REPORTS
OF THECOURSERESOURCE MATERIALSERIES
No. 54
GROUP 1REHABILITATION PROGRAMMES IN THE PRISON TO
PREVENT PRISONERS’ RECIDIVISM: THE ACTUAL
SITUATION, PROBLEMS AND COUNTERMEASURES
Chairperson
Co-Chairperson
Rapporteur
Co-Rapporteur
Members

Advisers

Mr. Chung, Wai Man
Mr. Osman bin Ahmad
Ms. Yossawan Boriboonthana
Mr. Michael Naplau Waipo
Mr. Mokhammad Frandono
Ms. Junko Fujioka
Mr. Hisashi Ishizuna
Mr. Kenichi Kiyono
Mr. Yoshio Shibata
Mr. Nobuyuki Yamada
Mr. Titera Tewaniti
Mr. Joseph Elvy Szetu
Professor Chikara Satoh
Professor Ryosuke Kurosawa
Professor Shinya Watanabe

I. INTRODUCTION
There is a notion that rehabilitation
programs reduce recidivism quite
markedly with some types of offenders insome circumstances. It is not surprising tofind that some questions will be raised, forexample, with whom they are implemented
and under what circumstances the
programs work. To answer these questions,
we have to analyze the characteristics ofoffenders and the treatment programs inuse.
Since criminals commit crimes becauseof different reasons, the characteristics ortypes of offenders are varied. Some typesof offenders, especially those who commit
crimes because of external factors, such as
economic problems, peer group pressure orlack of knowledge, etc., can be rehabilitatedby general treatment programs likevocational training and education. For
those who commit crimes because ofinternal factors, such as psychological360(Hong Kong)(Malaysia)(Thailand)(Papua New Guinea)(Indonesia)(Japan)(Japan)(Japan)(Japan)(Japan)(Kiribati)(Solomon Islands)(UNAFEI)(UNAFEI)(UNAFEI)

problems, behavior disorders, or antisocial
attitudes, their situations are more
complicated and they are in need of special
psychological treatment programs forrehabilitation.
To address the distinctive needs ofindividuals, appropriate treatment
programs should be applied to therespective types of offenders. Normally, thetreatment programs being implemented bysome countries are referred to as programs
promoting the socio-economic ability ofoffenders, such as prison work, vocational
training, and education. These types oftreatment programs are provided to almost
all offenders in some countries. However,there are some specific types of offenders
who need special treatment due to thecomplexity of their problems, for example,
drug addicted offenders, sex offenders,violent offenders and organized crime
offenders. To rehabilitate these types ofoffenders in prisons, the application of
specially designed treatment programs is

108TH INTERNATIONAL SEMINARREPORTS OF THE COURSE
considered to be indispensable.
We believe that if offenders are provided
with proper treatment programs in prisons,
there will be a higher chance to reduce
recidivism. However, the implementationof this idea cannot be made possible in somecountries, due to a lack of resources or otherreasons. Thus, our group tried to study theactual situation of the rehabilitation ofprisoners in the 17 participating countries,
as well as the problems that impede thesuccess of rehabilitation, and attempt todetermine the countermeasures to betaken. Moreover, we realize that treatment
programs cannot be effective without theparticipation of prison staff. Therefore,ways to secure the treatment potential of
prison staff will also be explored.
II. GROUP DISCUSSION
After being assigned the topic of“Rehabilitation Programs in the Prison toPrevent Prisoners’ Recidivism”, our groupdecided to focus discussion on the following
issues:(a) Treatment programs to enhance thesocio-economic ability of prisoners.
(b) Categorized treatment programs
according to the offence type and/or
problems of individual prisoners.
(c) Treatment programs addressing thepsychological problems of prisoners,
specifically their emotions, cognition,
attitudes, etc. which lead to theoffence.
(d) Ways to secure the treatment
potential of prison staff.
According to the work plan devised by
all the group members, the relevant
information was collected through different
resources, such as the individual
presentation papers of participants andvisiting experts who attended the 109th
I n t e r n a t i o n a l Tr a i n i n g C o u r s e ,professional articles and resource
materials kept at UNAFEI. Moreover, ourgroup distributed two sets ofquestionnaires to the course participantsof the 17 participating countries, for datacollection. The approach of the study wasby comparing the situations of those 17
countries. Moreover, the specific treatment
programs conducted in some countries
were also analyzed.
The 17 participating countries of the109th International Training Course arelisted: Bangladesh, Botswana, Fiji, Ghana,
Hong Kong, Indonesia, Japan, Kenya,
Kiribati, Malaysia, Nepal, Pakistan, Papua
New Guinea, Philippines, Republic ofKorea, Solomon Islands, Thailand.
III. TREATMENT PROGRAMS TO
ENHANCE THE SOCIO-ECONOMICABILITY OF PRISONERS
Rehabilitative treatment programs toenhance the socio-economic ability ofprisoners are offered in various ways inprisons. According to our observation of theactual situation, prison work and education
are the two main and common
rehabilitative treatment methods being
implemented by most participating
countries. In this paper, we intend to
identify the problems commonly
encountered by those 17 countries and tooffer some countermeasures to address the
problems.
A. Prison Work and Vocational
Training
Prison work covers a wide range ofactivities whereby prisoners are physicallyinvolved in some kind of work while serving
a term of imprisonment in prisons. Under
the scope of work in prisons, general prison
work and vocational training are the two
integral parts which will be discussed in
the respective sections below.
1. Actual Situation(a) Prison WorkRegarding the statutory requirement ofprison work, 14 participating countries

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RESOURCE MATERIAL SERIES No. 54
have obligatory prison work while theremaining three(3); Nepal, Philippines andSolomon Island, have voluntary prison
work (see Appendix 1).
In the context of obligatory prison work,
we are referring to two(2) specific types ofsituations. The first situation is when
prisoners are sentenced by a court of law
under a penal code with work (i.e. hardlabor or light labor). The second situation
is when the prisoners are sentenced to
imprisonment and must work under aspecific prison regulation.
As for voluntary prison work, we arereferring to the situation under which
prisoners are sentenced to imprisonment
without work, in accordance with the lawsof a country. However, they can volunteer
to do prison work in prisons.
In countries with job-oriented work
programs, prisoners can easily find jobs
after release. However, other countries
with inappropriate work programs will nothave this favorable result.
Among those 17 participating countries,
14 countries have prison obligatory work.
Seven (7) out of these 14 countries canprovide prison work to prisoners becauseof some problems which will be discussed
later on. Prison work commonly employedby those participating countries are:
• Primary industries (e.g. agricultural,fisheries, etc.).
• Secondary industries (e.g. textile,wood work, metal work, handcraft,etc.).
• Routine and maintenance work inprison (e.g. laundry, painting,c a r p e n t r y, p l u m b i n g , c o o k i n g ,cleaning etc.).
(b) Purpose of Prison Work
Prison work is organized so as to serve
a constructive purpose in the treatment ofprisoners. Its objective is not only to provide
inmates with vocational knowledge andskills, but also to strengthen their will towork, sense of self-help and spirit of362

cooperation through working together inwell regulated circumstances. Thus, theprison industry contributes to thecorrectional aims of re-socializing
offenders.
Some of the other purposes of prison
work among the participating countries areto make profit out of prison work (to lighten
the running costs of the prison experienced
by prison administration) and to provide
an opportunity for a prisoner to make someearnings to before s/he is released fromprison.
Our group basically agreed that the
purpose of prison work is not only torehabilitate the prisoners by providingthem working skills or habits, but also toprevent the prisoners from degradation.
Accordingly, those with working skills or
habits, such as offenders of white-collar
crime or corruption, should also be provided
with prison work.
(c) Vocational Training
Vocational training in prison can be
regarded as part of prison work. However,it should be more skill-oriented in the sensethat the training so provided can enhance
the competitive ability of prisoners to fined
work after release. With the exception of
Kiribati, 16 participating countries
introduced vocational training not only toenhance the productivity of prison, but also
to improve the vocational skills of prisoners(see Appendix 1).
In some countries, prisoners who havepassed the qualifying examinations ofcertain training courses are awarded tradecertificates or licenses, for example, for
operating construction machinery,barbering, auto-repairing, electricalrepairing and so on. With the exception of
Kiribati, the other 16 Participating
countries have introduced vocational
training in their prisons, but most of themconcentrate their vocational training informs of trade-related prison work, such as
electrical plumbing and carpentry

108TH INTERNATIONAL SEMINARREPORTS OF THE COURSE
conducted in the workshop.
(d) Purpose of Vocational Training
The purpose of vocational training is:• To provide the prisoners withvocational training, up to a qualifying
level of training, in and type of skill
appropriate to their aptitude andcapability, that would enable them tocompete for related and satisfying
employment upon release from prison.
• To give the prisoners confidence,satisfaction and self-respect, throughacquiring these new found skills, sothat the offender may adjust moreeasily to normal society after release
and refrain from a deviant way of life.
• To cultivate good working habits.
With these purposes borne in mind, we
have studied the situations of those 17
participating countries and found that only
a few countries have appropriate vocational
training programs and qualified
instructors to conduct such programs
accordingly.
2. Problems
The over-all assessment of the actual
situations in the 17 participating countries
enabled our group to identify certain typesof problems. Although these problems differ
in their magnitude among those countries,
we considered some of them to be common.
The common problems experienced bythose 17 countries are as follows:(a) Insufficiency of Work
Although we acknowledge both prison
work and vocational training as
rehabilitative treatment programs toenhance the socio-economic ability ofprisoners, we find that there is aninsufficiency of work to accommodate all
the prisoners in some countries. It is
understandable that prison administratorsin the participating countries willencounter different kinds of problems intheir own settings. Apart from the financial

stringency, the following are the mostcommon problems for those countries:• Inadequacy of facilities to carry out
work or conduct vocational training
for the prisoners.
• Lack of qualified specialists to provide
various specialized training.
• Lack of marketable skills.
(b) Security Problems
In addition to the obligation to provide
prison work and vocational training for
prisoners, prison administration has the
responsibility to protect society byproviding the safe custody of prisoners.
With the overcrowding situation in prisons,prison officials will always encounter somekinds of security problems while
implementing the above programs. The
security issues that prison officials worry
most about are:• Escape of prisoners from custody.
• Assault with tools in workshops.
• Prison riots or breakouts from prison
with tools.
The above incidents cannot be avoided
without adequate and close supervision bystaff.
(c) I n a d e q u a t e F o l l o w - u p a n d
Evaluation
According the current practice of mostparticipating countries, they do not makeany evaluation on the effectiveness of theaforementioned treatment programs
provided by prisons. For example, after the
release of a prisoner who has received
vocational training on auto-repair trade, nofollow-up action is taken to find out
whether s/he can secure a job of the same
nature.
3. Countermeasures
After assessing the common problems
now being experienced in the participating
countries in relation to their actual
situations about prison work in prisons, itis necessary to offer a practical solution.

363

RESOURCE MATERIAL SERIES No. 54
We would like to give the following
suggestions as countermeasures for thosecounties with not so well-developed
programs. On the other hand, thosecountries with developed programs may
also use these suggestions, in combination
with their experience, to further develop
their current programs.
We consider that in order to help
prisoners find jobs easily after release, thework and training provided to them inprisons should be, as far as possible, of asimilar nature. Since the aforementioned
problems are considered to be inter-related,
it will be necessary to offer thecountermeasures in a package as follows:(a) Cooperation with Other Public
Organizations
As far as practicable, prison
administrators should provide sufficient
work and training to the prison population
with full cooperation with publicorganizations. For example, some prisonersof Botswana are employed by othergovernment organizations, like the defense
force and police, to do work like cleaning
barracks, packing stores, cooking etc. In
Japan, some governmental organizationsorganize automobile repair workshops andtraining institutions for operating
construction machinery etc. in the prison.
These authorized facilities can provide
prison work and vocational training toprisoners.
(b) Joint Venture Projects in Prison
Joint venture is regarded as a type ofcooperation between the prison
administration and private sectors inproviding management and resources toutilize prison labor both within and outsideof prison. A joint venture project provides
an alternative avenue for prisoners to doboth work and vocational training. This isa practical solution for the prison
administration of the participating
countries to provide both work and364

vocational training for the balance of theunengaged prisoners in their prison
population.
According to the questionnaire
distributed, 6 out of the 17 Participating
countries have introduced joint venture
projects, to their prisons. Most of theprivate organizations supply materials andmachinery to prisons, and the prison
administration provides manpower.
Hereunder are the experiences of Japanand Singapore.
The Prison Industry Cooperation
Division(PICD) was set up by theCorrectional Association of Japan in 1983,
and has been very useful to activate theprison industry. The main task of PICD is
to provide raw materials for the operationof prison industries, instead of thegovernment. In particular, it created thebrand “CAPIC” to establish a corporate
identity and to improve the image of prison
products. It also established a well-planned
product system to increase productivity.
In Singapore, The Singapore
Cooperation of Rehabilitative
Enterprises(SCORE) is a statutory board
which manages the prison industries andprovides rehabilitative opportunities. It
sets up, or invites companies to set up,
workshops in the prisons where theinmates will work and learn the on-the-job
skills. SCORE’s bakery and laundry
services are examples of enterprisingindustrial pursuits that have (successfully)
taken root in the prison setting.
(c) Security and Motivation for WorkTo address security concerns, adequate
staff should be allocated to supervise work
programs and prisoners should be carefullyclassified when they are assigned to work.
Incentives like payment and otherprivileges should be encouraged tomotivate prisoners to engage in prison
work.

108TH INTERNATIONAL SEMINARREPORTS OF THE COURSE(d) Evaluation of the Programs
Any given programs should be followed
up and evaluated to assess the success andfailure rate, and the findings should be
used to improve the deficiency. Because
each program will have its own objective,
statistics should be maintained to list how
many ex-prisoners have been employedwith a steady job relating to the skills ortrade they learn in prison. This kind of
information should help the prison
administration review their work or
training programs and make necessary
improvements to suit actual situations
outside the prison.
This may only be one aspect of the study
as there are many other indicators that canbe used to determine the success or failure
rate of any given program. The results may
improve existing programs to suit theconditions outside of prison.
B. Education
Globally, education is an essential basic
need to enhance human development.
Demographics like low education, in thisinstance, are often predictors of offending.
Thus, an important priority is to reduce thestatistical chance or probability of reoffending. The provision of education,either academic or vocational, for the
purpose of upgrading prisoners’
educational status and skills is thus
essential in a competitive society.
1. Actual Situation
The main purpose of education is toenhance a prisoner’s competitive ability for
employment in free society after releasefrom prison. Our assessment of the 17
participating countries shows thefollowing: 13 out of 17 countries haveintroduced fundamental(literacy andnumeracy) education in view of global
trends in literacy, and these programs are
funded by the state.
As for further education such ascorrespondence courses, high school,secondary school and undergraduate
studies, 11 out of 17 countries facilitate
correspondence courses for their prisoners.
In most cases, a government meets the costof these types of programs as long as theprisoner is still serving their sentence ofimprisonment. In other cases these
programs are assisted by Nongovernmental Organizations like churches
and others.
In order to offer educational programs
to prisoners, they have to pass a selection
or classification process. Depending on thatconsideration, those prisoners who reallyhave the need for a specific type of
educational course are offered places toundertake various types of courses. We
observed that, the type and level of
educational courses varied among the 17
participating countries. This was because
the aptitude of each individual prisoner
also differed by country.
We also learned that in those 13
countries which conduct fundamental
educational program, the participating
prisoners will be awarded a certificate ofattainment at the completion of theappropriate course. This is also true for the
11 countries that also have prisoners
engage in further education throughcorrespondence. The award of certificatesof attainment depends upon theappropriate education authority in therespective countries.
2. Problems
In our observations, we found thefollowing concerns to be common problems;
again the magnitude varied widely among
the participating countries.
(a) Difficulty in Grouping Prisoners toAttend the Class
Difficulty was experienced when trying
to group prisoners into classes, because it
is not like ordinary school when all the
intake can start together, as prisoner are
admitted to prison on different dates. One

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RESOURCE MATERIAL SERIES No. 54
other related matter has to do withindividual educational backgrounds, or the
specific needs of the individual prisoner.
(b) The Lack of Qualified Specialized
Teachers to Carry Out Academic
Programs in Prison
Prison administrators of some of theparticipating countries cannot provide
educational programs. This is because they
do not have qualified teaching staff within
their existing staff strength. For the
purpose of education there must be
qualified teaching staff to teach theprisoners the training material. This is also
true for those other countries that havesupplementary educational programs.
They rely on relevant state agencies toassist them with their programs, as they
do not have their own qualified staff.
(c) Poor Learning Environments
The experiences of some participating
counties show us that prisons are in lackof educational programs, materials andsuitable facilities to carry out theirprograms. These matters are the essential
components of any educational programs,
without which we cannot conduct any
programs.
3. Countermeasures
Our general observation about the actual
situation re educational programs in the
17 participating countries also exposed anumber of problems commonly shared bythose countries. In the context of
educational programs utilized to enhance
the socio-economic ability of prisoners inprison, we are of the view that the threecommon problems are somewhat closely
related. Therefore, in a practical sense, any
countermeasures should be offered in a
package to complement each of the
problems being identified. The following
suggestions are considered as thecountermeasures:

366(a) Development of School Calendar Year
In order to address the problem relating
to difficulties resulting from the different
admission dates of prisoners, we suggestthat school calendars be developed andenforced in prison. However, should there
be any large intake of prisoners at any
time, a special class should be organizedto cater for need. Thailand is adopting sucha measure. Another suggestion would beto engage volunteers, like retired teachers,
from the surrounding community.
(b) Utilization of Existing Staff
Available staff should be reorganized
and re-deployed for the purpose of
conducting educational programs. Selectedstaff should be identified and trained
adequately to carry out the intended
programs. If this can not be done withavailable manpower and resources, then it
is necessary to sell this idea to the publicat large, where there is bound to be somekind of assistance forthcoming fromvolunteer organizations or othergovernment agencies.
(c) Cooperation with Other Public
Organizations
To solve the problem of insufficiency ofteaching staff, prison administrator may
consider cooperator with publicorganizations. There are specific examplesof this approach as follows:• In Japan, The Ministry of Education
set up a branch of a junior high schoolin one of the juvenile prisons, where
teachers are seconded from the main
school campus;• In Singapore, academic classes andcertificate courses are conducted byqualified teachers seconded from the
Ministry of Education.
(d) Development of Education Materials
At this point the programs will neededucational material to provide courses.
Again, if it is not possible to provide those108TH INTERNATIONAL SEMINARREPORTS OF THE COURSE
needs within the prison then it is necessary
to go to the relevant government agency to
assist the prisons(e) I m p r o v e m e n t o f E d u c a t i o n a l
Facilities
With whatever resources are available,
the educational facilities needed for
educational programs should be renovatedor developed. Desirable learning
environments will enhance the willingnessof prisoners to participate in the
educational programs. If improvement is
not possible from within the prison setting,efforts should be made to seek assistancefrom the public, like voluntaryorganizations and government agencies.
(f) Evaluation of Educational Programs
Evaluation on the results of course
examinations will help prison
administrators assess the effectiveness ofthe educational programs and makecorresponding improvements.
IV. SPECIAL TREATMENTPROGRAMS FOR SPECIFIC TYPESOF PRISONERSIn addition to the treatment programs
enhancing the socio-economic ability ofprisoners, there are other special treatment
programs aiming to rehabilitate somespecific types of prisoners in prisons. The
treatment programs provided to thoseprisoners are different and distinctive.
Thus, the group will discuss the treatment
programs for some specific types ofprisoners as follows:(a) P r i s o n e r s w i t h p s y c h o l o g i c a l
problems(b) Drug addicted prisoners(c) Sex offenders in prison(d) Violent offenders in prison(e) Organized crime offenders in prison
It is noted that the interpretation of theabove classification of prisoners varies fromone country to another and the different

viewpoints of scholars and legislators will
make interpretation more complicated.
Nonetheless, the main objective of thegroup discussion was to study thetreatment program; so that the definitionof each type of offender is briefly statedbelow in order to limit our scope of
discussion.
(a) “ p r i s o n e r s w i t h p s y c h o l o g i c a l
problems” mean those who havepsychiatric problems, adjustment
problems and criminal behaviors(b) “drug addicted offenders” mean those
who habitually abuse illegal drugs;(c) “sex offenders” mean those who
commit offences of rape, indecent
assault, public indecency, etc.;(d) “violent offenders” mean those whohave the tendency to solve theirproblems by violent actions, forexample physical assault, bodily
i n j u r y, m u r d e r, h o m i c i d e e t c .
excluding “organized criminal
offenders”, which we mention below;(e) “organized criminal offenders” mean
those who are members of a gangengaging in various kinds of crimes
like drug smuggling, extortion,
intimidation, physical assault, bodily
injury, murder, homicide etc.
A. Treatment Programs for
Prisoners with Psychological
Problems
1. Actual Situation
According to our questionnaire: 14 out
or 17 participating countries haveprisoners with psychological problems; 12
out of 17 countries consider psychologicaltreatment programs to be critical; 11 outof 17 countries have classification systems
to detect the psychological problems ofprisoners; and 8 out of 14 countries havepsychological treatment programs.
For those countries where psychologicaltreatment programs do not exist, someother measures are taken to lessen the
problem. Those measures are as follows:

367

RESOURCE MATERIAL SERIES No. 54• Counseling programs conducted bywelfare officers, religious groups or
prison officers.
• Family visits.
• Tr a n s f e r o f p r i s o n e r s w i t h
psychological problems to receive
treatment from outside mental
hospitals.
Summing up the collected data, there arethree kinds of ‘psychological problems’ and‘psychological treatment programs’. Theyare ‘psychiatric problems’, which should betreated in mental hospital; ‘adjustment
problems’ inside institutions, which could
be handled by other ways such as family
visits and religion; and ‘criminality’
behavior. Although psychiatric andadjustment problems are important, thispaper is to address “rehabilitation
programs in the prison to prevent prisoners
recidivism”. So the programs aimed atchanging behavior and decreasing
psychological tendencies to commit crimeshould be focused.
In this meaning, only Japan and Hong
Kong have some of those programs, butthey are far from sufficient. Other countries
do not have psychological programs aimed
at changing criminal behavior, not theconcept/idea of these kinds of treatment
programs. Actually, for some countries,
psychological programs should and could
not get priority. In these countries, the firstpriority is to have good enough living andsecurity conditions. Secondly, they needwork and education programs. Then
thirdly, they can deal with the psychologicalprograms of prisoners. As the programs
aimed at changing criminal behavior are
rather new in the world, no country has
achieved the goal of establishing these
programs. Thus the programs which
disturb the implementation of treatment
programs aimed at changing criminal
behaviors, will be the focus of this paper.
2. Problemsa) Lack of Full Understanding of Crime

368

Causes and/or Characteristics of
Criminals
There has been some research on thecauses of crime and/or criminal behavior,
which revealed that individual criminal
characteristics include biological andpersonality aspects, and family
characteristics. However, no single factor
can predict criminal behavior. Althoughsome general factors that might enhancecriminal behavior could be addressed, it isdifficult to estimate and predict individual
criminal behavior. When we cannot
understand the causes of crime, it is hardto treat the criminals.
b) Lack of Effective Methods to Change
Behavior
Behavioral science and psychology are
rather new sciences and psychotherapies
aimed at changing behavior, having ahistory of only two hundred years. Humanbehavior is very complicated and difficult
to change once reaching adult hood.
Furthermore, when criminal behavior is
identified, changing it becomes difficult.
Usually, you find clients who lack the
motivation to change, often tell lies,
distrust you, and decieve you. They are
persons who have some difficulty in having
good relationships with people; while trust
and a good relationship is the basis of
making people change.
Also psychotherapy has been developedin the framework of medical hospitals and/or clinics for patients. Usually thosepatients want to be cured and follow theframework of psychotherapy. However,since prisons confine different kinds ofpeople, and have another kind of purpose,
they have different type of framework.
Contradictions in the frameworks ofprisons and traditional psychotherapy
could be another factor disturbing thepsychological treatment of offenders inprisons. After all, effective methods tochange criminal behavior have not been
established yet.

108TH INTERNATIONAL SEMINARREPORTS OF THE COURSEc) Lack of Reliable Statistical Methods
to Evaluate the Effectiveness ofPrograms
Lastly, there is a problem in evaluation
the effectiveness of treatment programs.
You need feedback to improve theprograms, however statistical methods toevaluate treatment programs have somedifficulties, such as random sampling andselection of independent and dependent
variables. As a result, some say that norehabilitation program works effectively,
and others say that some programs do
work. No lay people understand thestatistical methods to get these results
fully. People doubt that any kind of valid
result could be drawn. In this type ofsituation, people tend to believe what theywant to believe. Treatment programs can
not be improved if you do not understandwhat kind of programs is effective for whattypes of offenders, and to what extent.
3. Countermeasures
The countermeasures to these problems
are basically to work with each factor
disturbing implementation of effective
treatment programs, and to break throughthe vicious circle created by these factors.
Below are some countermeasures to solve
or improve each problem factors disturbing
the implementation of effective treatment
programs to reduce criminality.
a) Greater Understanding of Crime
Causes and/or Characteristics of
Criminals
Concerning the cause of crime, somecharacteristics of criminals are becoming
clear. One factor is the psychology ofaggressive and psychopathic personalities.
Hare made a Psychopath CheckList
Revised(PCL-R)(4), which is an objective
assessment measure based on his researchand Cleckley’s concept to the psychopath,“Mask of Sanity”. This measure makes it
possible to operationally define
psychopaths and Gacono and Meloy havestudied psychopaths using PCL-R and
Rorschach Tests. Those studies foundpsychopathic criminals to have more ability
to ward off anxiety, or decrease dysphoric
affects, and this ability had obvious impact
in eliminating the deterrents to criminal
activity. They also found that psychopaths
had aggressive and narcissistic
personalities with some extent of cognitive
disorder(Gacono & Melay, 1994; Hare,
1995).
There are also some bio-psychologicalfindings. One aspect of the psychopath’s
physiology is evident in the differential
patterning of lower skin conductance level,an under-aroused EEG profile and higher
heart rate in anticipation of aversive
stimuli when compared to nonpsychopaths. This pattern suggests a
decreased sensitivity and active
psychological coping in preparation for anaversive stimulus. It is not clear how thosebiological aspects, family background,socio-economic background, andpersonality make an individual criminal.
However, all negative factors are required
to be a perfect criminal. If one of thosefactors is lacking, other positive factors canprevent them from becoming a criminal.
Another kind of concept concerning thepersonality of criminals and delinquents is
the Antisocial Personality Disorder (ASPD)
and Conduct Disorder in DSMIV(American Psychiatric Association,1994). When the Diagnostic and Statistical
Manual of Mental Disorders third
edition(DSM-III) employed the Axis
concept and mentioned Personality
Disorders in 1980, it became possible todefine antisocial personality disorders
operationally, and study them with somereliability. Now people believe a criminal
does not become a criminal in one day.
Hardcore criminals have started theircriminal carrier before the age of 10 years,
committed a variety of delinquent andcriminal conduct.
Juveniles under 16 years who have369

RESOURCE MATERIAL SERIES No. 54
behavioral problems could be diagnosed ashaving conduct disorders. Among thosewith conduct disorders, some would growup to become adult criminals diagnosed ashaving antisocial personality disorders.
Other juveniles diagnosed with conductdisorders quit criminal conduct and becomelaw abiding people. What makes thisdifference is now believed to be the: abilityof attachment; ability to have arelationship with real human beings (notidealized); and ability of impulse control.
Even though causes of crime are notunderstood perfectly, it is possible todifferentiate juveniles who become chronic
criminals and those who do not to someextent, and these criminals who are
dangerous and those who are not. Anyway,
it is a good idea to continue to try to gain
more understanding of crime causes and/or characteristics of criminals.
b) Establishment of Effective Methods toChange Criminal Behavior
Even though psychological treatment tochange criminal behavior is stilldeveloping, DSMs have also contributed
much to the development of psychotherapy
for personality disorders, including
antisocial personality disorders(ASPD).
Although there are some psychiatrists whobelieve it is impossible and/or unnecessary
to treat ASPD, others have addressed someways to treat ASPD affected. Basictechniques to treat ASPD are concerned
with: how to motivate for change, how tohave and maintain relationships, and how
to treat therapist’s counter transference(Davio, 1990, Dergsen, 1995; Fujioka,
1998;. Livesley, 1995).
Some psychiatrists emphasize types ofconduct disorders. According to them there
are 4 types of conduct disorders; socialized,
characterological, neurotic, andpsychiatric. The prognosis and appropriate
treatment differs according to types. The
extent of psychological problems andnecessity of psychological treatment also370

differ according to types (Fujioka, 1997;
We i n e r, 1 9 9 2 ) . T h i s m e a n s t h a tclassification aimed at making treatment
plans is important. Some might need more
psychological treatment, others might needother kind of programs such as vocational
training and education.
Still some psychiatrists prefer cognitivebehavioral treatment. They tend to bepractitioners and prefer group treatment.
They believe that even if they do notunderstand the causes of crimes, it ispossible to treat them. They do not believein the medical model, which emphasizes
professional people who have fullunderstanding of the causes and methods
to cure the disease and help patients. They
tend to believe in the ability of criminals
to help themselves. Since professional
people can not follow criminals and prevent
criminal behavior all the time, it is thecriminals themselves who must prevent
themselves from committing criminal
behavior again. So, the basic idea oftreatment is to help the criminals enhancetheir ability to help themselves. They focus
on specific types of offenders such as sex
offenders, violent offenders and drug
addicts. Now most people believe sometreatment programs will help someoffenders to prevent recidivism, to someextent. So the topic should be focused onwhat treatment programs are effective forwhat types of offenders. Programs should
be developed according to these lines. Thesetypes of treatment programs for specifictypes of offenders will be dealt with indetail in the next sections.
c) Establishment of Statistical Methods
to Evaluate the Effectiveness ofPrograms
It is very important for improving
treatment programs to evaluate the resultsof programs and have feedback on them.
Because of computerization and progressin the field of statistics, methods toevaluate the effectiveness of the treatment

108TH INTERNATIONAL SEMINARREPORTS OF THE COURSE
programs have been much improved andthe effectiveness of some programs has
been proved (Andrew, 1998). Efforts toevaluate the effectiveness orineffectiveness of treatment programs
should be continued and will help improvethe understanding of causes of crimes andtreatment programs of criminals.
B. Treatment Programs for Drug
Addicted Prisoners
1. Actual Situation
According to the distributed
questionnaire, we observed that among 17
participating countries, only Japan, Hong
Kong, Malaysia, and Thailand have special
treatment programs for drug addicted
offenders in their prisons; whereas
Botswana, Fiji, Kiribati and Solomon
Island do not have any programs. The other9 participating countries treat drug
addicted prisoners with the treatment
programs available for the general prison
population. The actual situation of thetreatment programs implemented in therelevant countries will be discussed
hereunder.
(a) Hong Kong
In Hong Kong the Drug Addiction
Treatment Centers Ordinance(Cap.244)
empowers the courts to sentence a drug
addict, found guilty of an offence
punishable by imprisonment, to detention
in a drug addiction treatment center. The
aim of the compulsory drug treatment
program is threefold:a) Detoxification and restoration ofphysical health;b) Uprooting of psychological andemotional dependence on drugs; andc) P r e p a r a t i o n f o r t h e i n m a t e s
reintegration into the society
The period of treatment ranges from aminimum of two months to a maximum of
12 months, followed by 12 months ofstatutory aftercare supervision. The actual
length of treatment is determined by theprisoner’s health and progress, and thelikelihood of remaining completely drug
free after release. The work program in thetreatment center aims at improving theinmate’s health, developing good work
habits and establishing self-confidence anda sense of responsibility. Inmates are
assigned with work commensurate with
their capabilities, skills and fitness. Those
who are found to be medically unfit for awork program will attend occupational
therapy classes. Prisoners released fromaddiction treatment centers are subjected
to 12 months of supervision, which aims
at assisting the released inmates toreintegrate into society.
(b) Japan
In Japan, the situation of the treatment
program of drug addicts prisoners in prison
is organized in groups at three points intime: upon entry, at the mid-point of theircustody and at the time of discharge. The
general treatment program summarized asfollows:i) Fact Finding Survey: A survey isdone to find out how drug abusers become
addicted to drugs by answering a set ofquestionnaire.
ii) Stimulants’ Effects on the Mental
and Physical Aspects of Abusers: The
prisoners are made to consider the effects
of drugs on their body and mind. In this,prisoners record experiences, such as
illusions and delusions.
iii) Social Effect of Drugs Abuse:Prisoners are made to record their own
experiences and discuss the negative
effects of drug use on them and theirfamilies.
iv) Legal Restrictions: In this particular
step, prisoners are made to understand thesignificance of legal restrictions and theactual system of court trials. The strict
implementation of trial sentences andimposition of punishment are explained to
them.

371

RESOURCE MATERIAL SERIES No. 54v) Methods and Determination on the
Abandonment of Stimulant Abuse:Prisoners are told to make a commitment
to completely give up stimulant drugs.
Prisoners prepare methods for abandoning
stimulant drugs, and consider how to resist
temptations from their peer groups.
vi) A f t e r R e c e i v i n g D r u g - F r e e
Education: Lastly after receiving drug freeeducation, the level of comprehension of thecourse content is checked. In addition,
female prisoners are taught to understandthat stimulant drug abuse affects not only
themselves but also their fetus andnewborns.
(c) Malaysia
In Malaysia, a TherapeuticCommunity(T.C) Program is implemented
together with the general treatment
programs such as orientation, prison workand physical training. This program
bridges the communication gap between
staff and drug addicted prisoners typicallyfound in correctional institutions, and alsoutilizes the prisoners’ peer influence andself-help concepts. Drug addicted prisoners
who live and work together meet with thestaff regularly with a desired goal of
improving post-release performance. By
employing (under staff direction) open
communication, discussion, as well as other
T.C treatment methods, participating
prisoners can adjust their behavior throughlearning, testing and projecting themselves
as effective role models.
(d) Thailand
In Thailand, drug addict prisoners will
be sent to special prisons which provide
treatment and rehabilitation programs. At
present there are 6 prisons to cater for such
prisoners. Treatment programs provided
for drug addicted prisoners consist of 3stages:i) Withdrawal stage: Detoxification
methods used in institutions is based on‘cold turkey’ without applying methadone.

372ii) Psychological and physical recovery
stage: Psychological treatment aims to
restore and reconstruct self-confidence,
morale and attitude. Physicalreconstruction, which is done at the sametime, aims to restore body strength andfitness.
iii) Rehabilitation stage: Besides thepsychological and physical treatment,
vocational training, formal education andwork are the main elements of therehabilitation program. Moreover, theDepartment of Corrections has
implemented the Therapeutic Community(T.C) program to rehabilitate the ex-drug
addicted prisoners mentally and physically.
The T.C program is implemented in 75
prisons and correctional institutions where
drug addicted prisoners are imprisoned.
(e) Singapore
In Singapore, drug addicted prisoners
are detained in Drug Rehabilitation
Centres for a minimum period of 6 month
up to a maximum period of 36 months
depending on the number of previous
admissions. Prisoners with greater numberof previous DRC admission will be kept
longer in the DRCs. Upon arrest, all drug
addicts are sent to the reception centre.
This is where they undergo a compulsory
detoxification period for one week. Afterdetoxification., inmates are transferred to
DRCs.
Following a review of the drug program,
Community-Based Rehabilitation wasgiven greater emphasis to assist the treatedaddicts to reintegrate into society. Uponcompletion of their minimum period in
DRC detention, inmates will be places in
one of the following programs:a) C o m m u n i t y - B a s e dRehabilitation(CBR)b) E x t e n d e d I n s t i t u t i o n a l
Rehabilitation(EIR)
Under Community-Based
Rehabilitation, inmates may either be
selected for any of the three schemes: the

108TH INTERNATIONAL SEMINARREPORTS OF THE COURSE
Halfway House Scheme(HWH),
Residential Scheme or Halfway House
Scheme with Naltrexone/Residential
Scheme with Naltrexone. Once the inmate
is selected for the CBR scheme, they may
voluntarily opt out of the program only
before it starts. Inmates who are selected
for CBR are required to undergo the PreRelease Program.
The Halfway House Scheme requires theinmates to stay in a halfway house for aperiod of six months, work during the day
and return to the HWHs in the evening toobserve curfew hours. The Residential
Scheme lasts for a period of six months.
However, the inmates are required to betagged with an electronic monitoring device
when released. The inmates are also
required to work during the day but haveto return home in the evening to observe
curfew hours. They must report regularlyback for counseling and urine testing.
In August 1993, the Department
launched a pilot program involving the useof the drug Naltrexone on some inmates. A
person who is on Naltrexone will not beable to ‘get high’ if he or she consumes anarcotic drug. Naltrexone is not addictive,
hence it is not a substitute drug for the
addicts.
Those inmates who do not qualify for theCommunity-Based Rehabilitation or who
voluntarily opt out of CBR programs areplaced under Extended Institutional
Rehabilitation(EIR). In this way theirdetention periods in the DRCs would be
extended up to between 12 to 24 months,
depending on their categories.
2. Problems
In order to implement special treatment
programs for drug addicted prisoners, wewill identify various problems faced bythose related countries. The population of
drug addicted prisoners in many countries
has been soaring, thus making the special
treatment of drug addicted prisoners aglobal and urgent issue. The problems

concerning special treatment programs for
drug addicted prisoners are as follows:a) Lack of Treatment Programs or Other
Related Resources
In Bangladesh, Indonesia, Nepal,
Ghana, Papua New Guinea and Kenya,
drug addicted prisoners are treated
together with other prisoners by giving
them counseling and religious guidance. In
the Philippines, there is no special
treatment program for drug addictedprisoners. In Korea, drug addictedprisoners are segregated from otherprisoners, but general treatment will begiven to them. In Pakistan, drug addictedprisoners are sent to hospital outside of theprison to undergo the medical treatment.
b) D i f f i c u l t i e s E n c o u n t e r e d i n
Implementing Special Treatment for
Drug Addicted Prisoners(i) Lack of motivation of drug addictedprisoners: From our experience, drug
addicts have very weak willpower. They
can maintain a drug-free life while inprisons, but once they are released, due toeasy access to drugs and for other reasons,they soon relapse. This implies that the
programs are not effective enough tomotivate drug addicted prisoners to quit
drugs when they are released from prison.
On the other hand, drug addicted prisoners
have some health problems, e.g., HIV,physical deficiencies etc. which need special
care from the prison authorities.
(ii) Lack of specialists to implement the
program: Due to increase of drug addictedprisoners in some countries, e.g. Malaysia
and Thailand, prison authorities faces theinsufficiency of specialists who are able toconduct treatment programs effectively.
3. Countermeasuresa) Establishment of Treatment Centers
for Drug Addicted Prisoners
As far as resources and security factors

373

RESOURCE MATERIAL SERIES No. 54
permit, it is preferable to separate all drugaddicted prisoners from those non-addicts,
and to centralize them in separate,
designated institutions. This is to facilitate
the implementation of treatment programs
especially designed for drug-addictedprisoners. It is also the best way to treat
the various types of drug addicted prisoners
such as the seriously addicted prisoners or
the drug addicted prisoners with healthproblems e.g. HIV, physical deficiency. For
those countries where there are no specifictreatment programs for drug addictedprisoners, they may consider adopting thetreatment programs that we havediscussed.
b) Countermeasures to Solve Problems
in Implementing Special Treatment
Programs for Drug Addicted
Prisoners(i) Cooperation with other agencies
outside prisons: Successful rehabilitation
programs for drug addicted prisoners
require strong and sustainable systems,
especially to prevent the ex-drug addict
prisoners from relapse.
Cooperation with other related agencies,
outside of prison, is required to giveaftercare or counseling services to the exdrug addict prisoner to maintain theirdrug-free life and motivate them to keepaway from drugs. Facilities and programs
provided by halfway houses, community
rehabilitation centers etc. can be utilized
in order to monitor the ex-drug addictedprisoners, having personnel to educate andsupervise them closely within certain
period.
(ii) Recruit and train more specialists:
To cater for the needs of special treatment
programs for drug addicted prisoners, andin accordance with the increasing numberof drug addicted prisoners in prison, more
specialist in related fields should be
recruited. The other alternative is to train
selected staff in the respective treatment374

programs.
C. Treatment Programs for Sex
Offenders in Prisons
1. Actual situation
According to the questionnaire
distributed to all the course participants,
only 4 out of 17 countries have special
treatment for sex offenders. These
countries are Botswana, Hong Kong, Korea
and Japan. Therefore, we introduce thetreatments measures for sex offenders inthose countries and discuss the problems
and countermeasures.
(a) Botswana
There are special treatments for sex
offenders in prisons in Botswana. They
include interviewing the sex offender,
individual counseling, sex education, group
counseling and group discussion. The
purpose of this treatment is to help anoffender realize their problems and how todeal with them. These treatments are
conducted by prison social workers andchaplains. These social workers andchaplains are sent to training institutions,like the university for social work trainingor theology, which cover psychology as amajor subject. The group counseling is held
once per a week with a duration of one hour,
whereas individual counseling is conducted
frequently. However, it normally takes longtime for prisoners to open up and talk about
their problems.
(b) Hong Kong
The objective of the treatment programsfor sex offenders is to provide
comprehensive assessment and treatment
services for incarcerated sex offenders, aswell as for those referred by the court andrelevant review boards for evaluation
purposes. At present both individual
treatments as well as a structured
treatment program, “The Sex Offenders
Self-Help Program”, is offered to inmates.
The Sex Offenders Self-Help Program has

108TH INTERNATIONAL SEMINARREPORTS OF THE COURSE
a combination of self improvement
stratergies covering the following areas:• Sex knowledge;• Managing stress and negative
emotions;• Identifying and changing distorted
sex attitudes;• Improving social skills;• Victim empathy training;• Understanding offending patterns
and relapse prevention;• Community reintegration andresources.
The Sex Offender Self-Help Program isdesigned to supplement individual
psychotherapy. The program provides a
non-coercive and supportive environment
for motivated offenders to learn, throughusing the multi media materials containedin the self-improvement packages, with theassistance of the Duty Psychologist. Weekly
group sessions to consolidate learning andcontact with a personal tutor for in-depth
therapy is also arranged. The treatment
period for offenders varies depending on
individual needs and may range from a few
weeks to six months.
(c) Korea
There is specific treatment for sex
offenders in Korea. The contents of thetreatment are counseling, interview andeducation about sex, HIV and sexual
morals. This treatment is conducted bypsychologists or religious leaders (such as
priests, monks, etc) who emphasize theimportance of the family. Prison officers
makes prisoners exercise to have a soundmind. The purpose of this treatment is toprevent the offenders from relapsing into
sex offences.
(d) Japan
Not all sex offenders are given specifictreatment in Japan, but some ambitious
treatment is conducted in juvenile prisonssuch as Kawagoe and Nara Juvenile
Prisons (Correctional Bureau, 1994). The

purpose of these special treatment
programs is to make the sex offender inprison aware of their problems, to remove
their problems and to realize their reintegration. The detailed objectives are as
follows:• To motivate them and to make themaware of their own problems;• To make them think of how to solvethese problems;• To make them have sympathy toothers;• To make realize the damage to victims
and have respect for women;• To make them realize how to express
themselves in an unselfish way;
• To make them internalize treatments.
Necessary treatment is given to the sex
offenders six to twelve times in accordancewith the treatment programs. The content
of this treatment is summarized as follows:• Counseling;• To make them write a composition
titled “My future”;• Group discussion;• Role playing;• To make them watch videos about sex,
HIV and sexual harassment;• Role lettering (to make them write aletter titled “If I were the victim”).
2. Problems
There are many problems concerning thetreatment of sex offenders in prisons. These
problems can be broadly divided into two
categories. One is the lack of specifictreatment programs and/or other necessary
resources in most countries, and the otheris related to the difficulties in
implementing the special treatment
programs for sex offenders.
a) Lack of Treatment Programs or Other
Related Resources
As we described above, only 4 countries
have specific treatment programs for sex
offenders. That means the otherparticipating countries do not have specific375

RESOURCE MATERIAL SERIES No. 54
treatment methods. According thequestionnaire, the reasons why specifictreatment for sex offenders does not exist
in those countries are as follows:• Because there are few sex offenders(e.g. in Nepal and Pakistan)• Because treatment for sex offenders
in prisons is not established yet (e.g.
in Ghana, Kiribati, Philippines, PNG,
Solomon stands and Thailand.)• Because there are no specialists who
can give specific treatment for sex
offenders (e.g. in Fiji and Malaysia)
For the countries who have few sex
offenders, specific treatment for them isstill needed because sex offenders mostly
have psychological problems resulting
from, for example, child abuse or incest.
Therefore, even though there may be few
sex offenders in a country, the importanceof specific treatment for sex offenders
cannot be ignored.
b) D i f f i c u l t i e s E n c o u n t e r e d i n
Implementing Special Treatment
Programs for Sex Offenders
There are special treatments for sex
offenders in prisons in Botswana, Hong
Kong, Korea and Japan. However, thepsychologists or specialists who treat sex
offenders in prison encounter the following
difficulties in implementing thesetreatment/methods:(i) Unwillingness to participate inSpecific Treatment by sex offenders:Counseling or group discussion is contrary
to their privacy, especially when themes are
related to sex offences. As sex offences areof a shameful nature, most offenders justexpress “I feel repentant deeply” and do not
speak or discuss actively their crime.
(ii) Variety of sex offenders: There aremany type of sex offences such as sexual
perversion, fetishism, exhibitionism,voyeurism, pedophilia, sadomasochism etc.
Consequently, those offenders are inclined
to think “I am different from others” andare not motivated to join group activities.

376(iii) Deep-rooted causes of sex offenders:
It is difficult to change the base characterof sex offenders because the cause of theseoffenders have sometimes arisen from theirinfant experiences such as child abuse orincest. Accordingly, specific treatment forthem, other than prison work or academic
education, should be implemented.
(iv) Changes of counselors or trainers:
From time to time, the counselors or
trainers will be changed due to transfer,promotion or retirement. However, it isdifficult to change the trainer of sex
offenders because the treatment of sex
offenders is based upon the trust
relationship between the trainer and theprisoner.
3. Countermeasures
The group members agreed that it would
be difficult to solve the above-mentioned
problems, but the following
countermeasures might be useful to ease
off the present situation.
a) Introducing Treatment Programs or
Other Related Resources
For those countries that lack specifictreatment for sex offenders, they may givedue consideration to the types of treatment
programs being implemented in othercountries.
For those countries that lack
psychologists or specialists, the present
situation can be improved if some selected
correctional officers are educated in
psychology and used to assist thepsychologists to provide necessary thetreatment for sex offenders. If the authority
doesn’t understand the importance ofspecific treatment programs for sex
offenders, these officials should be invited
to attend relevant international seminars,
conferences or committees in order to makethe governments of those countries awareof the importance to the treatment of sex
offenders108TH INTERNATIONAL SEMINARREPORTS OF THE COURSEb) Countermeasures to Solve Problems
in Implementing the Specific
Tr e a t m e n t P r o g r a m s f o r S e x
Offenders(i) Privacy and good atmosphere: If thesex offenders doubt that their privacy is
not well secured, they will not speak
frankly in counseling or group discussions.
Accordingly it is most important to teachthe inmates strictly keep others secrets andprivacy. In addition, the atmosphere ofgroup discussions should be made asrelaxing as possible, for example byarranging the allocation of tables in theform of circle or by adopting individual
counseling when needed.
(ii) To teach them sex offenders havecommon ground: The study of by Jonathan
E. Ross, M.A. “New Hope Treatment
Centers” (1-800-776-6482, 1994) teaches usthat sex aggressors, for example those steal
who sexual items, sexually harass, commit
pedophiles, forcibly rape and commit
sexual homicide, drives are based on thesame background. Accordingly, sex
offenders should be convinced that othersex offences come from common ground andthey should be motivated to understandeach others problems.
(iii)Relapse Prevention Program: It is
hard reform the character of sex offenders,
but it is possible to make them prevent
relapse. George and Mariatt suggested a“Relapse Prevention (RP) Program for sex
offenders”. The purpose of the RP Programis to make an offender anticipate therelapse problem and manage it. The
method of the RP Program is to make themwrite what problems may happen in a day
and how to manage them, individual
counseling, group discussion, role playingetc (George and Mariatt, 1989).
(iv) To standardize methods and keep
good records: It is unavoidable that thetrainers are sometimes changed because oftransfer, promotion or retirement.

Accordingly, it is very important tostandardize the methods of treatment via
working manuals and to keep good recordsof treatment for proper hand-over from one
to another.
D. Treatment Programs for Violent
Offenders in Prisons
1. Actual Situation
In this paper, violent offenders arereferred to as those with a tendency to solve
their problems by resorting to violent
actions. Those with this propensity will
inevitably bring into prisons their violent
behaviors when convicted. Therefore, somekind of psychological treatment is deemednecessary to reduce the risk of their reoffending.
As indicated by the questionnaire
distributed, none of the 17 participating
countries have treatment programs forviolent offenders, but the psychologists, ofsome countries will provide some sort oftreatment to them if necessary. For
Botswana and Fiji, counseling is the only
treatment measure they employ. In thecase of the Solomon Islands, violent
offenders are encouraged to attend
religious activities and participate inreligious seminars that are normallyprovided by church organizations. In
Indonesia, they arrange a “SHOLAT”
session that requires the violent offenders
to pray to God five times a day. The otherparticipating countries like Bangladesh,Pakistan and Thailand segregate violent
offenders in separated cells. In Ghana,
Kenya, Kiribati, Malaysia and Papua New
Guinea, violent offenders are treated likeany other prisoners. They have no special
treatment programs but they are treatedlike the rest of prisoners who participate
in prison work, education or vocational
training.
It is essential to identify the motives of
the commission of violent crime and thecauses to enable us employ the appropriate
treatment.

377

RESOURCE MATERIAL SERIES No. 54

2. Problemsa) No Specific Treatment Programs forViolent Offenders in Prisons
According to the questionnaire, none ofthe participant countries have any
comprehensive treatment programs forviolent offenders. The common treatment
is only the separation of violent offenders
from the rest of the prison population.
Chronic violent and aggressive prisoners
are locked up for their own safety, and forthat of staff and other inmates.
The absence of specific treatment
programs in prison for violent offenders has
been identified as a problem. This isbecause violent offenders are prone toviolent actions and their treatment isessential to reduce re-offending whenreturned to normal society. Why do we needtreatment programs for violent offender?
The reasons are as follows:• Some of them have cognitive
behavioral problems.
• Some of them have a tendency to solve
their problems by violent actions. Thisis a common factor in all countries andmost of these offenders are recidivists.
• Some violent offenders may havemental problems and or alcohol
problems.
3. Countermeasuresa) I m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f P a c k a g e d
Programs for Violent Offenders
The mere segregation and locking up ofviolent offenders is seen to be a nonrehabilitative measure. The violent
offender will not receive any treatment for
their violent behavior. For this reason, we
intend to introduce a treatment programthat has been initiated by the CanadianServices for Correction(CSC). The program
has been researched and tested by thisagency and proved effective. Seeing thatnone of the 17 countries have such atreatment program, the introduction of the
CSC treatment program for violent
offenders may help in formulating such
378

programs in the those countries. The
program may not be suitable to somecountries but it will give them some ideas.
b) Intensive Treatment Program forViolent Offenders
The treatment program conducted by
the Regional Health Center in Abbottsford,
Canada offers an intensive treatment
program for violent offenders, specificallyfor federal inmates who are seen as being
at a very high risk of re-offending (Mulloy& Brown, 1994). The staff involved in the
program include a psychologist, social
worker and nurses, who implement thetreatment provisions. Staff from otherdisciplines are also involves as needed. The
treatment team model is used with all staff
involved in treatment.
The program is a multi-model, withemphasis on cognitive-behavioral therapy
and relapse prevention. There is also focus
on amending specific offender skills
deficits, such as communication and anger
management. The setting of pro-socialgroup norms by participants is encouraged
through daily group psychotherapy andgroup living. Two methods included in the
program are:i) C o g n i t i v e - b e h a v i o r t h e r a p y :cognitive-behavior therapy is the
predominate treatment model, and has
been shown to be one of the most effective
treatment methods. A strong emphasis isplaced upon the group experience and theimportance of forming supportive
relationships with other group
participants. Teaching offenders different
ways to think and to form relationships,
while at the same time encouraging themto practice their developing skills on eachother in a supportive environment, isbelieved to have a promising effect in termsof recidivism on re-entry to the community.
It is also seen to be effective in improving
self-regulatory cognitive, emotional andbehavioral controls.

108TH INTERNATIONAL SEMINARREPORTS OF THE COURSEii) Anger Management: The importantelement in this therapy is the creation of adelay between the provoking event and theemotional arousal. Criminal or delinquent
populations have often been described as
impulsive people who ‘act before they
think’. For this reason, the program will
incorporate a number of elements intended
to extend the amount of time between theevent and the response. These elements
include relaxation training, theidentification of an internal observer andthe recognition of internal dialogue about
the provoking event. The inclusion of thesedelaying events should act to reduce theimpulsive nature of the inmates anger
response.
E. Treatment Programs for
Organized Crime Offenders in
Prisons
1. Actual Situation
According to the questionnaire
distributed to all the course participants,
no country, other than Japan, has special
treatment programs for organized crime
offenders. However we agreed that there
was an increase in the trend toward
organized crime in some countries, andefforts should be made to help those
offenders re-integrate into society.
Notwithstanding the tremendous
difficulties encountered in the newchallenges, in 1994 the Correctional
Bureau of Japan set forth a new guidelines
for those hard-core offenders.
a) Characteristics of Boryokudan
Inmates
In Japanese prison ‘Boryokudan’members are regarded as dangerous
habitual offenders and have the following
characteristics:• Generally speaking, the Boryokudan
inmates are classified as ‘B class’ interms of allocation category, and ‘Gclass’ as to treatment category. ‘Bclass’ inmates have a propensity

toward committing crime and ‘G class’inmates should be given guidance andlife skills training;• They like to show off and are easily
driven by impulsive characteristics.
They have high loyalty to theorganization and have little selfrepentance;• They undermine prison regulations
and general treatment, and evendisturb the rehabilitation of otherinmates.
According to the statistics of Osaka
Prison, which accommodate 2003 inmates,in May 1998 the number of Boryokudan
inmates was 338(16.9%). While the total
number of prison penalties during 1997
was 1792, the number of penalties imposedon Boryokudan inmates was 399(23.3%).
Consequently, special treatments are
conducted for the Boryokudan inmatesfrom a security view point, such as:• Boryokudan prisoners areadministered according to the groupthey belong to. They are separated
from each other not only in cells but
also in institutions.
• To avoid contention or strife inprisons, prison officers prohibit themfrom talking about the groupstruggles outside of the prison, andfrom organizing group with in theprisons. Letters are sensored carefully
for this purpose.
b) S o m e A s p e c t s o f B o r y o k u d a n
Members
Research on the life of Boryokudan madeby the National Research Institute of Police
Science in 1994 indicates that:• The motivation to become members of
Boryokudan is ostensibly theaffluence of the Boryokudan.
• Over half answered that they blindly
obey the direction of their boss.
• Most of them have no clear goal intheir group.

379

RESOURCE MATERIAL SERIES No. 54c) The Consciousness of Boryokudan
Members
Research on the life of Boryokudan
members made by the National ResearchInstitute of Police Science in 1994 indicatesthat the main reasons for leaving theorganization is due to anxiety for theirfamily, financial independence from theorganization, being arrested by the police,
having an appropriate occupation andbeing persuaded by their family or friends
to leave the organization.
d) Treatment Programs for Organized
Crime Offenders in Prisons
In the past, there was little treatment
methods for organized crime offenders
other than segregation and tight security
control. To help the offenders leave the
Boryokudan, in 1994 the Correctional
Bureau of Japan set forth guidelines forthe treatment of organized crime offenders
in prisons.
e) T h e C o n t e n t o f Tr e a t m e n t f o r
Organized Crime Members
The Correctional Bureau set up 10 typesof treatment programs for organized crime
members. These treatment programs are
given to organized crime offenders 12

Target of Treatment
Division of prisoners

Form of Treatment
Cell

380

times, and the content of this treatment is
as follows:• To make them realize that it is
impossible to continue as a memberof the Boryokudan, ‘that there are
specific organizations to help theirbreakaway. Also that it is impossible
to live as a Boryokudan member
without committing illicit acts,
especially after the enactment of theAnti-Boryokudan Law and that the“Giri and Ninjyo (duty and love)” in
Boryokudan is just deception;• To make them think about: the bad
influences when living as members of
the Boryokudan, the image of the
Boryokudan in the future, theinconvenient life of the Boryokudan,
the importance of the free citizenshipand the reason why they became
members of the Boryokudan;• To make them understand how: toleave the organizations and to maketheir intention to leave theorganizations more strong; theycaused difficulty for their family andhow to re-build good relationship withthem;
• To make them understand theimportance of lawful work and toteach them how to work in thecommunity.

All the members, semi-members and Boryokudan-related
prisoners.
1. Those whose intention to leave the organization is verystrong.
2. Those who have the will to leave the organization, but
hesitate to proceed with the breakaway.
3. Those who will not leave the organization.
Generally speaking, treatment of the first period is held ingroup and the second half is held individually.
Those who will not leave the Boryokudan are obstacles tothose who intend to leave the organization. Accordingly,
those who intend to leave the organization should beincarcerated in solitary cells if possible.

108TH INTERNATIONAL SEMINARREPORTS OF THE COURSE
2. Problems
There are many problems concerning thetreatment programs for organized crime
offenders in prisons. These problems canbe broadly divided into two categories. One
is the lack of treatment programs and theother is related to the difficulties in
implementing specific treatment programsfor organized crime offenders.
a) Lack of Specific Treatment Programsfor Organized Crime Members
As described above, only Japan has
specific treatment for organized crime
offenders in prisons, among the course
participating countries. That means, thatthe other 16 countries, have no specifictreatment programs except segregation.
According to the questionnaire, the reasons
why specific treatment programs for sex
offenders do not exist are as follows:• Because there are no organized crime
offenders (e.g. in Fiji, Ghana, Kiribati,
Nepal, PNG and Solomon Islands);• Because there are few organized crime
offenders (e.g. in Botswana, Pakistan
and Thailand);• Because it is very difficult for prison
officers to make the organized crime
offenders re-integrate into thecommunity, so the treatment of themshould be carefully implemented (e.g.
in Indonesia).
It was noticed that as the transportation
network developed, crime has become moreinternationalized and border less. In
addition, as a country develops andbecomes richer, the criminal organizations
will increase their influence. Furthermore,
the criminal organizations are always
trying to extend their sphere of influence
to get more money by illegal acts.
Accordingly, even if there are few organizedcriminal offenders in a country, theimportance of the specific treatment forthem cannot be ignored.
b) D i f f i c u l t i e s E n c o u n t e r e d i n

Implementing Special Treatment for
Organized Crime Offenders in
Prisons
There are special treatment programsfor organized crime offenders in Japan.
However the implementation of thistreatment is very difficult due to thefollowing reasons:(i) Lack of Personal or Other Resources:
This problem has three aspects, that is:• The prison officers provide little
treatment for those who will not leave
the criminal organizations, because it
seems to be a waste of time.
• The main treatment for the
Boryokudan is to encourage them toleave the organizations. However, thereasons why they cannot leave theorganizations are quite different fromeach other. Accordingly individual
treatment is most ideal for
Boryokudan members. However, it isvery difficult to conduct suchprograms for each of the Boryokudan
members, because of a lack ofpersonnel or other resources.
• The treatment programs for
Boryokudan members have been
newly introduced to the penal system.
It is noticed that teaching materials
such as videos, brochures and cassettetapes are still limited.
(ii) Lack of Cooperation by Related
Divisions: Three divisions are involved in
the treatment of organized crime offenders;the classification division, educational
division and classification board. However,
it is difficult for the officers of these threedivisions to cooperate with each other,because Japanese administaration isdivided vertically.
(iii)Lack of Care and Investigation After
Release: Many organized crime members
submit documents in which they pledge toleave the organizations. However, many ofthem may submit the documents because

381

RESOURCE MATERIAL SERIES No. 54
they want to get parole. Moreover, there
are still no measures to follow-up thesecases and confirm whether prisoners reallyleave these organizations after release.
More than that, it is difficult to help theseprisoners find a job after release.
3. Countermeasures
In conclusion, it is difficult to solve all of
the above-mentioned problems, but thefollowing countermeasures may help toease the present situation:a) Introducing Specific Treatment
Programs for Organized Crime
Members
For those countries with a lack of specifictreatment programs for organized crime
offenders, the treatment system of Japan,
as explained above, may be helpful. In
addition, those countries where there are
few organized crime offenders should study
how to treat organized crime offenders in
preparation for the future.
b) Countermeasures to Solve Problems
in Implementing the Special
Tr e a t m e n t P r o g r a m s f o r S e x
Offenders
The problems we mentioned above may
be solved by following countermeasures.
(i) D e v e l o p m e n t o f N e w G r o u pTreatment Programs and Materials: Prison
officers should be reminded of theirimportant role in the rehabilitation of
offenders, notwithstanding that prisoners
are organized crime offenders.
Furthermore, those who need treatment
most are those whose want to remain in
the Boryokudan, because they have more
likelihood of recommitting crimes thanothers. Accordingly treatment should be
extended to those Boryokudan members
who want to remain in the criminalorganization.
Due to the lack human resources, moreemphasis should be put on the grouptreatment and the combination of group382

and individual treatment from theviewpoint of expense and effectiveness.
Since the existing treatment programs arestill at the primitive stage, more effective
teaching materials such as videos,brochures and cassette tapes should be
developed and introduced.
(ii) Close Cooperation of Related
Divisions and Agencies: Close
communication and cooperation should bemaintained among the three divisions, thatis the classification division, education
division and classification board. Moreover,other authorities, for example police andpublic prosecutors office, should also be
involved in follow-up action.
(iii)Effective Care and Investigation
After Release: Following the release of a
Boryokudan member on parole, joint
follow-up action should be taken to confirm
whether they have organization by theProbation Office and the Police. Working
in the community is one of the best waysof re-integration, though it is difficult tohelp them find jobs after release.
Accordingly, the Public Probation Officers
should help them find jobs in conjunction
with the Voluntary Probation Officers andother agencies.
V. WAYS TO SECURE THE
TREATMENT ABILITY OF PRISON
STAFF
A. Recruiting Capable Staff
1. Actual Situation
Normally, the process of recruitment,
selection and appointment of prison staff
is basically similar in most countries.
Firstly, all the applications are strictly
tested against the requirements of the job
specification as advertised. The job
specification will comprise of theeducational qualifications, academic
status, work experience, age, gender,
general health, marital status, criminal

108TH INTERNATIONAL SEMINARREPORTS OF THE COURSE
records and other information.
Secondly, the preliminary selection
process begins soon after all applications
have been received with a short list of
candidates drawn up. The shortlisting of
applicants will then have to undertake an
intensive selection process conducted by
the boards or commissions.
Thirdly, the examinations are composedof personal interviews, other specific jobrelated or job-oriented questions andexaminations. If the applicants referencesand examination results meet the desired
standard of the Selection Board, then thecandidates will appear for a complete
medical examination.
Having studied the actual situations
among the 17 participating countries on the
recruiting of prison staff, the group foundthat most countries recruited prison staff
and some kinds of specialists to conduct therehabilitation program, such as social
workers, psychologists, doctors, nurses,
vocational trainers, religious instructors,
teachers, etc. However, some of thosecountries, for example Indonesia, Thailand,
Malaysia, Kiribati, Nepal, Papua New
Guinea etc., cannot recruit sufficient
specialists in to their system. For somecountries like Hong Kong, Malaysia and
Nepal, some specialists are deployed fromother government agencies, such as the
Department of Health, Ministry of
Education, etc.
Some countries also recruit specialists
in accordance with their relevant
qualifications. However, other countries
like Botswana, Indonesia, Thailand andMalaysia, the educational requirements forthe posts of specialists are generally
required to hold a diploma or degree ofsocial science or education, which include
various majors. Thus, the personnel sorecruited will undertake the jobs which
may not be relevant to their knowledge, forexample, those who graduated with a major
in politics may work as a social worker. It
was also observed that the educational

requirement for recruiting prison staff in
most countries, except Ghana and thePhilippines, does not include the fields ofcriminal justice, criminology or corrections.
For the recruitment of prison staff whoworks as prison guards, the minimum
educational requirement specified by all
countries, except the Philippines, is a highschool certificate.
In conclusion, those 17 countries haverecruited some kinds of specialist to
conduct the rehabilitation programs inprisons. However, most of them cannot
sufficiently recruit these specialists into
their own system.
2. Problemsa) Difficulty in Recruiting Rehabilitation
Staff
Most participating countries
encountered great difficulty in recruiting
the appropriate of people for positions. This
results in an insufficiency of qualified staff
who are capable of implementing therehabilitation programs effectively, like
psychologists, teachers, prison officers,
technical instructors in various fields oftrade etc. The difficulties of recruiting
rehabilitation staff are mainly due to theunattractiveness of correctional work
including low salary, poor working
environments, poor working conditions anda bad public image.
As revealed by the questionnaire, forsome countries like Bangladesh Indonesia,
Papua New Guinea and the Solomon
Islands, their situations may be worse thanthe other countries. For example, theirprison buildings lack maintenance and theworking conditions are far fromsatisfactiory.
b) Inadequate Educational Backgroundof Prison Staff
While correctional work is viewed as aprofession which requires specificknowledge on criminology, criminal justiceand corrections, many countries do not

383

RESOURCE MATERIAL SERIES No. 54
include these fields of knowledge in the
educational requirements for recruiting
prison staff. Prison staff are only required
to have an educational background in social
science or education. In many countries,
prison guards have only a high school
education. The lack of specific knowledge
and advanced education of prison staff
results in the inadequacy of educational
backgrounds for working in correctional
services. This problem will have adverse
effects on the ability of staff to rehabilitate
prisoners.

administrators could render assistance by
providing scholarships or study leave etc.

3. Countermeasuresa) Enrichment of Recruiting Qualified
Staff
To solve the problems of recruiting theright caliber of people for prison jobs, thecorrectional administrators must have aneffective recruitment system with a view
to attracting and selecting qualified
persons to join the correctional service. This
involves the ability to publicize andmaintain a good public image, and also theability to set up an effective staff selection
process.
M o r e o v e r, t h e g o v e r n m e n t a n dcorrectional administrations in various
countries should consider the necessity ofawarding a premium to correctional officers
who have to work under demanding prison
conditions.

B. Training of Prison Staff toEnhance Their Treatment Ability
1. Actual Situation
After selection has been made, recruited
prison staff should be put through intensive
and extensive training programs,
conducted by a training institute.
Apart from Bangladesh, Kiribati and
Nepal, most participating countries haveestablished staff training institutes to
conduct training courses for prison staff.
In general, the major levels of training,provided by training institutes, can bedivided into two types:(i) Basic Recruit Training: This training
aims at providing new personnel with thebasic knowledge and skills for carrying out
their duties. The basic recruit training also
aims at imparting a sense of professional
ethics, conduct etc. The course content forthis training includes: basic prison laws,
rules, and regulations; correctional
treatment programs; counseling skills etc.
Other practical skills taught in training
programs are self-defense, use of firearms,
first aid, foot drill, riot drill, fire drill andso on. According to the questionnaire, we
found that all participating countries,
except Nepal, have these kinds of training
course.

b) Quality Training for Prison Staff
To equip the new recruits with thenecessary knowledge and skills fordischarging their duties and implementing
the various treatment programs,
correctional administrators should provide
quality basic training and constantguidance. In addition, appropriate
development training should be provided
to currently serving staff, in order toenhance their job performance and develop
their potential for taking up higher
responsibility. To motivate staff to achieve
academic qualification, correctional(ii) Refresher and Developmental
Training Courses: Refresher courses areorganized regularly for correctional staff to
update their operational knowledge. This
also serve to inspire a renewal of interestin their daily duties. Developmental
training courses for promotional purposes
are conducted for selected personnel to givethem a thorough grounding in thetheoretical aspects of their work. This is toprepare them for a higher level of
responsibility.
Apart from the above training courses,
in most participating countries, training384

108TH INTERNATIONAL SEMINARREPORTS OF THE COURSE
courses relevant to the rehabilitation ofprisoners are provided. In Papua New
Guinea, the training courses on conflict
resolution, and for religious educational
instructors and trade instructors, areprovided by training institutes. In
Thailand, there are training courses onclassification, Therapeutic Community andreligious activities
In Malaysia, the training courses oncrisis management, counseling,
Therapeutic Community and handling HIV
related prisoners, are provided by atraining institute; while training for trade
instructors is conducted by the National
Council for Vocational Training. Apart from
that, opportunities have been given toserving officers to pursue their educationof local universities in the areas ofcounseling, psychology, human resource
management etc.
The training institute in Hong Kongruns various development/specialist
courses such as Management Development
Courses, Hospital In-service Training
Courses for Assistant Officers (General andPsychiatric) , Detention Center Courses,
Drug Addiction Treatment Center Courses,
Emergency Services Training Courses andPersonal Computer Training Courses, etc.
In Japan, a training institute conducts
training courses for psychologists, social
workers, religious instructors, vocational
trainers in progressive techniques. In thePhilippines, there are training course in
first aid, counseling and stressmanagement. In Indonesia, the training
courses relevant to rehabilitation programs
are conducted by outside agencies, such as
the Department of Industry, Departmentof Manpower and Department of
Education.
2. Problemsa) Lack of Systematic Training Program
According to the survey conductedduring the workshop, many countries haveheld training courses for newly recruited

prison staff and training courses relevantto the rehabilitation of prisoners. However,it was observed that the training programs
are not systematic. One of the reasons isthat training programs are establishedwithout assessing the training needs of theprison staff. Thus, the curriculum of sometraining programs does not include
essential knowledge on the rehabilitationof prisoners, e.g. psychology, criminology,social work, etc.
Moreover, lecturers in the training
programs are normally senior prison staff
who are not well skilled to be trainers.
Mostly, they teach in accordance with theirown experience and knowledge, without afull understanding of related theories orconcepts. The lack of training assessment
and qualified lecturers are the two main
factors attributing to the ineffectiveness oftreatment programs.
b) Lack of Proper Guidance to Performthe Job
In some countries, prison staff who havejust undergone basic training are often
placed on their own to perform their jobs
in prison, without any proper assistanceor guidance from the senior or peer officers.
Due to the lack of experience andconfidence in work, newly recruited prison
staff are at risk of being tempted byprisoners and misguided by bad staff.
Since correctional work now requires
prison staff to play a greater role than
before, improvement in treatment
programs will be more complicated. In
some countries, prison staff have toperform security tasks as well as
rehabilitative tasks. Both security tasks
and rehabilitative tasks require high skill
and understanding from prison staff, sincethese tasks sometimes conflict. To securesafety and prevent disturbances in prisons,staff have to carefully supervise prisoners,
the rehabilitative task requires prison staff
to provide the necessary services toprisoners with understanding. Without

385

RESOURCE MATERIAL SERIES No. 54
proper guidance, it is difficult for new
prison staff to perform their duty
professionally and effectively.
3. Countermeasuresa) Establishment of Systemic Training
Packages
Systematic and standardized training
programs are essential and vital forequipping prison staff with necessary
knowledge, skill and concepts. Suchtraining programs should be job-oriented
and useful in helping them discharge theirstatutory duties effectively.
In order to provide systematic training
programs, it is suggested that the training
package should be developed by assessing
the training needs of prison staff at
different levels and in different fields. Afterassessing the training needs, thecurriculum of the training program should
include subjects for enhancing staff
performance, skill and concepts relating to
the rehabilitation of prisoners, e.g.,criminology, psychology, social work etc.
The training package should also include
a training manual providing the methodof teaching, and a presentation of thecourse content fro the trainer which
provides the method of teaching and thepresentation of the course content. The
training manual will assist the trainer, as
well as the lecturers, to conduct thetraining program consistantly from one
trainer or training center, to another. The
adoption of a standardized and systematictraining package will improve the standardof training programs and guarantee thattrainers will deliver the necessary
knowledge and skill to trainee constantly.
b) Development of ‘On The Job’ Training
It is suggested that newly trained staff
are, when possible, given on-the-job
training so as to promote their skill andexperience. Well structured on-the-job
training will protect prison staff from thebad influence of prisoners and improper

386

guidance from more experienced prison
staff who have misconceptions about
correctional work, as well as improve theirunderstanding of their roles.
On-the-job training courses conducted insome countries like Hong Kong may beconsidered and applied. In Hong Kong, thecorrectional Services Department provides
in-service training sessions for serving staff
once per week in order to update theirknowledge on laws, rules and regulations,operational duties and treatment programs
etc. The officers also take the opportunity
to discuss among themselves ways topromote the effectiveness and efficiency ofthe correctional work in their institutions.
This kind of training is organized by the
Staff Training Committee of the respective
institutions, with close monitoring bysenior officers and assistance from theRegional Training and Liaison Officers
deployed from the Staff Training Institute.
For officers under probation for a period of
2 years, the Regional Training and Liaison
Officers will provide them with guidanceand counseling in order to help them copewith their work environment.
VI. CONCLUSION
In conclusion, our group has studied therehabilitation programs conducted in 17
countries as well as some specific countries,
e.g. Finland, Singapore, Philippines,
Canada, USA, etc. The rehabilitation
programs, which are explored, are as
follows:• The treatment programs to enhancesocio-economic ability of prisoners,i.e., prison work, vocational training
joint venture schemes and education
systems.
• The treatment programs for specifictypes of prisoners, i.e., prisoners withpsychological problems, drug addictedprisoners, sex offenders, violent
offenders and organized crime
offenders.

108TH INTERNATIONAL SEMINARREPORTS OF THE COURSE
After studying the actual situation for
implementing these treatment programs in
the 17 countries, we found that mostcountries sustained prison work andvocational training to rehabilitate
prisoners. However, only a few countries
could provide special treatment programsfor specific types of prisoners in need ofrehabilitation. In fact, many countries did
not separate the specific types of prisoners
from the general prison population. As
such, some countries confined drug
addicted offenders, violent offenders andsex offenders together in the same
correctional institution, without theprovision of special treatment programs.
The problem of lack of special treatment
programs partly resulted from the lack of
specialists capable to implement thetreatment programs. The study revealed
that the lack of a financial budget was themain reason for this fall short. It wascommonly said that countries havebudgetary and personnel constraints, sothey could not implement any new
treatment programs. These problems seemto be the major obstacle for some countries
in rehabilitating prisoners and they
prevent new kinds of progressive treatment
from being introduced.
Nevertheless, our group has identified
some countermeasures for such problems.
Some countermeasures are proposed by
way of securing the rehabilitation abilityof prison staff. This means that trained
prison staff may be deployed to plays theseroles. Prison staff do not only play the roleof security guards, but also that of thecorrectional staff who can perform
rehabilitation roles and act as social worker
or teachers. To play a different role in the
rehabilitation of prisoners, prison staff
should be trained and equipped withprofessional know ledge and skills in order
to meet the requirements of the treatment
programs.
Furthermore, cooperation with outside
agencies is another countermeasureproposed to solve the problem of budgetary
constraints. Group treatment programs arealso introduced in order to increase thecost-effectiveness of programs. To assure
the effectiveness of rehabilitation
programs, the following recommendations
might be taken into consideration.
A. Necessity of a Classification
System for the Rehabilitation of
Prisoners
A classification system is a method toinvestigate the characteristics of prisoners
in order to provide them with suitable
treatment programs that address theirproblems. Therefore, without an effectiveclassification system, it will be hard to
identify the needs of individuals and to
implement treatment programs
accordingly. It was also noted that someprisoners need special treatment programs;
whereas others may just need generaltreatment programs like prison work,
vocational training and education.
Therefore, it is suggested that prisoners
be classified in accordance with their
distinctive problems prior to receiving any
kind of treatment programs; and should bereclassified after the treatment programs
are provided in order to enhance follow up
treatment.
B. Combination of Various Types ofTreatment Programs for the
Rehabilitation of Prisoners
Since the problems of prisoners arecomplicated, no single treatment program
will be applicable to all types of prisoners.
In addition, each type of prisoner may needmore than on type of treatment program.
It is recommended that prison work isnecessary for almost all types of prisoners.
However, prisoners should also be treatedby other programs in accordance with theirown needs. Prison officers should consider
adopting appropriate treatment programs,
or a combination of such, to address the
problems encountered by different types of387

RESOURCE MATERIAL SERIES No. 54
prisoners, in order to help themrehabilitate.
C. The Importance of theWillingness and Motivation of
Prisoners in the Effectiveness of
Rehabilitation
The common problem repeatedly
identified in this paper was the lack of thewillingness of prisoners to participate in
the treatment programs. Thus, it isstrongly recommended that prison staff
encourage prisoners to voluntarily
participate in treatment programs. The
ways of persuasion may be different fromone country to another, depending on theircorrectional systems. In some countries,
incentives, for example, remuneration or
wages, can be employed to persuadeprisoners. Other countries may persuadeprisoners to participate by providing nonmonetary privileges, e.g., promotion to ahigher class and eligibility for early release,etc.
D. The Importance of Evaluating toRehabilitation Programs
Despite some countries not having any
evaluation systems for their rehabilitation
programs, it is considered that these kinds
of follow-up measures are necessary andimportant for correctional administrators
to assess the effectiveness of the programs.
As such, necessary improvements can bemade accordingly.
Finally, we are fully aware that thecorrectional system in each country isdifferent and distinctive. Some treatment
programs may be applicable to somecountries, but not to all. Thus, therespective countries may consider thefeasibility of adopting the treatment
programs as recommended by this reportin order to meet their own needs.
REFERENCE
American Psychiatric Association (1994),

388

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of
Mental Disorders. 4th ed.
Andrews,D. (1998), An Overview ofTreatment Effectiveness: Research andClinical Principles. Paper presented in
UNAFEI 109th training course.
Anechiarico,Barry. (1998), “A Closer
Look at Sex Offender Character Pathology
and Relapse Prevention”, International
Journal of Offender Therapy andComparative Criminology, 42(1), 16-26
Correction Bureau, Ministry of Justice(1994), Cases of Educational Treatment.
Correction Bureau, Ministry of Justice(1991), A Handbook for Prison Officers 112134
Correction Bureau, Ministry of Justice(1997), Manual of Classified Treatment,“Guidance on Leaving the Boryokudan”
Davis, D. (1990), “Antisocial Personality
Disorder” In Beck, A. & Freeman, A.
Cognitive Therapy of Personality Disorder.
Guilford.
Derksen, J. (1995), Personality
Disorders: Clinical and Social Perspectives.
Wiley.
Fuchu Prison, (1997), Statistics ofClassification.
Fujioka, J. (1997), “Rorschach
Assessment and Treatment Planning for
the Conduct Disorder”. Japanese Journalof Adolescent Psychiatry, 7(1), 13-20.
Fujioka, J. (1998), “Guidance of SST”,
Keisei vol.109 p96-102.
Fujioka, J. (1998),“Assessment andTreatment of Antisocial Personality
Disorder”. Psychotherapy, 24(1), 23-29.
Gacono, C. & Meloy,R. (1994), The
Rorschach Assessment of Aggressive andPsychopathic Personalities. LEA: NY.
Hare, R. (1995), Without Conscience:
The Disturbing World of the Psychopaths
Among Us.
Ikushima, H. & Muramatsu, T. (1998),
Practice of Clinical Treatment for Juvenile,
Kongou Shuppan.

108TH INTERNATIONAL SEMINARREPORTS OF THE COURSE
Imafuku, S. (1997), “Sex offenders andCommunity-based Treatment”, Crime andDelinquency, 111,114.
Jonathan E. & Ross, M.A. (1994), New
Hope Treatment Centers.
Kawagoe Juvenile Training School(1997), Manual of Classified Treatment andStandard of Classification.
Livesley, J. (1995), The DSM-IV
Personality Disorders. Guilford.
Miner, Michael H. &. Dwyer, M. (1997),“The Psychosocial Development of Sex
Offenders”, International Journal of
Offender Therapy and Comparative
Criminology, 41(1), 36-44.
Mulley, R. & Brown, C. (1994), Canadian
Psychological Association. Abbotsford
British of Columbia.
Osaka Regional Correction Bureau,
Correction and Education, vol.304, 305 and308.
Perry, Garry P. & Orchard, J. (1992),
Assessment & Treatment of Adolescent Sex
Offenders.
Strain, C. & Sheath, M. “Groupwork as
a Basis for Assessing Sex Offenders”,
Prison Service Journal, Issue 103 40-43.
We i n e r, I . ( 1 9 9 2 ) , P s y c h o l o g i c a lDisturbance in Adolescence. 2nd ed.
chapter 8 Delinquent Behavior. Wiley.

389

RESOURCE MATERIAL SERIES No. 54
TABLE IPRISON WORK
Prison Workobliged voluntary
Bangladesh○
Botswana
○
Fiji
○
Ghana
○
Hong Kong○
Indonesia
○
Japan
○
Kenya
○
Kiribati○
Malaysia○
Nepal○
Pakistan○Papua New Guinea○
Philippines○
R. of Korea○
Solomon Is.
○
Thailand○

Vocational Training
yes
no
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○

Joint Venture
inside outside none
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○
○

TABLE 2EDUCATION

Bangladesh
Botswana
Fiji
Ghana
Hong Kong
Indonesia
Japan
Kenya
Kiribati
Malaysia
Nepal
PNG
Pakistan
Philippines
R.of Korea
Solomon Is.
ThailandFundamental level
Int.
F.A.
Yes
Gov
Yes
n/a
No
Yes
Gov,Pri
Yes
Gov
Yes
Gov
Yes
Gov
Yes
Gov
No
Yes
Gov
Yes
Gov
Yes
Gov
Yes
Gov
Yes Gov,NGO
Yes
Gov
No
Yes
Gov

Advanced level
Int.
F.A.
No
Yes Gov,Pri
Yes
n/a
No
Yes Gov,PTA
No
Yes Gov,Pri
No
No
Yes
Pri
Yes
Gov
Yes
Gov
Yes Gov, Pri
Yes Gov,NGO
Yes
Gov
No
Yes
Gov

Illiteracy rate*
Male(%)
Female(%)
50.6
73.9
19.5
40.1
6.2
10.7
24.1
46.5
4.0
11.8
10.4
22.0
13.7
30.0
10.9
21.9
59.1
86.1
19.0
37.3
50.0
75.6
5.0
5.7
0.7
3.3
4.0
8.4

Int: Introduction, F.A.: Funding Authority, Gov: Government, Pri: Prisoner(s), PTA: Prison Trust Account, n/a: Not available, *: UN Statistics Division (1995)

390