SUGISAKAMASANORI

Journal of Robotics, Networking and Artificial
Life Vol. 10(4); March (2024), pp. 374–382
ISSN (Online): 2352-6386; ISSN (Print): 2405-9021
https://alife-robotics.org/jrnal.html

Research Article

Modeling of Contactless Ground Speed Sensor
Jakaria Mahdi Imam1, Mohammad Aminul Islam1, Norrima Mokhtar1, S. F. W. Muhammad Hatta1, Heshalini Rajagopal2
Department of Electrical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, 50603 University of Malaya, Malaysia
Department of Electrical & Electronic Engineering, Mila University, Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia

1
2

ARTICLE INFO
Article History
Received 24 November 2023
Accepted 25 July 2024
Keywords
Contactless speed sensor
Vessels
Submarine
AircraftNavigation

ABSTRACTThe proposed novel contactless speed sensor sounds intriguing and presents potential advantages
over the conventional methods used in vessels, submarines, and aircraft. It is asserted that theutilization of a small-sized ball, dropped within a vacuum chamber, enables the direct
measurement of the ground speed of these vehicles, as opposed to their speed relative to the wateror air. This could be a significant improvement, as ground speed is often more relevant for
navigation and operational purposes. A useful method for assessing the practicality and accuracyof the suggested sensor is to use simulation to verify its conceptual and mathematical model.
However, it's important to note that simulations are different from real-world testing, and further
experimental verification would be necessary to confirm the reliability of the sensor under various
conditions and environments. One major advantage of this proposed sensor is its independence
from the operational environment. Unlike current speed sensors that require contact with the airor water, the suggested sensor can be placed entirely inside the vehicle. By eliminating thenecessity to mount the sensor externally, the risk of collision with external objects is minimized,
resulting in an enhanced overall safety of the system.

© 2022 The Author. Published by Sugisaka Masanori at ALife Robotics Corporation Ltd.
This is an open access article distributed under the CC BY-NC 4.0 license(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/).

1.

Introduction

Currently, submarines and vessels rely on various speed
sensors like Electromagnetic Log (EM Log) andPitometer Log for speed measurement [1], [2], [3].
However, these devices are capable to quantify thevessel's speed relative to the water only and not the
ground. Consequently, due to factors like tides or currents,
vessels cannot directly quantify their speed with respect
to the ground [4]. For example, a ship's speed sensor may
report a high speed even when the ship is motionlessrelative to the ground when it anchors at sea while under
the influence of a strong current [5]. Similarly, anaircraft's pilot tube is used to gauge its speed in relation
to the air, not the ground [6], [7]. It follows that becauseof the effect of air, aircraft are unable to determine their
speed in relation to the ground directly [8], [9], [10], [11].
Fig.1 shows the current technique that ships use to gauge
their land speed. Currently, the EM Log speed, propeller
speed, wind sensor, and tide table data are taken into
account when determining a vessel's ground speed [5].
Nevertheless, due to inaccuracies in the EM Log and Tide
Table, this method results in considerable errors in

Fig.1 Prevailing approach utilized by vessels tomeasure ground speed

Corresponding author E-mail: norrimamokhtar@um.edu.my374

ground speed measurement [1].

measurement [15], [16]. However, relying solely on
accelerometers leads to increased inaccuracies over time
due to various biases, noise, and errors associated withthese sensors [17]. Consequently, accelerometers areoften used in conjunction with other devices to quantify
ground speed [15], [16], [17]. The speed of water and air
vehicles with respect to the ground cannot be directly
measured by any environment-independent, contactless,individual onboard speed sensor that we are aware of.
Our proposal aims to bridge this gap by creating a new
approach for a standalone onboard speed sensor that iscontactless and environment independent. It functions
similarly to a standalone accelerometer or gyro sensor.
Without the need for additional data, such propeller RPM
or current speed, this sensor can estimate the speed ofwater and air vehicles in relation to the ground directly.
In this paper, a novel invention—a contactless speed
sensor that can monitor an aircraft's, submarine's, orvessel's ground speed directly—is presented. By
eliminating the environmental dependency, it canpotentially offer more accurate and reliable speed
measurements, which are crucial for navigation andoperational purposes. The emphasis on a theoretical andmathematical model is essential for understanding theunderlying principles and ensuring the device's accuracy
and effectiveness. Validating this model throughsimulation is a necessary step to assess the sensor's
performance under various conditions and scenarios.
However, as previously mentioned, simulations are not a
substitute for real-world testing. Therefore, it would bevaluable to complement the simulation results withexperimental data to confirm the practical applicability
and accuracy of the sensor.

We highlighted some important challenges faced byvessels, submarines, and aircraft in measuring their
ground speed, particularly when GPS and externalsources are unavailable. As inaccurate input parameters
can result in large mistakes when estimating ground
speed, relying on air speed, altitude, pressure, density,and other onboard sensor information is a risk. Theseerrors can potentially impact navigation and operational
decisions, making direct ground speed measurement
highly desirable. The accuracy problems associated with
air and water vehicles might be further aggravated by thefact that existing speed sensors are environment
dependent. These sensors require contact with theoperational environment, which means they are
influenced by factors such as temperature, density,
salinity, and chemical properties. These environmental
variations can introduce uncertainties in the speed
measurements, affecting the overall reliability of thesensor. Additionally, the placement of these externalsensors or their probes outside the vehicle poses potential
risks of collision with external objects, especially insituations where vehicles operate in confined or busy
spaces.
Considering these challenges, a contactless speed sensor
that directly measures ground speed without relying on
environmental parameters and without the need forexternal probes would be a significant advancement. The
proposed novel sensor, mentioned in the previous
discussion, has the potential to address these issues byoffering a different approach to ground speed
measurement.

2.

Methodology

2.1. Theoretical Foundation

However, as with any new technology, it is essential tothoroughly validate the proposed sensor's theoreticalmodel and simulate its performance in various scenarios.
Experimental verification and real-world testing will be
crucial to confirm its accuracy, reliability, andpracticality before considering its widespread adoption in
critical applications like aviation, naval operations, andmaritime navigation.

The principle of compound motion, which was developed
by Galileo in 1638 [18] stated that the vertical motion(velocity in the z-axis) and the horizontal motion(velocity in the x and y axes) are totally independent of
one another in projectile motion. To further
understanding, let us think about an item in free fall on
Earth that is in a vacuum. Table 1 [18] presents theobject's 3-axis, x, y, and z axis velocity characteristics
based on Galileo's discoveries.

Overall, finding a solution to directly measure ground
speed without environmental dependencies and external
probes would be highly valuable, contributing to safer
and more efficient operations of vessels, submarines, andaircraft in situations where GPS and external sources are
not available or are unreliable.

Table 1 Properties of the item in an airless atmosphere
while it is falling freely.

GPS serves as a means for measuring ground speed,
however this is not suitable for vessels and aircraft as it
is vulnerable to blocking and spoofing [12], [13].
Moreover, when submarines operate underwater, GPSfunctionality becomes ineffective [14]. In some rare cases,
vehicles may employ accelerometers for ground speed
375

Table 1 shows that when an item is in free fall without
any external resistance, gravity has no effect on its
horizontal velocity (velocity along the x and y axes),
which means that the object's velocity remains constantthroughout time. But the force of gravity may alter thevertical velocity, or the velocity along the z-axis. Thissuggests that the item's x and y-axis velocities will notchange after we quantify them until the thing touches theearth. By placing tiny free-falling balls inside a vacuum
chamber, this idea raises the possibility of developing aunique sensor. This sensor would make it possible tomonitor a vehicle's horizontal velocity in relation to theground (along the x and y axes) directly.

Fig.3. Fundamental setup of the sensor
2.3. Operating Principle
To facilitate comprehension, we will begin by examining
a single free-falling ball as depicted in Fig. 4. Following
that, we will delve into the discussion of multiple freefalling balls using Fig. 5.

2.2. Proposed Speed Sensor
In light of the previous discussion, the speed sensors thatare now in use for air and water vehicles are unable toassess ground speed directly, requiring interaction withthe surrounding environment. To estimate ground speed
indirectly, they rely on extra data, such as propeller speed
data, tide table data, etc. (Fig. 1). On the other hand, noother information such as propeller speed or tide tabledata is required for the proposed speed sensor to measureground speed directly. Moreover, it does not necessitate
direct physical contact with the operational environment,
which makes it extremely adaptable and simple to installat any suitable place aboard the vessel (Fig. 2).

Fig. 4 Setup of sensor in the vehicle.
The sensor unit is first put inside the car and carefullyaligned in all three directions. Three key pieces of data
are required for the system to function: the gravity model,
the vehicle's 3-axis orientation with respect to Earth, andthe ongoing measurement of the relative distance
between the vehicle and the falling ball. A 3-axis gyro
may be utilised to determine the vehicle's 3-axis global
orientation. A 3-axis accelerometer may be used todetermine the Gravity model. Using a proper 3D range
finder, one may measure the relative distance between thevehicle (point R) and the falling ball. Ball A, the initialball, starts to descend as soon as the sensor is working.
Ball A keeps the same velocities along the x and y axes
as it descends freely, as indicated in Table 1, with respect
to the earth, until it reaches the vacuum chamber. Only
once, at the start of the process (time t0), must Ball A's x
and y-axis velocities relative to the ground be obtained

Fig. 2 The proposed contactless speed sensor ispositioned within the vessel to directly measure groundspeed
A schematic of the recommended speed sensor's basic
configuration is shown in Fig. 3. The mechanism consistsof a continuous free-fall ball descending inside an
enclosed vacuum chamber. Within the vacuum chamber,the balls descend in a single line from the top and are
redirected back to the top once they reach the bottom. The
arrangement ensures that a minimum of 2 balls are
consistently in a state of free fall. Positioned along theboundary of the vacuum chamber is a 3D Range Finder,
which can accurately measure the 3D distance of at least
2 free-falling balls simultaneously.

376

from outside sources (like GPS). After that, the velocities
won't require any more input, therefore these othersources won't be necessary.
We can predict Ball A's future horizontal velocities withrespect to the ground using simple mathematicalequations and the data in Table 1 once we have thehorizontal velocities of the ball along both axes at aparticular time (t0). This allows us to avoid relying on
any external sensors. Therefore, Ball A can act as areliable reference for ground speed.
Let us examine an example where the vehicle starts to go
in different directions and at varied speeds immediately
after time zero in order to improve understanding. We canuse Ball A as a speed reference if we can determine therelative distance between Ball A and the car at two
different points in time. This allows us to calculate theaverage horizontal velocity of the vehicle along the twoaxes between those two moments. Once Ball A makes
contact with the vacuum chamber at the conclusion of its
free fall, it loses its ability to serve as a speed reference.
A continuous loop made up of several falling balls (likeBall A) grouped in a single line is added to keep acontinuous measurement of the vehicle's velocity, as
shown in Fig. 5.

horizontal velocity is obtained, replacing ball A. For the
purpose of calculating the vehicle's 2-axis average
horizontal velocity, ball B now fulfils the same function
as ball A. Subsequent balls—C, D, E, F, G, H, and soon—continue the procedure. The suggested speed
sensor's flowchart is shown in Fig.6.

Fig.6.Flowdiagram of the proposed speed sensor
2.4. Mathematical Modeling
Table 2 depicts the notations of the parameters used inthis work. We know from the beginning that ball A isdescending with a 2-axis horizontal velocity. Assume thatat time t0, we observed its velocities along the x and yaxes, which we recorded asvAxt0 and vAyt0 , respectively.
Using Eqs. 1 and 2, we can predict ball A's horizontal
velocities along the x and y-axis at any later time t1,
provided it stays in free fall and doesn't touch the bottom.

Fig. 5 Multiple free-falling balls operating inside thesensor
The loop is designed to maintain a minimum of two balls
in free fall at all times. Ball B will be the next ball to startfalling free after Ball A, and Ball B will become the new
point of reference for calculating the vehicle's 2-axis
horizontal velocity. Ball A cannot reach the bottom until
this change in reference takes place. Ball B's 2-axis
horizontal velocity becomes the new benchmark for all
subsequent measurements once it is determined. We
apply the same technique that was utilised to obtain thevehicle's 2-axis horizontal velocity to ascertain Ball B's
2-axis horizontal velocity. Using the same 3D range
finder, we can determine the 2-axis horizontal velocity ofBall B with respect to falling Ball A by measuring the 2axis (horizontal) relative distance between falling Ball B
and falling Ball A at two separate time periods.
Ball B becomes the new reference after its 2-axis

vA xt1 = vAxt0
vAyt1 = vAyt0

(1)
(2)

vAxt2 = vAxt1 = vAxt0
vAyt2 = vAyt1 = vAyt0

(3)
(4)

Similarly, using Eqs. 3 and 4, we may forecast the 2-axis
horizontal velocity of falling ball A at time t2:377

Eqs. 11 and 12 may be used to get the 2-axis horizontal
velocity of the falling ball B.

Table 2. Notations used in this work

vBxt7 = vAxt6 + {(dBAxt7 − dBAxt6 )/(t 7 − t 6 )}vByt7 = vAyt6 + {(dBAyt7 − dBAyt6 )/( t 7 − t 6 )}

(11)
(12)

The above equations can be simplified as Eqs. 13 and 14:

vBxtn = vAxtn−1 + { (dBAxtn − dBAxtn−1 )/(t n − t n−1 )}(13)vBytn = vAytn-1 + { (dBAytn − dBAytn−1 )/(t n − t n−1 )}(14)
The following ball becomes the current reference point
after its 2-axis horizontal velocity is determined. Thus, inthe continuous falling ball system, the 2-axis horizontal
velocity of this current reference may be predicted at any
given time using Eqs. 15 and 16:
vNxtn = vMxtn−1 + {(dNMxtn – dNMxtn−1 )/(t n − t n−1 )}(15)vNytn = vMytn−1 + {(dNMytn – dNMytn−1 )/(t n − t n−1 )}(16)

Our goal at this stage is to measure, at two different times,
t1 and t2, the relative distance along the horizontal twoaxes between the falling ball A and the vehicle's reference
point R. Assuming that the horizontal 2-axis relative
distance of the falling ball A from the vehicle's reference
point R at times t1 and t2 was correctly measured, theresults are represented as, t1 and t2 as dRAxt1 , dRAyt1 anddRAxt2 , dRAyt2 , respectively. Eqs. 5 and 6 may be used
to determine the vehicle's 2-axis average horizontal
velocity between times t1 and t2 based on the available
data.

Eqs. 17 and 18 may be used to express the vehicle's 2axis average horizontal velocity in a continuous fallingball system.
vMxtn = vMxtn−1
vMytn = vMytn−1

Ball B can take the place of ball A as the new speed
reference after its 2-axis horizontal velocity has been
established. In accordance with this arrangement, thereference will proceed to move successively to balls C to
H, and so forth. In a continuous falling ball system, if wedesignate the present ball as M and the next ball as N, wehave to figure out the 2-axis horizontal velocity of thenext ball using the current ball as a reference. Eqs. 19 and20 can be used to express the reference shifting equationsin this case:vVx(t1 & 𝑡𝑡2) = vAxt2 − {dRAxt2 − dRAxt1 ) / (t 2 − t1 ) (5)vVy(t1 & 𝑡𝑡2) = vAyt2 − {dRAyt2 − dRAyt1 ) / (t 2 − t1 )}(6)
Likewise, we may continue to ascertain the vehicle's 2axis average horizontal velocity between periods t2 and t3,
t3 and t4, t4 and t5, and so on until tn-1 and tn. Eqs. 7, 8, 9
and 10 can be used to simplify them.
vAxtn = vAxt(n−1)
vAytn = vAyt(n−1)

(7)
(8)

vVx(tn−1 & tn) = vMxtn − {(dRMxtn − dRMxtn−1 )/(t n −(19)
t n−1 )}vVy(tn−1 & tn) = vMytn − {(dRMytn − dRMytn−1 )/(t n −(20)
t n−1 )}vVx(tn−1 & tn) = vAxtn − {(dRAxtn − dRAxtn−1 )/(t n −t n−1 )}
(9)vVy(tn−1 & tn) = vAxtn − {(dRAytn − dRAytn−1 )/(t n −(10)
t n−1 )}

Assume that ball B will emerge at time t6. Measured attime t6, the 2-axis (horizontal) relative distance between
falling ball B and falling ball A is dBAxt6 , dBAyt6 andmeasured at time t7, is dBAxt7 , dBAyt7 . Thus, at time t7,

(17)
(18)

3. Results and discussion
A computer simulation was developed using the MIT
Scratch program with the goal of verifying the theoreticaland mathematical model of the suggested sensor. In order
to assess the mathematical equations given in themathematical modelling section, the simulation included
situations involving both stationary and moving vehicles.
Meters were used to measure lengths and meters per378

second (m/s) to measure velocity. The sensor assembly
was put inside a car with zero velocity in each of the threeaxes for the static test, thus the sensor was not exposed tothis velocity data. Table 3 displays the outcomes of theStatic Test simulations. The sensor system was mounted
inside a vehicle that ran at steady speeds of 5 m/s along
the x-axis and 10 m/s along the y-axis during the dynamic
test. Interestingly, this velocity data was unavailable tothe sensor. Table 4 shows the results of the Dynamic Test
simulation. Using Eqs. 19 and 20, respectively (thevVx and vVy columns of Table 3, the sensor successfully
determined the vehicle's velocities as 0 m/s on the x-axis
and 0 m/s on the y-axis during the static test.

SampleNo.

𝑻𝑻(s)𝒗𝒗𝑴𝑴𝒙𝒙(m/s)

𝒗𝒗𝑴𝑴𝒚𝒚
(m/s)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9

10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10

10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10

10
11
12
13

1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3

10
10
10
10

10
10
10
10

14
15
16
17
18
19

1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9

10
10
10
10
10
10

10
10
10
10
10
10

20
21
22
23

2.0
2.1
2.2
2.3

10
10
10
10

10
10
10
10

24
25
26
27
28
29

2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9

10
10
10
10
10
10

10
10
10
10
10
10

30
31
32
33

3.0
3.1
3.2
3.3

10
10
10
10

10
10
10
10

Similar to this, the sensor accurately calculated thevehicle's velocities in the dynamic test, using Eqs. 19 and20, respectively, for the x- and y-axes, vVx and vVycolumns of Table 4. The sensor was kept in the dark about
the vehicle velocities for the several executions of the
dynamic test, which had cars travelling at different
constant speeds. The sensor correctly calculated thevehicle's velocity in every case. The conceptual results ofthe simulations showed that the proposed sensor could
measure the speed of water and air vehicles in relation to
the ground directly. Unlike traditional sensors, this one
doesn't need to be installed outside of the car or utilise
external probes. Unlike existing speed sensors, thecomplete sensor unit may be positioned within the

Table 3. Simulation results of the static test
𝒅𝒅𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝒙𝒙(m)(15)

𝒅𝒅𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝒚𝒚(m)𝒗𝒗𝑽𝑽𝒙𝒙(m/s)

𝒗𝒗𝑽𝑽𝒚𝒚(m/s)

𝒅𝒅𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝒙𝒙(m)

Observation
𝒅𝒅𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝒚𝒚 𝒗𝒗𝑵𝑵𝒙𝒙 𝒗𝒗𝑵𝑵𝒚𝒚(m) (m/s) (m/s)

1st Ball is used as a reference
1
1
0
0
2
2
0
0
3
3
0
0
4
4
0
0
5
5
0
0
4
4
6
6
0
0
4
4
7
7
0
0
4
4
8
8
0
0
4
4
9
9
0
0
4
4
nd
st
2 Ball is used as a reference as 1 Ball is lost
6
6
0
0
7
7
0
0
6
6
8
8
0
0
6
6
9
9
0
0
6
6
3rd Ball is used as a reference as 2nd Ball is lost
4
4
0
0
5
5
0
0
4
4
6
6
0
0
4
4
7
7
0
0
4
4
8
8
0
0
4
4
9
9
0
0
4
4
4th Ball is used as a reference as 3rd Ball is lost
6
6
0
0
7
7
0
0
6
6
8
8
0
0
6
6
9
9
0
0
6
6
5th Ball is used as a reference as 4th Ball is lost
4
4
0
0
5
5
0
0
4
4
6
6
0
0
4
4
7
7
0
0
4
4
8
8
0
0
4
4
9
0
4
4
9
0
6th Ball is used as a reference as 5th Ball is lost
6
6
0
0
7
7
0
0
6
6
8
8
0
0
6
6
9
9
0
0
6
6
7th Ball is used as a reference as the 6th Ball is lost.
.
.
nth Ball is used as reference when (n-1)th Ball is lost379

2nd Ball appeared
10
10
10
10

10
10
10
10

10
10

10
10

10
10
10
10

10
10
10
10

10
10

10
10

10
10
10
10

10
10
10
10

10
10

10
10

3rd Ball appeared

4th Ball appeared

5th Ball appeared

6th Ball appeared

7th Ball appearedSampl
e
No.

𝑻𝑻
(s)

𝒗𝒗𝑴𝑴𝒙𝒙(m/s)

𝒗𝒗𝑴𝑴𝒚𝒚
(m/s)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9

15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15

20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20

10
11
12
13

1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3

15
15
15
15

20
20
20
20

14
15
16
17
18
19

1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9

15
15
15
15
15
15

20
20
20
20
20
20

20
21
22
23

2.0
2.1
2.2
2.3

15
15
15
15

20
20
20
20

24
25
26
27
28
29

2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9

15
15
15
15
15
15

20
20
20
20
20
20

30
31
32
33

3.0
3.1
3.2
3.3

15
15
15
15

20
20
20
20

Table 4. Simulation results of the dynamic test
𝒅𝒅𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝒙𝒙(m)(15)

𝒅𝒅𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝒚𝒚(m)𝒗𝒗𝑽𝑽𝒙𝒙(m/s)

𝒗𝒗𝑽𝑽𝒚𝒚(m/s)

𝒅𝒅𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝒙𝒙(m)

𝒅𝒅𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝒚𝒚(m)

1st Ball is used as a reference
1
1
5
10
2
2
5
10
3
3
5
10
4
4
5
10
5
5
5
10
4
4
6
6
5
10
4
4
7
7
5
10
4
4
8
8
5
10
4
4
9
9
5
10
4
4
2nd Ball is used as a reference as 1st Ball is lost
6
6
5
10
7
7
5
10
6
6
8
8
5
10
6
6
9
9
5
10
6
6
3rd Ball is used as a reference as 2nd Ball is lost
4
4
5
10
5
5
5
10
4
4
6
6
5
10
4
4
7
7
5
10
4
4
8
8
5
10
4
4
9
9
5
10
4
4
4th Ball is used as a reference as 3rd Ball is lost
6
6
5
10
7
7
5
10
6
6
8
8
5
10
6
6
9
9
5
10
6
6
5th Ball is used as a reference as 4th Ball is lost
4
4
5
10
5
5
5
10
4
4
6
6
5
10
4
4
7
7
5
10
4
4
8
8
5
10
4
4
9
9
5
10
4
4
6th Ball is used as a reference as 5th Ball is lost
6
6
5
10
7
7
5
10
6
6
8
8
5
10
6
6
9
9
5
10
6
6
7th Ball is used as a reference as the 6th Ball is lost.
.nth Ball is used as reference when (n-1)th Ball is lost

vehicle, thereby providing improved safety in the eventof collisions with exterior objects. Furthermore, thesuggested sensor has a clear advantage over traditional
sensors in that it is contactless and unaffected by ambient
factors like temperature, density, salinity, or chemical
characteristics. It is essential to remember thatmathematical equations and ideal physics served as thefoundation for the computer simulation. Real-world
situations could provide different outcomes.

𝒗𝒗𝑵𝑵𝒙𝒙(m/s)

𝒗𝒗𝑵𝑵𝒚𝒚 Observation
(m/s
)

15
15
15
15

20
20
20
20

15
15

20
20

15
15
15
15

20
20
20
20

15
15

20
20

15
15
15
15

20
20
20
20

15
15

20
20

2nd Ball appeared

3rd Ball appeared

4th Ball appeared

5th Ball appeared

6th Ball appeared

7th Ball appeared

vehicles relative to the ground. The use of computer
simulation to validate the model is a crucial step inassessing its feasibility and performance. The key pointsof our proposal are direct ground speed measurement:
The ability to directly measure the ground speed of waterand air vehicles is a significant advantage, as ground
speed is often more relevant for navigation andoperational purposes. In addition, environmental
independence is a major improvement over current speed
sensors that rely on contact with the operational
environment. This independence can potentially lead tomore accurate and reliable speed measurements. In anutshell, our proposal showcases a promising approach toovercome the limitations of current speed sensors inwater and air vehicles. It addresses important challenges

4. Conclusion
In conclusion, we introduced a captivating proposal for aconceptual model of a novel speed sensor capable ofdirectly measuring the horizontal speed of water and air
380

18. S. Drake and J. Mclachlan, “Galileo's discovery of therelated to ground speed measurement and environmental
dependence. If successful, this new speed sensor could
bring significant advancements to the field of navigationand enhance the safety and efficiency of water and air
vehicles.

parabolic trajectory,” Scientific American, vol. 232,
no. 3, pp. 102-111, Mar. 1975.

Authors Introduction
Jakaria Mahdi Imam

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He received his B.Eng. degree fromMilitary Institute of Science andTechnology, Bangladesh. He iscurrently enrolled at the Universityof Malaya's master's program
focused on research. His researchinterest includes emerging naval
technologies, inertial navigation
system and inertial sensors.

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Dr. Mohammad Aminul Islam
He graduated from the National
University of Malaysia (UKM),
Malaysia, in 2012 with an M.Sc.
(research) and in 2015 with a Ph.D. inElectrical, Electronic, and System
Engineering. In the Department ofElectrical Engineering at the
University of Malaya, he now holds
the position of Senior Lecturer. Optical materials,
semiconductor materials, and energy transportation are hisareas of interest in study..
Dr. Norrima Mokhtar
She graduated with a B.Eng. from the
University of Malaya and an M.Eng.
and Ph.D. from Oita University inJapan. She is presently an Associate
Professor at the University of
Malaya's Department of ElectricalEngineering.
Human-machineinteraction and signal processing are
her areas of interest in research.
Dr. S. F. W. Muhammad Hatta
She graduated from the University of
Sheffield, UK, with an M.Eng. inElectrical Electronics Engineering in
2005, the University of Malaya, UK,with an M.Sc. in Microelectronics in2009, and LJMU, UK, with a Ph.D. in
Microelectronics in 2014. She ispresently a Senior Lecturer at the
University of Malaya's Department ofElectrical Engineering. Her areas of interest in research are
PUF-based technology in cyber-security, advanced
semiconductor modelling and characterisation, wearable
electronics, and semiconductor dependability.

381

Dr. Heshalini Rajagopal
She graduated from the University of
Malaya in Malaysia in 2016 with a
Master's degree and in 2021 with a
PhD from the Department ofElectrical Engineering. In 2013, sheobtained a B.E. in Electrical. She is
an assistant professor at Mila
University in Negeri Sembilan,
Malaysia, at the moment. Artificial
intelligence, machine learning, and image processing areamong her areas of interest in study.

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