REPORT OF THE
UNITED NATIONSSCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE
ON THE.
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EFFECTS OF.·ATOMIC·. RADIATION-

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GENERAL ASSEMBLY

OFFICIAL RECORDS : NINETEENTH SESSIONSUPPLEMENT No. 14 CA/ 5814)
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UNITED NATIONSNew York, 1964.) b.)"f

NOTE
Throughout the present report, references to the annexes are indicated by aletter immediately followed by a number: the letter denotes the relevant annex andthe number the paragraph therein. Within each annex, references to its scientificbibliography are indicated by numbers.
Symbols of United Nations documents are composed of capital letters combinedwith figures. Mention of such a symbol indicates a reference to a United Nations
document.

ANNEX A

RADIO-ACTIVE CONTAMINATION OF THE ENVIRONMENT BY NUCLEAR TESTSCONTENTSParagraphs

Paragraphz

INTRODUCTION • • • • • • . . . . . • • • . • . • • . • . . . • • • • • . • . • • . • . .
1
1. MOVEMENT OF ARTIFICL\L RADIO-NUCLIDES IN THE
EARTH'S ATMOSPHERE , •. , .... , , .• , , .... , .••..•. , ,2-30Radio-active aerosols .. • . . . .. . .. . • .. .. . . • .. .. . • •3-6
Transport within the atmosphere • . . • • • . . • . . . • . . .
7-26
Movement within the stratosphere • . • . • . . . . • . . . . 10-20
Movement within the troposphere • . . • . . . . . . . • . 21-26
Mechanisms of deposition • . . • . . . . . • • • . . . • • • • . • . . 27-30

Caesium-137 levels in foods •••••••••.••......• 117-119
Metabolism of caesium in man .••••••...•.••.. 120-122
Observed levels in man ....................... 123-129
Relation of caesium-137 in fall-out and diet withbody burden in man ..•.•.••••.••••••••..••• 130-135
Iodine-131 .•..•.•..•....••••••••••••••••••••••• 136-146
Iodine-131 in food ............................ 136-140
Iodine-131 in human thyroids .••••.•...•••••.•• 141-146

II. INVE~""TORY AND DEPOSmON OF ARTIFICIAL RADIO31-77
31-34
32-34
35-50
42-43
44-50
51-54
55
56-59
56-58
59
60-71
60-66
67-68
69-71

IV. DoSES FRO:M ENVIRONMENTAL AND INTERNAL CONTAlliNATION , •. , ................. , ........... 147-195
Allowance for the distribution of fall-out and population ...................................... 147-155
External doses •.........•..•.••••..••••.••.•••• 156-165
Measured dose rates in air .................... 156-157
Short-lived fission products • • • . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 158-163
Caesium-137 ................................. 164-165
Internal Doses ..•.••••.....••••••.•.••.••.•••.• 166-188
Strontium-90 ..••.•..•...•.•••••.•••••••••••• 166-174
Strontium-89 and barium-140 ................. 175-177
Caesium-137 ..••.•••••.••••..••••.•.••.....•. 178-180
Iodine-131 ................................... 181-183
R~dio-~uclides in the respiratory and gastromtestmal tracts ............................ 184-185
Carbon-14 ................................... 186-188

72-77
Ill. CONTA?>flNATION OF FOOD AND HUMAN TISSUES . . . . 78-146

V. SUMMARY ••.•.••.••.••.....•••....•••••.••••.• 189-195

NUo.IDES ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

Strontium-90 •...••••••.••..••..•.......••.•••.
Atmosphere •..••....•....•..••..•..•••••.•••
Measurements in precipitation and soils ...•..•..•
Rivers and lakes •...•.......•.•.....•••..•...
Oceans .•..•.••.•.•.•.•...••.....•...••...•..
Caesium-137 .....••.•.•.••...•.•....••..•....•.
Krypton-SS ..••••••••.....••.•..•.•..••.•..••••
Short-lived fission products .................... .
Strontium-89 .•...•.••...•...••.•.••••.••••.•
Other short-lived fission products ...•..•.••...
Carbon-14 .•.•....•.•...•...•..•....•.....••••.
Inventory •••....••••..•........••......••...
Circulation of carbon-14 .................... .
Future levels of carbon-14 .................. ..
Other artificial radio-nuclides ..•.............•..

Strontium-90 and strontium-89 . .. • .. • . . . .. .. • .. 78-110
Caesium-137 ................................... 111-135
Food chain mechanisms ...................... 111-116

Pag•

TABLES ...••...•............•...•...... ··••·•·•REFERENCES . . . • . . • • • . . . . • • . . • • . • . . • . . . • . . • • . . •Introduction

46
68

I. Movement of artificial radio-nuclides
in the earth's atmosphere

1. The purpose of the present annex is to evaluate theinformation on radio-active environmental contamination from nuclear explosions that became available to theCommittee since its 1962 reporta to the General Assembly1• b and to obtain revised estimates of the amount ofradiation due to environmental contamination that is received by human populations. An updating is required
because further contamination took place after the adopttion of the 1962 report, although, following the cessationof atmospheric tests in December 1962, the levels ofradio-activity due to short-lived nuclides have decreased
substantially through 1963. In addition, improvements inknowledge of the mechanisms involved in the transfer ofradio-active material from its production to man's environment deserves attention. The reader is referred toannex F of the 1962 report for those many aspects of the
problem of environmental contamination on which little
progress has been made since the publication of thatreport.

2. The major part of all fission products produced by
nuclear explosions up to the end of 1962 was released
into the stratosphere. Estimates of future deposition rates
require a knowledge of the fission product inventory inthe stratosphere as well as of the mechanisms by which
it is brought down to the ground. Since the 1962 reporta considerable amount of new data on the movement ofdebris in the atmosphere has been reported. This makes it
advisable to review the main features of the processes
involved, with special emphasis on recent advances.
RADIO-ACTIVE AEROSOLS

3. After a nuclear explosion, the fission products contained within the fireball are initially present in the formof vapour. As it rises and expands, the hot cloud coolsby radiative heat losses, by adiabatic cooling, and by
mi.'Cing with cooler air, causing the fission products tocondense and form an aerosol of fine particles. Since mostof the fission product activity injected during 1961 and1962 was from high yield explosions. the greater part of
the fission product debris that was formed was carried
up well into the stratosphere. 2• Official Records of the General Assembly, Seventeenth Session, Supplement No. 16 (A/5216); hereinafter referred to as
the "1962 report".
• Superscripts refer to the corresponding entries in the bibliography at the end of the present annex.

11stratosphere these vertical motions, and hence the verticaltransports, are much smaller.7• 8
9. Fission products injected into the stratosphere during tests have been used extensively to trace air motions. 9• 10 In particular, many surveys have been made of
the Sr90 concentration in stratospheric air,11 and theactivities of W 185 and Rh102 which were injected into thestratosphere during 1958 have also been monitored.12 • 18• H
In addition, the distribution of the naturally occurring
radio-nuclides Be1 , Pb 210 , P32 and o~ have also beenstudied, as well as that of ozone and water vapour. 15 • 16
These studies have all contributed greatly to our understanding of air movements within the stratosphere.

4. The partitioning of the fission product debris between local, tropospheric and stratospheric fall-out has
been discussed in the 1962 report. Most of the radioactive debris produced during 1961 and 1962 was injected into the stratosphere, and this debris, together withthat present in the stratosphere from previous tests, wasthe main source of subsequent world-wide contamination. Local fall-out is important only near the site of tests,,vhile tropospheric fall-out will be deposited within amonth or so after tests.

5. Radio-activity created by nuclear tests may be ineither gaseous or particulate form. In the high atmosphere, above about 100 km, even very small particles will
possess large settling speeds. 8 • 4 On the other hand, athigh altitudes, gaseous substances are subjected to larger
molecular diffusion rates than are particulates. In thelower troposphere, particulates are rapidly removed during precipitation. Shortly after a test, particles containing
high radio-activity have been observed in ground level air
and in fall-out. 29 • 35 But most measurements in the stratosphere below about 20 km, made many months after the
cessation of nuclear tests, suggest that most radio-active
particles are submicron in size and thus have negligible
settling speeds. 5 The particles, in contrast to gases, may
be removed by impaction or settling after coagulation
with other aerosols.

Movement within the stratosphere
10. :Measurements of ozone and water vapour concentrations in the stratosphere show that there is a polewardand downward transfer of material during winter and in
the early spring months. 16• 11 • 18 The distribution of ozone
in the lower stratosphere suggests that there may be an
upward motion of air in the equatorial regions of thelower stratosphere. 16 From the movement of W 185 fromequatorial to polar regions during 1958 Feely and Sparconcluded that large-scale eddy diffusion \vas mainly
responsible for this poleward transfer. 19
11. Eddy diffusion would also explain the movement
into equatorial regions of Sr90 and .Mn54 injected into thenorth polar stratosphere in late 1961. Ho;vever. Newellargues that the transfer along sloping surfaces (figure 1)
must be due to both eddy mixing and mean meridionalmotions. 20 By studying the time trends of Rh10 ~ in thestratosphere at high latitudes, Telegadas and List foundthat the debris descended from 20 km to 14 km between
December 1959 and March 1960 and then remained stationary during the summer of the northern hemisphere.~ 1
A similar rate of descent was noted for Cd 109 in thesouthern hemisphere between April and August 1963.380
These observations suggest that downward motions during winter are mainly responsible for the vertical transport of fission products in the polar stratosphere.
12. It may be concluded that debris injected into theequatorial regions of the stratosphere below 30 km will
move pole\vards and downwards into each hemisphere
during the winter months. Material injected into thelower polar regions does not seem to move upv.rards toany great extent, but some of it moves into equatorial
regions of the lower stratosphere. A number of modelsof stratospheric circulation have been proposed, but at
the present time none of them is completely adequate topredict the transport of fission products.9 • 31 •.u 2 At the
moment it seems that both advective and diffusive processes are important in stratospheric circulation. The
stratospheric transfers described above are shown infigure 1.
13. Very few data concerning the movement of air
above 30 km are available. Rh102 was injected into thestratosphere by an e.xplosion at about 43 km over Johnston Island during August 1958. 23 The radio-active cloud
was estimated to have risen to at least 100 km. Concentrations of Rh102 at an altitude of 20 km in the northernhemisphere showed a large increase during the period
October 1959-February 1960.12 • 21 In the southernhemisphere the major increase in concentration occurred
during the winters of 1959 and 1960, the concentrationin this hemisphere being much the same as in the northern hemisphere after mid-1960. During 1960 and 1961
the concentrations at these altitudes remained fairly constant, probably being replenished from above.

6. Other work has shown that there is a correlation
between the activity and the sulphate content of samples
collected in the stratosphere. 6 This suggests coagulation,or perhaps that sulphate builds up on radio-active particles, 'vhich then grow in size. Storeb,13 considered theoretically the growth of particle sizes during the rise of a
nuclear cloud and found that terminal sizes may be sufficient for gravitational settling to be of some importance,in comparison with movements due to air exchange.8 The
measured particle size distribution in the stratosphereindicates that the bulk of the debris will be transported
at these altitudes largely by air movements. However, inthe lower troposphere an important growth in the size ofthe particles resulting from agglomeration may enhancesignificantly the rate of aerosol deposition.
TRANSPORT WITHIN THE ATMOSPHERE

7. To understand the movement of radio-active debris
within the atmosphere, a thorough knowledge of the general circulation of the earth's atmosphere is required.
Such a knowledge is necessary to predict the spatial andtemporal distribution of future fall-out, as caused by the
injection of debris into the stratosphere at different latitudes, altitudes and times. At the present time our understanding of air movements within the stratosphere isincomplete in certain respects, particularly of those athigh altitudes. However, some basic features of thismotion are now fairly well established.

8. One marked feature of atmospheric circulation is
the system of westerly jet streams situated in midlatitudes at altitudes of about 10 km (figure 1). Velocitiesof 100-300 km per hour are usual in these regions. In
middle and higher latitudes air is carried around theglobe in a week or so and in one to two months in tropicalregions. 7 Since in the stratosphere these times are shortcompared to transfer times in the meridional and verticaldirections, the debris may be considered to be zonallywell mixed so that, several months after a test. it will be
uniformly distributed around a circle of latitude.7 In the
troposphere, vertical motions are rapid, but in the lower
12I'Ncrthoni hemisphere - Winter

S<MJthern hemisphere - Summer

Figure 1. Schematic cross section displaying characteristics of meridional transport ('T' locatestypical jet stream positions)

14. Recent stratospheric measurements of Cd109 activity, about 0.25 MCi of which was released above
400 km over Johnston Island at 17°N latitude in July
1962, show that some of this isotope moved down to
30 km after five or six months. 2 ~• 24 • 380 Not only did Cd109
appear earlier in the lower stratosphere of the southernhemisphere than in the northern hemisphere, but it waspresent there in greater quantities until August 1963at least in mid-latitudes. At altitudes between 40 and
400 km, gravitational settling and, in the case of charged
particles, electro-magnetic effects are expected to influence the descent of fission product debris. 53 Measurements of Rh102 originating from the high altitude rocket
e..xplosion (Orange), which was carried out during
August 1958 in equatorial regions, indicate that Rh102
spread to the polar regions in both hemispheres and later
descended to lower altitudes. 25 • 26 • mtransfer and subsequent fall-out is not necessarily convincing evidence of the reality or magnitude of thistransport mechanism.
( c) The tropopause in temperate and polar regions
rises to higher altitudes in the late winter and in thespring. If it is assumed that this process transfers stratospheric air into the troposphere, then its associated Sr 90
may significantly contribute to subsequent fall-out. In
1960 and 1961 this mechanism could account for no morethan one-quarter of the observed fall-out.
( d) Certain models of atmospheric circulation, suchas the Brewer-Dobson model, imply descending motion
through the tropopause in certain areas. Some of thesemodels postulate subsiding movements whose downward
transport of Sr90 can contribute part or all of the observed
fall-out. But, as of this time, the reality of the model aswell as the sense and magnitude of the vertical currents
must be considered as questionable.
( e) Danielsen measured the radio-activity in certain
thin layers of air at tropospheric altitudes. He demonstrated that these active layers represented parcels ofstratospheric air e.xtended into the troposphere. 32• 33
This process, a folding of the tropopause, is shown schematically in figure 2. After the "tongue" of stratospheric.air with its high concentration of radio-activity is brought
across the tropopause, diffusive mixing incorporates it
into the troposphere. A quantitative estimate of theamount of Sr90 transferred into the troposphere made by
Machta, using Staley's estimates of the frequency, intensity and areal coverage of the extrusion, suggests that
this process could account for not more than about onethird of the observed stratospheric fall-out. 30 •M
16. To predict the future deposition of long-lived fission products, the concept of mean residence time is useful. It is defined as the average time spent by fission
products in the stratosphere before being transferred tothe troposphere. Such a definition in no vray implies thatthe material is well mi..""Ced within the stratosphere or thatthe hold-up during the transfer to the troposphere occurs

15. There are many mechanisms which might account"for the transfer of particulate radio-activity from thestratosphere to the troposphere. Machta compared thelikely transfer of Sr9<' by each mechanism with the subsequent observed Sr9° fall-out in the northern hemispherein early 1960 and 1961.M The results can be summarized
as follows:(a) Heavy particles can settle through the tropopause,
but the bulk of the radio-activity in the lower stratosphere is contained in particles too small for gravitational
settling to contribute significantly to the downward transport through the tropopause.
( b) Vertical mixing through the tropopause and horizontal exchange through the tropopause gap (figure 1)
could each account for the transport out of the stratosphere and thus explain the subsequent fall-out. The calculation assumes that a coefficient of diffusion represents
the proportiqnality factor between the flu.x of Sr9° andthe gradient of Sr90 • This diffusion coefficient describes
various complex meteorological processes only grossly.
There is also considerable uncertainty regarding the magnitude of the coefficient. The equality between diffusive
13

Figure 2. a, b, c. Vertical cross section, north to the left, showing in successive stages ~he steepening. and fol~~ of the tropopause.
The thin lines are potential temperature isotherms. Air parcels tend to move along such isotherms durmg transit times of a few daysss

as the concentrations in the stratosphere become more
uniform because of mixing, the mean residence time may
tend to increase. The use of a constant rather than anincreasing mean residence time will slightly over-estimate
the doses due to Sr90 and Cs 137 •at the tropopause. 7 Such conditions, which are needed tovalidate the use of first order kinetics, are not applicableto the stratosphere-troposphere transfer. However, theconcept of a mean residence time is used to predict futurefall-out.
17. Mean residence times may be computed for thetransfer of stratospheric debris to the troposphere frompublished stratospheric inventories and annual depositsof Sr90 and W 185 Three techniques were employed to
produce the estimates in table I, as noted below the table.
Each technique is subject to uncertainties. Method b, inparticular, can yield meaningless residence times if thestratospheric distribution changes between measurement
periods. The mean residence times for one hemisphereare unreliable if there is a significant transfer between
hemispheres. Despite this, all three methods are consistent in suggesting longer mean residence times for thesouthern rather than for the northern hemisphere.

Movement within the troposphere

21. Once the radio-active debris enters the troposphere it is mixed fairly rapidly within the hemisphereof entry. Within the troposphere mixing by eddy diffusion and convection is much more rapid than in the stratosphere. As will be shown later, the Sr89/Sr90 ratio inmonthly precipitation was fairly constant in the different
latitude bands of the northern hemisphere, between September and December 1961.27 • 376 Between 10° and 70°N
the meridional mixing rate is rapid compared to the halflife of Sr89 , 50.5 days. As in the stratosphere, the fission
product debris is mixed zonally quite rapidly. At latitudesof 40°N the air takes some twelve days to move aroundthe earth in a westerly direction. 40 In the meridional
plane there are two circulation cells within each hemisphere as shown in figure 1. In the tropical regions thiscell is well developed with air rising in equatorial regions
and descending into the 20°-30°N latitude region. At
higher latitudes there is a weaker circulation cell withdescending air at latitudes of 40°-50° and rising air at
higher latitudes, while at middle and higher latitudes
large scale eddies give rise to rapid meridional transport.
22. The gross beta activity of ground level air ismeasured at many stations throughout the world. These
measurements, although of importance for surveillance
purposes and also for meteorological studies, are of little
value in estimating radiation doses from fission products.
The activities in air of individual fission products havebeen reported from a number of countries. 4147 Of particular interest are the activities in air measured at stations around the 80th meridian west. Figure 3 shows themean bi-monthly Sr90 activities in the northern andsouthern hemisphere stations during the years 19581963.~8•318•819 During 1960 and part of 1961 when there
was little testing, the activities of Sr90 in air in the twohemispheres tended to equalize. Sr90 activity in thenorthern hemisphere showed large peaks in the spring ofeach year, but in the southern hemisphere these peaks
were not so marked.
23. A rapid rise in the Sr 90 activity of air occurred in
the northern hemisphere in late 1961 after testing was
resumed. In the southern hemisphere the rise was slight
until April 1962, when equatorial tests were resumed in
the Pacific. Lockhart and Bleichrodt41 • 50 have reported
the detection of debris from these Pacific tests in midlatitudes of the northern hemisphere, and others have

18. A periodicity of two years or of twenty-six months
has been found in many meteorological parameters of thelower stratosphere. 38 This cycle appears in the ozone
content of the atmosphere over Australia 37 and in the Be7
concentration of the stratosphere of the southern hemisphere.•08 It is possible that fall-out may be partiall)'modulated by the same cycle, at least in the southernhemisphere.
19. The mean stratospheric residence time of radioactive debris produced by an individual explosion will
depend on the altitude, latitude, and possibly the time of
injection. Thus, fission products in the lower polar stratosphere may have a mean residence time of six months
or less, while debris from medium altitude explosions
have mean residence times of perhaps two to three
years. 39 At much higher altitudes, over 100 km, as illustrated by the Rh102 experiment, the residence time increases to five or ten years. 12•381 ••01 Theoretical modelsof transport and diffusion can qualitatively reproduce
these differences. One such preliminary model by Bolin, 7
created to fit the observed ozone observations, produces
reasonably plausible fall-out patterns as well. Ultimately,
it is likely that predictions from such meteorologicallyconsistent models will form the basis for fall-out forecasts.
20. The stratospheric distribution in January 1964 isroughly the same as in 1960 or early 1961. It is therefore
considered reasonable to apply the observed mean residence times found during 1960 and 1961 to the stratospheric inventory in 1964 for the predictions in thisreport. Table I summarizes the mean residence times
found in the 1960-1961 period. An average global valueof t\vo years is chosen for purposes of predicting Sr90 ,Cs 131 and C14 contamination after 1963. It is likely that,
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reported the detection in May-June 1962 of Ba1~ activity
in rain at Westwood, New Jersey, United States. 4 &-i!-0
Similar evidence has been noted in measurements madein the United Kingdom. 45 In 1962 the average Sr9° air
activity in the northern hemisphere reached a peak of
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of Sr8 9 during and following nuclear explosions as shownin figure 4 is confirmed by profiles reported by Krasnopevtsev along 170°E over the Pacific Ocean (theprofile for Zr95 being also shown in figure 4) and by
Labeyrie and Lambert in the eastern Atlantic Ocea.n. 47 • 55

25. In the troposphere, the mean e.xchange time
between hemispheres, defined as the mean timespent in the northern hemisphere by a molecule ofair before transfer to the southern hemisphere, and viceversa, has been estimated by using various gaseoustracers. M, 5 6-6s, •oe,-uo These estimates are listed in table II.
The exchange times shown in table II are fairly consistent, e.xcept that based upon tritiated methane, andindicate that the e."'Cchange time is about 1.5 years.

24. In the troposphere, the exchange of particulate
radio-activity across the meteorological equator is impeded for two reasons. The first, convergence of low
altitude air currents (figure 1), tends to keep air in thesame hemisphere and also retards the exchange of gases.
The second reason is the scavenging of particulates byshowery precipitation in the convergent zone. A northsouth profile of s~ along the 80th meridian west between September and December 1961 shows (figure 4)
a sharp decrease in the convergent zone near the geographical equator. n This short-lived activity originatedfrom explosions in temperate or high latitudes of thenorthern hemisphere. By contrast, figure 4 also displays
the distribution of Sr110 whose origin is mainly the stratosphere of each hemisphere. The north-south distribution

26. Stewart estimated a thirty-day mean residence
time for fission products injected into the troposphere.59•60 Evidence now suggests that in the lower,
rain-bearing, layers of the atmosphere particulates reside
for a period of the order of five days or less. 62 But forparticulates located well above the rain-bearing layers,
the residence time may be as high as forty days. 15 • 60
MECHANISMS OF DEPOSITION

27. After entering the troposphere from above, fission
products are transported down to the level of the rain-15

cipitation confirms the almost constant specific activity inrain at all these sites .
30. One method of calculating the dry fall-out in aregion having places with variable amounts of precipitation depends on obtaining a relationship between deposition and the amount of precipitation, and e-xtrapolating
the relationship to zero precipitation. Thus, if the straightline in figure 5 is extended to zero rainfall, a dry depositof 7 mCijkm 2 is obtained in 1960 on the West Coast of
the United States. A similar analysis of the cumulative
Sr90 deposit in Norway during 1959 yields about 5
mCijkm2 due to dry deposition.69 This indirectly observed amount of fall-out computed by extrapolation of
fall-out precipitation curves to zero precipitation may
express the maximum dry fall-out. Miyake argues thatthe fall-out precipitation relationship departs from astraight line towards lower fall-out at very low precipitation amounts. 61 It appears likely that the amount of dry
deposition and the specific activity of Sr90 in precipitation
will vary with climatic conditions and the air concentration. Many factors affect dry deposition such as microturbulence and the extent of vegetation cover.64

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31. Inventory estimates for individual nuclides would
ideally be based on a lmowledge of the amounts injected
into the atmosphere. These can be deduced from theyields of the explosions and such estimates of yields havebeen published (table III) 10 but their reliability cannot
be assessed on the basis of the information available to
the Committee. In the present report, therefore, as in the

Figure 4. Latitudinal variation of the concentration of fission
products in surface ai~l, ~7bearing clouds mainly by turbulent mixing. This downward movement is enhanced over anti-cyclonic systems
and opposed over cyclonic systems.si Below this level theradio-active particles are rapidly washed out by precipitation and deposited upon the earth. 65 In addition, dryremoval of fission products takes place through several
mechanisms. Dry removal by sedimentation requires particles to be larger than about 5 microns and is important
only in local fall-out. Dry deposition of world-wide fallout makes an important contribution to the total fall-out
only in areas of low rainfall.
28. The fission products can enter rain-water bv
processes within the cloud, the so-called rain-out, or b;.,.
pick-up by raindrops below the cloud, the so-called
wash-out. For aerosols of small particle size the wash-out
process is relatively quite slow so that rain-out is probably the most important wet deposition process.9 • 63 The
small contribution of wash-out processes to total deposition probably accounts for the fact that the activity offission products in ground level air does not seem to begreatly influenced by precipitation rates. 51 • s: The rain-out
of fission products may be enhanced by the presence of
natural aerosols in the lower atmosphere, and it has beensuggested that higher concentrations of sodium chloride
in the maritime atmosphere may enhance the deposition
rate over oceans.63
29. Experience indicates that time-averaged Sr9 Q
deposition is roughly proportional to the amount of precipitation. 67 The relationship is only approximately valid
when widely separate stations are compared, as for example all stations in a latitude band. The relationshipbecomes better when the stations are limited to the samegen~ral climatic region and becomes very good when thestab.ons are close to one another. An e-xample of thelatter appears in figure 5 where the cumulative Sr9° soil
?eposition in Clallam County, Washington, United States
1~ 1960 is p~otte~ against precipitation. 66 In this case, thelmear reJat1onsh1p between deposited activity and pre-

60

so
0

20
T Loach ExtrccliC<I Method - HASL
£ Fusion Extraction Method - HASLo Leoch Extraction Method - BSL.

10
I

,/

SOO

1000

1500

2000

Centimetres of Predpilction
1953 le Sompli~ Date

Figure 5. Strontium-90 deposition determined from soil analysis
in 1960 as a function of precipitationso16l33. Figure 6 shows that the Sr9° concentrations in the
troposphere are several orders of magnitude less than in
the stratosphere. To estimate the tropospheric inventoryof Sr9°, an average value of activity is assumed for eachhemisphere. The large concentration gradients present in
the stratosphere can cause uncertainties in the inventory
estimates. Another possible source of error is the sparsityof data available above 21 km. This is particularly significant in estimating the 1963 inventory, as it is believedthat concentrations were considerable above 21 km at
latitudes higher than 31°N. 23 It should be noted, however, that there is only 4 per cent of the atmosphere above
21 km, and only 1 per cent above 30 km.
34. To check on zonal uniformity within the stratosphere, Cs137 activities measured over the United Kingdom were compared with Sr9° activities measured overCanada and the United States, using the ratio 1.7 forconversion. Although this comparison did not conclusively show that there was no zonal variation, no systematic difference was noted. 23 It has been estimated thatthe over-all error in the stratospheric inventory of Sr9°1962 report, inventories 'vill be estimated from actual
measurements.
Atmosphere
32. To estimate the Sr9° inventory in the stratosphere,
a considerable number of air samples have been collectedby aircraft between the tropopause and 21 km. 11 • 14• 71 • 72
Between 21 and 30 km inventories were establishedthrough balloon sampling at two sites only, over San
Angelo, Texas, United States, and over Mildura, Australia.13 Estimates of the Sr9° inventory above 20 km
must be regarded as somewhat approximate. In estimating the stratospheric inventory from these spot measurements, it is assumed that there is fairly rapid zonal
circulation in the stratosphere and hence that the specificactivity depends solely upon latitude and altitude at any
one time. 23 Sr90 activities in the stratosphere at different
altitudes and latitudes during 1961 and 1963, are shownin figures 6, 7, 8 and 9. 22 • 23.:u Isolines are used for integration purposes in estimating the total inventory. For
the balloon data, only the crudest integration is possible.

Per centof atmosphere below
this altitudeKm.

30. 99XBALLOON

I· AIRCRAFT
~;

78

25

80,00095~112
108~177
11&'
11

139

X158

x110

111

l.U

~~38 103

100

100·m sl~:~ {151111J•t15~112•
g9
:w

130
12.3 129 •js,!,_----e60 OOO
,

e117
1 16
1 0
1
110

59
•9
52

40,000136

11• s1--23•-

93 5tf
•IOY•
100
,3

9~56

~

!~·

1

•fi·

2o•x1g
2
i

35

~

53
72
65
66

120X

--50

20

95

15

90

.1"

~1'6
x
14
MEA 32TROPOPAUJE
6

-10

0-4
•21 •16NR- - - 37~•4549

....

5

•o.04

.. • 0.1

0.03

43

~
.184
•ISO
159

e0.o4

•3

150

.. "

..
10

I

•0.6
I

•0.2
0.2

0.01
•0-05
0.07

• 0.07

2
• 1

2
•0.3

0.07
•0.06
0.1

.8:~
o.J

3

2

o.s

30°

80

0.8

0.2

oo

NORTH

30°

5

0
60° 90°

SOUTH

Figure 6. Strontium-90 activity in the atmosphere, May-July 1961 in dpm Sr;o;1000 scf (1000 scf

17=35 kg)23, s.

60

LATiTi.JDE"90o11f-.

60~. -

30°$

P1111· centof atmosphere
below
900$ this altitude:r:-:..:....,.~...,-.....,..:-:;::....:...:.....,.~-r-__;:y:...;.:.;....,~-r~..;:-~r---r~;;r-..;;_,.---r~,.;;y;....;;...,_~---...,

70..v15020

95

60

16"__ ..__...,,--""'-...........
j:: 50

\

IJJ
IJJ

J')g
0

::>

90
· 15 E

\

u..

IJJ

100
:;,/.

I

w

1

I-

,,

...J

Cl

'I

40

::>
j::

\

I-

5<t

<

·80

'--10
10

30

20

dpm Sr90-f!o_oo SCF{1000 SCF ~ 35 kg).

60

5Figure 7. Strontium-90 activity in the atmosphere, December 1962-February 1%32S,M

with the cumulative deposit up to December 1963. The
latter figures were computed by adding in the cumulativevalues for 1960 from the 1962 report and correcting for
decay. In 1963, 2.5 MCi of Sr1l 0 were deposited upon theearth's surface, the highest annual deposit ever recorded.
38. Figure 3 shows the Sr9° fall-out rates in eachhemisphere, together with Sr9° air concentrations for theyears 1953-1962. 28•318 • 379 A strong correlation between
Sr9° deposition and air concentrations is apparent. The
Sr90 deposition rate in the northern hemisphere has been
consistently higher, sometimes by one order of magnitude, than that in the southern hemisphere, and only
during 1960 and early 1961 did the rates in both hemispheres tend to equalize.
39. Estimates of the cumulative deposition of Sr110
have in the past been largely based upon the measured
Sr9° content of soil samples taken to sufficient depth toensure that most of the accumulated Sr90 is recovered.68• 106 The results of a new global survey of Sr90,
compiled in 1963, have become available since the adoption of the 1962 report.103 The Sr90 analysis of soils at
96 sites has now been completed103 and the cumulative
deposits at these sites are displayed on a world map infigure 13. The cumulative deposit of Sr9° in each hemisphere has also been estimated using the Sr90 monthly
deposition rates at stations of the United States global
fall-out network. 27 • 105• 379 The cumulative deposit of Sr90
in each hemisphere so obtained is plotted in figure 14 forthe years 1954-1962.
40. Estimates of cumulative deposits of Sf!O in latitude
bands, obtained from the 1963 soil survey, are comparedin table VIII with estimates based upon measurements
in precipitation for the years 1961-1963 combined withsoil data for 1960. The two sets of estimates agree reasonably well, except in the latitude bands 10°-20°N andis + 50 per cent at a probability level of 90 per cent. 23
Table IV shows the global Sr00 inventory for different
years up to January 1964.22,za,:u,i177
MEASUREMENTS IN PRECIPITATION Ah'D SOILS

35. Much information bas been published on Sr9°
fall-out and the Committee bas received much data frommany countries throughout the world. 26 •42 • 45• 46 • 7'-104 As
an example, the monthly Sr90 deposition at New York
City is shown in figure 10. 7 5 Figure 11 shows the cumulative Srgo deposit at a number of sites.45, 59,68,6s, 1s, 16, 80,os
The monthly and annual average Sr90 fall-out for different regions of the Soviet Union during 1961, 1962 and1963 are shown in table V. 81 • 418 The deposition measurements from the network operated by the United Kingdom
Atomic Energy Authority4 5 are consistent with the results shown in table VI and obtained from the more
extensive network operated by the United States Atomic
Energy Commission. Figure 12 shows the 1962 latitude
distribution of Sr00 deposition. ~ 1
36. The annual deposition in each 10° latitude band
between 50°S and 80°N during 1961, 1962 and 1963 isshown in table VI. 27 • 105 • 3 ' 6 • 419 Few data are aYailable forthe higher latitudes, but the deposition there does notcontribute appreciably to the dose commitment since thepopulation density at these high latitudes is small. The
totals were computed by averaging the annual depositionat the fall-out stations in each latitude band. Telegadas25• 407 has compared the results of this calculation withthose obtained by multiplying the specific activity of Sr9°
in rain by the aYerage annual rainfall for the latitude
band. He found little difference between the results ofthe two methods of estimation.
37. The annual Sr90 depositions in each hemispherefor 1961, 1962 a..11d 1963 are shown in table VII, together
18Per cent of
atmosphere
below thisaltitudeKm

120,QOO

35
July

x 530

Aug. S5pf.
:c 400Analysis by Isotopes, Inc.
based on DASA ProjectStar Oust aircraftJulysamples to 21 km.

x AEC balloon data.

100,000

S•pt.

55 x

30

560X630x360

390 )(
970X

X560

80,000

99

25

X390
/OOO

500

)( 530

20

~

~95

LaJ
UJ
lJ..

I
LaJ
0

15

90

:::::>

~
~

_J

,----

40,000<•-1•-0.!5

10

..

~

~

·so

"".-,,,, ...............

• 0

-e

·-0.3

•-I

·-0.1

60

20,000
•-6

•-I

•-0.1

•-I

5

090°. . . . ------~--~--~...._--~--~--~--------------0
60°
30°
0°
30°
60° 90°
NORTH

SOUTH

Fig11re 8. Strontium-90 activity in the atmosphere, September 1963 in dpm Sr90/1000 scf (1000 scf = 35 kg)23,H

20°-30°N, where the number of soil sampling sites wasquite small. This conclusion is in agreement ·with theresults of the 1960 Sr90 soil survey, which showed that,in the 20°-70°N latitude band, estimates of deposition
obtained from precipitation data did not differ significantly from those obtained from soil data. For the calculation of doses, the mean value 9.6 MCi is used.
41. The e...xtent to which results for the world-wide
network of soil sampling sites correctly represent the
global deposition cannot be precisely assessed. However,a detailed analysis of possible causes of error 23 suggeststhat uncertainties in this regard are likely to be small
relative to those in the assessment of other parameters.
There may be a systematic bias in the Sr00 global depo-

sition estimate which could in particular be caused by
the geographical distribution of the sampling sites. Possible inequality between fall-out rates over oceans andcontinents could also give rise to a corresponding systematic error.

Rivers and lakes
42. The Sr90 and Cs137 concentrations in the rivers ofseveral countries have been reported. 52 • 101- 109• 333 Measurements on waters of Lake Grosetvann in Norway during 1958 and 1959 gave Sr9° concentrations about 10
per cent of those in precipitation. During early and late
winter, however, with the melting of snow, the Sr90 concentrations of the inflowing waters increased substan-19

Altitude km
1000

500

15

40

200
240

.,a: 280

320

:E

360

10

c:

"
""

<[

ID
..J
..J

...
'O
......
0

=
w
Q

400

:>

I-

440
20

480

5et
s

520
560
600
90"N SOON

30"N

60-S 90"$O"
LATITUDE

North

South

Figure 9. Strontium-90 activity in the atmosphere, January 1964 in dpm Sr90/1000 scf (1000 scf = 35 kg)2 2

43. Both this study in the Soviet Union and a similar
study on Sr9° in the river waters of Japan indicate thatsome 5-10 per cent of freshly deposited Sr90 is carried
off in river waters, but the removal rate of the cumulative
deposit of Sr90 is much smaller, being in the range 0.2-1.5
per cent per year. 107• 403 It can be concluded that most of
the Sr90 that is taken up by the soil will remain there
until it decays.
Oceanstially, indicating that during these periods surface water
was exchanging less of its Sr90 with soil before moving
into the lake. A similar result was noticed in river watersof the Soviet Union, where the Sr90 activities measured
during flooding were 5-10 times greater than during the
low water period.108 Average values for the Sri'° concentrations in 45 rivers of the European part of the Soviet
Union were 0.5 pCi/l during the second half of 1961 and
0.9 pCi/l during the first three quarters of 1962. The
average values in 37 rivers of the Asian part of the Soviet
Union were 0.6 pCijl and 0.8 pCiJI, respectively.

44. Oceans cover some 60 per cent of the earth's

2.0
N

E

o~
0I..
Vl

u
E
1.0

Figure 10. Monthly strontium-90 deposition in New York CityTa

20

50- · - · - BODO

67°N----·TOKYO 32°11•-·-·-·-·.MILFORD HAVEN SO°N
0

- - - - - NEWYORK CITY .W H
LENINGRAD 60°H
0

SIHGAP.ORE t H- - - - WELLINGTON~t S
0- · - · - · - · BUENOS AIRES AREA 3!{' S

NE

su

E

~

30

I

10

~

~

l~

IW

1~

1™

I~

1~

Figure 11. Increase with time of the cumulative deposition of strontium-90 :7, 45,ea,s&, 11D, 11e,cc, ov

surface in the northern hemisphere and about 85 per centin the southern hemisphere. Since predictions of the
future fall-out of Sr90 over land are based upon theatmospheric inventory, any difference between the fallout rates over oceans and over land could cause a corresponding error in future fall-out predictions.
45. Some measured concentrations of Sr90 in the
Pacific, Atlantic and Indian Oceans during the last five
years appear to be too high to be accounted for by thesame fall-out rates that are measured over the land.110
Bowen and Sugihara in 1957 and 1958 found that Sr9°
was well mi.xed in the top 100 metres of the Atlantic
Ocean.111 Between 100 and 400 metres, there was a steep
gradient in concentration with appreciable concentrationsat depths greater than 1,000 metres. Later measurements
appeared to confirm the presence of Sr9° activity at thesegreat depths.112 • 1 17 Some profiles of St'° concentrationsin the Atlantic Ocean in 1960 and in 1961 are shown infigure 15. Shvedov, using some of Bowen's results, estimated that the cumulative Sr9° fall-out over the Atlantic
in the 30°-40°N latitude band was between 28 and 42
mCijkm2 in 1957 and in 1958, against an estimated 10
mCijkm 2 from measurements over land.113 It has beenreported that the Sr00 concentrations in the deep watersof the western Pacific were even higher than those measured in the Atlantic.' 0 '46. Rocco and Broeker, however, reported profile
measurements for Sr90 and Cs137 in the Atlantic andPacific Oceans that showed little activity below 300
metres.114 At levels below 1,000 metres a considerable

7

N

E

;.,,

L.

u

4

E

3

2

no data

0 t-f"'""t"""F"'"i"""11""'"1f'4""'1'"""i'-=i°'""i°'""i"":.r"""\---r--r-.--T

90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 10 20 30 40 so 60 70 80 90
SOUTH

NOR.TH

DEGREES OF LATITUDE

FigU¥e 12. Total strontium-90 deposition during 1962 versus
latitude band21

21

o'ZJ~~~~~~w~­-~~ 0 "41i.. 0

~-

N
N

5~'<>

.....

~8.6

.;'

IG.J{)'t?.st:JG.3GP
fl1• '"'"'"Iott.. 1r.1>1"'1 1 1> ,,,,, 111111' fflf 1mf, lrt IG,111 l"1lnnrr1, tfn•ll" ,f,lrrmlntol -.•11f tl11ir
1r1>1utlut.tl"" J11•• not ln11'l11 otlidal ,,..r.,nemfnf •r 1K"ctpr11nt1 lsi 1111 llnl!eJ Ne.'fono,

MAI' NO. 1354 OI. V.J

UHIT[() l~AUONSSEPHMOlH 196 ..

Fig11re 13. Cumulative deposition of strontium-90 determined from soil samples collected in 1963, mCijkm 2 103..........................................................._________________,____________ . . _. ---.. -..... ---w--- _.__.,.

·..--1

tion the Sr90 cumulative deposition in soils was compared at a set of paired stations, one of each pair beingnear the ocean, the other continental." 20 At the same
latitude, no significant difference between the fall-out at
island and continental stations was apparent, in spite of
the fact that the average rainfall at the island stations
was almost three times as high as that at continental
stations.
49. There are several additional pieces of contradictory evidence concerning e.xcess fall-out over the oceans.
Measurements in the Mediterranean Sea and in the Gulf
of Gascony indicate a larger deposition of Zr95 over thesea than over adjacent areas.m Similar results havebeen obtained in the Black Sea for Sr90 fall-out. 120 On
the other hand, O'Brien, using 0 4 as a tracer for stratospheric Sr90 , found agreement between pot determined
Sr9° global fall-out and that leaving the stratosphere.'00
Thus, his findings in 1960, 1961 and 1963 required noexcess Srg 0 deposition over the ocean compared withadjacent land stations.
50. To summarize, much evidence seems to indicatethat the fall-out rate of Sr90 over the ocean is about thesame as that over land surfaces, but on the other hand aconsiderable number of measurements of appreciable
activities of Sr90 in deep waters have been reported thatare not compatible with present estimates of deposition.
At the moment, there is no adequate e.xplanation forthese differences, and further work is needed to clarify
the issue. For the purposes of dose estimation, the fall-out

... 0

3.0

2.0

1.0

1~

1955

1955

1957

1958

1959

1960

1961

1962

Figure 14. Cumulative deposition of strontium-90 (based uponmeasurements at the United States fall-out collection network
stations. Before 1958 the number of collection stations was
relatively smal1)21,11H

increase in the concentration of these nuclides was observed, but these measurements were not considered tobe sufficiently reliable by the authors. Only in the Antarc~c Ocean did they consistently detect significant activities of Sr90 and Cs131 at greater depths. These latter
profiles were more compatible with the ocean circulation
patterns suggested by C14 measurements. 115 • 116 Integration of the Sr9° concentrations to a depth of 1,000 metres
yields deposits of 11 mCijkm2 for the Caribbean Sea at
18°N; 6 mCijkm2 for the eastern Pacific at 0°S, and 10
mCij1an 2 for the Atlantic at 20°S. These figures do notshow any marked increase over continental fall-out atsimilar latitudes. These workers also obtained a mean
Cs137/Sr90 ratio in ocean waters of 1.6, in agreement with
fall-out and stratospheric air measurements.
47. Many measurements of the Sr90 concentration of
surface oceaa waters have been reported. 113 •115, 111-120• 411
The surface concentrations of the Pacific Ocean in 1961
were much more uniform than in 1958, indicating considerable horizontal mixing. In all cases, the variation ofconcentrations with latitude in surface waters was muchless marked than in air and precipitation.111 In the western Pacific between 1957 and 1959, average concentrations of 1.7 pCi of Sr90 per litre wt>re reported in surface
waters. 411
48. Indirect evidence on the differences between
oceanic and continental fall-out rates may be obtained
from the relative deposition over islands compared withthat over continents. The Sr90 fall-out measured in 1962
at nine stations on small islands in the Atlantic andPacific Oceans was compared with that measured in thesame year at nine continental stations. 27 All these stations
are situated in the latitude band 0°-40°N and form partof the United States world-wide Sr90 network. In addi--

2029°N,sf'w- - - - .15°N,66°w---

37°N, 68°w

- - - l1°N,29'\'(- - - o?s, ia"w-----· s0 N, 23°'11

15

8- · - 63°N, lO°w

't.,,

0..

:?;-

~

~
0

<>-._

"'

\
5

\
I
'

SOO

1000

1500

Depth Metros

Figure 15. Strontium-90 concentrations in waters of the Atlantic
Ocean during the period 1960-1961112

23

rate over the oceans will be assumed to be the same asthat over the land since the use of this assumption will
not underestimate the doses.

Angelo, Texas, United States, from January 1961 to
November 1963 are also shown. 13 It is evident that theratio has diminished significantly since September 1961,
possibly for the reasons mentioned in the preceding paragraphs. The mean values of the Csm/Si-90 ratios before
and after September 1961 have been computed at stations where sufficient data were available. Table IX
shows the mean Cs137/Sr90 ratios in precipitation at thestations mentioned above, in stratospheric air above San
Angelo, and in air measured in the northern hemisphereby aircraft. The measured reduction in the ratio since
the resumption of tests is statistically significant.
54. To estimate the total deposition of Cs131, the Cs131/
Sr90 ratio has been taken as 1.7 through 1961 and as 1.5
for the period 1962-1963. The Sr00 deposition values
shown in tables VII and VIII have been multiplied bythese ratios, and the estimates of Cs187 deposition are
shown in table X.

CAESIUM-137
51. Cshas not been measured in precipitation
throughout the world on such an extensive scale as Sr90 ,although the number of stations now reporting data on
Cs137 is greater than before 1960. Because of this lack ofworld coverage, in the 1962 report the world-wide deposition of Cs181 was estimated by applying the mean Cs137/
Sr90 ratios for the various years under investigation to
the global Si-90 deposition figures. This procedure isagain used here.
52. The half-lives of Si-90 and Cs131, 28 years and 30
years, respectively, are so similar that any change in thevalue of the Cs187/Sr90 activity ratio due to radio-active
decay over a period of ten years or less can be neglected.
The initial Cs 181/Sr90 ratio estimated from fission yields
varies between 1.0 and 3.0 for different fissile materials
and for different neutron energies. 121 Measurements of
Sr9° and Cs137 in precipitation indicated that there wasalso some variation in the ratio with geographical location.u, 81l Large numbers of measurements have beenused below in order to obtain reliable values for themean Cs187/Sr90 ratio.
53. Figure 16 shows the mean quarterly Cs137/Sr00
ratios for rain collected in the northern hemisphere at
20 stations of the United Kingdom precipitation collection network during the period January 1961-May
1963:415 In this figure the Cs187/Sr9° ratios of stratospheric air measured by balloon sampling over San
181

KRYPTON-85
55. The concentration of Kr8 5 in the atmosphere has
been increasing steadily since 1954 122 • 123 • 406 (figure 17)
and by 1962 v.as 7 pCijm8 in the air of the northernhemisphere. From the known fission yield of Kr8 5 it appears that only a fraction of this activity has been contributed by tests, the remainder having presumably beenreleased into the troposphere by nuclear plants. This isborne out by the fact that the concentration of Kr85 inair, unlike that of other fission products, shows neither
seasonal fluctuations nor any correlation with tests.12 2
Since Kr8 5 is a noble gas, almost all of it remains in theatmosphere and so measurements of its concentration in
the air of both hemispheres could be used to study exchange mechanisms in the troposphere. The present concentration of Kr85 in the atmosphere is not sufficient togive rise to any significant dose to populations.

• • Strntcsphvk Air over San Angtb 73

I-

Meon precipit::ticn, Northern Hemisphtre 45

SHORT-LIVED FISSION PRODUCTS

2.2

Strontium-89
56. The deposition of Sr8 9 has, for some six years
now, been measured at a large number of stations
throughout the world. 27 Since the half-life of Sr89 is 50
days, its fall-out rate is a fairly good inde.x: of the amountof short-lived activity being deposited. Figure 18 shows
the monthly mean Sr89/Sr9° ratio for different latitudinalbands during the period September-December 1961.21

2.l

2.0

l.9

~

l.6

.:;

l.7

~~

I.. rl

..

'

I

1.6

.

i {I Li
r
I

1.5

IA

.

1.3

II

IV

VI

VIII

1961

X

XII

II

IV

VI

VIII

1962

X

XII

II

N

195"1

l9o3

Figure 16. Cs1s1;Sr9o activity ratio in stratospheric air and in
precipitation

19SS

1956

1957

1958

1959

1960

Figure 17. Krypton-85 activity innorthern hemisphere air122, 12a, •05

24

1961

1962

'•

l

80

70

60

\

so

SEPTE:~~~~··········'\\\

I
I

I

'1

\
I
I
I
I

40

I

;o

\\

.................
.. ...··\

I
I....\.,,··..
...·· \ ··...
·\····',,····....

20

10

' ·..
'I.

NORTH 80-50

so

40

10 ·.

20

30

·

••
..... ..............
.
.......

.... .......... .......... ............
20.

10

0
Latitude

40

30

SOUTH

!lumberol ahos 12

19

14

13

10

9

7

8

7

Figttre 18. Average Srso;sr110 ratio in precipitation in each 10° latitude band, 196127

Even by December 1961 the Sr89/Sr 90 ratio was almost
constant with latitude, indicating that the mixing along
meridians within the northern hemisphere was relatively
rapid.
57. The Sr89 fall-out totals in different latitudinalbands for the period September-December 1961, and for
1962 and 1963, are shown in table XI.2 7• 124 • 376 The deposition was at a maximum in the 30°-SOON band in
1962, about half as much being deposited in the tropicalregions and even less at high latitudes. The monthly Sr"
deposition in different regions of the northern hemisphere, as well as the southern hemisphere averages, areplotted in figure 19.n It is apparent that the Sr8 9 fallout rates for these three regions of the northern hemisphere were somewhat similar, indicating that the debris
was zonally well mixed and that it was largely of stratospheric ongin.
58. The Sr" monthly deposition at mid-latitudes in
the northern hemisphere reached a peak value of about
25 mCijkm 2 during January 1962 and passed througha minimum of some 3 mCijkm 2 during August 1962. The
deposition rose again during the last part of 1962 andreached a peak of 20 mCijkm 2 during April 1963. Present measurements indicate that the deposit of Sr8 9 in1964 will be practically zero. In the southern hemispherethe deposition rate for Sr89 , also shown in figure 19,
was small until May 1962 when it increased to about
2 mCijkm 2 per month and remained approximately atthat level during the rest of the year. Included in table XI
are the annual deposits of Sr8 9 for each hemisphere
during 1961 and 1962. During 1962, the deposition of
Sr8 9 in the southern hemisphere was only one-sixth ofthat in the northern hemisphere.

at Milford Haven and Chilton in the United Kingdom
are shown in table XII.~~ A number of these nuclides,
Zr95 + Nb 95 in particular, contribute significantly to theexternal gamma dose commitment due to nuclear tests.
Although !131 is measured very e..xtensively in milk supplies, it has not been measured in precipitation at manysites. However, the deposition rate of Ba 1~ is a reasonably good index of !1 31 deposition. The activity of theshort-lived fission products, Sr8 9 , Zr95 , Ru 103 , Ru106 , !131,
Baa 0 , Ce1 u and Ce144 , deposited during 1962, are shownin table XIII. 45 • 75 The importance of dry deposition ofshort-lived fission products has been shown by measuren:ents in the United Kingdom.*~ Apart from Sr8 9 , few
measurements have been reported on the deposition ofshort-lived fission products in the southern hemisphere.
CARBON-14

Inventory
60. C with a half-life of about 5,700 years, has
always been present in the earth's atmosphere where itis produced by the action of cosmic ray neutrons on nitrogen atoms, both in the stratosphere and in the upper
troposphere. The C14 in the atmosphere is observed almost exclusively as C02 .*06 Before nuclear testing, theatmospheric content of C14 was about 40 X 10-"7 atoms.
The normal distribution of stable carbon and of o~among the different reservoirs of exchangeable carbon,
prior to the industrial and atom bomb effects, is shownin table XIV. The specific activity of cu in standard
wood (wood grown during 1890) of 14.5 dpm/g Chasbeen used to estimate the C14 content of each reservoir. 12 ~The C14 activity in the deep oceans and in humus is assumed to be 84 per cent of standard wood. 115 The natural production rate of C14 can be calculated by dividing
the inventory (2170 X 1027 atoms, table XIV) by themean life of C14 (8,300 years). The resultant production
rate is 2.6 X 10~ 6 atoms per year, which corresponds to
1.6 atoms cm- 2 sec-1 •14,

Other short-lived fission products
59. A number of fission products with half-lives ranging between the 8 days of !1 31 and the 244 days of Cew
are deposited in significant quantities upon the earth's
surface. Monthly deposits of short-lived fission products25-EuropeUnited Stoles of America

ui11?11·~thern:HemisphereTokyo, Japan

10.0

1.0

IX

X

XI

XII

II

Ill

IV

V

VI

VII

VIII

IX

X

1962

1961

Figure 19. Average monthly strontium-89 deposition75, sg

craft and balloons for sampling. 23 • 34• 121 From thesemeasurements, the stratospheric C1 4 inventory has been
estimated in a manner similar to that used to estimate
the Sr90 inventory. The estimates of stratospheric inventory of artificial o• at different times between July 1957
and January 1964 are shown in table XV, together withthe estimated distribution of artificial c• in other reservoirs. u, •za
64. The excess activity of C1 4 in the troposphere as apercentage of the activity prior to tests is shown in figure
20. based on measurements made at a number of laboratories in different parts of the world.11 • 12a-137 • 141 As figure 20 shows, the C14 activity of atmospheric carbon
dioxide began to rise appreciably above normal in 1956.
Between 1956 and 1958 the level rose almost linearly toa peak in 1959. During 1960 and 1961 the tropospheric
C14 activity remained fairly constant at about 22 percent above normal.
65. From 1959 to 1961 there \Vere small annual fluctuations in the tropospheric C1 • activity.1 u These fluctuations were particularly noticeable in the northernhemisphere and were probably due to the fact that mostof the artificial C14 was transferred from the stratosphereto the troposphere during the spring months, causing apeak activity in the northern hemisphere, while a sub-61. Lal and Peters estimated the production rate,
when computed from the C1 4 inventory, to be 1.6 atoms
cm- 2 sec-1 (when corrected for the new half-life of CH)
and 1.8 atoms cm- 2 sec-1 when derived from cosmic ray
data.15• 1 39 Another estimate of the 0 4 production rateusing cosmic ray data is 2.5 + 0.5 atoms cm- 2 sec-1 .m
For purposes of risk assessment the lower figure for ci.i
production, 1.6 atoms cm-2 sec-1 , will be used here, as
it will not under-estimate the dose commitment. As thisproduction rate is about 25 per cent lower than that usedin the 1962 report, its use will result in a correspondingly higher estimate of the dose commitment from C14
produced by tests.
62. Since 1954, large amounts of C1 4 have been produced during nuclear tests. Neutrons produced during
nuclear explosions in the atmosphere react with atmospheric nitrogen, producing C1 4 • With underground explosions C14 production is essentially zero, while forsurface or near-surface explosions the production can beassumed to be about half that due to air explosions. When
explosions occur at very high altitude, a fraction of thereleased neutrons escapes into space and the 0 4 production is correspondingly reduced.
63. Extensive surveys have been made of the 0 4 activity in stratospheric air in both hemispheres, using air26

l

90

80
30
70

60

"'0E

E

0c

0

50

20

_g"
>

"
cf

~

...,

c

c.

.....
N

u

"'"'

40

"'vx

w

30

__ .... .......
1956......... ..-""

1957

""

,,

/

10

,,,,.

.......

20

10,,--- ________ "" "" "",,/; ""Southern Hemisphere

1958

1959

1960

1961

1962

1963

Yeor

Figure 20. Tropospheric inventory of artificial carbon-l411,12S-1a1,u1

sequent transfer of some of this activity to the troposphere of the southern hemisphere caused a lowering of
the northern hemisphere activity during the fall and winter. This explanation is supported by the fact that thefluctuations in the northern and southern hemispheres
are out of phase by approximately six months. It will
also be noticed in figure 20 that the peak C14 activity inthe northern hemisphere in the years 1959-1961 occurred
approximately three months later than the peak in the
Sr90 fall-out rate, as shown in figure 3. The probablee.xplanation is that C1" is removed so slowly from thetroposphere that the mean tropospheric level tends to be
proportional to the integrated amount transferred fromthe stratosphere.

that dissolved as bicarbonate in the deep oceans. This
last reservoir is by far the largest, as can be seen fromtable XIV, and most C14 decays while residing there.
68. Measurements of C1" in the northern tropospherefrom 1959 to 1961 have shown a definite variation withlatitude.141 This C1 4 variation and the annual fluctuations
have been used to estimate the transfer of C14 along
meridians, using a linear diffusion model. 141 Using the
diffusion rate so obtained and assuming a two-compartment model for the mixing of northern and southern
tropospheres, an e.xchange time between hemispheres ofless than one year was estimated. The order of magnitudeof the e.xchange time is borne out by the rapid fall in
the northern hemisphere activity during late 1959.

66. Between 1955 and 1959 the tropospheric C1 4 activity in the southern hemisphere was some 4 per centlower than that in the northern hemisphere (figure 20)
probably because most artificially produced cu had been
i~jected into the northern stratosphere. However, thedifference between the hemispheric levels became smaller
during 1960-1961 (approximately 2 per cent difference).
It has been estimated that the carbon dioxide e.xchangewith oceans in the southern hemisphere is twice as great
as in the northern hemisphere, which probably accounts
for the residual differences in levels between the hemispheres.138

Future levels of carbon-14

69. The future levels of artificial C14 in the atmosphere have been estimated on the basis of a fourcompartment model representing C1 4 e.xchange between
the different carbon reservoirs. This model is shown infigure 21. Many such models have been proposed in theliterature, but for the purposes of predicting future atmospheric levels, there is little to be gained by using
more than four compartments. 126• 140 A four-compartment model makes more realistic predictions during thefirst few decades after injection than does a two-compartment model, as was used in the 1962 report. In thepresent four-compartment model, the biospheric carbon
has been Jumped in with the atmospheric reservoir, andthe humus carbon with the deep ocean, since theatmosphere-biosphere e.'Cchange is fairly rapid and theatmosphere-humus exchange is very slow.140 The move-

Circulation of carbon-14

67. The C1" in the atmosphere e.xchanges over a number of years with carbon present as bicarbonate in thesurface layers of the oceans and with carbon in thebiosphere. The carbon then e.xchanges more slowly with27

an: given in table XV. The increase due to testing in
1961 and in 1962 was about threefold. If 25 X 1021 outof a total estimated excess of 65 X 1021 cu atoms are
assumed to have been injected into the stratosphere in
1958 and the remaining 40 X 1()2 7 atoms in 1962, !he predicted future level of C14 in the troposphere, A2, 1s given
for t years after 1964, by
A 2 = [2.Se--0·000121
64e--0.02s1
26e--O·s51- 26e--0·591)
per cent above normal. This equation _predicts a pe~
excess C14 activity of about 70 per cent m 1964 or 196.J;
the level will then fall to some 60 per cent in seven oreight years' time. Between 1970 and 2040, the level will
gradually fall to some 3 per cent and will remain below
this level while the excess CH decays radio-actively.

Strcrtosphcre
Nl = 0.15'J k12

k21 ii\+T ropo•phere~-1.s• 11 ki3

k32 •i\+OTHER ARTIFICL.U. RADIO-NL'CLIDES
Surfaee Ocean5

72. Tritium (half-life 12.5 years) is not a fission
product but large quantities of it have been released into
the atmosphere by thermonuclear weapons during tests.
During 1952 and 1953, before large-scale contamination
by tests, typical concentrations of tritium in rain-water
were 1-10 tritium units. c. 153 This "natural" tritium is produced by the action of cosmic rays upon the earth's atmosphere. Since thermonuclear weapons tests began,tritium concentrations in rain-water have increased
greatly. 146-156 • 424 Concentrations of tritium in rain-water
between 1953 and 1963 in Canada, France and Sweden
are shown in figure 22. 14s-i.e, 153 • 156 • 384 • 424 • 425 Peak activities as high as 10,000 T.U. were recorded in Canada
in mid-1963.14 8 The average tritium concentration inwaters of the Pacific Ocean during 1960 and 1961 was
8 T.U.150 In the southern hemisphere, tritium activities
measured in rain-water were much less than in the northern hemisphere, being in the range 5-20 T.U. during 1958
and 1960.152
73. Be7 which has a 54-day half-life is produced naturally in the atmosphere, largely by the action of cosmic
ray protons on o>..-ygen and argon, and there is also thepossibility of some production in nuclear explosions.
Be1 has been used as a natural tracer to study the movements of air in the stratosphere. Concentrations of both
Sr9° and Be7 in rain at Rijswijk during 1961 and 1962,157
and also in air and rain at other sites, showed marked
maxima during the spring months.15s-151 The Be1 maxima
in both years were of similar magnitude, unlike Sr9°
which showed a much higher activity in 1962, indicatingthat most of the Be7 deposited during 1961 and 1962
was of natural origin. Be" has also been measured fairly
extensively in the stratosphere, and measurements during the period June 1960-May 1961 indicated that the
average Be7/Sr 90 ratio in the lower stratosphere was
15.34 • 157 Using this ratio, it can be estimated that at
Rijswijk the deposition rate of Be7 of stratosphericorigin was 12 mCijkm2 per year, whereas the deposition
rate of tropospheric-produced Be 7 was 28 mCifkmz peryear.
74. Measurements of Be7 and Sr89 in stratospheric air
over the Netherlands in 1962 suggest that some Be7 wasproduced by nuclear tests in late 1961.158 Be7 activities
above 5 pCi/kg of air showed a linear increase with the
Sr89 concentration, the mean ratio of excess Be7 activity
to Sr89 activity being 0.04. Activities of Be7 measured
in stratospheric air samples collected by aircraft over
the United States are shown in figure 23. 34 It is apparent
that there has been an increase in Be7 concentrations inN • 1.53

k.o13 .~'" }<34

O••? Ocean~N ~ 604

Nr •carbon capacity of r~servoir r

Figure 21. A four-compartment model of carbon-14 exchangement of C14 between these reservoirs can be describedby the set of four equations,N, ( d1t,+ AA,) = kr-1, (Ar-1 - A,)r- kr, r+I (A, - Ar+1)
with r = 1, 2, 3, 4,

where
A, = the C14 concentration in reservoir r,k,, r+i = C14 transfer coefficient between reservoirs
rand r1, and ko1 = k45 = 0,
N, = the carbon capacity of the rth reservoir,
X = decay constant of cu = 0.00012 y-1 •+70. It is assumed that fractionation effects between
reservoirs are small and can be neglected in predicting
future levels. These equations have been solved for A2,
the tropospheric concentration, for an initial injection ofc x 1()27 atoms of C14 into the stratosphere at time zero.
The method is essentially the same as that used by
Plesset and Latter. 140 Based upon the data in table XIV,the capacities of the 0 4 reservoirs are, in units of atmospheric capacity, 0.15, 1.5, 1.5 and 60 for N1, N2, Na,
N 4., respectively. The mean residence time of CH in thestratosphere is assumed to be 2.0 years. The transfer
coefficients, computed from the steady-state equations
derived by Plesset and Latter140 are. k1 2 = 0.075, k2s =0.27 and k 34 = 0.082, in atmospheric units per year. The
solution giving the excess C14 of. the troposphere in percent above normal, after t years, 1s
A 2 = 0.83C [0.047e-0.o0012 1 1.15e--0·02s1
1.34e--0·351 - 2.54e--0·591)++

71. Estimates of the bomb-produced C14 inventories
in different carbon reservoirs for the years 1957-1963' 1 tritium unit (T.U.) corresponds to T/H = io-1s.

28

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1953• 1 1 .U. ccrresponds to T/H = 10-

1954

1955

1956

1957

195'.'

1959

19l0

11'61

1962

1963

18

Figi&re 22. Concentration oi tritium in precipitation143-1~. 153, 156, 424,4~5( 60 days), yss ( 104 days) and Co58 ( 72 days) were
injected into the stratosphere. The activities of theseradio-nuclides in the stratosphere during 1962 are shownb figure 24 and are compared with those of Sr90 andCe144 .13 During the period July 1962-June 1963, 128
mCijkm 2 of Fe 55 were deposited at Westwood, New Jersey, United States. 142 There is no evidence at the present
time to indicate that doses from these radio-nuclides areof any significance.
77. There is evidence that nuclear explosions haveadded Na 22 , 36 and possibly Pb~ 10 , 34 • 417 to the existing
naturally occurring background of these isotopes in theatmosphere, especially during 1961 and 1962. Various
plutonium isotopes from nuclear tests have been observed in the atmosphere and in fall-out. 45 ··!01, 415 • 416•423
In addition, the possible bum-up of an isotopic nuclear
power source for a space satellite in the stratosphere
during April 1964 may have added to the burden of
Pu 238 in the atmosphere. 413 • 414 However, there is no evidence that the contribution to the dose in humans fromthese radio-nuclides is significant.

the northern hemisphere where, during the period September 1961-December 1962, concentrations were often
markedly greater than expected equilibrium concentrations. This evidence also suggests that Be~ was produced
artificially during tests in 1961 and in 1962. Various
nuclear reactions involving Li 6 have been suggested as
giving rise to Be 7 • 155 By multiplying the above Be7/Sr89
ratio of 0.04 by the figure for Sr89 deposition given intable XI, it is estimated that about 1 MCi of bombproduced Be7 was deposited in the northern hemisphere
during 1962. This is equivalent to an average Be' deposition in the northern hemisphere of 4 mCifkm 2 •75. A number of other nuclides, which have either
been deliberatelv added to nuclear devices or have been
produced as a result of neutron activation during the
explosion, have been measured in the atmosphere and in
precipitation. 23 • 73 • 142 During tests in 1958, W1 81 , vV185
and Rh102 with half-lives of 145 days, 74 days and 210
days, respectively, were injected into the equatorial
stratosphere. Cd109 and Cd113 with half-lives of 1.6 years
and 14 years, respectively, were added in 1962. Theseradio-nuclides have been measured in air and in precipitation, and the study of their movement in the stratosphere has contributed significantly to the understandingof its circulation.14• 23 • 73 • 142 However, the contribution to
the dose in humans from these radio-nuclides is insignificant.
76. During tests in 1961 and in 1962, considerable
quantities of Mn 54 (310 days), Fe55 (980 days), Sb124

m. Contamination of food and human tissues
STRONTIUM -90 AND STRONTIUM -89

78. The levels of Sr90 in foodstuffs have increased
since the resumption of nuclear tests in 1961. The levelsof Sr90 in milk rose in the northern hemisphere in 1962,
the mean yearly values being generally higher by a factor
29

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d/m/1000 scf

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OCT. 1959 - SEPT. 1961
2000

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NUMBER OF CASES

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SOUTH

NORTH
SEPT. 1961 - DEC. 1962

Figure 23. Beryllium-7 activity in the atmosphereu

of 2 than they were in 1961. The rise continued in 1963,
and the available data show that in 1963 the yearly average was twice as high as it was in 1962 (table XVI). In
the southern hemisphere the levels of Sr90 in milk rosemuch less in 1962 and 1963, as indicated by values from
Argentina, Australia and New Zealand.

high levels were measured in milk from the northernhemisphere. Because of the short half-life of Sr89 , milklevels fell sharply by the end of 1963.
80. In countries of the northern temperate zone therise of the Sr 90/Ca ratio in total diet was similar to that inmilk, average values for 1962 being higher than in 1961
by 70-100 per cent (table XVIII). The available datafor 1963 (Denmark, United Kingdom, United States)

79. The available data on milk contamination by Sr8 9
are summarized in table XVII. During testing periods,
30

_.

~

i

meteorological and agricultural conditions. 175 • 176 As thesoil factor that had been adopted in the 1962 report does
not tend to under-estimate the exposure, no change inits value seems justified.

65
60
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La_l =68"/V

85. It should be mentioned, however, that the rangeof variation observed between regions involving an appreciable fraction of the population of a country does
not necessarily include the much higher values of Sr90 /Ca
ratio found in milk and other dietary products of local
origin in some places with particularly high rainfall andwith special agricultural conditions. Such situations were
investigated in the United Kingdom. 168 • 169 • 280 The concentrations of Sr90 in milk found there reached levels
differing by a factor as high as 8 from the country-wide
mean. These locations are usually confined to single
farms and are not representative of the region as awhole, so that it is highly improbable that any large fraction of the population could be e.xposed to dietary contamination of this origin. 171 Broadly similar situations
appear to exist in a number of cool regions in north temperate latitudes, e.g. the Faroe Islands 97 • 179 and northern
Finland. 118

40·-..C'--~--'""!:.ll:.~~~-L~~~---l~~~---J

Figure 24. Vertical profiles of cobalt-57, iron-55, manganese-54
and antimony-124 activities (corrected to 15 October 1961) andof strontium-90 and cerium-144 activities (on collectiondate) 1 3 'show that the ratio was again doubled when comparedwith the available data for 1962.

81. Dietary information from regions other thanNorth America and Europe is scanty. The Sr90/Ca ratio
in total diet in the United Arab Republic in 1961 and in
1962 was close to the lowest values reported from thenorthern temperate zone (Europe, United States). In
1963, however, the levels rose only slightly in the United
Arab Republic and were on the average lower by a factor of 2 than most of the values reported from the northern temperate zone. Levels in Australia and Argentina
were much lower, and only a slight increase in the period
1%1-1963 was noted (tables XVI and XVIII).

86. The results of surveys in both Australia and New
Zealand indicate that the ratio of Sr00/Ca in milk relative to deposition is higher than it is in Europe and North
America. In contrast to the majority of areas in Europe
and North America, in Australia and New Zealand cattle
derive the major part of their entire diet from grazing
throughout the year, and it seems likely that this is oneof the factors responsible for relatively high Sr9°/Ca
ratios in milk.

82. The average Sr90/Ca ratio in the diet in Japan(table XVIII) is close to the levels reported from theUnited States and Europe in spite of the entirely different composition of the average diet. 172

83. The relationship between fall-out rate and cumulative deposit of Sr9° on the one hand, and milk concentrations of the isotope on the other, has recently been
discussed113 • m and has been expressed by the equation:
where

84. Levels, however, vary even within countries. Thus,
the yearly mean Sr00/Ca ratio in milk in different regions of the United States differed considerably fromthe average of the results reported by all the stations.161• 163 The highest and the lowest yearly regional
means in 1963 differed by factors of 2 and 6. respectively. from the arithmetical mean of the network. 164 In
New Zealand in 1962, the yearly means for local stations differed by a factor of 6. 295 The average dietarylevels as found in the Tri-City Study165 varied systematically by a factor of 2 between New Yark and San
Francisco. A similar degree of variation between average Sr'°/Ca ratios in diets from different regions of thecountry was found in Austria166 and a smaller one in
Denmark97 • 1 61 and in the United Kingdom. 165 • 16 9 • 280
Data on the geographical variation of Sr9°/Ca ratios in
total diet in Japan indicate values systematically higher
than average in the western and northern parts of thecountry.110

87. Though information is scanty at the present time,it should be noted that in some areas potable water may
contribute appreciably to the intake of Sr 90 • According
to observations made in Japan during 1962,m. monthly
determinations of Sr90 concentration in potable rainwater from twelve locations showed an average value of
4.4 pCi/l, while an average value of 0.2 pCi/1 was observed in city water collected from twenty-five locations.
An increase in the Sr90/Ca ratio in diet of about 40 per
cent was estimated to be due to this source.
88. The information available on the Srt10/Ca ratio
in the diet of infants is limited. Direct determinations of
Sr00 and calcium in babies' food preparations in the
United States indicate that on the average the Sr00/Ca
ratio in infants' diet in that country is essentially thesame as in the average diet of adults. 181 The Sr00/Ca
ratios obtained in the course of a dietary survey limited

C = pdFd + p,F,.

C = yearly average Sr 90 /Ca ratio in milk,

Fd = total accumulated deposit of Sr 90 in soil in
mCi/km2 ,F, = yearly fall-out rate of Sr90 in mCi/km 2 in given
year.
pd and p, are corresponding proportionality factors
also called "soil" and "rate" factors.
The values of the soil factors calculated for Englandand Wales173 and for the New York and San Francisco
areas1H tend to be lower than the value of 0.3 accepted
for the world-wide situation in the 1%2 report. On theother hand, it has been shown that values for both thesoil and the rate factors may vary widely with local31

to children and adolescents in the United States182 •866
showed a range of values similar to that observed in
adult surveys in the same country.
89. In Argentina during the years 1961-1963, 265 average levels of Sr90/Ca in babies' food preparations were
almost the same as in milk. Indirect estimates, taking
account of the more important role of milk as a sourceof calcium and Sr 90 in children's diet,168•169 • 188 also indicate that the Sr9°/Ca ratios in the average diets of infants
and young children are unlikely to exceed that estimatedfor adult diets. It must be emphasized, however, that,
although much information is available for areas where
the intake of calcium is relatively high and milk is an
important component of the diet, little information isavailable for countries in which other types of diet are
consumed.

using parameters obtained from experimental kinetic
studies in man with Sr8 5 as a tracer. 202 · 203
93. Infants. Earlier indications that there is little discrimination between strontium and calcium in the very
young have been supported by recent investigations inwhich ratios of stable strontium to calcium or Sr90/Ca
ratios have been measured in diet and in bone. 193 • 194
Detailed investigations in Argentina, employing bothmethods, indicated that at the age of 2 or 3 months theratio of strontium to calcium in bone was about 0.8 ofthat in diet, the value decreasing to less than half thisfigure at the age of 9 or 10 months, and to about 0.25 in
the second year of life. 265
94. In the early weeks of life the consequence of small
discrimination between Sr90 and calcium in their transferfrom diet to bone is in part offset by the low Sr90/Ca
ratio in the foetus as a result of discrimination at theplacental barrier. Moreover, when infants are breast-fed
the Sr90/Ca ratio in their intake is appreciably less thanthat in the diet of older age groups.
95. The rate of turnover of minerals in the bones ofthe young is a major factor affecting the radiation dose
received from the Sr 90 that is deposited in the earlymonths of life. The best agreement between the Sr9°/Ca
ratios observed in bones of infants and young children,and those predicted from measured dietary levels bygiving various values to the relevant parameters (ORand yearly replacement rate of bone mineral), was obtained when a yearly replacement of about 50 per centof bone mineral in 0-1 year old infants was assumed. 200
However, this figure is uncertain, and its true value
might lie anywhere between 30 and 70 per cent. An almost
complete replacement of skeletal mineral in the first andsecond year of life had been postulated by Bryant andLoutit.181, 1s3

90. In the 1962 report, the ratio

Sr9°/Ca total diet
Sr90/Ca milk
was used to predict Sr9°/Ca ratios in diet from those inmilk in areas where insufficient information was available to estimate the dietary intake directly. Although thismethod is not used in the present report, it is of interest
to note that the ratios in the years 1960-1963 (table XIX)
do not differ substantially from those given in the 1962
report. However, some remarks are necessary:(a) In Japan, where the diet has a very low milk content, the ratio was 2 in 1962, somewhat lower than thatgiven for 1960 in the 1962 report.
( b) In Poland, where the average calcium intake ishigh and where cereals, whole-meal bread and potatoes
contribute a relatively high proportion of calcium and
Sr9° to the average diet,188· 184 the ratio is higher than incountries ·where milk is the main source of calcium.
A similar situation might exist in a large part of easternand south-eastern Europe.

96. This high turnover rate 'vill result in a rapid
equilibration of the bone mineral with that in diet andconsequently will lead to a relatively uniform distributionof Sr90 throughout the skeleton. It means also that the
Sr90 accumulated in the early months of life, when little
discrimination occurs, will have little, if any, effect on
the total amount of Sr9° present in the second year oflife or later, when the discriminating mechanism between
Sr90 and calcium is operative in the same manner as inadults.
97. The over-all effect of changing discrimination on
the exposure of infants to Sr00 has recently been examine~ i_n the Unit~d Kingdom, and the average Sr90/Ca
rat10 m bone dunng the first year of life was found tobe 0.25-0.3 of that in milk. 199 Since in the United Kingdom the Sr00/Ca ratio in milk is close to that in themixed diet and since the OR for adults is about 0.25,
these results show that the lower discrimination between
Sr90 and calcium in the first few months of life need not
be taken into account in assessing the radiation dose from
Sr90 over periods of a year or longer. This conclusion isfurther supported by the observation that the ratios
between Sr90/Ca in infant bone and milk in several
countries in 1962 give an average value of 0.25. as shown·in table XXI.
98. Evidence has been obtained that apart from its
content of calcium, other components of diet may affectdiscrimination between strontium and calcium.1s2, 196~owever, the relatively constant relationship between
dietary and bone levels in different countries, as shownin the 1962 report, suggests that in practice any suchIeffect is small.

91. In the 1962 report, it was concluded that theSr9°/Ca ratio in bone was largely determined by theSr90/Ca ratio in diet, and that, averaged over a period ofseveral years, the ratio in bone would be about onequarter of that in the diet from which the bone mineral
had been derived (i.e., the OR was 0.25d). Recent investigations, which lend further support to this conclusion, have added appreciably to our understanding of themanner in which the metabolism of the two elementschanges with age.
92. Adults. A value of 0.25 for adults appears to bereasonably acceptable, though some,vhat lower values
have been reported. 189•193 The best agreement between
calculated and observed Sr90 levels in the adult skeleton
is obtained by assuming that 2.0-3.5 per cent of bone
calcium is replaced every year by that supplied by thediet. ~ 01 • 202 Assuming, for the sake of simplification, asingle compartment situation, the replacement rate inlong bones (e.g. femur) should fall somewhere between
1.2 and 4.0 per cent. per year, 187 •188 •193 most probably at
the lower end of the range. In spongeous bone (vertebral
bodies) several independent estimates yielded values
close to 8-9 per cent per year. 187•188 • 1 93 •210 Good agreement was found between dietary intake and bone levels
when interpreted in terms of a power-function model,d·
Sr/Ca of sample
serve ratio sample/precursor= S /C f
.2at
r a o precursor
This ratio is meaningful when the sample (e.g. bone or totalbody) is in a state of metabolic equilibrium with the precursor(e.g. diet).
d

Ob

32

average levels in new- and stillborns decreased in I961
and in the first half of 1962 (figure 26). A sharp increase
was noted in the second half of I962 when Sr00 fromrecent test series entered the diet.

99. The information on Sr9°/Ca ratio in human bones
in the years 1961-1963 is summarized in table XX. The
majority of data comes from Europe, North Americaand Australia. No data are available from Africa andCentral America. Very limited information was obtained
from South America and Asia.
100. In view of the strong age effect in the 0-4 year age
group and of the varying proportion of bone samples ofeach age within the group. whenever possible data havebeen arranged in five groups covering yearly intervals
from about 1 month up to 5 years of age, in addition to
the group of new- and stillborn children.
101. When sufficiently detailed information is available (Australia, Denmark, Norway. Poland, United
Kingdom), it can be seen that the Sr9°/Ca ratio in bone
was highest either in the I-month to I-year group or in
the I-year group ( > I2 to < 24 months) and always
lower by 40-50 per cent in still- and newborns (figure 25).
The lower Sr9°/Ca ratio in bones of still- and newborns
is due to the discrimination by the placenta which favours
the passage of calcium from mother to foetus by a factor
of about 2 in comparison with strontium. 191 •193•26 ' In
older groups, the Sr9°/Ca ratio diminishes gradually, as
was already apparent in the I957-1960 data, until itreaches a plateau at above 20-30 years of age, indicatingthat the skeletal turnover rate becomes independent ofage.
102. Time trends. Results from the United Kingdom
and the Federal Republic of Germany indicate that the
3.0
2.J
2.6

2.•

103. After a fall in I960 and in I961, the levels in
infants and 1-year old children rose again in 1962. The
main increase was observed in the second half of 1962
and in the first half of 1963, as is apparent from figure 27,
based on the British data. When compared on a yearlybasis, however, the increase over the 1961 level observedin different countries in 1962 varied from almost 0 toabout IOO per cent (table XX). The highest group means
for Sr00 at this age were reported from New York Cityand Denmark, amounting in both cases to 3.8 pCi/g Ca.
The 1963 data that are available (United States, United
Kingdom, Soviet Union) indicate a marked increase of
Sr00/Ca ratios in infant bones over the levels of I962
(table XX).
104. In the 2-4 and 5-19 year age groups, varying but
usually small increases in levels from 1961 to 1962 canbe seen where a sufficient number of samples are available (United Kingdom, New York City). From 1961 to
1962, the increases ranged from almost 0 (Canada,
Japan) to about 60 per cent (San Juan, P.R, UnitedStates). In 1963 a marked increase occurred in the 2-4
year age group as compared with 1962, judging from thedata that are available for comparison. A somewhat lower
relative increase was noted in the 5-19 year age group,
but the data are still sparse.

•--o()o---

0

1961

I

1962

a
I
0.!
0.6

0.4
0.2

2

3

•

S

6

7

a

9

10

II

12

13

I•

IS

16

17

18

19

20

>

20

Fig1tre 25. Age distribution of Sr90/Ca ratio in human bones (United Kingdom)s29-331,s13

a

1.5
l.5

to

e;-

"'... 1.0"" 1.0
g'

"'D

c.

bJ

o.s

1l o.s
1959

(a)

1960

1961

1962

(b)

Fig11re 26. Sr90/Ca ratio in bones of still- and newborn children in the period 1959-1962(a) Stillborns in the Federal Republic of Germany in consecutive quarters of 1961-196220•,s:•(b) Still- and newborns in the United Kingdom in consecutive half-year periods of 1959-1962331

33

J.O

-

-

-

from Australia is lower than in those from the northernhemisphere (mainly the 30°-60°N latitude).
108. A similar pattern is observed for children's
bones. The arithmetic meanse for the northern hemisphere in the 0-1 year group were 1.7 and 2.4 pCi/g Ca in
1961 and in 1962, respectively. In Australia, the corresponding values were 1.1 and 1.4. As has already been
mentioned for milk, the difference in bone levels between
Australia and the northern temperate zone is much lessthan the corresponding difference in fall-out rate andaccumulated deposit of Sr90 •109. Comparison of diet and bone levels supports themethod of calculation of dose commitment from diets ofvarious types. The extent to which dietary and bone
data in infants support the accepted value of OR (0.25)
has been discussed in paragraph 97.
110. The Sr00/Ca ratio in bone in adults cannot bedirectly compared with the corresponding dietary ratios
to derive the OR value because the adult skeleton is notin equilibrium with the diet. However, the validity of
dietary estimates can be evaluated by comparing theSr90/Ca ratios in diet with corresponding estimates of
Sr90/Ca ratios in adult bone. Such comparisons areshown in table XXII. Despite differences in dietarylevels and in methods of estimation . the values given inthis table are reasonably constant. It may be concluded,
therefore, that the diet estimates as given in table XVIII
form a satisfactory basis for calculation of dose commitment. Again, the values observed in the period 19611963 are close to those calculated from fall-out rate anddeposit of Sr9° by means of the proportionality factors
for diets of different types as used in the 1962 report.

...._

-

0

j

2.0

....

.!O
0

.!::!.

~

'Q

--

~

"E

-

f 1.0 ...
G

0

~

19.59

1960

1961

1962

1963

l

Figure 27. Average ratios of SrDO/Ca in bones of infants, between
the ages of 7 days and l vear, in the United Kingdom (1959·
1963)

•

105. Above 20 years of age, slight increases occurredin some countries (Canada, Poland, United States) from1961 to 1962, while in others levels were almost steady(Australia, Japan, United Kingdom). A slight increasein the skeletal content of Sr00 over this period should be
expected on the basis of the current concepts on boneturnover in adults. 187 • 201 - 203 • 205 However, biological variability, possible sampling bias and analytical errors may
obscure this tendency, especially when only a limited
number of samples is available. Data from 1963 are too
limited to permit final conclusion.

CAESIUM-137

Food chain mechanisms
111. When the 1962 report was issued, only limited
quantitative information was available on the mechanisms by which Cs137 was transferred along the foodchain to man. It was thought that concentrations of thisfission product in milk were dependent mainly on thecurrent rates of fall-out as a result of direct depositionof the debris on plants with subsequent foliar and plantbase absorption. From the behaviour of Cs137 levels inhumans during the period 1959-1961, it had been suggested that Cs137 levels in the total diet as well as in man
also followed the current fall-out rate. 207 This was sup·ported by obsen•ations showing very limited availability
for root absorption of caesium atoms which, once mixed
with soil minerals, become progressively and almost irreversibly bound by clays.2os,209

106. Skeletal distribution. In contrast to children(paragraph 96), the distribution of Sr90 in the adultskeleton is not uniform. The highest Sr00/Ca ratios
are measured in predominantly spongeous bones ( vertebrae, ribs) and the lowest in mostly ivory ones (e.g.
~emur shaft). Normalization procedures were developedm the years 1958-1959 206 which made it possible to compare Sr90 concentrations in different bones. Since it isexpected that normalization factors will change with time,
the use of the same values over extended periods is notjustified. Because of these differences, the Sr90/Ca ratios
m bones for adults have been given in table XX in their
original form, together with the type of bone analysed.
For the same reason, comparisons of bone Sr90/Ca ratios
for adults wi.11 be made only for vertebrae when sufficiently large numbers of samples are available.

112. Hmvever, the concentrations of Cs137 in milk do
not follow closely the current fall-out rates everywhere.
In some areas, levels of Cs 137 in milk remained higher in1960 and in 1961 than would have been expected if they
had been proporti.onal to the current deposition that had
greatly diminished in that period. 212 • 218 In Scandinavia
the ratio of Cs137 and Sr90 concentrations in milk remained almost constant over the period 1958-1960. 2 H
Since the levels of Cs137 in milk follow relatively closely
the actual contamination of the fodder because of therapid turnover of caesium in cows, 215 the constancy of
the ratios can only be explained by assuming that, as in
the case of Sr90 , the absorption of previously deposited
Cs137 plays a significant role among the mechanisms
responsible for the transfer of Cs137 to milk.

107. Geographical variations. The average levels of. S~90 in human bon~ from_differ~nt regions of large countries, e.g. the Sov1et Umon (nme areas in Europe andAsia) 399 and the United States (New York City, San
Francisco and Chicago), 320 • 321 • 322 do not differ from themean by more than a factor of 2. In 1961 the average
concentration of Sr00 in vertebrae of adults from thenorthern hemisphere (arithmetical unweighted mean ofv<:1ues gi:en in tabl~ XX) was 0.8 pCi/g Ca as comparedwith 0.6 m Australia. In 1962 the corresponding values
were 1.0 and 0.6 pCi/g Ca, though these values are notstrictly comparable, as the bones from the northern hemisphere were not necessarily collected in the same areas.
Nonetheless. they show that the Sr90 level in adult bones' Omitting locations where less than 5 samples were measured.

34

determined by recent fall-out. In Argentina it appears
that the contribution of Cs 131 deposited in the previous
year is extremely small, since a close linear correlation
has been established between the levels of Cs131 in milk
and in rain-water during the years 1960-1963.m

113. That caesium became fi.xed almost completely inall soils was disproved by Frederiksson 211 who investigated a large series of tropical soils from South America; in those with a low content of micaceous clays, noevidence of appreciable fixation was found. A high levelof organic matter in soil can enhance the absorption of
caesium by plants. 218 It was suggested therefore that insome permanent pastures a high content of organic material in the upper layer of the soil might reduce the binding of Cs131 by clays, thus prolonging its availability toplant roots._ The potassiu~ conte?t of the soil is also an
important iactor, absorption bemg greatest when theconcentration of that ion in the soil is low. 208
114. The relationship between the concentration of
Cs 137 in milk and the pattern of fall-out varies between
different areas, depending not only on soil factors andon the extent to which the deposit is retained by vegetation, but also on the fraction of the diet of animals whichcomes from concentrated foods. grain or hay producedin the previous year. It has been found in the United
Kingdom that the average country-wide concentrationof Cs137 in milk in any given year could be correlated tothe deposit of Cs 131 over the current and previous two
years. 219 The relationship can be expressed by the empirical formula:

Caesimn-137 levels in foods
117. Cs137 conc:entrations in milk in 1961 were generally slightly lower than in 1960. The levels in thenorthern hemisphere rose sharply in the spring of 1962(table XXIII), and the average yearly concentrationsin that year were higher by a factor of 3 than they werein 1961. Such data as are available indicate that the
average yearly concentrations of 1962 were again
doubled in 1963. In the southern hemisphere (Argentina)
the level of Cs131 in milk rose only slightly over theperiod 1960-1962, and absolute values were lower thanthose from the northern hemisphere.
118. Considerable attention has been given to thesituation in some arctic regions where the levels of Cs131
in food and man may exceed the average for northerntemperate latitudes by factors of more than 100.1 ' 8 • 225 •ns, 2 • 3 , 2 '"• ass-372 • 398 These situations are attributable bothto dietary factors and to local conditions which enhance
the transfer of Cs 131 through food chains. The moststriking of these conditions are the high levels of Cs131
in lichens and other native vegetation on which reindeer
and caribou graze. These high levels are not due to unusually high rates of fall-out but to the accumulation of
Cs 131 by these slowly growing plants. 177 • 221 • 229 • 398 In
northern Europe and Asia the highest body burdens of
Cs131 have been found in reindeer breeders for whom
reindeer meat constitutes the major part of the diet_ In
North America the situation is similar for Eskimos who
consume caribou meat in large quantities. Considerable
variations in the dietary intake of Cs137 occur withinthese areas mainly because of variations in dietary habits,
and it is not possible to estimate the number of persons
who are exposed to the highest levels. HO\vever, thereindeer breeding groups in Finland, Norway andSweden constitute only a small fraction of the total Lapp
population, which amounts to about 35,000 people.
119. In the subarctic regions of these countries there
is also a substantial non-Lapp population which shows
Cs137 uptakes considerably higher than the country-wide
average. Dietary levels of Cs 137 appreciably above theaverage have also been reported in the Faroe Islands, 95 • 1 19
the west coast of N orway222 • 223 • 22 • and on a very local
scale in other countries. These situations are attributable
to high levels of Cs131 in pastures grazed by cattle.

where
C = average country-wide concentration of Cs 137
in milk in pCijl in given year,
F, = fall-out rate of Cs 137 in given year in mCi/km 2 ,F 20 = total Cs137 accumulated over the previous two
years in mCi/km 2 ,p', and P'2. = proportionality factors for Cs137 fallout over current year and for total deposit
over the previous two years in (pCi/I) /(mCi/km~).

The country-wide average values for p' r and p'!C were
estimated to be 3.6 and 0.65, respectively, and relatively
similar values were obtained when the average levels of
milk for a number of stations in the United States were
examined. Evidence of the effects of climate and agricultural factors on the magnitude of the proportionality
factors was, however, obtained by comparing regions ofhigh and low rainfall in the United Kingdom. The expected levels of Cs 137 in milk calculated on this basis
agreed closely with the observed values, whereas theagreement was less good when the total accumulated
activity of Cs131 per unit area was used instead of thefall-out deposit over the previous two years.
115. In Sweden a generally similar method of analysis
has been found to be applicable, but the values for bothproportionality factors are greater and the relationshipbetween observed and calculated values is somewhat improved if the deposit in the previous year only is used toderive the second proportionality factor. 286
116. The relationships between monthly levels of
Cs137 in milk and the recent deposit of fall-out have been
examined in the Midwest of the United States. 220 A goodcorrelation was found between the concentration of
Cs 137 in milk in any one month during the grazing season
and the deposit in the previous four months: similarly,
for times of the year when animals were fed on stored
food a relationship was established with the deposit at
the time the fodder was grown. This finding is not inconsistent with the use of the equation given in paragraph
114, since the small magnitude of p'2c compared top', iscompatible with the levels of Cs137 in milk being largely

Metabolism of caesium in man
120. Although the retention of a single administration of Cs137 is best described by an equation with two
exponential terms, one of these, with a short half-period,
contributes only a negligible fraction of the dose and cantherefore be ignored. 23 0-m The biological half-life of thelong-term component of retention, as determined in apparently normal adults by means of whole body counting techniques, can be estimated to be on the average
about 100 days (table XXV). The absorption of tracer
amounts of caesium from the gastro-intestinal tract in
man is close to 100 per cent. 231 • 233
121. Two studies of the biological half-life of caesiumin children m,m led to values of about 44 and 38 days.
thus at least partially accounting for the concentrationsof Cs 137/gK and Cs131jkg body weight being lower inchildren than in adults. The information on the turnover35

~ 12,860

10,0009,000_
U,000
7,000.
6,000

I-----m5,000

4,000_

t

I
I
I

I

I

: 10

I

: 10

Denmork
Federal Republic of Germany

IIt

25,700 10,000
9,000

~:ggg

1101 _
5 6,000
5,000

I

4,000

I

United Statas, Chicago

3,000_+23,570
I

t

.I..

7

Belgium

3,000

Uniled States, New Me><ico
Switzerland, Geneva

2,0JO

2,000

United Kin9(1om, Berkshire
Australio.L®

Finland (Helsinki)

1,000
900800
700
600
500

400
>l

~
...,

©

Norway (Oslo residents)

300

1
200
u
u

"-

2

Norway (Bergen residents)

3

Norway (Masfjordon residents)

4
5

Range of values reported for©

Norway (west coast oreo)
different groups of Finnish Lopps

400

6Range of values reported for
different groups or Aloskon Eskimoes

300

7Range of values reported for
different group• of Swedish Lopps

0

Poland (Lodz)

9

Japon

10

Range of values reported for i ndividuo I

200

reindeer breeders in tho far north oftl10 Soviet Union

100
90
BO
70
60

1,000
900
600
700
600
500

100
90
80
70
60

Shaded area indlcaler. the yearly overagovaluos
calculoled according to lho formula discussed

50

50

40

40

30

30

20

10
1956

1957

1958

1959

1960

1961

1962

1963

1964

Figitre 28, Caesium-137 levels in man during the period 1956 to early 1964''. - : -·-=~~.

in population were observed in some areas. In somegroups of Finnish and Swedish Lapps 226 • 243 • zH average
body burdens in 1961 reached levels 40 to 60 times higher
than the average for northern temperate regions, withsome individuals showing body concentrations up to 150
times higher. The average levels for groups of different
occupational and dietary habits were essentially proportional to their estimated intake which. in tum, largely
depended upon consumption of reindeer meat highly
contaminated with Csm. It has been calculated, 2 ~ 6 andlater confirmed by direct measurements, 178 that, becauseof the increased meat consumption in winter, levels inreindeer-breeding Lapps would have doubled in thespring of 1962, even without further contamination of
the environment. Comparably high body burdens of
Cs137 were found in 1962 among Alaskan Eskimos, 225
one group of whom showed an average of 3,000 pCijgK.
From April 1962 to April 1963 the average increase in
csm/K ratio in Swedish Lappsfrom J okkmokk amounted
to about 30-40 per cent. 311 A similar increase was observed in Alaskan Eskimos during summer periods in
1962 and 1963.368 In early 1964 one group of Lapps
reached the average level of 7,000 pCijgK, 369 and insome individuals in subarctic regions the total bodyburden in 1963 and in 1964 e.xceeded the value of 3.5
microcurie of Cs137 (table XXVI). 398

rate of caesium in early infancy is limited to two studies,giving values for half-life of 9.6, 6.6 days, 234 21 and 25
days3 7 5 in the four subjects investigated.
122. In the 1962 report it was assumed that concentrations of Cs137 per gramme fresh bone tissue werehigher than in muscles by a factor of 2.2. Further investigations~36• ~ 40 did not confirm this difference.

Observed levels in man
123. Extensive investigations showed 235 that the concentration of Cs13 '/kg body weight was about 50 per
cent higher in adult males than in females. This is apparently due to the higher average proportion of fat
tissue in the female body. It is known that concentrationsof potassium and caesium in this tissue are very low as
opposed to muscles, parenchymatous organs. etc. \.Vhen
e.xpressed in pCijgK, Cs 137 levels in males are only 10-15
per cent higherthan in females.
124. All available data on Cs 137 levels in the humanbody are collected in table XXVI. Values are expressedin pCijgK because:(a) Age and sex differences are minimal. 235 This isimportant when the se.x-ratio and the age composition of
the group investigated are not known.
( b) Values correlate closely with Cs137 concentration
per unit of lean body mass which seems to be a more important parameter for dosimetric purposes than the wholebody mass.
Use of the Cs137/gK ratio naturally does not imply thatthe metabolism of these elements is as closely linked asthat of calcium and strontium.
125. The levels from different locations in thenorthern hemisphere, as shown in table XXVI and figure
28, are remarkably close, with the exception of the relatively isolated and sparsely populated subarctic regions
and of the coastal areas of Norway (see paragraphs
118-119). Regional differences within countries have notbeen e..xtensively described e.xcept in the study of Anderson et al. 220 in the United States, who showed only slightdifferences in Cs131 body levels between regions withvery different deposition rates and milk levels of Cs137 • m
126. After a peak in 1959 and in 1960, the Cs137
content in man declined to the lowest levels in late 1961
and then began to rise in the first half of 1962, reflecting
the increased fall-out rates and dietary levels in 1962
and 1963. In those areas of the northern hemisphere
where surveys were performed systematically, the levels
in late 1963 were 2 to 4 times higher than the averagelevels in 1961.
127. Data from the Far East. the Middle East and
the Pacific region are too scanty' to permit meaningfulcomparisons with the northern temperate zone. Limited
data from Japan, collected by means of the whole bodycounting technique, 241 • 242 show values lower than inEurope and North America. This observation is consistent with the corresponding differences in the averageintake of Cs137 as given in table XXIV. In the southernhemisphere data are available only from Australia. 317
Late in 1961 and in early 1962 the levels were fairly close
to those observed in the northern temperate zone. In
1963 and early 1964, however, only a very slight increase
occurred, so that body levels of Cs137 in Australia werelower by a factor of 3-6 than those reported at that timefrom the northern hemisphere.
128. As has already been noted and discussed in paragraph 118, exceptionally high levels of Cs137 in food and129. Values intermediate between those reported fromsubarctic regions and the averages for the northern temperate zone were observed in other regions of Scandinavia. Thus in the first quarter of 1961 222 and of 1963,
480 and 332 pCi/gK were measured in Bergen. In
Masfjorden 2 ~ 2 where most of the food consumed islocally produced, an average concentration of about 1,400
pCijgK was observed in 1963. Levels in Oslo 224 in 1961,
in 1963 and in 1964 were lower, but still higher by afactor of 2-3 than in other locations in central andwestern Europe and in continental United States.

Relation of caesium-137 in fall-out and dietwith body burden in man
130. Because the biological half-life of caesium in
man is of the order of ,_, 100 days (table XXV), changes
in dietary intake are fairly rapidly reflected in the levelsof this nuclide in the body. To obtain close agreement
between observed and predicted body burdens of Cs137 ,detailed information about the intal{e of the nuclide overshort intervals is necessary. In general, however, suchinformation is lacking, so that it is unavoidable to use
average levels over longer periods of time, e.g. yearly, tostudy correlations between dietary levels or fall-out
pattern and body concentrations.
131. Even so, allowance should be made for the lag
between dietary and body values. When average yearlylevels of Cs137 in the body (New Me.."'\:ico) 220 are divided
by average milk levels determined on a 12-month basis,the most constant ratio is obtained by allowing for a
9-month lag (e.g. January-December 1961 average bodyvalues are compared with average milk levels computed
over the March 1960-March 1961 period).
132. An empirical relationship between levels of Cs137
in man and the fall-out pattern, similar to that found formilk in the United Kingdom (paragraph 114) . was foundby Bartlett and Mercer using data from Berkshire,
United Kingdom. 219 The agreement between observed
and predicted values was closer than when proportionality with current yearly fall-out deposition and accumulated deposit of Cs 137 was assumed.
37

I

133. As was pointed out m paragraph 125 and shownin figure 28, concentrations of Cs137 in man in the northern temperate zone (30°-60° N), excluding Norway
where special ecological mechanisms operate, are very
close, probably as a consequence of the extensive redistribution of marketed foodstuffs within and between
most countries. As the fall-out deposition is highest in
the northern temperate zone between 30°-60° N, it
seems reasonable to assume that, apart from the exceptional situations mentioned in paragraphs 118-119, 128129, which involve only a small percentage of the world
population, the levels of Cs 137 in man in this band represent an upper limit of the expected real world-wide
average.
134. Because of the geographical uniformity of Cs137
levels in man in the latitudinal band from 30°-60° N,
the average Cs13 ' deposition in this band, as derived fromthe Sr90 deposition over the period 1953-1963,104 • 180 will
be used here to estimate the empirical relationship between fall-out and body burden in man. The yearly
average body burden will be assumed to be directly proportional to the current fall-out and to the amount deposited over the two previous years. This relationship canbe expressed by the formula,
Q = P,F,
P2,F2,,
where
Q = yearly average concentration of Cs137 in man
in pCi Cs137/gK,
F, = fall-out rate of Cs 137 in a given 12-month
period in mCi/krn 2 ,F2, = total Csm accumulated over the previous two
years in mCi/km 2 ,P, and P 2 , = proportionality factors in (pCi Cs 137/gK)/(mCi/km 2).
135. The proportionality factors Pr and P 2 , estimatedfor Belgium, the Federal Republic of Germany, Berkshire (United Kingdom), and New Mexico (UnitedStates) are given in table XXVII. When average factors(arithmetic means of the local factors) are used to
calculate the average concentrations of Cs137 in man in
the latitudinal band 30°-60° N, these concentrations
are consistent with the observed values, as is shown by
figure 28. where observed values do not differ from thepredicted average by more than some + 20-30 per cent.
When yearly mean body concentrations of Cs 137 arelinearly related to the current rate of fall-out only, or toboth the current rate and the total cumulative deposit,
very poor agreement is obtained between results predicted on the basis of the relationships so established andthose observed.

CANADA ........,•.•.•UNITED STATES
Maximum_
Avecrcge ••••••••

Mfoimum--

i

'

it\~,

100

...:.:.:::::::.·!···········'\:····...

+

F

1961

M A M

J

1963

Figure 29. Iodine-131 in milk in North America, 1961-19632•5

in 1961 and to fourteen in 1962 (table XXX). Values are
expressed in pCi d/l (picocuries X days per litre) as atime integral of the concentration. In the southern hemisphere 11 31 was not detected in 1961 but was detected in
1962 (Argentina, Australia). These data indicate thatlevels of !131 in milk were lower by a factor of 10 in Australia, and by a factor of 2-3 in Argentina, compared tothose observed in the northern temperate zone. It must
be mentioned that average !131 concentrations in milk
from different countries, even in similar geographicallatitudes, vary by a factor of 3-4. Within large countries,
such as the United States, the yearly average concentrations reported from different regions differ by a factor of
10.m It is easily understood that the deposition of shortlived isotopes from fall-out is more dependent upontransitory meteorological conditions over short periodsof time than is the case with such long-lived fission
products as Csu 7 and Sr90 •138. In the State of Utah (United States), high concentrations of !1 31 in milk were detected for several weeks
starting 12 July 1962.zso Assuming a daily intake of one
litre of milk, the average total intake of 1131 during thisperiod was estimated at 58,000 pCi with a maximum
value of 800.000 pCi. Available evidence 2 ~ 1-253 points tothe local fall-out from test explosions in the nearby
Nevada test site as the source of massive contaminationof pastures with P 31 •139. It has been established that the main path oftransfer of !1 31 to the urban population in the United
Kingdom and in the United States was through milk andits fresh products (e.g. cottage cheese), the role playedby other foodstuffs being negligible. 2• 5.m,z 54 Only a few
per cent, if any, of the measured thyroid burden could be
due to inhalation of !1 31 contained in the air.
140. In Japan, however. because of dietary habits(average per capita consumption of milk in adults being
only 0.051/day), the major contribution of 1131 was from
fresh leafy vegetables.m It has been calculated that in1961 the ma.ximum possible intake with air and milk may

loOINE-131

Iodine-131 in food
136. !1 was detected in air, rain and milk in late 1961
and in mid-1962. Levels rose sharply in September andOctober 1961 and declined to detection limits in January
1962. A second peak followed in most countries in the
period August-December 1962. 97 • 168 • 169 •~ 45- 249 However,in southern Italy where for climatic reasons the grazing
period for cattle, unlike that in central and northern
Europe, extends into winter, !1 31 was detected as late as
February 1963.~" Typical concentration profiles of !1 31
in milk from several countries in Europe. North America
and Japan are presented in figures 29-31.
31

137. Detailed reports on the !1 31 content in milk arelimited to twelve countries of the northern hemisphere
38

i

I
I
'

200

United Kingdom-·-·-France................. Denrr.ark-------Italy

\ 'I
150

~

\

r!!

\\

11111

-~'::lI rlI•
r 'I

s.
v

I

Cl.

\
I

100

I

i.

II'

.I

I 11
I,

I

'I
' l

I\ I I\I \,.\if. ~ \\
//
\
N\
n. \
'

'

h

'

•\

I. II

50

•I

\1

·'~

'

\.

\

.
SEPT

DEC

SEPT

JUNE

MARCH

\
MARCH

DEC

1963

1962

1961

Figure 30. Iodine-131 in milk in several European countries, 1961-1963

/\..

300

t \

I \
~

200

:
i

f

l
i
:
i

!

\

---TOKYO····--·-CHIBA.

i:
\
\:
\

: !

v

JOO

..............

AUG

SEPT

OCT
1962

NOV

DEC

FEB
1963

Fig14re 31. Iodine-131 in milk in Japan, 1962-1963

39

MARCH

have accounted for 27 and 12 per cent, respectively, ofthe !1 31 detected in Japanese thyroids, the rest comingfrom vegetables. It has also been shown in Germany that
unprocessed drinking water from cisterns can substantially add to the intake of psi in periods of fresh fallout.256

total intake in any given group of population may bederived by multiplying these figures by the average consumption of milk in litres per day. As data on milk consumption in specific age groups are lacking, the average
consumption of milk by infants and young children has
been assumed to be about 0.7 litre per day. For lack ofdata, no assumption has been made with respect to adults,
though it can be stated that their !131 intake is generally
much lower than in children.
146. A calculation based on the levels of !131 in milk
appears to be the most satisfactory means of estimating
thyroid doses to various sections of the population·. Moreover, it is applicable where direct measurements of !131in human thyroids are not available.
•

Iodine-131 in human thyroids
141. psi concentrations in the thyroids can be determined in living subjects or post mortem and can also be
estimated indirectly from the levels of food contamination. The various methods have been discussed by Eisenbud etal. 249
142. Surveys by in vitro counting of thyroids taken at
post mortem examinations were made on hospital patientsand on victims of accidents dying in the period when !1 31
was present in the milk. 248•255 • 256 Results of in vitro
measurements are presented in table XXVIII. The conclusion reached by Eisenbud et al. 20 was that, most probably for dietary reasons, hospital patients were not representative of the population as a whole. On the other
hand, results obtained from accident victims seemed tobe biased by socio-economical factors. as revealed by thecomparison with results of in viva counting of persons
with controlled consumption of milk. This study indicated that the results from in vitro counting in accident
victims might appreciably under-estimate concentrations
as compared with the population averages, expected on
the basis of milk consumption.
143. Measurements made in foetuses at different
stages of prenatal life~ 49 showed that specific activities
were higher in foetal than in maternal thyroids by a factorof 1.3-8.2 ( 5 measurements). In a 12-weeks-old foetus,
a concentration as high as 630 pCi/g of thyroid wasobserved. Because of the age-dependence of thyroid
weight, of milk consumption and of psi uptake by the
gland, the most critical age in post-natal life from thedose point of view has been estimated to be around 7
months,2 57 or between 6 months and 2 years of age. 258
144. Sensitive low-level gamma spectrometric techniques have been developed and used for in viva measurements of fall-out of !1 31 in human thyroids.m, 260
Measurements showed ·wide individual variations of 1131
levels in human thyroids so that large numbers of properly sampled subjects of different ages must be examined
to obtain results valid for the population at large. Thisis hardly possible in the case of rapidly changing fall-out
situations. In comparison with the in vitro counting, anadditional uncertainty in dose evaluation is introduced bygeometrical factors (detector-gland) which play a criticalrole in this type of measurements, and by uncertainties
regarding the weights of individual thyroids. The levelsof 11 31 in thyroids, obtained by this method in the Federal
Republic of Germany, New York City, Boston, and theState of Utah are given in table XXIX.
145. Indirect estimates of thyroid burdens can beobtained when results of representative and frequent
sampling of milk are available. ~• 9 • 261 The average dosecan be calculated when the following factors are known:(a) Average consumption of milk in groups of population at different ages.
( b) Iodine uptake in thyroid as a function of age.
( c) Mass of thyroid as a function of age.
(d) Biological half-life of psi in thyroid.
The average total intake of !131 with milk in different
countries in 1961 and in 1962, if one litre is consumed
daily, is given in columns 3 and 4 of table XXX. TheIl

IV. Doses from environmental and internal contamination allowance for the distribution of fallout and populationll·147. For the purpose of this report "dose commit-1
ment" is defined as the integral over infinite time of theaverage dose rate in a given tissue for the world's population, as the result of a specific practice, e.g. a given series •.
of nuclear e.xplosions. The actual e~q>osures may occur
over many years after the practice and may be received 'by individuals not born at the time of the period of practice. On the basis of a linear dose-effect relationshipwith no dose threshold and no dose-rate effect, and assuming a stable population, the e.xpected number of latesomatic injuries and hereditary defects would be thesame for a practice with a given dose commitment as fora practice which would result in an instantaneous doseof the same magnitude to all members of the population.
148. Since we are concerned in this report with average doses to populations, it is necessary to weigh theaverage fall-out deposition according to population distribution. It is convenient to define a population factor Z,
defined according to the equation.
FN = z x FA,
where FA is the mean deposition in the area concernedand FN is the mean deposition weighted by populationin the same area. F.1v is computed_from the formula,
FN = 1:,N1F1"2:.N1The population factor Z could be computed for the wholeworld, for one hemisphere, or for any other local areaof interest.
149. The population factor may be expressed as thesum of several partial population factors. For example,
by breaking the area into three smaller areas, there arethree partial factors :Z = Z1 Z2 Z3.
.
d
fi
d
Z
Z i is e ne as 1 = F,. (Ni2:,N.NFa N )23
where the summation is taken over area 1. For the othertwo factors Z 2 and Z 3 , the summation is taken over areas
2 and 3, respectively. For estimating the internal dose
commitment from Sr90 , the world is divided into threeareas according to three basic diet types, and three parII;
tial population factors are used.
~·
150. The local deposition Fi varies considerably fromplace to place, and this can be described by a "geographical factor" Gi, defined as
G1 = F/F",
where Fa is the mean global deposition. Such a factor
can be used to estimate doses in local areas. In the 1962

I

+ +
+ +

f

40

report a curve showing the variation of G 1 with latitude
was given. It is of interest to note that the global averageof the local geographical factor Gi weighted by population equals the global population factor Z.
151. Since some 90 per cent of the world"s population
resides in the northern hemisphere, the estimated global
factor will depend upon the fraction of fall-out deposited in each hemisphere. When the debris is largely
deposited in the northern hemisphere, the Z factor will
be about 2, but will be approximately 1.2 for equal fallout in both hemispheres. Using mean deposition datafrom the northern and the southern hemispheres, separate estimates of mean deposition weighted by population for each hemisphere have been computed.

z152. Table XXXI shows the estimated world population distribution£ and the relevant data on Sr90 and Sr8 9deposition. The data from table XXXI have been used
to calculate the Z factors for both hemispheres according
to the formula given above. A summary of these calculations, together with the Z factors obtained for various
years, is shown in table XXXII. It can be seen from table
XXXII that in the northern hemisphere the factors
were fairly constant from 1960 to 1962 with a maximum
variation of only 8 per cent compared with 35 per centfor the global Z factors during the same period. The
slight variation in the northern hemisphere was probably
due to the tropospheric fall-out in 1962, while in 1961
the newly deposited Sr90 was largely of stratosphericorigin. It is remarkable that in the northern hemispherethe same numerical factors are obtained for Sr89 as
for Sr8°.
153. In the southern hemisphere the Sr9° fall-out distributions gave fairly constant population factors ofapproximately 1.00, but the factor obtained for Sr8 9deposition was higher and amounted to 1.45 in 1962. Thisis because considerable amounts of Sr8 9 diffused into thesouthern hemisphere from the northern troposphere andwere deposited in the 0°-10° S latitude band where
about half the population of the southern hemisphere
lives.
154. In the case of Sr90 and Sr80 , the dose commitments are computed by dividing the world population into
three groups according to dietary habits. Since cu is
uniformly distributed in the troposphere, no allowancefor population distribution is necessary. To compute thedose commitments due to other nuclides, two population
factors are used, 1.2 for the northern hemisphere, and
1.0 for the southern hemisphere.

t~ve levels ?f S:90 and ~S 137 ~:m the ground at a particulartime ~llowmg tor radio-active decay. To compute dose
comrmtments, the concept of ''integrated deposition"i.e_., the total deposition uncorrected for decay and weath~enng losses, has been introduced. The integrated depositsof Sr9° and Cs 13 ; up to December 1963 are shown in table
XXXIII, together with the predicted future deposit.
EXTERNAL DOSES

11{easured dose rates in air

156. Direct measurements of air doses have beenreported from Japan, Sweden and the United Kingdom.351-35• The annual doses for the years 1961-1963
are shown in table XXXIV. The Japanese measurements
were made with scintillation counters that were calibrated
against an ionization chamber. The counter at Tokyo wassituated 7 m above the roof of a three-storied concretebuilding but was calibrated against an air equivalent ionization chamber situated 1 m above the ground. All theother measurements were made by using ionizationchambers. These instruments measure the total gamma
dose rate in the air. The dose rate from fall-out is obtained by subtracting the contribution from cosmic rays
and from naturally occurring gamma emitters. The
oeasurements at Leeds were made at 10 feet above
ground and the results corrected to 1 metre. 355•3 so The
averages for each area of Sweden are based on measurements made at several stations. 352
157. The gamma dose rate has also been estimated frommeasured deposits of gamma-emitting fission products.
Gustafson used deposition figures based upon soil analyses to estimate the gamma dose rates at Argonne, Illinois,
United States. 351-3 59 Collins estimated the external dose
rates from Zr95 , Ru100 , Cs 131 and Ce144 in the UnitedStates at Westwood (New Jersey), Pittsburgh (Pennsylvania) and Richmond (California), using deposition
figures based upon measurements in precipitation.sso-so~
Since these three radio-nuclides account for at least 80
per cent of the external dose rate, the dose rates so obtained are meaningful. Dose-rate estimates based upon
deposition data have been plotted in figure 32.

Short-lived fission products
158. Estimates of dose commitments to the world
population could be obtained by using average global
deposition estimates for short-lived fission products,
together with the appropriate dose-rate factors. However,the deposition of short-lived fission products are notmeasured at most collection stations. To estimate thedeposition of the short-lived fission products, the northern hemisphere deposition of Sr8 9 is used, together withestimates of the ratios,155. In calculating dose commitments, the total radiation emitted by deposited radio-nuclides must be considered. Data in tables VII and X represent the cumula-

R _ Annual northern hemisphere deposit of short-lived radio-nuclidel Annual northern hemisphere deposit of Sr89'
determined for each fission product in each year. The
ratios RJ have been estimated from the local ratios computed at seven stations in the northern hemisphere. The
mean of the ratios at these stations is used as an estimateof the Ri's for individual nuclides. The local ratios andthe corresponding average ratios for 1962 are shown intable XXXV. 21, 45, 15, 10, 91

159. It must be noted that the stations lie in a narrow
latitude band but that this particular latitude region ishighly populated. Although the ratios have no fundamental significance, if the fission product debris is wellmi."{ed within the hemisphere, they should not vary
greatly from place to place during periods of steady testing e-xcept perhaps for ratio involving the very shortlived radio-nuclides !1 31 , Ba140 and Ce 131. After testingis completed, the annual ratios will change owing toradio-active decay.

t The absolute figures apply to 1951. Absolute figures would
naturally be different now but are not available bv latitudinalband. The relative magnitude, however, is unlikely to havechanged.

41

10.0

..

~

../'··...
..
:"'fi/:\/.....\
f I \ '·...
!·1~··\i I \ ··.....··', •.. "\ i
f,II
\:

3.0

c0

ii
i

i ..···

:{
0

....
E 1.0

:

.·!

;

f
/1

c...."

.
.,,"

JI

\

\

\./ J

I' I

\J

iI

......................... l

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....

< 0.3

............... Westwood, New Jersey

II'I' , ......... _____<I

0.1

:;

. I

- - - - • Riehmond, Cclifcrnia- - - Pittsburgh, Pen~sy!vania· - · - · - Argonne, Illinois

1957

1958

1959

1961

1960

1962

1963

Year

Figure 32. Gamma ray air dose rate, at one metre above ground, from fall-out as estimated from fission product deposition357, se2160. Available measurements of short-lived isotopes
in the southern hemisphere are insufficient to obtainreliable estimates of the ratios in that hemisphere. But
since only 10 per cent of the world population lives inthe southern hemisphere and since less than 20 per
cent of the Sr89 global fall-out is deposited there, thecontribution of short-lived fission products deposited inthis hemisphere to the world dose can only be a few
per cent.
161. The e..xternal gamma dose commitment is computed for each nuclide by using the formula
Di= Ki X Bi X Z X Ti X Ri X F89,
where K 1 X B; =gamma-ray dose constant, including
build-up factor for fission product j (mrad/y per mCi/
km 2 ) ; Z =population factor; T; =mean life on the
ground of fission product j; R 1 = ratio defined in paragraph 158 for fission product j; F 89 = average annual
northern hemisphere deposit of Sr8° ( mCijkm 2 ). The
details of the air dose calculations for the fission products
Zr95 , Ru 103 , Ru106 , !1 31 , Ba140, Ce141 and Ce144 are shownin table XXXVI. The ratios R 1 for1962 are taken fromtable X-.XXV and the ratios for 1961 are estimated in asimilar manner. Since complete deposition data for someshort-lived fission products in 1963 were not available,
the doses from Ru106 and Ce144 have been computed byusing the average Ru196/Cei.' and Ce1 H/Sr9° ratios, together with the 1963 estimates of Sr90 deposition.
162. The total measured air dose in the years 19611963 from Cs13 ' and short-lived fission products weighted
by population was 54 mrads. By deducting the contribution from Cs137 for this same period, namely 15 mrads,
the contribution from the short-lived fission products is
39 mrads. This figure is in reasonable agreement with thecomputed figure of 46 mrads that can be inferred fromtable XXXVI after deduction of the dose to be delivered

after 1963. It should be noted that the dose commitment
for each of the years does not correspond exactly to theannual doses, since some part oi the dose commitment
is received in subsequent years. Allowance must be
made for doses received in 1964 from material depositedin 1963 and also from material still to be deposited. These
additional doses are estimated to be about 10 mrads,
making a total dose commitment of 49 mrads for testingin 1961 and 1962. The dose commitment for short-lived
isotopes due to testing up to 1960 was given in the 1962
report as 55 mrads. The total air dose commitment for
all tests to December 1963 is therefore 104 mrads.
163. Shielding by buildings and screening by thehuman body were considered in the 1962 report. A
shielding factor of 0.2 was adopted as a world average.
Assuming that seventeen hours per day on average werespent indoors, the over-all dose-reduction factor due toshielding was taken to be 0.4. The same value will be usedin the present report, together with a body screening
factor for the gonads and bone marrow of 0.6, as was
also adopted in the 1962 report. The combined shielding
and screening factor ( 0.2), applied to the air dose commitment, yields a tissue dose commitment from shortlived fission products of 21 mrads.
Caesium-137

164. The external doses from Cs 137 are computed byusing a combined dose-rate constant and build-up factor(K; X B;) oi 0.12 mrad/y per mCijkm2 of Cs 137 • The
Cs137 data in table X. corrected for the fourteen-year
effective mean life of Cs137 on the ground due to decay
and weathering, 382 are used to compute the annual dosesin the period 1961-1963. The Cs137 air doses weighted
by population in these years were 4, 5 and 6 mrads,
respectively.
42

165. The air dose commitment from Cs137 can be
estimated from the predicted total integrated deposit of
cs1ar as shown in table XXXIII. This figure, the sameas that in the 1962 report, is justified by results of measurements of the dose rates made in the United Kingdom
over plots of soil contaminated with Cs137 . 363 The estimate of air dose commitment from Cs 137 contributed by
all tests up to the end of 1962 is 143 mrads. Using a
combined shielding and screening factor of 0.2, the doseto gonads and bone marrow is 29 mrads.

delivered to the bone over the balance of the lifespanby Sr 90 from an intake due to e..-..;:posure to environmental
contamination between times t and t
dt at age u years

was shown by Lindell365 to be
dD = ec(t)dta(u)Strontiiim-90

166. Integrated dietary levels. The estimates of mean
Sr90/Ca ratios in diets are obtained from the relationship,
C(t) = pdFt1(t)p,F,(t), pCi Sr 90/g Ca,
where Fd(t) is the cumulative mean deposit of Sr90
(mCijkm 2 ) and Fr(t) the mean annual deposition rate(mCijkm 2 /y) at time t. pd and Pr are the proportionality
factors discussed in paragraph 83. As in the 1962 report,
the world population is divided into three groups (table:XXXVII) according to their dietary habits, and proportionality factors have been computed for each group. The
same factors are used in this report, although there issome evidence that the rate factor (Pr) for the Japanesediet which is of type III may be somewhat less than the
average value for other diets of that type. 427 The valuesof pd used are probably over-estimates rather than underestimates.

+

Im

0

m

Fc1(t)dt = Tm
0J

F,(t)dt.

F,(t)dt = Tm F,
0where F is the integrated amount of Sr90 deposited on
the ground (mCijkm 2 ). The mean integrated level indiet is thereforefoLindell computed the dose-increment factor Fm for different assumed Sr9° turnover rates in bone and for different life e..xpectancies. 365 The values of F,,. so obtained
have been plotted in figure 33, which shows that Fm is
not strongly dependent on the turnover rate nor on life
expectancies higher than twenty years.
172. The reason for the small variation of F,,,, is thecompensating effect of changes in turnover and life expectancy. For example, a more rapid turnover rate will
reduce the retention of Sr90 taken up by a child but will
increase the uptake and e..xposure of adults. Similarly,
with shorter life e..xpectancies, a larger proportion of the
population will be in the younger age group with a highuptake of Sr110 , but the total lifetime exposure will be
reduced. As in the 1962 report, a dose-increment factorof 0.6 is here being used.
173. As in the 1962 report, dose-rate factors ( 8) of
2.7, 1.4 and 0.7 mrad/y per pCi Sr90/g Ca are used forcomputing the doses to bone, cells lining bone surfaces,
and bone marrow, respectively. The estimates of dose
commitment contributed by Sr90 from all tests up to theend of 1962 are therefore 336 mrads to bone, 174 mrads

0

f

_

D = eFm f~~t)dt.

If the effective mean life of Sr90 in the soil is Tm years,
it can be shown thatfu)]dr (mrad),The dose commitment to the population contributed by afinite period of testing is then given by

167. The mean integrated level of Sr9° in diet isgiven by0

1

u B(r)exp [- k 1 (-. -where 8 = dose-rate constant in bone ( mrad/y per pCi
Sr90/g Ca); c(t) =OR X C(t) = Sr90/Ca ratio inbone mineral deposited at time t (a bone/diet OR of
0.25 is used here); a (u) =rate of calcium uptake bybone at age it years; B ( T) = total weight of calcium inbone at age -. years; k 1 turnover rate of Sr 90 in bone;
11i = life e..xpectancy. This equation can be written
dD = Oc(t) dt Fm(u).
171. The lifetime dose increment dD averaged over
the whole population, assuming uniform age distribution
at the time of Sr90 uptake, is given by_1
dD = Bc(t)dt Fm(u)dtt = Bc(t)dtFm.

INTERNAL DOSES

J"'c(t)dt = p" J"'Fc1(t)dt + p,

f

mf

+

00C(t)dt = (PaTm + p,)F, pCi years of Sr 90 per g Ca.
0168. For a 2 per cent annual loss of Sr90 from thesoil through leaching and removal by crops, the effective
mean life of Sr 90 in the soil is twenty-one years. 402 The
expected total integrated deposit of Sr90 between latitudesof 50° Sand 80° N is 14.2 MCi (table XXXIII). Thisis equivalent to an average deposit (F) of 31.7 mCijkm2
and leads to estimated integrated dietary levels of 310,
480 and 530 pCi years of Sr90 per g Ca, for diet types
I, II and III, respectively.

1.0~

169. The composite integrated dietary level of Sr90
weighted by population is obtained, as in the 1962 report.
by adding the integrated levels in the three dietary types
multiplied by the respective partial population factors
0.7, 0.5 and 0.7. These coefficients reflect the fact thatmost of the world's population resides in the latitude
bands of the northern hemisphere where the depositionof Sr90 is about twice the global average. The composite
integrated global level in diet is 830 pCi years of Sr9°
per g Ca.

0.1/yoo-~///~---------="o •0.Cl!,/yocc05//:.:s, • O

/
/

/
/

/

/

/
10

20

JO

60

70

yec.-,

expo:ted mean lifa

Fig11re 33. The population average of the dose increment factor

170. Dose commitment. The dose commitment from
Sr90 is computed as in the 1962 report. The dose dD

for various biological turnover rates as a function of the expected mean Jife365

43

to cells lining bone surfaces and 87 mrads to bone marrow. Some 90 per cent of these doses will have beendelivered by the year 2000.
174. In addition to the dose commitments, the annual
dose to new bone is also of interest and can be calculated
from the dietary contamination by using a discrimination
factor of 0.25 (paragraphs 91-97). While new bone constitutes the whole skeleton during the first year of life,
the freshly deposited bone mineral is only a small fraction of the total skeleton in adults. The composite world
average level of Sr90 in diet during 1961, 1962 and 1963
can be calculated from the cumulative and the annual
Sr90 deposits for each of these years (table VII). The
yearly dietary levels weighted by population were 17, 26
and 38 pCi Sr00/g Ca in these years. The resulting dosein 1963 was 25 mrads in new bone. This cannot be compared directly with doses to other tissues for which dose
commitments are calculated.

mQ,, = "£ Q1 = (P,1~1=+ 2P2,) "if1 = (P, + 2P2,) Fu,;-1

where Fee is the total expected deposit of Cs 137 (mCi/
km2 ) in the northern hemisphere. The total integrated
body burden for the southern hemisphere, Q,, is computed in a similar manner. ·weighting these Qn and Q,
values by population and total expected deposition ineach hemisphere, a weighted average world-wide integrated body burden of Cs 137 of 640 pCijy/gK, due toall tests performed so far, is obtained.
179. As discussed in paragraph 122, for purposes of
dosimetry it can be assumed that the distribution of Cs 13 'in the body is uniform. The dose rate from one pCi
Cs 137/g tissue maintained at constant level is assumed tobe 10 mrad/y. or, assuming an average body content of
140 gK, 0.02 mrad/y per pCijgK, as given in the 1962
report. The calculated dose commitment due to internal
irradiation by Cs 137 is therefore 13 mrads for all tests
performed up to the end of 1962.
180. The assumptions used here in the calculation of
the dose commitment from internally deposited Cs 137
differ from those used in the 1962 report. The resulting
figures are therefore not directly comparable. It is believed, however, that the present estimate based uponrecent information is more satisfactory.

Strontium-89 and barium-140

175. Since the metabolism of Sr89 is the same as thatof Sr9°, Sr89 doses can be calculated from the mean
Sr89/$r90 ratios in milk by using the appropriate doserate factors. The Sr89 dose-rate factors for doses to bone
and bone marrow are, respectively, 1.5 and 0.33 mrad/yper pCi Sr90/g Ca in bone. The mean dose-increment
factor F for Sr89 is 0.005. These values are the same asin the 1962 report. The average Sr8 9/Sr9° ratios in milk.
as estimated from the data in tables XVI and XVII, forthe northern hemisphere in 1961, 1962 and 1963, were
2.6, 4.5 and 1.8, respectively.Using these ratios as typicalfor total diet (this will tend to over-estimate doses),
together with the mean diet levels of Sr90 for 1961, 1962
and 1963 as given in paragraph 174, the annual diet levelsof Sr89 weighted by population are computed to be 44,
117 and 68 pCi Sr8 9/g Ca for these years.
176. The dose commitments computed by using thelast formula in paragraph 171 with the relative dose-rate
factors for Sr89 deposited in 1961, 1962 and 1963 are
0.43 and 0.09 mrad to bone and to bone marrow, respectively. During 1%1 and 1962, some 7 MCi Sr90 were
injected into the atmosphere, while the total amount injected up to 1960 had been 5 MCi. The dose commitments
due to Sr8 9 from all tests up to the end of 1962 can therefore be estimated to be
712 x 0.22 = 0.74

Iodine-131

181. The total accumulated radiation dose to the thyroid ( D) can be expressed by the formula
D = K X IX F X T.
mwhere K = dose-rate factor in mrad/d per pCijg tissue;
F = fraction of ingested !1 31 reaching the thyroid ; I =total integrated intake of !1 31 in picocuries onr any given
period of time: T = mean effective time of l1 31 storage
in the gland; m = mass of the thyroid. To calculate theaccumulated thyroid dose to the population of infants
and young children (table XXX, columns 6-8). the following values for the parameters of the above equation
have been assumed:
K = 0.010 mrad/d per pCijg; F = 0.3; I = productof values given in columns 3-5 of table XXX andassumed consumption of 0.7 1/d milk; T = 11days 341 : m = 2g in the first two years of age.
The thyroid doses given in table XXX, based upon adaily consumption of 0-7 1 of milk, apply to the highest
exposed population group. i.e., those young children who
during their first year of life are brought up on freshmilk.
182. It should be pointed out that slightly lower thyroid masses 342 and lower values for fractional uptake of
P 31 than those assumed above 2 ~ 0 • 257 • 343- 345 have been reported in recent studies. Furthermore, it should be notedthat there are three sources of milk in infants' diet:human milk. fresh milk from animals such as goats andcows, and dried or evaporated (stored) milk. Only freshmilk of animal origin contributes l1 31 to this diet. In the
United States it has been shown that about 50 per centof the infants consume fresh milk, 216 and a similar figure
probably holds for much of Europe.364 For these reasons,the figures in table XXX are substantially greater than
the average total dose to the thyroids of infants.
183. For lack of adequate data on milk consumptionin adults, doses from !131 have not been calculated in thisage group. It can be noted, howeyer, that they shouldhave been one or nvo orders of magnitude lower thanto bone and 0.15 mrad to bone marrow.
177. As for Sr90 • in addition to the dose commitments,
the annual doses from Sr8 9 in new bone can be calculated.
The average annual doses in 1961 and in 1962 were about
one-third of the average doses to new bone from Sr90
during these years. This estimate is based on a diet of
fresh milk and will therefore over-estimate the average
dose from Sr89 • It should also be noted that the exposure
to Sr90 is continuing while the Sr8 9 doses are limited toa few years.
Caesfam-137
178. The dose commitment from internal irradiation
due to Cs137 is calculated on the assumption that the yearly
average Cs131/K ratio in the body ( Q1) can be related
to the deposition of Cs137 by the formula given in paragraph 134 and by using the average proportionality
factors P, and P te given in table XXVII. The total integrated body burden in the northern hemisphere, Q,.,
will be44...

the doses in infants since the mass of the gland is approximately 10 times larger in adults than in children andbecause the average consumption of milk is probably
much lower.
Radio-nztclides in the respiratory andgastro-intestinal tracts

184. Only a few determinations of Pu239 and fission
products in the respiratory tracts of a very few individuals have been published. The fragmentary information
available is summarized in table XXXVIII. The average
dose from all insoluble nuclides over the whole respiratory system as estimated by using the data tabulated by
the International Commission on Radiological Protection, 341 was of the order of a few millirads per year in
1962 and 1963, assuming that the concentrations of thenuclides as given in table XX,,'CVIII were maintained
over the whole period. As the measurements were mostly
done in periods of peak concentration of debris in theair, the effective mean concentration in the period 19611963 and the corresponding mean doses in the organ
would be lower than those in the table. Where nuclides
were determined separately in lungs and tracheo-bronchial lymph nodes, the concentrations in the latter werehigher by an order of magnitude, implying a correspondingly higher dose rate.
185. No data on the total ingested activity of artificial
origin during the period 1961-1963 are available at present. As noted in the 1962 report, it is likely that the doseto the intestines from fission products in the gastrointestinal tract is negligible.
Carbon-14

186. The natt.iral production rate of C14 , aslwas shownin paragraph 60. is 2.6 X 1026 atoms per year. The radiation dose rate due to this natural C14 is 1.64 mrad/y tothe bone, 1.15 mrad/y to cells lining bone surfaces, and0.71 mrad/y to bone marrow and soft tissue. These
quantities are the same as used in the 1962 report.
187. As shown in the 1962 report, the dose commitment D ., is given by

D,,, ='Yo Q,

B
where y 0 is the dose rate due to natural C14 ; B is thenatural production rate of C14 ; and Q is the total artificial C14 inventory. As shown in table XV, the inventoryof artificial CH at the end of 1963 was about 65 X 1027
atoms. The dose commitment due to testing up to theend of 1963 is therefore 410 mrads to bone cells, 290
mrads to cells lining bone surfaces, and 180 mrads tosoft tissue and bone marrow.
188. The dose received by year 1964 + t

D: = 10-2'Y 0 [220 +f

f(t)dt],where f ( t) represents the air activity of excess C1 4 inper cent above the natural level at time t years after 1964.
The dose is given by
D 1 = 10-2'¥ 0 [220(2.Se-0·0-0012 1+J:+ 64e-0.0261 + 26e-0·35l - 26e-0·591)dt].
For t = 36, that is by the year 2000, the dose received
will be about 7 per cent of the dose commitment.
V. Summary
189. In this anne..x, most of the doses are expressed
as dose commitments. This concept has been used because45

it would permit the calculation of the number of injuries
expected in the future as a result of any given test series
if the population size to whom the dose commitment
applied and if the appropriate proportionality factors
characterizing a linear dose-effect relationship with no
threshold were valid and known. The number of injuries
would then simply be the product of population size,
proportionality factor and dose commitment.
190. As discussed in the 1962 report, when the proportionality factor is not known, an alternative to thecalculation of the total number of injuries is through theevaluation of comparative risks by reference to doses
from natural sources of radiation.
191. In the 1962 report, doses and dose commitments
were expressed in rems. Since that time, the rem has
been re-defined by the ICRU and is no longer an appropriate unit for the purposes of the Committee. In thepresent report dose commitments are expressed in rads.
For radiations resulting from nuclear explosions, rad,as used here, and rem, as defined in the 1962 report, arenumerically equivalent. In this report, doses from naturalradiation also are expressed in rads, and will therefore
be numerically slightly smaller than in the 1962 report
where they were expressed in rems. They are 99, 96 and95 millirads to gonads, cells lining bone surfaces andbone marrow, respectively.
192. The inherent difficulty in comparing dose commitments from nuclear tests with doses from natural
sources of radiation, arises from the arbitrary period
over which the natural radiation dose must be integrated.
In principle, several alternatives are possible:( 1) The dose commitment could be compared with thenatural radiation dose delivered over a period oftime equal to that over which a substantial part ofthe dose commitment is delivered. This comparison
could be misleading in the sense that e..xposuresfrom future nuclear tests might overlap this period.
(2) As in the 1962 report, a comparison could also bemade with the natural radiation dose delivered
during the period of testing, with the justificationthat it is the commitment incurred during this period
which is relevant.. irrespective of the radiation
source. However, this comparison may also be considered unsatisfactory because the period is noteasy to define.
( 3) A direct comparison between dose commitments( millirads) and annual dose rates from natural radiation ( millirad/year) is hardly justified.
( 4) An alternative approach, which was also used in the
1962 report and is followed here, is to express thedose commitments in terms of the period of time
during which natural radiation would have to be
doubled to give a dose increase equal to the dose
commitment.
193. The dose commitments to the world population,
due to radio-activity released into the atmosphere as aconsequence of nuclear explosions carried out to the endof 1962. when such tests ceased. are summarized in table
XXXIX. The dose commitments are given for specifictissues for the most important of the radio-active substances released into the environment through nuclear
tests. The dose commitments computed in the 1962
report for the period of testing 1954-1960 are tabulated
for comparison. For 0 4 it has seemed appropriate toinclude only the dose which is accumulated up to the year
2000, at which time the doses from the other nuclides
are essentially delivered in full. The total dose commit-

ments for C14 which will be delivered over thousandsof years are given in a footnote to the table.
194. If the northern and southern hemispheres are
considered separately, it is found that the dose commitments for the northern hemisphere (excluding the contribution from C1' after the year 2000) are slightly larger
than those for the whole world population. On the other
hand, the dose commitments for the southern hemisphere
are much smaller than the world average (amounting to
20 per cent).
195. For all tests carried out before January 1963, theTABLE I.

periods of time during which natural radiation would
have to be doubled to give a dose increase equal to thedose commitment to the world population amount toapproximately 9 months for the gonads, 32 months forthe cells lining bone surfaces and 20 months for the bonemarrow. These periods are not directly comparable withthe periods given in the 1962 report because they only
take into account that part of the dose from artificial 0 4
which is delivered before the year A.D. 2000. In addition,
the periods given in the 1962 report related to the test
period 1954-1961 and involved an assumption regarding
the testing practice in 1961.

SOME ESTIMATES OF MEAN STRATOSPHERIC RESIDENCE TIMES COMPUTED BY
ALTERNATn'EMETHODS
J.f ean rtsideneetime, Tm•

Ytar ofmeasurement

Nudidein ~ears\VUi .•.•..•...... 1959-1960
Sr 90 • . . . • • . . . . • . . • 1960
Sr 90 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1961
Sr90 • • • • • • • • • • • • • •1963
Sr90 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 1959, 1961

Northern
Northern
Northern
Northern
Northern

0.6
2.0
1.2
2.1
1.4

V/lM .••••••••.••. 1959-1960
Sr'°..............
1959
Sr90 • • • • • • • • • • • • •1960
Sr 90 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1961

Southern
Southern
Southern
Southern

1.8

Sr90 ..•.•......... 1959, 1961
Sr'°..............
1960
Sr90 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1961
Sr90 • • • • • • • • • • • • • •1963

GlobalGlobalGlobalGlobal2.0
2.5

Methodof calc1<lalion

23
23, 2723, 2723, 419
27

b
b

b

23
23,27
23,27
23,27

b

2.3
2.8
2.0

b
b

27
23,27
23,27
23,419

b

1.8

b

2.0

b

•Calculated from Tm= l/ln(I1/I:), where I1 is the stratospheric inventory for May 1959
and I 2 for May 1960.
b Calculated from Tm = 1/[lnl/(1-F)) where I is the stratospheric inventory in January andF the subsequent annual deposit.
•Calculated from Tm= 1/ln(F1/F:), where Fi and F:are the total deposits in 1959and1961.

TABLE II.

ESTIMATES OF THE MEAN TROPOSPHERIC EXCHANGE TIME BETWEEN HEMISPHERES
AuthorTraar ustd

Fergusson56 •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• Dilution of C14 in atmosphereby burning of fossil fuels
Vogel and Munnich57 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Bomb-produced cu
Mllnnich and Vogel1 41 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Bomb-produced cu
Bolin and Keeling64· 68 ••••••••••••••••••••••••••• Fossil fuel CO:
Junge" using data of Bishop et al.'10 • ••••••••••••• Tritiated methane

< 1.8
> 1-2
<1
> 0.9
3.4

TABLE Ill. APPROXIMATE FISSION AND TOTAL YIELDS (MEGATONS) OF NUCLEAR'WEAPONS TESTS CONDUCTED IN TEE ATMOSPHERE BY ALL NATIONS 70
Fission :1itld
Years

Air

0.02
1

Total y.dd
S:irface

Air

Surface

0.5
37

59

1945-51. ...............
1952-54 .•..............
1955-56 ................
1957-58 ................
1959-60 .••..••.•.......
1961 ...........•.......
1962 ...................

5.6

7.5

0.2
1
11

31

9

57

TOTAL

140

25
76

0.6
17
28

120
217
54

46

406

105

TABLE IV.

GLOBAL Sr 9D INVENTORY ::i, 2a, ~(iv!egacuries)
September
1963<PreZ:m.)January
1954(J>relim.)

4.51
1.21

2.61
1.22

2.7
0.7

0.21
0.05

0.42
0.10

0.70
0.43

0.4
0.2

0.72

1.50

6.24

4.96

4.0

0.03

0.03

0.16

0.32

0.20

0.30

TOTAL, atmosphere

1.0

0.8

Li

6.6

5.2

4.3

World-wide deposition• .........

5.0

5.2

5.8

6.7

8.6

9.0

TOTAL

6.0

6.0

7.5

13.3

13.8

13.0

May
1960

May
19()1

April

19()2

January
1963

StratosphereNorthern hemisphere
To 21 km .................
21-30 km .................

0.25
0.25

0.22
0.12

1.11
0.13

Southern hemi:;phere
To 21 km .................
21-30 km .................

0.25
0.19

0.26
0.12

TOTAL, stratosphere

0.94

Troposphere ...................

r.-.: •Estimates from soil samples have been increased by 15 per cent over those given in reference
23 to account for incomplete radio-chemical extraction. 105 These figures are an independent assessment of the world-wide Sr90 deposition and are not the ones used in tables VII and VIII.

TABLE V.

AVERAGE MONTHLY A.."D A.'lNuAL Sr 90 DEPOSITION rn THE USSR s1, s3, m

1962
mCi/km' per mo::th1961
mCi/km'per moi:lhlstRegion of sampli11g

quarter

qucrld211dquarter

Murmansk region ..........•.............
Leningrad region .........................
Moscow region ..........................
Kiev ..........................•.....•..
Krasnojarsk territory .....................
South Sakhalin .......•..................

0.22
0.23
0.15

0.29
0.22
0.33

2.1
2.4
1. 7

0.24

0.11
0.19

4th

1.0

3rd
qu.Jr!Lr

0.70
0.34

0.40

0.40

1.0

1.1

Latitude regions of European and mid-Asian
USSR
60-70°N .....................•......
SQ-60°N .........•..................
40-so 0 N .............•..........•...
37-40°N .••............•............
Average for USSR
mCi/km! ............•................

TABLE VI.

80-70°N ... •, ........ .
7Q-60°N •.............
60-50°N •. , • . • . . . . . . . .
50-40°N. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40-30"N. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30-20°N. . . . . . . . . . . . • .
20-10°N. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3rd

4th

quarterquar!er

Annualtotal
mCi/km'

0.3

1.5

2.3

0.22

13.0

1.8
0.5
1.7

1.6
3.0
2.9

3.0
2.3
3.0

0.6
0.4
0.9

21.0
18.6
25.8

0.7
1.1
1.2

2.7
3.4
3.3
2.2

2.6
2.9
2.9
1.1

0.5
0.7
0.8
0.6

19.5
24.3
24.3
15.3

1.1

3.0

2.8

0.7

22.5

1.1

0.23

1.5

0.8

0.7

9.6

LATITUDL"AL DISTRIBUTION OF Sr 90 ESTOL\TED FRm1 ?>!ONTHLY FALL-OuT COLLECTIO:S-S r., m, 376 • m
1961

Latitude ba11d

2ndquarkrAnnual
4/h
total
lst
quarter mCi/km' quarter

1.3
0.93

1963

1963
mCi/km' per mo11lh

1962

mCi/km'

1.4
2.0
1.6
1.4
0.6

1962
mCi/km'

1.5
4.8
6.6
8.6
6.7
6.0
2.4

1962

1963

mCi/km'

Lal:t•de band

mCi/km'mCi/km'mCi/km'

4.0
10.6
14.9
16.3
10.9
11.0
4.5

10-0"N ..•............

0.7

2.7

3.7

o-10°S .............•.
10-20°s ...............
20-30°S ...............
30-40'5 ...............
40-SO'S ............•..

0.58
0.53
0.87
0.96
0.72

1.8
0.74

1.2
0.78
1.1
1.5
1.5

1963

a Insufficient data available.

47

1961

1.2

0.91
1.3

TABLE VII.

ANNUAL AND CUMULATIVE DEPOSITION OF STRONTIUM-90 27, 10•, 376. m. m

Total
511"S-S<l'N
PeriodMCi

mCi/km 1

MCi

mCi/km'MCi

1961..................................
1962..................................
1963..................................
Cumulative total to 31 December 1963•...

0.31
1.3
2.3
7.9

1.2
5.2
9.1
31

0.15
0.23
0.23
1.5

0.77

0.46
1.5
2.5
9.4

1.2
1.2

77

• Corrected for decay.

TABLE VIII. CUMULATIVE Sr 111 DEPOSITION BY LATITUDE BAND AS ESTIMATED FROMSOIL DATA AND MONTHLY FALL-OUT MEASUREMENTS 27, IM, m, r.&, 07, <11(PuliminCT)')
Estimated from analysis of soil
samples collected btJuieen

June 1963 and March 1964•

Estimaled from 1960 soil datapllls precipitation up lo
Deeember J 963•

Latitu~mCi/km'MCi

MCi10-so•N ..•.....•................
60-70°N •.......•................
5Q-60°N ••.......................
40-50°N ..•......................
3Q-40°N ..•......................
20-30°N ........................ .
10-20°N .•.......................
o-10°N .••......•...............

21
32

0.2
0.6
1.3
2.0
1.7
1.6
1.0
0.3

0.15

8.7

8.0

0.2
0.2
0.2
0.3
0.2

0.3
0.2
0.3
0.3
0.3

Southern Hemisphere ............. .

1.1

1.4

TOTAL

9.8

9.4

51

58
47
40
24

8

Northern Hemisphere ............. .
o-10°s ••..•.....................
10-20°s .•........................
20-30°5 ..................•.......
3o-40°s ••........................
40-50°s ••........................

5

5

7
9

7

0.6
1.1
1.6
1.6
1.7

0.7
0.5

•All the results from soil analysis have been increased 15 per cent to compensate for incomplete chemical extraction.

TABLE IX.

AVERAGE Cs137/Sr 111 RATIOS 1~ STRATOSPHERIC AIR AND rn PRECIPITATION
Before Seplmtber
1961

Mean for precipitation collected at 20 January-August 1961
sites in northern hemisphere"· 76 •••1.74±0.05•(36 cases)
In stratospheric air over San Angelo,
Tex,.73 by balloon samplingb ..... .

January-August 1961
1.77 :1:0.06(8 cases)

After September
1961

September 1961-J une 1962
1.42±0.04(84 cases)
January 1962-May 1963
1.51 =0.03(21 cases)

In stratospheric air from aircraft January 1959-:'.\Iarch 1960 !\farch 1962-0ctober 1963
1.71 :1:0.03
1.59=0.02
sampling11 • 408 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •(21 7 cases)(114 cases)• Standard error of the mean.
b Each monthly ratio was based upon samples collected at several altitudes.

48

1

r

TABLE X.

DEPOSITION OF Cs137 AS COMPUTED FROM Sr 90 DATA GIVEN IN TABLES VII A..'ID VIII
Northern Hemisphere0-80"NI

I

Period1961 . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . .
1962. . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1963..................................
Cumulative to 31 December 1963•. . . . . . . .

Sou!hern Hemisphere0-SO"S

Total
50"S-80"N

MCi

mCi/km'J!Ci

mCi/km'

MCI

0.5
1.9
3.5
13.2

2.0
7.5
14
52

0.25
0.30
0.30
2.5

1.3
1.5
1.5
13

0.78
2.2
3.8
15.7

•Corrected for decay.

TABLE XLDEPOSITION OF STRONTIUM-89 27, !!?<, :176
1961

Lmitude band

mCi/km•

1962

1963

MCI

mCi/km•MCI

mCi/km'

MCI

33
15
16

1.8
1.6
1.3
0.65
0.73

13
90
105
135
135
107
61
49

0.16
1.7
2.7
4.2
4.9
4.3
2.6
2.2

5.4
70
81
103
93
80
27
28

0.06
1.3
2.1
3.3
3.4
3.2
1.2
1.2

0-80°N .•.•..•••••...•..

31

6.1

95

24

63

15.8

0-1 O"S ••••••••••••••••••.
10-20"5 .•..............•.
20-30"5 •••.••............
3D-40°S ••••••.•..........
40-50°s ....•••.•••.•....•

13
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0

0.59
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0

29
16
15
9.2
7.7

1.3
0.69
0.60
0.33
0.24

12
1.4
2.9
2.7
1.8

0.52
0.06
0.12
0.10
0.06

16

3.2

4.4

0.86

80-70°N ••.•••...•..•....
70-60°N .......•••.•.•...
60-50°N .............•...
5D-40°N •.......•....•..•
4D-30°N •..............•.
30-20°N •...•.••.........
20-10°N •...•..••.•......
10-0°N ....••..••......•.

58
44

o-50°s ••.•.••...•........
• No data available.

TABLE XII.

DEPOSITION OF Csm, Zr 95 , Ba140 AND Ce144 (mCi/k:m2) AT MILFORD RAVEN A..'<D CBILTON,tJNITED KL'IGDOY, AND OF JUl AT CHILTON 45~filford Ha•ett

Da~

1962
January ..•.......
February •••......
1\-larch ••••......••
April •..•.•.•.•...
l\tlay .•••.••......
June ..••.........
July •••...........
August •..........
September ....•...
October ...........
November .•..•...
December •••.•....
1963
January ..........
February .••.•...•March ............
April ..••..•......
l\tlay .............
June .•••.•.......
July .••...........

ChilUm

Rain
ems

CJUT

Zr"

Ba'"

Ce"'

Rain
ems

CJUT

Zr"

Ba."'

Ce"'

Jill

12.1
2.3
9.6
5.4
6.6
3.4
4.5
11.4
13.7
3.3
8.68
8.75

1.2
2.3
2.1
1.1
1.7
1.0
1.2
1.5
1.2
0.38
1.0
1.2

25
6.8
26
4.3
3.0
4.2
3.2
5.5
7.1
6.2
14
20

5.1
0.3
0.5

21
5.2
17
8.8
16
12
7.5
18
17
5.5
14
23

10.6
0.9
3.3
4.1
4.3
0.5
2.8
11.3
8.1
3.5
8.3
5.2

0.91
0.15
0.54
0.95
0.80
0.27
0.81
1.3
0.77
0.29
0.73
0.51

26
2.8
7.8
8.7
5.3
1.3
3.1
4.4
6.6
3.4
13
20

3.2
0.14
0.10

9.8
2.2
6.9
10.7
10.3
3.8
6.7
14
6.7
3.3
14
12

40
8.4
7.5
12

2.3
5.5
12.8
10.9
4.8
9.6
5.2

0.4
1.6
4.5
3.9
4.1
4.9
2.0

7.9
16
27
24
15
19
4.8

6.8
21
54
46
52
50
26

2.8
1.0
10.0
5.6
2.2
5.7
4.4

0.62
0.57
3.4
2.9
1.5
3.1
2.1

13
5.8
27
15
5.0
11
4.2

3.5
18
13
33
35

3.7
4.5
2.6
0.1

• Not detected.

49

1.2
13
8.4
34
21
8.5
1.0
1.5

15
8.3
37
32
19
40
25

1.2

I
TABLE XIII.

SUM OF MONTHLY DEPOSITS (mCi/km 1) OF SHORT-LIVED ISOTOPES DURING 1962

Collection station

Sr"

Zr"

United States
Westwood, N.J.27 .•.•........
Pittsburgh, Pa.r. ............
Richmond, Cal.27 ..........••
Houston, Tex.27 •...........•

240
190
90
180

390
290
110
340

United Kingdom
Milford Haven4&• • • • • • • • • • • • •Chilton 41 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

161
63

125
103

Italv
I;pra11 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

131

270

TABLE XIV.

Ru1•1

RulOG

Jiii

BaUo

c,u1

Cel"

330

160
360
53
220

305
290
73
300

41

68
190

165
100

108
81

190

110

350

DISTRIBUTION OF CARBON AND NATURAL CH BETWEEN EXCHANGEABLE RESERVOIRS m
Mass of corbms(g/cm!J•
Atmosphere ••..•....••...• , ..
Biosphere (terrestrial) ........ .
Humus ••....•.•..••.•.......

0.12
0.06
0.20

N alural C" c<mlcnl(JO'' atoms)

Moss of carbon

Natural C11 conlenJ(1011 atoms)(t/cm!>•

40
19
55

Surface waters of ocean (above
thermocline)...............
Remainder of ocean. . • • . . . • • . .

0.18

7.5

55
2,000

TOTAL

8.1

2,170

a Grammes per square centimetre of the earth's surface.

TABLE XV.

DISTRIBUTION OF EXCESS CH BETWEEN RESERVOIRS AND TOTAL Th'VENTORY I, :a, u, W
(1021 atoms)

July
1957

July
1958

July
1959

Norcmb<T

May-Ju~!fcrch-April&s<Tt'cnr

1960

1961

196J

Jwy
196J

Jcn11.4ry
1964

Stratosphere •....•.....
Troposphere •..•..•.•..
Ocean• .....•..........
Biosphere• •.•..........

7.4
2.5
0.5
0.1

8.4
4.0
1.2
0.2

12.0•
6.7
2.2
0.4

6.4
10.5
5.1

8.1
11.8
6.2

23.6
24.5
12.1

26.7
28.4
13.4

22.0
26.0
15.4

TOTAL

10.5

13.8

20.0

21.4

25.3

60.2

68.5

63.4

• Computed. In the case of ocean uptake, it is based on an annual 20 per cent oceanic uptake of the tropospheric C 14 content.

soTABLE XVI.

Sr'° TO CALCIUM RATIO IN MlLK

Tiu: values are given in pCi/g Ca and represer.t yearly at'erages unless otlu:rwise indicatedTypes of study: A-Systematic widespread survey
B-Syste:natic local survey
C-Irregular sampling

Rtgion, arec or countr:.r

Lotitud<

1'joRTH AMERICA •.•••••••••••••••••>l5°N
40-55°N
25-i8°N
62°N

Canada •.•......................
United States .................. .
Alaska ...•....................
New York City, N.Y•..........
Chicago, Ill ..................••San Francisco, Cal .........•...
Mexico •........................
EUROPE ••••••••••••••••••••••••••

Austria ........................ .
Belgium ....................... .
Czechoslovakia ........••........
Denmark ..................... ..

1961

l96Z

1963

8.4•
7±2h
7
6.7
4.3
1.7

19.4•
11±4b

27.8•
19±6b
18
26
14.1
10.2
0.9°

9

12
7.0
3.5
0.9

rvl5-30°N>30°N
47-49°N
rv50°N
48-51°N
55-60°N

Farces ....•••.....•••....•••••••.
Federal Republic of Germany .....
Finland .............•...........
France .•••.....................
Ireland ........................ .
Italy •......•.•••....•..••......
Netherlands .•...........•..•..•.
Norway ..•........•............
Poland ........................ .
Sweden •........................
Switzerland .................... .
United Kingdom ................ .
USSR
Moscow region .....•.•...•...•
Ryazan region ....•...•...•....

60-70°N
43-55°N
6Q-67°N
42-50°N
52-55°N
37-47°N
52-54°N
58-70°N
50-55°N
55-70°N-47°N
5o-60°N

NEAR EAST •• •••••••••••• .•••••.••

>30°N

16.9

10.3
4.2d
4.6•
4.1

8.4 1
10.1•,
8.lb
68

5.6b
7.9
5.7 1
4.4
12.1•
5.8b• D

13.0b
16.8
21.si
12.41
9.3..
18.5•
7.8b, 07.7-18.9P
5.9h

16.7•
11.7b

Type of
study

A
A
A
B

c
c
B

A
A

c

23.8",
24.lh
131
17.4•
22.7b
26.71
23.7"

A

268, 386
79
269
97, 167, 179

26

c

25.6b

B
A
B

281

c

283

B

284, 285

24.5..

A

•

A
A
A
A
A
A
A

c

4.8u

262, 263
164
164
165
165
165
267

98, 179
387
270
282
169, 272
42, 100, 101, 273
274, 275, 388
88, 276
183, 184
277
278, 279
168, 169, 280

4.4
6.1'

Israel. ......................... .

Reference

8.7m

ASIA

India, Bombay ................. .

20°N

2.6

1.4

FAR EAST

Japan ••.......•.........•....•.

30-50°N

8.8

14.9

AC

186, 286, 287, 288, 289

PACIFIC

United Stat.es, Hawaii ........... .

21°N

4

4

9

B

164

18°N

3

9

12

B

164

2.5

3.3

3.7

B

265

16.0>"A

290, 291, 292

5.8>"77.1•

AA

293, 294, 395
295, 296, 389

CENTRAL AMERICA

United States, Puerto Rico ....... .
SoUTH AllERICA

Argentina (littoral area) ....•.•...
AFRICA

United Arab Republic ........... .

20-30°N

4.6'

OCEANIA

Australia •......................
New Zealand ................... .

lo-40°S
35-47°S

5.9•
6.1•• Type unknown.
• Unweighted mean for all stations.
b Country-wide mean weighted by population.
° February-July only.
d July-December only.
• Limited sampling over 9 months.
1 Limited sampling over 4 months of 1962.
• Dried milk country-wide mean weighted by production.
b Fresh milk country-wide mean weighted by production.
1 January-August, unweighted mean for 7 collecting stations.
l April-December only.
k September 1962-September 1963.
1 Mean weighted by population.

January-June only.
August 1960-July 1961.
0August 1961-July 1962.
P Range of values for lowland and mountain regions, respec·tively.
•January-May only.
u April-December only.
x Delta region, July-December only.
7 Average for delta region and Upper Egypt.
n January-February only.
•January-September only.
.. Country-wide mean weighted by consumption.
m

11

51

TABLE XVll. $~ 9 IN MILK IN THE YEARS 1961, 1962 Al\"D 1963
The values represent yearly meam in pCi/g Ca 1mless otherwise indicatedType of study: A-Systematic widespread survey
B-Systematic local survey
C-Irregular sampling

Type of

RLferer.u

Region, arta or country

Lalitutk

1961

196Z

NORTH AMERICA
Canada ...................
United States ..............
Alaska ..................

40-55°N
25-48°N
62°N

9 ±6•
14

106b,.
38 ± 34•
45

EUROPE
Denmark ..................

50-60°N

18b

48b

56b

A

Farces ••..................
Italy •.....••...........•..
Netherlands .........•.•...
United Kingdom ...........

60-70°N
37-47°N
52-54°N
50-60°N

352

140<'·.

333<
63•
44b
60•

32b, f
45•

A
A
A
A

CENTRAL AMERICA
United States, Puerto Rico .•

18°N

13

61

59

B

164

PACIFIC
United States, Hawaii. ....•.

21°N

2

24

15

B

164

1963

study

32b
A
37 ± 21• A
25
B

262, 263
164
164
97, 167,179
98, 179
100, 101
246
168, 169,280• Country-wide mean weighted by population ± standard deviation.
b Unwei5hted mean for all sampling stations.
0 Aprilecember only.
d October-December only.
• Country-wide mean weighted by production.
t January-June.

TABLE XVJIJ.

Sr 90 AND CALCIUM IN TOTAL DIET AND ITS COMPONENTS

Ca in grammes per day in brackds. Sr 90 in pCi per day. Srt11/Ca ratio in total diet in pCi/g Ca. (wlumn JO)
Types of study: A-Widespread survey of individual foodstuffs
B-Systematic widespread diet analyses
C-Regular local sampling
D-Irregular sampling
Milk arid

milk

116cioa, area ()T rouostry

Latitudt

Yt()T

produ<lsCertals

NORTH AMERICA
Greenland •..........•......
United States ...............
New York City, N.Y .......

> 60°N
25-49°N

1962

3.2(0.64)
4.8
6.7
18.4
2.6
4.3
8.4
1.1
2.4
6.9

4.6
(0.16)
1.8
2.5
6.6
1.9
2.8
6.4
0.8
1.5
3.9

San Francisco, Cal •....••••

United States, Alaska (institutional diet sampling) ...

62°N

0.2b 1.5-6.6°(0.04)(0.11)
1.0
1.4
1.1
1.7
1.3
2.8
0.7
0.9
0.8
1.4
1.1
1.5
0.5
0.7
0.5
0.8
0.7
1.6

Total
Type ofdid instudy pCi/t Ca

Referen&t

6.6-9.9•

99

c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c

9.7
12.8
30.0
7.1
10.7
19.2

165
165
165
165
165
165
165
165
165

1961

B

1962

B

1963

B

7
5-11 T
10
5-20T
22
9-35T

1961
1962
1963

c
c
c

1963
United States (institutional
diet sampling)'. •..•.......

0.5•(0.10)
1.1
1.6
2.6
1.1
1.2
2.0
0.4
0.4
0.9

Misctllaneous

A

1961
1962
1963
1961
1962
1963
1961
1962

Chicago, III ••..•...•.•.•...

Fruits andltaf:yRoot
reiet®les oegelabks

3.3
5.2
12.6

7
12
24

366
366
366

366
366
366

52

i.

TABLE XVIII.

Sr'° A.'ID CALCllJM L"'i TOTAL DIET AXD ITS COYPOSESTS(continued)

Ca in grammes per day in brackets. Sr 90 in pCi per day. Sr 90 /Ca ratio in total diet in pCi/g Ca. (column 10)
Types of study: A-Widespread survey of individual foodstuffs
B-Systematic widespread diet analyses
C-Regular local sampling
D-Irregular sampling&ti-on, area or country

Latitude

ECROPE ••••••••••••••••••••••> 30°N

Year

Austria ...............•....
1961
1962
1963
1961
1962
1963

Denmark ...............••••

1962
1963
1962
1963

Farces ..................••.•
Federal Republic of Germany.
Franceu ...............•.•••

42-50°N
1961
1962

PolandTowns .•.•...........•••••
1961h
19621
1963

Rural areas .............••
1961h
19621
1963
United Kingdom .........•.••
1961
1962
1963
FAR EAST .................••.•
Japan ...................•••

Milk ond
milk
products

Cereals

Fruits ai:dleaf[i~tgeta lesRootregetables(0.52)
5.9(0.08)
2.6(0.05)
0.8(0.02)
0.5(0.04)

3.1
7.6
17.9

3.8
7.3
28.0

1.5•
3.1 •
4.4•

0.5b
0.5b
0.9b

27.8
54.0

7.5
27.8

1.5•
2.2•

2.7b
5.0b

4.8
7.1

(0.54)
3.9
8.1(0.07)
1.6
1.8(0.09)
0.9
2.1(0.04)
0.4b
0.5b(0.43)
2.5
3.1(0.16)
8.1
7.0(0.04)
0.9
0.8(0.03)
1.2b
1.3b(0.88)
5.1
6.2(0.22)
10.7
9.5(0.07)
1.3
1.4(0.59)
3.4
6.6
14.6

(0.05)
1.0
0.9
3.4(0.06)
0.6

2.7(0.05)
1.3(0.07)
1.7{0.05)

MisceJ.
laJUo:is

Total
Type of d~l inst11dy pCi/g Ca

Refermee

A
A

13.8
26.7d
32.7•

268
297, 386

0.4

A,B

1.1

A

2.0

A
B
A

167
97
179

c

5.9
12.4
31.3
30.8 1
26.9
58.5
19.S-

A
A

9.2
16.9

374
374

(0.04)
0.4
0.4

A
A

18.2
17.8

184
183

(0.04)
1.6b
1.6b(0.02)
0.1
0.1

A
A

15.4
15.2

184
183

2.2

(0.02)
0.6
0.6
1.3(0.36)k
1.0i
1.5i
3.2l

A
A
A

6.2
9.9
22.8

168
169
280

3.0 1
(0.14)
5.6 1(0.28)
9.4•(0.31)

2.2(0.08)
2.6(0.05)
3.5(0.07)

0.6m(0.20)
1.1=(0.20)
0.8=(0.20)

D•

18.5

170, 221Do

17.8

170,221DP

24.6

170,221

C•

5.6

B

10.8
13.7•

290
291
292

B

6.5

265

c
c
c

8
10
16

366
366
366

A
A

4.7
5.9

293
294

1.1

A

98
179
298

3o-45°N
1961
1962
1963

AFRICA

United Arab Republic (deltaregion) ...................

< 30°N

1961
1962
1963

c

SoUTH .AliERICA

Argentina (littoral area) ......

......, 35°S
1963

OCEANIA
United States, Hawaii (institutional diet sampling) ...

21°N

Australia ...........•.......

lo-40°S(0.45)
1.7(0.02)
0.5(0.11)
1.2(0.02)
0.4(0.06)
0.5

1961
1962
1963
1961
1962

(0.05)
0.4
0.3(0.64)
2.8
3.8(0.07)
0.4
0.5(0.01)
0.1
0.2(0.05)
0.2
0.1

Including fish and shellfish, dairy products, eggs and meat.
October 1961 in Tokyo only.
° Four sampling-series, at four locations each.
"Three sampling-series, at four locations each, January-June
only.
r Second half of 1961 only.
•Average for Upper and Lower Egypt.
' Widespread dietary survey in 21 boarding schools in the
United States based on composite diets of children and adolescents of 6--18 years of age.
u Representative of the southeastern region of France.
.. Range of yearly averages reported for individual schools.

•Fruits and vegetables.
b Potatoes only.
• Depending on the source of drinking water.
d Towns.
•Country.
t Country-wide mean weighted by population.
s July-October sampling of daily diet in one of Munich's
hospitals.
h August 1960-July 1961.
1 August 1961-July 1962.
i Including drinking water and tea.
t Including creta praeparata.
1Including seaweeds.

m

n

53

TABLE XIX.

RELATIONSIDP BETWEEN RATIO OF STROSTIUld·90 TO CALCIUMIN MIXED DIET TO THAT IN MILKCountry. area or location

NORTH AMERICA
United States (Tri-city study)
New York City, N. Y ••...•...........•
Chicago, 111 ••••..•••••••••••••••••••.•San Francisco, Cal.. ...................
United States (institutional
sampling project) ......................
EUROPE
United Kingdom •...•••...•.....•..•....
Denmark •....•.........................
Poland .•..•.•..........................
Austria ..............•..•...•........ • ..
FAR EAST
Japan •.......•.....••••....••..•..•..••AFRICA
United Arab Republic (delta region) ..••..•
AUSTRALIA ..•.•....•..••..•........•....•

1960

1961

196Z

1963

&fcrence

1.5
1.4
1.7

1.4
1.9
1.9

1.3
1.8
1.7

1.3
1.5
1.2

165, 245, 309, 310

1.5

1.2

1.4

182, 245, 309, 310

1.0
1.4
2.5•
3,2b
1.3

0.9
1.4
2.2•
2.7b

0.9

169, 280
97, 167
183, 184

1.0

1.7

3.0
1.2
1.2

268
...... 2.0

1, 185, 186

1.4290, 291
293, 294

1.1• Rural regions.
b Urban regions.
TABLE xx. SrllO IN HUYAN BO?>"E
pCi Srto/g calcium(Number of samples in parentheses)&gion. country or areaYear

Ne-.vborn
and/or

2
years

0-1

stillborn

year

1.25
(4)

2.11
(1)
2.20
(5)

year

3
-yearsBone'::!'
studie

4

5-19

years

years

>19
years

1.86
(6)
1.61
(8)

1.00
(87)
1.21
(36)

Vertebrae(adults)&fcre~sNORTH AMERICA
30-50°N

Canada •••.•..........

1961
1962

United States
New York City, N.Y..

1961
1962

3.43
(8)
3.81
(16)

1963
January-June
1963
July-December
Chicago, Ill ..•.......

1961

6.81
(10)
1.40
(1)

1.99
(5)
3.24
(7)
2.34
(2)
2.68
(4)

2.05
(5)
2.61
(10)

1.74
(4)
1.93
(3)

1.24
(35)
l.84
(26)

0.83
(7)
1.00
(14)

Vertebrae

3.49
(1)

2.44
(3)

1.54
(1)

2.22
(1)

1.82
(16)

1.55
(2)

Vertebrae

9.84
(1)

5.03
(3)

3.41
(2)
2.26
(1)
0.68
(1)

1.55
(21)
0.55
(39)
0.83
(50)

Vertebrae

2.08
(3)
1.06
(1)

2.41
(10)
1.15
(9)
1.38
(10)

0.74
(2)

Vertebrae

1.19
(10)
0.48
(45)
0.73
(9)

Vertebrae

1963
January-June
1963
July-December

San Francisco, Cal. ..

1961
1962
1963
January-June
1963
July-December

CENTRAL AMERICA
10-20°N
United States
Sanjuan, P.R ..•....

Vertebrae

2.67
(5)
3.05
(8)

2.32
(1)

1962

3.51
(2)
0.49
(10)
1.07
(26)

3.70
(2)
0.79
(3)
1.27
(2)

1.31
(11)

2.72
(2)

2.43
(21)

1.02
(6)

2.76
(3)
1.33
(4)
1.18
(5)

2.15
(2)
1.15
(4)

2.42
(2)
0.92
(11)
0.89
(19)

1.40
(6)

1.13
(5)

1.64
(2)

1.04
(11)

0.70
(5)

1.72
(3)

1.64
(16)

1.02
(1 i)

0.98
(23)
1.36
(33)

0.79
(28)
1.36
(13)

3.51
(1)

1961
1962

318,319

Vertebrae

Vertebrae

320,321,322

320,321,322

320,321,322

Vertebrae
Vertebrae

Vertebrae

320,'.321

Vertebrae

54

1

Srgo IN HUMA." BONE (continued)
pCi Srga/z calcium(Number of samples in parentheses)

TABLE :XX.

Retion, country er arta

Year

SOUTH AMERICA> 20°5
Argentina (littoral area).

1961

N.-.cborn
and/or0-1

s:illborn':jtGTytar:;ears

0.71
(17)
0.83
(7)

0.77
(6)
0.66
(7)

0.75

1962
1963
EUROPE
45-70°N
Czechoslovakia ••.....•
Denmark ..•..•.......

>19
~ears

Vertebrae

0.76
(2)

3.2
(3)
3.80
(9)

2.3
(1)

3.7
(1)
2.68
(1)

1.66

2.5

(1)
1.61
(1)

(2)

4.23
(18)

1961

0.88
(136)
1.16
(118)
1.43
(11)
0.99
(9)
1.80
(3)

1.23
(35)
1.87
(25)
2.16
(17)

1961
1962

1.54
(26)

1961

fl.10

United Kingdom ..•....

)

1962

(

1.91
(27)
3.60
(6)
7.1
(1)
1.77
(58)
1.96
(29)

1.83

(3)
2.59
(12)
2.20
(3)

-2.19(8)-4.00(1)

1.92
(5)

0.82
(45)
0.81
(78)
1.53
(20)

Vertebrae

1.12
(17)

0.38
(30)

Tibiae204,324

1.59
(25)
1.99
(17)
3.7
(2)
2.04
(28)
1.78
(9)

1.18
(14)
1.05
(5)

Vertebrae

325

1962
1961•
1961b
1962

1963
January-June
USSR• .......•.......
1961
1962

l

i
l

0.81
(282)
0.69
(9)
0.99
(230)
1.5
(56)
1.41
(13)
1.62
(62)

1963
FAR EAST
3D-45°N
Japan ..•..........•.•

1961
1962
1963

265

1.6
(1)
1.04
(19)
0.94
(20)
2.17
(13)

{12)

1962

References

Vertebrae

2.80
(11)

1961

Bone typestudied(odrdls)

(4)

1963

1963

Switzerland .....••....

5-19':>'ears

1961

1962

Poland .•••.••.•..•.••

4
yecr:rVertebrae

1961

1962
Norway .•...•......•.

J
years

0.77
(23)

1962

Federal Republic of
Germany •..•...•...

z

1.67
(105)
2.00
(132)
3.3
{73)
1.17
(7)
2.13
(52)
5.00
(6)

1.68
(2)
0.88°
(5)
1.35
(17)

1.68
(26)

0.64
(226)
0.69
(203)

1.10
(273)
1.36
(234)

2.54
(18)
1.83
(47)

2.60
(24)
2.38
(22)
3.7
(10)

1.71
(7)

1.75
(3)
(10)
2.0
4.0
(8)
(6)
1.41
(2)
2.51
(14)
4.23
(7)
2.55

1.67
{12)

323

Vertebrae
Vertebrae

Vertebrae
Vertebrae

1.18
(191)
1.40
(160)
0.80
(39)
0.58
(16)
0.92
(21)
0.68
0.33
(25)
0.68
{48)
0.32
(11)

1.10
(68)
1.00
(30)
2.37
1.19
(6)
(44)
2.1
1.4
0.5
(8)
(9)
(35)
0.52d
1.09
(6)
(112)
0.85d
1.77
(1,661) (2,071)
1.88 1.05d(1,567) (4,142)

1.36
(9)
1.86
(19)
1.43
(12)

97,167,179

Vertebrae

326,327

Vertebrae
Vertebrae and 278, 279
sternum
Ribs
Vertebrae
Ribs
Femora328, 329,
330,331,373

Vertebrae
FemoraFemoraDifferent
399(normalized)
399
Different(normalized)
399
Different(normalized)

1.38
(51)
1.38
(36}
1.40
(44)

0.43
(92)
0.44
(124}

Ribs

0.68
(191)
0.81
(234)

0.56
(879)

Vertebrae

0.55

Vertebrae

332

Ribs

0CRA.""1A

Australia
2Q-40°S ••••••••..•••

1961
1962

1.52
(34)
2.04
(27)

1.15

(24)
1.06
(21)

1.15
(27)
1.20
(11)

0.75
(12}
1.15
(12)

293,294(751)

normalized according to Kulp and Schulert, •in 1962 and 1963
according to factors developed by the authors. '°°• AverS§e values for 9 areas in European and Asian territoryof the U R.

• AERE, Scottish and Cambridge results combined.
b West London survey.

•Including 4 foetuses.
averages obtained from different bones. In 1961

d Skeletal

55

TABLE XXJ.

RATIOS OF Sr""/Ca IN INFANTS' BO:SE TO THAT IN MILK FOR THE YEAR 1962

Bmu Sr"/Ca
MilkSr"/Ca

Country OT l«ation

Argentina ••.••........•.......................
Australia ...•.......•...........................
Canada ....•....•................•.............
Denmark .•.........•..•........................
Japan .....••........•..........................
Norway ....................................... .

TABLE XXII.

.8otU Sr"/Ca.
MUkSr"/Ca.

Counlry or location

0.25
0.24
0.11
0.42
0.19
0.20

Poland .............•....•.•..•....... · .. ·······
United Kingdom ............................... .
United States
NewYork ................................... .
San Francisco ••..............................•

0.25
0.17

0.32
0.30

CoMPAll.ISOS" OF Sr"" m DIET AND ADULT BO!\'ES (VERTEBRAE) IN THE PERIOD 1961-1962(Number of bone samples in parentheses)•Counlry or loelllion

SrH/Ca diet
Sr"/Ca bones

Cou..uy OT location

196J.J96Z

Australia.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

SrH/Ca ditl
Sr"/Ca boius
1961·196Z

9.4

United States(1630)New York City, N. Y..........................

12.2
(21)

13.9
(351)

Chicago, Ill.. . . . . . . • . . . . • . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13.0

10.2•
(48)

San Francisco, Cal.............................

Denmark.......................................

11.1
(123)

Poland .. ~................. . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . .
United Kingdom................................

(89)• 1961 only.

56

7.1
(22)

TABLE XXIII.

Csm u; MILKThe ~alues are given in pCi/l and represent y~arly averages unless otherwise indicatedType of study: A-Systematic widespread survey
B-Systematic local survey
C-lrregular sampling&gicm, arta.
or country

Latitude

1961

196:!

1963

TYP< of
study

NORTH AMERICA

Canada ............. . 40-55°N
United States .......•. 25-48°N
United States, Alaska
62°N

81.4•
172•
10 :!::: llb 43 :!::: !Sb 111 ± 37b
10
37
117

A
A
B

262,263
164
164

100•
430,d
35•··
5351

A

A

268,386
97,167, 179

A

98,179EUROPE

Austria .............. .
Denmark •............

47-49°N
55-60°N

Faroes •..............
Federal Republic of
Germany ..••••••...
Finland ............. .
France ....•....•..•..
Ireland ..••.....•...• ,Italy ................ .

60-70°N
43-55°N
6D-67°N
42-50°N
50-55°N
37-47°N

Netherlands •.........
Norway ............. .

52-54°N
58-70°N

Sweden •.•.....•.....

ss-10°N

30

75m

1s5m

Switzerland, Geneva ...
United Kingdom .•....

-46°N
5D-60°N

21 •

62•

103D
135•

A,B
(1961)
B
A

18°N

5

40

88

B

21°N
10-40°S
35-47°51027101•.d112°··
974 1
127•
210S
22()h

250,d

54b
750,lc155b
150•·k

c

A
A
A
A
A

387
299
428
169
42, 100, 101,
273
246,275,388
223,367

444c,I

214, 277300
168, 169, 280

CEXTRAL AMERICA

United States
Puerto Rico .••..•••

164

OCEANIA

United States, Hawaii..
Australia ............ .
New Zealand ••.•.....

73
B
30b
A
56 ± 10•·• A

164
397
295,296,389

FAR EAST

Japan................

30-50°N

ASIA
India, Bombay ...... ..

19°N

57

9.0

186,286-289

119

8.8

B

284,285

12.0

A

291

B

394

AFRICA

United Arab Republic..

20-30°N

SOUTH AMERICA

Argentina (littoral area)

35-55°5

17

19

13

• Type unknown.
• Unweighted mean for all milksheds surveyed.
b Country-wide mean weighted by population ± standard deviation.
• Country-wide mean '1\--eighted by production.
d Dried milk.
•Fresh milk.
1Locally produced (average consumed in 1962-412/Ci/l).
s Non-weighted average of 3 milksheds for the perio October 1962-July 1963.
b Described as "laits departementaux".
i April-December only.
k February-~Iarch only.
1 March 1963-February 1964. 31 stations regularly surveyed.
m Country-wide mean wei~hted by consumption.
0
Milk supply of Geneva, June-December only.
0
Non-systematic sampling.
•January-September only.
•July-December only.

57

I'

TABLE XXIV. CsUT IN TOTAL DIET
:teany ai>erage values are given in pCi/day unless otherwise indicakd
Type of study: A-Widespread survey of individual foodstuffs
B-Systcmatic composite diet analyses
C-lrregular sampling&,ion, crea or covr..try

NORTH AMERICA
Greenland ..•.•••••...••.•.
United States ..............
New York City, N. Y......
Chicago, Ill......•.••••••San Francisco, Cal ..•..•..
United States (institutional
diet sampling) m • • • • • • • •LalUMcU

YtOT

60-80°N
25-49°N

1962
1963 b1963 c1963 dMilk
and dair31
prodMeisMeat

la~OJ<S

TolaJ

T31pe
of
stud:y943

16-21 •

68-73

A

99

82
42
36

2
23
26

72

156
116
278

c
c
c

165
165
165

28
(11-134)"
49(11-100)"140(45-2iO)n

B
B

366

B

366

46
42
140

B
B
B

366
366
366

Afisul-

51
116

1961
1962
1963

&fuence

366~·.;)

United States, Alaska (institutional diet sampling) .•••

62°N

1961
1962
1963

EUROPE
Denmark .•••••••.••••••••.

50-60°N

1962
1963
1962

20
50
166

2i
94
401

19
114
84

66
258
651

A
A
A

97
179
98

1961
1961
1962.
1964 I

210
140

95
90

4,330
1,440
50
75

46Qs
32Qb
70
100

5,000
1,900
215
265

A
A
A
A

226
226
214
277

50-60°N

1961
1962
1963

9
26
57

11
40
70

11
16
40

31
82
162

A
A
A

280
280
280

< 30°N

1962.....,34c

291, 393

30-50°N

1961 I
1962 k1963 I

65
78
87

c
c
c

170,·221
1 iO, 221
170, 221

United States, Hawaii (institutional diet sampling) ....

21°N

1961
1962
1963

32
39
95

SoUTB AMERICA
Argentina ..•..•.•••.••••••

B
B
B

366
366
366

.....,35•5

1961,.._,40B

301

60-70°N
Faroes ....................
Finland, Lapland .•.......•.
> 68°N
Males .............••....
Females ......•......•...
Sweden •.•.....•.... , ..... ,.._,55-70°N'United Kingdom ••...••••..
APRI CA

United Arab Republic (deltaregion) ..•......•...••••.

FAR EAST
Japan .........•....•.... ~""'

12 J
17 J
20 J

53
61
67

OCEANIA

11.6• Depending on the source of drinking water.

20.2

8.6

I Dairy products, eggs, meat, fish and shellfish.

b November 1963.

k Data for 1962 include 4 series of sampling at 4 locations

inJapan.
1 Data for 1963 include 3 series of sampling at 4 locations during the period January-July.
m Widespread dietary survey in 21 boarding schools in the USA,
based on composite diets of children and adolescents of 6-18
years of age.
" Range of yearly averages reported for individual schools.

•October 1963.
d December 1963.
• Late summer of 1962.
' { anuary 1964.
s ncluding 420 pCi/d with fish.
b Including 310 pCi/d with fish.
1 Data for Tokyo, October 1961 only.

I
i

t

I
58

l

TABLE :XXV.

BIOLOGICAL HALF•LIFE OF CAESIUM IN ADULT M.\N AS DETERYINED BY WHOLE BODY COlJNTING TECH:SIQUES(Long-term componmt of retention)
Numberof Pusor<sstudiedLiden214 •••••••••••••••••••••••••
Richmondu:.....................

1
4

RundoSID. . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . .

10

RundoSID........................

4

111 •••••••••••••••••••••••

l\IcNeil

3

1VIiller3U.........................

2
2~1il!erU'.........................

Balf·life in days
(range inparenlhues)

Author74
135(110-147)
89(58-129),..., 119(109-149)
115

Numberoj Persrms
studiedB alf·life in days
(rang~ inparensr.au)

144

Oberhausen™ .•..................

Rowem... ... .. . . .. . ... ... ... . . .

I

Van Dilla et aJ.m.................

3

Taylor et al. 331 •••••••••••••••••••

4150,...., 140
109(79-123)

Colard11• . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2

99

Liden'"··.......................

8

72

HAsanen et aJ. m. . . . • . . . . . . . . . • . • •6(32-92)110

88(82, 95)

63(42-93)59

TAULE XXVI.

CAESIUM-137 IN MAN

All values arc group averages in pCi Cs 111 /gl(. Figures in parcnllwses indicate n11111ber of 111easure111c11ts pcrformecl
1960

Retiou. corrnlry
or tJrta/,olit11de

SUBARCTIC REGIONS
Uuilcd States,
Alaska (Eskimoes)> 65°N

Finland (Lapps) ...

> 65°N

Sweden (Lapps) ...

> 65"N

111

1961

IV

II

IV

I

Greenland .••••.•.

> 60°N

45(1)

N01tT11 AMERICA
United States' ...•.

30-SO"N

46
(147)

46
(164)

31
(170)

32

22

(75)

(61)

24
(80)

28
(104)

58

58

53

42

29

46

47
(74)

United Slates,
New Mexico •..•
Canada .•.•.....•.

,...,35°N> 45°N
10-20''N

55

EUROPE
Europe• ..••....••

40-60°N

Denmark ....•....

55-60°N

Norway ..••....•.

,...,60°N

Sweden .....•.•...

,...,60°N

Finland" ..........

,...,60°N

United Kingdombh.

50-55°N

Federal Republic of
Germany •...•..

47-55°N

Poland .....•.•..•

50-55°N

58

196·1

1963

llI

IV

l

II

III

IV

I

II

&ferente

225, 368

240-4,500•· ..
1,1904,420•(48)
1,3803,120•(218)- - 3,570-23,570'· .. - (60)3,700- 226, 369
7,000•(,39)
226, 2•13,
244, 371
7,140-25,700 .... 398
(30)
311

45d

311, 312

(155)
44
(69)

40
(163)

49
(33)

58
(72)

72
(86)

92
(80)

95q

220, 313

26
(2)

(1)
CENTUAL AMEUICA
and CAlllllllEAN" .•.

II

136-3,200•· y(532)
7508003,580• 2,420•
(89)
(40)
1,D702,960•(108)- - 1,430-12,860 .. 7 - (20)4701,630•{140)
820b (4) 9802,140•
3,025° (2) (81)

USSR' ••......... Far North

0\
0

196Z

III

{1)

58
(4)

37
(5)

20
(3)

66
(36)

65
(40)

52
(32)

49
(11)

311
311

41
(5)

36
(14)

36
(7)

311
114
(31)

J 80°
(15)
480 1
(6)

332' (11)
(11)
784«
(10)
180•
(25)
55•
(87)

49
(14)

42
(15)

37
(15)

64
(982)

57
(1,299)

45
(488)

36
(610)

44
(11)
36
(12)

31
(14}

28
(10}

33
(1,305)31(1,634)28(1,181)

50
25
(25)

75
(10)
35
(12)

32
(837}

45
(834)

(15)

112
(49)
54
(10)

120
(49)
64
(12)

175
(49)
89
(11}

54
(954)

741
(211)

89
(469)
133k

1041
(187)

so

(23)

150••
(22)
651•
(169)
341•
(25)
1,404&
(9)
200
(49)
115
(13)

179
353•
(24)

222, 2U,
244

183
(67)
204
(24)
135
(13)

243, 244,
372
226, 369,
370
314, 340

218(49)

311, 315
181•
(2.l)

233

EuR01•1;(continued)

Belgium. . . . . . • • • .

,.._, 50°N

Switzerland•... . . . .

51
(49)

44
(60)

38
(55)

33
(94)

--31-(279)--29-(303)--48(495)--73-(507),...,, 4 7°N

74(5)--117(529)
107
1St
(5)
(5)

143P
(233)
171 II
(5)

316
300

ASIA

Asia• •.•.••.•••.•. Not specified
FAR EAST
Far East• ••..•••.. Not specified

32
(1)
44
(27)

Japan............

311

42
(38)

3()-45°N

30
(28)
28

(12)
NEAR EAsT 0 . . . . . . . . . Not specified

33

62

49

(1)

(2)

(2)

43
(5)

(I)

19
(3)
37
(11)

31
(2)

19
(9)
'll 111
(21)

37
(3)
61 nl
(38)

311

39"'
(62)

41"'
(Si)
30
(15)

551n
(54)

64m
(68)

59m
(68)

66m
(74)

791n
(65)

10'1"'(66)

239, 241,
242,
311,
385
311

AFRICACountryunspecified• .•... Not specified
AUSTl!ALIA 0 • • • • • • • • • Not specified

36(1).. October only.
bb Data from Harwell, Berks., only.
• Average values for different groups of local population (Lapps only).
b Local farmers.
"l'ooled data reported by the \IValter Reed Army Institute of Research.
11 This data for 155 persons reported from Los Angeles.
• Oslo residents.
' Bergen residents.
a Masfjorden residents.
b Helsinki residents.

·l March only.

I July only.
k April only.

311

20
(4)

26

Residents of Lorlz.
"'Estimated from radio-chemical analysis of muscles according to Yamagata.
n Reindeer breeders.

30
(5)

28
(24)

27
(23)

25
(10)

35
(7)

36
(24)

33
(19)

3.1
(22)

21
(21)

32
(29)

317

"January and February.
October only.
• November only. Residents of Lodz.
•Stockholm residents.
1 Residents of Geneva.
u January only.
•People from western Norway. Average value for Masfjorden was 1404 (7782147) pCi/gK.
x Range of concentrations observed in individual reindeer breeders in regions ofMurmansk. Magadan, districts of Nenec, Yamal-Nenec and Taimyr, and autonomous
Soviet Socialist Republic of Komi.
~Approximate values calculated only for adults from total body burden (nanocuric) assuming 140 g of potassi11111 in the body.
• 12-16-year old boys from Oslo.
QTABLE XXVII.

PROPORTIONALITY FACTORS RELATING Cs137/K RATIO IN THE HUMA-"< BODY

TO THE AVERAGE FALL·OUT OF Cs 137 IN LATITUDINAL BAND 30°-60°N

P, ~urrent fall-out rate factor in the 12-month period ending 1 July of given year
P 20-factor for deposition over previous 24 months
Both factors in pCi Cs137 /gK per mCi/km 2
Counlr;yBelgium .................................... ···Federal Republic of Germany ................... .
United Kingdom, Berkshire ..................... .
United States, New Mexico ..................... .
Average

TABLE XXVIII.

2.25
1.94
1.54
1.79

2.42
3.35
2.90
3.47

1.88 ~ 1.9

3.04 ~3.01111 CONTENT OF HUMAN THYROIDS AS DETERMINED BY post mcrtem in viJro COID<'TING

pCi/g fresh tissue(Number of samples in parentheses)
1961

/96Z

Location and subject of stud;yNew York City, foetal thyroids,
prenatal age from 3 months tofull term ................... .

19910.5-630.0(4)

New York City, accident cases. • "-'l 1.5b
(20)
New York City, adult hospitalpatients.... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.2
(26)

2.3
(4)

Dewnber

4.7
0-13.1(4)

20.0
D-40.5(2)

249
248, 249

5.8(82)

New York City, children, hospitaland accidental deaths ........ .
Tokyo, hospital patients .••••..•

29.0
0-61.0(i)

Naoember

1.6 ± 1.5
(7)248, 249

26±17
(5)

249

255

5.6
(52)

• Data starting 20 September. Negative results from preceding
period omitted.

b Calculated from reported data on total activity in gland, andfrom average weight of thyroid in adults given in the samereference.

62

TABLE XXIX. p:n IN THYROIDS
In vivo counting technique(Number of subjects in parentheses)
Period ofLocation and age

mtas:irem~nls

Aoeraie milk

JUI inconsmnp1io11 i11

thyroids
pCi

litres per day&ference

UKITED STATESNew York City, N. Y.
Adults .................

November 1961

0.25-1.0

57 ± 33(6)

248

New York City, N. Y.
Adults •................

November 1961

Very low

4.3 ± 4.9
(3)

248

New York City, N. Y.
Below 18 years ..........

November 1961,....,, 1.0

83 ± 29(16)

248

UKITED KINGDOM
London, Sutton
Adults •...............•

November 1961,....,, 0.25250(20)254

UNITED STATES
Utah
Adults ...........•...•.

1-6 August 1962

1.3

5,900
250
3,700-11,000
(14)

Utah
Adults •................

22-31 August 1962

1.3

3,600
250
700-10,900(12)Boston, Mass.
4-17 years .............

September 1962

Not specified

30-56b260

Boston, Mass.
4-17 years ..............

October 1962

Not specified

71-124b260

Boston, Mass.
4-17 years ...........•.

November 1962

Not specified

75-175b260

New York City, N. Y.
Adults .•.•••....•...•..

October 1962

0.8

300 ± 130
(11)

249

< 0.5

< 50
< 30-170256

FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY
Adults(municipal water supply
system) .....•••...... September-October 1962

(16)
Adults(water supply from
cisterns) ..............

September 1962,..., 1.0

"'300

256

< 30-700(18)
Infants fed fresh cow's milk

October 196264
10-100(5)256• Peak level. Integral activity in thyroids from September 1961 to January 1962 = 15 nanocurie days.
b Range of means reported from measurements on group of children, performed on differentdays of the period.

63

TABLE XXX.

pn IN MILK AND THYROID DOSESTime imecral C1f
11s1 'onunJralion
in milk i11 pCi d/l(picoeorie X days/lilre)

Region. 'ounlr~ or arta

Lalilude

1961

196Z

1963

1961

1962

1963

,...., 40-55°N
25-48°N
62°N......, 6,1 ooa
8,220h21,5007,350
10,820h37,8001,700b
1,800

70
95
250

85
130
440

20
21

55-60°N
43-55°N
42-50°N

7,350
12,2503,160
6,16()1<
9,630

85
140

36
71
110

97
256
282,390

70
110
60

NORTH AYERICA

Canada •.............•.•..
United States ..•..•...••...
United States, Alaska ..•....

Ca!culat<d radiation doses
in infaftJ.s eon.sun:.ing
0.7 lilre of fresh milk
per day (millirads)

Reference

302, 303
164
164

EUROPE

Denmark .•...•............
Federal Republic of Germany
France .....•..............
Ireland (northern Dublinzone) ...................
Italy ...•...........•....•
Netherlands ...............
Norway ...................
Sweden ..................•
United Kingdom ...........

52-55°N
37-47°N
52-54°N
58-70°N
55-70°N
50-60°N

8,100

8,600
6,890

94

100
80

169
247,304
274,391,392
2i6
214
305,306

5,QOOb13,300 1
10,5QOc

58

150
120

185, 255
185, 255

18°N

2,750

4,560

2,950

32

53

34

164

United States, Hawaii •......

21°N

2,130

4,410

2,220

25

51

26

164

SOUTH AMERICA
Argentina, Buenos.o\ires •..••

35"S

•

4,450

51

307

950 1

11

308

6,070°
9,IOQd5,180

8,600•
9,520
20,000l

100
110
230

FAR EAST

Japan ...........•...•.•...
Chiba .......•...........
Tokyo ..................

30-50°N

CENTRAL AMERICA

United States, Puerto Rico ...
PACIFICOCEANIA

Australia .•......•.........

10-40"5• Not detected.
• Ontario area only.
b Country-wide average for children 0-2 years old weighted
by population.
•September 17-0ecember 17.
d September 1962-February 1963.
•October-December.

TABLE XXXI.

1 September 1962-March 1963.
•August 1962-February 1963.
h Estimated for October-December 1961.
1 May-November 1962 average weighted by population.
; September-November 1961.
k January-October) 962.

LATITUDINAL POPULATION AND FALL-our DISTRIBUTION :7, 104, 121, 175

Sr'' depotilion mCi/km'
Lati:iuU

Arta(Jo< km')60-70°N ............
S0-60°N .•..........
40-SO'N ......•.....
30-40'N ............
20-30'?\ .........•..
10-20'N ...•.....•..
0-10°N ............

o-1o=s .............

10-20'S .............
20-30°S .............
30-40°S .............
40-50'S ....•........

19

26
32
37
40
43

44
44

43
40
37
32

Populali-On(millions)

Cumulali"lo 1960

10
270
400
530
570
190
90
95
38
34
32
3

10
9.7
17
23
26
6.4
4.3
5.3

-·'
? -

4.0
4.8
5.2

1961

196Z

1963

1961

1.4
1.4
2.0
1.6
1.4
0.6
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.9
1.0
O.i

4.8
6.6
8.6
6.7
6.1
2.4
2.7
1.8
0.7
1.2
0.9
1.3

10.6
15
16
11

39
38
58
44
33
15
17

64

11

4.5
3.7
1.2
0.8
1.1
1.5
1.5

196Z

1963

90

70
81
103

105
135
135
107
61
49
29
16
15
9
8

93

80
27
28
12
1.4
2.9
2.7
1.8

TABLE XXXII.

ESTIMATES OF THE Z FACTORS

1961

to 1960

Mean deposition F, mCi/km: ..
l:N:F; ..................... .

ZN· .............•..........
Mean deposition F, mCi/km: •.

::i:N,Fi······················
Zs···· ..................... .
Mean deposition F, mCi/km: ..
l:NiF; ..................... .

ZT··························

Sr11

Sr"

Curnulati-:;~

196.1

1962

NORTHERN HE!o!ISPHERE
1.2
5.3
9.7
23,7002,970
12,9i0
1.17
1.20
1.18

17.6
42,5401.17

SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE
0.8
1.2
137
270
1.13
0.94

4.3
907
1.07

11
43,0001.75

GLOBAL
3.4
13,200
1.74

1.0
3,240
1.45

1961

196!

1963

33
80,1301.18

95
231,400
1.18

62
165,900
1.27

1.2
233
0.97

5.6

16
80,1302.16

24,000
1.82

16
4,180
1.30

4.4
1,380

58
274,000
1.78

37
167,000
2.00

1.54

TABLE XXXIII. TOTAL INTEGRATED DEPOSITS OF Sr 90 AND Csl:rl UP TO
DEC!illBER 1963, AND PREDtCTED FUTURE DEPOSITS(Megacuries)
0-50"So-GO"N

Integrated deposit to December 1963

SrH

8.6

50"5-SO"N

Cs"'

Srto

C•"'

Sr"

Cs'"

14.1

1.7

2.7

10.3

16.8

Expected future deposit, based uponstratospheric inventory, January
1964 .....•••.................•..

3.0

4.5

0.9

1.3

3.9

5.8

Expected total integrated deposit ....

11.6

18.6

2.6

4.0

14.2

22.6

TABLE X..XXIV.
Counl•Y

Japan
Tokyo .................
Chiba ............•....
Yokosuka ..•.....•.....
United Kingdom
Leeds •...........•....
Grove .................

MEASURED ANNUAL AIR DOSES (mrad/y) FROM FISSION PRODUCTS m-m

1961

196Z

196J

Country

1961

1962

1963

31
40

23
40
26

Sweden". ................
Region A ..............
Region B •.............
Region C .........•...•
Region D ..............

5

8.2

6
3

17
12
17
16
24

21
18
23
23
18

5.2

26

23

4
5

19
27

20
31

Average dose in northernhemisphere weighted bypopulation• ..........•.

4

5•These doses are corrected for the latitudinal distribution of fall-out, using the Sr" deposition data in table X..XXI.

65

TABLE XXX\T. RATIOS OF THE AN:-;UAL DEPOSITS OF SHORT-LTVED FISSION PRODUCTS
TO THE ANNUAL DEPOSITS OF Sr" DURING 1962 27 •••• 75, :e. n

c,1u

7.rU

Rutt1

R11IH

JIU

Ba,IU

CelH

Colkttion station

Sr'-'

~-,n

Sr••

Srtt

Sr"

Sr"

s;»

United States\\'cstwood, N. ] . .........
Pittsburgh, Pa ...........
Richmond, Cal.. •........
Houston, Tex .......•..••

1.6
1.5
1.2
1.9

1.8

0.7
1.9
0.6
1.2

1.3
1.5
0.8
1.7

United Kingdom
Milford Haven ....••.....
Chilton ....•...•.••.•.••

0.78
1.6

Italy
lspra •••••.•...••...••••

2.1

1.4

1.4

1962 average ratio R; ......•

1.5

1.4

0.9

TABLE XX}..."VI.

0.72
0.45

0.67
1.3

1.1

1.3

1.1

1.0
1.6
0.84

2.7

1.0

1.5

ESTIMATED AIR DOSE COMMITl>lENTS FROM SHORT-LIVED RADIO-NUCLIDES 27, 45, 7>, 71, 11 • 358
Dou

commitments

Radio-nuclitk

Zr"

Rut11

Rut"

Jlll

Bain

Cr" 1

Ce1H

Gamma raydose constant, K; X B;
mrad/y per mCifkm!, ••.••••..
Mean life years, Tm· •..•..••.•••.
T,,, X K1 X B1 X G ..............

0.30&
0.26
0.094

0.062
0.16
0.012

0.03
1.46
0.053

0.05
0.03
0.00190.390.05
0.024

0.008
0.13
0.00120.004
1.15
0.0055

1961
Annual deposit
Annual Sr8' deposit .••.•.....
Dose commitment mrad ••.•..

1.7
5.1

0.8
0.32

0.2
0.3

0.8
0.05

1.8
1.4

1.6
0.06

0.5
0.16

7.4

1962
Annual deposit
Annual Sr" deposit .••.•••.•• 1.5
Dose commitment mrad ..•.•• 14.4

1.4
1.7

0.9
4.;)

1.1
2.1

1.3
3.2

1.0
0.1

1.5
0.8

27.2

1963
A 1mual deposit
Annual Sr89 deposit .• , •..•.•.

1.5

0.4

Dose commitment mrad •..•..

8.5

0.3

Rum

-=
0.7
Ce144

CeIH
- 90 =18
Sr(mrad)

15.5

5.8

0.9

•The gamma-ray dose constants include the dose due to daughter radio-nuclides such as Nb95 and Lau0• In the case of Zr" +Nb"transient equilibrium is assumed.

TABLE XXX\TII.

PROPORTIONALITY FACTORS USED FOR PREDICTING FUTURE
Sr 90 /Ca RATIOS IN TOTAL DIET
(pCi/t p:'mCi/kn1')(pCi/t for one ~;Ci/km' per l'car)

North .A.merica
EuropeOceania

0.4

1.3

II

Near East
India
South America
Africa

0.6

2.6

III

Asia and Far East

O.i

2.0

Diet type

Area

66

TABLE XJC.XVIII.
A uJhorPtriod ofobservation

Krey el al.................

1958-1959

RADIO-NUCL!DES IN RESPIRATORY TRACT AND ESTIMATES OF DOSES
Lunis

Lymph nodes

1.3-11.9 x 10-3
dpm/g tissue

11-65
10-3
dpm/g tissue

isotopex

Dou rate
mrad/y&fer·

Lungs: 0.06--0.5
Lymph nodes:

346

enee

1.1-M
Osborne et al. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Spring 1962

Zr 95 + Nb'5

+ Nb
+ Nb

Rundo .................... January 1962
Schonfeld (quoted) ......... February 1962
Liebscher et al.. . .. . . . . .. . .
1960

Zr95

Wegst et al ................ March 1963

Ce141

Zr~

0.016
2.4
2.9
2.0
Lungs: 0.7
Lymph nodes:
17347

156 pCi•

1-7

350

106 pCi
173 pCi

0.5-3
3.4

0.16 pCifperson
250 pCi/person
300 pCi/person
200 pCi/person
0.03 pCi/g tissue
O.i pCi/g tissue

Pu!39
15
15

Ce1« +Pr"'+ PrH•
Ru109 + Rh101
Zr + Nb
CeW

Ru103
95

15

• In one lung cleared of bronchial lymph nodes.

TABLE XXXIX.

DOSE COID!ITME"STS FROM !'IUCLE..\R EXPLOSIONS•
Dose con:milments (mrad)

Tiss:uGonadsCells lining bone
surfaces

Bone marrow

For P<riod of /estin1
1954-1960 (estimates
Sovee of radiation from /96Z report)

For Puiod of testi ni
19H-196Z(nem eslimaus)

External, short-livedb ...•••
Cst37 .........•••.
Internal, Cs137 b....••.....
cu ......•.•.....

11
16
8
5c

21
29
13
13°

TOTAL

40

76

External, short-livedb ......
csm •••..........
Internal, Sr90 •••••••••••••
csmh •..........•
cu .••••...•...••
Sr11 •••••••••••••

11
16
67
14
8•
0.15

21
29
174
13
20°
0.30

TOTAL

116

257

External, short-livedb ......
Csm .............
Internal, Sr90 ..............
c 5131b •••••••••••
cu ..•.........•.

11
16
33
10

Sr89 • • • • • • • • • • • • •

0.07

21
29
87
13
13°
0.15

TOTAL

75

163

5•

Paravaph

163
165
179
187

163
165
173
179
187
176

163
165
174
179
187
176

•In the 1962 report, these doses were reported in mrems. As explained in paragraph 191, thedoses in the present report are all given in mrads.
b The dose commitments from short-lived nuclides and from internal Csm have been calculated on a slightly different basis in this report (paragraphs 162, 178) as compared to the 1962
report.
•For cu it seems to be appropriate to include only the dose which is accumulated up to year
2000, at which time the doses from the other nuc!ides will have essentially been delivered in full.
The total dose commitments from CH from te.~ts up to 1960 for the gonads, cells lining bone sur·faces and bone marrow are 48, 80 and 48 mrads, respectively. For all tests up to the end of 1962,
the dose commitments from C 1·1 are 180, 290 and 180 mrads, respectively.

67

348
349

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327. Karniewicz, W., J. Liniecki . Personal communication.
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329. ·Medical Research Council, Assay of strontium-90
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330. Medical Research Council, Assay of strontium-90
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332. Saiki, M., T. Koyanagi, G. Tanaka, et al .. Assayof Sr00 in human bone in Japan 1961-1963. To be
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77

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338. Van Dilla, M. A., M. J. Fulwyler, Retention ofcesium-137 by adults. Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory report LAMS-3034.
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340. Rundo. J., Measurements of fallout Cs 13 7 inhuman beings within the UKAEA. To be published.
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344. Comar, C. L., R. A. Wentworth, J. R. Georgi,
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345. Van Dilla, M.A .. M. J. Fulwyler, Thyroid metabolism in children and adults using very small(nanocurie) doses of iodine-125 and iodine-131.
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346. Krey, P. W., D. Bogen, E. French, Plutonium in
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347. Osborne. R. V .. Plutonium-239 and other nuclides
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350. Wegst, A. K., C. A. Peilletier, G. H. Whipple,
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351. Yamasaki, F., Personal communication.
352. Swedjemark, G. A., Personal communication.
353. Gibson, J. A. B., The gamma radiation backgroundat Grove, Berkshire. Report AERE-HP-Gen-39.
354. Burch. P. R. J., J. C. Duggleby, D. B. Oldroy,
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356. Holme, D. A., K. Stewart, The gamma dose-rate
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358. Gustafson, P. F., S. S. Brar, Gamma-ray doses
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359. Gustafson, P. F., Personal communication.
360. Collins, W. R. Jr., G. A. Welford, R. S. Morse,
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361. Collins, W. R. Jr.. Measured and predicted contribution from fallout to environmental radiationlevels, pp. 271-278 in USAEC report TID-7632;
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362. Collins, W.R. Jr., Personal communication.
363. Gale, H.J., D. L. 0. Humphreys, E. M. R. Fisher, The weathering of caesium-137 in soil.
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364. Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, National Food Survey Committee, Annual report for
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366. United States Department of Health, Educationand \Velfare. Radionuclide concentration in daily
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367. Koren, K., Personal communication.
368. Palmer, H. E., W. C. Hanson, B. J. Griffin, et al.,Radioactivity measurements in Alaskan Eskimos
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369. Miettinen, J. K., Measurements of Cs 1 a7 in Finnish Lapps in 1962-63 by a mobile whole bodycounter. Proceedings of a Symposium on Assessment of Radioactive Body Burdens in Man, May
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370. Rasanen. E .. ]. K. 1viiettinen, The body burden of
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371. Liden, K.. Y. Naversten, The enhanced radiocesium levels of people in Northern Sweden. Ibid.
372. Bengtson, G., K. Liden, The Cs 137 and potassium
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398. HeBcTpyeBa M. A., MonceeB A.. A., IloIIOB ~- Ii,. n
Jlp., XapaKTepncTnKa pa)J,nOaKTIDlHoro sarp.H3HeHmr
6noJornqecKoil nenol!Krr Mox-oienh-tieJOBeK na
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399. Mape.tt A. H., l\mrnmHKOB B. A., HpneB E. H. H ,D;p.,
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400. O'Brien, B.]., Personal communication.
401. Stebbins, A. K., Second special report on the highaltitude sampling programme. Technical Analysis
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402. United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation, Report of the United
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403. Miyake, Y., H. Tsubota, Estimation of the directcontribution of meteoric water to river waters bymeans of fall-out radiocaesium and radiostrontium, pp. 425-431 in Radioisotopes in Hydrology.
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404. Miyake, Y .. K. Saruhashi, Y. Katsuragi, ei al.,Penetration of Sr90 and Cs 13 i in deep layers of the
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level of the population at Lund, February 1964.
Personal communication.
373. Medical Research Council, Assay of Sr00 in humanbone in the United Kingdom. Results for 1963,
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374. Michon, G., Personal communication.
375. Liden, K., Personal communication.
376. Hardy, E .. W. Collins, Health and Safety Laboratory fallout program quarterly summary report, p.
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377. Feely, H. W .. ]. E. Hardaway, R. J. Lagomarsino,
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378. Telegadas, K., Personal communication.
379. Collins, vV., Personal communication.
380. Salter, L. P., Personal communication.
381. Kalstein, M. I., Rhodium-102 high-altitude tracer
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382. United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Rapiation, Report of the United
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383. Ministry of Housing and Local Government, Scottish Development Department and Ministry of
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384. Takahashi, T., T. Hamada, F. Yamasaki, Personalcommunication.
385. Saiki, M., Personal communication.
386. International Atomic Energy Agency, Division of
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387. Donth, H .. Personal communication.
388. Strackee, L., Personal communication.
389. New Zealand Department of Health, National Radiation Laboratory. Fallout in New Zealand.
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390. J ammet, H., Personal communication.
391. Strackee, L., Iodine-137 in milk in the first quarterof 1962. Rijks Institut voor de Volksgezondheid,
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392. Mattern, F. C. U., Iodine-137 in the last part of
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393. Mahmoud, K. A., Personal communication.
394. Beninson, D., E. Van der Elst, E. Ramos, Studies
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395. Bryant, F. J., Personal communication.
396. Kulp, J. L., A. R. Schulert, E. S. Hodges, Strontium-90 in man. Science 132: 448-457 (1960).
I

405. Kigoshi, K., Krypton-85 in the atmosphere. Bull.
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406. l\fachta, L., Personal communication based upon
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407. Telegadas, K., Personal communication.
408. Machta, L., Personal communication.
409. Keeling, C. D., The concentration and isotopic
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410. Bishop, K. F., H. J. Delafield, A. E. ]. Eggleton,
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412. Friend, J. P., H. W. Feely, P. W. Krey, et al.,The high altitude sampling program. Discussionof HASP results, pp. 201-247 in Defense Atomic
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413. United States Atomic Energy Commission, Press
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414. United States Atomic Energy Commission, Press
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415. Crummitt, vV. E., J. E. Guthrie, Assessment of
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416. :Menker, H. E., Isotopic composition of uranium
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79423. Machta, L., Personal communication.

USAEC report HASL-131 , p. 200; v.e. United
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417. Peterson, K. R., B~ 7 air sampling in Southwestern
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418. M:aJiaxOB c. r., Cepeil,a r. A., BpeHil,aI\Oil n. <Ii. n'/I,p., Pa'/I,IIDaKTRilHhie nr,ma'/I,eHII.n na TeppnTopnn
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419. Collins, Jr., W. R., Sr110 deposition on the Earth's
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420. Harley, J., Personal communication.
421. Chesselet, R., G. Lambert, B. C. Nguyen. et al.,Paper presented to International Symposium of
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422. Lingenfelter, R. E., Production of carbon-14 bycosmic ray neutrons. Rev. Geophys. 1 : 35-55(1963).

424. Brown, R. M., Personal communication; v.e.
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425. Kigoshi, K., Natural concentration of krypton-85,
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426. Beninson, D., Personal communication.
427. Hiyama, Y., Personal communication.

428. Commissariat a l'energie atomique, Departement
de la protection sanitaire , Pollution radioactive
des denrees alimentaires. Tableaux recapitulatifs.
Document destine a l'enquete de l'OAA, octobre
1963.
429. Tajima, E., Personal communication.
430. United States Department of Defense, Defense
Atomic Support Agency, Project Star Dust, Personal communication.

I

80j