Bull. Tohoku Univ. Museum, No. 15, pp. 127–193, 2016
© by The Tohoku University Museum

6WDQGDUGXVHZHDUFKDUWRI78057  0LFURÀDNLQJ 
Kaoru Akoshima, Hyewon Hong
Department of Archaeology, Graduate School of Arts and Letters, Tohoku University

INTRODUCTION
The present paper is the second part of the results of
microflaking analysis by Tohoku University Microwear
Research Team (TUMRT). It is the continuous and expanded
explanation of standard identification criteria of a categoryof use-wear traces, that is, microflaking. The part 1 waspublished in the Bulletin of the Tohoku University Museum,No. 13 (Akoshima and Hong 2014). The present article is tobe utilized with part 1 which is available through the Tohoku
University Library website (TOURS). Part 1 mainly explains
RYHUDOOH[SHULPHQWDOIUDPHZRUNRIPLFURÀDNLQJDQDO\VLVE\TUMRT, typical patterns of microflaking scar appearance,and variables in experimental control.
Part 2 here expands the range of microphotographs
in order to accommodate various different appearancesof microflaking scar patterns which are observable on
actual experimental artifacts. The reader may recognize
representative chipping phenomena (flaking phenomena)and the varieties of chipping scars which are observable on
the same working edges used in the same task (the motion
and the worked materials). Part 2 also explains the method
RIDQDO\]LQJWKHDFWXDOZLGHUDQJHRIPLFURÀDNLQJYDULHWLHVby counting frequencies and classifying attributes of chipping
scars. Methodological explanation is presented with tables
DQGJUDSKVIRUWKHEDVLVRIVWDWLVWLFDODQDO\VLVRIÀDNLQJVFDU
variability, as was already summary published in Japanese(Akoshima 1981) and English (Akoshima 1987).
The theoretical basis of the present article is experimentalarchaeology as one realm of “Middle Range Research” by
Binford (1981, pp.21-30, 1983, pp.19-30, ed. 1977, pp.110). Binford argues that all archaeological records exist in
the present world and also in the shape of static facts. It isnecessary to transform archaeological facts into statements
about the past. The criteria of adequate interpretation derivefrom “actualistic” studies where movements of cultural
systems and resultant static facts from them both can beobserved in real cases. Such a situation might be studied
in three fields of research, that is, ethno-archaeology,
experimental archaeology, and historical archaeology. Ourlithic use-wear study duly purports to this epistemologicalpremise in that “actualistic” situations in the controlled
experiments provide concrete basis for interpretations ofstatic microwear traces which are existent on the surface ofstone artifacts excavated in the present world.
We reiterate here that the study of prehistoric lithic
artifacts entails three fundamental realms of research,
namely, typological, technological, and functional analysis.
All these areas of course need to establish robust methodsof meaning assignment in the sense of Binford, to any
patterns in archaeologically observed records. In the case of
the use-wear analysis, experimental replication plays criticalroles for bridging arguments between wear patterns andhuman activities, in other words, between the statics and the
dynamics. It is essentially important to construct extensive
databases of experimental use-wear formation for the
purpose of reliable interpretation of archaeological patterns.
A prevalent problem lies in the gap or discrepancy
between experimentally produced use-wear patterns
and actually excavated archaeological patterns. Binford
recognizes that this sort of ambiguity would be the causeof learning for scientists (Binford 1987). Use-wear patterns
on experimental artifacts do not always coincide witharchaeological wear patterns. Empirical archaeologists infavor of inductive reasoning often criticize experimental
use-wear study because of this discrepancy and ambiguity,for example, in the history of Japanese archaeology in1970s (c.f., Akoshima 2008). However, we are aware that
fundamental linkage between stone tool using activities andresultant wear patterns had to be constructed as prerequisite
to reliable behavioral reconstruction.

EXPERIMENTAL DATABASE
The present paper continues to introduce essential criteriaof micro-wear interpretation accumulated by TUMRT since1976. The team was initiated by the late Prof. Chosuke
Serizawa and has been active up to the present (for its
history, e.g. Akoshima 2008). This is to be the secondof a series of presentations resulting from the TUMRT
inferential criteria. We apologize for not having presented
our inferential standards due to various circumstances in128

Kaoru AKOSHIMA, Hyewon HONG

our Tohoku University Archaeological Laboratory since
1983, even if we were repeatedly requested to publish
openly our criteria for functional interpretation especiallyby use-wear analysts nationwide. The data presented here
focus on characteristics of replicated microflaking scarpatterns. Although our inferential method of microflaking
was published in summarized way (e.g., Akoshima 1981,
1987, 1989), and a number of actual analysis of excavatedartifacts have been conducted widely in Japan, basic
database for interpretation has yet to be fully presented. We
hope the microphotographs presented in this volume willassume a role of standard use-wear chart for references.
7KHGDWDEDVHSUHVHQWHGKHUHLVDSDUWRIWKH¿UVWVHULHV
of TUMRT project directed by Serizawa. Microflaking data
were analyzed by Akoshima (Akoshima 1981, 1989) andthe data have been utilized by TUMRT members since then.
Microphotographs were printed and served on file at the
Department of Archaeology, Faculty of Arts and Letters.
The procedure of photographic data presentation in thepresent publication is the same as our previous “Part 1”
report (Akoshima and Hong 2014), so only short descriptions
are repeated here for readers’ reference. The paper photomicrographs in the TUMRT file were scanned at 600 dpi
and colour digitized for adjusting gray tones. For the Part 1
report, representative images were chosen for presentationof “typical microflaking patterns”, but here wider varietiesof microflaking patterns are shown for better recognitionof overall wear patterns. By referring the present data andprevious data, the range of flaking patterns are roughly
knowable.
On the other hand, the microflaking scars werenumerically described in statistical graphs in Akoshima(1987, after 1981). Thus, the pictures compiled here are thephotographic version of inferential criteria. The data are thesame, but their expression is different. (They are shown as
Figure 1 to Figure 28 in the previous volume, and as Figure
36 to Figure 88 for the present volume. In addition, from
Figure 29 to Figure 35, explanatory remarks and calculating
methods are provided for more concrete understanding of
PLFURÀDNLQJSKHQRPHQD 0LFURSKRWRJUDSKVDUHDUUDQJHGLQthe order from working soft materials (meat, rawhide, leather,soft plant) to medium (wood, bamboo), to hard materials(bone, antler). Within the category of similar hardness, they
are sub-divided and arranged by the method of use, fromparallel motions (cutting, sawing) to perpendicular motions(scraping, whittling).
The raw materials in the experimental project were theshale collected from the riverbed of the Mogami River in
Sagae City, Yamagata Prefecture. It is notable that the shalein the Japanese terminology of lithic analysis denotes a
W\SHRI¿QHJUDLQHGVHGLPHQWDU\URFNZLWKEUHDNLQJIHDWXUH
of conchoidal fracture. The rock type was in wide use

throughout prehistory in northeastern part of the Honshu
Island of Japan. Out of about 160 experimental artifacts, 80
specimens were photo-presented in this volume, including
the same specimens in the previous volume. They areÀDNHWRROVXWLOL]HGZLWKRXWDQ\VHFRQGDU\UHWRXFKDORQJWKH
edge. Thus, the micro-sized scars seen on these photos areproduced exclusively by utilization. They are presented withthe scale bar for 2 mm, because the size of microflaking
scars has concrete relationships with the hardness of theworked materials and the direction of use motion (Akoshima1981).
The order of presenting these photographic data is asfollows. Basically, they are arranged so that the general
patterns of groups of microflaking scars are recognizedaccording to the numerical presentation as in Akoshima(1987). The Figures are captioned with the category ofworked materials and working edge motions. From Figure
36 on, they are shown in the following order (the same orderas Akoshima and Hong 2014). It is presented here again for
quick reference of the reader :1. Meat, 1.1 cattle (beef), 1.2 pig (pork), 1.3 lamb (mutton),
1.4 duck, 1.5 chicken
2. Plant, 2.1 grass, 2.2 wheat crop, 2.3 rice crop, 2.4 reed, 2.5
pampas grass
3. Hide, 3.1 rawhide, 3.2 half dried hide, 3.3 dry hide
4. Wood, 4.1 paulownia, 4.2 cedar, 4.3 pine, 4.4 alder, 4.5
zelkova, 4.6 others
5. Bamboo
6. Gourd
7. Shell
8. Bone, 8.1 raw, fresh, 8.2 wet and boiled, 8.3 boiled
9. Antler, 9.1 soaked, 9.2 dry, 9.3 others
For the third digit of each photo caption number, the type of
motion in use is indicated as follows.
Longitudinal, -1 cutting, -2 sawing
Transversal, -3 whittling, -4 scraping
Varied, -5 chopping, -6 butchering
Incising, -7 graving
Microphotographs were taken using a macro-photo
equipment of Olympus OM-2 camera system. The
magnification shown in the caption is at the time ofphotography.
In the photo caption, “d” means the dorsal surface, while³Y´PHDQVWKHYHQWUDOVXUIDFH WKHPDLQÀDNHVXUIDFH RIWKHZRUNLQJHGJHRIWKHH[SHULPHQWDOÀDNH

NUMERICAL AND PHOTOGRAPHIC EXPRESSIONSFor the analysis of microflaking scars, a variety of
attributes were recorded and classified. A total of 3840
ÀDNLQJVFDUVZHUHFRXQWHGRQHE\RQHDQGUHFRUGHGIRU
specimens. They were statistically investigated and summary

6WDQGDUGXVHZHDUFKDUWRI78057  0LFURÀDNLQJ 
published in Akoshima (1981). Major attributes of analyticalinterests include the shape of microflaking scar, the sizeof microflaking scar, the initiation of microflaking scar
breakage, the termination of microflaking scar breakage,
WKHGHQVLW\RIPLFURÀDNLQJVFDUSHUFHQWLPHWHUWKHGHJUHH
of concentration of scars to one face of the tool, ventral or
dorsal. The summary of conducted experiments is shownin Table 1 to Table 3 in the previous report (Akoshima andHong 2014). Also, other than the information in the table foreach controlled experiment, thirty conditions were recorded
RQH[SHULPHQWUHFRUGLQJVKHHWVZKLFKDUHDYDLODEOHRQ¿OH
at Tohoku University. Experimental recording system waspresented in the previous report and not repeated here.
Actual appearances of microflaking are rich in variety
even along one working edge, but there are portions which
are evaluated as representing typical patterns. For eachexperiment, two micro-photos are selected, one on dorsal
aspect and one on ventral aspect. They are presented
as Figure 1 to Figure 28 in our first report, as basic
representation of scar patterns. Explanation of identifying
scar patterns is given in Figure 29. Scar patterns are more
adequately recognized when they are analyzed collectively
as a group of numerous scars. A method of recognizing
numerical attributes as statistical graphs is presented. Six
cases are explicated from Figure 30 to Figure 35, namely
for soft, medium, hard worked materials in longitudinal andtransverse motions. In order to recognize actual variations
in chipping scar patterns, other micro-photos of the same
experiment are abundantly shown from Figure 36 to Figure
88.

IDENTIFICATION OF MICROFLAKING SCARSMicroflaking is, needless to say, a microscopic versionof flaking that occurs to conchoidally fracturing rocks.
The mechanical principles involved in the fracturing
process of microflaking is expected to be essentiallythe same as that in manufacturing process of lithic
artifacts. Classification in general, in a sense, ignores
diversity existing among classified objects or phenomena.
Classification of microflaking in order to get quantitative
GDWDLVRIFRXUVHQRH[FHSWLRQ(DFKPLFURÀDNLQJVFDUKDV
individual characteristics that would be disregarded when
it is classified into a type, or categorized coding. In order
to alleviate this missing feature, microphotographs weretaken and presented, rather than simply categorizing scars
into types. The diversity of microflaking scars is evaluatedfrom them. It should be borne in mind, however, that thesemicrophotographs do not necessarily represent all types of
microflaking that occurred on the edge of flakes that wereused in the particular work.
Microphotographs only partially exhibit the area ranging

129

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a working edge usually spans as long as several centimeters
or more. However in spite of the areal limitations, distinctive
patterns are recognized in many cases. In Figure 29,
three microphotographs are shown for soft, medium, andhard worked materials as was mentioned above. Over thephotographed area, examples of description of the scars arepresented as characterizing scar patterns. In the photos, thin
ZKLWHOLQHVLQGLFDWHHDFKLGHQWL¿HGÀDNLQJVFDUV7KH\DUHRI
course overlapped with one another and formerly produced
scars are crosscut by later formed scars. The formerly
produced scars changed their shapes accordingly.

ATTRIBUTES AND GRAPHIC PATTERN
RECOGNITION
Every experimental specimen was observed for all the
resultant microflaking scars. They were recorded one by
one for attributes such as shape and size. They were thencounted as cross tabulation (Figure 30 to 35 for the left
side tables). Numbers cross tables were converted to bar
graph diagrams for scar pattern recognition (Figure 30 to 35
for the right side bar graphs). Here 6 cases are explained
as examples of collective scar patterns due to limitation of
space. In this analysis, actually 72 numerical tables andgraph diagrams were made, and they indicate that concrete
patterns virtually exist among microflaking. The patterns
are partially presented as statistical tendencies as were
described in Akoshima (1981), in such expression as “degreeof concentration of scars to ventral aspect”.
The analyzed attributes are as follows. They are, so to
speak, characterization as collective group of scars bymaking combined bar graphs from cross tabulations of
attributes type categorization.
7KH6KDSHRI0LFURÀDNLQJThe “shape” is the horizontal shape of the microflaking
scar. Although there are many intermediate shapes, they are
FODVVL¿HGLQWRWKHIROORZLQJ³VKDSHV´7KHLUYDULDWLRQVZHUH
illustrated in Akoshima (1981, p.10).
“Scalar” (“S”). Semi-circular shape and its variations.
“Rectangular” (“R”). Either side of the scar runs parallel toeach other.
“Trapezoidal” (“T”). The sides of the scar broaden toward theinside.
“Triangular” (“Tr”). When the axis of rectangular or
trapezoidal scar becomes oblique to the edge, one side of
WKHVFDURIWHQSURWUXGHVIURPWKHHGJHOLQHRIWKHÀDNHDQG
as a result, triangular scar occurs.
“Irregular” (“I”). Several types of complicated or overlapped
scars are often found. It can be termed “others”.
“Sliced” (“Sl”). It looks “crescent” in horizontal shape. Thin

130

Kaoru AKOSHIMA, Hyewon HONG

edge is often snapped off and as a result, sliced scar occurs.
When any overhang is observed, it is counted as “steppedsliced scar”.
7KH6L]HRI0LFURÀDNLQJ
It is problematic to define the size of flaking scars. Its
UDWLRRIOHQJWKDQGZLGWKDUHGLYHUVHDQGWKHDUHDLVGLI¿FXOW
to measure. However, considering the characteristics thatmost scars occur along the edge between ventral and dorsal
aspects, the size is here measured as the distance between
WZRHQGVRIWKHVFDURQWKHHGJHOLQH7KHVL]HZDVGH¿QHG
as follows. It was measured with a lattice scale (which was
SULQWHGRQJODVVSODWH XQGHUWKHPDJQL¿FDWLRQRI;
“Micro” (“mi”). A scar which is smaller than 0.5 mm in width.
“Small” (“s”). A scar which is between 0.5 mm and 1.0 mm inwidth.
“Middle” (“m”). A scar which is between 1.0 and 2.0 mm inwidth.
“Large” (“l”). A scar which is larger than 2.0 mm in width.
7KH7HUPLQDWLRQRI0LFURÀDNLQJ
0LFURÀDNLQJVFDUVDVWKHUHVXOWRIEUHDNDJHRIWKHHGJH
entail attributes as “conchoidal fracture”. In case of stone
knapping, usually “feather end”, “step fracture” or “stepflaking” (and “hinge fracture”) is conventionally used as
criteria of termination. But also the negative “curvature”
of flaked scar surface is an important feature to evaluate
the depression of the surface. So here the termination is
FODVVL¿HGLQWRWKUHHFDWHJRULHVDVIROORZV“Deep” (“D”).
“Shallow” (“Sh”).
“Step” (“St”).
“Deep” and “Shallow” scars terminate with feather ending.
Hinge fracture was included in “Step”. Absolute quantitative
definition was not made between D and Sh, though thecurvature of scars can be observed three dimensionally witha stereoscopic microscope.
The “Initiation” of scars as well as termination has been
employed widely as a standard of scar classification.
Initiation can be divided into two major categories, that is,“Cone” and “Bending”. Systematic analysis of initiation was
not carried out in the present article, though it was observedthat both initiations actually occurred and scars can bedivided by the standard.
Edge angle was measured at several points of the edge
for each experimental specimen. Edge width is the length of
HGJHWKDWZDVDQDO\]HGIRUPLFURÀDNLQJSKHQRPHQD,WGRHVnot mean the length of edge that was actually in contact withthe worked material.
Converted graph diagram
7KHDERYHPHQWLRQHGDWWULEXWHVDQGFODVVL¿FDWLRQUHVXOWV

were converted to the bar graph diagram for each specimen.
Some cases are exemplified here as Figure 30 to Figure
35 on the right side of the chart. The cross tabulation
frequencies and the bar charts are self-evident, but it isemphasized that the bar graphs on symmetric framework
denote particular characteristics of microflaking scarpatterns. The diagnostic bar graph patterns correspond tonumerical summary of scar attributes which were explainedin Akoshima (1981 and 1987). The same relationships
are recognized between microflaking attributes andworking conditions (hardness of the worked materials
and the direction of working motion). For example, suchcharacteristics are expressed in the bar graph diagramsas the diversity or homogeneity of scar shapes, the ratioof step flaking, the size variation of scars, and the degreeof concentration of scars to one aspect of the edge (orrelatively symmetric distribution between both faces), scarpattern differences between ventral and dorsal faces. In
the former publications, the method of finding diagnostic
statistical summary was not fully presented, and we would
apologize for the inconveniences there of, up to the present.

CHARACTERISTIC APPEARANCES OF SCARS
Combination and disposition of microflaking scars
sometimes exhibit certain characteristic appearances asa group along the working edge. Here some examples ofsuch particular characteristic patterns are described for
H[SODQDWLRQ7KH ¿JXUH QXPEHUV GHQRWH ERWK RXUSUHYLRXV
article (Akoshima and Hong 2014) and this volume.
Soft Worked Materials.
1) SH55 [Figure 1(6), Figure 2(1), Figure 37(2)(3)]
Meat cutting, 1600 strokes. Scalar micro deep (SmiD for
short) is predominant type of scar. Scars are intermittent
or scattered.
2) SH108 [Figure 3(5)(6), Figure 39(5)(6), Figure 40(1)(2)]Wild ducks butchering. Scars of various shapes and sizes
are found on both aspects. Their dispositions are irregular.
3) SH20 [Figure 4(3)(4), Figure 41(3)(4)(5)]
Grass cutting – chopping, 1700 strokes. Scars of various
shapes and sizes are found on both aspects, and theirdispositions are irregular. A good example of Triangular(Tr) scar (middle) is shown in Figure 4(3). An example of
Scalar large shallow scar is shown in Figure 41(4). This is
the same pattern as SH108.
4) SH42 [Figure 6(5)(6), Figure 45(4)(5)]
Reed cutting – chopping, 2650 strokes. A number ofintermittent micro size scars are shown. The edge is alittle rounded.
5) SH121 [Figure 7(6), Figure 8(1), Figure 50(1)(2)]
Rawhide scraping, 2000 strokes. All scars are Micro sized,

6WDQGDUGXVHZHDUFKDUWRI78057  0LFURÀDNLQJ 
and concentrate on dorsal aspect intermittently. There arealso some Trapezoidal (T) scars.
6) SH122 [Figure 8(2)(3), Figure 50(3)]Rawhide scraping, 2000 strokes. The predominant typeis Scalar micro deep (SmiD), continuous or intermittent,
FRQFHQWUDWLQJRQRQHDVSHFW7KLVSDWWHUQRIPLFURÀDNLQJ
is also seen above mentioned SH121.
7) SH124 [Figure 8(6), Figure 9(1), Figure 48(6), Figure49(1)(2)]Rawhide scraping, 800 strokes. A handful of soil was
sprinkled on the hide. Continuous scalar scars were foundon both aspects. There are more frequency on ventral
than dorsal. Most common type is Scalar micro deep
(SmiD), but there are also Scalar small deep (SsD) typescars. The edge is heavily abraded. The abrasion blurs
WKHVKDSHRIPLFURÀDNLQJ
8) SH126 [Figure 9(4)(5), Figure 51(6), Figure 52(1)]Rawhide scraping with sand, 2000 strokes. This is thesame patterns as SH124. Heavy abrasion even produced
the rounded edge. Continuous or intermittent scars consist
mainly of Scalar micro deep (SmiD).
Medium Worked Materials9) SH114 [Figure 12(5), Figure 58(1)(2)(3)(4)]
Wood whittling, 1000 strokes. Continuous Scalar micro
deep scars (SmiD) are shown in Figure 12(5), Rectangular
middle step (RmSt) is shown in Figure 58(4).
10) SH111 [Figure 12(6), Figure 13(1)(2), Figure 58(5)(6),Figure 59(1)(2)(3)(4)]
Wood scraping, 1000 strokes. It is characterized by
Rectangular or Trapezoidal step scars of micro, small andmiddle size (mi, s, m), concentrating on one aspect (inthis case, on dorsal). This pattern often occurs in case of
scraping of medium or hard materials. Step scars often
overlap vertically [Figure 59(3), 58(5)]. In Figure 59(2),Rectangular (R) scars are similarly oblique to the edge intheir axes.
11) SH96 [Figure 14(1)(2), Figure 60(1)(2)(3)(4)]
Wood whittling, 1000 strokes. The texture of the shale is
YHU\¿QHJUDLQHG9DULRXVW\SHVRIVFDUV PDLQO\6FDODU 
are irregularly disposed.
12) SH150 [Figure 14(3)(4)(5), Figure 60(5)]Wood scraping, 500 strokes. There are scar
concentrations on dorsal aspect, continuous Scalar or
Rectangular scars, step but shallow.
13) SH149 [Figure 16(6), Figure 17(1), Figure 64(4)(5)]
Wood scraping, 500 strokes. Continuous scars including
many large ones concentrate on dorsal aspect. They
are Rectangular step or Scalar deep type, but whentermination is step, the curvature of scar surface is
UDWKHUÀDW>)LJXUH  @0DQ\VPDOORUPLGGOHYHUWLFDOO\overlapping step scars on the edge crosscut these scars.

131

Scars are rare on ventral aspect. The pattern is similar tothe case of SH150.
14) SH80 [Figure 21(3)(4), Figure 75(5)(6), Figure 76(1)(2)]
Bamboo sawing, 4000 strokes. Continuous Scalar
or Rectangular small shallow scars are horizontallyoverlapping. Various shapes and sizes of scars are also
found, Scalar large deep (SlD) [Figure 75(5)], Continuous
Rectangular [Figure 76(2)], Trapezoidal middle step (TmSt)[Figure 21(4)], and so on.
15) SH77 [Figure 22(6), Figure 23(1)(2), Figure 78(2)(3)(4)(5)]
Gourd sawing, 5000 strokes. A number of continuous tinyscars consisting mainly of Scalar micro deep (SmiD) typeare shown. Several small size scars on ventral aspect arealso shown (intermittent).
Hard Worked Materials16) SH86 [Figure 23(4)(5), Figure 78(6), Figure 79(1)(2)(3)(4), Figure 81(2)]Bone sawing, 3000 strokes. Scars occur on both aspects
similarly. They are of various types, Scalar deep,
Triangular [Figure 79(3)], overlapping step [Figure 78(6)].
Their dispositions are irregular. Slight abrasion is found on
the edge.
17) SH93 [Figure 24(4)(5), Figure 82(4)(5)(6), Figure 83(1)]Bone scraping, 1500 strokes. Almost all scars are on
dorsal aspect. Large step or shallow scars are crosscut
by a number of vertically overlapping step scars. These
overlapping scars give a “crushed” appearance.
18) SH92 [Figure 25(1)(2), Figure 81(3)(4)]Bone sawing, 5000 strokes. Various types of scars arefound on both aspects. Continuous Scalar small deep(SsD) scars are shown in Figure 81(3). This specimen
exhibits a similar pattern to SH86.
19) SH48 [Figure 26(2)(3), Figure 84(6), Figure 85(1)(2)(3)]
Antler sawing, 15000 strokes. There are mainlyintermittent Scalar scars. They are irregularly disposed.
Slight abrasion is found on the edge.
20) SH68 [Figure 26(4)(5)(6), Figure 86(2)(3)(4)(5)(6)]
Antler sawing, 4300 strokes. Sawing dry antler gives
a very angular appearance. Various types of scars are
LUUHJXODUO\RYHUODSSLQJ³$OWHUQDWHÀDNLQJ´OLNHPLFURÀDNLQJ
scars are found [Figure 26(4), 86(3)], consisting of Scalarscars.
21) SH70 [Figure 27(3)(4), Figure 87(1)(2)(3)]
Antler whittling, 2000 strokes. The angular appearance isalso caused by dry antler. Scars are of various types, withno predominant type.
22) SH153 [Figure 27(5)(6), Figure 87(4)(5)]
Dry antler scraping, 100 strokes. Large or middle step
but flat (in curvature) scars are crosscut by irregularly,
vertically overlapping step scars, on dorsal aspect. Few
scars are found on ventral aspect.

Kaoru AKOSHIMA, Hyewon HONG

132

CONCLUSIONS
The databases presented here as a main addition to
our previous database in 2014 will serve for a means offundamental pattern recognition of the category of usewear which can be observable with a standard equipmentof low magnification microscope. So far, it seems there
has been a common understanding in Japan that the “highpower approach” is always superior to the “low power
approach” in their interpretative power. However, we takea methodological position that each category of use-wear,
namely micro-polish (or microwear polish), striation, microedge damage (here referred as microflaking), and evenmacro-wear such as “impact fracture” of projectile weapons(often observable with a hand magnifier), has its own
potential strength and weakness.
For instance, micro-polish is difficult to identify when
KHDY\SDWLQDWLRQRU³SRVWGHSRVLWLRQDOVXUIDFHPRGL¿FDWLRQ´phenomena, affected the working edge of the tool. Anotherrestriction of micro-polish is the quality of raw materials.
Very coarse-grained lithic materials, or extra-hard materials
such as quarts and quartzite in the Paleolithic period of
the Korean peninsula, prevent from reliable identificationof micro-polishes. The other way around is very soft
PDWHULDOVVXFKDVUK\ROLWH¿QHJUDLQHGPXGVWRQHRUDFLGLF
volcanic rocks. Surface alteration and abrasion of the edge
often makes polish identification a difficult endeavor. Our
conclusion has been that all types of use-wear should be
paid enough attention as long as they are observable along
the working edge. This article of database presentation is aneffort for this problem oriented methodological thinking.
This collection of microphotography and presentation of
calculating method of varied scar patterns, we believe, willplay some essential roles in the future development of usewear analysis in general. Extra-hard lithic raw materials,
or very soft lithic raw materials, both require considerable
amount of additional experimental research, because ourstandard charts presented here only entail raw materials
typically utilized in the Tohoku District of Japan during
prehistoric times, namely, siliceous hard shale. Also,
meticulous experimental researches are further necessary
concerning the relationship between use-wear microchipping
scars and technological secondary retouch micro scars,such as those produced along the backed edges ofknife blades. The two sorts of microchipping scars wereconventionally treated as indistinguishable from each other.
,VWKHGLVWLQFWLRQVRGLI¿FXOWWKDWWKHUHZRXOGEHQRPHDQVWR
identify these? We are still in need of serious experimental
endeavors toward this direction.
It is again emphasized here that the actual looksof microchipping phenomena are very variable. The
appearances of microflaking scars exhibit wide ranges ofvariation, even in the case where the tool was utilized in thesame task. It was a reason why Akoshima (1989) adopted astatistical approach to reduce such weak points in use-wear
LGHQWL¿FDWLRQ8WLOLW\RIWKHFDWHJRU\RIPLFURVFDOHFKLSSLQJ
as the “diagnostic feature” of use of lithic artifacts needs
to be properly evaluated. In research history, microflaking
has been considered as a major criterion for functional
interpretation since the inception of experimental research(e.g., Tringham, et al. 1974) in American archaeology(e.g., Odell 1996), and has been recently applied to Asian
countries (e.g., Gao and Chen eds. 2008). We wish in Japan
too, this category of use-wear will be given appropriate
importance in functional analysis of lithic artifacts, and thestudy will be integrated with other categories of wear suchas microwear polishes and striations, for the purpose of
elucidating the processes of prehistoric human adaptations
to the given environments.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Prof. Hiroshi Kajiwara of Tohoku Fukushi University
actually conducted many of the replicative experiments
together with the first author while he was at Tohoku
University. We are grateful to Prof. emeritus Toshio Yanagidaof the Tohoku University Museum for recommending
publication in its Bulletin series. The database publication
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to be accommodated. We hope that in the future Bulletin
series, essential parts of TUMRT research standards may¿QGWKHLUSODFHVDVRXUIXQFWLRQDOGDWDEDVHVRIDUVHUYHGIRU
basic reference purposes nationwide. Lastly, this article is a
UHVXOWRI.$.(1+, *UDQWLQDLGIRU6FLHQWL¿F5HVHDUFK E\the Japanese government, which was granted to Akoshima(2015, number 25370885).

ERRATAIn the previous article (2014), there was miss-printing of¿JXUHFDSWLRQDVIROORZV
(wrong) Figure 22 (6) 5.0-2. bamboo saw 2000st (SH79d) 8x.
(correction) Figure 22(6) 6.0-2 gourd saw 5000st (SH77d) 8x
We sincerely apologize for the error.

REFERENCES
Akoshima, K. 1981, An Experimental Study of Microflaking.
Kokogaku Zasshi, (Journal of the Archaeological Society of
Nippon), vol. 66, no. 4, pp. 1-27. (in Japanese)$NRVKLPD .  0LFURÀDNLQJ4XDQWL¿FDWLRQThe Human Usesof Flint and Chert, edited by Sieveking, G. de G., and M. H.
Newcomer, pp. 71-79. Cambridge University Press.
Akoshima, K. 1989, Use-wear of Stone Tools. Archaeological Library
56, New Science Co. (in Japanese)

6WDQGDUGXVHZHDUFKDUWRI78057  0LFURÀDNLQJ 
Akoshima, K. 2008, Emergence of High-power Microwear Analysis
in Japan, 1976 to 1983: Prof. Serizawa’s Legacy and beyond.
Papers in Archaeology, Ethnology, and History, in Memory ofProf. Chosuke Serizawa. Rokuichi Shobo.
Akoshima, K., and H. Hong 2014, Standard Use-wear Chart of
78057  0LFURÀDNLQJ  Bulletin of the Tohoku University
Museum, No.13, pp.43-76.
*DR ;LQJ DQG &KHQ 6KHQ HGV  Archaeological Study ofLithic Use-wear Experiments. Science Press, Beijing. (inChinese with English summary)Binford, L. R. 1981, Bones: Ancient Men and Modern Myths.
Academic Press.
Binford, L. R. 1983, In Pursuit of the Past. Thames and Hudson.
Binford, L. R. 1987, Researching Ambiguity: Frames of Reference
and Site Structure. In Kent, S. ed. Method and Theory for

133

Activity Area Research, pp.449-512. Columbia University
Press.
Binford, L. R.,ed. 1977, For Theory Building in Archaeology.
Academic Press.
Kajiwara, H., and K. Akoshima 1981, An Experimental Study ofMicrowear Polish on Shale Artifacts. Kokogaku Zasshi, vol. 67,
no. 1, pp. 1-36. (in Japanese)
Odell, G.H. 1996, Stone Tools and Mobility in the Illinois Valley: from
Hunter-Gatherer Camps to Agricultural Villages. International
Monographs in Prehistory, Archaeological Series, 10. Ann
Arbor, Michigan.
Tringham, R., G. Cooper, G. Odell, B. Voytek, and A. Whitman
1974, Experimentation in the Formation of Edge Damage: A
New Approach to Lithic Analysis. Journal of Field Archaeology,
vol. 1, pp. 171-196.

Kaoru AKOSHIMA, Hyewon HONG

134
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(1) Example of soft worked materials

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The working edge was used to chop dry hide surface.
Strong impact onto the edge produced irregularly
arranged scars of various shape, size, and termination
on both facets of the edge. On the photo from right,
rectangular, scalar, smaller scalar overlapping on
rectangular, then smaller rectangular, and trapezoidal
scars, are arranged side by side. Some rectangularand trapezoidal scars have step flaking termination. On
the other side of the same edge [Figure 12(1)], verylarge deep scalar scar is observed indicating theimpact of chopping motion.

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branch, with this dorsal surface being the rear side of
movements. Relatively flat microflaking scars arearranged regularly along the edge. Most of them are ofrectangular shape but also there are some trapezoidal
shape scars. Terminations of these rectangular andtrapezoidal scars are step flaking in most cases.
However, the scars are flat and shallow, and thenegative bulbs of percussion of scars are not deep.

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surface. The extreme hardness of the worked material
is reflected on the pattern of microflaking. That is, very
irregular arrangement of various shape and size ofmany scars which are overlapping one another. In
addition, the edge line is affected with verticallyoverlapping step termination scars. Some scars arelarge and deep, some are small and flat. The shapes ofscars are also varied, and many are of irregular typewith both step and feather terminations. The other sideof the same edge [Figure 27(6)] shows only sporadic
small microflaking scars. In such cases, theconcentration of microflaking scars onto only one faceof the working edge is prominent.

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