Water Environment Partnership in Asia (WEPA)The First International Workshop
Coping Strategies for water environmental challenges in Asia

8‐9 March 2010
Hanoi, Viet Nam

Proceedings

Ministry of the Environment, Japan
1‐2‐2, Kasumigaseki, Chiyoda‐ku,
Tokyo, 100‐8975, JapanWEPA Secretariat
c/o Institute for Global Environmental Strategies (IGES)
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Kanagawa, 240‐0115, Japan
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http://www.iges.or.jp

This publication is made as part of the Water Environmental Partnership in Asia (WEPA) project.

WATER ENVIRONMENT PARTNERSHIP IN ASIA (WEPA)THE FIRST INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP‐ Coping strategies for water environmental challenges in Asia
PROCEEDINGSMARCH 2010

Copyright©2010 by Ministry of the Environment, JapanAll rights reserved. Inquiries regarding this publication copyright should be addressed to IGES inwriting. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means,electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, or any information storage and retrieval system,without permission in writing from Ministry of the Environment, Japan through IGES.
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Table of Contents
Introduction to WEPA ................................................................................................................................ 1
Outline of the workshop ............................................................................................................................ 3
Opening Session .......................................................................................................................................... 5
Summary of Thematic Session 1 ............................................................................................................... 7
Urbanization and water quality control for the source of water in Asian cities
Thematic Session 2 .................................................................................................................................... 13
Climate Change Impacts to the Water Environment and Adaptation Options

COUNTRY PAPERS ‐ THEMATIC SESSION 1 .................................................................................... 19
Wastewater Management in Urban Area: Bangkok, Thailand ........................................................... 21
Urbanization and Water Quality Control for the Source of Water in Colombo city, Sri Lanka ..... 30
Water and Waste Water Management in Yangon, Myanmar .............................................................. 37
Urbanisation and Water Quality Control for the Source of Water in Kuala Lumpur City ............. 44
Urbanization and water quality of Vientiane Capital, Lao PDR. ....................................................... 52
Urbanization and Water Quality Control for the Water Source in Seoul .......................................... 59
Urbanization and Water Quality Control in Japan............................................................................... 68
Urbanization and Water Quality Control for the Source of Water in Jakarta ................................... 76
Current situation and management of water source in Beijing .......................................................... 84
Urban Wastewater Management in Cambodia ..................................................................................... 91

COUNTRY PAPERS ‐ THEMATIC SESSION 2 .................................................................................... 97
Climate Change Impacts on the Water Environment ‐ Present Approach of MOEJ ‐ ..................... 99
Climate Change Impacts to the Water Environment and Adaptation Options in Cambodia ...... 105
Climate Change Impact to the Water Environment ‐ Case Studies: Ciliwung Watershed ‐ ......... 118
Climate Change & Water Environments: potential impacts and policy responses in Korea ....... 124
Assessment of Impact and Adaptation to Climate Change in Vientiane Plain, Lao PDR ............ 133
Climate Change: Potential Impacts on Water Resources and Adaptation Strategies in Malaysia................................................................................................................................................................... 139
Climate Change Impacts to the Water Environment and Adaptation Options ............................. 149
ClimateChangeImpacts
andAdaptation
Options
in
the
Water
Sectorin the Philippines .................................................................................................................................... 156
Climate Change Impacts to Water Environment: Thailand .............................................................. 164

POWERPOINT PRESENTATIONS ...................................................................................................... 169

INTRODUCTION TO WEPA
A sound water environment is a vital element for sustainable development.
WEPA aims to strengthen water environmental governance in Asia andalso in each partner country through information/knowledge sharing
and capacity development.

Degradation of the water environment is a critical problem for many countries in Asia,
threatening people’s health, human economic activities, and the ecosystem. We need to makeevery effort to protect and conserve the water environment, not only for us but also for future
generations.
The Water Environment Partnership in Asia, WEPA, is a program launched by the Ministry of
the Environment, Japan in 2004 for the conservation of the water environment in Asia bypromoting good water environmental governance in the region. Ten Asian countries joined theprogram as the partners of WEPA at the beginning: namely, Cambodia, China, Indonesia, theRepublic of Korea, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Thailand, and Viet Nam. In
2010, Nepal and Sri Lanka will join us.
Recognizing the importance of information/knowledge and capacity development to promote
good governance, WEPA countries concentrated on developing the WEPA database as an
information platform that any stakeholder who is interested in water environmental issues canaccess to obtain information such as basic government policies, wastewater treatment
technologies applied in the partner countries and NGO activities for water environmental
conservation. Symposiums and forums were also held under WEPA with the aim of facilitating
the capacity development and promotion of information exchange among participants.
WEPA finished its first‐phase activities in March 2009 and entered into a new phase in April
2009. In the second‐phase activities, WEPA will further promote exchanges of information anddiscussions among partner countries on common and emerging issues, and we believe this willencourage each WEPA partner to search for and consider solutions.
The first international workshop held on the 8th and 9th of March, 2010 in Hanoi, Viet Nam is theendeavor of the new WEPA. There are two themes in the workshop: namely,“Urbanizationand Water Control for the Source of Water” and “Climate Change Impacts to the Water
Environment and Adaptation Options,” which were identified as important and emerging issues
among the partner countries during the first phase. This is the first exchange of knowledge andideas. WEPA will continue deliberation on these topics and will further promote the capacity of
WEPA partner countries by strengthening their knowledge on these topics.

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OUTLINE OF THE WORKSHOP
Title:

Water Environment Partnership in Asia (WEPA)First International Workshop – Coping strategies for water environmental
challenges in AsiaDate:

8 – 9 March 2010

Venue:

Hanoi Horizon Hotel (Hanoi, Viet Nam)

Organizers:

Ministry of the Environment, Japan
Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, Viet Nam

Collaborator:

Vietnam Environment Administration (VEA)

Secretariat:

Institute for Global Environmental Strategies (IGES)

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OPENING SESSIONWELCOME FROM THE ORGANIZERSThe first WEPA international Workshop was opened by Mr. Tetsuo Ito, Director General for
Water Environment, Ministry of the Environment, Japan. Following Mr. Ito, Mr. Nguyen Thai
Lai, Vice Minister, Ministry of Natural Resource and Environment of Viet Nam delivered awelcome speech on behalf of the organizers.

KEYNOTE SPEECHES“Environmental Sustainability in Asian countries” by Mr. Motoyuki Suzuki, Special
Programme Advisor at the United Nations University/the Chairman; Central Environmental
Council, Japan
Mr. Motoyuki Suzuki explained commonalities and difference among Asian countries, firstdescribing the situation concerning water availabilities and demand in WEPA counties.

In

addition, human impacts and sustainability in WEPA were also illustrated by the use of different
indicators.

Finally, topics to be considered regarding environmental sustainability in Asian

countries were point out.
“Water environment in Viet Nam: Opportunities and Challenges for Sustainable
Management in the Context of Climate Change” by Mr. Mai Trong Nhuan, President of Viet
Nam National University.
Mr. Mai Trong Nhuan described the current situation concerning the water environment andwater resource management in Viet Nam in the context of climate change. In addition, challenge
and opportunities for water management in Vietnam were pointed out.
“Outline and Goals of the Second Phase of WEPA” by Mr. Mitsumasa Okada, Professor of
Hiroshima University; the Chair of the WEPA advisory meeting
Mr. Mitsumasa Okada explained brief history of WEPA and also provided a quick evaluation of
the outcomes of the first phase of WEPA. He also explain the following specific objectives of
WEPA activities in the second phase: 1) analysis of water environmental governance in WEPA
partner countries to identify the area of policy intervention, 2) sharing of knowledge andidentification of solutions to current emerging issues, 3) provision of capacity building
opportunities through WEPA activities and collaboration with other organizations such as theJapan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), and 4) formulation of a message on actions for abetter water environment in Asia.

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SUMMARY OF THEMATIC SESSION 1
URBANIZATION AND WATER QUALITY CONTROLFOR THE SOURCE OF WATER IN ASIAN CITIESBACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE
Asian cities have faced various problems caused by rapid urbanization for decades. Whileurbanization can contribute to the economic development in Asian cities, it also brings negative
impacts to human health, depletion and degradation of natural resources including water
resource. Without sound water environment, social and economic activities in cities would be
negatively affected, and therefore it is very important to ensure conservation of water quality
especially at the source of water for cities.

Considering the importance of water environmental

conservation of water sources in Asian cities, this thematic session aims to share the experiencesof water quality management of the source of water and identify the common issues for thefurther discussion under WEPA.

INTRODUCTION AND KEYNOTE LECTURE
Review and Reflection of WEPA Database on Technology by Mr. Tetsuo Kuyama, WEPA
Secretariat
The thematic session started by the presentation by Mr. Tetsuo Kuyama, Researcher, Institute for
Global Environmental Strategies (IGES) serving as the WEPA Secretariat. He presented thereview and reflection of WEPA Database on Technology that has been developed since 2004. Hepointed out that WEPA database should incorporate more information that would be necessary
for policy makers and water experts involved in policy or project planning and implementation,such as selection criteria of technologies applied to specific sites and operation and maintenancecost. The session theme was selected to share such more practical information on wastewater
management at the source of water where not only application of wastewater treatment
technology but also more comprehensive management approach is required.
Keynote Lecture “Sustainable Urban Water Management in Developing Asian Region” by Mr.
Kensuke Fukushi, Associate Professor, Integrated Research System for Sustainability Science(IR3S) Transdisciplinary Initiative for Global Sustainability (TIGS). University of Tokyo
This presentation first pointed out that decentralized water management system is potentiallyattractive for developing Asian cities, referring the advantage and disadvantage of decentralized
wastewater management system in Asian context. To corresponding to the demands of new7

technology for clean water, membrane technology was proposed as one promising option, whichis easy to maintain and needs only low capital cost. In conclusion, he emphasized that Asian
countries experienced development faster than western countries and we may take advantage ofthe faster development.
COUNTRY PRESENTATION

Vietnam“Wastewater management and treatment in urban areas in Viet Nam” by Ms. Nguyen Hoan
Anh, Pollution Control Department, VEA‐MONRE
Current situations of wastewater generation, treatment, and management in urban area of Viet
Nam were explained in this presentation. Recommendations for five aspects on urban
wastewater management were proposed. The five aspects are pursuing full implementation oflegislative system, especially economic instruments; Enhancement institutional and financial
capacity of the public sector especially local governments; development and application of
appropriate technologies for conservation of the environment including information
technologies; continuation of three projects conducted in Cau river, Nhue‐Day river, and Dong
Nai river; and strengthening of pollution control measures.
Thailand“Wastewater management in urban area: Bangkok, Thailand” by Mr. Wijarn Simachaya,
Pollution Control Department, MONRE
Current situation of water quality of in Thailand and outline of municipal wastewater
management system in urban area of Thailand were described in the presentation, followed bymore detail information on wastewater management in Bangkok. Enforcement of effluent
standards, implementation of wastewater discharge fee, and enhancement of water quality
monitoring and evaluation were emphasized as the important areas in the future developmentof water pollution control. Some recommendations were provided in this presentation, such asenhancement of interaction among governments, private sector and communities for wastewater
reclamation; development of wastewater treatment system in conjunction with city planning;
promotion of climate change mitigation measures in wastewater treatment management (e.g.
biogas production in wastewater treatment process).
Sri Lanka“Urbanization and water quality control for the source of water in Colombo city, Sri Lanka”
by Mr. R.M.S.K Ratnayake, Central Environmental Authority
Focusing on Colombo city, current condition of wastewater discharge into water source,
measures on quality control for the water source, and current issues on quality control for thewater source were illustrated in the presentation. As current issues on quality control at thesource of water in Colombo city, he pointed out the following points: 1) unavailability of zoning

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plan, 2) unlimited discharges to the source of water, 3) economical and technological issues, 4)encroachments and illegal construction at reservations of water sources. 5) inadequacy of theexisting laws and regulations.
Myanmar“Water and waste water management in Yangon, Myanmar” by Ms. Mu Mu Than, Irrigation
Department, Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation
Current situations of wastewater generation and treatment in Yangon city and measures forwater quality protection were explained in this presentation. In conclusion, she presented
examples of current issues in wastewater treatment in Yangon City. The issues includes“enhancement of coordination and integration of different sub‐sectors related to water
resources/environment”, “strengthening of environmental impact assessment”, “strengtheningof water quality monitoring and data management” and “modification of current laws andregulations to strengthen their effectiveness”.
Malaysia“Urbanization and water quality control for the source of water in Kuala Lumpur City” by Ms.
Meera Munusamy, National Hydrulic Research Institute of Malaysia
Following the explanation of the situation of water resources, effluent loads, and current water
control measures in Kuala Lumpur, the following points were raised as the current issues on
quality control of water sources: improvement of legislations and organizational arrangements
on water environment related issues; improvement of solid waste management that contributes
water quality degradation; improvement of water quality monitoring and analysis; control ofwastewater from illegal squatters; improvement of sewerage treatment of existing plants in the
Klang Valley; and strengthening control of sullage water from domestic and commercial sectors
and also illegal factories.
Lao PDR“Urbanization and water quality control in Vientiane Capital” by Mr. Kongngeun
Chounlamountry, Department of Water Resources, Water Resources and Environment
Administration
Current status of water quality and quantity as well as control measures of water quality was
explained. In Vientiane, wastewater from individual household is directly discharged or poorly
treated in many cases, which causes deterioration of water quality. As the current issues ofwastewater management, poor operation of septic tanks at household level and lack of basic
data for planning and implementation, uncontrolled land use, lack of proper sanitation wereidentified in the presentation. At operation level, shortage of qualified human resources,
inappropriate legal instruments, insufficient budget and water analysis were pointed out thecurrent issues.

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Korea“Urbanization and water quality control for the source of water in Seoul” by Yang‐Seok Cho,
Water Environment Research Department, National Institute of Environmental Research
The presentation illustrated current status of water quality and management in Seoul. Measures
to strengthen water quality control have been introduced to protect water quality of Paldang
reservoir and Han River, the main source of water for the capital city. Such measures include
Total Water Pollution Load Management System (TWPLMS). Since the water source of Seoul is
not located in outside of the city, it is difficult to take administrative actions to control
wastewater discharged. Urban development taken place near the restriction areas and publicsewage treatment plants located near the water sources are also the management challenges. The
water renewal plan of Seoul includes some measures to tackle with these problems.
Japan“Urbanization and water quality control in Japan” by Mr. Shu Nishi, Water Environment
Division, Environmental Management Bureau, Ministry of the Environment
The presentation first explained how water pollution control in Japan has been developed andthen addressed some issues of wastewater treatment in the country. Since water environmental
conservation is one of the essential elements of sustainable development of the country, thenational and local governments have developed legislations to control effluents from factories.
As for the development of sewerage system, national governments provided financial supports
to the local government. Other measures to be tackled with issues related to sewerage systemmanagement were explained in the presentation, such issues include lack of engineers andpublic awareness.
Indonesia“Urbanization and water quality control for the source of water in Jakarta”
by Mr. Aksa Tejalaksana, Section of Clearinghouse, State Ministry of Environment
Domestic wastewater is the major cause of water pollution in Jakarta. The presentation
explained the current status of water quality and water pollution control systems in Jakarta. The
following issues are explained as the current issues on water quality control for water sources
for Jakarta: weak legal system and enforcement; uncontrolled land use near the water source;discharge of untreated effluents from small communities and slums near reservoir; groundwaterpollution contaminated by wastewater discharged from inappropriately managed septic tanks;
low coverage rate of water and wastewater treatment systems; and low public awareness onenvironmental conservation.
China“Current situation and management of water source in Beijing” by Mr. Jun Zhou, Policy
Research Center for Environment and Economy, Ministry of Environmental Protection

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The presentation illustrated social‐economic condition and basic hydrological information in
Beijing as well as the status of water quality and its management. Various measures have beentaken to prevent water pollution by public sector in the country. As for the issues related toprotection of drinking water sources, systematic management of water sources by different
sub‐sector organizations, control of effluent from rural areas, and development of adequate
infrastructure for wastewater and rainwater were pointed out in the presentation. Enforcementof current legislation and public awareness were also raised as the challenges for strengthening
the control of water quality in the drinking water sources.
Cambodia“Wastewater treatment in urban area” by Mr. Chrin Sokha, Ministry of Environment
Increase of effluents along with population increase may cause water pollution in urgent area ofthe country. The presentation illustrated current status of wastewater treatment andmanagement in urban areas of the country.

Knowledge and expertise of governmental officials

and data and information for policy development are insufficient to promote wastewater
management in the country. Actions to tackle with these problems should be promoted. Only a
few wastewater treatment facility have constructed for urban wastewater treatment, which does
not meet the needs of wastewater treatment in urban areas. Private partnership may be one of
the key tools for solution of this issue.

SUMMARY OF PRESENTATIONS AND DISCUSSIONS
Water pollution caused by rapid urbanization was identified as a common issue in most of
WEPA countries.

Especially, how to address domestic wastewater generated from growing

urban population is one of the emergent issues in many cities. Wastewater from illegal residence(squatter, poor slum) near river/water reservoir and solid waste were also identified as common
issues.
Low domestic wastewater treatment ratio was observed in many cities of WEPA partnercountries.

In addition, it was indicated that the cities where wastewater treatment system had

already been developed also had some problems in operation.

In order to solve water pollution

in the city, not only application of appropriate wastewater treatment technologies but also
strengthening of the enforcement of policy/law/standard/plan were pointed out as an issue for
future discussion under WEPA. It need to record that participants emphasized that wastewater
management issues should be discussed together with city/urban planning because both areclosely linked with each other.

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THEMATIC SESSION 2
CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACTS TO
THE WATER ENVIRONMENT AND ADAPTATIONOPTIONSBACKGROUND
Potential impacts of climate change on the water environment have not been adequately
investigated in the Asian region, although it is a very important issue for future water
environmental conservation. Recognizing the importance of exchanging ideas on climate‐water
environment linkage, the session aimed to share information, knowledge and concerns on
potential impacts of climate change to the water environment and discuss how the issue should
be addressed in future WEPA activities.

KEYNOTE LECTURES“NAHRIM and its Activities as the APWF Regional Hub to Climate Change Adaptation” by
Mr. Zubaidi Johar, Senior Research Officer, National Hydraulic Research Institute(NAHRIM), Malaysia.
Mr. Johar reported on the adaptation issues based on the research and experience of NAHRIM.
After introducing a projection of climate change impacts by using models and regional studies,
he stressed that the development of a systematic and quantified Vulnerability and Adaptationassessment should be given priority in the future research.
“Water Resource and Water Related Disasters in Asia” by Mr. Kaoru Takara, Professor,
Innovative Disaster Prevention Technology and Policy Research lab., Division of Disaster
Management for Safe and Secure Society, Disaster Prevention Research Institute, Kyoto
University
Mr. Kaoru Takara showed hydro‐meteorological characteristics of the Asia region, focusing onwater‐related disasters and explained how we could cope with the disasters. Mr. Takarapresented some ideas emphasizing the importance of the collaboration of WEPA partnercountries in facing climate change and water‐related disasters. After showing some examples ofwater‐related disasters, he pointed out the merits and demerits of rainfall‐runoff models andconcluded that sufficient preparedness is an important factor. Capacity building, integrated
disaster management and adequate funding were pointed out as important elements to beaddressed for promoting adaptation.

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“Adaptation for Water Problems for Climate Change” by Mr. So Kazama, Associate Professor,
Hydro‐Environmental System Laboratory, Department of Civil Engineering, Graduate Schoolof Engineering, Tohoku University
Mr. So Kazama described specific examples of climate change impact by using the cases of Lake
Biwa and Lake Ikeda. Vertical circulation change in a lake is a good example of the impact onwater quality by climate change. Adaptation measures should be taken effectively in response toeach regional characteristic. Mr. Kazama stressed that not only good meteorological and climatic
forecasting but also determining social scenarios is important. How to incorporate elements suchas policies and the social environment in modeling is a future research challenge.

SUMMARY OF COUNTRY PRESENTATIONJapan“Climate Change Impacts on the Water Environment” by Mr. Shu Nishi, Water Environment
Division, Ministry of the Environment, Japan
Changes in the frequency and intensification of severity of extreme weather events brought
about by climate change may have a negative impact on water quality. The Ministry of theEnvironment established the “Investigative Commission for Impact on Water Environment by
Climate Change” in 2010 to assess the impact of climate change on the water environment andconsider possible adaptation options for the effects to be identified under the commission. The
analysis process of current and potential effects of climate change on the water environment was
explained in the presentation.
Cambodia“Climate Change Impacts on the Water Environment and Adaptation Options in Cambodia”
by Mr. Chea Chan Thou, Ministry of Environment, Cambodia
Due to climate change, the central agricultural plain will suffer from floods and droughts morein the future. Increased and intensified flooding and droughts may impose negative effects on
agricultural production and destroy property and infrastructure. Cambodia prepared the
National Adaptation Program of Action to Climate Change (NAPA) to cope with potential
impacts of climate change. Mr. Chan Thou stressed that it is important to implement NAPA
because it would contribute significantly to the Cambodian Millennium Development Goals(MDGs). However, he also pointed out that funding issues is the main constraint for the
implementation of high‐priority activities in NEPA.

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Indonesia“Climate Change Impacts on the Water Environment Case Studies: Ciliwung Watershed” by
Mr. Maulyani Djajadilaga, The State Ministry of Environment
It is considered that the recent increase in rainfall in the Ciliwung watershed has had a negative
impact on water quality, but a study of the effects of climate change in the watershed concluded
that the increase of water was affected by land use rather than an increase in precipitation. There
are several action programs to improve the condition of the Ciliwung watershed, such as thedevelopment of presidential regulations for the management of the watersheds including
cross‐department program arrangements; completion of the Jakarta flood canal; andenhancement of community participation in water conservation and promotion of biogas
generation from livestock waste and municipal waste. These measures may help people to adapt
to potential impacts from climate change.
Republic of Korea“Climate Change and Water Environment” by Ms. Bu‐Young Kang, Water Environment
Policy Division, Water Environment Management Bureau, Ministry of Environment
The average variability of annual precipitation is clearly increasing and the pattern of rainfall isalso becoming more unpredictable in the country. She introduced three advanced policy
responses of Korea to address climate‐change impacts on the water environment, namely the
restoration project in the four major rivers, strengthening measures to control total phosphorus,
and strengthening control measures of non‐point source and river rehabilitation projects.
Lao PDR“Assessment of Impact and Adaptation to Climate Change in Vientiane Plain” by Mr.
Souphasay Komany, Water Policy and Legislation Department of Water Resources, Water
Resources and Environment Administration
Findings of a pilot project to assess potential impacts of climate change in water and rain‐fed
farming and possible adaptation in the Vientiane plain were introduced in the presentation. The
study showed that the villagers have the ability to adapt to potential climate change, but theirlives may be threatened by an increased occurrence of natural disasters and population increases
in the future, which would result in the decrease of natural resources in the neighboring areas.
Some recommendations were also presented, such as the provision of alternative livelihood
opportunities and the development of a network of villagers to share agricultural plots whendisaster occurs.

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Malaysia“Climate Change: Potential Impacts on Water Resources and Adaptation Strategies in
Malaysia” by Mr. Zubaidi Johar, National Hydraulic Research Institute (NAHRIM)
The Regional Hydro‐Climate Model for Peninsular Malaysia (RegHCM‐PM) was developed tofacilitate the quantification of climate‐change impacts and the assessment of vulnerability to
climate‐change impacts. The model indicated that water resources would be adequate up to2050; however, there would be more frequent periods of drought. The projected impact ofclimate change may vary from region to region in the country. In conjunction with socialchanges such as the population and increases in water demand, shortages of water would be
intensified, and, therefore, it is important to encourage efficient use of water and promotewater‐harvesting technology. The presentation stressed the importance of the development of asystematic and quantified V & A assessment to take “no regret” actions. The presentation alsosuggested that an integrated approach to water management should be promoted andadaptation concerns should be incorporated in all present social‐planning objectives
Myanmar“Climate Change Impacts to the Water Environment” by Mr. Tint Zaw, Ministry ofAgriculture and Irrigation
Climate change may impose a negative impact on water resources in the country withintensified flooding and droughts. Climatic and hydrological data in some areas showed that
effects on water resources by climatic change have been observed. To cope with future changes
in climate, structural and non‐structural measures should be considered by policy makers. For
example, insufficient or aging infrastructure and weak and inadequate legal frameworks werepointed out as areas to be improved. An integrated approach to water management is necessary
to improve the capacity of adaptation in the country. Observation and assessment ofmeteorological conditions also should be strengthened.
The Philippines“Climate Change Impacts and Adaptation Options in the Water Sector in the Philippines” by
Ms. Lourdes Tibig, Climate Change expert, Millennium Development Goals FundThe presentation showed some of the results of the vulnerability and adaptation assessment of
the water sector in the Philippines, conducted for the preparation of the Second National
Communication to the United National Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).
Water quality degradation was included as one of the indirect impacts the projection indicated.
As adaptation options, it was recommended that measures to maximize potential water resource
availability should be taken, while water demand management should be further promoted. The
on‐going process of integrated water resource management should be further promoted inwhich climate concerns have been already included as a theme to be addressed.

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Thailand“Climate Change Impacts on the Water Environment: Thailand” by Mr. Wijran Simachaya,
Pollution Control Department, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment
In this presentation, an overview of potential impacts of climate change on the water
environment in Thailand was given. After the brief outline of Thailand’s policy on climatechange, including the country’s Five‐Year Strategies on Climate Change (2008‐2012), he showedsome possible adaptation options. The recommendations for the review and studies on theimpacts of climate change on the water environment included, but was not limited to, thefollowing items: enhancement of institutional flexibility and capacity for consideration ofclimate‐related risks in the planning process to determine possible impacts; vulnerability
assessment of aquatic ecosystems; integrated strategies for managing water quantity, quality andwater ecosystems for restoration of watershed ecosystems; consideration of interactions ofground and surface waters in quality and quantity; promotion of adaptation practices in thecommunity; capacity development of the government and relevant stakeholders; promotion of ascientific basis on climate change and its hydrology implications; international cooperation forachievement of both mitigation and adaptation goals.
Viet Nam
Potential Impacts of Climate Change on Water and Adaptation Plan in Viet Nam by Mr.
Hoang Duong Tung, Environmental Monitoring Center, VEA
Viet Nam is considered as one of the most sensitive countries to climate change. There are many
uncertainties in the projection of climate change and its impact at the present stage, but it isnecessary to take possible adaptation measures at both national and regional levels. The
presentation explained some measures taken in the country at the national level, such as thePrime Minister’s Approval of a National Target Program to respond to Climate Change (2008).
However, identification and prioritization of adaptation options and capacity development andpublic awareness campaigns should be promoted for better adaptation in the country. A seriesof measures related to climate change and better water management included the enhancementof the climate and water monitoring network, improvement of water efficiency, enhancement ofcooperation between management and scientific organizations, application of both traditional
and alternative forms of water management such as water reuse and recycling, and watermarketing and transfers.

DISCUSSION
After the country presentations, participants were divided into four groups, where theyexchanged ideas on potential climate change impacts observed/to be observed and adaptation
options. There is greater concern about water quantity related issues than quality issues. On theother hand, further study on climate‐change impacts on water quality and water ecosystems is17

identified as an important study area to be promoted. The following table summarized thepotential impacts and adaptation options by participants.

Potential Impacts
FloodsDroughts

Adaptation options¾ Early warning system¾ Dykes, canals, proper drainage, river improvement, etc.
¾ Improvement of weather forecasting technology¾ Early warning system¾ Introduction of water‐efficient technology in irrigation¾ Improvement of irrigation practices¾ Rainwater harvesting¾ Tube wells¾ Demand‐side management

Drinking water
shortage¾ Technology to improve water efficiency¾ Demand‐side management

Increase algae
Degradation of
overall quality¾ Wetlands¾ Membrane¾ Ems¾ Capacity development of local people

OTHERS
Negative impacts on
health(Water sensitive disease)
Negative impacts on
ecosystems(biodiversity, food loss)¾ Improvement of current hygiene conditions¾ Improvement of health care and access to medication¾ Monitoring species¾ Capacity development of local people¾ New regulations on biodiversity conservation

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COUNTRY PAPERS
Thematic Session 1:
Urbanization and Water Quality Control
for the Source of Water in Asian Cities

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WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT IN URBAN AREA:BANGKOK, THAILAND
Wijarn Simachaya
Pollution Control Department
Ministry of the Environment
Thailand

ABSTRACT
Water pollution is a major environmental problem all over the world and also in Thailand,
especially in large cities like Bangkok Metropolitan Administration (BMA). The Chao Phraya
River, the most important river in the country and its connected canals which flow through thecity have been polluted for almost two decades due to the discharge of excessive wastewaterfrom domestic (70%), agriculture (20%) and industries (10%). The Government of Thailand and
BMA realize that the water pollution damages the environment and aquatic life as well associo‐economic of the people and the country. Therefore, the government and the city haveinstalled a number of centralized wastewater treatment systems in priority areas. In the firststage, the start‐up and operation of the systems have facing the problems due to lack of expertiseand funding support. The major concerns are the sustainability and affordability of the operationon conventional wastewater treatment systems.
BMA has invested about 9,000 million USD in the construction of a central system of wastewatercollection and treatment in the last ten years. The project started in the early 1990s. The system
diverts sewage flows from the network of canals within the priority areas to wastewatercollection and treatment facilities, thus subsequently reducing pollution of the waterways.
Succeeding phases were extended to cover larger areas. Currently, seven wastewater treatment
plants are in operation of total 40% of total wastewater produced in the city and three more
plants are in planning process. Some of the wastewater treatment plants are operated by BMA
while others are operated by private sector under BMA supervision.
Recently, due to uncontrolled discharges various sources wastewaters into the Chao Phraya
River and its connected canals, the river water quality is deteriorating with lower that thenational water quality standards. The effects of climate change have caused the river flows tofluctuate between extremely high and extremely low flow rates. Since Bangkok population is
expected to continue to grow within the next 10 years, the problems of water supply andsanitary would exacerbate, if no preventive measures are taken.

21

The success and the sustainability of the system require the support of the Bangkok’s citizens. In
order to gain their support, a better knowledge and understanding of the environmental
concerns of the Bangkok population, their willingness to pay for environmental improvements
and the acceptability of a wastewater treatment project are needed.

INTRODUCTION
Wastewater is one of the most serious environmental problems in many industrialized andurbanized areas in Thailand. In 2008, approximately 14 million m3/day of wastewater generated
by households around the country is discharged to receiving waters and the environment(Pollution Control Department, 2008).

Wastewater management services are currently

provided by the local government authorities, although agencies of the Central Government
play the important role in sector planning and funding. Bangkok is one of local organizations
facing water pollution problems due to excessive discharges of organic matters from various
sources of pollution to receiving waters. Wastewater discharged into the sewerage systems andriver/canals is approximately 3 million m3/day. Thus the implementation of a central system ofwastewater collection and treatment is a high priority of the city, commencing in the early 1990s.
The central system diverts sewage flows from the network of canals within the urban areas andthe Chao Phraya River to a number of treatment plants in various locations in the city, thus
reducing pollution of the waterways.
Bangkok became the capital of Thailand in 1782 and the city was often referred as the “Venice of
the East”, because of its intricate networks of canals. Bangkok has a population of approximately
10 million for both registered and unregistered population. If one counts the inhabitants of
Bangkok and the five surrounding provinces, the total population is over 15 million within 65
million for the whole country’s population. The city is located at 2 meters above sea level in theCentral Basin of Thailand at a distance extended form 27‐56 km from the Chao Phraya River’s
mouth in the Gulf of Thailand. Since its establishment, the city grew up rapidly from 4.14 km2 toa megacity that comprises 50 districts, covering the area of about 1576 km2. (Thamanat andPathan, 2008)
Due to uniform urban density, a high proportion of the population is concentrated into an area
covering less than 40% of the city. The city created a water supply demand of almost 3.5 million
m3/day, and in turn generated almost 3 million m3/day of wastewater discharges into canals andthe lower part of the Chao Phraya River. The sources of BMA revenues are local taxes, fees, fine,permits, service charges, assets rental, utilities and enterprises. In addition, the government’s
subsidies and the interest of reserve are BMA’s supplementary fund. The expenditure isclassified as investment and operation expenditures. The proportion of investment budget tooperation budget is being maintained at 60:40. This can be achieved by privatization of some22

public service activities. However, the wastewater treatment fees have no been designed by thegovernor but not yet implementation. The cost for the operation and maintenance of thewastewater treatment system has been still fully supported by BMA budget (BMA, 2004).

SITUATION OF WATER QUALITY IN BANGKOKIn the last twenty years, the survey by the Pollution Control Department (2008) reported that thelower part of the Chao Phraya River in Bangkok was polluted by black water from canals andcommunities along the waterways. Water pollution was caused mainly by wastewater
discharges from communities and business areas. The biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), or
the amount of oxygen that microorganisms consume, in most canals in the city was 18.1 mg/L in
2004, 17.3 mg/L in 2005 and 12.7 mg/L in 2006. While these figures are on the downward trend,
they are still too high compared to the acceptable level of 4 mg/L or less (Meanwad, 2006). From
the data of the lower part of the Chao Phraya River monitored by the Pollution Control
Department (2009), dissolved oxygen (DO) in the most part of the river was less than 2 mg/L
(National Ambient Water Quality Standard and River Classification of the lower part of the
Chao Phraya River, Class 4 for Industrail Uses). However, BOD in the river at that section was
still within the National Ambient Water Quality Standard level (not more than 4 mg/L) as shownin Figures 1 and 2 respectively.

6.0

Std. 2 mg/l

4.0

M in

3.0

M ax
A ve

2.0
1.0

19
82
19
79

19
88
19
85

19
94
19
91

20
03
20
00
19
97

0.0

20
09
20
06

DO(mg/l)

5.0

Year

Figure 1. Dissolved Oxygen (DO) in the Lower Part of
the Chao Phraya River from 1978 to 2009

23

12.0

BOD(mg/l)

10.0

Std. 4 mg/l

8.0

Min

6.0

Max

4.0

Ave

2.0

20
09
20
06
20
03
20
00
19
97
19
94
19
91
19
88
19
85
19
82
19
79

0.0

Year

Figure 2. Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) in the Lower Part of
the Chao Phraya River from 1978 to 2009

CURRENT MEASURES ON WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT
The water pollution measures in BMA can be concluded as follows;
1. IMPLEMENTATION OF CENTRAL WASTEWATER TREATMENT PROJECTSThe first Bangkok Sewerage System Master Plan was drafted in 1968. Then, the JICA’s supported
Master Plan was established in 1981. The Master Plan introduced the implementation of theCentral Wastewater Treatment Projects to tackle water pollution. Since 1990, BMA has initiated amajor program of central wastewater treatment schemes to improve water quality in the canals
and in the Chao Phraya River. The eight areas, seven large‐scale central wastewater treatment
projects have been undertaken. These can cover service areas over a total of 191.7 km2.
The central wastewater system is designed to solve the water pollution problems in the longterm. Domestic wastewater from communities are collected and treated before discharging to
public waterways, canals and the Chao Phraya River. The master plan for wastewater
treatment construction depends upon the budget and the appropriation of areas as well as
density of the population in the priority areas. The existing implementation and plan for
wastewater management in Bangkok Metropolitan, currently under the BMA are shown in Table
1.

24

Table 1.

Status of Central Wastewater Treatment Plants in Bangkok

PlantsCapacity (m3/ day)

Service
Areas (km2)

ServicePop

Treatment Technology

Date of
Operation

Si Phraya

30,0002.7

120,000

Jan 1994

Chong Nonsee

200,000

28.5

580,000

Ratanakosin
Thoong Kru

40,00065,0004.1
42.0

70,000177,000

Nong Kheam

157,000

44.0

520,000

Din
Deang(Phase I)
Chatujak

350,000

37.0

1,080,000

150,000

33.4

432,500

Activated Sludge, AS(Contact Stabilization)
AS(Cyclic
SludgeSystem)Two‐Stage AS
AS(Vertical
Loop
Reactor)AS(Vertical
Loop
Reactor)AS
with
Nutrient
RemovalAS

Total

992,000

191.7

2,979,500

Dec 1999
May 2000February
2002
February
2002
December
2003
December2005

2. IMPROVEMENT OF THE COMMUNITY WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANTS
In 1990, BMA and the National Housing Authority (NHA) have an agreement to transfer the
NHA community wastewater treatment plants to BMA. The 12 community wastewater
treatment plants are now being operated by BMA with total capacity of 25,700 m3/day. At first,
many of them were in poor condition, but BMA has repaired and renovated these treatment
plants, thus increasing their treatment efficiencies. This resulted in treating wastewater to meetthe Building Effluent Standards as well as to reduce wastewater loading into the central
treatment system.
3. CANAL WATER IMPROVEMENTS
A canal water improvement project was initiated by JICA in 1990. The project provided
re‐circulation of clean water to the canals and to oxygenate canal water with aerators. During thedry season (December – April), river water was pumped from the Chao Phraya River to thecanals, while the polluted canal water was pumped back to the river at an approximately 2,000
m3/min. This system includes water gates on the canals, which are needed to prevent salt water
entering the canals at high tide, but despite of this, some canals have contaminated by saline
water. Several aeration systems have been installed in the canals and there was also aboat‐mounted mobile aerator. There are also three aerated lagoons systems for primary
wastewater treatment in the city: the Makkason Pond is to improve Sam Sen Canal, the Rama IX
Pond is to improve Lat Phrao Canal and the Buddamonthon Sai 2 Pond is to improve Bang Jakcanal.

25

4. LEGISLATION MEASURES
There are many effluent standards applied in Bangkok by the BMA offices such as the Building
Effluent Standards formulated by the National Environment Board (NEB) under the
Enhancement of Environmental Quality Conservation Act (1992) and standards under the Public
Health Act (1992). The effluent from municipal wastewater treatment plants which are operated
by the Water Quality Management Division (WQMD), the Department of Drainage System,
BMA, must meet the Building Effluent Standards set by NEB and the draft of effluent standard
for Central Treatment Facilities.
5. PUBLIC RELATION AND PARTICIPATION
Environmental activities are among initiatives coming out of the community meetings such as
canal conservation and canal clean up activities. The installation of grease traps for household isimplemented in most communities in Bangkok. Additionally, in order to implement Central
Wastewater Treatment Projects, public acceptance is necessary. Accordingly, BMA has to carryout public relation and information campaigns, for examples; (1) educational programs inschools and communities; (2) training programs for BMA staff who monitor the Building
Effluent Standards and for operators who are responsible for operation and maintenance thewastewater treatment plants; (3) public exhibitions and public relations and (4) provide pubic
information via meetings, brochures TV programs or other media.
Currently, some communities have set up the community committees to keep close contact withthe residents in the communities. Raising awareness on water pollution is an important issue inthe community level such as water quality monitoring.

CURRENT ISSUES AND FUTURE DEVELOPMENT PLAN ON WATER POLLUTIONCONTROL
Current issues and future development plan of water quality management in Bangkok can beconcluded as follows;
1. CONSTRUCTION MEASURESThe 5th Bangkok Metropolitan Development Plan from 1997 to 2001 describes that theconstruction of unfinished wastewater treatment plants is to be continued and enable them tooperate in full capacity. In addition, the plan states that three new wastewater treatment plants
are to be constructed. The wastewater related projects listed in sub work plan are Si Phraya withcapacity of 30,000 m3/day, Chong Nonsee with capacity of 200,000 m3/day, and Ratanakosin withcapacity of 40,000 m3/day. Then, four projects that BMA has included in the 6th Bangkok
Metropolitan Development Plan (2002‐2007) are Thoong Kru with capacity of 65,000 m3/day,Nong Keam with capacity of 157,000 m3/day, Din Deang (Phase I) with capacity of 350,000
m3/day, and Chatujak with capacity of 150,000 m3/day. For the future, three wastewater facilities
have been planned including Prakanong‐Klongtoey, Thonburi and Nong Bon Systems covering

26

total area 136 km2 with total capacity of the systems 804,000 m3/day (Thamanat and Pathan,2008). In addition, the Sludge Treatment Center is under construction at Nong Khaem site.
Anaerobic Digestion system has been employed with full capacity of 120 ton dry sludge/day.
Sludge will be collected from Si Phraya, Ratanakosin, Stage 1, 2 and 3 plants and transported to
Sludge Treatment Center. The sludge from Stage 4 may be excluded from the plan and uses on‐site anaerobic digestion system. The Master Plan study on Sewage Sludge Treatment/Disposal
and Reclaimed Wastewater Reuse in Bangkok was also conducted and completed in October
1999. The Master Plan proposes the sludge management in Bangkok for future management ofsludge from wastewater and night soil treatment plant and its safe disposal to the environment.
2. NON‐CONSTRUCTION MEASURES
2.1 LEGISLATION MEASURESTo improve surface water quality, the next Central Wastewater Treatment Projects listed in the
6th and 7th Bangkok Metropolitan Development Plan will continue to follow the BMA’s
requirements. In the future, BMA has to consider the methodology of private sector participationin Wastewater Treatment Project Management. Regarding to the Feasibility Study of the Klong
Toei Wastewater Treatment Project, the turnkey strategy is recommended. However, BMA may
consider increasing the operation period from one year to 3‐5 years. The longer period would
encourage wastewater system developer to optimize the design, not only for capital cost, butalso for operation and maintenance cost. Besides inspection and enforcement through related
laws and regulations, BMA prepares to enforce wastewater discharge fees in Bangkok area.
Currently, BMA has set up a committee to work on the legislation aspect of wastewater
discharge fees.
2.2 PUBLIC RELATION MEASURESThe future plan of public relation measure is focused not only to provide knowledge andinformation, but also to promote people participation in various activities. The Water Quality
Management Division (WQMD) under BMA will continue implement the public relation
activities of previous plan. From the experiences of some wastewater treatment projects in
Thailand, social acceptability and support is necessary for the successful installations of the
projects.
2.3 WASTEWATER DISCHARGE FEES
Recently, BMA has been unable to collect wastewater discharge fees due to public objection andnon‐supporting local government policy. The wastewater user charge is planned to implementin the near future. Cooperation among agencies is needed between Metropolitan Waterworks
Authority and private sectors. Some strategies for collecting fees will be implemented including
the rate of wastewater user charge. Only the residents in the service area will consider to be
charged. Some regulations are needed to be revised such as Metropolitan Waterworks Authority
Act.

27

2.4 PRIVATE SECTOR PARTICIPATION
The private sector participation was not stated in the original plan. BMA generally implements
Turnkey approach. However, the future development should be considered Public Private
Partnership (PPP) for the management and administration of wastewater facilities in the city.
2.5 WATER QUALITY MONITORING AND EVALUATION
The monitoring of receiving water network has been established to cover major canals and in the
Cha Phraya River. The monitoring data are made available for public via internet system.

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONSIn the past 10 years the Bangkok Metropolitan Administration has spent about $1 billion Baht
(about 3,000 million USD) on developing a major central wastewater collection and treatment
systems for the city of Bangkok. The city is presently the systems’ installation thus far,reexamining the design parameters, criteria, and assumptions that guided the first wave ofprojects. The assessment compiles a number of issues, including the role of on‐site treatment,
treatment plant spacing, interfaces between the old and new sewer systems, the need for
nutrient removal as well as water quality goal in the receiving water, separated versus combined
sewer systems and wastewater discharge fees. The city can construct more effective wastewater
facilities at the lower cost by using design criteria that better suit local conditions. These lessons
may be applied to future projects in Bangkok and in other large Asian cities. Decentralized
wastewater management systems would also be useful and appropriate for large and mega cities.
Sustainable management wastewater reclamation requires synergistic interactions among thegovernment, private sectors and community sectors.
The lesson learned for the implementation of central wastewater treatment system in Bangkok,
can be concluded as follows; 1) treatment facilities including the collection and the treatment
systems should be planned in advance and at the same time of city planning; 2) high treatment
technology would require while the city lacks available public land and to ensure the highefficiency for operation and maintenance the system, 3) public awareness and acceptance of thetreatment system is crucial especially for the willing to pay for wastewater treatment fees, and 4)
law enforcement is also important especially to enforce the effluent standards for individual
buildings or factories.

28

REFERENCES
Bangkok Metropolitan Administration, Bangkok State of Environment 2003,

BMA

and UNEP, Bangkok, 2004
Bangkok Metropolitan Administration Annual Reports 2006. Bangkok Metropolitan Administration
http://english.mwa.co.th/annual_content_16_e.html, 2007
Bangkok Metropolitan Administration. Annual Epidemiological Surveillance Report of the
Epidemiological Subdivision, Disease Control Division, Department of Health, BMA, 2006
Chongrak P. Water Environment Issues of Bangkok City, Thailand: Options for
Sustainable Management, Environmental Engineering and Management, Asian Institute ofTechnology, P.O. Box 4 Klong Luang, Pathumthani, Thailand, 2007
Domestic Wastewater Sub‐bureau. Thailand’s municipal wastewater management and tariff.
Thailand Water Quality Management Bureau, Pollution Control Department, 2003.
Maenward K.N.Y., Se “Where does the blame lay?, Green Line, July ‐September 2006
Pollution Control Department. The Enhancement and Conservation of the National Environmental
Quality Act B.E. 2535 [Online] Available at: http://www.pcd.go.th, 2003
Pollution Control Department. The survey of treatment plant facilities in Thailand. Bureau of Water
Quality. Pollution Control Department. Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, 2006.
Thamanat C. and Pathan B.Wastewater Treatment Systems in Bangkok. Thailand Engineering Journal,(61):4 pp.28‐33, July‐August 2008.
Thongchai

K.

and

T.

S.

Worthley,

Rethinking

Bangkok’s

Wastewater

Strategy,

Civil

Engineering—ASCE, Vol. 71, No. 6, June 2001, pp. 72‐77
Woorawut R. Introducing centralised wastewater treatment in Bangkok: a study of factors
determining its acceptability, Department of Social Administration, Thammasat University, Phrajan
Road, Bangkok, Thailand, 2000
Wijarn S. Environmental financing strategies: user charges in wastewater sector in Thailand. In:
Financing Urban Water Supply and Sanitation in Asia. September 17‐18, 2003. Port Dickinson,
Malaysia, OECD Emerging Asian Economies Programme. 2003.
http://www.searo.who.int/EN/Section23/Section1318/Section1797_7719.htm#CASE_STUDY_3

29

URBANIZATION AND WATER QUALITY CONTROL FOR
THE SOURCE OF WATER IN COLOMBO CITY, SRI LANKA
R.M.S.K. Rathnayake
Central Environmental Authority
Sri Lanaka
ABSTRACT
Sri Lanka is a tropical island located in Indian Ocean with 65610 km2 of total land area. The
island is very rich in natural resources and forestry and water resources are good examples. It
has 103 rivers, waterfalls and 1700 lakes covering 4% land area from the island.
Before 1980 s Sri Lanka was mainly an agricultural country but after that drastically change thesystem into the industrial pattern due to introduction of the open economy to the country.
According to the sudden change of the economic pattern it directly effected to the environmentof the country and the government has noticed the essential of establishment of laws to protect
and manage the environment. Therefore the Sri Lankan government has passed the National
Environmental Act (NEA) in 1980 as the main law to protect and manage the environment of thecountry. Central Environmental Authority (CEA) has established in 1981 as the implementer of
the NEA.
Main commercial and populated district, out of 25 districts of the island is Colombo but which
has land extent is about 1% from the total area. More than 30% of the GDP contribution is from
Colombo district.
Due to high population and industrial density of the Colombo water requirement is very high.
On the other hand deterioration of the water resources is high due to high loads of industrial
and domestic discharges exceeding the assimilative capacities of the water bodies. Therefore
introduction of sustainable solution for management of water resources is essential especially for
Colombo district and further it can be use as a model for other district too. Before preparation of
the plan identification and consideration of current issues and weaknesses of the current system
is very much important and benefited.

1. SOCIO‐ECONOMICAL AND NATURAL CONDITIONS OF COLOMBO
GENERAL INFORMATION
The democratic socialist Republic of Sri Lanka is situated in the tropical Zone. Sri Lanka is an
Island of Indian Ocean lies

between5034’ and30

9052’ northernlatitude andbetween 790 39’

and 810 53’ Eastern longitude and has a land area of 65,610 km2.

Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte is

the capital of the country situated in Colombo District. Sri Lanka has divided administratively
into 25 district and Colombo is the main commercial and administrative city. Land area of theColombo district is 699 km2 that is 1% from the total land area of the country.
Total population of the island is 20 million and the population density is 3513 per km2. Most
populated district is Colombo and it is nearly 2.4 million (12.3%from total population).
Population density of the Colombo is 320/km2 and its still increasing due to industrial andcommercial developments.
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of the country is 40.7 billion US Dollars and 50% of the GDP
contribution is from western region consists of Colombo, Gampaha and Kalutara Districts.
CLIMATEThe location of the island is very important in providing Sri Lanka with a tropical climate and amonsoon dominated rainfall. Sri Lanka has an almost negligible variation in terms oftemperature during the year. During the periods of May to September and December to
February country receive rain from southwest monsoon and northeast monsoon respectively.
The annual average precipitation of Sri Lanka is about 2000 mm and Colombo receives 2400 mmof annual average rainfall.
ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITION
Sri Lanka is a very rich country in natural resources having lot of minerals, forests and wildlife,
water resources etc. 4% of the total land area covered by water resources including 103 rivers.
Forest area of the island is about 30% from the total land.
Due to industrialization and urbanization of major cities of the country, mainly from 1980 sbalance between the environment and development has been dropped and environmental issues
been started. Large amounts of wastes (solid, liquid and gaseous) coming from industries,
pollute water sources, air and soil. On the other hand rapid urbanization resulted pollution fromtheir domestic waste emissions.
Rivers of the country cover most of the areas in the country except some parts of the Northernand southern areas. Main sources of the water for people are tap water, well water and bore
wells. People living in the main cities has access to the tap water and for an example Colombo
water schemes cover 70% of the greater Colombo water requirement.
Sewage disposal and treatment are areas that have received relatively little attention from policy
makers in Sri Lanka. Colombo is the only city in the island with a sewerage system. Sri Lanka’s
population with access to piped sewerage is only 4%, on site sanitation or septic tanks are 80%
and 16% is discharging without proper sanitation.

31

2. SITUATION OF QUANTITY AND QUALITY OF THE WATER RESOURCES IN COLOMBO
Major water source of the Colombo district is the Kelani River. Water source of the two water
schemes Out of three in Colombo is based on Kelani River. Main water scheme is at Ambatale
abstracts water directly from the river and the second one is at Labugama reservoir which isbased on Kelani River. The third one is Kalatuwawa reservoir which is located in Ratnapura
district.
The three systems Provide drinking water mainly for city people that is for 2 Million Consumers.
Pipe born water coverage of Colombo District is about 65%. Usage of pipe born water is 65% for
domestic and rest is for other uses mainly on industrial activities.
Other options for water in Colombo district are protected wells 31% and tube wells.
Details of the three water intakes are given in tabulated form for your easy reference.
Name

Volume of available Water

Kalani River
Labugama Reservoir
Kalatuwawa Reservoir
Intake
BOD
Kalani river2~15 MCM/day(Average runoff)
15.4 MCM
8.9 MCM
COD
TSS
18
20

Labugama

3

19

10

Lalatuwawa

2

17

12

Volume of Abstracted
Water (m3)512000Quality of theWater intakes

62000
37000
Heavy metals
Pb.06
Cr <.01Pb ‐Cr <.01Pb ‐Cr <.01

pH
8.0
7.5
7.3

3. EFFLUENT LOADS TO THE SOURCES
Colombo district is the most populated district in the country and it occupied 12.3% of the island
population. On the other hand 30% from the total industries are located in Colombo district.
However the land area of the district is only 1% from the country. Therefore these data indicatedthe imbalance of the environment and the development of the Colombo district.
Wastewater to the water sources could result from industrial and domestic sources. Domestic
effluent discharging options in Colombo district are sewage network, individual septic tanks ordirect discharge to the water sources. In the sewerage network system, sewerage directly
discharges through 2 sea outfalls without any treatment. Most of the encroachers and illegal
settlers in near by water sources discharge their sewer and other domestic waste directly into the32water bodies in Colombo area. Kalani River and Beira Lake are the two main threatened water
ways in Colombo.
The Beira Lake also a very important water body situated in Colombo city area. 17500
households in the Beira lake catchments are discharging sewage into storm water drains whichflows into the lake. Blooming of blue green algae in the lake is a one of the biggest
environmental problems in the city. Cleaning of the lake time to time bares a large cost and its
not economical process.
Discharge of the treated and untreated industrial effluents are directly or indirectly discharge
into the Kelani River. Quality of the industrial wastewater can control and manage by applying
laws and regulations. But in the dry seasons large amounts of treated wastewater also course a
pollution due to inadequate dilution in the water way.
Kelani River receives industrial effluents from two common treatment plants in industrial parksat Biyagama and Seethawakapura. Two zones are consists mainly textile industries 70%, rubber
and other type of industries.
Industrial effluent loads into Kelani River from two industrial zones
Biyagama TP~15000 m3/day (25% is sewage)
Seethawakapura ~10000 m3/day (25% is sewage)
Treated effluents discharge into the river, from two TP s is conforming to the CEA standard forinland surface waters.
There are many industries located in Colombo district outside the industrial zones and main
effluent generating industries are textile, food and beverages and chemical industries.
Roughly estimated wastewater volumes of these industries are as follows,
TextileFood & beverages
Chemical industries~35000 m3/day~35000 m3/day~15000 m3/day

If we assume that the all discharges are conforming to the standards calculated COD loads fromabove industrial sectors as follows,
2 common treatment plants
Textile industries
Food & beverage industries
Chemical industries~6250 kg/day~8750 kg/day~8750 kg/day~3750 kg/day

33

4. CURRENT MEASURES ON QUALITY CONTROL FOR THE WATER SOURCES
Pollution of the water sources are two types, such as point sources and non point sources.
Pollution from non point sources cannot be identified exactly where the place, pollutant collectinto the water source. Non point discharges into the Colombo water sources are mainly fromdomestic wastewater including sewerage. Colombo is a industrial and commercial city therefore
pollution from agricultural activities are negligible.
Non point discharges are difficult to control due to identification difficulties in Sri Lanka. Laws
and regulations in Sri Lanka are not so strong enough to control this type of pollution. The
strategies use in the country to control it by applying better land use pattern, local government
planning laws and awareness. Responsibility on proper sanitation is with local government
authorities (LGA), 4 Municipal Councils, 5 Urban Councils and 4 Pradeshiya Sabhas in Colombo
district.

LAWS ON CONTROL OF NON POINT SOURCES
1. NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL ACT
May require local authority to comply with recommendations relating to the prohibition of theunauthorized discharge, emission or deposit of sewage and the prevention of the discharge ofuntreated sewage into soil, canals or water ways.
2. LGA LAWS
The Government or any Municipal Council may, from time to time, cause to be made, altered, or
extended such public main or other drains, sewers and watercourses necessary for the effectual
draining of the Municipality – MC 97
Prevent obstruction of discharge of rain‐water and drainage to any natural watercourse, channel,lake or swamp recognized for such purpose by resolution – MC 101
Connection of private drain with any public drain without authority is an offence – MC 103
OPTIONS FOR DISCHARGE OF SEWAGE IN COLOMBO––––

Individual systems (within the premises)
Sewage network (discharge into sea out fall without any treatment)
Common treatment systems (condominiums and schemes)
Illegal direct discharges to the water bodies (speciallyhouses/buildings)

fromunauthorized

Point Sources of the wastewater pollution can be identified and therefore control and regulate bylaws and regulations. Main source of the wastewater is from Industrial Activities. Different
types of strategies are applying to control industrial effluents in Sri Lanka; they are applying
laws and regulations, regular monitoring and education and awareness.

34

National Environmental Act (NEA) No. 47 of 1980 is considered as an umbrella act for theenvironment including water pollution control.
Central Environmental Authority established in 1981 according to the provisions of the NEA for
implementation of the act.
Five main sections and section IV is the important part on the environment management andprotection. Regulations have been established on Environmental Management (EIA regulation
for prescribed projects, due to sensitivity or scale), Environmental Protection (Environmental
Protection License procedure for waste discharging activities) and Effluent discharge standards.

EPL FOR WASTE DISCHARGING ACTIVITIES
133 prescribed activities have been gazette including all industrial wastewater generating
activities. EPL is a legal requirement to discharge waste into the environment by complying withthe stipulated standards. Operation of an industry without an EPL is a punishable offence.
Wastewater discharge standards are established according to the receiving environment such as
inland surface waters, irrigation, coastal area, common TP and type of activity such as textile,
rubber, tanning.
SOME IMPORTANT EFFLUENT DISCHARGE STANDARDSType ofStandard

TSS

BOD

Oil & Grease

COD

Pesticide

FaecalColi‐form

Inland surface

50

30

10

250

0.005

40

Irrigation

2100

250

10

400

‐

40

Marine coastal

150

100

20

250

0.005

40

Common TP

500

350

30

850

0.2

‐

Rubber‐ latex
std.

100
100

60
50

‐
‐

400
400

‐
‐

‐
‐

Textile

50

60

10

250

‐

‐

Tanning‐ ISW
MC

100
150

60
100

10
20

250
300

‐
‐

‐
‐

5. CURRENT ISSUES ON QUALITY CONTROL FOR THE WATER SOURCES
As discussed in above chapters Colombo is the most conjunct city in Sri Lanka. Pollution level iscomparatively high due to highest population density and industrial density.
People coming from other area to Colombo and increasing the number of industries are still
growing up due to infrastructure facilities. But the land resources, the water resources and thereceiving capacities of water bodies are limited and unlimited discharges to the water sources
and to the land courses pollution.

35

Encroachments and illegal constructions at reservations of the water sources are also increasingin the area. Inadequacy of the existing laws and regulations is increase the magnitude of the
problem. Most of the reservations/catchments are encroach by people and discharge their waste
into the water sources. Governmental institutions have difficulties on application of laws on
them. Also no other reservation of the water ways is demarcated and no strong law on this.
Inadequacy of the existing laws and regulations is also a big issue in control of quality of thewater sources in Sri Lanka. Existing regulation on wastewater discharge is a command andcontrolled system and which is not controlled pollution loads to the water source. Existing laws
and regulations are not sufficient to control illegal industrial activities within a short period andlegal process takes long period to control the activity or close the activity. However pollution
from the activity continues up to that point and no legal tool to control it.
Existing laws on domestic wastewater discharge are weak and LGA s is not implementing eventhe existing laws on parties due to political issues. Inadequacy of the land policy in the country
is also an issue to control encroachments and illegal constructions at the banks of the water
sources.

36

WATER AND WASTE WATER MANAGEMENT INYANGON, MYANMAR
Mu Mu Than
Irrigation Department,
Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation
Myanmar

SOCIO‐ ECONOMICAL AND NATURAL CONDITION OF YANGON
1. GENERAL
Yangon Division is an administrative division of Myanmar. It is dominated by its capital city of
Yangon, the former capital and the largest city in the country. The division is the mostdevelopment region of the country and the main international gateway. The division measures
10,170km² (3,927.15 square miles). And also, greater Yangon is Lower Myanmar’s main trading
hub for all kinds of merchandise, the largest scale center for agricultural commodities such as
rice, beans and so on. Most of the industrial zones ring Yangon, employing thousands of works.
Outside Yangon, rice forming remains predominant. Other important crops include jute, pulse,
rubber, sugarcane, and ground nut.
Of the division estimated population of 5.56 million in 2000, more than 4 million lived in the
Greater Yangon Metropolitan area. The population of Myanmar in the year 2009‐2010 isestimated at 57.504 million of which the Yangon metropolitan area account for about 11% of the
population. The administration of the city is entrusted to the Yangon City Development
Committee.

2. PRECIPITATION
Annual average precipitation in Yangon is 2550 mm.

3. SOLID WASTE GENERATION
Solid waste generation in the city in 1999 was estimated at about 3,000 per day. In industrial andagricultural sectors, all activities are currently low level and solid wastes generated fromindustrial and agricultural sectors are not server. Due to rapid increase in urbanization, area of
Yangon City become wider and PCCD has to collect the solid waste in larger extent across thearea of city. However, gradual increase in population causes the generation rate in regular order.
Amount of waste generated in Yangon City each year is stated as follows:

37

Year

Amount of waste generated

1990
1995
2000

0.40 kg/cap/day
0.48 kg/cap/day
0.52 kg/cap/day

Percentage contribution of the garbage generated is shown as the follows:
Source of Solid Waste% of Contribution

1. Kitchen

60

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

15
2
5
10
8

MarketHotel
GardenCommercial
Other

Typical Composition of solid waste is reported as the following and detail typical composition ofSolid Waste in each Township is attached below.

Type of Solid Waste
1.

5.

Vegetables,
fruits,branches, grass, etc
Paper
Plastic
Dead animal
Bones, and waste
Ashes and dust

6.

Cane, Bamboo

7.

Other

2.
3.
4.

Total

leaves,Domestic Waste
Wet
Dry
SeasonSeason
58
52
1
4
1
4

Market Waste
Wet
Dry
Season Season
63
492
9
8
1
2
18

General Waste
Wet
Dry
Season Season
67
46
7
13
5
2
1
5

2
11

13
8

1
14

19

1
3

12
2

20

18

3

10

16

20

100

100

100

100

100

100

4. WATER SUPPLY

38

The people in 33 townships of Yangon are officially receiving water from four reservoirs,
Gyobyu, Phugyi, Hlawga and Ngamoeyeik and from 217 artesian bores. Daily about 135 million
gallons are supposedly supplied to around 60% of the population.
Everyone else has to make do with private wells, public tanks, ponds and rain water harvesting.
The daily per capita consumption varies from 1% to another and also by townships. Townships
like Yankin and Tarmwe have quite a high daily per capita consumption with 60 gallons while itis very low in Della and Ahlone Township with only 17 gallons. The daily per capita water
consumption within the 6 townships of the downtown varies between 70 and 110 gallons

but

the average is 40 gallons.
Water Quality Standards
Highest Describe Level

Maximum Permissible Level

5 Unit
5 NTU
7.0 to 8.5
500 mg/l
100 mg/l

50 Unit25 NTU
6.5 to 9.2
1500 mg/l
500 mg/l

75 mg/l
30 mg/l
200 mg/l
200 mg/l
0.3 mg/l
0.05 mg/l

200 mg/l
150 mg/l
600 mg/l
400mg/l
1.0 mg/l
0.05 mg/l

Appearance
Odor
Colour (Platinum Cobalt Scale)
Turbidity (Silica Scale Unit)
pH value
Total Solid p.pm(mg/l)
Total Hardness(as CaCO3)
Total Alkalinity(as CaCO3)
Calcium as Ca
Magnesium as Mg
Chloride as C1
Sulphate as SO4
Total Iron as Fe
Lead
Others

5. USE OF G ROUND WATER
Tube wells are dug mostly in the peri‐urban townships, like Hlaing TharYar, Shwe Pyi Tha,
Dagon Myo Thit, Thaketa, Okkalapa, in location where the YCDC water supply is either notavailable or in sufficient. Even in township close to the center or Yangon, tube wells are dug forprivate homes, apartments, institutions and some commercial establishment.
6. FUTURE GROUND WATER UTILIZATIONIn spite of the poor ground water quality present in some areas, their use will still be resorted toin the future. The Yangon Strategic Development Plan 2020 estimates that by the year 2020 water
shortage in Yangon may amount to 656000 m‫۽‬/d i.e., 236.13 million m³/year (MCM/Y). It is
hoped that this volume can be met by the vast ground water potential if 153.249 million m³/year
estimated in the lower Ayeyarwady River basin. Yangon is situated in this region.

39

7. WASTEWATER DISPOSAL SYSTEM IN YANGON CITY
Yangon City, a highly urbanized city, is so far as the only city in the country to be provided witha sewage system is old and started from 1888 and that was designed for 30,000 populations. The
system has served the downtown part of the city and covered an area of 3.5 sq. miles (9 sq. km).
The sewers were designed as a separate system, and the flow in the sewers is generally bygravity, numeric system and mechanical operating.
However, due to the flat topography of Yangon City, 2 parallel force main ejector stations wereconstructed in the system in order to transport the wastewater to the disposal point. The sewage
from sub‐main ejector stations are fetched to the two main ejector stations by using sewer
pipeline and which are 24″φ and 36″φ, respectively.
Pneumatic ejectors were provided at all the lowest points in the sewer lines to lift the collected
wastewater to high points into the force mains. The raw wastewater is discharged close to thebank of the mouth of the Yangon River. This practice has been used since the construction of the
Yangon sewage system.
The multi‐storied buildings, hotels, condominiums and residential buildings which have been
constructed within the city limits in recent years, a number of them employ the Activated Sludge
wastewater treatment system for the on‐site treatment of its wastewater before discharging theeffluent into public drains. This is in line with the measure taken by the Yangon City
Development Committee (YCDC) to control the polluting load of wastewater which is finallydischarged into the Yangon River.
For those not using the Activated Sludge wastewater treatment system, which also comprise of a
septic tank, an up flow anaerobic filter and a chlorination unit is used. The effluent from thistreatment system can be safely discharged into the public drains, which finally flow into the
Yangon River.
In suburban areas of Yangon City individual septic tanks are constructed for homes inaccordance with YCDC requirements. Soak pits used for the disposal of septic tank effluent
which is located at the adequate distance from the surface wells, if one is present function
satisfactorily. Digested sludge accumulated in the tank is desludged by vacuum tankers of the
YCDC on request with service charges made on the amount of volume desludged.

40Effluence Standards
Pollutant or parameter
pH
BOD
COD
Oil and grease
TSS

Limit
6‐9
50
250
10
50

MetalsHeavy metals, total
Arsenic
Cadmium
Chromium
Hexavalent
Total
Copper
Iron
Lead
Mercury
NickelSelenium
SilverZinc
CyanideFree
Total
Ammonia
Fluoride
Chlorine, total residual
Phenols
Phosphorus
SulfideColiform bacteria
Temperature increase

10
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.5
0.5
3.5
0.1
0.01
0.5
0.1
0.5
2.0
0.1
1.0
10
20
0.2
0.5
2.0
1.0
<400 MPN/100ml<3°Ca

8. STRATEGIC LOCATION OF YANGON CITY RELATING TO THE WASTEWATER DISPOSAL
The location of Yangon is such that it enjoys an estuarine environment subjected to the tidal
influences of riverine drainage. There is an inflow and outflow tidal movement of two high tides
and two low tides during a 24‐hour period. During high tides the inflow tidal water reaches as
far upstream as a few miles into the Hlaing River which is a continuation of the Yangon River.
During low tides the tidal water recedes into the open Andaman Sea transporting the river waterwith all its contents of discharged wastewater away from the vicinity of the city far out into the41

sea. Such tidal influence keeps the ecological system of the
Yangon River in quite a healthy balance. The Yangon Riverquality is tested along the stretch of Shwepyitha shown that
there is no evidence of serious pollution in the river. This isdue to the enormous volume of water available for theassimilation of the waste. The flow in the Yangon River ismeasured at about 1,500 cu.m.per sec during the dry season
and at 2,000 cu.m.per sec in the rainy season.
However, even the immense assimilation capacity of the Yangon River can be depleted due tothe uncontrolled discharged of wastewater. This is likely to happen in the near future when the
population is reached nearly 6 million in the year 2010 with the consequential increase in the
discharge of wastewater into the river. The effect will be compounded with the increase offactories in the Industrial Zones and their wastewater discharge.
9. DEVELOPMENT OF WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION FACILITIESTo provide for an environmentally sound national human settlement strategy, it is important toaddress the problem of sewage, in which the following priority actions are considered.
(i)

Incorporate sewage concerns when formulating human settlement plans;(ii) Build and maintain sewage treatment facilities and other appropriate disposal systems inaccordance with national policies and capabilities;(iii) Locate coastal outfalls so as to maintain an acceptable level of environmental quality and to
avoid exposing communities and marine resources to pathogens;(iv) Promote environmentally sound combined treatment of domestic and compatible
industrial effluents;(v) Promote primary treatment of municipal sewage discharged into rivers, estuaries and thesea;(vi) Establish and improve regulatory and monitoring programmes to control effluent discharge,
using minimum sewage effluent guidelines and water quality criteria.

In view of the importance of safe water to the well‐being of the urban population, theGovernment should consider the establishment of a ministerial‐level National Water Supply andSanitation Committee to set policy guidelines and oversee the performance of the sector,
especially in the urban areas of the country. It should also increase budgetary allocations for thesector and intensity cooperation with bilateral and multilateral parties in ensuring universal
access to safe drinking water for the country.

4210. CONCLUSION
There are many water related sub‐sectors in Myanmar such as irrigation and drainage, water forenvironment and ecosystems, drinking water and water utilization for industries and sanitation.
These should be integrated to exchange views and promote understandingof the quality andquantity of water use and the value of water in the social sector and exchange of views.
Nevertheless, the Environmental Impact Assessment is still weak in water resourcesmanagement. Due to the ongoing rapid industrialization in cities, these are so many factories
around urbanized areas, and there is still a need to disseminate the knowledge about the proper
disposal of wastewater to control the problems of the direct discharge of wastewater fromfactories into rivers or streams
Other weaknesses in water environment management are a lack of appropriate monitoring
facilities, proper and systematic keeping of records, regular monitoring and surveillance data forwater quality control and basics standards of water quality for drinking water.
Although there are many laws, acts, legislations and regulations related to water sector, mostlaws and acts for water sectors still need to be modified. Therefore, these laws and regulations
should be reviewed to enact unified water resources laws to promote a more effective legal
framework for coordination and management of water resources.

43

URBANISATION AND WATER QUALITYCONTROL FOR THE SOURCE OF WATERIN KUALA LUMPUR CITY
Meera Munusamy and Juhaimi Jusoh
National Hydraulic Research Institute of Malaysia

ABSTRACT
Located in the Equatorial region and blessed with abundance rainfall, Malaysia therefore has anextensive network of rivers flourished with life and vegetation. It served various needs of thesociety (water supply, food) and provides functions (drainage, waste transport, transportations)but rarely considered important to society.
Accompanying Kuala Lumpur’s development, society imposes great pressure onto theecosystem and water bodies are also not spared. Many of the rivers are clogged with tons of
sediments from land development works, polluted from sullage and partially treated sewage,
intruded by settlers, destabilize from sand mining, choked from indiscriminate solid waste
disposal and other array of irresponsible, illegal and blatant action.
Today as in many parts of the world, the Malaysian Government realizes on the urgent need to
manage water resources and rivers in an integrated manner. It has been promoted since Rio
Earth’s Summit and detailed out in Agenda 21. As the approach requires cross sectoral
participation, integration in planning and management and adoption to changes, it will face
many hurdles before the concept can be finally accepted, adopted and implemented. These are
the challenges ahead of us in protecting the quality of water sources for the present and future
generations.

1. INTRODUCTION
Kuala Lumpur, the capital of Malaysia is the most densely populated city of the country
supporting a population of approximately 1.65 million people and is between 30 and 200m
above mean sea level (AMSL), and comprises extensive flat river plains in the north and east,
steep sided hills to the west, north east and south and a narrow river valley to the south west,
where Sungai Klang flows towards the coast. The Klang Valley basin encompasses the Federal

44Territory of Kuala Lumpur, Gombak, Petaling and Klang and parts of Hulu Selangor Districts in
the Selangor State.
Over the last ten years the city experienced tremendous average growth rate both in term of
population and landuse changes by about 2.2% per annum’s and 180% respectively.
Located in the humid tropics, Malaysia is generally endowed with fairly abundant rainfall in theorder of 3000 mm annually (about 990 million m3), of which surface run‐off is around 57%.
However, seasonal distribution and variation, both temporally and spatially, renders someregions to be occasionally water‐stressed.
Water resources management has been a catalyst for socioeconomic development of the city. The
growth in population and expansion in urbanization, industrialization and irrigated agriculture
are imposing growing demands and pressure on water resources, besides contributing to risingwater pollution. The fact that the volume of water available is finite and the demand for water isincreasing, indices that the supply approach in water management is unsustainable.
The water supply coverage in Selangor state for year 2008 is 99.9%, that is 100% for urban and
99% for rural areas respectively with an estimated population 6.69 million Water demand issignificantly increasing whereby water use by the year 2020 is projected to increase from acurrent 15.5 BCM to some 20 million BCM.

2. SCENARIO OF QUANTITY AND QUALITY OF WATER
The natural drainage system of Kuala Lumpur includes three primary rivers with a total lengthof 32.8 kilometres and eight other rivers with a combined length of 40.6 kilometres. The
Department of Irrigation and Drainage (DID) is primarily responsible for major capital works
associated with the maintenance of the river system of Kuala Lumpur.
The Klang River, being the main river in KL city originates in the highlands about 25 km
Northeast of Kuala Lumpur and 11 main tributaries join it before joining the Straits of Melaka. It
has a length of about 120 km and its drains a basin area of about 1,288 square kilometer (double
the size of Singapore). Among the major tributaries of Sg. Klang are Gombak, Batu, Kerayong,
Damansara, Keruh, Kuyoh, Penchala and Ampang.

There are two main dams at the upper partof the basin i.e. Klang Gate Dam and Batu Dam and they served two main purposes, flood
mitigation and water supply. The total tributaries length is about 700 km.
Groundwater usage is at an infant stage around KL City but demand for groundwater is muchhigher at the outskirt area of the city, i.e. Langat Basin which serves for domestic and industry
purpose. Average number of wells in Hulu Langat, Kuala Langat and Sepang district isapproximately 20.

45In 1994 the Federal Government appointed a concessionaire to design, implement and manage aunified sewerage scheme for Kuala Lumpur. The concessionaire has implemented a sewerage
master plan which divides Kuala Lumpur into seven catchments, each of which has been
provided with a regional waste treatment plant. The number of oxidation ponds and other small
sewerage treatment plants is progressively being reduced as more catchments are being
connected to the unified sewerage system. Ultimately, all sewerage flows will be directed to asingle modern regional treatment facility. This will overcome the problem of incompatibility ofland uses between sewerage treatment facilities and highly developed urban areas. Some of thetreatment plants around KL City: Bunus (87,000 m3/d); Pantai (93,000m3/d); Bandar Tun Razak(25,000m3/d); Puchong (37,000m3/d) and Southern Klang Valley (5,400m3/d).
Approximately 70 % of residents within Kuala Lumpur presently enjoy a reticulated sewerage
service. However a significant proportion of developed areas remain unconnected to thecentralized sewerage reticulation system particularly those, which are remote from the more
densely urbanised areas. The Department of Environment Malaysia is responsible for standardsof affluent discharged from municipal sewerage treatment plants and all associatedenvironmental matters.

3. EFFLUENT LOAD TO WATER SOURCE
Kuala Lumpur is comprised in the Klang River Basin which falls under the water quality
classification of Slightly Polluted as at 2007. Greater area of land is utilised for residential andinfrastructure development in KL with a value of 22.66% and 20.77% respectively. This explains
the increasing number of sewage treatment plants which had contributed the major compositionof water pollution sources as at year 2007.
In 2007, the Department Of Environment recorded 19,309 water pollution point sources
comprising mainly sewage treatment

plants (9,337: 48.36%), manufacturing industries (8,708:

45.10%), animal farms (779: 4.03%) and agro‐based industries (485: 2.51%). Domestic sewage
discharge, in terms of treatment and partially treated sewage, remained the largest contributorof organic pollution load with an estimated biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) load of
155,261.36 kg/day.
Malaysian rivers in the lower stretches are characterised by heavy silt loads especially after
heavy rains. In urban areas, this is the direct consequences of large numbers of land clearings for
projects like housing industry and highways and the subsequent strong erosion caused by heavyrans. Studies have shown that in urbanising areas 90% of sediment load to rivers come from land
cleared for construction. In the Klang Valley, it has been estimated that erosion averages 2950
tons/ sq km/ yr for the whole catchment that is about 3mm of soil loss a year. In small upstream
areas of the Sg Batu catchment, extreme erosion rates up to 50 000 tons/sq km/yr has been46

calculated. All these figures are very high when compared with rates for undisturbed forest
catchments of around 100 ton/sq km/yr.

4. CURRENT MEASURES ON QUALITY CONTROL FOR WATER SOURCE
4.1 WATER QUALITY INDEXThe Water quality Index (WQI) used to appraise river water quality consists of parameters suchas Dissolved Oxygen (DO), Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), Chemical Oxygen Demand(COD), Ammoniacal Nitrogen (NH3N), Susupended Solid (SS) and pH. The WQI serves as abasis for environmental assessment of a watercourse in relation to pollution load categorizationand designation of classes of beneficial uses as provided for under the

National Water Quality

Standards (NQWS).
4.2 INTEGRATED RIVER BASIN MANAGEMENT (IRBM)
IRBM promotes legislation process by reviewing and assessing existing laws and regulations,
identify conflicts, gaps and effectiveness of existing legislations, and recommend to relevant
state legislation authorities. In Malaysia there are more than 30 water related laws and they weredrafted mostly to serve specific purposes. For controlling discharges of waste into rivers there
are 8 particular acts including Water Acts, Local Government Act, Environmental Quality Act,
Mining Act, Drainage Works Act, Irrigation Areas Acts, Street, Drainage and Building by law as
well as the National Land Code.
Engineering and technology is one of the key elements that can promote of IRBM, i.e
Geographic Information System (GIS), remote sensing, hydrologic and hydraulic modeling thatcan been used to support decision making in river basin management. New systems designed
assist planner and decision maker in making appropriate decision for any particular basin.
4.3 MSMA
Malaysian Stormwater Management Manual, a comprehensive manual and guideline adopted
an integrated approach in addition to being proactive and preventive. There is appropriate
standards set which conform to best practices. MSMA contemplates a eco‐friendly stormwater
management practise based on Stormwater Quality and Quantity control which contributes tocounteract river pollution issues.
4.4 CASE STUDY: KLANG RIVER CLEAN UP PROGRAM
A total of eight sub‐programs were established to be carried by a Working Committee
comprising Federal Territory, Department of Irrigations and Drainage. The Sub‐Programmes
were construction, maintenance, desilting, beautification; education; enforcement; water quality
monitoring; rehabilitation of aquatic life; treatment of pig‐farm waste and relocation of squatters.

47

5. CURRENT ISSUES ON QUALITY CONTROL OF WATER SOURCE
5.1 IMPLEMENTATION ISSUESIn Malaysia, the jurisdiction and legislative powers in all aspects of water are distributed
between the Federal Government and the State Governments in accordance with the Legislative
Lists of the Federal Constitution. Some of these are relatively old and are irrelevant to serve
current needs and therefore requires to be reviewed.
Since there are numerous laws with gaps and overlaps, there are also many agencies anddepartments involved dealing with fragmented sectoral functions. There is invariably lack ofresources to carry out the enforcement. The penalties are inadequate and political will is often
lacking. Enforcement in environmental program is crucial and the primary goal is to change
human behavior so that environmental requirements are complied with.
5.2 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
Solid waste also contributed to the deterioration in water quality through the presence of
decayed organics. Under a study partly funded by ADB, a total tonnage between 465 ton/day to
767 ton/day enters the Klang River System. In 2006, Alam Flora collected an average of 50,000
tons of rubbish daily from Klang River. From average growth rate of rubbish produce in the city,
if no concrete action is taken to prevent the dumping of rubbish in rivers, about 850 tonnes willenter the river system daily by 2020.
In 2006, Alam Flora recorded the composition of solid wastes in the city was from factories 30%,squatter areas 25%, hawkers 17%, debris from surroundings 10% and individuals 18%, For theother areas, dumping of rubbish into the rivers are rampant and little can be done since most ofthese areas used are still not well develop, blocked from public observation and most of the
dumping is done at night. The problem is made worse as the penalty for illegal dumping isrelatively small (maximum of RM 2,000.00).
5.3 WATER QUALITY
Water Quality monitoring programmes monitored by Department of Environment. There are 30
water quality monitoring stations around Klang Valley. Sampling results are often governed bymany factors, i.e. time and space; sampling stations; quantity of flow and rainfall events.
5.4 ILLEGAL SQUATTERS
According to survey carried out by the Selangor State Government and DBKL in 1997 and 1998,
the estimated numbers of squatter’s population residing in the Klang Valley totaled
approximately 300,000 with 130,000 living in the Federal Territory. Squatter settlement presently
occupying approximately 571 hectares (2.4%) of total land use and the composition of illegal
immigrants at these sites were reported high (30%).

48

The presence of squatters within river reserves is detrimental to the river in a number of ways.
These areas are not provided with proper sewerage and rubbish disposal facilities. As such mostof the sewage and sullage water generated within the area are channeled directly to the river.
These squatters are characterised by unacceptable environmental conditions, high fire risks anda general lack of hygiene. Based on a United States projection of an average consumption of 150
l/day per person, the total sullage and sewerage water generated by squatters channeled directly
into the Klang River is estimated at 4.5 million litres daily.
By the end 2011, targeted date for a squatter free nation as proposed by Ministry of Federal
Territories, probably 80% of the problems associated with riverine squatter and solid waste will

be addressed.
5.5 SEWERAGE
In 1998, the Department of Environment reports that only 46% of the wastewater plants within
the Klang Valley comply with DOE standards. From the above, it is estimated about more thanhalf the plants are still not able to comply with DOE’s standard. These still represent a sizeable
portion to cause river pollution. Indahwater Sdn. Bhd expected that 85% of these plants will beable to comply and perform an overall improvement in year 2005 if the other sources were toalso being taken care off.

5.6 SULLAGE WATERS/ ILLEGAL FACTORIES
Sullage water from domestics and commercial sources are believed to significantly affect water
quality. In the Federal Territory of Kuala Lumpur alone, the numbers of licensed hawkers andpetty traders are estimated to total about 35,000. Out of these 65% are located in City Centre
presumably discharging their sullage water into storm drains. Based on a United States
projection of 100 litres/stall/day water usage in City Centre , therefore between 2.2‐2.3 million
cubic litres are directly discharged into rivers daily and between 8 to 10 tonnes of organic load
enters the rivers daily. This figure is for Kuala Lumpur city alone and has not considered
pollution load from other municipalities in the Klang Valley.
Observation made by DID in 2004 for food stalls and restaurants also reveal sullage waterpollution strength of the same magnitude with BOD5 for restaurant and food courts averaging
1046 mg/l.

Sullage from wet markets showed less strength for BOD5 of 510 mg/l. It wasobserved during the sampling process, that almost all restaurants and food court discharge theirsullage waste into the drains. Considering more than 10,000 outlets in the Federal Territory alone
and thousand more within the basin, average load from food outlet can easily reach 20 tonnes
per day.
Correspondingly, a large numbers of residence in the Klang Valley have their third kitchen
directly connected to the storm water drainage system rather than to the sewerage system. With49

an estimated total residence number of about 1.6 million in the Klang Valley, and only
considering 2 % of these houses is discharging their kitchen and laundry water into the storm
drains, about 8 million litres of sullage water would be discharged into the rivers daily. (basedon a average daily household use of water of 250 litres/family/day).
Sullage water from wet market is another source of pollution. The older premises within the city
are still not equipped with pollutant trapping devices and thus have their sullage water andother solid waste directly channeled into the drains and rivers.
It is not known the exact numbers of illegal factories but reports indicate a considerable
pollutants load generated by these premises. The pollutants mainly comprises of chemicals andmetals that are then discharge into the rivers.
To reduce pollution from food stalls and restaurants, short term measures must include the useof grease trap and long term would require all food stall outlets be accommodated in food courts
equipped with proper wastewater treatment system..
6. CONCLUSION
Current efforts are channeled in good integrated water resources management in Kuala Lumpur
City. IRBM can play an important role to improve water quality in rivers. This includes theintegration of land and water related aspects, which should be carried out at the level of thecatchment basin or sub‐basin.
The enforcement program is another area which the committee needs to look into. To raiseawareness level, all parties, including those from department and agencies related to rivermanagement, business communities, educators and media must play a bigger role to translate
the message across. Society must demand from our political master action that will ensure
environmental and rivers are manages in a sustainable manner.

REFERENCE:
Department of Statistics Malaysia (2000‐2010): Population density, population growthrate, Land area
Ir. Juhaimi Jusoh,The Klang River Cleanup Program‐Issues and Challenges: Paper
presented at Seminar on Pollution Prevention for Klang River, Selangor Department ofEnvironment, 3 September 2002.
Jabatan Alam Sekitar (JAS) Malaysia, (1998); Laporan Program Kawalan Pencemaran
Air, Program Pembersihan Sg. Klang/ Gombak 1997 (unpublished)

50

Jabatan Alam Sekitar (JAS) Malaysia (1999); Laporan Setengah Tahun 1999, Program
Kawalan Pencemaran Air, Program Pembersihan Sg. Klang/ Gombak (unpublished)
JPS Malaysia : Laporan pemantauan kualiti air luahan di restoran, medan makan dan
pasar oleh asma sekitar Malaysia Sdn. Bhd.
Kuala Lumpur City Plan 2020

51

URBANIZATION AND WATER QUALITY OF
VIENTIANE CAPITAL, LAO PDR.
Kongngeun Chounlamountry
Department of Water Resources,
Water Resources and Environment Administration
Lao PDR

ABSTRACT
Rapid urbanization and development from agriculture to an industrialized economy in
Vientiane Capital have dramatically changed hydrological parameters resulting in highincidence of flash floods. Most of land uses are used for economic value added and wetland was
threatened by people living surrounding the area. The wetland areas supply a wide range of
economically valuable goods and services. Urban development throughout the city has been
growing in an unplanned manner often resulting in aggravating flooding and drainage
problems. The wastewater from individual households is discharged into open drains along theroads and into the natural wetlands in and around the city due to inadequate water sanitation
system. Need to formulate a master plan for improvement of water environment in Vientiane,
including the formulation of countermeasures against the worsening hygienic environment andthe formulation of environmental conservation measures. Law enforcement should be strictly
applied for the successful implementation of the government policy.

BACKGROUND
Lao PDR is a landlocked country with the area of 236,800 km2 and in 2006, the population is 5,8
millions habitants with the density of about 24 persons/km². The climate condition is tropical,
influenced by the Southeast monsoon and 80% of which are mountainous, mainly in the
Northern region, the remaining 20% comprising mostly flat floodplains along the Mekong Riverin which 35% of flow contribution comes from Lao PDR.
Lao PDR is abundant of water resources in term of quantity. Total average annual available
surface water resources are 272 km3 which is equivalent to more than 55,000 m3 on an annual per
capita basis. In comparison to other Asian countries, it has been the highest per capita watersupply. However, little of the national available water supply is developed. The total storage
capacity of large reservoirs is 7,000 MCM (million m3) or 2.8% of annual surface water supply.

52

Several natural and man‐made lakes, many main tributaries and more than 1,700 km of MekongRiver are working as natural treatment plant for any source of pollution.
In order to promote sustainable socio‐economic development, the Lao Government has madeefforts to protect the environment and conserve the natural resources by issuing policy, laws andregulations to promote sustainable socio‐economic development.
The water quality monitoring network project was launched in January 1985 with financial
assistance from Swedish International Development Authority (SIDA). The results have so far
shown that the Mekong river water is of good quality, but some of the tributaries have water
quality problems related to land use, i.e., erosion in highland regions, salinization in the central
and eastern part of the basin, eutrophication in agricultural and urban areas, and acidification in
the delta. Surface water quality monitoring also needs data obtained from studies ofgroundwater and rainwater, as well as pesticides indicator organisms, which together withinformation on land use, topography, agricultural practices, soil types and geology will create abase for an integrated data evaluation. Water pollution from unplanned urban and industrial
areas, destruction of important ecosystems and contamination by pesticides and toxic substances
are exacerbated by emigration from rural to urban areas lacking basic infrastructure and social
services.
Vientiane Capital is the largest city of the Lao PDR, the urban area is divided into 112 villages.
The core urban population was estimated to be 161,000 in the year 2000 with a growth rate of 1%(ADB, 2001). However, the city outskirts are expanding at a much faster rate, with the growthrate in Vientiane Municipality as high as 3% in 2001 (MAF, 2002).

SOCIO‐ECONOMICAL AND NATURAL CONDITIONSVientiane Capital, with the area of 329,000 km2, the number of Population is as follows:
1980:
1990:
2000:
2005:
2010:

196,731474,000
680,000
692,900
788,165

Density: 50 p\km2
Density: 121 p\km2
Density: 173 p\km2
Density: 176 p\km2
Density: 201 p\km2

Vientiane Capital City contains almost 1,500 km2 of permanent and seasonal water bodies,floodplains, swamps and marshes. The wetland areas supply a wide range of economicallyvaluable goods and services, including fishery products, farming and natural resource collection
activities, maintenance of water quality and supplies, and treatment of domestic, agriculturaland industrial wastes.

53

Mean annual precipitation in VT Capital is approximately 1,700 mm (JICA, 2002), but the wholecountry ranges from 900 mm to 3,500 mm, about 90% of precipitation occurs from May throughOctober and is increasing in recent years.
RGDP is about 350 USD and 490 USD in 2000 and 2005 respectively, 58% of population has
access to water supply at the national level while 62% in Vientiane City. In the year 2000,

52 %of the households had access to safe drinking water, in urban area which was twice as many
compared to the rural area (75.5 % in urban and 37.6 % in rural areas).
Within the urban districts of Vientiane Capital City (formally called the Vientiane Prefecture),
more than 80% of the households have access to potable water. The supply is abstracted fromone of two intakes on the Mekong River, one of which is upstream and the other downstream of
the urban core. Water is treated prior to distribution and the quality and reliability of supply is
generally considered to be good.
For the socio‐economical conditions, it is necessary to consider about the population projection
and the projection of industrial zone which will be developed. New development plan for fourareas (i.eThat Luang Development area, DongPhosy Development Area, Stadium Development
Area and Vientiane Industrial Zone), is being formulated.

At present, the land‐use plans areformulated, but the population projection is not available or under preparation. The plan for theVientiane Industrial Zone is being prepared under the JICA Study “Preparatory Study on
Industrial Zone in the Lao People’s Democratic Republic”.
That Luang Marsh is the largest of the urban wetlands, situated on the outskirts of VientianeCity, it provides important resources and agricultural land for local communities both in the cityand in the bordering rural areas. It also functions in flood protection and water treatment for theurban center. Water draining into That Luang Marsh comes primarily from the Hong Ke stream
which collects its water from drainage canals running throughout Vientiane.

Water runningout of the marsh follows Houay Mak Hiao River dumping into the Mekong 64 km south east ofVientiane. That Luang wastewater management project was designed to improve wastewater
treatment and drainage out of the central Vientiane area. The project built a system ofstabilization ponds at That Luang Marsh designed to serve an estimated population of 44,590 for2005 with a per capita BOD1 discharge of 45g/capita/day assuming 50% of the pollutant load
would reach the treatment plant. (ADB, 2000b)
In 1999 the T4N road was improved, running the length of the west side of the wetland andconnecting the center of the city to the Thadeua highway (N2) which leads to the Thai border.
The improvement of this road, and the resulting increase in traffic has led to the construction ofa large number of shops, restaurants, and factories along the western edge of the That Luang
Marsh. This gradual development expansion has encroached on the marsh and resulted inconsiderable loss of wetland area.

54

Due to the government policy, most of land use near the water source will be converted in toeconomic value through investment of infrastructure. That Luang Marsh is currently performing
wastewater treatment services for domestic wastewater and plays a significant role in both flood
control and wastewater purification for the city.

EFFLUENT LOAD TO THE SOURCE
In general, Biological Oxygen Demand was 2.0. BOD values observed were not so high, allowingthat the data were all in the rainy season. For domestic wastewater, actual data is not available inVientiane City, 45 g/capita/day, is applied. In 2002, industrial wastewater in VT City is about
8,224,000 m3/year and in 2020, assumed as 9,490,000 m3/year or 26,000 m3/day which is theintermediate value of 5,600 m3 /day (for 2015) and 46,400 m3 /day (for 2025). Due to limitation ofbudget and human resources, very little data on industrial wastewater is available. The survey
factories (such as Beer Lao, Slaughter House, Paper Factory) do not have a strong impact on thewater environment of Mak Hiao River basin or they are located out of Mak Hiao River basin
before flowing to the Mekong river. As for BOD, so far three (3) monitoring surveys wereconducted, but unfortunately the analysis results of February and March by WREA‐WERI, areproved unreliable. Therefore, only the result of June 2009 analyzed by a laboratory in Thailand,
the highest BOD of 15.4 mg/l was observed at downstream end of Hong Thong (SP4), followedby downstream of Hong Pasak (SP3) and downstream of Hong Khoua Khao (SP5) with the BOD
values of 14.3 mg/l and 11.6 mg/l, respectively. There is a limitation of BOD data monitored onlyin the rainy season, BOD values were not so high, especially in the lower part.

At themonitoring points where the low BOD (about less than 3.0 mg/l) was observed, the total/fecal
coliform number was also small as a whole and thus the correlation between BOD and total/fecal
coliform was given to some extent. The BOD values in the downstream points of the Hong Pasak
and Hong Wattay Drainage Canals were considerably decreased, as compared with the values in
the upstream points. Almost 70% of the BOD value was decreased in the Hong Pasak Drainage
Canal, and almost 50% of the BOD value was decreased in the Hong Wattay Drainage Canal.
The amount of industrial wastewater production around the city is little known as well as about
the extent of industrial water pollution. Ministry of Industry is responsible for the treatment of
all wastewater and by‐products produced as a part of the industrial processes (MIH, 1994). Now,
The Water Resources and Environment Administration (WREA) is responsible for theassessment and monitoring of wastewater quality. WREA is currently in the process ofdeveloping an environmental monitoring system for the country as a whole but at this point,
very little information is available about the industrial wastes. Urban development throughout
the city has been growing in an unplanned manner often resulting in aggravating flooding anddrainage problems, partly due to the limited capacity at the municipal planning level. Moreover,there has been little sustainable built‐in project design resulting in discontinued use of55

wastewater stabilization ponds and limited use of the waste treatment plant in That Luang
wetland.
Situation of quantity and quality of the water source

Name

Volume ofavailable water(m3)

Volume ofabstracted water (m3)Beneficial Use(Domestic, industry,
agriculture) (%)
Domestic

Surface water

334,719

Non information

78,714,530

Non information

3,958,177

Non information

IndustryGood(reservoirʹ name)Surface water(rierʹ name)
Ground water

Water
quality

67.57(aquiferʹ name)

8.30

Good
Good

WATER QUALITY MONITORING
The water quality monitoring surveys consist of (1) Periodical Monitoring and (2) Longitudinal
Simultaneous Monitoring, and so far three periodical monitoring surveys and one longitudinalvariation monitoring survey have been conducted. The periodical monitoring is planned to be
conducted four times in 2009, namely three times in the dry season (November to April), andone time in the rainy season (May to October). In addition to the periodical monitoring,
longitudinal simultaneous monitoring was carried out from June 2009 to evaluate thelongitudinal water quality variation and natural purification function of Hong Ke and Hong
Xeng and their tributaries. The longitudinal simultaneous monitoring is planned to be
conducted two times in 2009, namely one time in the dry season (November to April), and one
time in the rainy season (May to October).

CURRENT MEASURES ON QUALITY CONTROL FOR THE WATER SOURCE
The law on general water environment is ʺWater and Water Resources Law,ʺ which was issued
in 1996.

This law stipulates the principles on the management, utilization and development ofwater and water resources from the viewpoint of the river basin with the purposes of securing
the quantity and quality of water matching the needs in the peopleʹs lives, with keeping its
sustainability. Provisions on water supply and wastewater, however, are not clear in this law.
Thus, a new law ʺWater Supply Lawʺ is now being developed with the assistance of the World
Bank, which is expected to be issued in 2010. Major objectives of the new law are not only thepromotion of privatization in water supply services and wastewater services but also the control
of privatization.

56

The basic environmental law of Lao PDR is the Environmental Protection Law (EPL), which
was established in 1999.

It stipulates the framework of environment management and the

responsibilities of related organizations, of which the central one is STEA (restructured to WREA
in 2007).

It specifies necessary principles, rules and measures for managing, monitoring,

restoring, and protecting the environment in order to protect public, natural resources and bio
diversity, and to ensure the sustainable socio‐economic development of Lao PDR.
Development projects and operations that have or will have the potential to affect theenvironment should submit an environmental assessment report to the agency in charge ofenvironmental management and monitoring for issuance of an environmental compliancecertificate before starting the projects.
Based on the Lao National Environment Standard No. 2734\PMO. WEREA dated 7\12\2009,
some water quality standards have been approved by WREA to use as the standard forcontrolling water quality of different beneficial uses such as: standard for drinking water:organic, standard for drinking water in container: physic and chemistry, standard for groundwater in general, standard for wastewater discharge from industry (in general),standard for

wastewater discharge from sugar cane industry, standard for wastewater discharge from textile
and garment with dying industry, standard for wastewater discharge from paper mill industry.
Besides these standards, there are also other standards dealing with environment activities andit is a good instrument that can use for reference during inspection and monitoring.

CURRENT ISSUES ON WATER QUALITY CONTROL FOR THE WATER SOURCE
Due to rapid growth of population and appropriate urbanization plan, the city is lacking aproper sanitation network, which is seriously threatening the health situation of the population
due to discharge of wastewater into low‐land areas. Urban development throughout the city has
been growing in an unplanned manner often resulting in aggravating flooding and drainage
problems.

In more recent years, urban expansion and development projects have filled large

areas of marsh and rice paddy for construction of business and houses. Drains are generally notadequately interconnected and do not form a network and are lined in the center area, andcovered in front of commercial establishments. Water quality of their surface water andremaining marshes has been getting worse and water quantity is increasing due to inflow ofdomestic wastewater from urban areas as a result of improved living standards, rapid economic
growth, and population increase.
Currently, Vientiane city lacks effective systems of development control, and therefore themeans to control the future development and its concomitant environmental degradation are
inefficient. The drainage system is shown to be inadequate. Added to that, the contaminatedliquid waste with fecal matter from the latrines is being directly discharged into the drainage
channels or drains with oviform from septic tank effluents. Stormwater drainage is found to be a57

serious issue in Vientiane city in the year 2000. Most drains are clogged with garbage, reflecting
the absence of an organized system for solid waste disposal in the city. Water in the drainage
system is invariably contaminated with fecal matter from latrines and E. coli form septic tankeffluent, presenting health risks. Sanitation system entails an on‐site disposal of human waste
without any introduction of full water‐based sewerage with treatment facility and safe disposal
arrangements (STEA, 2001).
The wastewater from individual households is discharged into open drains along the roads andinto the natural wetlands in and around the city. There are 1,256 households discharged theirsewage directly into the surface water and 501 households with no toilet at all within areas thatare draining into Hong Ke and That Luang Marsh. For Thatluang wetland, main problems foundare wastewater and sewage (from the city area) which discharge into the marsh. A part of such
water is diluted by irrigation water pumped from the Mekong River to the surrounding rice
fields through various canal systems.

Because of the absence of sewage collection andtreatment systems in most of Vientiane, wastewater from poorly operating household septic
tanks still predominantly discharge into open drains along the roads and into natural wetlands,
which in turn is evacuated by the rectified channel network.
In Vientiane 67% of the households have the soak pit and septic tank facility, 26% have theholding tank facility, 5% of households have only the septic tank facility and 2% households
don’t have any wastewater disposal facility (Danish Ministry of Foreign Affairs & DANIDA
2000)
Prior to 1999, Vientiane had no sewage collection and treatment system, and domestic
wastewater, septic tank effluents and stormwater were all discharged into an increasingly
inadequate drainage network of this low‐lying city, leading to frequent local flooding during
heavy rain events.
There are many laws and regulations related to water quality control, but law enforcement isstill not applicable effectively. Due to limitation of competent staff, budget and instruments toinspect and monitor waste water, the inspection of factories are not conducted properly and also
some factories do not completely follow the Regulation on the Wastewater Discharge from
Industrial Processing Factories under the Ministry of Industry and Handicrafts (now is Ministryof Industry and Commerce). Due to the rapid growth of development, some laws such as
Environmental Protection law and Water and Water Resources Law need to be review andrevise to support the real situation of the country and it is expected to be submitted to the
National Assembly by 2010 and 2011 respectively. The poor drainage of wastewater and septage
from septic tanks and poorly designed on‐site sanitation creates a major concern for publichealth, causing widespread pollution of surface water and groundwater.

58

URBANIZATION AND WATER QUALITY CONTROL FOR
THE WATER SOURCE IN SEOUL
Yang‐Seok Cho1, Kyung‐Hyun Kim1, Yu‐Jeong Huh2,
Tae‐Gu Kang1, Oh‐Sang Kwon1,
and Dong‐Il Jung1
National Institute of Environmental Research
Republic of Korea

ABSTRACT
Seoul, the largest city of Korea with the area of 605km2, is a typical model of rapid urbanization.
More than 10 million people live in the city, and its Gross Regional Domestic Product(GRDP) has
increased seven times more during the last 20 years from 38 billion USD in 1987 to 206 billion

USD in 2005. The main water source of Seoul, from which 847 million m3/day of water is abstracted,
is Paldang reservoir and Han River. The total drainage area for the abstraction point is 24,297 km2.
There are 19 monitoring sites on Pandang reservoir and Han River each, and 140 sites in upstream

region to monitor the water quality. There are several central government plans for the water
sources including Total Water Pollution Load Management System (TWPLMS) which isenforced by the law, and separated sewerage system at the watershed of Wangsuk stream.
Because Seoul city does not have city‐own water sources, it is very difficult to establish plans tomanage them directly. So instead they resolve the difficulty indirectly for example by reducing
water usage and establishing various plans to use Han River and three main streams of Seoul ina water‐friendly way.

INTRODUCTION
Sometimes urbanization causes distortion of water and heat cycles. This distortion can be thereason of increment of the energy consumption. The distortion of water cycle can result in
urbanized flood or dry stream and the distortion of heat cycle can cause heat island or tropicalnight. Both are closely related to overall energy consumption.

1

Water Environment Research Department, National Institute of Environmental Research

2

Yeongsan River Environment Research Center, National Institute of Environmental Research59

It is difficult that Seoul controls the water sources directly because they are located outside of thecity’s jurisdictional boundary. Therefore, it is important for the city to cooperate with
Gyeonggi‐do, the jurisdictional district surrounding the city, to manage the water sources
appropriately and various supporting program is needed for the residents of upstream district of
the river. From this, issues of water source of Seoul arise and we will introduce the issues andhow the city deals with them.

FIGURE 1. THE URBANIZATION AND

FIGURE 2. MAJOR STREAM IN SEOULENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

SOCIO‐ECONOMICAL AND NATURAL CONDITIONS OF SEOUL
Seoul, the largest city of Korea with the area of 605km2, is a typical model of rapid urbanizationand more than 10 million people live in the city. Han River flows across the city and meets threemajor streams, Jungrang, Tan, and Anyang streams along its path to the sea. The upstream of thestreams belongs to different cities and the pollution sources of these cities are affecting thestreams’ water quality in the boundary of Seoul (see Figure 2).
The population of Seoul has increased since 1980, from 8.4 million but gradually decreases fromthe peak of 10.6 million in 1990. It can be explained by the low birth rate and the migration to theneighbor cities recently developed by new town development projects. The population densityof Seoul has kept about 16,000 persons/km2 level. Meanwhile, Gross Regional Domestic
Product(GRDP) of Seoul has increased seven times during the last 20 years from 38 billion USD
in 1987 to 206 billion USD in 2005 (see Table 1).

60

Table 1. Socio‐economical condition of Seoul
Year

1980

Population(1000persons)Population Density(persons/km2)
GRDP(Million$)

1990

2000

2005

8,367

10,625

10,373

10,297

13,82017,532

16,342

16,221

38,251*

68,833

120,152

206,218

Note: * is GRDP in 1987

Mean annual rainfall of Seoul is 1,344 mm and there was a drought period in 2000. Percentage of
people who can access the tapped water system has reached to 100% level since 2000, andpercentage of people who can access the domestic wastewater treatment system has reached tonearly 100% since 2005 (see Table 2).

Table 2. Precipitation and the water system in Seoul
Year
Annual average precipitation(mm)
Tappedwater
systemaccessible people (%)
Wastewater treatment systemaccessible people (%)

1980

1990

2000

2005

1,242.4

2,355.5

1,186.8

1,358.4

92.7

99.6

99.99

99.998

25.1

97.9

98.3

99.7

SITUATION OF QUANTITY AND QUALITY OF THE WATER SOURCE
The water sources of Seoul, from which 847 million m3/day of water is abstracted, are Paldang
reservoir and Han River as shown in Figure 3. The drainage area of each source is 23,800 km2
and 497 km2 respectively.
Total use of water resources in Korea is about 27%, and more than half of them come from dam
water. Even though Seoul uses water from the Han River, it can be considered that it relies on
dam water 100% as the river is affected by the discharge of Paldang reservoir (see Figure 4).

61

FIGURE 3. THE WATER SOURCES OF SEOULFIGURE 4. DOMESTIC WATER USE IN KOREAAs shown in Table 3, Seoul abstracts 2.6 million m3/day of water from Pandang reservoir, and5.87 million m3/day of water from Han River. Beneficial use of the water is all domestic. The
water quality of Pandang reservoir is 1.3mg/L in BOD5 as annual mean, and the final intake of
Han River is 1.9 mg/L.

Table 3. Situation of quantity and quality of the water source in Seoul

Name
Surface water(Paldang Reservoir)
Surface water(Han River)Volumeofavailable water(Million m3/day)

Volumeofabstracted water(Million m3/day)

Beneficial Use(domestic,
industry,
agriculture) (%)

7,985

2.60

Domestic 100%

14

5.87

Domestic 100%

Water quality
BOD 1.3 mg/L
COD 3.8 mg/L
BOD 1.9 mg/L
COD 4.1 mg/L

EFFLUENT LOAD TO THE SOURCE
For the land use around Han River and Paldang reservoir, the water sources of Seoul, building
land type land use is accounted for approximately 60%, and in Gyeonggi‐do, the upstream areaof Seoul, forest field type land use is accounted for 65%. As the building land type land use of
Gyeonggi‐do is accounted only 8%, it shows that there was low development of upriver district(see Table 4).

62

Table 4. Land use around the water source

Table 5. Effluent and BOD Loadaround the water source

Province

Total
(km2)

Seoul
(km2)

Gyeonggi‐do (km2)

Total

718.3

58.9

659.4

Dry Paddy Type

53.2

2.3

50.9

Rice Paddy Type

47.3

1.5

45.8

Forest Field Type

432.8

5.4

427.4

Building Land Type

85.4

35.0

50.4

Others

99.6

14.7

84.9

SectorEffluent
Load(1000m3/d
ay)

BOD
Load
(tons/
day)

Total

461.0

4.5

Domestic

187.9

3.3

Industry

127.5

0.8

Agriculture

145.6

0.4

Effluent load from aforementioned surrounding area into the water sources is 461,000 m3/day,and the ratio of each sector is similar. Whereas, BOD load is 4.5 tons/day, and more than 70% ofthat is discharged from domestic sources (see Table 5).

CURRENT MEASURE ON QUALITY CONTROL FOR THE WATER SOURCE
According to the environmental water quality standards of Ministry of Environment(MOE),
Biochemical Oxygen Demand(BOD) and Chemical Oxygen Demand(COD) standards are set for
stream water while COD and nutrients for lake water as shown in Table 6. Other items
commonly applied to stream and lake water such as pH, Dissolved Oxygen(DO), fecal coliform,
and total coliform are not included in Table 6. For total nitrogen (TN) and total phosphorus(TP), if TN/TP ratio is under 7, the TP standard is not applied and if above 16, nor is the TN
standard.
As shown in Table 7, the water quality criteria of wastewater is set differently for four areas:
Clean, Ga, Na, and privileged areas, where each area indicates very good grade ofenvironmental standards, above fairly good, above poor, and the public treatment plant or thecomplex area of agricultural industry, respectively.
Effluent water quality standard of the public treatment facilities is showed in Table 8, and in thecase of total nitrogen and total phosphorus, the standard is set by dividing the facility capacity
into above 50 m3/day and under. During the winter season, December to March, the standard for
TN and TP is 60mg/L and 8mg/L each regardless of the capacity.

63

Table 6. Environmental water quality standard for the water source

Status
Symb.

Grade

StreamReservoir

BOD COD SS(㎎/L) (㎎/L) (㎎/L)

COD
(㎎/L)

SS
(㎎/L)

TP
(㎎/L)

Chloro‐TNphyll‐a(㎎/L)(㎎/m3)

Very Good

Ia

1

2

25

2

1

0.01

0.2

5

Good

Ib

2

4

25

3

5

0.02

0.3

9

Fairly Good II

3

5

25

4

5

0.03

0.4

14

Fair

III

5

7

25

5

15

0.05

0.6

20

Fairly Poor

IV

8

9

100

8

15

0.10

1.0

35

Poor

V

10

11

No trash10

No trash

0.15

1.5

70

Very Poor

VI

> 10

> 11

‐

> 10

‐

> 0.15

> 1.5

> 70

Note: For TN and TP, if TN/TP ratio is under 7, the TP standard is not applied and if above 16, nor is
the TN standard.

Table 7. Allowable water quality criteria of the
Wastewater
Wastewater
Discharge
Above
2,000
m3/dayUnder
2,000
m3/dayBOD(mg/L)
COD(mg/L)
SS(mg/L)
BOD(mg/L)
COD(mg/L)
SS(mg/L)

Clean
Area

Ga
Area

Na
Area

Privileged
Area

30

60

80

30

40

70

90

40

30

60

80

30

40

80

120

30

Table 8. Water quality standard of
the effluent public
treatment plant
Waste
Treatment
Water
Capacity (m3/day)
QualityItem
Above 50 Under 50
BOD (㎎/L)
COD (㎎/L)
SS (㎎/L)TN (㎎/L)
TP (㎎/L)

10
40
10
20
2

40
4

Note: During the winter season, December
to March, the standard for TN and TP is

50

90

130

40

60mg/L and 8mg/L each regardless of thecapacity.

40

80

120

30

There are 19 monitoring sites in each Pandang reservoir and Han River, and 140 sites in upstream
region to monitor the water quality (see Table 9). Total 36 water quality variables are monitored andthey are listed as: pH, DO, BOD, COD, Suspended Solids(SS), TN, Ammonium Nitrogen(NH3‐N),
Nitrate Nitrogen(NO3‐N), TP, temperature, phenol, electric conductivity, fecal coliform, total coliform,
Dissolved Total Nitrogen(DTN), Dissolved Total Phosphorus(DTP), Phosphate Phosphorus(PO4‐P),64chlorophyll‐a, Cd, CN, Pb, Cr+6, As, Hg, Alkyl Benzene Sulfonate(ABS), Sb, Trichloroethylene(TCE),
Tetrachloroethylene(PCE),

CCl4,

1,2‐dichloroethane,dichloromethane,benzene,chloroform,

Poly‐Chlorinated Biphenyl(PCB), organic phosphorus, and diethylhexylphtalate (DEHP).
To control the water quality of the water sources as shown in Table 10, first, MOE has
designated the surrounding area as a restricted area and applied strict environmental standards
for wastewater discharge facilities within a specified area. And then it has limited thedevelopment activities, fishing, farming and other activities that cause pollution, and installed
water pollution prevention facilities such as advanced sewage treatment facilities.

Table 9. Situation of quality monitoring
for the water source
Monitoring
Main
Junction
PeriodSitestream stream

Paldang
Reservoir

Han River

Total

13

6

Monthly8‐

Weekly

5

6

Total

6

13

Monthly4

12Weekly2

1

Table 10. Area of designation
for the restricted areas
Area of Designation(km2)
Restricted Area Name
Special Countermeasure
Area
Water Supply Source
Protection Area
NaturalEnvironment
Preservation Area
Development‐Restricted
Area
Waterside Area

Total

Paldang Han
Reservoir River

2,102

2,102

‐

165

159

6

3,831

3,831

‐

357

168

189

191

191

‐

The restricted areas consist of Special Countermeasure Area, Water Supply Source Protection
Area, Natural Environment Preservation Area, Development Restricted Area and Waterside
Area. The status of designation for each restricted area is as shown in Table 10. Redundant
designation can be found in some of the restricted areas. As shown in Figure 5, CCTVs are
installed in some vulnerable area to constantly monitor water pollution event and the advanced
sewer treatment facilities are installed to remove nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus.
As one of water quality preservation means, Total Water Pollution Load Management
System(TWPLMS) is being implemented to control pollution sources and to preserve water
quality of the water source in an appropriate level. The local governments analyze the current
pollution sources and the future development plan in their jurisdictional areas and establish
pollution reduction plans. Then they obtain the approval from MOE for the plans before
implement them. Three cities voluntarily implemented TWPLMS in Han River watershed.
To improve the quality of the water source, Han River watershed fund is established and thetotal avenue is approximately 360 million USD per year which is charged to the water users in65

proportion to use amount. The fund is used to support the residents in the restricted area andthe major projects such as promoting water quality improvement projects and purchasing theland of the riverside areas.

Figure 6. Public waste treatment plant
nearby the water source

Figure 5. CCTV monitoring for the waterpollution vulnerable area

CURRENT ISSUES ON QUALITY CONTROL FOR THE WATER SOURCE
The issues on the quality control of the water source in Seoul include redundant regulations andactivities restriction on 5 restricted areas, the water users being different from polluters, users
paying not polluters paying, urban development close to the restricted areas, and a public waste
treatment plant nearby the water resource(see Figure 6).
The public waste treatment plant nearby the water source is on the combined sewerage systemthat by‐passes incompletely treated sewer into Wangsuk stream nearby Han River during rainyseason, and this severely affects the Han River water source. To solve these issues, the central
government makes efforts to switch the TWPLMS from voluntary to mandatory one and tochange combined sewerage systems to separated systems.
To support residents of water source protection area, the Seoul metropolitan government runs
supporting programs that include building agricultural roads, funding educational expenses,
electric fees, and medical expenses. They also support 15 NGOs those have above 100 members
for the water quality preservation activities.

66

CONCLUSION
The typical water environmental problems as a result of urbanization in Seoul are increment of
non‐permeable land sites, reduction of stream flows, disappearance of water‐friendly space,difficulty of securing the water resource, change of ecological system, and worsening urban heatisland phenomenon
Seoul cannot control the water sources directly, so it is impossible to establish direct
management plans about the water resources. Therefore, they try to reduce use of water
resources, by doing this they resolve the issues about the water source and establish a variety ofwater renewal plans to utilize Han River and three major streams of Seoul in a water‐friendlyway.
The water renewal plan of Seoul includes expansion of advanced environmental treatment
facilities, reinforced supervision for wastewater discharge facilities, operation of citizen
supervisory organization, periodic dredging of Han River water source, establishment ofpollution crisis response by accidents, preparation of ecological stream for major stream in Seoul,
and the rainwater management measures.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was supported by Chang Jin Yun, Deputy Director of Water Management Bureau,
Seoul Metropolitan Government.

REFERENCES (SELECTED)
Environment of Seoul, February 2009, Seoul2009 White Paper on Paldang, December 2009, Gyeonggi‐do
48th Statistical Yearbook of Seoul, 2008, Seoul
Water Quality Monitoring Management Plan, 2009, Ministry of Environment

Websites
URL: http://www.seoul.go.kr/
URL: http://www.kosis.kr/
URL: http://paldang.gg.go.kr/

67

URBANIZATION AND WATER QUALITY CONTROLIN JAPAN
Shu Nishi
Water Environment Division
Environmental Management Bureau,
Ministry of the Environment,
Japan

ABSTRACTThe rapid urbanization and economic growth that Japan experienced in the 1960s created severe
water pollution problems that had detrimental effects on people’s health, such as Minamata
disease, a neurological syndrome caused by mercury poisoning. To cope with intensifying waterpollution, the Japanese government as well as local governments created and strengthened laws
and regulations to mitigate the problem. The laws and regulations incorporate measures tocontrol effluent discharged into the public water supply from factories and households. For
effluent from factories, effluent standards were set up. The development of a sewerage system
has been a major pillar of water pollution control in urban areas. There are some challenges
involved in developing and maintain a sewerage system, such as public awareness, finance andhuman resources. This paper will briefly look at how the Japanese national and local
governments are tackling issues. Wastewater treatment is very important for the welfare of the
public, and therefore it is the responsibility of the government to take the necessary measures.

1. BRIEF HISTORY OF WATER ENVIRONMENT MANAGEMENT IN JAPANJapan experienced rapid urbanization and economic growth throughout the 1960’s, during
which time the water demand in Tokyo increased at an ever‐increasing rate. Wastewater wasdischarged from factories and households into rivers and the sea without appropriate treatment
because it was not regulated by laws and regulations at that time, and infrastructure forwastewater treatment, such as sewerage, was not fully constructed. Thus, water pollution
increased dramatically in Japan, especially in urban area such as Tokyo.
Pollution problems surged in the 1960s – 1970s. Because of water pollution, health problems
caused by polluted water were observed, and many people had become victims of diseases
caused by pollution. Three out of the four major pollution‐related diseases in Japan were caused
by water pollution: namely Minamata disease, Niigata Minamata disease and Itai‐itai disease.
Minamata disease, which was first officially recognized in 1956, is a neurological syndrome68caused by severe mercury poisoning. Many people in Minamata City in Kumamoto Prefecture,
located in Kyushu Island, developed this disease by the intake of fish and shellfish highly
contaminated by methylmercury released from factories into the public water supply. The healthproblems occurred in the Agano River basin in Niigata, The number of officially recognizedvictims of Minamata disease is about 3,000, including those who have already died.
It was the local governments which tackled these pollution problems, and they started to takeaction proactively before the national government. For example, the Tokyo Metropolitan
Government issued a prevention ordinance in 1949, and other prefectural governments in the
country, such as Osaka, Kanagawa and Fukuoka, soon followed. In response to local
government action against pollution, two national laws were established in 1958: the “Law
Concerning Preservation of Pubic Water Areas” and the “Law Concerning Factory Effluent”.
The establishment of two laws at the national level was a big step forward in the protection of
the water environment, but they were not effective enough to mitigate water pollution, and thesituation worsened mainly due to the following reasons.


Water pollution problems were exacerbated and extended across the nation, but the Law
Concerning Control of Factory Effluent was only applied to the public water areas
designated by the law and could not mitigate the emerging pollution crisis.
The causes of water pollution diversified with the increase in new and growing
industries, but regulations to meet water quality standards were not stringent enough.

Recognizing the deficit of the existing laws and the necessity of new and additional measures tocontrol intensifying pollution, the Japanese government established new laws: the Basic Law forEnvironmental Pollution Control was enacted in 1967. The objective of the law was to resolve
pollution problems by extending measures beyond direct control of pollution sources, throughsystematic and total administrative action. Under the Basic Pollution Control Law, the national
government

establishedenvironmental

standards‐

standards

for

the

environment

recommended for the protection of human health and those for preservation of the living
environment. Following the Basic Pollution Control Law, a new law, the Water Pollution Control
Law, was established in 1970, replacing two laws introduced in 1958. The Water Pollution
Control Law covers all public water bodies and national effluent standards that were introduced
as uniform and national‐minimum standards. Under the law, the violation of effluent standards
was subject to a penalty, no matter whether it occurred by mistake or by intent,69

2. OUTLINE OF MEASURES CONCERNING WATER ENVIRONMENT CONSERVATION(1) MEASURESThe Goal of the water environmental conservation policy is to achieve environmental quality
standards on ambient water. To achieve the goal, various measures and systems wereintroduced in Japan as described below.
9

Measures for Factories and Establishments
 Effluent standards for factories and establishments
 Notification of installation of facilities
 Monitoring of wastewater On‐site inspections
 Order Reports

9

Measures for domestic wastewater
 Enhancement of infrastructure development for wastewater treatment, such as sewerage
and Jokaso (on‐site treatment system of domestic effluent).
 Enhancement of public awareness9

Measures for closed water bodies

9Specific areas/Basic Plan and Control
 Seto Inland Sea
 Ariake Sea and Yatsushiro Sea
 Lakes(2) WATER ENVIRONMENTAL ADMINISTRATION (ORGANISATIONAL ARRANGEMENT)The Government shall make efforts to attain the standard by comprehensively and effectively
implementing policies concerning environmental pollution control. Five ministries are
responsible for water environmental areas: the Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare (MHLW),
the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fishery (MAFF), the Ministry of Economy, Trade andIndustry (METI), the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transportation and Tourism (MLIT), andthe Ministry of the Environment (MOE). The outline of the responsibility is described in Figure 1
below.

70

MHLW
Ministry of Health,Labour and Welfare

Hydroelectric power(METI)

Johkasoh※(MOE・MLIT)
Water supply(MHLW)

River management(MLIT)

Water resource development(MLIT)

Fishery
Aquaculture(MAFF)

MAFF
Ministry of Agriculture,
Forestry and Fisheries
METI
Ministry of Economy,
Trade and Industry

Irrigation
Agricultural water(MAFF)

Environment
QualityStandards(MOE)

Sewage system (MLIT)

Forest maintenance(MAFF)

Industrial water supply(METI)

MLIT
Ministry of Land,
Infrastructure andTransport
MOE
Ministry of theEnvironment

Effluent restriction(MOE)

prevention ofmarine pollution by ships(MOE・MLIT)

Restrictions on Permeation ofHarmful Substances(MOE)

Restrictions ofgroundwater withdrawal(MOE・METI)※On-Site Treatment System of Domestic Effluent

Figure 1.

Responsibilities of different ministries related towater environment management

3. WATER QUALITY CONTROL WITH SUITABLE WASTEWATER TREATMENT
Water pollution is a major issue in large cities. For sustainable development of large cities,
wastewater should be property treated with adequate treatment technologies. For example, achoice of centralized and decentralized treatment systems is the key for effective and efficientmanagement of wastewater. In Japan, Johkasou or sewerage are the major choices for
wastewater treatment based on cost effectiveness of the treatment, which will depend on thevolume and type of wastewater. The following table shows the basic considerations for the
choice of treatment system.

71

Table 1. Comparison of Sewerage and Johkasou
JohkasouSewerage treatment system(Domestic wastewater
treatment)

Wastewater treatment andFunction

Prevention of inundation

Wastewater treatment

Treating wastewater

Treating wastewatercollectively

individually

Suitable area

Urban area

Area of scattered population

Administrator

Municipality

Individual or Municipality

ObjectUseful life offacility

legal

Treatment plant : 23 years
Piping system : 50 years

7 years

past

Treatment plant : 15‐70 years

main body : over 30 years

results

Piping system : 50‐120 years

equipment : 7‐15 years

The following figure shows the coverage rate of wastewater treatment by each treatment methodfor domestic wastewater. Since 1970, when pollution control legislation was strengthened bysuch laws as the Water Pollution Control Law, investment in sewerage works has increased asshown in Figure 2. Along with the expansion of sewerage works, the coverage of wastewater
treatment has increased. For example, the percentage area covered by the sewerage system in thecentral Tokyo was less than 30%. It now stands at 100%. Figure 3 shows recent data of thecoverage rate by each treatment method.

Figure 2. Investment to Sewerage Works

72

100

%

90
80
70
60

71%
0.3
7.2
2.1

74%
0.3
7.6
2.3

78%

82%
80% 81%

84%

76%
0.3
7.8
2.5

0.3
8.1
2.6

0.3
8.4
2.7

0.3
8.8
2.8

0.3
8.8
2.9

0.3
8.6
2.8

(Ministry of the Environment)

Johkasou50(Ministry of the Environment)

40
30

Community Plant

61.8

63.5

65.2

66.7

68.1

69.3

70.5

71.7

20

of
rural community(Ministry
Agriculture,
Forestry andsewerageFisheries)
Sewerage(Ministry of Land,
Infrastructure and Transport)

100FY2000FY2001FY2002FY2003FY2004FY2005FY2006FY2007

Figure 3. Coverage rate of wastewater treatment in Japan (by type of treatment)

4. EXPANDING THE SEWERAGE SYSTEM IN JAPAN
There are various important factors involved in expanding a sewerage system, such as, but notlimited to, public awareness, development of legislation, financial resources, and humanresources. The following are issues experienced by Japan when coping with these factors.
Public awarenessIn the 1950s, intensification of water pollution became a social concern and people began torealise the necessity for wastewater treatment. The central and local governments also provided
information on pollution problems and wastewater treatment issues through education andpublic relation activities.
Development of Legislation
To enforce the development of sewerage systems, regulation and control by the national
government is important. The Sewerage Law was designated in 1958 with the latest amendment
in 2005. Targeting business entities that (will) connect to the sewerage system, the law aims tocontribute to the sound development of cities and enhancement of public health as well as theconservation of water quality in public water bodies through the development of seweragesystems. To this end, the law set up the standards and rules related to the construction andmanagement of sewerage and the creation of comprehensive plans on the development ofbasin‐wide sewerage.

73

Rules and systems concerning financial matters are also very important to promote sewage
treatment systems. Such financial matters include usage fees, payment by beneficiaries,
subsidies and free or low‐interest loans, and the transfer of government owned land.
Financial resources
A sewerage system is very important for improving the living environment and conserving
water quality of the public water body. In Japan, it is considered that the development ofsewerage works is the responsibility of the public sector for the benefit of public welfare andsecurity of the country. Under this recognition, the national and local governments provide
necessary financial arrangements.
The cost of construction, maintenance and management of sewerage is enormous, andtherefore it is very important to try to set up a firm and sustainable financial bases. In
principle, local governments are responsible for applying for an appropriate wastewater
treatment system including sewerage. However, it is very difficult to gain profit throughsewerage works in general. Local governments found themselves in financial distress andwere unable to construct sewerage systems. To address this problem, the national
government provides subsidies to the local government for the construction of a seweragesystem.
The following figures show the ratio of financial resources for construction costs of asewerage system. In the case of Japan, a sewerage user fee is not enough to cover all theadministration costs that include the construction, operation and maintenance of thesewerage system. As for administration costs, about 60% of the burden is financed by the
Sewerage Fee.
Project subject
for national
subsidy, 5%Beneficiaryusers charge,
etc., 5%

Project subject
for national
subsidy, 40%

Project subject
for national
subsidy, 55%

Project subsidized by national governments

Local bounds
and others,
95%

Local government independent project

Figure 4‐1. Construction Cost of Sewerage System (1) (construction of plants)

74

50%

44%

6%

Project subjectfornational subsidy
National government subsidy
95%

5%

Local bounds and others
Beneficiary users charge, etc.

Local government's
independent project

0%

50%

100%

Figure 4‐2. Construction Cost of Sewerage System (2) (Sewer pipes, etc.)

Shortage of Engineers
The lack of engineers at a local government level was one of the biggest barriers to the expansionof sewerage systems throughout the country. To help local governments, technical guidelines on
sewerage were produced by the national government. To attain the goals, national government
and local governments jointly established the Japan Sewage Works Agency (JS) to provide
technical support by sending capable engineers. JS provides the training, research and study
related to sewerage, with subsidies from national and local governments.

CONCLUSION
The national government set up two policies to prevent water pollution: one is concerned withformulating strict regulations for industry, while the other concentrates on developing seweragesystems. Sewerage systems have been developed at an accelerated pace since the basis of thecurrent water environmental policies was set up in the 1970s. In Japan, local governments have
responsibility for the construction and maintenance of sewerage systems, with central
government providing technical and financial support. It is necessary to set up proper legislation
to back up such efforts. The water environment is a fundamental part of the lifestyle and cultureof the country. It is necessary to continue efforts to further develop and properly maintain theappropriate wastewater treatment systems.

75

URBANIZATION AND WATER QUALITY CONTROLFOR THE SOURCE OF WATER IN JAKARTA
Aksa Tejalaksana
Section of Clearinghouse,
the State Ministry of Environment
Indonesia
ABSTRACT
Water is a vital resource for human survival. Along with population increases, demand forwater increased and perceived current water supply for the citizens of DKI Jakarta faces many
obstacles. Drinking Water Provider company in Jakarta as one of the companies directly
responsible for water supply in the capital, currently estimated at only able to supply about
59.95 % water needs for the citizens of Jakarta. In other words, 40.05% of the needs of cleanwater for residents (domestic and industrial) obtained from other sources.
The high level of water pollution in Jakarta is mainly from domestic waste, especially fromseptic tanks. From monitoring in 13 rivers and 66 locations conducted by the Environmental
Management Agency Regional DKI Jakarta in 2008 showed almost all locations is not feasible
used as a source of drinking water.
Monitoring of water quality do Environmental Management Agency shows the river water andground water contain organic and inorganic contaminants are high, so most of the river waterand ground water in Jakarta is not in accordance with quality standards such as allocation ofdrinking water.
Research from several sources further revealed the upper reaches of the river Ciliwung
commonly used as a raw water of drinking water had also contain levels of BOD above average.
Indonesia Sanitation Sector Development Program (ISSDO), 70% mentioned in the Jakarta
groundwater contaminated with E. Coli.

A. SOCIO ECONOMICAL AND NATURAL CONDITION OF JAKARTA
Jakarta is located at the north of Java Island, at the bank of Cilwung River called Jakarta Bay, andis located at a lowland with the height of 8m from the ocean surface.

76

On the year 2008 Annual Precipitations reaches = 1.949,1 mm,
and a humidity level of 78%.
Jakarta as the Capitol of Indonesia is one of the mostcongested city’s on earth, it seems that Jakarta can no longer
support the weight it bears. The city’s population of 9.1
millions with one thousand and one social economic andsocial political problems, it is worried that Jakarta is entering adecaying process.

Jakarta’s Population levels in the last decades
1980

1990

2000

2008

6.5 million

8.2 million

8.38 million

9.1 million

The congestation of the population in each district is quite a variety as seen by this comparison:
Central Jakarta 9.78 %, South Jakarta 23.2%, East Jakarta 26.55%, Jakbar 24.08%, and North
Jakarta 15.96%.
In the year 2007, the recorded GRP (Growth Regional Domestic Product) was Rp. 566.45‐trillion
if the dollar exchange rate is assumed to be 1 US$ = Rp 9.400 so the total US$ 60.26 million.
In 2008, Jakarta with the size of 740.28 km2 with a high level of congestion level, it is calculated
that the density of Jakarta reaches 13.826 per km2
Of the total population is only 59.95% of people who can be served by the use of clean water
facilities.

B. SITUATION OF QUANTITY AND QUALITY OF THE WATER SOURCE
Based on data obtained from Balance of Natural Resources in 2008 then the estimated total usageof water resources around: 865.80 million/m3, the utilization can be classified in several activities
as follows:••••

Domestic
Agriculture
Industry
Others: 657.05 million/m3 (75.89 %): 15.44 million/m3 (1.78 %): 28.37 million/m3 (3.28 %): 164.95 million/m3 (19.05 %)The estimated quantities of water sources are:•Surface Water : 434.89 million/m3 (50.22%)

77

•
•
•

Rain Water: 84.59 million/m3 (9.79 %)Ground Water : 364.32 million/m3 (40 %)Total: 883.80 million/m3

Division of use:
Name
Surface water
Waduk Bahagia, &Etc
Surface water
Ciliwung, Kamal, etc
Groundwater (aquifer’
name)

Volume ofavailable
water (m3)
270,877,502

Volume ofabstracted
water (m3)

164.008.868

309,155,435

Beneficial Use(domestic, industry,
agriculture) (%)
1. Domestic: 65.67%
2. Industry: 4.73%
3. Agruculture: 3.55%
4. Others: 26.05%

From Bad toNormalFrom Bad to
Fair

1. Domestic : 89.27%
2. Industry : 21.18%
3. Agruculture : ‐4. Others: 8.55%

good to adepth ofmore than
40m

Water
quality

The quality of water sources in Jakarta can be divided in two and seen in below:

1. GROUND WATER
Potential groundwater originatingfromrainfall amounts less than 800 million/year,
and 760 million/m3 a year flows in to a shallow
layer of the aquifer and the remaining 40
million/m3

a

year

flow

in

the

aquifer.

Meanwhile, groundwater originating from thehills to the south of 37 million/m3 a year.
Due to the high‐density levels of congestion in
the Jakarta area causing the location of water
wells to be build adjacent to septic tank, whichcauses ground water quality in the shallow
aquifer layer, becoming less good. The groundwater in the aquifer layer at a depth of 40m are
generally still in good condition and fulfills theclean water requirements in accordance withthe provisions issued by the government.

78

2. SURFACE WATER
A.

LAKES

In Jakarta there are 40 sites with a total area of 66.875 ha. Conditions from which these: 19% in
untreated, 14% in the untreated state, and 5% had become dry land. In general, the conditions ofthese sites have become polluted by household and industrial waste.
B.

RIVERS

Jakarta also has 13‐river systems witch flow through the city from mainly in the regions
upstream west Java and empty downstream into the Jakarta Bay Area. Thus the river in Jakarta
there is abundance of wastes along the estuary, such as domestic waste, factories and industry.

C. EFFLUENT LOAD TO THE SOURCE
1. LAND USE AROUND THE WATER SOURCES
From the developments mentioned above, in the DKI have happened several things including:a. Green Open Space Land diminished and converted into urban environment, so that a green
environment and a healthy and harmonious environment is decreasing critically.
b. Lake, swamps and ponds also experienced a shift into an urban area, so that the environment
around it becomes contaminated, especially clean water supplies have become increasingly
critical.
These two things are more exacerbated by the declining carrying capacity of water catchment
areas around buildings or residential so that the distribution of water to the main needs of the
population is dwindling and polluted.
Problems in the city itself was increasingly exacerbated by declining carrying capacity of water
catchment areas upstream Ciliwung RiverIn many areas of small‐scale paddy field owned by the people has turned into a footprint of
the house.
Changes of land from forest to villa and hotels in causing reduced quantity of river water andalso increase the amount of waste towards the downstream.

79

2.

EFFLUNET LOAD TO THE WATER SOURCESPER SECTOR

From the study obtained the study, no data acquisition
effluent per sector, but the estimated effluent entering
the river Ciliwung in Jakarta area on the estimate
reaches 8,640,000 m3/day.

3. BOD LOAD TO THE WATER SOURCE PER
SECTOR (TONS)From the research data conducted by the Ministry ofEnvironment of the pollution load capacity Ciliwung
River, estimated that the BOD levels in the total releaseto the river Ciliwung of 33.8 tons / hour.

4. THE SITUATION OF DOMESTIC WASTEWATERTREATMENT IN THE AREAS WITHOUT ACCESS TO
CENTRAL DOMESTIC WASTEWATER TREATMENT
PLANT

Almost all of the people living in Jakarta do not havewastewater treatment, generally they dispose of theirdomestic waste by burying it in the ground or directly
dumped into the river .
There are a variety of reasons that the communities use to defecate directly in the river, some saythat creating a toilet is expensive, the waste can be eaten by the fish, and other reasons all
pointing out to habits of old, since childhood, since their forefathers, and finally that there isnothing wrong until now.
Currently a pilot project at the Petojo area, Central Jakarta,
consistingof

PublicToiletequipped

with

the

Decentralized Wastewater Treatment System (DEWATS)
technology, which works by processing the waste water
which contains the E‐Coli bacteria and soap into a more
safer and manageable waste water instead of polluted
water. It is hoped that this test pilot project can be put
into service in other areas around Jakarta.

80D. CURRENT MEASURE ON QUALITY CONTROL FOR THE WATER SOURCE
1. WATER QUALITY STANDARD
DKI Jakarta Governor Decree No 582 year 1995 about On the quotition dan quality standard of
the river water and water resevoirs, and the quality standards of pollution in the DKI Jakarta
Provincial Area.
In chapter (3) designation of the river water determined by the group:
Group
Group
Group
Group

•
•
•
•

A
B
C
D

: water used as drinking water directly without prior treatment: water used as drinking water standard water: water used for fisheries and livestock: water used for agricultural purposes and can be used for urban businesses,
industry, power plants.

2. SITUATION OF QUALITY MONITORING FOR THE WATER SOURCE•

Monitoring by the Regional Environmental Management conducted by:o Ground water quality monitoring carried out at least 1 time in a year in 2008.
o Surface water monitoring conducted in the first week of July until the first week of
September.
o Monitoring of river water 2 times july and december 13 rivers and 66 monitoring
points.

•Seeing the amount of monitoring carried out is certainly not reliable monitoring of thedesired quality, for example for water monitoring should be done every month to obtainaccurate data.

3. CURRENT MEASURES ON QUALITY CONTROL FOR THE WATER SOURCE• To decrease the burden of waste from industrial activities, especially through the Clean
River Program.
• Conducting relocation housing in the flood plains and return periodically to the green
line.
• Planting rooted trees to keep erosion.
• In the domestic activities by building septic tank seepage system and build an integrated
sewerage system.
• Conducting regular outreach to foster public awareness of the importance of protecting
water resources and the creation of catchment wells or Biopori.
• Increase the number of locations and frequency of monitoring so that in getting a pictureof groundwater conditions in Jakarta.
• To coordinate with related agencies in an effort to make water resources management.

81

E. CURRENT ISSUES ON QUALITY CONTROL FOR THE WATER SOURCE
1. UNDEVELOPMENT OF LEGAL SYSTEM AND LOW ENFORCEMENT OF WATER QUALITY
In fact that the law of water resources management has made quite a lot and most of them can be
executed, however, because the power is inadequate supervision, resulting in handling andmonitoring the quality of water resources become less effective and many cases of pollution thatcannot be handled.
2 . UNCONTROLLED LAND USE AROUND THE SOURCE OF WATER
With the increasing number of residents in Jakarta causing difficulties in the procurement of
housing, this causes a lot of houses appeared along the river wild.
In the year 2008 there were 31 areas in Jakarta that some banks for the time occupied dwellingwith the number of households reached 21,332 heads of households.
3. EFFLUENT DISCHARGE FROM SMALL COMMUNITIES OR SLUM NEAR RESERVOIRPopulation density can affect pollution. Estimation of waterpollution can be done with the river and the environment there.
This is associated with seeing the effects of pollutants on the
population level of awareness of life in maintaining aquaticorganisms and their environment.
In the general, population in small communities or slum nearreservoir emits the waste effluent directly into the body of theriver as shown in the image beside.
4. GROUNDWATER POLLUTION DUE TO DOMESTIC WASTEWATERDISCHARGE FROM SEPTIC TANKIn Jakarta alone there are more than one million septic tanks.
About 60 % of homes in the capital city have wells spaced lessthan 10 feet from the septic tank. Population abundance of septic
tanks that do not meet good sanitation cause ground water pollution and endanger residents.
From the research cited Indonesia Sanitation Sector Development Program (ISSDO), 70 % ofground water in Jakarta is contaminated with fecal or other bacteria such as E. coli.
5. LOW COVERAGE RATIO OF TAPPED WATER SYSTEM OR DOMESTIC WASTEWATER TREATMENTSYSTEM

Underlying problems facing the management of drinking water providers in Jakarta in theprovision of clean water is the water loss rate is still high around 50.23%. This is because the raw
source more difficult to obtain, but also because of maintenance management is still not optimal,82

and coupled with the less public awareness to help maintain facilities and drinking water
infrastructure.
At this time Water Companies of DKI Jakarta is only able to serve some485.350 customers, and from the census carried out by the BPS showedthat the increasing number of households that obtain drinking water bybuying a 65.27%.
6. LOW ENVIRONMENT AWARENESS OF RESIDENT NEAR THE SOURCE OF
WATER AND SOLID WASTE DISCHARGE TO THE SOURCE OF WATER

The low public awareness of protecting the environment can be viewed
from many people still throw their domestic waste directly into rivers, asin the picture on the left.
At least 76,383 m3 of garbage are transported every day from a number of river that flows in
Jakarta.

83

CURRENT SITUATION AND MANAGEMENT OF
WATER SOURCE IN BEIJING
Zhou Jun
Policy Research Center for Environment and Economy,
Ministry of Environmental Protection,
P.R.China

ABSTRACTThis article introduced the current situation including quantity and quality of water source inBeijing, summarized the measures on quality control for the water source. And at last it analyzes
the existed problems on promoting the quality control for drinking water source.

With the rapid development of economy of China, Beijing, as the capital of China, is also gaining
great achievement in its social and economic development especially since 1978 when China
started to implement the reform and opening policy. The goal of Beijing is to be constructed to afirst‐class modernized international big city in the world. In 2008, Beijing had organized asuccessful and wonderful Olympic Game. And now Beijing is trying its best to realize the object
step by step.
In the past 30 years, the urbanization progress of Beijing is very fast. The population had
increased several times that of 1978. The population density has increased to 1069 people per
Km2.

Population(10000)

1980
904.3

1990
1086

2000
1363.62009
1755

The GDP is also continue increased for many years and keep the growth rate above 9%. The
GDP of 2009 is estimated to be RMB 1186 billion (nearly US$169 billion). The GDP per capita is
about US$ 10070. The industry structure is 1：23.2：75.8 which indicated that the third (serving)industry is the major sector in Beijing.

84

Figure 1

GDP and growth rate of 2005‐2009 in Beijing

At the same time, the water resource demand is turned to be a big problem along with theurbanization. Because Beijing has not abundant water resource, it is difficult to supply the massrequirement on water quantity. And on the other hand, citizen has more need on clean waterwith the development of high environmental awareness. Firstly, I would like to introduce some
information on the water source of Beijing.
There are five river systems across Beijing which is Jiyun river, Caobai river, Beiyun river,Yongding river and Daqing river.

Figure 2: the input and output water quantity of 5 river system in Beijing

85

(1) The annual average precipitation is 638mm. From the river system aspect, Daqing river has
the highest precipitation which is 690mm and Yongding river has the lowest precipitation
which is 563mm.

2008年

2007年

多年平均

700

降水量（mm)

600
500
400
300
200
100
0

蓟运河

潮白河

北运河

永定河

大清河

Figure 2. Precipitation of different river system in 2008 and 2007

(2) The surface water quantity is about 1.279 billion m3. From the river system, Beiyun river has
the largest runoff volume which is 0.446 billion m3 and Jiyun river has the lowest
precipitation which is 0.053 m3.

2008年

2007年

多年平均

3

径流量（亿m )

20
15
10
5
0

蓟运河

潮白河

北运河

永定河

大清河

全市

Figure 3 the runoff volume of different river system in 2008 and 2007 and average86(3) The volume of available water of 18 medium and large reservoirs in 2008 is 0.755 billion m3.
Miyun and Guangting reservoir are the two important water sources for Beijing. The
available water volume of Miyun reservoir is 0.468 billion m3 and that of Guangting is 0.08
billion m3.
(4) The volume of groundwater is 2.142 billion m3.

Table 1 total quantity of water resource of Beijing in 2008(0.1 billion m3)
RiversystemArea（km2）

annualprecipitation

Surfacewatergroundwater

Total amountJiyun river

1300

8.42

0.53

3.02

3.55

5510

36.61

3.44

3.01

6.45

4250

26.83

4.46

7.61

12.07

3210

18.07

3.22

3.52

6.74

2140

14.77

1.14

4.26

5.40

16410

104.70

12.79

21.42

34.21

Caobairiver
Beiyunriver
Yongdingriver
Daqingriver
City(5) For the water resource use, the total amount is 3.51
billion m3 which includes the 1.47 billion m3 for

农业用水
34%

domestic use, 0.52 billion m3 for industry use, 1.2

生活用水
42%

billion m3 for agriculture use and 0.32 billion m3
for environment use.
(6) The water quality of river is still needed to be
improved. 43% river water has reached the level II
water quality standard, 8% river reached the level
III standard, 3% river reached the level IV

工业用水
15%

2008年

环境用水
9%

standard, 1% river reached the level V standard,and 45% river water quality is under the level V standard in 2008.
The water quality of reservoir is relatively better. Only Guangting reservoir’s water quality
reach the level IV standard, the other reservoir reached the level II or III.

87

For the groundwater, we have divided to two categories. The 57% shallow seated groundwater
quality reached the level III and the other is between level Iv and level V. for the deep seatedgroundwater, 80% of that reached level III.
From the above basic information, we can see that the water quality in Beijing should continue tobe improved. Of course, the pressure of urbanization has made it more difficult to improve thewater quality. In 2007, the total amount of industry wastewater discharged is 91.32 million ton
and COD discharged in industry wastewater is 7000 ton. The total amount of domestic
wastewater discharged is 986.82 million ton and COD discharged in domestic wastewater is 0.1
million ton. The domestic wastewater amount discharged of Beijing was relative high comparedwith that of most provinces in China. Beijing has done a lot of work such as developing
infrastructure to improve the wastewater treatment ratio. In 2008, the treatment capacity of
wastewater has increased to be 3294 thousand m3 per day, the length of sewage pipeline was4458 km and the wastewater treatment ratio was 78.9%.
Except the infrastructure construction, Beijing government also utilized effective measures toprevent the pollution and control the water quality of water source.
(1) Water quality standard
z “Discharge standard of water pollutant” issued by Beijing environmental protection
Bureau included maximum concentration discharged of 75 pollutant.
z “Environmental quality standards for surface water” issued by Ministry ofEnvironmental Protection includes 24 basic items of surface water environmental quality
standard, 5 supplement items and 80 specific items for surface water source area for
centralized living drinking water.
z “Quality standard for ground water” includes classify, monitoring method, assessmentof ground water.
(2) Water quality monitoringz “Technical specifications for environmental monitoring of groundwater” issued by
Ministry of Environmental Protection includes monitoring net design, monitoring items,
analysis methods and so on.
z In 2008, the number of water quality monitoring site of surface water is 221, which will
monitor 104 river segment, 22 lakes and 18 reservoirs. The assessment of water quality
will be based on “Environmental quality standards for surface water”.
z In 2008, Beijing government set up 307 monitoring well to assess groundwater andmonitor twice. 181 monitoring well was used for shallow seated groundwater and the88rest monitoring well was used for deep seated groundwater. The assessment of water
quality will be based on “Quality standard for ground water”.
(3) Other measuresz According to the use of water source, the water source function district was established.
For example, the Yongding river system was be divided to many segments and every
segment will be put a class which would be the evaluation standard in future.
z
Function of water body

Water
qualityfirst level conservation zone of surface water sourceⅡwater body nameGuangting reservoir
shanxisegment

area for drinking waterof

yongding river
Pingyuan segment of
yongding river

first level conservation zone of surface water sourceⅡarea for drinking water
Supply region for groundwater sourceⅢz Set up the regulation on drinking water source protection area pollution prevention andcontrol. With the regulation, the government could set water source protection area andwater quality of protection area. At the same time, the forbidden behavior in theprotection area was also defined in this file.
z The Prevention of water source problem was considered as a major measure. “ecologic
restore, ecologic control and ecologic conservation” was implemented at the mountainland of reservoir upstream. And the government also controlled wastewater, solid waste,
toilet, environment and river course at the same time. The ecologic clean small river was
expected to be constructed.
Though there were a lot of policy and measures implemented to protect the water source, but it
still exist many inevitable problems. Because the drinking water source is the most importantwater which is related to people’s health, I want to take emphasis on the issues of drinking water
source protection.
(1) Management mechanism
The management of water source involved with department of environment protection,water service, city construction, sanitation and so on. in China. So it lead the management
problem on water source. Each department has part power to manage water source, which
made there was not a systematic mechanism.

89

(2) Village pollution
From the supply water information above, we could see that the suburb is the key area toprovide drinking water in Beijing. Due to the mass use of chemical fertilizer and pesticide in
the upstream region of water source protection area and mass discharge of excrement ofanimals, the self‐restraint capacity of water source is insufficiency.
(3) Infrastructure construction
The discharge and collection system of wastewater and rain water is not perfect. The surface
flow is the major drain mode of village water. The sewage treatment ratio is low and thewastewater affected the surface and groundwater source by entering the canals and rivercourse.
(4) Policy and legislation
The supervision and management should be strengthened by policy and legislation. At
current stage, because lack of powerful regulation, the illegal phenomena such as dumping
solid waste and discharging waste water to protection area often appear. Many wastewater
treatment equipments run just for some time. The major reason is that the illegal cost islower than treatment cost.
(5) Environmental awarenessIn Beijing, most citizen have has good environmental awareness. But in village, some people
still thought that the environment has no relation with him. So they construct toilet near thewater source and do something to pollute water. We should improve their awarenessthrough different activities by government, media and other department.

90

URBAN WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT IN CAMBODIA
Chrin Sokha
Ministry of Environment
Cambodia
ABSTRACTThe Kingdom of Cambodia has tremendous water resources to serve the national development
and improve people daily living, and receiving treated/untreated urban wastewaters (mostly
domestic waste). Therefore, the paying more attention on the maintenance and protection ofwater and it related resources – that is very important without ignoring, in order to ensure safety
and sustainability in people daily living and national economic development in the spirit of“Water is Life”.
Although urban wastewaters are less polluted than industrial wastewater, but this matter cannot
ignore or take no action to environmentally sound management of such wastewaters, otherwise,
it will cause serious problem, which impacted not merely water pollution, but also to humanhealth and the application of poverty alleviation – the Government Policy. Urban wastewaters,
generally, are collected by sewage and/or opened channel system, and run off to receiving
sources, e.g. wetland, lake, river, etc., through natural purification process. Wastewater
treatment center is being constructed and/or operated in some provinces, etc.
The Royal Government of Cambodia, inter‐ministries and line institutions pay more attention on
the protection and maintenance of water resources and environment. For instance, the Ministryof Environment, and Ministry of Water Resources and Meteorology, based on their roles andresponsibilities, have profound efforts to regularly control and monitor water quality at public
water areas (sea, river, lake, stream and the like), including pollution sources based on theenvironmental and related legislations. Pertaining with these activities, additional programmes
were also found, e.g. capacity building and institutional strengthening; public awareness raising;application of international conventions/agreements; and regional and international cooperationin the field of intercepting and minimizing water environmental protection.

1. INTRODUCTION
Cambodian population is noticeably increased from year after year with the growth rate 1.8%
(2006 data based NSDP). The population were 12.57 million in 2000 (NSDS 2006‐2010), and it
accounted for 13,388,910 in 2008 (NIS, MoP 2008), with the growth rate 2.55% for urban
population, and 1.30% for rural population.

91

Increasing of population that is a reason of demand growth in living style, indeed, it will causeof high demand of facility consumption in households and offices, including nutrition inparticularly, meanwhile the concerns to environmental and public health impacts are occurredby environmentally unsound disposal of solid and liquid wastes. Indeed, water environment
might be caused more concerns towards the discharge of treated and/or untreated wastewater toreceiving sources without complying the environmental standards (e.g. households, businesscenters, hotels and so on).
Few center wastewater treatment plants, in Cambodia, are under the operation and/or
construction in some provinces and cities such as: Battambang, Sihanoukville, Siem Reap,
Kampong Cham, etc. Urban wastewater (e.g. households, business centers, hotels, etc.),
commonly, run off to receiving waters (e.g. wetland, lake, river, etc.) through sewage/opened
canal systems and the like.
Such lake and/or wetland has a main function to naturally purify (self purification)
urban/domestic wastewaters in a specific period, and gradually flow to the river afterward. In
Phnom Penh Municipality, for example, urban wastewaters are collected by sewage systems andopened channels, and run off into retention lake/wetland, and finally, flow directly to the river.
To ensure a better water quality at public water areas for sustaining the socio‐economic
development, the Ministry of Environment (ref. to the Law on Environmental Protection andNatural Resources Management and related Sub‐Decrees) regularly control/monitor at public
water areas, e.g. sea, river, lake and stream, and additionally, the Ministry of Water Resources
and meteorology also takes action in maintaining and protecting such water resources. Section 3:
Wastewater Management Practices will summary about wastewater related management
activities.

2. LEGISLATION RELATED TO WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT
Beside the existing environmental legal instruments such as: Law on Environmental Protection
and Natural Resources Management and related Sub‐degrees, Cambodia also has the Law on
Water Resources Management ‐ all are strongly focused on the maintenance and protection ofwater environment to abide by sustainable, reasonable and equitable use of water and its
resources. These legislations are summarized in following table.

92

Theme of Legal Instruments
Law on Environmental Protection
andNaturalResources
Management, 1996

Responsible
Institution
MoE

Sub‐Decree on the Standards andManagement ofAgricultural
Managerial, 1998

MAFF

Sub‐Decree on Water Pollution
Control, 1999

MoE

Sub‐Decree on SolidManagement, 1999

MoE

Waste

Sub‐Decree on EIA Process, 1999

Joint Prakas of MoE and theMinistry of Interior (MoI) on
Solid Waste Management in Cities
and Provinces, 2003

MoE/MoI and
Local
authorities

Purposes

Remarks

To protect and promote
environmental quality andpublic health through many
ways as possible

The law is widely
implemented throughout
the country, however
some articles need to beamended based on
current requirement.
It indirectly links to urban
wastewater management.

To ensure the increase andsustainability of agricultural
products without harmful tothe environment andhuman health.
To minimize and phase out
various activities ‐ thosetend to pollute and/or
polluted public water areas,
including improve
wastewater management.

To ensure the protection ofhuman health and theconservation of biodiversity
by improving the safe
management of solid waste,
garbage and hazardous
waste.
To review and monitor
relevant development
projects in order to minimize
and phase out various
harmful effects to theenvironment and publichealth.
To properly manage solid
wastes in cities andprovinces to ensure publichealth protection, aesthetics,
environmental quality, andbiodiversity without
pollution.

93

It is widely implemented
to control and manage
variouspollution activities
to water sources andaquatic environment. The
effluent standard andwater quality standard at
public water areas forbiodiversity conservation
was included.
It focused on maintaining
and protecting
environmental quality ,including water and its
related resources
avoiding any pollution
from various sources.
The Sub‐Decree is widely
implemented to startingand existing projects, anda part of it covering themanagement of wastes
and any types ofhazardous wastes.
It directly involves inurban quality
management dealing
with proper solid waste
management

Theme of Legal Instruments
Law
on
Water
Management, 2007

Resource

Responsible
Institution
MoWRAM

Policy Framework – Rural Water
Supply and Sanitation Sector(Feb. 27, 2001)

MRD

National Policy on Water Supply
and Sanitation (Feb.07, 2003)

MIME

Drinking Water Standard,2004

MIME

National Water Resource Policy
for the Kingdom of Cambodia,
2004

MoWRAM

Purposes
To foster the effective
management andsustainability of water
resources in Cambodia toattain socio‐economic
development and thewelfare of the people.

To improve the services of
RWSS based on sustained
financially, socially andinstitutionally, technically,and environmentally.
To select doable options ofsanitation technologies that
contribute to protect andconserve water and its
resources (ref. to Section II :Sanitation Policy for
Provinces and Cities andDowntown)Toidentify
acceptable
analysed parameters basedon the designated standard
for clean water supply
ensuring good quality as
living demands (ref. to
Section IV)
To protect, manage and use
water
resources
witheffective,
equitable
andsustainable manner, throughvarious doable programmes/
activities, e.g. develop andcarry out the national
strategy and policy towards
water resource management

Remarks
Chapter 6, Article 22 and
23 are engaged water
quality management andprotection, these seem toparallel with MoE
towards water pollution
management andwastewater discharge
licensing.
These principles areindirectly involved towater quality
management

This
standard
wasassigned to be used for all
water supply systems
under sampling interval
andsampling
methodology
andanalysis of MIME
It is commonly focusedontheintegrated
management of water
quantity and quality incollaboration
withstakeholders, including
adjacent countries as well.

3. WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
To do activities together for monitoring and controlling water quality at public water areas, theMinistry of Environment, and the Ministry of Water Resources and Meteorology (ref. to theirmandate and existing legislations) conduct water sample at designated sampling points, andfinally, assess water quality condition at sampling areas, including identifying point andnonpoint sources of pollution.

94

According to the above described activities, water quality at public water areas (rivers and thelike) is generally in a good condition (Ref. to the Annual Environmental Conference – Feb 2010, MoE).
However, based on analytical analysis, water quality (at some urban areas) might be beneath thestandard in the dry season, where such areas have a high dense of population and related
activities.
3.1 MANAGEMENT ACTIVITIES
Dealing with the management of urban wastewater and water quality at public water areas, theMinistry of Environment and relevant key ministries take more action to minimize all activities –those are tended to degrade water environment and related assets. Main activities of the
Ministry of Environment, based on the environmental legislations, are remarkably including asfollows:
Routine control/monitoring water quality at public water areas through sampling water samples
at designated areas. Parameters are commonly analyzed for these water samples including pH;
Conductivity; DO; BOD; COD; Faecal Coliform; NO2; NO3; PO4; etc. This programme aims at:‐

identifying pollution concentration in public water areas; and‐identifying pollution level from the Phnom Penh Municipality and some areas that cancause water pollution to the Mekong Delta.

Routine control/monitoring at pollution sources (e.g. industrial, health and business sectors,)
and evaluating the environmental pollution level – based on analytical results of wastewater
samples taking from specific pollution sources.
Permitting and licensing to factories those treated their wastewaters abided by theenvironmental legal tools, and vice versa, it is strictly to violators whose committed opposing
the stipulations of law and related statutes.
The celebration of National Environmental Day on 5th June annually, which is participated by
key stakeholders, local authorities, students and pupils, and the like.
Environmental education and dissemination towards environmental pollution control andmanagement programmes for officers of the Environmental Provincial/Municipal Departments
and other key stakeholders, especially, local authorities (Commune/District Council).

4. GAPS IN MANAGEMENT AND RECOMMENDATION
Many gaps were identified during the operation of urban wastewater management including
such as: (i) insufficiency of expertise knowledge of government officials dealing with wastewater
treatment and management; (ii) fragmented data/information related urban water pollution
control and assessment, which caused less effective in management practices; (iii) few central

95wastewater treatment plants, for urban areas, have developed at selected provinces – it is not
respond to a certain requirement as a whole; (iv) local and international networking, for instance,data and information dissemination and exchange is limited.
To fruitfully achieve the above remediation initiatives, Cambodia still required more technicalassistance from international organizations and donors to: (i) improve the capacity building andinstitutional strengthening, including the promotion of stakeholders collaboration; (ii)experience exchange with other countries – those have similar situations like Cambodia; (iii)
Private partnership is another key tool to improve the environmental sanitation, e.g. investing
on development and running a center wastewater treatment.

96

COUNTRY PAPERS
Thematic Session 2:
Climate Change Impacts tothe Water Environment and
Adaptation Options

97

98

CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACTS ON
THE WATER ENVIRONMENT‐ PRESENT APPROACH OF MOEJ ‐Shu Nishi,
Water Environment Division,
Environmental Management Bureau,
Ministry of the Environment
Japan
ABSTRACT
Climate change has become a major issue in Japan. Projection of future climate trends shows thatclimate change may lead to changes in the frequency and severity of extreme weather events.
Such changes may worsen the impacts on the water environment. Impacts can be classified into
impacts on water quality and impacts on the water ecosystem. To investigate potential impactsof climate change on the water environment in public water bodies and study adaptation
options for the potential impacts, the “Investigative Commission for Impact on the Water
Environment by Climate Change” was established in 2010 under the Ministry of theEnvironment, Japan. Deliberation by the Investigative Commission takes three steps: 1) toinvestigate the climate change impacts on the water environment in the public body, 2) toinvestigate the impacts on the water quality and aquatic ecosystem, and 3) to investigate theadaptation options. This paper introduces an outline of discussions by the investigative
commission, including the analytical methods of current and potential impacts of climate changeon the water environment.

1. BACKGROUND
The average temperature in Japan is projected to rise by 1 or 2 degrees Centigrade by 2030. It isalso projected that some regions of the country will experience temperature increases of up to
2‐3 degrees. Precipitation patterns will change and the amount of rainfall will increase in many
regions in Japan. Extreme weather events will occur more frequently and also the intensity ofthese events are expected to increase. Some changes in temperature and precipitation considered
as effects of climate change have already imposed some impacts on water quality and/or water
ecosystems. Current water environmental management policy does not incorporate such climatechange impacts on the water environment in its planning stage, and therefore may not be able tofully adapt to these impacts.

99

2. INVESTIGATIVE COMMISSION
Recognizing the need for further study on climate change/water environmental issues, theMinistry of the Environment, Japan (MOEJ) has put forth efforts to investigate potential impactsof climate change on the water environment and explore possible adaptation options. The
establishment of the “Investigative Commission for Impact on the Water Environment by
Climate Change” in 2010 is one of the recent and most practical efforts by the ministry in thisarea.
The objectives of the commission are to investigate climate change impacts on the water
environment in public water bodies and exploit possible adaptation options for dealing withidentified impacts. This commission will continue its deliberation for 4 years. In the Japanese
fiscal year 2010 (April 2009 – March 2010), deliberations of the commission had the following
goals as its initial step: (1) to gain a clear understanding about the indicators that may be affectedby climate change, such as water quality and water temperature; (2) to consider and select basic
ideas on forecasting methods; and (3) to decide on a plan of investigation and set timelines.
The deliberations of the investigative commission take three steps. The first step is to investigate
suspected or potential climate change impacts on the water environment in public water bodies.
Impacts on the water temperature, water quantity and the habitat of aquatic life are included as
the targets of deliberation in this stage. The next step is the investigation of current and future
impacts on water quality and aquatic ecosystems. The final stage is to consider adaptation
measures to cope with the impacts on the water quality and aquatic ecosystems.

3. ELEMENTS TO BE INVESTIGATED
Impacts on the water environment can be broadly classified into two categories: namely, impacts
on water quality and impacts on water ecosystems. The Commission studies the impacts that
already have been observed and those projected under these two categories.
(1) Impacts on Water Quality
Changes in water quality observed in past years
It is considered that the following changes in water quality have occurred due to climatechange.
‐Increase of annual mean water temperature‐

Abnormal growth of algae in lakes‐

Expansion of red tide damage by droughts

100

‐

Projected changes in water quality
Impacts on water quality will occur in many forms including but not limited to:‐

Declining water quality in rivers from heavy rain and droughts, which will be one of themost evident and frequently observed changes‐

Water temperature increase in rivers, lakes and groundwater‐

Increased amounts of evapotranspiration, i.e. transport of water into the atmosphere fromland surfaces. This change will adversely affect water demand in large cultivated areas for
irrigation purposes and sustainable water resources management.

‐

Snowmelt runoff also estimated to change. The change in the volume of snowmelt runoff
will lead to lower early summer storage at major reservoirs with less hydro‐electric power
production.

‐

Lack of water circulation in lakes. As noted later, this change will destroy the ecosystem of
the lake. Increase in abnormal growth of algae.

‐

An increase in algae sometimes adversely effects drinking water and aquatic ecosystems.

‐

Changes in the timing, intensity and duration of participation will be detected.

‐

Changes in water use and aquatic ecosystems can be estimated in many types of origin.

(2) Impacts on aquatic ecosystems
Changes in aquatic ecosystems observed
Aquatic ecosystems have already suffered from the following climate change impacts:‐ Change in ecosystem due to lack of water circulation and decrease in dissolved oxygen‐ Changes in the habitat of cold‐water fishes living in freshwater systems‐ Increases in southern strain and decrease in northern strain in coastal areas‐ Coral death and bleaching.
Projected changes in aquatic ecosystems
Future climate change will affect aquatic ecosystems in various ways:‐ Expansion of lack of water circulation in lakes and seas
‐ Change in the variety of habitats in freshwater101

‐ Invasion of alien species‐ Impact on plankton by acidification in the sea‐ Expansion of coral bleaching‐ Decrease in sandy shores(3) Examples of observed impacts in JapanThe following are the examples of impacts on the water environment in Japan.
‐

Alien tropical fish have been consistently observed in the Tama River, Tokyo.

‐

Precipitation patterns have changed, and heavy rain has been observed more frequently inrecent years. In 2005, Tokyo suffered from substantial heavy rain. The amount of rainfall perhour was over 100mm, causing serious floods.

‐

Dissolved oxygen (DO) level has become lower due to climatic changes. This kind of effecthad already been already observed in Tokyo bay.

‐

Water temperatures in the Kiso River increased by up to 2 degrees Centigrade in 1994, whichcaused a reduction in the flow and a decline in water quality.

‐

In some regions, water temperature increases have been observed over a long period of time.
Such long‐term increases in water temperature have been observed in 5 rivers in Kagawa
Prefecture over the past 27 years.

‐

In Lake Biwa, the surface water temperature of the lake increased in the winter season. Thisphenomenon disrupted the standard vertical water circulation.

‐

In Lake Ikeda, water circulation has ceased since 1986. Since 1990, the anoxic layer has
remained at less than 200 meters deep. As a result of vertical water circulation disruption in
the lake, the amount of dissolved oxygen in water has decreased, which, in turn, causes
adverse effects such as the extinction of fish species.

4. PHILOSOPHY OF INVESTIGATION
Adaptation methods should be conceived and elaborated based on practical and detailed
investigations. Such investigation methods are still hard to discern in a generally applicable form.
At present, the use of some fundamental tools is assumed for the purpose of implementing
primitive and continuous studies.
Although climate change may trigger water quality deterioration, such alterations in water
quality are frequently correlated to other polluting factors like effluent discharged from102

agricultural, industrial and domestic sources. Therefore, methods or tools to investigate theeffects of climate change should be carefully reviewed. Currently, the Commission considers
changes in the water temperature and in the quantity of water as basic items to be studied. The
evaluation of such measures will be conducted by observing changes in water quality.
The alteration of aquatic ecosystems may be investigated by observations on changes in watertemperature, quantity and quality of water and changes in habitats. Specific adaptation
measures may be evaluated in terms of impacts on aquatic ecosystems. Close investigation ofrepresentative species in rivers, lakes and seas are examples of such assessment.

5. EMPIRICAL STUDIES (MACRO‐SCALE ANALYSIS OF THE EXISTING INFORMATION)
Analysis of existing information can be divided into two successive components: namely,
macro‐scale analysis and micro‐scale analysis. Macro‐scale analysis is used to clarify thewater‐temperature‐change trend on a nationwide scale, and micro‐scale analysis is used toanalyze the impacts on water temperature, water quantity, water quality, and the aquatic
ecosystem in selected water systems.
Macro‐scale analysis will be conducted, targeted at 8,756 spots (6,053 in rivers, 529 in lakes, and2,174 in seas) on a nationwide scale. Among these targeted sites, the artifact‐free points and thepoints that had enough data were selected. After the selection process, 1,484 points (1,023 inrivers, 98 in lakes, and 363 in seas) were identified as research objectives. Against these spots,
calculations of the average water temperature in the summer season and winter season were
implemented. From this study, 413 points (272 in rivers, 28 in lakes, and 113 in seas) show anincrease in water temperature.
The macro‐scale analysis is a basis for a more detailed study using micro‐scale analysis. The
points for the detailed analysis should be areas less affected by human activities, and theselection of the points should be carried out at the initial stage of the macro‐scale analysis. In the
study under the commission, the relation between water temperature, water quantity, water
quality and aquatic ecosystems will be investigated in selected rivers, lakes, and seas, withaccumulated data from 1971 to the present on items such as water temperature, COD, nitrogen,phosphorus or dissolved oxygen.

6. INVESTIGATION OF FORECASTING METHOD
In order to investigate future climate change impacts on the water environment, information
based forecasting methods should be established. There are three basic requirements to develop
an effective forecasting model. First, it is necessary to evaluate the impact on water quality andthe aquatic ecosystem in the public water body by climate condition and effects by humanactivities. Second, it is necessary to analyze the sequence of relationships between climatechange, the water environment, water quality and the aquatic ecosystem. Lastly, it is necessary103to analyze the watershed basin relationship, i.e. the linkage among climate change, watershedbasins, rivers, lakes and seas.

7. CONCLUSION
Efforts to investigate the impacts of climate change in the present and future for consideration ofadaptation options has just begun in Japan. Analytical and modeling methods should be
carefully identified for obtaining reliable data. The development of down‐scaling is
indispensable in order to gain a better understanding of the current and future climatic impacts
on the water environment.
MOEJ will share information on the progress of the deliberations and studies under thecommission with WEPA partner countries, through WEPA meetings and also via the WEPA
database.

104

CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACTS TO THE WATERENVIRONMENT AND ADAPTATION OPTIONS IN
CAMBODIA
Mr. CHEA Chan Thou,
Department of Climate Change,
Ministry of Environment
Cambodia
ABSTRACT:
Climate change has become a real challenge for all countries throughout the world.

As a least

developed agrarian country, Cambodia is highly vulnerable to climate change, the more so as it
has low adaptive capacity to changing climate conditions. Based on assessment of Cambodia’s
climate indicated that the mean annual temperatures could increase between 0.3 to 0.6°C by 2025
and 1.6 to 2.0°C by 2100 and mean annual rainfall could increase between 3% to 35% by year
2100, varying with time and location. Lowland areas would have higher increase in rainfall thanhighlands and the increase would mainly be in the central agricultural plains, where were
historically already vulnerable to floods and drought. The potential increase in the frequency
and intensity of floods in the central agricultural plains would expose farmers to higher risks ofcrop failure. Floods and droughts are already the most common natural disasters and results inyearly loss of lives, crop failures, and destruction of property and infrastructure in the country.
To cope with changing climatic conditions, Cambodia has developed a National Adaptation
Program of Action to Climate Change (NAPA). Cambodia’s NAPA has identified 39 adaptation
projects in key sectors such as agriculture, water resources, coastal zone, and human health.
These are ʺno‐regretsʺ adaptation options include: the construction of community water
reservoirs, the development and improvement of community irrigation systems, therehabilitation of coastal protection infrastructures, reforestation activities, water culverts,
strengthening of community disaster preparedness and so on.
The implementation of the NAPA would contribute significantly to the Cambodian Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs) and national sustainable development objectives. However, after
the completion of NAPA years ago, Cambodia has struggled to attract donors interest in
financing the implementation of high priority adaptation activities.

105

I. COUNTRY BACKGROUND
The Kingdom of Cambodia is located in Southeast Asia between latitudes 10° and 15° N andlongitudes 102° and 108° E, borders with Vietnam, Lao PDR, Thailand and sea (approximately
435 km coastal line).

Cambodia covers an area of 181,035 km2 with a total population projected

at about 13.4 million people in 2008 (NIS, 2008) and approximately 80 % of this population lives
in rural areas.
Cambodia is a least developed country, with a GDP per capita of US$594 in 2007. The agriculture
sector has accounted for approximately 60.4%

of employment, industry sector for 14% andservices sector for 25.6% in 2007(NIS, 2003, 2008). Agricultural production is dependent on theannual flooding and recession of the Tonle Sap Lake and the Mekong River, which brings fertile
alluviums to the central plains. In 20004, 19.7% of population lived below the national foodpoverty line (RGC, 2007).

II. HISTORICAL INFORMATION ON CLIMATE CHANGE, CLIMATE VARIABILITY AND
CLIMATE EXTREMES

1. CLIMATE VARIABILITY AND CLIMATE EXTREME
Cambodiaʹs climate is dominated by the tropical monsoon with distinct rainy/wet and dry
seasons.

During the rainy season (May to October), winds blow from the Indian Ocean

southwest landward bringing heavy rains. During the dry season (November to May) winds
blow from the northeast. Hot air dominates from April to May and cooler air from November toMarch.
The average maximum temperature is around 28oC and the average minimum temperaturearound 22oC. April is the warmest month, and January is the coldest. Maximum temperatures
exceeding 38oC are recorded every year during the dry season just before starting raining season(March‐April). Minimum temperatures rarely fall below 10oC in the central plains.
Although Cambodia has an extensive a long coastline, but the country is not bordered by the
Pacific Ocean. Thus, the direct impacts of typhoons are buffered by mountainous regions andhighlands to the east. Flood and drought are the most common natural disasters and results inloss of lives, crop failures, and destruction of property and infrastructure (NAPA 2006).

2. FLOODS AND DROUGHTSThe Mekong, Bassac, Tonle Sap Rivers, and Tonle Sap Lake constitute a unique hydrologicalsystem and have played a central role in Cambodia’s agriculture and traditional livelihoods. The
Mekong River and the Tonle Sap Lake are connected by the Tonle Sap River which reverses its
flow annually. In the raining season, water surface of the Tonle Sap Lake increases its size three106

times from 2,600 km2 in dry season to 10,500 km2. With an estimated storage capacity of 72 km3,
Tonle Sap Lake is one of the largest freshwater bodies in Asia during the wet season. As thefloods of the Mekong subside in November and water levels decrease, the Tonle Sap River
reverses its flow.

The seasonal floods of the Mekong and its tributaries and Tonle Sap Lakeprovide nutrients essential to agricultural soils, and breeding and nursing grounds for fish.
Tonle Sap Lake is one of the most productive freshwater fisheries in the world (Worldfish 2008).
Cambodia’s rural communities have traditionally lived by regular patterns of flooding by the
Mekong River, its tributaries and Tonle Sap Lake. Rural livelihoods have adapted to floods,
which are considered beneficial as long as they are predictable in terms of frequency, timing,
duration and intensity. However, the frequency of severe floods has increased since the 1990s(NAPA 2006).
Floods affected 1.6 million Cambodians in 1996, 3.4 million in 2000 and 1.7 million in 2001
(CRED, NCDM & WFP, 2005). Intense and prolonged flood periods are characterized by mass
displacement of populations, and water and food shortages. The results are increased poverty
and chronic food insecurity. The year 2000 floods were the worst to hit Cambodia in seventy
years, and were followed by similarly severe floods in 2001 and 2002. The NCDM put the death
toll at 347 fatalities (80% of whom were children), 317,975 houses damaged or destroyed. Total
direct physical damages to infrastructures, properties and crops were estimated at US $150
million. The 1990‐2000 records suggest that floods have resulted in average annual losses of 100
lives and financial losses in the range of US $100 to 170 million.
According household survey conducted as part of the NAPA report preparation found thatnationwide, some 71% of villagers had noticed an increase in the frequency of droughts in recent
years, compared with 58% for floods. Water shortages are common all‐year around for 81% ofhouseholds, which significantly limits local capacity to cope with drought. Since only a third ofrural Cambodians have access to safe drinking water, and less than 34% of cultivated land isirrigated, Cambodia ability to cope with drought is severely limited (CIPS 2004, WFP 2005).

III. CLIMATE CHANGE PROJECTIONS AND CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACTS
The projection of future climate, climate change and its impact of Cambodia which wereconducted for the Cambodia’s Initial National Communication (INC) by using two General
Circulation Models CCSR and CSIRO indicated that the mean annual temperatures could
increase between 0.3 to 0.6°C by 2025 and 1.6 to 2.0°C by 2100; and mean annual rainfall could
increase between 3% to 35% by year 2100 with the magnitude of change varying with time andlocation. Lowland areas would have higher increase in rainfall than highlands. The modelling ofchanges in precipitation projected that the increase would mainly be in the central agricultural
plains stretching from the southeast to the northwest, where rainfall has historically been below
the national average. These areas are already vulnerable to floods and drought. More refined
simulations are under way as part of Cambodia’s Second National Communication (SNC). These107

may yield clues as to the impact of increased precipitation on wet season floods and dry season
droughts.
The main finding of the projection of Cambodia climate which conducted by Oxford University
shows that:the mean annual temperature is projected to increase by 0.7 to 2.7°C by the 2060s,

and 1.4 to 4.3 degrees by the 2090s. The range of projections by the 2090s is around 1.0 to 1.5°C.
All projections indicate substantial increases in the frequency of days and nights that areconsidered hot in current climate. Projections of mean annual rainfall from broadly indicate
increases in rainfall. This increase is mainly due to the projected increases in wet season rainfalls,
partially offset by projected decreases in dry season rainfalls (McSweeney, New & Lizcano 2008).

IV. SENSITIVITY AND VULNERABILITY OF WATER RELATED SECTORS TO CLIMATECHANGEAs part of its Initial National Communication, Cambodia conducted a Vulnerability and
Adaptation Assessment (V&A) which examined the impacts of climate change on agriculture(rice production), forestry (forest types), human health (malaria) and coastal zone (sea level rise)(INC 2002). This section reports the projected impacts on agriculture, and the coastal zone, inparticular with regards to water resources management.
For rice cultivation, as it forms the backbone of traditional livelihoods and constitutes
Cambodia’s main staple food. Flood and rainfall patterns play a determining role in paddy
cultivation. The absence of widespread irrigation and water harvesting schemes in Cambodia
makes this sector particularly vulnerable to climate change. Yield anomalies for wet season rice
yield is correlated with May rainfall, when farmers start planting seedlings. Water shortages
during this month have critical negative impacts on the early stages of plant growth. Under
projected climate conditions, the variability in yields and crop output would increase. With thepotential increase in the frequency and intensity of floods in the central agricultural plains,
farmers would be exposed to higher risks of crop failure. The V&A identified the following
adaptation options: genetic improvement of high yielding varieties, improvement of cultural
practices, development of early warning system for climate extremes, development of irrigation,
expansion of planting to other areas, and diversification of foods.
Cambodia’s coastline is 435 km long. Coastal areas have not been traditionally densely
populated and account for only 5% of the total population. Under changing climate, sea level
rise would have significant negative impacts on fisheries, ports, tourism facilities, agriculture,salt farms and other coastal land uses. Mangroves and coral reefs, which support coastal
communities, are the ecosystems most threatened by rises in sea level and temperatures.
Projections made under the Initial National Communication show that a one‐meter sea level rise
would submerge about 56% of the low‐lying coastal city of Koh Kong. Other parts of the coastalzone are equally vulnerable and would require further studies. The recommendations of the108

V&A assessment include: development of a national strategy to respond to sea level rise;investigation of the potential impacts of sea‐level rise on coastal resources, infrastructure,settlements and agriculture; and increase of public awareness.

V. INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK TO ADDRESS CLIMATE CHANGE AND ADAPTATIONIN CAMBODIA

Cambodia ratified the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
on December 18, 1995 and acceded to the Kyoto Protocol on July 2, 2002. The country’s Initial
National Communication (INC) was submitted to the UNFCCC on October 8, 2002. The INC was
prepared by the Ministry of Environment (MOE), which is the National Climate Change Focal
Point. The Second Nation Communication (SNC) was initiated in January 2007 and is expected
to be completed in 2010.
In June 2003, the Cambodian Climate Change Office (CCCO) was established within the
Ministry of Environment and promoted as Department of Climate Change (CCD) in 2009. The
broad mandate is to carry out all technical activities related to the implementation of the
UNFCCC and other climate change‐related tasks as assigned including acts as the secretariat of
the UNFCCC, National Focal Point and a Designated National Authority under the Kyoto
Protocol for Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) activities. While CCD is a technical unit, theNational Climate Change Committee (NCCC) was established in April 2006, is a seniorpolicy‐making body. The NCCC is an inter‐ministerial mechanism with the mandate to prepare,coordinate and monitor the implementation of policies, strategies, legal instruments, plans andprogram of the Royal Government of Cambodia to address climate change. The member of
NCCC is a high policy level such as Secretary and Under‐Secretary of State from 19 Ministries
and government agencies whose mandates are relevant to climate change adaptation or
mitigation activities.

1. NATIONAL ADAPTATION PROGRAM OF ACTION TO CLIMATE CHANGE (NAPA)
As a least developed agrarian country, Cambodia is highly vulnerable to climate change, themore so as it has low adaptive capacity to changing climate conditions.

In recent years, there

were more frequent and severe floods and droughts, which have resulted in a significant
number of fatalities and considerable economic losses.

The goal of development of theCambodian NAPA is to provide a framework to guide the coordination and implementation ofadaptation initiatives through a participatory approach, and to build synergies with otherrelevant environment and development program. Cambodiaʹs NAPA presents priority projects
to address the urgent and immediate needs and concerns of people at the grassroots level for
adaptation to the adverse effects of climate change in key sectors such as agriculture, water
resources, coastal zone and human health.

109

Cambodia was among the first least developed countries to complete its National Adaptation
Plan of Action to Climate Change (NAPA) and submitted it in March 2007 to the UNFCCC.
Approved by the Council of Ministers of the Royal Government of Cambodia in October 2006,
the implementation of the NAPA is designed to contribute significantly to the Cambodian
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and national sustainable development objectives.
The formulation of Cambodia’s NAPA has relied on consultations from the grassroots level topolicy‐makers. Countrywide surveys of local authorities, non‐governmental organizations, andhouseholds were conducted in 17 provinces to identify existing coping mechanisms to climate
hazards and climate change adaptation needs. Adaptation projects were ranked according tocriteria for improvement of livelihoods, food security, water availability, use of appropriatetechnology, responsiveness to immediate community needs, and sustainability.
The proposed projects are “no regrets” in nature, that is, they are already justified by current
climate conditions and would contribute to national sustainable development regardless of themagnitude of climate change impacts on Cambodia. Under changing climate conditions,
including higher frequencies of climate hazards, the selected priority activities would be evenmore attractive. A total of 39 project profiles were developed, amounting to an estimated budgetof US $130 million, of which 20 priority projects.

Proposed activities in water resourcesmanagement include rehabilitation and construction of reservoirs, dams, wells, ponds, flood
protection dikes, provincial waterways, water gates, water culverts, and strengthening ofcommunity disaster preparedness.
The NAPA has also identified a number of barriers to the implementation of climate change
adaptation projects in Cambodia.

These include: (i) inadequate technical, financial andinstitutional capacity of Government agencies and of local communities in dealing with climate
hazards Government agencies, and limited coordination among them; (ii) limited integration ofclimate change issues into national policies and program; and (iii) limited awareness of climatechange issues.

2. RESEARCH IN CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION RELATED TO WATER RESOURCES
To date, Cambodia’s academic and scientific research capacity remains low. The bulk of researchin climate change adaptation has been conducted as part of the Initial National Communication,
the Second National Communication and the National Adaptation Program of Action to Climate
Change.
The NAPA provides the most up to date the synthesis of available information on the adverse
impacts of climate change, climate variability and adaptation to climate hazards in Cambodia.
The NAPA, through the implementation of surveys of households, NGOs, local authorities, andinformal leaders in rural areas, provides a nationwide picture of existing climate hazards, andvulnerability and adaptation to climate change (MOE 2005a).

110

The finding in NAPA field survey, without exception, all 17 provinces have suffered from bothfloods and droughts and they were more frequency compared to the past time. Water shortages
are a common occurrence all year‐round: 81% of households interviewed suffered from water
shortages for agricultural uses, while 54% suffered from water shortages for personal uses.

Themain sources of irrigation water for agriculture are lakes (19%), rain (18%), rivers (13%), streams(12%), and reservoirs (11%).

Piped water is an insignificant source of water. Locale people arealso clearly aware of changes in hydrological patterns resulting from the construction of dams,
dikes and roads and from deforestation, which may increase the frequency and intensity offloods, and the sedimentation of water storage structures.

VI. C ONCLUSION
The Mekong, Bassac, Tonle Sap Rivers, and Tonle Tap Lake constitute a unique hydrologicalsystem and play a central role in Cambodia’s agriculture and traditional livelihoods. The
seasonal floods of the Mekong and its tributaries and Tonle Sap Lake provide nutrients essential
to agricultural soils, and breeding and nursing grounds for fish.
Increases in mean annual temperatures and the frequency of floods, drought and wind storms
have already been existed in Cambodia. Climate projections forecast substantial increases in thefrequency of days and nights that are considered hot in current climate conditions. The potential
increase in the frequency and intensity of floods in the central agricultural plains would expose
farmers to higher risks of crop failure. Floods and droughts are already the most common
natural disasters and results in yearly loss of lives, crop failures, and destruction of property andinfrastructure.
To cope with changing climatic conditions, Cambodia has completed a National Adaptation
Program of Action to Climate Change. The implementation of the NAPA would contributesignificantly to the Cambodian Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and nationalsustainable development objectives. However, after the completion of NAPA year ago,
Cambodia has struggled to attract donor interest in financing the implementation of highpriority adaptation activities.
With regards to adaptation to climate change in the water sector, Cambodia could suffer fromthe negative impacts of adaptation measures undertaken by its upstream neighbor’s countries on
the main rivers. Any development in hydropower, agriculture and industry that may havenegative impacts on the hydrology of these main rivers would constraint Cambodia’s ability toadapt to climate change itself. The most significant threat would be on inland fisheries andfloodplain agriculture, particularly those relying on the flood regime surrounding Tonle Sap
Lake.
In order to address the urgent climate change adaptation needs in Cambodia, Ministry ofEnvironment have prioritized the following activities for funding: (1) Implementation of NAPA

111

priority activities, (2) Climate change awareness raising campaigns (3) Mainstreaming of climatechange adaptation into development, (4) Institutionalisation of an inter‐organisational climatechange coordination mechanism, (5) Integration of climate change adaptation into the national
budgetary process, (6) Formulation of climate change adaptation and climate change proofing
legislation/policies, (7) Strengthening of climate change research, (8) Riparian country
cooperation to address trans‐boundary issues related to adaptation activities.

REFERENCES:
RGC (2007). National Strategic Development Plan 2006‐2010 Annual Progress Report for 2006, Phnom
Penh, Cambodia.
Baran, E.; Jantunen, T.; Chong, C.K. (2007). Values of inland fisheries in the Mekong river basin, WorldFish
Center, Phnom Penh, Cambodia.
McSweeney, C; New, M.; Lizcano, G (2008) “Cambodia Climate Change Profile”, Oxford University,
Oxford, England. Available at http://country‐profiles.geog.ox.ac.uk/.
Ministry of Environment (2002). Cambodiaʹs Initial National Communication to UNFCCC, Ministry ofEnvironment, Phnom Penh, Cambodia.
Ministry of Environment (2003). “Declaration on Cambodia Climate Change Office Establishment(CCCO)”, MoE, 23 June 2003, No 195.
Ministry of Planning (2002). Second Five Year Socio‐Economic Development Plan 2001‐2005, Phnom
Penh, Cambodia.
Ministry of Environment (2006). National Adaptation Programme of Action to Climate Change, MOE,
Phnom Penh, Cambodia.
Ministry of Environment (2005a). Vulnerability and Adaptation to Climate Hazards and to Climate
Change: A Survey of Rural Cambodian Households, Phnom Penh, Cambodia.
Ministry of Environment (2005b). Analysis of Policies to Address Climate Change Impacts in
Cambodia, Phnom Penh, Cambodia.
Ministry of Planning (2005). Achieving the Cambodia Millennium Development Goals, Ministry of Planning,
Cambodia.
National Committee for Disaster Management (2002). Disaster Management in Cambodia, NCDM,
Phnom Penh, Cambodia.
National Institute of Statistics (2009). Statistical Year Book 2008, Ministry of Planning, Phnom Penh,
Cambodia.
Linddal, M; De Lopez, T; Narasimhan, R (2005). Climate Screening of Danish Development Cooperation
with Cambodia, Danida, Copenhagen, Denmark.
Royal Government of Cambodia (2001).
2001‐2005, RGC, Phnom Penh, Cambodia.

Second Five Year Socioeconomic Development Plan

Royal Government of Cambodia (2002) . National Poverty Reduction Strategy 2003‐2005, RGC,
Phnom Penh, Cambodia.

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Royal Government of Cambodia (2005). The National Strategic Development Plan (2006‐2010), RGC,
Phnom Penh, Cambodia.

113

CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACT TO
THE WATER ENVIRONMENTCASE STUDIES:CILIWUNG WATERSHED
Maulyani Djajadilaga
Data Section to the Assistant Deputy of Data and Information
the State Ministry of Environment
Indonesia

ABSTRACT
Indonesia is an archipelago which has more than 639 watersheds and 7219 rivers. Ciliwung is
one of the watershed which is located in the province of West Java and DKI Jakarta on the islandof Java.
Declining of Ciliwung water quality and the occurrence of floods in Jakarta in recent years
probably caused by climate change, especially the rainfall factor. Therefore, this study focused toobtain an initial information about possible causes of the declining condition of Ciliwung
watershed, especially in the upstream area.
The results of the data analysis of rainfall, water flow, and water quality shows that:
1. The increasing of water flow is more affected by land use change rather than precipitation.
2. Water pollution control can be done through a combination of increasing water flow anddecreasing waste water discharge.
Several action programs has been taken to improve Ciliwung watershed conditions, such as:
1. Presidential regulation on Ciliwung watershed management.
2. Completed the Jakarta flood canal.
3. Community participation:a. Water conservation with simple technology, that is by making a bio‐pores hole.
b. Livestock and municipal waste pollution control through the creation of bio gas.

114

1. INTRODUCTION
Indonesia with 81 thousand kilometers coastline is the largest archipelagic country in the worldthat consists of 5 main islands and 30 groups of smaller islands. Situated between 06o08ʹ North
Latitude ‐ 11o15ʹ south latitude and between 94o45ʹ‐ 141o05ʹ east longitude, Indonesia has a landarea of 1.9 million km2 and has at least 7.219 of the river belonging to the 639 watersheds

Figure 1. Indonesian Territory

Population of Indonesia is estimated to reach 228 million in 2008 with 121 per km2 of population
density. The island of Java, which is occupied by the vast majority population (58 %), has thehighest population density of 1.035 per km2.
Table 1

Population, 2008
Population Density (/km2)

No.

Main Island

Population (million)

1

Sumatera

49

102

2

Jawa

132

1,035

3

Bali dan Nusa Tenggara

12

164

4

Kalimantan

13

23

5

Sulawesi

17

89

6

Maluku dan Papua

5

11

228

121

Indonesia
Source: BPS – Statistics Indonesia

Because of its geographic location, climate in Indonesia is affected by the west monsoon and theeast monsoon, on which causes the wet season and dry season.

115

The wet season usually occurs in November to May with average precipitation 2000 ‐ 3000
mm/year.
A very high population density in Java island, caused severe environmental problem, especiallyon water environment. Most of the rivers on the island of Java has been polluted and thepotential availability of the water tends to decrease. This study aims to see the effects of climatechange, particularly changes in precipitation, to the water environment. As the study area is the
Ciliwung upstream watershed which is part of the Ciliwung watershed.

2. CILIWUNG WATERSHEDS
Ciliwung watershed, with an area of about 525
km2, located on the island of Java, precisely inthe province of West Java and DKI Jakarta. The
number of people living in watersheds Ciliwung
reached 11.7 million. Most of the land in the
Ciliwung watershed used for housing andagriculture.
Table 2. Landuse of Ciliwung Watershed(2006)

Figure 2. Ciliwung WatershedNo.

Landuse

Percentage

1.

Water body

0.2

2.

Forest14.0

3.

Open land

6,8

4.

Housing

50.7

5.

Agriculture

27.2

6.

Others1.2

Source: Processed from Landsat TM 7 Imagery

116

Meanwhile, the Ciliwung upstream water‐shed has
an area approximately 151 km2 and is mostly
agricultural land.
Table 3. Landuse of Ciliwung Upstream Watershed(2008)

No.
1.
2.
3.
4.

LanduseForestOpen Land
Housing
Agriculture

Percentage
18.4
0.9
7.1
73.6

Source: Processed from Landsat TM 7 Imagery

Picture 3. Ciliwung Upstream
Watershed

In this area there are 4 rain gauge stations which is Citeko, Gunung Mas, Mega Mendung, andCiawi. Citeko station was operated since 2000, while the other stations since 2004. Also in thisarea, there is a monitoring station of the river water flow, which is Katulampa dam.

3. MONITORING OF PRECIPITATION AND WATER CONDITION
Precipitation measurement at Citeko
station show that monthly precipitation
tends to increase during the period of
2002 ‐ 2008. In addition, the maximum
precipitation usually occurs in January,
but in 2006 shifts to August and its value
is greater than previous years. Further
research needs to be done to prove that
this is happening because of climatechange.
Figure 4. Monthly Precipitation

Other data analysis is comparing thein Citeko Station, 2002‐2008

total monthly precipitation of 4 stations
with the water flow in Katulampa dam.
It is clearly showed the increasing damage of Ciliwung upstream watershed in 2006.

117

Figure 5. The Comparison of Precipitation and Water Flow, 2004 ‐ 2008

As can be seen in Table 4, the environmental degradation in Ciliwung upstream area iscaused by landuse change which is out of controlled.
Table 4. Landuse Change in Ciliwung Upstream WatershedNo.

Landuse

2002

2008

1.

Forest

31.7%

18.4%

2.

Open Land

20.5%

0.9%

3.

Housing

4.2%

7.1%

4.

Agriculture

43.6%

73.6%

100%

100%

Total

Source: Processed from Landsat TM 7 Imagery

Fluctuating of water flow of water in the rainy season and dry season also affect to water
quality, which tends to decrease during the dry season. Figure 6 shows the differences of
BOD concentrations between the rainy season and dry season in Ciliwung upstream
watershed.

118

Figure 6. The Difference of BOD Concentration between the Rainy Season and Dry Season

Based on the measurements of precipitation, water flow and water quality, it can beconcluded that:
1. The increasing of water flow is more affected by land use change rather than
precipitation.
2. Water pollution control can be done through a combination of increasing water flow anddecreasing waste water discharge.

4. ADAPTATION
To improve the whole Ciliwung watershed, there are several action programs being carriedout, namely:
1. Presidential regulation on Ciliwung watershed management. This regulation is setting
the cross‐departmental programs to improve and control the environmetal degradationin Ciliwung watershed.
2. Completed the Jakarta flood canal.
3. Community participation:a. Water conservation with simple technology, that is by making a bio‐pores hole.
b. Livestock and municipal waste pollution control through the creation of bio gas.

119

CLIMATE CHANGE & WATER ENVIRONMENTS:
POTENTIAL IMPACTS AND POLICY RESPONSESIN KOREA
Buyoung Kang
Water Environment Policy Division
Water Environment Management Bureau,
Ministry of Environment
Republic of Korea
ABSTRACT
Climate change is not only related to greenhouse gases but also freshwater systems. The
global warming phenomenon has influenced the hydrological cycle and caused changes inprecipitation patterns. In addition,higher water temperatures and precipitation changes

are projected to affect water quality and exacerbate many forms of water pollution.
In Korea, the average variability of annual precipitation is clearly increasing and thepattern of rainfall is also becoming more unpredictable. Therefore, the Korean government
has promoted the following policy responses to address climate change impacts on thewater environment.
First, the four major rivers restoration project is a fundamental measures to resolve
water‐related disasters such as flood and drought. It aims to secure 1.3 billion cubic metersof additional water supply and to enhance flood control capability by 890 million cubic
meters.
Second, the Korean Ministry of Environment has strengthened pollution management anddeveloped additional TP disposal methods to deal with organic matters.
Third, non point source pollution management and ecological stream rehabilitation
projects are being promoted to reduce water pollution and to mitigate carbon dioxide
emission by creating more eco‐friendly spaces.

120Since water is an indispensable factor in everyone’s life, it’s everyone’s business to consider
how we maintain sustainable water use in the era of climate change.

1. INTRODUCTION
Last December, Copenhagen attracted the eyes and ears of many people all around theworld. UNFCC (the United Nation Framework Convention on Climate Change) COP 15
was held in the Danish city and the delegates from 192 countries included 105 leaders fromeach state. Even though some had skeptical estimations for the meeting, it was enough toprove how much the world was interested in the issue of climate change.
Climate change is not only related to greenhouse gases or the ozone layer, but also to every
section of life and the environment. Climate, freshwater, biophysical and socio‐economic
systems are interconnected in complex ways, so a change in any one of these induces achange in another. Anthropogenic climate change adds major pressure to nations that are
already confronting the issue of sustainable water use. The challenges related to water arethese: having too much water, having too little water, and having too much pollution. Eachof these may be exacerbated by climate change and several changes have already been
observed such as the changing thermal structure of lakes.
Potential challenges caused by climate change on the water environment are also predictedalso for the Korean peninsula. The Korean government is making every effort to addressthese water challenges and to adapt to the larger issue of climate change successfully.
These efforts include policy responses such as the four major rivers restoration project,stronger water quality standards, control strategies for algae blooming and entrophication,and nonpoint source pollution management.

2. CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACT ON WATER ENVIRONMENT
A. GLOBAL LEVELThe IPCC reports says that over the 100 years (from 1906 to 2005), the global surface
temperature grew warmer by 0.76℃ (range 0.56~0.92) with a more rapid warming trend
over the last 50 years. This global warming phenomenon has influenced the hydrologicalcycle and caused changes in precipitation patterns, evaporation and river discharge.
Climate model studies suggest that, because of climate change, a greater increase is121expected in extreme precipitation, as compared to the mean. We have already experienced
many cases of extreme precipitation events; for example, Hurricane Katrina, struck thesouthern part of the U.S.A in the year 2005.
At the global level, the negative impacts of climate change on freshwater systems outweighthe benefits. Higher water temperature and precipitation changes in extremes, including
floods and droughts, are projected to affect water quality and exacerbate many forms ofwater pollution. Warmer water holds less dissolved oxygen and fosters harmful algal
blooms. It also changes the toxicity of some pollutants, which makes meeting water quality
goals more difficult. Intense rainfall results in more nutrients, pathogens, and toxics being
washed into water bodies. On the other hand, in areas with less precipitation, limited
groundwater recharging will have adverse impacts on stream flow and make meeting
water quality goals more challenging.
Of course, there are effects of hydrological change on climate change; such as more
evaporation means more greenhouse gas and more climate warming.

B. NATIONAL LEVEL
According to the Korean National Institute of Metrological Research, the averagetemperature has risen 1.7 ℃ for about the last 100 years (from 1912 to 2008) at six
observation points (located in Seoul, Incheon, Gangneung, Daegu, Mokpo, and Busan),which is higher than the world average rate. Climate change is an inevitable phenomenon
in Korea as well as in other parts of the world.
The average variability of annual precipitation is clearly increasing at the six observation
points. In the year 2002, Typhoon Rusa poured record breaking regional torrential rains. In
Gangneung city, the largest daily amount of precipitation was 870.5mm; 62% of theaverage annual amount and 3.3 times of the average monthly amount. It caused serious
economic damages of more than 5 trillion won.
On the other hand, in the year 2009, Gangwan province had only 67.8% of its averageannual amount of precipitation because of low temperatures, an effect of theclimatechange phenomenon in WMO’s El‐Niño observation area( west longitude 120°~170°, within
5° of the equator). It was the second worst winter drought in the last 35 years. More than 50

122thousand local residents experienced limited water supply. Even worse, in Korea, thewater stressed country listed by Population Action International (PAI), it is anticipated that
800 million cubic meters of water will be insufficient by 2011 and 1 billion cubic meters by
2016.
Rainfall patterns are is also becoming more unpredictable. In the year 2009, a pattern ofsqualls or tropical showers, which are torrential downpours after several sunny days,
appeared in Korea. In addition, extremely isolated showers occurred; a part of Seoul
recorded more than 100mm while other parts of the city recorded less than 10mm.

3. POLICY RESPONSES IN KOREA
A. FOUR MAJOR RIVERS RESTORATION PROJECTThe Four Major Rivers Restoration Project aims to respond to climate change in terms offundamentally resolving water‐related disasters such as flooding and drought. The mostapparent impact of climate change is increasing extreme precipitation events. The Korean
peninsula has experienced more unusual weather conditions, which have caused severe
damage in many aspects. The average annual damage by flooding is about 2.7 trillion won
and the restoration costs are about 4.2 trillion won.
To address potential water scarcity, the project will secure 1.3 billion cubic meters ofadditional water supply. Sixteen reservoirs are scheduled to be built in the four majorrivers by the year 2012, to preserve 800 million cubic meters of water. Multipurpose small‐to ‐medium‐sized dams will be constructed, too. On the Nakdong River, Songriwon Damand Bohyoun Dam will be built, and Andong Dam and Imha Dam will be connected tostore an additional 250 million cubic meters of water. In total, 87 reservoirs for irrigation
will be extended, holding 250 million cubic meters of water.
To prevent potential flood damage, 200‐year frequency flood control will be implemented.
Flood control storage capacity will be enhanced by 890 million cubic meters mainly by
dredging 540 million cubic meters of river sediment. Two flood control areas and four rainwater storage areas will be constructed and 620 kilo meters of outworn river banks will be
reinforced. Newly constructed dams and extended reservoirs will also help to reduce peakinflow in rivers. In addition, to discharge the flood water at estuaries more quickly at flood

123

time, more estuary dikes will be constructed along the Nakdong and Youngsan Rivers.
When completed, flood water levels will decrease by 1.1 and 0.3 meters in the Nakdong
and Youngsan Rivers, respectively.
The project is also expected to improve water quality, which is threatened by climatechange. More specifically, the river water quality in 86% of the four rivers will be advanced
to Grade II (the indication of Good water, in which swimming is allowed, BOD level below
3mg/L and DO level over 5mg/L) by 2012. Thirty‐four highly polluted watersheds wereselected for focused management and investments will be made most intensively to fivecore riverside areas. The distribution percentage of the sewage system will be extended to
91% by 2012. Farmland on river flood plains is a major non‐point source of nutrients andpesticides, thus 6.4 million square meters of the farmland will be removed and organic
agriculture will be encouraged on the remaining land. Furthermore, small rivers directly
connected to the four major rivers will also be improved.
B. STRENGTHEN POLLUTION MANAGEMENTThe Korean Ministry of Environment sets different water quality/ecosystem standards forrivers and lakes. While nine categories for lakes, including COD (Chemical Oxygen
Demand), TP (Total Phosphorus) and TN (Total Nitrogen), there were six categories forrivers, including BOD (Biological Oxygen Demand). Because rivers were relatively freefrom organic matter. However, climate change has caused more difficulties and more
intensified control is needed. In this circumstance, the standard for water quality
environment of rivers was revised recently and the COD and TP categories were newly
introduced in the year 2009.
One of the most challenging problems of climate change in terms of water environment isthat warmer water fosters algal blooming. Facing this problem, the Korean Ministry ofEnvironment requires waste water treatment plants to set up additional chemical disposal
processing. Additional chemical disposal processing is expected to reduce 95% of TP in
waste water while the existing biological disposal processing is reported to reduce 67% of
TP. TP Total Maximum Daily Loads (TMDL) is also being considered for implementation
after model operations, while only BOD ‐ based TMDL applies now.

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C. NON POINT SOURCE POLLUTION MANAGEMENT
Increased frequency and intensity of rainfall will produce more pollution, erosion, andsediment due to run off. As expected, because of not only climate change but also more
urbanization and more impermeable land use, it is necessary to implement preparestronger non point source pollution management.
Non point source pollution reporting systems try to reduce the pollution at a fundamental
level since non point source pollutants are hard to collect and treat after being spilled byrunoff. Developers who carry out projects in which environmental impact assessments areneeded (listed by law), owners of factories of larger than 1 million square meters with
wastewater utilities are obligated by law to report the emission of non point source
pollution and equip their facilities with adequate non point source pollution reducing
systems.
A non point source management zone is a specially appointed area where a high risk ofnon point source pollution exists or is expected in the future. At the end of the year 2009,four zones were being cared for under management programs – Soyangho Lake, Doamho
Lake, Imhwaho Lake and the metropolitan city of Gwangju.
The Korean Ministry of Environment keeps monitoring the features of non point source
pollution according to different types of land use. In addition, it is running 43 model
reduction facilities to develop more efficient facilities and guidelines for non point source
pollution management projects. From the experience, some eco‐friendly and cost‐effectivemodels, such as artificial wetlands and ecological water detention facilities are planned to
be implemented national wide.
D. ECOLOGICAL STREAM REHABILITATION PROJECT
The ministry’s Ecological Stream Rehabilitation Project is shifting the paradigm from
irrigation and flood control to conservation water ecosystems, in terms of animals andplants as well as human beings. This project prevents excessive run‐off and helps tomaintain sufficient ground water under the conditions of extreme precipitation.
It is the project to rehabilitate 100 lively healthy streams by the year 2012. To construct
stream‐oriented networks, each project is designed at an integrated watershed level: from125

the upper stream to lower reaches, and from branches flowing into the mainstream tostreamlets into branches. Local governments expand ecological space not only in the areaof each stream but also in its surroundings, monitor the regional water ecosystem to makea specific plan based on its character, and make riparian buffer zones, eco‐parks, andeco‐wetlands.
Specifically, to rehabilitate rivers of downtown areas, the ‘Cheoggye ‐ creek +20 Project’ isbeing push ahead. The project will restore old water ways from 20 concrete‐covered urban
streams to create green urban spaces with water. Moreover, the restored streams will help
to lessen the urban heat island effect.
A designated riparian buffer zone project is also being driven forward. Waterside land isbeing bought and ecological forests of 8.1million square meters are being created as
eco‐belts. Selected species of trees with high carbon dioxide absorption ability, such as pinetrees and oak trees, are being planted in the buffer zones. The trees reduce not only non
point source pollution but also the emission of carbon dioxide.
E. BUILDING WATER CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
With the rising demand for water, climate change will cause more water scarcity andregional water supply imbalances. Therefore, the Korean government has implemented
strategies that maximize water‐use efficiency – rainwater, gray water, and reuse ofwastewater.
Under the current Water Supply Law, rainwater facilities are required to be built in sports
complexes and gymnasiums with roofs larger than 2,400 square meters. This law is going
to be extended to include government buildings. Wastewater reclamation and reusesystems(gray water), which now apply to hotels, department stores, and factories, will be
set up in development projects such as industrial estate projects or land development
projects.
Building water circulatory systems reduces energy use and thus reduces green house gases.
It is an adaption to climate change as well as restraint measure against it. At the end of theyear 2007, 9.9% of treated wastewater was used for industrial water, agricultural water and126

artificial recharging of river. This number is scheduled to increase to 16.6% (1.08 billion
tons annually) in the year 2013.

4. CONCLUSION
Water is indispensable for all forms of life and is needed in almost human activities. We
drink, we shower, we farm, we play, and more than 70% of our body consists of water.
However, only about 0.8% of the world’s water is available. About 97% of the world’s
water is stored in the ocean and another 2% is found in the ice caps. Securing enough cleanwater has always been a challenge for societies, and it is getting more challenging becauseof climate change. This is why many countries are exerting their best efforts to address theimpact of climate change on water environments.
Korea has experienced warmer average temperatures and more extreme precipitation
events recently, and this trend is expected to continue more intensively. Climate change
and its potential impact on water environments is an obvious issue on the Korean
peninsula as well as in other parts of the world. The Korean government has promoted
policy responses, from the four major rivers restoration project to building water
circulatory systems, to deal with this issue.
Water environment is critically influenced by many non‐climatic drivers; human activity
including agriculture, land‐use change, construction and management of reservoirs,
pollutant emissions, and water and waste water treatment. Non‐climate drivers are
efficient and even fundamental ways to lessen the negative impact of climate change onwater environment since they are related to lifestyles and society’s views about the value ofwater ecosystems. Now, while studying climate change, it is also necessary to consider how
water has been affected by changes in these non‐climate drivers and how we can affectwater by changing them.

REFERENCES
Bates, B.C., Z.W.Kundzewicz, S.Wu and J.P.Palutikof, Eds., 2008: Climate Change andwater. Technical paper of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, IPCC
Secretariat, Geneva, 210pp.

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U.S. Environmental Protection Agency., 2008: National Water Program Strategy, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency Office of Water

http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/8b.html

128

“ASSESSMENT OF IMPACT AND ADAPTATION TO
CLIMATE CHANGE IN VIENTIANE PLAIN,LAO PDR
Souphasay Komany
Department of Water Resources
Water Resources and Environment Administration
Prime Minister’s Office

ABSTRACT
Background: This report is result of a pilot project to assess risk, vulnerability andadaptation of rain‐fed farmer to climate change impact. The assessment was carried out asresearch exercise in the research capacity building program, namely CAPaBLE, which was
initiated by Asia‐Pacific Network for Global Chan ge Research (APN). The capacity
building activity in Lao PDR and Thailand, CAPaBLE CB‐01/CB‐02 Project, wasimplemented by Southeast Asia START Regional Center and followed the methodology
developed under the project “Assessment of Impact and Adaptation to Climate Change”(AIACC) regional study AS07.
This assessment aims to assess risk and vulnerability of rain‐fed farmer to different levelsof climate impact by using the rice productivity as climate proxy. The household livelihood
condition was evaluated mainly based on the household production compare to household
consumption condition and structure. Risk to climate impact was analyzed andvulnerability was assessed based on multi‐criteria analysis method, by using multiple
indicators to indicate the state of risk by taking under consideration the sensitive to climate
impact (household economic condition), exposure to climate impact (household
dependency on on‐farm productivity) and coping capacity to climate impact into theevaluation process (see appendix 3).

129

The study site selected for this case study was Vientiane plain covering 290 farmer
households. The field interview was conducted together with team from National
University of Laos and Institute for Cultural Research, Ministry of Information and Culture
as well as cooperation from town officials June ‐ July 2005.
Finding: From the survey, the household average income (total productivity) is
approximately 31 million Kips and income is highly diverse. The majority portion of total
income, which is over 70%, is from agricultural activities while the major portion ofhousehold consumption is on food. Majority of the farmer household, which is 90% of thesurveyed household, has sustained livelihood condition with some saving, which is mostly
in form of livestock.
From the baseline climate risk analysis, by taking sensitivity and exposure as well as
coping capacity to climate impact into consideration, almost 2/3 of the survey population isclassified as low risk category and approximately 1/3 of the surveyed population isclassified as moderate risk category, while only few households are considered as high risk.
The study showed that these farmer households are resilience to climate impact, which inmost cases are flood or drought. By using decline in rice productivity as proxy of climate
impact, the structure of household risk does not deviate much from the baseline condition.
The analysis was based on decline in household rice productivity by 30%, 50% and 70%
and the result shows small number of households moved from low risk category tomoderate risk category while the high risk category only increased by few household only.
This is due to the income diversification of the household and the relying on non‐timber
forest products to support household livelihood when rice productivity is declined byclimate impact.
Number of adaptation options was suggested by the local stakeholders as guideline toimprove their livelihood condition and at the same time to raise the resilience to climate
impact further, of which some of the suggested options are extensions to the current
practice.

130

INTRODUCTION
The assessment of climate impact to water resources and rain‐fed rice farming in Lao PDR
had been conducted through May 2005 to March 2006 and cased at a part of Vientiane Plain,located at 30 Km Northeast of Central Vientiane Capital, where irrigation system was not
yet available. The study area covered parts of 3 districts: Xaythany and Naxaythong ofVientiane Capital, and Thoulakhom of Vientiane Province. A group of 13 researchers wereformed from different academic and social institutes, led by the former Environmental
Research Institute, Science Technology and Environment Agency, to carry out thisparticular research activity. Head of or representatives of 300 households of 20 villages inthese districts had been interviewed through questionnaires, which included sections ofinterviewee general profiles, risky grouping, expenditure to agricultural practices, climate
impact to agriculture, and adaptable ability. The objectives of this study were to: (i)Address vulnerability and adaptation of targeted villagers in Vientiane Plain to the climatechange, including impacts to their livelihoods and adaptation, assessment of theiragricultural productive ability, and seek of their opinion for further adaptation; and (ii)
Provide technical recommendations as the basis for further adaptation at grass‐root andadministrative levels for adaptation and planning.

GENERAL INFORMATION
A number of targeted study villagers were almost equality in sex ratio, as half of them werecompleted primary education, and 13% were illiterate. It was observed that the higher
education, the smaller ratio of distributed population. Most of the interviewees were
professional farmers and half of those had secondary careers as livestock raisers, while theother half had practiced other trade and service activities. Income generated fromnon‐agricultural activities was considered as important factor for adaption of climatechange, which approximately covered 27% of total income of individual household.
Annual household consumption was observably fluctuated, in which expenditure for foodcovered almost half of other daily expenses. Household saving in form of cattle rising was
popular, which covered 60% of other forms of saving. Official debt and loans of villagers
were considerably small, due to the villagers were keen to borrow cash as well as had
limited chance to access financial sources.

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FINDINGS
From the period of study: 1990 ‐ 2004, Vientiane Plain had been both impacted by floodand drought with more severe since 1995. The extremely drought occurred in 2004 andflood in 1995. Lengths of both flood and drought were less than 3 months, which mostly
one month‐length.

Figure 1. Percentages and numbers of impacted and non‐impacted households fromnatural disaster during 15 years period, from 1990 to 2004

Based on the villagers’ historical experiences, lost of rice product due to the impact of floodand drought were rated about 30%, 50% and 100%. Study simulation had made for the
impact at the rates of 30%, 50% and 70% rice lost, comparing to normal condition. In
normal condition, livelihood security of targeted villagers was about 90%, while the rest
was usually non‐secured. Generally, it was observed that ranges of rice lost from normal
condition to lose by 30%, 50% and 70% had made a little impact to livelihood security ofthe villagers. Major risks of the villagers from different ranges of impacts mentioned above
mostly affected to food and financial security. Livestock and health seemed to have minor
impact.

132

Figure 2. Numbers of household grouped in different livelihood security ranges had
simulated by normal condition, and 30%, 50% and 70% lost of rice product.

The villagers had ability to accept continue impacted condition to their rice productivity at
2 to 3 year maximum. If more than those, they would struggle for other livelihood
alternatives as their main careers, such as fish farming or livestock rising. In case of severe
impact, the villagers had mostly assisted by their outsider relatives, local administrations
and other organizations at basic levels, neighboring villages and households, and otherforms of assistance in both cash and kind.
In general, even though the villagers had lost their rice product due to impacts fromnatural disaster at different ranges, they would still prefer to be the farmers as usual. Thiswas because of their deep custom and limited opportunity to alternate their professions
due to the lack of knowledge and skill and other reasons.

RECOMMENDATIONS

133

Even though the villagers has high ability to adapt to climate impact, however their live
security depended on alternative livelihood at certain level, external assistance committed
by strictly custom, and the abundance of neighboring natural resources in forms of
non‐timber forest product extraction. In the future, if natural disaster continue to havesevere impact and more often, number of village population is increased and neighboring
natural resources is decreased, their vulnerability level must significantly be increased until
adaptation is destructed. Therefore, external assistance should be made for overall
population living in the Vientiane Plain. These may include:•

Provision of alternative crops and other forms of agricultural investment;•

Promotion of livestock rising;•

Provision of alternative financial source access, including village development fundand community credit;•

Provision of alternative livelihood opportunities;•

Application of chemical fertilizer in rice farming at appropriate and sustainablelevel;•

Cooperate and network with among villages for sharing of agriculture plot, during
disaster event;•

Provision of reliable and on‐time meteorological and other technical information tofarmers for the alternative crop cultivation; and•Promotion of appropriate cultural practices as existed.

134

CLIMATE CHANGE:POTENTIAL IMPACTS ON WATER RESOURCES AND
ADAPTATION STRATEGIES IN MALAYSIA
Zubaidi Johar
National Hydraulic Research Institute of Malaysia (NAHRIM)

ABSTRACTRiver basins in Malaysia are relatively small and short. These characteristics

exposecertain regions to water stress and droughts. In line with the Initial National
Communication report of 2000, a Regional Hydro‐Climate Model for Peninsular Malaysia(RegHCM‐PM) which capable of generating climate and hydrological projections up to
2050 has been developed to facilitate a quantitative climate change impact andvulnerability assessments. Generally, water resources are adequate for projections up to2050, except for extreme droughts events which could threaten supply services especiallyin urban areas. Higher rainfall and extreme flows poses threats to more severe floods event.
Lower rainfalls could result in water supply stress situation for irrigation anddomestic/industrial water supply. Water Resources managers will have to develop goodwater harvesting techniques for water conservation for both irrigation and water supply
besides reduces non‐Revenue water losses and improves irrigation efficiency. The
development of a systematic and quantified V&A assessment should be given priority.

1. INTRODUCTION
Malaysia, likewise most of other equatorial climate type of country, relies entirely on
rainfall for its water resources. The country’s river basins are relatively small.

This

characteristic generally limits self‐sufficient river basin water resources development tosupport and sustain its growth.

135

Besides being small, the rivers are also relatively short.

These features render the river

basin sensitive to intense, short duration or low intensity, long duration rainfall resulting infloods in the low‐lying and the coastal areas.

These characteristics also expose certain

regions to water stress and droughts.
Malaysia is also bounded by over 4800km of coastline. The weather along these coastlines
is influenced by convective rain and the distribution of rainfall is greatly influenced bytopography and the monsoon winds.

The east coast of Peninsular Malaysia, northeast of

Sabah and coastal areas of Sarawak receive heavy rainfall, brought by the northeast
monsoon winds originated from Northern China and the Pacific Ocean, during theNorthern Hemisphere

winter monsoon from December to February.

The Boreal Summer Monsoon from May to September, during which the southwest winds
are dominant, is a relatively dry season. Nevertheless the state of Sabah, located south ofPhilippines, does get spells of intense rainfall during this season as a spill over effect of
tropical storm or typhoons crossing the Philippines from the Pacific into the South China
Sea and Indo China. The width of the Peninsular and the distance of the inland areas ofSabah and Sarawak from the sea are also relatively narrow and therefore the winds fromthe seas could readily influence inland weather conditions.
With those geographic and climatic features, Malaysia is exposed and therefore vulnerable
to climate change impacts on rainfall, sea‐level rise and weather.

2. NAHRIM CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACTS STUDY ‐ PROJECTION MODEL
Since the Initial National Communication report of 2000, Malaysia has developed adynamic downscaled (up to 9km resolution) Regional Hydro‐Climate Model for Peninsular
Malaysia (RegHCM‐PM) capable of generating climate and hydrological projections up to
2050.

The RegHCM‐PM model output is accessible from National Hydraulic ResearchInstitute of Malaysia (NAHRIM) website (http://www.futurehydroclimate.nahrim.gov.my)to registered users.

A similar model for Sabah and Sarawak is being developed and due

to be completed by middle of 2010.

Another projection model, the Providing Regional

Climates for Impacts Studies (PRECIS), is also available for projections up to 2100; however
it only accommodates a downscaled model up to 50km resolution. The developments of136

these models are significant milestones in facilitating a more quantitative climate change
impact and vulnerability assessments as well as subsequently developing and selecting
adaptation options.
2.1 CLIMATE CHANGE PROJECTION
The projections indicate that there would be a 1.5°C to 2.0°C increase in surface airtemperature by 2050.

The average annual rainfall for the east coast of Peninsular

Malaysia is projected to increase by 10% and a 5% decrease in Selangor and Johor.

Thereappears to be no change in the annual seasonal rainy (wet)‐dry season cycle but there could
be extremes within and between the seasons in terms of higher high and lower low
rainfalls.

This could lead to increases of river flows of between 11% and 43% in the East

Coast of Peninsular Malaysia and extreme river flows changes ranging from minus 31% to93% of the present (historical) values in Selangor and Johor.

Evapo‐transpiration

projections do not show any significant changes.
Weather characteristics projections indicate more events of extreme conditions in the formof tropical cyclones, and rainfall.
rainfall for Malaysia.

Generally, there is reducing trend in regional average

This negative trend is more evident in Central (Selangor) andSouthern (Johor) regions of Peninsular and Western Sabah.

Regional seasonal rainfall

variation projected for the 21st century is largest during the months of December, January
and February (‐60% to 40%) and minimal during the months of September, October andNovember (‐15% to 25%).
The rate of sea‐level rise observed at Tg. Piai ( 1986‐2006 ) is 1.3 mm/year (DID, 2007).
Comparatively it is lower by 3.7mm/year against projected global average sea level rise of
5.0mm/year (IPCC AR3).
2.2 POTENTIAL IMPACTS AND VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT
The climate change impact on the hydrologic regime and water resources of Peninsular
Malaysia was studied by NAHRIM using the RegHCM‐PM model. Depending on data
availability, the study projected the impact based on location of climatology and hydrology
stations or regionally and either on observed or simulated historical data. However, for137

Sabah and Sarawak, the impact was performed by means of the Providing Regional
Climates for Impact Studies (PRECIS) model by Malaysian Meteorological Department.
The water resources status in Peninsular Malaysia was updated in the National Water
Resources Study (GOM, 2000). In 2009, DID under the Ministry of Natural Resources andEnvironment (NRE) is entrusted to conduct a project entitled The Review of the National
Water Resources Study (2000‐2050) and Formulation of National Water Resources Policy
and to be completed by 2010. This study has incorporated aspects of climate change issues.
Compared to other countries that have very large and continuously flowing rivers (e.g.
Egypt and the Nile), Malaysia is almost entirely dependent on rainfall as its source of water.
In fact, most of its agriculture, all the lush forests and rich biodiversity are rain‐fed andtherefore entirely dependent on rainfall.
As the country grows, demand from the water supply sector increases.

To ensureadequate and stable supply during the dry season, dams and barrages were constructedacross rivers in the growth valleys.
in the irrigation sub‐sector.

Similar water resources sector development occurred

The introduction of irrigation for single paddy cropping in

the 1930s, and later double paddy cropping in the 1960s, increased water demand from therivers.

Again for stability of supply, dams and barrages were constructed.

It must be

noted however that water from the reservoir behind the dam is for supplementary supply
and released only when necessary. For most of the paddy planting season the strategy
has always been to use as much of the rainfall and uncontrolled flow in the rivers
downstream of the dams.

The reason for this is again due to the small catchment areas

upstream of the dams and any releases may take a long time for replenishment.
Short rivers and small catchments are also the reason for flash floods whenever highly
intense rainfall occurs.

This is exacerbated by urban development such as thatexperienced in the Klang Valley and many flood‐prone areas.

This is also true for low

intensity long duration rains when the storage capacity of the flood plains within thecatchment is small.
Rainfall is directly impacted by climate change in terms of total volume, intensity,
frequency and regional distribution.

The general conclusions from the study on climate

138

change impact on the hydrologic regime and water resources of Peninsular Malaysia(NAHRIM, 2006) can be summarised as follows:• There is an increase in annual rainfall over the North East Region and a small
increase over the Klang and Selangor sub‐regions of the Central Region.
• There is little or no change in evapo‐transpiration.
• The maximum monthly precipitation is expected to increase significantly in the
North East region of the Peninsular.
• There could be an increase in intra‐season and inter‐season variability with extremehydrologic extremes i.e. higher high flows and lower low flows for Kelantan, Pahang,
Terengganu and Kedah watersheds.
• The monthly flows for the months of October and November are projected to besignificantly higher for Terengganu, Kelantan, Pahang and Perak.

On the positive perspective, higher rainfalls indicate higher potentials for surface andgroundwater recharge.

From the negative perspective, higher rainfall poses threats tomore severe floods in flood prone areas as well as floods in some areas not normallyflooded under the present climate.

Higher and extreme discharges beyond the designed

criteria for structures could also lead to their failures.

Of concern are the safety andstructural integrity of dams and bunds for protecting settlement areas along rivers that
could lead to disastrous consequences if they fail.

Higher intensity rains could also cause

more severe and frequent landslides and erosion.
Lower rainfalls could result in water supply stress situation for irrigation anddomestic/industrial water supply and therefore more releases from dams that in turn could
take time to replenish.

It could also result in lower river water quality due to lesspollutant dilution capacity of discharges.

Lower discharges also lower sediment carrying

capacity and thus causing siltation of rivers, estuaries and reservoirs.

1392.2.1 IRRIGATION
Referring to the study on climate change impact on irrigation and water supply (NAHRIM
2009), MADA Granary (Northeast Peninsula) is expected to have 57 months of water deficitand 183 months of water surplus over the 240 months projection period. For year 2025‐2034
and 2041‐2050, the monthly water surplus range from +6MCM to 2498 MCM. Monthly
surplus of water especially during October 2046 (2498 MCM) and October 2048 (2317
MCM) could cause serious flooding to paddy field and will affect rice yield and production.
It is projected that there will be 2 to 3 months of consecutive irrigation water deficit during
the main season at 2026 and 2034. These prolonged irrigation water deficit may warrant
cancellation of paddy planting and affect rice production as well. The average projectedevaporation for period of 2025‐2034 and 2041‐2050 is 1,222 mm which is lower compared tohistorical mean of 1,419 mm.
The KADA Granary (North west Peninsula) is not expected to be exposed to any serious
deficit situations based on the results of analysis using data generated for the projected
years.

In fact the results show surplus in supply in all the years considered.

However

there are indications of extreme surplus of up to 5,438 MCM indicating the possibility offlooded conditions in some of the paddy areas. The average projected evaporation for
period of 2025‐2034 and 2041‐2050 is 1,386 mm which is rather similar to the historicalmean value of 1,424 mm. The slight decrease in average annual projected evaporation (by‐38 mm) is insufficient to offset the impact of decrease in projected rainfall.
The Barat Laut Selangor Granary is expected to have only 8 months of water deficit
situations out of the projected 240 months ranging from 1 to 27 MCM.

These deficit

occurrences are found to be more frequent for the years 2044‐2049. The average projectedevaporation of 859 mm decrease (by 460 mm) substantially for the period 2025‐2034 and2041‐2050 compared to the historical mean of 1,319 mm.
2.2.2 WATER SUPPLYThe NAHRIM 2009 study indicates that based on the capacities of existing facilities (i.e.
Klang Gates Dam, Batu Dam, Sg. Selangor Dam, Tinggi Dam and downstream catchment
between Sg. Selangor Dam to Batng Berjuntai Intake Point, excluding the Pahang‐Selangor
water transfer project), 28 (nearly 12%) out of the total 240 months are projected to face140

water supply deficit situations.

These monthly water deficits range from 3 MCM to 214

MCM. The highest surplus is estimated to be extremely high at 2,137 MCM in November
2031.
These estimates were based on demands from population that is increasing from nearly 5
million in 2010 to nearly 7 million in 2050. The study also were based on the per capita
consumption for domestic was assumed to increase from 300 (2010) to 330 (2050)
litres/capita/day and Non‐Revenue Water (NRW) is assumed to range from 185 (2010) to
207 litres/capita/day (2050). Floods aspects are not considered and these may affect some of
the facilities.

3. STRATEGIES OF ADAPTATION
Adaptation to climate change should be taken into account in all development plans of thecountry. Notwithstanding this in identifying options for adaptation, uncertainties
associated with the climate change projection should not be discounted. Socio‐economic
variables play a critical role and serve as the basis for selecting adaptation options.
Examples of such variables include elements of costs, incentives, tax‐breaks, employment
opportunities, poverty alleviation, marginalised and indigenous communities, among
others.
3.1 WATER SUPPLYThe per capita consumption and non‐Revenue water losses should be reduced as ameasure to adapt to climate change, especially to prepare for extreme droughts. The Water
Services Industry Act (Act 655) provides for the commitment of all water supply operators
to take affirmative action in these efforts for sustainable water development.
In addition, the water supply sector will have to develop good water harvesting techniques
for water conservation. In the long term, installation of improved weather forecasting
system would support improved water supply management.

141

3.2 IRRIGATION
For the irrigation sector, the adaptation would be to improve irrigation efficiency.

Similarto water supply sector, irrigation sector also will have to develop good water harvesting
techniques for the projected low rainfall periods especially during main seasons. Besides
rainwater harvesting, soil‐water management and drainage improvement should be
strengthen. Flood is always an issue in water resources sector. Better flood mitigation
measures and drainage systems should be one of the adaptation measures. Floodmanagement and design should also be reviewed, thus, the facilities would be able towithstand the climate change especially during extreme weather. Structural safety andintegrity should also be reviewed.
There are programs and projects which have already begun and can be considered as
strategic actions towards promoting awareness, capacity building and encouraging theorganizations and the public to take affirmative action to evaluate and respond to climatechange.

There are also programs implemented by the Government to improve public

services and infrastructure in the normal course of development planning for the nation.
These too can be considered as “No Regret” actions that could reduce or absorb any
negative impacts of climate change and therefore, in a way, be considered as V&A
assessment and measures.
•

The major ones are listed below:

Development of V&A Guidelines for South‐East Asian.

This is a collaborative

effort by NAHRIM and the Asian Development Bank (ADB).
•

Development of a downscaled hydroclimate model for Sabah and Sarawak by
NAHRIM.

•

Promoting the use of the RegHCM‐PM model output.

This output can now beaccessed by registered professionals and the public via NAHRIM’s website.
•

Updating of the Water Resources status and requirements for Peninsular Malaysia
that will incorporate considerations for climate change.

This Study is led by

Ministry of Natural Resources (NRE) through the Department of Irrigation andDrainage (DID).
•

Development of new water resources facilities.

142

•

An on‐going research by the Malaysian Agriculture Research and Development
Institute (MARDI) to develop rice varieties and on‐farm water management systemthat could reduce irrigation requirement by 50% of the present needs.

•

Promoting the Integrated River Basin Management (IRBM) approach to land andwater resources.

•

This program is led by the NRE and DID.

Promoting the Integrated Flood Management (IFM). This is also led by NRE andDID.

•

The above are mostly “No Regret” adaptive measures and those specifically forclimate change impact are newly introduced.

In all cases it is still too early toevaluate their effectiveness as adaptation measures.

4. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
The present climate change projections indicate towards more severe climate events andconditions up to 2050 and beyond. Efforts should be taken now to address the climatechange issues particularly towards selecting and implementing appropriate adaptation
measures.

It is all the more necessary since all present development and social planningobjectives and implementation programs of the country are based on assumptions withvery little consideration, if any, of climate change impacts.

These plans and objectives

could be severely affected if vulnerabilities are not addressed now.
The development of a systematic and quantified V&A assessment and development of
options should be given priority. Furthermore, efforts to integrate water resourcesmanagement systems should be accelerated.

REFERENCES
Ahmad JS, Kavvas ML, Syazwan F and Chan VT (2008).
Malaysian experience.

Modelling for local scenario: The

Proceeding of the Asia‐Pacific Health.

Ministers’

Conference on

Climate Change and Health.
Ahmad JS, Kavvas ML, and Syazwan F (2009).

Requirement for Climate Change Projection

and Dynamic Downscalling as a Prerequisite to Climate Change Adaptation.

143

Goverment of Malaysia (GOM) : Malaysia’s Second National Communication (NC2) Chapter 5
Programmes Assessing Vulnerability and Measures to Facilitate Adequate Adaptation to Climate
Change (2010).
Government of Malaysia (GOM) (2000).

Kajian Sumber Air Negara 2000‐2050 (Semenanjung

Malaysia). Kuala Lumpur, March 2000.

144

CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACTS TO THE WATERENVIRONMENT AND ADAPTATION OPTIONS
Tint Zaw
Department of Irrigation,
Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation,
Myanmar

1.

GENERALThe Union of Myanmar is the second largest country in South East
Asia with a total area of 67.65 million hectares. It is characterizedby mountain ranges in the north, east and west and a long coastal
strip in the south and west which is about 2,230 km long coastalline which borders the Bay of Bengal, Andaman Sea and Gulf ofMartaban.
Myanmar’s climate conditions are termed as three distinct seasons on twelve month withvarying weather conditions. And also depending on the influence of the monsoon winds,
Myanmar’s climate conditions are defined as summer, rainy and winter season. In general,summer emerges from March to May, rainy season emerges from May to October and thecold season from November to end of February. Two third of Myanmar falls within thetropics and the remaining one third enjoys temperate climate conditions.

145

The average amount of precipitation in Southern Myanmar, along the coastal strip is 100
inches(2500 mm) to 200 inches (5000 mm) annually, 100 inches to 150 inches (3750 mm) inthe delta regions and under 40 inches(1000mm) in arid zones. The rainy days are about 75
to 100 days on Northern Myanmar and coastal strips and drop to about 30‐40 days in aridzones. The cold season symbolizes dry and cold weather, butsometimes, the storms that usually occur in May andNovember bring heavy rains.

2.

STATUS OF WATER RESOURCES

Myanmar is rich in natural resources including water
resources. Almost all the rivers and streams in the country risein the northern highlands and follow into the southern sea.
The river basin characteristics in Myanmar are quite variable
to the difference in physiographic features. The principal
water course flowing separately in Myanmar comprise four
major rivers, the Ayeyarwady, Chindwin, Thanlwin, Sittaung and other major tributaries.
All rivers with the exception of the Thanlwin River of trans‐boundary nature can beconsidered national basins comprise about 737,800sq‐km, those cover 90 % of the country’s
territory. The

average annual surface water and estimated ground water potential are1082 km³ per year and 495 km³ per year respectively.

3.

POTENTIAL IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE IN MYANMAR
Like other countries, Myanmar also suffers from climatechange impacts on water cycle by sudden change of
weather pattern such as flood and long drought and thus
sustainability of water environment in some areas arefacing difficulties. Due to the climate change impacts
rainfall pattern and rainfall intensity are significantly

changed occasionally in some parts of the country depending on the topographicalcondition. In the middle part of Myanmar, especially in dry zone area, sometime intervalsof non‐rainy days last more than two or three weeks and annual rainfall intensity is rather

146

less than normal average. As a consequence, lesser inflows into the reservoirs, resulting in
irrigation water shortage problems particularly in dry
season.
Having a long coastal line along the western and southernpart of the country, these areas are regarded as a cyclone
vulnerable area. These areas suffer from flood disaster in mid‐ monsoon period of July toAugust. Due to the climate change impacts in delta and coastal areas, more severe storms
often can occur at any time and moving of shore line and sea water intrusion. Cyclone
Nargis 2008 is by far the most devastating natural disaster in the country’s history, and hasbrought to force the extreme vulnerability, particularly

country’s coastal regions of

Ayeyarwady delta was worst hit and loss of lives and properties was enormous.
Although, changing climate pattern and potential impacts
are of different scale, climate change impacts us directly
through surface water utilization, more frequent floods
and droughts but also indirectly through human activities
which depend on water.

4.

WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT WORKS
Myanmar Government has formulated plans for boosting
the agricultural production by various means and increaseof irrigated crop area through construction of water
resources development projects, are one its efforts. After
1988, 230 numbers of water resources projects including

dams, weirs, and flood control works of small, medium and large scale, have been
implemented in various regions of Myanmar. Nowadays, the Government has planned
and implemented various water related infrastructures inaccordance with the requirements of regional development
works. In the dry zone area, the projects have been
implemented to ensure getting sufficient water for thecultivation of crops. So that, the construction of irrigation147

facilities in this area are especially not only for the agricultural purpose but also forgreening the environment and for supplying drinking water to local people.
However, in lower part of Myanmar particularly in delta and coastal area, the constructionof water related infrastructures such as dams, embankments, polders and sluice gates are
implemented for the main purpose of controlling the sea water intrusion and mitigation offloods in the flood prone region.
Although various water related infrastructures described above have been done, at present,
climate research works have not yet been started. These regional development works are
based on hydrological investigation data. The hydrological data such as temperature,
rainfall, inflow data and water quality test data are recorded in daily, monthly andperiodically. These recorded data are used in design, surveillance and evaluation andmaintenance of these structures.

5.

POTENTIAL CLIMATE CHANGES IMPACTS TO THE WATER ENVIRONMENTIn the Ayeyarwady delta area, farmland, towns and cities situated in the low lying area areprotected by embankments and polders from flooding. Moreover, sea water intrusion is aproblem for summer paddy cultivation although large potential area for rainy paddy
existed. Most of the paddy cultivation areas are protected by embankments and drainage
sluices in delta.
According to the occurrence of storm history in Myanmar, the last cyclone struck at thecoastal area of Rakhine State is in 1994. After 1975, there is no major storms occurred in
Ayeyarwady delta for 1975 to 2005. Moreover, unusual strength together with unusualwind direction of storms as Cyclone Mala and Cyclone Nargis struck

in delta region during

2006 and 2008 respectively.
Due to the Cyclone Mala in 2006, in one of the completed dams in Ayeyarwady,reservoir

water level rose very quickly from nearly dead storage level to full tank level andovertopping was about to take place.
Myanmar encompasses flood prone region as Ayeyarwady delta but also dry and water
scarcity region as dry zone area. So that, climate change impacts on both regions is too

148much different and tackling with water related infrastructure management and water
environment sustainability are different as well.
Two specific cases suspected of climate change impacts will be mentioned. Nankathu Dam
Project was implemented in Ayeyarwady Division from a period of 1995‐96 to 2000‐01. It
was equipped with 150ft (45 m) wide service spillway and 120 ft (37 m) wide emergency
spillway where crest level is 4 ft (1.2 m) higher than that of service spillway. Two years
after dam was put into service, it is subjected to floods of different magnitude regularly
every year. One biggest flood occurred in 2006 with head over service spillway crest of 10.6ft (3.2 m) and small margin of freeboard remained. That flood condition made the dam
Maintenance Engineers think that the provided spillway capacity was inadequate and leadto construction of another unlined channel spillway having crest length of 300ft (91 m).
When flood of flash flood nature came that channel was eroded 40 ft (12 m) deep till hardrock

was reached. After that incident, emergency spillway was enlarged to 300 ft (91 m)

crest length and parapet wall

was also raised to cope with floods of flash flood nature.

That enhanced the safety of the dam.
Average annual rainfall of the Dry Zone is about 650 millimeters (mm). During rainyseason, rain usually fall in torrential showers and sometimes flash flood occurs.

Thehottest month is April and May and the highest temperature recorded is 44 degree
centigrade in dry zone and it has been found on rising trend. Because of the unfavorable
climatic conditions and high population density results this area facing with the scarcity ofwater and water related problems not only for rice cultivation but also domestic water
usage, these area mainly depend upon the water storage reservoirs, small tanks for water.
At present, the impounding reservoirs and tanks suffer lesser inflows resulting in shortageof water storage problems particularly in dry season. Moreover, nature of the rainfall
distribution pattern does not favor to get water from the stream even in the rainy season
Kyatmauktaung dam is one of the projects that comprises all above characteristics, locatedin Dry Zone Area of Mandalay Division. According to the hydrological investigation data,
it can be seen that although rainfall intensity fluctuations is not evidently changed, the149rainy days are significantly reduced after 1999. All of these influences in distinct region aresuspected by the climate change impacts on storage and reservoir.

6.

ADAPTATION

Development and implementation of structural and non‐structural risk management
measures is to reduce damage by climate change impacts on water environment. At
present, the Government of Myanmar begins to recognize the climate change impact onwater environment so that the government has encouraged

to reserve wet land andmangrove forest in delta and coastal region and to establish and conserve the watershedmanagement on the catchment area. Moreover, the government launched a special
programme for greening of 13 districts in central dry zone which is the most critical regionin terms of degradation of land

resources and water due tocontinued deforestation.

JICA and other NGOs are assisting in the work of afforestation in dry zone area forgreening of the regions and restoring mangrove forest in delta, together with theGovernment Agencies.

The following activities are also under taken as non‐structural

management measures.
a) Plantation of fast growing multipurpose three species at the rim and its periphery of thebasin boundary such as 50,000 trees for high dams, 40,000 trees for medium dams and20,000 trees for low dams to prevent watershed degradation as well as to restore
ecological balance.
b) Land rehabilitation and soil conservation activities in the most critical watershed area inUpper Myanmar.
In the development of structural approach in Dam Projects, either new emergency spillway
is introduced or enlarged the existing one to handle the flash floods. And also, certain
dams, tanks and water impounding lakes which are situated in dry area, are strengthened
with modulating facilities since the pool levels of prior schemes become deviating fromnormalconditions

leadingtogradualdecreaseofstorage.

Water

storageofKyetmauktaung Dam was supplemented by construction of modulating dams andtransferring of water from adjacent basins, so that the storage capacity of dam becomes150

nearly averageeven though rainfall intensity and inflow rate is significantly reduced after2000.
At present, natural disaster warning system is undertaken by national level by theassistance of Department of Meteorology and Hydrology. Plans have been made by
Government, up to township and district levels, once the likelihood of an emergency
situation is suspected, action has to be initiated to prevent a failure. Emergency
preparedness plan was worked out in consultations with local authorities.

CONCLUSION
Concerning with the climate change impacts on water environment, insufficient or aging
infrastructures are a challenge, while financing, strengthening

capacity and improving

legal frame works are core concerns in Myanmar. Equitable, optimal and sustainable
management of water resources and services demands an integrated approach,coordinated action and the sharing of responsibilities. Participation in Seminar, Workshop
and cooperation programs of climate change are essential for Myanmar to share
information and learn from other, with a view to enhance present ways of responding toclimate change and efficient formulation of strategies.
Since Meteorological Stations play a crucial role in observing and predicting climatechanges, more stations need to be installed in strategic locations of river basins and whereclimate changes are suspected for flood forecasting and safe operation of reservoirs.
Assessment of past and present climate change needs to be made using the measured data
covering the atmosphere, soil surface, water, sea, snow and ice. Impacts of climate change
on water environment should be assessed, options to respond should be developed andrealistic response strategies should be formulated. Policy makers need to adopt andimplement policies in response to climate change appropriately in order to mitigate its
effects.

151

CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACTS AND ADAPTATIONOPTIONS IN THE WATER SECTOR
IN THE PHILIPPINES
Lourdes V. Tibig
Millennium Development Goals Fund,the Philippines
ABSTRACTThis paper presents the results of the vulnerability and adaptation assessment of the water
resource sector in the Philippines to impacts of climate change. This is part of thewatersheds (forestry, biodiversity and water resources) sector assessment done for the
preparation of the Second National Communication of the Philippines to the UNFCCC. In
the assessment, projections for temperature increase and changes in rainfall in the country
in 2020 and 2050 were used.
Most important direct impacts of projected temperature increase and changes in rainfall arewater shortages in some areas and floods (excessive runoff) in others. Indirect impacts
includedecline in agricultural yields due to too much or too little rains, degradation ofwater quality resulting to a possible

increase in outbreaks of climate‐sensitive diseases in

the human health sector, and further degradation of the environment.
Adaptation options are recommended for water supply and water demand management,
which in principle, are related to water conservation. Currently, an Integrated Water
Resource Management (IWRM) process is already being implemented in order to maximize
the resultant economic and social equitable manner. Its sustainable outcomes have alreadyincluded climate change in the strategic themes it hopes to address.

1521. INTRODUCTION: THE PHILIPPINE WATERSHEDS AND WATER RESOURCES
The Philippine watersheds comprises almost 70% of the country’s total land area (IACCC,2009), with almost 1.5 million ha. as proclaimed watersheds (defined as watersheds thatwere specifically designated for various purposes such as domestic water supply, irrigation,hydroelectric power generation and multiple uses.
Many of our watersheds today are invariably degraded, characterized by dwindling forests,
soil erosion, erratic streamflow, declining groundwater resource, loss of biodiversity,
microclimate deterioration, and declining productivity. The direct causes of watersheddegradation include erosive upland agricultural practices, inappropriate forestry practices,
overgrazing, poor water resource management, unplanned and unregulated land
conversion, and increasing industrialization. Additionally, the indirect causes are excessive
population growth, pervasive upland poverty and absence of viable livelihoods, lack ofmarkets and other livelihood support systems, land tenure, inadequate knowledge aboutwatershed management (such as the perception thatmanagement of watersheds is only

about water and not for multiple uses), inappropriate conservation technologies, lack ofaccess to capital resources, absence of mechanisms to facilitate coordination of mandates ofvarious development agencies, absence of appropriate scheme for valuation and pricing ofwatershed resources, inadequate land use and management plans, and inconsistent policy
framework, among others.
The country is classified into twelve water resource regions, which are defined byhydrological boundaries, physiographic features, and climate homogeneity. Of the 343
independent principal river basins with areas of at least 4,000 ha each, 20 are major ones
(each covering at least 99,000 ha). These river basins are sources of municipal and domestic
water supply, irrigation and power generation.
There are 61 freshwater lakes in the country, with an aggregate area of more than 200,000
ha. Largest among these is the Laguna de Bay, which is the second largest in Southeast
Asia. It is fed by 23 tributaries and covers an area of 90,000 ha.
The country also has extensive groundwater resource estimated to cover an aggregate areaof 50,000 sq. kms., and storage of about

251, 158 MCM. The safe yield or amount of153

groundwater available for abstraction without resorting to groundwater mining, however,is estimated at only 31,554 MCM per annum. The dependable yield of the total water
resources of the country is an aggregate of 975 MCM per day, coming from surface runoff(833 MCM/day) and groundwater safe yield (142 MCM/day).
Water demand is divided among three major users; the agriculture sector (80%), theindustrial and commercial sectors (16%), and domestic users (4%)

2.

THE VULNERABILITY AND ADAPTATION ASSESSMENT OF WATERSHEDS AND

WATER RESOURCES IN THE PHILIPPINESThe vulnerability and adaptation (V&A) of watersheds and water resources in the country
is part of the V&A assessment that was done under the Second National Communication(SNC) of the Philippines to the UNFCCC. The V&A component aims to provide valuable
information for mainstreaming climate change adaptation into the national policy andplanning. The two main objectives are to enable policy‐makers/decision‐makers and civilsociety to address known and projected impacts, minimize those that are adverse andmaximize benefits; and to enhance adaptive capacities and resilience of vulnerable
communities.
2.1 CLIMATE CHANGE SCENARIOS
Changes in temperature and rainfall over the Philippines in 2020 and 2050 have been
projected based on a regional model developed by the Hadley Center known as PRECIS.
The model results indicate significant warming will occur in the middle of the 21st century,with the largest warming in June‐ July‐August (JJA) and March‐April ‐May (MAM) over
Mindanao. Under the SRES A1B scenario, the country averaged annual mean temperature
is projected to increase by 0.9°C to 1.2°C by 2020 and 1.7°C to 3.0°C by 2050 (See Fig.1). On
the other hand, projected mean rainfall range from increases in the northern and central
parts, but mainly decreases in the south (see Fig.2).

154

Projected Change in Seasonal Mean Temperature in the Philippines
MAM

3.5

3.5

3.0

3.0

Temperature (°C)

2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5

2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
ARMM
ARMM

R11

35
25
15
5
-5

Figure 2. Projected changes in mean annual rainfall
in the Philippines relative to the period 1971‐2000 (based on SRES A1B)

155

ARMM

R12

R11

R10

R09

R08

R07

REGIONCARAGA

2050

R06

R05

NCR

R04

R03

R02

CAR

-15
-25
R01

R12

R10

R11

45

Percent(%)

CARAGA

R09

R10

REGION

2050

relative to the period 1971‐2000 (based on SRES A1B)

2020

CARAGA

R08

R09

R07

R08

R06
R07

R05

NCR

R04

R01
2020

Figure 1. Projected change in annual mean temperature in the Philippines

-35

R12

REGION

2050

ARMM

2020

CARAGA

R12

R11

R10

R09

R08

R07

R06

R05

NCR

R04

R03

0.0

R03

1.0
0.5

R02

1.5

3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
CAR

Temperature (°C)

2.0

R02

R06

SON

3.0
2.5

CAR

R05

REGION

2050

3.5

R01

R04

2020

JJA

Temperature (°C)

NCR

R03

R01

ARMM

R12

REGION

2050

CARAGA

R11

R10

R09

R08

R07

R06

R05

R04

NCR

R03

R02

R01

CAR

2020

R02

0.0

0.0

CAR

Temperature (°C)

DJF

2.2 PROJECTED IMPACTS
The results of the impact and vulnerability assessment of Philippine watersheds indicate
the following:♦ Current vulnerability is a result of rapidly growing population that are fully dependent
upon the natural resources in these watersheds. About 75 million tons of soils are being
lost annually, affecting about 70% of the country’s total land area and surface water
resources. Groundwater resources are diminishing, causing 20%‐30% reduction in
irrigated areas with streamflows declining and micro‐climates deteriorating. Moreover,current climate variability is already affecting many watersheds resulting to water
shortages in dry seasons and sudden floodings and mudslides after heavy rains (nowexhibiting increasing trends).
♦ Future vulnerability will consist of increasing drinking water shortages due to changes
in rainfall patterns, longer periods of drought, and saltwater intrusion

into freshwater

reserves, increased demand for water in crops brought about by enhanced solar
radiation, decreasing runoff, and consequently, decreasing water supply from thereservoir.
♦ These will translate into diminishing water for domestic consumption (quality andquantity), irrigation and power generation; and thus, increased incidences ofwater‐based diseases, decreasing irrigation service areas resulting to decreasing yields
in a number of crops, and decreasing power supply from hydroelectric dams,
respectively.
In 2008, the National Water Resources Board (NWRB) made a projection of water
availability versus water demand by 2025 (See Fig. 3) in the twelve water resource regionsof the country using the 2005 water demand baseline.

156

35000
30000
25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
0
I

II

Water Available

III

IV

V

VI

VII VIII

Water Demand 2005

IX

X

XI

XII

Water Demand 2025

Figure 3

The projections shown above have not incorporated any climate change consideration, andif climate change scenarios were considered, the values could be lower.

3. ADAPTATION OPTIONS
3.1 CURRENT MANAGEMENTThe Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) is a process which promotes thecoordinated development and management of water, land and related resources withinhydrological boundaries, in order to maximize the resultant economic and social welfare inan equitable manner without comprising the sustainability of vital ecosystems. Current
management efforts in the Philippines are directed towards expanding the knowledge basethat supports integrated management of multi‐sectoral use of the waters, training of
personnel and institutional development. As can be seen in Table 1, the sustainableoutcomes have already included climate change in the strategic themes to be addressed by
the IWRM.

157

The Elements of Integrated Water Management in the Philippines
Sustainable Outcome No.1 ‐ Effective protection

Sustainable Outcome No. 2 ‐ Sustainable

andWater Resources and Responsive Services

regulation

for

water

security

andecosystem healthfor Present and Future Needs

Strategic Themes

Strategic Themes

Ensuring rational, efficient and ecologically

Promoting water conservation/stewardshipsustainable allocation of water

Improving water use efficiency expanding

Enhancingeffectivenessingroundwater

accessmanagement and aquifer protection

Ensuring availability of affordable andAchieving clean and healthy water

responsive water supply and sanitation

Managing and mitigating risks from water

services

related disasters and climate change
Sustainable Outcome No. 3 ‐Sustainable Outcome No. 4

Improved effectiveness, accountability, and‐synergy among water related

Future Challenges

institutions

Adaptive and Proactive Response toand stakeholders

Strategic Themes

Strategic Themes

Promoting participatory water governance andExploring innovative pathways to watersupportive

resource management:

enabling environment

Strengthening knowledge management andWatersensitive

building capacity for IWRM

sustainable
development

and
and

design:ensuring

environmentally‐soundwater

management

practices
Water trading: towards a more efficient
allocation of water

3.2 RECOMMENDED ADAPTATION OPTIONS
Adaptation options being recommended are primarily on management, and can begrouped into two types; the water supply side and the water demand side management.
♦ Water supply side management with the aim of maximizing the potential water
resources availability through: Improving watershed management, including the adoption of integrated watershedand ecosystem management to promote greater synchronization of upstream and158

downstream development to minimize inefficiency and maximize the use of waterand other natural resources: Building capacity to capture water excess during the wet season in order to haveenough stored water during the dry months (i.e. SWIPS) Practice of water augmentation and water harvesting techniques, including rain
harvesting, surface runoff collection and storage, streamflow diversion andponding.
♦

Water demand side management with the objective of maximizing the use of waterand minimizing the wastes of water through: Practice of soil and water conservation techniques such as contour farming,
mulching and terracing, hedgerow planting and zero tillage: and Regular maintenance of irrigation facilities, especially drainage canals to reducewater losses during transmission and distribution.

4. NATIONAL ADAPTATION STRATEGY FRAMEWORKThe increasing vulnerability of the country to impacts of climate variability/change, which
in many cases have led to disaster‐like proportions has precipitated a number ofgovernment initiatives which address climate change issues and concerns. Foremost
among these initiatives are the Millenium Development Goals Fund (MDGF) Joint
Programme on Climate Change Adaptation implemented by the Government of thePhilippines, the UNDP and other UN agencies, which aims to mainstream climate change
into development planning, the signing into law of the Climate Change Act, theformulation of the National Adaptation Strategy Framework, and the Philippine Climate
Change Adaptation Project (focused on natural resources management).

159

CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACTS TO WATERENVIRONMENT: THAILAND
Wijarn Simachaya
Pollution Control Department
Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment
Thailand

ABSTRACT
A changing climate could lead to alterations in the frequency and severity of droughts andfloods; water supply; air, soil, and water quality; ecosystem health; human health; andresource use and quality of life. Climate change may act through multiple pathways suchas interactions in and impacts on the aquatic ecosystem.

A changing climate can be also

considered as an agent to aquatic ecosystem stresses.
Climate change may impact to water environment in assimilative capacity due to flowchanges. This will be directly impact to the water quality.

The degree of the problems will

depends on amount of wastewater loading and flow/water level of receiving waters.
Thus, reservoirs and rivers should be managed to attain water quality targets and its
ecosystem rather than only river flow or water level targets. Wastewater discharges fromvarious point sources should be treated before discharging into the environment why
non‐point sources should be also controlled by encouraging the land stewardship practices
to reduce erosion of soil and time nutrient and herbicide/pesticide applications with lessrisk to water quality and its ecosystem. Manure with high organic contents from livestock
activities should be treated using bio‐gas technology to reduce green house gas emission as
well as wastewater loads. In addition, vegetated buffer zones around significant water
bodies, streams and rivers, channels, and wetlands areas should be maintained to protect
quantity, quality and its aquatic ecosystem. Thailand has begun implementing interesting
strategies to adapt to climate change, to mitigate some of the effects that are already felt
across sectors, and to protect farmland, coasts and cities.

160

Thailandʹs Five‐Year Strategies on Climate Change (2008‐2012) was developed covering thefollowing mitigation and adaptation measures; 1) building capacity to adapt and reduce
vulnerability to climate‐change impacts; 2) promoting greenhouse‐gas mitigation activities
based on sustainable development; 3) supporting research and development to better
understand climate change, its impacts, and adaptation and mitigation options; 4) raisingawareness and promoting public participation; 5) building capacity of relevant personnel
and institutions and establishing a framework of coordination and integration; and 6)
supporting international cooperation to achieve the goal of climate‐change mitigation andsustainable development. These measures will support to reduce green house gas emission
and protect the water environment of the country.

INTRODUCTION
Thailand is the home to 64 million people, the majority of whom live in rural andagricultural areas. Currently, Thailand produces only 0.8% of the world’s carbon dioxide
emissions, and has a lower per capita emission rate compared to the global average. The
effects of climate change, including higher surface temperatures, floods, droughts, severe
storms and sea level rise, put Thailand’s rice crops at risk and threaten to submerge
Bangkok in the near future.

This will affect quality of life of the people in the country

especially people along the coastal areas.
Freshwater resources are highly sensitive to variations in weather and climate. The climatechanges in global that are occurring as a result of the accumulation of greenhouse gases in
the atmosphere will affect patterns of freshwater availability and will alter the frequencies
of floods and droughts in all regions of the world as well as in tropical regions. From thevarious studies, climate model simulations and other analyses suggest that total flows,
probabilities of extreme high or low flow conditions, seasonal runoff regimes,
groundwater‐surface water interactions and water quality characteristics could all besignificantly affected by climate change over the course of the coming decades. The
distribution of precipitation in space and time is very uneven, leading to tremendous
temporal variability in water resources worldwide.

161

The cooperation at global, regional

and national levels should be built up to mitigate the impact as well as adaptation to thesystem.

CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACT TO WATER ENVIRONMENT
Thailand has an average annual rainfall of over 1,300 mm; however, some parts of thecountry continue to suffer drought problems due to the uneven distribution of rainfall.
During the past decade, weather patterns in Thailand have fluctuated from severe
droughts to severe floods, leaving residential and agricultural areas reeling. Between 1990
and 1993, rainfall was below normal levels, causing water shortages in 1993. Intense
rainfalls in 1994 and 1995 resulted in the worst floodsin Thailand’s recent history. In

2005, 11 million people in 71 provinces were affected by water shortages (Krisner, 2008).
Chitradon et. al. (2008) reported that the statistically‐based studies of flooding and droughtrisks frequently exclude the consideration of spatial and temporal climate variability; anaverage is usually reported. The nationwide average precipitation for 2008 was 1,543 mm,
5% higher than the value in 2007. In 2010, the country is facing drought situation especiallyin the northern and northeastern parts due to El Nino phenomena. This will impact towater quality of the major receiving waters in the country.
It is well known that water pollution from land‐based activities in Thailand is largely
associated with urbanization, industrialization, and agricultural activities.

Thus, themajor sources of pollution are domestic sewage, industrial wastes, and agricultural wastes.
The major impacts of water pollution are the degradation of water supply sources, effect onaquatic ecosystem, and public health.

In general, major pollutant discharged into

receiving water in the country is from the discharging organic matters. The health of awaterbody is dependent upon its ability to effectively self purify through biodegradation.
Thus, increases in low‐flow episodes could reduce assimilative capacity. Stream flow
reduction will be less dilution capacity and thus, higher pollutant concentrations.
Freshwater bodies have a limited capacity to process the pollutant charges of the effluentsfrom expanding urban, industrial and agricultural uses. Water quality degradation can be amajor cause of water scarcity.
Additionally, higher water temperatures and changes in the timing, intensity, and durationof precipitation can affect water quality as well as reduction of dissolved oxygen levels and162increased release of phosphorus from sediment, which can have an effect on aquatic life
(IPCC, 2008). There will be extended thermal stratification and less mixing, increasing thepotential for anoxia, and an increase in the metabolic rates of invertebrates and microbes.
Increased frequency and intensity of rainfall will produce more pollution andsedimentation due to runoff.

Increased the salinity of coastal rivers causing salt‐water

intrusion, movement of saline water into fresh‐water resources especially for the sea level
rise phenomena. Changes in water quality could have implications for all beneficial uses ofreceiving waters and its aquatic ecosystem. In the period of the next 30 years (2010‐2039),
the analysis on 61 wetlands that are significant at international level in Thailand, has foundthat 75% will be affected by climate change at medium level, 13% at high level and 12% at
low level (Office of Environmental Policy and Planning, 2008),
In Thailand, policies for water environment was developed and aim to accelerate therehabilitation of water quality in major water resources and to reduce and control waterpollution originating from domestic, industrial, and agricultural activities.

The goal ofwater quality was established to comply with the ambient water quality standards underfair and good condition of not less than 85% of water bodies in the country.

The national

water vision of Thailand was established in 1999 and is as follows:“By the year 2025, Thailand will have sufficient water of good quality for all users through anefficient management, organizational and legal system that would ensure equitable and sustainableutilization of its water resources with due consideration on the quality of life and the participation of
all stakeholders.”

THAILANDʹS POSITION ON CLIMATE CHANGE
Thailand has signed the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change(UNFCCC) at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED)in June 1992 and ratified the Convention in March 1995. Realizing the seriousness ofclimate change as a global threat, the country has been contributing to international efforts
to address climate change issues, as a Non‐Annex I country. In February 1999, Thailand
signed the Kyoto Protocol, and ratified it on 28 August 2002. The Office of Natural
Resources and Environmental Policy and Planning (ONEP) was assigned by the Ministry163

of Natural Resources and Environment to be responsible as a national focal point on the
UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol.
In 2006, Thailand Greenhouse Management Organization (Public Organization) (TGO),
which its responsibility will cover Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) and any GHG
emission reduction in terms of project. TGO is aimed to be a one‐stop‐service andautonomous organization.

With the new organization, the project developer is expected

to submit a Project Design Document (PDD) together with an approved Environmental
Impact Assessment (EIA) Report if prescribed by Thai regulation, or an Initial
Environmental Evaluation (IEE) Report to the TGO. This is aimed to stimulate investment
and environmental friendly business on greenhouse gas emission reduction in the region.

THAILANDʹS FIVE‐YEAR STRATEGIES ON CLIMATE CHANGE
Thailandʹs Five‐Year Strategies on Climate Change for 2008‐2012 was developed. The
measures of Thailand’s Strategies on Climate Change can be concluded as follows:‐

Building capacity to adapt and reduce vulnerability to climate‐change impacts;‐

Promoting greenhouse‐gas mitigation activities based on sustainable development;‐

Supporting research and development to better understand climate change, its
impacts, and adaptation and mitigation options;‐

Raising awareness and promoting public participation;‐

Building capacity of relevant personnel and institutions and establishing a frameworkof coordination and integration; and‐Supporting international cooperation to achieve the goal of climate‐change mitigationand sustainable development.

ADAPTATION OPTIONS AND MEASURESThe vulnerability from climate change impacts depends on the capacity to adapt. Humansystems have the greatest capacity to deal with a changing climate because they can bedeliberate about adaptation. Through proactive planning, management adjustments,
investment, legislation, institutional change, and education and training, modifications canbe made to minimize impacts and take advantage of opportunities.

164

The potential adaptation measures should be set up in global, region, and national levels.
Identifying possible adaptations is the first step and numerous lists have beendeveloped. The next steps are more difficult and require consultation and collaboration
amongst stakeholders and practitioners in various levels because managing to meet
multiple demands in a changing environment requires an integrated approach. The
adaptation process includes: 1) Assessing and evaluating potential adaptation measures;
2) Choosing preferred adaptation measures; 3) Developing action plans that contain aportfolio of adaptation measures and incorporate means to address barriers to adaptation;4) Implementing adaptations; 5) Monitoring impacts and adaptation measures for
effectiveness; and 6) Reassessing adaptation measures.
Bangkok Metropolitan Administration (BMA) has announced the Bangkok Declaration on
Mitigation of Climate Change with various public and private organizations in the city. In
the next five years, the BMA’s Action Plan on Global Warming Mitigation (2007‐2011)
aimed to reduce the city’s greenhouse gas emissions by 15% below currently projected 2012
levels. The Declaration includes

five measures: 1) reduce energy and natural resources

consumption, 2) reduce greenhouse gas emissions, 3) promote lifestyles that uphold thesufficiency economy, 4) promote activities that help absorb greenhouse gases, and 5) build
public awareness of global warming.
Current water management practices may not be sufficiently to cope with the impact ofclimate change on the reliability of water resources (water quantity and quality), the risk ofdrought and flood, health impacts, agricultural activities, and aquatic ecosystems.
Therefore, the incorporation of information about current climate variability into risk
management of water resources and its beneficial uses under sustainable development
approach would assist the process of adaptation to longer‐term climate change impacts.
Adaptation to the change of water quantity and quality has to be made at agencies andindividual users to water environment.

Adaptation can reduce vulnerability to climatechange especially in the short‐term. IPCC (2008) suggested that water recycling fromvarious uses is a sustainable approach towards adaptation to climate change. This can becost effective in the long term. Therefore, integrated water resources management should165be considered to provide an important framework to achieve adaptation measures acrosssocio economic, environmental and administrative systems.

CONCLUSIONSIn Thailand, some notable changes in climate and hydrology have been identified. For
example, air temperatures are rising, the minimums more than the maximums, coastal
erosion along the shoreline as well as the frequency or duration of flood and drought in the
country. Climate change poses a challenge to water managers by introducing uncertainty
in future hydrological conditions and its impacts.
Global warming will detrimentally affect water quality, thus challenging our longstanding
historical use of the surface water. Depending on changes in the amount and seasonal
distribution of precipitation, watersheds may experience an increased likelihood of winterflooding and reduced late summer flows. Saline intrusion into coastal aquifers andfreshwater ecosystem are likely to become an increasing problem as a result of sea‐levelrise. This may impact on aquatic ecosystems and water quality as well as water uses.
Climate change will cause hydrologic variation that will affect freshwater and relatedresources. As a result, freshwater ecosystem will change in species composition, organism
abundance and productivity. These are among the most significant potential impacts ofclimate change.

Climate change will also present challenges to water utilities, andplanning now could prevent freshwater crises in upcoming years.

RECOMMENDATIONS
From the review of the studies of the impacts of climate change to water environment in
the region, the following suggestions should be considered; The possible impacts of climate change through enhanced institutional flexibility
and consideration of climate‐related risks in the planning process could bedetermined.
 Vulnerability in the aquatic ecosystem should be investigated to protect river flow
for key habitats.
 For water environment, watershed ecosystem should be restored and maintained
as integrated strategy for managing water quantity, water quality and its
ecosystem.

166 The interactions of ground and surface waters should be acknowledged of bothquantity and quality.
 For development community, emphasis should be on adaptation practices rather
than just getting the policies in place.
 The government and relevant stakeholders should be built up the capacity tosupport assessments, research, community engagement, and implementation ofadaptation measures.
 The information on the scientific basis for climate change and the implications forhydrology is needed.
 Climate changes management, mitigation and adaptation’s partnership at regional,
sub‐regional and national level should be built up.

REFERENCES
Chitradon R., S. Boonya‐aroonnet, and P. Thanapakpawin. 2008. Risk Management of Water
Resources in Thailand in the Face of Climate Change
Great Lakes Water Quality Board. 2003. Climate Change and Water Quality in the Great Lakes
Basin. Report of the to the International Joint Commission
IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change). 2008. Climate Change and Water, IPCC
Technical Paper VI
Office of Environmental Policy and Planning. 2008. Climate Change Impact on Natural
Resources and Environment in Thailand. Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment.
Kisner, C. 2008. Climate Change in Thailand: Impacts and Adaptation Strategies. International
ActionSimachaya,W., B. Boonsoong and N. Sangpradub. 2009. Improving Water Quality

Assessments in Thailand to Protect Our Water Resources

167

168

The First International Workshop‐ coping strategies for water environmental challenges in Asia ‐PowerPoint Presentations

169

170

Opening Session

171

172

WEPA Conference, Hanoi
March 8, 2010ᵣᶖᶎᵿᶌᶂᶇᶌᶅᴾᵦᶓᶋᵿᶌᴾᵧᶋᶎᵿᶁᶒᶑ

Environmental Sustainability in
Asian Countries
Motoyuki Suzuki*
Special Advisor of WEPA*Professor, The Open University of Japan
Special Programme Advisor, The United Nations UniversityAug11,2002
http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/image/0208/earthlights02 dmsp big.jpg

N 60㼻
N 50㼻
SapporoCommonalities andDifferences among Countries

N 40㼻

Tokyo

N 30㼻
Naha

Vietnam and Japanas an example

Hanoi

N. Tropic
N 20㼻

Da Nang
HCMC

N 10㼻

Equatorᐯ໱ဃ७ኒỆ‫ݣ‬ẴỦʴ᧓෇ѣỉࢨ᪪Monthly Averaged Temperature in Six Cities

Monthly Averaged Precipitation in Six Cities

Temperature (degC)
35

700

30

600

25

15
10
5

Precipitation (mm/mo)

500

Sapporo
Tokyo
Naha
Hanoi
Da Nang
HCMC

20

S 10㼻

Sapporo
Tokyo
Naha
Hanoi
Da Nang
HCMC

400
300
200
100

0

0

-5

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

173

Monthly Temperature and Precipitation Relations

700

Comparison of Vietnam and Japan
Item
Area
Population

Precipitation (mm/mo)

600

unit
km2
103

Japan
year Vietnam year
377,835
331,150
127,156 09
88,576 09est

Population Density person/km2

500
Sapporo
Tokyo
Naha
Hanoi
Da Nang
HCMC

400
300
200

336

9

260

GDP

10 $Official(109$PPP)

4909.2709(4354.55)

91.76
09est
(256)

GDP/capita

US$PPP

34,098.80 09

2,900.00 09est

Agriculture/fishery%

Life expectancy

100

Unemployment

4.1 0821.4 09est

77.9(m)05
84.6(f)69.2(m)09est
74.45(f)4 08

6.5 09est

%

0
-10

0

10

20

30

GINI coefficient40

24.9 05

37

04

Temperature (degC)

Water Availabilities and
Demands
Diversified Conditions Among
Countriesᵫᶍᶌᶒᶆᶊᶗᴾᵮᶐᶃᶁᶇᶎᶇᶒᵿᶒᶇᶍᶌ

WaterWithdrawalsperCapita,
m3/person/year

FreshWaterWithdrawal
inAsianCountries(2000)

10,000Japan

Bangladesh
ThailandUSA

Viet Nam
MyanmarLao PDR
Malaysia
Cambodia
BhutanSri Lanka
1,000

India
Germany
Korea

Increasing
Human
Activity
Density

Nepal
Mongolia
China
Philippines Indonesia

100

Population Increase
Falkenmark’s Criteria
10100

C.J.Vorosmarty etal,Science,289,284Ͳ8(2000)

174

1,000

10,000

RenewableWater
ResourcesperCapita,
m3/person/year
100,000

“Sustainable Development”• A pattern of resource use that aims to meethuman needs while preserving theenvironment so that these needs can be met
not only in the present, but also for future
generations

Sustainability– WCED: “Our Common Future”, 1987

Definitions of “Sustainable
Development”• Humanity must take no more from naturethan nature can replenish– IUCN, UNEP, WWF: “Caring for the Earth”, 1991,
originally from “World Conservation Strategy”,
1980“Strategy for an Environmental Nation in the 21st Century”

BackgroundPrepared by the Central Environmental Council, Japan, May 2007

Three Important Risks• Werealizedthattheworldwillsoonorlater
face “Catastrophe”,ifthecurrentwastefulactivitiesandlifestylesarecontinued.
• Needforunderstandingstructuresofenvironmentalproblemscausedbyimpactsfromincreasinghumanactivities.
• Whatwereallyneedmaybe“developmentofsustainabilityorsustainablesocieties”,rather
than“sustainabledevelopment”.

Risk ofGlobal Warming

Low Carbon
Society

Risk ofResources Depletion

Risk of
Ecosystem Damage

Vision forthree Society Models
Policy Development by Integrationof three aspects of a
Sustainable
SocietySound Material
Cycle Society

Society in Harmony
with Nature

SustainableSociety

Sound Material
Cycle SocietyInterlinkage of Various Issues
Global warming

Carboncycle
Concentration
changeChange inprecipitation

Forestdegradation

NO, CH4

Land degradation

CO2

Deforestation

Biodiversity
loss

Food production,
supply andconsumption

Loss ofagricultural
Production andgenetic
diversity

Salinization
Loss ofproductivities

Human Activities

175

Loss ofhabitatHuman Pressures on Water Environment

Increase of Human
Activities

Drivers

Examples of Pressures on Water Environment

Population
GrowthIncreased competition for land and resources

Economic GrowthCan increase natural resource use and pollution

Population Growth in Asia
Economic Activity Increase
Energy Consumption Increase

Social Change

Awareness can lower impact
Consumption lifestyles can increase impact

TechnologicalInnovation

Can increase or decrease impacts-sometimes
both

Policies, Laws
and Finance

Can impose protection measures

Climate Change

Threatens ecological balances
Leads to shifting habitats
CompiledbyRichardConnor

Global Population changeᵣᶖᶎᵿᶌᶂᶇᶌᶅᴾᵦᶓᶋᵿᶌᴾᵧᶋᶎᵿᶁᶒᶑPopulation
1010
Industrial
Revolution

109

Civilization
108

Agriculture
0.0535%/year

107
IceAge106
Ͳ10000Ͳ6000

Aug11,2002
http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/image/0208/earthlights02 dmsp big.jpg

Population Growth in the World and Asia

Ͳ2000

0

2000

Year

M.Suzuki,UNU

Population Growth in Asian Countries

Population (billion)

Population (million)
10000

10

China
Japan
Mongolia
Korea
Bangladesh
India
Nepal
SriLanka
Cambodia
Indonesia
LaoPDR
Malaysia
MyanmarPhilippines
Thailand
Vietnam

9
8
1000

7
World
Asia
EastAsia
So.Cent.Asia

6
5
4

100

3
10

2
1
0

1
1950

60

70

80

90 2000 10

20

30

40

1950

2050

60

70

80

90 2000 10

20

30

40

2050

PopulationDivisionoftheDESA,UNSecretariat

176

World Carbon Dioxide Emissions from Fossil Fuels

Bangladesh
India
Indonesia
Korea
Malaysia
PR China
Philippines
Sri Lanka
Thailand
VietnamJapan
USA

Global Climate
10,000Urban Environment

1,000

Industrial Pollution

CompressedPatternofDevelopment
100
1970

1980

Carbon Emission (106 ton/yr)

Gross Domestic Product per Capita in USD(2000)

GDP per Capita in Asian Countries
100,000

9000
Total Emission
Emission from Gas
Emission from Liquid
Emission from Solid
Cement Production

8000
7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
1900

1990

2000

2010

Year

StanfordEnergy onDec18,2008

1920

1940

1960

1980

2000

Year
Boden,T.A.etal,CDIAC(2009)

Change of Energy Consumption with GDP in Asian Countries(points show 1971, 1975, 1980, 1985, 1990, 1995, 2000, 2005, 2006)

Total Energy Consumption/Capita, toe

10

1
䠛

2050 Target

0.1

Specific Energy Consumption
and Leap-Frog Development

Japan
PRChina
India
Bangladesh
ThailandIndonesia
Vietnam
USA

0.01
100

1000

10000

100000GDP/Capita, USD(ppp), 2000

StanfordEnergy onDec18,2008

ChangeofSpecificEnergyConsumption
ͲͲͲͲExperienceofJapan

Specific Energy
Consumption in AsianCountries

Energy Consumption per GDP(Toe/million USD)

18

102
102

103

104

SpecificEnergyConsumption,
Energy/GNP(kcal/yen)

103

105

GDP per Capita (USD, 2000)

161950 1940

14

Indonesia

Japan

Korea

Malaysia

China

Philippines

Thailand

Vietnam

USA

1980

1960

12

1990

1920

10

2005

1900

8
GlobalEnvironment

6

1885

4
RegionalEnvironment

2

India

1970

Localpollution

00

0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5

GNPperCapita(millionyen,2000base)

Points(fromleft)correspondto1971,1975,1980,1985,1990,1995,2000,2005,2006

177

SpecificEnvironmentalImpact
WithEconomicGrowth1970

1950 1940

SpecificEnvironmentalImpact

HowtoMeasureSustainability• MeaningofTraditionalEconomicIndexίGDP)• VariousProposalsonLocalSustainability
Indicators

KuznetsCurve1980
TraditionalPath1960• IndicatorscollectedbyUN/CSD• GenuineSavingbyWorldBank• GenuineProgressIndicator(GPI)

2005

1900

1885

– Texas,FortDevons,Canada,…
– HartIndicator(SustainabilityofRegionsὸ

1990

1920

LeapͲFrog– Correctionofindividualconsumptionbynegativeand
positivefactors

NewDevelopmentPath• EnvironmentalSustainabilityIndexbyYale&
CIEIN– FiveCollectiveIndices

EconomicGrowth• EcologicalFootprint

ESI of WEPA Countries (1/3)

Environmental Sustainability Index (ESI)WithDevelopment

EnvironmentalSystems
100International Collaborative Efforts, 80
Greenhouse Gas Emissions,60
Reducing Transboundary Env. Pressure
40

GlobalStewardship

20

Environmental Governance,
Eco-Efficiency,
Private Sector Responsiveness,
Science and Technology

EnvironmentalSystems
100

Air Quality, Biodiversity, Land,
Water Quality and Quantity

80
60

Reducing
Stresses

40

GlobalStewardship

20

Reducing
Air Pollution, Ecosystem Stress,
0
Population Stress, Waste & Consumption
Pressures, and Water Stress,
Natural Resources Management

Reducing
Stresses0

ReducingHumanVulnerability

SocialandInstitutionalCapacity

Cambodia
Laos
Myammar
Malaysia

ReducingHumanVulnerability

SocialandInstitutionalCapacity

Environmental Health, Basic Human Sustenance,
Reducing Env.-Related Natural Disaster Vulnerability
Yale University and CIESIN: 2005 Environmental Sustainability Index

Yale University and CIESIN: 2005 Environmental Sustainability Index

ESI of WEPA Countries (2/3)

ESI of WEPA Countries (3/3)

EnvironmentalSystems
100
80
60

GlobalStewardship40
20

EnvironmentalSystems
100ThailandIndonesia
VietnamPhilippines

80
60

Reducing
Stresses

GlobalStewardship

0SocialandInstitutionalCapacity

China
Korea
Japan

40
20

Reducing
Stresses0

ReducingHumanVulnerability

SocialandInstitutionalCapacity

Yale University and CIESIN: 2005 Environmental Sustainability Index

ReducingHumanVulnerability

Yale University and CIESIN: 2005 Environmental Sustainability Index

178

ESI of WEPA Countries (New)
EnvironmentalSystems
SriLanka
Nepal
Mongol

100
80
60
40

GlobalStewardship

Reducing
Stresses20
0ReducingHumanVulnerability

SocialandInstitutionalCapacity

Yale University and CIESIN: 2005 Environmental Sustainability Index

The Ecological Footprint

GlobalEcologicalFootprint,1961Ͳ2001(Globalhectare)

EnergySettlement

Timber & paper

Food & fiber

Ecological Footprint (Billion Hectare)

MEASURES
how fast we consume resources and generate waste

Seafood

COMPARED TO
how fast nature can absorb our waste and generate new resources.

Carbon footprint Built-up land

Forestᵠᶇᶍᶁᵿᶎᵿᶁᶇᶒᶗ

Built-up land
Food, fibre and timberEnergy

Cropland and pasture Fisheriesᵣᶁᶍᶊᶍᶅᶇᶁᵿᶊᴾᵤᶍᶍᶒᶎᶐᶇᶌᶒᴾᵆᶐᶃᶂᵇᴾᵿᶌᶂᴾᵠᶇᶍᶁᵿᶎᵿᶑᶇᶒᶗ
ᵆᶅᶐᶃᶃᶌᵇᴾᶍᶄᴾᵨᵿᶎᵿᶌ
ᵆᶓᶌᶇᶒᵘᴾᶅᶊᶍᶀᵿᶊᴾᶆᶃᶁᶒᵿᶐᶃᴾᶎᶃᶐᴾᶁᵿᶎᶇᶒᵿᴾᶎᶃᶐᴾᶗᶃᵿᶐᵇ

Ecological Footprint of Asian Countries
Ecological Footprint (global hectare per capita)
10

Fishing ground (0.28)
Forest (0.24)
Grazing land (0.04)

Built-up
Land (0.08)

Japan

Korea

MongolMalaysia
China

Cropland(0.58)
4.9 ghaFishing
Ground(0.08)
0.6 ghaForest(0.27 gha)

Philippines
Sri Lanka
India
Nepal
Bangladesh
1ThailandIndonesia
Myanmar, Lao PDR
Cambodia

Increasing
Human
Activity
Density

Vietnam

Cropland(0.16)

Population Increase

Carbon(3.68 gha)

Biocapacity (global hectare per capita)
0.1
0.1

179

1

10

100

FinalRemarks

Topics to be ConsideredSustainability development should be
the final target of cooperation within
Asian region.
 Environment/ecosystems in this region
must be considered as the Commons
among member countries and joint
ownership should be carefully formulated.
WEPA, 2nd phase can provide a good
platform for designing a regional
governance system for a sustainable
Asian environment.

• Increasing human activities (= population increases X
specific human activities) are the main cause of loosing
a sustainability of the human-environment system.
• Technology development can work favorably or
unfavorably against environmental systems.
• Based upon the past experiences of adding
unnecessary environmental burdens, leap-frog paths ofdevelopments should be pursued.
• Technology innovation and social/institutional
development should be focused on minimizing impactsof human activities on environment systems.

44

180

Contents

Water environment in vietnam: opportunities andchallenges for sustainable MANAGEMENT IN
the context of climate change Vietnam and global context
 Water Resources of Vietnampand Water environment :pollution
disasters Water resources management in VN• Challenges and opportunities for water
management in Vietnam• Some solutions

Mai Trong Nhuan, Tran Ngoc Anh,
Truong Quang Hoc,, Pham Van Cu
Vietnam National University, Hanoi
Tran Hong Thai, MONRE

1

2

I.Vietnamese
I.
Vietnamese context

II.Global context

Fast economic growth after Doi Moi
World Second Rice Exporter (more waters, emission of
CH4,)
70% of 86 million population living in rural areas of typicalwater civilization
Urbanization and industrialization are absorbing a lot of
agriculture land, waters
VN is considered as one among the most potentiallyaffected by SLR in particular and by CC in general
Extreme Weathers, CC related disasters start to increase in
VN, affecting strongly on WR!

• Water is resource and disaster• Water resource shortage is very serious• Water resources distribution is not rational!
• Extreme Weathers, CC related disasters start toincrease• Global, regional changing climate impacts strongly on
WR• Globalization, urbanization and industrialization areabsorbing a lot of agriculture land, waters…
• Transboundary water utilization is not balanced

3

4

CC impact
Source: Stern Review
Global temperature change (relative to pre-industrial)
1°C
2°C
3°C
4°C
5°C

0°C

CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACTS
Temperature

Food

Falling crop yields in many areas,
particularly developing regions

Falling yields in
Possible rising yields inmany developed
some high latitude
regionsregions
Significant decreases in
Water
Small mountainSea level risewater availability in manyglaciers disappear
threatens major
areas, including– water supplies
citiesMediterranean and Southern
threatenedin
Ecosystem
Africaseveral areas
Extensive
Damage to Coral
Reefs

CC impacts
most severely

Sea level rise
Na. disasters

to water resources

Rising number of species face extinction

Disasters

Rising intensity of storms, forest fires, droughts, flooding, erosion
heat waves…

Risk and change

Increasing risk of dangerous feedbacks andabrupt, large-scale shifts in the climate
systemHealth5181

Agriculture

Forestry

Water Re.

Coastal zo.

Ani., Plant
6
habitats

II. Global context
Global environment problems are as follows

Recently,

1. Global climate change;
2. Biodiversity loss;

Vietnam is
expected to be
one of the top 5
most vulnerable
to climatechange ( SLR)
countries

3. Stratospheric ozone depletion;
4. Freshwater degradation;
5. Desertification and land degradation;
6. Deforestation and the unsustainable use of forests;
7. Marine environmental and resources degradation;
8. Persistent organic pollutants.

7

8

III. Water Resources of Vietnam
III. Water Resources of Vietnam
Water is an important resource
Vietnam is a country of water civilization:- 70% of the territory is rural area, where people’s life
stilltill depends
dd very muchh on naturalt l resources,
especially water and land.
- Water –energy- Water – important ecosystem- Water is a life for all

River Flooding

Population Density

Flash floods< 200

Typhoons
Storm Surges> 10009• Accidental Topography• More than 3200Km of coastline• 2360 River of >10km length• 7/9 main rivers of Vietnam
pass through 2-5 ocuntries• 17 Main Catchments of>1000Km2 divided into
1556 sub-catchments of
100km2• Disparity of Population
Density between ecologic
regions• Increasing Industrialization• High frequency of disasters

10

III.Water Resources of Vietnam

III. Water Resources of Vietnam
3.1.Vietnam is a country of the water shortage
Viet Nam has around 830 billion m3 of the surface water of which, just 310
billion m3 are from the rainfall within the territory, and the remaining of
63% is from the rainfall in neighboring countries.
countries The total potential
reserve of underground water resources is estimated at 60 billion m3 peryear (excluding water resources in the islands).
Viet Nam has the average amount of 4400 m3 per capita/year (theworldwide average amount is 7400 m3 per capita/year, reaching 10,600 m3

3.2. Water resource and water environment in Vietnam (cont.)
Viet Nam has about 2,378 rivers over 10 km of length which have aperennial flow, and 15 basins with an area of more than 2,500 km2 ofwhich
hi h 10 riveribbasinsi are off over 10
10,000000 kkm2 in
i area. Th
These accountt ffor
80% of the total area of Vietnam.
The Mekong River's total runoff accounts for 59% of the total national
runoff, followed by the Red River with 14.9%. And 7 of 10 largest rivers
have basin sharing with the neighbouring countries.

per capital/year if water resources flowing to the territory is added).

In accordance with evaluative criteria of the International Water Resources
Association, the countries, those have the amount of water below 4000 m3
per capita/year, are categorized as the countries suffering from the water
shortage. Therefore, Viet Nam is one of the countries which have been
suffered from the water shortage in the present as well as in the near
future.
11

12

182

Water Resources

River system

3.3. The unsustainable factorsof water resource in VietNam
 2/3 of water resources comesfrom neighboring countries ->difficult to control and evenunusable.
 Rainfall and runoff: distributes
unevenly over space and timescale
 Rainy season: holds 65 – 90%of total annual rainfall in 3 – 6months.
 Maximum amount of rainfall in
one day: > 1500 mm;

Viet Nam has about 2,378 rivers over 10 km of length
which have a perennial flow, and 15 basins with anarea of more than 2,500 km2 of which 10 river basins
are of over 10,000 km2 in area. These account for 80%of the total area of Vietnam.
13

14

The main river
basins in VietNam

The main river basins in Viet Nam
Basin over 10.000 km2

Basin 2.500 - 10.000 km2

Bang Giang - Ky Cung

Thach Han

Hong (Red) and Thai binh

Huong

Ma

Tra KhucCa

Kone

Vu Gia - Thu Bon

Gianh

Ba
SrepokSe SanDong Nai
15

Cuu Long

I.1. (cont.)

III. Water resources
3.4. The unsustainable factors of water resource in Viet Nam (cont.)
Viet Nam’s water resources tend to be degraded due to the impacts ofthe global climate change.
pscenario mayy be the possibilitypy of increasingg byy+In 2070,, the acceptable
1.5oC in the coastal areas, + 2.5oC in the hinterland. Consequently, thewater evaporation will be raised by around 7.7 ∼ 8.4%, the irrigation
demand also increases, the surface water streams will be decreased if
the rainfall patterns remain unchanged.
Storms, El Nino and La Nina phenomenon will intensify the climatic
extremes. As a result, the streams during the year within the rivers also
intensify the extreme characteristics.
Sea invasion and water pollution tend to become more severe.

Six basins depend on
water inflows fromother countries:-

16

Cuu Long, almost 95% of average yearly surface water flows are
generated in the upstream Mekong River countries.
Nearly 40% of the Red-Thai Binh basin surface water originates in
China;
30% of the Ma basin flows, and 22% of the Ca basin flows come fromLao PDR;
almost 17% of Dong Nai basin flows come from Cambodia.
Bang Giang-Ky Cung flows from China through Viet Nam, and back to
China.
17
Se San and Sre Pok contribute significant flows to Cambodia

18

183

Land Loss and Land use change caused
by Sea Level Rise
5m

Environment Change caused by Sea Level Rise

4m
3m

Loss of Wetland

2m
1m
Impact on 35%
total population

Estimated Loss when SLR = 1m
Env.Protection Journal 97/2007• 17 billion USD/year• 12,2% area of the most fertilized land
• 40.000 km2 of deltaic lowland under 20
damage of flooding

Impact on 10.8%
total population

19

World Bank, 2007

Area of Cuu Long delta of level less 5 m
IV. Water utilization
Aquaculture,
12%
Domestic,
4%5m SLR resulting in loss of 16% land area,
impacting on 35% of population and threatening 35% of GDP

Water demandof sectors in
major
river
basins (2000)

Agriculture

Others, 9%Industry
Domestic
Aquaculture
OthersIndustry, 1%
Agriculture,
74% 22

21

WATER BALANCE FOR NORTHERN KEYECONOMIC ZONE2005

IV. Water utilizationTT
1

Aquaculture,
12%
Domestic,
4%

Water demand of
sectors in majorriver basins(2020)

Industry, 1%

Others, 9%

Water balance regionMỹ ĐứcWater
shortagevolume(Mil. m3)
34,94

Agriculture2

Đầm Hà - Hải Hà4,11Industry3

Hoành Bồ0,02

Domestic

4Hồng Vân

Aquaculture
Others1,515

Ứng Hòa

5,42

6

La Khê

23,67Chương Mỹ

14,35

8

Đông Triều - Uông Bí

10,86

9

7

Bình Thanh

8,00

10

Thạch Thất - Quốc Oai

54,18

SUM

157,05Agriculture,
74%
23

24
24

184

WATER BALANCE FOR SOUTHERN KEYECONOMIC ZONEWATER BALANCE FOR NORTHERN KEY ECONOMIC ZONE

2005

TT

Water balance region

Water shortage
volume(Mil. m3)
2015

2020

1

Mỹ Đức

39,03

42,93

2

Đầm Hà - Hải Hà

1,55

2,02

3

Ba Chẽ

0,12

0,14

4

Ứng Hòa

31,35

34,81

5

La Khê

25,19

27,79

6

Chương Mỹ

19,50

23,12

7

Đông Triều - Uông Bí

10,28

11,44

8

Thạch Thất - Quốc Oai

60,13

69,41

9

Cẩm Phả
SUM

1,00

1,11

188,15

212,76TT

Water balance region

Water
shortagevolume(Mil. m3)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

Thác Mơ
Tây NinhGò Dầu Hạ
Bế Lứ
Bến
Lức
Trị AnĐồng Tháp MườiVàm Cỏ Tây
Xoài
Ray
SUM

11
20
49
254
1
73
85
71
105
669

25

26
25

26

V. Water environment: Status

WATER BALANCE FOR SOUTHERN KEY ECONOMIC ZONE

5.1. River Water
Water shortage volume(Mil. m3)

TT

Water balance region

1

Thác Mơ

00

2

Sông Bé

55

141

3

Tây Ninh2

104

Gò Dầu Hạ

15

26

5

Bến Lức

259

380

6

Sài Gòn

191

283

7

Trị An008Đồng Nai009Nhà Bè

1

1110Đồng Tháp Mười

19

18

11

Vàm Cỏ Tây

29

30

12

Xoài

63

70

13

Ray

39

42

SUM

673

1,011

2015

Shortage and pollution of fresh water haveoccurred in many places

2020- Fresh water resources are relatively abundant, but thedemand rapidly increases, water use is not appropriate,facing the risk of depletion and pollution, in many places
there is a serous shortage of fresh water in dry season.
- Increased pollution by domestic, industrial wastewater inurban, industrial areas.
- Increased pollution due to agricultural activities in plain
areas.
- Low rate of population having access to clean water supply.
Deforestation, erosion, affecting reservoirs, causing serious
floods, droughts.
28

27
27

River Water Pollution in the North

Pollution, River bank slide

•

•

•
•
•

29

Red river from Dien Hong to Viet Tri is severely polluted,
especially during the dry season. COD of this river section
exceeds 2.37 times, BOD 3.83 times, NO2- 1.4 times and NH4+
2 times
The Cau River: BOD and COD, low dissolved oxygen, theconcentration of H2S is up to 7.8 to 12mg/l, NO2- higher than
the standard for water source of category A by 5-10 times,
NH4+ higher than the standard for water source of category A
by 2 times.
- Thuong river: BOD is higher than the standard for supplied
water of category A by 2.68 times, COD 1.85 times and NO2concentration is much higher than permitted standard.
- Cam River and Tam Bac River in Hai Phong City: BOD and
COD parameters increase gradually from 1995- 1996- 1997.
In investigated rivers, analysis of parameters shows that theysatisfy the standard of surface water of category A (forpotable water supply)..

30

185

River Water Pollution in the Centre

River Water Pollution in the South• Hieu River in Dong Ha Town are as follows: BOD and COD
exceed 2-3 times the standard, NH4+, and PO4-3 1.5 to 1.8 times,
respectively.
• In dry season, BOD, COD, NH3 of water in the Huong River at
Hue City are lower than the standard. However, in some places
near the outlet of waste water BOD exceeds the standard by 2
2.5
5
times and COD 1.6 times, respectively.
• Da Nang city, DO is nearly equal to category A but BOD ishigher than the value for category B. NH3 exceeds 1.4 to 2.6
times.
• - BOD of water in the stream within a radius of 3-5 km exceeds
the permissible standard by 1.01 to 1.75 times. Some places in
the rivers have oil content of 0.1 mg/l, such as Tuy Loan River,
Cau Do river, Phu Loc bridge, and sewer of market in Han River.
Nevertheless, it is still lower than the permissible maximum
standard (1 mg/l).

• Sai Gon river: BOD and COD 2 to 4 times. Coliform
exceeds by up to 50- 100 times; oil and the presence ofsome heavy metals (Pb, Hg, Cr, and Cd) has been
detected
5.5
5 to 66.5
5 mg/l.
mg/l• Dong Nai river: DO increases from 5
Equivalent total N and P are over 0.2 mg/l and 0.03 mg/l,
respectively• Thi Vai river: BOD and COD exceed the standard by 1015 times; H2S of the mud in the bottom of the river isvery high in places near the outlet; Chromium changes
from 0.02 to 0.035 mg/l, Mercury is less than 0.0002 mg/l,
lead is lower than 0.001 mg/l, Arsenic is lower than32
0.005 mg/l.

31

V. Water environment: Status

Change of BOD concentration in river water from1995-1999

V.2. River Water
This is the only domestic water supply source for the whole
village of Pho Cao, Dong Van district (2002)

87
33

34

V. Water environment : Status

V. Water environment: Status

5.2.Surface water in the urban area
 Both domestic and industrial
wastewater, as well as storm watershares the same drainage. The
common facilities for wastewater
treatment are not available. Therefore,
wastewater is treated only superficially

Photo - Pollution of surface water
environment in Ho Chi Minh Cityand then discharged directly into rivers
and lakes causing serious pollution of
surface water environment

35

36

186

V. Water environment : Status

V. Waterenvironment: Status
5.3. Coastal water and sediment environment Surface water in the urban areas is polluted by organic wastes such as COD, BOD5,
nitrites, nitrates and suspended solid matters. The concentration of these pollutants is

Sediment pollution (Ttd): Zn
1.2-3; Cu 1.5-2; Hg 20

Water pollution (Ttc): Zn
1.25 –1.6; Cu 1 – 1.28

Sediment pollution (Ttd): Pb 4.066.09; Hg 1.54-5.4; Cu 1.01-1.87

Water pollution (Ttc): Zn 1.7–6.9; Cu 1.2 – 2.1

always 2-5 times higher than the acceptable limits set for surface water resource (asstipulated in category B of Vietnamese Environmental Standards). In some areas it is
10 to 20 times higher than the standard. The index of E. coli exceeds the acceptable
limit by hundred times. The waterways in some cities are black and stinking.
Water pollution (Ttc): Cu
1.0-8.2; Zn 1-9.1

Sediment pollution (Ttd):Hg 1.544.61; Cu 1.01-1.65

N-NH4 (mg/l)

Water pollution Ttc: Cu 1.52.8; Zn 1.1-3.2
Sediment pollution (Ttd): Hg
11.3-16.6; Sb 2-3.12; As 2.1-3.56

Red river(Lao Cai)Cam river(Hai Phong)

Huong river(Hue)

Han river(Da Nang)

Sai Gon river(HCM city)

38

V. Water environment: Status

V. Water environment: Status
5.3. Coastal water and sediment environment
Shrimp pond water pollution

5.3. Coastal water and sediment environment

Eutrophication in Shrimp pond

Waste pollution

Water pollution (Ttc): Cu 1-4.6;
Zn 2.5-3.5; As 3.6-4

37- Too many shrimp ponds, cannot be controlled;- More and more waste discharged into the sea- Pollution by industry and agriculture is increasing-From 1994 -2002, 40 cases of oil spill (4.000 tons )Oils Pollution

39

40

V. Water environment: Status

5.4. Water – hazard! Large floods in rainyseason and severe droughts in dry season

III. Saltation¬ Salinity Intrusion in MekongRiver Delta

sa l in it y in t r usio n in f eb. 1998 a t 4 ppt in t h e mek o n g d el t a

Isohaline of Salinity
Intrusion at 4 ppt in the
Mekong Deltac a m bo d ia(

T©y Nin h

Area: 1.4-1.6 million ha;Length (4 g/l): 40-50 km

Duration: 1-3 months in a half of.

Sv a y Rien g.

M é c Ho ¸

uo
c

Vo

M ü Th o

n
i To
TTr

o Mi

t

- Lo

ng

Xu

ye

n

Ba The

Lap

.

O Mo
n

Tr

No

oa

Lu

.

on

Tr µ Vin h

Gao

Nh

Th

Chit

a

ng
Xeo

u
7

Tr

uu

Ba
ch

Ng

ua

m

D

tre

eu
Ti

em

g
an
cB

Q

ua

n

Lo

- Ph

un

g

Ca mauNong Truong

H

Historic salinity intrusion: 1977,.
Sã c Tr ¨ n g

iep

- Bac



1993, 1998

u Gi

La

Cha

i

4-3

.

Cai Lon

g

ien
Ch

Xa

a Ng

area
Ba LaiBÕn Tr e

H am<C Çn Th ¬GaoCo

g u l f o f t h a il a n d

Cho

<
.

VÜn h Lo n g

Xe

Sa
n

G ia

Thot
No

.

Nh

.

C a o L· n h

R¹ c h G i¸BienT©n A n

.

en

Can

TP. Hå C h ÝM in hDuong
Van duong

Nguyen Van Tiep.

Lo n g Xu y ª n

Cai

-H
a Ti

<

.

en

t

G ia

Ra
ch

T3

Ca
nal

ch

Xuy

B Ky
Ba

Ra

ng

Vinh Te.

Hµ Tiª nDo

Dong Tien

m Co

Ph

.

T©n C h ©u.

C h ©u § è c. Th ñ DÇu M é t

Va

t
g kho
Co-Lon Gach
Cai
nh-Lo
T. ThaHong Ngu

Lieu.

B¹ c Liª u

.

D oc

Cµ Ma u

Gan h

Hao

So u t h c h in a sea

Bay Hap

O ng

Ong DonLEG END
Salinity Isohaline 4 g/l in 1998
Salinity annual average
Salinity Isohaline in 1993
Salinity area > 4g/l in 1998
Su b -In st it ut e fo r Wa t e r Re so u rc e s Pla n n in g

41

42

187

Heavy Rain and Flooding

Drought and Forest
Fire
Fire points
detected from
Mar. 8 –19, 2003

Before the fire

After the fire

NDVI calculated forMarch. 8 –19, 2003

43

44

Water is essential for life
(for human beings andbiological beings), foragricultural and industrial
development, etc.

VI.WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Thus, degradation ofwater resources will lay
direct impacts on human
lif andlife
d socio-economiciidevelopment in generalterms.

The role of water resource management

WATER USE

GOOD BALANCEWATER RESERVATIONENVIRONMENT88

ECONOMICS

SOCIETY

45

46

VI. Water resources management

VI. Water resources management

6.1. Legal documents on water resource management
The legal documents on water resource:
The law on water resources(20/Aug/1998)
The Decree on stipulating the implementation of the law on water
resources (30/Dec/1999)
The Decree on Water resource information management (19/Dec/2003)
The Decree on Licensing for exploitation, utilization, use and discharge
waste water (27/july/2004)
The Decree on sanctions against administrative violations of water
resources management regulations (17/march/2005)
The National strategy on water resources to 2020 (14/Apr/2006)
The recently established Dept. of Water Resource Management (DWRM)
operating in a complex policy environment attempting to bring astrategic approach to water resource management

6.2. Changes in water resources management
Before 1990, water resource management activities focused on:- Promote water demand in regions- Develop infrastructures to allocate the water resource (reservoirs,(reservoirs
irrigation canals, water supply for domestic purposes…)
After 1990, due to the shortage of water (both in quality and quantity) the
management of water utilization requires:- Water quality management- Water quantity management
The water resource planning was developed (even for each component
such as surface water, underground water...) in related with other plansof socio-economics, environment, … for most of provinces/cities.
But all of these plans are strictly limited within the administrative
boundaries (province or city) while the water resource problems
usually rise beyond a unique region

47

48

188

VI. Water resource management

VI. Water resources management
6.3. The initial attempts for river basin management
The Decree stipulates that MONRE shall formulate river basinplanning tasks for the river basins named in the Major River
Basin List and the Inter-Provincial
Inter Provincial River Basin List; theProvincial People’s Committee has responsibility for the river
basins named in the Provincial River Basin List
The Decree also stipulates the contents of each activities in river
basin management following the above main tasks (planning,
environment protection, regulation and allocation of water,…)
The Decree provides the legislation foundation for river basin
management activities although they are in preparation process(establish the River basin management offices for major river
basins,…)However, up to present, there is not any secondary such as guiding
circular to implement the Decree

6.3. The initial attempts for river basin management (cont.)
In December 2008, the Prime Minister has issued a decree on River Basing((120/2008/NĐ-CP)) focusing
g on:Management
River basin planning
Protection of the water environment in river basins
Regulation and allocation of water resources and transfer of water
resources between river basins• International cooperation and implementation of international treaties onriver basins
The Decree defines 9 major river basins, as well as the inter-provincial
and provincial river basin lists over Vietnam
•
•
•

49

50

VII. Challenges for water
resource management in VN

Cau River basin Management Committee

51

52VII. Challenges of WR management in VN

VII. Challenges of WR management in VN

7.1. Quality

7.1. Quality (cont.)

Climate Change

Increased temperature

Sea level rise

Algal growth- Salinity invasion in rivers andestuaries- Salinity in ground water incoastal area

Climate Change
Re-distribution of rainfall- Degradation of water quality inlakes, rivers and estuaries-…

Increased temperature
More evaporation and water demand- Increased pollutant concentration due to decreased water dilution
-…

53

54

189

VII. Challenges for water resourcesmanagement in VN

VII. Challenges of water management in VN

7.2. Sharing water resource with neighboring countries
The quantity and quality of the surface water depends on theuse of water in the upstream countries. 95% of water ofMekong River comes from outside of Vietnam, but contributes
about 59% of national runoff.
The countries in the upstream areas increase water utilization.
For example- Mekong river: China has been built more than 10
large reservoirs; Laos - 35 irrigational – hydroelectric works
including 27 reservoirs in the tributaries and 8 spillways in themain streams of the river; Thailand - 10 reservoirs and plans tobuild more; Cambodia - the plan to keep the water in the Tonle
Sap Lake at a certain level to develop the irrigation…

7.1. The degradation of water quality due to economic activities
The water pollution is on the rise due to the rapid urbanization,industrialization and modernization. Meanwhile, the sewage andwaste treatment are not under the close supervision. Besides,
water pollution is also caused by the increasing and uncontrollable
utilization of the chemical pesticides and fertilizers, the direct flows of
the untreated sewage and waste from the aquacultural ponds to water
bodies….
The pollutants from economic activities in upstream regions will betransported and cause serious problems in downstream
The high speed of urbanization, industrialization and intensification ofagriculture in Vietnam leads to an rapidly increasing water demand
and to enormous water pollution. Institutions in Vietnam do not yet
have the capacity to efficiently plan water resources use and control
water pollution.
The institutional capacity to monitor, control and sanction wateruse, land use or water pollution must be improved

International cooperation in river basin management is urgently
needed55

Shared water resources:

56

VII. Challenges for Water resource management in VN

7.3. The problems in harmonizing the demand from different sectors
To regulate and allocate the water resource, many reservoirs of multipurposes (irrigation, hydropower, aquaculture,…), have been built andplanned to be built. During the dry season there are conflicts between
th iirrigation,
the
i ti
h
hydropowerdandd waterwaytnavigation
i ti- Hydropower company wants to keep water in reservoir for maintaining thewater head to maximize the power yield while agriculture requires to releasewater for irrigation, and to increase the water depth for water way
transportation- To reserve and protect aquatic environment, the minimum flow in rivers
must be preserved while rice paddy fields need a lot of water during driest
months- In flood season, the dam’s owner tend to release more water todownstream for the safety of the dam, while it would be stored inreservoirs for flood mitigation purpose
A comprehensive technologies for optimum operation of system ofreservoir are needed

Red river in rainy season
57

58

VII. Challenges of water management in VN

VII. Challenges of water management in VN

7.4. Protection of aquatic ecosystems
Economic development + low awareness of the importance of aquatic
ecosystems Æ severe degradation of aquatic ecosystems, especiallyfreshwater ecosystems, where many species are becoming rare, andsome are on theth brink
b i k off extinction
ti ti- Cause: lack of attention to aspects such as- importance of ensuring environmental flows;- importance of water ecosystem protection when physical structures
on rivers are built;- importance of controlling the exploiting and use of water tosustainable levels.

7.5. Challenge in management-

a. The incomplete legal system for water resources management and theqorganisationgand managementgcapacitypy in water resources
inadequate
b. Lack of coordination between the development of water resources andthe efficient, multi-purpose allocation and use of water resourcesc. Lack of mechanisms and policies, especially economic and financial
policies in water resources
d. Inadequate and inaccurate information and data on water resources
and constraints on information sharinge. A suitable model for organisation and content of integrated river basin
management has not been established

59

60

190

•

•

VII. Challenges of water management in VN

VII. Challenges of water management in VN

7. 6. Awareness of the importance of water resources in sustainable
development

7.7. The extreme characteristics induced by global climate changes
Storms, El Nino and La Nina phenomenon will intensify the climatic
extremes. As a result, the streams during the year within the rivers also
intensify the extreme characteristics.
- The number and intensity of storms is increasing leading to the larger
and more frequently large flood- Also the number of severe droughts is increasing in dry season
Sea level increases 20mm/ year on average has significant impacts onwater supply, drainage and water degradation. The storm surges occur
together with flood might cause serious inundation in low-land area.

g time,, the role of water in the nation’s sustainable
For a longdevelopment, human health and life were not fully appreciated; thevalue of water was not appreciated, and water was not considered ascarce natural resource, an economic good. The protection andmanagement of water resources had not been given proper attention.
Enhancing public awareness and consciousness in protecting andpreserving the resource is still limited. The poor result in this area
hinders the participation of the entire society in the protection of water
resources.

The measures for adaptation to and mitigation climate change isessential in Vietnam

61

62

CC makes the water
shortage more serious

VIII. Opportunities for WR management in
VN

The situation may become even worse when it
comes to conflicts that may arise fromsharing water resources with upstream
countries.
countries
Another serious consequence from climatechange is the increase in droughts, which
do not only do harm to productivity but
may also cause desertification and forest
fire threats as well as other potential
damage in many aspects.
Water is essential for life (for human beingsand biological beings), for agricultural andindustrial development, etc. Thus,
degradation of water resources will lay
direct impacts on human life and socioeconomic development in general terms.

Public attention (conference, media)
New achievements in WR management andpolicy (eg. Decree for river basin management)International collaboration (ODA, projects)
Research achievements
More funds

6364Nguồn: Thông báo QG lần thứ nhấtIX. Sustainable WR management

IX. Water

Sustainable management

Driving Forces

Solutions

Pressure + Threat

Environment Status- Quality- Pollution- Degradation

management.

Natural conservation,
disaster RR

Resource and biodiversity
status- Quantity + quality- Degradation

Sustainable WR management:
Water Environment Protection
Strategy for Sustainable development WR
Sustainable WR use planning
New methods for SWRM, including adaptive

Sustainable Development

Inter-sector,
Inter
sector cocomanagement

Ecology based
management

Community
basedmanagement

Sustainable
water resource
use planning

Sustainable
forestry

65

191

SD planning

Scientificresearch

IWM

Envi
Envi.
planing

Conflict
solving

Integrated
risk
assessment

Eco-agricultural
model

Educationand training

Hazardmitigation

Vulnerability
assessment
based

Eco-tourism
model 66

IX. Sustainable water resources management
9.2.Capacity building development:• Human resource development planning• Development of :- Curriculum ( degree, non degree, different levels)- Teaching, learning methods- E-learning• Development of teachers, researchers• Development of research and training facilities• Increasing of finance

1. Develop and implement sustainable WR development strategy
2. Develop and enforce laws
3. Develop and implement plans of :-Sustainable water resources use-

Water Environment protection and biodiversity conservationg
capacitypy building
g for SWR managementg
5. Strengthen
Development and enhance awareness on WR sustainable use
6. Integration of water environment protection and WR SU into thesocio-economic development planning
7. Develop and use water environment technologies
8. Develop national and international cooperations

67

68

IX . Sustainable WRM

IX Sustainable Development -Activities
1. Enhance Environmental Management System
2. Develop Policy and Law System of Environment Protection
3. Activities of Environment Protection+ National Environmental Meeting+ Examination and supervising+ Pollution control and waste management+ Environmental monitoring, collection, processing anddissemination environment information+ Activities of Environment Protection in river valleys.
+ Strictl
Strictly treatment withith companies affecting seriously
serio slenvironment+ Collection and management environment protection fee
for waste water.
4. International Cooperation
5. Involvement of Community in Env. protection+ Forms of public participation+ Contracting join resolutions with mass, social organization
about environmental protection,+ Organizing festivals, cultural activities such as Environmentday

Development of environmental science:• Clarify Factors affecting environment quality anddegradation and SD• Hazards: history, distribution, occurrence anddamage, mitigation• Forecasting, modeling env. and WR change,degradation and env. disasters• Scientific fundamentals and database for- WR management, protection- Sustainable use of water resources- Environmental disasters mitigation• Building of modes of SWRD in different areas
69

Conclusions

Conclusion

1.VN is rich and poor in water resources, country of water civilization
2.The major challenges of River Basin Management in Vietnam call for:- Tran boundary water utilization; water resource sharing among
stakeholders- Quality degradation; water disasters- Climate change: resource and hazard- Management challenges :lack of co- and adaptive management,
coordination, cooperation both in Central and Provincial levels in thefield of water resource; water management institutional changes- Sharing - database for all the water-related activities in internationalriver basins as well as monitoring network- Comprehensive collaboration with various related academic fields
and research institutions- The capacity of institutions on all levels to monitor, control andsanction water use, land use or water pollution remains weak

3. There are uggent strategies, plan of activieties to
response to the challanges, including- IBM for SD- Capacity building for water staff working in water
institutions, such as MONRE, river basinorganization research institutions… through thetraining workshops, exchange of experiences,knowledge and technology, “water talent“grooming…
- International, regional cooperation in all aspects ofwater resources in the context of global change :research, monitoring, database, utilization,
management, capacity building…
71

70

72

192

Thank you !

73

193

Outline of Presentation
The Second Phase of WEPA
Framework and Actions

1. Rationale of water environmental conservation
2. Reflection of 1st Phase Activities‐ objectives, basic facts and quick evaluation
3. Focus of the 2nd phase
4. 2ndd phasehoff WEPA‐ specific goals, activities, expected outputs
5. An emerging issue: climate change

Mitsumasa Okada
Professor, Hiroshima University
WPEA Advisor

12

Water Environment Conservation for
Sustainable Development

Objective of WEPA
¾ To strengthen water environmental governance thatis a key to address water envionmental problems.

¾ Sound water environment is critical for us to enjoy various
services provided by water resources, which are elements ofsustainable development.

Definition of Water Environmental Governance in WEPA
Various service
provided bywater

Enhancement of efficiency and effectiveness in planning andimlementation of policy and legislation for improvement of water
environmental problems and also maintain sound water environment.
The elements of water environmental governance is, for example,
legislation, systems to secure implementation, organisationalarrangement, human capaacity, financial capacity, partnership andcommunication with community.
3

4

Quick Evaluation of the 1st Phase

Basics of the WEPA First Phase

Achievement

1. Project Duration: April 2004 – March 2009
2. Partner countries: 11 countries (Cambodia, China,
Lao PDR, Indonesia, Republic of Korea, Malaysia,
Myanmar Philippines,
Myanmar,Philippines Thailand,
Thailand Viet Nam
Nam, Japan)
3. Main Activities:(1) Establishment of WEPA Database(2) Capacity development through WEPA activities
such as forums and(3) Partnership development among WEPA countries
5

194

Future Challenges

Developmentof WEPA
Database

YES

The database was fulfilled
by necessary information
provided by partnercountries, participants ofinternational forums andetc.

To translate “information” inthe database into“knowledge” that
contributes to improvementof water environmental
governance.

Capacity
Development

YES

WEPA provided
opportunities of gaining
knowledge

To increase effectiveness of
capacity building

Developmentof Human
Network andPartnerships

YES

Network of WEPA partner To enhance network;
To deliver messages fromcountries has been
the network to thedeveloped.
regional/international
6
dialogues

WEPA Database –a tool of information sharing

WEPA Policy Database
State
of
water

Org.
Arrange‐ments

Legislativ
e Frame‐work

Law Enforcement
Monitor‐ing
systemBudget/ExpenseCB

Back‐groundCases

Cambodia
China
Indonesia
Korea
Laos
Malaysia
MyanmarPhilippines
Thailand
Viet Nam
Japan
7

8

Green column = Data available, Red column = No Data

Enhancement of Human Network

Capacity development opportunities provided
by WEPA‐ Presentations from Different Sectors at h WEPA meetings ‐Japanese Fiscal
WEPA Activities that ContributeYear
Capacity Development
FY2004
Collection of information by partner countries
Working Group Meeting on Database on Technologies (1)FY2005Working Group Meeting on Database on Technologies (2)Working Group Meeting on Policy Database
FY2006WEPA International Symposium (Bangkok)
WEPA International Forum (Bangkok)
Bilateral Dialogue in Vietnam (Hanoi)
FY2007
Bilateral Dialogue in the Philippines (Manila)
WEPA International Forum (Beppu, Japan)
Water Industry Training in APU (Beppu, Japan)
Bilateral Dialogue in Lao PDR (Vientiane)
FY2008Bilateral Meeting in Cambodia (Siem Reap)(Apr. 2008 – Bilateral Meeting in Malaysia (Putrajaya)
March 2009) WEPA International Forum (Putrajaya, Malaysia)

Gov.

Univ.

Research
Institutes

Internat
ional
Org.
and
othersPublicSectorCBO/
NGO

OthersInt’l
SSymposium
i

Dec.
2006

4

3

2

0

0

1

0

Int’l Forum
(1)

March
2007

3

15

5

2

1

1

0

Int’l Forum
(2)

Dec.
2007

13

19

6

0

1

2

1

Int’l Forum
(3)

Oct.
2008

18

11

6

１

0

1

0

38

48

19

3

2

5

1

TOTAL

More than 100 presentations from different sectors

910

Goals of the WEPA 2nd Phase

2nd Phase of WEPA

Strengthening Water Environmental Governance

1. Duration: April 2009 – March 2014

WEPA

2. Objective of WEPAThe overall objective
jof WEPA is the same asin the 1st phase – “To strengthen water
environment governance”

Formulation of Message on Actions for Better Water
Environment in Asia
Identification,
Analysis of Water
Environmental
Governance

Assets of the 1st Phase as
the basis of the 2nd phase

11

195

Sharing of knowledge and
Identification of solution ofcurrent and emerging issues

Network of
Governments

Capacity building
through WEPA activities
and in collaboration
with other org.

WEPA Database(as an information platform)

12How to achieve the objectives?
AP Water
Knowledge
Hub

UNEP
ADBI

WB

Expected Outputs of the Second Phase

International dialogues
ADB

WEPA

World Water Forum,
AP Water Forum,
UNFCCC COP etc.

Capacity
Development

Policy Dialogue
Project Formulation

Info. Infrastructure
Development

JICA ‐ WEPA Training

Senior Officials Meeting

JICA

NARBO

(Workshop on Water
Environmental Govenance)(Vice Ministers, DGs)

1. Policy reports on water environmental governance
2. Reports on the discussion on the specific topics (e.g.
climate change, urban wastewater management)g from WEPA to the World Water Forum,
3. Message
UNFCCC COP, etc.

WEPA‐DB
Development

4. Updated WEPA database
5. Enhancement of knowledge and capacity building ofpartners.

WorkshopWorking‐Level Review
of WEPA Project

AnnualMeeting

Policy Issues Consultation by Subject(Development of Specific Plan and Implementation Plan)

Dialogue
Analysis of water environmental governanceand other issues

13

14

Background of the Workshop Thematic Session1 (1)Background of the Workshop Thematic Session1 (2)Urbanization and Water Quality Control for the Source of Water
in Asian city

Urbanization and Water Quality Control for the Source of Water
in Asian city

Why Water Quality Control for Water Sources in Asian Cities?
¾ Many Asian cities face scarcity of water resources and water
degradation caused by rapid urbanization for decades.
¾ The water quality control of water sources in the cities is oneof the most urgent political issues in many countries in Asia,
considering that cities have played an important role ineconomical and political activities of each country.
¾ The improvement of water quality of water
sources in the cities requires not only
application of the wastewater treatment
technologies but also a more comprehensive
approach.

Considering the importance of water quality conservation in urban
areas, especially at the source of water, the issue becomes a topic
of the 1st WEPA workshop.
The purpose of the session:
To share experiences and identify the common issues on water
quality management of sources of water in Asian cities that will be
the basis of further discussion.
To this end, current situation and issues of water quality
management of water sources in the Asian cities are to bepresented.

15

Background of the Workshop Thematic Session2

16

More hot days and heavy rainfalls in Japan

Impacts of Climate Change on the Water Environment and
Adaptation Options

Climate change is one of
the emerging challenges ofwater environmental
governance in the near
future.
The session 2 aims to exchange knowledge and thoughts on climatechange and environment matters among WEPA partner countries.
‐ How climate change and water environment issues are perceived in the
WEPA partner countries?
‐ What actions have been taken or will be taken in partner countries‐ What adaptation options are available?
17

The more hot summer days and heavy rainfalls including typhoonby the increase in atmospheric moisture due to climate change
IPCC-AR4-WG2
Figure 10.2. Projected number of hot days (>30°C) and days of heavy rainfall (>100 mm/day) by the18high resolution general circulation model (Hasumi and Emori, 2004).

196

Adapting Water Programs to Climate Change:
Global and Local Issues

Climate Change vs. Water Environmentz More hot days → increase in water temperature (W.T.)z reaction rate → water quality• Climate change
atmospheric temperature, precipitation, evapotranspirationwater cycle
water quality/environment• Management/use of water environment has been based on thepast weather and water cycle conditions by the tacit understandingthat weather variations will be within the past range• (water cycle: past ≠ future) Water management based on theprevious data will not be useful?

1～2 ºC increase in drinking water temperature → increase in THMFP
and/or other reactions to produce toxic substanceszthermal stratification → water quality
dimictic lake → monomictic lake → meromictic lakez Heavy rainfalls: increased pollutant runoff → water quality•

Observed changes:– Lake Ikeda: 2‐3 ºC water warming → no autumn circulation →anoxic bottom in
winter•Projected changes:

Global climate change is a local problems with which conservation
authorities, local governments and water users will have to deal.

– Lake Biwa north basin: 1.5 ºC water warming →no circulation in 100 years
similar to L. Ikeda?
– 0.8～2.0 mg/l increase in COD by 1 ºC warming

Mainstreaming Climate Change in Drinking Water Source Protection Planning in
20
Ontario (Canadian Water Resources Association (March 31, 2006))

19
National Institute for Environmental Studies, Japan（2006)

Earthset from the moon

Working together for better future‐ WEPA will be served as “the platform of dialogue among
WEPA partner countries” to address current and emerging
issues related to water environmental governance.
kick off of thematic‐ This first workshop is very important as a kick‐off
discussion of WEPA. It is expected that the findings of theworkshop will form the basis of future discussions.
‐ To facilitate the 2nd phase WEPA activities, your active
involvement is very important.

21

24

23

197

Specific goals of the 2nd phase1.

Identification of areas which need policy intervention throughextended analysis of water environmental governance in each
WEPA country, based on the information accumulated in the WEPA
database and dialogues with partner countries.

2.

Sharing “knowledge” and find “options of solution” throughdiscussion on common and/or emerging issues (e.g. climate change
adaptation, urban wastewater management) among partners.

3.

Delivering message from WEPA on necessary actions for
improvement of water environmental governance in WEPA partnercountries and asking int’l collaboration where necessary.

4.

Enhancing knowledge and capacity of WEPA partners through
WEPA activities
25

198

Thematic Session 1:
Urbanization and Water Quality Control
for the Source of Water in Asian City

199

200

Institute for Global Environmental Strategies

Water Environment Partnership in Asia (WEPA) 2nd Phase

Review and Reflection of WEPA Database on Technology

Today’s Topic(1) Review and Reflection of WEPA
Database on Technology

Review and Reflection of WEPA
Database on Technology(2) Background of Thematic
Session1 “Urbanization andWater Quality Control for the
Source of Water in Asian City”

Tetsuo Kuyama
Researcher
Institute for Global Environmental Strategies (IGES)WEPA Secretariat

Tetsuo Kuyama

Institute for Global Environmental Strategies

IGES | http://www.iges.or.jp

8 March, 2010, Hanoi, Viet Nam

2

Institute for Global Environmental Strategies

Review and Reflection of WEPA Database on Technology

Review and Reflection of WEPA Database on Technology

Structure of the WEPA Database

Purpose of WEPA Database on Technology<Purpose>
To provide substantial background information onwastewater treatment technology that helps planningand implementation of development of wastewater
management system<Supposed Users>
Officials in WEPA partner countries who are engaging
in policy development and implementation

Tetsuo Kuyama

IGES | http://www.iges.or.jp

8 March, 2010, Hanoi, Viet Nam

Tetsuo Kuyama

3

IGES | http://www.iges.or.jp

8 March, 2010, Hanoi, Viet Nam

Institute for Global Environmental Strategies

Institute for Global Environmental Strategies

Review and Reflection of WEPA Database on Technology

Review and Reflection of WEPA Database on Technology

Methodology of Data Collection

WEPA Database on Technology

4

Data and information collection
based on the partnership ofpartner countries: The focal point
person of each WEPA country(governmental official) collected
information based onquestionnaires prepared by WEPA
secretariat.
Targeted Technology: On-going
Wastewater Treatment Facility
Operating for more than 3 years
Tetsuo Kuyama

IGES | http://www.iges.or.jp

8 March, 2010, Hanoi, Viet Nam

Tetsuo Kuyama

5

201

IGES | http://www.iges.or.jp

8 March, 2010, Hanoi, Viet Nam

6

Institute for Global Environmental Strategies

Institute for Global Environmental Strategies

Review and Reflection of WEPA Database on Technology

Review and Reflection of WEPA Database on Technology

Number of Data on Technology in WEPA Database

Target Wastewater

218 Data from 9 countries

Numb
ber of Data

70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Cambodia

Indonesia

Japan

Laos

Malaysia

MyanmarPhilippines

Thailand

Vietnam

Country

Tetsuo Kuyama

IGES | http://www.iges.or.jp

8 March, 2010, Hanoi, Viet Nam

Tetsuo Kuyama

7

Institute for Global Environmental Strategies

IGES | http://www.iges.or.jp

8 March, 2010, Hanoi, Viet Nam

Institute for Global Environmental Strategies

Review and Reflection of WEPA Database on Technology

Review and Reflection of WEPA Database on Technology

Type of Factory for Industrial Wastewater Treatment Technology

Type of Treatment Area for Domestic Wastewater Treatment Technology

Number of Technologies

Number of Technologies
5

10

15

20

25

0

30
Type of treatm
ment area

0Type of Industrry

Food processing
Beverage production
Fiber/clothing
DyeingPaper manufacturing factories and pulp
Metal plating
Leather
ChemicalIron and steel making
Electronic components
Livestock farms
Rubber and latex
Others

Tetsuo Kuyama

8

10

20

30

40

50

Large city
Medium or small city
Sub urban area (city fringe area)
Rural area
Tourist area

IGES | http://www.iges.or.jp

8 March, 2010, Hanoi, Viet Nam

Tetsuo Kuyama

9

IGES | http://www.iges.or.jp

8 March, 2010, Hanoi, Viet Nam

Institute for Global Environmental Strategies

Institute for Global Environmental Strategies

Review and Reflection of WEPA Database on Technology

Review and Reflection of WEPA Database on Technology

Information in WEPA Database on Technology (1)Information in WEPA Database on Technology (2)Details of Information of existing wastewater treatment facilities

10

Percentage of information collected for each item

presented in the WEPA technology database

Name and Location

General Information

100

Items

Data

Cost

Operational Cost

Description

80
60

General Information

Name and Location, Description

Treatment Process

Treatment Type, Process Flow Diagram

Process Performance(Design)

Effluent Quality, Performance, Amount of Treated
Wastewater, Electric Consumption, Amount of
Sludge Generation

Initial Cost

Treatment Type40
20

Process Performance(Actual)Amount of Sludge
Generation

Effluent Quality, Performance, Amount of Treated
Wastewater, Electric Consumption, Amount of
Sludge Generation

Perfomance

Process Performance

Initial Cost, Operational Cost

OthersContact Address, Picture

Myanmar

8 March, 2010, Hanoi, Viet Nam

Effluent Quality

Amount of Treated
Wastewater

Cost

IGES | http://www.iges.or.jp

Process Flow Digaram

Electric Consumption

Cambodia

Tetsuo Kuyama

Treatment Process0

Tetsuo Kuyama

11

202

Indonesia

Japan

Laos

Philippine

Thailand

Vietnam

IGES | http://www.iges.or.jp

Malaysia

8 March, 2010, Hanoi, Viet Nam

12

Institute for Global Environmental Strategies

Institute for Global Environmental Strategies

Review and Reflection of WEPA Database on Technology

Review and Reflection of WEPA Database on Technology

Information in WEPA Database on Technology (Daily Amount)

Information in WEPA Database on Technology (Electric Consumption)

50

Number of Technology

Number of T
Technology

80

60

40

20

40
30
20
10
0
10

0
102

10

103

104

105

106

102

103

104

105

106

107

108

109

107

Annual Electric Consumption (kWh)Dally Amount of Treated Wastewater (㎥/day)

Tetsuo Kuyama

No data 93

No data :30

IGES | http://www.iges.or.jp

8 March, 2010, Hanoi, Viet Nam

Tetsuo Kuyama

13

IGES | http://www.iges.or.jp

8 March, 2010, Hanoi, Viet Nam

Institute for Global Environmental Strategies

Institute for Global Environmental Strategies

Review and Reflection of WEPA Database on Technology

Review and Reflection of WEPA Database on Technology

Information in WEPA Database on Technology (Sludge Generation)

Information in WEPA Database on Technology (Initial Cost)

14

30

Number of Tec
chnology

30

Number of Technology

20

10

0
10

102

103

104

105

106

20

10

0

107

10

Amount of Sludge Generation (t)102 103104

105 106

107

108

Initial Cost (USD)

Tetsuo Kuyama

IGES | http://www.iges.or.jp

109

1010

No data :122

8 March, 2010, Hanoi, Viet Nam

Tetsuo Kuyama

15

Institute for Global Environmental Strategies

IGES | http://www.iges.or.jp

No data :131

8 March, 2010, Hanoi, Viet Nam

Institute for Global Environmental Strategies

Review and Reflection of WEPA Database on Technology

Review and Reflection of WEPA Database on Technology

Number of Access to WEPA Database

Reflection of WEPA Database on Technology

11,791 access per month from Oct 2007 to Jan 2008

Number of WEPA Databasee Access

16

The WEPA database on contains a variety of
wastewater treatment technologies from different area
in WEPA partner countries.

14000
12000
10000

Information that may be necessary for policy makers
and water experts in policy/project planning andimplementation is not sufficient. (e.g. backgroundinformation of application of the technology, theoperational cost of wastewater treatment
technologies)

8000
6000
4000
2000
0
Oct‐2007

Nov‐2007

Dec‐2007

Jan‐2008

Month

Tetsuo Kuyama

IGES | http://www.iges.or.jp

8 March, 2010, Hanoi, Viet Nam

17

Tetsuo Kuyama

203

IGES | http://www.iges.or.jp

8 March, 2010, Hanoi, Viet Nam

18

Institute for Global Environmental Strategies

Institute for Global Environmental Strategies

Review and Reflection of WEPA Database on Technology

Review and Reflection of WEPA Database on Technology

Next to Establishment of WEPA Database on Technology

Population in WEPA Countries (except China)

2nd WEPA

1st WEPA

Cambodia

300,000
Indonesia

Indonesia

Databasedevelopment

Population (tthousands)

250,000

Deep discussion among WEPA
partners how to address
emergent issues on water
environment

Laos
Malaysia

200,000

Myanmar150,000
100,000
50,0000

Wastewater
treatment
technology

Tetsuo Kuyama

1975

Wastewater management
system for conservation ofwater environment

IGES | http://www.iges.or.jp

1980

1985

1990

1995

2000

2005

2010

2015

2020

8 March, 2010, Hanoi, Viet Nam

Tetsuo Kuyama

19

IGES | http://www.iges.or.jp

Review and Reflection of WEPA Database on Technology

90

Percentage oof urban population

1,600,000

Population (tthousands)

1,400,000
1,200,000
1,000,000
800,000

China

600,000
400,000
200,000
0
1995

2000

2005

Sri Lanka
Nepal

20

2010

2015

2020

Cambodia

Korea
Malaysia
Philippines
Japan
Indonesia

80
70
60
50
40
30
20

Indonesia
Laos
Malaysia

China

Myanmar

Laos
MyanmarThailand
Viet Nam
Cambodia
Nepal

Philippines
Thailand
Viet NamJapan

Sri Lanka

Korea

10

Sri Lanka
Nepal

0

2025

China

1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025

Year

Year

Source: Population Division of the Department of Economic and Social Affairs of theUnited Nations Secretariat, World Population Prospects: The 2006 Revision and World
Urbanization Prospects: The 2007 Revision, http://esa.un.org/unup, Thursday, March 12,
Tetsuo Kuyama

Korea

Institute for Global Environmental Strategies

Percentage of Urban Population in WEPA Countries

1990

Japan

8 March, 2010, Hanoi, Viet Nam

Population in WEPA Countries (China)

1985

Viet Nam

Source: Population Division of the Department of Economic and Social Affairs of theUnited Nations Secretariat, World Population Prospects: The 2006 Revision and World
Urbanization Prospects: The 2007 Revision, http://esa.un.org/unup, Thursday, March 12,

Review and Reflection of WEPA Database on Technology

1980

Thailandh l dThailandMyanmar
Nepal
Malaysia
Korea
Sri Lanka
Cambodia2025 LaosYear

Institute for Global Environmental Strategies

1975

Philippines

Japan
Phili i
Philippines
Viet Nam

IGES | http://www.iges.or.jp

8 March, 2010, Hanoi, Viet Nam

Source: Population Division of the Department of Economic and Social Affairs of theUnited Nations Secretariat, World Population Prospects: The 2006 Revision and World
Urbanization Prospects: The 2007 Revision, http://esa.un.org/unup, Thursday, March 12,
Tetsuo Kuyama

21

Institute for Global Environmental Strategies

IGES | http://www.iges.or.jp

8 March, 2010, Hanoi, Viet Nam

22

Institute for Global Environmental Strategies

Review and Reflection of WEPA Database on Technology

Review and Reflection of WEPA Database on Technology

Example of Water Pollution in cities of WEPA countries (River Water)

Example of Water Pollution in cities of WEPA countries (Groundwater)

Source: WEPA Outlook of Water
Environmental Management in Asia
(2009)
Source: WEPA Outlook of Water Environmental Management in Asia (2009)

BOD Level of River Waters in Ha Noi

Tetsuo Kuyama

IGES | http://www.iges.or.jp

Percentage of Monitoring Wells in Jakarta which are Compliant to theWater Quality Standard of Clean Water for E.coli
8 March, 2010, Hanoi, Viet Nam

Tetsuo Kuyama

23

204

IGES | http://www.iges.or.jp

8 March, 2010, Hanoi, Viet Nam

24

Institute for Global Environmental Strategies

Institute for Global Environmental Strategies

Review and Reflection of WEPA Database on Technology

Review and Reflection of WEPA Database on Technology

Background of Thematic Session1z Asian cities have faced decrease of natural resources or environmental deterioration
caused by rapid urbanization for decades.
z Because the city has played an important role in economical and political activities ofeach country, the water quality control of the source in the city is one of the most urgent
political issues in the country.
z The improvement of water quality of the source in the city requires not only
application of the wastewater treatment technologies but also more comprehensive
approach.

Thank you!

<as a first step to the approach>Current situation of water quality management of water source in the Asian cities andits issues is to be presented in order to share their experiences and identify thecommon issues for the further discussion“Thematic Session1: Urbanization and Water Quality Control for the
Source of Water in Asian City”
Tetsuo Kuyama

IGES | http://www.iges.or.jp

8 March, 2010, Hanoi, Viet Nam

Tetsuo Kuyama

25

205

IGES | http://www.iges.or.jp

8 March, 2010, Hanoi, Viet Nam

26

Development and urban environmenty Economical development

 Income increase High energy consumption
 High material consumption
 Lifestyle change Dieti changeh Etc.

Waste ProductionW
Water
consumptioni
Air pollution and traffic jam Urbanization

Traffic accident
 High-rise buildings
 Heavy traffic and highway
Energy shortage
 Dense population
Housing problems
 Good job opportunities and higher income
 Large energy, material, goods, and water demand Urban-rural problem

Ken Fukushi, Ph.D.
Associate Professor of Integrated Research System for
Sustainability Science
The University of Tokyo, Japanfukushi@ir3s.u-tokyo.ac.jp

12Annual rainfall and water availability

Urban water problems in developing
regions

Annual rainfall (mm year-1)

y Rapid development of urban area
 Increase commercial and domestic water usey Increase of population
 Increase domestic water use
y Change of lifestyle Increase domestic water use per capita (300 liter/p)y Inadequate wastewater treatment
 Deterioration of water environment
y Small amount of water recharge toper capita (m3 year-1 capita-1)

CanadaNew ZealandSwedenAustralia
Indonesia
USA
WORLD
AustriaA
i
Switzerland
The Philippines
JAPAN
France
Spain
Italy
China
Iran
India
ThailandRomaniaUK

groundwater Urban inundation and groundwater table decreasey Overuse of groundwater Groundwater table decrease and ground subsidencey Stealing water and illegal use of water

Annual rainfall per capita
Available water resource
per capita

34Modified from the source: Japan International Cooperate Agency

Increase of urban population

Increase of urban population

China and India

90

9
Population, 100 million

Urban poopulation％

80
70
60
World
W
ld
N. America
Asia

50
40
30
20
10
0

8
7
6
5
China

4
3
2

India

China

India

1
1950

1975

2003

2030

0

year

2003
5

2030

6
6

206

Population with water supply/sewerage in Tokyo
14.0

Populationn (million)

12.0
10.0

95.9 %

Population with water supply
Population with sewerage
Total Population

98.0 %

8.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
0.0
1900

1920

1930

1940

1950

1960

1970

1980

1990

Figure created by Dr. S.Ishii, COE Project, Tokyo University
Created from the sources: Bureau of Waterworks, TMG; Keihin Office of River, MILT Japan; Bureau of General Affairs, TMG

Large share of treated water in rivers

2000
8

Rainwater and miscellaneous-use water reuse

Shishigebashi
bridge.
Purify 1000 literof wastewater
Kodairabashi bridge= approx 0.5 liter of crude
oil
50.6%
50.2%
= approx 0.2 kg of CO2
Shingashi riv.
Treating wastewater
2% of total
electricity demandof Japan
Sumidagawa
riv.

1910

Financial year

7

Ryogoku bridge

National Sport Stadium

Tokyo Dome Stadium

Daily use: 20.9 m3 (70% of total)

Tank capacity: 1,000 m3

Daily use: 186.3 m3
Tank capacity: 1,000 m3

For toilet flushing and cooling water

For toilet flushing only

95.9%
95 9%

Yanagibashi bridge

17.0%

Sinjuku sub-centre

Nakagawa riv.

71.0%

Tamagawa riv.

Daily use: 2,740 m3 (30% of total)
Tank Capacity: 8,000 m3

18.1%

Tamakawara bridge

35.3%

Kasaikobashi bridge

32.3%
Chofu intake gate
Taishibashi
bridge0 km 5 km 10 km

20 km
Tamagawa River, Picture source: Keihin office of river

Treated water (%)

For toilet flushing only
910

Source: Bureau of Sewerage, TMG

Source: Bureau of Urban Development, TMG

Water environment in Tokyo

Restoration of natural ecosystems and aquatic amenity

Ochanomizu station

Kandagawa riv.
Picture source: Tokyoy Canal Projectj

Sumidagawa riv.
Picture source: Tokyo Canal Project

12
Nihonbashi
Picture source: Tokyo Canal Project

Nobidome yousui
Senkawa jyosui

Tamagawa jyosui

Dry upPicture source: Mitaka Education Centre

11

Picture source: Bureau of Sewerage, TMG

207

Centralized water management system

Decentralized system“Developed countries apply energy-intensive technologies
to keep urban water environment clean, however, suchapproach may not be appropriate for sustainable water
environment management ” (modified from Wagner,
Ohgaki and Zehnder et al. in Ambio)y “Design, approval of the planning and the lay out of thepiping and sewer networks is time consuming and swallows
about 80% of the total investment costs
costs”.. (Peter Wilderer)y “Estimating the cost of worldwide implementation ofcentralized system, it become evident that the capacity of
global money market would not be sufficient to cover theneed for investment capital”. (Peter Wilderer)yyy Advantages
 Easy for water reuse No need for pipeline to deliver wastewater Easy for groundwater recharge
 Relatively small investment for each unity Disadvantages
 Difficult to reuse water Need a small-footprint, high efficiency, easy
maintenance process Maintenance problem
 Big investment

However, in old time, the centralized system is the only
choice since treatment technology was not available in asmall scale

Proposal of decentralize water management system

13

14

Centralized wastewater
treatment system in Asia
City

Country

Coverage
(%)

Tokyo

Japan

99.9

Sendai
S d i

Japan
J

97.2
97 2

Bangalore

India

53%

KarachiPakistan

33%

Dhaka

Bangladesh

21%

ManilaPhilippines

11%

Decentralized water system:
example of single unit
Rain fall
Single house ~large community

EnergyWater
supplyWastewater
Water reuse

Wastewater
treatment

Water
purification

Non-permeable layer (pavement, buildings etc)

Water recharge
Water use

Groundwater

15

MBR: Membrane bioreactor

16

Decentralized water management: ruralarea

Decentralized water management:
dense area
Water Management Unit

Water Management Unit

• Utilizing sewer and watersupply systems• Use groundwater as a stock• Community can decidetreatment method• Community-based
management• Utilizing natural system

River

River

pond
Lake

Lake

17

208

18

Decentralized water management system(ultimate status)

Demand of a new technology
Rain• Urban Heat Control• Groundwater utilization• Restoration of river• Risk management• Better storm water ctrl
Water
treatmenty Treating wastewater to produce extremelyHeatmanagement

clean water for groundwater rechargey Treating groundwater to produce

drinkable-quality water

purification

River/lakey Requirements for the technology
 Easy to maintain Low capital cost
 Safety of treated water

purification

Water system
地下水涵養recharge

recharge

recharge
groundwater

Urban water stock

groundwater

Membrane technology

Groundwater flow analysis
19

20

19

Membrane categories (Information by TORAY)

Membrane process: hollow fiber• Extremely highquality water• Easymaintenance andeasy mechanism• Potential
beP t ti l tto b
economical• No need of hightechnology formoduleproduction(except RO)
Raw water

Microfiltration
MF

Ultrafiltration
UF

Nanofiltration
Membrane
NF
Reverse OsmosisRO

Size (μm)

Purifiedwater

Relative SizeofCommonMaterials

0.0001

0.001

0.01

Cl- ionNa+ionPesticide, Organic Material
Zn2+ionF- ion

0.1

1

Virus
Polio Virus

Pb2+ ion

Coliform
Cryptosporidium

Hepatitis A Virus
Trihalomethane

Application

Brackish Water Desalination

Less-fouling

Drinking Water

Drinking Water

Drinking Water

22

Novel development of MBR-Thermal energy recovery-

Membrane Bioreactor (MBR) technology (keytechnology)
Conventional activated sludge system

Hydrogencar

Effluent
Prescreening

Bacillus anthracis

Wastewater Treatment

Sea Water Desalination

21

Algae, Mad

Influenza Virus

Vibrio CholeraeNO3-ionRaw water

10

Sludge withdrawal

H2 fuelcell

Biological tank Settling tank

Side stream MBR (1st generation)

Water Reuse

H
2

Effluent
Membrane

Submerged MBR (2nd generation)

WasteWastewater

MBR

SludgeSupercriticalgasification

Nutrients

Use

Kazuo Yamamoto (1989)

Can besmall scale
23

Can besmall scale24

209

Novel development of MBR-Electro-microbial energy recovery• Problem for MBR• Electricity for operationand maintenanceFuture Asian cities: sustainable city-region• Operation• Maintenance• Community service• Commercial

Periurban area
• Vegetable production and otherfarming activities• Leisure for urban people

Load

Water stock

wastewater

MBR
MBR
Treated water(anaerobic) (aerobic)

Natural beauty
Water

GW Stock•Commercial activities
desalination

Nutrients(N and P)

Sea

25

Conclusions

EnergyProduction

Water stock

Nutrient

Urban areareuse

MBR with Microbial Fuel Cell (MFC)

Outside of
the region

Water stock

Watersubsidy

Water stock

Safer products

Agricultural products$ for higher price products
Water stock26

Thank youy Decentralized water management system

Special Thanks to:
Dr. Tran Thi Viet Nga
Dr. Ryo Honda
Dr. Kazuo Yamamoto
Sustainable Urban Regeneration Project
Toray Co.
Co Ltd.
Ltd(combined with water reuse system)
potentially attractive for developing Asian
citiesy Asian cities need to develop new type of
relationship with rural areay Development needs time. However, we
experience it much faster than westerncountries.

BOD 25 mg/l

Ken Fukushi
fukushi@ir3s.u-tokyo.ac.jp

27

28

210

MAIN CONTENTS

Wastewater management andtreatment in urban areas in
VietnamzWastewater releasestatuszTreatment status
zManagementMt statust tzRecommendations andorientations

MSc. NGUYEN Hoang Anh
Pollution Control Department(VEA – MONRE)

1

2

WASTEWATER RELEASEWASTEWATER RELEASEDOMESTIC SOURCES

INDUSTRIAL SOURCES
zMain sources:z Water consumption percapita: 150 l/day (source: JICA

o Platinggo Food processingo Chemicalo Textile and dyeingo Leathero Paper and pulp productiono Automobile repair and mechanics

project for sewage planning in Hanoi)

z Total discharge in Hanoi:
793 207 m3/day
793,207z Total discharge in Hai
Phong: 255,988 m3/day
z Total discharge in Ho Chi
Minh city: 876,170 m3/day(source: 2009, PCD project for building thewastewater pollution control action plan in
Hanoi, Hai Phong and Ho Chi Minh city)

3

4

Images: Industrial wastewater

WASTEWATER RELEASE
INDUSTRIAL SOURCES (cont.)zDischarge:o Total discharge from industrial zones/parks:
500,000 – 700,000 m3/day (estimated)o Discharge from outside of industrial
zones/parks (300,000 establishments):
insufficient data

5

6

211

WASTEWATER RELEASEWASTEWATER RELEASEHOSPITAL SOURCESESTIMATED TOTAL POLLUTION LOADz Hanoi:(Unit: BOD5
tons/day)o 32 hospitals, >200 medical
centres, >2,000 private clinics
o Discharge: 6,083.6 m3/dayz Hai Phong:o 9 hospitals, 20 medical
centres, >50 clinics
o Discharge: 1,800 – 2,000
m3/dayz Ho Chi Minh city:o 83 hospitals, 26 medical
centreso Discharge: 17,000 – 20,000
m3/dayHanoi

Hai PhongHo Chi
Minh city

Domestic
161.22wastewater

55.119213.7

Hospital
0.912
wastewater

0.3

3.0

Industrial
60.782wastewater

Insufficient Insufficient
data
data

Source: 2009, PCD, Project for building the wastewater pollution control action8
plan in Hanoi, Hai Phong and Ho Chi Minh city

7

WASTEWATER RELEASEWASTEWATER TREATMENT

ESTIMATED POLLUTION CONTRIBUTION IN HANOIDOMESTIC SOURCESzOver 700 municipalities in Vietnam
zOnly 10 centralized municipal wastewater
treatment systems
zPercentage of municipal domestic
wastewater treated: less than 10%

Type

Percentage

Domestic wastewater

78,7%
,

Hospital wastewater

20,7%

Industrial wastewater

0,5%

Source: 2009, PCD, Project for building the wastewater pollution control action9
plan in Hanoi, Hai Phong and Ho Chi Minh city

10

Industrial wastewater treatment

WASTEWATER TREATMENT
INDUSTRIAL SOURCESz Only 30% of the industrial zones/parks havecentralized wastewater treatment systemsz Large portion of industrial wastewater is nottreated adequately to meet the environmental
standards. Water quality of many rivers areseriously being threatened
z 300,000 small and medium-sized
establishments outside industrial zones with little
to no wastewater treatment system (due to high
cost)
11

12

212

WASTEWATER TREATMENTWASTEWATER TREATMENT

INDUSTRIAL SOURCES (cont.)zInspection results (2006-2008):
o 2006: 134 out of 247 establishments (54.3%)
had treatment systems, only 34 met
environmental standard (13.8%)
o 2007: 263 out of 513 establishments (51.3%)
had treatment systems, only 67 met
environmental standard (13.1%)
o 2008: 601 out of 804 establishments (74.7%)
have treatment systems, only 287 met
environmental standard (35.7%)

HOSPITAL SOURCESz Less than 50% of thehospitals havewastewater treatment
systemsz Treatment capacity ofthese systems is low,
and many do notmeet theenvironmental
standards
13

14

Various wastewater treatment technologies

WASTEWATER TREATMENTTECHNOLOGY STATUS
z Type: various types, capable of treating a wide
range of wastewaterz Technology level: only a few systems can treat
wastewater to meet environmental standards.
standards
No specific criterion to assess wastewater
treatment technology in Vietnam
z Operation and maintenance: self operation andmaintenance, even with foreign technologyz Equipments, devices: produced in few numbers,
no mass production facility. Environmental
technology market has not been well developed

15

16

WASTEWATER TREATMENTWASTEWATER TREATMENT

TREATMENT STATUS
zMany treatment systems are of low
technology, low cost, just to deal with theauthority
zMany systems are incompatible andimproper due to lack of professional staff
and budget (low quality equipments)
zLow awareness of the establishment
owners and their personnel in operationand maintenance

TREATMENT STATUSz The centralized treatment
systems of industrial parks
can only treat certain
pollutants at certain
concentration limits. Eg: pH,BOD,
O COD,CO SS,
SS colority,
nutrients (N, P)… can betreated to satisfy column A
and B of TCVN 5945:2005.
Other pollutants such as oil,grease, heavy metals,
however, can not be treated,thus the effluent of thesesystems do not meet theenvironmental standards

17

213

18

WASTEWATER MANAGEMENTWASTEWATER MANAGEMENTzManagement tools:

zManagement agencies:o Environmental impact assessment (EIA)o Environmental protection commitment/scheme(for industrial establishments/zones operating
prior to 01/07/2006)
o Discharge permito Wastewater fees (67 Decree; 88 Decree)o Vietnam Environmental Administration(MONRE): water pollution control, inspection,pof legislativeg
documents, approvalppdevelopment
of EIA,…
o Department of Water Resources Management(MONRE): emission permito Provincial DONREs: local management,cooperating with central agencies

zSupporting tools:
o Environmental standardso Discharge databaseo Hotspot criteria (07 Circular of MONRE)

19

20

WASTEWATER MANAGEMENTWASTEWATER MANAGEMENT

ON-GOING PROJECTS/TARGETS IN HANOIz For rivers:{Wastewater collection
system would be built in
one part of To Lich river,along with a small-sized
wastewater treatment
stationt ti with
ith advancedddtechnology{A centralized wastewater
treatment plant would bebuilt on a flushing gate ofNhue river, to treat
wastewater before
discharging to the riverz Projects on runoff and wastewater drainage:building collection and drainage systems,
improving urban lake, wastewater treatment
plants…
z PercentageP
off treateddd
domestici wastewater
would reach 10 – 15% by the end of 2010
z Percentage of treated industrial wastewater
would reach 40% by 2010z For hospital wastewater: 100% of hospitals andmedical centres directly under the managementof the city would be equipped with proper
wastewater treatment system
21

To Lich River

Nhue River

22

WASTEWATER MANAGEMENTWASTEWATER MANAGEMENTPROJECTS/TARGETS IN HAI PHONG

PROJECTS/TARGETS IN HO CHI MINH CITY
zPlanning a system of 9 wastewater
treatment plants (one has already been in
operation, 3 are being prepared forconstruction)
zBuilding wastewater treatment systems inlarge hospitals
zImproving centralized wastewater
treatment systems of industrial parks(equipping automatic monitoring system)z Program for runoff and wastewater drainage
managementz Program for control and treatment of industrial
discharge sourcesz Program for prevention of pollution, degradationand environmental incidents for surface andunderground water sourcesz Program for developing the database formanagement of discharge sources and control
of EIA implementation
23

24

214

RECOMMENDATIONS and ORIENTATIONSRECOMMENDATIONS and ORIENTATIONSzContinue to complete the legislative
system:zMinistries, sectors and localities:
o Enhancing environmental protection planningo Improving financial mechanism to increase theefficiency of the use of environmental budget.
o Raising budget for environmental protection.
The target is 2% of total state budget allocatedfor environmental activities by 2010
o Promoting the socialization of investment inenvironmental protectiono Guideline documents for the implementation of
Law on Environmental Protection 2005
o Economic/technical normo Policy and mechanism for the socialization ofenvironmental protectiono Development of environmental services
o Strengthening administrative sanction
25

26

RECOMMENDATIONS and ORIENTATIONSRECOMMENDATIONS and ORIENTATIONSzRegarding technology:

zRivers and basins: Continuing theimplementation of 3 projects forenvironmental protection in river basins(approved by the Prime Minister)o Studying, applying and transferring clean andenvironmentally friendly technology
o Developing wastewater treatment technology
suitableit bl ffor Vi
Vietnam’st’ condition
diti
o Promoting the application of information
technology and the replication of advanced
environmental protection models
o An orientation for wastewater treatment
technology development is essential

o Cau rivero Nhue – Day rivero Dong Nai river

27

28

RECOMMENDATIONS and ORIENTATIONSTHANK YOU VERY MUCH FOR YOURATTENTION!

zPollution control:o Strengthening the inspection of compliance of
establishments and individuals in production
and businesso Enhancing pollution control at sources,
especially legislating the automatic monitoringof wastewater sources in industrial parkso Promoting the application of worldwide
technological advances in pollution control
29

30

215

Wastewater Management in
Urban Area: Bangkok,
Thailand

Wijarn Simachaya
Thiparpa Yolthantham
Pollution Control Department of Thailand
Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment
e-mail: wijarn.s@pcd.go.th

Presentation Outline
 Thailand at a Glance Urban Water Quality Management inThailand SituationSi
i off W
Water Q
Qualityli iin B
Bangkokk k Current Measures on Water Quality
Management in Bangkok
 Future Development Plan on Water
Pollution Control in Bangkok
 Conclusion and Recommendations
2

1

Urban Wastewater Management inThailandThailand at a Glance
Thailand is situated in the heart of theSoutheast Asian mainland, covering an
area of 513,
513,115 sq
sq..km.
km. and extends
about 1,620 km from north to southand 775 km from east to west
west..
 Thailand has a warm, tropical climate
affectedff
d by
b a seasonall monsoon.
 Population 64 million and density
about 132 people/km2
people/km2
 Thailand can be divided into 25 river
basins. The average of annual rainfall
for the country is about 1,700 mm.
The available water quantity was about
3,300 m³/ capita/year

1,687 Municipalities

MWW~2.5 M m3/d

BMA, Pattaya City

MWW. ~3.0 M m3/d

(6,089) LAOs

MWW~ 9.0 M m3/d

The treatment capacity~ 3.2 M m3/d(~ 23 % of total MWW)

Total MWW~14.5 M
m3/d
Total BOD Loading~ 2,600 Ton BOD/d

3

4

Urban Wastewater Management inThailandSources of Water Pollution in Thailand

Urban Wastewater in the country:-Domestic : 1,687 Municipalities,
 6,089 LAOs,
 BMA, Pattaya City Approximately 14.5 M

 is one of the most serious environment problems.
 approximately 14.5 M m3/day of municipal
wastewater generated by the population around thecountry (2008) :Industry : >120,000 factories
 Approximately 2.8
2 8 M m3/d

9 (1,687) Municipalities ~ 2.5 M m3/d
9 (6,089) LAOs
~ 9.0 M m3/d
9 BMA, Pattaya City
~ 3.0 M m3/d

m3/dAgriculture :Pig farm+ Aquaculture (Point source) 0.1
M m3/dPaddy field ( Non-point source)150
M m3/d 101 treatment plants in the country have been
constructed (approximately 3.2 millions m3/day of
the treatment capacity or 23 % of total wastewater) Major pollutant is organic waste.
55

6

216

Status of Municipal Wastewater
Treatment Facilities in Thailand

Wastewater Collection and Treatment Systems

Location of 101 Municipal
Wa s te wate r Tr eat me nt
Fa ci li tie s i n T h a il a n dCentral Wastewater
Treatment¾

Combined Sewer System

DesignD
i C
Criteria
i i ffor C
CentrallWastewater Treatment
The type ofcollection
systems
Combined Sewer
System
Separate Sewer
SystemConstructed 90 Plants
Ude Construction
Co st uct o 100
Under
Plants¾ Delayed (Samutprakan
Province) 1 Plant: drain both rainfalls
and wastewater
within one system

¾

BOD

SS

(mg/l)(mg/l)

Separate Sewer System

65 110(80)

40 – 110(80): the sewerage anddrainage arecollected in separate
piping systems

(160)

(160)

8
8
8

7

Situation of Water Quality in Bangkok

Situationof Water
Qualityin
Thailand

910

Dissolved Oxygen (DO) in the Lower Part of
the Chao Phraya River from 1978 to 2009

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) in the Lower
Part of the Chao Phraya River from 1978 to 2009
12.0

6.0

10.0
BOD(m
mg/l)

Std. 2 mg/l

4.0

M in

3.0

M ax
A ve

2.0

Min

6.0

Max

4.0

Ave

0.0

20
09
20
06
20
03
20
00
19
97
19
94
19
91
19
88
19
85
19
82
19
79

82

85

88

91

79
19

19

19

19

97

00

03

94

19

19

19

20

20

20

06

0.0

09

Std. 4 mg/l

8.0

2.0

1.0

20

DO(mg
g/l)

5.0

Year

Year
11

12

217

Status of Central Wastewater Treatment Plants in Bangkok

Current Measures on Water Quality
Management in Bangkok(m33 /day)(m

Si Phraya

Implementation of Central Wastewater Treatment Projects
Improvement of the Community Wastewater Treatment
Plants3030,,000

Service
Service Pop
Areas (kmkm22) Treatment
2 .7

120,
120,000

The 12 community wastewater treatment plants from Housing
Authority are now being operated by BMA with total capacity of
25,
25,700 m3/day.

Date of
Operation

Activated
Sludge, AS

Jan 1994

The project provided rere-circulation of clean water to the canals andto oxygenate canal water with aerators.
Three aerated lagoons systems for primary wastewater treatment in
the city are operated.

Chong
Nonsee200,200,000

28.
28.5

580,
580,000

AS (Cyclic
Sludge System)

Dec 1999

Ratanakosin

40
40,,000

4 .1

70
70,,000

Two
Two--Stage AS

May 2000Thoong Kru

65,
65,000

42.
42.0

177
177,,000

AS (Vertical
Loop Reactor)

February
2002

Nong
Kheam

157,,000
157

44.
44.0

520,
520,000

AS (Vertical
Loop Reactor)

February
2002

350,
350,000

37.
37.0

1,080,
080,000

AS with Nutrient

December
2003



Legislation MeasuresPublic Relation and Participation

Din Deang(Phase I)

Public education and awareness raising
Canal clean up activities
 Community participation e.g. water quality monitoring

Chatujak150
150,,000

33.
33.4

432,
432,500

Total

992,
992,000

191.
191.7

2,979,
979,500Technology(Contact Stabilization)

Canal Water Improvements
Capacity

PlantsEffluent Standards and enforcement

Removal

AS



13

14

Conclusion and Recommendations

Future Development Plan on Water
Pollution Control Decentralized wastewater management systems

would also be useful and appropriate for large andmega cities.
 Sustainable management wastewater reclamation
requires synergistic interactions among thegovernment, private sectors and community sectors.
 The lesson learned for the implementation ofcentral wastewater treatment system in Bangkok,

 Construction Measures Three new wastewater treatment plants are to be constructed.

 Non
Non--Construction Measures Legislation Measures Continue enforce of the effluent wastewater standards

 Public Relation Measures
 Public participation and awareness raising Wastewater Discharge Fees

 Planning in advance and at the same time of city planning Implementation of the wastewater user charge Treatment technology depending on available land and the Private Sector Participation

operation and maintenance the system

 Public Private Partnership (PPP) for the management and administration

 Public awareness and the acceptance of the treatment system toof wastewater facilities

support willing to pay for user charges

 Water Quality Monitoring and Evaluation

 Law compliance and enforcement for the effluent standards for Routine water quality monitoring network set up and availability of water

quality monitoring data

December
2005

individual buildings /factories /central wastewater treatment
facilities

15

16

Conclusion and Recommendations (Cont.)
 Best management practices on water

environment management for tropical region
should be shared to cover both point andnonnon-point sources pollution.
 Co
Co--benefits approach of water environment
management and climate change mitigation
should be considered for the 2nd WEPA
emerging activities;

http://www.pcd.go.th Biogas production and utilization to reduce

methane (GHG) emission from wastewater
discharges
 Wastewater reuse and recycle to land application
17

18

218

Urbanization and Water
Quality Control for the
Source of Water in
Colombo city, Sri Lanka

AYUBOWAN

By
Dr. R M S K Ratnayake
Director
Central Environmental Authority
Sri Lanka
1

2

Beauty of Sri Lanka

Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka

SIHARAJA FOREST

3

4

AVUKANA STATUEWATERFALLS IN SRI LANKA

5

6

219

KNUCKLESLEAPORD

78

b. Reason for Selection of theTarget Areaa. Introduction
 About Sri Lanka

 Colombo is the main commercial andindustrial city in the island
 Highest industrial and population
densities
 Pollution loads to the water
resources are high Drinking water demand is high due
to population increase– Rich in Natural Resources– 103 Rivers Cover All Island– 9 Provinces and 25 Districts– Capital is Sri Jayawardenapura Kotte in
Colombo District– 65610 Km2 of Total Land Area
– 20 Million Population– 2000 mm of Annual Average Rainfall Provides
131230 Millions m3 of Fresh Water Annually
910

25 Administrative Districts of Sri Lanka

1. Socio
Socio--economical and Natural
Conditions of Colombo City
 Population

Population

1981

2001

2007

Colombo

1699241(11(11.4%)
4%)2251274(12(12.0%)
0%)2456000(12(12.3%)
3%)

Island14846750 18797257 20010000

 Population Density– Total Area 699 km2 (~1% from island)– Population Density
3513/ km2
– Island Pop. Density
320/ km2
11

12

220

2. Situation of Quantity andQuality of the Water Source

Socio--economical….
Socio
Gross Domestic Products is $ 40.7 billion
50% of GDP contribution is from Western Province
 Annual Average Precipitation
Precipitation-- 2400 mm
 Accessibility to Tap Water System ~65% in Colombo
District
 Rest are from other sources, well water (31%), tube
wells (1%) etc.
 Domestic Wastewater System 3 Production Centres in Grater Colombo

Water Supply System– Kelani River Intake at Ambatale– Labugama Compounding Reservoir– Kalatuwawa Compounding Reservoir– Colombo is the only city in Sri Lanka with sewage
system
– 80% of the Colombo city area has access to the sewer
system– Collected sewage discharge into the sea outfall without
any treatment (two places, approximately 1km and
1.5km)– Rest of the people have individual septic tank/soakage
pit systems for sewage or domestic wastewater– Piped sewage facility in SL is 4% from population, site
sanitation or septic tanks is 80% and 16% is without
proper sanitation

 Systems Provide 18 Million m3/day
 Total Consumers 2.0 Million
 65% of the Colombo District Requirement

13

14

Situation of Quantity and…

Situation of Quantity and…
Name

Volume ofavailable
Water

 Water quality of intakes

Volume ofabstracted
Water (m3)Kalani River ~15
MCM/day
Ambatale(Averagerunoff)

512000

Labugama
Reservoir

15.4 MCM

62000

Kalatuwawa 8.9 MCM
Reservoir

37000

Intake

BOD

COD

TSS

Heavy
metalspH

Kalani
river

2

18

20

Pb .06 8.0
Cr <.01

Labugama

3

19

10

Pb 7.5
Cr <.01

Lalatuwaw
a

2

17

12

Pb 7.3
Cr <.01

15

16

3. Effluent Load to the Sources

Effluent Load to…
 Main wastewater receiving water bodies in ~30% from total industries are in Colombo

Colombo area More than 10% 0f the population is in– Kalani river– Beira lake (stagnated water body connected to the sea)
– Sea

Colombo Pollution of water resources in the area arehighly threatened by pollution
 Industrial effluents of the area can be
managed Domestic effluents and other non point
sources are difficult to control
 Stagnated water sources are highly
threatened by nutrient pollution, NO3- andPO4-

 Wastewater could result from industrial anddomestic– Industrial effluents discharge directly or indirectly into
the Kalani river or its tributaries– Domestic wastewater including sewage
 Discharge into the sea outfall through sewer network Directly discharge into the Kelani river or Beira lake 18000 households in the beira lake catchment's area aredischarging sewage into the lake

17

18

221

Effluent Load to…..

Effluent Load to….

 Industrial effluent loads into Kelani

 COD loads from major industrial

river

sectors– Two common TP s in main industrialzones– 2 common treatmentttt plantsplants
l t - ~6250
6250
kg/day– Textile industries
industries-- ~8750 kg/day– Food & beverage industries
industries-- ~8750
kg/day– Chemical industriesindustries- ~3750 kg/day

 ~15000 m3/day (25% is sewage)
 ~10000 m3/day (25% is sewage) Treated effluents are conform to CEA stds

– Other industries
 Textile - ~35000 m3/day Food & beverages - ~35000 m3/day
 Chemical industries - ~15000 m3/day

19

20

4. Current Measures on Quality
Control for the Water Resource

Current Measures on Quality…

 Sources of Water Pollution in Colombo

Laws on control of non point sources
– NEA

Area

 May require local authority to comply with recommendations– Non Point Sources– Point Sources

relating to the prohibition of the unauthorized discharge, emission
or deposit of sewage and the prevention of the discharge ofuntreated sewage into soil, canals or water ways.

 Non Point Sources– LGA laws

– Mainly from Domestic wastewater, agriculturalrunoffs etc.
– Difficult to apply laws and regulations directly– Difficult to control– Controlled by applying better land use pattern,
local government planning laws, awareness– Main responsibility is with local government
authorities (13 in Colombo, 4 MC, 5 UC, 4 PS)

 The Government or any Municipal Council may, from time totime, cause to be made, altered, or extended such publicmain or other drains, sewers and watercourses necessary
for the effectual draining of the Municipality – MC 97
 Prevent obstruction of discharge of rainrain-water and drainage
to any natural watercourse, channel, lake or swamp
recognized for such purpose by resolution – MC 101
 Connection of private drain with any public drain withoutauthority is an offence – MC 103

21

22

Current Measures on Quality…

Current Measures on Quality…

Options for discharge of sewage inColombo Point Sources– Mainly from Industrial Activities– Points of sources can be identified– Can be minimized and controlled by laws anddifferent strategies– Individual systems (within the premises)– Sewage network (discharge into sea out
fall without any treatment)– Common treatment systems(condominiums and schemes)– Illegal direct discharges to the water
bodies (specially from unauthorizedhouses/buildings)

 Control measures/strategies on point

sources– Laws and regulations– Monitoring– Education and awareness

23

24

222

Current Measures on Quality…


Current Measures on Quality…

Laws and regulations on point sources EPL process for waste discharging activities– Mainly controlled by National Environmental Act (NEA) of 1980

– 133 prescribed activities including wastewater
generating activities– EPL is a legal requirement to discharge waste into theenvironment– EPL issued only after conforming to the standards– Operation of an industry without an EPL is a punishable
offence Central Environmental Authority (CEA) established in1981 for

implementation of the NEA

 Five main sections and section IV is on environment management

and protection– Two legal tools and discharge standards
 Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) - Section IV C

 Wastewater discharge standards

approving procedure for prescribed projects, due to sensitivity or
scale– Two types of standards– Receiving environment
environment-- inland surface waters, irrigation,
coastal area, common TP– Type of activity
activity-- textile, rubber, tanning Environmental Protection Licence (EPL) - Section IV A

all prescribed activities/industries need EPL for discharge theirwastes Wastewater Discharge Standards - Section IV B

discharging effluents shall be conform to the stipulated standards

25

26

5.

Some Important Water Quality ParametersTSS

BOD Oil &COD
GreasePesticide

FaecalColi form

Inlandsurface

50

30

10

250

0.005

40

Irrigation

2100 250

10

400

-

40

Marinea ecoastal

150
50

20
0

250
50

0.005
0
005

40
0

Common TP

100
00

500

350

30

850

0.2

-

RubberRubber- latex 100
std. 100

60
50

-

400
400

-

-

Textile

50

60

10

250

-

-

TanningTanning- ISW 100
MC 150

60
100

10
20

250
300

-

-

Current Issues on Quality Control
for the Water Source Unavailability of zoning plan Unlimited discharges to the water sources Economical and technological issues on

pollution control Encroachments and illegal constructions atreservations of the water sources

 Inadequacy of the existing laws andregulations

27

28

Current Issues on Quality….

Current Issues on Quality….

 Unavailability of zoning plan

– Waste loads to the water sources gradually
increasing in Colombo area
– Receiving capacities of wastes on water
sources are limited– Zoning plans are available only for 3 LGA s in
Colombo district– Not demarcated industrial zones– Difficult to control environmental pollution

 Economical and technological issues on

pollution control

 Unlimited industrial discharges to the– Financial barriers on pollution control activities– Inadequacy of the available technology

water sources– Gradually increase industries in major cities
due to infrastructure developments
29

30

223

Current Issues on Quality….

Current Issues on Quality….

 Encroachments and illegal

 Inadequacy of the existing laws andconstructions at reservations of thewater sources

regulations– Existing law on waste emission is a commandand controlled system– No system to control the pollution loads ofindustries– Existing laws on domestic wastewater
discharge are weak
– Inadequacy of land policy to control
encroachments– Laws are not sufficient to control illegal
industrial activities within a short period– Most of the reservations/catchments areencroach by people and discharge theirwaste into the water sources– Difficulties on application of laws on them
– Unauthorized constructions at the riverbanks– No reservations are demarcated31

Thank You

33

224

32

Socio-economical and natural
condition of Yangon

Union of Myanmar
Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation
Irrigation Department

YangonWater and Waste Water Managementin Yangon, Myanmar

Area

Former capitalcity

10,170 km²

5.56 million 2000‐2001

Population 6.32 million 2009‐2010

Mu Mu Than
Staff Officer, Irrigation Department
Myanmar(11 % of the total population)

Annual average
precipitation
March,2010

2

Water Supply

Programme for access to save drinking water( MMDG)

1990

2550 mm1• Daily about 511030 m³/d are supposedly supplied
to around 60 percent of the population

2000

Wastewater Treatment

Urban

Rural

Total

Urban

Rural

Total

38%

30%

32%

89%

66%

72%

• The
Th plant
l t treatst t 12
12,300300 m³/d³/d off sewage fromf6
townships in the downtown area which is for
population of about 325,000.

34Ground Water Quality

Situation of quantity and quality of the water sources
Name

Volume ofavailable
water(m³)

Surface water
Gyobyu Reservoir

Volume ofabstracted water(m³)
102,206 m³/d
219,553 m³/d

within the highest
desirable level

Ngamoeyeik Reservoir

170,343 m³/d

within the highest
desirable level

8,5800m³/yr

Ground waterAlluvial, Irrawaddian
Peguan153,249m³/yr

Iron Concentration• Evaluation on the chemical quality on tube wells in 17
townships Eastern Yangon indicates that about 34% of thewells tested have iron content in excess of 1.0 mg/l

within the highest
desirable level

Phyugyi Reservoir and
Hlawga Reservoir

Surface water
Lower AyeyarwadyRiver Basin• Most common tests conducted usually are on color, turbidity,
pH, hardness, iron and chloride

Water Quality

Chloride• The presence of chloride concentration of more than 2000
mg/l may be attributed to the sea water intrusion sincepermeable formation outcrops are found along the bank of the
Yangon River.
5

6

225

Effluent Quality
Standard

Water Quality Standard
Highest Describe
Level

Maximum Permissible
Level

Appearance
Odor
Colour (Platinum Cobalt Scale)

5 Unit50 Unit

Turbidity (Silica Scale Unit)

5 NTU

25 NTUpH value

7.0 to 8.5

6.5 to 9.2

Total Solid p.pm(mg/l)

500 mg/l

1500 mg/l

Total Hardness(as CaCO3)

100 mg/l

500 mg/l

Total Alkalinity(as CaCO3)
Calcium as Ca

75 mg/l

200 mg/l

Magnesium as Mg

30 mg/l

150 mg/l

Chloride as C1

200 mg/l

600 mg/l

Sulphate as SO4

200 mg/l

400mg/lTotal Iron as Fe

0.3 mg/l

1.0 mg/l

Lead

0.05 mg/l

0.05 mg/l

Others7

Yangon City Development Committee Waste
Water Treatment Plant

Pollutant or parameter

Limit

pH
BOD
COD
Oil and grease
TSS

9-Jun
50
250
10
50

MetalsHeavy metals, total
Arsenic
Cadmium
Chromium
Hexavalent
Total
Copper
Iron
Lead
Mercury
NickelSelenium
SilverZinc
CyanideFree
Total
Ammonia
Fluoride
Chlorine, total residual
Phenols
Phosphorus
SulfideColiform bacteria

0.1
1
10
20
0.2
0.5
2
1
<400 MPN/100ml

Temperature increase<3°C 8

10
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.5
0.5
3.5
0.1
0.01
0.5
0.1
0.5
2

a

‐ In sub‐urban areas of Yangon City individual septic tanks areconstructed for homes in accordance with YCDC standards.

‐ Digested sludge accumulated in the tank is desludged byOperating period
Ianuary,2005

vacuum tankers of the YCDC or request with service charges

Waste water ‐ Domestic
characteristic Waste
Water

Treatment process

Daily amount of treatedwastewater
Designmade on the amount of volume desludged.

‐ Activated sludge process with theintermittent aeration system‐ 12,300 m³/day

9

10

Water Quality Protection• Arsenic and other parameters have been tested in• ‐ To control the direct discharge of wastewater fromfactories into rivers and streams( NCEA proposed effluent standards for proper disposal )collaboration with the Water Resources Utilization
Department ( WRUD), Department of Development Affairs( DDA) and United Nations Children’s Fund( UNICEF). The• To ban the use of some toxic pesticides and encourage theutilization of conventional bio‐ fertilizers as a substitute forchemical fertilizers(MAS, Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation)

Environmental and Sanitation Division under the Ministry of
Health is implementing a programme on water supply
systems with health institutions and also carrying out a Water
Quality Surveillance and Monitoring System Pilot Project inYangon.

11

12

226

Development of Water Supply andSanitation Facilities

Water Quality Testing• Reservoirs‐

Irrigation Department(i)• Ground water

‐

YCDC

(ii)

• Rivers‐

Department of Meteorology
and Hydrology(iii)

Incorporate sewage concerns when formulating
human settlement plans;
Build and maintain sewage treatment facilities
and other appropriate disposal systems inaccordance with national policies andcapabilities;
Locate coastal outfalls so as to maintain an
acceptable level of environmental quality and to
avoid exposing communities and marine
resources to pathogens;

13

14

Conclusion

Continuous

(iv)

(v)
(vi)

There are many water related sub‐sectors in Myanmar
such as irrigation and drainage, water for environment andecosystems, drinking water and water utilization for industries
and sanitation. These should be integrated to exchange views
and promote understanding of the quality and quantity ofwater use and the value of water in the social sector andexchange of views.
Nevertheless, the Environmental Impact Assessment isstill weak in water resources management. Due to theongoing rapid industrialization in cities, these are so manyfactories around urbanized areas, and there is still a need todisseminate the knowledge about the proper disposal ofwastewater to control the problems of the direct discharge of
wastewater from factories into rivers or streams

Promote environmentally sound combined
treatment of domestic and compatible industrial
effluents;
Promote primary treatment of municipal sewage
discharged into rivers, estuaries and the sea;
Establish and improve regulatory and monitoring
programmes to control effluent discharge, using
minimum sewage effluent guidelines and water
quality criteria.
15

16continuous

Other weaknesses in water environment management
are a lack of appropriate monitoring facilities, proper andykeepingp g of records,, regulargmonitoringg andsystematicsurveillance data for water quality control and basics
standards of water quality for drinking water.
Although there are many laws, acts, legislations andregulations related to water sector, most laws and acts forwater sectors still need to be modified. Therefore, these laws
and regulations should be reviewed to enact unified water
resources laws to promote a more effective legal framework
for coordination and management of water resources.
17

18

227

PRESENTATION OUTLINEURBANISATION AND WATER QUALITYCONTROL FOR THE SOURCE OF WATER INKUALA LUMPUR CITY

1. Socio‐economic condition of KL City

MEERA MUNUSAMY

2. Scenario of quantity and quality of

National Hydraulic Research Institute of Malaysia (NAHRIM)
Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment
MALAYSIA

water
3. Effluent Load to the water source
4. Current measures on quality control
5. Issues on quality control

08 March 2010

1

2

1. Socio‐economical and natural conditions of Kuala Lumpur

Population around Klang Valley
State/District
SelangorPopulations

Annual Average Precipitation

1980

1990

2000

1,515,536

2,413,567

4,188,876

2009

GombakKlang
Ulu Langat•Equatorial•Average annual rainfall
2500mm a year and the averagetemperature is 27 °C (81 °F)

688,700
840,700
1,170,900

4000
3500

KL Federal
Territory

977,1021,226,708

1,379,310

1,655,100

3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
Peninsular

Populationl i Density,
i 2009State/District

Area : 243 km2

Selangor
GombakKlang
Petaling
Hulu Langat
KL Federal Territory

Population : 1,655,100
Population Density : 6,811/km2
Districts around Klang Valley : Gombak,
Peninsular of Malaysia

Hulu Selangor,Klang, Petaling3

GDP (in RM million)
1995

2000

Average Annual
Growth Rate(%)

KL

21,157

26,968

4.2

Malaysia

166,625

209,269

4.7

Per Capita GDP (in RM
Million)
1995

KL

2000

AverageAnnualGrowth Rate(%)

Source: 8th Malaysian Plan

Ratio of Per Capita GDP TO
Malaysia Average
1995

2000

22,79930,727

6.1

2.12

2.11

Malaysia 10,756

14,584

6.3

1.00

1.00

Population
Density (per sq.
km.)

Average Annual Sex Ratio
Population
Growth Rate (%)
2008‐2009

628
636
501
840
243

688.7
840.7
1,547.1
1,170.9
1,655.1

1,097
1,822
8,088
1,394
6,811

1.9
1.9
2.2
2.5
1.6

103
110
102
103
103

Sabah

Median Age(years)

26.1
27.0
27.1
26.7
29.0
4

Industry Players in Water Resources Management• The per capita GDP for Kuala Lumpur during the period 1995 to 2000 rose from
RM22,799 to RM30,727, an average annual growth rate of 6.1 percent. The per capita
GDP for Kuala Lumpur was more than twice that of the national average
Area

Population(‘000)

Source: Department of Statistics Malaysia

y The Gross Domestic Product (GDP) for Kuala Lumpur (at purchasers’ value in 1987
prices) has increased from RM21,157 million in 1995 to RM25,968 million in 2000,
an average annual growth rate of 4.2 percent. Malaysia’s GDP average annual growthrate during the same period was 4.7 percent
Area

Sarawak

Area (sq.
km)

Departments

Role

Water Supply Department (JBA),
National Water Services
Commission (SPAN)

Water supply

Department ofEnvironment(DOE)

Water Quality Monitoring

Department of Drainage andIrrigation (DID)» Water Resources Managementand Hydrology» River Basin Management andCoastal Zone
» Flood Management» Eco‐friendly Drainage

Alam Flora

Solid Waste Management

Indah Water Konsortium (IWK)

Sewage treatment facilities

Source: 8th Malaysian Plan

5

6

228

% people who can access domestic wastewater treatment systems

Public Access to Tapped Water System
Populat‐ion
servedState

Selangor 6,560,306% Population servedYear 2007
Urban

Rural

State
total
(%)

100

99

99.9

Population
served% Population servedYear 2008
Urban

Rural

State
total
(%)

100

99

99.9

6,694,775

1998

2000

2004

2008

Proportion of commercial properties 16,843
with access to an urban sanitation
system19,021

30,51848,038142,303

157,159

221,285

197,182

Proportion of residential properties
with access to an urban sanitation
systemSource: IWK

Commercial: residential = 1: 4
Public Access to Water Supply Treatment Plants in Kuala
LumpurWater
treatment
plant

Actual Design
Capacity (m3/day)

Bukit Nanas
Sg Langat

145,000

44,600,394

50,086,538

386,400

173,141,058

169,404,599

45,00016,975,080

16,675,514

Wangsa Maju

2008

2009

Actual Total Production(m3/year)

Actual Total Production(m3/year)

1994: Federal Government appointed a concessionaire > design,
implement and manage a unified sewerage scheme for Kuala Lumpur
The concessionaire implemented a sewerage master plan : divides Kuala
Lumpur into 7 catchments, each of which has been provided with aregional waste treatment plant

7

Source: SPAN

8

LEGENDCATCHMENT BOUNDARY
BDR. TUN RAZAK STP

ORIGINAL STP
TAMAN
TONG LIAN
BANDAR
TUN RAZAKEXISTING LANDUSETAMAN MIDAH

TAMAN
MUTIARA BARATTAMAN MULIANEW STP UNDER JBIC PROJECTTAMAN
TAYNTON VIEW

KLR 129

TakeOverDate
TAMAN
D
LPDaHIJAU
teVolumeCapacity
DesignPE
TAMAN CONNAUGHT
UltimatePE
SludgeProduced(Actual)
EffluentStandard
Process
PowerConsumption
Capital Cost

LEBUHRAYA TIMUR ‐ BARATMRR2GENERAL FLOWDIAGRAM

9

Figure: Location of sewerage treatment facilities, 2000

PUCHONG SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANT
Take Over DateDLP Date
Volume Capacity
Design PE
Ultimate PE
Sludge Produced (Actual)
Effluent Standard
Process
Power Consumption
KG. PASIR
Capital Cost PANJANG

Name

Volume of available
water (m3)Volume ofabstracted water(m3)

ORIGINAL STP (AL)

Klang Gate
Dam

25,104 million
liter

Batu Dam

Holding capacity is
36.6 Mm3. The
Sungai Batu water
treatment plantlproduces 114 million
litres per day oftreated water

SERI PETALINGPHASE 3&4
TAMAN
SERI SENTOSA

TAMAN
O.U.G

SERI PETALINGPHASE 1&2

PUCHONGPOND

NEW STP UNDER JBICPAK SIONGNATIONAL
SPORTSCENTRE

T. BUKITKUCHAI

1,760kW/h(Max)RM95.2Mill10

Beneficial use
Water quality(domestic,industry,
agriculture) (%)

Water abstracted fordomestic andindustrial waterl to some parts
supplyof Kuala Lumpur

Flood control andwater supply dam
constructed undertheh KualaK l Lumpur
L
Flood Mitigation
Project
Monitoring stations

Rivers:AMPANGBATU
BUNOS
DAMANSARAGOMBAKJINJANGKERAYONG
KEROH
KLANG
KUYOH
PENCALASEMELA

BUKIT JALIL
ESTATEBANDARKINRARATAMAN TECHNOLOGYMALAYSIA PHASE 1

GENERAL FLOW DIAGRAMLEGEND

3

Water supply dam
and is one of the
major suppliers ofdrinking water toresidents of Klang
ValleyReservoirs:

1,523 kW/h (Max)

EXISTING LANDUSEKLR 142

17-Jul-06
17-Jul-08
25,000m/day
100,000
200,000
8tonne/day
CategoryB,BODSS(SludgeDrySolidMin20%)
SequencingBatchReactor(SBR)

2. Scenario of quantity and quality of water

16-Sep-06
16-Sep-08
37,000 m3/day
150,000
1,000,000
25 tonne/day
Category B, BOD SS (Sludge Dry Solid Min 20%)
Advance Activated Sludge
RM 90 MillBANDARTUNRAZAKSEWAGETREATMENTPLANT

CATCHMENT BOUNDARYPUCHONG STP

11

229

SP
SP
SP
P
SP
P
P
SP
P
SP
P
C

12

 Natural drainage system in KL‐ 3 primary rivers : total length of 32.8 kilometres and 8other rivers with a combined length of 40.6 kilometres

Groundwater usage by sector in Langat Basin
District

Total usage
m3/hour

Usage (m3/hr)
Domestic

Industry

Hulu
Langat110.1

125.16235.26

Kuala
Langat1128.01295.52506.19

Sepang103.270103.27

Distribution of wells in the Langat Basin

Details

Figure: Rivers, drainage and retention pond system, 2000

District
Hulu Langat

Kuala Langat

SepangDomestic

27

11

18

Industry9

60

Observation

6

4

1

Test Well

0

14

0

Unknown

5

1

0

13

Figure: Rivers, 2000

3. Effluent Load to the Water Source

Figure : Trend of Pollutant Parameter at Klang River, Year 2005 – 200714

As recorded in the
Malaysia Environmental
Quality Reports of 2000,
Water Quality Index(WQI) showed thatwater quality for Sungai
Klang and Sungai
Gombak is still polluted(WQI Class III 51.9‐
76.5) which requires
extensive treatment

Pollutant Load to the receiving water course around KL City

From wastewater effluent discharge into Klang River
BOD (kg/day)

COD(kg/day)

NH3‐N(kg/day)

O& G(kg/day)SS(kg/day)

13,548.44

35,348.92

7,131.57

2,521.50

15,663.83

From Septic tank & Pour Flush Systems
Figure: Composition of water pollution sources
by sector, 2007

Land use by category, 2000

BOD (kg/day)

COD(kg/day)

NH3‐N(kg/day)

O& G(kg/day)SS(kg/day)

3,431.00

13,724.10

13,724.10

688.206,882.10

15

16

4. Current Measures on Quality Control for Water
sourceTotal BOD load (kg/day)from Sewage Treatment Plants,
Environmental Quality Report 2007

A. Water Quality Index Standard
The Department of Environment is responsible for standards of effluent discharged
from municipal sewerage treatment plants and all associated environmental matters.

17

18

230

B. Urban Stormwater Management Manual for Malaysia

E. River water quality monitoring programme by DOE

y Contemplates on eco‐friendly stormwater management practices based on:
9 Stormwater Quantity Control – Flash Flood
9 Stormwater Quality Control‐ River pollution
9 Erosion and Sediment Control Plany 1978 ‐ establish baselines and detect water quality changes
in river water quality and extended to identifying ofpollution sources

y Used by:y Consultants, local authorities, housing developers,
public and DID

y Water samples collected at regular intervals from designatedstations for in‐situ and laboratory analysis to determine its
physico‐chemical and biological characteristics.

C. Integrated River Basin Management (IRBM)
y Promotes legislation process(a) Manual Water Quality Monitoring (MWQM) Programme‐ In 2006 : 1,064 manual stations in 146 river basins weremonitored‐ 30 Manual Water Quality monitoring stations around Klang
Valley‐ Sampling Frequency = 4 to 12x/yr/station.

y Engineering and technology Æsupport decision making in river basin management

D. CASE STUDY: KLANG RIVER CLEAN UP PROGRAM
y Construction, maintenance, desilting, beautitificationy Relocation of squattersy Treatment of pig wastey Rehabilitation of aquatic lifey Educationy Water pollution control
y Enforcement(b) Continuous Water Quality Monitoring (CWQM) Programme‐ 1 CWQM station at Klang River
20

19

MANUAL WATER QUALITY MONITORING MWQM
PROGRAMME

ALAM SEKITAR MALAYSIA SDN BHD CONTINUOUS WATER QUALITY MONITORINGSTATIONS THROUGHOUT PENINSULAR MALAYSIA-13 STATIONSy Parameter for in‐situ measurement–
DO (%), DO (mg/l)‐
Turbidity (NTU)‐
Conductivity (Us/cm)‐
Salinity (ppt)‐pH‐
Temperature

Perai River

Kuala Terengganu
George Town

Terengganu River

Ipoh
Perak River

KuantanSelangor River

Klang River,
Keratong River,

Kuala Lumpur

Shah Alam
Langat Rivery Parameter for lab analysis
BOD, COD, SS, NH3‐N, pH, DS, TS, NO3‐N, Cl, PO4‐P, O&G,
MBAS, E.coli, Coliform, As, Hg, Cd, Cr, Pb, Zn, Ca, Fe, K, Mg, Na.
[ 24 chemical and biological parameters ]Batang Benar River,SerembanLabu River

Linggi River

Malacca River

Putat River

Malacca

Skudai River,

Johore Bharu

21

22

5. Current Issues on Quality Control for Water Source

POTENTIAL ENVIRONMENTAL
IMPACTS FROM SEWERAGE ACTIVITIES ?

What Are The Sources Of Sewage Pollution?
Effluent• STPs/ Wastewater TP• Individual Septic Tank
• Biosolid generated fromsewage• Illegal factories

Sullage• Eateries / Wet markets• Household• Raw sewage discharge(riverine squatters)Landdevelopment
activities

EFFLUENT FROM TREATMENT PLANTS& OVERFLOW DISCHARGESSLUDGE DISPOSAL• Solid waste disposal• Erosion and sedimentation

HEALTH AND SAFETY

VISUAL AND AESTHETICS
23

231

NOISE FROM PLANTSBUFFERODOUR

24ISSUES AND PROBLEMS
1.

2. SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

IMPLEMENTATION ISSUES

Legislative and Institutional Issues Regarding to Water Resources:
 Matters pertaining to water – State Government jurisdiction
 Fragmentation in the management of water resources – many institutions
involved
 Some laws: relatively oldÆ review
Enforcement Activities:y
Coordinated approach by each Statey
Department of Irrigation and Drainage and DOE as secretariatyMaximum fine RM2,000 : Solid waste dumpingyMaximum compound RM250,000

Eg :Challenges faced with USMMM:y
MaintenanceyWorkload, expertise, funds
y
Land

y

About 50 tons of solid waste needs to be removed
from the Klang River basin dailyyBetween 500‐800 tones entered the river system daily
with only 80 tones (15%) picked out by existing
trapping and removal mechanismy2006: Alam Flora – “fish out” 50,000 tonnes of
rubbish from Klang River dailyySolid waste composition in 2006 : reported at
36 %factories, 25 % squatters, 17 % hawkers, 10 %debris,and 18%from individuals

25

26

3. WATER QUALITY
5. SQUATTERSy

1998: Population in squatters 130,000ySquatter settlements presently occupying approximately
571 hectares or 2.4 percent of total land use
Composition of illegal immigrants was reported high :30%
Average consumption of 150 l/day/person*(based on a
US survey projection) Æ total sullage and sewerage
generated and channeled directly to Klang River Æ 4.5
million litres daily
Poorly managed solid waste and rubbish thrown atcommon dumping area beside river
2011: 80% improvementÆ KL squatter free areayy
4. SEWERAGEy 1998: 46 % Wastewater treatment plants comply withy

DOE discharge standards
y 2005: DOE expected 85% plants comply standards

y
27

28

Year 2000: No of licensed hawkers and petty traders: 35,120–
mainly at markets, night markets, kiosks, secured stalls andattachments outside buildings‐ 65 % stalls located in City
Centre> discharge sullage water
Water usage : 100l/stall/day Æ total output of sullage water
generated: 2.2 million cu. Litres/day
Large number of residents – have 3rd kitchen connected tostorm water drainage system rather than to the seweragesystemEstimate total residence in KL about 1.6 Million andconsidering 2% of these houses discharge kitchen and laundrywater into storm drainsÆ 8 million litres of sullage water
discharged into rivers daily (based on average daily household
use of water of 250 litres/family/day)
Pollutants from factories comprises chemicals and metals
which are discharged into the rivers
2930

6. SULLAGE WATER/ ILLEGAL FACTORIES
y

y
y

y

y

232

Content Outlines
I.

Urbanization and Water Quality
Control in Vientiane Capital

Socio-economical and natural conditions

II. Situation of quantity and quality of thewater source
III. Effluent load to the source
IV. Current measures on quality control for thewater source
V. Current issues on quality control for thewater source

by: Kongngeun Chounlamountry
Department of Water Resources
Water Resources and Environment
Administration
1

Main characteristics
z
z
z
z
z

z
z

z

2

2

4

4

Map of VTC

Lao PDR:
land locked
Area: 236,800 km²
Population: 5,8 million (in2006)
density: about 24/km²
Climate Condition: Tropical,
influenced by the Southeast
monsoon
80% of which are mountainous,
mainly in the Northern region,
the remaining 20% comprisingmostly flat floodplains along
the Mekong River,
35% of flow contribution to the
MeKong River
3

3

Background

Vientiane Cityz Vientiane Capital City contains almost 1,500 km2

z Water quality of river and marsh is gettingof permanent and seasonal water bodies,floodplains, swamps and marshes. The wetland
areas supply
l a wide
id range off economicallyi llvaluable goods and services, including fisheryproducts, farming and natural resource collection
activities, maintenance of water quality andsupplies, and treatment of domestic, agriculturaland industrial wastes.

worse and water quantity is increased due to
inflow of domestic waste water from urban
area , rapid economic growth, increased
population, huge infrastructure construction
z Need formulation of master plan forimprovement of water environment inVientiane City.

5

6

5

233

6

Socio-economical andSocionatural conditionsz Mean annual precipitation in VT C isapproximately 1,700mm (JICA, 2002) , thewhole country ranges from 900 mm to3,500 mm and about 90% of precipitation
occurs from May through October.
z RGDP : 350 USD and 490 USD in 2000
and 2005 respectively
z 58% of population has access to watersupply at the national level while 62% in
Vientiane City.

z Area: 3,920 km2
z Number of Population in Vientiane Capital:– 1980: 196731– 1990: 474,000– 2000: 680,000– 2005: 692,900– 2010: 788,165

Density: 50 p¥km2
Density: 121 p¥km2
Density: 173 p¥km2
Density: 176 p¥km2
Density: 201 p¥km2
7

8

7

8

Socio-economical andSocionatural conditionsz Stormwater and wastewater originated from theVientiane city area are collected through the open
sewer system and are conveyed via That Luang
marsh, Nakai marsh and the Mak Hiao river to the
Mekong mainstream. Thatluang Marsh is currently
performing wastewater treatment services fordomestic wastewater and plays a significant rolein both flood control and wastewater purification
for the city
9

10

9

10

Situation of quantity andquality of water source– Volume of abstracted

water: no information
available– Water use for thewhole country: 82 %for agriculture, 10 %for industry and 8% for
domestic / municipal
use

z

z

Surface water in VT C
(reservoir’ name):
334,719 m3(river’ name):
78,714,530 m3– Ground water: 3,958,117

m3– Domestic use: 67,57%– Industrial use: 8,30%

11

12

11

234

12

13

14

13

Effluent load to thesource14

Effluent load to the water
sourcez Land use around the water source:z The wastewater from individual households

z Most of land uses are converted toin Vientiane is discharged into open drainsalong
g the roads and into the natural
wetlands in and around the city.
z There are 1,256 households discharged theirsewage directly into the surface water and501 households with no toilet at all withinareas that are draining into Hong Ke andThat Luang Marsh.
16
16

economic value especially for constructionof infrastructure according to thegovernment policy how to convert land use
into investment

15

15

Effluent load to the sourcez Biological Oxygen Demand was 2.0.
z BOD values observed were not so high, allowingthat the data were all in the rainy seasonz Domestici wastewater, actuall datad is
i not available
il bl
in Vientiane City, 45 g/capita/day, is applied.
z In 2002, industrial wastewater in VT City is about
8,224,000 m3¥year and in 2020, assumed as
9,490,000 m3 ¥ year or 26,000 m3 /day
17

18

17

235

18

Effluent load to thesourceBOD Load to water sourcez Situation of domestic wastewater treatment in theareas without access to central domestic wastewater
treatment pplant.
z The poor drainage of wastewater from septic tanks
and poorly designed on-site sanitation has created amajor concern for public health, causing widespreadpollution of surface water and groundwater.

19

z The BOD values in the downstream points of theHong Pasak and Hong Wattay Drainage Canals
were considerably decreased, as compared withtheh valuesliin theh upstream points.
i
AlmostAl
70% off
the BOD value was decreased in the Hong Pasak
Drainage Canal, and almost 50% of the BOD
value was decreased in the Hong Wattay Drainage
Canal

20

19

BOD Load to water source

Current measures on quality
control for the water sourcez The highest BOD of 15.4 mg/l was observed atz Lao National Environment Standard No.

downstream end of Hong Thong, of Hong Pasak
and of Hong KhouaKhao with the BOD values of
14 3 mg/l
14.3/l andd 11.6
11 6 mg/l,/l respectively.
i lz There is a limitation of BOD data monitored onlyin the rainy season, BOD values were not so high,especially in the lower part.

2734¥PMO. WEREA dated 7¥12¥2009
z Water quality standards:

21– Standard for drinking water: organic– Standard for drinking water in container: physicand chemistry– Standard for ground water in general– Standard for ground water (drinking water)– Standard for surface water

21

22

Water quality monitoring

Water quality monitoringz Standard for wastewater discharge fromz Water quality monitoring (February 2009)industry (in general)z Standard for wastewater discharge fromsugar cane industry
z Standard for wastewater discharge fromtextile and garment with dying industry
z Standard for wastewater discharge frompaper mill industry

two monitoring activities:
z (1) periodical monitoring in two times in thedry season and once in the rainy season,z (2) longitudinal simultaneous monitoring toclarify water quality changes along thecanal network once in the every rainy anddry season.
23

20

24

23

236

22

24

Current issues on water quality
control for the water source

Current issues on water quality
control for the water sourcez wastewater from poorly operatingz Uncontrolled of land use due to migration

household septic tanks still predominantly
discharge into open drains along the roads
and into natural wetlands.
z Raising public awarenessz Lack of ground water data

and rapid growth of populationz lacking a proper sanitation network,
network which
is seriously threatening the health situationof the population due to discharge of
wastewater into low-land areas.

25

26

25

Current issues on water quality
control for the water sourcez Shortage of qualified human resourcesz Lack of appropriate legal instrumentz Lack of sufficient budget
g for conductingg thesamples.
z Lack of appropriate instruments to measure water

qualityz Need to improve laboratory for water quality

control
27

27

237

26

Contents of presentationy Socio‐economical and natural conditionsy Situation of quantity and quality of the water source
y Effluent load to the sourcey Current measures on quality control for the water

sourcey Current issues on quality control for the water source

National Institute of Environmental Research
Ministry of Environment
Korea
1

2

Major Stream in Seoul
Jungrang Stream
China

Japan

Tan Stream
Anyang Stream

3

Population and RGDP in Seoul

4

Precipitation and Water system

Year

1980

1990

2000

2005

Year

1980

1990

2000

2005

Population(1000persons)

8,367

10,625

10,373

10,297

Annual average
precipitation((mm))

1,242.4

2,355.5

1,186.8

1,358.4

Population
Density(persons/km2)

13,82017,532

16,342

16,221

Tapped water
systemaccessible(%)

92.7

99.6

99.99

99.998

RGDP(Million$)

38,251*

68,833

120,152

206,218

Wastewater
treatment
systemaccessible(%)

25.1

97.9

98.3

99.7

* is RGDP in 1987

5

6

238

Water Source of Seoul
Upriver District

G
Gyeonggii

Seoul

Paldang
Reservoir
Intake facility

78Situation of quantity and quality of
the water source(Seoul)

Domestic Water Use in Korea

Name

Volume ofavailable
water(Million
m3/day)Volume ofabstracted
water(Million
m3/day)Beneficial
Use(%)

Water quality(in 2008)

Surface water(PaldangReservoir)

7,985

2.60

Domestic100%

BOD 1.3 ppm
COD 3.8 ppm

Surface water(Han river)

14

5.87

Domestic100%

BOD 1.9 ppm
COD 4.1 ppm

9

10

Land use around the water source
Province
Total

11

Total
(km2)

Seoul Gyeonggi
(km2)
(km2)

718.3

58.9

659.4

Dry Paddy Type

53.2

2.3

50.9

Rice Paddy Type

47.3

1.5

45.8

Forest Field Type

432.8

5.4

427.4

Building Land Type

85.4

35.0

50.4

Others

99.6

14.7

84.9
12

239

Effluent and BOD Load around theWater Source
SectorEffluent Load
(1000m3/day)

BOD Load(tons/day)

Total

461.0

4.5

Domestic

187.9

3.3

Industry

127.5

0.8

Agriculture

145.6

0.4
13

14

Environmental Water Quality
Standard for the Water Source

Allowable Water Quality Criteria ofWastewater

StreamReservoir
StatusChloro‐
BOD
COD
SS
COD
SS
T‐P T‐NSymb.
phyll‐a(㎎/L) (㎎/L) (㎎/L) (㎎/L) (㎎/L) (㎎/L) (㎎/L)
3

Grade

Clean
Area

Ga
Area

Na
Area

Privileged
Area

BOD(mg/L)

30

60

80

30

COD(mg/L)

40

70

90

40

SS(mg/L)

30

60

80

30

BOD(mg/L)

40

80

120

30

COD(mg/L)

50

90

130

40

SS(mg/L)

40

80

120

30

Wastewater Discharge(㎎/m )

Very Good Ia

1

2

25

2

1

0.01

0.2

5

Ib

2

4

25

3

5

0.02

0.3

9

Fairly Good II

3

5

25

4

5

0.03

0.4

14

III

5

7

25

5

15

0.05

0.6

20

Good

Fair

Fairly Poor IV

8

9

100

8

15

0.10

1.0

35

V

10

11

No trash10

No trash

0.15

1.5

70

Very Poor VI

> 10

> 11

‐

> 10

‐

> 0.15 > 1.5

> 70

Poor

Above
Ab
2,000 m3/day

Under
2,000 m3/day

Note: For TN and TP, if TN/TP ratio is under 7, the TP standard is not applied and if
15
above 16, nor is the TN standard.

16

Water Quality Standard of theEffluent Public Treatment Plant
Water Quality Item

Water Quality Monitoring
Monitoring
Site

Waste Treatment Capacity(m3/day)
Above 50

Under 50

BOD (㎎/L)

10

COD (㎎/L)

40

SS (㎎/L)

Paldang
ReservoirRi

10

T‐N (㎎/L)

20

40

T‐P (㎎/L)

2

4

Note: During the winter season, December to March, the standard for TN
and TP is 60mg/L and 8mg/L each regardless of the capacity

Han River

PeriodTotal
Monthlyy
WeeklyTotal
Monthly
WeeklyMainstream
13
8
5
6
4
2

Junctionstream
6
‐
6
13
12
1

Total 36 water quality variables are monitored.
17

18

240

Current measures on quality
control for the water source(1)Area of designation for the
restricted areasy Designation of the Restricted Areas around the

Area of Designation(km2)

Water Sourcey Apply strict environmental standards
y wastewater discharge facilities within a
specified areay Limit activities that cause pollutiony Development activities, fishing, farming etc

Special Countermeasure Areay Install water pollution prevention facilities

Restricted Area Name

Total

Paldang
Reservoir

Han
River

2,102

2,102

‐

165

159

6

3,831

3,831

‐

Development‐Restricted Area

357

168

189

Waterside Area

191

191

‐

Water Supply Source
Protection Area
Natural Environment
Preservation Areay Advanced sewage treatment facilities
19

20

Current measures on quality
control for the water source(3)Current measures on quality
control for the water source(2)y Total water pollution load management system
y To control pollution sources and to preserve water quality of the water
source in an appropriate levely Analyze the current pollution sources and the future development planin their jurisdictional areas
y Establish pollution reduction plansy Approve from Ministry of Environment for the plans before implement
y Three cities voluntarily implemented the system in Han River
watershedy CCTV monitoring for thewater pollution vulnerable
area
y Install advanced waste
treatment facilitiesy Remove the nutrients such as

phosphorus and nitrogeny Establish Han River watershed fundy Total revenue is approximately 360 million USD per year
y Charge to the water users in proportion to use amounty Financial support the residents in the restricted area and the water
quality improvement projects
y Purchase the land of the riverside areas

21

22

Current issues on quality control
for the water source(1)y Many restriction on upriver district residentsy Designed above 5 restriction areay Difficult in administrative actiony Water user different
from
the
d ff
f
h polluterlly Break the polluter pays principle
y Increase the pollution source around the water sourcey Urban development close to the restricted areas

23

24

241

Current issues on quality control
for the water source(2)Measures against Current Issues(1)y Public sewage treatment

plants near by the water
sourcey Total water pollution load management system
y Promote the voluntary system to the obligation system
y The Water Source Protection Area Residents Support

Public waste
treatment planty Use the combined seweragesystemProgramy By‐passes incompletely

treated sewer into Wangsuk
stream nearby Han Riverduring rainy season

y Build the agricultural roady Support the educational expense, electric fee, medical

Seoul

expenses, etc
y Support Water Quality Preservation Actiony Support 15 private associations above 100 attendants

Gyeonggi
Intake facility

25

26

Measures against Current Issues(2)Conclusion(1)y Water quality improvement for Wangsuk Streamy Improve the super‐advanced waste treatment facilityy Introduce the completely separated sewerage system
y Dredge
periodicallyD d theh sedimentdi
i di lly About 42,000 m3 sediment within Han river water
sourcey Seoul cannot control the water sources directly
y Impossible to establish direct management plans about
the water resourcesy Try to reduce use of water resources
y Establish a variety of water renewal plansy Utilize Han River and three major streams of Seoul in awater‐friendly way.

27

28

29

30

Conclusion(2)y The Water Renewal Plan of Seouly Expansion of advanced environmental treatment
facilitiespgy Reinforced supervision
for wastewater discharge
facilities
y Operation of citizen supervisory organizationy Periodic dredging of Han River water sourcey Establishment of pollution crisis response by accidentsy Preparation of ecological stream for major stream inSeoul
y Rainwater management measures

242

Urbanization andWater Quality Control
in JapanContents
1. History of Water Management
2. Outline of Measures
3 Water Quality Control
3.
with Suitable Wastewater Treatment
4. Spread of Sewage System

Shu Nishi
Ministry of the Environment, Japan

1

2

1. History of Water Management

Heavy Industry and Processing Trade

Water Pollution of Tokyo in 1970’s
Tokyo Bay in 1970’s

A river of Tokyoin 1970’s

Tendency to cause more pollutant
Pollution from :Heavy industry >> Light industry, Service industry
Production for processing trade>> Domestic demand

The Kanda river(Tokyo) in 1970’s

Polluted effluent directly poured into
the sea, 1960s
Photo Credit : Environmental Bureau of the Tokyo Metropolitan Government
3(City of Kitakyushu Website)

PollutionPollution-related Disease4

Challenges by local government

Minamata Disease, Niigata Minamata Disease and
Itai-itai Disease had damaged the health of many
people.

(National Institute for Minamata Disease
Website)Polluted water around industrial area,
Dokai Bay, 1960s, Kyushu

Prefectural governments with large industrial areas started
to establish ordinances.
■Pollution Prevention Ordinances■
 Tokyo Metropolitan Government : 1949
 Osaka Prefectural Government : 1950
 Kanagawa Prefectural Government : 1951
 Fukuoka Prefectural Government : 1955

Minamata Disease is…
 A neurologicalgsyndromeycaused by severe mercury
poisoning First discovered in Minamata
city in Kumamoto prefecture;
officially identified in 1956.
 The second outbreak of
Minamata disease occurred in
Agano River basin in Niigata
prefecture in 1965.

Central government established the laws in 1958
Two Water Quality Laws
zLaw Concerning Preservation of Public Water AreaszLaw Concerning Control of Factory Effluent
5

6

243

Water Quality Laws of 1958 is not enough

1967
The Basic Law for Environmental Pollution Control
To resolve fundamental pollution problems, extending
beyond direct control of pollution sources, throughsystematic and total administrative action.

y The public water area had to be designated to be applicable to

Law Concerning Control of Factory Effluent.
y Regulations to meet Water Quality Standards were not stringent

enough.

1970

 Polluted areas had spread from large cities to

Water Pollution Control Law
zTook over two water quality laws
zUnified several regulations
zAll public water areas
zNational effluent standard
zDirect penal systemzAlmost all kind of industry

throughout nation.
 Pollution and facilities which discharged polluted wateror wastewater were varied.
 Pollution had worsen rapidly.

New Measures for water environment
conservation was needed

78

2. Outline of Measures concerning
Water Environment Conservation

Structure
Goals

Goals of the water environment conservation policy
Environmental Quality Standard for Water Pollution(health items, living environment items and DXNs)

Measures fordomestic
wastewater

Measures concerning
water environmenti
conservationi

Measures for
closed waterareas{ Wastewater regulation for factories &establishments (uniform regulation){ System to notify specified facilities{ Water quality monitoring (continuous monitoring,
voluntary measurement by enterprises){ Measures for domestic waste water{ Measures for closed water areas

Johkaso

Water supply(MHLW)

Sewage system (MLIT)
Fishery
Aquaculture(MAFF)

Environment
QualityStandards(MOE)

prevention ofmarine pollution by ships(MOE・MLIT)※On-Site Treatment System of Domestic EffluentRiver management(MLIT)

Johkasoh※(MOE・MLIT)

Forest maintenance(MAFF)

Industrial water supply(METI)

Notification offacility installation
Monitoring ofwaste water
Seto Inland Sea
Lakes

On site Inspection
On-siteOrder Report
Pollution Control

Ariake Sea andYatsushiro Sea

Specific areas/Basic Plan & Control

3. Water Quality Control with
Suitable wastewater treatment

MAFF
Ministry of Agriculture,
Forestry and Fisheries

Water Pollution caused by Urbanization andindustrialization

MLIT
Ministry of Land,
Infrastructure andTransportp

Water Quality Control

MOE
Ministry of theEnvironment

 With proper wastewater treatment

Effluent restriction(MOE)

Restrictions on Permeation ofHarmful Substances(MOE)

Monitoring of
public water quality

10

METI
Ministry of Economy,
Trade and Industry

Irrigationgwater
Agricultural(MAFF)

Effluent Standard

Sewerage

Construction

MHLW
Ministry of Health,Labour and Welfare

Water resource development(MLIT)

Measures for factories
and establishments

9Administration
Hydroelectric power(METI)

Water Quality Standard

and management in a city
Role sharing between
Centralization and Decentralization system

Restrictions ofgroundwater withdrawal(MOE・METI)
11

12

244

Comparison
Sewerage treatment system

Johkasou (Domestic
wastewater treatment)

Function

Wastewater treatment andPrevention of inundation

Wastewater treatment

ObjectTreating wastewatercollectively

Treating wastewater
individually

Suitable area

Urban area

Area of scatteredpopulation

Administrator

Municipality

Individual or
Municipality

Useful life legal
of facility

Treatment plant : 23 years
Piping system : 50 years

7 years

Treatment plant : 15-70 years
Piping system : 50-120 years

main body : over 30
years
equipment : 7-15 years14

past
results
13

Treatment Methods of Domestic Effluent andtheir Prevalence Rate

Development of Sewage Works of Tokyo

100 %
90
80
70
60

71%

74%

76%

78%

0.3
7.2
2.1

0.3
7.6
2.3

0.3
7.8
2.5

0.3
8.1
2.6

82%
80% 81%

84%

0.3
8.8
2.8

0.3
8.8
2.9

0.3
8.4
2.7

0.3
8.6
2.8

(Ministry of the Environment)

Johkasou50(Ministry of the Environment)

40
30

Community Plant

61.8

63.5

65.2

66.7

68.1

69.3

70.5

71.7

20

of
rural community (Ministry
Agriculture,
Forestry andsewerageFisheries)
Sewerage(Ministry of Land,
Infrastructure and Transport)

100FY2000FY2001 FY2002 FY2003FY2004FY2005FY2006 FY2007

Source: Sewerage Bureau of Tokyo Metropolitan
Government

15

16

Investment of Sewage Works

4. How to spread the Sewerage system
in Japan?
The Issue:a. Lack of Public’s knowledge
b. Shortfall of Financial resources
c. Shortage of Engineer
The Approach:d. Development of legal systeme. Financial resources

17

18

245

a. Lack of Public’s knowledge

b. Shortfall of Financial resources○In 1870s, Spread of Cholera

It is very hard to gain the profit through the sewerage works○In 1950s, Water pollution in rivers and the public water
bodies became prominent, and environmental pollution
became a serious concern.

Public responsibility for development infrastructure as
National Minimum.

Necessity of sanitary facility was recognized

The Sewerageg Systemyhas the g
great effects on the National
power, because it improves the Sanitary Condition and
Productive capacity.

National Government and Municipality inform thenecessity of Sewerage system through Education
and Public relations

The role of the Sewerage System is mainly to play publicbenefit and public purpose (Improvement of the living
environment, conserve the water quality of public water body)

Basic of the Sanitation> Water Supply> Sewerage System> Cleanup the Waste

Incentives and Resources are necessary
19

20

c. Shortage of Engineer
National Government established asustainable financial base by the Law

Lack of engineers in Local government> Subsidy System> Local Bond
> Payment by beneficiary> Usage fee

National government makethe Technical Guidelines
N tiNational
l governmentt anddL
Locallgovernment set up the Japan Sewage
Works Agency (JS)At first, the Financial Regulations (Subsidy system and Fee
Collection, etc.) were lacked in the Sewerage Law of Japan,
so local governments were in financial distress and they
could not construct the Sewage system.

Japan Sewage Works Agency (JS)> Technical Support as the dispatch of Engineer> Construction of the Core Facilities> Conduct the Training> Technical Development, Technical assessment

21

22

It is important to clear the following points by development oflegal system.

d. Development of Legal system
To enforce the development of sewerage system>To clarify the Responsibility / Role-sharing
National Government, Municipality, Public (Land owner, House owner)

Regulation and Control by National Government is important> To set up the regulation as Technical Criteria> To set up the regulation about the usage of sewage system

Development of the legal system

Duty of setting Drainage facilities

Regulation, Control, System of approval,
Right of Inspection, Right of Fee Collection

Duty of connecting to the Sewage system
Duty of setting Equipment for safety disposal>To limit the obstacle activities>To establish the system of Check
23

24

246

e. Financial Resources- Construction and Management Cost -It is important to clear the following points by development oflegal system.

To construct and manage the sewerage system continuously,
huge cost and long term is necessary>To set up the system of the usage fee and the payment by
beneficiary

It is very important to establish a sustainablefinancial base

>To set up the Subsidy system, free loan and transfer of thegovernment-owned land

In Japan, Sewerage fee is not enough to cover all
administration cost (construction and O&M )For construction, National government subsidy and Localbond is necessary.
Money transferred from General account is necessary to
make up the lack of sewerage fee
25

26

Breakdown of resources 1/2

Breakdown of resources 2/2
Administration cost
Management Cost
outcomeRefund ofLocal bonds

Management
cost

Personnel cost
Consignment cost
Repair costincomeMoney transferredfrom General accountElectric power cost

Sewerage
Fee

Sludge disposal
cost
Chemical cost
Cleaning cost

About 70% of the Administration
cost is Refund of Local bonds.

Other

About 60% of the Administration
cost is financed by the Sewerage
Fee.

27

28

Subsidy System
Local Bond
Public responsibility for development infrastructure as
National Minimum.

Sewage works is not a business so local bond is issued bya low interest rate

The Sewage System has the great effects on the National
power, because it improves the Sanitary Condition and
Productive capacity.

Payment by beneficiary

The roleThl off ththe S
Sewage S
Systemtisi mainly
i l tto playl public
bli b
benefitfit
and public purpose (Improvement of the living environment,
conserve the water quality of public water body)

Give back some of the asset value of land that is improvedby the Sewage system

Usage FeePay a cost according to the Polluter–pays principle (PPP)So National Government established the Subsidy system
to develop and spread the sewage system.
29

30

247

Japan have a long history with the Water Environment.
The Water Environment is linked very closely to the Lifestyle
and Culture in Japan.

Thank you for your attention

31

32

248

Socio Economical and Natural Condition
A City with the population of 9,1 millions

Population Density Spread:•Central Jakarta 9.78 %,•South Jakarta 23.2 %,•East Jakarta 26.55%,•West Jakarta 24.08%,•North Jakarta 15.96%.

Urbanization andWater Quality Control
for the Source of
Water
in Jakarta

The density of Jakarta reaches
13.826/km2
Annual Precipitation on the year 2008
reached = 1.949,1 mm

1

2Quantity and Quality Water Sources
In 2007, GRP (Growth Regional Domestic Product) was Rp. 566.45 trillion(US$ 60.26 million).

Name

The largest contributions to GDRP was by•••finance, ownership and business services (28.7%);
trade, hotel and restaurant sector (20.4%),
manufacturing industry sector (15.97%).

59,95 % Can access water tapped system

Volume ofavailable water(m3)

Surface water
Waduk Bahagia,
Kebon Melati,
Setiabudi
Etc..

270,877,502

Surface water
Ciliwung, Kamal dll

164.008.868

Groundwater

309,155,435

Volume ofabstracted water(m3)

Beneficial Use(domestic, industry, agriculture)
(%)
1.
2.
3.
4.

Domestic : 65.67 %Industry : 4.73 %Agruculture : 3.55 %Others: 26.05 %Water quality

Fair to Good

Some area from Poor toGood conditions

1. Domestic : 89.27 %2. Industry : 21.18 %3. Agruculture : 4. Others: 8.55 %Good on 40 m or below

3

4

Groundwater

Surface Water

Potential groundwater from rain 800 million /m3 a year

– Lake/Reservoir• 760 million/m3 a year flows to theshallow layers of the aquifers.

• There are 40 sites in Jakarta. In south Jakarta alone witch 7 of these sites or
located with the length 66.5 ha, 3 sites in Central Jakarta with the lenght of 7.4
ha,12 in North Jakarta with the length of 179.5 ha,2 in West Jakarta with thelength of 5 ha, and 16 in East Jakarta with the length of 66.9 ha.

• The rest 40 million/m3 a year flows
to the deepest layer of the aquifers.

• The condition of those sites: 19% in a managed condition, 14% in an
unmanaged condition, and 5 % have dried out• Groundwater that came from themountains is 37million/m3 a year

Good Condition• Mostly, the condition of these sites are poluted by households and industrial
waste– River
13 river system flows through Jakarta City witch started upstream in West Java andended downstream in Jakarta Bay. By then the rivers of Jakarta became the last
dump site of a variety of wastes from upstream of the rivers.

40 m

5

6

249

Effluent Load to the Sources
Land use around water
sources

Major Problem isstarted fromupstream Ciliwung• mostly covered by buildup areas and less green
areas• Used for domestic waste
landfill in Jakarta

Estimated Efflunet load to thewater sources per sector
reaches 8,640,000 m3/day.

BOD load to the water source
33.82 tons /hour

78The situation of domestic wastewater tretament in the areas without
access to central domestic wastewater teratment plant

Currently a pilot project at the Petojo
area, Central Jakarta, consisting of
Public Toilet equipped with the
Decentralized Wastewater Treatment
System (DE‐WATS) technology, whichworks by processing the waste water
witch contains the E‐Coli bacteria andsoap into a more safer andmanageable waste water instead ofpolluted water

Almost Jakarta residence does
not have wastewater teratment.
Usually they dispose domestic
waste direct to the ground or
riverThis pilot project will be put
into service in other areas
around Jakarta.

910

Current measure on quality control for the water source

Situation of quality monitoring for the water source

Water quality standard
water quality standart for the source, effluent quality standard– Ground Water
Done by the BPLHD at least once a year (2008)

DKI Jakarta Governer decree No 582 year 1995 about On thequotition dan quality standard of the river water and water resevoirs, andthe quality standards of pollution in the DKI Jakarta Provincial Area

– Surface Water• LakeFor the surface water, is done on the first week of July
until the first week of September• River
Twice during July and December, 13 rivers and 66
monitoring points

The use of water base on groups;
 Group
G
A:W
Water
t th
thatt isi usedd ffor ddrinking
i ki watert without
ith t any
puryfing done.
 Group B : Water that is used as the primary drinking water Group C : Water that is used on husbandry Group D : Water that is used on farmstead, power plants andbusiness.

11

12

250

Current issues on quality control for the water source

Current Measures on Quality Control for the Water Sources•

Lowering the level of pollution from the industry using the Clean River Program.

•

Gradually relocate the housing on the riverbeds and restoring it as a green road.

•

Planting trees with strong roots to prevent erosion.

•

In the domestic level by building a septic tank with a filter system and building aplaned sewerage system.

•

To create public awarness about water resources and the creation of wells absorb
or biopores•

Adding more frequent monitoring and monitoring point of water resources

Undevelop legal system
and Low Enforcement of
Water Quality

Officialy the laws on the development and mangement on water resources
are already made and most can be implemented.
However due to the insufficiant resources in maintaining and enforcement ,causes the management and monitoring of water resources to be lessefective and many cases of polution becomes unhandled

13

14

Uncontrolled landuse around the source of water

Uncontrolled landuse around the source of water

The furthur downstream,
the more congested
Currently it is estimated that
there is around 21.332
households in the area.

In the year 2008, 31 areas in Jakarta’s river banks areused as living spaces
15

16

Groundwater polluton due to domestic wastewater discharge fromseptictank
Effluent disharge fromsmall communities orslum near reservoir

Jakarta have more then one
million septic tanks.
Approximetly 60 % of houses in
the city poses wells not 10
meters away from the septic
tanks. The spill‐out from these
septic tanks causes the groundwater to become poluted andendangering those who uses thewater.

Most communities near and aroundwater resevoirs
continues
todischarge effluent into river/water
resevoirs

From the research done by theIndonesia
Sanitation
SectorDevelopment Program (ISSDO),
70% of ground water in Jakarta is
contaminated by human waste orother bacteria like E‐coli.
17

18

251

Low coverage ratio of tapped water system or domestic wastewater
treatment system
The main problem that drinking water providers in Jakarta during the preperation of
purifying the drinking water, around 50.23% of source water is lost.

Due to the difficulty inobtaining the crucial purifying
materials

Distributions :No

Customer

Qty

Vol (M3 /Yr)

1

Domestic

659,694

15,622

2

Industry

84,8735,280

3

Hospital

1,286

737

4

Hotel

272

893

5

Others

9,430

2,448

the low realization of thepeople to help take care of
the clean drinking water
facility.

It caused by the management that has not been optimized as of yet
20

19

Low environment awarness of resident near the source of water andSolid waste discharge to the source of water

Thank YouThe
lowsocialawareness in taking careof their community canbe seen by the amountof waste that thesecommunitys
directly
dump their waste into
the river.

At least 76,383 cubic metersof garbage are transported
every day from a number ofriver that flows in Jakarta
Aksa Tejalaksana
Sub Head Section of Clearinghouse
21

22

252

Introduction of PRCEEy Policy Research Center for

Environment and Economy

Current situation and managementof water source in Beijing◦ General Affairs Division◦ Environmental Strategy
gy Division◦ Environmental Law Division◦ Environmental Policy Division◦ Institute for International
Environmental Policy

Zhou Jun
Policy Research Center for Environment and Economy ,Ministry of Environmental Protection of China

12

SocialSocial--economical conditiony In the past 30 years, they The GDP is also continue increased

urbanization progress of Beijing
is very fast. The population had
increased several times that of
1978. The population density has
increased to 1069 people per Km2.
1980

1990

2000

2009

Population( 904.3
10000)

1086

1363.6

1755

for many years and keep the growthrate above 9%. The GDP of 2009 isestimated to be RMB 1186
billion(nearly US$169 billion).
The GDP per capita is about US$
10070. The industry structure is 1：
23.2：75.8 which indicated thatthe third (serving) industry is
the major sector in Beijing.
3

4y There are five river systems acrossBeijing which is Jiyun river, Caobai
river, Beiyun river, Yongding riverand Daqing river.

y Figure 1

GDP and growth rateof 2005-2009 in Beijing

5

6

253

The surface water quantity is about 1.279
billion m3. From the river system, Beiyun
river has the largest runoff volume which is0.446 billion m3 and Jiyun river has thelowest precipitation which is 0.053 m3.

The annual average
precipitation is 638mm.
2008

2007

average2008
runoff volume 0.1 billion m3

700

precipitation （mm))

600
500
400
300
200
100
0

Jiyun
river

Caobairiver

Beiyunriver

Yongyunriver

Daqingriver

2007

average

20
15
10
5
0

Jiyun
river

Caobairiver

Beiyunriver

Yongdingriver

Daqingriver

Whole city

7

8

Table 1 total quantity of water resourceof Beijing in 2008(0.1 billion m3)
y The volume of available water of 18

River
Area
annualSurfacesystem（km2） precipitation water
Jiyun
1300
8.42
0.53
river
Caobai
5510
36.61
3.44
river
Beiyun
4250
26.83
4.46
river
Yongding
3210
18.07
3.22
river
Daqing
2140
14.77
1.14
river

medium and large reservoirs in 2008
is 0.755 billion m3. Miyun andGuangting reservoir are the twoiimportantwater sources ffor BBeijing.
iji
The available water volume of Miyun
reservoir is 0.468 billion m3 andthat of Guangting is 0.08 billion m3.
y The volume of groundwater is 2.142
billion m3.

16410

City

104.70groundwat Totaleramount

12.79

3.02

3.55

3.01

6.45

7.61

12.07

3.52

6.74

4.26

5.40

21.42

34.21

9

10

For the water resource use, the total amount is 3.51
billion m3 which includes the 1.47 billion m3 fordomestic use, 0.52 billion m3 for industry use, 1.2
billion m3 for agriculture use and 0.32 billion m3
for environment use.
Agriculture use
34%

Water
scope
quality

Domestic use
42%I

source water, national nature protection areaII

first level conservation zone of surface water source area for
centralized living drinking waterIII
Industry use
15%

2008

Environment use
9%

IV
V
11

second level conservation zone of surface water sourcearea for centralized living drinking water, fisherywater, swimming area
water for general industry, entertainment which is not touched
directly by human body
water for agriculture, and landscape12254

y The water quality of river is still needed to be

From the above basic information, we can see that thewater quality in Beijing should continue to be
improved. Of course, the pressure of urbanization has
made it more difficult to improve the water quality.
y In 2007, the total amount of industry wastewater
discharged is 91.32 million ton and COD discharged inindustry wastewater is 7000 ton. The total amount ofdomestic wastewater discharged is 986.82 million ton
and COD discharged in domestic wastewater is 0.1
million ton. The domestic wastewater amount dischargedof Beijing was relative high compared with that ofmost provinces in China. Beijing has done a lot ofwork such as developing infrastructure to improve thewastewater treatment ratio.
y In 2008, the treatment capacity of wastewater has
increased to be 3294 thousand m3 per day, the lengthof sewage pipeline was 4458 km and the wastewater
treatment ratio was 78.9%.
yimproved. 43% river water has reached the level II
water quality standard, 8% river reached the level
III standard, 3% river reached the level IV
standard, 1% river reached the level V standard,and 45% river water quality is under the level V
standard in 2008.
y The water quality of reservoir is relatively
better. Only Guangting reservoir’s water quality
reach the level IV standard
standard, the other reservoir
reached the level II or III.
y For the groundwater, we have divided to two
categories. The 57% shallow seated groundwater
quality reached the level III and the other isbetween level Iv and level V. for the deep seatedgroundwater, 80% of that reached level III.

13

14

measures to prevent the pollution andcontrol the water quality of water source

water quality monitoringy “Technical specifications for environmental
monitoring of groundwater” issued by Ministry ofEnvironmental Protection includes monitoring net
design, monitoring items, analysis methods and so on.
y In 2008, the number of water quality monitoring siteof surface water is 221, which will monitor 104 riversegment, 22 lakes and 18 reservoirs. The assessment ofwater quality will be based on “Environmental quality
standards for surface water”.
y In 2008, Beijing government set up 307 monitoring wellto assess groundwater and monitor twice. 181
monitoring well was used for shallow seatedgroundwater and the rest monitoring well was used fordeep seated groundwater. The assessment of water
quality will be based on “Quality standard for groundwater”.

Water quality standard
y “Discharge standard of water pollutant” issued
by Beijing environmental protection Bureau
included maximum concentration discharged of 75
pollutant.
y “Environmental
Environmental quality standards for surface
water” issued by Ministry of Environmental
Protection includes 24 basic items of surface
water environmental quality standard, 5
supplement items and 80 specific items forsurface water source area for centralized living
drinking water.
y “Quality standard for ground water” includes
classify, monitoring method, assessment of groundwater.
15

16

Other measuresy According to the use of water source, the water
source function district was established. For
example, the Yongding river system was be divided
to many segments and every segment will be put aclass which would be the evaluation standard in
future.
water body name

Function of water body

Guangting reservoir

shanxi segment
yongding riverof

Pingyuan segment of
yongding river

first level conservation
zone of surface water
source area for
drinking water
first level conservation
zone of surface water
source area for
drinking water
Supplyregionforgroundwater source

Set up the regulation on drinking water source
protection area pollution prevention and control.
With the regulation, the government could set
water source protection area and water quality ofprotection area. At the same time, the forbidden
behavior in the protection area was also definedin this file.
file
y The Prevention of water source problem wasconsidered as a major measure. “ecologic restore,
ecologic control and ecologic conservation” wasimplemented at the mountain land of reservoir
upstream. And the government also controlledwastewater, solid waste, toilet, environment andriver course at the same time. The ecologic cleansmall river was expected to be constructed.
yWater quality
Ⅱ

Ⅱ

Ⅲ
17

18

255

issues of drinking water
source protection
Management mechanism
y The management of water source
involved with department ofenvironment protection, water
service city construction,
service,construction
sanitation and so on. in China. So
it lead the management problem onwater source. Each department has
part power to manage water source,which made there was not asystematic mechanism.

village pollutiony From the supply water information
above, we could see that the suburb
is the key area to provide drinking
water in Beijing
Beijing. Due to the massuse of chemical fertilizer andpesticide in the upstream region ofwater source protection area andmass discharge of excrement ofanimals, the self-restraint capacityof water source is insufficiency.
19

20

Policy and legislationy The supervision and management
should be strengthened by policy andlegislation. At current stage,
because lack of powerful regulation,
the
h ill
illegall phenomena
h
such
h as
dumping solid waste and discharging
waste water to protection area often
appear. Many wastewater treatment
equipments run just for some time.
The major reason is that the illegal
cost is lower than treatment cost.

Infrastructure constructiony The discharge and collection
system of wastewater and rainwater is not perfect. The surface
flow is the major drain mode ofvillage water. The sewage
treatment ratio is low and thewastewater affected the surface
and groundwater source by entering
the canals and river course.
21

22

Environmental awarenessy In Beijing, most citizen have has
good environmental awareness. But invillage, some people still thoughtthat the environment has no relation
withi h hihim. SSo theyhconstruct toilet
ilnear the water source and dosomething to pollute water. We
should improve their awarenessthrough different activities bygovernment, media and otherdepartment.

Thanks
Th
k for
f
your
attention!

23

24

256

Contents of Presentation

Wastewater Treatment in
Urban Area

1. Background Information
2. Common Practices of Wastewater Management
p and Opportunitiespp
3. Gaps
4. Conclusion

Dr Chrin Sokha
Dr.
Deputy Director General
Ministry of Environment, Cambodia

1. Background Information

1. Background Information (cont.)

 Population, in Cambodia, isPopulation Growth

towards the discharge of treated and/or untreatedwastewater to receiving sources without complying theenvironmental standards ((e.g.
g households,, businesscenters, hotels and so on).
)Respective urban/town area, generally, does not havea center wastewater treatment plant.
)Few wastewater treatment plants is under operation
and/or construction in some provinces and cities, e.g.
Battambang, Sihanoukville, Siem Reap, Kampong
Cham, etc.

increased from year afteryear, and it accounted for
13,388,910
13 388 910 iin 2008 (NIS(NIS,
MoP 2008).

2008
2004

Year

 Such population increase might be caused more concerns

1998
1996

)The growth rate was

1993
0

2

4

6

8

10

Population (millions)1214

2.55% for urban
population, and 1.30%
for rural population.

Natural treatedwastewater outflow

1. Background Information (cont.)

Prek Kdam

Mekong River
Kampong Chnang

Boeng Pung Peay

 Urban wastewater, commonly, run off to receiving waters

through sewage/opened canal systems.

Dyke surrounds
the city Most wastewaters are discharged into receiving waters

byy natural ppurification process.
p)In Phnom Penh Municipality, for example, urban
wastewaters are collected by sewage systems andrun off into opened channels, retention lake/wetland,
and finally, flow directly to the river.
- Retention lake and/or wetland plays importantfunctions to naturally purify (self purification) such
wastewaters in a specific period, and gradually flow to
the river afterward.

Tonle Sap
River

Boeng Kak

Phnom Penh Port

Phnom Penh
Boeng Trabek

Natural treatedwastewater outflow

Flow into the
Tonle Sap River
Jul-Sept

Flow out ofTonle Sap River
Oct-Feb

Boeng Cheng Ek

Bassac River

Stung Chrov
Prek Thnot River
Takhmao

257

Neak Luong1. Background Information (cont.)

 Industrial wastewaters (factories those used

Constitution

Relevant legislation/Sttrategy/ Policy &Action Plan, Internatio
onal Agreement,
Conventions and Mekkong Agreement

1. Background Information (cont.)chemicals/chemical compounds) have to do
onside treatment particularly in the industrial
premisei priori tot discharge
di h
iinto
t receiving
i isources, to abide by environmental related
legislations.

Law on Environmental Protection and Natural Resources Management
Sub-Decree on Water
SubPollution Control

Sub-Decree on
SubEIA Process

Sub-Decree on Solid
SubWaste Management

Related Statutes

Water Environment Management
and/or Protection

Environmental
Strategic Plan
(2009 -2013)

2. Common Practices of Wastewater
Management

2. Common Practices of Wastewater
Management (cont.)

 Monthly freshwater monitoring at designated public water Routine control/monitoring at pollution sources (e.g.

areas (through sampling points) – it is done by the Ministryof Environment; and Ministry of Water Resources andMeteorology (ref. to their mandate and existinglegislations)l i l ti ))Water quality at public water areas (rivers) is generally
in a good condition (Ref. to the Annual Environmental
Conference – Feb 2010, MoE)
MoE)..
)Water quality, few areas, is noticeably degraded in dry
season, where such areas have a high dense of
population and related activities, for example, along the
Mekong River and its main tributaries, including theTonle Sap Great Lake.

industrial, health and business sectors,) andevaluating the environmental pollution level – basedon analytical results of wastewater samples.
samples Permitting and licensing to factories those treatedtheir wastewaters abided by the environmental legal
tools, and vice versa, it is strictly to violators whose
committed opposing the stipulations of law andrelated statutes.

2. Common Practices of Wastewater
Management (cont.)

3. Gaps and Opportunities

 The celebration of National Environmental Day on 5thJune for every year, which participated by key
stakeholders, local authorities, students and pupils andthe likelike.
 Environmental education and dissemination towards
environmental pollution control and management
programmes for officers of the Environmental
Provincial/Municipal Departments and other key
stakeholders, especially, local authorities(Commune/District Council).

Gaps

Opportunities

Expertise knowledge of government
officials dealing with wastewater
treatment and management isrequired to improve

Capacity building, R & D is prioritizedin the national development plan andthe environment strategic plan (2009 –2013)

Insufficiency of related data and/or
information – a basic to develop
effective wastewater management
mechanismFew central wastewater treatment
plants, for urban areas, havedeveloped at selected provinces – itis not respond to a certain
requirement as a whole

Relevant legal instruments are enter
into forces,
forces including enforcement
concept
Water pollution control is highlighted in
the environmental strategic plan (2009– 2013)Collaboration among interinter-ministries
and local authorities, communities, inmonitoring and inspection of pollution
sources, contaminated sites

258

4. Conclusion
 To promote these constraints, Cambodia, especially,

the Ministry of the Environment paid more attention to
improve the capacity building and institutional
strengthening, including the promotion of stakeholders
collaboration.
 It requires technical assistance/supports frominternational organizations and donors whose engage inthe environmental sector.
 Private partnership is another key tool to improve theenvironmental sanitation, e.g. investing on development
and running a center wastewater treatment.

Many thanks for your kind attention…

259

260

Thematic Session 2:
Climate change Impacts
to the Water Environment and Adaptation Options

261

262

OUTLINE
1.NAHRIM IN BRIEF
2.NAHRIM AS APWF REGIONAL WATERKNOWLEDGE HUB FOR CLIMATE CHANGE
ADAPTATION (WKHCCA)

National Hydraulic Research Institute of Malaysia (NAHRIM)
Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (NRE), MALAYSIAREGIONAL WATER KNOWLEDGE HUB FOR CLIMATECHANGE ADAPTATION (WKHCCA)

2.1 GOAL & OBJECTIVE
2.2 ACTIVITIES
2.3 SERVICES AREAS

PRESENTEDBY
ZUBAIDI JOHAR
Senior Research Officer , NAHRIM
zubaidi@nahrim.gov.myPART 1: NAHRIM IN BRIEF

NAHRIM: VISION AND MISSIONESTABLISHMENT OF NAHRIM
 VISION : 1993-The Malaysia Cabinet approved the establishment of the
National Hydraulic Research Institute of Malaysia (NAHRIM)

To be a world premier research centre for waterand environment by year 2030.

1995-NAHRIM
NAHRIM was established and started its operation under the 1995
Ministry of Agriculture MISSION:

Providing excellent services as an expert centre
on water and environment management forsustainable growth and improving the quality oflife and well being

 2004-NAHRIM was placed in the Ministry of Natural Resources
and Environment (MoNRE)
 2005-First started its operation in DID Complex in Ampang prior tocompletion of the present NAHRIM Office Complex in Seri
Kembangan, Selangor

OPERATIONAL SET UPFUNCTIONS OF NAHRIM
 To conduct both basic and applied research for water
resources, river and coastal engineering, water quality
and groundwater management and utilization;

DIRECTOR
GENERAL

 To provide technical services to public and private
g problems
pconcerning
g water andsectors in addressing
environment;

RESEARCH
CENTRE FOR
COASTAL
DEVELOPMENT

 To be the National Focal Point and to coordinate
research and activities related to water andenvironment in the country and at international level;
andRESEARCH
CENTRE FORWATERQUALITY &ENVIRONMENTRESEARCH
CENTRE FORGEOHYDROLOGYMANAGEMENT
AND SERVICESDIVISION

 To provide advisory services in matters related towater and its environment in line with national interest

263

RESEARCH
CENTRE FOR
RIVERMANAGEMENTINFORMATIONANDCOMMUNICATIONTECHNOLOGYDIVISION

PLANNINGANDEVALUATIONDIVISIONRESEARCH
CENTRE FORWATERRESOURCESHYDRAULIC ANDINSTRUMENTATIONLABORATORYRESEARCH CENTRES AND DIVISIONS

Research Centre

Research Centre
Roles
Water Resources  Research in climate change andwater resources management
 Research in Rainwater Harvesting Conduct hydrological modeling andwater resources optimization system
 Research in coastal engineering andCoastal Engineering
management
 Research in water treatment
technology and water quality in rivers
Water Quality andand lakes.
Environment
 Research in water environment andits ecology.

Division

River BasinManagement

Management
Services Resource centre for on surface water; Research activities to support the Integrated
Water Resource Management (IWRM)
 Research on groundwater management &utilization;

Geohydrology

Hydraulic andInstrumentation
Laboratory

G hd assessmentt relatedl t d tto over pumpingi Geohazardof groundwater & groundwater flow; Resource centre for groundwater resources Conduct physical hydraulic modeling for various
application such as dam break study, river flow
and estuary, coastal and offshore engineering; Provides laboratory facilities for physicalhydraulic modeling

1. PORT AND HARBOR

Roles

PHYSICAL LABORATORYFACILITIES To provide, maintain (upgrading) ICTInformation& Communication requirements (infrastructures, facilities,
software, hardware) to support R&D of theTechnology
various Research Centers

Planning and
Evaluation

Roles Research on hydraulic and surface water, Conservation of river basin and environment; 30m x 30m x 1.2m wave basin
 Used to simulate ship mooring force andmovement for ports and harbors
 Physical modeling studies for coastal
structures such as breakwaters, artificial
reefs, groined, etc.

 Prepare , implement and monitor NAHRIM's
strategic development plan; Manage and implement strategies andmarketing master plan for products,
laboratory and consultation services; Coordinate
C di t andd provide
id annuall budgetb d t
estimation for NAHRIM's development
projects
 Manage administration and officemanagement;

 To model the changes of river
characteristics such as flow, current andriver level caused by the changes in tide
pattern;
 To model the potential floods on that may
occur at river estuary; Manage accounts and finances; Manage aspects of administration, services,trainings and human resources development
2. RIVER MODEL

3. COASTAL WAVE BASIN

5. TILTING FLUME 50m x 36m x 1.2m
 To study the effects of ocean wave on
built structures at the coastal areas - jetty
and port.
 To model the changes in sedimentation,transportation and deposition in the
coastal areas 12m x 0.45m x0.3m –rectangular frame with max tilt
up to 3%;
 Consists of a water circulation
system and flow measuring
devices - water meter &rectangular weir
 Capable of generating different
wave frequencies and patterns
with respect to continuous water
discharge and flow pattern;

 1.2m x 50.0m x 2.0m – capable ofsimulating water depth up to 1.5m;
 To model the coastal stability to wave
action4. 2D-FLUME

264

PART 2: NAHRIM AS APWF REGIONALWATER KNOWLEDGE HUB FOR
CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION(WKHCCA)

http:www.nahrim.gov.my/wkh

HUB’S VISION & MISSIONORGANIZATIONAL CHART – WATER & CLIMATECHANGE ADAPTATION (CCA) HUB

 Vision:
To develop well informed personnel in the relevant agencies
within the region, to enable the region to braise itself against the
impacts of climate changes.

Ir.Hj.Ahmad Jamaluddin Shaaban

 Mission:
This hub will develop an international network to support its
intended vision throughg programs
p gsuch as :Mr. Zubaidi Johar

Ir.Hj.Mohd Fauzi Mohamed Development of a detailed assessment of the water balances
and water quality conditions at Southeast Asia Region under
the global climate and future urban-industrial-agricultural
water demand and land use scenarios,

Hydroclimate
Projections
Ir. Mohd Zaki Mat Amin

Mr. Baharuddin

 The development of the appropriate water management
policies over the region in order to mitigate the potential
impacts of global climate change and regional land usechange on the water resources of the region within theframework of future water demand and land use scenarios,

HUB ACTIVITIES IN 2008

HUB’S GOAL & OBJECTIVE

 Training of Trainers Course ‘IWRM as Tool for Adaptation to
Climate Change’ :3-7 November 2008

 GOAL The identification of Capacity Building Need Assessment (CBNA) inthe related areas and The development of a relevant training program for the region.

 National Seminar on Climate Change Adaptation in Malaysia:
4 November 2008

 OBJECTIVE
 To develop training modules and programs Launching of WKHCCA Hub for Southeast Asia:
1 December 2008

 To research and help develop policy initiatives
 To encourage the development of hydroclimate projection models, Regional Workshop on Developing Partnerships for Water andClimate Change Adaptation:
1-5 December 2008

together with countries in the region and the relevant regionalorganisations

265

HUB ACTIVITIES IN 2009
Hub’s Service Areas Meeting in Manila, discussing the Hub’s vision, mission, services,
start-up and follow-up activities:
February2009

1. Communications Strategy &Partnership Development

 National Steering Committee meeting in NAHRIM:
April 2009

2 Capacity Building2.

 Workshop on Developing Water and Climate Change Adaptation
Guidelines: 25-28 May 2009

3. Hydroclimate Change Projections
and Downscaling Program Scoping visit for climate change projection program in Citarom,
Brantas & Solo River basin, Indonesia:
6-11 September 2009

4. Impact Assessment & Adaptation
Strategies

 Scoping visit for climate change projection program in
Bhaitarani River basin , Orissa State of India:
25-30 Jan 2010

1. Communications Strategy (1/2)

1. Partnership Development (2/2)

 Establish the Hub’s Communications & Partnership
Development Teamy Establish a regional panel on water and climate changewith WKHCCA as Secretariat

 Develop the Hub’s Website as a complete Water & CCA
knowledge baseknowledge-basey DiscussDiwithith partnerston strategiest t i andd workk plansltto
meet clients expressed needs

 Develop a web-database of clients and their needs (Profile,
CVs, Expectations)y Follow-up activities on proposed collaboration activities
arising from Dec 2008 Workshop

 Prepare E-Newsletters to keep clients informed about Water& CCA developments in the region

2. Capacity Building

3. Impact Assessment & Adaptation
Strategies

 Establish the Hub’s Capacity Building Team Establish the Hub’s Impact Assessment & Adaptation
Projects Team, comprising of WG2 members and senior staff
from NAHRIM’s Research Centres

 Conduct capacity building training workshops on CC
projections modelling and downscaling requirements
 Conduct capacity building training workshops on CC impact
assessment & adaptations strategies for the various water
use sectors

 Review all Impact Assessments & CCA project proposals
from Dec 2008 Workshop and follow-up with clients on
refining the project proposals

 Develop and conduct training on guidelines for CC impact
assessment & adaptation strategies for the various water
use sectors, inclusive of CC projections downscaling
modelling requirements

 Implement the projects that can start in 2009 with therelevant partners

266

CC Projections – Candidates

4. CC Projections - Downscaling Establish the Hub’s CC Projections Team with relevant
Partners
 Establish process/protocols for follow-up discussions withclients on downscaling of CC projections (Application forms,
MOU, etc)
 Develop guidelines on information and data required forregional model development for downscaling (list of dataand information required, format of data, etc)
 Confirmed candidate for CC projections – Java Island
 Candidates requiring further scoping studies – Central Asia,
Mekong region, Philippines, Bangladesh

GCM
G lo b a l S ca le
A tm o sp h eric&O cea nD a taCGCM , NCEP

Objective of the Scoping Visit

MESOSCALE MODEL (MM5)
B o u nd a ry
C o nd itions
In itia l
Fie lds

Ê Collaboration

MM5
M odelO u te r
D o m a in

28

Topography&
Landcover(USGS)
Soil (FAO)

B oundary
C onditions

Ê Developing Climate Change ProjectionModeling, Assessment and Adaptation

InitialFieldsM odel
N estingiÊ Formulating and strategizing the implementation

MM5
M odel2nd
D om ain

B oundary
C onditionsof climate change projection

InitialFieldsMM5
M odelInner
D om ainRegional HCM-PM
W atershed Scale
H ydro-clim ate
O utput

29

Topography,
L andcover&
Soil(N A H RIM )IR SH A M
M odelD om ain

30

MESO-SCALE
MODEL
(MM5)
RAINFALL & TEMPTHANK YOULAND SURFACEHYDROLOGYENVIRONMENTMODELRUNOFF (FLOW), SOIL
WATER STORAGE,
EVAPOTRANSPIRATION,
SEDIMENTATION,
POLUTION

267

Today’s Talk

Water Resources andWater-Related Disasters in Asia

• To show hydro-meteorologicalcharacteristics of Asia region interms of water-related disasters• To consider how to cope with thedisasters• To give some ideas emphasizing theimportance of collaboration of WEPA
partner countries with climatechange and water-related disasterexamples2

Kaoru TAKARA
Disaster Prevention Research InstituteKyoto University
Water Environment Partnership in Asia (WEPA)
The 1st International Workshop– Coping strategies for water environmental challenges in Asia –1
Hanoi, Viet Nam, 8-9 March 2010

A natural hazard (disaster)
strikes when people lose theirmemory of the previous one.

Hazard and Disaster• Hazards (earthquakes, typhoons, tsunami,
volcanic eruption) cannot be prevented.
• If hazards come to an island with no people
and no property, there are no damages = nodisasters.
• Disasters can be prevented and reduced.

By Dr. Torahiko Terada(1878-1935)
天災は忘れた頃にやってくる

3

4

We know the phenomena.

We knowmechanisms
andfrequency.

Ex. Hurricane, cyclone and typhoon tracks.

But,, we do notknow whennatural hazards
happen.
Where this time?
How to cope
with?
6

5

268

Natural Disasters in 2003

typhoon, Sep.
Korea: 410 mm/day

heat wave, Apr. – Jun.
cold wave Jan.

heat wave / drought / forest fire, Jun. – Aug.

cyclone,May
tornado, May
heavy rain, Feb.

heavy rain, Nov.drought, forest fire, Last year Mar. heavy rain, Oct. – Nov.

heavy rain, Feb.
more than 500 mm/30days
heat wave, May – Jun.

forest fire, Oct.
drought, Jun. – Jul.

landslide / flood Mar. – Apr.

heavy rain, Jul.
forest fire / draught, Aug.
Kumamoto: 254mm/2days
forest fire / draught, Jun. - Aug
heavy rain, May
heavy rain, Aug.
drought, Jul. – Aug. 389 mm / 4days
heavy rain, Aug.

cold wave, Dec.- Jan.

heavy rain, Apr. – Mayrain in Apr. 157 mm(206 % of average)

Natural Disasters in 2004

forest fire Oct. – Nov.

heavy rain, Jul. – Sep.
rain in Jul. : 555 mm

heavy rain (snow) / flood, Oct. – Nov.

tornado, Mar. May

heat wave, drought, forest fire

heavy rain, Jan.
rain in Jan.
7 : 782 mm(257% of average)

forest fire, drought

forest fire,Jun. – Sep.

heavy rain / snow, Dec.
rain in Dec. : 165 mm(394 % of average)
cold wave / snow, Jan. – Feb.
lightning / twister, May

cold wave, Jun. – Jul.
heavy rain / typhoon
drought, Jun. – Jul.
cyclone,Marc
typhoon, May – Jul., Nov. Dec. heavy rain / flood, May.
hheat wave /cold wave, Dec.- Jan.
forest fire,
drought, Sep. – Nov.
hurricane, Aug. Sep.
heavy rain / storm, Apr. – Oct.
Jun. – Jul. heavy rain / flood,Apr.
heat wave, drought, forest fire
more than 500 mm/30days
more thanheavy rain / flood, Feb
heavy rain, typhoon, cyclone, etc.
heavy rain
/ flood. Apr. – May. heavy rain / flood, Dec.
100mm/dayrain in Jan.
8 429 mmmore than 180 mm / 5 days
forest fire, droughtrain in Dec. : 226 mm(508 % of average)(332 % of average)
cold wave

hurricane, Sep.

heavy rain, typhoon, cyclone, etc.

heavy rain / typhoon,
Jun. – Oct.
rain in Oct. : 780 mm

cold wave

Water-related disasters: major issue

Natural Disasters in the World
Among the causes ofnatural disasters,
flood disaster isremarkably increasingin these two decades
in the world.
Especially in humid
Asia, flood problems
are crucial in theirseriousness andfrequency.

910

Huge Natural Disasters
Tremendous human damages
Indian Ocean Tsunami
Myanmar Cyclone

Continuing Population Growth in Asia

Economic loss
Hurricane Katrina
Great Kobe Earthquake

Damages are mainly in Asia
EuropeAfricaAmericaAsia
40～50%

Asia>70%

No. of events

Death toll

Asia
>90%

Affected people

Asia
>50%
11

12

Econimic loss

269

Various Patterns ofExtreme Events andDisaster-Resistant Capacity(A) Increasing trend of extreme eventsvs No change in disaster-resistant capacityÆ ex. urbanization(B) Increasing variable range of extreme events
Æ ex. global warming impacts
vs No change in disasterdisaster-resistantresistant capacity(C) No trend of extreme eventsvs Decreasing disaster-resistant capacityÆ ex. old facilities, old people, aged society(D) Abrupt extreme eventsvs Enhancement of disaster-resistantcapacity Æ ex. huge earthquakes, floods(E) Gradually increasing hazard
vs No special countermeasures
Æ water quality, groundwater contamination

Natural disasters strike
our region every year !

13

Catastrophic disaster risk will increase.

14

Sustainability Science
Extreme weather amplified by global warming
Frequent disasters exceeding societal capacity

Catastrophe

Extreme weather amplified by global warming
Frequent disasters exceeding societal capacity

River
flow

River
flow

FloodsFloodsSocietal
capacitySocietal
capacitycapacyCatastrophe

Droughts
Present

Droughts
Present

Societal capacity should be sustained or
improved by “sustainability science”.

time

Is “sustainability science” enough?

Catastrophic disasters will be still there!
16

15

Sustainability/Survivability Science

Sustainability/Survivability Science

Extreme weather amplified by global warming
Frequent disasters exceeding societal capacity

River
flow

Extreme weather amplified by global warming
Frequent disasters exceeding societal capacity

CatastropheHowcanSocietal
capacity wesursurCatastrophe
vive?

FloodsDroughts
Present

time

River
flow

FloodsSocietal
capacityDroughts
Presenttime

We need “sustainability science”+ “survivability science”
to cope with catastrophic disasters.

How
can
we
sursurvive?

time“Survivability science” makes up(compensates) “sustainability science.”
17

18

270

Precipitation
by Typhoon
Rusa
Based on 80 raingauges
by KMA; 2002/8/30-9/1
Typhoon Rusa

Historicalmaximum rainfall:
about 900 mm
during 24 hours 20

2002/8/31; 15:00
960hPa, Max Wind 35m/s
19

Typhoon RUSA in Korea 2002

Examples of Higher fluctuation
Europe- Floods in summer 2002
- Much snow in winter 2002-2003- Heat wave, snowmelt & floods in summer 2003
Japan
- Cool and long-term rain in summer 1993
- Extremely hot and dry summer 1994
- Cool summer 2003
- Extremely hot summer and 10 Typhoons in 2004
Historical maximum rainfall in Japan: 1317 mm/24 hr inAugust 200421

22

Extreme floods in Europe
August 2002

Extreme floods in Europe
August 2002

Maximum 24-hour rainfall: 687mm
23

24

271

Extreme snow in February 2003

Heat wave in Europe in Summer 2003

(Deviation from the average over 1988-2002)

Second maximum snow since 1967
(National Climate Data Center, NOAA) 25

26

Annual Precipitation of Japan

Examples of Higher fluctuation
Europe- Floods in summer 2002
- Much snow in winter 2002-2003- Heat wave, snowmelt & floods in summer 2003
Japan
- Cool and long-term rain in summer 1993
- Extremely hot and dry summer 1994
- Cool summer 2003
- Extremely hot summer and 10 Typhoons in 2004
Historical maximum rainfall in Japan: 1317 mm/24 hr inAugust 2004
27

28

Tokai Rainstorm:
Historical maximum daily
rainfall (428 mm) at Nagoya

July 1993
100%

100%

100%
200%

200%

200%
200%
100%

Precipitation
0

2 0

4 0

7 0

1 0 0

1 5 0

2 0 0

3 0 0

Precipitation in July 1993 comparing with normal year July precipitation

July 1994
70%

70%

70%
40%

40%

70%

40%

Precipitation
0

2 0

4 0

7 0

1 0 0

1 5 0

2 0 0

3 0 0

29
Precipitation in July 1994 comparing with normal year July precipitation

30

272

September 2000 Tokai Rainstorm

Niigata--Fukushima Flood, July 2004
Niigata

Maximum hourly rainfall 93 mm, Maximum daily rainfall 428 mm at Nagoya

Dike break at Biwajima, Aichi,
September 12

Casualties: 16

Damages

Maximum Hourly Rainfall 58mm

Completely destroyed houses: 70

Daily Rainfall 421mm

Partly destroyed houses: 5,354

Inundated houses: about 70,000
Economic damage: 7-8 billion USD
31

Inundated houses: 8,357

33

34Photo by Asahi Shinbun

32

Typhoons directly hit Japan in 2004

Asuwa River bank rip point at 1:20 pm on
July 18th , 2004
After Chunichi Shinbun

Asia: Prone to water-related disasters
Geoscientific Characteristics • Rainfall: large seasonal fluctuation• Mountain areas: fragile geology• Alluvial plains: highly populated, humanactivities concentrated• Small islands: vulnerable to sea level rise

35

36

273

Asian Monsoon Climate- includes various climatic regions-

What Characterizes Hydrology and Water Issues
in Monsoon Asia, Especially in Humid Asia?
• Two important factors which characterize regional featuresof hydrology and water issues:- Climatic factor, and- Geomorphologic factor

Arid/Semi-arid Temperate
Humid/Semi-humid Temperate• As for the climatic factor characterizing the Asia,
the Asian monsoon climate is very important.
Humid/ semi-humid Tropics• As for the geomorphologic factor characterizing the Asia,
land conditions formed by the plate tectonic motion,
called “tectonic zone or orogenic belt”, are very important.
(Musiake, 2007)• The AMC covers from sub-arctic to tropical in terms of a latitudinal
climatic classification, and from arid/semi-arid to humid.
38

37

Water Issues to be Considered in Monsoon Asia

Water Issues to be Considered in Monsoon Asia

Mountain slope cultivation
Heavy Sediment Yield and Water-related Disasters
in Mountain Areas• Fragile mountain lands formed up due to mountain making activities,
such as slopes of volcanoes, fractured zones, Tertiary formation andweathered granite areas, can be cultivated, if they have necessary
temperature and water.
mountain slope cultivation in Asian tectonic
zones• On the other hand, they are disaster-risk areas vulnerable to slope failure,
landslide, debris/mud flow, etc..
• “Land productivity” and “Disaster risk” are both sides of coin.

• The steep slope and fragile geology bring about highsediment yield,
yield, slope failure,
failure, landslide, volcanic
eruption and debris/mud flow in mountainous areas.
• Sabo engineering
works ( debris control,
landslide and slope
failure prevention
works ) are applied toprevent or mitigate
damages caused bythem.

Chugoku district, JAPAN

Cameron Highlands, MALAYSIA(Musiake, 2007)

Brantas basin, Java,INDONESIA

39

Landslide prone areas with heavy rains and tectonic activities such as
earthquakes, volcanoes, faulting and ground deformation (Asian WetTectonic(2003年
zone) – 2006年)
地すべり発生分布図
Major Landslide Events (2003-2006, NASA)

Sabo dam constructed in theupper reaches of Brantas
40 riverbasin, Indonesia

Landslide Susceptibility Mapping
High

韓国
日本
タイ

中国
フィリピン

アジア湿潤変動帯
Asian Wet-Tectonic zone

インドネシアmm

Annual Precipitation of the past 8 years (TRMM, NASA)Low
アジア湿潤変動帯
Asian Wet-Tectonic Zone

(NASA / ICL 2007, Tokyo Symposium)
41

42

NASA/IPL 2007

274

Sediment yield and runoff

Seasonal land cover change• The source of sediment yield in stable regions is mainly soil
erosion. We have other major sources of sediment in humid Asia,
such as landslide, slope failure, volcanic eruption, debris/mud flow,etc.

Oct 2002

Feb 2003

Oct 2003• Estimation and prediction of these kinds of sediment yield/runoff
are very difficult due to their discontinuous nature, but we have tocarry out systematic studies on them.
Debris/mud flow with drifting
fallen trees in Ban Nam Kor,
Petchaboon, THAILAND, in 11
August 2001.

Eruption of Mt. Pinatubo,
PHILLIPINES, in July 1991

Lesti River basin, East Java, Indonesia(Sayama, Tachikawa and Takara, 2005)

43

Landslide due to earthquake.
The Abe River Basin, JAPANSeasonal variability of vegetation index
MODIS is a optical sensor installed in the satellite “TERRA”

May, 2002

July, 2002

NDVI time series in different landuse

Dry season : May.- Aug.
Rainy season: Oct. – Mar.

NDVI=(IR-R)/(IR+R)

44

August, 2002

1.0
0.0

October, 2002

December, 2002

March, 2003

Lesti River basin, East Java, Indonesia 46(Sayama Tachikawa and Takara, 2005)

45

Lesti River basin, East Java, Indonesia (Sayama, Tachikawa and Takara, 2005)

MODIS/NDVI to monitor land cover change

SAFE (Space Applications For Environment)

Lesti River basin, East Java, Indonesia(Sayama Tachikawa and Takara, 2005)

NDVI by MODISDAICHI

TRMM/PR

MTSAT

Dec
Oct 19,12, 2003
2003

Datasets
For
Environmental
Monitoring
Land Use
Land Cover
Water
Resources

Social Benefitsin
Asia-Pacific

Water

Weather

Ecosystems

EnergyClimateHealthPhotosyntheticallyAqua/AMSR-E
Oct 12

Nov 1

Nov 6

Nov 17

Nov 29 47

275

Terra/MODIS

ActiveRadiation

Datasets
provided byPartner agencies
In Asia-Pacific

Agriculture48
Biodiversity

The Overview of SAFE

1st Prototypes: Water Resources Monitoring
Feedback by Insitu Observation

Satellite Datasets forEnvironment Monitoring

MTSAT-1R

ALOS

Water
Resource
DB by
AMSR-E& TRMM

TRMM/PRFor mitigation of flood damage and optimization of water resourcesmanagement, JAXA and Univ. of Tokyo will set up a Water Resources
Monitoring System using satellite data.

defined by
Global Earth Observation
System of Systems(GEOSS)SAFE Prototyping（Trial Projects in each countries）

Distribution Platform
operated by JAXASAFE Portal

Terra/MODISAqua/AMSR-E

1. Develop methods to detect initial value of atmosphere for heavy rain forecast
2. Develop models to estimate river runoff for both normal situation and flood
3. Develop a dam manipulation system for optimized water resource management.

Water Resources Managementin Vietnam (2008～）
by MONRE/NHMS and Univ. of Tokyo

Satellite
Datasets forEnvironment
Monitoring

Land Use Map
by ALOS& MODIS& MTSATJAXA/EORC

ThemesAggregation-Localization-Distribution

Land Use Managementin Vietnam (2008～）

Contribution(through thePrototyping)by MARD/FPD and Univ. of Tokyo

Agriculture

HealthClimateEnergyWater

Weather

Optimizations of Water
Management

satellite data
River Management Data

Photosynthetically

Agenciesmanaging
RemoteSensing Datain Asia-Pacific

In-Situ Data

active radiation(PAR)-DB
by MODIS

Datasets Distribution
for basic data
to monitor disasters

Ecosystem

Data Sharing
Sentinel Asia
Step2 System

Disaster
Information-Aggregation-Incident
Management-Distribution

Water Resources
Monitoring

Interoperation & analysis

Biodiversity

GIS/Map Info

Heavy Rain Forecast

Working Groups (Flood, Wildfire)
Agencies managing Disaster in
Asia-PacificContributionDisasterModels49

Flood Forecast

Early warning
50
of flood

PHYSICALLY BASED DISTRIBUTED RAINFALLRAINFALLSEDIMENT--RUNOFF MODELSEDIMENT

2nd Prototypes: Land Use Management
For sustainable land use, JAXA and Univ. of Tokyo will set up forest
management system and value-added land use monitoring system.

Hydrological Submodel

1. Develop Land-Use-Change monitoring system.
2. Develop forest management system with value-added information.
3. Develop the Information Dashboard for optimized Land Use management.

(Apip and Takara, 2007)

A Physically based Cell
Distributed
RainfallRunoff Model (Kojima
and Takara, 2003) wasapplied for Simulate
Hydrological Response.

data provisionsatellite data

Forest , Cropland data

In-Situ Data

Land Use Monitoring
SystemContinuous Eq. of Water∂h ∂q+= r (x ,t)∂t ∂xValue-added forest
information
Forest Management

GIS/Map Info

Land-Use-Changemonitoring

The Model Soil Structureand Stage Discharge Relationship CDRM V.3 Model

51

52

Agriculture(Apip and Takara, 2007)
Runoff and Sediment Yield
Simulation by a Distributed Model

Rainfall event
based(Flood Event)Erosion & Deposition Depth (mm)Rainfall (mm)

Runoff and Sediment Yield Simulation by aDistributed Model(Apip and Takara, 2007)
0
5
10
15
20

Erosion
7.00
6.00

Obs. Discharge

5.00

Comp. Discharge

4.00

Obs Sediment
Obs.

3.00

Comp. Sediment

2.00
1.00
0.00
-1.00
-2.00
-3.00
-4.00
-5.00
-6.00

Hydrograph andSedimentgraph-7.00

Deposition

3-D Spatial Distribution 53

54

276

SIMULATION RESULTS → Case 1 (total rainfall 333 mm)
Discharges

Discharge (m3 /sec)

50

60

70

80

90

100

110

500

300

400

400

300

500
600

200
100

130
40

50

60

70

80

90

100

110

0
1

11

21

31

41

51

61

Rainfallby lumped modelby distributed model

Discharge (m3 /sec)

9000

60

80

100

120

351.3 Km2
80

8000

100

120

50000

• Useful for detecting local phenomena• Useful for considering non-point source
water quality problems in river basins• Can consider spatial distribution of rainfall
and other hydrological parameters• Take more computational time
• Need spatial information• Grid-cell size depending on the problem 56

40000
30000
20000
10000

900

0

140

1

200

6000

400

5000

500

4000

600

3000

700
800

1000

900

0
1

11

21

31

41

51

61

71

11

21

31

41

51

61

71

140000by lumped model

100

300

7000

2000

140
60

60000

800

0

10000
40

40

by distributed model

70000

71

11000

20

20

Merits and demerits of distributed
rainfall-runoff models

by lumped model

80000

120

Rainfall (mm/hr)
S edim en t con ce n tration (m g/ l)

30

Sediment Concentrations

90000

200

700

25.3 Km2

120

100000100

Rainfall (mm/hr)

600

40

0

Rainfallby lumped modelby distributed model

30

Sediment concentration (mg/l)

700

20

120000by distributed model

100000
80000
60000
40000
20000
0
1

11

21

31

Time (hr)

41

55 61

51

71

Time (hr)Implementation Oriented Technology

Disaster Reduction Hyperbase(DRH)

Reduction of tsunami flowpressure in greenbelt(mangrove, waru, etc.)• Database management system ofknowledge and technology for various disaster(EqTAP Project: PARI, Japan and
CDRC, Indonesia)

prevention/reduction which includes:
prevention/reduction,- Implementation oriented technologies (IOT)- Transferable indigenous knowledge (TIK)- Process technologies (PT)P j t iin Sulawesi
Project
S l
i Island,I l d IIndonesiadi*Can not stop tsunamis but can reduce
their effects.
*Inexpensive, no "high-tech" required*Design guideline developed through lab
tests and numerical simulation*Being implemented in Sulawesi Island,and other 14 sites in Indonesia.

copyright (c) 2007 EDM-NIED. All rights reserved

Laboratory test
copyright (c) 2007 EDM-NIED. All rights reserved

Transferable Indigenous Knowledge
Criteria for Transferable Indigenous Knowledge (TIK)(Bangladesh) FLOOD MITIGATION(Homestead Raising)ver. 070702(FM1)070917(Stresa)

•
•
•
•
•

Originated within communities, based on local
needs, and specific to culture and context(environment and economy)
Provides core knowledge with flexibility for local
adaptation for implementation
Uses local knowledge and skills, and materials
based on local ecology
Has been proven to be useful in disasters
Is applied or applicable in other communities orgenerations(by Moloy Chaki: CMM2)

copyright (c) 2007 EDM-NIED. All rights reserved

277(Japan) "Mizuya" (Flood house)(NIED-KU survey team)
copyright (c) 2007 EDM-NIED. All rights reserved

Disaster management cycle

Water management : to apply structural and non-structural
measures to modify natural and man-made water systems for theenhancement of human welfare as well as the conservation ofnatural environment.

DisasterPreparedness

Mitigation- water supply- wastewater treatment- water quality
improvement- flood disastermitigation- debris/sediments
control- hydropower generation- navigation- recreation- conservation/restorationof eco-system

Response

Recovery

Water has diverse functions, andthe water management includes various subjects.

61

62

Lessons learned from recent
water-related disasters• Awareness ofVulnerable people are always hit bydisasters.

- disaster risks,- vulnerability by social change,- possible climate change impacts• InsufficientI
ffi i t preparednessdddue tto- lack of proper information,- overconfidence or ignorance,- limited budget

災害弱者がいつもやられる。
災害は脆弱な人と場所を襲う。

• Needs for- capacity building, education,- integrated disaster (water) management,- funding63

64

An ounce of prevention is worth
a pound of cure.
1オンスの予防薬は１ポンドの治療薬に値する。
(備えあれば憂いなし）

65

278

Adaptation for water problems forclimate change

WATER. Key Issue on climate change• Climate change affects water (Hydrologic) cycle.
• Water influences wide field.
• Flood and drought problems are the biggest
impact for human life.
• Water environmental problems threat our life
for long time.

So Kazama
Department of Civil Engineering,Tohoku University
1

2

flood

Flood impact

flood

Higher flood risk

Extreme rainfall increase (IPCC, 2007)
Heavy rainfall produces frequent flooding.
Rainfall with 100yrs
y return periodpincrease 20%
from now in 2100. （JMA RCM results）
results）

M d l development
Model
d l
t
Application for climate change

It is necessary to evaluate economic damage
in 2100 for the adaptation.
3

flood

4

Objectives

flood

Model Verification

Calculation of economic damage by flooding after climate change
in a whole Japan using extreme rainfall data.

• Flood simulation
Quantifying the adaptation cost using the increase ofdamage cost from current flood control.
control

17.7.2004, MLIT

5

landusen

A i &F
Agri.&Forest
t

0 060
0.060

Traffic area

0.047

Others0.050

UrbanedWaterbody&Beach0.050

WD 0.0m, 0.5m, 1.0m
WD 1.5m, 2.0m, 2.5m

0.020

6

279

Estimation of damage cost

Results （case : 100yrs RTN）
RTN）

flood

1) Paddy field
D.C.＝
D.C.＝rice production/area
production/area××rice price×
price×inundated area
×damage rate to water depth

Extreme rainfall

Max. Water depth

2) Crops field
D.C.=crops production/area×
production/area×average crops price×
price×inundated area
×damage rate to water depth3) Buildings ( 4)Golf links)
D.C.of houses
houses=damaged
damaged floor area to water depth×
depth×price/m2
×damage rate to water depth
D.C.of house articles=house number to water depth×house article value/house
value/house××damage rate to water depth
D.C.of asset of office=worker number×
number×（amortized asset value/person
value/person××coefficient to water depth
depth＋＋
stock asset value/person×
value/person×damage rate to water depth
depth））0m

5) Public facilities
D.C.=general damaged asset value×
value×1.694

0700(mm/day)71m

8Annual Expected Damage Costflood

Estimation of adaptation cost
Annual expected damage → Annual adaptation cost (B/C=2.3)

Billion USD
RTN

AnnualPeriod extreme P.

DamageCost

Interval Av. Interval
Damageprobability

Urban Areas have huge damage.
Rural areas have less damages.

Av. Annual
expecteddamage cost

5

0.20

380

10

0.10

550

470

0.1

47

30

0.03

770

660

0.067

44

50

0.02

910

840

0.013

11

100

0.01

1,120

1,020

0.010

10

100 million JPY/km2= 1 million USD/km2

This amount is similar to annual expense of flood control in Japan.
910Kazama et al., 2009. Sustainability Science

slope

There are a lot of slope hazards by
the extreme precipitation.

slope

Quantity of slope hazard
Q

Past hazard results

Higher slope failure risk

Model development

Effect of snow melt

Cumulo-frequency

Adaptation cost is 4.6bilion USD

Return period of Daily extreme Precipitation

Table. Relation to Slope hazard and return
period on extreme precipitation

Application for climate change

Initial slope hazard condition;
By precipitation(model sample of Tohoku region)
By extreme
Iwaki city, Fukushima prefecture
precipitation of 5year
1991.9.19
By snowmelt

Fig. Slope hazard map by literature

11

280

Fig. Hazards map in Iwaki
12

Probability model equation
slope

These are similar to actual
events.

Where P is probability,β0 is intercept,βh:is coefficient of hydraulic gradient,
βr is coefficient of hydraulic gradient,,hydYh is hydraulic gradient,reliif Yris relief energy

Dangerous geology

Paleogenetertiary rockNeotertiary rock

Colluvium

These are considering rainfall
effects.

Probability

Steep curve , rising point as small value

GraniteSlope failure probability on 30 years return
period downpour.

Economic damage (billion yen)13

y = 19.408e0.0345x
2
R = 0.562

2000
1500

Future-A1B

Worse water quality

2004
NearFuture-A2

1000

14

quality

Future-A2

Economic damage results
Climate change caseProbability(%)

Relief energy
Hydraulicgradient

Fig. Logistic curve of each geological features

2500

Sediment hazard map

slope

1
P=
1 + exp [− (β 0 + β h hydY h + β r reliefY r )]Future-B1

10billion
USD

Present average

500

NearFuture-A1B
NearFuture-B1

0

Ratio=1.5

0

25

50

75

100

Ratio=2.0

125

150

Ratio=1.0 ( → 62times)

100mm/day Over times

Relationship between days of over 100mm/d
and damage costs

Model development

CONCLUSION
Huge water disasters increase rapidly caused by climate change.

Application for climate change
15

16

Kawagoe et al., 2010. Hydrology and Earth System Science (submitted)

Dam basins
Average probability(%)

qualityquality

Probability model reproduces sediment hazard

Probability map

S
Spacific
sediment yield(killo-m3/km2/year)

2.0

Year average
sediment yield
per unite area
(×103m3/km2/year)

Probability(%)
Probability

comparative verification

1.8

y = 0.1051e0.0301x
R2 = 0.6541

1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2

Specific sediment
yield

Average specificsediment yield(×103m3/km2/year)

0.0

Average specificsediment yield(×103m3/km2/year)

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Probability (%)

Relationship between probability with return period of 5years
and specific sediment yield
Probability(%)

The relationship between probability
and specific sediment yield was obtainedand verified about 59 dam areas in theJapanese Islands.
17

An exponential equation shows the relationship.
→ sediment production model
18

281

quality

quality

Sedimentation yield map
Average specific sediment yield(×103m3/km2/year)

Water quality problems□ Influence of downpour
・Use of L‐Q formula・Extreme rainfall input to L‐Q formula for BOD and SS□ Influence of droughtg pperiod・Use of turbidity deposit function
・Input of drought period to a deposit function for BOD and SS

Show relationship between extreme period(return period ) and BOD and SS.

High sedimentation yield areas will have lessreservoir capacity by increase of downpour.
19

20(Teshio)qualityquality(Shinano)(Kiso)(Abukuma)(Kiso)(Ara)(Go, ohta)

I
Increaseratio(%)
ti (%)(Ara)

Increase ratio(%)

Increase ratio(%)(Yoshino)【BOD】(Temryu)

【SS】

【SS】

【BOD】

Downpour affects WQ (RTN 50 years / 10years)

Drought affects WQ change (RTN50uyears/RTN10years)
21

22

Kawagoe et al., 2008. Journal of Environmental Engineering

quality

Water quality of closed lakes

quality

GCM UseResults of present climate condition Vertical density gradient in summer(2005)

Ideal closed water body（Max depth 30m)

Vertical density gradient+Meteorological conditions in different climate
zones (Temperature, Precipitation)

South sphere
1ｋｍ

Simulation of water temperature change

31 Jan. 2005

Analysis of response temperature
Comparison of different climate zones
Same calculation conditions

Vertical density gradient（ｍ）

Study Area
Surface Ares
Max. Depth
Max. Depth
Position

North sphere

4000×4000 m
2.8×106 m2
30m

31 July, 2005

Center23

24

282

quality

conclusions

GCM UseConclusions

Influences of climate change for temperature in closed lakes
Change of density gradient in the future（2005 ‐ 2050）

1) The probability according to extreme precipitation
could show the spatio-temporal distribution of water
disaster hazard.
2) The rainfall pattern change affects water quality andresources management.
3) The high influence areas were specified through the
distribution map according to return period.
4) This algorithm will be applied using multi-GCM
models.

Vertical density gradientOver 0.020kg/m3/m

Large impact areas （Gradient more than 0.020kg/m3/m）
North Sphere : North America, Eastern Europe, Northeastern Africa
25

26

Shida et al., 2008. Journal of Global Environmental Engineering

283

Contents

Climate Change Impacts
to the Water Environment

1. Background
2. Previous Knowledge
3. Investigation Commission
4. Philosophy
p y of Investigationg
5. Analysis of Previous Information(Macro-scale Analysis)
6. Investigation of Forecasting Method-Present Approach of MOEJ-

Shu Nishi
Ministry of Environment, Japan
1

2

1.Background
Hot issue in Japan:
Climate Change

Regional temperature change
in Japan (℃)
Annual surface temperature
anomalies in Japan

Projection of Change in precipitationin Japan

Projected average temperature
in Japan34

2. Previous Knowledge

Impacts on Aquatic Ecosystem

Impacts on Water Quality

Previously
Previously--Observed Impacts
・Change of Ecosystem by Stopping of Water Circulation
and Decrease of Dissolved Oxygen
・Habitat Change of Cold-water Fish in Freshwater
・Increase in Southern Strain
and Decrease in Northern Strain in Coastal Area
・Coral Death and Bleaching

PreviouslyPreviously-Observed Impacts
・Increase in Annual Mean Water Temperature
・Abnormal Growth of Algae in Lakes
・Expansion of Red Tide Damage by Drought
Impactp
Forecast in the future・Declining Water Quality in the River by Heavy Rainand Drought
・Water Temperature Rise in River, Lake and Groundwater
・Increase in Amount of Evaportranspiration
・Change of Snowmelt Runoff
・Stop of the Water Circulation in Lake・Increase in Abnormal Growth of Algae
・Change in the timing, intensity and duration of Participation
5・Change in Water Use and Aquatic Ecosystem

Impact Forecast in the Future・Expand of stopping of Water Circulation in Lake and Sea
・Change of Habitat Range in Freshwater・Invasion of Alien Species
・Impact on Plankton by Acidification in the Sea
・Expand of Coral Bleaching・Decrease in Sandy Shore
6284

Water temperatures in Kiso River
raised by maximum 2 degree in
1994, it caused flow reduction
and declining water quality.
Delay of Water
Circulation In Lake Biwa.

3.Investigation Commission
Outline“Investigative Commission for Impact on Water
Environment by Climate Change” established in 2010

Tropical fish in
Tama River, Tokyo

Heavy rain caused
floods in Tokyo, 2005.
Amount of rainfall perhour is over 100mm.

Water circulation has
stooped in Lake Ikeda
since 1986
1986. From 1990
1990,
Anoxic layer is at under
200 meters deep.

Goals:To clarify the impact on water environment in public water
body by climate change and to investigate the adaptation
measures.
Period: 4 years
FY2010:1.To get clear understanding about the items(water quality, water temperature ,etc.) effected byclimate change
2.To decide the basic concept about the forecasting method
3.To decide the plan of future investigation and schedule8

Low Dissolved Oxygen
level in Tokyo bay.

Increase in watertemperature in 5 rivers in
Kagawa Pref in 27 years.

Examples of the Impact on Water Environment in Japan7

4.Philosophy of Investigation

To clarify the impact on water environment in public
water body by climate change
・Impact on the water temperature
・Impact on the quantity of water・Impact on the habitat

Water Quality
Study Items
・Change of the water temperatures
・Change of the quantity of water
Evaluation Items for Adaptation Measures
・Impact on water quality((Water qualityqy standard items).
)

To clarify the impact on the water quality and aquatic
ecosystem
・Impact on the water quality
・Impact on the aquatic ecosystem

Aquatic Ecosystem
Study Items
・Change of the water temperature, quantity and qualityof water・Change of habitat
Evaluation Items for Adaptation Measures
・Impact on aquatic ecosystem(Representative species in river, lake, and sea)

To investigate the adaptation method for the impact on thewater quality and aquatic ecosystem
95.Analysis of Previous Information

10

Macro-scale Analysis
All Water quality analysis points on nationwide (in 2007)
8,756 (6,053 in River, 529 in Lake, 2,174 in Sea )Macro-scale Analysis:
MacroTo clarify the water temperature changing trend
on a nationwide scale

To select the artifact-free point
To select the points that have enough data
Points under analysis
1 484 (1,023
1,484(1 023 iin Ri
River, 98 iin LLake,
k 363 iin S
Sea )Micro-scale Analysis:
MicroTo analysis the impact on water temperature,quantity of water , water quality, and aquatic ecosystem
To analysis the relation among water temperature, quantityof water , water quality, and aquatic ecosystem

Calculation of the average water temperature in summer season andWinter season

To select the points that show the increasein water temperature
Points show the increase in water temperature
413 (272 in River, 28 in Lake, 113 in Sea )

11

285

12

RiverLake

Average Water temperature in Summer season

Average Water temperature in Summer season

Average Water temperature in Winter season

Average Water temperature in Winter season

13

14

Sea
Average Water temperature in Summer season

Average Water temperature in Winter season

Increase in Summer
and WinterIncrease in Summer
Increase in WinterNo Trend
15

16

6.Investigation of Forecasting Model

Future Plan
The Results of Macro-scale Analysis

Basic Requirement of Forecasting Model:

To select the points that are as less affected by humanactivities as possible

・It is necessary to evaluate the impact on water quality andaquatic ecosystem in public water body with climate
condition and effects by human activities.

Micro--scale Analysis
Micro・It is necessary to analyze the sequence of relationship.
( Climate Change – Water Environment – Water Quality– Aquatic Ecosystem )To make detailed analysis of the relation among watertemperature, quantity of water ,water Quality, and aquatic
Ecosystem
Object : Selected River, Lake, and Sea
Years: 1971 - present
Items : Water temperature, COD, Nitrogen, Phosphorus,
Dissolved Oxygen

・It is necessary to analyze the watershed basin relationship.
( Climate Change – Watershed Basin – River – Lake – Sea)

17

18

286

Future Works:
・To establish the method of down scaling(Time and Space )・To correct the data

Thank yyou for yyour attention!

・To improve the analysis precision of forecast model

19

20

287

WEPA International Forum and the Annual Meeting

Cambodia is vulnerable to climate change

Hanoi, Vietnam, 8-10 March 2010

 A Least developed agrarian country are facing many socialand economic development priorities,

 435 km coastline and low elevation of central plain, 80-85% of population are farmer and living in rural area of

Climate Change Impacts to theWater Environment and
Adaptation Options in Cambodia

the central flood plains, TropicalT i l diseases
di(malaria,( l i ddengue fever,fetc.)t ) with
ith weakk
health care system,

 Limited technical, financial and institutional resources foradaptation,

 Has lowest adaptive capacity compare to other SEA
By CHEA Chan Thou
Ministry of Environment, Cambodia

countries, More severe and frequent floods and droughts haveoccurred in recent years.

1

Cambodia Efforts to Address Climate
Change2

Impact of Global Warming on
Cambodia Climate

 December 1995 Cambodia ratified the UNFCCC,
 July 2002: Accession to the Kyoto Protocol,

 This assessment was conducted in the October 2002: Submission of the Initial National

INC by using two GCM models: CCSR &CSIRO, and two emission scenarios:
SRESA2 & SRESB1SRESB1, showed that:

Communication (INC) to the CoP 8,
 June 2003: Established a climate change office and 2009

promote to department of climate change,¾ Cambodia’s temperature would increase up

to 1.35 - 2.50C in 2100.

 July 2003: Appointment of MoE as the Interim Designated¾ Annual rainfall would increase between 3

National Authority (iDNA) for CDM,

and 35% from current condition and lowland
areas seem to be more affected than highland areas.

 April 2006: Establishment of the National Climate Change

Committee (NCCC), October 2006: Approval of the Cambodian NAPA,
 2007: Preparation of Second National Communication.

3

4

Impact of Climate Change on Agriculture

Impact of Climate Change on Coastal Zone

Based on the past 5 years data (1996-20000), rice production loss
occurred mainly due to the occurrence of flood (>70%), drought (~20%)
and others such as pest & disease (~10%)

 In Koh Kong province(1,160 km2 ), if 1m sea
level rise, about 0.4%
(4,444 ha) will be underwater;

Contributionto

ProductionLoss(%
)

80
70
60

 The rainfall of 4 main

50

river basins of Koh Kong
will increase between
2% and 15%, soincrease water flow 210m3/s.

40
30
20
10
0
Flood

Drought

Others Flood and drought were not always associated with the ENSO events,

flood mostly occurred due to the increase of water level of MekongRiver and Tonle Sap Lake.
5

6

288

6. National Adaptation Program of Action to
Climate Change (NAPA)

NAPA Field Survey• About 1,000 respondents from households, local• 2003 -2005 and endorsed by theGovernment of Cambodia in
October 2006, aims to develop
a realistically achievablecountry- driven program ofactionti andd priority
i it activities
ti itiaddressing the urgent andimmediate needs and concernsof the country for adaptation
to climate change in 4 key
sectors: agriculture, water
resources, coastal zone, humanhealth.

authorities and NGOs in 42 communes of 17
provinces• To understand the main characteristics of climate
hazards in Cambodia• To understand coping mechanisms at thegrassroots level• To identify adaptation activities to climate
hazards and climate change

78
B. Summary of Field Survey Analysis

Level of Vulnerability to Floods by Provinces

Level of Vulnerability to Droughts by Provinces

8

8

Droug
ght Score

10

Flood Score

10

6
4
2
0

6
4
2

Ph
Si nomha P
no en
Pr Kg ukv hea . S ille
Ra h V peta ih uM na ea
on k rd u K irlK i
K K a ir
St g. nd i
un Ch alg am
Tr
Sv K engay ra
P r R t ie
ey ie
Ve ng
K g Ta n g
S . T keo
Baiem hom
B. tta R e
M mb apea an c ngKgh. C Pu e y
hh rs aK na tKo am ng
h po
Ko t
ng

Ph
n
Si om
ha P
no e
u n
Pr Kg kv hea . S ille
Ra h V peta ih uM na ea
on k rd u K irlK i
Kg Kan iri
St . du n Ch a l
g amTrSv K engay ra
P r R t ie
ey ie
Ve ng
K g Ta n g
S . T keo
Baiem hom
B. tta R e
M mb apea an c ngKgh. C Pu e y
hh rsat
K na
Ko am ng
h po
Ko t
ng

0

9

10

Natural Hazards Characteristics

Water Supply
Source of water
for agriculture in
dry season

Proportion oof Respond

1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
Source of water
for household in
dry season

0
Flood

Drought

Wind
Storm

Sea Water High Tide
Intrusion

11

12

Proportion of respondents on type of climatic hazards affecting them289Some adaptation projects related to water
under NAPA

Proposed Adaptation Projects
By sector:

By climate hazard:¾ Cross-sectoral: 5 projects¾ Flood: 5 projects¾ Drought: 9 projects¾ Malaria: 6¾ Coastal protection: 3
projects¾ Multiple climate hazards:16
projects¾ Water resources/agriculture:
20 projects¾ Coastal zone: 8 projects¾ Human health (Malaria): 6
projects• Development and improvement of community irrigation
systems• Water gates and water culverts construction• Safer water supply for rural communities• Development and rehabilitation of flood protection dikes• Rehabilitation of dams in Takeo and Kampong Speu
province• Construction of community water reservoirs• Water supply for households• Development and rehabilitation of irrigation systems• Rehabilitation of coastal protection infrastructure• Community agro-forestry in deforested watersheds.
14

Total 39 proposed projects with US$ 196,350,00, of which
20 are high priority (US$128,850,000)
13

7. Assessment in the SNC: Climate-Vulnerability Index
for Agriculture

Vulnerable sub-sector in Agriculture to climate
hazards
Based on Survey at Prey Veng, the most vulnerable
province
to climatesector
hazards,
rice farming is the most
The most vulnerable
to flood
vulnerable sub-sector to climate hazards
21%

Battambang

33%

The most
vulnerable
province

10%

Prey
Veng

Lowland rice

Lowland rice

Dryland Agric

Dryland Agric

Husbandry

Husbandry

Drinking Water
1%
2%
3%

63% 0%

0%

Drought

Based on interview with 417 respondents

Farmers perception on change in drought
and flood severity?

OthersOthers2%

CVI-1111 means the province has low level of vulnerability (Category 1),
has low flood (Category 1) and drought (Category 1) experience and low
15
forest cover (Category 1)

Drinking Water
65%

0%

Flood
•

Fisheries

Fisheries

Rice contribute toabout 80% of
total agriculturecommodities
production16

Key message• Under high emission scenarios (SRESA2)

No change
1%
Increasing
5%– DS rainfalls DJF and MAM will decrease with high probability
and WS JJA and SON rainfall may increase but with lower
probability than the DS rainfall. This suggests that the onset ofrainy season may delay in the future under this emission
scenario.
– WS rainfall DJF will decrease until 2025 and then increase againgin 2050 and 2080

Can not answer
1%

Yes
38%
Decreasing48%• Under low emission scenarios (SRESB1)
More Irregular46%

Flood frequency and intensity– Similar with SRESA2 DS rainfall will increase but with lower
probability.
– Different with SRESA2, WS rainfall DJF will increase in 2025
and then decrease again in 2050 and 2080

No61%

• Global community achievement in reducing GHG
emission will have different implication on Cambodia

Drought severity increase?

Based on Survey at Prey Veng Province , 2009

17

18

290

Example: Horizon Plan for Adaptation
2005

2010

2015

2020

2025

2030

Thank You!

www.camclimate.org.kh
Mr. CHEA Chan Thouchanthouchea@yahoo.com
19

20

291

BACKGROUND INFORMATION| Indonesia consist of

6 main island, i.e:
Sumatera, Jawa, Bali and Nusa Tenggara,
Kalimantan, Sulawesi, Maluku and Papua;| Population:
More than 200 million Æ population density 121
per km2y About 60% living in Jawa island Æ population
density 1.035 per km2y

CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACTS TO THE WATERENVIRONMENT
1| At

Case Studies: Ciliwung Watershed

least has 639 watersheds with 7219 rivers– 3000 mm/year| Average Precipitation 2000

2

INDONESIA ARCHIPELAGOJAWA ISLAND

34CILIWUNG WATERSHED

Total Area:
52,494.5 Ha
Landuse (%):

AREA OF STUDY

Water Body: 0.2
Forest: 14,0Open Land: 6,8
Housing: 50,7
Agriculture: 27,2
Others: 1,2
Population(2000):
11.7 million

5

6

292

PRECIPITATION AT CITEKO STATIONPRECIPITATION AND WATER FLOW

7

8

WATER QUALITY (BOD CONCENTRATION)

FACTS| Increasing of

precipitation over 5 years
in upstream area of Ciliwung| Landuse changewatershed:
Landuse

2002

2008

Forest

31.7%

18.4%

Open Land

20.5%

0.9%

Housing

4.2%

7.1%

Agriculture

43.6%

73.6%

Total

100%

100%

9

10

FACTS

ADAPTATION| Presidential Regulation concerning Ciliwung

River Management Æ cross government
institution program| Completed Jakarta flood canal| Water conservation with simple technology Æ
Biopore Hole
| Utilization of biogas and fertilizer fromlivestock and municipal waste

11

12

293

BIOPORE

BIOGAS

13

14

15

16

CONCLUSION| The

increasing of water flow is more affectedby land use change rather than precipitation| The impact of climate change on water
environment can be minimized by water
conservation and pollution control| Communities should be involved in water
conservation and water pollution control byusing a simple and practical technology294Potential impact and policy response
In KOREA☞At global level,
the negative impacts of climate change
on freshwater system outweigh the benefits

Ministry of Environment
Republic of Korea
1- Estimated trend in Average temperature isa warming of 1.5℃ during last 100 years,
while global trend is 0.74℃.(in six Korean biggest city)2-Secure 1.3billion cubic meters of water
mainly by building 16 reservoirs-Control another 920 million cubic metersbyy dredging
g g sediment decompositionpand reinforcing outworn riverbanks- Flood in summer and draught
g in springp ghappens more frequently-Increasing unresolved organic compounds ,with higher national demand of environment
standards, makes meeting quality goal moredifficult.

-Raise portion of Good Water in the river to 86%
by appointing special management watershedarea and expanding environment infrastructure
34- Non Point Source Pollution Reporting System- Improvement Standards
for the Living Environment.
(introduction COD and TP standards to river): Projects under Environmental Impact Assessment
Factories with wastewater utility(over 1million ㎡)- Non Point Source Management Zone

- Additional chemical disposal processing
to deal with TP in waste water treatment plants: appoint areas with high risk of NPS pollution- Non Point Source Pollution Reduction Facilities- Implement TP Total Maximum Daily Loads
as well as existing BOD TMDL

: 43 model facilities and 17 project by local government- Low Impact Development: spread concept of Eco-friendly land use, esp. city area.
5

6

295

Concrete revetment
Stream coverage
No ecological concept

RAIN ORSNOW

VAPOR
GRAYWATERSURFACEWATER

USE OF
RAINWATER

Ecological Rehabilitation Project : Paradigm shift
from irrigation/flood control to healthy ecosystemfrom linear river/stream to integrated watershed☞ Cheonggye-creek + 20 project

WATER
SUPPLYSEWAGE
WATER

Designated Riparian Buffer Zone Project: buying waterside land and turning it into Eco-belt

REUSE OFWASTEWATER

7RIVER OR
OCEAN
8

296

Introduction– cased at a part of Vientiane
Plain, located at 30 Km
Northeast of Central
Vientiane Capital, where
irrigation system was not
yet available.

“Assessment of Impact and Adaptation
to Climate Change in Vientiane Plain,
Lao PDR”
PDR– The study area covered
parts of 3 districts:
Xaythany and Naxaythongof Vientiane Capital, andThoulakhom of Vientiane
Province.

by Souphasay Komany
Chief of Water Policy and Legislation
Department of Water Resources
Water Resources and Environment Administration
Prime Minister’s Office
Lao People’s Democratic Republic

1

2

Introduction

Introduction• A group of 13 researchers were formed from different
academic and social institutes, led by the former
Environmental Research Institute, Science Technology
and Environment Agency,– The objectives of this study were to:• (i) Address vulnerability and adaptation of targeted
villagers in Vientiane Plain to the climate change,
including impacts to their livelihoods andadaptation, assessment of their agricultural
productive ability, and seek of their opinion forfurther adaptation; andg May
y 2005 – March 2006,• conducted through• with data coverage of 2004 – 1995.
• Head of or representatives of 300 households of 20
villages had been interviewed through questionnaires,• (ii) Provide technical recommendations as thebasis for further adaptation at grass-root andadministrative levels for adaptation and planning.
3

4

General information

General information•• The number of targeted study villagers were almost
equality in sex ratio,• half of them were completed primary education, and
13% were illiterate

Income generated from non-agricultural activities wasconsidered as important factor for adaption of climate change,
which approximately covered 27% of total income of individual
household.

• Annual household consumption was observably fluctuated, inwhich expenditure for food covered almost half of other daily
expenses.
p• the higher education, the smaller ratio of distributed
population.

• Household saving in form of cattle rising was popular, which
covered 60% of other forms of saving.

• Most of the interviewees were professional farmers
and half of those had secondary careers as livestockraisers, while the other half had practiced other tradeand service activities.

• Official debt and loans of villagers were considerably small,due to the villagers were keen to borrow cash as well as had
limited chance to access financial sources.

5

6

297

Findings

Findings• From the period of study: 1990 - 2004, Vientiane Plain had been both impacted
by flood and drought with more severe since 1995. The extremely drought
occurred in 2004 and flood in 1995.
• Lengths of both flood and drought were less than 3 months, which mostly one
month-length.
% impacted households• Based on the villagers’ historical experiences, lostof rice product due to the impact of flood anddrought were rated about 30%, 50% and 100%.

37%

109 households• Study simulation had made for the impact at therates of 30%
30%, 50% and 70% rice lost
lost, comparing tonormal condition.

29%
85 households

23%

68 households

68 households

12%

35 households

Drought

120

100

80

60

40

20

0

20

Flood

40

60

80

100

120

7

8

Numbers of impacted households

7

7

11

13

102
116

û¥ ¿- ¸ - £ º ®£ ö̧
Numbbers of household

124

Small
£¸ ¾´ ¦ È
¼¤Î É
º¨
risk

• The villagers had ability to accept continue impacted condition
to their rice productivity at 2 to 3 year maximum. If more thanthose, they would struggle for other livelihood alternatives as
their main careers, such as fish farming or livestock rising.

• Generally, it was observed that
ranges of rice lost from normal
condition to lose by 30%, 50% and% had made a little impactpto70%
livelihood security of the villagers.

166² ¾¸ ½¯ö¡ ¡ ½ª ò

Findings

130

181

NormalCondition• In normal condition, livelihood
security of targeted villagers was
about 90%, while the rest wasusually non-secured.

155

147

° ö- ° ½ì ò©À¢í¾À¦ ¨ ¹ ¾¨

° ö- ° ½ì ò©À¢í¾À¦ ¨ ¹ ¾¨

° -ö ° ½ì ©
ò À¢í¾À¦ ¨ ¹ ¾¨

Rice30%
Lost
by 30%

Rice50%
Lost by50%

Rice
Lost by70%
70%£¸Moderate¾´ ¦ ¼È¤¯¾- ¡ ¾¤
risk

• In case of severe impact, the villagers had mostly assisted bytheir outsider relatives, local administrations and otherorganizations at basic levels
levels, neighboring villages andhouseholds, and other forms of assistance in both cash andkind.

• Major risks of the villagers fromdifferent ranges of impacts mostly
affected to food and financial
security. Livestock and healthseemed to have minor impact.

• In general, even though the villagers had lost their riceproduct due to impacts from natural disaster at different
ranges, they would still prefer to be the farmers as usual. Thiswas because of their deep custom and limited opportunity toalternate their professions due to the lack of knowledge andskill and other reasons.

910

Severerisk£¸ ¾´ ¦ È¼¤¹ ì ¾¨

Recommendations

Recommendations• Provision of alternative crops and other forms ofagricultural investment;• Application of chemical fertilizer in rice farming at
appropriate and sustainable level;• Promotion of livestock rising;• Cooperate and network with among villages for sharingof agriculture plot, during disaster event;• P
Provisioni i off alternativelt
ti fifinancial
i l source access,including village development fund and community
credit;• Provision of reliable and on-time meteorological andother technical information to farmers for the alternative
crop cultivation; and• Provision of alternative livelihood opportunities;• Promotion of appropriate cultural practices as existed.
11

12

298

Thank you for yourattention!

13

299

OUTLINE
First WEPA Workshop :- Theme 2:
Climate Change Impacts To The Water Environment And Adaptation Options• Introduction• Climate Change Impacts Study – Projection Model• Potential Impacts of Climate Change on Malaysian

Water Resources

CLIMATE CHANGE:POTENTIAL IMPACTS ON WATER RESOURCESAND
ADAPTATION STRATEGIES IN MALAYSIA• Assessing Vulnerability and Strategies of Adaptation

ZUBAIDI JOHAR
National Hydraulic Research Institute of Malaysia (NAHRIM)
Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (NRE), MALAYSIA

1

1.

2

INTRODUCTION

Observed Climate Change•

Initial National Communication (2000) recommended the needfor a Regional Model for finer resolution of global climate
simulations.

•

Master Plan for the Development of Water Resources in
Peninsular Malaysia 2000-2050.

•

IPCC, Assessment Report (AR4, 2007) warming of the climate
system is unequivocal.

•

Significant climate change impacts are now unavoidable.

Surfacetemperature(ºC)

GLOBAL*MALAYSIA**

1906-2005

1968-2002

0.74

0.49 – 0.91

1993-2003
1986-2006* IPCC 4TH ASESSMENT1961-2003
REPORT (AR4), 2007** INITIAL NATIONAL COMMUNICATION, 2000** NATIONAL COASTAL VULNERABILITY INDEX STUDY,DID, 2007
Sea level rise(mm/yr)

1.8

3.1

1.25

3

4

Up stream

STORMS WATER
Irrigation

down stream

5

6

300

Floods Magnitude

Tmn Sri Muda, Shah
Alam, Dec1995

Kuching 2003

Sibu, Sarawak, Feb 2009

Pet. Jaya, 2000

Kuala Lumpur, 2005
Shah Alam 2006
7

8

The IPCC has started work on the preparation of its Fifth
Assessment Report (AR5).

Droughts

Malaysia is preparing her Second National Communication (NC2)under the UNFCCC to further integrate climate change issues andimpacts into the national and local strategic and development plans.
3 Working Groups (WG) under NC2:
WG 1 - Greenhouse Gases (GHGs) Inventory
WG 2 - Vulnerability Assessment & Adaptation (V&A)
WG 3 - Mitigation
Working Group 2 (WG2) Findings from AR4 Expectations for AR5:water resources sub-sector Strategies of Adaptation

9

2.

10

Data grid of CGCM1 that were used in the RegHCM-PM. The ocean grids
which are used in the RegHCM-PM are shown as blue. The land grids which areused in the RegHCM-PM are shown as green.

NAHRIMs Climate Change Study•

A regional hydrologic-atmospheric model of Peninsular
Malaysia called as ‘Regional Hydroclimate Model ofPeninsular Malaysia (RegHCM-PM)’ was developed•

Downscaling global climate change simulation data
(Canadian GCM1 current and future climate data) thatare at very coarse resolutionl i( 410km),(~410k ) to Peninsular
P ilMalaysia at fine spatial resolution (~9km).

•

Able to quantify the impact of the complex topographicaland land surface features of Peninsular Malaysia on its
climate conditions.

11

12

301

Climate Change Projection

Model Components
Atmospheric Model (MM5)

GLOBAL*MM5 (Fifth Generation Mesoscale Model) from NCAR (National Center for
Atmospheric Research)
non-hydrostatic model
can be downscaled even to 0.5km spatial resolution
able to capture the impact of steep topography of Peninsular Malaysia at
watershed scale ( spatial resolutions <10km) on the local climaticconditions



2050

2100

2050

1.6

2.8

1.5

0.21-0.48-

Surface temperature(ºC)(Emission Scenario
SRES*** A1B)
SRES

Model Components
Land Hydrologic Model
The land hydrology component of RegHCM-PM is Integrated
Regional Scale Hydrologic-Atmospheric Model (IRSHAM) thatcategorized as fully physically-based regional land surfacehydrology model

Sea level rise (m)(Emission Scenario
SRES*** A1B)

* IPCC WG1 4TH ASESSMENT REPORT (AR4), 2007** STUDY ON IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON HYDROLOGIC REGIME AND
WATER RESOURCES OF P MALAYSIA, NAHRIM, 2006*** SRES = Special Report on Emission Scenarios +10% (Kelantan, Terengganu &Annual Rainfall (mm)Pahang)-5% (Selangor & Johor)

13

Locations of rain gauges and weather station at which thetemperature data were used for validation

14

Example of the model simulation output
Table 1: Summary of Monthly Flows
Klang

Selangor

DungunTerengganu

Kelantan

Pahang

Perak

Muda

Johor

31.2

107.9

398.4

1535.11697.4

523.7

307.4

82.7

Future

45.8

108.5

569.5

1950.72176.6

578.2

340.0

94.0

Diff.

+14.6

+0.6

+171.1+415.6+479.2

+54.5

+32.6

+11.3

(%)

+46.8

+0.6

+42.9

+27.1

+28.2

+10.4 +10.6 +13.7

Historical

14.4

40.7

93.4

535.9

669.6

286.4

105.6

32.7

Future

13.3

37.5

98.3

601.7

718.1

299.7

104.0

31.8

Diff.

-1.1

-3.2

+4.9

+65.8

+48.5

+13.3

-1.6

-0.9

(%)

-7.6

-7.9

+5.2

+12.3

+7.2

+4.6

-1.5

-2.8
16

Historical

2.6

7.1

13.1

158.4

156.3

183.6

25.3

9.8

River
Historical
MaximumMonthly
Flows
(cms)

Mean
Monthly
Flows
(cms)

15

N

MALAYSIA**

Locations of the selected
stream gauging stations andwatersheds

Selected Sub
Sub--regions in Peninsular Malaysia
based on RiverRiver-basin

Validation of Simulated Streamflow
with Observed Streamflow

LegendMaximumFlow

Figure 1 : Observed monthly mean flow
and simulated monthly mean flow at J Guillemard Kelantan
18

Minimum Flow

17

302

Figure 2: Simulated Monthly River Flow
Periodic Means and Standard Deviations

19

20

BACK

RegHCM-SS : A regional hydrologic/atmospherichydroclimate model of Sabah and Sarawak (East Malaysia
region) is under development stage.

Example of the study results : River Flow
• Table 1 is a summary of simulated monthly flows
during the historical and future periods at the
selected Peninsular Malaysia watershed.
• An increase in interannual and intraseasonalvariability with increased hydrologic extremes are
expected in Kelantan,
Kelantan Pahang,
Pahang Terengganu andPerak.
• Increase in maximum monthly flows from 11% to
47% for all over Peninsular Malaysia• Decrease in minimum monthly flows from 31% to
93% for Johor and Selangor.

To study the impact of Climate Changeon the Hydrologic Regime and Water
Resources of Sabah and Sarawak

Domain nesting of RegHCM for Sabah &Sarawak, Malaysia and its surrounding
areas. An inner domain is nested within
the center of the outer domain.

Monthly green fraction [unit: %] for
RegHCM-SSM’s inner domain grids.

21

22

NAHRIM FUTURE HYDROCLIMATEDATABASE

3. Potential Impacts of Climate Change
on Malaysian Water Resources (Irrigation andWater Supply)
Indicator• How to access?
- log on to
http://www.futurehydroclimate.nahrim.gov.my/and register.
• 5 maini modules/parameters:d l /tExtreme droughts

Impacts
Disrupt supply services especially in urban
areas
More severe floods in flood prone
Floods in some areas not normally flooded
under the present climate– Precipitation– Evapotranspiration– Soil Water Storage– Surface Temperature– Streamflow

Higher rainfall intensity

23

More severe and frequent landslides anderosion, thus Increased sedimentation inreservoirs and rivers

24

303

Indicator
Lower rainfalls

Projected rainfalls
event affect theirrigation system

Impacts

4. Assessing Vulnerability
and Strategies of Adaptation

Water supply stress situation for irrigation anddomestic/industrial water supply• To develop good water harvesting techniques for water conservation forboth irrigation and water supply besides reducing Non-Revenue Water(NRW) and improving irrigation efficiency

MADA Granary (Northwest) area is expected
to have 57 months of water deficit and 183
months of water surplus in the projection
period of 2025-2034 & 2041-2050.
p
The monthly water surplus range:+6 MCM to 2500 MCM

KADA (Northeast) Granary area is projected
to have an extreme surplus which isindicating the possibility of flooded conditions
in some of the paddy areas up to 5400 MCM• To improved weather forecasting system as supporting tool for
improving water resources management• To review floods managementgand structural integrity
g y• To impose “No Regret” actions:i. promoting awareness,ii. capacity building,iii. encouraging the organizations and the public to takeaffirmative action to evaluate and respond to climate change

25

26

Example of “No Regret” actions which could reduce orabsorb any negative impacts of climate change on water
resources

CONCLUSION• Malaysian water infrastructure is very likely can not sustain
thunderstorms which is more extreme due to the climate change• promoting the use of RegHCM-PM model by NAHRIM, updating ofwater resources status and requirement for Malaysia that will
incorporate considerations for climate change by Ministry of Natural
Resources and Environment (NRE) through the Department of
Irrigation and Drainage (DID) and promoting the Integrated River
Basin Managementg((IRBM)) and Integratedg
Flood Managementg((IFM))
led by NRE and DID• Flooding will be predicted more serious and devastating to ourassets and life.
• FrequentFt droughtd
ht problems
blwill
ill further
f th decreasedth river
the
i
fl
flow.
• The expected changes in the hydrologic regime of Malaysia due tothe impact of climate changes may require significant planning of
the Malaysia’s water resources to accommodate aforesaid changes
into the future water balances over the Malaysia

27

28

THANK YOUCám ơn quý vị rât nhiềuTERIMA
KASIH

29

304

Union of Myanmar
Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation
Irrigation Department

Outline of Presentation• General• Status of water resources• Potential Impacts in Myanmar• Water resources development works• Potential climate change impacts to the water
environment• Adaptation• Conclusion

Climate Change Impacts to theWater Environment and Adaptation
Options
Mr. Tint Zaw , Director,
Dr. Mu Mu Than, Staff Officer
Irrigation Department
MyanmarMarch ,2010

1

2

Water Resources

GeneralAnnual Surface and Groundwater Potential in Myanmar

Total area – 67.65 million hectares( 656500 sq‐km)
There are three seasons(Dry, Rainy, Cold )Annual Rainfall :Southern part ‐ 2500mm ‐5000 mm
Delta region ‐ 2200 mm – 3750 mm
And Zone‐ 1000 mm

River
Basin
NumberSr

Rainy Days
Northern Part ‐ 75~100 days
Arid Zone‐ 30 ~40 days

Name ofPrincipal River
Basin

Catchment
area for eachstretch(thousandsq.km)

Averageestimatedannualsurfacewater (km³)

Estimatedgroundwater
potential(km³)
57.5781.

I

Chindwin River

115.30141.2932.

IIUpper Ayeyarwaddy River(up to its confluence with
Chindwin River)193.30227.920

92.5993

III

Lower Ayeyarwaddy River(From
confluencewith
Chindwin to its mouth)

95.60

85.80

153.249

4.

IV

Sittoung River

5.

V

Rivers in Rakhine State

58.30

139.24541.774

6.

VI

Rivers in Taninthari Division

40.60

130.927

39.2787VIIThanlwin River(From Myanmar boundary to
its mouth)

158.00257.91874.779

8.

VIII

Mekong River(Within Myanmar territory)

28.60

17.6347.054

737.801081.885

494.713

48.10

TOTAL

81.14828.4023

4

Water Resources Development Works

Potential Impacts in Myanmar••••• In coastal area and delta‐Cyclone ( Storm), flood‐change of rainfall pattern and intensity‐moving of shore line
‐sea water intrusion• Middle part ( Central Dry Zone)‐ drought (non‐rainy days, 2‐3 weeks)‐ annual rainfall is less than normal‐ lesser inflows into the reservoirs

to boast mainly agricultural production
to increase .irrigated area
Implemented 230 water resources projects after 1988
Implemented polders and sluice in delta
Dry Zone Area

Delta and coastal Area

-to ensure getting sufficient for the- to control the sea water intrusion

cultivation of crops.

- to mitigate of flood impacts-to keep greening the environment

in the flood prone region- to supply drinking water to local
people56305

Damage of Embankments /Polders

Potential Climate Change Impacts• Total length 1079 km (11.562 million m³)• Damaged Embankments/Polders
Ayeyarwaddy Division
20 polders
14 embankments (along the coastal line)
Yangon Division
7 embankments• Delta Area
‐ Flooding‐ Farmland, towns and cities (protected by embankments)‐ Storms (cyclone)‐ Cyclone Mala(2005) and Nargis (2008)• Dry Zone Area
‐ decrease of annual rainfall‐ rising temperature‐ lesser inflows into reservoir‐ water scarcity

Location map of Polders and Embankments damaged by Cyclone Nargis in Ayeyarwady Division
Ngaputaw Tsp.
1.Alegyun(1) polder
Paddy-1
2.Alegyun(2) polder
Paddy-1
3.Alegyun(3) polder
Paddy-1
4.Magyibinmadaukan
Maubin District

YangonPathein
MaubinTwantePathein District

Myaungmya

WakemaNgaputaw

Kyaiklatt District
Myaungmya District
KyaiklattPyapon District

Kungyangone
DaydayeDaydaye District

Bogalay
PyaponPyapon Tsp.
19.Dawnyein polder
Paddy-1
20.Myokone polder
Paddy-1
21.Kyetphamwezaung Paddy-1
22.Banbwezu
Paddy-1
23.Daydalu
Paddy-1
24.Letpanbin
Paddy-1
25.Zinbaung
Paddy-1

Labutta

Myaugmya District
Labutta Tsp.
5.Thingangyi
6.Zinywe
7.Leikkwin
8.Labutta(South)
9.Labutta(North)
10.U Gaungpu
11.Bitud Island(1)12.Bitud Island(2)13.Bitud Island(3)14.Bitud Island(4)7

Potential Climate Change Impacts to the Water
Environment Storm History in Delta and Coastal
Area
Date

Peak
Surge(m)Land fall point

Death
toll

Bogalay Tsp.
15.Daunggyi polder
16.Daunggyi(East)
17.Daunggyi(West)
18.Daunggyi(Upper)

Paddy-1
Paddy-2
Paddy-2
Paddy-2

Paddy-1
Paddy-1
Paddy-1
Paddy-1

Daydaye Tsp.
26.Myaseinkan
27.Thandi
28.Suclubbaluma
29.Hleseikchaunggyi
30.Tamatakaw
31.Kyonsoat

8

Kyaiklatt Tsp.
32.Maubin Island(North)
33.Maubin Isladn(South)
34.Thonegwakyun
Paddy-2

Location of Project Sites

No

Name

1

Sittwe Cyclone

7.5.1968

4.25

Near Sittwe

1037

800million

2

Pathein Cyclone

7.5.1975

3.00

Near Pathein

304

776 million

Lossesestimated(kyats)3

Gwa Cycloney4.5.1982

3.70

Near Gwa

31

38 million

4

Maungdaw
Cyclone2.5.1994

3.66

Near Maungdaw

1078 million

5

Mala Cyclone

29.4.2006

4.57

Near Gwa/Yangon

37 1264 million

6

Akash Cyclone

14.5.2007‐

Rakhine State14

589 million

7

Nargis Cyclone

2.5.2008 to
3.5.2008

7.02

Ayeyarwady/Mon
Yangon138000

11 Trillion

Kyetmauktaung Dam

Nankathu Dam

9

10

Nankathu Dam Project• Location‐• Project Term‐
• Provided Spillway‐
Service Spillway‐‐
Emergency Spillway‐• After biggest flood (2006)‐ Head over spillway crest‐

Paddy-1
Paddy-1

New Emergency Spillway(Nankathu Dam)

Ayeyarwady Division
1995‐1996 to 2000‐2001
150 ft ( 45.72 m )120 ft ( 3636.5757 m )
10.6 ft ( 3.23 m )

11

12

306

Kyetmauktaung Dam
Location

Year

Rainy
day

-

Adaptation

Mandalay Division
Rainfall(inch)

Year(mm)(inch)

1988

78

43.93

1115.8

1998

31

26.65

676.0

71

37.25

946.5

1999

70

38.23

971.0

2000

56

34.88

885 0
885.0

2001

52

33.51

851.0

68

40.92

1039.0
662.0

1990

72

31.26

794.0

83

36.28

921.5

1992

72

33.82

860.0

2002

1993

67

28.21

716.0

2003

39

26.10

– To reserve wet land and mangrove forest– To restore the watershed– To introduce emergency spillway

(mm)

1989

1991

• Delta and Coastal Region

Rainfall

Rainy
day

1994

69

33.64

855.0

2004

39

26.36

669.0

1995

84

40.92

1040.0

2005

56

31.77

806.0

1996

74

35.68

906.0

2006

48

42.43

1077.0

1997

51

29.99

761.0

2007

46

29.13

739.0

• Dry Zone Region– To launch greening project (JICA, NGOs,
helping)– Afforestation in watershed– Introducing modulating dams upstream– Natural disaster warning system– Worked out emergency preparedness plan13

14

Conclusion

continuous• Concerning with the climate change impacts on water
environment, while insufficient or aging infrastructure is achallenge for both, financing, strengthening capacity andimproving legal frame works are core concerns particularly indeveloping countries as Myanmar.
• Participation in Seminar, Workshop and cooperation programs
off climate
li t changehhhas tto beb donedtot sharehiinformationfti anddlearn from other countries, with a view to enhance present
ways of responding to climate change and efficient
formulation of strategies.
• Since Meteorological Stations play a curtail role in observing
and predicting climate changes, more stations need to beinstalled in strategic locations of river basins.

• Assessment of past and present climate change needs to bemade using the measured data covering the atmosphere, soil
surface, water, sea , snow and ice. Impacts of climate change
on water environment should be assessed, options to respondshould be developed and realistic response strategies should
be formulated
formulated.

15

16

17

307

Climate Change Impacts to theWater Environment and
Adaptation Options in thePhilippines¹
by:Lourdes V. Tibig2
1Presented at the WEPA first International Workshop held in Hanoi, Vietnam on 8-9 March 2010.
2Climate Change Expert, Phase 1 of the MDGF Joint Programme for Climate Change Adaptation of the Philippines

1and Technical Expert, Vulnerability and Adaptation Assessment Component of the Second National Communicationof the Philippines to the UNFCCC

2The Philippine Watersheds

Causes of watershed degradation¾ At least 70% of the total land area of thecountry is found in watersheds of varying sizes

Direct:¾ Watersheds with an area of at least 105 ha(river basins) which comprise 7
7.8
8 m ha of thewatershed areas¾ Erosive upland agricultural practices¾ Inappropriate forestry practices¾ Overgrazing¾ Poor water resource management¾ Unplanned and unregulated conversion¾ Increasing industrialization¾ Watersheds continue to be the principal
sources of water for domestic, agriculture,industrial and commercial uses in the country(around 975 MCM of water/day)
3

4

Indirect:

Indirect:¾ Excessive population growth¾ Pervasive upland poverty and absence of
viable livelihoods¾ Lack of markets and other livelihood support
systems¾ Land tenure¾ Inadequate knowledge about watershedmanagement¾ Inappropriate conservation technologies¾ Lack of access to capital resources¾ Absence of mechanisms to facilitate
coordination of mandates of various agencies¾ AbsenceAb
off appropriatei t schemehforf valuationl ti
and pricing of watershed resources¾ Inadequate land use and management plans¾ Inconsistent policy frameworks

5

6

308

Description of water resources in thePhilippines

Description of water resources in thePhilippines¾ 12 water resource regions (defined byhydrological boundaries, physiographic
features and climate homogeneity)¾ Most extensive rivers systems are the Rio
Grande which flows into the Mindanao river,
the Agusan, which flows into the Mindanao
Sea, the Cagayan in Northern Luzon and theP
Pampangawhich
hi h flows
fl
into
i t M
Manilail B
Bay¾ 343 independent principal river basins (ofareas of at least 4,000 ha each) covering
66.5% of country’s total land area

¾ 61 lakes with an aggregate area of 200,00 ha(Laguna de Bay is the largest in Philippines
and second largest in Southeast Asia)
7

8

Description of water resourcesin the Philippines

Description of water resourcesin the Philippines¾ Per capita water availability is only
1,907cu.meters. Drinking water supply is
distributed unevenly¾ Extensive groundwater resource (aggregate
area of 50,000 sq. km and storage of about
251,158 MCM, but safe yield is only 31,554
MCM)¾ Current water demand is divided among:* Agricultural
80%* Commercial and industrial
16%* Domestic
4%¾ Dependable yield is an aggregate of 975
MCM/day (from surface runoff of 833
MCM/day and from groundwater safe yield of
142 MCM/day)
9

10

Projected Changes in Annual Mean Rainfall
Relative to the Period 1971-2000(based on SRES A1B)

Climate change scenarios for 2020
and 2050*¾ Mean seasonal temperatures are expected torise by about 0.8ºC to 1.2ºC for 2020 and
1.7ºC to 2.4ºC by 2050;

45

15
5
-5

309

ARMM

R12

R11

R10

R09

R08

R04

R03

R02

R01

R07

REGIONCARAGA

2050_________________________________________________________________________________
11* IACCC/EMB 2009; enabling activities for the preparation of the SNC on climate change to the
UNFCC, UNDP GEF project No. 00037339

CAR

-35
2020

R06

-15
-25
R05

¾ Projection of seasonal temporal rainfall
variation is largest (-35% to 40%) during
MAM and JJA

NCRPercent (%)

35
25

12

Projected Change in Seasonal Mean
Rainfall Relative to the Period 1971-2000(based on SRES A1B)
MAM
35
25
Percent(%)

45

35
25
15
5
-5
-15
-25

REGION

SON
45

35
25

35
25
Percent(%)

45

15
5
-5
-15
-25

25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
0

Water Available

VVI

VII VIII

Water Demand 2005

IX

X

ARMM

R12
CARAG A

R10
R11

R09

R07
R08

R05
R06

R03
R04

NCR

R02

R01

ARMM

R12

R11

R10

R09

R08

R07

R06

R05

NCR

R04

R03

R02

CAR

14

* Improve watershed management including the
adoption of integrated watershed and ecosystemmanagement* Build capacity to capture excess water during
the rainy/wet season (to have enough stored
water for use during dry months) e.g. small
water-impounding projects or SWIPs for
irrigation

30000

IV

REGION¾ Maximize the potential water resources availability

35000

III

2050

Water supply side management

Water availability vs. water demand [using 2005 water
demand baseline]

II

2020

Adaptation Options

Projections: 2025

I

5
-5
-15
-25
-35

REGIONCARAGA

2050

R01

-35
2020

15

CAR

Percent(%)

JJA

13

R12
CARAG A
ARMM

2050

R07
R08
R09
R10
R11

ARMM

R10
R11

REGIONR12CARAG A

R08
R09

R06
R07

R03
R04

NCR
R05

CAR
R02

R01

2050

2020

R03
R04
NCR
R
R05
R06

-25
-35

-35
2020

15
5
-5
-15

R01
CAR
R02

Percent(% )

DJF
45

XI

XII

Water Demand 2025
15

16

Source: NWRB, 2008

A Small Water Impounding Project

Water demand side management

A SWIP in Villa
Boado, Talugtug,
Nueva Ecija showing
the embankment (15meters high) and thedominantly grassland
watershed. Fish israised in fish cages¾ Maximize the use of water and minimize
wastes of water* Practice of soil and water conservation
techniques (e.g. contour farming, mulching
and terracing, hedgerows planting and zero
tillage, etc.)(Source:http://www.fa
o.org/wocat)* Regular maintenance of irrigation facilities

9 Practice of water augmentation and water harvesting
techniques (e.g. rain harvesting, surface watercollection and storage, stream flow diversion, ponding,
17
etc.)

18

310

The Elements of Integrated Water Management in thePhilippines

Adaptation policies/policy
framework¾ Institutional efforts in both agriculture andwater requirements of the sectors* SWIPs and shallow tube wells;* PromotionPti off soilil andd watert conservationti* Inclusion of a directional plan in theimplementation of integrated water resource
management (IWRM) at all levels of thegovernment

Sustainable Outcome No. 1 - Effective
protection and regulation for water
security and ecosystem health

Sustainable Outcome No. 2 - Sustainable
Water Resources and Responsive Services
for Present and Future Needs

Strategic Themes
9 Ensuring rational, efficient andecologically sustainable allocation ofwater
9 Enhancing effectiveness in groundwater
management and aquifer protection
9 Achieving clean and healthy water
9 Managing and mitigating risks fromwater related disasters and climatechangeStrategic Themes
9 Promoting water
conservation/stewardship
9 Improving water use efficiency expanding
access
9 Ensuring availability of affordable andresponsive water supply and sanitation
services

Sustainable Outcome No. 3 - Improved
effectiveness, accountability, andsynergy among water related
institutions and stakeholders

Sustainable Outcome No. 4 - Adaptive andProactive Response to Future Challenges

Strategic Themes
9 Promoting participatory water
governance and supportive enabling
environment
9 Strengthening knowledge management
and building capacity for IWRM

19

Strategic Themes
9 Exploring innovative pathways to water
resource management:o Water sensitive design: ensuring
sustainable and environmentallysound development and water
management practices
o Water trading: towards a more 20
efficient allocation of water

The IWRM¾ Need for changing an economic price forwater¾ Need for cost recovery in the case of all
water services (no final implementation
mechanisms yet)E-mail address: lvtibig@yahoo.com
21

22

311

Climate Change Impacts to theWater Environment: Thailand

Overview of Presentation
Introduction
Climate Change Impacts on Water Resources Impacts of Climate Change in Thailand Potential Impacts of Climate Change to Water
Quality Thailand's Position on Climate Change Thailand's FiveFive-Year Strategies on Climate Change(20082008-20122012))
 Adaptation Options and Measures Conclusions and Recommendations

Wijarn Simachaya, Ph.D
Pollution Control Department
Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment1
http://www.pcd.go.th

2

Climate Change in Thailand

Introduction

1994: baseline of 286 million t CO
1994:
CO22-eq/yr
eq/yr441999
1999--2004
2004:: GHG emissions grew by 30
30%%
 2008
2008:: Thailand ranks 24th emitter country 2030 Projections: 840 million t CO
CO22-eq/yr ((5050%
% power, 50
50%%
industry and transport)

Climate provides fundamental limits on andopportunities for human activities and ecosystem
functioning within the region. A changing climate
could lead to alterations in the frequency and severityof droughts and floods; water supply; air, soil, andwater
t quality;
lit ecosystemt health;
h lth humanhhealthand
h lth dresource use and the economy as well as quality oflife.
 Thailand produces only 0.8% of the world’s carbon
dioxide emissions, and has a lower per capita
emission rate than the global average (3.25 metrictons in 2002,
2002, compared with 3.97 per capita
worldwide).




70

Countries with Largest Percentage Increase in Emissions: 1994-2004

60

1994-1999
1999-2004

Percent

50

40

30

20

10

0

3

M alaysia

Climate Change Impacts on
Water Resources

Thailand

China

Iran

Spain

India

Saudi
ArabiaTurkeyEgypt

UnitedArab
Emirates

Indonesia

Mean
AnnualRainfall in
ThailandFreshwater resources and it ecosystem are highly sensitive tovariations in weather and climate.
climate.
 The changes in global climate that are occurring as a result of
the accumulation of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere willaffect patterns of freshwater availability and will alter theffrequencies
i off flfloodsd andd ddroughts
h as wellll as water quality.
li Climate model simulations and other analyses suggest that
total flows, probabilities of extreme high or low flow
conditions, seasonal runoff regimes, groundwatergroundwater-surface
water interactions and water quality could all be significantly
affected by climate change.
 The distribution of precipitation in space and time is very
uneven, leading to tremendous temporal variability in water
resources worldwide
Researcher at the Hydro and Agro Informatics Institute

5

312

6

Impacts of Climate Change in Thailand

Vulnerability to Climate Change

Water Environment: The Case of the Mekong Basin
Lancang Basin

Source: SEDAC, Columbia
University, 2008

Tottal Rainfall (mcm/month)

45,000

Impact: Sea level
Effect Æ Inundation
 Impact: Sea temp.
Effect Æ Acidification
 Impact: Precipitation
Effect Æ Flooding Impact: Droughts
Effect Æ Bad harvests
 Impact:
Impact: Ecosystemchanges
Effect Æ Sub
Sub--tropicallife zones disappearSource: Southeast Asia
START Resource Centre

7

The Increasing of Sea Level

During 30 years Thailand’s coast was eroded about 21% of the coastal
area

1xCO2

40,0002xCO235,00030,000

Upstream Lancang subbasin China, to expect
20% less rainfall

25,00020,00015,00010,000
5,000
0
1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

Month

y Increased vulnerability due to floods –potential for more intense floods in the Korat
Plateau and southern lowland (especially in
September and October)y Decreased Water Supply – in the long term it
is predicted that there will be a significant
reduction in the supply of water in the upper
Mekong (Yunnan) region. There will be water
shortages in the Southern landforms due to thelonger dry season.

Severe Drought in the Central of North-East Regions

Climate change cause the water quantity
decrease 5-10 % which effect agricultural
productivity (TEI)

9

10

Incidence of Disasters
Severe Flood

Even overall the average rainfall decrease but in recent year the frequencyof severe rainfall increase caused the flood in many areas

11

12

313

Impacts of Climate Change to Water Quality(Cont.)

Potential Impacts of Climate Change to Water Quality

The health of a waterbody is dependent upon its ability toeffectively self purify through biodegradation. Thus,
increases in low
low--flow episodes could reduce assimilative
capacity. Stream flow reduction will be less dilution ofpollutants.
 Higher water temperatures and changes in the timing,
intensity and duration of precipitation can affect water
intensity,
quality.
 Higher temperatures reduce dissolved oxygen levels,
which can have an effect on aquatic life.
 There will be extended thermal stratification and lessmixing, increasing the potential for anoxia, and anincrease in the metabolic rates of invertebrates andmicrobes.
 Increased frequency and intensity of rainfall will produce
more pollution and sedimentation due to runoff

Increased the salinity of coastal rivers causing
saltwater intrusion, movement of saline water into
fresh--water resources especially for the sea level rise
fresh
phenomena.
 Changes in water quality could have implications forall beneficial uses of receving waters.
Freshwater bodies have a limited capacity to process thepollutant charges of the effluents from expanding urban,
industrial and agricultural uses.
 Water quality degradation can be a major cause of water
scarcity.


13

14

Thailand's Position on Climate Change

Thailand’s Vision Statement

Convention
Thailand Signed the UNFCCC in June 1992 at UNCED and Ratified the UNFCCC in
December 1994;
1994; and“Thailand is a climate-resilient society
and cooperates with the global
community to mitigate climate changebase on the principle of sustainable
development”
development

Kyoto Protocol


Thailand signed the Kyoto Protocol in February 1999 and Ratified in August 2002.
2002.

CDM Project

The Government supports the projects which contribute to the GHGs emission reduction
under CDM (Clean Development Mechanism)

OthersParticipation in the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer, and theMontreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, as well as otherinternational coco-operations.



Organization
The government has established the Thailand Greenhouse Gas Organization, to deal
specifically with the clean development mechanism under the Kyoto Protocol.



15

16

17

18

Thailand's Five
Five--Year Strategies on Climate
Change ((20082008--2012)
2012)
The measures of Thailand’s Strategies on Climate Change
include:- Building capacity to adapt and reduce vulnerability to
climateclimate--change impacts;- Promoting greenhousegreenhouse-gas mitigation activities based onsustainable development;p;- Supporting research and development to better understandclimate change, its impacts, and adaptation and mitigation
options;- Raising awareness and promoting public participation;- Building capacity of relevant personnel and institutions andestablishing a framework of coordination and integration;
integration; and- Supporting international cooperation to achieve the goal ofclimateclimate--change mitigation and sustainable development.

314

Thailand: Livestock Waste Management Program

Public Participation and Awareness Raising

The project aims to improve the livestock waste management practiceand take advantage of the captured renewable energy in the form of
biogas in 10 swine farms with the total of 130
130,,000 animals
The project is expected to reduce GHG emission by 530
530,,000 t CO2
CO2e by2019.
2019.
The project will convert open anaerobic lagoons to covered lagoons tocapture and utilize methane to generate electricity for consumption
within the participating swine farms and sell to electricity authority

School for Better Climate Program

20

Adaptation Measures

Adaptation Options
•

•

•
•

Adaptation is a process by which
individuals, community and countries
seek to cope with the consequences ofclimate change and variability.
Prepared for sociosocio-economic andenvironmental adaptation
Identify and propose adaptation options
Immense opportunities for private sector(new markets, new technologies, and new
business models….Greenmodels….Green Economy)
Economy)Assessing and evaluating potential adaptation
measures Choosing preferred adaptation measures
 Developing action plans that contain a portfolio ofadaptationdi measures andd incorporateimeans toaddress barriers to adaptation
 Implementing adaptations
 Monitoring impacts and adaptation measures for
effectiveness Reassessing adaptation measures


21

22

Conclusions

Conclusions (Cont.)

Global warming will detrimentally affect water
quality, thus challenging our longstanding historicaluse of the surface water.
 Depending on changes in the amount and seasonal
distribution of precipitation, watersheds may
experiencep
an increased likelihood of winter floodingg
and reduced late summer flows.
flows. Saline intrusion into
coastal aquifers and freshwater ecosystem are likely
to become an increasing problems as a result of seasealevel rise
rise.. This may impact on aquatic ecosystems
and water quality.
quality.
 The possible impacts of climate change throughenhanced institutional flexibility and consideration ofclimate--related risks in the planning process could be
climatedetermined
determined..
Warming will cause hydrologic changes thatwill affect freshwater resources.
resources. These areamong the most significant potential impactsof climate change.
change.
 Climate change will present challenges towater utilities, and planning now could prevent
freshwater crisis in upcoming years.
years.


23

24

315

Think Big,
Take Small Steps

Recommendations













Prepare for vulnerability in the ecosystem: protect river flow for key
habitats
Restore and maintain watershed as integrated strategy for managing
water quantity, water quality and its ecosystem
Acknowledge the interactions of ground and surface waters
Emphasispon adaptationp
ppractices rather than just
j gettinggg the policiespin place.
Building up the capacity to support assessments, research, community
engagement, and implementation of adaptation measures
Develop the information on the scientific basis for climate change andthe implications for hydrology.
Consider emerging issues with increasing the pressure: Climate Change
and Adaptations in the region, Coastal erosion / mangrove degradation, theNeed for integrated water resources management (IWRM), CoCo-benefits of25
water environment and climate changes management

26

316

Evident of Climate changes in Vietnam: (Source:
Climate change, sea level rise scenarios, Monre 2009)

Potential impacts of climate change
to water and adaptation plan in
Vietnam- Temperature: 1958-2007 annual average increase
0.5-0.7 oC- Rainfall: Decreasing in Northern part, andincreasing in Southern part. Average 1958-2007:
decreasing 2%- Cold fronts reduced in the last two decades. But
anomalous more frequently- Typhoon: more typhoon with higher intensity- Drizzle: average number of drizzle days in Hanoi
decreased during last 10 years- Sea level: 3mm/year during 1993-2008 (inHondau: 20cm over 50 years)
2

Dr. Hoang Duong Tung
Center for Environmental Monitoring
Vietnam Environment Administration

Impact example:- 1996-2008: typhoon, land slides,
flooding, drought
9600 people dieddied, lost 1
1.5%
5%
GDP/year- 2007: 435 died, damage of 7800
houses, 113,800 ha of rise, 1500km
of dikes in total 11,600 billions VND,
1% GDP- Early 2008: cold front last 40 days 3

4

21 st century Scenarios for Vietnam- Most harmonious scenario is the medium one(B2) is recommended to all stakeholders- Scenarios for temperature and rainfall: for 7
climate zones in Vietnam: North West, North
East, North Delta, North Central, South
Central, Central Highlands, and South- High uncertainties in prediction

Temperature: by the end of century- Increasing by 2.3oC compared to
1980-1990 period.
- In Northern and Northern Central
zones: increasing faster thanSouthern zones

5

6

317

Rainfall:

Sea level: (compared with 1980-1990
period)- Increasing
g by
y 5%
% comparedpto 19801990- In Northern: increasing more than inSouthern- Mid of 21 Century: 30cm
- End of 21 century: 75 cm

7

8

9

10

Most sensitive areas in Vietnam:- Mekong River Delta in the south- Red River Delta- Coastal zones in central areas- Cities: Hochiminh City, Can Tho, Hai
Phong, Hue, Ca Mau, ….

11

12

Source: Climate change scenarios for Vietnam, Monre 2009

Source: Climate change scenario for Vietnam, Monre 2009

318

13

14

Source: Climate change scenario for Vietnam, Monre 2009

Source: Climate change scenario for Vietnam, Monre 2009

Adaptation actions:
1. Central level: Monre is Standing Vice Chairman of National

Climate change:- Long term changes- Short term variability- Extreme events (droughts, heavy floods…)
Water quality= f(physical, chemical, biologicalcharacteristics)
Impacts:- Water quality deterioration- Ecosystem deterioration- Human health impacts

Committee– Prime Minister’s Approval of National Target
Program to respond to Climate Change (Decision
158/2008/QD-TTg),2008– Monre’s Plan, June 2008: Climate change
Scenarios for Vietnam– Other line ministries and sectors: prepare
adaptation plans– Other actions: research, capacity preparation, publicawareness, workshops, ….

2. Provincial Level:

15– Prepare adaptation plans

16

National Target Program to respond to Climate
Change (Decision 158/2008/QD-TTg),2008

National Target Program to respond to Climate
Change (Decision 158/2008/QD-TTg),2008• 3 phases: starting up (2009-2010), implementation (2011-2015),
development (2015 -)• National Committee: Prime Minister- Chairman, Monre Minister –Standing Vice chairman. Members: Ministers of other ministries(MARD, Finance, Planning and Investment, Foreign affairs…)• Objective: assess CC impacts and develop feasible action plans• Tasks and solutions (for 2 phases):

NTP (Continued)• Financial mechanism and resource mobilization• Annex: list of 26 tasks and projects for implementing the National
Target Program (NTP), Total budget: 1965 billions VND– assessment of CC extent and impacts in VN,– identification of measures to respond to CC,– development of science and technology program on CC,– strengthening capacities of organizations, institutions and policy on CC,– awareness raising and human resources development,– international cooperation,– mainstreaming CC issues into socio-economic,– sectoral and local development strategies, plans, and planning,– development of action plans of ministries, sectors and localities,– development and implement projects of the Program
17

18

319

Possible impacts on water
environment

We know• Flood frequencies in some areas are likely to change.
• Drought frequencies in some areas are likely tochange.
• Higher sea levels will push salt water further inland inrivers,iddeltas,lt
andd coastalt l aquifers,
ifadverselydl affect
ff t
the quality and quantity of freshwater supplies inmany coastal areas.
• Water-quality problems will worsen where risingtemperatures: changes in flow, runoff rates andtiming, and the ability of watersheds to assimilate
wastes and pollutants complex positive and negativechanges in water quality- Many uncertainties remain; indeed, we expect that
uncertainties will always remain- At the same time, not everything is uncertain- In many cases and in many locations, there iscompelling scientific evidence that climate changes
will pose serious challenges to our water systems.
- It is vital that uncertainties not be used to delay or
avoid taking certain kinds of action now- A continued reliance solely on current engineering
practice may lead us to make incorrect – andpotentially dangerous or expensive – decisions.
19

20

Possible impacts on water
environment

Key messages for adaptation:• Aquatic ecosystems can be highly sensitive to hydroclimatic factors, particularly water temperature, water
quality, the probability of extreme events, and flow
volumes, rates, and timing.
• Relative sea-levelsea level rise adversely affects groundwateraquifers and freshwater coastal ecosystems.
• Lakes: lake levels and salinity, nutrient cycling andproductivity, stressing for cold-water fish, improved
habitat for warm-water fish, increased productivity
and lower dissolved oxygen, and degraded water
quality.

-

Is not stand alone issue
Need to be integrated into allddevelopmentlt planningliRequire capacity for short and longplanning
Require substantial funding

21

22

Challenges for Vietnam

Issues to be covered• Strong national climate and water monitoring and research
program should be developed,• Better methods of planning under climate uncertainty should
be developed and applied.

1. Identification of adaptation options,priorities
2 Planning
2.
Pl
i and
d implementing
i lti
adaptation: roles of stakeholders
3. Capacity and resources: human,financial, and technical
4. Public awareness and participation• Governments at all levels should re-evaluate legal, technical,
and economic approaches for managing water resources inth light
theli ht off potential
t ti l climate
li t changes.
h• Improvements in the efficiency of end uses and theintentional management of water demands must now be
considered major tools for meeting future water needs,
particularly in water-scarce regions.
• Water managers should begin a systematic reexamination ofengineering designs, operating rules, contingency plans, andwater allocation policies under a wider range of climate
conditions and extremes than have been used traditionally.

23

24

320

Issues to be concerned (cont.)• Cooperation between water agencies and leading scientificorganizations can facilitate the exchange of information on
the state-of-the-art thinking about climate change andimpacts on water resources.
• The timely flows of information among the scientific globalchange community, the public, and the water-management
community are valuable.

Thanks for your attention• Traditional and alternative forms of new supply can play arole in addressing changes in both demands and supplies
caused by climate changes and variability: wastewater
reclamation and reuse, water marketing and transfers,• Prices and markets are increasingly important for balancing
supply and demand.
• Legal tools for managing and allocating water resources.

25

26

321