Learning Learning 17 (1) Spring 2010
Feature article: Allen Lindskoog & Robert Moreau
Standing in a New Place: Reflecting
on Awareness and Development
Allen Lindskoog
アレン.リンズクーグ
Meguro Seibi Gakuen(目黒星美学園)
Robert Moreau
ロバート.モロー
The University of ElectroCommunications(電気通信大学)
本稿でモローとリンズクーグは、Immediacy
behaviour教員の近接行動）すなわち言語・非言語行動によるインタラクションを試みること
で、授業における教師の存在感とマインドフルネスを発展させる手法を提唱している。
Immediacy behaviourの例としてはアイコンタク
ト、ジェスチャー、生徒に対して名前で呼んだり意見を求めるなどの行為が挙げられる。われわれ教師が生徒とのインタラクション、つまり交流に目を向け、教師が教室内で醸し出す雰囲
気や習癖が影響を及ぼしていることに意識を向けるようになると、授業でのどのような行為が効果的か気づくことができる。
さらには、クラス内での様々な意思決定に関してより深く注意を向けることにつながる。教師が自己のImmediacy behaviourを内省するなど授業における意識を高める手法を採用することで活気あるスムーズな授業展開だけでなく、生徒の前向きな態度を引き出すことも期待できるだろう。
Krishnamurti (2000) states that the “teacher
who is really teaching is one who is growing,awakening intelligence in himself and thus isawakening intelligence in the learner” (p 86).
But how does a teacher grow when there is little
time due to lesson and test preparation,teaching a class or because ingrained habits
feel like the norm?

Learning Learning 17 (1) Spring 2010

One answer could be by taking the time
to step out of our daily routine and develop
mindfulness and presence.
The impetus of this article came out of
our experiences outside of the teachingcontext. Both of us have experience as
meditation practitioners, and one of us has
been a musician and the other an actor. We
began to look at how these connected to ourteaching. The common threads we found wereconcepts such as presence, being in the
moment and mindfulness. One suchconnection was that fostering “mindfulness”
could help build meaningful relationships with
our students.
The concept of mindfulness, as it is usedin this paper, follows the two-component
model as defined by Bishop et al. (2004):
The first component involves the selfregulation of attention so that it ismaintained on immediate experience,
thereby allowing for increased
recognition of mental events in thepresent moment. The second component
involves adopting a particular orientation
toward one’s experiences in the present
moment, an orientation that ischaracterized by curiosity, openness,
and acceptance. (p. 232)
For example, as the well-known Vietnamese
Buddhist monk Thich Nat Hahn (2001) so
eloquently states: “When you drink tea inmindfulness your mind and your body are
perfectly united…When you sit in a café withmusic in the background and a lot of projects
in your head, you are not really drinking yourtea. You’re drinking your projects, you’redrinking your worries” (p 42). In the context of16

Allen Lindskoog & Robert Moreau
teaching, we may be so focused on the factthat we don’t have time to get through theallocated portion of the textbook or lessonplan that we don’t really notice the fact thatthe students are smiling and enjoying theclass. To be mindful is to deliberately notice
our actions, reactions, and sensations, thoseof our students and the physical aspects ofthe classroom situation. If we are purposefully
staying with the experience of teaching thenwe are actively engaged in every moment.
With this background in mind, we began
our research journey looking for ways to
explore interactions in our classroom
environments in order to discover a means offostering professional development. What we
found were concepts such as reflection andbehaviors that increase positive affect in theclassroom, called ‘immediacy behaviors’,
which we will discuss in greater detail in thenext section of this paper.
Our next step was to take immediacy
behaviors and marry them together with theconcept of mindfulness and to try someclassroom experiments. From there we
introduced these experiments at various
conferences around Tokyo. One very simple
experiment, for example, was to ask
participants to sit in silence for one minute
focusing on their breath. This generated awide variety of feedback, from those who felt
completely comfortable, to those who felt
sleepy and to those who felt quite uneasy
with the experience. This has direct
implications for how we behave in theclassroom, in how we deal with silence andhow we may sometimes be manipulated by
students’ silence.
Another experiment involved“repetition”, a technique used by actors intraining in which one of the partners makes astatement about the other person. The

Learning Learning 17 (1) Spring 2010

respondent has to repeat their partner’s
statement, changing only the pronoun (“Youlook cheerful.” “I look cheerful”.) Intonation andtiming can be used to question the meaning of
the statement. This activity forces participants
to focus on the feelings that exist between
them in the present moment. The feedback we
received varied from “I do not need to change athing, everything is fine” to “the approach is
fresh and new”. The one surprise we found wasthat the concept of immediacy was virtually
unknown to many language educators we
spoke to during the various conferences andwas one area we found that made theintangible concept of mindfulness tangible.
Immediacy behaviors and classroom
interactions
In Contrasting Conversations, Fanselow (1992)
states that there is no need to make drasticchanges in the classroom in order to exploreand develop our teaching practices. As an
example he recommends asking a question
with genuine interest as opposed to a neutral
tone of voice (p. 52). This could be considereda verbal immediacy behavior. Verbal
immediacy behaviors also include calling thestudents by name, finding out about theirinterests and opinions and incorporating theinformation into class activities, using self
disclosure in the classroom, as well as usinggroup reference, saying “we” as opposed to“I” (Bainbridge, Frymier & Houser, 2000; Witt &Wheeless, 2001; Kucuk, 2009). Additionally,
non-verbal immediacy behaviors include, but
are not limited to, eye contact, smiles, nods,
gestures and body orientation (Andersen,1979). As can be seen from these examples,
immediacy behaviors are communication
strategies that can help to bridge the teacherstudent divide and may serve to create more17

Allen Lindskoog & Robert Moreau
effective channels of communication. They
are also, according to Gorham and Zakahi(1990), traits “which can be modified throughtraining and practice” (as cited in Rocca &McCroskey, 1999, p. 315). We feel therefore
that these micro-strategies of communication
behavior can make a good starting point forteachers to reflect on their teaching practice,develop mindfulness, and initiate change into
the classroom.
Andersen was the first to examine
immediacy behaviors in the context of theclassroom as a way of providing empiricalevidence on what constitutes an effective
teacher with regards to teacher-student
interactions (Andersen, 1979). In the 30 years
since then, research on immediacy has been
published dealing with such varied contexts
as students in cross-cultural situations (Parket al, 2009), the effects of immediacy on
student compliance-resistance in learning,(Burroughs, 2007) and teacher immediacy incomputer mediated education (Kucuk, 2009).
Research on immediacy has shown that thenon-verbal behaviors, which signal theteacher’s attentiveness to the students
produce consistently positive results withregard to students’ affect towards the teacher
and subject (Andersen, 1979; Frymier &Houser, 2000; Witt & Wheeless, 2001).
Verbal and non-verbal immediacy
behaviors could both be significant for the
EFL classroom where the teacher’s mannerof interaction plays an important role increating a classroom environment wherelearners feel safe to develop communicativeskills, as well as providing a language modelthat students will take with them outside of
the classroom. Students are likely to be more
motivated if their teacher is a good role model
as a communicator and seeks to develop
good relationships with them (Dornyei &Csizer, 1998). A further advantage

Learning Learning 17 (1) Spring 2010of reflecting on immediacy behaviors is that it
can allow us a means to become more awareof the environment in which we teach. Being
mindful of how we communicate both verballyand non-verbally may also lead to anunderstanding of other people’s needs, andconsequently to a better working relationshipwith our students.
Teaching is both relational and content
driven. We know what we have to teach given
the curriculum, but how effective is the channelof communication within the student-teacher
relationship? Studies on immediacy behaviors,
as previously mentioned, provide a wellresearched pool of information that teachers
can draw on in order to look at their own
classroom interactions with a fresh perspective
or to perhaps discover some alternatives tointroduce into their practice. Experimentation in
the classroom can provide the opportunities weneed to explore and develop.
The classroom as an experimental space
We suggest treating the classroom like anexperiment, looking at the reactions of thestudents to our actions and movement andnoticing what works. Which of our behaviors
are mere habits and which are done withmeaningful intent? Teachers can take note ofthese results themselves or, if possible, have acolleague observe their behavior in order tooffer an alternative opinion or different
perspective. This can help raise awareness ofcommunication behaviors in a way that is
impossible for a teacher to do on their own(Croker, 2007).
By knowing our habits we can begin toreshape our presence in the classroom, which
will contribute to our growth as a teacher. For
example, in one of Robert’s classes, with eight
adult students, he found himself falling into thehabit of starting the class with the same18

Allen Lindskoog & Robert Moreau
activity, mainly because it was easy andpopular with the students. Time was given forstudents to catch up with the people next tothem about their weekly activities. He felt,
upon reflection, that it was producing similarstatements from the students from week toweek and his role and interaction with thestudents felt stagnant. As an experiment,
Robert asked the students to stand andmingle with different partners away from theirchairs. Timing the students also allowed themto speak to more people. He joined various
pairs for a short time each, becoming more ofa conversation partner rather than a“traditional” teacher, thus somewhat changing
his role and relationship in the classroom.
This was a small change but Robert believedthat it helped to foster a stronger bond
between him and the students. In trying
variations on this activity and taking note of
the results Robert felt that he had developed
a sense of mindfulness about an aspect of
the classroom that had, in the past, gonelargely unnoticed thus opening the door for
future developments in the classroom.
Experimentation with an activity such as
this doesn’t have to stop at the first iteration.
For example, instead of only catching up on
weekly activities, Robert might want to ask
about the students’ opinions of classactivities, or ask for suggestions in order tomake the class more effective. Through small
modifications an activity that was at one time
merely a classroom habit can be transformed
into a more dynamic learning experience forboth the teacher and the students.
Allen conducted a simple experimentby standing in a new place when teaching.
He noticed that more often than not he stoodin one particular area, at the front of the room
behind the lectern. He tried moving out frombehind the lectern to different areas of the of
the classroom noticing how the changes

Learning Learning 17 (1) Spring 2010

affected the students. He taught from the backof the room, sitting down in a chair, from the
opposite side of the room from the podium
location and circulating amongst the students.
What was evident right away was that teachingfrom the back of the room grabbed thestudents’ attention in a very different way.
Rather than focusing on Allen’s physicalpresence, there was a feeling that they were
paying attention to his voice. Sitting downbrought a sense of equality with regards topower, which was evident in the students’laughter, playfulness, lighthearted feeling andAllen’s sense of a closer connection to thestudents. Teaching from the opposite side of theroom from the podium actually raised the levelof attention and a feeling of inclusion of
students who had been originally the furthest
away from Allen. When circulating around theclassroom, there was less connection and moreof a sense of monitoring students.
The main objectives are to approach theclass in a spirit of experimentation, not knowing
quite what to expect but being open to what
occurs and fostering a sense of awareness andpresence. Additionally, it may not be sufficient to
try this just once. Trying a new behaviour anumber of times may be necessary to really feelthe different changes. In many cases classroom
dynamics may change right away.
Good intentions alone could becomecounter-productive if teachers are not aware ofwhat students will be comfortable with. If theteacher suddenly introduces too high a degreeof immediacy into the classroom, an
uncomfortable classroom atmosphere may
result. In a class of adult learners, Robertchanged the position of the students’ chairs into
a tight circle and he joined the group as anequal participant. Students in that class foundthis new configuration strange - the teacher wasjust too close for comfort. This was evident in
the body language of the students as well as
their uncomfortable silence. Later in the class19Allen Lindskoog & Robert Moreau
Robert resumed his place at the front of theroom with the students in a semi-circle infront of him, and the class interactions felt
different and went smoothly.
Knowledge of the students’ needs as wellas their classroom expectations can be
useful information that can guide our own
development as teachers. Sharing journals
with students, employing immediacy
behaviors, asking about past learning
experiences, as well as discovering what
students’ expectations are for the class can
all add to creating a base of knowledge fromwhich a teacher can be more mindful of theinteractions in the classroom. It is
experimentation in the classroom whichbrings this background knowledge to theforefront. Above all, the goal is to effectmeaningful change for development, notchange for change’s sake.
Conclusion
Everyone’s teaching journey is different andrequires a unique set of solutions for relevantchange. This paper recommends increasing
attention to immediacy behaviours as ameans of raising our awareness of ourinteractions with students and of the impact
our behaviors, moods and habits have on
these interactions. It is not intended as aprescriptive set of techniques for creating theideal student-teacher relationship; instead it
is a particular perspective from whichteachers can experiment in order to gather
information about what works and what
doesn’t work in the classroom so we can be
more mindful of the choices we make as
educators. Engaging in practices that
increase awareness of our classroom
situations, such as self-reflection on
immediacy behaviors, can help us develop a

Learning Learning 17 (1) Spring 2010

fresh, flowing teaching style, and in theprocess, encourage a positive attitude in ourstudents toward their learning journey.
References
Andersen, J. F. (1979). Teacher immediacy as apredictor of teaching effectiveness. In D.
Nimmo (Ed.), Communication Yearbook 3.
New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Books.
Bainbridge Frymier, A., & Houser, M. L. (2000).
The teacher-student relationship as aninterpersonal relationship. Communication
Education, 49(3), 207-219.
Baringer, D., & McCroskey, J. C. (2000).
Immediacy in the classroom: Student
immediacy. Communication Education, 49(2), 178-186.
Bishop, S.R., Lau, M., Shapiro, S., Carlson, L.,et al. (2004). Mindfulness: A proposed
operational definition. Clinical Psychology:
Science and Practice, 11(3), 230–241.
Chesebro, J. L., & McCroskey, J. C. (2001). The
relationship of teacher clarity and immediacy
with student state receiver apprehension,
affect, and cognitive learning.
Communication Education, 50(1), 59-68.
Croker, R. (2007). Teacher-directed reciprocal
peer observations: “Looking with” not“looking at.” Learning Learning 42(2).
Retrieved March, 15, 2010, from ld-sig.org/
LL/2007b.pdf
Dornyei, Z., & Csizér, K. (1998). Tencommandments for motivating language
learners: Results of an empirical study.
Language Teaching Research, 2(3),203-229.
Fanselow, J. F. (1992). Contrasting
conversations. White Plains, N.Y.: Longman
Gorham, J., & Zakahi, W. R. (1990). A
comparison of teacher and student
perceptions of immediacy and learning.
Communication Education, 39, 354-368.

20

Allen Lindskoog & Robert Moreau

Krishnamurti, J. (2000). Educating theimmediacy on Korean student satisfaction in

educator. Parabola, 25(3), 85-89.
Kucuk, M. (2009). Teacher immediacy
behaviors and participation in computer
mediated communication. Turkish Online
Journal of Distance Education-TOJDE

the US and South Korea. Communication
Education, 58(2), 189-212.
Rocca, K. A., & McCroskey, J. C. (1999). Theinterrelationship of student ratings of
instructor's immediacy, verbal

Retrieved September 1, 2009, from http://
tojde.anadolu.edu.tr/
Nat Hahn, T. (2001). Anger: Wisdom forcooling the flames. New York: Riverside
Books.

aggressiveness, homophily andinterpersonal attraction. Communication
Education, 48(4), 308-316.
Witt, P. L., & Wheeless, L. R. (2001). An
experimental study of teacher's verbal andPark, H. S., Lee, S. A., Yun, D., & Kim, W.
(2009). The impact of instructor decisionauthority and verbal and nonverbal

Learning Learning 17 (1) Spring 2010

nonverbal immediacy and students' affective
and cognitive learning. Communication
Education, 50(4), 327-342.

21