Curricular Impacts on Learner Motivation: Listening to Japanese University EFL Students【Articles】

Curricular Impacts on Learner Motivation:
Listening to Japanese University EFL Students
学習者のモチベーションに与えるカリキュラムの影響：
日本の大学の英語学習者の声を聞く
YOSHIHARA Reiko
（吉原

令子）

Contents
Introduction
A Person-in-Context Relational View of Motivation
Research Questions
MethodFindings
Discussion
Limitations
Concluding Remarks
Acknowledgments
Disclosure Statement
References

Abstract
This article explores how a university EFL (English as a foreign language) curriculumin Japan influences language learner motivation by listening to learners’ voices. The research
aimed at (1) understanding students’ perceptions of the university EFL curriculum, (2)examining the relationship between students’ motivation and the university EFL curriculum,and (3) transforming the university EFL curriculum to promote language learner motivation.
From the perspective of an insider who understands certain cultural practices and routines at
the research site, I interviewed 22 students in the Japanese university where I have beenteaching. Interviews were conducted from August 2018 through July 2019, and follow-up―1―+YOSHIHARA Reiko氏.indd 1

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Curricular Impacts on Learner Motivation: Listening to Japanese University EFL Students

communications via the Line app continued until May 2020. The students’ narratives were
examined from Ushioda’s (2009) person-in-context relational view of motivation. Drawing on
analysis of narrative, three themes were emerged: pedagogical approaches, course contents,and modes of instruction. The findings showed that most of the participants preferred to acommunicative approach, content-based courses, instructors’ L2 instruction, and group work
activities. However, a few of them felt more comfortable about the grammar translation andinstructors’ L1 use, liked test-driven development courses, and viewed group work as anxiety. Students’ diverse needs and interests and individual difference led to the complex
relationship between learner motivation and the university EFL curriculum. These findings
can give useful guidance to develop the university EFL curriculum. Curriculum developers
and researchers need to listen to learner voices and integrate their voices into the curriculum, and view curriculum development as a participatory project.
Keywords: learner motivation, curriculum development, Japanese university EFL contexts,
qualitative research

Introduction
The Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) in Japanannually releases official curriculum guidelines for EFL (English as a foreign language) education in elementary schools and junior and senior high schools. For these educational
levels, the official government curricula are often top-down and hierarchical. However, university EFL curricula have been flexible and have largely rested on each university (Takeda,2009). Therefore, tenured English faculty in Japanese universities play a key role in curriculum development in settings where they work.
In Japan, where L2 users are distant from native English-speaking environments, learners generally have little engagement with English and view English as one subject in theschool system and as one subject of university entrance examinations. In such an environment, university students often lose motivation to learn English after they enter universities(Kikuchi, 2015; Falout, 2012). Therefore, EFL instructors and researchers in Japanese universities have increasingly focused on learner motivation, engagement, and participation,
which enriches the studies of L2 (second language) motivation of Japanese university students (e.g., Kikuchi, 2015; Irie, 2003; MacWhinnie & Mitchell, 2017; Mori & Gobel, 2006;
Ryan, 2009; Yamashiro & McLaughlin, 2001).
As a response to these situations, curriculum development and learner motivation havecome to be seen as inseparable when tenured English faculty in Japanese universities transform the curriculum. Several curricularists have argued that learners’ voices should belistened to, taken into account, and ingrained in the curriculum (Bovill, Cook-Sather, &Felten, 2011; Brooman, Darwent, & Pimor, 2015; Campbell, Beasley, Eland, & Rumpus,
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Curricular Impacts on Learner Motivation: Listening to Japanese University EFL Students

2007; Ngussa & Makewa, 2014; Seale, 2009). Curriculum development can be a bottom-up,
participatory project in which learners have a say about their own curriculum and have theagency to transform the curriculum in which they are inherently part of. However, in thefield of TESOL there are very few studies of bottom-up curriculum development in whichlearners’ voices are involved (e.g., Banegas, 2019; Elisha-Primo, Sandler, Goldfrad, Ferenz,& Perpignan, 2010; Kikuchi, 2009). As a response to this lacuna, I as a key faculty of an EFL
program at a Japanese university felt the need to better understand how students perceive
the university’s EFL curriculum, how the university EFL curriculum affects leaners’ language motivation, and what the university EFL program can offer students to promote theirmotivation of learning English. By listening to learners, the bottom-up curriculum might be
developed.
Because I valued students’ voices in this study, I interviewed 22 students in the university where I have been teaching. Narrative data were examined from “a person-in-context
relational view” of motivation (Ushioda, 2009). My aims are to understand students’ perceptions of university EFL curriculum, to explore the relationship between students’ learnermotivation and the university EFL curriculum, and to change the university EFL curriculum
to promote learner motivation and engagement. It is hoped that this study will contribute to
the studies of the synergy and dynamics between language learner motivation and a university EFL curriculum in Japan. It also helps improve the design of bottom-up curricula bylistening to students’ voices.

A Person-in-Context Relational View of Motivation
Several TESOL (Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages) researchers view
language learners as complex social beings and emergent and ever-changing agents, andexamine the relationship between language learners and sociocultural, sociohistorical, andsociopolitical contexts (Atkinson, 2019; Block, 2003; Dörnyei, MacIntyre, & Henry, 2014;
Pavlenko, 2002; Ushioda, 2009). Ushioda (2009) asserted the importance of understanding
L2 learners as real people, and as people who are located in multiple micro- and macro-contexts. She summarized a person-in-context relational view of motivation as follows:I mean a focus on real persons, rather than on learners as theoretical abstractions;a focus on the agency of the individual person as a thinking, feeling human being,with an identity, a personality, a unique history and background, a person withgoals, motives and intentions; a focus on the interaction between this self-reflective
intentional agent, and the fluid and complex system of social relations, activities,
experiences and multiple micro- and macro-contexts in which the person is embedded, moves, and is inherently part of. (p. 220)
She stressed the synergy and dynamics between language learner motivation and the con-

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texts that drive them to do something. Aligning with Ushioda’s “person-in-context” view,
curriculum developers must view learners as real people and understand that curricula influence learner motivation. Learners might have something to say about their own curriculum
and can be the agency to transform the curriculum in which they are part of. Curriculum
developers must listen to their voices and integrate their voices into the language curriculum. Curriculum development should be regarded as a bottom-up, participatory project inwhich learners are involved.
One seminal study exploring the complex relationship between language learner motivation and ESL courses within a community of practice framework is Norton’s 2014 paper,
which expanded on her previous study (Norton, 2000). Norton focused on immigrant
women learners in Canada and examined the non-participation of learners in ESL courses.
She found that the learners decreased their motivation of learning English and discontinued
participating in the ESL courses because of a disjuncture between learners’ expectations andthe course goals. While the learners wanted to develop English as a social practice including
how to get along in everyday life, finding jobs, and accessing resources in Canadian society,traditional ESL courses offered them only a focus on language form, including grammar, pronunciation, and vocabulary. Norton contended that a gap between learners’ expectations oflanguage learning and formal ESL courses led learners to a risk of non-participation in language courses.
In Japan, Miyahara (2015) examined how an English-medium university setting influenced learner motivation and identity construction by using the theoretical framework of theL2 motivational self system (Dörnyei, 2009). Her qualitative study discovered that four out ofsix students were positively influenced by the university learning environment and strengthened their ideal L2 selves, although two students did not develop their possible L2 future
selves and had no personal attachment to English because of their personal interests outside
the university. Miyahara concluded that a bilingual and multicultural university setting was
one factor that raised learner motivation of learning English and developed their ideal L2
identity. Kikuchi (2015) similarly investigated the relationship between Japanese university
learners’ motivation and learning contexts that the learners are embedded. Although his
main focus was learner demotivation, he found that university EFL course contents, theteacher’s instruction and personality, the chemistry between teacher and student, and relationships between classmates influenced learner motivation and demotivation. He suggested
that a suitable and stimulating environment would surely lead learners to remain motivatedto study English.
Thus, these researchers interviewed learners, examined the relationships between language learners’ motivation and the learning contexts, and discovered that the learning
contexts influenced learners’ motivation, engagement, identity, and participation. In this lineof research, qualitative research is suitable for examining my participants’ perceptions of the
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Curricular Impacts on Learner Motivation: Listening to Japanese University EFL Students

university EFL curriculum and, more broadly, learning English in Japanese universities andexploring the complex relationship between their language motivation and the university
EFL curriculum. A person-in-context relational view of motivation is a useful analytical
approach to examine how the university EFL curriculum including pedagogical approaches,course contents, and modes of instruction influences my participants’ language motivation.

Research Questions
The aim of this study is to better understand how students perceive the university EFL
curriculum and subsequently to apply these understandings to curricular transformation.
The following research questions were identified to achieve this aim:
1. How did the students perceive their university’s EFL curriculum including pedagogicalapproaches, course contents, and modes of instruction?
2. How did the university EFL curriculum influence students’ language motivation?
3. What and how did they want to learn in their university EFL courses?

MethodData Collection and Analysis
Data collection included interviews and communications via the Line app. 22 students inthe university where I have been teaching participated in this study. Interviews were conducted from August 2018 through July 2019 and Line app communications continued until
May 2020. These interviews were semi-structured, held in the students’ first language, Japanese, and typically lasted between 30 minutes and one hour (Merriam, 2009; K. Richards;
2009). Exchanges via the Line app were used for follow-up questions and extended questions. Broadly, the interviews and follow-up Line app communications explored (1) the
participants’ perceptions of the university’s EFL curriculum, (2) the relationship between
students’ language motivation and the university’s EFL curriculum, and (3) what they reallywant to learn in their university’s EFL courses. Students were encouraged to talk about their
university English curriculum, courses, classes, modes of instruction, textbooks and othermaterials, and wider aspects of their motivations to learn English. Additional data collected
were taken from syllabi, course textbooks, and my research journals.
To find thematic elements, the interviews were transcribed and coded for exchanges
that were felt to be pertinent to the research questions (Auerbach & Silverstein, 2003). I
examined the data set and generated a list of preliminary categories, while looking to identify
recurring patterns and salient themes. Following iterative readings of the data set, I combined, delineated, and refined categories. I did the iterative and cyclical process of analysis
until axial categories emerged, which led to the following themes: pedagogical approaches,―5―+YOSHIHARA Reiko氏.indd 5

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course contents, and modes of instruction.
The Context
The students were drawn from the business department at a large private university
located in Tokyo, Japan. All students at the university were taking two 90-minute compulsory
EFL courses in their first year and two in their second. The first-year students were required
to take English 1, a course focused on English grammar and writing skills, and English 2,
which focused on English speaking and listening skills. The second-year students had to takeEnglish 3 to focus on English reading skills and English 4 for improving their TOEIC testscore. The students were streamed using the TOEIC-IP (Test of English for International
Communication-Institutional Program) into five levels: A, B, C, D, and E. Most student scores
fell within levels C and D in proficiency (an average of 310 points out of 990 on the TOEICIP).
Although all instructors were required to use an assigned textbook for each proficiency
level of each course, they had flexibility to use the assigned textbooks as they saw fit, within
the parameters outlined by the full-time faculty. Instructors could choose which units weremost appropriate for their particular classes as the course progresses, rather than predetermining which units they cover before class begins. They were encouraged to supplement the
textbook with their own materials as they deemed appropriate.
The rates of students who failed English 3 and 4 (the second-year courses) were considerably high (see Table 1). This critical incident urged me to reflect on the causes behindthese rates and to transform the curriculum.
Table 1
2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

English 1 (Grammar & Writing)

7.8

6.3

5.7

7.2

5.4

English 2 (Speaking & Listening)

8.0

5.8

5.7

4.8

6.1

English 3 (Reading)

11.7

10.1

10.7

8.3

9.4

English 4 (TOEIC Preparation)

10.7

10.2

8.1

8.0

9.2

Participants
For this study, 22 students of the university participated. Because this study focused on
the overall university EFL curriculum, I recruited students who had completed all four
required English courses. Ten out of the participants were students that I had taught English
1 when they were 1st year students. Others were students whom my former students introduced me to. I provided all participants with a written form of agreement, in order to make総合文化研究第 28 巻第 1 号（2022.6）+YOSHIHARA Reiko氏.indd 6―6―2022/06/16 9:02:28

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sure that they understand the objective of the interview. I also confirmed with them that theirinterview data were to be used only for my research.
The participants were composed of five 4th-year students (2 male, 3 female), twelve 3rdyear students (7 male, 5 female), and five 2nd-year students (2 male, 3 female). Their English
proficiency ranged from 250 to 870 on the TOEIC. Also, their English learning experienceswere varied; three of them had experienced 6 to 12 months in study abroad programs in
English-speaking countries during their undergraduate program, five students had participated in shor t-term (e.g., three to six weeks) study-abroad programs during theirundergraduate studies or during their junior/senior high school days, and others had notexperienced study abroad programs or traveled to foreign countries. While seven of themhad studied English in English conversation schools or cram schools when they were elementary school pupils, others had started to study English in junior high school per theeducation ministry’s requirement. Like a majority of Japanese university students, my participants spent a lot of time studying reading, grammar, and translation, and memorizing a large
quantity of vocabulary in preparation for the demanding Japanese university entrance examinations.
Researcher Positioning
To investigate and interpret learners’ narratives, I employed subjective principles ofresearch. The status of insider helps gain access to an interview and the insightful understanding of an interview (de Fina, 2011; Hesse-Biber & Leavy, 2011). Also, such an insider
status enables researchers to better understand the complexity and subtlety of the narratives
being told and to be a qualified interpreter of those narratives (Okada, 2009; Kumazawa,
2011). As a key faculty member I entered the field and adopted an emic position in this study.
As a tenured professor in Japan, I have been teaching EFL courses and developing curricula
for an EFL program in the university for 15 years. I was able to access course syllabi, textbooks, and other resources. I have also come to understand the particularities of theuniversity context and student characteristics through observation, participation, professional discussion, university questionnaires, and faculty meetings. Such a thoroughknowledge has helped me conduct the research more smoothly.

Findings
Pedagogical Approaches: Grammar Translation Method vs. Communicative
Approach
Eleven students expressed discontent with English 3 (Reading) taught via the grammartranslation method while two students were satisfied with the grammar translation method
even though they felt that it was boring. The other nine students were taught the course in a

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communicative approach by native English-speaking instructors and Japanese speaking
instructors. The students who experienced the course instructed via the old-fashioned grammar translation method noted that this way of teaching was pointless and ineffective. One
student commented that the course did not help improve her English reading skills but that
she went along with this way of instruction in order to get course credits.
English 3 was just translating sentences in the textbook from English to Japanese.
Some of the same sentences appeared on the test. So if we could translate themwell, we could get credits. I acquired nothing much. For me, the course meant justto pass it and get the course credits. (Student R.Y, Female, Interview, 19 July 2019,translated by author)
Another student made a similar comment as follows:
English 3 was translating texts and the test was memorization. In the end, I wondered what the university wanted students to do? The course was meaningless. I
didn’t feel that I could improve my English ability. (Student M.O, Female, Interview,
07 June 2019, translated by author)
The other student also noted that many of the classmates including herself used translation
applications running on mobile devices so that they seemed less engaged in the class (Student N.O, Female, Interview, 05 June 2019). Thus, students were discontented with English
3 instructed using the grammar translation method and even wondered what the university
curriculum wanted them to acquire. It led to students’ demotivation of English learning anddisengagement of the class.
I continued to ask students what they wanted to learn and how they wanted to learn
English in the university’s EFL program. Although all of them stressed English communication skills as a goal, what they concretely meant by English communication skills varied. One
student expressed her preference for learning about daily conversation.
I am not motivated to learn English for finding a job. Of course, I understand English is important to find a job, but I want to be able to speak English when I travel
abroad. I like traveling to foreign countries very much. Although I understand English grammar is important, I want to learn about easier communication and daily
conversation, which raises my motivation of learning English. Instead of learning
lots of English grammar, I want to learn more useful expressions and be able tospeak English. (Student M.O, Female, Interview, 07 June 2019, translated byauthor)I continued to ask her if she wanted to learn about English presentation skills, but she did
not. She wanted to develop conversation skills such as traveling and shopping through oral
activities, as opposed to grammar drills and reading activities.
The other student who experienced three weeks in Germany doing volunteer workstressed the improvement of interactive English communication skills.
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It was very new and enjoyable for me to learn what and how foreign people think
through talking with them in English. Although I had thought that foreign young
people were different from Japanese young people, they were not. However, it ismeaningful for me to know these things through interactions with them. (Student
R.Y, Male, Interview, 12 Oct 2018, translated by the author)
He stressed that exchanging ideas and opinions in English was important because he wanted
to communicate with other people in different countries and understand their ways of thinking. Therefore, he wanted to improve interactive communication skills involving expressing
himself and exchanging ideas and opinions in English.
While many of the students wanted to improve communicative abilities in the target language, a few wanted to develop more advanced skills including presentation skills. Although
the students who wanted to learn about English presentations were very few, one student
made an honest and interesting comment.
Author: What did you want to learn in your English courses? Did you have any preferences?
T.M: Well, it doesn’t mean that I really wanted to do…, but speaking in front of
everyone in English would be a good task.
Author: You mean, English presentation?
T.M: Yes. If I were required to give an English speech in front of everyone, I would
pay more attention to pronunciation. That kind of task seems to be appropriate forthe university level, as we haven’t done it in high school. I think of it as meaningful.
I might complain about it if English presentation were a task as one of classroom
activities. But we students would do it if it were compulsory. I think it would bemeaningful and useful for students.
(Student T.M, Male, Interview, 05 July 2019, translated by author)
The student’s account explained that having opportunities to give speeches and presentations in English, whether as an individual or in a group, would be meaningful and rewardingfor university students even if students expressed some kind of hesitation toward the task.
Thus, students preferred the communicative approach that develops communicative
abilities, rather than the grammar translation method. Even though students did not use thespecific terms such as “a communicative approach” and “a communicative language teachingapproach,” they liked to acquire English communicative abilities by interactions with one
another and the instructor and with more advanced oral skills.
Course Contents: Test-Driven Development Courses vs. Content-Based Courses
As curriculum developers of the university, key faculty (including myself) had originally
thought that a high TOEIC score would benefit students, particularly in their employment
opportunities in Japan. Therefore, we offered the compulsory course “English 4: TOEIC―9―+YOSHIHARA Reiko氏.indd 9

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Preparation” to our students, which we assumed would motivate students to learn English.
However, the considerable high rate of students who failed English 4 showed that students
seemed not to enjoy the course and were not motivated to study for the TOEIC tests. Students’ narratives evidenced this. Nineteen students out of 22 commented that they did not
like English 4 and were bored with it. One student said, “English 4 was just to do exercisesin the TOEIC-style textbook and to practice the tests. It wasn’t enjoyable at all.” (Student A.O,
Female, Interview, 07 June 2019, translated by author). Not only she but also other students
made similar comments. Studying English for tests made them feel uninterested and unremunerated. Another student was critical of the test-driven development course. He put it thisway:
I don’t like studying English for tests, job hunting, or university entrance exams. As
we come to like English and study English, the score of TOEIC will improve. Therefore, English learning shouldn’t aim to raise the score of TOEIC. The test score will
improve if we are interested in and like English. (Student A.O, Male, Interview, 12June 2019, translated by author)
This student was very skeptical about English learning being directed at tests and job hunting. He thought that students should learn English for their interests, general education, andpersonal growth.
Furthermore, several students commented that instead of studying the TOEIC test, theywanted to learn about different cultures and values and to broaden their perspectives
through English courses. One student explained:
For example, I would like to talk about Chinese culture, British culture, etc. andsimilarities between Japan and other countries, in English. I like broadening myperspectives more than getting 600 points on the TOEIC test. (Student S.Y, Female,Interview, 18 September 2018, translated by author)
These students were more interested in content-based courses in which they were able tobroaden their perspectives, learn about the importance of diversity, and change their own
values. In this sense, the test-driven development course did not appeal to many of the students.
On the other hand, three students thought that “English 4: TOEIC Preparation” wasappropriate for them because they were business majored students. They believed that a“good” TOEIC score would help find a prospective job. One student excitedly talked about
the improvement of the TOEIC score (Student M.S, Female, Interview, 07 June 2019). As
students were required to take TOEIC-IP tests in April of the 1st year, December of the 1styear, and December of the 2nd year, they were able to see their improvement of English proficiency by looking at the scores of the TOEIC tests. The improvement of the TOEIC score
would give her a sense of accomplishment. Even though other two students did not raise thescore of the TOEIC test, they liked that the course provided a clear target and purpose of
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raising the score of the TOEIC test. They appreciated the course by commenting that theywould not study English if the university did not offer the course. Thus, some students preferred to learn English with clear targets and purposes, rather than ambiguous targets suchas learning about diversity, broadening students’ perspectives, and personal growth.
Modes of Instruction: L2 Instruction and Group Work
Other issues emerged from students’ narratives are modes of instruction, in particular,
L2 instruction and group work. In relation to the development of English communicative
abilities, eighteen students out of 22 saw instructors’ use of English in class as positively. In
particular, they regarded ideally those Japanese instructors who used English in the classroom as L2 role models. Three reasons why students liked L2 instruction were explained by
students’ accounts. First, students paid more attention to lessons taught in English than inJapanese. As one student stated:
I liked instructors who speak English. I was getting used to listening to English andgot into the habit. Also, when the class was implemented in English, I had to carefully listen to what the instructor said and to understand the instruction. I
concentrated on lessons and was motivated to learn. (Student T.M, Male, follow-up
line communication, 07 May 2020, translated by author)
Other students also commented that Japanese EFL instructors’ L2 talk compelled students toconcentrate on the class and class activities.
Second, students noted that opportunities to use the target language increased when
instructors use English. One student pointed out that she improved not only her listening
ability but also her speaking ability because of the instructor’s L2 talk. She also learned morenatural pronunciation, not katakana English.
I liked instructors who speak English. I’ve learned native-like pronunciation which
differs from katakana English. I think I would improve my speaking skills by asking questions in English. When I didn’t understand what an instructor said, I asked
questions in English during the class. I think it positively affected my motivation tolearn English. Above all, I increased opportunities to speak English by asking questions in English to the instr uctor. (Student R.F, Female, follow-up line
communication, 07 May 2020, translated by author)
Thus, EFL instructors’ L2 talk increased opportunities for interactions between teacher andstudent in English and affected students’ motivation to learn English.
Third, Japanese instructors’ L2 talk triggered the development of the ideal L2 selfamong students. This was evidenced by the following student’s narrative:
I liked instructors who speak English. One of the reasons is that I’m used to English classrooms where teachers speak English because my high school English
teachers used English in class. Another reason is I think Japanese instructors who― 11 ―+YOSHIHARA Reiko氏.indd 11

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speak English are cool. When they speak English, I would like to imitate them. I
would like to speak English like them. So, I think university instructors should
teach English in English. (Student R.S, Male, follow-up line communication, 07 May
2020, translated by author)
For students, Japanese EFL instructors who use English in the classroom appear as ideal L2role models. As a response to these students’ accounts, courses instructed in English had agreat influence on students and motivated students to participate and engage in classroom
activities.
On the other hand, four students noted that they did not like instructors who often use
English. The main reason given was that they were unable to understand what was going onin the classroom or to follow teachers’ L2 instructions because of their limited English proficiency. One student expressed her anxiety aroused by instructors’ talking in English as
follows:
I preferred instructors who didn’t use English in the classroom a lot. I often didn’t
understand what an instructor said and what was going on in the classroom. I was
afraid that only I might not understand when other students seemed to understand.
（Student Y.K, Female, follow-up line communication, 11 May 2020, translated byauthor）
Other students also commented that they would not understand what instructors were saying and would feel demotivated to learn English if instructors used only English. This kind ofanxiety might decrease learner motivation of English learning and engagement in the class.
Another mode of instruction that raised students’ motivation and engagement was
instruction using group work activities. Nineteen students out of 22 reported that they liked
group work activities. They also noted that group work developed a sense of collaboration,
promoted learner responsibility, and offered a receptive atmosphere. Additionally, one student commented:
I liked group work. I could do English output during class. Group work affected mymotivation to learn English. For example, as group work was assigned at the end of
the class, I tried to concentrate on the input (what an instructor said) and was motivated to listen to the class seriously. (Student S.Y, Female, follow-up line
communication, 13 May 2020, translated by author)
For her, group work helped her understand the importance of input and made her pay more
attention to what the instructor was saying and explaining. She also appreciated the opportunity of creating output through group work activities.
On the other hand, out of those, five students critically analyzed the limitations of group
work even while they enjoyed group work activities. They also reported that they often used
Japanese (L1) in group work activities because it was embarrassing to speak English (L2)with other Japanese students. As a result, they often used Japanese to complete assignments.
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I liked group work, but we often chatted in Japanese during group work. I don’t
think group work improved my English ability. Although group work was the best
way to build good friendships, it didn’t lead to improvement of English proficiency.
(Student R.S, Male, follow-up line communication, 07 May 2020, translated byauthor)Like him, other students were doubtful if group work activities would improve their English
ability.
As I noted earlier, three students seemed not to prefer group work. They preferred towork alone and were too reticent to make a group with classmates. For them group work
activities did not affect their motivation to learn English, and it instead made them frustrated.
Honestly, I didn’t like group work. (As I was unable to find group members,) I
remained until the last every time and made a group with students who remained.
Therefore, it did not affect my motivation to learn English. Rather, it was stressful.
(Student I.A, Male, Follow-up line communication, 11 May 2020, translated byauthor)This student also said that he was too shy to find group members in the classroom and was
unfamiliar with learning in groups. He did not develop a sense of collaboration or solidarity
at all. Moreover, stressful situations made him feel demotivated to participate in the class.
To sum up, while the preference of L2 instruction relied on students’ English proficiency, the engagement of group work attributed to learners’ individual preferences andpersonalities. These findings reminded us that in the process of curriculum development it isimportant to collect information about a demographic profile of the students including theirEnglish proficient levels, learning styles, and attitudes and motivation toward learning English (see J. C. Richards, 2001).

Discussion
In examining the first and second research questions̶how students perceived their
university’s EFL curriculum and how the curriculum influenced their language motivation̶,
I found that pedagogical approaches influenced learner motivation. My participants who
were taught by the grammar translation method were very displeased with English 3 (Reading Course) because of the pedagogical approach. The grammar translation method madestudents feel demotivated to learn English and less engaged with class activities. This was inline with the finding of Kikuchi’s (2009) study. Also, many of the students in my study weredispleased with the test-driven development course (English 4, TOEIC Preparation). They
felt bored and uninterested with the course. For particularly limited English proficient students, studying English for TOEIC tests made them feel unremunerated. The gaps between
learners’ wants and curriculum developers’ expectations were uncovered. It might be too― 13 ―+YOSHIHARA Reiko氏.indd 13

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early to conclude that students’ discontent of English 3 and English 4 causes a high percentage of the students who failed English 3 and English 4. There might be other factors inwhich the students failed English 3 and English 4. However, students’ narratives regarding
English 3 and English 4 cannot be ignored. The English reading course often instructed by
the grammar translation method and the test-driven development course led to students’demotivation and disengagement. As a result, the risk of non-participation would likely
increase (see Norton, 2014). Students’ disengagement and non-participation are serious
issues to consider when we develop a curriculum.
Furthermore, modes of instruction including L2 instruction and group work influenced
my participants’ motivation, engagement, and participation. The instructor’s use of English,
whether instructors were native English speakers or L2 users, positively affected learnermotivation and engagement. In particular, my participants looked at Japanese instructors
who use English in their classroom as ideal L2 role models and developed ideal L2 selves(Dörnyei, 2009; Miyahara, 2015). However, several students expressed anxiety aroused byinstructors’ talking in English because they were unable to understand teachers’ L2 instruction. As for group work activities, while many students viewed group work as an enjoyable
activity, a few students felt anxiety about group work activities. These negative feelings led to
students’ disengagement and non-participation. The complex relationships among learnermotivation, pedagogical approaches, course contents, and modes of instruction influenced
active (or less active) engagement of classroom activities and led to positive participation (ora risk of non-participation) in classes (see Kikuchi, 2009; Norton, 2014).
As for the third question of what and how students wanted to learn in their university’s
EFL courses, the finding showed that there seemed to be a divide between students who preferred courses focused on development of communicative language skills and students who
preferred courses that develop sociocultural knowledge. For students, communicative language skills included daily conversation and communication skills for traveling and shopping.
On the other hand, sociocultural knowledge implied learning about different cultures,
beliefs, and values, and enriching their own perspectives and minds. This reminds me of thedebate over whether EFL instructors should teach “Cultural English” or “Practical English”
in Japanese universities, a topic which became very heated in the 1970s (Hiraizumi & Watanabe, 1975). Also, in the ESL context, two decades ago there was a well-known debate
between Benesch (1996, 2001) and Santos (2001) over whether sociopolitical and sociocultural issues should be used in American ESL courses. Both of these debates have remainedunresolved in the TESOL field. Perhaps a curriculum that addresses both purposes would
best serve our students. For curriculum developers, it is important to convert from either/or
to both/and thinking. Teaching about a variety of topics including sociopolitical and sociocultural issues in a communicative approach, that is, content and language integrated learning(CLIL) might be one possible approach to motivate students (Doiz, Lasagabaster, & Sierra,
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Curricular Impacts on Learner Motivation: Listening to Japanese University EFL Students2014). Aside from the debate, subject matters and contents to learn are related to learners’
wants and interests, and consequently would influence their motivation, engagement, andparticipation of learning English (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2004). Therefore, it is important for
curriculum developers to analyze learner’s needs and interests and take into consideration
subject matters and contents provided in classes.
Overall, the findings will give useful guidance to develop a university EFL curriculum.
Curriculum developers of university EFL programs must rigorously analyze and understand
students’ personalities, needs and interests, attitudes and motivation toward English learning, and English abilities in their particular contexts. As many curriculum researchers noted,
needs analysis is important in developing and transforming the curriculum (Ornstein &Hunkins, 2004; J. C. Richards, 2001). On the other hand, the finding made it clear that a curriculum cannot meet every single student’s needs and interests. In this study, even though
there were a few, some students expressed their preferences of a grammar translation
method, test-driven development courses, L1 instruction, and individual work. To take into
consideration these minority students’ voices, test-focused courses may better be offered aselectives of the EFL program. Curriculum developers as well as key faculty of the university
also need to provide the faculty development program for in-service instructors with theinformation about the students’ personalities, needs and interests, and English abilities tomake in-service instructors understand the students. Faculty development programs for inservice instructors should be included as one of the roles of curriculum developers.

Limitations
There are several limitations to this study. First, the data consisted of interviews and follow-up communications via the Line app. Because this study was primarily concerned withstudents’ perceptions of the university EFL curriculum through their discourse, observationsof actual classroom practice were not conducted. As Maxwell (2005) stated, although interviewing is an efficient way to understand participants’ perspectives, observations enable
researchers to understand their actual views that they directly stated in interviews. Classroom observation should be conducted for future research. The second limitation is that thisstudy was limited to a single campus, and therefore the resources were limited in this particular study. However, one aim of this study was to examine students’ perceptions of theuniversity EFL curriculum and to gather detailed information about their motivations, opinions, and attitudes toward the curriculum to transform this particular university’s curriculum.
Despite these limitations, however, this study showed varied relationships between students’language motivation and the university EFL curriculum including pedagogical approaches,course contents, and modes of instruction by exploring students’ narratives about the university EFL curriculum and English learning. This project offered potentially useful information― 15 ―+YOSHIHARA Reiko氏.indd 15

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for this student population.

Concluding Remarks
In 2020, the curriculum examined in this study was extensively changed in the university. The prime concern of key faculty, including myself, was how to reinvigorate English 3(Reading) and English 4 (TOEIC Preparation) because quite a high percentage of the students failed English 3 and 4 and also in this study students expressed discontent with anddisengagement from English 3 and English 4. In our discussions over curriculum reform, we
included students’ opinions and argued the knowledge and skills we would like our students
to acquire, their motivation, engagement and participation, and the university’s expectations.
It was concluded that we would like to educate them as global businesspersons with criticalthinking abilities and culturally tolerant minds. Therefore, our new courses have been
designed to focus on content alongside language form. The course focused on English reading was transformed to “Current Business Topics,” which now focuses on contemporary
business content, synthesizing content and language, with a development of communicationand presentation skills. The course focused on TOEIC preparation has been changed to“Global and Cultural Topics,” which now focuses on critical engagement with issues related
to globalization and intercultural relations, synthesis of content and language, and development of informal and formal writing expression.
In addition, to determine the level most suitable for students to begin coursework, theplacement tests were changed from tests based on two skills to tests based on four skills.
Students were placed in the courses based on the scores of listening and speaking sections
and the courses based on the scores of reading and writing sections. The university is able toplace each student in the correct course level.
Future research̶both quantitative and qualitative̶should examine how students perceive the new EFL curriculum of the university, and more specifically whether the new
curriculum has increased learner motivation, engagement, and participation. Future investigations might analyze the relationship between learners’ wants and intentions of curriculum
developers. To make a better curriculum, the gaps between learners’ wants and intentions ofcurriculum developers should be reduced. Under the situation where tenured English facultyin Japanese universities play a key role in curriculum development, tenured English professors are mediators between curriculum and students.

Acknowledgments
I would like to express my sincere thanks to the students who participated in this study. I would also like tothank Chiyo Hayashi for inviting me to the initial research project which led me to produce this article, and
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Curricular Impacts on Learner Motivation: Listening to Japanese University EFL Students
Kirk Hyde for his invaluable comments on this article. My sincere gratitude also goes to two anonymous
reviewers for their valuable comments.

Disclosure Statement
The author declares no conflicts of interest associated with this manuscript.

Reiko Yoshihara is professor at Nihon University. Her research interests include curriculum development,
CLIL, and feminist pedagogy in TESOL. She has published The Socially Responsible Feminist EFL Classroom:
A Japanese Perspective on Identities, Beliefs, and Practices (Multilingual Matters, 2017).

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要旨
本論文は、学習者の声を聞くことによって、日本の大学英語（外国語としての英語）カ
リキュラムがいかに学習者のモチベーションに影響を与えるかを探究したものである。研究の目的は以下の通りである。
（1）学生は大学英語カリキュラムをどのように思っているのかを理解すること、（2）学生のモチベーションと大学英語カリキュラムの関係性を探究すること、（3）学習者のモチベーションを高めるために大学英語カリキュラムを改革すること。研究サイトの文化的習慣や慣習を理解するインサイダーの視点から、筆者は筆者自身が教える大学において 22 人の学生にインタビューを行った。インタビュー調査は 2018
年 8 月から 2019 年 7 月まで行われ、2020 年 5 月まで Line によるフォローアップ調査が行われた。ウシオダ（2009）の「個人と環境の複雑な関係性が与えるモチベーション理論」
を使って、学生のナラティヴを分析した。ナラティヴの分析を通して、3 つの主要テーマ−教育的アプローチ、コースの内容、教授方法−が浮かび上がった。被験者の多くがコミュ
ニカティヴ・アプローチ、内容重視のコース、教師の英語による指導、グループワークの― 19 ―+YOSHIHARA Reiko氏.indd 19

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使用を好んでいることがわかった。しかし、数名の学生は従来型の訳読教授法や教師の日
本語による指導に居心地の良さを感じ、資格試験中心の授業を好み、グループワークが負担だと感じていた。このような結果は、学生の多様なニーズや興味、個人の差異は学習者のモチベーションと大学英語カリキュラムの間の複雑な関係性を表出している。一方、この結果は大学英語カリキュラムを向上させる上で有益なガイダンスともなる。カリキュラ
ム開発者や研究者は学習者の声を聞き、彼・彼女らの声をカリキュラムに反映させる必要があり、かつ、参加型プロジェクトとしてカリキュラム改革を考える必要がある。

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