IONIZING RADIATION:
SOURCES AND BIOLOGICALEFFECTS
United Nations Scientific Committee
on the Effects of Atomic Radiation
1982 Report to the General Assembly, with annexes

UNITED NATIONSNew York, 1982

NOTE
The report of the Committee without its annexes appears as Official Records of the General Assembly, Thirtyseventh Session, Supplement No. 45 (A/37/45).
The designations employed and the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expression of
any opinion whatsoever on the part oft he Secretariat of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country,
territory. city or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

UNITED NATIONS PUBLICATION
Sales No. E.82.IX.806300PANNEXE
Exposures resulting from nuclear explosions

CONTENTSParagraphs

Paragraphs

INTRODUCTION ....................... .

1-4

I. INPUT AND TRANSPORT OF RADIOACTIVE DEBRIS WITHIN THE ATMOSPHERE ........................ .

5-15

II. INTERNAL IRRADIATION ......... .

16-106

A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.

G.
H.
I.

Tritium ......................... .
Carbon-14 ...................... .
Manganese-54 ................... .
Iron-SS ......................... .
Krypton-SS ...................... .
Strontium-90 ..........•..........
I.
Inventory and deposition ..... .
2.
Transfer from deposition to diet3.
Transfer from diet to bone .....
4.
Transfer coefficient relatingstrontium-90 concentration inbone to dose ................ .
5.
Dose commitments from strontium-90 .................... .
Strontium-89 .................... .
Ruthenium-106 .................. .
lodine-131 ...................... .

J.

100-106

Ill. EXTERNAL IRRADIATION ......... .

107-113

IV. SUMMARY OF DOSE COMMITMENTS FROM NUCLEAR EXPLOSIONS ............................. .

114-118

K.

16-22
23-27
28-30
31-32
33-34
35-54
35-39
40-46
47-50
51-52
53-54
55-59
60-61
62-69

L.
M.
N.

Since the publication of the 1977 report of theCommittee [U6], a few additional nuclear tests haveoccurred in the atmosphere of the northern hemisphere.
In this Annex, therefore, the total inventory of radionuclides from nuclear tests has been re-assessed and theconsequent changes in the dose commitments havebeen evaluated.
2. The transfer of radionuclides between compartments of the environment linking the input of radionuclides to the dose in man has been modelled in thesame way as in the previous reports of the Committee
and can be represented schematically as follows:

74-76
77-81
82-83
84-89
90-91
92-106
94-99

Page

References ...................•...........

245

INHALATION

Introduction
1.

70-81
70
71-73

Caesium-137 .................... .
1.
Inventory and deposition ..... .
2.
Transfer from deposition to dietTransfer from diet to human tis3.
sues ....................... .
4.
Dose commitments from caesium-137 .................... .
Caesium-136 .................... .
Barium-140 ..................... .
Cerium-144 ..................... .
Plutonium and transplutonium elements .......................... .
1.
Dose commitments from inhalation ....................... .
2.
Dose commitments from ingestion ....................... .

t

I
INPUT
(0)

-

ATHOSPHERE(1)-

EARTH'S SURFACE
(2)

-

DI ET
(3)

-

TISSUE
(4)

I

I

-

DOSE
(5)
t

EXTERNAL IRRADIATION_ _ _ _t

Transfers between successive steps in the pathway
chains are described by transfer coefficients, which
relate infinite time integrals of concentration, dose orother quantities in the relevant compartments (seeAnnex A of this report and Annex C of the 1977 report[U6]). For example, the transfer coefficient from diet totissue is the ratio of the integral concentration ofactivity in tissue to that in diet and is designated P34.
Transfers linking input to dose are determined by211

sequential multiplication of transfer coefficients.
Transfers by parallel pathways are assumed to be
independent and are thus additive. For the transfers
indicated in the diagram the dose commitment for a
specific radionuclide and a given tissue, oc. due to an
input A0 into the atmosphere is given byoc = Po1 [P12 P23 P34 P45 + P14 P45 ++ P1s + P12P25JA0{I)

3. In addition to dose commitments, estimates arealso made of the collective dose commitments and thecollective effective dose equivalent commitments,
according to the general methods presented in Annex
A. The specific assumptions regarding the global
population size are as follows: 3.2 109 persons in theearly 1960s during the maximum exposures from
nuclear explosions, applied to inhalation exposures andto exposures to radionuclides with half-lives less than a
few years; an average population size of 4 109 persons
applied to exposures from radionuclides with half-lives
from 10 to 30 years; 6 109 persons corresponding toexposures from radionuclides with 50- to 90-year halflives; and 1010 persons for exposures from longer-lived
radionuclides.
4. This Annex deals essentially with topics for which
new information has become available since the publication of the 1977 report [U6). The reader is referred toAnnex C of that report for a more detailed presentation. Since this Annex incorporates the SI units, abrief summary for each radionuclide is given withconverted values for the transfer coefficients. The dose
calculations are extended to include estimates of
exposures to nuclear tests which have occurred prior to
1981.

I.

INPUT AND TRANSPORT OF RADIOACTIVE DEBRIS WITHIN THE ATMOSPHERE

5. Nuclear tests have been conducted in the atmosphere since 1945. Large yield test programmes took
place during 1954-1958 and 1961-1962. Continued
individual tests have occurred since 1964. Recent
deposition of fallout radioactivity has been largely due
to the high yield test (4 Mt) which occurred in
November 1976. Smaller atmospheric tests (20 kt each)
took place in September 1977 and in March andDecember 1978. No atmospheric tests were conductedduring 1979. In October 1980, a test of intermediate
yield (0.2 to 1 Mt) occurred.
6. Estimates of the explosive yields of individual
nuclear tests have not generally been available.
Therefore the estimates of the cumulative amounts ofradioactive materials released to the environment havecome from measurements of deposition of significant
fission nuclides (90Sr, 137Cs). Production of othernuclides can be estimated from observed ratios. taking
into account the various radioactive decay times.
7. For some purposes. however, estimates of explosiveand fission yields of individual tests or of annual test
series are required so that more specific records ofconcentrations of radionuclides in air or of deposition
amounts can be derived. An example is 241Am, which is
not directly produced in nuclear tests, but results fromdecay of 241 Pu as it disperses in the atmosphere or after212

it has been deposited on the ground. Estimates of thetotal and fission yields for each reported test through1978 have been made by Bennett [87). This compilation
makes use of previous listings of dates, locations andtypes of tests [US, Zl]. The estimates of individual
yields are useful for calculations but cannot yet beverified. The cumulative yields over a one- or two-year
period agree with the reported total yields [F3], andthese are listed in Table 1. The listing does not include
underground nuclear tests, which do not normallyrelease radioactive material to the atmosphere or cause
exposure of the public.
8. The production of fission nuclides is proportional
to the fission yields of the tests, whereas the productionof nuclidcs formed mainly by neutron activation. suchas 3H and J4C, can be assumed to be proportional to thefusion yields. From Table 1 it may be seen that only
about 10% of the fission production has occurred since
1963 and that about 1% is due to explosions carried out
between 1976 and 1980.
9. The radioactive debris from a nuclear test is partitioned between the local ground or water surface andtropospheric and stratospheric regions, depending on
the type of test, location and yield. Local fallout, which
can comprise as much as SO% of the production forsurface tests and includes activity present in large
aerosol particles which are deposited within about one
hundred km of the test site, has not been considered in
the Committee's assessments, as tests have generally
been conducted in isolated areas.
10. Tropospheric fallout consists of smaller aerosols
which are not carried across the tropopause after the
explosion and which deposit with a mean residence
time of up to 30 d. During this period the debris
becomes dispersed, although not well mixed, in thelatitude band of injection, following trajectories
governed by wind patterns, as illustrated in Figure I.
From the viewpoint of human exposures, troposphericfallout is important for nuclides of a few days to twomonths half-life, such as 1311, 140Ba or S9Sr.
11. Stratospheric fallout, which comprises the bulk of
the production, is due to those particles which arc
carried Lo the stratosphere and later give rise toworld-wide fallout. the major part of which is in thehemisphere of injection. Stratospheric fallout accounts
for most of the world-wide contamination of long-Jived
fission products.
12. The estimated stratospheric partitioning of
nuclear debris is given in Table 2. In this summary from
Bennett [B7], partitioning criteria provided by Ferber[F7] and Peterson [P4) have been used. As shown in
Figure II, the atmosphere is divided into equatorial andpolar regions from Qo to 30° and 30° to 900 latitude,
respectively. The lower stratosphere is assumed to range
from 9 to 17 km in the polar region and from 17 to 24
km in the equatorial region. The upper stratosphere
extends to 50 km altitude. The region above the stratosphere is designated the high equatorial and high polar
atmosphere, which extends to several hundred
kilometres to include the remainder of the region fromwhich debris will eventually be deposited on the earth's
surface. Only a few tests injected debris into this regionof the atmosphere. There have been no injections into
the south polar atmosphere.
13. The main features of mixing processes and air
movements in the atmosphere, illustrated in Figure II,o-----+----oo ....... o0-------0

Trajectory at 200 1.1b isobaric height
Trajectory at JOO mb isobaric height
Trajectory at 500 mb isobaric height

The nud>ers indicate the date in October 11hen
the debris cloud reached the point indicated.

Figure I. Trajectories derived from meteorological data, generally confirmed by activity measurements In
ground-level air, of tropospheric fallout from the atmospheric nuclear explosion of 16 October 1980 [15]

ttPA

l

HEA

HEA

HPA

50

40

GRAVITATIOIIAL SETTLEMENT

.!!
JO

UES

UES

20

10

s

H

T

LPS

-

UPS

-

HPA

-

-

lover polar stratosphere
upper polar stratospherehigh polar atmosphere

troposphere
LES - lo..,.er equatorial !'"tr-at.o~pherc
UES - upper equatorial stro.togphere
HEA - high equatorial ateosphere

Figure II. Atmospheric regions and the predominant atmospheric transport
processes

have been determined largely from the measurementsof radionuclide concentrations (87, 03, Fl, F3, Kl,
KIO, Ml, P2. P4, Rl, S3, T2, U3]. Aerosols descend
gravitationally at highest altitudes and move with thegeneral air movements of lower levels. Eddy diffusionin the lower stratosphere and upper troposphere is theirregular migration of air masses in the general directions indicated in Figure I I. The circular air flow
pattern in the troposphere at lower latitudes is termed
Hadley cell circulation. These cells increase or decreasein size and shift latitudinally with season [Nl 1). The
mean residence time of aerosols in the lower stratosphere ranges from 3 to 12 months in the polar regions
and 8 to 24 months in the equatorial regions, and themost rapid removal occurs during the spring months.
Removal half-time to the next lower region of 6 to 9months in the upper stratosphere and 24 months in thehigh atmosphere are considered representative [87).

14. The estimated total stratospheric mJection of
nuclear debris given in Table 2, when combined withspecific fission yields, is in good agreement withmeasured deposition. For example. 90Sr production isestimated to be about 3.9 P8q per Mt of fission energy,
giving the total production through 1980 of 660 PBq.
The estimate from deposition measurements is 600 PBq(see paragraph 37). Representative fission yields andnormalized production for past nuclear testing arelisted in Table 3. Large deviations are possible forindividual tests. It is assumed that 1 Mt fission energy
corresponds to 1.45 1026 fissions [H8]. This figure times
the fission yield times the decay constant (A. = ln2 / T 112)
for the specific nuclide gives the activity production perunit Mt fission energy.
15. Exposure of humans to fallout radioactivity
consists of internal irradiation (inhalation of activity in213surface air and ingestion of contaminated foodstuffs)
and of external irradiation from activity present insurface air or deposited on the ground.

II.

INTERNAL IRRADIATION

1.9 1020 Bq and 0.5 1020 Bq in the southern hemispherefrom nuclear tests and using the estimation procedure
applied previously (U6], the absorbed dose commitments in tissue from fallout tritium are:
Northern hemisphere:

A. TRITIUM
16. Tritium, a radioactive isotope of hydrogen, is apure beta emitter with average energy of 5.69 keV an? ahalf-life of 12.3 years [K7]. It occurs naturally, be111g
produced in the stratosphere in cosmic ray induced
reactions [U6]. Man-made tritium, in amounts substantially larger than the natural inventory, has been
injected into the stratosphere by thermonuclear explosions. Most of this tritium is in the form of tritiatedwater. After entering the troposphere, tritium enters thehydrological cycle. The ocean is the ultimate sink forenvironmental tritium.
17. In Annex C of the 1977 report, the Committee
estimated the tritium production from nuclear tests
prior to 1970 to be 1.7 1020 Bq [U6], based on anassessment by Michel of tritium inventories in theworld oceans in 1970 [M5]. An estimate by Miske! [M7],using average tritium production values and an earlier
estimate of total fusion yields of nuclear tests
conducted through 1962, was 3.0 1020 Bq.
18. Using the representative tritium pr~duction v~lues
per unit fission and fusion yields, as given by M1~kel[M7). and the estimates of yields from Table 1, a ~ev1sed
estimate of total tritium production can be obta111ed:
Fission 220 Mt x 2.6 JQ13 Bq/Mt = 5.7 JQIS Bq
Fusion 330 Mt x 7.4 )QI? Bq/Mt = 2.4 )020 Bg
Total
2.4 1020 Bg
Production by fusion is far more significant than byfission. About 75% of the production estimate can beassociated with stratospheric injection (from Table 2).
The tropospheric and local releases can, however, also
be expected to have become widely distributed.
19. The United States National Council on Radiation
Protection and Measurements [N3], using a sevencompartment model to describe the transfer of tritiumin the global environment, concluded that the measurements in streams in the United States could be matchedclosely by approximating the tritium released from
weapons testing by a single release ~f 2.6 1020 B_q
injected into the atmosphere in 1962 with 90% of thisamount, or 2.3 1020 Bq, depositing in the northernhemisphere. It was recognized, however, th~t this ov~restimates the total injection since levels 111 the midlatitude region are enhanced by the general fallout
deposition pattern.
20. In this Annex, a value of 2.4 1020 Bq is used for the
total production of 3H and it is assumed that ab~ut 20%of this, that is 0.5 1020 Bq, was transferred 11110 orproduced in the southern hemisphere, as indicated by
the general pattern of fallout deposition measurements(see Table 5).
21. The annual absorbed dose in tissue from natural
tritium has been estimated to be 1~ Gy, which resultsfrom an annual production per hemisphere of 3.7 10 16
Bq, corresponding to a global inventory_ of natural
origin of 1.3 ]018 Bq (see Annex B). Assum mg the total
release to the atmosphere of the northern hemisphere of214

10- 8 Gy a- 1
3.7 10 16 Bq a- 1

1.9 10" 0 Bq == 5.1 10- 5 Gy
Southern hemisphere:

10- 8 Gy a-•
3.7 10 16 Bq a- 1

0.5 I0 20 Bq == 1.4 10- 5 Gy
The effective dose equivalent commitments are 51 µSv(northern hemisphere), 14 µSv (southern hemisphere)
and 47 ~tSv (world). The global value is the populationweighted estimate, assuming 89% of the population in
the northern and 11% in the southern hemisphere.
22. For the appropriate world population of 4 J09
people, the collective effective dose equivalentcommitment is estimated to be 1.9 JOS man Sv. On thebasis of the relative intakes of hydrogen in water by thepathway of inhalation, including passage through t~eskin, and the ingestion pathway [N3]. the dose commitments and effective dose equivalent commitments canbe apportioned as 7% arising from inhalation andabsorption through the skin and 93% from ingestion.
B.

CARBON-14

23. Carbon-14 is a pure beta emitter with averageenergy of 49.5 keV and a half-life of 5730 years [K7]. It
is formed in nuclear explosions from the capture ofexcess neutrons by atmospheric nitrogen. Present in theatmosphere as carbon dioxide, it is taken up by plants
during photosynthesis and is subsequently incorporated
into the human body. The specific activity in humantissue has been found to come into equilibrium withthat in atmospheric C02 with a delay time of about 1.4
years [N9).
24. In Annex C of the 1977 report [U6], theCommittee estimated that the input of man-made 14 C
into the atmosphere up to 1972 was 215 PBq. Subsequent injections have increased this amount by l_ess
than 1%, based primarily on the increase in total fusion
yield of nuclear tests. A rounded estimate of 220 PBq
will be assumed for tests through 1980.
25. The dose commitments from 14c from atmospheric explosions can be assessed, as for the case oftritium, by comparison with the natural 14C annual
absorbed doses, which are given in Annex B as 5 1~
Gy in the gonads, 5.7 1~ Gy in the lungs, 2.2 10-s Gy
in bone lining cells, 2.4 10-s Gy in red bone marrow, 5.9
1~ Gy in the thyroid and 1.3 10-s Gy in other tissues.
The natural 14C production rate is 1 PBq a-I (see Annex
B). The dose commitments from fallout 14C, assumed toapply uniformly in the world, are thus:
Organ or 1iss11e

Gonads
Lungs
Bone lining cells
Red bone marrow
Thyroid
Olher tissues

Dose commitme111
(mGy)

I.I
1.3
4.8
5.3
1.3
2.9

Using ICRP weighting factors, the effective d?se equivalent commitment from 14C from atmospheric explo-

sions is thus found to be 2.6 mSv. On the basis of therelative intake and retention of carbon by inhalation
and by ingestion, the dose commitments from inhalation are estimated to be about 104 times less than thosearising from ingestion [K 14).
26. The dose commitments from 14C are delivered
over a very long time period. The part accumulated up
to the year 2000 is 7% of the total dose commitments,
8% to 2020 and 10% to 2050, based on an environmental compartment model for 14C used by theCommillee in Annex C of the 1977 report [U6). The
collective dose commitments can be estimated byassuming that the dose commitments apply to an upper
limit of the world population, namely 1010 people. The
collective dose commitments from fallout 14C are:Collet:tfre
dose commitment(JO' man Gy)

Organ or tissue

Gonads
Lungs
Bone lining cells
Red bone marrow
Thyroid
Other tissues

I. I
1.3
4.8
5.3
1.3
2.9

30. Measurements of 54Mn in grain in localized areas
have been reported [AS], but sufficient general data toestimate dose commitments from 54Mn via ingestion are
not available. The dose commitments from inhalationof 54Mn are given in Table 4. The doses per unit intake
are those estimated by ICRP for oxides of manganese(class W) [13]. The inhalation rate is assumed to be
20 m3 d-1 and the integral air concentration in thetemperate latitudes are as given above. Using the latitudinal distribution of 90Sr as a guide (Table 6), it isseen that the temperate latitude levels are a factor of
about 1.5 greater than the respective population
weighted levels that apply to the entire hemisphere.
With this factor, and assuming the population distribution of 89% in the northern hemisphere and 11% in thesouthern hemisphere, the dose commitments applicableto the global population are derived as in Table 4. The
effective dose equivalent commitments, applying the
ICRP tis;,ue weighting factors, are 0.07 and 0.0035 µSv
in the temperate latitudes of the northern and southernhemisphere, respectively, and 0.042 µSv for the global
average. The collective effective dose equivalentcommitment for the world population (assumed to beabout 3.2 109 people averaged over the deposition
period) is estimated to be 130 man Sv.

The tissue-weigh.ted result, g1v111g the collective
effective dose equivalent commitment. is 2.6 107 man
Sv.
27. This assessment of doses from 14 c is based on theassumption that the specific activity of natural 14C willremain constant in the next hundreds and thousands ofyears. In fact, the combustion of fossil fuel leads to adecrease of the natural 14C/12C isotopic ratio in thebiosphere and the dose commitments are therefore
somewhat over-estimated.

C.

MANGANESE-54

28. Manganese-54 has a half-life of 312.7 d. decaying
by electron capture with the emission of x rays and a
gamma ray of energy 834.8 keV [K7]. It is an activation
product which was produced in largest quantities
during the test series of late 1961, following which
stratospheric measurements indicated a S4Mn/90Sr
activity ratio of 100 [F5]. It was produced in other tests
as well, but in much smaller amounts. Calculations
which assume an injection of 5.2 EBq of S4Mn in late1961 give good agreement with measured surface airconcentrations during 1963-1966 [B7].
29. From measurements during 1962-1966, the time
integrated 54Mn activity concentrations in surface air
were 4.9 10-3 Bq a m-3 at four sites in the United
Kingdom [A7], 5.5 ]Q-3 Bq a m-3 in Denmark [AS]. 6.5
1Q-3 Bq a m-3 at three sites in the United States [B7] and2.8 lQ-4 Bq a m-3 at two sites in Chile (87]. The lattertwo results were increased by 10% to account for
missing data during 1962 [U6]. The average fortemperate latitudes of the northern hemisphere is 5.6
10-3 Bq a m-3. Concentrations in air have been very low
since 1966. In Braunschweig, Federal Republic of
Germany, the integral concentration of 54Mn in air
during 1971-1977 was 3.6 10-s Bq a m-3 [KS, K9], which
is negligible when compared to the values obtained for
1962-1966. Since 1970, the 54Mn concentrations
measured at Braunschweig and at two other European
sites have been about 10 times lower than those of mes
[K9].

D.

IRON-55

31. lron-55 has a half-life of 2.7 years and decays byelectron capture with the emission of several low energy
x rays and Auger electrons. It is an activation productand was produced mainly in the nuclear tests of
1961-1962. The concentration of SSfe in air fell rapidly
after 1962-1963 and has been essentially undetectablesince 1970. The total production is estimated to be
2 EBq [Hll].
32. In Annex C of the 1977 report [U6], theCommittee, on the basis of the work of Persson [P3],estimated the dose commitments in the northern hemisphere from fallout 55fe to be 10 µGy in the gonads andbone lining cells and 6 µGy in the bone marrow. A
reduction of 4 was assumed for the southern hemisphere. The dose commitment in the gonads may betaken as representative of that in other soft tissues. As
these estimates are based on very limited data, they canbe assumed to be only roughly valid. A summary ofdose commitments is:
Dose commitment(µ Gy)
Organ or tissue

GonadsBone lining cells
Red bone marrow
Other tissues

Northernhemisphere

Southernhemisphere

Global

10
10
6
10

2
2
I
2

9
9
5
9

The effective dose equivalent commitments are 10 µSv(northern hemisphere), 2 µSv (southern hemisphere)
and 9 µSv (global). The collective effective dose equivalent commitment to the world population (about 3.2
109 persons present at the time of exposure) is estimatedto be 3 104 man Sv.
E.

KRYPTON-85

33. Krypton-S5 has a half-life of 10.72 years and is abeta emitter of average energy 250.5 keV [K7]. In 0.4%of the disintegrations a 514 keV photon is emitted. In
Annex C of the 1977 report, BSKr production was215

estimated from the 85Kr/90Sr fission yield ratio of 0.07
[U6). On the basis of the total fission yield of atmospheric nuclear tests from Table 1 and of the normalized
production of 90Sr from Table 3, production from
nuclear tests through 1980 is estimated to be 160 PBq.
Most of the BSKr present in the earth's atmosphereoriginates in releases from the production andprocessing of nuclear materials and not from nuclear
explosions [R6]. The dose estimates in this Annex referto 85Kr produced in nuclear explosions.
34. Krypton is an inert gas and most of it remains in
the atmosphere until decay. Its concentration becomes
fairly uniform throughout the earth's atmosphere
within a few years after release [F2]. Assuming auniform and instantaneous distribution of 85Kr in theatmosphere, which is adequate for dose estimations, theproduction of 160 PBq results in a time-integrated air
concentration of 0.62 Bq a m-3. The dose commitmentsfrom 1 Bq a m-3 are, in accordance with ICRP [11),taken to be 4.1 J(r7 Gy in skin and about 4 ](r9 Gy in
the other tissues (see values below). Therefore the dose
commitments to the world population from fallout BSKr
are estimated to be

Organ or tissue

Skin
GonadsBreastRed bonemarrow
Lungs
Bone lining cells
Stomach wall
KidneysLiver
SpleenAdrenals

Dose commitment
per unit
integrated
concentrotion
in airlnGy/(Bq a m·')I

Dose
commitment
(nGy)

410
4.6
3.9

250
2.9
2.4

5.0
3.8
5.4
3.8
3.5
3.3
4.0
3.5

3.1
2.4
3.3
2.4
2.2
2.0
2.5
2.2

The collective dose commitments are obtained by multiplying by the world's population (4 109 people). The
effective dose equivalent commitment is 0.005 µSv andthe corresponding collective quantity is 20 man Sv.

F.
1.

STRONTIUM-90

Im·entory and deposition

35. Strontium-90, a pure beta emitter with averageenergy of 195.8 keV, decays with a half-life of 28.6 years
to 90Y, which has a half-life of 64.1 h and is a beta
emitter with average energy of 934.8 keV [K7]. Strontium-90 has been extensively monitored over the years
in human tissues and in the environment. Many of theresults obtained may be used as a guide to the behaviour of other long-lived radionuclides released byatmospheric tests.
36. The annual deposition of 90Sr in the northern andsouthern hemispheres for the period 1958-1980 isshown in Table 5, together with the cumulative depositin each hemisphere and the estimated total injection to
January 1981 [T6, U6]. (Deposition is the activity deposited on a specified area. The cumulative deposit is theactivity present in a specified area at a given time; it is
the result of past depositions and radioactive decay.)
The global depositions in 1979 and 1980 were the smallest recorded since the measurements began. In 1977
and 1978 there were increases in the annual deposition216

in the northern hemisphere as a result of the large test
conducted in November 1976 in that hemisphere.
37. The deposition in 1981 may be expected to beslightly increased due to the test of October 1980.
Measured data arc not yet available. Since 1971, theannual rate of injection has been less than the annual
rate of decay and the cumulative deposit has steadilydecreased. Total 90Sr production from nuclear tests
through 1980 is estimated from these measurements tobe 600 PBq. The estimate from cumulative fission yieldsof 90Sr injected into the stratosphere was 660 PBq(paragraph 14). This estimate, which excludes local
fallout, is in good agreement with the global deposition
measurements. The global inventory of deposited 90Sr,
which is decreasing by radioactive decay, was 400 PBq
at the end of 1980 [Cl, T6].
38. 1,'he distribution of 90Sr deposition by latitude
bands is given in Table 6 [T6, U6]. The results are
obtained by averaging measurements at sampling sites
within the band and by extrapolation to latitudes which
no longer contain sampling sites (north of 700N andsouth of 60°S). Integrated depositions in the latitude
bands arc determined by addition of all previous deposition without taking account of radioactive decay. The
deposition density (activity per unit area) is determinedby dividing by the area of the band. Population
weighted integrated deposition densities are useful in
exposure assessment and these are also indicated inTable 6.
39. The relationship between input of activity fromsources in the atmosphere and deposition onto theearth's surface is given by the transfer coefficient Po2,
which is defined00

IU(t)dtPo2 = _o~~~-

(2)

"°

\A(t)dt

0

where U(t) is the deposition density rate and A(t) is the
input rate. The integral quantities are Uo. the integrated
deposition density over the entire fallout period, andAo, the total injection of 90Sr from all atmospheric tests.
Estimates of Po2 for the past pattern of nuclear tests
weighted according to population distribution are, for a
total injection of 90Sr through 1980 of 600 PBq:
P.,
(lO·" Bq m·' per Bq released)

World
Northern hemisphere
Southern hemisphereNorth temperate zone
(40-50°)South temperate zone
(40-50°)

2.

3.3
3.6
0.9

S.4
1.5

Transfer from deposition to diet

40. The deposition of 90Sr on land and the transfer tohumans by ingestion is the most important pathway forhuman exposure. The annual average 90Sr concentrations in milk and whole diet from 1974 onwards are
given in Table 7. The practice of expressing results interms of the 90Sr/Ca quotient retains some advantages
in minimizing variability in measurements; however, inassuming constant and relatively uniform calciumlevels in diet and humans, there is no need to use thequotients in the assessment models.
41. The relative contributions of different foods to thetotal 90Sr dietary intake have been indicated previously[A 1, 88, K3. U6]. The concentrations in milk and grain
products decline fairly rapidly following deposition
periods. while fruits and vegetables, reflecting uptake of
90Sr from the slowly varying cumulative deposit in soil,
decline much more gradually. It is expected, therefore,that the long-term variation in the 90Sr intake will
depend on the composition of the diet.

These arc contributions to 90Sr concentrations in dietfrom the annual deposition density in the year considered U(i), in the previous year U(i-1), and from all
preceding years. expressed by the summation, with an
exponential term describing the combined physicaldecay of 90Sr and any decrease in availability to plantsof 90Sr in soil. The factors b1. b2. b,, and the effective
mean life of available 90Sr. t;- 1, can be derived from
reported data by regression analysis.
44.

The combination of equations (4) and (5) leads to(6)

42. The transfer coefficient from deposition to diet isgiven by00

I C(t)dt

P23 = _o_ _ __where n = 1 year. a constant in this case. The units for
As arc a- 1 and for P23, b1, b2 and b3, Bq a kg-1/(Bq m-2).

(3)

00

I o Ct) dt

45. Equation (5) has been fitted by regression analysis
to the total and component diet data and the deposition
data for Argentina, Denmark and New York City. The
results are given in Table 8. The contribution of dietarycomponents to the total transfer coefficient is obtainedby weighting each food group k by its fractional
consumption by weight, Wk, in total diet0where C(t) is the 90Sr concentration in the diet at time tand U(t) _is the deposition density rate. For values ofC(t) and U(t) assessed on a yearly basis, the integrations
can be replaced by summation00

L C(i)
i- I
P23 = ~..,---

P23 =

(4)

L o Ci>

The differences in parameter values in Table 8 may be
explained by the differences in foods included in thegroups, in the amounts of the various foods consumed
and in the actual transfers of 90Sr at the particula;locations. The value of the transfer coefficient obtainedby summing over the food groups should give a better
result than the single exponential fit to total diet. The
results arc fairly close. however, by both methods in allcases. The fits for 90Sr in total diet of New York andArgentina are shown in Figure III.

43. In Annex C of the 1977 report, the following
model was used to relate 90Sr in food groups or in the
total diet to the annual deposition densities [U6]+ b3 l; e-Asm O (i -

1) +

m)

(7)

k

i- I

C(i) = b1 O(i) + b 2 O(i -LWk P~3

(5)

m- I

0.7
• • muiurrd
0

0.5

;
z
0
;::
<(

0.4

a:
I-

~
u
z

8

0.3

0.2

•

Argenttn.a

0.1

60

67

66

68

70

71

1,

76

78

80

YEAR

Figure Ill. Strontlum-90 In total diet of Argentina and New York City, United States21746. The average value of the transfer factor P23
obtained from data of the three countries is about 4 10-3
Bq a kg-1/(Bq m-2). This value is consistent with that inAnnex C of the 1977 report of 5 10-l Bq a (g Ca)-1/(Bq m-2) for a calcium concentration in diet of0.8 g kg-I.
The same mean value with less variation is obtainedby expressing the results per unit calcium intake, using
the actual consumption data given in the footnote ofTable 8. This result is typical for the diets considered,however, differences could be obtained for other typesof diets. In particular, the transfer coefficient would be
an underestimate for diets containing less meat andmilk and also in areas for which higher than averagetransfer of 90Sr to milk has been noted [M9, U6).
3.

Transfer from diet to bone

47. The annual average 90Sr concentrations in bonefrom 1974 are given in Table 9 for the various age
groups. As a general rule, only the 90Sr/Ca quotientsare available in the literature. The data may be
converted to units of Bq kg-1 by assuming 103 g Ca in
the 5 kg mineral skeleton. Some caution is required,however, as variations may be noted for particular bonetypes. The 90Sr concentrations for adult bone havevaried little in recent years. Typical values are around
40 mBq (g Ca)-t, corresponding to 8 Bq kg-I.
48. The transfer coefficient linking diet and humanbone, P34, is defined by

..I
..I

Cb(t)dt
P34 = _o_ _ __(8)

Cd(t)dt

0

where Cb(t) is the 90Sr concentration in bone at time t
and Cd(t) is the concentration in the diet. For values ofCb(t) and Cd(t) assessed as annual averages, equation(8) becomes

..
I cb

(i)

i- I

P34 = ~

(9)

--~
00

I cd Ci)

i - I

The results for Argentina are less certain due to the lessspecific fit to the data, which show little change fromyear to year. The results shown in Table 10, along withpreviously computed estimates of P34 [U6), indicate thatthe most consistent value is 0.15 Bq a (g Ca)-1 in bone
per Bq a (g Ca)-1 in diet, corresponding to 38 Bq a kg-I
in bone/(Aq a kg-1) in diet, with the assumptions of
103 g Ca in the 5 kg skeleton and 0.8 g Ca per kg diet.
4.

Transfer coefficient relating 90Sr concentration inbone to dose

51. The transfer coefficient P4s relates the 90Sr timeintegrated concentration in bone to the dose
commitment. As in Annex C of the 1977 report [U6), thevalues of P45 can be derived for doses to red bonemarrow and bone lining cells on the basis of the workof Spiers [S2, S7). The dose rate 0 0 per unit 90Sr activity
in a small tissue-filled cavity in bone from decay of
90Sr-9oy is equal to 6.1 µGy a-1/(Bq kg-I). In order toobtain the dose rates in red bone marrow, ORM, and inbone lining cells. DeLC, use is made of the DRM/0 0 and
DeLc/00 ratios. These values are

Cortical contribution
Trabecular contribution
Total

DR1,/Do

DaLdD.,

0.05
0.26
0.31

0.45
0.17
0.62

The value of the latter ratio has been changed incomparison to Annex C of the 1977 report [U6) toaccount for irradiation of cells on surfaces of bothtypes of bone (13]. The values of the transfer coefficientobtained in this manner are
P45 (red bone marrow)= 1.9 µGy/(Bq a kg- 1)
P45 (bone lining cells) = 3.8 µGy/(Bq a kg- 1)

52. The dosimetry used by ICRP (13] for beta emittersuniformly distributed throughout the volume of bone isalso based on the work of Spiers [S2, S7). The absorbed
fractions (fractions of energy absorbed in target tissue
from radiation originating in a source organ) derived
from the DRMIDo and DeLclDo ratios given above are:Absorbed fraction

49. In Annex C of the 1977 report, the following
model was used to relate 90Sr in bone to concentrations
in diet [U6]i: eCb (i ) = C Cd (i ) + g-i.bm Cd (i -

m)

( 10)

m- 0

The parameters c and g may be related to short· andlonger-term components of 90Sr retention in bone. The
exponential factor accounts for radioactive decay andremoval from the body. Combining equations (9) and(10) yields
P34 = C+g i.
I - e- bn( 11)

where n = 1 year, a constant in this expression.
The 90Sr data for diet and adult bone in several
50.
countries have been fitted by regression analysis using
equation (10). The values of the parameters are given in
Table 10, together with the estimates of P34 obtained byuse of equation (11). The estimates of the transfer coefficient P34 vary little from one locality to another, particularly when normalized to dietary calcium intake.
218

SourceTargetCorticalbone
Trabecularbone
Corticalbone
Trabecularbone

Red bonemarrow
Red bonemarrow
Bone lining
cells
Bone lining
cells

Calculated from Adopted
the results ofbySpiers
ICRP

0.019

0

0.42

0.35

0.014

0.015

0.022

0.025

Instead of using the calculated values appropriate toeach beta emitter uniformly distributed throughout thevolume of bone, ICRP decided to apply representative
nominal values for any radionuclides of that category.
These nominal values are presenteq above in theright-hand column. The results obtained for P45 using
the nominal values of the absorbed fractions and the
distribution of 90Sr in bone adopted by ICRP are foundto be·
P4s (red bone marrow)= 1.9 µGy/(Bq a kg- 1)
P45 (bone lining cells) = 4.2 µGy/(Bq a kg-1).

These values, which are in good agreement with thosederived in the previous paragraph, have been adopted
by the Committee in this report for reasons of consistency with the dose calculations carried out in this andother Annexes.
5.

Dose commitments from strontium-90

53. The dose commitments from 90Sr released byatmospheric nuclear explosions can now be assessed
for the ingestion pathway. The relevant part of equation(1) isoc = Po2 P23 P34 P45 A 0(12)Using the deposition distribution of 90Sr given in Table
6 from the total production of 600 PBq of 90Sr from
nuclear tests conducted through 1980 and values of thetransfer factors given in the previous paragraphs, thedose commitments listed in Table 11 are obtained. The
doses to other tissues are negligible. Estimates of theco1Jective dose commitments are also included in Table
11. The applicable world population size has beentaken to be 4 109 persons, distributed as indicated inTable 6. The effective dose equivalent commitments are
110 µSv (world), 170 µSv (North temperate zone), 48µSv (South temperate zone). The collective effective
dose equivalent commitment is 4.4 105 man Sv (world).
54. The dose commitment from 90Sr via the inhalation
pathway can also be estimated. The average quotient of
the integrated concentration in air to the deposition
density is 1.8 1°"""6 Bq a m-3/(Bq m-2), as determinedfrom 90Sr measurements over several years in New
York City [B7]. The integrated concentrations in air,derived from the deposition estimates of Table 6, arethus estimated to be 5.8 mBq a m-3 in the North
temperate zone, 1.6 mBq a m-3 in the South temperatezone and 3.5 mBq a m-3 in the world (populationweighted). For a breathing rate of 20 m3 d-1 and thedose to lungs per unit intake as given by the ICRP [13]for 90Sr (Class Y) of 2.9 1°"""6 Gy Bq-1, the dose commitments to the lungs from the inhalation pathway are
7.410-5 Gy (world), 1.2 1°"""4 Gy (North temperate zone),and 3.4 10-5 Gy (South temperate zone). The dose
commitments to other tissues are negligible. The
effective dose equivalent commitments are 8.9 µSv(world). 14 µSv (North temperate zone), and 4.1 µSv(South temperate zone). Since depletion of activity
from air is fairly rapid, the inhalation exposuresoccurred soon after the explosions. The collective
effective dose equivalent commitment to the world
population (3.2 109 persons present at the time of
exposure) is estimated to be 2.8 104 man Sv.
G.

STRONTIUM-89

55. Strontium-89 has a half-life of 50.5 d and decays
with the emission of beta particles with average energyof 583.0 keV [K7]. It is one of the main components offallout activity in the first few months after a nuclear
test. As the ratio of activities B9Sr /90Sr at the time offission is approximately 150 (Table 3). the total atmospheric input of 89Sr is estimated to have been about 90
EBq.
56.
Strontium-89 was measured in milk at some 63
cities in the United States between 1961 and 1965 [P6].
The average time integral of the concentration for theperiod September 1961 to December 1965 was 3.5 Bq a 1-1[01). Using the measured deposition of 90Sr as a

guide (Table 5), it is noted that about 55% of the total
deposition in the northern hemisphere occurred during
this period. Therefore. the time integral of the 89Sr
concentration in milk arising from all tests up to 1980 isestimated to be about 6.4 Bq a 1-1. For average milk
consumption of 0.3 I d-1, the intake commitment of B9Sr
is 700 Bq. The committed doses per unit intake ofingested B9Sr activity as given by the ICRP [11], are 3.2
J0-9 Gy Bq-l (red bone marrow). 4.8 J0-9 Gy Bq-1 (bonelining cells). 7 .3 10-9 Gy Bq-1 (upper large intestine) and
2.1 10-S Gy Bq-1 (lower large intestine). The dose
commitments from fallout S9Sr ingestion are thus
Dose co111111i111,ent
Organ or rissue(µGy)

Bone marrow
Bone lining cells
Upper large intestine
Lower large intestine

2.2
3.4
5.1
15

The effective dose equivalent commitment is 1.6 µSv.
These values, being derived from measurements in the
United States, apply to the population in the temperatezone of the northern hemisphere. They are somewhat
underestimated as other components of the diet, such as
leafy vegetables, might have contributed significantly tothe intake by ingestion.
57. The dose commitments from inhalation of 89Sr
can be assessed from the estimated deposition density.
The measured integrated deposition density of 89Sr
between 1961 and 1969 in the temperate zone of thenorthern hemisphere was 1.3 104 Bq m-2 [H2]. Using
measurements of 90Sr deposition as a guide (Table 5)
62% of total deposition in the northern hemispher~occurred in this period. Therefore, the estimated 89Sr
deposition in the North temperate zone for the entire
fallout period 1951-1980 is about 2.1 104 Bq m-2. Using
the average quotient of integrated air concentration todeposition density of 1.8 1°"""6 Bq a m-3/(Bq m-2), as for
90Sr [B7], and assuming that the adult person inhales 20
m3 d-1 of air, the intake commitment of S9Sr via inhalation is estimated to be 280 Bq.
58. The committed dose to the lungs per unit intake ofinhaled B9Sr (Class Y), as given by the ICRP [11], is
8.4 10-8 Gy Bq-1, the doses to other tissues being negligible. The dose commitment to the lungs from 89Sr
inhalation in the North temperate zone is, thus, 2.4 10-5
Gy. The effective dose equivalent commitment is 2.9µSv (North temperate zone).
59. From measurements of90Sr. it is estimated that thedose commitments which apply to the population of theSouth temperate latitudes are a factor of about 4 lessthan the northern hemisphere temperate zone values
and that hemispheric values are about 1.5 times lesstha? the temperate zo?e values (fr?m data in Table 6).
Estimates of the effective dose equivalent commitments:,veigh~ed for the world population are 1.0 µSv from111gest1on and 1.8 µSv from inhalation. Most of the dose
was delivered in the early 1960s during maximum
deposition. Assuming the doses apply to a world
popul_ation of 3.2 109 persons at that time, the collective
effective dose equivalent commitments are estimated tobe 3.2 J03 man Sv (ingestion) and 5.8 103 man Sv (inhalation).

H.

RUTHENIUM-106

60. Ruthenium-106 has a half-life of 368 days anddecays to 106Rh by pure beta decay with average energy219

of 10 keV. The 29.9 s half-life 106Rh decays with averagebeta energy of 1.41 MeV and also emits several gamma
rays. The total stratospheric injection of 106Ru, assessedfrom that of 90Sr using the activity ratio of 20 at thetime of fission, derived from Table 3, has been about 12
EBq.
61. In Annex C of the 1977 report (U6], the time
integral of the concentration of 106Ru in air was
estimated to be 5.6 10-2 Bq a m-3 in the North temperatezone and 1.3 10-2 Bq a m-3 in the South temperate zone.
Assuming 106Ru from fallout to be in the oxide form
(Class Y compound), the committed dose per unit
inhalation intake is 1.0 1~ Gy Bq-1 to the lungs (14].
For a daily intake of air of 20 mJ, the dose commitment
to lungs from 106Ru is estimated to bel)c(lungs) {= 4.1 I0-4 Gy (North temperate zone)= 9.5 10-s Gy (South temperate zone)

The hemispheric values are less by a factor of 1.5. The
value weighted for the world population is 2.5 lQ-4 Gy.
Doses to other tissues are negligible. The effective dose
equivalent commitments are 49 µSv (North temperatezone). 11 µSv (South temperate zone) and 30 µSv(world). The collective effective dose equivalentcommitment to the world's population (about 3.2 109
persons on average during the time of exposure) is
estimated to be 9.6 104 man Sv.
I.

IODINE-131

62. Iodine-131 is a beta emitter with a half-life of 8.04
d. The average beta energy is 181.7 keV, and gamma
rays of 0.36 MeV and other energies are also emitted[K7]. The total injection of globally dispersed 131] into
the atmosphere from nuclear testing is estimated to beabout 700 EBq from its yield in test debris (Table 3) andthe total explosive yield by fission given in Table 2.
63. Fresh milk dominates as a source of 131 I intake inareas where it is a major diet component, because of thelarge areas scavenged by the grazing animals and also
because of the short storage period of milk. Data on 131 I
concentrations in milk, which have become available
since the 1977 report [U6], are given in Table 12. As
there were tests only in the northern hemisphere during
1976-1978, 131] in milk has only been detected in that
hemisphere.
64. The short half-life of 131 I means that it is not well
mixed in the atmosphere before deposition or decay.
Consequently, concentrations in air or deposition atparticular sites vary with meteorological conditions andare not necessarily representative of a larger region norof a latitude band. There were not widespread measurements of 131J throughout the major fallout period;
however a rough estimate of the total activity density
deposited, weighted over the population of the world,
may be made from the average ratio of measured 131 J/
140Ba in deposition. The half-life of 140Ba. 12.8 d, iscomparable to that of 131 J.
65. Data from Argentina [B12, e2J for the years
1966-1973 indicate that the 131 J/140Ba ratio of annual
deposition densities varied from 0.4 to 1.3, with a
median value of 0.6. Data from the stations of the
global network of the United Kingdom Atomic Energy
Authority [Cl] indicate that the 131 J/140fia ratio of
annual integrated air activity concentrations at ninestations throughout the world ranged from 0.19 to 3.1,
220with a median value of 0.46. Since only particulate
iodine was sampled, total iodine including the gaseous
form in air and deposition would have been higher (P7].
The 13l J/14D8a ratio is estimated to be 0.9 from these
data, comparable to the value from Argentina of 0.6.
An intermediate value of 0.8 will be adopted for thedose estimation.
66. Estimates of population-weighted integrated
deposition densities of 140Ba are given in Table 28, theglobal value being 1.7 104 Bq m-2. The corresponding
value for 131] is thus estimated to be 1.3 104 Bq m-2. The
relationship between deposition density and theintegrated activity concentration of 131} in milk derived
from measurements in Argentina [B12] is 6.3 lQ-4 Bq a 1-1;
(Bq m-2), showing little variation from year to year.
This is the transfer factor Pu.
67. Consumption of milk, uptake and retention of 1311
in the thyroid and the thyroid size are all agedependent. Representative values were adopted by theCommittee in Annex D of the 1977 report [U6]. A
summary of these parameters and the estimatedabsorbed doses per unit intake is given in Table 13.
68. The product of the milk consumption rate and thedose per unit intake of 131 I activity gives the transfer
factor P3s relating integrated activity of 131 I in milk toabsorbed dose in the thyroid. Taking the three groupsof children to be representative of the age groups 0-1,
1-9 and 10-19 years and that these groups containrespectively 2, 16 and 20% of the population [U6], thepopulation-weighted value of· P3s is 0.13 mGy per
Bq a 1-1.
69. From the formula De = P23 P3s Uo using the values
given above, the thyroid dose commitment for theworld population arising from 131] fallout is estimatedto be 1.1 mGy. Additional estimates, which can bederived in a similar fashion, include for the North
temperate zone 1.6 mGy (age-weighted population) and
18 mGy (0-1 year old infants) and in the Southtemperate zone 0.23 mGy (age-weighted population)and 2.5 mGy (0-1 year old infants). Most of this dose
commitment was delivered in the early 1960s. Taking
the world population at that time to be 3.2 109 persons,the thyroid collective dose commitment would be
3.5 ]06 man Gy. The effective dose equivalent commitments are obtained by multiplying by the weighting
factor for thyroid of 0.03 (13). Estimates of the effective
dose equivalent commitments are 48 µSv (North
temperate zone), 6.9 µSv (South temperate zone) and 33µSv (world). The collective effective dose equivalentcommitment to the population of the world is estimatedto be 1.1 105 man Sv.

J.
1.

CAESIUM-137

Inventory and deposition

70. eaesium-137 is a beta emitter with average beta
energy of 170.8 keV [K7]. Its daughter, 137mBa of
half-life 2.55 min. decays with the emission of a gamma
ray of energy 661.6 keV. The half-life of mes is 30.2 a,very close to that of 90Sr, and since the averagemeasured activity ratio of mes/90Sr in deposition at
many sites and over a long time has been fairly
constant at about 1.6 [C3, US], the total injection of
n1es into the stratosphere by past atmospheric tests isabout 600 PBq x 1.6 = 960 PBq. The latitudinal distribution of mes can also be estimated from the corre-are given in Table 16. The summation of the contributions to the transfer coefficient from the various foods
is in agreement with the value obtained from the total
diet data. The apparent difference between the twocountries in the transfer coefficient P23 for total dietdisappears when the results are normalized to dietary
potassium intake. In both cases the value is 40 mBq a(g K)-1 per Bq m-2. This is also the value adopted by theCommittee in Annex C of the 1977 report [U6].
For average potassium concentration in diet of the twocountries of 2.35 g kg-I, the value of P23 is 9 mBq a
kg-1/(Bq m-2).

sponding data for 90Sr given in Table 6. The
population-weighted integrated deposition densities are
given below. Also listed are the population-weighted
values of the transfer coefficient from input todeposition density, Po2. for the past pattern of nuclear
testing.
Integrated
deposition
densityPo,(IO-" Bqm-•

(10 Bq m-')per llq released)

3.14
3.42
0.86

3.3
3.6
0.9

5.17

5.4

1.42

1.5

1

World
Northern hemisphere
Southern hemisphereNorth temperate zone
(40-50°)South temperate zone
(40-50°)

2.

Transfer
coefjicien t

73. The estimated transfer coefficient of mes from
deposition to diet and dietary components cannot yet
be said to be widely representative and could be underestimated for areas which have shown greater transferof mes to milk. These are areas where caesium is notstrongly adsorbed in soil and, thus, greater uptake byplants f'rom the cumulative deposit in soil occurs.

Transfer from deposition to diet

71. As in the case of 90Sr, it has been found that
fallout over land is the most important pathway as far
as dose commitments to man are concerned. Reported
annual average mes activity concentrations in milk
and in total diet are shown in Table 14. The transfer ofmes from deposition to diet is normally high during
the first year and relatively small subsequently.

3. Transfer from diet to human tissues
74. Caesium-137 ingested by man is readily absorbed
and becomes relatively uniformly distributed in soft
tissues. Uptake by mineral bone is slight and theconcentrations in fat tissues are low. The biologicalhalf-time of caesium is a function of age and sex.
For calculational purposes, representative retention
assumptions for the adult are that 10% is excreted witha half-time of 2 d and 90% with a half-time of 110 d (13].

72. The transfer of mes from deposition to diet canbe studied quantitatively using the same approach as
for 90Sr. The values of P23 obtained in this way for total
diet and for milk are summarized in Table 15. Figure IVshows the total diet data for Argentina and Denmarkand the fit from regression analysis using equation (5).
The parameters of the model and the values for thetransfer coefficient also for the component food groups

75. Information on mes activity concentrations in
the human body since 1974 is given in Table 17. The
measurements are generally reported as 137Cs/K
quotients. The results may be converted to concentra-

9-fined

6

.,,

~

e"

5

z

0

i=
4:

...z
0:

w

u

z

0

u
3

----------·------..
•

Argentina

195"

56

58

60

62

64

66

68

•

•

70

72

74

76

78

80

YEAR

Figure IV. Ceeslum-137 In total diet ol Argentine and Denmark

221

tions by assuming 140 g K in the 70 kg adult body. For
most localities, the mes concentrations have decreased
steadily since 1970. The values in subarctic populations
are between two and three orders of magnitude higher
than those in the middle latitudes, due to higher
transfer of mes in the lichen-reindeer (or lichencaribou) food chain [U5].
76. The short biological half-time of caesium in the
body makes it possible to assess the transfer between
diet and body, P34, from the quotient of respective mes
concentrations integrated over a few years. Using thisprocedure, an average value of 3 Bq a (g K)-1 per Bq a(g K)-1 was derived in Annex C of the 1977 report [U6].
In terms of concentration, the value of the transfer
factor becomes 2.6 Bq a kg-I in the body per Bq a kg-I
in diet.
4.

Dose commitments from caesium-137

77. The combined transfer coefficient, P24, linking
deposition density to the mes concentration in the
body is the product of P23 and P34. From the estimatedaverage values for these two coefficients, the value ofthe combined coefficient is
Bq a kg-I
P24 = 0.009 Bq a kg- I X 2.6 -"'--......;;.2
Bq a kg-I
Bq m-= 0.023 Bq a kg- I
Bq m- 2
78. An alternative procedure for the assessment of P24
is the direct use of the time-integrated 137Cs concentration in the body and the integrated deposition
density, both over the same period of several years. The
results obtained using this procedure are shown in
Table 18. There is general agreement with the value ofthe previous paragraph except that in the more
northern latitudes the greater transfer of mes to dietmay contribute to somewhat higher values of P24. The
dose commitments will be higher in these areas and,indeed, much higher if reindeer or caribou meat isconsumed. It may be assumed, however, that these
special situations do not make a large contribution to
the collective dose commitments.
79. As was shown in Annex A of the 1969 report of
the Committee [U4], the transfer coefficient P45, linking
tissue activity and tissue dose, is approximately
independent of age if expressed as dose per unit of thetime-integrated 137Cs/K quotient. The value of P4s is
4.9 lQ-6 Gy per Bq a (g K)-1. Converting to concentration, the transfer coefficient is
P45 = 2.4 J0- 6 Gy/(Bq a kg- 1)
which is in good agreement with the value derived from
ICRP (11]. It has also been shown directly that this is
the appropriate transfer coefficient for the adult [F8,N4]. The transfer coefficient for children is less, due tothe partial escape of the photon energy in the smaller
body size. For example, Spiers [S2] gave the value for achild weighing 8 kg as 4.1 lQ-6 Gy per Bq a (g K)-1.
80. Combining the transfer coefficients P24 and P4s
gives a value of P2s of 5.5 10-S Gy/(Bq m-2). Values of
the transfer coefficient Po2 between input from thenuclear tests and deposition density were given inparagraph 70. Table 19 summarizes the dose commitments which apply to all tissues in the body and the222

collective dose commitments from mes. The applicable world population size has been taken to be 4 109
persons, distributed as indicated in Table 6.
81. The dose commitments from 137Cs via the inhalation pathway can be estimated in a manner similar to
90Sr. The same relationship between deposition density
and integrated air concentration may be expected toapply. The integrated concentrations of 137Cs in air,which are 1.6 times the values for 90Sr, are 9.3 mBq a m-J
in the North temperate zone, 2.6 mBq am-Jin the Southtemperate zone and 5.6 mBq a m-3 in the world (population-weighted). For the breathing rate of 20 ml d-1
and dose per unit intake of 8.8 10-9 Gy Bq-1, which isnearly uniform in the various tissues, the dose commitments are 0.6 µGy (North temperate zone), 0.17 µGy(South temperate zone) and 0.36 µGy (world). The
collective effective dose equivalent commitment to theworld population at the time of exposure (3.2 109
persons) is estimated to be 1.2 103 man Sv. These dose
estimates from 137Cs inhalation are about 600 times lessthan those from mes ingestion.

K.

CAESIUM-136

82. Caesium-136 is a beta emitter with a half-life of
13.2 d. The average beta energy is 101.1 keV, andseveral gamma rays with energies up to 1.24 MeV areemitted [K7]. Since it must be produced directly by
fission and not by beta decay, because 136Xe is stable,
the amount produced in nuclear tests is relatively small(less than 1% of mes on the basis of number of atoms[HSI). The short half-life of 136Cs gives a greater
activity, the estimated total production being about
7 101s Bq.
83. The importance of 136Cs in fallout had at one time
been questioned, but the estimated doses have beenshown to be very low [01]. If only the ingestion of freshmilk is considered as a significant pathway, theestimated dose commitment, derived from O'Brien[01], is about 0.1 µGy to body tissues in general for the
population of the temperate region of the nonhern
hemisphere from all tests through 1980. Using the
distributional assumptions of levels as before, the dose
commitment which applies to the world population(3.2 109 persons) is 0.06 µGy and the collective dose
commitment is 190 man Gy.
L.

BARIUM-140

84. Barium-140 is a beta emitter with a half-life of
12.8 d and average beta energy of 272 keV [K7]. Several
gamma rays are also emitted. Its daughter product. the40.22 h half-life 140La, decays with 526.9 keV averagebeta energy and several gamma rays, with energies up
to 2.5 MeV. Barium-140 is measurable in fallout only
for a few weeks after a nuclear explosion. The activityof 1408a produced in atmospheric tests is estimated to
be 720 EBq, based on globally dispersed 90Sr
production and the ratio of fission yields in weapons
explosions (Table 3).
85. Barium-140 was measured in the pasteurized milk
supply networks of the United States by the Public
Health Service between 1961 and 1965 [P6]. The timeintegrated concentration in milk was 0.6 Bq a 1-1 for thisperiod, corresponding to a time integral for all tests ofabout 1.1 Bq a 1-1. For average milk consumption of
0.3 I d-1, the intake commitment of J40Ba is 120 Bq.

86. The committed doses per unit ingested activity of
I40Ba are estimated to be 1.0 10-9, 7.7 10-9 and 2.6 10-8
Gy Bq-t to gonads and walls of the upper large intestine(ULI) and lower large intestine (LLI), respectively [14].
The dose commitments from ingested fallout I40Ba in
the North temperate zone are, thus, 1.2 10-7 Gy(gonads), 9.2 1Q-7 Gy (ULI) and 3.1 1~ Gy (LLI).
Ingestion of 1408a in other diet items, such as leafy
vegetables, and also direct intake of t40La, have notbeen taken into account.

temperate zone) and 3.1 1Q-4 Gy (world). The doses toother tissues are negligible. The effective dose equivalent commitment weighted for the world population is
37 µSv. Assuming a world population of 3.2 109 in theearly 1960s when most of the I44Ce was released innuclear tests, the estimated collective effective dose
equivalent commitment is 1.2 ]05 man Sv.

N.
87. The same relationship as indicated in paragraph
59 between the North and South temperate zone dose
commitments (factor of 4) and between the respective
temperate and hemispheric values (factor of 1.5) may
be assumed to apply to 140Ba. The dose commitments
weighted to the world population are thus estimated tobe 7.3 10-S Gy (gonads), 5.6 10-7 Gy (ULI) and 1.9 1~
Gy (LLI). The effective dose equivalent commitment to
the world population is 0.17 µSv and the collective
quantity, applicable to the population of 3.2 1Q9 persons
in 1961-1962, when most of the 140Ba was released, is
540 man Sv.
88. The dose commitments from inhalation of I40Ba
can be calculated using the same method described inparagraph 57 for 89Sr. The integrated deposition
density of I40Ba has been evaluated from available
measurements and from comparisons with other shortlived radionuclides, as in Annex C of the 1977 report[U6]. The population-weighted values are noted in a
subsequent section (Table 28). The estimate for theworld population is 1.7 104 Bq m-2. This corresponds toa time-integrated concentration in surface air of about
0.03 Bq a m-3 during the entire testing period. The
intake commitment by inhalation is thus 220 Bq. The
corresponding values for the North and Southtemperate zone are 330 and 46 Bq, respectively.
89. The dose commitments to tissues from inhalationof 140Ba are determined from the product of the intake
commitments by the committed doses per unit intake,as given by the ICRP [14]. The results are listed in Table
20. The effective dose equivalent commitments are 0.32
µSv (North temperate zone), 0.044 µSv (Southtemperate zone) and 0.21 µSv (world). The collective
effective dose equivalent commitment to the applicableworld population (3.2 109 persons) is 670 man Sv.

M.

CERIUM-144

90. Cerium-144 with a half-life of 284 d and its decay
product, 144Pr with a half-life of 17.3 min, emit beta
particles and several gamma rays [N5]. The averagebeta decay energies are 82.0 keV from 144Ce and 1.21
MeV from 144 Pr [K7]. In comparing with 90Sr fission
yield and production (Table 3), the estimated 144Ce
production in nuclear tests is 30 EBq.
91. Cerium-144 has been widely measured in air anddeposition [Cl]. The estimated population-weighted
integrated deposition densities are included in Table 28.
The corresponding integrated concentrations of 144Cein air are 8.7 10-2 and 2.4 10-2 Bq a m-3 for the Northand the South temperate zones, respectively, and
5.3 10-2 Bq a m-3 for the global average. Taking thecommitted dose to the lungs per unit intake of inhaled
144 Ce oxide (Class Y compound) to be 7.9 J0-7 Gy 8q-I
[11], the estimated dose commitments to the lungs are
5.0 JQ-4 Gy (North temperate zone), 1.4 lQ-4 Gy (SouthPLUTONIUM AND TRANSPLUTONIUM
ELEMENTS

92. Isotopes of plutonium and of transplutonium
elements are generated in all weapons tests byactivation of 238U or from unfissioned material.
Estimates of the production of several isotopes of
plutonium, as well as of 242mAm and 244Cm can beinferred from environmental measurements of weaponsdebris 'and from the total explosive yield by fission.
Such estimates are presented in Table 21. The mostimportant plutonium isotopes are 239Pu, 240Pu, and
241Pu. Since 239Pu and 240Pu are not usually distinguished in environmental measurements, activities
reported as 239Pu apply generally to a mixture of 239Pu
and 240Pu, containing approximately 60% of 239Pu in
terms of activity. The isotope 241Pu is a beta emitterwith a half-life of 14.4 a which decays to the alphaemitter 241Am with a half-life of 433 a. Although not
produced directly in nuclear explosions, 241Am activity
is increasing as 241 Pu decays and the total ultimately
produced will amount to 5.5 101s Bq of 24IAm. Decaysof curium isotopes produce plutonium isotopes but inamounts much less significant than direct production.
The decay schemes of several transuranium radionuclides are illustrated in Figure V.
93. Plutonium transfer to human tissues can follow
the inhalation of airborne plutonium or the ingestion ofcontaminated food. The available data indicate that forplutonium released by atmospheric tests, the mostimportant pathway to man is the inhalation of contaminated air. Dose commitments have been estimated foreach pathway.
1.

Dose commitments from inhalation

94. The integrated deposition density of 239,240Pu canbe inferred from the corresponding values of 90Sr, as it
has been observed that the 239,240Pu/90Sr activity ratio
in stratospheric air samples has been relatively constantthroughout the years with a value of about 0.018 [H3].
The 90Sr estimates were given in Table 6. Table 22 gives
the results for 239,240Pu and for 238Pu and 241Pu from theproduction ratios (Table 21) and for 241Am from decayof 241Pu.
95. The time-integrated concentrations of theplutonium isotopes in surface air, also presented inTable 22, were estimated from the corresponding
deposition densities using the assumption that the valueof the apparent deposition velocity of 1.8 10-2 m s-1
found in New York for 90Sr [87] can be applied to theplutonium isotopes for large sections of the world. The
results agree reasonably well with the values calculated
by Bennett [87] for the New York area, using estimatedsource terms for each reported nuclear test and a 12compartment atmospheric model.
96. The time-integrated surface air concentrations of
241Am depend in a significant way on the decay of
223

·~r·
2l8Pu 87 7 u

l44Cm,a,.
243

7380

:lm

y

p

,
239

u,,,oo,·l ~,,,., ·l·l~r'T. .

'T. . . "f''·'T. ..
·l
231 Th, •.,,•II

2 J 2 Thi -11 10'°,I

226 Ra 1600 •
I

'
c:'

'
....'

2<16Pb

I
I
I
I
I
I

I
I

218 Aas1&1

I
I

I

I

I

I

'V

I

I

I

I
201 Pb

22SRa14.8d

I"'

208 PbI'V

209 BiFigure V. Decay schemes of transuranlum radlonuclldes [K7, L3]

241 Pu during its residence time in the stratospherefollowing each nuclear test, and a straightforward
comparison with the behaviour of90Sr or the plutonium
isotopes cannot be made. The 241Am surface air concentrations and integrated deposition densities were
derived from Bennett's work [B7], using the latitudinal
distribution of 241Pu as a guide.
97. It has previously been shown that use of the ICRP
lung model with Class Y parameters (appropriate forinsoluble aerosol particles) with estimates of 239,240Pu
concentrations in air to calculate organ burdens in thegeneral public gives good agreement with measured
plutonium concentrations in tissues [B6. U6]. Fromanimal experiments, Class W parameters appear
appropriate for americium compounds, includingoxides [13]. Estimates are given in Table 23 of thecommitted doses per unit intake of plutonium isotopes
and 24IAm, using the ICRP lung model [ll]. The
committed doses per unit intake for 239Pu also apply to
240Pu.
98. Estimates of the dose commitments from inhalation of fallout plutonium and americium are given in
Table 24. These results are obtained from the integrated
concentrations in air of Table 22, the committed doses
per unit inhaled activity of Table 23 and the intake rateof air of 20 m3 d-1, The effective dose equivalentcommitments weighted for the world population are 1.0µSv (238Pu), 41 µSv (239.240Pu), 8.8 µSv (241Pu) and 1.7µSv (24IAm). The collective effective dose equivalentcommitments are obtained by multiplying by therelevant population at the time of exposure (3.2 109
persons globally). The results are 3.2 103 man Sv (238Pu),
1.3 105 man Sv (239,240Pu), 2.8 104 man Sv (241Pu), and
5.4 103 man Sv (241Am).
99. It is to be noted that inhalation of activity
resuspended from the soil surface by winds could add
to the long-term intake. However, the Committee in
Annex C of its 1977 report [U6) considered this to be
insignificant based on a realistic estimate for theresuspension factor of 10-9 m-1, applicable to theactivity contained in the top centimetre of soil, andconsidering that plutonium would penetrate into thesoil within a few years and then become unavailable forresuspension.
224

2.

Dose commitments from ingestion

100. Information on the dietary intake of239,240Pu andof 241Am is presented in Table 25 [87]. Food samples
from the New York area were measured for 239,240Pu for
1963, 1964, 1972 and 1974 and for 24IAm for 1974 [B7].
The dietary intake of 239,240Pu was found to be about
ten times higher in 1963 than in 1974, due to the
influence of direct deposition. Clemente [C6] hasestimated 239, 240Pu intake in Italian diet to be
0.06 Bq a-1 during 1975-1978, in good agreement with
the New York data.
101. Using an approach similar to that used for 90Sr
and mes, the relationship between ingestion in theyear i, Iig(i), and the deposition density rate U(i) has
been expressed in the following way for the plutonium
isotopes

l: e->-smu{i-m) (13)ljg(i)=b10(i)+b3

m - 0

where b1 and b3 are proportionality constants to beinferred from the measurements and e-"'5m is a factor
combining the physical decay and any decrease in theavailability to plants of plutonium in soil.
102. The fallout to diet transfer coefficient
P23 [Bq/(Bq m-2)) derived from equation (13) isP23 = b1 +

b3

I-

>,s

e- n

<>< b 1

b3

+1.sn

(14)

where n = 1 year, a constant in this expression.
103. As the number of measurements of the annual
ingestion intake, Iig, are very few and cover a time spanof only 11 years, the determination of A.s from equation(13) would be very uncertain as large variations in thevalue of 'It result in small variations in the value of Jj 8•
Taking A.s to be very small, Bennett (87) found theaverage solutions for b1 and b3 to be 3.310-2 Bq/(Bq m-2)
and 3.5 1o-4 Bq/(Bq m-2). respectively, for 239,240Pu. The
estimation of P23 depends on the real value of t..s. It
could be as low as 5 10-2 Bq/(Bq m-2) if the availabilityof plutonium decreases with a mean residence time of
50 a (A.s = 0.02 a-1) and as high as about 10 Bq/(Bq m-2)
for 239Pu and 3 Bq/(Bq m-2) for 240Pu, if the availability

of plutonium decreased only as a result of radioactive
decay (As = 3 10-5 a- 1 and 1 lQ-4 a-1). Aarkrog [A4] hasestimated transfer of 239,240Pu to bread, an important
although just one diet component, to be 2 10-2 Bq/(Bq m-2). Until additional information becomes
available, the geometric mean of the extremes fortransfer to total diet will be adopted for the transfer
coefficient P23, namely, 0.7 Bq/(Bq m-2). This result
corresponds to a mean residence time of 239,240Pu in soilof about 100 a, value which is also adopted in Annex C
for the mean residence time in soil of long-lived naturalradionuclides released from industrial plants.
104. For 238Pu, the above estimate of P23 using the 50year residence time in soil is appropriate, considering
the similar radioactive half-life of this isotope. Given
the short half-life of 241Pu (14.4 a), the value of P23 isdominated by the rate effect and is taken to be equal to
4 10-2 Bq/(Bq m-2). In the case of 241Am, the formulation is complicated by the requirement to take thedecay of 241Pu into account. Using the equivalent ofequation (13) and taking As to be very small and b1 tohave the same value as that obtained for 239,240Pu,
Bennett [B7] estimated b3 to be equal to 8 lQ-4 Bq/(Bq m-2). This value is very uncertain as only one
measurement of annual dietary intake of 241Am has
been reported, but it points to the possibility that theamericium contained in the soil may be slightly moreavailable to plants than plutonium. The value of P23 canbe roughly assessed to range from 6 10-2 Bq/(Bq m-2)
for a residence time of 241Am in soil of 50 years to 0.7
Bq/(Bq m-2) if the availability of 241Am decreases only
by radioactive decay. The geometric mean of this range
is 0.2 Bq/(Bq m-2).
105. The dose commitments resulting from ingestion
intake of plutonium and 241Am are obtained by
combining the integrated deposition densities of Table
22 with the values of P23 given above and with thecommitted doses per unit ingested activity of Table 23.
The results are presented in Table 26. The dose commitments from ingestion are much lower than those frominhalation, with the exception of 241Am. The dose
factors used, however, are those for the soluble form of
the elements. If the concentrations do not reflect
biologically incorporated forms but simply external
contamination, which would seem likely to a large
degree, the use of committed doses per unit ingested
activity of insoluble forms would be appropriate. The
estimates of dose commitments from ingestion would
then be lower by a factor of ten.
106. The effective dose equivalent commitments
weighted for the world population from ingestion are
0.0047 µSv (238Pu), 2.7 µSv (239, 240Pu), 0.04 µSv (241Pu)
and 1.8 µSv (241Am). The relevant populations to be
used for collective dose estimates may be taken to be4109 persons for 241Pu, somewhat larger (6 109 persons)for 238Pu and the ultimate population size of 1010
persons for 241Am and 239, 240Pu. The collective effective
dose equivalent commitments are then roughly 30 man
Sv (238Pu), 3 104 man Sv (239, 240Pu), 200 man Sv (241Pu)
and 2 104 man Sv (241Am).

III.

EXTERNAL IRRADIATION

107. Many radionuclides produced in nuclear testing
emit gamma rays and contribute to the dose fromexternal irradiation. The most important from thispoint of view are a number of short-lived radionuclides,

particularly 95Zr and its daughter 95Nb, and long-lived
137Cs.
108. In principle, it is possible to calculate theexternal doses from the integrated deposition density ofeach radionuclide. The conversion factors for
estimating the absorbed doses in air, 1 metre above theground, which were used in Annex C of the 1977 report[U6] were based largely on the work of Beck et al. [Bl].
A recent compilation provides updated values for
specific radionuclides [Bl4]. These are listed in Table
27. For short-lived radionuclides, a plane source on thesurface of the ground is postulated, but for mes an
exponential profile is assumed with a mean depth of
3 cm.
109. In order to assess the organ doses from absorbed
doses in air, an average combined factor of 0.7 has beenused to account for the change of material (air to tissue)
and for back-scatter and shielding afforded by othertissues of the body. In addition, the estimation of theorgan doses from external radiation due to fallout
requires the use of a further factor representing theshielding effect of buildings. The shielding is assumed
to reduce the absorbed dose rate in air in the building,on average, to 20 % of its outdoor value. Assuming thaton the average 800/o of the time is spent indoors, theeffective shielding factor of the building is about 0.4.
The overall factor used to convert absorbed doses in air
to absorbed doses in organs, accounting for indoor
occupancy and building shielding, is therefore
estimated to be about 0.3. It is assumed to be
independent of the gamma energy and thus to apply to
all the radionuclides considered. A detailed discussionof the derivation of the values indicated in thisparagraph is provided in Annex A.
110. The transfer coefficients P2s relating integrated
deposition densities of selected gamma-em1ttmg
nuclides to the resulting dose commitments in theorgans and tissues of interest to the Committee are
obtained by multiplying the absorbed dose in air by 0.3.
The results are shown in Table 27.
111. Estimates of the population-weighted integrated
deposition densities from all atmospheric nuclear tests
are given in Table 28 [U6]. The values for mes havealready been presented in paragraph 70. With respect tothe short-lived radionuclides, the estimates, derived
from data contained in Annex C of the 1977 report[U6], are based on the use of quotients of the timeintegrated air concentrations and of integrated
deposition densities of the relevant nuclides, assessedfrom measurements at a number of sites, and the
known latitudinal distribution of the integrated deposition densities of some nuclides, such as 90Sr, 89Sr and
95Zr. The estimates have been updated to account forthe small additional deposition occurring to the end of
1980.
112. The dose commitments, obtained as the productsof the P2s factors of Table 27 and the populationweighted integrated deposition densities of Table 28,
are presented in Table 29. The dose commitment to theworld population is estimated to be about 700 µGy, thecombined short-lived nuclides and mes each contributing about half of this value. The effective dose
equivalent commitment is 680 µSv and the collective
effective dose equivalent commitment to the world
population, assumed to be 3.2 109 persons on averageduring the time of exposure and 4 109 persons for mes,
is estimated to be 2.5 106 man Sv; the contribution ofmes is 1.5 106 man Sv.
225

113. It is interesting to compare the estimated valuesof Table 29 with actual determinations of the external
dose in both hemispheres. At Chilton in the United
Kingdom the total gamma absorbed dose in air fromfallout has been determined by a combined procedureincluding direct measurements and computation frommeasured deposition [02]. The estimate, for the period
1951-1977, is 1.8 mGy. The corresponding organ
absorbed dose, applying the factor 0.3 (paragraph 110),
is 500 µGy. In the southern hemisphere, for Buenos
Aires up to 1975, an absorbed dose of 150 µGy has been
estimated, based upon direct calculation frommeasured deposition densities of individual short-lived
fission products.

IV.

SUMMARY OF DOSE COMMITMENTS
FROM NUCLEAR EXPLOSIONS

114. Estimates of the dose commitments from nuclear
explosions carried out to the end of 1980 are
summarized in Table 30. The use of the effective dose
equivalent commitments permits a direct comparison of
the importance of the various pathways to man and of
the importance of the various radionuclides considered.
The weighting factors of the ICRP have been applied.
The effective dose equivalent commitments arepresented in Table 31.
115. For the world population, the contribution ofingestion (3.0 mSv) is found to be about 4 times higher
than that of external irradiation (0.7 mSv) which in turnis about 5 times greater than that of inhalation (0.13
mSv). The relative importance of ingestion would bevery much reduced if an incomplete effective dose
equivalent were calculated up to the year 2000; in thatcase, external irradiation would be the dominant
pathway, as 14C, which is the major contributor to theingestion dose, delivers in that time span only a small
fraction of its total contribution.
116. Of the 21 radionuclides considered, only 7
contribute more than 1% to the effective dose equivalent commitment for the world population (Table 32).
Those nuclides are, in decreasing order of importance:
14C, 137Cs, 9szr, 90Sr, 106Ru, 144Ce, and 3H. For 95zr,
106Ru and t44Ce, the ii;Tadiation to which the world226

population was committed by nuclear tests to the end of1980 is already largely completed. For 137Cs, 90Sr and
3H, a large part of their contribution to the effective
dose equivalent commitment will have been deliveredby the year 2000. If there is no further atmosphericnuclear testing, only t4C will contribute significantly tothe dose rate in the third millenium. In the far future,
however, the long-lived decay products of theplutonium isotopes may have to be taken into consideration. These have not yet been assessed. A very roughestimate indicates that they could deliver, at a very low
rate, an additional contribution of about 0.1% to thetotal effective dose equivalent commitment.
117. A summary of the collective effective dose equivalent commitments evaluated in this Annex is given in
Table 33. The total of 3 107 man Sv for nuclear explosions conducted in the atmosphere to the end of 1980
corresponds to about 4 extra years of exposure of thecurrent world population to natural backgroundradiation. The fallout exposure, however, occurs at amuch lower rate. The exposure from 14C, which contributes almost 90% to the collective total, will continue
for thousands of years to an increasing and thenassumed ultimately stabilized large world population
size. Other than 14C, only 239Pu, 240Pu and 241Am affectthe population of the far future, but their significance ismuch less, as their long-term contribution amounts to
5 104 man Sv, which is less than 0.2% of the collective
total.
118. The assessments in this Annex have resulted inminimal adjustments in the absorbed dose commitments to regional or world populations evaluated in
Annex C of the 1977 report [U6]. Additional amountsof radioactive material released to the environment
from nuclear testing in recent years have been muchless than in the past. The estimates of dose commitments have however been extended by consideration of
secondary exposure pathways and the various transfer
coefficients and dose factors have been re-evaluated.
Expressing the doses in terms of effective dose equivalent has allowed a direct comparison of the importance of the various pathways to man and of the various
radionuclides to be made. It is expected that continued
measurements of fallout activity in the environment
will lead to further minor adjustments and improvements in the dose assessments.

T a b 1 e
Estimated :tields of a.tmos;eheric nuclear tests

Year

1945
1946
1948
1949
1951
1952
1953

Country

USA
USA
USA
USSR
USA
USSR
USA
UK
USA
UK

19511
1955
i956

USA
USSR
USA
USSR
USA
USSR
lJ1(

1957
1958

USA
USSR
UK
USA
USSR
UK

1960
1961
1962
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1976
1977
1978
1980

FranceUSSRFrance
USSR
USA
China
China
FranceChina
FranceChina
FranceChina
China
FranceChina
FranceChina
FranceChina
FranceChina
France
China
China
China
China
China

Numberof
tests

Estimated yield(Mt)
Fission

Total

3
2
3
1
15
2
10
1
11
2
6
1
13
4
14
7
6
25
13
7
53
25
5
3
50
1
39
38
1
1
5
3
3
2
5

0.05
0.04
o. 10
0.02
0.50
0.04
6.6
0.02
0.25
0.04
29,6
0.5
0.17
,. 5
9,7
2.5
0.10
0,34
4.7
5,85
8.2
16.2
4.54
o.11
25.4
0.02
60.05
16.5
0.02
0.04
o.68
0.62
0.20
1. 72
4 .1
1.2
2.0
2.55
2.0
1.95
0.02
o. 12
0.12
0.05
1.6
o.45
2,37
0.02
0.04
o.45

0.05
0.04
o. 10
0.02
0.50
0.04
12.6
0.02
0.25
0.04
47 .1
0.5
0.17
3.0
22,7
4.8
0.10
0.34
11. 3
9,25
17.6
35.2
7.24
0.11
122.3
0.02
180,3
37, 1
0.02
0.04
o.68
0.62
0.20
3,02
4.9
3.0
3.0
2.75
3,0
1.95
0.02
0.12
o. 12
0.05
2.5
1. 1
0.60
4. 12
0.02
0.04
o.6

193
142
21
45
22

72 .1
110.9
10.6
10.9
12.7

138.6
357,5
16.7
11.9
20.7

423

217 .2

545,4

1
8

1
5
1
3
2
5
1

7
1
3
1
2

1.1

Summar:!'.

1945-1962
1949-1962
1952-1953
1960-1974
1964-1980
TOTAL

USA
USSR
UK
FranceChina

227

Ta b l e
Stratos heric
t

Year

2

rtitionin of nuclear debris
1 ss10n energy

Equatorial
Polarstratosphere (N) stratosphere (N)Lower Upper High
Lower Upper

1951 0.009
1952 1.3
1953 0.001
1954 7.99
1955
1956 4.97
1957 2.32
1958 2.41
1961
1962 6.26
1965
1966
1967 I. 7
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973 1.6
1974 0.45
1976
1980
Total 29.0

1.8
6.76
0.15
0.4

1.5

0.24

1.2

0.12
0.003
1.13
2.10
3.09
14 .18
7.14
15.20
28.19 30.54
0.003
0.26
0.31
0.5
0.5

0.89
1.5
1.5
0.02

Equatori a 1
stratosphere (S)Lower Upper High

2.32
1.85

1.51

3.79

0.05 0.35

0.17
0.10
3.22
2.31
1.80
0.002
0.14

9.3

2.7

1.49
0.45
70.1

0.78
15.7

39.8

0.05

1.9

(N) Hemisphere total: 150.9(S) Hemisphere total: 17.6
Global total: 168.5 (Mt)

Ta b 1e3

Fission and eroduction xields of radionuclides in weaeons testing

Nuclide(half-life)
[K7]
89Sr
90Sr
95zr
103Ru
106Ru
1311
136cs
137Cs
1408a
14lce
144ce

Representative
fission yield(50.5 d)(28.6 a)(64.0 d)(39.4 d)(368 d)(8.04 d)( 13.2 d)(30.2 a)(12.8 d)(32. 5 d)(284 d)fH8]

Norma 1i zed
production(PBq per Mt
fission energy)

2.56
3.50
5.07
5.20
2.44
2.90
0.036
5.57
5.18
4.58
4.69

590
3.9
920
1500
78
4200
32
5.9
4700
1600
190

(%)

Table

4

Dose commitments frorn inhalation of 54 11n

Organ ortissueLungs
Liver
Red bone marrow
BreastGonadsOther tissues

228

Committed
dose per unit
i ntak~(nGy Bq 1)
6.7
2.5
1.1
0.86
0.71
1.8

Dose commitment ( 10Northerntemperate
zone
27
10

4.5
3.5
2.9
7.4

Southerntemperate
zone
1.4
0.51
0.22
0.18
0.15
0.37

Gy)
Global
16
6.1
2.7
2 .1
1. 7
4.4

Ta b 1e5

Annual deeosition and cumulative deeosit of strontium-90
Cumulative deposit{1016 Bq)

Annual deposition(10 16 Bq)
Northernhemisphere

Southernhemisphere Global

6.68 a/
2.33
3.89
0.97
1.30
5.34
9.70
6.13
2.86
1.21
0.62
o. 72
0.54
0. 76
0.70
0.32
0.12
0.45
0.22
0.10
0.30
0.37
0.12
0.11

2.37 a/
0.95
0.68
0.62
0.64
0.98
1.14
1. 56
1. 32
0. 77
0.41
0.38
0.52
0.47
0.56
0.35
0.11

0.04

0.16
0.15

45.86

14.41

60.27

0.18

< 0.01

0.18

Total injection
through 1980 46.0
{1016Bq)

14.4

60.4

Pre-1958
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974

1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
Integrated
deposition{1016 Bq)
Stratosphericinventory !:I(1016 Bq)

0.14

0.13
0.08
0.08
0.07
0.04

9.05 a/3.28 4.57
1.59
1.94
6.32
10.84
7.69
4 .18
1.98
1.03
1.10
1.06
1.23
1.26
0.67
0.23
0.59
0.35
0.18
0.38
0.44

llorthern
hemisphere
6.29
8.44
12.06
12.73
13.69
18.65
27.79
33.96
35 .15
35.48
35.22
35.08
34.78
34.67
34.52
33.97
33.23
32.89
32.30
31.64
31.15
30.78
30.16
29.54

Southernhemisphere Global
2.22
3.11
3.70
4.22
4.77
5.59
6.59
7.99
9.10
9.62
9.81
9.92
10.21
10.43
10.73
10.80
10.66
10.55
10.40
10.25
10.06
9.88
9.70
9.51

8.51
11.55
15.76
16.95
18.46

24.24
34.38
41.95
44.25
45.10
45 .0345.00
44.99
45 .10
45.25
44.77
43.89
43.44

42.70
41.89
41.21
40.66
39.86
39.05

a/ Estimated from the cumulative deposit.
~/ Measured July 1979 in the northern hemisphere [LI;, reduced with a half-tir.oeof 10 months to the end of 1980, plus estimated injection in 1980. Estimate
only for the southern hemisphere.

229

Ta b l e

6

Latitudinal distribution of strontium-90 deposition~/

Latitudeband

Integrated
deposit ion

Area ofband(degrees)(1016 Bq)

(1012 m2)

llORTHERN HEM !SPHERE
80-90
0.10
70-BO
0.79
60-70
3.29
50-60
7.39
40-50
10. 16
30-40
8.53
20-30
7.12
10-20
5.09
0-10
3.57
Total
46.0

3.9
11.6
18.9
25.6
31.5
36.4
40.2
42.8
44.1

SOUTHERtl H81 ISPIIERE
0-10
2.10
10-20
1. 78
20-30
2.81
30-40
2.76
40-50
2.81
50-60
1.21
60-70
0.67
70-80
0.25
80-90
0.03
Total
14.4

44.1
42.8
40.2
36.4
31.5
25.6
18.9
11.6
3.9

GLOBAL

60.4

Population
lntegra ted
lieighted
deposition Population integrated
density
distribution depositiond~nsity_3
2(10 Bq m- )(%)( 10 Bq m 2 )

0.26
0.68
1. 74
2.89
3.23
2 .34
1. 77
1.19
0.81

0.48
0.42
0.70
0.76
0.89
0.47
0.35
0.22
0.08

0
0
0.4
13.7
15.5
20.4
32. 7
11.0
6.3
100.0

2.14

54.0
16. 7
14.9
13.0
0.9
0.5
0
0
0
100.0

0.54

89 (N)

1.96

11 (S)!I Through 1980, including projected deposition of stratospheric burden.

230

T a b 1 e

7Strontium-90 concentration in milk and intake rate in total diet
Milk~_/ {llq 1- 1)
Location
1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980

Total diet (Bq d-l)
1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980

NORTHERN HEMISPHERE
Canada0.2 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.08 0.3 0.2 0.2
Denmark
0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
0.4 0.3 0.2
Faroe Islands 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.4
0.6 0.6 0.5
Finland0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
France ( 1)
0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
0.4 0.4 0.4
France (2)0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
0.4 0.4 0.3
German Dern.Rep.
(Berlin area) 0.2 0.1 0.1
0.2 0.2 0.2
Germany,
Fed. Rep.
0.3 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.1
0.4 0.3 0.3
Greenland
0.3 0.3 0.2
India
0.1 0.09 0.06
0.2 o.,z 0.1
Italy
0.3
Japan
0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 o. 09 0.3 0.2 0.2
Nether! ands
0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.06 0.06
Norway0.3 0.4 0.3 0.4
Poland
0.3 0.2
Senegal0.1
Sweden0.2 0.2 0.1 0 .1 0.2 0.2 0.:
Switzerland
0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
USSR
0.3 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.07 0.08 0.07 0.5 0.5
United Kingdom 0.1 0.1 o. 1 0.1 0.09 0.1 0.08
United States
New York City 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1
0.4 0.3 0.3
San Francisco 0.05 0.07 0.05 0.04 0.05 0.04 0.04 0.1 0.1 0.1

Argentina
Australia
BoliviaChile
New Caledonia
New ZealandPeru
ReunionTahiti0.3 0.2
0.2 0.3 0.3 0.2
0.4 0.4
0.4 0.4 0.4 0.3
0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3

References

fM4 ,Hl0, 12]
[Al]
fA2]
fC4, R3][ Pl, 12]
[ClO, MIO]
fKll]

0.2
0.2

0.3 0.4 0.3
0.2

0.2 0.2 0.1 0 .1

[Bll]
[A3]
fl2]
fC9]

rNio, 12)

[M6]
[Hl4]
[ J l]
rn21'. I2]!Hl3]:KG, 12, PB][BIO, G3, F6]
0.3 0.3 0.3 0.2
0.09 0.1 0.1 0.09

f88, K3J[88, K3]

SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE
0.11 0.09 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.06 0.06
0.08 0.07 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.05 0.04
0.2 0.2
0.1 0.1
0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.07 0.1 0.1
0.09 0.04 0.1 0.1 0.09 0.09 0.08
0.09 0.04 0.2 0.06 0.04 0.03
0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.09 0.09 0.09
0.04 0.09
0.1 0.08 0.06 0.05
0.1 0.04 0.09 0.1 0.07 0.1 0.07
0.2 0.2 0.09 0.1 0.1 0.09 0.08

fC7]
[AG)
[R2)
[CB, R2]'R2)
rN6, 12]
fR2)
rR2]
[R2]

a/ Assumes 1.2 gCa 1- 1 .

231

Ta b 1e8

Parameters of the transfer coefficient for strontium-90 between deeos it ion density and diet
Milk products

Parameter,~/Grain products

Vegetables

Argentina Denmark New York~/ Argentina Denmark New York
bi
b2
b3

\

k

p23
wk
k
wk p23
Parameter!/
bl
b2
b3

\

k

p23
WI(

k
wk p23

1.2
I.I
0.1
0.10

1.5
0.7
0.3
0.12

0.7
0.3
0.2
0.112

1.6
1.5
0.06
0.02

3.3
8.9
0.1
0.02

3.7
0.26
1.0

4.8

2.5
0.31
0.8

6.0

0.35
I. 7

17.4
0.16
2.8

0.20
1.2

0.7

ArgentinaE. 7 Denmark New York

0.2
0 .11

0.02
0
0.1
0.26

0.4
0
0.2
0.07

0.3
0.06
0.3
0.08

3.9
0.15
0.6

0.4
0.24
0.09

2.5
0.24
0.6

3.9
0.19
0.8

I. 5

Fruit

Meat, etc.

Total dietArgentin~ 7Denmark New York

Argentina Denmark New York

Argentina Denmark New York

0.3
0.2
0.04
0.09

1.0
0.04
0.04
0.02

0.2
0
0.1
0.03

0.7
0.8
0.03
0.02

0.4
0.1
0.04
0.09

0.002
0.09
0.05
0.17

1.1
0.6
0.04
0.03

1.8
0.1
0.05

0.5
0.4
0.2
0.08

1.0
0.23
0.2

2.9
0.10
0.3

4.1

0.15
0.6

3.0
0.08
0.2

0.9
0.15
0.1

0.4
0. 19
0.07

3.0
1.0
3.0

5.5
1.0
5.5

3.0
1.0
3.0

2.7

5.5

2.9

Components total

1.3

and P~
for diet group k are 10· 3 Bq a kg·l / (Bq m" 2 ).
The units for A are a • Tne constant Rk3 is the fractional amount by weight of foodgroup kin the t~tal diet.
b/ New York City.
c/ Root vegetables.
d/ Fruit and leafy vegetables.
NOTE: Oata span for regression analysis: Argentina 1964-1979, Denmark 1959-1979, New York 196Q11979(New York milk 1954-1979). Comsumption data in model diets: Food 558, 498 and_y37 kg ain Argentina. Denmark and New York, respectively; calcium 256, 620 and 370 g a in Argentina.
Denmark and New York. respectively.

E._/ The un!ts of parameters -~l' b7 , b1

232

Ta b l e

9Strontium-90 to calciuTI guotients in human bone~/[mBq (g caf 1 J
Age (years)
LocationYear

NORTHERN HEMISPHERE
Canada
1974
197S
1976
1977
1978
Denmark
1974
197S
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
Fiji
1974
Gennany, Fed.
1977
Rep. of ~/
1978
India
1975
1980
Japan
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
Nepal
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
New Guinea
1974
Nor,iay
1974
1975
1976
1977
USSR c/
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
United States
New York
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1980
San Francis co 1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE
Argentina
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
Australia
1974
1975

~/
b/

c./

Newbornorstillborn

Ref.
<1

1-4

5-19

>

55
110

(75)
(100)
(120)
(150)
(200)
67
74
(37)
(28)

70
85
65
(65)
65
52
56
37
33

60
80

110

60
95
(48)
(48)
(33)
(26)

41
(52)
(37)

49

24
24
19
19
18
17
(70)
(160)

35
30

(48)
37

52
52

68
48
(20)

57
45
45
40
39
37
30

41
37
34
(150)
(85)

(67)

63
56
48
48
34
39
35

24

100
96
63
59
52
48
40

(100)
(83)
(740)
70
( 44)

150
130
200
180
100
150
110
89
63
70
110
91
95
92
74

19

[M4]
fM4)
[M4]
[M4]
[M4)

52
56
37
33
41
37
30
37
30
59
85
32
41
44
36
34
38
34
35
110
130
140
150
110
100
56
19
89
100
67
74
53
56
56
56
56

fAl]
[Al]
[Al]
fAl)
[Al]
fAl]
fAl)
[H4]
fD2]
[D3)
[H5]
[El]

44
41
41
37
41
33
26

[Tl l
(Tl]
!Tl]

rn J

!Tl l
[Tl]

fTl)
[H41
[H4
fF6]
[H6,H7)
[H7]
(El]
[El]
[H4]
[J2]
[J2]
fJ2]
[J2]
fM3,813]
fM3,813]
_B13]
~B13]
rB13]

36

38

34

45

120
78
70
(110)
(89)
(57)
(73)
(78)
57

63
52

(56)
(62)

63
52
(59)

22
19
19
19
33
15
17

(32)
27
(28)
(32)
34
39
(25)

26
30
30
22
30
(35)
18

26
26
22
23
21

[B2]
[83]
[B4]
f85]
f K4]
[Kl3]
[82]
[83]
f84]
185]
fK4]
fK12]
[K13]

36
32
34
33
34
27
37
37

36
36
32
31
31
30
37
37

[C7]
(C7]
fC7]
fC7]
[C7]
fC7l
rc7
i AG]
fAG]

31
34
33
34
19
22
22
22

33
33
33
32
31
30
37
37

35
36

35
34
33
31
30
46
62

Samples are vertebrae, unless other.1ise indicated.
averages from sample size less than 5 individuals.
Tibia.
Nonnalized to whole skeleton.

Parentheses indicate233·

Ta b 1e10

Parameters of the transfer coefficient for 90 sr between diet and bone
Parameter
2-I
C

9
~

P34

1960-1979

New YorkCity
1954-1979

San
Francisco
1961-1978

0.04
0.01
0.12
0.16

0.02
0.02
0.27
0.11

0.06
0.02
0.17
0.18

Argentina

Denmark

1965-1979
0.16
0.01
0.10
0.32

2../ The units for the parameters c, g, and r 34 are Bq a (gCa)-lin bone per Bq a (gCa)-l and a- 1 for Ab.

Table

11

Dose conrnitments from ingestion of strontium-90

Location

World
North em hemisphere
Southern hemisphereNorth te~perate zone
(40-50 )South te~perate zone
(40-50 )Dose conrni tment
Collective dose conrnitment(10- 4 Gy)(10 5 man Gy)
lining Bone marrow Bone lln1ng
Bone marrow Bonecells
cells
5.7
6.2
1.6

13
3.4

23
22
0.7

50
49
1.5

9.4

21

5.2

11

2.6

5.7

0.01

0.02

14

Table

12

~odine-131 in.milk
Integrated concentr~tion in milk
(Bq d l )Location

Denmark (Ri sd)
FinlandFranceGennany, Fed.Rep.of (Kiel)
Japan (Chiba)
United Kingdom (Berkshire)
United States (Baltimore) !I
a/

1976

1977

7.4
13
34
16
13

10
7.4
5

35

7.4

(Al I
ra15J
fP1 1
'.Bll j(Nl0 1
[B9]
fS1)

11

59

Ref.

1978

Inferred from infant thyroid dose, assuming 3 µGy per Bq d 1-!.

T a b 1 e

13

Age-dependent parameters for obtaining
absorbed doses in the thyroid gland from ingestion of 13 11 in milk
A g e

Parameter
6 months
Mass of thyroid gland (g)2
6.0
Effective half-time in thYriid (d)330
Milk consumption rate (l a )Absorbed energy per disintegrftion (MeV) 0.18
Dose per unit intake (µGy Bq )4.3
Transfer coefficient P35
fmGy/(Bq a 1- 1))
1.4

234

4 years

14 years

Adult

4
6.3
180
0.18
2.0

14
6.9
150
0.19
0.65

20
90
0.19
0.51

0. 36

0.098

0.046

7 .6

Ta b l e

14

Caesium-137 concentration in milk and intake in total diet

Location

Milk (Bq 1- 1)

Total diet (8q d-l)

1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980

1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980

References
NORTHERN HEMISPHERE
0.3 0.3 0.2 0.1
0.6 0.6 0.4 0.5 0.7 0.5 0.3
0.2 0.3 0.2 0.1
0.6 0.6
0.2 0.3 0.2 <O. 2
0.6 0.5 0.3 0.5 0.6 0.6 <0.3
0.3 0.1 0.1

Canada0.3
Denmark
0.3
Finland1.0
France (1)0.4France (2)0.4German Dern.Rep.
(Berlin area) 0.3
Germany,
Fed. Rep. of 0.7
Japan
0.3
Netherlands
0.3
Norway2.2
Pol and0.8
Sweden0.4
Switzer] and
0.4
USSR
0.7
United Kingdom 0.3
United States 0.1
Faroe Islands 9.4
Greenland

0.3
0.2
0.9
0.3
0.4

0.2
0.2
0.7
0.2

0.4

0.3

0.6

0.2
0.4
0.3
1.8
0.8
0.4

0.4 0.3 0.3 <0.3 <0.2
0.3 0.3 0.4 0.3 0.2
0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1
1.9 1.9

0.6 0.6 0.4 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.3
0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1

Argentina
0.4
Australia
0.3
Chi leNew Zealand
0.5
Peru
New Caledonia
Society Islands
Tahiti3.9

0.2 0.1
0.2
0.4
0.4 0.3
0.1 0.1
0.2

0.3 0.4

f Kl 1]

1.0 0.6

0.4 0.3 0.3

0.6 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.1
0.3 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.1
0.3 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.2
7.3 7.0 6.6 6.6

0.6 0.6
0.5 0.5 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2
8.8 10.4 5.4 4.0 5.7
2.0 1.1 1.0 2.0 2.7

SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE
0.06 0.05 0.06 0.06 0.4 0.2 0.1

0.06 0.05 0.05 0.05

0.6 0.4 0.2
0.4 0.2 0.3 0.1
0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1

3.7 2.6 2.6

2.2[H!O, 12]fAl)
[C4, R3J[PI, 12]
rc10, MIO)

2.0 2.1[Bll][NlO, 12)
[M6]
(H14)
fJl]
[Hi, 12)
fH13][K6,12,P8]
f810,G3,F61
fH9,K2,l2]
[A2]
[A3]
fC7]
fA6)
[CB, R2)[NG, 12]
fR2]
[R2)
[R2]

Tab 1 e15

Transfer coefficient for caesium-137 between deposition densityand diet or milk

Location

P23 (milk)(mBq a kg-l
per 8q m- 2 )NORTHERN HEMISPHERE
Denmark {1962-1979)
FinlandFranceGermany, Fed. Rep, of
Norway (1957-1977)
United States (1960-1973)
United Kingdom (1961-1978)
USSR
Faroe Islands (1962-1977)
SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE
Argentina a/Australia T1963-1973)
New Zealand (1964-1979)

5.9
24

P23 (diet)(mBq a kg-l
per Bq m- 2 )

12

'KS]

rcsJ

'M2 1

11

'HIS:

12
23
5.4
6.5
9.3
34
12
20
18

Ref.

rKs(
[U6)
'KS]

'U6]
TKS]

8.1

a/ Milk 1964-1979; diet 1967-1979.

235

Ta b 1e

16

Parameters of the transfer coefficient for caesium- 137
6etween aeeosition aensitt ana a1et
Mi 1k products
Grain products
Vegetables
Parameter
Argentina
DenmarkArgentina
DenmarkArgentina Denmark
!I
bl

b2
b3
As
k
p23
wk
k
wk p23

7.7
0
0.2
0.14

3.0
2.0
0.07
0.08

2.0
6.9
0

3.3
23.3
0

2.1
2.3
0

2.4
0
0.02
0.02

8.8
0.26
2.3

5.9
0.35
2.1

8.9
0.20
1.8

26.6
0.16
4.3

4.4
0.31
1.4

3.5
0.24
0.8

Fruit

Parameter
a/

bi
b2
b3

wk

k
wk p23

Total dietArgentina Denmark Argentina Denmark Argentina Denmark
0.5
2.6
0

1.8
1.2
0.2
0.29

22.1
0
3.7
0.65

11.9
0
46.9
1.6

6.3
1.8
0

4.0
6.4
0.03
0.02

3.1
0.16
0.5

3.5
0.10
0.4

26.2
0.08
2 .1

23.6
0.15
3.5

8.1
1.0
8.1

12.0
1.0
12.0

8.1

11.1

\

k
p23

Meat, etc.,

Components total!I The units of parameters bl,' b2 , b3 and P~ 3 for diet group k
are mBq a kg- 1/(Bq m- 2 ). The units for As are a- 1. The
constant wk is the fractional amount by weight of foodgroup kin the total diet.
NOTE: Data span for regression analysis: Argentina 1967-1979;
Denmark 1962-1979.
Consumption data in model_~iets: Food 558, 498 kg a- 1;
potassium 1.12, 1.37 kg a in Argentina and Denmark,respectively.

236

Ta b l e17

Caesium-137 concentration in the human body
[Bq (g K)- 1]
1980

Ref.

Sex

1974

1975

1976

1977

NORTliERN HEMISPHERE
Denmark
Finland

M,F
M,F

0.36
1.0

0.42
I. I

0.35
0.85

0.31
0.78

M,F

0.67

0.63

0.41

0.41

M,F
M
M,F
M

0.35
0.61
0.36
0.4

0.43
0.58
0.42
0.3

0.38
1. 2
o. 25
0.27

0.29
0.22
0.23

0.22
0.22

0.22

M,F

0.82

0.88

0.60

0.45

0.31

0.43

M
F

0.3
0.3

0.4
0.4

0.4
0.5

o.~

M

0.33

0. 43

0.35

0.30

0.38

0.31

[T3)

65

60

50

[T4)
[T5)

0.13

0.11

0.052 0.037 0.040 0.040[C7]FranceGermany, Fed.Rep.
Karl sruhe
Dlisseldorf
West Berlin
Japan
SwedenStockholm
Switzerland
GenevaGenevaUnited Kingdom
Oxfordshire
United States
New Mexico
Subarctic region(Reindeer herders)Finland (!nari
USSR (Murmansk

M,F

l

M 80
M 260

SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE
Argentina

0.34

T ab 1 e

137

1978

1979

Location

fAl](S5,R4,
R5]

0.96
0.48

0.56

0.48

[PI]

[Bll]
[ 811][811]
ru1,u9J
0.37

[E2]
(Hl3]
[H13]

0.4

0.37

0.42

0.35

[N7,N8,
F6)

18

Values of P24 obtained as the quotient of the time-integrated
cs concentration in the body and the integrated deposition density
p24
Location

PeriodArgentina
1966-1974
Denmark
Finland1962-1973
Sweden (Stockholm) 1962-1972
United Kingdom(Southern England) 1957-1976

T a b l e

(Bq a kg-l
per Bq m- 2 )

Ref.

0.022
0.022
0.062
0.036

'.U6]
fU6}
rc5
[U6

0.015

[N7)

19

Dose commitments from ingestion of caesium-137

Location

1/orl dNorthern hemisphere
Southern hemisphereNorth te~perate zone
(40-50 )South te~perate zone
(40-50 )Dose commitment(µGy)

Collective
dose commitment( 10 5 man Gy)

170
190
47

6.9
6.7
0.2

280

1.6

78

0.003

237

Ta b 1e20

Dose corrrnitments from inhalation of 140 Ba
Dose per
Dose cornrni trnen t ( I0- 7 Gy)
unit
intakeNorthSouthtemperate
temperate
Global
(I0- 9 Gy Bq-l)
zone
zone

Organ or tissue

Lower large intestine
Bone lining cells
Lungs
Upper large intestine
Red bone marrow
Small intestine
GonadsBreast

4.4
2.4
I. 7
1.5
1.3
0.53
0.43
0.29

15
7.9
5.6
5.0
4.3
1. 7
1.4
1.0

Table

21

2.0
I. I
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.2
0.2
0.1

9.7
5.3
3.7
3.3
2.9
1.2
1.0
0.6

Production of plutonium and transplutoniurn isotopes
by atmospheric nuclear tests
Mass ratio relative to
Pu
Isotope Half-life corresponding to production(a)by nuclear tests(K7][B7. G!, H12]
238Pu
239Pu
240Pu
241Pu
242Pu
242mAm
244cm

87 .7
24100
6570
14.4
376000152
18.1

0.00016

(PBq)

0.33
7.8
5.2
170
0.016
0.000370.000260.18
0.013
0.00340.00000031
0.000000025

Ta b l e

Production by
past nuclear tests

22
in airInteof
Integrated deposition density(Bq m- 2 )Integrated concentration in air(10- 6 Bq a m- 3)

Location

World
Northern hemisphere
Southern hemisphereNorth te~perate zone
(40-50)South te~perate zone
(40-50)

238Pu 239 ,240Pu 241pJ!_/241Am£'

23BPu

239 ,240Pu

241Pu

241Am

0.90
0.98
0.25

35
39
9.7

440
480
120

15
17
4.2

1.6
1. 7
0.4

62
69
17

770
840
210

I. 7
1.8
0.5

1.5

58

730

25

2.6

100

1300

2.8

0.41

16

200

7.0

0.7

28

350

0.8

a/ Through 1979 from nuclear explosions only. A satellit~ 3§eentry in 1964 in the southernhemisphere caused additional widespread deposition of
Pu.
b/ Taking into account a delay of 10 months between production and deposition.
c/ From 241 Am deposition plus 241 Pu decay.

238

Table23

Corrmitted dose per unit intake of Pu and Am radionuclides
Conmitted dose per un1t intake of plutonium and americium rad1onuclides(µGy Bq-l)
[ 11]

Lungs
Red bone marrow
Bone lining cells
Liver
Gonads

238Pu

239Pu

241Pu

241Am

Inhalation Ingestion(Class Y) (Soluble)

Inhalation Ingestion(Class Y) (Soluble)

Inhalation Ingestion(Class Y) (Soluble)lnha la t ion Ingestion(Class W) (Soluble)

16
3.3
42
9

16
3.8
48
11

3.2
1. 7
21
4.4
0.3

10
130
28
1.6

0.008
0.09
0.02
0.001

0.008
0.1
0.02
0.001

T a b 1 e

0.003
0.04
0.009
0.0006

0.04
0.6
0.1
0.007

24

Dose commitments from inhalation of fallout

lutonium and americium

µ y

Lungs

Red
bone
marrowBonelining Liver
cells

0.2
0.2
0.05
0.3
0.08

0.04
0.04
0.01
0.06
0.02

0.5
0.5
0.1
0.8
0.2

0.1
0.1
0.03
0.2
0.05

8.1
2.0
12
3.3

7.2

1. 7
1.9
0.5
2.8
0.8

22
24
6.0
35
9.8

5.0
5.5
1.4
8.0
2.2

18
20
4.9
30
8.2

9.6
10
2.6
16
4.3

120
130
32
200
54

25
27
6.7
42
11

1. 7
1.8
0.5
2.8
0.8

0.3
0.4
0.1
0.6
0.2

0.02
0.02
0.006
0.03
0.009

Gonads

238Pu
World
Northern hemisphere
Southern hemisphereNorth temperate zone
South temperate zone
239 ,240Pu\./orld
Northern hemisphere
Southern hemisphereNorth temperate zone
South temperate zone
241Pu
World
Northern hemisphere
Southern hemisphereNorth temperate zone
South temperate zone
241Am
World
Northern hemisphere
Southern hemisphereNorth temperate zone
South temperate zone

0.1
0.1
0.04
0.2
0.06

Tab l e

1.6
1. 7
0.5
2.7
0.8

25

Dietary intake of fallout
239,240Pu and 241Am
in the New York region

Year

Annualdietary intake(Bq)
239,240Pu 241Am

1963
1964
1972
1974

0.55
0.34
0.056
0.048

0.015

239

~

Ta b 1e26

Dose co11111itments from in9estion of fallout elutonium and americium(10-S Gy)Red
bonemarrowOone
lining
cells

Liver

Gonads\lorldNorthern hemisphere
Southern hemisphereNorth temperate zone
South temperate zone
239 ,240Pu

0.04
0.04
0.01
0.06
0.02

0.4
0.4
0.1
0.7
0.2

0.09
0.1
0.03
0.15
0.04

0.005
0.005
0.001
0.008
0.002

\/orldllorthern hemisphere
Southern hemisphereNorth temperate zone
South temperate zone

20
22
5.4
32
9.0

250
270
68
410
110

49
55
14
81
22

2.5
2.7
0.7
4.1
1.1

llorldNorthern hemisphere
Southern hemisphereNorth temperate zone
South temperate zone
241Am

5.3
5.8
1.4
8.8
2.4

70
19
120
32

16
17
4.3
26
7.2

1.1
1.2
0.3
1.8
0.5

1/orldNorthern hemisphere
Southern hemisphereNorth temperate zone
South temperate zone

12
14
3.4
20
5.6

180
200
50
300
84

30
34
8.4
50
14

2 .1
2.4
0.6
3.5
1.0

Tab 1 e

27

238Pu

241Pu
77

Conversion factors for the assessment of the effective equivalentdose co111111tments due to external irradiation
95zr 103Ru 106Rua/a/Quotient of absorbed dose
rate in air to deposition
density(10- 8 Gy a- 1/(Bq m- 2 )]9.5
Mean life (a)0.253
Quotient of absorbed dosein air to deposition
density[l0- 8 Gy/(Bq m- 2 )]2.4
2
P ~/ f(lO-lO Gy/(Bq m- )] 72
2

137Cs

140Ba
!_/

14lce 144ce
a/

1.8
0.156

0.79
1.46

0.89
43.6

9.8
0.051

0.25 0.17
0.128 1.12

0.28

1.2

39

0.50

0.032

0.19

8.4

36

15

0.96

5.7

1170

a/ Including contributions from the daughter radionuclides, assumed in- transient equilibrium.
b/ The air-to-tissue conversion factor, taking into account indoor occupancy- and shielding by buildings, is assumed to be 0.3 (see Annex A).

240

Tab 1 e

28

Integrated deposition densities of the main contributors
to external irradiation(10 3 Bq m- 2)

Location27.2 20.4 14.7 3.14 16. 7 15.0 29.4
29. l 21. 8 16.0 3.42 18.0 16.0 32.1
4.1 0.86
7.5 6.7 8.1
12 .1 9.1
40.l 30.l 24.2 5.17 24.9 22.l 48.4
3.5
3.1 13.4
5.6 4.2 6.7 1.42

World
Northern hemisphere
Southern hemisphereNorth temperate zone
South temperate zone

T a b l e

29

Dose co11111itments due to external irradiation fromradionuclides deposited on the ground(µGy)
95zr 103Ru 106Ru 137Cs 140Ba 14lce 144ce

LocationWorld
llorthern hemisphere
Southern hemisphere
Uorth temperate zone
South temperate zone

200
210
87
290
40

53
17
58
18
7.6 1525
87
3.5 24

370
400
100
600
170

T a b l e

25
27
11
37
5.3

1.4 17
1.5 18
0.6 4.6
2.1 28
0.3 7.6

Total
680
730
230
1070
250

30

Su11111ary of dose commitments from radionuclides produced
in atmospheric nuclear tests carried out to the end of !980(µGy)
South temperate zone

North temperate zone

World population

Sourceofradiation

GonadsRedbonemarrowBonelining Lungs
cells

GonadsRedbonemarrowBonelining Lungs
cells

Gonads

Red
Bone
bone
lining Lungs
marrow cells

External
Short-1 i ved
nuclides
137cs

470
600

470
600

470
600

470
600

80
170

80
170

80
170

80
170

310
370

310
370

310
370

310
370

Internal
3H
14c a/
55Fe-

51
77
10

51
370
6

51
340
10

14
77

14
370

47
77

47
370

47
340

47
91

9

9
2

940

2100

0.6
260

5
1

9

3

14
340
2
0.9
570

14
91
2

2

51
91
10
24
120

570

1300

280

280

78

78

78

170

170

3
16
0.4

39
20
5

0.01
0.8
0.02

0.9

11

3

4

54

8

2
10
0.2

25
120
3

1300

720

89Sr
90Sr
lD6Ru
137Cs
144ce
239Pu b/
241Pu
241Am
TOTAL
(rounded)

2

1

410

280
0.04
3

0.07
1500

2700

3900

280
500
12
30

2600

420

6

34
95
78
140

0.1
980

170
0.03
2
0.04
990

1900

2700

15
74
250
170
250
7
18

1700

Doses accumulated to the year 2000. The total dose co11111itments will be delivered over thousands ofyears; they are estimated in paragraph 25.
b/Includes dose commitments from plutonium-240.
;OTE: The dose co11111itments from 54 Mn, 85 Kr, 136 cs, 140 sa and 238 Pu, although discussed in the text,
are not shown in this table because they are negligible compared to the values included.
Estimates of age-weighted absorbed doses to the thyroid gland from iodine-131 are: 1.6 nGy (Horthtemperate zone), 0.2 mGy (South temperate zone) and 1.1 l!Gy (World).
Absorbed doses from alpha particles: plutonium-239, americium-241.
a/

241

Ta b 1eSunmarero uce,n31

atmose enc

OU

(µSv)

North temperate zone
Radionuc 1ide

External
irra-

diation
3H
14c
54Mn
55Fe

lnhalation

40
26
14
3
220

3200

0.005

89sr
90sr
95zr
103Ru
106Ru
1311
136cs
137cs
14083

3
14
290
25
87

14lce
144ce
238Pu
239Pu
240Pu
241Pu
241Am

600
37
2
28

Total
(rounded) 1100

242

Total

51
2600
0.07
10
10
0.005
5
2
180
170
290
25
140
48
48
0.1
0.1
880
280
38
0.3
2
88
0.008
2
43
3
28
2
14
0.07
6
3

4

0.3
0.07

85Kr

Ingestion

South temperate zone

49

0.6
0.3
60
2

External
i rradiation

47
2600

4500

lnhalation
l

0.3
0.004
0.005
0.7
4
40
4

24

170
5
0.3
8

11

0.2
0.04
17
0.4
11

7
4

0.7
250

60

Ingestion

World population
Total

Externa 1lnhairralation
diation

13
2600

14
2600
0.004
2
2
0.005
0.4
1
48
52
40
4
35
7
7
0.03
0.03
78
250
0.07
5
0.3
25
0.002
0.4
0.7
12
0.5
8
0.02
4
0.7

2750

3100

Ingestion

Total

3

44

0.3
0.04

2600

47
2600
0.04
9
0.005
3
120
200
17
83
33
0.06
540
25

9
0.005
2
9
200
17
53

30

370
25

0.4
0.2

17

37
1
25
16
9
2

680

1
110

130

33
0.06
170
0.2

54
0.005
2
1

1

2

27
17
9
4

3000

3800

0.04

Table32

Contributions to total effective dose equivalent co11111itment
to the world population from nuclear tests
Effective dose
equivalentContribution
to total
co11111itment
Radionuclide
(µSv)
(%)
14c a/
137cs
95zr
90Sr
106Ru
144ce
3H
1311
239Pu
140Ba
103Ru
240p 11
241Pu
5Sfe
241Am
89Sr
141ce
238Pu
136cs
54Mn
85Kr
Total
(rounded)

2600
540
200
120
83
54
47
33
27
25
17
17
9
9
4
3

1
0.06
0.04
0.005
3800

69
14
5.3
3.2
2.2
1.4
1.2
0.9
0.7
0.7
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.08
0.03
0.03
0.002
0.001
0.0001
100!I The dose co11111itment from 14 c will bedelivered over thousands of years.
That part delivered up to the year
2000 is 7.7 % of the value listed(see paragraph 26).

243

T a b l e

Surranar oflobal collective effective

Radionuclide
14c
137Cs
95zr
90sr
106Ru

.Externa)
irradiation

150 c/

144ce
131 I
239Pu
140Ba
103Ru
240Pu
241Pu
55Fe
241Am
89Sr
14lce
238Pu
136cs

Total
( rounded)

Ingestion

Total

0.3 b/
0.1

2600 ~/
69 c/

2600
220

44 c/

64
1\7

3

17

10
1 c/

5

27
18 c/

19

11
2 E/
0.05

17
11
10
8

12
8

8

0.07

5

5
5
3

0.5
0.6

0.4
0.3
0.01

ttn

85Kr

Inhalation

64

3H

54

33

o. 002 ::.I
250

44

l ~/
0. 02 E_/

6

3

3

3

2y
0.3

2
0.9
0.4
0.003 ~/ 0.3
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.002

2750

3000

9
a/ ~Jorld population size assumed to be 3.2 10 persons- unless otherwise specified by a footnote.
b/ Population size 1 10 10 persons.
;; Population size 4 109 persons.
;; Population size 6 109 persons.

244

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Al

A2

A3

A4

AS

A6

AS

81

82
B3
B4

B5
B6
B7
B8
B9

BIO
Bl 1

B12

813

B14
B15

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