2.7 Malaysia
1 | Country Information
Table 2.7.1 Basic indicators
Land Area (km2)

328,550 (2018)*

Total Population

32.523 million (2019)**

GDP (current USD)

364.7 billion (2019)***GDP per capita (current USD)

11,415 (2019)***Average Precipitation (mm/year)

2,420 (2018)****

Total Renewable Water Resources(km3)
Total Annual Freshwater Withdrawals(billion m3)
Annual Freshwater
Withdrawals
by Sector

580 (2017)*
6.707 (2017)

Agriculture

45.7% (2017)

Industry

29.9% (2017)

Municipal(including domestic)

24.5%(2017)(Source: FAO 2020, *World atlas 2018, **DOSM 2020, ***World Bank 2020,****World weather online 2018)

to March. The Northeast Monsoon brings heavy rainfall,particularly to the east coast states of peninsular
Malaysia and western Sarawak, whereas the Southwest
Monsoon normally signifies relatively drier weather(MoSTI 2010). Malaysia depends heavily on surface
water, mainly rivers, lakes, wetlands and reservoirs forwater supply, which presently constitute 98% of total
water supply for domestic, industrial and agriculturaluse. The remaining 2% comes from groundwater. About
80% of the water withdrawn from river systems is used
for irrigation. Percentages of water withdrawn fromsurface water sources for domestic and industrial uses
are expected to rise in the future. Potable water supply
extends mostly throughout the country except for a few
isolated spots where supply is challenged due to physicalor geographical factors, for which wells or rural watersupply scheme systems are provided.
According to ASM (2014), current water consumption
is about 12.5 billion m3/year, or less than 3% of theavailable runoff, but is expected to increase at about 5%
annually due to rapidly rising populations and industrial
growth to around 30.4 billion m3/year by 2020, 60.8
billion m3/year by 2040, and 121.6 billion m3/year by
2060. Irrigation will continue to be the largest water user
but its share is expected to be outpaced by domestic andindustrial consumption.

3 | State of Ambient Water Quality
3.1 Rivers
Figure 2.7.1 Titiwangsa Lake in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

2 | State of Water Resources
Malaysia is a rich water resource country thanks to its
high rainfall. In 2016, the highest annual rainfall wasrecorded at Kuching station with 5,423.0 mm, 877.5
mm higher than 2015, and the lowest was recorded at
Temerloh station, with 1,397.8 mm (DOSM 2017). In
terms of volume, this equates to 972.8 billion m3. Of
this, 495.71 billion m3 is surface runoff, 64 billion m3
goes to ground water and the remainder returns to theatmosphere through evapotranspiration (ASM 2014). The
weather in Malaysia is characterized by two monsoon
regimes – the Southwest Monsoon from late May to
September, and the Northeast Monsoon from November

78

The Water Quality Index (WQI) is used to evaluate thestatus of river water quality and the corresponding
suitability in terms of water uses according to the
National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQS).
To assess river water quality, samples from all 638 rivers
were investigated between 2010 to 2018. A total of
8,118 water samples were collected from 1,353 manuallymonitored stations, 1,252 stations designated forambient and baseline studies, 55 upstream water intake
stations, and 35 stations from the River of life project.
The WQI for river water quality is calculated based on
six parameters: DO, BOD, COD, NH 3-N (Ammoniacal
nitrogen), SS, and pH (DOE 2018), and classified into
three categories according to the index: clean, slightly
polluted, and polluted. Results indicate that 357 rivers(i.e., 56%), 231 rivers (36%) and 50 rivers (8%) fallunder clean, slightly polluted and polluted categories,
respectively during the 10-year period (2008–2018) of

Chapter 2: Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

8

9

2008

2009

2010

46 43

34

400

200
8

8

6

2011

2012

2013
Year

Polluted

7

10

2014

2015

2016

2017

8

2018

Total Number of River

464
53.3

26.9
17.8

44.7
37.0

41.2
32.4
26.3

57.3

56.6
35.8

33.2

477

2010
Clean

2011

Slighly Polluted

0.4

2012

84.7
73.2
477

477

2013
Year

Polluted

40.3

29.6
17.2

15.3

2015

2016

2017

300
200
100

0.4

2014

600

400
42.5

26.8

700

500

477
70.4

22.9
7.5

638

2018

0

Total Number of River

Figure 2.7.3 Trend in river water quality in Malaysia based on BOD sub-index (2008–2018)

Viet Nam

2009

76.7
477

58.9
40.7

18.2
9.5

2008

477

(Source: DOE 2018)

Thailand

Percentage Number of River (%)

570

0

Sri Lanka

577

100

Philippines

Slighly Polluted

10

11

Figure 2.7.2 Trend in river water quality in Malaysia (2008–2018)

579

300

36

35

Total Number of River

13

500

477
56

47

39

36

34

32

477

Total Number of River

36

51

477
58

Nepal

Percentage Number of River (%)

38

477

Myanmar

51

477
58

Malaysia477
58

Lao PDR

53
34

600

570
464
59

Republic of Korea

58

Japan

577

Indonesia

579

Clean

100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0

700

638

China

100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0

were also analyzed in terms of Mercury (Hg), Arsenic(As), Cadmium (Cd), Chromium (Cr), Lead (Pb), and Zinc
(Zn). The results indicate that all water samples exhibited
concentrations within the Class II limit for Cd, Pb, and Zn.
About 99.87%, 99.45% and 98.63% of water samples
were in Class II for Cr, Hg and As, respectively (DOE 2015).
River pollution is still a major issue in Malaysia
despite substantial investment in and effort taken to
improve and maintain river quality. Both point and nonpoint pollution sources are significant contributors towater pollution, and levels of BOD, NH3-N and SS in themonitoring samples were high. High BOD is attributed toinadequate treatment of sewage or effluent from agrobased and manufacturing industries. Meanwhile, themajor sources of NH3-N were assumed to be animalfarming and domestic sewage, and main sources of SS
were improper earthworks and land clearing activities.
The future scenario is predicted to be even morechallenging in managing water pollution due to thepresence of micro-pollutants and new emerging
pollutants (NEPs) resulting from excessive use ofpharmaceutical and personal care products, some ofwhich are endocrine disruptors.

Cambodia

analysis (DoE 2018), as shown in Figure 2.7.2. Figures
2.7.3 and 2.7.4 specifically show trends in river water
quality based on BOD and NH3-N sub-index, respectively(2008–2018). Based on Figure 2.7.3, river water quality
exhibited a deteriorating trend from 2008 to 2017,
but in 2018 showed signs of recovery owing to strictwater quality regulation and management efforts. For
2017, of the 477 river waters analyzed, none fell into
the clean category, 141 rivers (29.6%) were slightly
polluted while the remaining 336 rivers (70.4%) were
polluted. However, for 2018, 110 (17.2%) rivers werecategorized as clean, and 271 (42.5%) and 257 (40.3%)
rivers as slightly polluted and polluted, respectively.
Regarding NH 3-N as shown in Figure 2.7.4, it can beseen that the number of rivers falling under the clean
category improved although the total percentage shownin the figure is a lower number because of the increase
in total number of rivers being investigated. Anotherwater quality temporal trend (2008–2018) can be seenin Figure 2.7.5, showing SS. This indicates that in generalwater quality was improving from 2008 to 2015, but
in 2016 and 2017 showed a declining trend. Again, for2018, water quality improved despite additional rivers
being included in the monitoring network. Heavy metals(Source: DOE 2018)

79

477

477

477

477

49
39
24 28

29 32

36 38

38 36
27

26

2009

2010
Clean

2011

Slighly Polluted

31

38

31

2012

36 34

32

29

2013
Year

36

477

32

29

2014

49

45

42
29

Percentage Number of River (%)

577

18

2016

33

2017

464

35

32

18

72
477

74
477

78

79

477

477

63

50
27

22

17

14

15

2009

2010

2011

Clean

100
0

2018

(Source: DOE 2018)

Slighly Polluted

13 15

12 13

10 12

10 10

2012

2013
Year

2014

2015

Polluted

477

477

700

62

51

17

2016

3.2 Lakes and Reservoirs
Since lakes and reservoirs are managed by different
authorities, owners and operators, comprehensive water
quality monitoring has not been conducted by the DoE
and no water quality inventories exist for either water
bodies. However, a study by the Institute of Environment
and Water Resource Management and Teknologi
Malaysia shows 62% of water bodies comprised of lakes
and reservoirs to be eutrophic (Sharifuddin 2011).

300

33

27

200
17

2017

100
0

2018

Total Number of River(Source: DOE 2018)

stations (6%), Good at 54 stations (36%), Moderate at 86
stations (57%) and Poor at two stations (1%). The trend
in terms of Marine Water Quality Index (MWQI) for 2013
to 2015 is given in Figure 2.7.6, from which it can be seenthat numbers of Good, Moderate and Poor water quality
stations had increased in 2015, while Excellent stations
had decreased compared to the previous year.
140

3.3 Coastal Water

125

120
Number of sta�ons

In 2015, monitoring was conducted from a total of 151
coastal, 76 estuary and 90 island stations, providing 590,
401, 353, samples, respectively, which were analyzed
and reported based on the Marine Water Quality Index(MWQI). The index was developed based on sevenmain parameters: DO, Nitrate (NO3), Phosphate (PO4),
Unionized Ammonia (NH 3), Faecal Coliform, Oil andGrease and Total Suspended Solids (TSS), and provides
a score on a scale of 0–100 to determine the category ofmarine water quality, ranging from Excellent to Poor. The
monitoring results showed water was Excellent at nine

400

50

22

21

600
500

Figure 2.7.5 Trend in river water quality in Malaysia based on suspended solids (2008–2018)

80

200

17

Total Number of River

Polluted

570
59

2008

300

37

638

579

46

400

46

31

24

2015

500

477

Figure 2.7.4 Trend in river water quality in Malaysia based on NH3-N sub-index (2008–2018)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0

600

570

Total Number of River

577

464

2008

700

638

579

Total Number of River

Percentage Number of River (%)

100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0

100

86
75

80
60
40

30
15

20
0

54

45

4

11
0

2013
Excellent

2014
Good
Moderate

9

2

2015
Poor

Figure 2.7.6 Trend in marine water status for coastal areas(Source: DOE 2015)
in Malaysia (2013–2015)

Chapter 2: Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

5

Agriculture-based
Industries

133

39

11

6

8

0.3

Sewage Treatment
Plant

242

303

162

Piggery

217

450

27
(Source: DOE 2018)

Viet Nam

35

Thailand55

Sri Lanka

Manufacturing
Industries

Wet Market

NH 3-N Load
(Ton/Day)

Philippines

SS Load(Ton/Day)

Nepal

BOD Load(Ton/Day)

Myanmar

Water Pollution
Sources

Malaysia

Table 2.7.2 Summary of sectoral load of key pollutants

Lao PDR

Concerning the different key pollutants (BOD, SS and
NH3-N) of water bodies, all the sources can be divided
into five main categories as reported by DOE (2018):
manufacturing industries, agriculture-based industries,
wet market, sewage treatment plants and piggeries. In
terms daily quantities of these pollutants released, fromhighest, the sources are sewage treatment plants,
piggeries, agriculture-based industries, manufacturingindustries, then wet markets for most of the key
pollutants except for suspended solids, as shown in Table
2.7.2.

Republic of Korea

Wastewater and major pollutants

Japan

4 | State of Wastewater Treatment

Indonesia

Wastewater management and sludge collection andtreatment were assigned to Indah Water Konsortium(IWK), a specialized organization. To improve operationand maintenance, IWK gradually took over seweragesystems of various sizes and types. From 1994 to 2008,
over 8,800 became public systems and come under
IWK’s control, while over 3,000 systems remained
under direct management of the owners and, thus, areclassified as private systems. On average IWK took over
300 treatment facilities and 1,000 km of sewer network
per year. However, in areas without large-scale seweragesystems, private developers continued to constructsmall-scale sewerage systems.
IWK, although not the owner of the public facilities,
had the right to collect sewerage charges as it operated
and maintained them. However, the charging system it
introduced for individuals and enterprises subsequently
received complaints from citizens and resulted in three
reductions in charges (JSC 2011), which then led IWK
into financial difficulties. as the charges could not cover
the business expenses and collection of charges proved
difficult. To avoid insolvency, which would have affected
sewerage services, IWK was therefore placed under
governmental control in 2000 and has since been
managed as a private company with the government,
under the Ministry of Finance, controlling capital
expenditure. The role of implementing agency managing
sewerage construction was then transferred to Sewage
Service Department (SSD), supplementing its current
role as sewerage industry regulator.
In 2006, the Malaysian Parliament passed the Water
Service Industry Act (WSIA), which replaced theSewerage Service Act. Under the previous legal
arrangement, IWK had no right to oblige users to pay
desludging costs and sewerage charges or to impose
fines. As the new Act also integrates drinking water andsewerage services, it provides a level of holistic
management to water supply since supply can be cut forusers who default on paying charges. The new framework
also reinforced SSD’s roles and provided by law a new
regulator, SPAN (Suruhanjaya Perkhidmatan Air Negara
or National Water Services Commission).
SSD then became a project implementation agency,
in charge of defining plans for new construction andupgrades of sewers and wastewater treatment plants. As
was performed by IWK, SPAN thus handles monitoring
and regulation of sewerage services. SPAN also aims to
improve the quality of new systems constructed by theprivate sector through providing guidelines to ensure

China

Facilities and situation of wastewater treatment

According to ASM (2014), the groundwater resource
is currently still underused owing to relatively higher
exploration costs, and groundwater use is concentrated
in the State of Kelantan. In Sarawak, a number ofvillages, especially along the coast, obtain water fromgroundwater due to the low cost-efficacy of laying
pipes from central facilities to these isolated areas.
Groundwater is also an important source of water supply
in many small islands and is used in conjunction withsurface runoff and rainwater.
The status of groundwater quality was evaluatedusing the National Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality(NGDWQ) 2000 from the Ministry of Health (revised in
December 2000) as a benchmark. In 2015, 390 water
samples were taken from 105 monitoring wells andanalyzed for volatile organic compounds (VOCs),
pesticides, heavy metals, anions, bacteria (coliform),
phenolic compounds, total hardness, Total Dissolved
Solids (TDS), pH, temperature, conductivity and DO.
Results showed that all stations were within the NGDWQ
values except for As, iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), total
coliform and phenol.

Cambodia

3.4 Groundwater81

they are both built according to set standards and meet
effluent quality requirements as determined by the
Department of Environment. Accordingly, developers are
obliged to select only those systems approved by SPAN.
According to IWK, in 2018, the company’s service
area is 88,741 km2, and it operates and maintains 6,745
wastewater treatment plants, 1,188 pumping stations,and 19,134 km of sewer network, supporting the lives ofapproximately 25 million people.
Table 2.7.3 shows the status of wastewater
treatment facilities in Malaysia. According to SPAN
statistics, there were 10,773 public and private sewage
treatment plants, while still a significant number ofcommunal septic tanks, individual septic tanks and othersewage treatment system exists. This means that morethan 12 million people are still using such facilities.
Table 2.7.3 Status of domestic wastewater treatment
facilities (2018)a. Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises)(Crude Palm Oil) Regulations 1977

Quantity

Population
Equivalent
(PE)

6,932

26,128,858

a. multipoint Plant

6,830

17,513,195

b. regional Plant

102

8,615,663

c. Environmental Quality (Scheduled Wastes)
Regulations 2005

Private Sewage Treatment Plant

3,841

4,010,610

d. Environmental Quality (Sewage) Regulations 2009

Communal Septic Tank

4,231

515,527

Individual Septic Tank

1,357,553

6,998,919

Traditional System (Pour Flush)

1,185,032

5,925,160

e. Environmental Quality (Control of Pollution from
Solid Waste Transfer Station and Landfill)
Regulations 2009

Sewage Facilities
Public Sewage Treatment Plant (a+b)(Source: SPAN 2018)

5 | Framework for Water
Environmental Management
5.1 Legislation
The ultimate objective of Malaysia’s environmental
management (including water quality management) is
to improve living standards and ensure a sustainable
quality of life for its citizens. The National Policy on
the Environment approved in 2002 states, “the nation
shall implement environmentally sound and sustainable
development for the continuous economic, social andcultural progress and enhancement of the quality oflife of Malaysia” (MoSTE 2002). In line with this policy,
the national policy set eight principles to integrate theeconomy and environment, namely stewardship ofthe environment; conservation of nature’s vitality and82

diversity; continuous improvement in the quality ofthe environment; sustainable use of natural resources;
integrated decision making; role of the private sector
commitment and accountability; and active participationin the international community.
The Environmental Quality Act (EQA) 1974
(Amendments 2012) relates to the prevention, abatement
and control of pollution, and enhancement of theenvironment. The Act ordains that the minister, after
consultation with the Environmental Quality Council,
may elaborate regulations for prescribing ambient water
quality and discharge standards, and specifying the
maximum permissible loads that may be discharged byany source into inland waters, with reference either
generally or specifically to the body of waters concerned.
Over time, several amendments or additions weremade to this Act. Some of the key subsidiary legislations
related to water environment are as follows:b. Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises)(Raw Natural Rubber) Regulations 1978

f. Environmental Quality (Industrial Effluent)
Regulations 2009
g. Environmental Quality (Prescribed Activities)(Environmental Impact Assessment) Order 2015
Other laws and regulations are also shown in Figure
2.7.7.
There are some other important policies related towater Environmental Management. One of them is the
National Water Resources Policy (NWRP), which waslaunched in March 2012 for the period from 2010 to2050. It is aimed at determining the future direction of
the water resources sector based on a review of thenational water resources. NWRP for Malaysia provides
clear directions and strategies in water resourcesmanagement to ensure water security and sustainability
for both humankind and nature.

Chapter 2: Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Cambodia

Conserva�on of Water Quality

China

GeneralEnvironmental Quality Act
Environmental Quality Standards for Surface Water
Eﬄuent Discharge Standards

Selangor Waters Management Authority Enactment (1999)
Kedah Water Resources Enactment (2007)
Sabah Conserva�on of the Environment Enactment

Sabah Water Resources Enactment (1998)
Na�onal resources and Environment
Ordinance Sarawak

Japan

Speciﬁc Sector
State of Sabah and Sarawak

1. Agriculture
Irriga�on Areas Act (1953)
Drainage Works Acts (1954)

1. Agriculture
Drainage and Irriga�on, Sabah Ordinace (15/1956)
Drainage Works Ordinance Sarawak (1966)

2. ForestryNa�onal Forestry Act (1984)

2. Forestry
Sabah Forest Enactment (1965)
Forest Ordinance Sarawak, Cap126

3. Control of Rivers
Water Acts (1920), Reviewed (1989)
River Rights Enactment of Perak
Kelantan River Traﬃc Enactment (1955)
Pahang River Launches Enactment 6/49

4. Land Management
Sabah Land Ordinance (1930)
Sarawak Land Code (1958)

4. Land Management
Na�onal Land Code (1965)
Land Conserva�on Act (1960)
Earthwork by laws

Malaysia

5. Domes�c Water Supply
Water Services Industry Act

5. Domes�c Water Supply
Water Service Indutry Act

6. Mining
Mining Enactment (1960 Sabah)
Mining Enactment (1949 Sarawak)

6. Mining
Mining Enctment (1936)

8. Fishery
Fisheries Act (1963)
9. Others
Local Government Act (1976)
Street Drainage Building By law (1974, 1994-R)
Geological Survey Act
Ministerial Func�on Act (1969)(Source: MOEJ 2009)

Sri Lanka
Thailand
Viet Namprotection, including water quality management. The
mission of the Ministry of Environment and Water is tointegrate the functions of water resources and water
services, strengthen the management of the country's
water ecosystem, and ensure adequate and sustainable
water resources and supplies. The quality of drinking
water is regulated by the Ministry of Health, and the
National Water Commission regulates the entities
involved in water supply and sewerage services underPhilippines

Figure 2.7.7 Legislative chart for water quality management

Nepal

8. Others
Local Authority Enactment, Sabah Ordinance (11/1961)
Local Authority Ordinance Sarawak Cap 117

Myanmar

7. Local and Regional Planning
Town and Country Planning
Enactment Sabah Cap 141
Town and Country Planning Sarawak Cap 87

7. Local and Regional Planning
Town and Country Planning Act (1976)

The Department of Environment (DOE) was originallycreated as the Environment Division, which wasestablished in 1975 under the Ministry of Local
Government and Environment. It has been reorganized
several times due to the realignments of government
ministries and agencies, and it is now under the Ministryof Environment and Water which newly establishedin April 2020. DOE is responsible for environmental

Lao PDR

3. Control of Rivers
Sarawak Water Ordinance,
Sarawak Riverine Transport Bill (1993)

Republic of Korea

Peninsular Malaysia

5.2 Institutional Arrangement

Indonesia

Speciﬁc Area83the Water Services Industry Act 2006 (Act 655), whichcame into effect in 2008. Local governments are
involved in water resources planning and development.

5.3 Ambient Water Quality Standards
Water quality standards

National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQS),
which applies to surface waters, sets out standard
values for 72 parameters in six water use classes (Table
2.7.4.), the goal of which is not to meet the standardsof a particular water class in all surface waters, but toimprove water quality gradually in order to meet thestandards of a water class higher than the current class.
Table 2.7.4 Water quality classes in the National Water
Quality Standards
Class

Uses

I

Conservation of natural environment.
Water Supply I – Practically no treatment necessary.
Fishery I – Very sensitive aquatic species.

IIA

Water Supply II – Conventional treatment required.
Fishery II – Sensitive aquatic species.

IIB

Recreational use with body contact.

III

Water Supply III – Extensive treatment required.
Fishery III – Common, of economic value and tolerant
species; livestock drinking.

IV

Irrigation

V

None of the above.
(Source: DOE 2015)

For marine water quality, the Malaysian Marine
Water Quality Index (MWQI) was established with seven
sub-indexes.
While groundwater quality standards for Malaysia havenot been established, based on the assumption thatgroundwater can potentially be used as an alternative
source of surface water, the National Guidelines for
Drinking Water Quality are referred as the benchmark forevaluating groundwater quality monitoring results.

Water quality monitoring framework
The Department of Environment (DOE) is responsible
for conducting monitoring programs for rivers, marine
waters and groundwater. In 1978 it implemented the
National River Water Monitoring Program to determine
river water quality status and detect changes over time.
River water quality monitoring
For 2018, 8,118 water samples from 638 rivers wereanalyzed based on sampling frequencies of 4 to 12 times
per year. A total of 30 parameters were monitored and awater quality index was developed with six key indicatorspecies: DO, BOD, COD, NH3-N, SS and pH (DOE EQR2018).

84

Coastal water quality monitoring
For 2018, 368 stations, comprising188 from coastal, 85
from estuaries, 95 from islands and the remaining 79
selected from islands were investigated. A total of 2,208
water samples were taken and analyzed from the 368
stations with sampling frequencies of six times per year.
Twenty-nine parameters were monitored including six insitu and 23 in laboratory. The Marine Water Quality Index(MWQI) was developed based on seven parameters: DO,
NO3, PO4, NH3, Faecal coliform, Oil and Grease, TSS.
Groundwater monitoring
For 2018, 109 tube wells were monitored based on
specific land use: Agricultural (13), Urban & Suburban(12), Industrial Sites (19), Solid Waste Landfills (23),Golf Courses (7), Rural Areas (4), Ex-mining Area (GoldMines) (3), Municipal Water Supply (5), Animal Burial
Areas (14), Aquaculture Farms (7), Radioactive Landfills(1) and Resorts (1). A total of 17 parameters wereanalyzed in-situ (6 parameters) and Laboratory analysis(11 parameters). Various types of advanced sampling
equipment such as hydro lift pumps, HDPE tubing, water
depth sensors, generators, sampling bottles/preservative
kits, coolboxes and multiprobes were used for increased
accuracy. The Malaysia Groundwater Quality Index(MGQI) was developed to represent the groundwater
quality status and categories, based on a scale of
0–100, which represents from Very Poor to Excellent.
Parameters used for MGQI were pH, Fe, TDS, NO3 , E. coli,
phenol and sulphate.

5.4 Effluent Standards
Effluent standards

The National Environmental Quality Act 1974 states that“no person shall, unless licensed, emit, discharge ordeposit any environmentally hazardous substances,
pollutants or wastes into any inland waters incontravention of the acceptable conditions specified
under Section 21” (Section 25, National Environmental
Quality Act 1974).

Effluent inspection procedure
Monitoring of effluent, as well as recording andmaintenance of the monitoring results are obligations
that all premises are required to fulfill under theenvironmental regulations on sewage and industrial
effluents. Analytical methods and parameters to bemonitored are designated. All premises are required
to submit monthly effluent discharge reports to theDOE, either by the online reporting system or hardcopy submission. Authorized DOE officials can carryout inspections of all premises, including surpriseChapter 2: Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Japan
Republic of Korea

Since 2009, DOE has designed different enforcement
measures and tools for maintaining the water
environment. A brief snapshot of these, including
penalties for defaulters, is shown in Table 2.7.7 (DOE2018). Non-complying institutions or entities facepenalties of up to 100,000 MYR or five year jail terms.

Lao PDR

Compliance Level (%) (Target>90%)
2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

Average

Suspended Solids (SS)

97.8

97.1

97.0

96.9

97.3

98.1

98.5

98.2

97.9

97.6

Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)

95.2

94.8

93.9

93.7

94.7

96.3

96.2

97.7

95.4

95.3

Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)

97.7

97.5

97.1

96.9

97.9

98.5

98.6

98.4

98.2

97.9

Oil & Grease

99.1

99.1

99.1

98.6

99.1

99.5

99.6

99.5

99.4

99.2

Ammoniacal Nitrogen (NH3-N)

99.6

99.4

99.5

99.2

99.1

98.9

99.8

99.9

97.2

99.2

Average

97.9

97.6

97.3

97.1

97.6

98.3

98.5

98.7

97.6

97.8

(Source: SPAN 2018)

Industrial effluents regulations
Compliance (%)

No. of Field Inspections

Compliance (%)

2018

4,549

99.6

5,663

99.6

2017

10,280

99.2

5,518

99.2

Compliance (%)

2016

14,99599.0

2015

11,37299.0

201411,410

99.0

2013

7,201

99.0

2012

6,597

98.1

Viet Nam

No. Inspections

ThailandYEAR

Sri Lanka

No. of Desktop Inspections

Philippines

Table 2.7.6 Summary of industrial wastewater management and status of compliance with industrial wastewater
management guidelines

Nepal

2012

Myanmar

2011

Malaysia

2010

YEAR

Indonesia

Measures against non-compliance

Table 2.7.5 Summary of public sewage treatment plants and status of compliance with Sewage Effluent Standards for
2010–2018
Parameter

China

The government can be seen to have extended
diligent efforts in its monitoring of effluents from both
domestic and industrial sectors with the use of key
indicator species. Monitoring results for effluent quality
in terms of compliance with national standards for bothpublic sewage treatment plants and industrial sectors
are shown in Table 2.7.5 and 2.7.6 respectively. Resultshows a significant improvement in the rate ofcompliance in 2018 compared to 2010. In 2018, average
rates of compliance of effluent monitoring sites for
public sewage treatment plants and industrial sites with
ambient guidelines were 97.8% and 99.6% respectively.

Cambodia

inspections, to ensure compliance with all provisions
in the act, and non-compliance results in immediate
penalties to polluters. As a measure to improve effluent
quality, industrial effluent treatment systems (IETS)
were introduced with the aim of optimizing effluent
treatment operations and maintenance by enabling
preventive or corrective actions through the monitoringof treatment performance based on certain parameters.
Through IETS, companies can benefit from the early
identification of deficiencies, identification of proper
dosages for chemicals (Keong 2008) and increased
opportunities to identify preventive actions (How 2008).
The DOE provides technical guidance to promote IETS.
The guidance recommends that within each industry acompetent person certified by the director-general of
the DOE be on duty to supervise IETS. The use of IETS is
expected to encourage industry as a whole to be moreproactively engaged in pollution control but without
invoking the level of enforcement present in the public
sector.

(Source: DOE Annual report 2012–2018)85

Table 2.7.7 Summary of different enforcement instruments and economic tools for water environmental management
S.No

Regulations

Enforcement
agencyEnforcement method/Reporting

Penalty

1. Self Regulatory Mechanism:

1

EQ (Inustrial Effluent)
Regulations 2009
- Industrial Effluent
and Mixed Effluent

a. Section 7: monitor COD and any parameter in
Fifth Scheduleb. Reporting: Monthly
DOE

c. Section 9: Perfomance Monitoring of IETS based on Guidance Document on Performance
Monitoring of Industrial Effluent Treatment System

Section 32: Penalty - Ifconvicted, maximum penalty of
RM 100,000 or/and amximum
5 years jail and further fine of
RM 1,000/day for continued
offenced. Online Environmental Reporting (OER)
2. Site Inspection by DOE Officer
1. Self Regulatory Mechanism:
2

EQ (sewage) Regulations
2009

DOE

a. Section 10: Monitor concentration of the specified
parameters in Second Scheduleb. Reporting: Monthlyc. Online Environmental Reporting (OER)
2. Site Inspection by DOE Officer

Section 26: Penalty - If Convited,maximum penalty of RM
100,000 or/and maximum 5
years in jail and further fine of
RM 1,000/day for continued
offence

1. Self Regulatory Mechanism:

3

EQ (Control of Pollution
from Solid Waste
Transfer Station andLandfill) Regulations
2009

a. Section 8: Monitor concentration of ammoniacal
nitrogen from landfill on a continuous basis using
online instrumentation system linked to DOE
DOE

b. Section 8: Monitor concentration of the specified
parameters in Second Schedule (limits)c. Section 11: Conduct performance monitoring ofleachate treatment system

Section 29: Penalty - If Convited,maximum penalty of RM
100,000 or/and maximum 5
years in jail and further fine of
RM 1,000/day for continued
offenced. Online Environmental Reporting (OER)

5.5 Other Policies on Water Environmental
Managementg. Guidelines for Green Industry Practice: Printing
Industry (2014) – DOE, NRE (Malay version)

In order to manage the complex, interwoven issuesof water environment, the Malaysia government has
introduced several legislations and guidelines in termsof new standards, as well as revised existing standards asfollows (DOE 2018):

h. Guidelines on the Disposal of Chemical Wastes
from Laboratories (2015) – DOE, NRE

a. Malaysian Groundwater Quality Standards andIndex (2019) – Developed by DOE

j. Guidelines on the Effluent Treatment System for
Pig Breeders (2016) – DOE, NRE (Malay version)b. National Lake Water Quality Criteria and Standards(2015) – Developed by NAHRIM (Approved by
National Water Resources Council in 2015)

k. Guidelines for Green Industry Practice: Food
sector for Slaughtering and Processing of Poultry(2017) – DOE, NRE (Malay version)c. National Standard for Drinking Water Quality(2000) – Developed by Ministry of Health (MOH)l. Guidelines on Land Disturbing Pollution Prevention
and Mitigation Measures (2017) – DOE, NRE

d. National Standard for Natural Recreational Water
Quality and Guidelines for Natural Recreational
Water Quality Monitoring (Marine and Fresh
Water) (2017) – Developed by MOH

m. Environmental Impact Assessment Guidelines forDevelopment in Slope and Hill Areas (2017) – DOE,
NRE

e. Guidelines for Packaging, Labelling and Storage of
Scheduled Waste in Malaysia (2014) – DOE, NRE
f. Guidelines for Green Industry Practice: Juice
Production Industry (2014) – DOE, NRE (Malay
version)86

i. Guidelines of the Effluent Treatment System for
Dairy Cattle, Beef Cattle and Buffalo Breeders(2016) – DOE, NRE (Malay version)n. Environmental Impact Assessment Guidelines forDevelopment in Coastal Areas and Marine Parks(2017) – DOE, NRE

Chapter 2: Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

For the way forward, the following key actions have been
initiated:b. Amendment of Water Services Industry Act 2006

e. Malaysian Marine Water Quality Standards andIndex – Revised and published

Sri Lanka

f. Malaysian Groundwater Quality Standards andIndex – Study completed in 2017 – Published in
2019

Philippines

d. Review of the River Water Quality Criteria andStandard for Malaysia – Inception Report (September2019) – in progress

Nepal

c. Water Resource Bill to be tabled in Parliament in
2020

Myanmara. Amendment of Environmental Quality Act 1974 –to be tabled in the Parliament in 2020

Malaysiad. Lack of regulations or standards for wet market
effluent, car washes, and laundry

Lao PDR

c. Inability of Environmental Quality Act 1974
(Discharge control based on pollutant concentration)
to deal with shrinking river carrying capacity;
Inability of EQA 1974 to control pollution enteringriversRepublic of Korea

b. Point source and non-point source pollution

Japan
Thailand
Viet Nam

The Environmental Quality Act 1974 was somewhat
successful in reducing pollution through control of point
and non-point sources, and continuous monitoring andassessment of the water environment. However, many
challenges still remain. The new direction of water
environmental management has been incorporated in
the Eleventh Malaysian Plan and the new Environmental
Protection Act draft. The following elements are also
proposed by DOE to improve the nation’s future water
environment (Majid 2016): (i) Shifting the responsibility
for pollution control to industry by incorporatinga. Illegal dumping of wastes into watercourses

Indonesia

7 | Challenges and Future Plans

Some of the additional challenges are as follows:

China

The Eleventh Malaysia Plan 2016–2020 is seen as the
final part toward achieving Vision 2020. Launched in1991 by the government, Vision 2020 is an aspirationaltarget aimed at Malaysia becoming a fully developed
country economically, politically, socially, spiritually,
psychologically, and culturally by 2020. The theme of
the Eleventh Plan, “anchoring growth on people” hassix ‘strategic thrusts’ and six ‘game-changers’ intended
to reach the goals set out in Vision 2020 and create
an inclusive nation with an advanced economy. In
terms of water environment management, two of thecore strategies are relevant here: 1) “Pursuing green
growth for sustainability and resilience”, expected toincrease the quality of growth, strengthen food, waterand energy security, lower environmental risks andecological scarcities, and ultimately improve wellbeing
and quality of life, and 2) “Strengthening infrastructure
to support economic expansion”, with a focus on( i ) raising the financial sustainability of the water
services industry by strengthening the tariff system andimplementing joint billing for water and sewerage; (ii)
expanding the network and treatment plant capacity
through infrastructure investment and use of efficienttechnology through developing new treatment plants,
increasing clean and treated water coverage andexpanding connected water and sewerage services inrural areas; (iii) increasing efficiency and productivity ofwater and sewerage services through implementationof the Non-Revenue Water Reduction Programme andby rationalizing and upgrading sewage treatment plants;and (iv) strengthening the regulatory framework of thewater services industry with the National Sewerage
Master Plan, a water demand management master planand promotion of waste to wealth initiatives.

regulation elements (new approach taken by the
Department in the formulation of the new regulation
for pollution control); (ii) re-strategize the enforcement
programs and continuously improve compliancemonitoring to secure better solutions for pollution
prevention and control; (iii) increase use of ICT to reduce
costs of enforcement to cover more pollution sources;
promote self-regulation approaches to pollution control
by identifying groundwater potential for areas where
surface water is limited or unavailable; achieve better
management of lakes and reservoirs by clarifying theroles and responsibility of relevant stakeholders; andcarry out further studies and proper data management
to fulfill this target.

Cambodia

6 | Recent Developments inWater Environmental Management87