EFFECTIVE MEASURES FOR THE PREVENTION OF
CRIME ASSOCIATED WITH URBANIZATION
By Prof. Irvin Waller*

I. INTRODUCTION
Many who live with violence day in and day out assume that it is an intrinsic part of the human condition.
But this is not so. Violence can be prevented. ... In my own country and around the world, we haveshining examples of how violence has been encountered. (Nelson Mandela, WHO, 2002)
The developments in the last decade demonstrate that crime and victimization can be reduced
significantly by prevention that uses the scientific knowledge about what works and policies that follow newnorms established by the United Nations. These reductions will avoid billions of dollars in loss to victims
and communities and ensure that taxes are used to invest in youth and communities as well as pay for
effective police, courts and corrections.
The first section of this text provides the background in terms of the knowledge base to support thestatement that crime can be reduced as well as the international norms that guide the implementation ofprogrammes that will reduce crime and victimisation significantly.
For the norm base, a handbook is in preparation on the implementation of the UN Guidelines (Waller,
Kirvan et al., 2005) which will provide Canadian and International examples to illustrate how to
operationalise the principles.
In order to implement effective measures, it is essential to understand the key elements of the UN
Guidelines for Prevention and the Bonnemaison version of how agencies work together to identify, plan,
implement and evaluate effective crime prevention strategies.
The second section presents examples that have successfully applied those principles. For the knowledge
base and the examples, the reader is encouraged particularly to look at the reports prepared by theInternational Centre for Prevention of Crime (1999a, 1999b) and Waller (2000) which provide more details
and references on the knowledge base. They also provide details on the examples of inspiring programmes
and projects that are listed in my charts below. These details provide about a page on the crime problem, theprogramme, the results and sources for further information which are usually available for free over theInternet.

II. THE KNOWLEDGE BASE
The prestigious and encyclopaedic reviews that have accumulated in the last decade repeatedly recognize
the cost-effectiveness of prevention. However, they do not show that the common ways for using police,
courts and corrections have an impact on crime, unless there are mammoth investments. Reviews such as
those done by Her Majesty’s Inspectorate of Constabulary in England suggest that policing would have an
impact on crime when it is targeted and in “strategic” partnership with school boards, and municipalities.
Indeed small scale projects using these principles have had a measured impact on crime.
These reviews have examined the empirical research on what reduces crime and victimisation. They
have been completed by governments, intergovernmental agencies and a few university groups (Australia,
National Committee on Violence (1990); Canada, Standing Committee on Justice and Solicitor General(1993); Audit Commission, UK (1996); Home Office and Treasury, UK (Goldblatt and Lewis, 1998);* Professor of Criminology, University of Ottawa; Founding Director General, International Centre for Prevention of Crime(1994-2000); President, Canadian Forum for Crime Prevention.

75

RESOURCE MATERIAL SERIES No.68

UNODCP (Newman, 1998), International Centre for Prevention of Crime, (1999a); US Congress (Sherman
et al., 2002 and 1997); Blumstein and Wallman (2000); Washington State Public Policy Institute, USA (Aos etal., 2002); HM Inspectorate of Constabulary, UK (1998/2001); US, Surgeon General, (2001); World HealthOrganisation (2002)).
Full references for these texts are available with a summary and internet reference on www.crimeprevention.ca, which is the internet site of the Canadian Forum for Crime Prevention. This is a recently formed
public interest group established to reduce crime and victimisation through evidence based prevention.
One of the most frequently cited was done in the United States. The US Congress required the Attorney
General to provide a comprehensive evaluation of the effectiveness of over $3 Billion annually spent incrime prevention grants. As independent researchers, Lawrence Sherman and his colleagues reviewed morethan 600 scientific evaluations of programmes intended to prevent crime. Their seminal report pinpoints
what works, what does not work, and what is promising in preventing crime and victimization. It examines
the results from community, family, school and situational approaches to crime reduction as well as theeffectiveness of the police, courts and corrections. This report serves as an important tool in understanding
which prevention programmes are backed by scientific proof of effectiveness.
Another frequently cited review was completed by the International Centre for Prevention of Crime(1999a). This reviews both scientific literature and the government literature. It looks at projects that haveworked as well as the consensus that is developing about how to implement crime prevention across cities
and countries in both the developed and the developing world. It has formed the basis for the backgroundmaterials used at the UN Congresses on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice as well as the influential
review undertaken by the British Home Office and Treasury. The International Centre for Prevention of
Crime (Montreal) also brought together 100 descriptions of prevention programmes to inspire action(International Centre for Prevention of Crime, 1999b). These have been translated into several languages
including French and Spanish. They provide easy access to this extensive government literature to elected
and permanent government officials with or without expertise in criminology or crime prevention.
The reviews are consistent in their conclusions that rates of interpersonal violence can be significantly
reduced through well planned and multi-sector strategies that tackle multiple causes. They are cautious on
the degree to which increasing expenditures on policing and corrections will reduce rates of crime andvictimisation, particularly because of the costs involved. For instance, policing will not reduce rates ofvictimisation by:•••

Increasing budgets even by large amounts, though these will take scarce financial resources awayfrom public health nurses, teachers and youth workers all of which can significantly reduce crime andvictimisation
Continuing the common ways of delivering policing based on patrols, response to calls for service
and investigation, all of which will become less and less effective in reducing crime as fewer:
victims report their victimisation to the police
offences known to the police result in an offender being identified
Using popular American programmes, such as neighbourhood watch, boot camps and drug resistanceeducation (DARE), which have been shown not to be effective in reducing crime

Some of the reviews were undertaken as comprehensive spending reviews to determine how
governments should allocate their funds to reduce crime and victimisation. In the USA, they have had little
influence but in the United Kingdom they led to trail blazing government action to reduce crime
In 1996, the British Audit Commission completed a comprehensive spending review of programmes totackle youth offending, concluding that expenditures on policing, courts and prisons were misspending (on)youth. Rather than leaving police and criminal justice to only sanction offenders after the victimisation, theBritish government legislated a permanent commission named the Youth Justice Board to focus partly on
preventing crime before it happens.
The British Home Office and Treasury also collaborated on a comprehensive spending review, in order to
identify the comparative cost-effectiveness of crime prevention programmes (Goldblatt & Lewis, 1998). The
report concluded that optimal crime prevention strategies involve the multi-sector tackling of the multiple

76

129TH INTERNATIONAL SENIOR SEMINAR
VISITING EXPERTS’ PAPERS

causes of crime. The components of such an integrated strategy would include (but are not limited to)interventions focusing on children and families at-risk, increasing social cohesion, improving theenvironmental conditions of crime “hot spots”, and placing more emphasis on problem-oriented policing.
This report provided the basis for the cabinet approval of a $600 million budget re-allocation over three
years, in order to invest in the Effective Crime Reduction Strategy.
Further, a benchmark report by the British Inspectorate of Police (1998 and 2001) for Her Majesty’s
Inspectorate of Constabulary called for the fostering of partnerships between police services andsocial/educational partners. In 1998, the trend setting Crime and Disorder Act required, among otherpriorities, that all municipalities undertake a multi-sector Local Crime Reduction Strategy. These strategies
are centred upon the diagnosis of the local crime problem, the implementation of a plan, and the evaluationof the implementation process and impacts on local crime rates.
In sum the prestigious reviews conclude that social and situational prevention are effective by:• Tackling particular social causes (inconsistent parenting, school abandonment, and so on) reduces
offending.
• Tackling particular situational determinants (lack of surveillance, ease of turning into cash and so on)
reduces victimization.
• Using enforcement strategically or in partnership to work (using GIS, intelligence, accountability).
• Being more cost effective than current policing, judicial and particularly prison practices, whenevaluated.
• Providing additional social benefits (school completion, jobs, paid taxes and so on) when theprevention tackled the problems of youth at risk.
A key concept behind strategic approaches to crime prevention is that crime is concentrated in certain
families and neighbourhoods as demonstrated by repeated large scale surveys undertaken in affluent
democracies. The following highlights the conclusions.
Large scale data sets confirm social, situational and location of crime• 5% of youth account for 55% of offences
Longitudinal studies confirm 5% risk factors such as relative poverty, ineffective parenting anddropping out of school• 4% of victims account for 44% of victimisation
Victimisation studies confirm 4% risk life routines such as not guarding goods, vulnerable toopportunity, close to offenders• Hot spot locations for drugs and other offences
Police statistics confirm that hotspots concentrate offenders and victims geographicallyThough there is no definitive analysis that identifies an exhaustive list of the causes of crime, the UN
Congresses concur with the scientific literature that the causes are multiple and include social development,
cultural, situational and law enforcement related factors. These include that crime trends are determined bychanges in societies summarised below.
1.

2.
3.
4.

Social Development, e.g.
•
Gap between rich and poor•
Youth excluded from school, jobs and hope•
Demographic proportion of 15-24 males in population
Cultural Disposition, e.g.
•
Females dependency on males - violence in home•
Urban shift - atomisation of families and communities
Physical Design of Communities, e.g.
•
Transportable property not looked after or designed for protection•
Access to firearms, alcohol and other drugs
Enforcement and Justice, e.g.
•
Faceless society - low clearance rates•
Persistent offenders not incarcerated (but huge opportunity cost)

Much of the knowledge about the effectiveness of law enforcement and factors associated with crime
victimisation has come from crime victimisation surveys.

77

RESOURCE MATERIAL SERIES No.68

A crime victimisation survey is a survey of a representative sample of the general public to measure:• Who has been a victim of different types of common crime (burglary, theft, assault ...),• What motivates folk to report to police or not• Differences between those victimised and those not• Impact of the crime on the victim• Attitudes to prevention and criminal justice.
National crime victim surveys have been undertaken for many years. In the USA, every year since 1972,
80,000 individuals aged twelve and over in 43,000 different households are interviewed twice for the
National Crime/Victimization Survey. This survey provides the USA with annual information on trends incrime and the lack of reporting to police. It further helps to identify current crime prevention issues thatneed to be addressed. [www.icpsr.umich.edu/NACJD/NCVS/] [www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/]
The annual British Crime Survey conducted by the United Kingdom’s Home office is an excellent
example of providing the necessary data to plan and track prevention efforts. More than 60,000 households
have been interviewed every second year since 1982 in the “British Crime Survey” The survey questions
adults about common offences such as residential break-ins, car thefts, assaults as well as less frequentcrimes such as robbery and sexual assault. This survey produces key data for crime prevention, including
the extent of repeat victimization in the United Kingdom. [www.statistics.gov.uk/ssd/surveys/
british_crime_survey.asp]
Globally, since 1989, some 40,000 different households across the world have been surveyed in theInternational Crime Victims Survey (ICVS) in four different years. This survey allows for cross-national
comparisons and the examination of international victimization trends over time. Many major cities in thedeveloping world have participated in one or more of these surveys. [www.unicri.it/icvs/]
The World Health Organisation Report on Health and Violence has identified some of the risk factors
associated with violent victimization as follows:• Routine life styles
Interaction with persons who are violent
Going out frequently• A culture of violence
Violent role models at home and school
Tolerance of violence
Firearms• Presence of facilitators
Alcohol
Other drugs
Interpersonal Crime is a Continuing andIncreasing Cost to Victims
Percentage of Adults Victimized:
Previous 5 Years
Latin America
AfricaNew World
Central/Eastern Europe
Western Europe
Asia
0

10

20

burglary and attempt

7830
contact crimes

40

129TH INTERNATIONAL SENIOR SEMINAR
VISITING EXPERTS’ PAPERS

The International Victim Survey provides some important data on the rates of victimisation. These show
how rates of property and violent crime vary from world region to region as well as the high proportion of
victimisation that is not reported. The chart below illustrates the relatively small proportion of
victimisations that are reported to police even in countries where police are very professional and popular asthese data are taken from England.

Outcomes Following Victimisation byDifferent Stages - Impunity

The UN International norms were developed originally from experience but now are increasingly
influenced by scientific reviews. The most significant are:Guidelines for the Prevention of Juvenile Delinquency (Riyadh) (1990)
Guidelines for the Prevention of Urban Crime (1995)
Habitat - Safer Cities
Guidelines on Crime Prevention (2002)
WHO - World Report on Health and Violence
There is much in common between the different instruments and intergovernmental policy perspectives.
Presented below is an identification of seven key elements that run through the principles in the UN
guidelines for crime prevention. There are also principles relating to overseas development and aid.
Effective Elements in UN Guidelines for Crime Prevention follow on a first paragraph that affirms theconclusions that we have already seen from the prestigious reviews

1.
There is clear evidence that well-planned crime prevention strategies not only prevent crime andvictimization, but also promote community safety and contribute to the sustainable development ofcountries. Effective, responsible crime prevention enhances the quality of life of all citizens. It has long-term
benefits in terms of reducing the costs associated with the formal criminal justice system, as well as othersocial costs that result from crime. Crime prevention offers opportunities for a humane and more costeffective approach to the problems of crime. The present Guidelines outline the necessary elements for
effective crime prevention.
The following key strategies specify the essential elements required from all levels of government andcivil society to achieve significant reductions in crime and victimization.
Although governments primarily bear the responsibility of ensuring proper legislation, funding, andorganizational capacity, the active participation of communities, non-governmental organizations, the private
sector and so on is also required to ensure effective crime prevention.
1.
2.
3.
4.

Systematic analysis, planning, implementation, and evaluation
Knowledge-driven strategies with appropriate human capacity and data systems
Multi-sector partnerships to tackle the multiple social factors associated with crime
Comprehensive strategies, targeting high risk neighbourhoods and encompassing environmental design

79

RESOURCE MATERIAL SERIES No.68

5.
6.
7.

Local prevention strategies that reduce opportunities for trans-national crime
Public engagement and outreach
A permanent and funded responsibility centre for prevention

More than any other, I want to draw your attention to a process originally inspired by Bonnemaison as a
Mayor and later Speaker (Questeur) of the National Assembly of France. Crime will be solved through wise
partnerships of schools, local government and policing to tackle multiple causes. The diagram is one critical
key to success in reducing crime.

Bonnemaison - Crime will be Solved ThroughWise Partnerships of Schools, Local Government
and Policing to Tackle Multiple Causes
Action Plan
* priorities/resources* actions vs. risk factors

Safety Diagnosis* challenges from crime
risk factors

Responsibility
Centre* leadership* schools, social services ...
* gender and diversity* engaging citizens

Evaluation* process* results

Implementation* coordination* benchmarks/timeline

III. MEASURES THAT HAVE WORKED
There are many problem oriented policing examples that have reduced crime successfully. Unfortunately
many of them are at the level of the individual officer. The most important examples are those where a police
agency has gone over to a problem oriented policing strategy. Here are some interesting examples, all ofwhich have relevance for developing countries. They all represent an application of the Bonnemaison
problem solving model, though the secretariat is limited to the police and so their success is more limited.
They are often limited in time because there was no structure or procedure as in the UN Guidelines toensure their sustainability.
SACSI is particularly important for countries with concentrations of violence associated with handguns
and illicit drugs. In the United States, programmes in selected Safer Cities have successfully tackled thetrafficking of guns and drugs at the local level. The city of Boston launched “Operation Ceasefire” in 1995, aproject based in a systematic problem-solving process that involved the implementation of problem-oriented
policing through team work of the analytic capability of Harvard University and the practical knowledge of
the Boston police. This strategy combined police enforcement action to eliminate access to firearms withsocial programmes designed to help youth in difficulty complete school and gain meaningful employment.
The evaluation of Boston’s strategy revealed that youth homicide fell from an average rate of 44 per year
(1991 to 1995) to 15 in 1998. In light of the success in Boston, the Department of Justice sought to replicate
the process, and launched a multi-site initiative called Strategic Approaches to Community Safety Initiative(SACSI). The sites most successful in reducing the incidence of gun-related violence and drug trafficking
were those dedicated to the strategic problem-solving process of analysing local crime problems andimplementing and evaluating problem-oriented solutions. [www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij/sacsi/]

80129TH INTERNATIONAL SENIOR SEMINAR
VISITING EXPERTS’ PAPERS• Police Service Problem Solving (Newport News, USA, 1980’s)
Police chief formed analysis unit of 20 officers
Reduced burglary, street prostitution and robbery• “Hot Spot” Analysis and Problem-solving (Edmonton, Canada, 1990’s)
use police crime data to identify local challenges and “hot spots”
engage high-risk neighbourhood in planning and implementing
Edmonton Police: reduces crime 41%, violence 31% over 4 years• Strategic Approaches to Community Safety (Boston +,SACSI, 1990-),
joint police and university teams to analyse causes of violence
NB success of Operation Cease-Fire in Boston for youth homicides
Replications across USA and now piloted in Brazil• Partnership between police and business (e.g., Netherlands, 1990’s)
reduce commercial robbery by improving situational prevention measures (limit access to cash,
improve surveillance, etc.)
create a tracking system for robbery offenders
support community youth employment and educational initiatives
26% drop in commercial robberies and doubled solved robberies
There are other examples of problem oriented strategies. I will mention three others that illustratedifferent uses of the model. I then mention an internet site that gives myriad examples in a very accessible
format.
• Respond to domestic violence with police officer and social worker
provide immediate assessment, intervention, and follow-up in crisis situations
decreases the number of repeat calls for service
decreases delinquency among kids of participating families• Closed Circuit Television (CCTV)
Increases arrests and displaces crime
Reduces theft from and of cars
Debate on other crime reduction impact• Targeting offenders with stable jobs and families
Traffic violations
Occasional intra-familial violence• www.popcenter.org
Internet site that gives many examples
There are an increasing number of projects that successfully reduce crime that engage local residents.
The most famous of these started with an initiative by the Mayor of Seattle in the early 1970’s. He
established a Law and Justice Planning Office that undertook a Bonnemaison style analysis and thenimplemented three programmes to reduce burglary, sexual assault and store robberies. The burglary
programme achieved large reductions in an experiment that enabled the evaluation to confirm large
reductions. This programme inspired Neighbourhood Watch but unfortunately the spread of neighbourhood
watch was based only on multiplying the programme itself rather than doing the problem analysis first. Also
often neighbourhood watch is implemented without professionally trained workers, so that the results are
not generally enduring or impressive.
Nearly fifteen years later, the UK reinvented the Seattle approach but added in an element focussed on
repeat victimisation. The best example of this was the Kirkholt experiment that achieved a 75% reduction inresidential burglary within four years using a “cocoon” model which refers to the mobilisation of theimmediate neighbourhoods. The project involved a university professor, city officials, and others
collaborating to reduce residential burglaries, by analysing the extent and causes of burglary in a high crime
estate called Kirkholt. They noted a very high level of residences that were repeatedly being victimized.
With the help of hired staff, they gathered neighbours and encouraged them to watch out for each others’
property. They also improved the physical security of the area, such as by installing locks and lights andremoving gas meters containing cash inside them, which was attracting offenders. The Kirkholt probation
service was persuaded to provide high-risk offenders with rehabilitative programming. A comparison
between residential burglaries in Kirkholt and in the surrounding area confirmed a 58% burglary reduction
in one year and a 75% reduction over four years in Kirkholt (ICPC, 1999b, p.132).

81

RESOURCE MATERIAL SERIES No.68

The efforts to multiply this success across the UK produced some results but were not sustained by any
permanent responsibility centre as called for by the UN Guidelines.
• City of Seattle (1970)
Mayor created Law and Justice Planning Office
City plan, priorities, implementation
Targeting causes with paid workers
61% reduction in residential burglary in scientific experiment• Empowering potential victims to protect themselves
Cocoon neighbourhood watch
Avoid repeat victimisation
Kirkholt Experiment, UK (1988) - 75% reduction• Safer Cities, UK (1992)• Crime Reduction Strategy, UK (1998)
In the 1970’s, initial efforts to design out crime in Australia, Canada, England and the USA led toconcepts such as Crime Prevention through Environmental Design, Defensible Space and later Situational
Crime Prevention. It is now common in many of these jurisdictions to have police officers, architects andothers trained in these concepts who sit on the planning boards that approve designs that go from entries tobuildings through houses, offices, parking lots, street layout to whole cities.
The approach known as Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED) aims to effectively
design and use the built environment in a way that reduces opportunities for crime and lessens the fear ofcrime within communities. CPTED is a strategy commonly used by planners, architects, police services,
security professionals, and so on. Examples of direct applications of CPTED include (but are not limited to)appropriate lighting in public spaces, visible entrances to businesses and private property, deadbolt locks andpeep holes on doors, and neighbourhood cohesion.
In Canada, CPTED concepts have been used to design towns with reduced opportunities for crime(Tumbler Ridge, B. C.), to design public housing projects (Vancouver, B. C.), to design schools (Brampton,
ON), and to encourage resident interaction and social cohesion (Montreal, QC), among others. Variousorganizations across Canada strive to disseminate CPTED knowledge and practice, such as “CPTED
Ontario”. [www.cptedontario.ca] [www.rcmp-grc.gc.ca].
In the Netherlands, the police developed a manual on secure housing by design in order to help housing
project developers render their homes unattractive to burglars. The manual covers areas such as parking,grounds, locks, entries, and resident participation and responsibility. In order to obtain the police label ofapproval on their housing projects, housing developers must meet the various specifications of the manual.
An evaluation revealed a 70% reduction in property crime over one year among the participating houses,
which prompted the national implementation of the Secured Housing Label in 1996.
In Germany, the government introduced a requirement for all new vehicles to be fitted with steering
wheel ignition locks. An evaluation revealed that cars fitted with the ignition locks were significantly lesslikely to be stolen than older models. [www.crimeprevention.rutgers.edu]
Clarke has systematised some of the concepts into those that decrease rewards, reduce opportunity,
increase risk and spike excuses. There are many examples of the application of these approaches. For somelarge scale programmes such as steering wheel locks, it has been possible to establish their preventive
effects. Others such as searching airline passengers are generally accepted as working though the proof isnot scientific. Still others seem to displace crime without clear evidence of reduction. These are used widely
by private security companies where displacement may be sufficient. They have costs to citizens’ freedoms
but typically citizens will pay this price because they believe they are protected. The Clarke and Felson website is a source of examples.

Designing Out Crime• Situational crime prevention - Clarke, USA
www.crimeprevention.org• Firearm regulations, 1978, Canada

82

129TH INTERNATIONAL SENIOR SEMINAR
VISITING EXPERTS’ PAPERS• Code for new housing, The Netherlands• Steering wheel locks, Germany
Tackling causes of repeat victimisation (4% experiencing 44%) reduces crime by 35% or more. The nexttable provides a comparison of the types of reductions in crime achieved by these measures together withthe page in the “100 Programmes” (ICPC, 1999b). These reductions justify a significantly greater
investment in the use of these types of measures.

Tackling Causes of Repeat Victimisation (4%Experiencing 44%) Reduces Crime by 35% or More

Solutions to increase the risks andreduces the benefits for offenders
Cocoon style neighborhood watch, removal of cash andtackling persistent offenders (Housing estate, Kirkholt,
England, p.128)-75%

Building standards based on research to ensure greater
security (Utrecht, Netherlands, p.90)
Cocoon style neighborhood watch in higher risks areas(targeted neighcorhoods, Seattle, USA, p.58)

-70%
-61%

Closed circuit television cameras for problem sectors towatch and record (city centre, Newcastle, England, p.133)-56%

Improver lighting, more secure doors and better
maintenance (housing estate, Newport News, USA, p.136)

-35%
-80%

-60%

-40%

-20%

0%

Problem Oriented Justice also holds out hope for crime reduction. Restorative justice has become a popularphrase and indeed will be part of a workshop at the UN Congress on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice.
These are typically experimental projects that have not yet become a mainstream way of doing justice.
However, France has had victims represented by lawyers in their courts for more than 30 years and manycases are settled by the offender paying some restitution to the victim. France provides for reparation
through their system of partie civile. This enables the victim to have standing in the criminal court so thatthe judges will decide what payments the offender will make to the victim for the damages that wereincurred in the criminal act. The legislation for the partie civile process is similar to that in many otherjurisdictions. However, it is not a dead letter as in most of those jurisdictions because France provides “legalaid” or funding to lawyers who assist victims without the resources to pay for lawyers themselves. Finland
has a similar system.
Even in 1986 when other countries were focussing only on assisting victims, France emphasised boththis assistance and mediation. Its national organisation - L’Institut National d’Aide aux Victimes et deMédiation (INAVEM) - was established as a national voluntary organization to coordinate and support victim
assistance and mediation throughout France. In 1998, France launched an extensive innovation which set a
new benchmark for other countries. They created 20,000 positions for community social mediators.
Essentially, young persons who were unemployed would be hired to work with municipal, transportation andother sectors to help resolve conflicts between individuals and between individuals and various stateagencies. France also has many community justice centres where professional magistrates solve local
problems between neighbours or within families.
In the Netherlands the police can refer first or second time juvenile offenders to HALT offices in 65
communities. The HALT office organizes both reparation from the offender to the victim and assistance witheveryday problems such as jobs, school, peers and family. The HALT programme has become particularly
famous internationally because the scientific evaluations have shown that the programme reduces
recidivism.

83

RESOURCE MATERIAL SERIES No.68

 Problem Oriented Justice
Restorative justice (Halt, The Netherlands)• Holding young first offenders accountable through reparation to victims• ensuring assistance with life goals through counselling and school participation
 Counselling for domestic violence male offenders Community justice centres (Maison de Justice, France) Use of technology in courts for victims
Improving victim collaboration with police is critical to policing. The “Crime Victims’ Bill of Rights”(International Association of Chiefs of Police) urges police to “establish procedures and train personnel” toimplement the “incontrovertible rights of all crime victims,”
The police department is the agency most often and first contacted by victims after a crime. The police
are available 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. They call ambulances and fire departments. They can separate
the parties in a dispute. They may recover property, protect the victims from an aggressor, and arrest thesuspect. The victim is essential to the police because research shows that it is the victim who alerts thepolice in more than 60% of offences. It is the victim who describes the details of the crime and the suspect.
It is very often the victim’s cooperation that facilitates an arrest and a conviction.
The police are well situated to initiate crisis support to victims. Because they are often the first officials
to talk to the crime victim, they are able to reassure and refer the victim to appropriate services in thecommunity. Therefore, the training of all police officers should include how to reassure and refer victims sothat victims receive not only emergency medical care, but information and social support.
The Crime Victims Bill of Rights was approved in 1983 and calls on police to treat victims as “privilegedclients” by ensuring that victims are to be:
1. Free from intimidation;
2. Told of financial assistance and social services available and how to apply for them;
3. Provided a secure area during interviews and court proceedings, and to be notified if their presence
in court is needed;
4. Provided a quick return of stolen or other personal property when no longer needed as evidence;
5. (Given) a speedy disposition of the case, and to be periodically informed of case status and final
disposition; and, wherever personnel and resource capabilities allow, to be notified in felony cases
whenever the perpetrator is released from custody;
6. Interviewed by a female official in the case of rape and other sexual offences, wherever personnel
and resource capabilities allow.
For the police to meet this challenge, there is a need to include these elements in internal directives andensure that officers have adequate training.
 Police First in Aid to Victims
 Office for victim assistance reporting to Commissioner• Directives on respect for victims• Leaflets, videos and materials• Card with central number and services for victims
 Female police officers and stations for victims of assaults on women Children as victims and witnesses
Partnership and problem solving are avenues for success for police. I will discuss this more in my second
paper but we must note here the use of police data systems which map crime as a basis for more effective
reductions in crime. In New York City, the introduction of Compstat is often heralded as the reason for large
reductions in crime and violence. The use of mapping and accountability is undoubtedly an important avenue
for the future - very much consistent with the Bonnemaison principles and the UN Guidelines. However a
cursory examination of the trends in New York City shows that many other social trends were also at work.
Indeed scientific analyses of the reasons for the drop in crime and violence in New York City point to thecontribution of several other factors.
 Compstat in New York City
• Deploying police officers strategically with accountability• Target specific problems

84

129TH INTERNATIONAL SENIOR SEMINAR
VISITING EXPERTS’ PAPERS• Beware unproven claims from New York City
 Share Geographic and Strategic Data
• Geographic Information Systems• Establish permanent joint executive planning groups• Collaborate with agencies able to tackle situational and social causes• Tackling persistent offending committed by men at risk
• Focussing on dropping out of school and dysfunctional families in a multi-sector partnership (e.g.
with schools and housing) that identifies and solves problems
 Local government community safety strategies• UK Crime and Disorder Act

Violent Crime Rates per 100,000 Reduced by 59% in
New York City from 1990 to 2000 with US National Rates
Reduced by 30%
3000

rate of UCR violence per 100,000

2500

Koch
1978-89

Dinkins
1990-93
Giuliani
1994-2001

2000

1500

1000

500

0
1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000

Year

Strongest Explanations for Crime Reductionin New York City
 Demographic trend over 2 decades Proportion of males 15-25 in population declined Increased proportion of persistent offenders
incarcerated over 2 decades
 Reduction in unemployment over 1 decade Maturing of crack cocaine market disputes in early
1990’s Targetting of young males with handguns and illicit
drugs in 1990’s

This effort to organise and plan in partnership between police services, schools, housing and social
services but led by the mayor is believed to have been the major reason for large reductions in crime incities in North America and elsewhere. I will explain the example of Bogotá as it provides an interestingmodel from Latin America. Not only are these approaches consistent with the UN Guidelines for crime
prevention but also with the Bonnemaison principles. It is in this direction that modern policing and justicemust go to succeed.

85

RESOURCE MATERIAL SERIES No.68“Safer City”• combine problem-solving policing with social programmes for at-risk youth• reduce access to drugs and firearms through strategic and targeted police action• mobilize social programmes to help youth in difficulty complete school and gain meaningfulemployment• various US cities: reduces violent crime by 44% to 67% over five years
Cities with large reductions• Bogotá, Colombia• Boston, USA• Edmonton, Canada• Fort Worth, USA• Newcastle, UK• New York, USA• Portland, USA

Homicides Reduced by 55% by Mayors of Bogotá, Columbia, throughAnti-violence Vaccine, Removal of Guns and Curfew for Men
Anti-violence vaccine

Guns for goods

Without “Hora Zanahoria”
5000

4,320

Hora Zanahoria

4452
4,105

Homicides per year

Hora Zanahoria

only night

4312

4000

3352

3885

3,886
3363

4,076

3,902

3,883

3303

3,534

3,551

2482

2477

4,026

2814

3000

2238

1993

2000

1000

0

años

Gun restriction
1,992

1,993

1,994

Bogotá

1,995

1,996

1,997

1,998

1,999

2,000

2,001

Colombia (15.3%)

Success requires skill development. These are all knowledge-driven strategies with appropriate humancapacity and data systems. An important part of knowledge-driven crime prevention is having access toadequate professional skills and organizational resources to promote, support, and evaluate communitybased efforts in crime prevention.
Crime Concern provides crime reduction advice, support and training to local governments, police, andyouth services to implement this legislation, particularly helping them to:• work as effective local partners and teams in tackling crime• conduct local audits to identify priority crime problems• develop crime reduction strategies with set targets for reducing crime• adopt measures known to work in reducing crime• monitor and evaluate results
Crime Concern also manages nationally-driven programmes to prevent crime, such as:
setting up volunteer mentoring schemes to support and improve the life chances of young offenders or
those excluded from school.
Every local government in England and Wales has a centre responsible for developing and implementing
its community safety plan. With the help of Crime Concern, they produce three-year plans for crime
reduction in partnership with other agencies, and implement many proven projects known to have reduced
crime in other jurisdictions. [www.crimeconcern.org].

86

129TH INTERNATIONAL SENIOR SEMINAR
VISITING EXPERTS’ PAPERS

Also in the United Kingdom, NACRO runs projects and services nationwide for individuals andcommunities alike, and also provides consulting, research and training services for people and organizations
involved in crime reduction. [www.nacro.org.uk]
Furthermore, under government leadership, practitioners and policy makers from government, police,
local organizations, voluntary groups and others in the United Kingdom have formed partnerships anddeveloped various Toolkits. These serve as consolidated and comprehensive guidance tools, and are meant
to foster multi-sector partnerships and assist communities in responding to various crime problems, such as
street crime and robbery, domestic burglary, and rural crime. [www.crimereduction.gov.uk/toolkits]
The Eisenhower Foundation in the United States focuses on building the capacities of non-profit innercity organizations, in order to enhance the skills, knowledge, and actions of neighbourhood-based social
development strategies. By providing technical assistance in organizational management, personnel
management, staff development, fundraising, financial management and more, the Foundation aims topromote grassroots organizations as models for future replication of what works in improving the social
conditions of disadvantaged neighbourhoods. [www.eisenhowerfoundation.org]
Crime Concern and NACRO, UK
Bristol University, UK
European Forum on Urban Safety, France
Tool kits, UK
National Crime Prevention Council, USA
Eisenhower Foundation, USA
Success requires data and evaluation. Establishing data systems to help manage crime prevention and toallow communities to assess their needs and measure their progress also plays an important role inknowledge-based prevention. Mapping of crimes known to police is now available in many developed anddeveloping countries. Santiago in Chile has a particularly sophisticated version. Victimisation surveys seem
expensive but are not only cheaper but more effective than training police officers to keep satisfactory
records as Argentina has discovered. It is vital to evaluate the effectiveness of programmes, particularly incountries where the resources are limited. Longitudinal surveys that follow the development of a sample ofchildren from birth to adolescence provide critical information for policy making. The list includes:
Crime mapping, available in developed and developing countries
Victimisation surveys, Argentina
10% of funds for evaluating crime reduction programme, The Netherlands
10% of funds for evaluating crime reduction programme, UK
National longitudinal survey on children and youth, Canada

IV. CONCLUSION
A great deal of knowledge about effective crime prevention has emerged from systematic analysis,planning and evaluation of strategies in countries such as the United Kingdom. Further knowledge has been
gained from various scientific examinations of the multiple factors associated with crime, and interventions
most effective in addressing these factors. Such initiatives have shown what reduces crime, what doesn’t,
what appears promising, and what is most cost-effective.
The UN Guidelines emphasize the need to generate, share, and harness this international knowledge
base, while also striving to acquire nation-specific knowledge as a means of ensuring responsible andeffective crime prevention tailored to the needs of individual communities. We have seen that for successthat countries must improve.
1. Police must give priority to crime reduction rather than enforcement, particularly by using indicatorsthat measure crime trends such as victimization surveys.
2. Police agencies must use planning and strategy at the command level, set targets in terms of crime
reduction, and use tactics focused on repeat offender, victim and location considerations.
3. Planning must select targets that are amenable to enforcement and collaborate with other agencies
able to tackle the underlying causes.
4. City wide planning that mobilizes the key agencies - schools, social services, families, police and soon - around a diagnosis, plan, implementation and evaluation process is critical to sustained success.
5. Successful prevention requires specific training, coaching and data.

87

RESOURCE MATERIAL SERIES No.68

REFERENCES
Audit Commission (1996) Misspent Youth, London, www.youthjusticeboard.uk.
Blumstein, Al, J Wallman (2000) The Crime Drop in America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Clarke, Ronald (1997) Situational crime prevention: Successful case studies. Albany: Harrow and Heston.
Dalton, E. (2003). Preventing homicide: Lessons from SACSI. Washington: National Institute of Justice.
Online at: www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij/sacsi.
Goldblatt, P. & C. Lewis (1998) Reducing Offending: An Assessment of Research Evidence, London:
Home Office, www.crimereduction.gov.uk/toolkits/.
HM Inspectorate of Constabulary 1998. Beating crime. London: Home Office: www.homeoffice.
gov.uk/hmic/pubs.html.
Karmen, Andrew 2001. New York Murder Mystery: The true story behind the crime crash of the 1990s.
New York: New York University Press.
International Centre for Prevention of Crime (1999a) Crime Prevention Digest II: Comparative Analysis
of Successful Community Safety, Directed by Irvin Waller, Written by Daniel Sansfa_on and B. Welsh.
Montreal, www.crime-prevention-intl.org.
International Centre for Prevention of Crime (1999b) 100 crime prevention programmes to inspire action
across the world, Directed by Irvin Waller, Written by Gauthier, Lily-Ann, David Hicks et al. Montreal,www.crime-prevention-intl.org.
International Centre for the Prevention of Crime (2000). Inspiring police practices. Montreal: ICPC.
Newman, Graeme ed. (1999) Global Report on Crime and Justice, New York, Oxford University Press,
www.odccp.org/crime_cicp_publications.html.
Sherman, Lawrence, David Farrington, Brandon Welsh, Doris MacKenzie, (2002) Evidence Based Crime
Prevention, New York: Routledge www.crimeprevention.org
UN Economic and Social Council, (2002) Crime Prevention Guidelines, United Nations 11th Commission
on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice, New York www.odccp.org/crime_cicp_documentation.html.
US Surgeon General (2001) Juvenile Violence: A Report of the Surgeon General, www.surgeongeneral.gov.
van Kesteren, John, Pat Mayhew, Paul Nieuwbeerta, (2000) Criminal Victimisation in Seventeen
Industrialised Countries: Key findings from the 2000 International Crime Victims Survey, The Hague:
Ministry of Justice, Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek en Documentatiecentrum, www.victimology.nl.
Waller, Irvin (2005) Crime Prevention that Works, manuscript in preparation.
Waller, Irvin, Mel Bania, Mary-Anne Kirvan, Lucie Léonard (2005). Handbook on Implementation of UN
Guidelines for the Prevention of Crime. Ottawa: manuscript in preparation for National Crime Prevention
Centre.
Waller, Irvin (2003). Crime Victims: Doing Justice to their Support and Protection. Helsinki: HEUNI.
Waller, Irvin, Daniel Sansfa_on, 2000. Investing Wisely in Prevention: International Experiences.
Washington, DC: US Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Assistance, Monograph, Crime Prevention
Series #1 www.ojp.usdoj.gov/BJA/.
World Health Organisation (2002) World Report on Health and Interpersonal Violence , Geneva
www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention.

88