composited every 6 or 12 weeks
Liquid milk, representative of production;
two weekly samples composited every 6
weeks
Daily samples of powdered milk compositedmonthly
Samples from dairy composited monthly
Two per week
Powder from 1954, then liquid

Federal Minister of Nuclear Energy andWater Economy
Federal Commission of Radioactivity

4

1-2 samples per month, collecting depot

National Committee for Nuclear Research

6-16

n

csm

1957
UK ......................... 1955-57
1957-58
1958

Cs117
Sr 00
Cs117
Sr 00

Widespread
Widespread
Countrywide

Ireland. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • . . .

1960

Sr'o

Dublin, Cork

France......................

1958

Sr 10

Widespread

Unknown::;: Federal Republic of Germany.,

Sr'oWidespread
LindauLowlandFew-150

Switzerland..................
Italy........................

1957
1960
1954
1960

Denmark.... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1959

CH

Norway ...............•...•. 1957-59
1958-59
1960

l

es1sr

Sr 00

c 5 111
Sr•o
Sr• 0
Cs117
Sr• 0
Cs111
Cs117

l

Czechoslovakia...............
USSR.......................

1957
1960

Poland......................
India (buffalo milk) . . . • . . . • . .

1958
1958

Hawaii......................

1959
1959

Sr'°
Cs117
Sr• 0
Cst11
Sr 10
10
Sr }
Cs117
Sr• 0
Sr•0 }
Cs111
Cs117
Sr 80

?vlexlco..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .
Argentina...................
Australia....................

1960
1959
1957

Sr• 0
Sr• 0
Sr• 0

Sweden .•...............•... 1957-59

N. Italy1}

An Roinn Sainte, Dublin
Ref. (32)Widespread

4Monthly samples of powdered milk

Danish Atomic Energy Commission

S. Norway

1-4

Norwegian Defence Research Establishment

S. Norway

2

Several samples per month from dairies composited monthly
Monthly samples from factoryCountrywide

11

Local purchase from shop

Norwegian Defence Research Establishment

Powdered milk from factory, irregularsamples

Research Institute of National Defence

Daily samples from dairy composited monthly
Farms: all year

Ref. (51)State Committee of the USSR on the usesof atomic energy
Ref. (233)
Indian Atomic Energy Commission

Mid-Sweden
2

Moscow

2

Lowland regions
Bombay5

Widespread
Honolulu

21
2

MexicoBuenos Aires Province
5 capital cities

5

1

Powder and liquid milk samples
Daily samples from milk depot compositedmonthly
Irregular
Weekly samples from dairy compositedmonthly
1-2 samples per week composited monthly
1-2 samples per year representative of bulk
supplies

Ref. (43)

US Atomic Energy Commission, Health and
Safety Laboratory
Ref. (270)
Argentine Atomic Energy Commission
Australian Atomic Weapons Tests Safety
Committee

TABLE VIII.
Doh Jlar'4dor duration

NudidullltaJUTld

1960
1957
1959
1960
1961

USSR ....................... 1957-59
1960

Sr• 0

Counlry or arta

New Zealand ••.•••....•.•.•.
Rhodesia .........•.•.••....•
UAR ..••.••......•.....•..•

Finland ............••....•..

1959

Japan •.•....•...............
India ••.....................

1957
1959

DESCRIPTIONS OF MAJOR SURVEYS FOR RADIO-ACTMTY IN MILK (conti11utd)
Number of

Area

JiUJ

Sr'°
Cs117
Sr'°

Widespread
Sydney71

Sr•0

Delta regionl

T:tP• of sample

Liquid and powder
Irregular samples from factory
Bulk supplies
Dried milk
Liquid milk composite samples

Dominion X-ray and Radium Laboratory
Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory
United Kingdom
United Kingdom
UAR Scientific Committee on the Effects ofAtomic Radiation

Widespread surveys for a limited period of the year

USSR Academy of Sciences

Widespread

8

Samples of powdered milk

s,•
esm

Widespread

9

Samples of powdered milk

Sr 90
Cs117
Sr• 0
10
Sr }
Cs111

Widespread

6-9

From dairies and factories

State Institute for Technical Research

Widespread

6

Powdered milk from factory

Ref. (57, 243)

Widespread

16-21

Liquid milk

Indian Atomic Energy Commission

TABLE IX.

SrDD IN MILK AND CHEESE: IN~UENT OJI. 51'00" SAMPUNG
Results presented as p.p.c Sr1Hl per g Ca

Figures in parentheses indicate number of samples: C indicates cheese
Recio11

Latilud~Coun.lry or area

>30°N

USSR., ••.••••••••
Norway •••.....•••
Denmark •••••••••.•
France .....•..••..
Switzerland .•...•..
Italy,,, .•.•••..••.
Spain .•.•.•.•.•.••

Europe ........•........••>30°N

Asia ................•.....

w.......

0.7 (2)....

1.09 (1)0.8 (1)2.1 (12){ 10°-20°N

Pakistan •....•. , •.
India ••.••.....•.•
Thailand .. , .. , .••.

0.14 (1)0.4 (1)0-20°sS. America ................
>Z0°S

{

>Z0°S

......

o.z (Z)

Union of South
Africa •••........

•Monthly or quarterly samples for all or part of year (38, 318).

3.4

11.9

2.8•
7.9•
7.7•
5.1 (2)4.8•
109.04.4 (2)4.3 (7)

6.4•
11.611.3•
7.3 (1)C2 (1)

C4 (2)
C2.3 (2)2.2 (6)

3.5 (4)
3.3•

19110

2.7 (2)C13 (1)2.5 (1)3.0 (6)
1.7•
1.2

2.1•

4.5 (1)7.2•

5.0 (1)

19111&fer•"''

59
65
38,31838, 65, 318
38, 31867, 71
67
65
66
66
66
66
71
4, 65, 67, 33
38, 318
65
66, 6771
2,45,38,318

4.6•

1.2 (5)

1.1

)

1.4

Bolivia .•.....•.•.•
Argentina •••..••••
Chile ••••...•.•••.

>Z0°S

(

3.2

1.3

0.05 (1)Tanganyika,,,, ••..

2.9 (6)

1.2 (4)

Colombia ..........
Venezuela .••.••...
Peru ..•••...•..•..
Ecuador ••••..•.••.
Brazil., •..........

0-zo·s

1959

C6.5 (2)Mexico ••••••••••..

Australia ••••••...•New Zealand ••••.•1958

CS (1)
CS.5 (4)Guatemala •••.•••.
Honduras .....•.•.
El Salvador .••.....
Nicaragua ••.....•.
Costa Rica •..•...•
Cuba ...•.....••••
Panama •...•.•••••
0-l0°N

1957

14.6 (1)Japan.; •••••... , ..

C. America ................

19511

1.35 (1)>30°N

5°-30°N

Africa .•••............••.••

1.5 (1)

3.6 (2)00

Oceania .............. , ....

1955

Turkey ••..•.•••..•
Cyprus •.•... ,·-··.
Lebanon •••... , ...
Jordan ............
Tunis ••••.......•.
Iran ••••.......•..

Mediterranean-Near Easl. .

Far East .........•........

1954

o.z (1)

1.7 (3)0.7 (Z)....
0.60.6•
0.4 (4)
1.1 (7)2.7 (3)2.9•
1.7
1.5 (3)Z.4 (3)5.04.0 (Z)

2.3•
2.3 (2)
0.4
0.9•
0.7•
3.1•
1.7 (Z)
1.5 (3)3.4•
2.6 (6)3.3•
1.8 (4)5.7 (2)

71
38

3.0•

38,31838, 31865, 6738, 32053, 38, 318

1.2 (3)5.3
z.o (2)4.6•
3.0 (1)

3.5•

Z.6•

38
65, 67, 71
67
38,31871
3871

12 (1)
C3.6 (1)0.4(Z)

38, 318

71
66
Z.6•

38, 318

TABLE X.

'.REGIONAL AVERAGES FOR THE RATIO OF Sr90 TO Ca IN MILK"

Lalitudes

1954

1955

1956

1957

1958

1959

1960

N.Amerlca ..••..•••••.......•.••...••.....•..........•••.
\V. Europe .......•••••......••....•...•...•.•......•.•••.
E. Europe (USSR) ••••••••.•••••••••••••••.••••••••••••.•.
Far East Gapan) ••.•••.••.••••••.•••.•...••...•...•.....•> 30°N> 30°N> 30°N> 30°N

1.2

3.7
3

4.9
5.0

5.5
6.4
5.2
1.9

8.5
7.2
3.8

12.2
8.6
10
6.2

7.9
8.6
8.2
5.4

Asia (India) ...•.••••••.•..••.•..........••.......•...•.•.
Central America •••••••••...•.•••••••..••.....•.•.••••••.•

0--30cN
10°N-30°N

2.3
1.9

5.9

2.8

2.3
0.8

s. America...............................................

10°N-so 0 s

1.8

1.9

3.3

1.9

Oceania (Australia) •• ,.....................................

> 20°5

3.8

3.7

4.1

S.7

Africa. • • • • • . . • • • • • • • . • • • • . • • • • • • • . . . • • • . . . . . • • . . • • • • • • • .

> 10°s

2.6°

2.6b• Mean values have been calculated utilizinf primarily thedata from the regular surveys shown in table VI , but using also
the data from table IX where necessary. The means have been
weighted by the quantity of milk produced in each country. It is

important to note that varying numbers of countries are repre·
sented in different years.
b Union of South Africa.
0 Rhodesia.

319

1.2

1.0•

TADLE XI. SrUO IN WROLE WHEAT GRAIN
Results as µµc 1icr g Ca or, italicized, as µµc SrDo per kg
Fig11res fo parentheses indicate the number of samples a11d range

Re1ion

LaUluda> 30°NCountry

Arca

1951

1958

1959

103 ± 10•125 ± 13•

37±4

44±5

124 ± 37
39 ±10114b

1956

CanadaN. America .•......

Minnesota

107 (7, 74-169)
45 {17-76)

217 (7. 105-606)
66 (47-112)

Widespread

156 (8, 111-213)
44 {35-60)
164b {19)105 (1)129b (41-377)
53 (14-198)
67 (12, 9-271)
44 (9-96)
125 (1)

160

100-130

71 (11, 40-126)
Z6 (14-58)

83 (12, 42-220)
39 (18-54)
64 (8, 15-87)
30 (7-47)
70 (7, 51-90)
34 (19-54)
100 (6, 61-213)
39 (19-89)
88 {43, 29-280)
JZ (9-97)
53 (9, 29-85)
zo (12-32)
79 (2, 60-98)
35 (30-40)

6Z

Alaska23 (1)

Mean

E. E"'opo ........

·l> 30°N> 30°N(A

USSR

Widespread

70 (10, 28-140)
Z6 (14-45)

UK

38 (7, 21-49)
Z5 (13-46)

Denmark

Widespread

Fed. Rep.
of Germany
FranceWidespread

131 (7, 109-174)
66 (54-75)l~0

W. Europe .•••..••

GreeceMean

Reference

114, 198
56b
15

86

USA

1960

32 (20-72)
Zl (4-48)

}301
67

j'•·

73, 1474

38, 58j"·'··
227

73

84,85
227
89 (8, 48-212)
3Z (19-71)
92 (23, 42-146)
4() (18-63)

18,22846,30773
73

65

fo Ea" .......

·l> 30°NJapan

Widespread

145 (1)36

141 (4, 120-170)
44 {34-48)

89 (4, 43-114)

Manchuria

242 (8, 116-375)
78 {29-133)
155 (1)64· ......•....•• {5°N-10°S
Africa0°-60°5

Congo(Leopoldville)
Bolivia
Peru

Z.5

}66

•16 (2)• 4 (2)

38
65

Argentina• 8 (4, 0.7-18)

Chile
Oceania .......... , {•6 (1)

1958-59

S. America .....••.

> 20°5!243
73

Australia•Year of reccipt:or samples.
·.Weighted composite samples.

1959-60

31 {14, 21-48)
16 (12-33)•4,5 (2, 4.4-4.6)
1Z.3 (1)
25 (5, 15-42)
9.5 (6-13)

9.6 (5, 0.4-39)

19 (6, 14-27)
7.0 (4-8)

b Countrywide means, weighted for production.

}65, 7366
319}227,239)
320

TABLE XII.

Sro 0 IN WHF..AT FLOUR

Results as µµc Sroo per g Ca or, italiciud, as µµc Sr" per kg
Figures in parentheses indicate tlie number of samples and range
&iion

I

> 30°N

N. Am•dra.............

Country or area

Canada •....•.•...••...••.•...•

USSR .•...•...............•.•••> 30°N

UK............................

·l

1958

31±3•
4.6

38 ± 4•
5.4
69 (19)b
9.5

62b
11

70, 7385 (1)
23

30 (8, 7-43)
7.4 (47-13)

85,22748 (6, 28-90)
12 (8--19)•15 (1)3

24 (6, 13-48)
5.4 (2.8-8.9)

84,85,227

USA ••...•...••..•.....••....•.

E. Europe ............. ·{ > 30°N

W. E"ro"' ............

1957

13 (7, 5-26)
2 (1-4)

France .........•.....•......•..
Austria ••.•.•••.•••••••.•••...••Far East .... , ......... ·{ > 30"N

Japan..........................

< 30°N

UAR .•.••...••••••••....•...•..

Kenya .........•...............

< 20°5

S. Rhodesia •••••..••...••.••...•> 20°5

Union of South Africa .•••..•....•

1960

Re/ere nu

114

40 (47)7.3
160 (1)30 (1)

53 (1)
9

95 (1)
18

*16
7.2
• 8.4
3.8
• 4.9
2.8
• 7.5
3.3

Sudan ..........•........•.•....

~..... Africa ......•..... , • • • . 5"N-5"S

1959

84
255
33,30
38
38
38
38

• 7.4

38

1.6
1957-58

S. America ............. {> 20°S

Argentina •••..•••.•••••..•..•. •Oceania ............... ·{> 2o•sAustralia.......................

•Year of sampling, not necessarily production.
•From production weighted composite samples.

7 (3, 4-12)
1 (1-2)

1958-59

1959-60*19 (2, 7-31)
3 (1-5)13.2 (1)84319

10.7 (5, 7-16)
2.0 (1-3)

7.5 (6, 5-10)
1.4 (1-2)

84,85,227239

b Weighted mean representing production from main growing areas.

TABLE XIII.

DrsTIUBUTION or Sr"° IN MILLING PllODUCTS OF WHEAT

Results presented as µµ.c/g Ca or, italicized, as µµc/kg

Range shown in parentheses
BranF,,,.,.

RDtw
flow/rrain

Rifer~

1957
Canadab,.................... •• . . . . . . • . • •. . . .

103:!:10
37 :!: 4
38 (21-49)
zs (13-46)

134 :!: 15
118 :!: 15
93 (49-136)
87 (42-158)

31 :l: 3
4.6 :!: 0.5
13 (5-26)
z (1-4)

0.40

114

0.34

84

Canadab, ..•••••• ,...........................

125 :!: 13
44 :!: 5

114

164
6Z

38 :!: 4
S.4 :!: 0.5
69
IS
48 (28-90)
12 (8-19)

0.30

USAd,,, .....................................

163 :!: 20
141 :!: 20
201
231
160 (133-224)
262 (162-433)

0.42

70, 73

0.37

85

142
163
93 (68-134)
94 (54-171)62
11
24 (13-48)
5.4 (2.8-8-9)

0.48

73

0.34

227

UK•.........................................
1958

UK•......................................... 131 (109-174)
66 (54-75)

1959
USAd,............ .. • . • • • . . . • . . . . . . . . . • • • . . . . 129

UK..........................................

53
70 (51-90)
34 (19-54)• Of about 70 per cent extraction.

0

Mean of seven samples from various parts of country.

d Weighted means for a number of sta~.

b Calculated from composite whole grain samples and average

distribution in milling products.

322

TABLE XIV. Sr110 IN WHOLE CEREAL GRAINS (other than wheat)
Upper figure is p.µc Srvo/g Ca; lower figure (italicized) is µp.c Sr&0/kg
Figures in paretitheses indicate the tmmber of samples and range<dai11Reg/ot1, country or area

1956

E11rope
USSR .........................
Rye ......•....•.

67 (5, 57-90)
27 (19-33)
87 (1)

128 (1)45

Far East
Japan,, ....•......••...•••••••......

E1irop1;
Denmark., .........••..•••••••I--

Germany, Fed. Rep. of ••.••.•••.

55 (3)

64 (2)

AfricaSyria .•...........•..•••••.•••w

Oats .............

,.....,

Germany, Fed. Rep. of ..........

,......

S. America
Argentina •.•...•••.••.•....•..

Maize ............

88 (7, 64-137)
33 (24-45)
84 (24, 42-185)
44 (19-63)

180 (1)63

101 (1)5330

80 (9, 44-130)
35 (2Q-62)

58 (7, 47-94)
25

18, 228

18, 228
34, 6624, 30734, 666638
38

2.5 (1)
3.4 (2)6538
46 (9, 13-111)
34 (9-65)

42 (8, 25-64)
38 (23-62)

18, 228

155 (1)
1066*8 (1)
4.5

66

N. America
USA .....•..........•.••.•.•••
C. America
Costa Rica .....•..•••...•••••.
Guatemala .......•.....•.•.•..
Honduras ..•.•.•.•...•...•...•
Nicaragua .........•.....•.....

142 (8, 93-188)
55 (37-74)
82 (24, 29-236)
36 (12-101)

0.7•
2.1
•6.S•
3.8

S. America
Peru ........•••.•.••..•••...••
Bolivia, ........•.......•.....•
E11ropeDenmark ......................

&fer.nee37, 60•10 (1)
5

Union of South Africa .•...•...•.
N

1960

124 (3)

Sudan .••......••..••••.••.••..

Vl

1959

93 (4, 51-121)
33 (22-48)

Denmark ......................
Germany, Fed. Rep. of..........

Barley ....•......

1958

1951

0

69
4.8 (8, 1.0-18)••47
3.3 (4, 0.2-4.6)

1.0 (1)

38,31838
38, 31838*2.4 (1)
3.5 (1)•1.0 (1)

S. America
Ecuador •••........•....•••...•
Venezuela .......•......•..•..•
Peru .•.........•.••..........•
Bolivia •......•...••.••...•.••••3,1 (1)*1.4 (2)AfricaUnion of South Africa ••••••••••
Rhodesia .•.•.•.•.•••••.•••••••-....

4.1 (1)

318
38
65
.)8

*6.1 (7, 1.9-13)•tt.3•

63

< 38•
< J

38
38
227

TABLE XIV.

Grain

19S6

SrDo IN WHOLE CEREAL GRAINS (other than wheat) (co11ti1med)

19S7

19SI

19S9

1960

&/trenc•

N. America
USA ••••.••.••••••••••••••••••

37 (1)
8.9

22EuropeItaly,,, •••••••..••••••••••••••

280 (1)22zz

AfricaUAR •••••..••••••••••••••••••

•1.8•

38

Sudan •• , .•..••••••••••••••..••

•6.6•
0.8

38

o.z

Asia and Far East
Ceylon(brown) .......•....•••.....••150 (1)

66

41

India
(paddy) ••••.••.•...•.••.•.••

302

23
Z.1

(boiled) ..•....•...•••••..••.

22(surty) ..................... .

15

1.5

Rice .••....•..•.•

Durma ....................... .

0.8- - - - - •19 (2) - - - - -Thailand •.•.......••.•••••••.•

1.J- - - - - •54 (2) - - - - -0.9

China (Taiwan) .•••••••.•••••••
Viet-Nam (Rep. of)(unmillcd) .•...•.•.••..•..•.•(milled) •.•....••.....•.••...
Japan ........................ .
•••(brown) .......•..•••.....
(milled) ..•..•....•.•...•••.•

171 (8, 81-250)
22 (15-43)
31 (4, 12-62)
z.o (1.3-2.6)

242 (5, 103-270)
40 (1!~80)
24 (2, 20-28)
1.6 (1.4-1.7)

S. America
Venezuela ••••.•.•.•••••.•••.••

Millet,,,.........

JZ (10-58)

18 (3, 6.3-24)
4.3 (1.7-6.4)
16 (1)
8.8

22, 319319
319, 11062 (12, 28-98)
5.7 (2.6-9.0)
62 (12, 19-99)
8.6 (1.0-5.4)

30, 33, 127, 243
33,127,243,32538
22•2.8 (1)- - - - 5 0 (1) - - - 5

Surinam •.•••.•.•••..•.•..•••..

Colombia •...•.••••••••••.••••
Dolivia •• , ••••••.••.•..•••••••.
Ecuador.,, .•.••.••••..••..•...
Afri'ca
Sudan •••••.••...•••...••••••.•

239 (8, 78-425)

26 (1)
6.6 (1)264 (21, 52-448)
29 (4-54)

22

10.5 (1)•14 (5)< 2 (3)

319
38
318
38
38

Kenya ••••.••••.••••••••••••••

S. America
Peru, ••••..•••..••••••••••...•
Quinoa.,.........

S. America

Native grain......

AfricaSudan .•. , .•••.•.•••..•••••.•..

Bolivia ••...•....•.••••.••.•••.

• Indicates year of samples, not necessarily the year of harvest.
••On the asaumption that maize arain rnntAln• ')' m" rn 1tnn - tu

7.7 (1)65

2.7 (2)38
38••• !Jri;i_wn rice is undermitled rice (with crerm rPmnVf'<ilTABLE XV.

SrOO IN GREEN LEAFY VEGETABLES

Results presented as µµ.c Sr90 per gram calcium, or italicized, as flflC SrDOfkg
Fig11res in parentheses i11dicate the t11m1ber of samples a11d maxirlmm and 111irii11111m values
R41ionCountry

Ducriplion

19S6

USA ..........•....•.•

Simple means of samples of cabbages
from several states ••....•.••••••

8.1 (9, 1-29)

1958

1959

74, 35241 (8, 21-461)

35,
76
198, 237

Fed. Rep. of Gemmny ..
(,,>

N

(.ft

21 (9, 6-50)
7 (2-18)

Weighted means of countrywide
sampling of brassicas ••....•.•••••
Simple mean of miscellaneous
samples .................•.• .a•.,.

Europe •••••.

...

17 (6, 7-30)
9 (1-22)

IU/uenco

17 (12, 1-76)
16 (2-48)

From Tricity study •.•......••••••UK ...•...............

1960

7.1 (5, 1.2-14)

Spinach ...••.••••.•••••••.••••••

N. America ••1957

8.7 (5-47)
7.5 (3-17)

14 (4-42)
10 (2-40)

8.5 (7.3-19)
4.9 (1-12)

84, 85,227

30 (6, 3-80)
14 (2-49)

13 (22, 6-39)
4.5 (1-12)

14.5 (16, 1.3-30)
8.9 (3.1-19)
11.3 (9-16)
13 (2-34)

66, 24,71, 310228

Denmark .•.•.•..••....

Composite samples of 8 types •.••-~ ...

Austria .•••••.•.•.••••.

Cabbages, composite i;amplPR ••••••

9.8 (5)

255

France •••.•.......•.•.

Cabbage, spinach •.••.•.....•.••••

5.1
5.9 (2)232

Africa •. , •.•. UAR •••............•.

Spinach, molokhia• ....•.....•....

Asia. . . • . . . . China (Taiwan) ........
Thailand ............•.

Leafy vegetables ••••..•.••••.•••.
Miscellaneous samples .•••••..••••
Lettuce •••.•••.••.•..•••..••••••

S. America .. {Venezuela .............
Chile ••••••..•..••....

Cabbage ••••••.•••••••••••••••••''Greens•• •. ..........•.•.....•••.

6.1 (1)3.1 (7, 1.5-7.2)
0.5 (1)

Oceania .•..• Australia ...•....•••....

Composite samples of cabbage
at 5 sites •••.•••••••••••••••.••

2.6 (2.1-4.0)

5.9 (4.0-9.4)

r. . . . . . . . . .

21 (6, 10-62)

8 (2)14 (6, 4-23)
19 (10, 2-60)•Values for 1961 of 3.4-4.2 µµc Sr10 /g calcium were obtained for bulked samples representing the Delta reg!on. 11114 21

35 (7, 0-82)

33
65, 6766

32 (4, 6-58)
10 (1)
66

38
65, 66

4.9 (3.9-8.6)

8.5 (10)12, 239320

TA1U.E XVI. Sroo IN LEGUMINOUS VEGETABLES-PEAS AND BE.A....,.,S
Results presented as p.µc Sr&o per gram calcium, or italicized, as p.µc Sr&Ojkg

Figures in parentheses indicate the twmber of samples and the maximum and minimum values
Region, cou711ry Of' area

1956

1957

N. Ame1'ica
USA...............

8.7 (14, 1-21)

8.8 (5, 4.6-14)

1958

1960

1959

18 (3.4-88)b

6.0 (3-12)•

49 (9-178)

4.0 (2-7)

20 (30, 1-100)
7.5 (1-27)

10.5 (6, 9-12)
6.4 (4-8)
15 (2, 15-16)
6.5 (5-8)R4erenu

35, 74
198

EuropeFed. Rep. of Germany

22 (8, 12-47)
61 (7-100)

Denmark ........•..

Far East ..•.•......••.
Japan.............. 4.5 (1)C. America
Costa Rica ..• ,., .•.•
Guatemala .....•...•
Honduras ..••..•....
Nicaragua ......... .
Panama ....••......

69, 71, 70
24, 22, 310
228

33

2.8•

38
38
38
38
38

o.s0.So.s0.3•

S. America
Bolivia ............ .
Venezuela .•••••.•.••
Colombia ..........•

Africa
UAR ............ : ..
Sudan •...••..•..•..
Kenya ............. .
S. Rhodesia .........
Union of South Africa

1.2 (1, 0.3-22)
3.4 (18, 0.7-18)
3.0 (1)0.8 (4, 0.2-1.4)
1.6 (l.0-2.3)
1.7 (1)
6.J
1.1 (5, 0.3-2.0)(0.9-6.8)
3.7 (3, 2.2-5.2)
4.7 (2.0-7.5)
2.0 (4, 0.3-3.9)
6.1 (l.6-8.6)

z.sb Composite samp,les from 10 states.

• Samples collected and analysed by Lamont GeologicalObservatory.

•From "Tri-city ' study.us

326

38
38
319

38
38
38
38
38

TABLE XVII.

Srso IN POTATOES AND STARCHY ROOTS

Results presented as µµc. Srao per g Ca or, italicized, as µµc. SrBOjkg

The figures in parentheses indicate niimber of samples and the maximum and minimum values
Region and country

1957

1958

1959

1960

POTATOES
r~ N. America

USA ............................. .
(Alaska) •........•...•..••. , ... .

EuropeUK ............................. .
Fed. Rep. of Germany..............

11 (10, 2-22)
Z.6 (0.7-5)

14 (4-32)•
1.6 (0.7-3.6)
28 (10, 6-36)
7.6 (2-15)

Denmark .•...•......•.••.•.•..•..

25 (12, 1-61)
J.7 (0.8-8.2)
7.8 (1)39 (5-130)•
4.0 (0.6-10)

23 (4-85)•
1.9 (0.5-7.1)
25(1)
2.5
33 (9, 12-63)
1.4 (0.6-2.3)

20 (5-62)•
1.6 (0.5-4.8)
27 (15, 11-65)
4.1 (1.9-8.2}
47 (9, 14-83)
1.8 (0.7-3.1)
25 (16)
1.5

Austria .•••.•...•.••.•...•...•....

USSR............................ 17 (3, 9-33)
0.8 (0.5-1.3)

36 (3, 24-46)
1.7 (0.9-2.4)

74, 198
39, 5884, 85
227
69, 71
241, 307
228
255
59

42 (3, 34-52)
2.3 (1.5-3.0)

AfricaUARd ........................... .

38

5.4b
1.1

S. America
Colombia •....•..••..•••...•..••••
Venezuela •......••.......•.•.•.•..
Chile. • . • . . . . . . . • . . . • . . . • . . • . • . . • .

38

2.1b
0.5

Sudan ••.•••••..•....•...•..•..•••

28 (3, 14-35)
5.4 (2.5-7.8)

319
38
65, 66319

21 (4, 1.5-70)

38
38
319

6.1 (1)0.5 (1)4.2 (2)10 (3, 1-24)

YucA (CASSAVA, MANIOC)

S. America
Venezuela •....•.•..•••••..•.•..••.
Bolivia ..•..••..•.•....••.•••.....
Colombia .••.....•••••••••......•.

22 (21, 0.5-182)
5.9 (4, 4-9)

d Values for potatoes of 17 µp.c Sr90 /g Ca and for colcasia of
9.4 µp.c Sr' 0 /g Ca were found for the Delta region of the UAR
in late 1961.m• Wei~hted mean from samples representative of countrywide
production.
b Composite samples.
• From Tricity study: year consumed.

327

TABLE XVIII. Sre 0 IN FRUIT
Sr"
Re1W.. and country or area of orl1in

Total number

Fruit

Year

ApplesPeaches: canned
Peaches: canned
Raisins
Strawberries
Apricots: dry

1959
1959
1959
1958-59
1959
1959

4.3
2.2
117
8
24
17

Eight types
Eight types
Peaches
Berries
Strawberries
Tree fruits
Apples and pears
Soft fruits
Imported fruit(12 kinds)
Nuts
Apples
Pears
Plums
Oranges
Figs
Figs
Hazelnuts

1958
1959
1959
1959
1959
1959
1960
1960
1960

9.3 (2-29)
14 (3-35)
12.9
4.3 (1.7-8.3)
19 (7.1-37)
3.3 (0.4-6.1)
2.0 (0.7-5.1)
4.1 (1.9-10)
0.4-22

1960
1960
1960
1960
1957
1958
1958
1957

7-122
1.8
4.1
1.9
6
12
13
14

Dates
MelonsApples

1958
1958
1958

8 (5-11)
5.4
2.7

Pineapples
Pineapple juice

1958
1958

143•
6.4

82

66
66

Bananas

1957

1.5

4.8

66

Peanuts
Dates
Pecan nuts
Mixed nuts
Plums

1958
1958
1958
1958
1957

14.4
0.8
3.2
12.8
2

6.5
1.0
4.7
5.7
4.5

p.p&/k1

f'll&!t Ca

of sam~lu

N. America

USA ••••••••••.••••.••••.•.

EuropeFed. Rep. of Germany ••••••. ,Denmark ••••.••••.•••••••••

Austria ••.••••••..•••••...••
Spain ••••.•••...•...•....••.
Portugal .•....•.•••••.•..••.

Greece .•.••••.....••..••.••.
Italy (Sicily) ••......•.......
Near EasJ
Iraq .••.......••••..•••.•.••.
Iran ••••••••..••••••••••••••
Asia
Fed. of Malaya ..•••.•••••..•
CaribbeanWest Indies ...••..•••.......
AfricaSudan .............••..••••.

Union of South Africa ...•••••

5
4
1
2Composite1
47 (16-96)
42 (18-90)
162
36 (8.4-81}
69 (25-130)
23 (4.3-42)
22 (6.5-67)
16 (7.7-30)
5.o-48

13
8
1

7
4
22
10
17
Composite

9.~56

49
80
12
10

4
3
1
1

3
1

5.3
4
4.9
35

97

1 Composite
1 Composite
1 Composite
1 Composite

76

69, 7170, 71
70
24
22
24
228
228
228
228
255
255
255
66
76
76
66
76
66
66

38
38
38
38
66

• Dry weight.
TABLE XIX.

Sr90 IN MEAT, POULTRY, EGGS, AND FISH-1958·1960

CountTy

l'tST

fSp&fk1

USA .•.....•........•.••....

1960

1.0 (0.5-1.9)

10 (1-14)

Tri-city studya

198

USA •••••...••••••....•••.•• 1960
Eggs
USA ..••.•••..••••••••••.••• 1960
UK ..•........•..•.•••••..•• 1959
1960
Australia ••••••.•••..•••.••••. 1959

1.7 (0.7-2.5)

3.0 (1.6-4.5)

Tri-city studya

198

3.8 (1.9-11)
5.2
4.0

4.6 (3.5-5.9)
9
6.3
7.3

Tri-city study•
Countryside sampling
Countryside sampling
Eight samples from New South Wales

198
85
227
61

1960

0.35 (0.1-1.0)

0.3 (0.1-0.6)

Tri-city studya

198

1960
1958
1959
1958
1959
1959
1959

0.8 (0.5-1.8)
18
0.6

1.0 (0.6-1.5)
0.1

Tri-city study•
Samples from North Sea
Tunsa analysed in USA
Tunsa analysed in USA
Deep sea, 4 samples
Coastal, 2 samples
Fresh water, 9 samples

198
66
76
76
243
243
243

/'P&/1 Co

Re/ettn&4

Meal
PouUry

Fi.$~

Fresh
USA ........•.•...........
Shell
USA •..•.•.....••.•..•••••
Fed. Rep. of Germany .......
Spain ..•...•..•............
Japan ..•..................

0.4
3.2
15

• These results arise from an extensive survey of the total diet carried out in three cities in the USA.m

328

TABLEXX.

SrUO JN HUMAN BONE, 1955-1960

Values are given as µµc SrUO/g calci1m1 wit/1 the ntm1ber of samples and tlie range in parenthesest>-4 years

N111J1born
R.eiion, country or area

N. America .•..........•...

Latitu.U

1956

1957

1958

1959

1960

0.6(30)USA ..•.••••••.•..•..•..

0.9(179)

0.44(5)The Netherlands .........
Denmark ................

1.2(241)

1.1 (80)

J.feditnranean .•••••••.•••.•

1.6(2)
1.6 (9)(0.2-5.9)
1.2(74)

1.8 (6)0.89(0.5-2.4)
2.0(38)0.6(17)2.3(24)0.78(24) 1.2(49)(0.15-1.6) (0.3-3.2)
0.4(13)
1.3(16)

1.4(51)(0.2-3.1)
2.0(21)1.9(14)
1.6(8)
3.1 (69)(0.4-9.5)
2.0(47)

1.9(3)(t.0-3.7)
2.1 (5)1.0(3)(0.5-1.6)

1.8(3)(1.0-3.1)

0.7(16)

0.6(50)0.65(114) 1.2(148)(0.25-1.1) (0.3-1.4) (0.55-2.9)
1.6(14)1.0(15)(0.4-2.1) (0.4-5.3)
8.2(3)
4.0(1)(1.2-16.6)
1.0(20)0.64(5)(0.5-0.8) (0.6-1.5)

3.2(15)0.89(101) 1.2(1)(0.5-1.6)
1.3(22)0.4(13)(0.6-2.7)
0.8(8)(0.6-1.0)

Switzerland ..............

N

0.5(2)

1958

1.5(32)

1.6(10)Fed. Rep. of Germany ....

\00.4(2)

0.3(1)

0.8(5)

0.6(4)

0.9(9)

1.6(6)
1.1 (13)
1.2(8)(0.02-4.8) (0.02-5.3) (0.2-3.2)

C. America ••.•••.•••••••.•
Puerto Rico .••.•....•..•
Guatemala .....•........

10-20"NAsia •....................•
India ...•.••.....•...•..
China (Taiwan) ..•.......
Hong Kong ..............

<30°N

0.04(1)1.1 (2)1.0(9)

1.5(123)319•
13, 299

2.4(66)319•

2.9(73)(0.9-5.5)
2.0(28)37, 245233
98, 99, 238,
321
93, 319•0.5(10)0.7(1)
0.8(1)> 20°s0.35(10),...., o•> 20°s0.60(35)

0.51 (73)97
96, 319•0.5(10)0.4(1)

0.82(5)(0.4-1.5)

0.70(13)(0.2-1.7)

0.83(3)(0.4-1.2)

1.0(5)
1.1 (6)(0.22-1.17) (0.2-1.5)

330

0.8(7)
0.3(5)

0.7(34)0.6(1)

2.1 (5)0.6(2)

2.7(10)0.6(28)319•
319•

1.6(13)0.8(1)
0.7(4)
1.7(18)94, 319•319•
313

0.9(18)0.3(1)
0.4(5)

0.6(10)0.8(3)

0.5(1)
0.6(4)
0.6(11)

319•

319•
319•
6, 5

1.0(34)

1.1 (20)0.6(8)

0.4(21)0.73(6)0.85(20)(0.55-0.82)
0.4(33)319•

0.65(42)0.9(226)1.0(124)0.6(114)0.96(172)319•
95,3200.9(55)319•
319•

0.8(3)> 20°sAustralia ..•.......•.....
Congo (Leopoldville) ..•..
Union of South Africa ...•&/ere nee

1.4(3)

1.2(13)

Chile .•.•••..•..••••.•..

Africa0.5(1)

0.5(1)
0.8(1)

0.5(17)

S. America ................ 10°N-10°s

Oceania .....•.•...•...•..•

1961

319•

> 30°N

Japan ••.........••.•..•.

Venezuela .•.............
Brazil .•••....•..........
Argentina ...............

1960

1.3(6)> 30°N

Israel .•..•.........••.•.

Far East. •.•.•.....••....•

1959

1957

> 30°NUSSR ••••.•.•........•..
Poland ..............•...
UK •......•...•...••....

e,,,,

1956

> 30°N

Canada ....••.......•...

E11rope •.•.••.••••••.••••••

1955

t.2(2)TABLE

xx. Sr90 IN HUMAN BONE, 1955-1960 (continued)

5-19 y1ars
IU1io11. co1mlry flf' or1a

Lolilwd1

1951

1956

1951

1951

0.6(14)0.45(4)(0.2-0.6}
0.6(67)0.76(12)(0.4-1.0}
1.0(42)

N. America • •••.•..•. >30°N
Canada .•.........
USA ..............
Europe • ••.••.•...... > 30°N
USSR ......•......
Poland ............
UK ...............

Fed. Rep.ofGennany
The Netherlands ...
Denmark ..........
France ............
Switzerland ........
Italy ..............
Near East .... ........ > 30°N
Iran ...............
Israel .............
UAR .............
Far East ...•.. ....... > 30°N
Japan .............

0.5(16)

1.4(35)
1.1 (17)t.5(79)

1961

195S

0.4(8)

0.16(9)0.19(7)0.6(22)0.3(1)

1956

1951

1951

1959

1960

0.29(30}0.38(27)0.53(113}(0.05-0.6} (0.07-0.8)
0.07(125) 0.06(187) 0.12(335) 0.19(227) 0.27(271) 0.23(31)0.12(60)

0.22(7)0.08(11)0.4(3)

0.2(1)
0.2(5)

China (Taiwan) ....
0.5(3)
Thailand ..•.......
Viet-Nam, Rep. of.
S. America .... •••.•.. I 0°N-10°S
0.1 (1)
Colombia ..........
0.3(21}
Venezuela .........
0.3(4)
Brazil. ............
Ecuador ...........
Argentina .......... > 20°5
0.2(18)Chile ..............
Oceania ...... ........ > 20°5
Australia ..........

0.1 (4)0.2(3)

0.5(10)0.4(9)

0.9(11)0.4(3)

0.2(54)0.3(2)

1.1 (2)0.3(1)

0.7(4)
0.4(1)

1.0(24)0.55(3)
1.1 (1}0.4(3)
1.0{1}

0.13(9)0.1 (7)0.16(29)0.16(8)96, 319•
319•
319•
319•

0.17(17)0.12(4)0.22(3)0.12(58) 0.16(20)319•
0.90(20) 0.41 (4)0.58(36) 0.46(39} 101, 330(0.1-2.5) (0.1-0.7) (0.1-2.8) (0.1-1.0}

0.18(4)0.18(47)0.15(34)0.13(49)

0.21 (151) 0.24(134) 0.34(14)0.14(56)0.15(34)

319•
319•

0.14(33)

0.11(31)0.18(22)0.13(1)0.52(2)

319•
94
319•
319•
319•

0.15(10}0.14(6)0.28(33)
0.07(3)0.17(11) 0.12(8)0.15(23}0.15(130) 0.24(70)0.10(59)

0.08(4}0.08(2)0.11 (19)0.06(24)<0.1 (13)0.19(37)0.10(49)0.15(460) 0.22(247)0.16(247) 0.19(346)0.17(7)0.3{1}

0.4(1·2}

0.5(17)

0.7(6)

0.10(7)0.1(1)
0.16(35} 0.2(3)O.l.1(13) 0.08(40)0.2(13}0.3(37)0.4(10)0.4(22)0.4(25)0.20(40)0.6(3)

0.5(2)
0.34(25)0.6(141)0.53(81)0.5(52)0.62(93)0.9(32)0.13(9)0.43(12)0.8(78)1.0(73)•Values from refl'rence 319 below 1 pµc/g. Ca arc often stated as "less than" the value
quoted.

0.13(28)0.18(3)0.18(25)0.18(360.2(2}

0.4(24)319•
319•
20.01 (2} 229

0.14(38)0.22{38)(0.1-0.8)

0.1 (2)0.4(6)
0.2(4)

0.4(1)

93, 319•97

0.16(19)0.25(3)0.4(1)
0.2(3)
0.1 (9)1.2(4)

319•

0.12(65)0.2(2)

0.2 {2}13, 299

0.18(33}

0.96(41) 1.2(34} 3.0(2)(0.1-2.6) (0.3-3}
1.2(17)0.5(10)&/erenc~

37, 245
233
98,99,238

0.5(1}

0.7(2)
0.6(1)
0.6(9)
0.67(6}0.62(12) . 0.59(3}(10.2-1.8) (0.8-1.5} (0.2-1.0}

1961

0.40(82)0.38(63}0.22(3)0.24(4)0.31 (11) 0.29(28) 0.66(20)(0.13-0.29) (0.11-0.44) (0.04-1.4) (0.07-0.7)
0.22(26)0.14(29)0.36(105) 0.45(145) 0.51 (42)0.2(1)

0.06(1)0.5 (7)0AfricaCongo(Leopoldville) .... ....., 0°
Liberia ............
Union of South
Africa ........... > 2o•s

1960

1.4(5)
1.2(7)
0.27(4)0.78(24) 0.44(18) 0.75(20) 0.90(23) l.t (54)(0.15-0.4) (0.15-1.6) (0.3-0.75) (0.2-1.7} (0.13-2. 7) (0.3-2.0}
0.2(19)0.2(14)0.3(4)
0.7(11)0.9(33)1.2(36)
1.5(9)
0.4(4}
0.37(2)(0.14-0.6) (0.35-4.0) (0.5-0. 7)
1.3(3)
0.4(3)
0.3(7)
0.5(4}w
w

C. A muica .......... 10-20°N
Puerto Rico ........
Guatemala .........
Asia ................ < 30°N
India ..•...........

19 11arsb
1959

0.1 (7)0.18(39)0.23(36)
0.5 (7)0.22(46)
0.4 {9)0.4(3)

0.14(2)

319•
319•
319•
319•
319•
319•
319"
95, 320319•
319•

0.24(125)319•

b Normalized in accordance with footnote to paragraph 81 except Japan, USSR, Poland,in which the bone sampled was not specified.

TABLE XXI.

Sm.!MARY OF THE REGIONAL :lo!E..\NS OF Sr90 CONCENTRATION IN BUMAN BO!>'ES, 1959-1960(pµc Sf'90/g calcium)
At~•OTI

o--4

Newlxml

5-19

>19

A"a

Lalil,,,U

1959

1960

1959

1960

1959

1960

1959

1960

N. America .•.••••..
W. Europe .••......
E. Europe •••..•...•
Near East •....•••.•Far East .•.•.•..•..
Asia .••......•.....
Central America .•...
S. America .....•...

> 30°N> 30°N> 30°N> 30°N> 30°N< 30°N< 30°N

1.2
1.4
1.5

1.1
1.1

2.3
2.5
1.9
0.4
0.8

2.3
2.5

1.1

1.5
1.2

0.3
0.4
0.4
0.1
0.3
0.3

0.3
0.6

Australia .•.•...•...
Africa .••...........

10°N-10°s> 20°5> 2o•s> 20°5TABLE X.XI!.

1.2
1.1

0.6

1.2
0.6
1.0
0.4
0.9

0.5

0.9
1.3
0.5
0.6
0.5

1.0
1.7
0.6

0.5
0.4
0.6
0.8

1.1

0.6
0.8
0.9

0.9
0.3
0.5
0.7
0.4
0.6
1.0

A COMPARISON OF MEASURED RATIOS OF SrDO TO CALCIUM (p.pc/g) IN TOTALDIET (TABLE IV) .V."D :MILK (TABLE VII)
Year

Ralio (m4a11)

Total diet/milk(ra11e-)(a) Values based cm cominued, often 'Uoidespread, dia sampling

N. America
Canada •.•..•....•...................

1959-1960
1957-1960

1.1

USA ..••...........................•

1.3

0.9-1.7

EuroptJUK• .•......•.......................
Fed. Rep. Germany .•...••............
Denmark• ...•.......................
Austria ............................. .

1957-1960
1959
1959-1960
1960

1.2
1.8
2.9
1.7

1.2-1.3

Oceania
Australia............................

1957-1960

1.1

Far East
Japan...............................

1957-1960

2.2

1.4-3.6(b) Values based on single, often fiery limited, diet samples

Central America
Five countries•• b,....................

1957-1958

1.3

0.9-2.0

S. America
Four countriesb.......................

1957-1959

2.7

1.9-3.3

Africa
Rhodesiab...........................

1959-1960

10-13•Excluding mineral calcium.
on limited sampling.

b Based

331

0.1
0.2

0.6
0.2
0.2
0.3
0.2
0.2

TABLE XXIII.

CAI.cm.ATED RATIOS OF THE RATIO OF Sr• 0 TO CALCIUM IN THE TOTAL DIET TO THATIN Mll.K FOR VARIOUS APPROXIMATE DIET TYPES FOR 1958-1960
Peruntage conlribuJion a/ calcium lo the diet
Cereal>

Milk

Cam~

Ratio to milk. " ••••••••.
No. of observations ••••..
Range •••••..•.••....•.•(a) .••..•••••.•
Diet ld (b} •••••••••.••(c) ••..••.••.•.
(a) .•.••••••..•
Diet Ild (b} .••••••••.••(c) ••••••••••••(a} ••••••••••••
Diet III (b) •••.••••••••(c} ••••••••••••

MilledUnmilled

513
33(1-43)
0
1.5

10(2-10)
80
80
80
40
40
40
10
10
10

5
3.5

0
20
14
0
15
10
0

5

0
6
20
0
5
15

Vet.b

Fish•

3

<0.1
3

35

(1-12)
15
15
15
40
40
40
60
60
60

Ralio Jolal
diel lo milk

1.5
1.6
1.9
2.6
3.1
4.2
2.6
3.0
3.8

15
15
15

• Including wheat, rye, maize and rice.
b Vegetables of all kinds and fruit.

•Marine fish only. If all the fish were from fresh water the ratio of total diet to milk might
be increased by about 0.4. (Based on Japanese data, table XIX.)
d Diet (a) contains only milled cereal, (b) 30 per cent unmilled cereal, (c) all unmilled cereal.

TABLE XXIV. CoMPAJUSON OF MEASURED Sr&0 TO CALCIUM IN BO?-.""£, 1959-1960, WITH LEVELS IN
NEW BONE CALCULATED FROM DIET MEASUREMENTS, 1959-1960 (see text, para. 100)All units /1/LC SrOo/g Ca
New bone 1959-60

Total didCaktll4hd

Assumeddiel l~P•

N. America.................
W. Europe.................
E. Europe..................
Near East..................
Far East...................

I
I
I
II
III
Asia •••.•••••••••••••.•••.• II-III

Central America,, ......•....

S. America,.................

I-II

Africa......................

II

Oceania....................

I

Mi/Jt
(a)

> 30°N.Measured(labu IV)
(b)

9.5

12
11

8.1
9.1
< 30°N< 30°N> o•s> 20°s> 20°s

13
11
13

3
13°
7
1
4
4•
3-8

5.1•
3.5•
1.6
2.3
3.8
2.6

JI,cm

diel
( R • O.ZS)

(t)

14
12
14

Calculmed
from bones
af newbons
(/)

3
3
3
1
3
2
0.3
1-2
1
1-2

13
9
3-6
6
7

2.3
2.5
3.0
2.4
2.3
1.1

M<JUUred asmean Ind i•<>-4-ycar~

(rj

2.3
2.5
1.9
0.4
1.0
1.7
0.6
0.6-1.0
0.8
0.9

b Based on the weighted mean of milk and the ratios of total
diet to milk for the approximate model diets (from table XXIII).
• Based on one country only.

• Based on the weighted mean of milk and measured ratio of
total diet to milk in some countries (from table XXII).

TABLE XXV.

Calcul4Ud
(c)•
(d)b

A COMPAJUSON OF THE RATIOS OF SrDO TO Ca IN AVERAGE ADULTDIET AND BONE OF NEW-BORN OR FOETUS

The ra11ge of values is shown in parentheses. The data are taken fromtable IV (diet) and table XX (bone)
OR (foelus/molher'z diel)

Coulllr;yUSA (New York) ••••.......•.••••••••••••••.•
UK ••••..••••..•...•..•...•.............••..
Denmark ••...•...•...•••..•.....••.•.•...•..
Fed. Rep. of Germany ••.•.•...•.•...•.•...•..
Australia .....•...•...••.... , .........•.....•
Japan ...................................... .

332

1957-1960
1957-1960
1959-1960
1959-1960
1958-1960
1957
1958
1959

0.09 (0.07--0.10}
0.12 (0.11--0.13)
0.10 (0.09-0.11)
0.12 (0.11--0.12)
0.10 (0.08-0.12)
0.56
0.21
0.08

TABLE XXVI.

ESTIMATED PROPORTIO:SALITY FACTORS FOR THE CALCUL.\TION OF FUTURE I.EY"ELSDERIVED FR01>i SURVEY MEASUREMENTS TO 1960
Milk

Veietabksp,Countr:y

Pd

P,

Pd

Argentina •..••.•.
Australia .........
Canada ...•.•.•..
Denmark .••.•...
Germanyb ..•..•..
Japan •••...•••••
India ............
New Zealand •...•
Norway ....•.•.•
S. Rhodesia ••.•..
USSR •••..•.•...
UK .••••.•.••..•
USA .•••.•.••••.

0.24
0.71
0.30
0.23
0.29
0.23
0.26
0.80
0.52
0.30
0.40
0.21
0.27

0.54
1.5
0.66

1.5

1.1
0.9
0.7

Value adopted ••••

0.3

0.8

Starchy roots
Pd

Cereals-P,

Unmilkd
P,

Milkd
P,

30
3

0.8
0.6

18
20
19, 148

0

9
6

1.1

0.3
0.7

34 (47)•

0.6

0.5
1

0.8
0

•Mainly based on wheat; Pd is assumed as 0.5.
b The value of F d is assumed to be the same as

1.2
0.8

0
1

20
16

25

4
5
16

0

20

7

in the UK.

•Rice.

T •.\BLE XXV!I.

SUMMARY OF PROPORTIONALITY FACTORS FOR PREDICTING FUTURE RATIOS OF
SrDo TO Ca IN THE TOTAL DIET
p,b

p,b
Did

conlribulion

pd
immediahsituation

I and II ..••.............
III ......................
IV ..•......•..........•.

80:5:13:2
40:20:38:2
13:15:50:7

0.4
0.6
0.7

Cakium•Pd
lont·l<rm
zilsustion

0.35
0.6
0.7

(unlh milkd (Vlilh unmilkd
weal
eerealOllly)
Ollly)

1.8
4.7

1.1
1.9
1.7

3.6

•From milk: cereals: green vegetables: starchy roots (based on potatoes). The contribution
from fish has not been taken into account since, because of dilution of Sr 90 in the sea, the contribution is likely to remain small.
b For calculation it has been assumed that 20 per cent of the cereal in the diet is unmilled.

TABLE XXVII!.

SOME ESTIMATES OF TIIE MEAN DAILY I~'TAKE OF Cs1 87 IN THE TOTAL DIET
Canada 19S9 (108)

USA.-19S6-19S7 (40)

Milk and milk products .••.••.••.•..•.•.
Vegetables except potatoes• ••.•.••••••.•
Potatoes ............................. .
Fruit- ............................... .
Meat• •..••...•.••.....•...••.••..••.•
Fish• •••••••••••••••..•••.•.••.•.•••.•
Flour and cereals-. •...•.•.•.•••...•••••

Cs1" /K total diet ••••.•..••••••••••••••
Whole body •••••••.•••••..•••....•

l'/J& Cs"'li K

K inlah lpp&

Per cenl

pp& Cs"'/i K

K l111ak1 i

pp&

Per ual

32
5

37

60

1.0
0.78
0.41
0.47

55

0.8
0.0
1.0

1

3
25

35
1
0
2.5

35

2.9
0
2.5
14.7

5

0
25
32

1.16
0.57
0.60
0.10
0.46

2.0

0.40

2I.8b

34

24

0.20

4.8

7

0.22

5.1

8

3.09

61.9

3.28

63.7

20
40

6~ }
23

19.5

57
b Assuming one-fifth of the potassium is from fish.

• Sampled on a very limited scale.

333

TABLE XXIX.

CsUT IN MILK

Reg11/ar or widespread surveys (for description see table VIII)
Results as µµc
R~gionN. America

EuropeLaliludt

Country>30° N

Canada .......
USA ..........

>30° NUSSR .........

UK ...•.......
Fed. Rep. of
Germany ....
Italy ..........
Denmark ......
Norway .......

(,.)
(,.)

.j>..

Sweden .......
Finland .......

Csts 7 per g potassium, or as µµc/litre
1957

Arta

Widespread
Widespread

Mid-Sweden
Widespread

1958

1960

1959

61 (12, 28-100)
33 (38, 12-59)•
42 (33, 2-70)•
52 (33, 20-97)•
34 (J)b tki.o&.liS. ~fi.1, 44 (5)'~~.i~i .54 (JZ, 30-86)

Widespread
MoscowWidespread
LindauN. Italy
Widespread
S. Norway(italicized). Number of sites and range, where available, in parentheses.

36 (9, 22-54)b

19 (4, 12-2J)b

31 (2, 25-38)

27 (1 )b40 (l)b15 (11-22)b
27 (2, 23-30)
149 (3, 47-270)
46 (1 )b40 (22-80)b55 (10, 26-115)
32 (38, 7-70)•
Z8 (9)

15 (9, 10-Z5)>30° N

Japan .........

18 (2)bAsia

10-20° N

India .........

Widespread
Dom hay

S. America>20"S

Argentina .....

Oceania>20° sAustralia ......

Main production
zone
Sydney18 (1)•Upper figure Los Alamos survey, lower figure U.S.P.H.S. stations.
Not a complete year, or samplccl irregularly.

b3, 40, 69, 71, 72
3, 40, 69, 71,
72, 251234

30 (9, 13-59)
13 (2)
19°

8, 22723 (t)b24, 25, 241

12 (4, 8-14)
150 (11, 39-397)

18,22849,42,43
231,242
41
54
191
243

55 (19-ZZO)

Far East&ftrtnc.

1961

52 (4, 22-118)b88 (10, 21-19J)b

77 (8, l 6-117)b

9.4 (1)18 (1)
17 (21, 3-160) 1'

11 (1)
5.5 (16, 1.5-lJ)b

10 (1)
5.6 (7, 4-9)

88, 8989, 244, 302

19°

20•

44

12 (1)~

18 (1)

19 (1)• Countrywide bulked samples for part of year.
Composite samples.

d40, 69, 71, 72, 73

TABLE XXX.

Cs1 37 IN :MILK; INFREQUENT OR SPOT SAMPLING

Results expressed as µµc Cs137 per g potassium

Figures in parentheses indicate number of samples
Country

Europe> 30°NFar East> 30°N

Central America
S. America

1957

Denmark .........•......••..
France ..................•...
Switzerland ...........•....•.
Fed. Rep. of Germany .•.. ,,..
Japan ..........•........... ,.Mexico .......•.......••...•.
Colombia ................•••.
Venezuela .................. .
Brazil ...................... .
Chile ....................•...

10-20°N
10°N-10'S> 10°5TABLE XXXI.

54 (1)
80 (3)

1959

1958

1960

39 (2)
34 (2)
77 (2)
54 (1)
39 (1)
29 (1)
74 (2)
20 (2)
16 (1)6 (1)
1.2 (2)26 (2)
36 (1)
66 (6)
40 (1)

1961

50 (4)

69
69
69
23
33,69, 72

69
69, 72
69
71, 7269, 72

THE Cs1s1 co:NTE.NT OF SOME FOODS ,Cs"'

Coktt:JrY aiul lyJ>eYear

cou,.1ry

CerealWheat grain .•.........•............•. Canada
Japan (widespread)
Rice (brown) .•........•......•.......• Japan (Gunma)Rice(brown) ....••...•....•............. Japan (widespread)(milled) ........•.......•.......•... Japan
Barley ...•.•......................... Japan (Gunma),
Rice(boiled) •...••.......•..•..•......•• India(surty) .•.•..•.........••.••.•.••••• India

VegeJables
Cabbage, etc. ........•...•..........•. Japan (Gunma)
Root vegetables, .•.........••....•.•.•• Japan (Gunma)
Meat
Beef .••.•........••.••......•.•.....• Japan (Gunma)
Pork ........ , .......•.•..........•..• Japan (Gunma)

Beef .•.••...•.••.....••••.•.......... Norway
Reindeer., ••. , •.•..................... Sweden
Fish
Cuttle fish .............••.••.......... Japan (Pacific)

Skipjack ...........•..............•... Japan (Pacific)•The Csm/K ratio in.flour is not significantly different.

335

p.p.e/kt

p.p.e/iK

Ref.,.nsu

35•
47•

1957
1958
1960
1961
1956
1957
1958
1959

55

44

108
63

63
37

114
114
326
326
90
90
90
90

1959
1960
1956
1957
1958
1959

143
31
80
48
89
401

139
36
34
22
35
146

326
326
t90
90
I 90
J,90

1959
1959

0.3
10.4

0.2
4.9

309
309

1957
1960
1957
1960

13
26
18
36

6.0
12
7
15

90
90
90
90

1960
1957
1960
1960
1960

92
98
207
24,000

1957
1960
1957
1960

21
26
16
87

265
90
38

54
31

32
36
90
180-1,760 (3)

90
90
90
231
276

11

90
90
90
90

28
9
43

T •.\l!LE XXXII.

THE Cs187 CONTENT OF MAN, MEASURED BY WHOLE BODY COUNTER

Results as µ.µc Cs1s1 per g potassium

The figures in parentheses indicate the tiumber of observatiotis
Name or numba-

RetionLatuutk

N. America> 30°N""'"""iarepruenled

of

1956

1957

1958

1959

1960

1961

USA

so (279)

51 (294)62 (461)69 (576)
Quly-Dec.)
51 (30)(Dec.)
64 (2)

74 (280)
67 (777)

67 (279)
51 (646)

31 (245)57 (20)(Spring)
94 (4)
79 (8)
58 (30)*48 (94)49 (21)(Dec.)
92 (2)
55 (1)
49 (47)•45 (88)
63 (1566)

Canada> 30°N

Europe32 (14)UK

48 (14)37 (18)Fed. Republicof Germany
SwedenNear Eai;tFar East
Asia

C. America
Caribbean
S. America
AfricaAsia
Oceania

66 (46)73 (-}

25 (1)

62 (1)
60 (2)
44( 2)
75 {16)54 (1)
64 (2)
67 (70)47 (1)
78 (1)
75 (1)

14 {2)
14( 9)

35 (5)
52 (2)
11 (2)so (1)

42 (3)
60 (12)99 (2)
49 (9)
60 (3)
47 (10)49 (5)
62 (1)
45 (2)103 (2)54 (3)

L.A.

W.R.
107, 108
117
L.A.

W.R.
42 (807)274, 298
104
116, 250, 253

55 (87)105276

36 (26)

L. A.
51 (43)

W.R.
L. A.

49 (2)W.R.
L.A.

29 (31)
29 {11)51 (2)

W.R.
278
L. A.

W.R.
L. A.

27 (4)
54 (5)
68 (1)

28 (1)
25 (4)

W.R.
W.R.
L. A.
W.R.
L.A.

35 (1)

W.R.
L.A.
L.A.

68 (1)
34 (1)

36 (1)

W.R.

W.R. from the Walter Reed Army Institute of Research. 111 •• Measurements made on former luminizers (female).
L.A. indicates data from the Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory.'· G, n, n, 102

TABLE XXXIII.

87 (10)83 (122)66 (3)

20 (2).

76 (47)70 (22)32 (4)

7
11
2> 20°N4> 30°N25
Japan
0-30"N 4
6
10°-30°N 3
3
20°N
5
7
< 10°N5
2< lO"N2
2< 10°N< 10°s22

65 (-)Gune)
85 (9)
67 (208)57 (2)
32 (5)109 (1)49 (145)

Refermuuo.w

11EAN CONCENTRATIONS OF Cs18 7 (µ.µc/PD. G POTASSIUM) IN THE HUMAN BODY AS MEASUREDBY WHOLE BODY COUNTING (from table XXXV)The figures in parentheses i11dicale the number of observations
Re1io11

Latitude

1956

1951

North America .........•.•.•.•...
Europe •••...........•........
Near East •........•.............
Far East ........................
Asia .•....•.•.••..•..•••••....••
Central America .•.............•.
South America ...................
Africa ••.•...•..............•....
Oceania .....................•.•

>30°N
>30°N
>30°N
>30°N
<30°N
<10°N

so (279)

51 (294)
37 {18)>20°s

TABLE XXX!V.

32 (18)

19)9

1958

25 (1)
16 (4)
14 (2)
14 (9)

65 (1,069)
69 (83)61 (3)
71 (18)66 (3)
66 (3)
35 (5)
52 (2)

50 (1)

1960

55 (949)
63 (1,891)
39 (7)
50 (146)
51 (2)
45 (10)69 (1,089)
65 (302)54 (1)
67 (72)56 (15)59 (14)48 (15)51 (3)
74 (5)

51 (2)

MEAN CONC:ENTR...TION OF SHORT LIVED FISSIO!i PRODUCTS
IN MILK IN THE USA, 1957-1960

Values, expressed in p.µc/litre, are from 5-12 stations of the US Public Health Service~51
5,u

Ytor

1957 (second half)...............................
1958...........................................
1959.................................... •. • • • . .
1960...........................................

336

Bo1H

pn

65
80
250
50
15
40
20
Not detectable- - - Not detectable - - -1961

31 (245)43 (963)
49 (2)
29 (42)26 (5)
35 (1)
36 (1)

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ANNE.X F

ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION (continued)
PART IIIEx po&ure data

CONTENTS
Par4t1rap1's

ParaqroPM

1-3

Dose commitment from Sr&-0 which would be received under conditions of continued testing .• 35-36
Cs13 7 in whole body and bone ••••• , ............ 37-41
Dose commitment from internal e.'tposure to
es1s1 due to testing up to the end of 1960 andthe end of 1961 ............................ 39-40
Dose commitment from internal exposure to
Cs1 s1 under conditions of continued testing... 41
C14 in whole body •..••.•••••.••••••..• , • , , • . . • 42-48
Dose commitment from CH due to testing up to
the end of 1960 and the end of 1961.......... 44
Dose commitment from cu due to continued
testing • . •• • . . . . . • • •• • • • . • . •• •. • . • . • • •• . • • • 45
Reduction of dose from C14 due to combustionof fuels • • . • • • • • . • . . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 46-48
H 3 in the body . . • • . • • . . . . . • • . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . • 49
Short-lived isotopes . • . . . • • • . .. • • • • • . • • • • . . . • • • • 50
Sr-89 in bone .••••••.•..•.••••••••••••.••••••••• 51-54
BaHo and t.auo in bone • • • • • • . . . • • • . • • • . • . • • . • • 55
11 31 in thyroid . . • • .. • . • .. • • • • • .. • • • • • • .. • • • • • • • 56-58
Mixed fission products in the GI tract. • • • • • • • • • • 59-61
Entry of radio-activity into the body through inhalation . . . • . . • • • • • . • . . • . • . . . . . . • • . • • • • • • • • . • . • 62-66
Summary of radiation doses to tissues due to fall-out 67

I. INTRODUCI'ION • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •II. ExTE:llNAL EXPOSURE • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 4-25
World averages of fall-out deposit. ....•••.•••.. ,.. 4-5
Methods of dose estimation • • • • . • . • • . • • • • • . . . • . • . 6-13
Direct determination ••..•....•••.•••.•.•••• , . . . 7
Indirect methods ...•.••• , ......•.••••.•••• , • • • . 8-11
Theoretical calculations of the total external dose •• 12-13
Factors affecting dose to tissues •.•.........•.••... 14-19
Weathering . . . • • . . . • . . • • • • . . . . . • . . • . • . • • . • . . • . • 15
Shielding by building structures ••..•....•...••.. 16-17
Screening by the human body • • • . • . . . . . • . . • • • • • . 18
Combined shielding and screening factors.,...... 19
Doses due to external sources .•.•.....•....•.••..•• 20-25
Total external dose in air received from testingfrom 1954 to August 1961 • • • . . • . . . • . . • . • • • • • • • 22
Total external dose commitment from testing up
to the end of 1960 and the end of 1961.......... 23
Total external dose commitment which would bereceived under conditions of continued testing .• 24-25
III. INTER..'iAL EXPOSURE •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 26-67
Ingested radio-nuclides ••••••..••••••.....••.•..•• 27-61
Strontium-90 •••••..•••..•.•..•..•• , , •.••••...• 28-36
Concentrations in diet and bone . . . • . . . . • . • . . • . 28
Dose from Srso in bone ••.•..•..•...••.••• , . . 29
Method of estimation of mean population dose., 30-31
Dose commitment from Sr9o due to testing carried out up to the end of 1960 and the end of1961 •..•.•••••••••••••.••••••.•..••••.••••• 32-34

TABLESR£n:ttNCES

resumed in 1961, at an assumed constant annual rate of
injection of 1 Mc of Sr9° and 1()25 atoms of cu. On thatbasis, calculations have been made for tests up to theend of 1960 and up to the end of 1961, as well as forcontinued testing. Since the doses are necessarily basedon many assumptions, they must be c0nsidered as estimates rather than precise determinations.

I. Introduction

1. The purpose of this section of the annex is to estimate the average doses of radiation received by theworld population from fall-out.
2. Fall-out materials deposited on the ground are an
external source of e."'l:posure to man. In addition to this,some radio-nuclides are taken into the body and become
an internal source of radiation. Information on these
two sources has been given in parts I and II of thepresent anne..'C. To determine the average radiation dose
received, a considerable amount of dosimetric and demographic data is also required.

II. External exposureWORLD AVERAGES OF FALL-OUT DEPOSIT

4. The average fall-out deposit per square km of thesurface of the earth, Fd, is obtained by integrating the
local values of fall-out, Fd, over the total surface of theearth, S 0 , i.e. :3. This section of the annex presents "dose commitments"-the total doses which will be received by mankind in all generations (H 15-21 )-from given periodsof weapon testing. In addition, that fraction of the dose
commitment that will be reached by the year 2000 isalso given. The calculations have been based on the factthat testing was carried out from 1954-1958, and was-Fd = S1
o

1

FddS

So

In order to get a measure of the mean effect of the global

347

5. The values of the population weighted mean worldgeographical factor have risen from 1.6 to 1.9 in theyears 1955-1960 owing to changes in the pattern offall-out. It is therefore possible to use measurements
in certain latitudes where Fd/F°.i is equal to about 1.9 toestimate the doses to the average member of the world
population. This avoids the problem of attempting a
total summation over the world's surface when insufficient data are available.

fall-out, a population weighted average fall-out can be
defined as_ fe,NFddS
G F d - fs.NdS
where N is the population density, and G is called "themean geographical factor" (figure 1).
3.0-· - · 1959

Populal!cn- - · 1950

METHODS OF DOSE ESTIMATION.........
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6. Various methods have been used to estimate thedose in air in the open from which the dose in specificorgans of the body may be deduced. These may besummarized as :(a) Direct measurements using ionization chambers
and counters mounted about 1 metre above the ground;( b) Indirect methods based on the determination of
the radio-active fall-out products in soil either by gammaray spectroscopy or by chemical analysis. The cumulative deposition may also be deduced through similar
analyses of fission products in rainfall, making allowance for radio-active decay;( c) Calculations based on the fission product yields
of nuclides and assumed residence times (paras. 12 and13).

Pop 'x106ll1O'--~...L...~......L.~~L....~...L...~-.1..~__:c=::::....l.._~_J

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ao

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20

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40

so

so

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8

For both ( b) and ( c) above, one requires information regarding the dose from infinite plane sources of nuclides,

Figure L Geographical factor fall-out deposit

9.Ref'.
-

1,2

SWeden83• - • } UK norma.llsed••••••• May 1956
4

7

- - Japan

5

6

5

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4

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3

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I

2

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l

1950

I(
1951

1952

1953

1954

1955

1956

1957

1958

1959

1960

years

Fiaure 2a. Direct measurements-external dose measurements (100 mrad/y = 11.4 µrad/hr)

348

1961

1962

9

Bef.
8

--Argonne

7,8--·New York

13

9 -11
x Leningrad (deduced)

7

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UK

14

6

5

4

3

2
,.
"

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x\

1

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x •
1950

1951

1952

1953

1954

1955

1956
years

1957

1958

1959

Figure 2b. Indirect measurements-external dose measurements (100 mrad/yallowing for the scatter and absorption in the air andsoil, and the relevant calculations of these are given inparagraphs 9-11.

1960

1961

1962

= 11.4 .arad/hr)

noted may be due to dry deposition of fall-out or to nonuniformity of site drainage.
9. To derive the values reported in figure 2b it isnecessary to deduce the dose-rate of the particulargamma-emitting radio-isotopes when they are uniformly spread on an infinite plane in the concentrations derived by gamma-spectroscopy or other methods.
These are based on calculations by several workers. 15• 211
The dose-rate in air due to a deposit FJ(t) of a certain
gamma-emitting radio-isotope (j) spread uniformly on
an infinite plane, can be considered as being governedby the relation :Direct determination
7. The most comprehensive survey has been carriedout in Sweden1 • 2 where high pressure ionization chambers have registered dose-rates from fission products
since 1951. Measurements have also been made elsewhere3-s using high pressure ionization chambers, geiger
counters and plastic scintillators, respectively. These
measurements are shown in figure 2a. The rapid fall in
the Japanese measurements in 1959 indicates that thesehigh levels were due to short-lived products.

dd~ 1 = k 1B1FJ(t) mrad/y

(1)

where

Indirect methods

d~i = dose-ratein airfrom thedeposit FJ(t) (mrad/y)

8. Many measurements&-13 using gamma-ray spectroscopy or chemical analysis have been reported andare shown in figure 2b. A comparison of figures 2a and2b shows that there is reasonable agreement between
direct and indirect estimates for the years 1954-1961.
The Swedish data1 • 2 are lower than the others, as themeasurements are made at a latitude higher than thatof the peak shown in figure 1. Pearson and Salmon12
have shown that calculations based on the cumulative
deposition in rainfall of Cs137 and Zr9 5 + Nb 95 give results which are 70 per cent of those obtained using
gamma-ray spectroscopy of soil, and other calculations
on the same data show closer agreement.14 The difference

k1=

dose-rate from primary radiation(mrad/y/mc/km2)

B1= ratio of total/primary radiation dose-rate(build-up factor)

FJ(t) = deposit of isotope j (mc/km 2 )The constants k 1 and B 1 have been considered for eachof the important radio-nuclides and quite a wide rangeof values has been reported (table I). The values incolumns 4 and 5 do not include the factor Bj and thevalues in column 6 have been chosen taking this into349

account. The variations in the values are due to: (a) the
variation of the gamma-ray spectrum used in deriving
the values for each nuclide; ( b) the values of the buildup factor and the methods of applying them; and ( c)the assumption made as to whether Zr 95 and its daughter
product Nb 95 are in secular equilibrium on the ground,or in a state of transient equilibrium.

s. 0

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4

Ml!On time in the utmcspher~. weeks
I IO 12 14 16 18 20 22 '~4 2650
6\'

10. The determination of the build-up factor whichshould be used for each particular isotope has been based
mainly on the work of Goldstein et al. 21 However, certain experimental investigations have been carried out
using Cs137 and Co60 P• 23 Davis22 compared scintillation
counter measurements made about 1 m from the groundwith the theoretically derived dose-rates after correcting
for air absorption and build-up. The experimental values
were 6 and 16 per cent lower than the theoreticallyderived values for Cs187 and Co60 respectively. The variation of the build-up factor with altitude was also measured and gave values at 1 m from the ground, e."'\'.trapolated from about 100 m, of 0.8, 1.4 and 2.4 for P 31 , Cs137
and Co60 respectively. Solon 23 obtained a value of 1.25
for Co 60 from sources on the surface. Values of backscatter from a broad beam from infinite sources of theorder of 20 per cent for radiation in the range 0.4-1
MeV have been computed. 24 • 25

11. Lindel119 quotes a figure of build-up factor of 2
for Cs131 but this and other estimates are apparently all
based on a homogeneous medium, and do not take into
account the change of medium from earth to air. It would
seem that the value of 2 used by some workers for thebuild-up factor may be an over-estimate when fall-out
penetrates into the upper layers of the earth's surface.
However, Gustafson18 in his determinations has taken
account of both air absorption and the absorption by
the soil due to penetration of the isotopes into the upper
soil layers. The penetration of fall-out products into thesoil has been estimated on the basis of measurements
made in Chicago : 77 per cent activity for a depth up to
3.8 cm, 16 per cent for 3.8-7.6 cm and 7 per cent for
7.6-11.4 cm. Gustafson's method has been used toobtain the values for Sb125 , psi and Ba140 + La140 given
in table I. The constants given in table I are calculated
for a height above the ground equal to 1 m. The dose-ratechanges little with height, being about 15 per cent higher
at 0.5 m than at 1 m from the ground. 19
Theoretical calrnlations of the total external dose
12. From the values of table I and the concentrationsof individual nuclides on the ground the dose-rate fromeach nuclide may be estimated. The relative contributions to the total external dose from the nuclides present
on the ground depend upon:(a) The fission product yield of the particular nuclide. This may vary with both the fission element andthe neutron energy. The yields of some nuclides, especially Ru106 and Sb125 may vary by a factor of up to
25 (F I, table I) ;( b) The residence time in the atmosphere which determines whether any short-lived products that areformed at the time of the explosion will contribute to
the ground level gamma-ray dose.H As has been shownby Dunning26 (figure 3) the ratio of the dose due toshort-lived nuclides to the Cs181 dose over 30 years mayvary from 10 to 0.4, depending upon whether the residence time is two weeks or ten years. The dose contributions are equal if the mean residence time is about 2.6
years;

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Figure 3. Theoretical relative 30-year doses for(short-lived fission products)/cesium-137( c) The gamma-ray energy as well as the half-lifeof the particular isotope. The energy will also determine
the relative importance of products present in the deeper
soil layers since the greater the energy the less the absorption within the soil ;(d) The latitudinal variation of fall-out. The distribution of fall-out from the troposphere is not the sameas that from the stratosphere (F I, 53).
13. To illustrate these effects on the dose at groundlevel, theoretical calculations of the dose-rates fromvarious nuclides at equilibrium have been carried out
for various atmospheric residence times. The yields given
by Katcoff21 for fast neutron fission of U 238 have been
assumed and the calculations are based on a constantfall-out rate of Sr00 of 2 me per km 2/y which is approximately the world average over the surface of the earth
for 1959. Assuming further that the rate of deposition ofCs137 is 1.7 times higher than that of Sr9° (FI, 81) andthat the geographical factor is 1.9, this leads to a world
population weighted mean fall-out rate of Cs137 in 1959
of approximately 6 me per km2/y. Table II gives thedose-rates in air which would arise from various nuclides
if this fall-out rate continued until equilibrium conditions are set up on the ground. It will be seen that the
shorter the atmospheric residence time the higher thedose-rate because of the effect of the short-lived products,
especially Zr 95
Nb95 • Concentrations equal to 90 per
cent of the equilibrium value will be reached in about one
year or so for most of these short-lived products, whereas
the equilibrium for Cs137 would only be reached after
33 or 100 years, depending on the assumption made as
to the effective half-life of Cs1 s7 on the ground.

+

FACTORS AFFECTING DOSE TO TISStJES

14. The doses reported so far give the external doserates measured in air. To estimate the actual doses thathave been received or will be received by individuals, thefollowing factors must be taken into consideration.

Weathering
15. Some of the fall-out material on the surface ofthe earth is transferred by rain into lower layers of soil
and also washed off hard surfaces such as roads andpavements. Measurements made in the United King350

dom14 showed that the slow penetration of Cs131 into
undisturbed soil reduced the external dose-rate by 20 to30 per cent over four to five years; thus the external
dose-rate decreased with an effective half-life of about
ten years. Agricultural procedures which cause fission
products to become uniformly mixed in the first 20 to 30
cm of soil will cause a considerable reduction in the total
external dose from Cs 137 but the dose will subsequently
decrease with the 30-year half-life of the nuclide. The
attenuation of the external exposure due to cultivation
is not however taken into account in this assessment.
The effect of weathering will not be so important in thecase of the short-lived fission products which will havedecayed before any appreciable penetration into the soil.
Snow will reduce the dose-rate of external radiation,and measurements carried out by Sievert2 are shown infigure 4. Calculations of this effect have also been carriedout.19,2s

17. The shielding factors may be slightly larger for
fall-out, as the average gamma energy from fall-out is
O.i Me V 33 • 3 ·1 whilst the energy from Co60 is 1.1-1.3
MeV. To estimate the reduction in daily dose due tothis shielding, an assumption must be made regarding thetime spent in and out of doors. According to the information given in the United Nations Demographic Yearbook, 1960, 35 it is estimated that one-third of the world's
population live in urban and two-thirds in rural communities. Assuming that the time spent out of doors isthree and nine hours per day, respectively, a world average time out of doors of 7 hours per day is obtained. A
shielding factor of 5 has been taken as the world averagevalue, and with an average time spent indoors of 17 hours
the over-all reduction of dose due to shielding has beentaken as 0:4.
Screening by the httman body
18. To obtain the doses received by different bodyorgans it is necessary to allow for the attenuation by
the intervening body tissues. Measurements conductedby Spiers 36 using sources over a 371' geometry gave values
as in table IV. This shows the screening factors tomarrow, testes, and ovary for different energies of radiation. The factors agreed well with those theoreticallyderived by O'Brien. 37 The values of the screening factor
for the gonads and bone marrow given in table IV are
sufficiently similar for the mean energy of fission products of 0.7 MeV to justify applying an average value of
0.6 both to gonads and to bone marrow.

Shielding by building structures

16. External radiation is absorbed by building materials, and therefore doses received inside buildings willbe less than those outside. This dose reduction factor
has been estimated by making measurements in manydifferent places inside buildings, whilst a Co60 source waspassed through a continuous polythene tube laid over theroof of and ground adjacent to several different typesof buildings. w- 31 Fixed arrays of cobalt and caesium
sources have also been used.H Table III shows the wide
range of shielding factors which have been experimentally derived and indicate the importance of thecontribution to the dose on the top floor of a building
due to the fall-out products on the roof.

Combined shielding and screening factors
19. The combined effect of shielding and screening
therefore produces a dose reduction factor of 0.2 which
Station A2

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Figure 4a. Variations of the dose-rate during thefalling of the snow

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M~y 1961

21-

Figure 4b. Variations of the dose-rate during themelting of the snow layer

351

31

\Vill be used to convert air doses to doses to the gonads
and to the bone marrow. The value of 0.2 may be considered as a world average, and it must be emphasizedthat a wide range of values up to the maximum of 0.6
would obtain in particular countries, depending on thetypes of dwelling houses and the average time spent outof doors.

Combining the dose commitments from Cs 137 and shortlived products, the total dose commitment due to externalradiation would be 27 mrem and 30 mrem for testing
ending 1960 and 1961 respectively.

DosES DUE TO EXTERNAL SOURCES

24. (a) Caesium131 • From the continued testing conditions postulated in F I, 110 of 1 Mc Sr90 injected peryear and allowing for an effective half-life of 10 years
for Cs187 on the ground, an equilibrium deposit on the
ground would exist when the fall-out rate of Cs13T equals
the effective rate of removal of Cs137 from the superficial layer of the ground, i.e.
Fr=(µ+X)Fd(oo)whereµ= effective weathering constantX= radio-active transformation constant
Fd ( oo) = fall-out deposit averaged over the surface ofthe earth

20. Comparison of published reports on doses isdifficult owing to differing methods of calculation. The
dose and dose-rate from fall-out have been given either
from the total deposition on the ground or from theportion which has fallen out during a fixed period,
ignoring past depositions.
21. The doses reported in the following sections are
the population world average doses measured in air,and after presenting these the tissue doses will be derived
by applying the shielding and screening factor of 0.2.

Total extenuzl dose in air received from testingfrom 1954 to August 1961
22. The measurements of the total external dose in
Sweden and the United Kingdom given in figure 2ahave been used to derive a population weighted external
dose during this period. Graphical integration of thesecurves gives total air doses of 46 and 68 mrad respectively. These measurements were taken for areas inwhich the values for Fd/Fd were approximately 1.5 and
1.9 for Sweden and the United Kingdom respectively.
The mean population weighted external dose in air (forG = 1.9) is therefore 63 mrad during this period. The
total dose to the gonads and bone marrow during thisperiod is therefore 13 mrem.

Total external dose commitment from testing up to
the end of 1960 and the end of 1961
23. This estimate is made in two parts-the contribution from Cs 137 and from short-lived products.
(a) Caesium131 • The estimate of ground level concentration of Cs187 may be deduced from annex F,part I, figure 37, which shows the total Sr90 deposit on
the ground,* by using a relative yield factor for Cs137
of 1.7 and a geographical factor of 1.9. The air dose
received up to the end of 1960 from Cs187 iS therefore
10 mrad. Assuming an effective half-life of 10 years for
Cs 137 on the ground, the air dose received by m~dover all generations would be 80 and 92 mrad for testmg
ending in 1960 and 1961 respectively. The dose commitment for the gonads and bone marrow would therefore be 16 and 18 mrem for tests ending 1960 and 1961
respectively, and 92 and 94 per cent of these dose commitments would have been received by the year 2000.
(b) Short-lived products. It has been shown that the
air dose up to August 1961 was 63 mrad and that Cs187
contributed 10 mrad, therefore it may be assumed thatthe dose commitment from short-lived products is 53 X
0.2 = 10.6 r.J 11 mrem for testing up to the end of 1960.
The dose from short-lived products may be approximately calculated for further testing by using the ratiosof the yields of Sr90 • Therefore the short-lived contribution due to testing up to the end of 1%1, whenaccording to the proposed model a further 1 Mc of Sr90
had been injected, would be 10.6 X 7.6/6.6 ,_, 12 mrem.

* The Sr90 deposits have been estimated for a partial area ofthe earth of 471 X 106 sq km. F I, table XIV.

Total external dose commitment which would bereceived imder conditions of continued testingi.e., 3.4 = -~~ F c1 ( oo)3

Therefore F 4 ( oo ) = 49 mc/km2
Assuming that the geographical factor is 1.9 and thatthe external dose rate from 1 mcflan2 of Cs 137 is 0.12
mrad/y, the air dose-rate would be 11 mrad/y. Therefore the dose commitment due to one year's testing would
be 2.2 mrem (H 48).
(b) Short-lived products. The dose commitment of
10.6 mrem has been received (paragraph 23) from theinjection of 6.6 Mc Sr90 and therefore the annual injection of 1 Mc Sr9° will give a dose commitment of 1.6
mrem from short-lived external deposit. No weatheringfactor needs to be used.
25. Therefore the total dose commitment from external radiation per year of testing is 3.8 mrem. It should
be noted that the dose from short-lived products isreceived in the immediately following years whereas thedose from Cs 137 will extend over many years (table V).

m. Internal exposure
26. Three types of internal exposure must be considered:{a) Ingested radio-nuclides which are absorbed fromthe gastro-intestinal tract. The important fission products
from this viewpoint are Sr90 and Cs137 and the sbortlived radio-nuclides Sr89 , Ba140 and 1131 • The manner inwhich they are absorbed and retained in the body is discussed in annex F, part II, paragraphs 2. 9-12, 31-36,
130-132, 153-154. In addition to fission products, theneutron induced radio-nuclides cu and H 3 must be considered, although the latter is of less importance;( b) Ingested radio-nuclides in passage through thegastro-intestinal tract. These comprise those radionuclides which are either not, or only partially, absorbed,
and which cause irradiation of the mucosa! lining of
the GI tract;( c) Inhaled radio-active particles. These \Vill be deposited, depending on their size, into the upper or lower
portions of the lungs where, if they are not removedby exhalation or ciliary action, they will irradiate thelung tissue and particularly those cells in the immediateneighbourhood.
352

INGESTED RADIO-NUCLIDES

27. The appropriate basis for assessing tht? exposureof populations is discussed in anne.--< H. ~ hnear do~erelationship is assumed; .thus the mean tt~sue dose !sused for estimating the nsk to the population. On thisbasis the variation between individuals need not be considered. Ho\vever, this would become important if athreshold concept were accepted. 58 Information on variability in intakes of Sr 90 and Cs137 is given in annex F,part II, paragraphs 51-61. T.he pro~lems associated "":ithlong-term retention and distnbut10n. of. bone-seeki?gradio-nuclides in the skeleton, and with mhomogeneityof dose in individual bones are discussed in annex H.
Observed variations in the concentration of Sr90 withage and in individual bones of the adult skeleton are
described in annex F, part II, paragraphs 82-84.

Strontitem-90
Concentrations in diet and bone
28. The data available up to the present time on theconcentration of Sr90 in bone in children up to four yearsof age (F II, 80-89, tables XX, XXI) h~ve been take!1 torepresent the concentration in new bone m the population.
It has been shown (F II, 31-36, 90, 91, table XXIV)
that the ratio of Sr90 to calcium in this bone is about
one quarter of that in diet. The OR (bone/di~t) is. therefore taken as 0.25. Hence future concentrations m newbone can be derived from the predicted levels in diet
(F II, 103-107, 120, 121) which have been calculated
from the models described previously (F I, 110).
Dose from Sr90 in bone
29. Several theoretical estimations of the dose received
in bone and bone marrow from 1 µ.µ.c of Sr90 per gramof calcium have been reported, 39- 45 These show that thedose to compact bone is about 2.7 mrem/y.. The dos~­
rate at various distances from bone surfaces is shown mfigure 5. For the purpose of the estimation of the f3. doseto cells lining bone surfaces it has been assumed m thepresent report that the f3 dos; re~eived is one hal! of the
f3 dose within bone. The estimation ~f the_ dose m_bi;memarrow cavities due to the incorporation ot a µ-em1tt1?gnuclide in the surrounding bone is complex. The energiesof the f3 particles are distributed over a broad spectrum,and for each energy a specific range in bone and }n soft
tissues or a combination of the two must be considered.
The dose to the bone marrow also depends on the sizeof the marrow cavity and of the bone trabeculae. Whenthe thicknesses of the trabeculae are less than the rangeof the f3 particles, electronic equilibrium conditions within the bone will not exist. The mean size of the marrowcavities in different bones varies, depending on the site,
between 400-700 µ. \vith maximum sizes as large as 1 mm
in the vertebral bodies ...-i Table VI shows the comparisonof bone marrow doses to bone doses for a 500 µ. marrowcavity and three different trabeculae thicknesses. For
Sra 0 + yuo the mean value of the ratio bone marrow
dose: compact bone dose for this size of marrow space
is taken as 0.25. and the dose to bone marrow from 1 µ.µ.c
Sr90/g calcium is taken as 0.7 mrem/y.

Met hod of estimation of mean population dose
30. Methods of estimation of the mean populationdose due to long-term ingestion of Sr90 have been reported.19• 2 s. ' 7· ' 8 The estimation of mean pop~lation
weighted doses to th: above tiss_ues has.been earned out
on the following basis. The maJOr portion of the strontium is laid down during the growth years 0-20 and once
deposited remains fixed after about the age of 2, except
for the turnover of 1-10%/y due to exchange processes
and bone resorption (F II, 81). Sr90 i;icorporated in theearly years will therefore decay, leadm~ !o a to~l doselower than if a constant new bone acbv1ty durmg thewhole of the life is assumed. A factor F, called the dose
increment factor is introduced to take into account therate of bone acc;etion and the radio-active decay of thenuclide. The factor F for Sr90 has been derive~ by
Lindell,19 and figure 6 shows the val1;1es for various
conditions of bone growth and resorption. A value of
F = 0.6 is used in this report for Sr9°, representing the
average value of the resorptio~ ra~e~. Therefore ~e bonedose actually received by an md1vidual over his wholeF'lOM

1111 k0 • ~Sr•Ill ka•~••o.y,..,.

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u

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40

60,....

021)•go ol~F.,oMId) k.·

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0Figure 6. The dose increment factor F,.(u) ~oran expected life span of 70 years, as a functionof age of uptake.
(a) Extreme case of instantaneous equilibrium
between bone and environmental Sr90 , with
infinite turnover constant.
(b) Biological half life for Sr and Ca assumed
to be 7 years (ks,=0.1/year).
(c) Biological half life for Sr and Ca assumed
to be 50 years (ks,=0.014/year). Note theincreasing importance of uptake and ret~­tion in childhood, and the reduced uptake m
the adult.
(d) Essentially no Sr and Ca turn-over. Uptake
only d~ring bone growth in childhood.

BONE
MARROW
500
IHTERSPACE MICRONS

1000

Fig1ire S. Central dose rates for in~nite s~dwich c;if bone slabs
labelled with Sr9o, interleaved w1tp d micron thick sheets.. ofbone marrow.-H The full lines give the date of En_gstrom,
Bjiirnerstedt, Clemedson and Nelso11,• 6 the dotted hnes thedata of Libby• 5353

lifetime, assuming a constant contamination, may be
deduced from the following expression which also gives
the dose commitment from any given pattern of contamination.

De = F"Y J~ c(t) dt

(2)

where
D, =total dose in mrem
F = dose increment factor (assumed average value 0.6)
"Y
= dose-rate for unit concentration (2. 7 mrem/y /µ.µ.c Sr9°/g Ca to bone, 0.7 mrem/y/µ.µ.c Sr'°/g Ca to bone marrow)c(t) = Ratio Sr90/Ca in the salts entering bone (µ.µ.c
Sr90jg Ca, assumed equal to 0.25 X diet concentration)
31. Estimates of doses from Sr90 are based on data
to be found in other sections of this annex. The total
depositions and fall-out rates arising after various
periods of testing are shown in annex F, part I, figures
37 and 38 respectively. The levels of Sr110 in bone in
the years 1954-1960 are reported in annex F, part II,
tables XX and XXIV. Future concentration in the three
types of diet and in bone are given in annex F, part II,
paragraph 121, and are based on the proportionality
factors given in annex F, part II, table XXVII, and thefuture levels of Sr9° fall-out rate and deposit, assumingthat for the latter there will be a 2%/y reduction due
to the effects of weathering and agricultural procedures
and to the removal of strontium from the soil by crops(F II, 120).
Dose commitment from Sr90 due to testing carried out
up to the end of 1960 and the end of 1961

32. The bone dose received up to August 1961 has
been estimated on the basis of the population weighted
average values of the Sr90 to calcium ratio in the bonesof children up to four years of age for each year from
1959-1960. These values have been calculated from thedata of annex F, part II, table XX, and are given intable VII. Allowance has been made for the number ofsamples and the populations represented. The approximate nature of these values, in view of the large populations unrepresented, or represented by very few values,
must however be recognized. The contribution to thedose commitment-formula (2)-received by bone cells
is 12 mrem, by cells lining bone surfaces 6 mrem, andby the bone marrow 3 mrem.

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g

~:

u

...
Cl

~

0

asa

195ll

1'10

1910

lffO

1000

Eqodlibrl=> n1..

0[

Figure 7. Population weighted concentrations of Sreo in diet andbone for testing up to the end of 1960 and to the end of 1961
X Measured Sr 00 in the bones of children
0-4 years old (F II, table XX)

34. The dose commitments to bone cells, to cells liningbone surfaces, and to the bone marrow, have been calculated using formula (2) and the graphically integrated
curve of bone concentration given in figure 7. \Vhen combined with the contribution to the dose commitment derived from measured data up to 1960 (para. 32), thedose commitments to bone cells, cells lining bone surfaces
and bone marrow are 133, 67, and 33 respectively, for
testing up to the end of 1960. The dose commitments
are 158, 79, and 40, respectively, for testing carried out
up to the end of 1961 at the assumed rate. By the year
2000 some 91 and 92 per cent of the dose commitment
would have been reached for tests ending in 1960 and1961 respectively.
Dose commitment from Sr 90 which would be received
under conditions of continued testing
35. The population weighted world average concentration in diet and bone resulting from continued testinghas been calculated from the predicted levels in thethree approximate model diets using the method described previously, and is given in figure 7.

36. The dose commitment from one year of testing
to bone cells, to cells lining bone surfaces, and to thebone marrow would be 21, 11 and 5 mrem, respectively.
The dose commitments from Sr90 for the three conditionsof testing are summarized in table XL

33. Future levels of Sr90 in the approximate model
diets are given in annex F, part II, paragraph 120, fortests up to 1960 and 1961. From these a world average
concentration has been obtained by weighting the values
for each diet by population and geographical distribution,
assuming that the latitudinal distribution of fall-out will
repeat the pattern observed so far. The diet types for
populations and the F .i/Fd ratios used are shown intable VIII. Obviously some gross assumptions have had
to be made in view of the lack of more exact information,
but it may be noted that the values of concentration
calculated for different diets do not differ by more thana factor of 2 (F II, figure 6). The population weighted
average diet is derived by adding together for each dietthe values obtained by the following formula:::!:: N1 X

The composite population weighted diet and the corresponding bone concentrations in different years are
given in figure 7.

Cs1 17 in whole body and bone

37. The biological half-life of Cs131 is four months,
and therefore the body will reach an equilibrium withthe diet after a few months' delay. The distribution isreasonably uniform throughout the whole of the soft
tissues, but a slightly higher concentration in bone has
been observed ( F II, 130-133, 140-145). Dose estimates
are therefore required both for the gonad dose and forthe bone and bone marrow dose. Measurements• 9 of thecontent of Cs 137 in specimens from 114 subjects haveshown a ratio of 2.2 between bone (including marrow)and muscle. This higher concentration of Cs 137 in boneleads to a bone marrow dose 30 per cent higher than soft
tissue doses if the same model of marrow cavity size
as in paragraph 29 is used. The difference in concentration, however, has not been confirmed in other repo.rts.

Fd/ff'.i Concentrat1on. D"1et1·where N 1 is population given in table VIII, column 3,
and FJF'd, given in column 4, is defined in paragraph 4.
354

38. The dose calculations may be carried out in termsof the dose-rate from 1 p.p.c Cs 187/g of soft tissue or thatfrom 1 p.µ.c Cs131/g of potassium. Values have been reported for the former in the range 7.3-11 mrem/19 • 28 • 60
and a mean value of 10 mrem/y will be used in thepresent report. The differences between these figures arc
due to the method of calculation of the gamma-ray contribution to the body dose. The dose-rates to bone cells
and to bone marrow are therefore 22 and 13 mrem/y on
the basis of the measurements reported49 and the dose tocells lining bone surfaces has been taken as 18 mrem/y.
Since there are about 140 g of potassium in a 70 kg man,
1 p.µ.c Cs 137/g potassium will deliver 0.044, 0.036 and0.026 mrem/y to bone cells, cells lining bone surfaces
and bone marrow respectively.
Dose commitment from internal exposure to Cs d1te to
testing up to the end of 1960 and the end of 1961
131

39. The mean value of the whole body measurements
for the years 1958-1960 was 60 p.p.c Cs137/g K (F II, table
XXXIII). Assuming that this level had been maintainedfor five years, the contribution to the dose commitment
to bone cells, cells lining bone surfaces, bone marrow,and to the gonads are 13, 11, 8 and 6 mrem respectively.

paragraph 82. The average dose to the whole body is
1.06 mrem/y, and, as a consequence of their different
carbon contents, the dose to bone is 1.64 mrem/y andthat to soft tissue 0.71 mrem/y. Therefore the dose produced by a known amount of ea formed during weapon
testing may be estimated by direct comparison with therates of production of naturally occurring ci. and withthe resulting doses.47• 51 - 5 • The dose commitment, which
may be estimated with reasonable accuracy this way,,'
will be received over many generations, as the mean lifeof C14 is 8,000 years, but estimates of the dose to thisgeneration necessitate the use of the limited data described in annex F, part I, paragraph 118, regarding
the distribution of C14 in nature.
43. The dose-rate r from N 1 atoms of artificially produced O• in reservoir I (i.e., the atmosphere and surface
waters of the ocean) therefore will beNIQ
r = ro -N = ~ f(t)
(3)
lo

N10

where
r 0 = annual dose from naturally occurring C 14
N 10 = number of C 14 atoms in reservoir I= 86 x 1027 atoms c 1•
Q = number of atoms formedf(t) = distribution of C 14 into the other ( 14 reservoirs
with time

40. With a discontinuation of the tests, the levels of
Cs 137 in the body would be expected to decline in a man·ner similar to that observed in late 1959 and in 1960
( F II, 146-149). By extrapolation from the data in annex
F, part II, figure 8, it can be estimated that the concentration of Cs137 in the body will be reduced to one-tenthin about 3 years after the cessation of tests. This corresponds to an effective mean life of Cs137 of 1.4 years.
Therefore the dose commitment from Cs137 for testing
up to the end of 1960 was 17, 14, 10 and 8 mrem forbone cells, cells lining bone surfaces, bone marrow andgonads, respectively. The dose commitment from testing
up to the end of 1961 may be estimated by adding thedose commitment from one year of testing to thesevalues (para. 41).

Therefore the dose in a given time t may be obtainedby integration(4)
J~ f(t)dt is expressed algebraically in F I, 118, on thebasis of the observed distribution of cu innature.

Dose commitment from ea dtte to testing up to the endof 1960 and the end of 1961

44. The total C1 4 formed by weapon testing up to
August 196:yis estimated as 22 X 1027 atoms (FI, table
XVII). Therefore the dose commitment may be calculated from the naturally occurring C1 4 formation rateand consequent dose-rates. Using the symbols given inparagraph 43

Dose commitment from internal exposure to Cs 131 1,nderconditions of continued testing
41. In anne..""C F, part II, paragraph 150, limits havebeen set to the magnitude of the resultant internal radi~­tion dose in relation to the external dose from thisnuclide. The dose commitment for internal Cs137 fromone year of testing is assumed to be equal to

D . . = r 0 Q.
{3

Cs 137 deposit at equilibrium
csm deposit 1959

(5)

42. The natural rate of formation of CH is 3.22 X 1028
atoms C14/y. The radiation doses to tissues from naturally occurring CH in nature are given in annex E,

where f3 = 3.22 X 1026 atoms C1'/y. Therefore the dose
commitment due to testing up to the end of 1960 to thebone cells, cells lining bone surfaces, bone i:iarrow .an.d
gonads is 111, 80, 48 and 48 mrem respectively. S1m1larly, the dose commitment due to testing to the end of1961 when, according to the model, a further 1028 C1'
atoms have been injected, would be 162, 116, 70 and
70 mrem respectively to the same tissues. The portionof the dose commitment received in any period of time_,
may be estimated by using formula ( 4). It is shown inannex F, part I, paragraph 118, that for an injection of
22 X 1027 atoms this equation is as follows:This expression can only be C."'{pected to give approximate values, as it is based on a highly simplified modelof the transport of the C14 in the atmosphere and oceans.
The gonad dose given by formula (6), which will be_Internal Cs137 dose 19~9 X

The dose commitment from one year of testing is therefore 6.6, 5.3, 3.9, 3.1 mrem for bone cells, cells liningbone surfaces, bone marrow and gonads.
C 1.. in whole body355

received by the year 2000, is 5 mrem, i.e., 10 per cent of
the dose commitment.

Dose commitment fromci' due to continued testing

45. Under conditions of continued testing/it is assumed in annex F, part I, paragraph 119, that 10 28 C14
atoms are injected annually. From one such injection thedose commitment is 51, 37, 22, 22 mrem to the bone cells,
cells lining bone surfaces, bone marrow and gonads respectively. Only 10 per cent of this dose however will
be received in the next fifty years.

ci

Reductio1i of dose from 4 due to combustion of fttels
46. The increasing combustion of fossilized fuels,
such as oil and coal, results in a reduction in the specificactivity of the C1 4 in the atmosphere due to the additionof "C14 -free" carbon dioxide. This effect is called theSuess effect and is described in annex F, part I, paragraph 68.
47. According to Suess 55 the average rate of combustion of these fuels since 1950 is 82 X 1011 kg/y. Thisrate is increasing with a doubling time of 20 years sothat by the year 2000 the rate may be 5-6 times higher.
48. The total C0 2 content of the atmosphw/is 21 X
1014 kg, and, since the start of industrial co;/ combustion, some 14 per cent of this amount has been injected
into the atmosphere. With the above input rates).t isestimated that the total amount of carbon added by theyear 2ooq :will be 50 per cent of the atmospheric reservoir. The average residence time given by Suess for a
carbon atom in the atmosphere is only 10 years before
it is transferred to the ocean. Therefore the present decrease in specific activity of the atmosphere due to thiscause is only about 2 per cent which corresponds to a
total input of 14 per cent. By integration, it is calculated
that the decrease in specie activity by the year 2000
will be about 6 per cent corresponding to the 50 per centtotal input. This effect would therefore cause a corresponding reduction in the gonad doses from C14 which
may be received by the year 2000.

H' in the body
49. The natural level of tritium in water is 5 X l0-18
tritium atoms per hydrogen atom, and the soft tissue
dose corresponding to this level is 1.8 X l<r3 mrem/y.
Tritium is formed in the process of the explosion of afusion type weapon (FI, 18). On several occasions since
1953, in the northern hemisphere the tropospheric concentration of tritium in rain water56- 59 has been obsen•ed
to be approximately a hundred times greater than thenormal. However, these levels are greatly reduced bydilution in the mixed surface layers of the ocean. Thiseffect, as well as the relative· short half-life of 12 years
and the low energy beta-radiation of tritium, accounts
for the dose levels to soft tissue being very low. 41

the estimated levels of these nuclides in the diet.
sru in bone

51. Because the metabolism of Sr89 is the same as thatof Sr110 , the radiation dose from Sr89 can be estimatedfrom that for Sr90 on the basis of the ratio of the two
nuclides in diet and the relative magnitude of the tissue
doses caused by the ingestion of 1 µ.c of each nuclide.
52. The radiation dose-rate from 1 p.p.c Sr89/g Ca
maintained in bone is 1.5 mrem/y and 0.33 mrem/y tobone marrow. This latter value is interpolated from thedata given by Bjomerstedt46 who showed that for a 0.5
MeV ~-emitter the average dose to bone marrow is
17 per cent of the dose to bone, whilst for Sr90
Y 90
it is 25 per cent (para. 29). The mean dose increment
factor F for Sr8' is .005.
53. During the years 1955-1960 the mean concentration of Sr9° in bone was 1.3 µµc/g Ca and the averageworld concentration of Sr89 in rainfall was about ten
times that of Sr00 • 65 The Sr89/Sr>° ratio in milk measured in the United Kingdom, Canada and the UnitedStates during 1958 showed that the activity in milk
approached half of that in rain. 64 Assuming the level inmilk corresponds to that in diet type I, and that the concentration in bone depends mainly on the rate of fall-out,
the total dose can be calculated from formula (2) (para.
30) for the years 1954-1960 in which 6.6 Mc Sr90 were
injected into the stratosphere. The resulting population
weighted dose to bone due to Sr9 9 from an injection of
1 Mc Sr9° would be 0.05 mrem and that to bone marrow
0.01 mrem. These values represent the dose commitment
from Sr 89 since the total dose from this isotope is received in one year. They are less than 1 per cent of thedose commitment from Sr90 •54. There are very few data on the Sr8 9/Sr9° ratio inbone. A series of United Kingdom measurements forthe latter half of 1957 showed an average value of 2.3
for post-mortem specimens from some 60 children inage range 0-4 years. 65 At the time of death the resulting
dose-rate from Sr8 9 in this bone was therefore approximately equal to that from Sr 0 • In view of the ratios of
their half-lives, the dose commitment for Sr8° would
thus be less than 1 per cent of that for Sr9°. This is inreasonable conformity with the dietary estimates givenin the previous paragraph.

+

Ba140 and Lauo in bone
55. Since the metabolism of barium is very similar
to that of strontium, the dose to bone from Ba140 and
La140 can be considered in the manner adopted for Sr89
in paragraph 53. The fission yields of Ba140 and Sr89 arevery similar, although the disintegration energy of
BaH0 + l..a140 is about twice that of Sr8 9 • However, theuptake of barium from the GI tract both in the cow andin man is much smaller than that for strontium and theshorter half-life will make for greater decay before its
entry into diet. 61 • 6 ' On account of these considerations,the dose commitment from Ba140
La140 is much
9
smaller than that from Sr8 and is accordingly neglected.

Short-lived isotopes+

50. Consideration is given here to the doses to the
GI tract, to the lungs, as well as to the concentrations in
the body of SrS 9 , BaH 0
La140 and l1 31 • 60-e 2 These have
half-lives of 51, 12. 8 days respectively. The concentrations of the short-lived isotopes in milk follow the pattern of weapons testing (F II, 151-155) but vary depending on the time involved between the explosion and contamination of the vegetation. The available informationon the levels of short-lived fission products in man is not
sufficient for accurate estimation of the radiation doses.
Many of the following dose calculations are based on+

Jm in thyroid

56. Measurable levels of P 31 have been found in the
thyroid glands of man and animals soon after the detonation of nuclear weapons. 6 s- 7o !1 31 enters the body
mainly in fresh foods; milk is the predominant source
in many areas. As a result of tests conducted in theautumn of 1961, the average concentrations in milk
produced in the United Kingdom 11 and the United
356

States 72 • 7 3 were 110 and 135 p.p.c/1 respectively over a
period of ten weeks. Thereafter the levels declined rapidly (F II, figure 11).

that the dose to the lower large intestine from this cause
is negligible.
61. An alternative approach would be to use the factthat during 1958-1959 in the United Kingdom less than
10 per cent of the body intake of Sr 90 arose from contamination of water and air. If it is assumed that the:ntake of strontium arising from air and water was accompanied by mixed fission products of age greater than
one month. the dose to the GI tract can be computed by
the method of Greitz 75 as about 1 mrem/y. This value
is in conformity with that derived in the previous paragraph.

57. The radiation dose to the thyroid varies greatly
depending on the age of the subject and the nature of
the diet. Because of their higher absorption of iodine
and of the smaller size of their thyroid glands infantsreceive a considerably larger dose than adults from thesame intake of !1 31 .1" Furthermore. if infants are fed on
fresh milk, their intake of 1131 may exceed that of adults.
However, even in countries where milk is a major component of their diet, many children are fed largely or
entirely on prepared milk products in which the 11 31 will
have decayed so that the exposure of their thyroid glands
is correspondingly reduced.

58. The pattern of distribution of short-lived activities
is very different from that of long-lived materials andconsideration is here confined to areas where the deposition of iodine is appreciable. Moreover. the pattern ofdeposition of iodine may be very different for different
conditions of explosion. For reasons explained in annex
F, part I, paragraph 37, it is assumed that the patternof deposition of !1 31 observed in the autumn of 1961
will occur with each annual injection of 1 Mc Sr90 . Thisdeposition led to a mean level of 125 p.p.cjl, as averaged
over a period of ten weeks in the United States and theUnited Kingdom, and this figure is used as a basis forcalculation (table IX). Children under the age of one
year who consumed 0.5 litre per day of fresh milk may
have received a total dose of about 170 mrem, while
adults taking half this quantity of milk have received
only 4 mrem. In some countries the intake of fresh milk
by young children appreciably exceeds the value assumed
in table IX though elsewhere their intake is considerably
lower.

ENTRY OF RADIO-ACTIVITY INTO THE BODY THROUGHINHALATION

62. The average daily inhalation of certain fission
products in the United Kingdom during the years 19571960 is given in table X 14 and the concentration in groundlevel air is presented in anne..'C F, part I, figures 10 and
11. The average daily amounts of Cem, Ce1 "" and Zr95
inhaled in March to June 1958 have been reported as
8.8, 6.6 and 8.9 p.p.c respectively. 76- 78
63. When particles are inhaled into tht lungs. someare exhaled again, whilst of the remaining ones the larger
are mainly swallowed and ingested and the finer may beretained within the lung tissues for considerable periodsof time. Knowledge of their movement within the lungs,
however. is very limited. Because of the small range of/3-rays, very high doses occur in tissue in contact withthese particles. 70
64. The average dose-rates to the lungs may be deduced following the approach used by the ICRP. 50 The
average dose to the lungs from the concentrations ofCe141 , Ce1H and Zr95 reported above would be 0.14, 2.6
and 0.7 mrem/y respectively. From the world average
concentration of Sr90 in ground level air (FI, 56) the annual dose-rate would be about 1 mrem/y. Analyses of an'.lmber of post-mortem specimens 80 • 51 showed in 1959
that lungs contained total activities of Zr95 , Ru103 , Ce1 H
of 0.36, 0.6 and 0.02 p.p.c/g respectively. These would
give average dose-rates to the lungs of 3.2, 1.3 and .05
rr.rem/y respectively.

Mixed fission products in the GI tract
59. The dose to the GI tract is determined by thequantity of fission products entering the body by ingestion and inhalation. No direct measurements of thisquantity are available, however. Some gamma spectrometer measurements of faecal samples74 were carriedout in the United Kingdom in April-May 1959, which
was the period of highest fall-out contamination in air
in that year. The United Kingdom measurements showed
an average daily excretion of 150 p.p.c/day in214 g faeces
in addition to the total natural potassium activity of
577 p.p.c/day. Allowing for there being some beta-active
nuclides that are not gamma-emitters, the dose-rate in the
faecal material would be about 10 p.rad/day and about
half this for the adjacent tissue in the lower large intestine, which is the part of the GI tract sustaining thegreatest dose. The estimated excretion of Zr9 \ which is
not appreciably taken up through the GI tract, was
10 p.p.c/day and it is noteworthy that the average inhalation of this isotope over the period January-June 1959
was 12 µ.p.c/day. During this period also the total inhalation averaged 100 µ.µ.c/day beta activity compared withthe estimated e..'Ccretion of 150 p.p.c/day of gamma activity in the two-week period of the measurements; theintake during this period may well have been higher
than the av;erage.

65. A dose-rate to the lungs of 5 mrem/y may occur
during periods of testing but further information isrequired to obtain the average dose over prolonged
periods of time.
66. Some measurements have also been made of concentrations in pulmonary lymph nodes,1 4 and concentrations 12-64 times those of lung tissue have been rep-0rted.81
Su~n!ARY OF RADIATION DOSES TO TISSUESDUE TO FALL-OUT

67. Table XI shows the dose commitments to the population (H 15-21) for the periods of testing 1954-1960
and 1954-1961. respectively. The values for these two
periods differ owing to the assumption made in the illustrative model proposed in annex F, part I, paragraphs
110 and 119 that an injection of 11k Sr9° and the formation of 1028 atoms of C1 4 occurred in the year 1%1. The
fraction of the dose commitment reached by the year
2000 is also given. This fraction represents the dose
received by a particular tissue to that date plus the dosethat will be received from radio-active materials which

60. The measurements suggest that the dose-rate to
the lower large intestine was less than 2 mrem/y during
this period of very high air contamination, and that the
average dose over the five-year period 1955-1959 wasless than 1 mrem per year. These calculations suggest
357

are already incorporated within the tissue. It excludes
however any dose due to radio-active materials in theenvironment which have not yet been incorporated into
body tissues. The last column of the table gives the dose
commitments due to one year's injection according to
the proposed model. These may therefore be used as

TABLE l.

units to derive dose commitments from a given practiceof testing when the actual injections of Sr90 and formation of C14 are known. The values given in the table must
be considered as indicative rather than as accurate estimates because of the many assumptions on which their
computation rests.

PRODUCT OF GAMMA-RAY DOSE CONSTANTS ki X Bi FOR CERTAIN
RADIO-ISOTOPES BY VARIOUS WORKERS

k; X Bi in mradb Per mc/Jmi>

Lou:it"et al.

Mahmoud' ..

0.129
0.137
(0.46)
0.091
0.031

0.082
0.085
(0.29)
0.055
0.018

0.35

0.11

0.06

0.077

0.008
0.009

0.008
0.003

0.008

IsotopeZr•:~· · · · · · · · · · • · · · · ·}o.14**
Nb ....•............

+°" ..........•.....•

Zr95
NbH•** ........ .
Ruto3 .•....•...•...... 0.046
Ru 1
0.019
SbtU .. : ............... 1m ..••...............

Collins,,.
et al.

0.5
0.1
0.04
0.06
0.05
0.12
0.13
0.03
0.01
0.01

0.025

-

Csll 7 •• , ••••••••••••••• 0.056
Ba1'°La1'°. . . . . . . . . . eeu1 ••••.............. 0.005
Ce"' ................. 0.004++• Does not include contribution due to build-up factor, i.e., values are fork; only.

** Contribution due to 1 me Zr'6 plus 1 me Nb111•*** Contribution due to 1 me Zr" plus 2.4 me Nb" (transient equilibrium conditions).

TABLE II.

AIR DOSE-RATES AT 1 !l!ETRE FRO!\! GROUND FRO!\! RADIO·NUCLIDES IN EQUIUBRIUM FOR V..\RIOUS
ATMOSPHERIC RESIDENCE TIMES AND CONSTANT Csl3T FALL-OUT RATE OF 6 mcjkm=/y.

AlmosplierU:
residence time

mrem/yHalfdays

Mean-

'ears

Zr"-"111095

RulP

Ru'"

Sb.,._

25 ...............
63 ...............
126 ...............
247 ...............
2.5y ..............

0.1
0.25
0.5
1.0
3.6

85.7
45.5
17.3
2.5

15.7
5.8
1.2
0.5

4.3
3.9
3.3
2.3
0.4

0.58
0.55
0.51
0.43
0.18

0.3

0.6

0.4

3.3

6.7

0.07

903 equilibrium
set up after years

ee•«
5.3
0.3

0.12

1.7

1.7

0.7
0.1

1.6
1.3
0.8
0.1

0.3

2.6

Total

Cs!Sl

"'']

31.2.
or
12

58.4
23.7
6.5
0.7

100 or
33•**The value used for the yield of Sbl!.5 is 0.24 which is a meanvalue of the yield between the fission neutron and 14 l\IeV neutron
fission of um (FI, table I).

*These values depend on whether a 30 y or a 10 y half-life isassumed fori.e., if weathering is not or is allowed for. The
equilibrium concentrations would be 261 and 97 mc/km1 respectively.

esw,

358

TABLE III.

SHIU..DING FACTORS

Wall thickness

Large buiUJingio•

Basement
FirsttSecondThird

Roof lhick,.,,ss

41cm concrete
20cm concrete 11 cm
brick
20cm concrete 11 cm
brick
20cm concrete 11 cm
brick

500-10,000
80-100200-300
250

Floor directly
under roof

20cm concrete
5cm insulation
10cm concrete
5cm insulation

HousesConcrete blockit
Brick14
Cemesto and woodll ..

100
50

Basement
Firstt? 15crn concrete

Basement

4cm concrete and2.5cm asphalt paper

1.3cm wood, or
4cm wood above
windows
5cm wood

2.5cm insulation
1.3cm plaster14
3.9
8-35 (av. 20)
12.2

22cm brickFirsttWood frame 11•••

Basement
Firstt2.5
13
2.5

Light shielding
Japanese house=

1-2

t The first floor is the floor at ground level or just above incase of semi-basement house.
•Average conditions exist beyond 8 ft. from inner surface exterior wall. Dose rate X 5-10 times hi~her inside of window opening + 2 on first floor below window-sill level.
TABLE**Average of 4 houses assuming contribution from infinity.
•••Average of two houses.
pi;~fl...-;
No~: The effect of sloping ground has little effect on theshielding factors. The effect of having sources close to buildings
only, ignoring remote sources, increases the figures up to plus.:.1.

IV.

5ou:ENING FACTORS OF THE HUMAN BODY DETERYI:t."EDBY 3-:r GEOMETRY WITH OMNIDIRECTIONAL RADIATION
MeV

o.z

o.s

J.D

J.S

Z.D

Marrow ............ 0.57
Testes .••..••.•..•.. 0.5 7
Ovary ............•. 0.47

0.61
0.61
0.50

0.65
0.67
0.56

0.69
0.73
0.61

0.75
0.78
0.66

TABLE V.

POPULATION WEIGHTED GON.-ill AND BONE-MARROW DOSES (ASSUMED EQUAL) DUE TO
EXTER..'\'AL RADIATION FROM FALL-OUT (G= 1.9)

Doses received from 1954-August 1961 (based on
measurements). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . • . . . . . . . • . . .
Estimated dose commitment from testing up to theend of 1960...................................
Fraction by year 2000. . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Estimated dose commitment from testing up to theend of 1961...................................
Fraction by year 2000. . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . • • . .
Total dose received by mankind in all generations per
year of testing (1 Mc Sr"/y)...................

TABLE VI.

csm

Short-lired
mrem

mrem

Total
mrem

11

2

13

11
1.0

16
0.94

27
0.97

12
1.0

18
0.92

30
0.95

1.6

2.2

3.8

RATIO OF MARROW DOSE TO BONE DOSE FOR BONE CONTAINING Srso
Thicknessof trabeadae

500"'
500"'
SOOµ

70 µ.
125 µ.
100 µ.

0.23
0.26
0.28-0.31

359

Bjornerstedt (Theoretical) 15
Spiers (Experimenta1) 39
Libby (Theoretical) 41

TABLE VII.

THE CONCENTRATION OF Srso IN 0-4 y OLD BONE BASED ox
ANNEX F, PART II, '!'ABLExxµµc/g Ca

ppc/gCa

1955.............................
1956.............................

0.6
0.7

1958................ •. . . . . . . . . . . .
1959.............................

1.4
1.8

1957.............................

1.2

1960.............................

1.8

TABLE VIII. ASSUMED DIET TYPES, POPULATIONS AND FdJFd RATIOS USED TO COMPUTE
A POPULATION \VEIGHTED WORLD DIET (F II, table XXIV)
Anumeddidt:,ipePopu/alimt N;

x 10'

FJFd

EuropeOceania

220
622
15

2.3
2.0
0.5

II

Near East
Asia (India)
S. America
Africa

65
400
136
247

2.3
2.3
0.5
0.6

III

Asia and Far East

765

2.3

C. America

40

1.5

Area

N. America

From these values a population weighted world average diet is derived as the sum of concentration diet 1 X 0.7, concentration diet II X 0.5, concentration diet III X 0.7.

TABLE IX.

ESTIMATED DOSES TO THE THYROID GLAND FROM 1181

It is assumed that the average level of 1181 in milk is 125 µµ.c/I over a period of ten weeks (para. 58).
Age

..,.

0.5 .....•........
3 .•...•.........

Quantity of fresh milk
consumLd per da:,iQ1<0nlil:,i of fresh milk
consumed per da:,i(litres)

Th:,iroid
dase
mrem

0.5
0.25

170

10 .....•.........

0.25

25

45

Adult •.•••...••••

0.25

4

TABLE

,,.

Age

x. AVE.RAGE DAILY INHALATION OF FALL-OUT NUCLIDES IN
VARIOUS YEARS IN THE UNITED KINGDOM
Micro-microcuries per da',1

1955

Total beta fission
products ••••. 13.3
Cs137 • • • • • • • • • • •0.22

Sr8° (calc.) ......

0.13

1956

20
0.24
0.14

Zrll' .•........•.

1957

0.00200.0021

1959
Jan.-Jur.e

1959
J uJ,,.Sept.

1959
Ocl.-Dec.

17

4
0.12
0.07

32
0.26
0.15

57
0.36
0.21

100
0.65

0.43
0.25

3.9•

6.2
3b

12

0.8

0.06

0.00230.00320.010

0.00380.0011

IUl •.••.......•
Pu!l3 9 (calc.) .....

1958•August-December.

1.1

b October-November.

360Thr)toiddase
mrem(lilTes)TABLE XI.

DosE COMMITMENT FROM NUCLEAR TESTING
Dose commitment for
Dose eommilmenJ for
puiod of testing 1954-1960 period of lestini 1954-1961
Fraaion of
doJe commitment

Tiss~

Gonads ......................

Internal

Cells lining bone surfaces •..•..

External
Internal

Short-lived
Cs131
Cs137

c11

Short-lived
Cs137
Sr 90
Csm

c11

Sr89

Bone marrow ...........•..•.•

External

Short-lived

Internal

Sr 90
Cs117

es•rz

c11

Srll

Dose
commitmenJ

Per :ltt>r of

Para.

Total mrem

Z,000

Total mremz.ooo

teslini•
mrtrn

23,24
23,24
39-41
44,45

11
16
8
48

1.0
0.92
1.0
0.10

12
18
11
70

1.0
0.94
1.0
0.10

1.6
2.2
3.1
22

83

0.47

111

0.42

29

11
16
67
14
80
0.15

1.0
0.92
0.92
1.0
0.10
1.0

12
18
79
19
116
0.17

1.0
0.94
0.91
1.0
0.10
1.0

1.6
2.2
10.5
5.3
37
0.03

188

0.58

244

0.54

57

11
16
33
10
48
0.07

1.0
0.92
0.92
1.0
0.10
1.0

12
18
40
14
70
0.08

1.0
0.94
0.91
1.0
0.10
1.0

1.6
2.2
5.3
3.9
22
0.01

118

0.61

154

0.56

35

Soo.1rce of radiation

External

Frtulion ofdose com-mi177".enl

23,24
23,24
32-36
39-41
44,45
53

23,24
23,24
32-36
39-41
44,45
53

•For details of model see anne.i: F, part I, paragraphs 110 and 119.

361

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364

ANNEX FENVIR01'~IENTAL CONTAI\IINATION (continued)
PART IV

Disposal of radio-actire wastes and releases from accidents in nuclear reactors

CONTENTSParagraphs

Paragraplu

I. DISPOSAL OF RADIO-ACTIVE WASTES • • • • • • • . • • • • • • • • • 1-33
Introduction • . . . . • . • • • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . 1
Classification of radio-active wastes. . . . . . . . . . • . . . 2
Methods oi disposal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . .. • . . . 3
Origin and nature of radio-active wastes........
4
Gaseous and airborne wastes.. . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-7
High-level radio-active liquid wastes............. 8-10
Liquid wastes of intermediate and low-level activity 11
Solid wastes ............••...••...........•..... 12-13
Disposal of radio-active wastes into rivers •...•.•.. 14-16
Disposal of radio-active wastes into seas and oceans 17-18

Mixing process between deep-water and surfacewater of the oceans and "biocirculation" ....•.•.. 19-23
Disposal of radio-active wastes on land........... 24
Direct disposal of low activity wastes into superficial permeable layers of the ground ..•........• 25-26
Isolation in special geological formations .......... 27-29
Conclusion •...........•....•••................. 30-33
II. RELEASES FROM ACCIDENTS IN NUCLEAR REACTORS. • • • 34-39

I. Disposal of radio-active wastes

far as practicable, the radiation dose to man. Two basic
methods are available to achieve this aim. The first is tocontain the waste in shielded areas and to absorb most of
the radiation in the shield. If special attention is paid tothe problems of siting, containment and shielding, any
quantity of radio-activity can be dealt with in this way.
The second method is to disperse the radio-activity in theenvironment so that most of the radiation energy isabsorbed by the diluting material, and again the radiationdose to man can be kept low. There is, however, a limit
to the capacity of the environment to accept wastes without causing excessive radiation dose to man. Broadly
speaking, therefore, the first method is the appropriate
one for high-level wastes, and the second is satisfactoryfor low-level wastes. Intermediate-level wastes must be
considered on their merits and are usually partly contained and partly dispersed.

TABLESREFERENCESINTRODUCTION

1. The problems of waste disposal have arisen withcivilization and have become increasingly complex withits development. The use of atomic energy has increased
the already complicated problems of disposing of thewastes arising from human communities. Radio-active
materials could be transmuted into non-radio-active materials by further neutron capture, but this procedure
would not be economic. Chemical treatment merely transfers wastes to a more convenient form while leaving alower concentration of radio-activity in the treatedwastes. With the continuing extension of isotope technology in industry and medicine and the development of
nuclear power, there will be larger quantities of radioactivity to be stored and there will also be an increase in
the amount of low activity wastes released into man's
environment. It will therefore become more and more
important to control these releases and to assess the contribution they make to man's exposure to radiation.

ORIGIN AND NATURE OF RADIO-ACTIVE WASTES5-15

4. Radio-isotopes originate from three different
sources: natural radio-active isotopes with their decay
products, fission products and radio-isotopes obtained asa result of activation. By far the greatest quantity ofradio-activity in the form of wastes produced at thepresent time originates from the reactor-fuel cycle. A
general flow-sheet indicating the types of waste produced
during the nuclear fuel cycle complex is given in figure
1.7 Smaller amounts of radio-activity occur in the wastes
from medical and industrial uses of isotopes. Althoughthese releases are small, they take place in a very large
number of establishments and the disposal problems thus
posed are by no µieans negligible.

CLASSIFICATION OF RADIO-ACTIVE WASTES

2. According to their physical state, radio-active
wastes are classified as solid, liquid and gaseous. Though
no fixed classification system has been agreed upon, liquid
wastes can be arbitrarily divided into three groups
according to their specific activity: low-, intermediateand high-level wastes. 1 - ' These terms are used to describe the approximate concentration of activity in theparticular waste materials and their quantitative definition varies from one establishment to another. Low-level
wastes are those having a range of activity from a trace
amount up to one microcurie per litre; intermediate-level
wastes have concentration up to three curies per litre;and high-level wastes have specific activities up to hundreds of curies per litre. 1

GASEOUS AND AIRBORNE WAST ES

5. Gaseous and airborne radio-active wastes are produced during feed material production. isotope separation, fuel element fabrication, fuel reprocessing andreactor operation. During the re-processing of shortlycooled fuel elements, fission product gases are released,

METHODS OF DISPOSAL

3. Methods of waste disposal must aim at reducing, as

365

ISOTOPES

1, U OUST
2. RAOOH

1, U OUSTI, U OUST
2. ·RADON
3. FUTURE: ciHAZAROS

I. NOW: U, Pu 23 P
2, RJTURE: u2U
Pullt,40,CI, lh2J2

A~ 1, N14, FP'1,

2. RAOOHPARTICULATES

12 Xe, kr, FP'•,PARTICULATES,HEAVY ELEMENTSIGNIFICANCE

LOCAL

LOCAL

LOCAL

TOTAL CONTAIN-·MENT REQ'O
FOR OUSTGASES DECAY
RAPIDLY; NO
GENERAL CON·TAMINATION

MAJOR POTENTIAL
SOURCE OF AIR
Cetl TAMI NATION

"'"'
5~
~~

~'It

U, Pu, 1h•

MILLINGMINING

0.3"
ORE

STRIP
HARD ROCK~FEED MA TERI AL PREP,

J, LEACH
I. 'SOLVENT EXTRACTION
70"
2, SOLIDS~ 2. UF, PRODUCTIONREMOVAL
3. MET AL REOUCTIOH
U30 1
3. EXTRACTION
4. OXIDE PREPARATION
4. PRECIPITATIOH
5. UF 6 PRODUCTION

t

I

I

FUEL FABRICATION_.... 1, METALOXIDES2.
3. CLADDIHG
4. ASSEMBLY

FUEL
ELEMENTEJFUEL REPROCESSINGCOOLING

I. OECLAOOING
2. DISSOLUTION
3. SE PARA TJON
4. PRODUCT RECYCLE·
5. WASTE TREATMENTrF6
ISOTOPE SEPARATION
UF 6 DIFFUSIONISOTOPES'UF 6 ·ENR.
ENRICHEDU +DAUGHTERS

U + DAUGHTERS

1. U + DALGHTERS
2. FUTURE: Pu &HEAVY ELEMENTS

U, Pu 239
unJ, Pu2•0,i1
Th232

No2'; Cose, Co60
Zr 95, FP'1

FP'1, HEAVY ELEMENTS
INACTIVE SALTS

NOHE

NONE

NetlE

NONE AT PRESENTNONE

1000 gal/Ion(100) gal/Ion
10 2 - 103 c/gal

MINES
ARE
DRY

600,000 gol/IO<I.. 100,000 gal/ton

UNKNOWN

MAX: 10-6 c/gal

MAX: 10- 6 c/vol

VERY LOW

:J

"'w
~;:;
"'-'
~~

a:::;o3i5..
~

HA, (1) val/ton U.. c/galLA, (l) gal/Ion.. c/gal(1) HIGH ACTIVITY WASTE: ACTIVITY IS ORDER OF W.GHITUDE ESTIMATE, CURIES/GAL(2) LOW ACTIVITY WASTE;

Fig11re 1. Schematic flowshcct for origin of wastes

COOLINGCIRCUITS
CLOSED,
LOW VOLUMESPISCHARGED.. 2000 - 10,000 gol/lcn":6 x 10- 5 c/gol

including Kr85 , Xe133 and !1°1 • Where air is used as acoolant for reactor cores or shields, the short-lived isotope Au appears in large quantities. C14 may be produced
in a reactor by irradiation of the graphite moderator, orof the carbon dioxide used as a coolant, and by irradiation of nitrogen.

problems are posed by the presence of alpha-emitting
transuranic isotopes of long half-life. 21

6. Before being discharged into the atmosphere, airborne and gaseous wastes may have to be partly decontaminated through various dev;ces. 16 Isotopes of thenoble gases are diluted by meteorological processes andthe dose to man can be adequately controlled by the selection of a suitable stack height. Kr85 may in the future
give rise to significant exposures if improved methods oftreating gaseous effluents are not developed. Other materials, notably isotopes of iodine, are deposited from theair and may be substantially reconcentrated by agricultural processes. This introduction of radio-activity into
the food chain is usually likely to contribute more to theradiation dose to man than direct exposure to the airborne waste.

11. Low activity wastes can often be disposed of
directly in the soil, rivers or seas. The quantity of waste
which can be disposed of in this way depends on theradio-active components of the waste and on the capacityof the environment to absorb or disperse these components without causing excessive radiation dose to man
or harm to the environment. If the amount of waste for
disposal exceeds the estimated capacity of the environment, then the waste must be treated to remove part of
the radio-activity through concentration. The concentrate
can then be stored or transferred to other parts of theenvironment better able to receive the radio-activity.
Intermediate-level wastes almost always require treatment in this way. A relatively complete decontamination
can be achieved only by using a combination of methods,
the choice of which depends on the composition of thewastes. The efficiency of decontamination methods is
given in table IV. 22

7. Quantitative information on the amounts of radioactivity discharged in gaseous wastes is extremely sparse,
but both the United Kingdom and the United States havepublished some information relating to atomic energy
installations. Some of these data are summarized intable I.17 Because of the various ways in which gaseousdischarges can cause radiation e..xposure to man, the discharge figures in table I cannot be used directly to assess
the environmental consequences of the discharges. However, in many cases, detailed assessments have been madeof the resultant radiation doses to man and it has beenfound that these are very small. 18 It is reasonably certainthat gaseous wastes from all sources make a very small
contribution to man's total radiation dose.
HIGH-LEVEL RADIO-ACTIVE LIQUID WASTES

8. Wastes of high activity must be stored for long
periods of time so as to prevent their release into theenvironment. At present, all high-level activity wastes
from the re-processing of reactor fuel are kept in a concentrated liquid state in tanks. These tanks are either
placed in buildings above ground or, more commonly,
underground.
9. Despite a number of shortcomings, such as selfheating, radiolysis and corrosion with leakage as a possible consequence, storage of liquid high-level activity
wastes in tanks can be considered as satisfactory. Nevertheless, research is being carried out to make possible thestorage and disposal of high-level activity wastes in thesolid state. as this will provide their safe fi.xation for along period. The conversion of high activity wastes tothe solid form has some disadvantages including particularly the production of additional low- and intermediatelevel wastes and of gaseous wastes. The additional proc~
essing required also causes additional radiation doses.
However, the increased safety of the finally stored or
disposed waste may well outweigh these disadvantages.
The methods of conversion of liquid wastes into solid
substances are given in table II. 19

LIQUID WASTES OF INTERMEDIATE- AND
LOW-LEVEL ACTIVITYSOLID WASTES

12. Solid wastes include contaminated equipment,
process wastes such as slags, contaminated laboratory
wastes, and the concentrates from some types of treatment of liquid wastes. Depending on the activity and theavailable environmental conditions, solid wastes areeither permanently stored, e.g. in concrete-lined trenches,or buried witl1 or without containers, or dumped on thesea-bed in drums or concrete containers. They are often
processed to reduce their volume and to simplify thesubsequent disposal operations. Such processing includes
incineration and baling and usually produces secondary
gaseous or liquid wastes which have proved to be oflittle hazard.
13. Typical quantities of liquid and solid radio-active
wastes discharged into rivers, seas and oceans from someof the establishments of the United Kingdom Atomic
Energy Authority and United States Atomic Energy
Commission are given in table V.17
DISPOSAL OF RADIO-ACTIVE WASTES INTO RIVERS

14. Studies of the biology of river waters into whichradio-active wastes are discharged have indicated thatradio-nuclides are strongly concentrated by river organisms, both plant and animal. As e..xamples. observations
made at Hanford and at Chalk River will be reported. 2 a-25
15. Low-activity cooling water from the reactors at
Hanford is discharged, after a short delay. in retention
basins into the Columbia River. The activity decreases atpoints downstream from the discharge point because ofradio-active decay and adsorption onto sediments. 23
Estimates have been made of the radiation doses topeople living in downstream communities and it has beenfound that in spite of some very high concentration
factors 24 in individual river organisms the principal
sources of radiation dose to man are drinking water and a
species of whitefish. The use of the river for irrigationand the transfer of radio-active materials to the sea andtheir reconcentration in marine organisms have beenshown to contribute extremely small radiation doses toman. 23

10. The per cent fraction of total radio-activity contributed by certain fission products of biological interest
after various times of cooling is given in table III. 7
Serious attention should be given to the proposal 20 thatCs 137 , Sr90 and other long-lived isotopes be removed fromhigh-level wastes, so that the residue can be finally disposed of after a period of about fifteen years. Additional367

16. At the Chalk River plant the effluent is diluted bylarge volumes of water used for cooling the reactors
before it enters into the Ottawa River. The concentrationof the beta-gamma emitting radio-nuclides is equal to
2 X 10-s µ.c/cc upstream from the plant; at a distance of
1.6 km downstream from the plant, the concentration is3 X 10-s µ.c/cc. 25 Sr90 in excess of that attributable tofall-out was occasionally observed in fish caught in thelocality of the reactor outfall.
DISPOSAL OF RADIO-ACTIVE WASTES INTO
SEAS AND OCEANS 26

17. Two methods of disposal of radio-active wastes
into seas and oceans are used at the present time. The
first consists of the direct discharge of liquid wastes fromatomic plants into coastal waters ; the second of the
dumping of solid wastes on the bottom of the sea after
sealing in appropriate containers, thus delaying the entrance of radio-active substances into the water masses.
In this connexion the oceans can be considered from two
points of view: as a dilution medium for radio-active
waste and as an area of temporary isolation in whichradio-activity can decay before escaping to the water andultimately returning to man.

cannot be regarded as isolated from the surface waters.
Waste disposal in the deep water in containers must
therefore be treated as a form of temporary storage, thestorage period depending both on the life of the container
and on the rate of transfer to the surface waters. In addition, the process of transfer will result in substantial
dilution.
21. Experiments 31 have indicated that the expected life
period of metal drums because of corrosion in sea waters
is not more than ten years, whereas concrete containers
may last as long as thirty years. One container describedin the literature31 is capable of withstanding high pressures and corrosion, so that its expectation of life at thesea bottom is 1,000 years.
22. Since 1946 the United States Atomic Energy
Commission has been disposing of relatively low-level
radio-active waste products at sea off the Atlantic andPacific coasts of the United States. Most of these wastes
were packaged in 200 1. steel drums with encased concrete drums, and preformed, reinforced concrete boxes
were used in some instances. During three oceanographic
cruises 32 in March, April and November 1960, samplesof sea water. sediments and marine life were collected
for the purpose of measuring their radio-activity level.
Bottom photographs were taken and documentary motion
pictures of the April cruise were filmed. Different seasonsof the year were chosen for the cruises in order to detectseasonal differences in levels of contamination. \Vater
depth at all sites \Vas 1,800 m. or greater. The three areasof survey were two disposal sites and the control area off
Point Arguello, between the two disposal sites. In general, the results indicated that within experimental error,
no radio-activity was detected· in excess of the background levels.

18. While the possibilities of the ocean as a medium
for dilution are great, it is obvious that uniform dilutionof the global quantities of radio-active wastes in the ocean
is highly improbable both because of the slow rate of
mixing of water and because of concentrating effects.
Among the factors which influence the fate of radioactive wastes in sea water are the physical and chemical
state of radio-nuclides and also oceanographic conditions.
The possible physical states of elements in sea water are:ionic, colloidal, and particulate.27 Elements in ionic form
will be diluted better, but as they remain longer in solution they may enter in zoo- and phytoplankton. Elementsin particulate form or those which tend to be absorbed
by particulates in the sea will have a tendency to settle on
the sea-bed, which will lead to a higher concentration ofradio-activity at the bottom as compared with the rest of
the sea. Radio-nuclides in particulate fonn may then be
removed by filter-feeding marine life and so become
available to the larger marine fishes. Thus, radio-active
materials may enter bottom sediments and in some form
become available to bottom-dwelling marine life.

23. At the present time, since many factors are still
unknown to us and few data on the question of disposingof sealed wastes in ocean depths are available, it is difficult to reach definite conclusions on the suitability of suchpractices for all types of waste. At present, however,
only small amounts of radio-active material are being
deposited in the ocean and before this practice could be
extended to the high activity waste from large-scale
nuclear power programmes, much more investigation
would be required into the processes of dispersion andreconcentration. There is still substantial disagreements:i-sa on the validity of deep ocean disposal, but evenwith the assumption of a very rapid mixing of the deep
water and the surface water the present practices have so
far given rise to exceedingly small radiation doses to man.

MIXING PROCESS BETWEEN DEEP WATER AND SURFACEWATER OF THE OCEANS AND "BIOCIRCULATION"

19. In considering disposal of radio-active wastes by
burial in ocean depths, it is necessary to examine thepossibility of exchange between deep and surface watersof the ocean. Two points of view exist. 28 The first maintains that the replacement of deep waters in the ocean
takes place comparatively rapidly, in perhaps forty tofifty years. This point of view is supported by observations and calculations regarding dissolved oxygen andphosphate, and other factors present in the ocean. The
other point of view holds that the replacement of deep
waters in the ocean, and consequently the time required
for any contamination from the depths to come to thesurface, takes place much more slowly. over a period ofseveral hundred years, or even 1,000 or 1,500 years. This
opinion is supported by studies conducted with carbon-14
and radium. In addition to the movement of radio-active
nuclides due to vertical transfer of water layers, "biocirculation"29-3o also must play a role.

DISPOSAL OF RADIO-ACTIVE WASTES ON LAND

24. Like the ocean the land also can be considered bothas a place for ultimate disposal through isolation in special geological formations and as a medium for dispersionof low-level radio-active wastes. In the latter case there
is also some degree of isolation by adsorption of theradio-activity on to the soil as well as dispersion anddilution in the ground water. In rare cases substantially
all the radio-activity is retained by the soil and only apurified waste reaches the ground water. This situation
occurs at Hanford where some quantities of radioactivity are released into the ground and no fission products have been observed to penetrate into the riverwaters. 23 Direct disposal of low-level liquid and solid
wastes into the ground is practised at the present time,
and the isolation into special geological formations is in
the state of development.

20. It is now clear that the deep waters of the oceans
368

DIRECT DISPO!>AL 0.1:" LOW-ACTIVITY WASTES INTO
SUPERFICIAL PERMEABLE L"-YERS OF THE GROUND

25. Disposal of low-level liquid radio-active wastes to
the ground is founded on the ability of various earthmaterials to remove and retain fission product cations.
Some years of practical experience in the controlled disposal of \Vastes to the ground at the Hanford Works,
Oak Ridge National Laboratory, and Savannah River
Plant have demonstrated the feasibility, safety and economy in the disposal of at least limited volumes of some
types of liquid wastes. 37
26. The binding capacity of soil for radio-nuclides
depends on the composition of the soil and on the properties of the discharged wastes. Strontium is well sorbed
by montmorillonite, kaolinite, mica, hydromicas, peat,
phosphorite and nepheline syenites. 38 Caesium, as a rule,
is very well retained by soils, and the extent to which it isretained depends on the mineral content of the soil. It
has been established that the most suitable types of soilcolumns for the decontamination of liquid wastes arethose composed of vermiculite overlaying solid phosphates, which in turn lie on coarse-grained gravel. 39

31. The problem of disposing of radio-active waste
will assume increasing importance with the developmentof atomic energy which is expected in the next few
decades. It has been estimated4 H 8 that the thermal power
produced by atomic plants will reach 700.000 megawatts
by the year 2000 and will be accompanied by billions ofcuries of accumulated radio-activity. Almost all the resulting radio-active material will be sent to permanentstorage and improved storage methods are being investigated. It is also likely that there will be an increase in theamount of radio-activity dispersed into the environment
not only from fuel-reprocessing plants but also from theincreasing uses of isotopes in industry and medicine. The
control of such discharges and the assessment of theresulting radiation doses to man \vill thus become increasingly important.
32. Most of the present practices for the disposal of
low activity wastes are satisfactory provided that they are
subject to close and continued control. In some cases thiscontrol should include appropriate environmental monitoring and the primary aim of this monitoring should beto establish that the disposals cause no unacceptable radiation doses to man. In the case of the majority of theindustrial and medical applications of isotopes, simple
procedures controlled by suitable sanitary standards-1 9- 53
can be used for disposing of radio-active wastes without
the need for a complex environmental monitoring programme.

ISOLATION IN SPECIAL GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS

27. It has been proposed to discharge liquid wastes
even of high activity into various rocks, salt formations,limestone, shale formations, gypsum, sandstone and otherimpermeable geological formations. 4 0-41 All these methods are at the e..xperimental stage. Of all the indicatedgeological formations, the most promising are sandstoneand salt formations.

33. The release into the environment of the principal
fission-product wastes from the large scale production of
nuclear power cannot be considered until substantiallymore information is available on the behaviour of suchfission products in the environment.

28. Deep well injection's of radio-active materials into
porous geological formations 4 0-43 are suitable for regions
which have porous rock, such as sandstone, under which
is a layer of impermeable material such as shale. Sandstone possesses several desirable properties. such as considerable heat conductivity, stability in acids ; its porosity
reaches 10-30 per cent; it has a fairly high ion-exchange
capacity (20-30 milligram equivalents per 100 g.).

II. Releases from accidents in nuclear reactors

34. The release of radio-active materials as a resultof nuclear accidents represents a situation that must be
considered in connexion with its potential effects on man
and his environment. Of the six major nuclear accidents
to dateH only the accidents at Windscale and at ChalkRiver led to a substantial release of radio-active
nuclides. 55- 5e

29. Disposal into natural salt fonnations provides oneof the most interesting possibilities. 4 4-4 6 The method has
several geological and operational advantages and is expected to provide a high degree of isolation. Analyticalstudies indicate that it is possible to store two-year-old
10,000 megawatt-day/ton, 3,200 litre/ton waste in a
sphere about 3 m. in diameter. Structural properties andthermal conductivity of rock salt are not changed to any
significant extent under the influence of high doses ofradiation. The chemical interaction of liquid wastes withsalt produces chlorine and other gaseous compounds, but
their quantity is not very great.

35. The accident at Windscale was caused by local
overheating of the uranium fuel elements during the annealing of the graphite moderator of an open air-cooled
reactor. The amount of radio-activity released during theaccident is not known precisely, but approximate estimates were made from the measurements of the radioactive iodine deposited on the ground and from measurements on air filters obtained both in the United Kingdom
and in Continental Europe. The following list shows estimates of the amounts of various isotopes released :CONCLUSION

CuriesIodine-131 ................................... 20,000
Tellurium-132 ............•..••.......•...... 12,000
Caesium-137 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . .. .. . . . . . .
600
Strontium-89 . . . . . . . . • . . . . . • . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . .
80
Strontium-90 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2

30. Information on the contamination of the environment through disposal of radio-active wastes is very
}itnited and only for few areas are relevant data pub1ished periodically. In even fewer cases is the publishedinformation sufficient to allow any assessment of theresultant radiation doses to man. These cases represent
major releases of radio-activity into the environment andit has been shown that the resultant radiation doses to
man are small. 18 Other releases of radio-active waste
result in even smaller doses and present waste disposal
does not make a significant contribution to man's exposure to radiation.

36. During the six weeks after the accident, over 3,000
samples of milk were analysed. The I 131 content of milkrose to a maximum three days after the accident when
the highest levels recorded were 1.4,uc/l. The levels of!131 in samples of drinking water obtained from reservoirs, and from streams feeding reservoirs and watertaps, varied from below the threshold of detection (about369

100 p.p.c/l) to about 1,000 p.p.cj1. Samples of eggs, vegetables and meat from the more highly contaminated areas
were examined. They also were shown to be contaminated with !1 31 , but contributed much less to the diet ofthe population than did milk.
37. Before the accident the ratio of Sr90/Ca was
44 µ.µ.c/g in milk from a farm within a quarter of a mileof the perimeter of the Windscale Works. Shortly after
the accident values up to 115 µ.p.c Sr9°/gCa were observedin milk from the farm nearest the plant. It was also foundthat in the area of highest contamination, the maximum
levels of Cs137 , Ru103 and Ru 100 , and Zr05 in grass were0.25, 0.21 and 0.3, p.c/m2 respectively.
38. The only control measure needed as a result of theaccident was the control of the consumption of milk andvegetables from an area of approximately 500 squa::ekilometres. The opinion was expressed in the official report following the accident that this control measure had
been adequate and that it was highly unlikely that any
harm was done to anybody as a result of the accident.
39. Most reactor accidents have taken place in experimental reactors or in reactors cooled by the old-fashioned
flow-through system rather than in the more modem
power generating facilities where the coolant is recirculated. The probability of other types of accidents
occurring can only be assessed on the basis of past experience. This is still limited but suggests that releases ofsuch a nature as to cause concern for the health of individuals in the population are extremely rare. It is also

likely that carefully planned emergency measures cansubstantially reduce the radiation doses which would
otherwise result from accidental releases.
TABLE l.

SOME EXAMPLES OF RELEASES OF GASEOUS WASTE FROMATOMIC ENERGY PLANTS
Amount of t11asle andradio-aelive ctmk1sl

Site

United Kingdom
Springfields (feed material production
plant) .•..•.••••••....•••..••...•.•• Approx. 1 c/y, alphaCapenhurst (gaseous diffusion plant) •••.. Approx. 0.1 c/y, alpha(uranium)
Calder Hall (nuclear power station) ..•••. 10 c/hr, AU
Chapelcross (nuclear power station) •...•• 10 c/hr, A"
Dounreay (reactor research centre) •••..•• 0.5 rnc/hr, A"
Harwell (nuclear research centre) .••..••• 30rnc/y:beta;1 mc/y,alpha; 50 c/hr, AU
Amersham (isotope production plant) ••••• 15 mc/wk, pn
Aldermaston (nuclear weapon research
centre) ••.••..•••••.•••.••.••.••••.. 20 mc/y, beta;
3 mc/y, alphaUnited States of America
Hanford (plutonium production plant) •••• 1 c/d, 1111
Idaho (reactor testing station) •••••..•••. 100,000 c/y beta,
mainly very shorthalf-life, and noblP
gases
ORNL (reactor development andchemical processing laboratory) ••.•.. 0.25 c/y, alpha(uranium)
Brookhaven (nuclear research centre)
700 c/hr, AU

TABLE II. PossmLE METHODS OF CONVERSION OF w ASTES TO SOLID FORMS
Preparation containing fission
products
Difficulties in the
preparation
process

Metal oxides
dried at200-250°c
Considerable
dust

Metal oxides
calcinated at500-700'C
Dust

Volume variations

Reduction up
to 100 times
Yes

Separation of gaseous
products in radiolysis
High
Heat resistance
0.05
Heat conduction
kilocalorie/metre/h/C°Considerable
Transfer of fission
products into water

Calcinated clays Cement blocks

Molten salts

Must bemixed

Corrosion of the High temperature
equipment(> iooo°C)

Reduction up
to 100 times
No

Limitedexchange
capacity of
clays
Reduction up
to 50 times
No

Increase up to
30-50%
Yes

Reduction up
to 70 times
Yes

Reduction up to
350 times
No

High
0.03

High
0.05

MediumLow
About 1

Very HighUp to 2

Appreciable

S::nall

Small

SolubleVery small

TABLE III. CoMeosmoN OF FISSION PRODUCT MIXTURE AFTER ONE-YEAR IRRADIATION OF FUELELEMENTS BY 3 X lQ3 THERMAL NEUTRON FLUX AND VARIOUS TIMES OF COOLING
Approximate 3 of total F P acJinly afler coolint
lsoloj>e

Half-life

100 days

J Y<4rS

JO years

Cs117
Srto
Pmu1

26.6 years
28.0 years
2.6 years
290 days
10.3 years
8.1 days
63 days12.8 days
41.0 days
1.0 year
54 days5.27 days

<2
<2
3
45
<1
< 1
33
<I
5
2
7
<1

15
15
15
50

"'49
"'49
<I

1

<1

Ceto_pru~Kr" (gas)Jm (gas)Zr95-Nb95
Ba 140-Lauo
Rutlll-Rhto•
RulDLRhtoe
Sr11
Xe 1» (gas)Preparation type
glass

370

3

TABLE IV.

EFFICIENCY OF DECONTAMINATION METHODS OFUQUIDWASTES

Unspedfkd
clpha-remDNl

Trtalmenl

FeCI, .•.......•.............. 97%
BaCh + Fea (SO;),, .•.......•.• 99%
Lime soda-softening process ...• 70-99%
40-80 ppm AI + activatedsilica (S-10 ppm Si02) ....... , 80%
20 ppm Al + lime or NaaCO, .. , 90%
40 pp~ Na!PO, + lime +tanmc acid. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98%
100 ppm Na,PO, +lime or NaOH 95%
Phosphate treatment followed bysulphide treatment .•....... , 99%
Phosphate treatment followed byvermiculite columns ......... 99.95%
Precipitation and electrode-ionization ............... 99-100%
Ion-exchange resins............ 1QL1()6
Mixed bed....................
1(}1Evaporation .................• lOLl()f

TABLE V.

Site

Type ofwaste

Uniled Kingdom
Springfields ...........
Capenhurst ..........•
Windscale and Calder ..

LiquidLiquidLiquidChapel cross (1960) .....
Dounreay (19S9-{)0) ....

LiquidLiquid[Liquid
Solid
Harwell ............... ~lSolidU1upecjjkd
be1a-1amma-remof4l

SO%
98%
S0-80%
6S%
70%

75%
7S%

90%
99.36%
99-100%lQLlO•
1()1

lQLlQG

EXAMPLES OF LIQUID AND SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL FROM SOMEATOMIC E."<ERGY DTSTALLATIONS

A mo1n1I and raii~actit•e C011lenl

2.S X 10'm1/y; SO c/y alpha; l ,SOO c/y beta
2 X lO'm'/y; 1 c/y alpha (uranium)
8 X 10'm1/y; 90,000 c/y beta; 40,000 c/y Ru: 1,500 c/y Sr90 ;70 c/y alpha3 X 10'm'/y; 4.S c/y alpha and beta; 80 mc/y Sr90
105m•/y; 40,000 c/y beta; 20 c/y Sr 90 ; S c/y alpha7 X lO'm'/y; lS c/y beta; O.S c/y Sr90 ; 0.02 c/y alpha
800 tons/y; 80 c/y beta; 4 c/y alpha
SO tons/y; 1,000 c/y beta; 200 c/y alpha

rqWd
Solid

S X 10'm1/y; 0.02 c/y beta; 0.06 c/y alpha
400 tons/y; 2 c/y alpha; O.S c/y beta

Solid

SO tons/y; 200 c/y alpha; lS c/y beta

Uniled States of America
Hanford (19S9) ..... , ..
ORNL (19S4-S7) ......

Liquid3,000 c/d beta; 1,200 c/d Cr61 ; 70 c/d Zn 86 ; 0.2 c/d Sr9o

LiquidBrookhaven (19S7-S8) •.

{Liquid
Solid

105m1/y; 2SO c/y beta; SO c/y Sr10
S X lO'm•/y; 0.1 c/y beta
1,000 c/y

Aldermaston ..........

371

J.fahcd of
disJH>sal

Pipeline to tidal estuaryOpen brook to tidal estuary
Pipeline to open sea
Pipeline to tidal estuary
Pipeline to open sea
Pipeline to River Thames
Dump in light drums on bedof English Channel
Dump in strong drums on bedof Atlantic Ocean
Pipeline to River Thames
Dump in light drums oo bed
of English Channel
Dump in strong drums on bedof Atlantic Ocean

Pipeline to river
Discharge to local stream
Discharge to stream
Dump in drums on bed ofAtlantic Ocean

REFERENCES
States Gov't. Printing Office, Vol. 1, \Vash. ( 1959) ;v.e. United Nations document A/ AC.82/G/L.287.

1. Stivers, H. W., Study of waste facilities. USAEC
report HW-37680. p. 19 (June 30, 1955). Changed
from OFFICIAL USE ONLY on November 26 (1956).

12. Idaho Chemical Processing Plant, "Nature of radioactive wastes generated by processing spent reactor
fuel at the Idaho Chemical Processing Plant", pp.
135-139 in Industrial Radioactive Waste Disposal.
Hearings before the Special Subcommittee on
Atomic Energy, Congress of the United States,
Eighty-Sixth Congress. United States Gov't. Printing Office, Vol. 1, Wash. (1959); v.e. United Nations document A/ AC.82/G/L. 287.

2. Congress of the United States, Summary-Analysis
of Hearings before the Special Subcommittee on
Radiation of the Joint Committee on Atomic Energy.
United States Gov't. Printing Office, Wash. ( 1959).
3. Brown, R. M., D. W. Pritchard, Radioactive wastes
in the marine environment. Amer. J. Public Health
51: 1647-1661 (1961).
4. \Volman, A., A. Gorman, The management and disposal of radioactive wastes. Proc. lst Int. Conf.
Peaceful Uses Atomic Energy 9: 9-16 (1956).

13. Rogers, L. R .. "Nature of waste from radioisotope
uses", pp. 140-158 in Industrial Radioactive Waste
Disposal. Hearings before the Special Subcommittee
on Atomic Energy, Congress of the United States,
Eighty-Si:x.'i:h Congress. United States Gov't. Printing Office, Vol. 1, Wash. (1959); v.e. United Nations document A/ AC.82/G/L.287.

5. Bruce, F. R., "The origin and nature of radioactive
wastes in the United States atomic energy programme", pp. 3-50 in Disposal of Radioactive
Wastes. Conf. Proc., Monaco, 16-21 Nov. 1959.
IAEA., Vol. 1, Vienna (1960).

14. Eliassen, R., Origin and nature of radioactive wastes.
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