Ministry of the Environment

WEPA Outlook on

Water Environmental
Management

2012

WEPA
Outlook on Water Environmental
Management in Asia 2012

Water Environment Partnership in Asia (WEPA)
Ministry of the Environment, Japan
Institute for Global Environmental Strategies (IGES)

Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012
Copyright © 2012 Ministry of the Environment, Japan. All rights reserved.

No parts of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without prior permission in writingfrom Ministry of the Environment Japan through the Institute for Global Environment Strategies (IGES), which serves
as the WEPA Secretariat.

ISBN: 978-4-88788-108-2
This publication is made as a part of WEPA and published by the Institute for Global Environmental Strategies (IGES).
Although every effort is made to ensure objectivity and balance, the publication of study results does not imply WEPA
partner country’s endorsement or acquiescence with its conclusions.

Ministry of the Environment, Japan

1-2-2 Kasumigaseki, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo, 100-8795, Japan
Tel: +81-(0)3-3581-3351
http://www.env.go.jp/en/

Institute for Global Environmental Strategies (IGES)
2108-11 Kamiyamaguchi, Hayama, Kanagawa, 240-0115, Japan
Tel: +81-(0)46-855-3700
http://www.iges.or.jp/

The research team for WEPA Outlook 2012
includes the following IGES members:[Drafting team]
Yatsuka Kataoka, Director, Freshwater Sub-group
Tetsuo Kuyama, Policy Researcher, Freshwater Sub-group
Ayumi Goto, Research Associate, Freshwater Sub-group
Bijon Kumer Mitra, Associate Researcher, Freshwater Sub-group
Bhim Nath Acharya, Policy Researcher, Freshwater Sub-group[Supporting team]Binaya Raj Shivakoti, Policy Researcher, Freshwater Sub-group
Kumiko Yokoyama, Administrative Assistant, Freshwater Sub-group
Ayako Hongo, Group Administrator, Freshwater Sub-group

Printed in Japan

Table of Contents
Background to the Publication ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5
Message from WEPA: Water Quality Challenges in Asia for a Sustainable Future ....................................................................... 6
Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 9Abbreviations ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 11[ Chapter 1 ] Outlook on Water Environmental Management in WEPA countries ........................................................................ 13[ Chapter 2 ] Discussion and Findings on Priority Topics ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 29
2.1

Domestic Wastewater Treatment in Asia ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 30

2.2

Climate Change and the Water Environment - Summary of findings based on WEPA discussions and surveys - ................ 42[ Chapter 3 ] Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries .................................... 51
3.1

Cambodia .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 52

3.2

China ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 58

3.3

Indonesia ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 64

3.4

Japan ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 70

3.5

Republic of Korea ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 76

3.6

Lao PDR ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 82

3.7

Malaysia ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 88

3.8

Myanmar ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 94

3.9

Nepal ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 98

3.10 Philippines ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 102
3.11 Sri Lanka .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 108
3.12 Thailand ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 114
3.13 Viet Nam ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 120

Appendix ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 127
Selected social, economic and water related indicators in WEPA partner countries ......................................................................................... 128

References ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 131

3

4

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012

Background to the Publication
Recognizing the critical situation of water quality in Asia, the Water Environment Partnership in Asia (WEPA) was
proposed by the Ministry of the Environment of Japan at the 3rd World Water Forum in 2003. WEPA aims tostrengthen water environmental governance in Asia through the collection and dissemination of information andcapacity development of relevant stakeholders in partnership with thirteen partner countries in the region, namely
Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Japan, Republic of Korea, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Philippines, Sri Lanka,
Thailand and Viet Nam. WEPA is a forum which allows partner countries to discuss their experiences and identify
potential solutions to improve the water environment.
Considering the importance of extracting information on water environment and management, “WEPA Outlook on
Water Environmental Management” has been designed to provide basic information on the status and management of
the water environment in each WEPA partner country, and to make this information available to the public in one
platform as a source of knowledge to promote good water quality governance in the region. The Outlook, which was
first published during the 5th World Water Forum in 2009, may also serve as a useful reference for those who are
striving to solve water quality issues in other countries in the world.
“WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management 2012”, which is the second edition of the series, consists ofthree main chapters. Chapter 1 presents the result of the analysis of institutional frameworks for water environment
management in each country. Chapter 2 summarizes the discussions and studies conducted on the two priority issuesof “domestic wastewater treatment” and “climate change and the water environment”. The third chapter provides
updated country profiles on water environmental management in the WEPA partner countries. It also presents WEPA’s
message which introduces the key actions identified and future commitments made in discussions held at WEPA
annual meetings and dialogues.
The report, a major output of the WEPA activities by all partner countries, intends to stimulate dialogue around theissues on water environment. The WEPA Outlook 2012 is published at the 6th World Water Forum, which is held inMarch 2012 in Marseille, France, and where WEPA was registered as one of the “Solutions for Water.” We wish the
Outlook to serve as a useful reference for those interested in the issues in Asia including the participants of the 2nd
Asia Pacific Water Summit, and in other parts of the world to accomplish our mutual goal of sustainable water
environment.
March 2012
Ministry of the Environment, Japan
Institute for Global Environmental Strategies (WEPA Secretariat)

5

Message from WEPA:
Water Quality Challenges in Asia for a Sustainable Future
Significant pressure and risks to the water environment in the region
1. While diverse, Asian countries also share similarities in climatic andnatural conditions and cultural backgrounds. In general, people in theregion enjoy many of the benefits provided by water. Nevertheless, theyalso suffer from seasonal fluctuations in water volume at both ends ofthe spectrum, such as from floods and droughts.
2. Over the past few decades, Asia has been a focal point for the world’s
rapid growth, demonstrating a 120% increase in GDP in the region andaccounting for 60% of the world’s population growth. Rapid urbanizationand the swift increase in population and economic development that are associated with unsustainable
development practices have resulted in intense pressure on water resources both in quantity and quality, as wellas on aquatic ecosystems in the region.

Accelerate water environmental management to safeguard the water environment
3. Significant time and resources must be invested to improve water
quality and restore aquatic ecosystems once destroyed. Therefore, it isof the utmost importance to strengthen water quality management inareas where water environmental deterioration has been observed, andto promote and ensure development and implementation of water
environmental management at regional, national and local levels
without delay in order to minimize the impacts of human activities on
the water environment. The key to our sustainable future is ensuring asound water environment.

Water Environment Partnership in Asia (WEPA)
4. Considering the critical situation of the water environment in the region, the Water Environment Partnershipin Asia (WEPA) was proposed by the Ministry of the Environment of Japan at the 3rd World Water Forumin 2003. The programme, launched in 2004 with the participation of 11 Asian countries: Cambodia, China,
Indonesia, Japan, Republic of Korea, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Thailand, and Viet Nam,
is a forum which allows partner countries to discuss their experiences and identify potential solutions toimprove the water environment. In 2009, WEPA membership expanded to include Nepal and Sri Lanka.
5. Reaffirming that the sound management of the water environment isnecessary for the sustainable development of Asia, as well as to achieve
the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), and recalling
discussions within WEPA for better water environment, WEPA
partners hereby deliver the following key messages to those residing in
the region and to stakeholders worldwide to promote a sustainable
water environment in Asia and the Pacific, and commit to upholding
efforts to improve the condition of the world’s water environment
through WEPA activities.

6

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012

Key messages
6. Between 1980 and 1990, in particular, most WEPA partner countries established frameworks for soundwater environmental management, set goals for water environmental management and implemented various
measures to improve water pollution. Thanks to these efforts, a number of WEPA partner countries were able
to observe significant improvement in water quality.
7. Despite this, organic pollution in rivers located in populated areas and eutrophication in enclosed water
bodies such as lakes, reservoirs and estuaries continue to require special attention. Considering economic
development, population growth and urbanization observed in the region and the possible impacts of climatechange, further intensified efforts are necessary to guarantee the implementation of water environmental
policies to secure human health, sustainability of ecosystems, and promotion of sustainable development in
the region.
Key action areas in water environmental management

8. WEPA partner countries identified the following common action areas to be promoted in eachcountry to set and/or attain the water quality goals of each country.
a) Review laws, regulations, and setting of standards in consideration of socio-economic
conditions and the current state of the water environment, such as effluent
standards taking into account the structure of industries and quality of effluents.
b) Strengthen local management of the water environment such through theestablishment of water environmental management strategies and actionplans at the basin level.
c) Improve/strengthen the scientific basis for policy making such as theestablishment of effective monitoring systems within limited budgets andthe improvement of data storage systems.
d) Strengthen the control of water pollution sources such as through thepromotion of adequate domestic wastewater treatment and theintroduction/implementation of total pollution control load systems.
e) Stipulate polluter pays principle in water quality management and utilize
market-based instruments as an incentive for compliance.
f ) Promote institutional and technical capacity building of organizations in chargeof water environmental management at national and local levels.
g) Promote participation of the private sector, civil society and communities in water
management and improve environmental awareness.
Preparation for the potential impacts of climate change

9. The impacts of climate change to the water environment is one of the myriad mid- and long-term challenges
facing the region, although there is as yet little scientific proof on which to base actions. To prepare forpotential impacts, however, “no-regret responses” should be taken such as ensuring regular water quality
monitoring and improving data collection and exchange systems. At the international and regional level, it isalso important to share scientific knowledge and possible adaptation options.

7Strengthen domestic wastewater management

10. All WEPA partner countries made significant efforts to improve
sanitary conditions to achieve the sanitation goals set out by the
MDGs, and therefore, treatment of black water has been promotedin the region. However, the pollution load of grey water is also
considerable and therefore the treatment of black water should be
supplemented with the promotion of grey water treatment.
11. WEPA partner countries plan to construct or have developed
centralized wastewater treatment plants especially in urban areas.
However, many countries now face various challenges in the development and operation of such large-scale,centralized systems, including land acquisition for the construction of plants and financial constraints in thedevelopment stage, as well as low household connection rates and cost recovery issues in the operation andmaintenance stage.
12. In areas without centralized treatment systems, septic tank treatment is a typical option. However, septic
tanks do not always adequately treat wastewater and itself can become a source of pollution. There are two keyquestions that arise when discussing the improvement of domestic wastewater treatment in the region: how
to promote construction and improve the operation and maintenance of central wastewater treatment
systems, and how to promote treatment of domestic wastewater in areas with little to no access to adequate
treatment systems.
13. WEPA countries have developed the knowledge to promote domestic wastewater treatment within their own
individual socio-economic constraints. Such knowledge includes the prioritization of areas that need treatment
in consideration of local conditions, such as population density or variability of the water environment;
development of small-scale treatment facilities; upgrade or utilization of existing infrastructure and unutilized
space; and promotion of community or private sector involvement in the operation and maintenance oftreatment plants. It is imperative for WEPA countries to share and learn from such good practices and discusspossible applications to other areas of the region.

Future WEPA activities
14. Keeping the key policy areas mentioned in our message in mind,
WEPA will continue to facilitate the exchange of lessons andknowledge among WEPA member countries through existing
WEPA schemes such as the WEPA database and policy dialogues.
In addition, to strengthen experience and knowledge sharing among
partner countries, WEPA will introduce new schemes such asthematic group meetings among WEPA countries which have
similar policy challenges, in addition to twinning programmes
between partner countries. Furthermore, to highlight theimportance of river basin management, WEPA will strengthen relationships with other like-minded networks
and programmes, such as the Network of Asian River Basin Organizations (NARBO).

8

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012

Acknowledgements
The WEPA secretariat is grateful to the focal persons and the collaborators of the following WEPA partner countries
for their contributions and constructive input, as well as their support in the preparation of this publication. We also
extend our appreciation to the WEPA advisory committee for their guidance and invaluable input.
Cambodia
Sokha Chrin*, Deputy Director General, General
Directorate of Technical Affairs, Ministry ofEnvironment
China
Chen Gang*, Senior Engineer, China-Japan
Environmental Protection Center
Guo Jinlong, Deputy Director, Department of
Pollution Prevention and Control, Ministry ofEnvironmental Protection
Li Ruijuan, Project Manager, China-Japan
Environmental Protection Center
Xie Yufeng, Assistant Researcher, Nanjing Institute ofEnvironmental Science of Ministry of Environmental
Protection
Indonesia
Dionysius Johny Kusmo*, Assistant Deputy Minister
for Environmental Data and Information, The
Ministry of Environment
Maulyani Djajadilaga, Head of Data Management
Section, The Ministry of Environment
Harimurti, Sub-head of Data Collection Section, The
Ministry of Environment
Lao PDR
Souphasay Komany*, Acting Director, Nam Ngum
River Basin Committee Secretariat, Department of
Water Resources, Ministry of Natural Resources andEnvironment
Phengkhamla Phonvisai, Director, Department of
Pollution Control, Ministry of Natural Resources andEnvironment
Japan
Nobuo Yoshida, Director, Water Environment
Division, Environment Management Bureau,
Ministry of the Environment* Focal Person
Takatoshi, Wako*, Deputy Director, Water
Environment Division, Environment Management
Bureau, Ministry of the Environment
Osamu Oyama, Section Chief of Sewerage, Water
Environment Division, Environment Management
Bureau, Ministry of the Environment
Republic of Korea
Taegu Kang*, Senior Researcher, Water Environment
Information Center, Water Environment Control
Research Division, Water Environment Research
Department, National Institute of Environmental
Research (NIER)
MyanmarTint Zaw*, Deputy Director General, Irrigation
Department, Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation
Khon Ra, Directior, Hydrology Branch, Irrigation
Department, Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation
Mu Mu Than, Assistant Engineer, Planning andWorks Branch, Irrigation Department, Ministry ofAgriculture and Irrigation
Malaysia
Baba Bin Hassan, Division Secretary, Water
Resources, Drainage and Hydrology Division,
Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment(NRE)
Ahmad Jamalluddin Shaaban*, Director General,
National Hydraulic Research Institute of Malaysia(NAHRIM)
Pauziah Hanum Abdul Ghani, Senior Research
Officer, Research Centre for Water Quality &Environment, National Hydraulic Research Instituteof Malaysia, Ministry of Natural Resources andEnvironment
Wan Abd Rahim Bin Wan Abdullah, Deputy
Director General (Planning & Development),
Sewerage Services Department, Ministry of Energy,
Green Technology and Water Malaysia

9Hoo Huey Ching, Research Centre for Water
Quality & Environment, National HydraulicResearch Institute of Malaysia, Ministry of Natural
Resources and Environment

Viet Nam
Nguyen The Dong*, Deputy Director General,
Vietnam Environment Administration, Ministry of
Natural Resources and Environment

Bashirah binti Mohd Fazli, Research Officer,
Research Centre for Water Quality & Environment,
National Hydraulic Research Institute of Malaysia(NAHRIM)Do Nam Thang, Deputy Director, Institute of
Science for Environmental Management (ISEM),
Vietnam Environment Administration, Ministry of
Natural Resources and Environment

Nepal
Gautam Rajkarnikar*, Chief, Koshi River BasinManagement Cell, Water and Energy Commission
Secretariat
Philippines
Vicente B. Tuddao Jr., Executive Director, River
Basin Control Office, Department of Environment
and Natural Resources
Marcelino N. Rivera Jr., Chief, Water Quality
Management Section, Environmental Management
Bureau, Department of Environment and Natural
Resources
Erlinda A. Gonzales*, Technical Officer,
Environmental Management Bureau, Department ofEnvironment and Natural Resources
Mark Mulingbayan, Manager, Environmental
Department, Manila Water Company Inc.
Sri Lanka
R.M.S.K. Ratnayake*, Director (Environmental
Pollution Control), Central Environmental
Authority
Himali Karunaweera, Assistant Director(Environmental Pollution Control), Central
Environmental Authority
Thailand
Wijarn Simachaya, Inspector General, Ministry of
Natural Resources and Environment
Thiparpa Yolthantham*, Director of Inland Water
Division, Pollution Control Department, Ministry of
Natural Resources and Environment

10

Pham Thi Nguyet Nga, International Cooperationand Science & Technology Department (ISD),
Vietnam Environment Administration, Ministry of
Natural Resources and Environment
WEPA Advisory Committee Members
Motoyuki Suzuki, Chair of Central Environment
Council, Japan, Auditor of Tokyo Institute ofTechnology, Professor emeritus at the University ofTokyo
Mitsumasa Okada, Professor, the Open University ofJapan
Kaoru Takara, Professor, Disaster Prevention
Research Institute (DPRI), Kyoto University
Kensuke Fukushi, Associate Professor, Integrated
Research System for Sustainability Science, The
University of Tokyo
So Kazama, Professor, Graduate School ofEngineering, Tohoku University
The secretariat would also like to express our gratitude to
the following experts who have also provided valuable
inputs to this publication.
Kazuo Yamamoto, Professor, Environmental Science
Center, The University of Tokyo
Takahiko Hiraishi, Senior Consultant, IGES, (CoChair, IPCC Inventories Task Force Bureau)

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012

Abbreviations
ADB

Asian Development Bank

IETS

Industrial Effluent Treatment Systems

AMDAL

Environmental Impact Assessment Statement

IGES

Institute for Global Environmental Strategies

ASER

Annual Regional Environment Statement

IMF

International Monetary Fund

BOD

Biochemical Oxygen Demand

IPCC

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

CBS

Central Bureau of Statistics

ISES

Industry-Specific Effluent Standards

CEA

Central Environment Authority

IWK

Indah Water Konsortium

CNMC

Cambodia National Mekong Committee

LGUs

Local Government Units

COD

Chemical Oxygen Demand

LLDA

Laguna Lake Development Authority

CRMP

Coastal Resource Management Project

LSGA

Local Self Governance Act

CWTPs

Combined Wastewater Treatment Plants

MBAS

Methylene Blue Active Substances

DAO

DENR Administrative Order

MDG

Millennium Development Goal

DA

Department of Agriculture

MENR

Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources

DDA

Department of Development Affairs

MEP

Ministry of Environmental Protection

DDCs

District Development Committees

MLIT

DENR

Department of Environment and Natural
Resources

Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport andTourism of JapanMoAIMDDHM

Department of Hydrology and Meteorology

Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Mahaweli
Development

DKI

Special Capital City District

MoCT

Ministry of Construction and Transportation

DO

Dissolved Oxygen

MoE

Ministry of Environment

DoE

Department of Environment

MoEJ

Ministry of the Envrionment of JapanDoEPC

Department of Environmental Pollution Control

MoNRE

Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment

DoNRE

Department of Natural Resources andEnvironment

MoSTI

Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation

MoU

Memorandum of Understanding

DWSS

Department of Water Supply and Sewerage

MoWRAM Ministry of Water Resources and Meteorology

EIA

Environmental Impact Assessments

MPPA

Marine Pollution Prevention Authority

EMB

Environmental Management Bureau

MPWT

Ministry of Public Works and Transportation

EPA

Environment Protection Act

MRC

Mekong River Commission

EPL

Environmental Protection Law

MWQCS

Marine Water Quality Criteria and Standards

EQA

Environmental Quality Act

MWR

Ministry of Water Resources

EQS

Environmental Quality Standards

MWSS

Metropolitan Water Works and Sewerage System

FAO

Food and Agriculture Organization

NAA

Non-Attainment Areas

GB

National Standards

NCEA

National Commission for Environmental Affairs

GB/T

Recommended Standards

NCSD

National Council for Sustainable Development

GDP

Gross Domestic Product

NEB

National Environmental Board

ICIMODInternational Centre for Integrated Mountain
DevelopmentNGO

Non Governmental Organization

NIS

National Institute of Statistics

11

NLMA

National Land Management Authority

TN

Total Nitrogen

NRE

Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment

TOC

Total Organic Carbon

NSDW

National Standards for Drinking Water

TP

Total Phosphorus

NSO

National Statistics Office

TPLCs

Total Pollutant Load Control System

NTNC

National Trust for Nature Conservation

TSS

Total Suspended Solids

NWP

National Water Plan

TSGL

Tonle Sap Great LakeNWQS

National Water Quality Standards

UKL-UPL Environmental Management Effort andEnvironmental Monitoring Efforts

NWS&DB National Water Supply and Drainage Board

12

UNDESA

United Nations Department of Economic andSocial Affairs

UNDP

United Nations Development Programme

UNEP

United Nations Environmental Programme

UNESCO

United Nations, Educational, Scientific andCultural Organization

Perchloroethylene

UNICEF

United Nations Children’s FundPD

Presidential Decree

VAT

Value Added Tax

pHPower of Hydrogen (hydrogen-ion
concentration)

VDCs

Village Development Committees

PPP

Polluter Pay Principal

VEA

Vietnam Environment Administration

PRC

People’s Republic of China

VOC

Volatile Organic Compounds

RA

Republic Act

WCP

Wastewater Charge Programme

RBIMSRiver Basin Integrated Information Management
Systems

WDI

World Development Indicator

WECS

Water and Energy Commission Secretariat

ROK

Republic of Krea

WEPA

Water Environment Partnership in Asia

SEPA

State Environmental Protection Administration,
China

WHO

World Health Organization

SLS

Sri Lanka Standards (test method)

WQC

Water Quality Criteria

SMEs

Small and Medium Enterprises

WQI

Water Quality Index

SOEs

State Owned Enterprises

WQMA

Water Quality Management Areas

SSD

Sewerage Service Department

WQMAP

Water Quality Management Action Plan

TCE

Trichloroethylene

WREA

Water Resources and Environment
Administration

TCVN

National Environmental Standards

WRUD

Water Resources Utilization Department

TMDLs

Total Maximum Daily Load System

WWF

World Wide Fund for Nature

TMS

Tele-Monitoring system

YCDC

Yangon City Development Committee

ONEP

Office of Natural Resources and Environmental
Policy and Planning

PCAs

Pollution Control Areas

PCB

Polychlorinated Biphenyl

PCD

Pollution Control of Department

PCE

Chapter

1

Outlook on Water Environmental Management in
WEPA countries

Chapter 1

Outlook on Water Environmental Management in
WEPA countries
1. Background
The Water Environment Partnership in Asia (WEPA) was
formed to address issues related to the water environment
in the 13 countries that it covers. Despite measures taken todate to combat pollution and improve the quality of water,
low water quality still sits among the most pressing
environmental problems for these countries and is stillcritical in some areas, particularly urban areas, as aconsequence of socio-economic growth. The partnercountries have each developed policies and measuresdesigned to both combat the growing threat of waterpollution in critical areas, and to avoid future outbreaks inother areas.
Certain aspects of water environmental management
differ across the partner countries–due to factors such as
the duration, gravity, cause and level of socio-economic
development forming the backdrop to the problems—but
some, such as pollution source control, are common to allas basic measures. Providing a review, therefore, wasdeemed useful in order both to illustrate what progress has
been made and to identify common management
challenges. It is hoped that this will in turn lead to more
knowledge-sharing for future WEPA activities.
To this end, this chapter summarises the state of water
environmental management in WEPA partner countries
based on the country profiles in Chapter 3 and attempts to
identify common challenges.
2. Overview of Water Environmental
Management Framework in WEPA
Partner Countries
This section gives a snapshot of the current water
environmental management frameworks existing in the
WEPA partner countries, from the following four
perspectives:
1) Legislation, policies and strategies for water environmental
management, related to policy goal/target setting;2)Measures to ensure implementation and compliance,
focusing on wastewater management;

143)Monitoring of ambient and effluent waters necessary toaccess the efficacy of 1 and 2 above;4)Other factors contributing to enforcement andimprovement measures.
Given that the problems faced by each country differ inboth type and scale we set out to solely provide a countrybased overview of the progress made in the policies andmeasures related to the water environment, and tried to
avoid any inter-country comparisons or evaluations ofprogress. The measures themselves and their status of
implementation are not dealt with here in detail and will becovered at a later date by WEPA.
Legislation, policies and strategies for water
environmental management

1) Objectives of water environmental management
Most countries have set out a basic environmental law
stipulating protection of human health, ensuring a safe
human environment and protection of the environment
as a basis for sustainable development, and these objectives
also apply for water environmental management.
Myanmar has various laws and regulations related toenvironmental protection, but no environmental
conservation or pollution control specific ones.
More detailed definitions of water environmental
management objectives are given by such as laws or acts
specific to water pollution control in some countries.
2) Ambient water quality standards as theadministrative target
Ambient water quality standards show the basic levels ofwater quality that need to be maintained and act asadministrative targets.
- Most WEPA countries set ambient water quality
standards for rivers are established, while less number ofcountries has the one for groundwater.
- Drinking water quality standards are used to evaluate
water quality in countries that have not set ambientquality standards.
- No ambient water quality standards set out in Myanmar

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012

Chapter 1 Outlook on Water Environmental Management in WEPA countries

and Sri Lanka (as of December 2011), but bothcountries are currently formulating them.
- Sri Lanka’s Central Environment Authority (CEA) has
set proposed water quality standards, which are also
used for water quality evaluation.

Some countries have more than two types of standards
due to different conservation objectives; others have
uniform standards. The following table shows the state ofambient water quality standard-setting in each partnercountry.

Table 1.1. Type of ambient water quality standards
Ambient water quality standards
For surface water *For groundwater

For marine andcoastal waters

Note

Cambodia
There are additional parameters for surface water serving
as drinking water sources.

China

Indonesia

Japan

Republic of Korea*1*2*1 A parameter for the aquatic ecosystem conservation is
included under the living environmental stamdard.

etc.

*3

*2 Water quality by grade & biological features of aquatic
ecosystem.
*3 Groundwater standards are set for agricultural water,industrial water.

Lao PDR

Malaysia

Myanmar

Nepal

Nepal sets water quality standards for different water use
objectives. Standards for recreation and those for aquatic
ecosystems were established.

Philippines

There are two types of standards for surface waterstandards for toxins and other conventional parameters.

Sri Lanka

Awaiting for approval of ambient water quality standards.

Thailand

Viet Nam

Legend:Human health
Living environment
Ecosystem/Biodiversity
One typeetc.

Others* Rivers and lakes and reservoirs

153) Strategies or plans for water environmental
management
Use of time-bound specific targets as a tool to accurately
evaluate policy objectives, as practiced in China,
Indonesia, Republic of Korea, and Viet Nam.
Use of national water environmental plan/strategies withspecific time periods (Sri Lanka and Thailand), without
numerical targets.
Use of time-bound specific targets established for specificwater bodies under a total pollution load control system(as in Japan, which has no specific plans or strategies forwater environmental management).
Successful implementation relies on the availability offinancing.
Measures to ensure implementation andcompliance

1) Effluent standards
All countries have set national effluent standards (withthe exception of Myanmar, where national effluent
standards are now under consideration and Yangon
Special City has set its own effluent standards).
- China, Lao PDR, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Thailand and Viet
Nam set industrial effluent standards
according to the type of industry.
- In Cambodia, different effluent standards can beestablished in accordance with proximity of pollution
sources to sensitive environmental/ecosystemconservation areas.
- Since 2000, China, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Malaysia and
Sri Lanka* have introduced or revised effluent standards
to strengthen effluent management.
- Japan and Republic of Korea introduced a system tocontrol total pollution loads in specific water bodies in
addition to effluent control via pollutant concentration.
2) Inspections and penalties for non-compliance
Systems for inspection, governmental guidance andpenalties are in place in countries which set effluent
standards.

Measures to counter non-compliance in effluent
management (such as violations of effluent standards
and effluent quality recording obligations) have been
beefed-up in Indonesia, Japan and Viet Nam.
Monitoring of ambient and effluent water

1) Ambient water quality monitoring
Ambient water quality is monitored on a project basis orfor a specific benefit (e.g., irrigation and drinking water)such in Nepal, Myanmar and Sri Lanka. Other countries
have regular monitoring systems which differ in numberof monitoring points, parameters, and frequency.
- According to the WEPA survey in 2009, the following
countries have collected water quality data of riverwaters for over 10 years: Japan, Republic of Korea,
Malaysia, and Thailand (see Chapter 2.2, Figure 2.2.6).
2) Effluent quality monitoring
Despite obligations on the owner of the pollution source
and wastewater treatment facility to monitor effluent
quality, this is not comprehensively done in all countries
and monitoring results sometimes do not reach theintended authorities.
- In Cambodia and Sri Lanka the central government
conducts monitoring at sites suspected of discharging
high concentrations of effluents.
- In Republic of Korea, centralized monitoring of effluent
using a tele-metering system was introduced forpollution sources (industries and domestic wastewater
treatment facilities) with certain volumes of effluents.
- In Malaysia, an on-line reporting system has been
introduced under which industries can report theireffluent monitoring results through a website.
- In Japan, recording of monitoring results became
mandatory under a revision to the Water Pollution
Control Law in 2010.
3) Recording, maintenance and evaluation ofmonitoring results
Results of ambient water quality monitoring are recorded
and maintained by the agencies conducting monitoring.
However, the data is not maintained according to any set
format.

* In Sri Lanka, another revision of effluent standards is now under consideration for approval.

16

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012

Chapter 1 Outlook on Water Environmental Management in WEPA countries- The WEPA survey on water quality monitoring datacollection in 2009 found that it is difficult to sharepooling of data maintained by different agencies among
them (see chapter 2.2, p.48).
Other factors contributing to enforcement andremoval of incorrect practices

1) Disclosure of ambient water quality
monitoring results
The results of monitoring are evaluated annually in many
countries for information disclosure and policy
evaluation.
- In many countries the state of water quality is mainly
reported to the general public via annually publishedenvironmental quality reports. The following countries
enable public access to environmental reports giving
comprehensive assessments of water quality on
websites: China, Japan, Republic of Korea, Malaysia,
Thailand, and Viet Nam.
- The Water Quality Index (WQI) is used for evaluationof overall status of water quality in some countries, suchas China, Malaysia and Thailand. The method of WQI
calculation is decided by each country. Other countries
that assess their water quality annually ( Japan, Republicof Korea, Philippines and Viet Nam) use specificparameters to represent water quality status (e.g., BOD
or COD for organic pollution).
- In some countries, such as China, Republic of Korea
and Thailand, the public can view real-time monitoringdata on a website, which is uploaded from continuous
monitoring stations. Other countries such as Japan alsoutilise a website to publish details of water quality
monitoring results.
2) Review cycle of water environmental policy
The WEPA secretariat cannot obtain sufficient
information on the review cycle of water environmental
policy as many countries have no fixed review cycle.
- In countries utilising time-bound policy/strategies, theefficacy of mitigation measures is reviewed according tosuch policy/strategies.

3. Recent Developments in Water
Environmental Management andChallenges
Developments in water environmental
management over the past 10 years

All WEPA countries have attempted to strengthen theirwater environmental management systems over the past
10 years. Table 1.2 shows the major developments in water
environmental management in the partner countries.
The key developments are as follows:
1) Strengthening of effluent management, which
includes set-up and revision of effluent standards andintroduction of charges for wastewater.
2) Introduction of a framework for river basin
management which embraces aspects of water quality
conservation.
3) Incorporation of concerns surrounding ecosystemconservation.
Upgrading or restructuring of central governmentorganizations in charge of environmental management
is a common feature in WEPA partner countries. Water
resource management departments and environmental/
pollution management departments which used to beheaded by different government agencies are now
organized under the newly established Ministry of
Natural Resources and Environment in Malaysia,
Thailand and Viet Nam. In 2011, the new ministries forenvironment were set up in Lao PDR and Myanmar.
Many new developments for strengthening management
were observed especially in the countries which initiatedwater environmental management in late 1980s. Suchcountries include Cambodia, Lao PDR, Sri Lanka andViet Nam.
In the countries which initiated water environmental
management at a relatively early stage, such as China,
Japan, Republic of Korea, Malaysia, and Thailand,
policies and measures have become that much moredetailed, in order to improve the water environment.
Some partner countries experienced significant disasters
in 2011. Boxes 1.1 and 1.2 show water environmental
sector responses to disasters affecting Japan and
Thailand, respectively.

17

Table 1.2. Major developments in water environmental management in WEPA Countries
Year

Major development in organizational setting

Revision of Environment Act (Sri Lanka)

2000

2001

Establishment of Ministry of theEnvironment, upgraded from Environment
Agency (Japan)

2002

Establishment of Ministry of Natural
Resource and Environment as a restructureof central government agencies (Thailand,
Viet Nam)

Establishment of Ministry of Natural
Resource and Environment as a restructureof central government agencies (Malaysia)

Introduction of total maximum daily load system (TMDLs) (ROK)
Revision of the Clean Water Act (Philippines)
Decree on Licensing for exploitation, utilization, use and discharge of waste water(Viet Nam)

2005

Addition of chemical substance parameters to standards (ROK)Approval of the National Water Environment Master Plan (2006-2015) (ROK)
Adoption of the National Water Policy (Nepal)
Revision of Law on Environmental Protection (Viet Nam)

2006

Inclusion of 16 water pollution projects in mid-term plan (China)
Start of regular monitoring in 35 major rivers (Indonesia)
Revision of the Lake Water Law (Japan)
Approval of basin management project in three major basins (Viet Nam)

2007

Enacted the Law on Water Resources and Management (Cambodia)
Revision of the Water Quality Conservation Act (renamed as the Water Quality andEcosystem Conservation Act) (ROK), which further emphasize conservation of
ecosystems
Revision of Water Quality and Ecosystem Conservation Act and its Enforcement
Decree (ROK)Approval of national ambient and effluent water standards (Lao PDR)
Approval of the National master Program for Natural Resource and Environment
Monitoring until 2020 (Viet Nam)

2008

Revision of series of effluent standards (2008-2011) (China)
Start of regular ambient water monitoring conducted by the central government(Cambodia)
Establishment of new effluent standards (Sri Lanka)
Establishment of Marine Pollution Prevention Act (Sri Lanka)
Revision of ambient quality standards for surface, coastal and underground waters(Viet Nam)
Revision of series of effluent standards (2008-2010) (Viet Nam)
Establishment of ambient quality standard for groundwater (Viet Nam)Approval of Decree 120/2008/ND-CP on basin management (Viet Nam)

Establishment of the Ministry of Environment
Protection (MEP), upgraded from the State
Environmental Protection Administration(SEPA) (China)
Set up the Vietnam Environment
Administration (VEA) (Viet Nam)

2009

Revision of the National Environment Law, aiming to strengthen implementation,
especially control of point sources (Indonesia)
Revision of effluent standards (Malaysia)
Approval of Bagmati Action Plan (Nepal)
Approval of a new national environmental policy and its action plan (Sri Lanka)
Start of classification of water bodies (Philippines)

2010

Adoption of the mid-term development plan (2010-2015), which states reduction targets
for pollutants (China)
Revision of the Water Pollution Control Law, which address water quality related
accidents and effluent management (Japan)
Introduction of on-line wastewater registration system (Malaysia)
Establishment of Wastewater Treatment System Effluent Standard (Thailand)
Establishment of Ministry of Natural Resourceand Environment (Lao PDR)

2011
Establishment of Ministry of Environmental
Conservation and Forestry (Myanmar)

18

Revision of the Framework Act on Environmental Policy (ROK)Approval of National Environment Policy (Malaysia)

Addition of zinc as a parameter of water quality environmental standards, inconsideration of protection of aquatic ecosystem (Japan)
Establishment of Environmental Management Policy (Nepal)
National Environmental Management Policy (Sri Lanka)
Set up the National Strategy for Environmental Management until 2010 and vision
toward 2020 (Viet Nam)
Introduction of environmental protection charge for wastewater (Viet Nam)

2003

2004

Major development in legislation

12th Five-Year Plan (2011-2015) (China)
Revision of the Water Pollution Control Law, which strengthen groundwater quality
management (Japan)

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012

Chapter 1 Outlook on Water Environmental Management in WEPA countries

Box 1.1 Impacts of the Great East Japan Earthquake on the Water Environment

The Great East Japan Earthquake and the accompanying tsunami that occurred in March 2011 wreaked large-scale
destruction, not least of which was the loss of many lives. Further, the disaster at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power
Plant precipitated by the tsunami brought about unprecedented environmental contamination due to the release ofradioactive materials into the environment, including the water environment. This box presents impacts of the Great East
Japan Earthquake primarily related to the water environment.
Damage to domestic wastewater treatment facilities and prompt recovery
Sewage treatment plants along the coasts of Iwate, Miyagi and Fukushima prefectures suffered considerable damage
from the tsunami, and 48 plants were shut down. However, due to the subsequent prompt recovery response, as of Dec
1, 2011 only 16 plants remained shutdown. At 14 of these plants, emergency treatment is being carried out. These plants
will gradually be upgraded to the level of primary treatment, followed by restoration of former capabilities. Complete
recovery is aimed for as soon as possible with the objective of preventing disasters from occurring again.
Results of a sampling survey conducted in the highly damaged regions of the three disaster-stricken prefectures
reveal that 3.8% of Jokasou units (a domestic waste water treatment facility) were written off and 28% required
urgent repairs. The remaining 68% required no particular repairs. Jokasou units are also used for temporary housing;approximately 60% of domestic wastewater from temporary housing is treated by Jokasou units.
Emergency survey on toxic materials
In response to public concerns voiced over negative impacts on health and living environment due to seepage of
toxic substances into public surface water bodies and groundwater, the Ministry of the Environment of Japan (MoEJ)
conducted emergency surveys from late May through late July in the rivers, coastal areas, and groundwater in areasthat sustained heavy damage from the earthquake and tsunami. The surveys covered items pertaining to environmental
standard and dioxins.
The results show that no instances of excess contamination have been confirmed. The MoEJ intends to closely
monitor sites where toxic substances were detected in excess of environmental standards, via regular continuous
monitoring by local governments.
Additional surveys were carried out by the MoEJ covering groundwater and the vicinity of wells in accordance withenvironmental standards and toxins standards. Guidance on drinking water for owners of wells was issued via local
governments.
Monitoring of radioactive substances
Monitoring of radioactive fallout from the nuclear power plant disaster was carried out by the MoEJ from late May to late
July 2011 to check the concentrations of radioactive substances in the water environment (rivers, lakes and marshes,
river-head areas, and coasts including bathing beaches) and groundwater. A Monitoring Coordination Conference wasestablished in August 2011 in order to coordinate and systematise the work.
The water environment is to be monitored, including for radioactive substances, in public surface waters andgroundwater within a radius of approx. 100 km from the nuclear power plant. Also set to take place is offshore monitoringof the concentration of radioactive substances in the seawater from Fukushima to Iwate. Part of the survey was initiatedin late August.
While no radioactive substances have been detected so far, high readings have been detected in sediment.
Allied with the decontamination work for radioactive substances now in full-swing, concerns over high concentrationsof radioactive substances in the water environment still remain, thus it is critical to ascertain any trends that might emerge.
(Source: Provided by the Ministry of the Environment of Japan)

19Box 1.2 Thailand’s Great Flood 2011 and water environment

Thailand was faced with a severe flood crisis, whichstarted in the upper part of the Chaophaya River Basin in
mid-May and then flew down to the lower part in Bangkok
Metropolitan Areas (BMA) with high impacts (from flooding
and water pollution) during October - November 2011.
This was due to excessive amounts of rainfall during themonsoon season, leading to higher volumes of water thanthe previous years. Owing to a spring tide and standing
structures, the water that entered the Chao Phraya Riverbasin, i.e., the area containing northern, eastern andwestern Bangkok and surrounding areas, was trapped as
it couldn’t drain quickly enough into the Gulf of Thailand.
Therefore, a large area of the plains around Bangkok had
a high risk of flooding.
As a response to this crisis, the Thai Government
established the Flood Relief Operations Center (FROC)
in the beginning of October. The main responsibilities of
FROC, in collaboration with relevant organizations, areto drain floodwater into the Gulf of Thailand as quickly as
possible and to prevent floodwater from seriously affecting
BMA—the political and economic capital of Thailand.
Owing to these efforts, BMA could avoid sustaining
serious damage from the flood, but some lower northern
regions were seriously flooded for a long period. In theseregions, the floodwater damaged houses and otherproperties and stagnant water, which had been polluted bydamaged sanitation facilities and unmanaged solid waste,affected living environments as well as the economy.
During the flooding event, 4,040 m3 was discharged
into the Chao Phraya River, which has a maximum
drainage capacity of 3,000 m3, thus around 10 billion m3
of freshwater entered the Gulf over a short period andcaused a dramatic decrease in salinity in the Gulf ofThailand, particularly the eastern part. One consequenceof this was damage to the mussel farm industry.
Since early December 2011 the coastal seawatersalinity has started to recover and is now back to normal
levels. For DO levels, water quality monitoring surveys
were carried out by the Environmental Research andTraining Center in six provinces surrounding the BMA,
and revealed that DO levels at sampling points in Pathum
Thani, Chachoengsao, and Nakhon Nayok provinces
were less than 2 mg/L. This low DO level was believed tobe caused by the inflow of domestic wastewater and solid
waste, as well as outflow from paddy fields, and resulted
in widespread fish death in some fish farms.
In addition to salinity and DO level changes, heavy
metals and nutrients were also measured by the

Department of Fisheries, Department of Marine andCoastal Resources, Pollution Control Department, anduniversity experts. Results showed that heavy metal
concentrations in the water sampled around the potential
point sources had not exceeded the national standards.
The state of nutrients in the Gulf of Thailand showed nochanges since the 2010 data. However, the large influx ofterrestrial nutrients created a spike in diatom populations.
The Thai Government has thus learnt some valuablelessons from the recent flood crisis—for example, theimportance of water resources management, waterdrainage, and water pollution source control for prevention
and mitigation of water quality degradation caused byflooding. In order to restore confidence at both domestic
and international levels, the onus lay with the Thaigovernment to provide a solution to the problem andmeasures towards rehabilitation. Most recently, theGovernment has introduced a strategic plan for national
reconstruction consisting of three parallel phases termed“rescue, restore, and rebuild”.
Two committees have been established, namely
the Strategic Formulation Committee for Reconstruction
and Future Development (SCRF), and the Strategic
F o r m u l a t i o n C o m m i t t e e f o r Wa t e r R e s o u r c e sManagement (SCWRM). Together they aim to jointly set
the stage for the country’s future by bolstering confidence,regaining trust, and restoring prosperity and stability inthe long-term, but in a manner that is sustainable andsystematic. The two committees will work closely on
rehabilitation and rebuilding the country’s future, andputting into place a national water resources management
system, respectively.
In more detail, in the short term, SCWRM has
approved guidelines for addressing immediate flood
concerns and placed an emphasis on the conservation
and rehabilitation of watershed areas in the field ofsustainable water management. It will be responsible forcoordinating with the Japan International Cooperation
Agency (JICA) in setting up a data system—an area
in which Japan has expertise—so that future water
volumes can be accurately estimated. This will help
boost confidence both domestically and in the eyes offoreign investors in Thailand’s capabilities regarding flood
prevention and control.
As part of the long-term solution, SCRF, who is
responsible for the conservation and rehabilitation of thewatershed area, will initiate operations in line with themaster plan on water resources management.

(Source: Prepared by the WEPA Secretariat with inputs of Pollution Control Department, Thailand)

20

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012

Chapter 1 Outlook on Water Environmental Management in WEPA countries

4. Common Challenges among WEPA Partner
Countries
This section aims to illustrate both the present and futurechallenges mentioned in the country profiles (Chapter 3),
which were developed based on the presentations anddiscussions at WEPA workshops, annual meetings, as wellas governmental reports. Table 1.3 gives a summary ofchallenges according to several management categories andindividual problems. The following part summarises thechallenges that are common among the countries.
Legislation and Organization: Detailed systems
and capacity require developing in order toimplement a legislative framework

A framework for water environmental management has
been developed in each country, but detailed rules andsystems (e.g., classifications of public water bodies) need to
be developed in some countries to promote implementationand enforcement.
The majority of countries that have identified domestic
and industrial wastewater management as a challenge havealso listed the challenge of creating a comprehensive system
to implement appropriate management. These challenges
are inextricably linked with each other. Management ofwastewater, which is a major pollution factor, is afundamental element of water environmental management,
and to improve on this it is necessary to strengthen
management systems and capacity. The setting ofappropriate targets, promotion of enforcement (e.g.,development of incentive mechanisms) and technical andhuman capacity development for implementation are theareas that need assistance.
Ensuring implementation of proper monitoringand data management is a common challenge

Water quality monitoring is also common among many
partner countries. Insufficient infrastructure and capacityof human resources to conduct monitoring have been
identified as barriers. In addition, insufficient budgets arealso a big barrier to promoting monitoring.
Maintenance of monitoring data is a further challenge.
Development of a database and establishment of data
sharing mechanisms among different organizations arecommon issues among four partner countries.
Coordination among relevant water organizations aswell as with other sectoral organizations is a challenge
especially for those countries that attempt to promotewater quality management.

Coordination among relevant water relatedorganizations is not a new challenge in water environmental
management but is still relevant. Many of the countries thatsee coordination as a challenge are those that have promoted
or tried to promote a water environmental management
framework in recent years (Lao PDR, and Sri Lanka, andViet Nam). Coordination thus appears as a challenge in theprocess of developing a management framework.
Coordination with other sectors, especially waste andland use, is also identified as a challenge among a few
countries. Waste dumping and development practices
conducted without due consideration for the impacts on
the environment are big concerns that need to be addressed
to improve the water environment.
Recurrent issue – water quality management at
the basin level

In many WEPA partner countries, water resource
management at the basin level has been promoted.
Reflecting this trend, four countries identified basin
management as a challenge. Other countries, such as
China, Republic of Korea, Lao PDR, and Indonesia havealready promoted basin level management of water
resources, in which water quality aspects are addressed.
How to manage the water environment at the basin
level is an important topic when considering improving
water quality management in the near future. Stakeholder
involvement is also a key in this field.
Individual water quality issues

In addition to the management challenge, the following
specific problems are identified as issues to be addressed
further.
- Reduction of Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
concentration: China and Republic of Korea- Lake water quality and eutrophication: China, Japan,
Republic of Korea, Malaysia- Non-point source control: China, Republic of Korea,
Philippines- Heavy metal pollution: China- Chemical pollution: Republic of Korea- Groundwater quality improvement: China, Japan,
Philippines- Coastal water quality improvement: Philippines- Consideration of emerging needs from society forcreating a new water environmental management
scheme: Japan and Republic of Korea

21

5. Future WEPA Activities
The framework for water environmental management has
been established in most WEPA partner countries andambient water quality standards were set up as theadministrative target of water quality. For most of WEPA
partner countries, it is time for further promote
implementation.
Efforts to strengthen management and enforcement
have been taken in each country in consideration of theneeds of each country. Time-bound numerical targets for
specific water environmental issues have been establishedin some countries, which shows proactive measures havealready been taken in these countries.
Although efforts to strengthen water environmental
management have been taken, there is still room for

improvements. Some common challenges exist among
partner countries such as the need for detailed rules andsystems for implementation of laws and regulations,capacity development of human resources, and technicalcapacity for monitoring systems.
WEPA will continue study to identify implementation
challenges and encourage further actions for improved
water environments in Asia by sharing the study results.
There is already a useful body of knowledge and solutions
to problems in WEPA partner countries.
WEPA will provide platforms to facilitate informationand experience sharing among partners, such as throughtwinning programmes under which experience is shared
between countries with a body of experience and solutions
to problems and those that need to find keys to solutions.

Table 1.3. Current and future challenges for water environmental management
Country*
KHM

Challenges

CHN

IDN

JPN

KOR

Lao

MYS

MMR

NPL

PHL

LKA

THA

VNM

Strengthening
legislation
Classification of water
bodiesWater quality
management at basin
level
Coordination withother water relatedorganizations
Coordination withother sectors
Policies andMeasures Incentives andcommunications for
enforcement
Water/effluent
monitoring
Maintenance andsharing of monitoringdata
Technical capacity
development
Stakeholder
involvement
Finance
Responding toemerging needs ofthe society
COD
Lake/Eutrophication
SpecificIssuesNon-point source
Heavy Metal
ChemicalCoastal water
Groundwater* Each country code shows: KHM: Cambodia, CHN: China, IDN: Indonesia, JPN: Japan, KOR: Republic of Korea, Lao: Lao PDR, MYS: Malaysia, MMR: Myanmar,
NPL: Nepal, PHL: Philippines, LKA: Sri Lanka, THA: Thailand, VNM: Viet Nam

10

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012

Chapter 1 Outlook on Water Environmental Management in WEPA countries

Progress in Water Environmental Managementin WEPA Partner Countries- short summary of the country profile Cambodia
State of water environment

In general, the surface water quality of the country is
good. According to recent ambient water quality
monitoring over the past few years, the BOD ambient
water environmental standards were met at all monitoring
points (see Figure 3.1.4 in Chapter 3).
Information on the quality of coastal water andgroundwater is insufficient. However, some reports statethat the coastal water quality is generally good.
Contamination of arsenic was found in groundwater insome areas, which is a natural phenomenon.
A lot of stresses on water quality were identified, such as
untreated industrial and domestic wastewater flowing
into public water bodies especially in the dry season,
pollutants from urban areas and agricultural land andthose caused by development activities.
Recent developments in water environmental
management

conservation of aquatic ecosystems, as this was an area ofconcern. The law also stipulated a wastewater discharge
licence requirement for point sources. New acts oflegislation, the Law on Environmental Protection
Management and a Sub-decree on Water Quality, are now
being drafted.
In 2008, regular monitoring of ambient water quality interms of basic parameters (water temperature, DO, BOD)
begun, to assess the water quality.
Current and future challenges

Strengthening of the legal framework; more detailed rules
Ensuring water quality monitoring and improvements indata management through infrastructural development,
capacity development of technical staff, and sufficientfinancial resources
Enhancement of coordination with relevant organizations,especially industries, to promote compliance.

A water environmental management framework wasdeveloped in the 1990s and strengthened in the 2000s.
In 2007, The Law on Water Resource Management wasestablished, which embraces water quality and

China
State of water environment

The state of surface water is still serious, especially in lakes
and reservoirs.

Current water environmental management policy
includes cultural and ecological concerns and resourcesaving, in addition to pollution control.

The state of coastal water is not serious yet.
The quality of groundwater is subject to stress frominappropriately managed sewage, waste, pesticides andfertilisers.
Progress in water environmental management

China has strengthened its environmental management.
Numerical targets for water quality improvements (e.g.,
COD load reduction) were incorporated into thenational five-year plan for national economic and social
development.

Current and future challenges

Protection of drinking water sources continues to be apriority policy area.
In line with this, quality management of groundwater,which represents 18% of drinking water sources, andcontrol of heavy metal pollution are also highlighted in
the latest Five-Year Plan (2011-2015).
Reduction in ammonia nitrogen discharge and further
enhancements in domestic wastewater treatment arenecessary for improved water quality.

A series of standards for both domestic and industrial
wastewater have been revised or established to strengthen
effluent management.

23

Indonesia
State of water environment

Water pollution in both and surface and undergroundwater remains serious, especially in densely populatedareas.
Overall, signs of improvement in water quality in surface
water were seen between 2004 and 2009. However, there
are regional differences. In Java and Kalimantan, water
quality has been deteriorating during the period.
Recent developments in water environmental
management

The nation’s basic environmental law, “Law concerning
Environment Protection and Management”, was enacted
in 2009, and is more comprehensive than the previous one.
A new environmental permit system has been introduced
in response to the revision of the law, and new regulations

Japan
State of water environment

Japan has overcome water pollution problems, buteutrophication in enclosed water bodies remains an
issue.
There are also emerging concerns over soil andgroundwater pollution caused by toxic substances.
Recent developments in water environmental
management

Based on the management framework developed in
the 1970s, Japan has been developing policies andmeasures to respond to the needs of society.

In 2001, effluent standards existed for 14 industrial
activities, which rose to 21 by 2005.
The National Medium-term Development Plan (20102014) set numerical targets for water environmental
conservation (e.g., reduction in pollution levels by 50%).
Current and future challenges

Implementation of the new regulations awaiting approval.
Improvements in the technical and financial capacity for
implementation
Development of incentives for compliance and promotionof public participation in water environmental management

Republic of Korea
State of water environment

Water quality in terms of BOD has improved as a resultof investment in wastewater treatment.
However, water quality in terms of COD and T-P has
fallen short of expectations. Chemical substance use infactories and non-point sources are suspected.
Eutrophication and groundwater pollution caused bychemical substances especially in the dry season is also
an issue.
Recent developments in water environmental
management

The Total Pollutant Load Control System (TPLC)
was introduced in 1979 for three enclosed water
bodies. In addition to COD, T-P and T-N becametarget parameters under the system in 2001. The 7th
TPLC policy was set forth in 2011.

Under a restoration project of the country’s four majorrivers, many projects have been implemented which
contributed to raised water quality. Ensuring
environmental flow is one of the measures to bepromoted under the project.

A recent revision to water pollution control law
strengthened measures in the event of accidents,
record-keeping of effluent monitoring data, andpreventative measures against groundwater pollution.

The Total Maximum Daily Load system (TMDLs) was
introduced in 2004 in three major rivers. The current
target parameter is BOD and T-P will be added as atarget parameter. TMDLs will be introduced in Hang
River.

Current and future challenges

Strengthening measures to mitigate deterioration in lakewater quality, the compliance ratio to environmental
standards of which remains at around 50%.
Creation of “Sato-Umi” which incorporates biodiversity
conservation aspects and sustainability issues.
Creation of better initiatives to improve/protect thewater environment in response to the diverse needs ofcommunities and recent social transitions, including
ensuring an environmentally sound water cycle.

24

for water quality management and pollution control weredrafted and are awaiting approval.

Control over water pollution caused by chemical
substances has been strengthened by adding more
relevant parameters to ambient water quality standards.
Current and future challenges

Ensuring and promotion of current efforts to reduce
pollution loads and promote conservation of ecosystems.
Strengthening of non-point source and chemical
pollutant management.
Development of an enhanced management system tocope with socio-economic changes.

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012

Chapter 1 Outlook on Water Environmental Management in WEPA countries

Lao PDR
State of water environment

Surface water quality in the country is considered good.
However, the quality of urban rivers could worsen in the
future due to the inflow of untreated wastewater thevolume of which will increase with urban growth.
Recent developments in water environmental
management

A series of ambient water quality standards were
established in 2009.

pollution sources and introduction of strategic
environmental assessments.
Establishment of the Ministry of Natural Resources andEnvironment in 2011.
Current and future challenges

Strengthening and implementation of preventive
measures before serious pollution problems occur.

Measures to control effluent from industry have beenstrengthened, which included the introduction of effluent
standards in 2009.

Areas for action include development of domestic
wastewater treatment facilities in urban areas, ensuring
water quality monitoring and development of a sharing
mechanism of the monitoring results, and implementationof an effluent licence system.

Currently the Environmental Protection Law is awaiting
approval of revision. The revision will include
strengthening water quality monitoring and inspection of

The newly established Ministry of Natural Resources andEnvironment is expected to promote and strengthen
better management to prevent future cases of pollution.

Malaysia
State of water environment

Serious water pollution problems have been mitigated as a resultof measures taken under the National Environmental Quality
Act, but a recent assessment shows a slight increase in“polluted” or “slightly polluted” rivers. This is considered to becaused by an increase in number of pollution sources and ininadequately treated wastewater.
The condition of coastal water quality differs by area, but TSS
and oil are the common parameters measured.
Total coliform is the common parameter used for groundwater
Recent developments in water environmental
management

A framework for water environmental management is wellestablished in the country.
Effluent control has been improved/strengthened by revision of
effluent standards, reinforcing recording and reporting of
effluents from pollution sources. On-line reporting of effluent
quality has been introduced.
The Industrial Effluent Treatment System (IETS), whichaims to improve the process of wastewater treatment, wasalso introduced to strengthen effluent control.
Current and future challenges

Further promotion of effluent control. In particular,
encouragement and strengthening of the “self-regulation
approach” in which industry voluntarily implements pollution
control measures.

MyanmarState of water environment

Water quality of surface water in the country is
generally good.
Anticipated social and economic development
may cause deterioration in water quality if
appropriate control measures are not introduced.
Recent developments in water
environmental management

Since there are no significant pollution
problems identified, there are no specific laws
and regulations to control water pollution.
Water monitoring is conducted on a projectbasis or for each water use, such as drinking
and irrigation.
Current and future challenges

Introduction/promotion of preventive andproactive measures against water pollution.
Such measures can include coordination of
relevant organizations, reduction in potential
pollution loads by promoting effective water
use such as in irrigation and industrial sectors;
strengthening of waste treatment; andprevention of erosion through forest
conservation efforts.

Promotion of water quality management at the basin level, which
may include development of countermeasures that account forcapacity and water use in each basin.
Further study on lake water quality to achieve better managementof lakes and reservoirs.

25

NepalState of water environment

The water quality in the country is good except in someurban areas where water pollution is serious.
Water quality in Kathmandu is serious due to untreateddomestic and industrial wastewater, dumping of waste
and unplanned development activities.
Water pollution caused by pesticides and fertilisers areconcerns.
Recent developments in water environmental
management

Acts on environmental protection were established in
1997. Regarding water resources management, theNational Water Policy and Water Resource Law were
established in 2002 and 2004 respectively.

Philippines
State of water environment

Surface water quality deterioration needs to beaddressed especially in the urban areas, although an
improvement trend has been observed based on the
result of water quality monitoring conducted under
the Sagip llong (Save the River) Program.
In general, the quality of groundwater and marine
and coastal waters is good.
Recent developments in water environmental
management

A Clean Water Act was established in 2004. Under
the act, more proactive measures are planned.
Water quality management in water quality
management area is a key feature under the Clean
Water Act. An effluent licence system as well as
charging system will also be introduced under theact.
Effluent standards by type of industry are currently
awaiting approval.
Current and future challenges

Infrastructure development and human capacity
development to ensure implementation of water
quality monitoring. A data sharing mechanism isalso an important element to be addressed.
Coordination with other sectors such as land use
and waste management.
Strengthening non-point sources, and coastal waterand groundwater quality improvements.
Consideration of inclusion of water quality aspects
in basin level water management and database.

26

In 2000s, a series of water related standards were
established, including standards for ecosystemconservation in 2008.
The Bagmati Action Plan was approved in 2009 in whichwater pollution in the Bagmati River is addressed.
Current and future challenges

Implementation and enforcement after establishment of apartial framework for environmental and water resource
management.
Detailed rules and a system to manage water pollution areabsent in the promotion of water pollution control.
Monitoring and data sharing mechanisms need to be
improved, and the institutional arrangements, technicalcapacity and financial basis therefore should be addressed.

Sri Lanka
State of water environment

Water quality information data is limited, but available
sources shows there is no serious water pollution.
Concerns over water quality deterioration due tountreated/inadequately treated domestic and industrial
wastewater exist.
Organic pollution has been identified in some coastal
waters. Salinization is major issue for groundwater
quality, as is pathogen pollution caused by improper
sanitation.
Recent developments in water environmental
management

A framework on environmental management has
been developed since the 1980s.
A revision of effluent standards and interim ambient
water quality standards are awaiting approval.
The national environmental policy 2010-15 wasdeveloped, which includes certain pollution control
related measures.
Current and future challenges

Coordination of relevant agencies to take morecomprehensive measures.
Setting national ambient water quality standards,
which are now awaiting approval; this should be
followed by the classification of surface water bodies.
A lack of baseline data, and the need for ambient
water quality monitoring to address the problem. The
means the sharing of monitoring data across different
organizations also needs addressing.
Awareness-raising of conservation of the water
environment. Awareness-raising in the industrial
sector is necessary to promote enforcement.

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012

Chapter 1 Outlook on Water Environmental Management in WEPA countries

ThailandState of water environment

Surface water quality has been improved, but recent
monitoring data shows a slight rising trend in “polluted”
points.
Monitoring results of coastal waters over the past 5 years
show no significant changes in quality. However, thenumber of “polluted” waters is on the increase, especiallyin the inner gulf where polluted water flows.
Groundwater is generally in good in quality, but in someareas high levels of fluoride, salinity and Volatile Organic
Compounds (VOC ) were identified.
Recent developments in water environmental
management

Water environmental management has been implemented
based on the National Enhancement of Environmental
Conservation Act 1992, which includes establishment ofpollution control area and environmental protection area.

A priority area identified in the environmental Policy
2010-14 includes improvement and enhancement ofdomestic wastewater treatment and stipulates thepolluter-pay-principle (PPP).
In 2009, new effluent standards for wastewater treatment
facility were introduced.
Current and future challenges

To improve implementation, the following items should
be further addressed:- Further strengthening of domestic wastewater treatment;- Encouragement of public participation and promotion ofa voluntary approach in the industrial sector;- Further consideration on how to manage water quality atthe basin level.
- A method of promoting the PPP principle, especiallyafter the establishment of the PPP law is currently underconsideration.

Viet Nam
State of water environment

The water quality of the upper stream is good, but serious
pollution was identified downstream. Most of the majorrivers and lakes/reservoirs in inner cities do not meet theenvironmental BOD standard.
Coastal waters are also polluted, e.g., by untreated/inadequately treated wastewater and waste andwastewater from aquaculture. Oil pollution is one of thecommon issues in coastal areas.
An increase in salinity has widely noted, partly due toexcessive groundwater extraction.
Recent developments in water environmental
management

Since 2000, a framework development of water
environmental management has been accelerated in the
country.

River basin water quality management has been
demonstrated in three major river basins, namely Cau,
Nhue-Day, and Don-Nai. Coordination of relevant local
governments has been promoted.
Current and future challenges

Ensuring water environmental management policies andmeasures by- addressing duplication of rules across different areas oflegislation;- development of incentives for compliance;- strengthening of inspection and guidance by the government
Coordination of relevant organizations.
Promotion of water quality management at the basin level.

Such developments include introduction of a wastewater
charging system, strengthening penal systems against
non-compliance and revision of ambient and effluent
standards.

27

28

Chapter2

Discussion and Findings on Priority Topics

2.1

Domestic Wastewater Treatment in Asia

2.2

Climate Change and the Water Environment- Summary of findings based on WEPA discussions and surveys -Chapter 2.1

Domestic Wastewater Treatment in Asia
1. Growing Asia and Domestic Wastewater
1.1. Socio-Economic Conditions

WEPA partner countries are growing at an unprecedented
rate in terms of population and economic growth. They arealso facing dire consequences from the effects of rapid
urbanization. Table 2.1.1 shows shifts in total populationand the proportion of the urban population since 1975.
While the scale of population and rates of increase differ, it
is evident that the population of each country is without

question on the increase. In particular, China, Indonesia
and Japan are arresting, reporting populations of one billion,
two hundred million, and one hundred million, respectively.
The total populations in both Philippines and Viet Nam
have risen to nearly one hundred million. The average forannual population growth rates in Malaysia, Nepal,
Philippines and Lao PDR is more than 3%. The proportionof urban populations in Japan, Malaysia and the Republicof Korea (ROK) are more than 50%.

Table 2.1.1. Population and proportion of urban population in WEPA countries (1975 and 2010)
1975
Country(1975-2010)

Total Population(thousand persons)

Proportion of Urban
Population (%)

Total Population(thousand persons)

Proportion of Urban
Population (%)

Average of annual
population growth rate (%)

7,098

4

14,138

20

2.8

China

915,04117

1,341,335

47

1.3

Indonesia

134,10619

239,871

44

2.3

Japan

110,80857

126,53667

0.4

Republic of Korea

34,72248

48,18483

1.1

Lao PDR

3,042

11

6,201

33

3.0

Malaysia

12,31338

28,40172

3.7

Myanmar29,53424

47,963

34

1.8

Nepal

13,373

5

29,95919

3.5

Philippines

40,89336

93,26149

3.7

Sri Lanka

13,811

22

20,86014

1.5

Thailand

42,39924

69,12234

1.8

Viet Nam

49,89619

87,84830

2.2

Cambodia(Source: UNDESA 2011)30

Population Growth Rate

2010

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012

Chapter 2.1 Domestic Wastewater Treatment in Asia

100,000

Cambodia
China
IndonesiaJapan

10,000GDP per Capita (Current USD)

Figure 2.1.1 shows shifts in per capita GDP since 1975.
Although drops clearly coincide with the 1997 Asiancurrency crisis and the Lehman Shock of 2008, economies
subsequently recovered to continue on a path of steady
growth. As a result of increasing population and economic
growth, at present this region accounts for approximately
one-third of the global population and approximately onefourth of the world’s GDP.
Improvements in basic infrastructure have gained
ground in line with economic growth. Figure 2.1.2 shows
the proportion of population using improved drinking
water sources and the proportion of the population using
improved sanitation facilities, which are among the targets
set out in the Millennium Development Goals adopted in
2000. While improvements in basic infrastructure in rural
areas in some countries remain at low levels, the rate ofcoverage for improved sanitary facilities has clearly madeprogress, mainly in urban areas.

Repbulic of
Korea
Lao PDR

1,000

Malaysia
Nepal
Philippines

100

Sri Lanka
Thailand
Viet Nam

10

75

19

Japan
Malaysia
2008
1995

Thailand

1995

Sri Lanka

Philippines

Lao PDR

Nepal

Philippines

Indonesia

Indonesia

Cambodia

Cambodia

MyanmarChina

Lao PDR

Nepal

0
20
40
60
80
100 %
Population using improved drinking water source (urban)

0

Japan

Japan

Malaysia

Republic of Korea

ThailandThailand

Viet Nam

Malaysia

Republic of Korea

2008

Viet Nam
MyanmarChina

Sri Lanka

95 000 005 010
19
2
2
2
Year

(Source: World Bank 2012)Japan

Sri Lanka

90

19

Republic of Korea

Malaysia

Thailand85

19

Figure 2.1.1. Change of GDP per capita in WEPA countries(1975-2010)

Republic of Korea
Viet Nam

80

19

2008
1995

1995

MyanmarPhilippines

Nepal

Viet Nam

China

China

Indonesia

Lao PDR

MyanmarIndonesia

Cambodia

Nepal

Lao PDR

Cambodia%

2008

Sri Lanka

Philippines

0
20
40
60
80
100 %
Population using improved drinking water source (rural)

20
40
60
80
100
Population using improved sanitation (urban)

0

20
40
60
80
100
Population using improved sanitation (rural)%

Figure 2.1.2. Proportion of population using improved drinking water sources and improved sanitation facilities(Source: UNDESA 2012)31

1.2. Impact of Domestic Wastewater on Water
Environment

Municipal water withdrawal per persopn (m3/person/yr)
160

Cambodia

Along with population increase and improvement in thequality of life, the sharp increase in the amount of water
withdrawn for domestic purposes is noteworthy. Figure
2.1.3 shows shifts in the per capita amount of water
withdraw for domestic purposes. First, it is evident thatper capita water withdraw for domestic purposes differs bycountry. In the Asian region, while withdraw is modest in
Cambodia, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Myanmar and Lao PDR,
withdraw in Japan, ROK and Malaysia is startling. Further,shifts show temporary drops in some countries, but mostcountries display a fixed or increasing trend. Whencoupled with increases in population, total water withdraw
for domestic purposes on the whole shows an increasing
trend. The amount of domestic wastewater generated,which accompanies increases in water withdraw fordomestic purposes, is also expected to rise.
Figure 2.1.4 shows the distribution of BOD load bysector in WEPA countries. Data is limited, and the data
year and target area differ from country to country.
However, if nothing else, this figure reveals that thedomestic sector accounts for the greater part of the BOD
load in selected countries and catchment areas of Asia.
Figure 2.1.5 shows the distribution of pollution sourcesof BOD in domestic wastewater in Japan. Accordingly, theper capita daily amount of BOD load discharged as domestic
wastewater is 40 g. Contribution of grey water discharged
from laundry and kitchen is approximately 70% of total
BOD load. It is evident that the impact of grey water on
the water environment is considerable—hence thedemand in the Asian region to prevent water pollution
through treatment of domestic wastewater.

140

Indonesia
Japan

120
100

Republic of
Korea

80

Lao PDR
Malaysia

60

Myanmar

40

Nepal

20

Philippines

0

5
97

0
98

1

1

5
98

1

0
99

1

Table 2.1.2 frames the confirmed treatment methods fordomestic wastewater in the Asian region. Treatment
methods are divided into the following categories: notreatment, treatment of only black water, and treatment ofboth black and grey water, and grouped by individual or
centralized treatment. Treatment is further divided into
anaerobic and aerobic methods.

32

5
99

1
Year

0
00

2

5
00

2

Sri Lanka

0

Thailand1
20

Viet Nam

Figure2.1.3. Change of water withdraws per person fordomestic purpose(Source: FAO 2012)% of BOD Load
100%
80%

Others60%

Industrial
Domestic

40%
20%
0%

Japan
Republic ofIndonesia Philippines[Tokyobay/[Brantas (1998-2000)
Korea[Han River River Basin/
Tokyo](2004)and Paldang East Java]
reservoir/Seoul] (1994)

Viet Nam[DongNai
River/
HCMC](2005)County [area] (Year)

Figure 2.1.4. BOD load by sector in selected countries andcatchment areas of WEPA countries(Source: See References)

Other 23%

total BOD
40g/day

2. Domestic Wastewater Treatment in Asia
2.1. Current Situation of Domestic Wastewater
Treatment in Asia

China

Kitchen 45%

Toilet 32%

Figure 2.1.5. BOD load from different sources of domestic
wastewater in Japan(Source: MoEJ undated)

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012

Chapter 2.1 Domestic Wastewater Treatment in Asia

Table 2.1.2. Methodologies of domestic wastewater treatment in WEPA countries
Treatment Methods
Category
On-site /Individual
No treatment
Treatment of black
water only

Treatment of both blackand grey water

Off-site/Centralized

Anaerobic/Aerobic

Direct discharge from household without treatment

Sewage without treatment facility-

Individual septic tankCommunity septic tank

Anaerobic

Individual night soil treatment tank

Septic tank + Septage treatment plant

Aerobic

Individual septic tankCommunity septic tank
Sewage treatment plant (Anaerobic)

Anaerobic

Individual sewage treatment tank

Sewage treatment plant (Aerobic)

Aerobic

Photo 2.1.1. Sewage treatment plant in Nepal (left) and China (right)

Sewerage treatment coverage

Sewerage Treatment Coverage（％）

Figure 2.1.6 shows the latest sewerage treatment coverage
rates for WEPA countries. As a result of investment insewage treatment at present the sewerage treatment
coverage rate in the ROK and Japan exceeds 75%. The rate
in Malaysia (Malay Peninsula and government-ruled
municipalities only) and urban areas of China falls in the
60% to 70% range and Thailand’s coverage rate falls in the
20% range. On the other hand, rates in other countries
continue to remain in the single digits. For Sri Lanka and
Lao PDR, sewage treatment plants are nonexistent. In thecapitals of Vientiane in Lao PDR and Phnom Penh in
Cambodia, domestic wastewater generated in the cities ischanneled into natural wetlands located on the outskirtsof the cities, whereby natural treatment takes place.
Moreover, in Colombo in Sri Lanka, domestic wastewater
is collected by sewer pipe and discharged without
treatment into the sea at two discharge points in the northand south areas of the city. These types of treatment (ornon-treatment) are not reflected in the rates of coverage in
Figure 2.1.6.

100
80

Sewerage Treatment Coverage(Black Water and Grey Water)

60* Chinese data is only for urban area**Except in Saba h and Sawawak province

40
20
0

*
**
8)
0)
0)
0)
0)
0)
0)
0)
0)
0)
of )
0)
0)
00
01
01
01
01
01
01
01
01
01
ic 9
01
01
bl ( 200
(2
(2
(2
(2
(2
(2
(2
(2
(2
(2
2
(
2
u
l
r
(
s
a
n
R
p a
ia
m
e
a
ka
nd
di
pa
ne
pa
m
in
es
la
Re ore
sia
PD
Na
an
pi
bo
Ne
ai
Ja
o
on
Ch
ay
nm
ip
iL
et
K
m
l
i
a
d
r
i
a
Th
a
al
L
V
y
S
In
C
M
Ph
M

Country (Year)

Figure 2.1.6. Service coverage ratio of sewerage treatment in Asia
(Source: See References)

33

Figure 2.1.7 demonstrates historical changes in service
coverage ratios of sewerage system in selected Asian
countries. As the countries of Indonesia, Philippines, Viet
Nam, Cambodia, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Lao PDR and
Myanmar either have no sewage treatment plants or only afew, coverage ratios are not included the figure. The
tendency of historical change in Malaysia cannot berecounted due to limited data. Although the coverage
ratio has increased gradually in Japan over decades, a rapid
increase during particular decades was observed in ROK,
Thailand and urban areas of China. The ROK has shown arapid increase in coverage ratio since late 1980s and 1990s.
In the ROK, prior to the Seoul Olympics of 1988, largescale treatment plants with treatment capacity of one totwo million tonnes were constructed in three locations inSeoul in 1987, which until that time had only one sewage
treatment plant. This project set the ball rolling, andsubsequent large-scale investments were made in theconstruction of sewage treatment plants in the 1990s,
allowing the country to achieve high coverage for seweragetreatment. Although data is available for 2000 and beyondin China, the increase ratio is remarkable for this past
decade. This is expected to be the result of large-scale
investments in the construction of sewage treatment
plants during the 10th and 11th Five-Year Plans. In
Thailand, a rapid increase in coverage ratio was observed
during the late 1990s to the early 2000s, which is due tothe construction of sewage treatment plants in
Metropolitan Bangkok Area during that period.

Coverage ratio of sewerage treatment (%)
100

China
Japan

80

Japan

(Large Scale of Sewerage)

Republic of Korea

60

Malaysia
40

Thailand

20

0
1975

1980

1985

1990

1995

2000

2005

2010

Year

Figure 2.1.7. Change in service coverage ratio for sewerage system in selected Asian countries(Source: See References)

Septic tank coverage

In areas without access to sewage treatment plants,
treatment based on previously discussed septic tanks iscommon, mainly in urban areas. Table 2.1.3 demonstrates
the coverage ratio of septic tank treatment in selected
countries and cities. While data is not complete for all
countries, it can be surmised that in countries where thecoverage rate of sewerage is low, the coverage rate of septic
tanks is high particularly in urban areas. However,quantitative data on the installation of septic tanks has notbeen prepared in most countries. Thus, there is a futureneed to make efforts to ascertain the current situation inthese countries.

34

Table 2.1.3. Septic tank coverage ratio in selected areas/
countries
Country

Viet Nam

Year

2008

Area

Coverage Ratio (%)

National average

41

Urban area

79

Rural area

26

Malaysia

2010

National average

21

Philippines

2010

Manila71

Sri Lanka

N/A

Kandy

87

(Source: See References)

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012

Chapter 2.1 Domestic Wastewater Treatment in Asia

BOD removal rate of different treatment measures fordomestic wastewater

Table 2.1.4 summarizes BOD removal rates of different
treatment measures for domestic wastewater. BOD

removal rates of septic tank treatment are 30 to 60% basedon the results of different studies, which are smaller than
the removal rate of sewerage with aeration.

Table 2.1.4. BOD removal rates of different treatment measures for domestic wastewater
Treatment Methodologies

Treatment Process

BOD removal Rate (%)

Septic Tank (USA)

-

46-54

Septic Tank (USA)

-

31-32

Septic Tank (Philippines)

-

30-60

Sewage Treatment Plant (Philippines)

Rotating biological contactor

90-95

Sewage Treatment Plant (Malaysia)

Oxidation ditch

87-88

Sewage Treatment Plant (Malaysia)

Extended aeration

80-99

Sewage Treatment Plant (Malaysia)

Sequencing batch reactor

80-93

Sewage Treatment Plant (Japan)

Trickling filter

75-85

Sewage Treatment Plant (Japan)

Conventional activated sludge

85-95

Sewage Treatment Plant (Japan)

Conventional Activated Sludge

85-95(Source: See References)

2.2. National Development Plan on Domestic
Wastewater Treatment Facility

Table 2.1.5 lists the national development plan fordomestic wastewater treatment of each WEPA country.
The situation is similar to that of legal institutions in the
countries of Cambodia, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Lao PDR and
Myanmar, where sewage treatments plants are few innumber. Namely, while some countries have drawn up
master plans for construction of domestic wastewater
treatment facilities in some regions, overall plans fordomestic wastewater treatment have not been drafted at
the national level.
Japan’s Five Year Plans for Sewerage Development
were established in 1963, including sewage treatment
facility provision objectives and budget allocations foreach period. This plan was completed in 2003. At present,a plan is drafted for each prefecture that establishes
objectives for maintenance of domestic wastewater
treatment facilities and budget, as well as an “Overall Plan
for Provision of Sewers by Catchment Area.” The Republicof Korea also established a policy focusing on seweragedevelopment as one of the main measures for domestic
wastewater treatment. According to the policy, the ROKplans to increase the sewerage treatment ratio to 92% until
2015, and invest in the construction of sewage treatment
plants in rural areas, in particular, as urban areas havealready achieved high coverage rates. In China andMalaysia, national five-year plans have been drawn up, andprovision objectives have been established. In Thailand,priority regions that have been targeted for provision ofdomestic wastewater treatment facilities by 2041 havebeen compiled, and ideal provision methods for eachregion have been prescribed.
Plans in Philippines have been drawn up thatdifferentiate between the Manila metropolitan area andother regions. In the Manila metropolitan area, the agency
in charge of construction and management of domestic
wastewater treatment facilities, the Metropolitan Water
Works and Sewerage System (MWSS), has concluded a
Concession Agreement with Manila Water and Maynilad
Water Services for the construction and management ofdomestic wastewater treatment facilities in the eastern andwestern districts respectively of the Manila metropolitan
area. The term of the Concession Agreement is forty years
from 1997 to 2037, and a 100 % sewerage treatment
coverage rate is to be achieved in both districts by 2037.
For regions other than the Manila metropolitan area, theNational Programme on Sewerage and Septage
Management was drafted in 2010 with provision objectives
set up to 2020. Likewise, national domestic wastewater
treatment plans have been drafted in Indonesia and Viet
Nam. Indonesia has set provision objectives through 2014,
and Viet Nam has established provision objectives through2025. Sri Lanka established a development plan forsanitary facilities by 2015.
While the contents of objectives differ for eachcountry, in the four countries of Thailand, Philippines,
Indonesia and Viet Nam, where the need for domestic
wastewater treatment facilities are urgent, plans focus onadvancing the provision of sewage treatment plants mainly
in urban areas.

35

Table 2.1.5. Content of national plan for construction of domestic wastewater treatment plants in WEPA countries
Country

Prepared by

Name of Plan

Republic of Korea Comprehensive Clean Water Supply Countermeasures

Year of Establishment

Ministry of Environment

1989

Ministry of Land,
Infrastructure, Transport andTourism1963(1st) - 1996(8th)Local government-

Local government-

Five-Year National Plan for Environmental Protection

Ministry of Environmental
Protection-

Malaysia Five-Year Plan--

National Sewerage Development Plan

N/A

N/A

Thailand

Policy and Target Area for Domestic Wastewater Management(Year 2010-2041)

Ministry of Natural
Resources and Environment

2009

Indonesia

National Policy and Strategy for Development of Municipal Wastewater
Management System

Ministry of Public Works

2008[Metro Manila]- Concession agreement- Manila Sanitation and Sewerage Project- Manila Second Sewerage Project- Manila Third Sewerage ProjectMetropolitan Water Worksand Sewerage System

1997
1980
1996
2007

[Outside Metro Manila]- National Program on Sewerage and Septage Management

Department of Public Worksand Highways

2010

Viet Nam

Development Policy and Vision of Wastewater and Sewerage Treatment(Development Policy until 2025 and Vision until 2050)

Prime Minister

2009

Nepal

[Bagmati River Basin]
Bagmati Action Plan

High Powered Committee forIntegrated Development of2009
the Bagmati Civilization

Sri Lanka[Greater Colombo Area]
Greater Colombo Wastewater Management Project

N/A

Five-Year Plan for Sewerage Development
Japan

China

[Each Prefecture]
Comprehensive plan for developing a sewage system for each river[Each Prefecture]
Prefectural Plan for Development of Domestic Wastewater Treatment
Plant

Malaysia

Philippines

2.3. Issues on Domestic Wastewater Treatment
in Asia
Need for domestic wastewater treatment

The preceding sections reviewed the present state andfuture plans for domestic wastewater treatment conductedin Asian countries. It is clear that in regions where domestic
wastewater treatment is urgently required, diffusion ofcentralized sewage treatment system is the main measure
being taken for domestic wastewater treatment. In fact,
sewage treatment plants have been constructed since the1990s in many Asian countries. In addition, theconstruction of sewage treatment plants is planned in thenear future as one of the main measures for most urban
cities in Asian counties with low coverage rates for seweragetreatment. However, the rate of coverage of seweragetreatment differs by country. As is shown in Figure 2.1.6,
the ROK, Japan, Malaysia and the urban areas of China
have achieved high coverage rates, but levels remain low inother countries. In areas without access to sewage treatment

36

2009

plants, treatment based on previously discussed septic
tanks is common, mainly in urban areas. However, theBOD removal rate of septic tank treatment is lower than
one of sewerage treatment with aeration.
In addition, in some Asian cities, only black water istreated by septic tank, and grey water is discharged without
treatment into the environment, which may lead to its
becoming a pollution source for the water environment.
Further, cases where septic tanks do not conform tonational guidelines or are not installed properly can befound in some areas of Asia.
Issues on construction of domestic wastewater treatment
facilities

In order to mitigate and prevent water pollution, domestic
wastewater including both grey water and black water
should be adequately treated by highly performing
treatment processes with effective pollution removal rates,
especially in areas without access to sewerage treatment.

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012

Chapter 2.1 Domestic Wastewater Treatment in Asia

However, according to United Nations data (UNDP
2006), the construction of sewage treatment plants is twoto three times more costly than the installation of septic
tanks. In fact, an examination of the relationship between
the coverage ratio for sewerage treatment in WEPA
countries and per capita GDP (see Figure 2.1.8) reveals acertain positive correlation. In most Asian countries where
the coverage ratio for sewerage treatment is still low, theper capita GDP remains under USD 4,000. Thus, theconstruction of large-scale sewage treatment plants, which
are more costly than septic tanks, is not an economicallyfeasible option in these countries.

Sewerage Treatment ratio (%)
100
Republic of Korea
80

China*
Malaysia**

60

40
Thailand20

Philippines, Indonesia, Viet Nam, Cambodia, Lao PDR,
Myanmmer, Nepal, Sri Lanka
0

Issues on operation of domestic wastewater treatment
facilities% of actual inflow/design capacity

Operational issues of sewage treatment plants following
construction and entering operational stages have also beenreported in some Asian countries. Cases have been observed
where residents dislike paying sewage treatment fees andtherefore do not connect to the service despite living in the
coverage area. Accordingly, inflow is less than the treatment
capacity. Figure 2.1.9 shows the percentage of actual inflow
accounted for in the treatment capacity of plants in 17
locations in Indonesia. Of the 17 locations, only sevenplants have an inflow of wastewater over 50% of treatment

Japan

10,00020,00030,00040,00050,000GDP per Capita (curent-USD)* Sewerage treatment ratio of China is only for urban area**Sewerage treatment ratio of Malaysia is except for Sabah and Sawawak province

Figure 2.1.8. Relationship between sewerage treatment
coverage ratio and GDP per capita in WEPA countries(Source: See References)

capacity, and others are under 50%. The figure shows thatfor two locations in particular, inflow is less than 20%. For
the country on the whole, wastewater volume at only 47%
of treatment capacity is treated at sewage treatment plants.

100
80
60
40
20
0

el

gk

P

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r
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n
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M
pu
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m
P
b
h
ru
m
Pe
(P
Pe
La
n

wo

Se

Swerage Treatment Facility

Figure 2.1.9. Percentage of actual inflow to treatment capacity of plants in Indonesia (2011)(Source: Data provided by the Ministry of Public Works of Indonesia)

Moreover, as mentioned in Table 2.1.6, the inability tocollect sewage treatment fees from most treatment plantusers in Thailand has resulted in the use of the publicfinances from local governments to cover operational costs.
In recent years, more regional governments have called forthe collection of sewage treatment fees, and the central
government is working on setting regulations on proceduresto establish sewage treatment fees. Nevertheless, manydifficulties remain in the actual collection of these fees. In

Malaysia, sewage treatment fees are not levied according tousage, rather a fixed sewage treatment fee for ordinary
households has been established. Moreover, lower fees havebeen established for low-income groups. The Indah Water
Konsortium (IWK) that operates the sewage treatment
facilities in Malaysia cannot operate on sewage treatment
fees alone. Thus, it receives funds from the Ministry of
Finance in order to operate.

37

Table 2.1.6. Sewage treatment fees in Asia
Country

Sewage Treatment Fee

Republic of Korea

Sewage treatment fees are set based on the volume of water consumption.

Japan

Sewage treatment fees are collected together with water charges. Basically, sewage treatment fees are set basedon the volume of water consumed. Operational costs of individual sewage treatment tanks including desludging,monitoring of water quality, etc. should be the owners’ responsibility.

China

Sewage treatment fees are collected from users in urban areas. However, fees are not collected from users in mostrural areas. In this case, operational costs of sewage treatment plants are covered by local governments.

Malaysia

Flat rate charging system is applied to domestic wastewater treatment. Monthly fees are 8 RM for each householdregardless of wastewater volume. Lower fees are applied to lower-income households or houses in new villages.

ThailandSewage treatment fees are collected from users of constructed sewage treatment plants.

Indonesia

Sewage treatment fees are collected together with tapped water fees in east zone of Manila. In the beginning,
sewage treatment fees were 50% of tapped water fees. In 2008, as the fee system was reviewed, the sewage
treatment fee was planned to be reduced every year to 20% of tapped water fee by 2012, regardless of whether users
are connected to sewage treatment facilities.

Philippines

In Viet Nam, a water environmental tax is charged to all households, regardless of whether users are connected to
sewage treatment facilities.

Viet Nam

Sewerage fees are collected from households connected to the sewerage system.

Sri Lanka

Sewerage service fees are collected together with tapped water fees in Kathmandu. The sewerage service fee is
50% of the tapped water fee.

Nepal

Sewerage service fees are collected together with tapped water fees in Kathmandu. The sewerage service fee is
50% of the tapped water fee.

Cambodia

Sewage treatment fees are collected from users of constructed sewage treatment plants.

Lao PDR

N/A

Myanmar

N/A(Source: Result of the interview conducted by the WEPA secretariat in 2010 and 2011)

3. Good Practices for Sustainable Domestic
Wastewater Treatment in Asia
In the previous chapter, the current state, future plans andissues surrounding domestic wastewater treatment in Asia
were reviewed. The result of review shows that it isimportant that the policies developed clearly set out theoptions available for domestic wastewater treatment inareas without access to sewage treatment under considerable
financial and social constraints. In order to overcome theseissues, WEPA countries developed feasible strategies inconsideration of their own socio-economic conditions andimplemented these strategies in a sustainable manner. In
this chapter, unique and useful practices are introduced.
3.1. Focus on the Impact of Grey Water on theEnvironment

From the perspective of preventing water pollution
caused by domestic wastewater, it is important to treat

38

both black and grey water. As mentioned previously, thepercentage of BOD load from black water does notexceed 30%, with the remaining 70% making up thepollution load from grey water discharged in Japan. In
the past, most individual sewage treatment tanks treated
only black water. However, the Japanese government
focused on the impact of grey water in order to mitigate
water pollution, and revised laws related to individual
sewage treatment tanks in 2001, in which new
installations of individual sewage treatment tanks thattreat only black water (Tandoku-shori johkaso) wereprohibited, and treatment of both black water and grey
water is obligatory. As a result of the enforcement of thislaw, the percentage of individual sewage treatment tanks
that treat only black water has decreased dramaticallyand the number of tanks that treat both black and grey
water has increased gradually.

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012

Chapter 2.1 Domestic Wastewater Treatment in Asia

Number of johkasou,thousand
9,000

Johkasou

8,000

Tandoku-shori johkasou

7,000
6,000
5,000
4,000
3,000
2,000
1,000
0

1970

1975

1980

1985
1990
Fiscal year

1995

2000

2005

Figure 2.1.10. Change in number of johkasou* Johkasou is individual sewage treatment tanks for both black and grey water. Tandoku-shori johkasou treat only black water.
(Source: MoEJ undated)

3.2. Selection of Feasible Policy Options underSocio-economic Constraints
Setting priorities for domestic wastewater treatment
facility development

As previously mentioned, investment to the centralized
treatment system or sewerage is not always feasible for
WEPA countries. Construction of large-scale sewage
treatment plants that requires major investment isparticularly difficult. Furthermore, some countries face
additional problems, such as shortage or lack of landavailable for the construction of sewerage facility in areas
where housing developments are already completed.
Also, there are many countries and regions without theextra funds to invest in pipes for domestic wastewater.
In order to overcome these socio-economic conditions,
there are many countries that first prioritize the provisionof treatment facilities for domestic wastewater. Philippines
and China have made advancements in establishingmeasures in their capital and major cities, which face
severe water pollution due to domestic wastewater issues,
their first priority. Thailand has set an order of preference
for catchment areas that must be protected, and isconstructing sewage treatment plants giving priority toareas where these catchments are located.

decentralized approach is being employed even in urban
areas in Malaysia and Manila in Philippines (eastern
district). In order to improve the coverage ratio of sewage
treatment plants in Malaysia, developers of housing
complexes are required to construct sewage treatment
plants as a condition of development and the developer
should bear related costs. Moreover, the Sewerage Service
Department (SSD) confirms that sewage treatment
plants should follow structural standards set by thenational government. Thus, technical guarantees are alsoin place. As sewage treatment plants are constructedalong with each development project, the treatment
capacity of about 90% of sewage treatment plants areunder approximately 1,000 m3 per day capacity, as shownin Figure 2.1.11. As a result of this approach, Malaysia
achieved a sewerage treatment coverage ratio of 66% for
the whole country in 2010, with the exception of Sabahprovince and Sarawak province.
31

More than
11,250 (m3/day)Less than
1,125 (m3/day)

696

5,054

Decentralized approach

It should be noted that a decentralized approach is being
actively employed in WEPA countries. While small-scaledecentralized sewage treatment plants are generally
constructed in regions with low population density, as iscommon in Japan and the rural areas of China, a

1,125 -11,250(m3/day)

Figure 2.1.11. Number of sewage treatment plants per
capacity in Malaysia (2010)(Source: Malaysian Water Association 2011)39

In order to increase coverage of sewerage treatment over ashort period of time in Manila (eastern area), theauthorities focused on existing community septic tanks.
Because community septic tanks have already collected
domestic wastewater via waste pipes, the social
foundations were already in place to collect treatment feesfor domestic wastewater in the community. Thus, thecurrent system could be smoothly upgraded from
community septic tanks to sewage treatment plants withtreatment under aerobic conditions. Accordingly, theconstruction of sewage treatment plants gained speed in
the decade since 2000, and most have a capacity of lessthan 10,000 m3 per day. As a result of this approach, thesewerage treatment ratio in the eastern area of Manila
increased from less than 3% in 1997 to 23% in 2011.
Utilization of existing infrastructure

In Manila, efforts are being actively made to utilize theunderground spaces of existing buildings and merge withexisting storm drains. The construction of storm drains
for removal of rainwater is taking precedence inSoutheast Asia where floods are frequent. Many cases ofmerging sewer pipes with existing storm drains have been
confirmed in Cambodia and Viet Nam.
Application of treatment process without use of electricity

In China, the constructed wetland system is applied fordomestic wastewater treatment without the use ofelectricity. According to a notice from Ministry ofEnvironmental Protection in 2011, of 2,738 urban
treatment plants, 86 operating domestic treatment plants
applied the constructed wetland system. In Chongqing
city, there are two domestic wastewater treatment plants
constructed through a Japan-China cooperative projectin 2008. The plants used a constructed wetland systemafter the contact aeration process and activated sludge
process in order to reduce electricity consumption. Thesefacilities achieved 43-98% and 62-97% of BOD removal
rates respectively, based on monthly data for water

Photo 2.1.2. Constructed wetland in Chongqing city

40

quality monitoring conducted over a one-year period
following construction.
3.3. Community or private sector’s
involvement in construction andoperation of sewerage treatment plantCommunity involvement

In many regions of Asia, due to social conditions such as
low household income levels and little public awareness,
the necessary conditions to accept domestic wastewater
treatment facilities are not in place. As such, issues suchas the previously mentioned low connection rates andsewerage service fee collection rates have manifested
themselves. In order to address these problems, Indonesia
has attempted to improve public awareness by garnering
participation from local residents from the planningstages in regions where provision of domestic wastewater
treatment facilities are planned. A programme entitled
SANIMAS has been carried out since 2006. Participationfrom residents is elicited from planning stages, and theselection of project sites and technology is conductedalong with local residents, in addition to the drafting of acommunity action plan. Engaging in construction andoperational management based on this plan is designed
to facilitate the voluntary participation of residents indomestic wastewater management. Communities
participating in the project have steadily increased.
Domestic wastewater treatment facilities have been
constructed in 395 locations in 22 provinces over the
four-year period from 2006 to 2009, and are being
operated and managed by residents.
Private sector involvement

Private companies in Philippines and Malaysia carry out
the operation of sewage treatment plants to ensure they
are operating efficiently. In 1997, the Metropolitan
Water Works and Sewerage System (MWSS) in
Philippines, with jurisdiction over waterworks andsewerage projects in the Manila metropolitan area,

Photo 2.1.3. Case of Community Involvement into
Construction of Domestic Small Scale Wastewater
Treatment Plant in Indonesia (SANIMAS) implemented by
Ministry of Public Works in cooperation with BORDA(Source : BORDA)WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012

Chapter 2.1 Domestic Wastewater Treatment in Asia

entered a concession agreement with the privatecompanies of Manila Water and Maynilad Water
Services for the construction and management ofdomestic wastewater treatment in the eastern andwestern districts of the metropolitan area.
In 1993, the Sewerage Services Act was enacted in
Malaysia to give jurisdiction to the central government
for sewerage services which had hitherto been managed
by the state governments. Concurrently, the privatecompany of Indah Water Konsortium (IWK) wasestablished to operate the sewerage projects, and in thatsame year, the government entered a consignment
contract with IWK for the operation of sewage treatment
plants in the country. Thus, nearly all public sewage
treatment plants on the Malay Peninsula are operated by
IWK. Furthermore, a private company called Majaari
Services was established in 2009 in the state of Kelantan
on the Malay Peninsula to conduct operations of sewage
treatment plants. At this time, the operation of sewage
treatment plants by private companies in Manila andMalaysia has moved forward smoothly.
At the time of its establishment in 1993, the Indah
Water Konsortium (IWK) was a self-sustaining privatecompany. However, the company was unable to collectan adequate amount of sewage treatment fees to run thecompany. Thus, seven years later in 2000, the company
was nationalized and operations are presently conductedwith funds from the Ministry of Finance. The 2009
financial report of IWK shows that of the MYR 723
million annual income, income from sewage treatment
fees was limited to approximately 60% at MYR 434
million. Funding from the Ministry of Financeaccounted for approximately 35% at MYR 250 million.
In this manner, for other regions of Asia as well,considerable potential may exist in the option to operate
sewage treatment plants with the involvement of privatecompanies. However, there is potential for dilemmas toarise that cannot be dealt with by private companies
alone, particularly in the grey area between establishmentof appropriate sewage treatment fees in general andestablishment of sewage treatment fees that take into
account the economic level of residents. As is evident in
the case of Malaysia, guaranteeing that sufficient
operational costs are covered and securing funding froma public institution is indispensable to the sustainable
operation of sewage treatment plants.
4. Conclusion
All WEPA partner countries made significant efforts toimprove conditions to achieve sanitation targets of theMillennium Development Goals (MDGs) and therefore
treatment of black water has been promoted in the region.
However, the pollution load of grey water is also
considerable and therefore it is necessary to promote
treatment of grey water in addition to black water.
Sewerage treatment systems, an option to treat both
black and grey water, are typically observed in other regionsof the world. However, coverage rates for seweragetreatment systems remain low in all WEPA countries withthe exception of the ROK, Japan, Malaysia and China. In
areas without sewerage connections, septic tank treatment
is a typical option. However, domestic wastewater
treatment by septic tank shows less BOD removal ratio
than sewerage treatment. Moreover, septic tanks are able toreceive only black water in some areas. Because the grey
water is discharged into the environment without treatmentin these areas, the impact of grey water on the environment
is significant. In order to prevent water pollution caused by
the domestic sector, domestic wastewater including bothgrey water and black water should be treated by treatment
processes with high removal rates for pollution load inareas without access to sewerage treatment. However,
because large-scale sewage treatment plants require major
investments of time and money for construction,
approaches that take the socio-economic situation of Asia
into account should be adopted.
WEPA countries have amassed a vast array of experiencesin domestic wastewater treatment in sustainable ways undersocio-economic constraints. Of these, the following three
approaches that are prevalent in the actions taken by WEPA
countries are unique, as well as useful. Firstly, WEPA
countries focus on the treatment of grey water considering
its impact on the environment. In addition, it is particularly
worth noting that feasible policy options on domestic
wastewater treatment have been selected in order toovercome the issues that have arisen from socio-economic
constraints. Moreover, WEPA countries, through theirexperiences, are able to highlight good practices incommunity or private sector involvement in theconstruction and operation of sewage treatment plants.
There is no one single pathway to sustainable domestic
wastewater treatment. Different options for construction
and operation of domestic wastewater treatment facilities
should be adopted in order to overcome the unique issues
facing the diverse countries in this region.
WEPA supports this manner of learning from thesetypes of experiences, sharing useful knowledge and has a
new appreciation of the importance of discussing
applications to other areas.

41

Chapter 2.2

Climate Change and the Water Environment

Summary of findings based on WEPA discussions and surveys

1. Background
Climate change is one of the drivers of change in water
resources and poses challenges to existing water
management practices (Connor 2009). Climate change
can affect the water environment in complex ways (Figure
2.2.1). Various direct and indirect impacts of climatechange to the water environment are expected, which will
occur in association with other socio-economic factors.
The Working Group II of the Intergovernmental Panelfor Climate Change (IPCC) concluded that “higher watertemperatures, increased precipitation intensity, and longer
periods of low flows exacerbate many forms of waterpollution, with impacts on ecosystems, human health,water system reliability and operating costs (highconfidence)” (Kundzewicz et al. 2007). The impacts ofhuman induced climate change include higher watertemperatures that affect the self purification capacities ofwater bodies by reducing the amount of dissolved oxygen(DO), which consequently disrupts indigenous aquatic
biological species. In addition to direct impacts on watertemperature, the potential increase of water use in theenergy sector for cooling purposes is also considered to be
an indirect cause of higher water temperatures (Kunazewicz
et al. 2007). An increase in water temperatures may resultin an oxygen-deficient environment in lakes by increase inthermal stability and altered mixing patterns (Bates et al.
2008).
In addition to water temperature, changes inprecipitation patterns, intensity and duration also affectwater quality. Intense rainfall over short periods increases
the amount of suspended solids, sediment, nutrients andother toxins in water bodies due to run-off. In addition,
unreliable supplies of surface water caused by changes inprecipitation patterns may increase dependency on
groundwater for potable use, resulting in overexploitationof the groundwater resource, as well as increased risks tohuman health from arsenic and fluorine where they exist in
groundwater. The rising of sea water levels due to climatechange is another threat, resulting in salt water intrusion tosurface and underground freshwater systems, consequently
causing deterioration in water quality. The impact onhuman health and water quality due to flooding of polluted
water is also identified as a potential risk. Combined withexcessive water exploitation, problems from salt water42

intrusion would be more intensified in coastal cities.
Increase of wastewater due to increased demand caused byatmospheric temperature rise such as in the irrigation
sector, which may provide negative impacts to water
quality. These potential adverse impacts to water quality
may aggravate water scarcity in the region.
Aquatic ecosystems are also affected by higher
atmospheric and water temperatures, the changes inprecipitation and sea level rise. A warmer climate may
increase threats to wetlands, which are one of the important
habitats of many species. Increases in water temperature
may favor exotic aquatic species rather than indigenous
species. Once ecosystems are destroyed, they cannot berecovered or require tremendous time and effort to restore.
Considering that climate change may render great
impacts on the water environment in a variety of ways, andalso recognizing that the Asia-Pacific region has alreadyobserved events that are presumed to be caused by climatechange, WEPA decided to initiate information exchange
and discussions on “climate change and the water
environment and possible adaptation options” as one of its
priority topics in the second phase activities that started in
2009.
WEPA found that information on the potential
impacts of climate change on the water environments(water quality and aquatic ecosystems) is not sufficient tofacilitate discussion among partners. Therefore WEPA
activities for this topic concentrated on information andknowledge-sharing through WEPA workshops, reinforcedby literature reviews and fact-finding and perception
surveys. This chapter summarizes these WEPA activities in
the Japanese fiscal years 2009 to 2011 and outlines future
actions for WEPA on this topic.
2. Impact of Climate Change on Water
Quality and Aquatic Ecosystems in WEPACountries
WEPA partner countries demonstrate examples of changes
in the water environment that are suspected to result fromor be escalated by climate change. Figure 2.2.2 shows such
examples from relevant literature and news articles. A
comparative study conducted in East and Southeast Asia
between 2007 and 2008 shows that changes in precipitation
volume and patterns can affect surface water quality in EastWEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012

Chapter 2.2 Climate Change and the Water Environment

WATER USAGE

Water Usage
Trouble (Volume)

Fishing

Chloride damage

dec.

Sea
acidification

Fish andshellfish

dec.

Coral

var.

benthic
speciesdec.

seaweed bed

dec. dec.

Heavy Metal
Elution

dec.

dec.

Tidelandocean
currentvar.

Sea bed DO

dec.

var.

wind

inc.

dec.

var.

Nutrient salts
Elution

Thermocline
formation

Invasion of
Ground/Sea Water

inc.
var.
inc.

var.

ClimateChangeinc.

Air
Temperature

inc.

inc.

CLIMATECHANGE

dec.

inc.

inc.

var.

var.

inc.

Earth
Temperature

var.

var.

inc.
dec.

Naturalpurification
var.
var.

Snow
flood

var.

inc.

Rainfallintensity

inc.

BASIN

dec.
var.

Sediment
discharge

var.

var.
var.

var.
var.

inc.

benthic
speciesvar.

Water Usage
Trouble (Quality)

dec.
dec.
inc.

dec.

var.

Form ofRiver Channel

Fishingdec. inc.

Fish andshellfish

var.
var.

WATER
USAGE

RIVER

dec.

DO Density

var.
var.

LAKE

Nitrate level

dec.
dec.

dec.
dec.
var.

var.

River bed
material
inc.

alien
species

dec.

inc.

dec.

dec.

dec.
dec.

Clarityinc.

Denitrification

nativespeciesbenthic
species

Lake
Turbidity

dec.

inc.

River Channel
Vegetation

Flood
Discharge

Lake bed
deposition

dec.

Organic substanceNutrient salts

inc.

var. var.

dec.
dec.

str.

toxic
substance

inc.

dec.
inc.

dec. inc.

str.

dec.

dec.
dec.

dec.

Thermocline
formationinc.
OxygenConsumption rateinc.

Lake bedDO

Lake DOdec.

Saturated
DO Density

dec.

NormalDischarge

groundwater level

dec.

dec.

inc.

vegetation・
forest physiognomy
acc.

Snow
melting

Water
Temperatureinc.

Evapotranspirationin river basin

acc.

Number ofdry day

inc.
inc.

dec.
inc.

SnowfallEscalation of
Typhoon Damage

NormalDischarge

str.

inc.

solar radiation
inc.

dec.

dec.
dec.

inc.

dec.

dec.

var.

Sea water
lever

CO2

inc.

inc. shellfish

Nutrient salts
Elution

dec.

inc.

Freshwater
lens

Fish and

dec.

dec.

Lake Water
lever

dec.

blue-green
algae

inc.

Vertical circulationof lake water

inc.

dec.

inc.

dec.

dec.
Evapotranspirationfrom water surface

inc.

dec.

Detention
time

Brackishwatersinc.

Nasty Smelland tasteinc.

Surface
Nutrient salts

inc.

inc.

Heavy Metal
ElutionSummer blue
algae

inc.

Freeze-up
In winter

Water
Purification

WinterPlanktoninc.

Clarity
In winter

inc.

inc.
dec.

dec.
dec.
dec.

inc.

inc.

inc.
inc.

inc.

Plankton

Organic
substance

dec.

inc.

dec.

inc.

OCEAN

inc.

Water Usage
Trouble (Quality)

Water Usage
Trouble (Volume)

dec.
dec.
var.

Attached
algae

inc.

dec.

River Turbidity

legendEffect factor
Input condition
Quantitative prediction
Qualitative prediction

Relationship between factors
increaseinc.
strengthening
str.
decreasedec.
accelerationacc.
variation
var.

Figure 2.2.1. Casual relationship between climate change and the water environment(Source: Provided by Ministry of the Environment of Japan)

43

In Asian countries, the expansion of human activities
puts more pressure on aquatic ecosystems and exacerbates
impacts by climate change. According to a dynamic climate
model, a variety of species are expected to disappear by 2050
in tropical areas and semi-enclosed seas (McMullen 2009).
Some other examples of suspected impacts to aquatic andmarine ecosystems are also shown in Figure 2.2.2.

Asia (Park 2009). Increases in winter temperatures may
have higher impacts on the water environment, as highwinter temperatures reduce the extent of winter mixing,
causing depletion of dissolved oxygen (DO) at the bottom
layer of water bodies as reported in Lake Biwa ( Japan) and
Lake Fuxian (China) (Kumagai et al. 2003). The reductionof DO in the bottom layer in stagnant water bodies, such as
lakes or reservoirs imposes an anaerobic condition which
may accelerate the release of pollutants from bottom
sediments. High levels of Total Suspended Solid (TSS) in
the Mekong River and Brantas River (Indonesia) in therainy seasons were reported and attributed to the increased
intensity of precipitation (Box. 2.2.1). Increase of runoff
due to heavier precipitation carries pollutants from land tosurface water bodies, resulting in the assimilation of
biodegradable organic matter by aerobic micro-organisms
consuming DO, which results in reduction of DO. A study
to investigate time series data of atmospheric temperature
and water temperature in the Lake Biwa area showed somecorrelation between them (Box. 2.2.2), but human induced
factors were also suspected to influence changes in watertemperature.

Not all examples shown in Figure 2.2.2. have beenscientifically proven, but we have already seen some changes
in the water environment. To deepen our understanding of
the impacts and incorporate climate change concerns inwater environmental management policy, further study isrequired. The participants in the WEPA workshops
identified that insufficient data and information, especiallythe lack of time series data, presented a barrier to further
promotion of scientific research. In addition, they pointed
out that it is often difficult to determine to what extent
climate change contributes to the observed environmental
changes since other stressors (e.g. population growth,urbanization and economic growth) also put significant
pressure on the water environment in the region.

Exotic tropical fish species appeared in Koreanmarine water such as large stingray with awingspan, while traditional winter fishes such as
Pollack are disappearing. (Jung, 2005)

The Momoge Wetland in the Songnen Plain dried
due to the recurrent droughts from 1990 to 2001, as
well as construction of upstream and improper useof groundwater. (Cruz. et al. 2007)

In Lake Fuxian, winter air temperature
was increased than preceding years.
Consequently reduce extent of wintermixing caused low DO at bottom.
(Kumagai et al. 2003)

Increased water temperature may hamper
winter mixing in Lake Biwa, causing
dissolved oxygen depletion at the bottom
layer. (Kumagai et al. 2003)
Japan

243 lakes in the northern China
disappeared due to climate change andhuman activities. (Ma et al. 2010)

In Pong River water temperature showeda similar increasing trend with ambient
temperature. (Wirojanagud et al. 2007)

Republic of
Korea
China

Nepal
MyanmarLao PDR
ThailandContinue rising of sea temperature caused
massive coral bleaching in Andaman Sea.
(Wipatayotin, 2010)

Viet Nam

Cambodia
Sri Lanka

Almost 90% of corals died in shallow water
near to Jakarta due to increase of Javasea temperature. (Hoeksema and Cleary)
In Citarum River, averagewater temperature increased
over time. (Agustiyan, 2007).
Impacts to the water quality
Impacts to aquatic ecosystems and its habitats

Philippines

Malaysia

Indonesia

In Brantas River, highdepth of rainfall caused
high TSS in wet season.
(Sarjiya and Nurleili, 2009)

Figure 2.2.2. Changes in the water environment attributed to climate change

44

Abundance of an endemic fish
species, Chaenogobius isaza Tanaka(Isaza) decreased in the Lake Biwa
due to reduction of DO at the bottom.
(Kumagai et al. 2003)

Severe damage to seaweeds in thewestern coastal area of Kyushu
observed, due to longer period of activityof herbivorous fish as recent rise in
winter ocean. (Yamaguchi et al. 2010)

In Lower Mekong River TSS levelin wet season was higher withlower DO value than dry season.
(Prathumratana et al. 2007)

Temperature increases of 1-2ºC above
the long- term average maximum canalready trigger mass coral bleaching in
Malaysia (WWF, 2010) .

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012

Chapter 2.2 Climate Change and the Water Environment

Box 2.2.1. A study of climate change impacts to water quality in Brantas River basin, Indonesia

The climate of Indonesia is already witnessing major changes. The depth of precipitation is likely to increase in
shorter rainy season, while it will become lower in dry season compared to the current climate. According to analysis
of water monitoring data for 12 years (1995-2007) in three stations at the Brantas River in East Java, Indonesia, DO
values show slight improvement trend at two stations, while decreasing at another one. A reason of the decreasing
trend of DO is considered to be industrial activities taking place near the monitoring station. The analysis identified
clear seasonal variation for BOD and COD - higher values of both parameters in the rainy season than in the dry
season. It is assumed that flush of contaminants and sediments with rain water may contribute to the higher value ofthese parameters, and higher TSS concentration in the rainy season may support this assumption. Higher ammonia
concentration in the rainy season is also observed. The seasonal change in water quality may be attributed to climatechange. However, it is difficult to directly link the effects of climate change to water quality in the basin because of otherfactors including human activities.
(Source: Sarjiya and et al. 2009)

Box 2.2.2. Case Study: Impacts of climate change on the water environment of Lake Biwa

Time series data on water temperature monitored at 46 points over the
past 30 years were analyzed as part of a study of potential impacts on
the water environment and possible adaptation actions, conducted by
Lake Biwa
the Ministry of the Environment of Japan from 2009 to 2011.
Results showed that the yearly increasing rate of water temperaturein Lake Biwa was 0.5 to 3.3°C (yearly average: 1.6°C) and 0.1 to 1.7°C(yearly average: 0.9°C) in summer and winter, respectively over the last
thirty years.
Atmospheric temperature data (1960-2008) at the Hikone local
meteorological observatory and water temperature at the centre of
Minami Hira offshore showed that the annual average increase rate of
Water Temp Changewater temperature during summer was 1.73°C, which is greater than
0-1℃that of atmospheric temperature (1.23°C). In winter, water temperature
1-2℃
and atmospheric temperature showed an different trend - the annual＞2℃
average increase rate of water temperature was 0.84°C and that of
atmospheric temperature was 1.48°C.
Figure 2.2.3. Water temperature change
Distinct changes in water temperature as compared to atmospherictrend over the past 30 years in Lake Biwa
temperature in summer revealed that the water temperature of Lake
Biwa is influenced by increasing atmospheric temperatures as well as other external factors. On the contrary, in winter,vertical mixing of cold water from the lower layers and warm water from the upper layers might attenuate the effect ofexternal factors on water temperatures of the largest lake (with 27,500 million m3) in Japan.
This study could not find significant collation between water temperature change in Lake Biwa and other external
factors such as population density and industrial activities in the lake basin. However, heat emission from wastewater
treatment is seen as another important factor impacting water temperature. A huge volume of high temperature (2528°C in summer and 17-19°C in winter) treated wastewater drains into Lake Biwa, which has a lower temperature of 2025°C in summer and about 10°C in winter. It was estimated that about 135 million cubic meters of treated wastewater
was drained into Lake Biwa in 2005. About 80 percent of the treated wastewater came from the southern basin and therest from the northern basin. The ratio of wastewater to lake volume in the southern basin was 0.53, which revealed
that heat emission from treated wastewater may greatly influence the water temperature of the largest lake of Japan.
(Source: Yuasa et al. 2011)45

To identify how water experts and governmental
officials working in water sector see the issue of climatechange and the water environment, WEPA conducted aquestionnaire survey on perceptions of climate change
impacts on the water environment in 2009. The survey was
distributed to water experts who have participated in
WEPA conferences over the past five years. Survey results
showed that most respondents were concerned with
disturbances within ecosystems, followed by the increase of
sedimentation. The respondents also chose intensificationof traditional water pollution issues, such as organic
pollution, eutrophication and pollution by pathogens, as
areas influenced by climate change. However, most haveconsidered that such changes in water quality could be
attributed to increases in water use or other factors, and nota direct result of higher water temperature.
3. Policy Responses: Adaptation policies/
strategies of WEPA partner countries
Policy responses to the potential impacts of climate change
vary from country to country. To determine how eachpartner country has prepared or is preparing for potential
impacts on the water environment in both climate change
adaptation policies and water resource/management
policies, the WEPA Secretariat conducted a survey to eachfocal point organization of WEPA to identify relevant
policy documents in 2009. The WEPA Secretariat also
reviewed policy documents available on the Internet thatare related to climate change adaptation and the water
environment. Table 2.2.1 is a summary of the survey andreview. Survey results are not exhaustive as informationthat could be obtained from partner countries as well as

0

5

10

15

Organic30

10

Pathogens

11
5

Sedimenation

22

Turbidity

11

Salinity

13

Heavy metal
Chemical

7

Ecosystem
Others25

12

Eutrophication

Acidification

20

26
4

Figure 2.2.4. Results of 2009 questionnaire survey on areas
impacted by climate change

through websites was limited.
The result of survey and review shows that water
shortage and natural ecosystems, including coastal andmarine ecosystems, are often addressed in national climatechange adaptation policies, strategies, and other related
government documents. However, water quality aspect is
not often mentioned in these policy documents. The
potential impacts of climate change and adaptation actions
are also not included in policy documents related to
management of the water environment. At a WEPA
international workshop, some participants pointed out alack of knowledge and scientific data to be a barrier in thedevelopment of policies for adaptation in the water
environmental management sector. Therefore exchange of
information and ideas among partner countries is necessary.

Table 2.2.1. Climate change adaptation related responses/actions related to water at national levels in WEPA countries
Mention of water environment sector in national
climate change adaptation strategies/plans

Inclusion of climate change concerns in strategies/plansconcerning national water resources or water environment
Master Plan of Integrated Water Resources does not include
climate change adaptation aspects.

Cambodia

National Adaptation Programme of Action to Climate
Change (NAPA) (2006) identifies high priority adaptation
activities. Many of the identified priority activities are related towater resource/environment, and provision of safe water in highrisk malaria regions.

China

China’s Policies and Actions for Addressing Climate
Change (2008) includes water resources as a priority sector
for adaptation. Natural ecosystem conservation and coastal
environments are also priorities. Wastewater reuse andconservation of coastal ecosystems are mentioned in the
document.

Indonesia

46

National Action Plan Addressing Climate Change (2007)
supports the Indonesian Water Vision, namely “actualization of
stable water utilization in an efficient, effective, and sustainable
manner for the prosperity of all people.” However, no specificreference to water quality is made.

National Water Vision does not mention specific concerns
regarding climate change impacts and adaptation actions for thewater environment.
The National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plan covered
actions for biodiversity and ecosystems in the country overall, butdoes not mention specific concerns regarding climate change.

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012

Chapter 2.2 Climate Change and the Water Environment

The Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism
organized an expert committee to consider the potential impactsof climate change on water resource management in the country
and necessary adaptation actions.

Japan

No national strategies/plans on adaptation exist. However, theMinistry of the Environment formed an expert committee on
climate adaptation, which drafted the report, “Wise Adaptation
to Climate Change Impacts”. Water (both quantity and quality)
is identified as a priority area for adaptation in the report.

Rpublic of Korea

The Fourth National Plan for Climate Change (2008-2012)
includes mitigation as well as adaptation actions. No sector
specific adaptation actions are mentioned.

The four major rivers restoration program considers potential
climate change impacts.

The National Adaptation Programme of Action to Climate
Change (2009) includes water as a priority action area for
adaptation, but no statements related to water quality and water
ecosystems are made in the section (flood and drought issues
being the main agenda). Adaptation actions for the public healthsector include the improvement of sanitation and ensuring
potable water quality.

The National Water Policy (draft in 2010) identifies the needfor coordinated programs to reduce the impacts of floods,
droughts and climate change. The Action Plan 2011–15 does
not specifically point out climate change impacts, but does
identify priority action areas.

The Second National Communication (SNC) (2011) mentions
possible water quality deterioration due to reduced or excessive
precipitation. Also, the SNC includes adaptation concerns forwater, health and biodiversity, which are closely linked with thewater environment.

The Tenth Malaysia Plan (2011-2015) does not clearly identify
climate change adaptation as a challenge for water resource
management, although flood and drought management isclearly indicated in the section on climate change adaptation(Chapter 6).

Lao PDR

Malaysia

The Ministry of the Environment is conducting a three-year
study on climate change impacts on the water environment andadaptation actions from 2009. (The final report will be completed
in 2012.)The National Strategy on Environment to 2020 and Action
Plan for 2006-2010 does not include climate change adaptation
concerns for water and water environmental management
sectors.

National Policy on the Environment does not include climatechange concerns regarding the water environment.
The National Strategies and Action Plan for Biodiversity
Conservation includes a reference to aquatic ecosystemconservation.

Myanmar

Nepal

Philippines

Sri Lanka

National Adaptation Programme of Action to Climate Change(NAPA) (2010) does not include the water sector as an area
for adaptation actions. The focuses of adaptation actions arewater related disasters and the increased vulnerability of water
resources in the country. Biodiversity and health issues areincluded, but no statements mention the relationship between
these sectors and water.

The National Water Plan points out the establishment of
information systems on water which may contribute to preparing
for climate change impacts.

The National Framework Strategy on Climate Change (20102022) (2010) includes ecosystem and water management as
key result areas for adaptation of the country. Mainstreaming
climate change adaptation in water resource policies is one of thestrategic priorities under the key area of “water governance andmanagement”.

The Integrated Water Resource Management Plan Framework(2006) includes concerns related to impacts on water supply
due to extreme events and rainfall variability. It also identifies
impacts on coastal and marine ecosystems.

The National Climate Change Adaptation Strategies 20112016 identifies water as one of the most vulnerable resources
to climate change impacts in the country. Acceleration of water
scarcity for irrigation and drinking purposes and exposure tofloods, droughts and salt water intrusion are mentioned. The
actions includes in the strategies cover those in the water sector,
but there are no specific actions related to water quality.

The Action Plan for the Haritha Lanka Programme (2008)
includes actions related to the use of water resources, waterpollution and biodiversity, but does not include adaptation
actions in those sectors.

The Second National Communication includes adaptation
actions, but no statements are contained related to water quality.

The National Policy on Environment (2007-2011) identifies
rehabilitation of watershed forests as an adaptation action
area, but no specific references on water quality or ecosystemconservation.

The National Target Programme to Respond to Climate
Change recognizes the high vulnerability of the country’s water
resources to climate change. The decline of water resources,
salt water intrusion, and destruction of aquatic ecosystems due
to changes in water flow and temperature are mentioned in the
document; however, the document does not address specificwater quality problems that may occur due to climate change(excepting increased salinity).

The National Water Resources Strategies towards 2020
includes climate change as one of the factors in the decline ofwater resources in the country.

Thailand

Viet Nam

The strategies identify water pollution and water ecosystemconservation as priority areas, but concerns over climate change
impacts on the water environment are not mentioned.

47

4. Investigation on potential impacts of climatechange: potential for climate change impact
study to lead to development of policies forthe water environment
In 2009, the Ministry of the Environment, Japan initiateda three-year study to investigate climate change impacts on
the water environment and possible adaptation options. As
a part of the project, the relationships between atmospherictemperature, water temperature and organic waterparameters are being analyzed based on accumulatedmonitoring data of 30 years.
Data for atmospheric and water temperature, as well aswater quality over the long term, are critical wheninvestigating potential climate change impacts. However,regular monitoring and maintenance of monitored data
are considered to remain a challenge in the promotion of
better management in some of WEPA countries (Chapter 1,p.21). Considering the need to strengthen water quality
monitoring and the potential necessity to compile andstore scientific facts to assess climate change impacts in the
future, the state of water quality related data collected ineach WEPA country was surveyed in 2009.
The survey investigated the current status and datacollection status of two basic parameters: air temperature
and water temperature. In addition, the survey devised to
identify the status of data collected for water quality atmonitoring points where water temperature data thatexisted for more than 10 years. Tables 2.2.2 to 2.2.6 show
the results of the survey on atmospheric temperature andwater temperature .
Table 2.2.2. Air temperature

Survey results reveal that WEPA partner countries haveattempted to strengthen water quality monitoring in recent
years, but data collection is not sufficient to evaluate theimpacts of climate change on water temperature and water
quality. Water quality monitoring must be ensured toobtain the data to form a basis for policy making, not only
to improve water quality but also from the perspective ofinvestigating the impacts of climate change. Below are thekey findings of the survey.
Sufficient data for water temperature and water quality
have not been collected in many WEPA partner countries
to allow a view of the trends and correlations in changes
in water temperature and water quality, especially inlakes/reservoirs and estuaries/coastal areas.
Water temperature and water quality monitoring is notconducted regularly in some countries.
Not all WEPA partner countries conduct regular water
quality monitoring for basic quality parameters such as
DO, BOD, and COD. It is no surprise that long-term,
quality data do not exist in most countries. In suchcountries, regular water quality monitoring systems
should be established to gain an understanding of thestate of water quality on which to base current and future
actions.
Data requested by the questionnaire exist in different
ministries and organizations in some countries. Thus,
WEPA partners face a barrier to the collection of relevant
information, which is likewise a barrier to studies ofpotential climate change impacts on the water
environment.
Table 2.2.3. Water temperature in rivers

No. of monitoring points
Points with data
accumulation of
more than 10 years

Current
Cambodia

1120Japan*

157

157

Republic of Korea

539

539

Lao PDR

23

17

Indonesia

139

109

Philippines

56

56

Malaysia

39

35

Myanmar

114

113

-

-

Nepal

48

Current

17

19

0

0

Japan

6,053

3,121

-

-

Republic of
Korea

1482

521

0

0

Lao PDR

0

0

0

0

Indonesia

-

-

105

0

Philippines

14

14

(14)

-

Malaysia

1063

908

0

0

Myanmar

-

-

-

-

Cambodia

Nepal

Current

0

0

-

-

4

0

0

>100

-

-

Thailand124

124

Thailand

Viet Nam

176

176

Viet Nam>100* Japan data is as of 2007. Data has been collected for more than 30 years at
a number of monitoring points.

Pointswith data
accumulationof more than
10 years

Pointswith data
accumulationof more than
10 years

39(automatic)* No data is available for China because of no response to the survey.

Twice/year(dry and rainy seasons)Monthly* Japan data is as of 2007. Data has been collected for more than 30 years at
a number of monitoring points.

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012

Chapter 2.2 Climate Change and the Water Environment

Table 2.2.4. Water temperature in lakes/reservoirs

Table 2.2.5. Water temperature in coastal waters

Twice/year(dry and rainy seasons)Monthly

Twice/year(dry and rainy seasons)Monthly

Current

Pointswith data
accumulationof more than
10 years

Current

Pointswith data
accumulationof more than
10 years

Cambodia

2

1

0

0

Republic of
Korea

189

150

0

0

Japan*

Cambodia

Current

Pointswith data
accumulationof more than
10 years

Current

Pointswith data
accumulationof more than
10 years

-

-

-

-

2,174

1,091

-

-

0

0

0

0

Japan**

529

265

-

-

Republic of
Korea

Lao PDR

-

-

-

-

Lao PDR

-

-

-

-

Indonesia

-

-

-

-

Indonesia

-

-

-

-

Philippines

14

14

(14)

(14)

Philippines

14

14

(14)

(14)

Malaysia*

0

0

0

0

Malaysia

158

-

0

0

Myanmar

-

-

-

-

Myanmar

-

-

-

-

Nepal

0

0

-

-

Nepal

-

-

-

-

Thailand

0

4

0

0

Thailand

0

4

0

0

Viet Nam

-

-

-

-

Viet Nam

-

-

-

-

* Lakes and reservoirs in Malaysia are managed and monitored by different
organizations or owners.
**Japan data is as of 2007. Data has been collected for more than 30 years at
a number of monitoring points.

* Japan data is as of 2007. Data has been collected for more than 30 years at
a number of monitoring points.

Table 2.2.6. Water quality data accumulated more than 10 years
Water quality monitoring data

Name of country which has accumulated data

Rivers (DO and/or BOD)

Japan, Republic of Korea, Thailand and Malaysia

Lakes (DO and/or BOD/COD)

Japan, Republic of Korea, Thailand and Philippines

Coastal waters (DO and/or BOD/COD)

Japan, Philippines (only Manila Bay)5. Future Action of WEPA
The above discussion has revealed that scientific knowledge
on climate change impacts on the water quality and aquatic
ecosystems of WEPA countries is very limited. Scientificstudies may require years to identify the impacts of climatechange on water quality and aquatic ecosystems due to thelack of time series data, lack of necessary facilities forscientific research, and lack of human resources indeveloping countries. However, it is important to continue
efforts to promote scientific study in this field. As revealedby the WEPA survey, the lack of monitoring data on watertemperature and water quality can become a barrier toassess the impacts of climate change on the water
environment in the future. In this regard, it is important tostrengthen water quality monitoring and data storage
systems in each country.
It is expected that water resources will be subject tonegative impacts than positive impacts at global level, andsuch negative impacts will affect other sustainable agenda
such as food security and poverty (Bates et al.(ed.) 2008).
Therefore, it is crucial to continue efforts to promotestudies and actions by both the scientific community as
well as policy makers. In addition to water quality related
data collection, perception surveys targeted at relevant
communities (e.g. fishermen) in the region could provide
additional relevant information on climate change impacts
and function as a way to gain empirical knowledge ofpotential impacts within a short time period. The
combination of such studies may increase knowledge ofclimate change impacts related to the water environment in
the region.
In addition, considering the flood that besieged
Bangkok in 2011, it is imperative to deliberate on how toincrease the level of preparation and resilience against suchextreme events. This includes measures to minimize therisks of water pollution, which may be caused by an increaseof sediments and suspended solids caused by heavy49

precipitation, as well as measures to reduce health risks that
may increase as a result of disasters, such as the overflow of
untreated wastewater and temporarily nonfunctional
wastewater treatment facilities, and water supply systems.
water treatment facilities.
Clear-cut scientific evidence does not yet exist in termsof climate change impacts on the water environment. As
discussed in WEPA meetings, distinguishing between theimpacts on the water environment, as being from humanactivity or climate change, is very difficult. However, whileconsidering the importance of and difficulties in addressing
this issue, WEPA will take the following actions.
To continue and enhance discussion and informationexchange open on this issue whereby WEPA partners canstrengthen water environmental management against
potential/suspected climate change impacts.
To strengthen WEPA activities and broaden theknowledge base to contribute to improvement of water
quality management in partner countries, recognizingthat strengthening and improvement of current water
quality management is an important adaptation action,
especially in countries which face implementation
problems.
As a knowledge base on this issue, an archive page on“Climate Change and the Water Environment” will
created for the WEPA database.

50

Chapter

3

Country Profiles of Water Environmental
Management in WEPA Countries

3.1

Cambodia

3.2

China

3.3

Indonesia

3.4

Japan

3.5

Republic of Korea

3.6

Lao PDR

3.7

Malaysia

3.8

Myanmar

3.9

Nepal

3.10 Philippines
3.11 Sri Lanka
3.12 Thailand
3.13 Viet Nam

Cambodia
1. Country Information
Table 3.1.1. Basic indicators
181,035 (2008)

Land Area (km2)
Total Population (person)

14.1 million (2010)

GDP (current USD)

11.2 billion (2010)
795 (2010)

Per Capita GDP (current USD)
Long-Average Precipitation (mm/year)

1,904 (2009)

Total Renewable Water Resources (km3)

476.1* (2009)

Total Annual Freshwater Withdrawals(billion m3)
Annual Freshwater
Withdrawal by
sectors

2.2 (2006)

Agriculture

94% (2006)

Industry

1.5% (2006)

Municipal(including domestic)

4.5% (2006)* Estimated(Source: See References)

2. Major Water Basins in Cambodia
Lao PDR

Thailand

13,000km2 with an average depth of 8-10m because of theincrease of water flow from the Mekong River.
With this unique hydrological system, the country has
an ample supply of water mainly from the Mekong River,
Tonle Sap River, Bassac River and other tributaries during
the rainy season. That said, most parts of the country
encounter water shortages especially for domestic andirrigation uses during the dry season because of insufficient
infrastructure development such as for water storage,
reservoirs, canals and irrigation systems. Water in
Cambodia remains regulated only in part, resulting in an
overabundance of water during the rainy season and a
deficiency in the dry season.
Groundwater availability is estimated to be 17.6
billion m3, which is primarily used for household watersupply and for irrigation. A major emerging player ingroundwater extraction is the industrial sector, located in
the outskirts of the capital and provinces (Sokha 2005).
The alluvial deposits of the Tonle Sap and Mekong
floodplain/delta are believed to be excellent shallow
aquifers which have high recharge rates. Data andinformation about groundwater and its utilization is stillinsufficient, but shallow wells could be used in an estimated
48,000km2 of the country (Sokha 2005).
4. State of Water Quality

Tonle Sap
Grate Lake
Tonle Sap
River
Phnom Penh

MekongRiver
VietnamBassac River
Gulf of Thailand

Figure 3.1.1. Major rivers in Cambodia

3. State of Water Resources
The Mekong catchment makes up about 86% ofCambodia’s land area. Tonle Sap Great Lake (TSGL) has
two flow directions: 1) In the dry season - water of TSGL
drains into the Mekong River, 2) In the rainy season water of the Mekong River drains into the TSGL. The lake
is about 2,500km2 in size and has a depth of 1-2m during
the dry season. However, its size considerably changes
during the rainy season, swelling to approximately

52

In general, surface water in Cambodia meets the national
ambient water quality standards—meaning water in the
country is not polluted. However, water quality has been
under threat in some areas especially during the dry season
due to the inflow of untreated effluents to public water
bodies from urban activities as well as agricultural run-off.
Development activities also cause water quality todeteriorate—for example, conversion of wetlands andforest to agricultural lands increases the risk of waterpollution from agricultural run-off which contains agrochemical residues (MoE 2009). Various pollution sources
such as untreated wastewater from manufacturing andmining, service and tourism industries, solid and liquid
wastes discharged from slaughterhouses and livestock
farms, as well as transportation by waterways, also have amajor impact on water quality in the country.
River water

According to Cambodia’s Annual Environmental Report
2010, the water quality in public waters has been assessed

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012

Chapter3.1 Cambodia

as good overall and water pollution is not considered to bea significant problem (MoE 2010). The officers of the
Department of Environmental Pollution Control, Ministryof Environment (DoEPC/MoE) of Cambodia conduct
water sampling each month at designated stations in the
Mekong River (e.g. Chroy Changvar, Phnom Penh Port,
Stoung Chouv, and Kien Svay). Table 3.1.2 shows BOD
values observed by recent water quality monitoring results in
the Mekong River, which indicates that the river quality
satisfies the ambient water quality standards of BOD (under
10mg/L). Monitoring results of other parameters at different
monitoring points are also shown in Figure 3.1.2 to 3.1.6.
pH

Table 3.1.2. Values of BOD in Mekong River
Year

Min. value

2006

3.62

1.77

2007

Not available

Not available

2008

3.43

0.53

2009

3.80

0.20

2010

4.80

0.27

01 – 10 mg/L

TSS (mg/L)
700

8

600

7.8

Standard: 25-100 (mg/L)

500

7.6

400

7.4
7

Ambient Water Quality
Standard for BOD(Source: MoE 2010)

8.2

7.2

BOD Value (mg/L)
Max. value

300
200

Standard: 6.5-8.5

100
0

2004

2006

2008

2010

Figure 3.1.2

0

2004

2006

2008

2010

2006

2008

2010

Figure 3.1.5

DO (mg/L)

Conductivity ( μs.cm)

8

1000

7

800

6
5

600

4
400

3
2
1
0

200

Standard: 2.0-7.5 (mg/L)
2004

2006

2008

2010

Figure 3.1.3

0

2004

Figure 3.1.6

BOD (mg/L)
7
6
5

MK River Upstream (Chrouy Changvar)

4

MK River Downstream (Kien Svay)

3

Bassac River (Ta Khmao)

2

PP Port (Tonle Sap River)

10Standard: 1-10 (mg/L)
2004

2006

2008

2010

Figure 3.1.4
Figures 3.1.2 to 3.1.6. Water quality monitoring results for different parameters at major monitoring points.
(Source: Sokha 2011)53

Lakes and reservoirs

According to various literatures, the general level ofpollution in lakes on average remains low, although waterpollution has been locally identified in and around floating
villages. Since 2009, MoE has started taking water samples
to check water quality of lakes. The results of monitoring of
COD show that the maximum value in 2010 exceeds
ambient water quality standards (Table 3.1.3).
Table 3.1.3. Lake water quality in Tonle Sap Great Lake in2009 and 2010
Chhnok TrueYear

(Tonle Sap Great Lake)

Max.value (mg/L) Min.value (mg/L)
2009

4.80

1.27

2010

8.57

1.0

Ambient Water Quality
Standard for COD

Under 8 mg/L

(Source: MoE 2009 and 2010)

Coastal water

Cambodia’s coastal shoreline is 435 km long on the Gulf ofThailand, and the seaward boundary of the coastal zone has
been delimited as the outer limit of the country’s exclusive
economic zone with an area of 55,600km2. The landward
boundary of the coastal zone has not yet been satisfactorily
defined, but it is currently considered to be about 5 km
from the shore. The coastal zones are situated in the four
provinces of Koh Kong, Kampot, Sihanoukville and Kep
municipalities. In general, coastal water is considered to beof fairly good quality, but development activities such as
those in economic zones and seaports may exert a negative
influence on coastal water and coastal ecosystems without
the sound management of solid and liquid wastes generated
from those activities. According to the results of monitoringin 2005-2006, water quality had not deteriorated in termsof total suspended solids, dissolved oxygen, biologicaloxygen demand, total nitrogen, and total phosphorous(MoE 2006).
Groundwater

The data on groundwater quality is very limited, but arsenic
contamination of groundwater was identified by a national
drinking water quality assessment in 2000 in someprovinces located in Mekong, Bassac and Tonle Sap Riverbasins (Arsenic Center of Cambodia 2010) wheredependency on groundwater as the source of domestic
water is as high as 62-100% (MoWRAM 2008).

54

5. Frameworks for Water Environment
Management
Legislation

The current legislative framework for water environment
management in Cambodia is shown in Figure 3.1.7. The
protection and promotion of environmental quality andpublic health is the objective of natural resource management
including water (Article 1, Law on Environmental Protection
and Natural Resource Management). The Law on Water
Resources and Management (2007) includes aspects ofwater quality management, such as requiring wastewater
discharge licenses or permission for activities that could havenegative impacts on water quality and human and ecosystem
health (Article 22), as well as designations for dangerous or
restricted zones for water use where the water quality,
quantity and ecological balance are endangered (Article 23).
The details on water environmental conservation
measures are explained in the Sub-decree on Water
Pollution Control, which was established in 1999 under
the Law on Environmental Protection and Natural
Resources Management. The sub-decree aims to regulate
various activities that could pollute and/or have alreadypolluted public water areas (e.g. rivers, lakes, groundwater,and sea water). Ambient water quality standards for humanhealth and bio-diversity (Article 7), as well as effluent
standards for pollution sources (Article 4) are set by thissub-decree. Other elements of the sub-decree include
monitoring of pollution sources and their effluents(Chapter 4), monitoring of public water areas (Chapter 5),
and inspection rules (Chapter 6). Other sub-decrees under
the Law on Environmental Protection and Natural
Resources Management, such as the Sub-decree on Solid
Wastes and the Sub-decree on Environmental Impact
Assessment Process, also contain articles related to water
environmental conservation.
Currently, two new pieces of legislation are being
drafted in relation to water quality management, namely
the Law on Environmental Pollution Management by
MoE and the Sub-decree on Water Quality by the Ministryof Water Resources and Meteorology (MoWRAM). The
draft Law on Environmental Pollution Management will
stipulate the process related to monitoring and control ofwater, air and soil pollution.

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012

Chapter3.1 Cambodia

Draft Law on Water Supply andSanitation of the Kingdom of Cambodia

Law on Environmental Protection andNatural Resources Management(December 1996)

Law on Water Resources
Management (2007)

Drinking Water Standard (2004)

Sub-Decree on Water Pollution Control(April 1999)

National Policy on Water Supply andSanitation (February 2003)

Sub-Decree on Solid Waste Management(April 1999)

National Water Resources Policy in theKingdom of Cambodia (January 2003)

Sub-Decree on Environmental Impact
Assessment Process(August 1999)

Policy Framework-Water Supply andSanitation of the Kingdom of Cambodia(February 2001)

Figure 3.1.7. Legislative framework on water environmental management in Cambodia(Source: MoEJ 2009)

Institutional arrangement

MoE is responsible for protection and management of theenvironment and natural resources*1 in the country basedon the Law on Environmental Protection and Natural
Resource Management (Article 9). Details of the ministry’s
responsibilities are described in Box 3.1.1 Under thenation’s environmental legislation, MoE issues orders tofactories which use chemical substances and otherpollutants to treat its wastewater prior to discharge to

receiving waters (MoE 2009). Local authorities such asprovincial and municipal environmental departments arein charge of water environmental management, such as
water quality monitoring.
MoWRAM, established in 1999, also engages in water
environmental management and monitors water quality.
In principle, MoE is responsible for tasks related to waterpollution and MoWRAM is responsible for tasks related
to ambient water quality.

Box 3.1.1. Responsibilities of Ministry of Environment of Cambodia under the Law on Environmental
Protection and Natural Resource Management

Research and assessment of the environmental impacts on natural resources (Article 9)
Provide recommendations to other concerned ministries to ensure conservation and rational use of the natural
resources (Article 9)
Develop inventories of pollution sources (Article 12)
Develop sub-degrees to prevent and reduce pollution (Article 13)
Monitor pollution sources and natural resource development activities (Article 14)
Conduct inspection of pollution sources (Article 15) and order improvement in case of violations (Article 20)
Provision of information of the activities of Ministry, as requested by the public (Article 17)

resources include land, water, airspace, air, geology, ecological systems, mines, energy, petroleum and gas, rocks and sand, precious stones,*1 Naturalforest and forest products, wildlife, fish, and aquatic resources (Article 8, The Law on Environmental Protection and Natural Resource Management)55

Ambient water quality standards

Ambient water quality standards for public water areas are
set by the Sub-decree on Water Pollution Control. There
are two kinds of water quality standards. The first is water
quality standards for biodiversity conservation designated
for rivers (five parameters), lakes and reservoirs (sevenparameters), and coastal water (seven parameters),
respectively. The second is water quality standards for
public health, which designates standard values for 25
parameters that have harmful effects on human health.
There are no ambient quality standards for groundwater,
but water quality is assessed by standards designated forspecific uses such as national drinking water quality
standards.
Monitoring of ambient water quality in public water bodies

MoE is responsible for the regular control and monitoringof water pollution in public water areas throughout
Cambodia (see Box 3.1.2). The details of parameters
monitored are shown in Table 3.1.4. Althoughdecentralization has led to local governments anddepartments handling various tasks, the main constraint tothis process is a lack of experienced officials and laboratories
for water quality analysis. Therefore, central officials of MoE
continue carrying out these tasks in conjunction with local
capacity building and institutional capacity development.
Table 3.1.4. Current status of water quality monitoring by
MoE (2011)
Parameter
monitored

Sampling sites

Frequency

BOD, DO, pH, Temperature, TSS, Coliform
Each of 10 public water body
(Chroy Chang Var, PP Port, Ta Kmao, Kien
Svay, Prek Kdam, Stoeung Sangke, Stoeung
Porsat, Stoeung Sen, Stoeung Chinit and Tonle
Sap Great Lake)
Once a month

Water quality samples are taken on an ad-hoc basis tocheck that groundwater quality satisfies standards fordrinking water and household use, as the country does not
yet have a regular groundwater quality monitoring system
in place.
Effluent Standards

Aiming at managing effluents discharged from pollution
sources, the Effluent Standard for Pollution Sources
Discharging Wastewater to Public Water Areas of Sewers
was established under the Sub-decree on Water Pollution
Control. Standard values are set for 52 parameters, such astemperature, pH, BOD, heavy metals, agricultural chemicals,
and organic solvents. In principle, the standards are applied
to all industries and other pollution sources designated by
the sub-standards. For areas which require special treatment
for protection of human health and biodiversity, MoE canestablish separate effluent standards for pollution sources in
the area (Article 5 of the sub-decree).
Effluent Monitoring

Under the Sub-decree on Water Pollution Control, allbusiness operators must self-monitor effluent and submit aperiodic report of the results to MoE. However, someindustries do not comply with this regulation. Therefore,
MoE regularly conducts on-site inspections to check
whether the business operators are in compliance with
effluent standards by taking and analyzing water samples ofthe effluent and also treated water. There are two types ofmonitoring programs in place at pollution sources: (i)regular effluent monitoring at normal factories and hotels
that is conducted within an interval period of 90 days; and(ii) regular effluent monitoring at factories that use
chemicals and/or chemical compounds for production thatshould be conducted in an interval period of 45 days.

(Source: MoEJ 2009)

Non-compliance Measures

Under the Water Quality Monitoring Network(Mekong River Commission (MRC) Program), MoWRM
also takes water samples monthly at designated stations inrivers and relevant tributaries for analysis and reports backto MRC via the Cambodia National Mekong Committee(CNMC). The parameters monitored are temperature,
pH, TSS, Conductivity, Ca, Mg, Na, K, Alk, Cl, SO4 , TotFe, Si, DO, COD, Mn, NO3-N, NH4-N, PO4-P, and
Tot-P. The monitoring results are made public via databaseand upon request.

56

When violation of effluent standards is found, MoE issues awritten order to industries to correct current activities tocomply with the standards. Industries are fined andpunished for violations in the monitoring and reporting of,and compliance with effluent standards stipulated under
the Sub-decree on Water Pollution Control if they do notrespond to orders issued by MoE.

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012

Chapter3.1 Cambodia

Box 3.1.2. Recent development of water quality management: strengthening water quality monitoring

Many developing countries in the region pointed out that lack of data on ambient water quality and effluent from
pollution sources are barriers to the promotion of water quality management; Cambodia is no different in this respect.
The Cambodian government has worked to strengthen monitoring and assessment of ambient and effluent water
quality for more than 15 years to improve and build upon the scientific basis for better management of water quality.
For example, MoWRAM started monthly water quality sampling at public water areas in 1993. MoE also conductsa routine monitoring programme at various areas and has conducted ambient water quality monitoring since 1999.
Such monitoring practices form the scientific basis for improvement of water quality management policy and specificmeasures in the future.
(Source: Sokha 2011)

6. Existing and Future Challenges
Based on the current state of water quality management in Cambodia, a few key management challenges are identified asfollows. process related to monitoring and control of water, air and soil pollution.
1. Weak legal framework such as lack of water quality
standards for specific beneficial uses such as humanhealth and recreation.

4. Budget limitations of government, especially for
improvement of capacity of laboratories in terms offacility infrastructure/equipment and human resources.

2. Insufficient equipment for laboratory and field testing
which become barriers to the appropriate managementof water quality.

5. Weak coordination between stakeholders, especiallyindustries that are responsible for protecting andimproving water quality in Cambodia. Facilitation ofcommunication and data sharing must be promoted.

3. Shortage of technical officers at both national andlocal levels with expertise who can carry out adequate
water quality management.

6. Insufficient technical capacity both at national and local
levels, such as water quality monitoring and decentralized
domestic wastewater treatment technologies, which
require international support.

57

China
1. Country Information
Table 3.2.1. Basic indicators
9,600,000 (2010)Land Area (km2)
Total Population (person)

1,300 million (2010)

GDP (current USD)

5,926.6 billion (2010)
4,428 (2010)

Per Capita GDP (current USD)
Long-Average Precipitation (mm/year)

645 (2009)

Total Renewable Water Resources (km3)

2,840 (2009)

Total Annual Freshwater Withdrawals(billion m3)

554.1 (2005)

Annual Freshwater
Withdrawal by
sectors

Agriculture

64.6% (2005)

Industry

23.2% (2005)

Municipal(including domestic)

12.2% (2005)(Source: See References)

2. Seven Major River Basins in China

Songhua River

Beijing

Haihe River
Huaihe River

Yangtze River
Pearl River

Figure 3.2.1. Seven major river basins in China

3. State of Water Resources
The total volume of water resources in China ranks sixth
among all the countries in the world. The per capita volume
is low at about 2,100m3 (World Development Indicator)

58

4. State of Water Quality
According to the State of Environment Report 2010
published by the Ministry of Environmental Protection(MEP) of the People’s Republic of China (PRC), surface
water pollution in the country remains serious, especiallyeutrophication in lakes and reservoirs (MEP 2011a).
The state of surface water quality is evaluated andexpressed in grades for environmental standards forsurface water which range from Grade I to V (Table 3.2.2).
The state of sea water and groundwater are evaluated andexpressed in grades for sea water quality standards andenvironmental quality standards for groundwater,
respectively (Table 3.2.3 and 3.2.4).
River water

Liaohe River

Yellow Riverbecause of the large size of the population, which isequivalent to only one-fourth of the world average. In
addition, water resources in China are unevenly
distributed—rich in the southern areas and poor in thenorthern areas (MWR 2011). About two-thirds of China’s
cities are short of water, and in more than 110 cities, thesituation is dire (MWR 2011). Mega-cities such as Beijing
and Tianjin are also facing serious water shortages (WorldBank 2008).

Based on the results of national monitoring at 409 sectionsin 204 rivers, water quality categorized as Grade I to III was
59.9%, that of Grade IV to V was 23.7%, and that ofinferior to Grade V was 16.4% (MEP 2011a). Water qualityof the seven major rivers (Yangtze River, Yellow River, Pearl
River, Songhua River, Huaihe River, Haihe River andLiaohe River) was evaluated as “slightly polluted” in general(MEP 2011a). Compared with figures in 2005, water
quality has significantly improved (Table 3.2.5).
Figure 3.2.2 shows the details of the state of each of theseven major rivers in 2010. Specifically, the water qualityof the Pearl River and the Yangtze River was good, that of
the Songhua River and the Huaihe River was slightly
polluted, that of the Yellow River and the Liaohe Riverwas intermediately polluted, and water quality of the
Haihe River was heavily polluted. The main parameters ofpollution observed were total nitrogen and total
phosphorus (MEP 2011a).

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012

Chapter3.2 China

Table 3.2.2. Grades for Environmental Quality Standards for
Surface Water
Grade

Table 3.2.4. Grades for Groundwater Quality Standards

Description

Grade

Description

I

Reflects the background low contents of nature chemicalcomponents of groundwater.

I

Mainly for headstream and the national nature preserves.

II

Mainly for drinking water resources in first-class protectedareas, protected areas for precious fish, and spawning areas
for fish and shrimp.

II

Reflects the background contents of the nature chemicalcomponents of groundwater. It is applicable to various
purposes.

III

Mainly for drinking water resources in second-class protectedareas, protected areas for fish, and swimming areas.

III

Based on the benchmark value of human health. It is primarily
applicable to concentrative drinking water sources andindustrial and agricultural use water.

IV

Mainly for industrial water resources and recreational use inwhich people do not contact water.
IV

Based on industrial and agricultural use water requirements.
It is primarily applicable to industrial water and partial
agricultural use water. After it is properly processed, it isapplicable to drinking water.

V

Not applicable to drinking water. The selection of such
category of water depends on other purposes.

Mainly for agricultural water resources and water areas
required for landscape.

V(Source: Environmental Quality Standard for Surface Water)

Table 3.2.3. Grades for Sea Water Quality Standards(Source: UNEP 2010)

Grade

Description

I

Suitable for marine fishing, marine nature preserves andprotected areas for rare or endangered marine organisms.

Table 3.2.5. Water quality of seven major rivers in2005 and 2010

II

Suitable for marine cultivation, bathing, marine sport orrecreation activities involving direct human contact with marine
water, and for sources of industrial use of water related tohuman consumption.

III

Suitable for water resources for general industrial use.

IV

Suitable only for harbors and ocean development activities.

Year

Grade
I-III

Grade Inferior to
IV-V Grade V

2005

41%

32%

27%

Based on surface water quality
monitoring of 411 sections(source: SEPA 2006)

2010

59.9%

23.7%

16.4%

Based on surface water quality
monitoring of 409 sections(source: MEP 2011a)

Note(Source: MEP 2007)

Lakes and reservoirs

Water quality grade proportion (%)
100

I-III

80

IV, V

Table 3.2.6 shows the state of water quality in 26 major
lakes and reservoirs based on the national water quality
monitoring programme. Compared with monitoring
results in 2005, the state of water quality in lakes andreservoirs has also improved, although around 40% ofmonitored lakes and reservoirs are still classified as Grade
V. Total nitrogen (TN) and total phosphorus (TP) are themajor pollutants. Of the 26 monitored lakes and reservoirs,
Dianchi Lake in Yunnan Province is categorized as “underheavily eutrophication (nutrition index of more than 70)”
and Dalai Lake in Inner Mongolia and Hongze Lake in
Jiangsu Province as “under intermediate eutorophication(nutrition index higher than 60)” (MEP 2011a). Water
quality in large reservoirs ranked higher than that of large
freshwater lakes or lakes in cities (ibid).

V

60
40
20
0

Yangtze Yellow
River
River

Pearl Songhua Huaihe Haihe LiaoheRiver River River River River

Figure 3.2.2. State of river water quality of the sevenmajor rivers in 2010
(Source: MEP 2011a)

Table 3.2.6. Water quality of major lakes and reservoirs in 2010
Type of water bodies

Number ofwater bodies

Grade
I

II

III

IV

V

>V

Three lakes

3

0

0

0

0

1

2

Large freshwater lakes

9

0

0

3

0

3

3

Urban lakes

5

0

0

0

2

1

2

Large reservoirs

9

0

1

5

4

6

10

Total

26

0

1

5

4

6

10

Percentage in 2010

(26)

0

3.8

19.2

15.4

23.1

38.5

Percentage in 2005

(27)

0

7

21

11

18

43

Note: Three lakes refer to Taihu Lake, Dianchi Lake and Chaohu Lake
(Source: 2010 data from MEP 2011a; 2005 data from SEPA 2006)

59

Coastal water

Seawater in China is slightly polluted. A total of 279,225
km2 of coastal area was monitored in 2010, with 62.7%
classified under Grade I and II for national marine water
quality standards, which is a decrease of 10.2% from 2009,
and 14.1% classified as Grade III, which is an increase of
8.1% from 2009 (Figure 3.2.3). In terms of coastal seawater
quality of the four major areas, the Yellow Sea and South
China Sea demonstrated good water quality. Water in the
coastal sea area was slightly polluted in Bohai Sea, and theEast China Sea had poor water quality (MEP 2011a).

Liaming
Beijing
IanjinHebei
Shandong

Jiamgsu
Anhui Shanghai

Groundwater

Results indicate that the overall situation of groundwater
quality is far from reassuring. The outcomes of groundwater
quality monitoring in 2010 show that 40.4% of 4,110
monitoring points in 182 cities were assessed as “poor” inquality and 16.8% as “very poor”*1 (MEP 2011a) (Figure
3.2.4). There is no information available on the types ofpollutants, but ammonia nitrogen, nitrite nitrogen, nitrate
nitrogen, iron, manganese, and total hardness were themajor parameters identified by monitoring in 2009 (MEP
2010a). According to the State Council, over-exploitation,
pollution from sewage, domestic and industrial wastes,
fertilizers and pesticides have been identified as the maincauses of groundwater pollution ( Jin 2011). There is aregional difference in water quality as well—while thequality of groundwater in cities in the north, northeast andnorthwest region of the country is poor, groundwater
quality down south is generally good overall (MEP 2011a).
Wastewater and major pollutants

The total discharge of wastewater from industrial anddomestic sources has increased, while COD and ammonia
nitrogen is on the decline. The total discharge of wastewaterin China in 2010 was 61.73 billion tons: 23.75 billion tons
from industries and 37.98 from domestic sources. The
discharge is an increase of approximately 15% from 2006
(53.68 billion tons) and 4.7% from 2009 (58.92 billion
tons). Total discharge of COD was 12.381 million tons
which is a decrease of 3.1% from 2009 (12.775 million
tons). Sixty-five percent of COD was discharged fromdomestic sources. That of ammonia nitrogen was 1.203
million tons of which about 78% is domestic in origin. The
amount is a decrease of 1.9% from 2009 (1.226 million
tons) (MEP 2011a).

Zhejiang

Grade I
Grade II
Grade III
Grade IV
＞Grade IV

Jiargxi
FujianTaiwanGuangxi

HainanGuangdongIslands in South
China Sea

Figure 3.2.3. State of coastal water quality in mainland
China in 2010
(Source: MEP 2011a)

Very poor 16.8%

Very good 10.2%

Good 27.6%

Poor 40.4%

Better 5.0%

Figure 3.2.4. Groundwater Quality Monitoring Results of
182 Cities in 2010
(Source: MEP 2011a)*1 Criteria of “very good” to “very poor” are not equivalent to that of groundwater quality grade I to V. It is a qualitative assessment of groundwater quality using theevaluation method set out in Section 6 of the Quality Standard for Groundwater (GB/T 14848-9)

60

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012

Chapter3.2 China

5. Frameworks for Water Environment
Management

Environmental Protection Law

Legislation

Protection and improvement of both the ecological andliving environment as well as pollution control, is the
responsibility of the state according the Constitution of thePeople’s Republic of China. The Environmental Protection
Law of the People’s Republic of China stipulates theobjectives of water environmental preservation as “to ensure
human health, maintain the effective use of water resources
and the conservation of marine resources, maintain theecological balance, and enhance the development of modernsocialism.”
Figure 3.2.5 shows the outline of legislation regarding
water quality control in China. The Environmental
Protection Law of the People’s Republic of China was put
into effect in 1989 as a basic environmental law. For surface
water and groundwater quality control, the Law of thePeople’s Republic of China on Prevention and Control of
Water Pollution were formulated in 1984 under whichambient surface and groundwater quality standards andwater pollutant discharge standards were established. For
sea water, the Marine Environment Protection Law of thePeople’s Republic of China was established in 1982. Sea
water quality standards were set up under the Marine
Environment Protection Law. In addition to these laws,
regulations and administrative decree/rules related to waterpollution control, such as Interim Measures on theCollection of Pollution Discharge Fee, also exist.
Institutional arrangements

The Ministry of Environment Protection (MEP), which
was upgraded from the State Environmental Protection

Conservation of Water Quality in
Surface Water and Groundwater
Law on Prevention and Control of Water Pollution

Water Quality Standards– Environmental Quality Standards for Surface Water– Quality Standard for Groundwater

Conservation of Water Quality in Sea Water
Marine Environment Protection Law

Other Water Quality Standards– Water Quality Standard for Fisheries– Standards for Irrigation Water Quality

Figure 3.2.5. Legislative Framework for Water Quality(Source: MoEJ 2009)

Administration (SEPA) in 2008, has a mission to prevent andcontrol environmental pollution in the country throughoverall supervision and coordination of environmental
protection management. Provincial and municipal
governments also play important roles in pollution control
with local legislations and standards.
Water environmental management policy

The national five-year plan for national economic and social
development is the country’s principle policy document
which also includes targets for water environmental
management. In addition, a national five-year plan for waterpollution prevention and control in major river basins wasestablished as a key policy document for water environmental
management (Figure 3.2.6).

10th Five Year Plan
(2001-2005)

Huai, Hai, Liao
Taihu, Dianchi,
Chahu

9th Five Year Plan
(1996-2000)

Three Gorge &its upstream
South to North
Water Transfer

Songhua
Xiaolangdi reservoir
and its upstream(Yellow River)11th Five Year Plan
(2006-2010)

Figure 3.2.6. Pollution prevention and control for key river basins in the National Five-Year Plan
(Source: Gang 2011)61

Recent policy achievements in protecting water
environment

The National 11th Five-Year Plan (2006-2010) has set an
obligatory target of reducing COD emissions by 10% fromthat of 2005 levels. Since 2006, Environmental Impact
Assessments (EIA) for 822 construction projects failing tosatisfy water quality control regulations were rejected orsuspended. Also, more than 20,000 firms that havedischarged wastewater not meeting the requirements ofthe environmental protection law were closed down. As aresult, during the 11th Five-Year Plan, the amount of
COD discharged decreased by 12.45% compared to thatof 2005 levels meeting the reduction target (Met 2011b).
Furthermore, under the national monitoring programme,by the end of 2010, 80.9% of the river section has satisfied
the national surface water quality standards. The average
concentration of permanganate value of river sections
decreased by 31.9% compared to that of 2005, and the
proportion of river sections of the seven big rivers which
met Grade III water quality standards increased from 41%
in 2005 to 59.9% in 2011 (MEP 2011d). The main measurestaken to meet the pollution reduction targets are explainedin Box 3.2.1.
Ambient water quality standards

The Environmental Quality Standards for Surface Water
stipulate standard values for 24 basic parameters in the five
above-mentioned grades. The Quality Standard for
Groundwater stipulates standard values for 39 parameters,and 35 parameters in the Sea Water Quality Standard.
Water Quality Standards for Fisheries and Standards for
Irrigation Water Quality have been established as additional
water quality standards.
Monitoring of water quality in public water bodies

Water quality monitoring is conducted in stations
established across the country to check the water qualityof rivers, groundwater, lakes, and sea water. In 2010,
monitoring was implemented in 409 stations for 204
rivers, 182 cities with 4,110 stations for groundwater, 26
lakes, and 279,225 km2 of coastal area (MEP 2011a). The
analytical methods for water quality are provided in eachwater quality standard (Environmental Quality Standards
for Surface Water (GB3838-2002), Quality Standard for
Groundwater (GB/T14848-93) and Sea Water Quality
Standard (GB3097-1997)).
Effluent standards

Effluent quality of domestic wastewater at the discharge
points of urban wastewater treatment plants is regulated by
the Discharge Standard of Pollutants for Municipal
Wastewater Treatment Plants (GB18918-2002). The
Integrated Wastewater Discharge Standard (GB 89781996) regulates effluent levels for industrial wastewater.
However, for various types of industries such as iron andsteel and meat packing industries which are not covered by
the above standard, individual standards were established.
Different target values for specific pollutants are designed

Box 3.2.1. Main measures taken to meet the pollution reduction targets

Pollution control regulations such as stricter EIA process, total discharge pollution load control, and an examination
system for water quality of trans-boundary river sections of the main river basins, as well as the enforcement system forthese instruments, including performance appraisal methods of local governments, could be construed as one of themain effective measures behind China’s achievements to date.
Specifically for the EIA process, MEP has reinforced stricter rules for construction projects that impact water quality.
In the river basins and regions that have not met reduction targets, approvals for new investments and plant expansion
were restricted. As well, plants that did not meet water quality standards within a certain time frame were closed down.
The process has gained legal validity as it was stated in the Article 18 of the revised Law of the People’s Republicof China on Prevention and Control of Water Pollution in February 2008, that for areas with total discharge of waterpollutants over the prescribed level, the government shall suspend the examination and approval of EIA documents forconstruction projects
In addition, by replacing the previous pollution concentration based approach, the total discharge pollution load
control approach was adopted to take into account the carrying capacity of the pollution receiving water bodies when
discharging wastewater. In its implementation, discharge load permits were issued to polluters, discharge fees foremissions above standards were levied, and enterprises violating the relevant regulations were closed down. In
order to enforce and implement the above measures, the central government has signed an agreement with local
governments. The agreement makes it obligatory for the local governments to meet pollution reduction targets and ifthey fail to do so, the responsible officials, including the head of the government, will not be promoted and may even be
demoted. This link between performance evaluation indicators and pollution reduction targets was the newest initiative
taken during the 11th Five-Year Plan.
(Source: World Bank 2008)

62

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012

Chapter3.2 China

for industries constructed before 31 December 1997 andafter 1 January 1998 in the Integrated Wastewater DischargeStandard (GB 8978-1996). Since 2008, more than ten new
effluent standards have been added to the existing standards(as of October 2011) (MEP 2011c).
6. Existing and Future Challenges
China has strengthened management of the water
environment that serves a basis for the sound developmentof the country. Currently, water environmental managementin the country has incorporated additional strategic
management policies in which cultural and ecologicalaspects, as well as resource-saving aspects, are included.
Drinking water source protection remains a priority, andgroundwater is taking off as a new priority area in water
quality management in China.
As for pollution reduction, the 12th Five-Year Plan
(2011-2015) set a goal of 8% reduction of COD discharge
and 10% reduction of ammonia nitrogen compared withthat of 2010. Prevention and control of agricultural nonpoint pollution is also highlighted (MEP 2011d).
COD monitoring in the 11th Five-Year Plan covered
mostly discharges from point sources, and monitoring of
non-point sources will become necessary to comprehensively
address the pollution of the water environment in China.
According to the first national pollution source survey in2010, over 40% of water pollutants come from agricultural
sources such as run-off of fertilizers, pesticides and livestock

wastes, and landfill leakage. Agricultural pollutants
accounted for 57.2% of total nitrogen and 67.4% of total
phosphorous in water (MEP 2010b). These results have led
to the adoption of a new reduction target for ammonia
nitrogen. With the increase of water for domestic use alongwith economic growth, measures in the domestic sector
such as development of sewage treatment plants may beconsidered.
In the12th Five-Year Plan, reinforcement of environmental
protection was identified as a focus. Specifically, reduction ofheavy metal pollution, air and soil pollution was highlighted
to protect human health (MEP 2011d). From the perspectiveof the water environment, pollution from heavy metals isparticularly threatening to the safety of drinking water
sources or groundwater supply in China. According to theState Council, 18% of water supply in China is fromgroundwater, and out of 657 cities, more than 40% use
groundwater as a major source of drinking water (Chinese
Government’s Official Web Portal 2011). The pollution ofgroundwater remains a serious issue; within the past two
years between January 2010 and May 2011, there were 21
heavy metal pollution incidents including lead poisoning
and damages to the protection zones (Wang 2011). A
national plan was adopted by the State Council in August
2011 to protect the safety of groundwater sources andaddress pollution prevention. Under the plan, the local
government will be required to establish a groundwater
environment supervision system by 2015 and pollution
prevention mechanisms by 2020 ( Jin 2011).

63

Indonesia
1. Country Information
Table 3.3.1. Basic indicators
1,910,931 (2010)Land Area (km2)
Total Population (person)239.9 million (2010)

GDP (current USD)

706.6 billion (2010)

Per Capita GDP (current USD)

2,946 (2010)

Long-Average Precipitation (mm/year)

2,702 (2009)

Total Renewable Water Resources (km3)

2,019 (2009)

Total Annual Freshwater Withdrawals(billion m3)

113.3 (2000)

Annual Freshwater
Withdrawal by
sectors

Agriculture

81.9% (2000)

Industry

6.5% (2000)

Municipal(including domestic)

11.6% (2000)

4. State of Water Quality
Rivers(Source: See References)

There are 5,590 major rivers in Indonesia. Most large rivers
have experienced pollution due to pressure from various
sources (MoE 2011).
In 2009, Environmental Impact Management Agencies
monitored the water quality in 35 rivers in Indonesia. The
results showed that, in comparison with 2008, more rivers
were in compliance with water quality Class II criteria.
However, about 56% water samples still failed to meet thecountry’s water quality criteria (excluding South East
Sulawesi) (Figure 3.3.2).

2. Major Water Basins in Indonesia

Mahakam
BaritoKapuasthe country is facing a crisis of unprecedented proportions
with the decreasing availability of clean water resulting
from environmental degradation and pollution. In 2006,
the rate of water resource degradation accounted for 1535% per capita annually (MoEJ 2009).
The average amount of clean water used by households
in Indonesia is estimated at 110 litres per capita per day.
With an estimated population of around 230 million
people in 2009, the drinking water needs for the populationof Indonesia accounts for a minimum of 9.3 billion m3.
Based on population distribution, the largest island of Javaaccounted for approximately 58% of the total water
demand in 2009 (MoE 2011).

Kalimantan
Salo Walanae
Sulawesi

MalukuPapua

KamparIndragiri
BatanghariMusi

Cisadane
Sumatera
Jakarta

Salo Maros

Citarum Brantas Bali&Nusatenggara
Bengawan Solo

Indian Ocean

Australia

Figure 3.3.1. Water basins in Indonesia

3. State of Water Resources
Water resources in Indonesia account for almost 6% of theworld water resources or about 21% of total water resourcesin the Asia-Pacific region. There has been a significant
upward trend in water consumption trends over the past
years; in 2000, total water demand was approximately
156,000 million m³/year. By 2015, it is predicted that thisfigure will double to 356,575 million m³/year. However,

64

%
90

SumatraBali and Nusa Tenggara

Jawa

Kalimantan

Sulawesi

Maluku and Papua

80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

Year

Figure 3.3.2. Percentage of river water samples not incompliance with Class II criteria(Source: MoE 2011)

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012

Chapter3.3 Indonesia

The water quality of rivers that flow in big cities mainly
in Java and Sumatra is declining because the contaminants(pollutants) are increasing. Due to high pollution, most of
the rivers in Java are already categorized as Class III or IV.
Even the downstream of Ciliwung River ( Jakarta) was
worse than Class IV.
A major source of pollution is untreated domestic
wastewater and waste directly dumped into river bodies.
The Statistical Year Book of Indonesia reported that up
until 2010, only 55% of households had improved sanitation
facilities (Statistics Indonesia 2011). An additional cause ofwater pollution is wastewater from industrial activities ofsmall-scale industries such as agriculture, textiles, pulp andpaper, petrochemicals, mining, and oil and gas. Other
pollutant sources outside of Java and Sumatra include landerosion which has resulted in part from illegal logging andfarming (MoE 2011).
In addition, the water quality of rivers in West Java arein critical condition. The results of research conducted onseven rivers, Cimanuk, Citarum, Cisadane, Kali Surabaya,
Ciliwung, Citanduy and Cilamaya, showed that all rivers
were categorized as Class D, which indicates extremely
poor water quality. At the Citarum watershed, not one
single location meets the water quality criteria for Class II
water quality. The high content of fecal coli, dissolved
oxygen, BOD, COD and suspended substances at all
locations, especially the parameters of dissolved oxygen
which is an indicator of the health of a water body, were atvery low levels, with some readings even plunging to zero inlocations such as Sapan, Cijeruk, and Burujul Dayeuh.
Water pollution in the many rivers was caused from
pollution from industrial waste, domestic activities,
hospitals, livestock and agricultural activities (MoE 2011).
Water quality in Citarum River had moved into levelsof heavy pollution. Many key parameters exceed quality
standards, from organic waste to heavy metal content.
About 40% of waste in Citarum River is organic household
waste. The rest is comprised of chemical or industrial wastes
and livestock and agricultural wastes (MoE 2011).
Lakes and reservoirs

Similar to conditions in rivers, there is significant pressure
on water quality in lakes from various sources. The water
quality monitoring of lakes conducted by the ResearchCenter for Limnology at Lake Maninjau LIPI in 2008
showed that lake waters are eutrophic or have remained at
the same trophic state as in 2007. The trophic status of
Lake Batur Sendangkan improved slightly in 2008 to
mesotrophic (MoE 2011).
The results of research conducted by PT Indonesia
Power together with the Natural Resources ResearchCenter and Environment (PPSDAL) Padjadjaran

University, Bandung in 2004, indicate that the water
quality of Saguling reservoir was already above the normal
threshold. The content of mercury (Hg), for example,
reached 0.236 mg/m3. In fact, the standard, safe rate is
0.002 mg/m3 (MoE 2011).
The metal mercury, according to research PPSDAL
University of Padjadjaran, can be extracted from fish foodand plastics industries. Other heavy metals are delivered towater bodies from textile mills through the fabric dyeing
process. This large amount of heavy metals are a ticking
time bomb, ready to destroy the already fragile water
quality in the country. Currently, the water in Sagulingreservoir is no longer acceptable for consumption,
agriculture and fisheries (MoE 2011).
Coastal water

According to the State of Environment Report of Indonesia
2007, monitoring data from four harbours in Java (Tanjung
Priok ( Jakarta), Tanjung Emas (Semarang), and Tanjung
Perak (Surabaya)) show excessively high concentrations ofphenol, which exceed the marine water quality standards
for harbour areas (Decree of the State Minister of theEnvironment Number 51 of 2004 Concerning Marine
Water Quality Standards). These high concentrations arecaused by antiseptic substances from ship wastewater (MoE2008).
In the northern coastal areas of West Java, damaged
areas are characterized by the destruction of mangrove
forests, coastal erosion, and siltation of rivers that have an
impact on boat traffic events. The level of abrasion that
occurs on the south coast is around 35.35 ha/year andabout 370.3 ha/year on the north coast, with a seawaterpollutant index between 7.391 and 9.843, indicating heavy
pollution (MoE 2011).
Groundwater

The Decree of Health Minister No. 416 of 1990 concerning
the provision and control of water quality stipulates quality
standards for groundwater. According to the Jakarta Stateof Environment Report 2006, about 39 percent ofmonitoring wells in the Jakarta area, which are mostly
located in densely settled areas, have concentrations of E.
coli that exceed standards (Environmental Management of
DKI Jakarta 2007).
5. Frameworks for Water Environment
Management
The objective of environmental management in Indonesia
is to enable environmentally-sustainable development.
Towards this end, water has been recognized as having animportant function in achieving this development and65maintaining the well-being of humans and other creatures,and that it needs to be wisely managed for the benefit ofboth present and future generations, as well as to achieve an
ecological balance. Figure 3.3.3. shows the basic legislative
structure for water environment management.
Environmental acts and regulations were introduced in
the 1980s in Indonesia, such as the Law No.4/1982 on
Environmental Management. The successor of the firstenvironmental management law, the Basic Law concerning
Environmental Management Law No. 23 of 1997, wasreplaced by the Law Concerning Environmental Protection
and Management Law No. 32 of 2009 (Box.3.3.1).
Outlined in this law were the following goals (Article 3):(a) protecting the country from environmental pollution
and/or damage;(b) assuring human safety, health and life;(c) assuring the continuation of human, animal and plantlife and ecosystem conservation;(d) conserving environmental functions;(e) achieving environmental harmony, synchronization andbalance;(f ) ensuring justice for the present and future generations;(g) fulfilling and protecting the right to the environment;(h) controlling the utilization of natural resources;( i ) realizing sustainable development, and( j ) anticipating global environmental issues.

Law Concerning Environment Protection and Management Law No. 32 of 2009

Conservation of Water
Quality in Inland Water

Conservation of Water
Quality in Marine Water

Management of Water Quality and Control
over Water Pollution Government Regulation
Number 82 of 2001
Water quality criteria (for inland water)
Decree of the State Minister of theEnvironment Number 51 of 2004 Regarding
Standard Quality of Seawater
Water quality criteria (for marine water)

Decree of the Minister of Environment
Number 51 of 1995 Concerning Quality
Standard of Liquid Waste for Industrial Activities

Decree of the Minister of Environment Number
112 of 2003 Concerning the Standard Quality ofWastewater for Commercial and/or Domestic Activities

Other Decrees
Effluent standards

Figure 3.3.3. Legislative chart for water quality management(Source: MoEJ 2009)

The National Medium-Term Development Plan (20102014) set the following numerical targets related toconservation of water environment:
Reduction of pollution load from 680 industries
Decrease in pollution levels by 50%
Cessation of environmental degradation in 11 priority
watersheds
According to the State of Environment Indonesia 2010
report, the following rivers and lakes were specificallyprioritized for restoration:
Rivers:(1) Ciliwung(2) Cisadane(3) Citarum (West Java); Solo (Central Java)(5) Progo (Yogyakarta)(6) Siak (Riau)(7) Kampar (Riau)(8) Batanghari (Edinburgh)(9) Musi (South Sumatra)(10) Barito (southern central)(11) Mamasa (South Sulawesi)

66

Lakes:(1) Limboto (Gorontalo)(2) Toba (North Sumatra)(3) Tempe (South Sulawesi)(4) Tondano (North Sulawesi)(5) Maninjau (West Sumatra)(6) Singkarak (West Sumatra)(7) Poso (Central Sulawesi)(8) Matano (South Sulawesi)(9) Swamp Dizziness (Central Java)(10) Batur (Bali)
The Management of Water Quality and Control over
Water Pollution Government Regulation No. 82 of 2001 is
the principle law for water quality management which
focuses on controlling water pollution. Under this law,water quality classifications were defined.

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012

Chapter3.3 Indonesia

Box 3.3.1. Recent Developments: Environmental Protection and Management Law No. 32 of 2009

Environmental Protection and Management Law No. 32 of 2009 is more comprehensive than its predecessor,
Environmental Law 23 of 1997. It introduces several new principles such as precautions, harmony and equilibriumof the environment, eco-regions, biological diversity, participation, local wisdom, good governance, and regional
autonomy (Article 2). To strengthen pollution source control, the law introduced new stricter provisions. Some examples
are as follows.
Introduction of the environmental permit system and guaranteeing funds for restoration: Environmental
permits have been introduced in addition to environmental impact assessment statements (AMDAL) or
environmental management and monitoring efforts (UKL-UPL) (Article 36-41). All businesses and/or activities which
require AMDAL or UKL-UPL are required to obtain an environmental permit issued by the Minister of theEnvironment, governor and/or mayors (Article 36). In addition, the Environment Permit is a requirement to obtainbusiness operation permits. This means that businesses must stop operations if their environmental permits are
revoked. The permit can be recalled even if false statements are found in submitted documents. The environmental
permit holder is required to “provide guarantee funds for the restoration of the environmental functions” (Article 55).
Environmental risk analysis: All businesses and/or activities which may cause serious environmental impacts are
required to conduct an “environmental analysis” which is composed of “risk assessment,” “risk management” and“risk communication.” Details of the analysis will be stipulated by government regulations in the future (Article 47).
Environmental audit: Periodical environmental audits become a requirement for businesses and/or activities
which have high potential for negative environmental impacts. Personnel in charge of non-compliance business/
activities are also requested by the Minister of the Environment to conduct environmental audits. Certified
environmental auditors carry out audits (Article 48-51).
Strengthened penalty for non-compliance: The new law stipulates stricter administrative and criminal penalties
for non-compliance with provisions stipulated in relevant laws, including environmental standards/criteria andeffluent standards.
In addition to strengthening provisions related to businesses, the law also includes provisions to incorporate
environmental concerns in development plans and economic activities by governments (Article 42 and 43) and promote
public participation.
(Source: Syarif 2010)

Water quality standards

Water quality criteria (WQC) were set as the benchmarks
for water quality conservation under the Management of
Water Quality and Control over Water Pollution
Government Regulation Number 82 of 2001. These
criteria are the minimum standards set by the national
government; local governments are free to set their own
criteria, even stricter values than those established by thenational government, using local settings as a base, and may
include additional parameters not included in national
criteria.
WQC sets standard values for 45 parameters in fourclasses which are determined based on the type of water
usage (Table 3.3.2). However, rivers have not fully been
categorized into classes, and the state of water quality in the
country is evaluated based upon whether values comply
with values listed in Class II.
For marine water quality conservation, seawater quality
standards are used as the benchmark for water quality,
under the Decree of the State Minister of the Environment
Number 51 of 2004 Regarding Standard Quality of

Table 3.3.2. Classes of inland water quality
Class

Use

Class I

Water that can be used as raw water for drinking water,
and/or other usage that requires the same water quality
for such usage.

Class II

Water that can be used for water recreation, infrastructure/means, freshwater fish farming, animal husbandry, water
for irrigating gardens, and/or other usage that requires thesame water quality for such usage.

Class III

Water that can be used for freshwater fish farming, animalhusbandry, water for irrigating gardens and/or other usagethat requires the same water quality for such usage.

Class IV

Water that can be used for irrigating gardens and/or otherusage that requires the same water quality for such usage.

(Source: MoEJ 2009)

Seawater. The three kinds of standard quality of seawater
are set based on the usage or characteristics of seawater:
standard quality for harbour waters, marine tourism, andmarine biota. As with water criteria for surface water, local
governments are permitted to set stricter standards. One
example is the Regulation of the Governor of DKI Jakarta
Province No.93/2006, which applies stricter standards for67

capitals of provinces and special region of Jakarta (DKI
Jakarta Province).
As of January 2012, the Ministry of Environment ofIndonesia is drafting a new Government Regulation
revising the existing Government Regulation No. 82 of2001 to reflect the more recent Regulation No. 32 of 2009.
The draft has been completed and is awaiting approval. It is
expected to be issued in 2012 (Information from the focal
person of Indonesia).
Monitoring of water quality in public water bodies

Water quality monitoring schemes are determined under
the Management of Water Quality and Control over Water
Pollution Government Regulation as follows:(1) Monitoring of water sources in the regency/municipal
region is carried out by the regency/municipal
government(2) Monitoring of water sources in two or more regency/municipal regions within one province is coordinatedby the provincial government and is carried out by eachregency/municipal government(3) Monitoring of water sources in two or more provincial
regions and/or water sources on the border with othercountries is observed by the national government.
Water quality observation is carried out at least once every
six months and results are submitted to the Minister. The
mechanisms and procedures for water quality monitoring
are stipulated further in detail through a Ministerial
Decree.
Since 2004, 33 Regional Environmental Impact
Control Agencies in the provinces have monitored water
quality parameters in 40 rivers in Indonesia.

68

Effluent standards

National wastewater quality standards are specified with a
Ministerial Decree by taking into account suggestions from
related government agencies (Management of Water
Quality and Control over Water Pollution Government
Regulation). As with water quality standards, the provincial
government can specify the same or tighter wastewater
quality standards than the national wastewater quality
standard.
In 2001, the government set up the first effluent
standards for 14 industrial activities. By 2005, this number
increased to 21 by the Decree of the Minister of Environment
Number 51 of 1995 Concerning Quality Standard of
Liquid Waste for Industrial Activities. The Minister
determines the values for wastewater quality standards by
individual regulations. Local governments such in DKI
Jakarta, West Java and Jogjakarta established stricter
wastewater quality standards the national government.
6. Existing and Future Challenges
To achieve and promote better water environment
management in Indonesia, several attempts will be required
such as:Create incentives for industries to comply with theexisting regulations
Ensure implementation of waste management in rivers
Development and implementation of water quality
restoration policy instruments
Strengthen database and information systems, andimprove capacity building activities in the laboratories
Introduce spatial regulations and promote theinvolvement of all stakeholders in the process of spatialplanning in a participatory manner

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012

Chapter3.3 Indonesia

69

Japan1. Country Information
Table 3.4.1. Basic Indicators
377,947 (2008)

Land Area (km2)
Total Population (person)

127.5 million (2010)

GDP (current USD)

5,458.8 billion (2010)

Per Capita GDP (current USD)

42,831 (2010)

Long-Average Precipitation (mm/year)

1,690 (2005)

Total Renewable Water Resources (km3)

430 (2011)

Total Annual Freshwater Withdrawals(billion m3)

82.4 (2008)

Annual Freshwater
Withdrawal by
sectors

Agriculture

66% (2008)

Industry

15% (2008)

Municipal(including domestic)

19% (2008)sector has tripled between 1965 and 2008 (MLIT 2011).
In recent years, the household sector has shown a decreasein water use and the reuse of industrial water by factories
has increased. Accordingly, additional demands on rivers
and other water resources have decreased (MLIT 2011).
While construction of dams and weirs has been carriedout to secure a stable water supply, years of precipitation
anomalies have resulted in a rising frequency of water
shortages across Japan. The municipal water supply service
coverage rate (by population) of Japan exceeds 97%, butpublic concerns over safer and better tasting water haveincreased in recent years, making it imperative to improve
the water quality of the rivers, lakes and reservoirs whichfunction as the country’s main water sources.
4. State of Water Quality(Source: See References)

2. Major Water Basins in Japan

Ishikari River
Japan Sea

Hokkaido

Mogami River

Tokachi River

Shinano River
Tenryu River

Kitakami River

Kiso River
Lake Biwa
Yodo River
Seto Inland Sea
Gouno River
Ota River
Chikugo River
Ariake Bay

HonshuTokyo

Shikoku

KyushuLake Kasumigaura
Tone River
Ara RiverTokyo Bay
Tama River
Fuji River
Ise Bay

Shimanto River
Okinawa

Pacific Ocean

Figure 3.4.1. Major public water bodies in Japan

3. State of Water Resources
While annual precipitation in Japan is high, fluctuations
in water volume of rivers varies greatly throughout theyear, increasing during the rainy and typhoon seasons, anddecreasing in other seasons.
Due to rapid increases in population and economic
growth, per capita water usage volume in the domestic

70

The two main objectives of protecting the water
environment in Japan are the protection of human healthand the living environment. In order to achieve bothobjectives, environmental standards for ambient water
quality have been established in the Basic Environment
Law as the acceptable water quality levels that should bemaintained in public waters and groundwater. There are
two kinds of environmental quality standards (EQS) forwater: those for human health which are uniform
standards applicable to all public water bodies throughout
the country and those for conservation of the living
environment which are applied to all public water bodies
according to water use classifications.
Rivers, lakes and reservoirs, and coastal water

In most locations, EQS for human health have been
attained with a 98.9% compliance rate in fiscal year 2010.
EQS for conservation of the living environment have beenachieved with an 87.8% rate of compliance for BOD or
COD, the representative water quality indicators oforganic contamination. Compliance rates by types ofwater bodies were recorded as 92.5% for rivers, 53.2% forlakes and reservoirs, and 78.3% for coastal waters.
Although the compliance rate for rivers is high, the rate
for lakes and reservoirs remains low (Figure 3.4.2).
The compliance rate for total nitrogen and total
phosphorus for lakes and reservoirs was low at 50.4%. In
contrast, the achievement rate for total nitrogen and total
phosphorus in coastal waters was 81.6%, maintaining anear sideways shift in recent years.

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012

Chapter3.4 Japan

Compliance rate (%)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20

Overall

0

84

86

19

19

19

19

19

82

80

78

76

74

19

RiversLakes andreservoirs

10

19

88

19

92
90
19
19
Fiscal Year

Coastal
areas
94

19

96

19

98

19

00

20

02

20

10

08

06

04

20

20

20

20

Figure 3.4.2. Shift in environmental standard compliance rate (BOD and COD)
(Source: MoEJ 2011a)

Groundwater

Of the 4,312 wells that were tested in 2009, 250 (5.8%)
exceeded standards for some EQS. Among others, thevalues for nitrate nitrogen and nitrite nitrogen show rates

exceeding standards (Figure 3.4.3). The main causes are
considered to be nitrogen load from fertilization, domestic
animal excreta and domestic wastewater.

Environmental standard excess rate (%)
7

Nitrate nitrogen and nitrite nitrogen
Arsenic
Flourine
Tetrachloroethylene
Trichloroethylene
Lead

6
5
4
3
2
1
0

74

19

90

19

91

19

92

19

93

19

94

19

95

19

96

19

97

19

00
99
98
20
19
19
Survey year

01

20

02

20

03

20

04

20

05

20

06

20

07

20

08

20

09

20

Note 1. Wells measured in general survey differ by year. (Surveys are not necessarily conducted on the same wells each year.)
Note 2. Environmental standards related groundwater contamination wereestablished in 1997. Standards preceding this year are considered evaluation criteria. Moreover,in 1993, evaluation criteria for arsenic was revised from “under 0.05 mg/L” to “under 0.01 mg/L”, and for lead from “under 0.1 mg/L” to “under 0.01 mg/L”.
Note 3. Nitrate nitrogen, nitrite nitrogen and fluorine were added to environmental standard items in 1999.

Figure 3.4.3. Environmental standard excess rates for groundwater (by item)(Source: MoEJ 2011b)

5. Frameworks for Water Environment
Management
Legislation

The purpose of environmental conservation in the country
is to “ensure healthy and cultured living for both thepresent and future generations of the nation as well as tocontribute to the welfare of mankind” (Article 1 of the
Basic Environmental Law). EQS for Water has establishedby the Basic Environmental Law as the administrative
targets of ambient water quality.
The Water Pollution Control Law, enacted in order toachieve the water quality targets sets provisions for water
quality conservation such as effluent regulations fromfactories and business establishments, ambient water
quality monitoring, measurement standards for public
water bodies, and the total pollutant load control system.
Other laws related to conservation of public water bodies
are shown in Figure 3.4.4.
Ambient water quality standards

Nationwide uniform standard values have been set for 27
items as EQS for Water related to protection of humanhealth (environmental items). In 1997, EQS for Water were71

Conservation of Water
Quality in Public Water

General Measures

Basic Environment Law
Environmental Quality Standards for
Water Pollutants
Water Pollution Control Law
Factory effluent control, notification offactory establishment, monitoring orders,continuous monitoring.
Measures for household wastewater
Sewerage Law
Law for Johkaso (On-site packaged
household wastewater treatment plant)

Special Measures in Enclosed Water Bodies
Lakes and Reservoirs

Estuaries

Law Concerning Special Measures for
Preservation of Lake Water Quality
Planning of Plan for the Preservation of
Lake Water Quality, Special Regulations

Prefectural governments carry out regular water quality
monitoring in cooperation with relevant national
government organizations based on monitoring methods
specified by MoE.
Monitoring results at approximately 7,000 locations inpublic water bodies nationwide are publicly released on thewebsite of MoE (Figure 3.4.5).

鍋川

伝右川

菖蒲川
大場川

荒川

Water Pollution Control Law
Control of total pollutant load, andcountermeasures against eutrophication

石神井川
坂川

Seto Inland Sea
The Law Concerning Special Measures for Conservation of the
Seto Inland Sea
Ariake Sea/Yatsushiro Sea

綾瀬川
妙正寺川

仙台堀川

Potable Water Sources
Law Concerning Special Measures for the Protection of Water
Quality in Water Resources Areas for the Purpose of Preventing
Specific Trouble
Groundwater Quality
Conservation
General Measures

古川

墨田川

じゃほうがわWater Pollution Control Law
Regulations for toxic substances fromfactories, purifying orders for polluted
groundwater, and continuous monitoring

Law Concerning Special Measures against Dioxins
River Law
Drinking Water Sources Law
Water Supply Law
Law Rrelating to the Prevention of Marine Pollution andMaritime DisasterFigure 3.4.4. Schemes of legal system for water
environmental management in Japan.
(Source: MoEJ 2009)

also established. Meanwhile, EQS for Water related to theprotection of the living environment (living environment
items) include environmental standards set such for BOD,
COD and DO. Total nitrogen and total phosphorus are also
included in the living environment items as indicators ofeutrophication in lakes and reservoirs and coastal waters.
Monitoring of public water bodies and groundwater

According to the Water Pollution Control Law, prefectural
governors are required to conduct regular monitoring of
public water bodies and inform the public of the state ofwater pollution in public water bodies and groundwater.

大横川

小松川 境川

旧中川

荒川

新中川

左近川

旧江戸川

Basic Environment Law
Environmental Quality Standards for
Groundwater

Other Laws Related toWater Environment

72

北十間川

神田川

The Law Concerning Special Measures for the Restoration of
the Ariake and Yatsushiro seas

河川水質測定地点

立合川

凡例【BOD（75％値）】

1.1mg/L〜2.0mg/L
2.1mg/L〜3.0mg/L
3.1mg/L〜5.0mg/L
5.1mg/L〜8.0mg/L

Figure 3.4.5. Comprehensive information site on the water
environment(Source: MoEJ 2011c)

Effluent standards

Based on the Water Pollution Control Law, uniform
effluent standards were established for 27 items related toprotection of human health, which are applicable tofactories and business establishments. Meanwhile, effluent
standards for 15 items related to the living environment
target only those factories and business establishments withdaily effluent volumes exceeding 50m3 per day. Local
governments (prefectures and ordinance-designated cities)
may establish stricter effluent standards than the national
uniform standards when the national standards are
considered to be insufficient to achieve water quality targets.
The Water Pollution Control Law stipulates monitoring
and recording of the quality of effluent from factories andbusiness establishments. The factories and businessestablishments located in total pollutant load control
target areas are required to measure and record pollution
loads in discharged wastewater. Governors of prefecturesand mayors of ordinance-designated cities can require
reports to be submitted and conduct inspections of

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012

Chapter3.4 Japan

regulating discharge based on only concentrations ofregulated substances. Under the system, the national
government sets targets for pollutant loads every five years(one phase for five years), and relevant prefectures establish
reduction plans that set targets for each emission sourceand stipulate the methods necessary to meet targets.
To date, COD loads has been steadily reduced in target
water bodies since 1979 (Figure 3.4.6). Figure 3.4.7 shows
the improvement of COD concentration in Tokyo Bay, forexample. Nitrogen and phosphorus loads have also been
reduced since there items are covered by the system in
2001. In July 2011, Japan set forth the basic policy of the
7th phase total reduction of which target year is 2016.

factories and business establishments on wastewater
treatment methods and the quality/amount of wastewaterin order to prevent violations. They are also authorized totake administrative measures in the event that violations
are found, such as issuing orders for improvements
according to the outcomes of reports and inspections.
Total pollutant load control system (TPLCs)

The total pollutant load control system is a discharge
control mechanism to improve water quality by reducing
total pollutant loads flowing into the selected enclosed
coastal waters, namely Tokyo Bay, Ise Bay, and the Seto
Inland Sea where it is difficult to achieve EQS for Water by
COD generated loads (tons/day)

1,012

1,000

95

Others800

Industrial

Domestic

82

746
72

429
367

400
200
0

477
38
115

324

Tokyo BayIse Bay413
40 355
83 36
76

286
30 24759 28 211 183 177
25
52
23
22
42
290
36
36
243
197 167
144 124 119

79 84 89 94 00 05 09 14
19 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 get)
r

( ta

307
286 272
37
246
35
221
34
29
119 10127
97
83 76
151 150

141 134 118

Tokyo Bay

838

89

600

Osaka Bay

Seto Inland Sea

900

Ise Bay
672

Seto Inland Sea

67

561

356

55

309

468 472
56
54

286
245

186
22 158 146
20 19
65
57
56
99
81
71

79 84 89 94 00 05 09 14
19 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 get)
r

( ta

488

444

400 365319

261

193 215

Osaka Bay

221 201

144
118
10
9
32
26
102 8379 984 989 994 000 005 009 014t)
1
1
2
2
2 rge
2
1

19

( ta

116
10
26
80

05 009 014t)
2
2 rge

20

Fiscal year

( ta

Note: Figures for 1979-2009 are actual. Figures for 2014 is the reduction target

Figure 3.4.6. Changes in pollution load and target value (in terms of COD)
(Source: Provided by MoEJ)

東京都

東京都

6.1
5.2 5.4
4.4
7.3

6.2 5.2
5.3

神奈川県
4.2
3.8

3.6

4.5

4.1

4.0

4.4

3.7

5.0
4.6

3.9
3.9

4.0

3.8

神奈川県
3.1

千葉県

4.3

2.7

凡例
（mg/L)

3.4
2.9

2.7

2.5

2.2

1.5 - 2.0
2.0 - 2.5
2.5 - 3.0
3.0 - 3.5
3.5 - 4.0
4.0 - 4.5
4.5 - 5.0
5.0 - 6.0
6.0 <1982 - 1984 (average)

3.5

2.9

3.0

千葉県

2.4

2.9

2.4
2.3

3.3

3.3

3.8
3.3
2.8
3.3 3.4 3.2

5.2 4.1

3.7

3.1

3.5
4.3 3.4

4.8

4.5

2.2

1.7

凡例
（mg/L)

1.5 - 2.0
2.0 - 2.5
2.5 - 3.0
3.0 - 3.5
3.5 - 4.0
4.0 - 4.5
4.5 - 5.0
5.0 - 6.0
6.0 <2006 - 2008 (average)

Figure 3.4.7. COD concentration in Tokyo Bay(Source: Provided by MoEJ)

73

6. Recent Development of
Water Environment Management
Following the enactment of the Water Pollution Control
Law in 1970, various revisions have taken place according
to the times and demands of society. Major revisions madein recent years are summarized below.
Expansion of the range of measures in the eventof accidents (2010 revision)

The number of water pollution accidents has been on therise in recent years. While the chemical substancesdischarged by water pollution accidents are wide-ranging,
the Water Pollution Control Law targets only polluted
water containing toxic substances to be covered by theWater Pollution Control Law and oil in the event ofaccidents. To fill in the gaps between reality and themeasures stipulated in the Water Pollution Control Law,
the 2010 revision of the law expanded the target substances
subject to emergency measures and reporting requirements
of factories and business establishments in the event ofaccidents. The revision added “specified facilities that use
harmful substances” as target facilities which manufacture,
store, use or process substances that are in danger ofdamaging human health or the living environment whenreleased into public water areas in large quantities.
Establishment of penalties for unrecorded
measurements for wastewater (2010 revision)

In recent years, there have been a string of cases of inappropriate
behaviors such as businesses, including major corporations,falsifying records on measurements of effluent loads andquality. To mitigate this behavior, the revision requires
business establishments to retain monitoring records for a set
period of time. Additionally, new penalties have been
established for businesses that violate these requirements byfailing to record, retain or falsifying records.
Proactive measures to prevent groundwaterpollution (2011 revision)

Groundwater is an invaluable freshwater resource that
accounts for approximately 25% of municipal water supply.
It is difficult to detect causes of pollution because of thecomplicated migration pathway of groundwater, andrecovering water quality is almost impossible as natural
purification is not as prevalent.
Each year, surveys have confirmed cases of groundwatercontamination due to leakage of toxic substances fromfactories and business establishments. The majority ofleaks are caused by the deterioration of production and

74

Figure 3.4.8. Underground infiltration of hazardous
substances from production facilities(Source: Provided by MoEJ)

storage facilities or by operator error during use of
production facilities.
Considering these facts, requirements to issue
notifications related to the installation of facilities wereexpanded to include the installation of facilities that not only
release toxic substances, but also those that store them.
Additionally, in order to prevent underground seepage before
it occurs, compliance with standards related to structures andrequirements for periodic inspection of facility structures andmethods were newly imposed on businesses.
7. Existing and Future Challenges
A more ideal form of initiatives to improve and protect
the water environment are called for when considering thediverse needs of residents and social transitions in recent
years, including ensuring an environmentally-sound water
cycle. As a common idea behind the development ofpolicies to protect the water environment, four different
perspectives should be kept in mind when furthering
policy goals: the local perspective, global perspective,
biodiversity and cooperation. The following is a selectionof examples of future initiative
Improvement of water quality of lakes andreservoirs

Although the water quality of lakes and reservoirs is
gradually improving, the actual achievement rate ofenvironmental standards is low at around 50%. Many
issues have emerged such as decreased native species andhaul of fish due to changes in ecosystems, impediments towater use due to the occurrence of foul odors and filtration
obstacles, as well as a weakening of the relationshipbetween people and lakes due to decreased contact. In the
future, new water quality indicators that respond to the

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012

Chapter3.4 Japanactual needs of the country’s residents, as well as targets
that reflect the natural conditions and purpose of eachwater body should be examined further. It is important topromote measures for both lakes themselves and catchment
areas that utilize natural purification mechanism,
following efforts to elucidate contamination mechanismsof lakes and reservoirs.

Biodiversity odiversity

Ecosystem

Appropriate nutrient salts
Healthy substance circulation
Water quality and bottom
sediment

Diversity and productivity
Resource managementfishing operations

Initiatives on global water issues

Japan’s water environment is closely related to the global
water environment. Thus, it is important to maintain aninternational perspective and contribute to the preservationand improvement of the water environment in othercountries. As such, we must utilize Japan’s technologies andexperience in water environmental preservation to promote

Contact

Coexistence with nature
Regional cooperative
effortSATOUMI

Creation of “sato-umi”

A sato-umi, or “local seaside” is defined as “a coastal area
where biological productivity and biodiversity haveincreased through human interaction.” It is an important
ocean area that has supported not only marine anddistribution industries, but also the local culture andexchange with other areas for many years. In a healthy satoumi, the circulation function of materials is appropriately
maintained due to the integrated comprehensive
management of land and coastal zones by human being.
With the preservation of the rich and diverse ecosystem
and natural environment, sato-umi provides the country
with a wonderful legacy, and therefore, is a focal point in
the protection of the water environment.

Three elements that
support preservation
and restoration

Substance
circulation

Activityspheres

Entities that
perform activities
Fishermen and other coastal
residents Urban residents
that use the ocean
Residents ofwatersheds(mountains,rivers,fields and oceans)

Fishing villages and cities
Watershed (mountains,rivers,
fields and oceans)

Sustainability
Two elements that support hands-on action

Figure 3.4.9. The concept of “Satoumi”(Source: Provided by the focal person in 2012)

initiatives in international cooperation and partnerships,
such as institutional transfer and technology support.
Additionally, in order to respond to both quality andquantity related water issues manifesting themselves inregions where increased water demand is predicted, such as
Asia and the Middle East, we must endeavor to improve
the water environment overseas through the close andactive joint efforts of the private and public sector on
initiatives to enhance the international competitiveness ofJapan’s water-related industries.

An “ordinance designated city” is a large city which is delegated some affairs and authorities of prefecture by cabinet order. The population of the ordinance designatedcity must be more than 0.5 million. As of April 2011, there are 19 ordinance designated city in Japan.

75Republic of Korea
1. Country Information
Table 3.5.1. Basic Indicators
99,700 (2009)Land Area (km2)

48.9 million (2010)

Total Population (person)

1,014.5 billion (2010)

GDP (current USD)Per Capita GDP (current USD)

20,757 (2010)

Long-Average Precipitation (mm/year)

1,274 (2009)

Total Renewable Water Resources (km3)

69.7* (2009)

Total Annual Freshwater Withdrawals(billion m3)

25.5* (2002)

Annual Freshwater
Withdrawal by
sectors

Agriculture

62%* (2002)

Industry

12%* (2002)

Municipal(including domestic)

26%* (2002)* Estimated(Source: See References)

Paldang Lake

Seoul
InchonEast Sea

West Sea

Nakdong River

Geum River

Sumjin River

Youngsan River
Kwangyang Bay

South Sea

Figure 3.5.1 Major water bodies in Republic of Korea

3. State of Water Resources
Republic of Korea is a thirsty country: the country’s per
capita water availability is about 540m3 (MoCT 2007)
which is far lower than the world’s average and that ofsouthern and eastern Asia which are about 6,400 m3 and3,100 m3, respectively (FAO 2012). Due to population andeconomic growth, total water use has rapidly increased 6.6
times between 1965 and 2003 (MoE 2011). Seasonalvariations in water availability are also a challenge for the76

4. State of Water Quality
Rivers

2. Major Water Basins in Republic of Korea

Han Rivercountry’s water management. About two-thirds of annual
precipitation falls during June and September. Flood events
during the rainy season and droughts in months with lessrain, especially the spring, are critical issues facing thecountry. The trend over the past century shows an increasein fluctuations of annual precipitation and intensificationof floods and drought events (MoCT 2007).
There are four major river basins in Korea, namely Han,
Geum, Nakdong and Youngsan-Seomjin. Most of the lakes
and reservoirs are man-made. The potential of groundwater
resources of the country is approximately 11.7 billion m3/
year. The total amount of groundwater use is about 3.8
billion m3/year which are mainly used for domestic (48%)
and agriculture purposes (46%) (MoE 2011).

All streams nationwide are classified into 114 sectors andwater quality targets have been established for each. Water
quality in the country has improved overall since the late
1990s. Figure 3.5.2 shows the improvement of water quality
in selected points in four major river systems (Han,
Nakdong, Geum, and Youngsan-Seomjin) in terms of
BOD. On the other hand, COD values show an increasing
trend (Figure 3.5.3). An increase of chemicals and loads
from non-point sources are considered to be a reason behindthe lack of improvement for COD levels (MoE 2011).
Total phosphorus (TP) and total nitrogen (TN) values
decreased or did not show a big change (MoE 2012).
However, algae bloom caused by high nutrients wasobserved in the Mulgeum such as during the droughtseason of March 2009 (MoE 2012).
Lakes and reservoirs

Similar to river water quality, COD value concentrations
also show an increasing trend in recent years in lakes andreservoirs. Figure 3.5.4 and 3.5.5 show water quality
trends in terms of COD and TP in selected reservoirs.
Groundwater

Figure 3.5.6 shows rates exceeding groundwater quality
standards from 2000 to 2009. The major parameters
showing non-compliance are TCE and PCE, which isdetected in industrial and urban residence areas.

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012

Chapter3.5 Republic of Korea

BOD (mg/L)
1098Han (Paldang)Geum (Daecheong)

Nakdong (Mulgeum)

Youngsan-Seomjin (Juam)

7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0

1996

1998

2000

2002

2004

2006

2008

2010

Figure 3.5.2. Changes in BOD values in the four major basins (1996-2009)(Source: MoE 2006, 2011, 2012 and the data provided by the focal person in 2012)

COD (mg/L)
10Han (Paldang)Geum (Daecheong)9

Nakdong (Mulgeum)

Youngsan-Seomjin (Juam)

8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0

1996

1998

2000

2002

2004

2006

2008

2010

Figure 3.5.3. Change in COD values in the four major river basins (1996-2009)(Source: MoE 2012 and the data provided by the focal person in 2012)

5

COD (mg/L)

0.06

3

0.05

T-P

0.04

2

12

0.07

10

T- P (mg/L)

COD

4

0.03

2002

2004

2006

2008

2010

0
2000

0

(Source: MoE 2011 and the data provided by the focal person in 2012)

COD (mg/L)

0.06

0.04
2

T-P

0

0.03
0.02

1

0.01
2000

2002

2004

2006

2008

2010

2008

2010

0.07

0.05

3

2006

Note: Number of monitoring sites differs from year to year,
ranging 1440 -1522 sites)

T- P (mg/L)

COD

2004

(Source: MoE 2011)

0.08

4

2002

Figure 3.5.6. Changes in rates exceeding groundwater quality standards

Figure 3.5.4. Change of water quality in Paldang Dam 2

5

6

2

0.01
2000

8

4

0.02

1
0

( %)

0.08

0

Figure 3.5.5. Change in water quality in Daecheong Dam 1(Source: MoE 2011 and the data provided by the focal person in 2012)

5. Frameworks for Water Environment
Management
The basic law for the environmental management policyof the country is the Framework Act on Environmental
Policy under which environment quality standards are
established. The major objectives of water environmental
management in Korea under the Water Quality andEcosystem Conservation Act are the protection of people’s

77

health and the environment, as well as preservation ofclean water and aquatic ecosystems. The act outlines theframework for water environmental management of thecountry. Specific acts have been established for the four

major rivers, which forms the basis of the country’s
restoration project for these rivers. Figure 3.5.7 shows thelegislative framework related to water environmental
management in the country.

Framework Act on Environmental Policy
Conservation of Water Quality in Inland Water
General Measures
Water Quality and Ecosystem Conservation Act

Special Measures in Specific Rivers

Environmental Standards for Water Quality Aquatic Ecosystem- Standards for protection of human health (Rivers and Lakes)- Standards for conservation of the living environment (Rivers)- Standards for conservation of the living environment (Lakes and Marshes)
Groundwater Quality Standards

Act Relating to Han River Water Quality Improvement & Community Support
Act on Nakdong River Watershed Management & Community Support
Act on Geum River Watershed Management & Community Support
Act on Yeongsan & Sumjin River Watershed Manage-ment & Community Support

Conservation of Water Quality in Coastal Waters
Prevention of Marine Pollution Act

Coastal Water Quality Standards- Standards for protection of human health- Standards for conservation of the living environment

Other Laws Related to Water Environment
Water Supply & Waterworks Installation Act
Sewerage Act
Management of Drinking Water Act

Figure 3.5.7. Legislative chart for water quality management(Source: MoEJ 2009 modified)

Basic policy direction of the water environmental
management

The recent policy direction of the country included thefollowing principles (Yu 2010):
Creation of an ecologically healthy water environment
Protection of water quality against harmful substances
Application of advanced water quality standards andassessment methods
Reinforcing the national water quality policy for lakes,
coastal areas and estuaries
Full-scale implementation of the total pollution load
management system
Focus on the management of non-point sources andpollutants from livestock farms
Improvement of the functions of water cycle andreinforcing water demand management
Rationalizing investment in environmental infrastructureand efficient investment

78

The Ministry of the Environment has set up objectives
and targets for the period of 2006-2015 under the Water
Environment Management Master Plan. Under theobjective to “create a clean water environment where ourchildren can swim with aquatic life,” the following
indicators are included in the master plan (Yu 2010).
Increase water quality improvement (compliance ratio)from 76% to 85%
Increase sewerage treatment coverage from 81% to 90%
Restore 25% of non-natural stream to natural stream
Increase basic criteria of water quality from 9 to 30
parameters
Conserve 30% of buffer zones which were purchased in
the upper stream as Riverine Ecobelt
The Ministry of Environment is responsible for water
quality and ecosystem management at the central level.
The ministry also develops and implements plans fordrinking water supply and wastewater treatment, as well as
river restoration.

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012

Chapter3.5 Republic of Korea

Ambient water quality standards

Effluent standards

There are two kinds of water quality standards for surface
water. The first are standards for the protection of humanhealth (17 parameters such as Cd, As, and PCB), which isapplied to both rivers and lakes. The second are standards
for the living environment which were set for rivers andlakes/mashes, respectively. The standards for the living
environment for rivers include six parameters; standards
for lakes/marshes include nine parameters in sevencategories (MoE 2012).
The Ministry of Environment plans to expand water
quality standards to thirty substances by 2015. Ecologicalrisk criteria were also developed and will be incorporated
into water quality standards in the near future (Yu 2011).
For groundwater, different standards are applied
according to water usage purpose. Drinking water standards
established under the Drinking Water Management Act
are applied for drinking water use. For other purposes suchas residential, agricultural, and industrial uses, groundwater
standards are used to evaluate groundwater quality. The
standards consist of four general pollutants (pH, E-Coli,
NO3-N, Cl-) and 15 specific hazardous substances (such as
Cd, As, and CN) (MoE 2011).
Special metropolitan cities, metropolitan city or “Do”
can establish more stringent or expanded environmental
standards than the national standards where necessary inconsideration of local environmental conditions (Article
10 (3) Framework Act on Environmental Policy).

Effluent standards are set by an Ordinance of the Ministryof Environment based on the Water Quality andEcosystem Conservation Act (Article 32). Currently
effluent standards have been set for discharged water fromboth public and private sewage treatment plants. The
general outline of effluent standards is shown in Table
3.5.2. Similar to environmental standards, cities or “Do”
can set up local effluent standards where necessary.

Monitoring of water quality in public water bodies andgroundwater

Water quality is monitored through a nationwide
monitoring network. Monitoring categories include 26
items for rivers, 30 for lakes and marshes, and 15 forgroundwater. In particular, there are 52 automatic
operating monitoring stations for surface waters. Water
quality is monitored by measuring five common items
such as DO, TOC, pH and 17 optional items, including
VOC. For more efficient inspection, monitoring spots areclassified according to usage: river water, lake water,
drinking water, irrigation water, industrial water, and riverwater flowing through cities.

Table 3.5.2. Effluent standards
Type of facility

OutlinePubic sewage
treatment facility

6 parameters and 1 toxic unit
Different values are applied to facilities withthe capacity of more than 50m3/day and thosewith less than 50m3/day

Wastewater treatment
facility

6 parameters and 1 toxic unit
Different values are applied according to“subjected zone” (4 categories). Waste
treatment facilities and agro-industrial
complexes are subject to different standards
determined by MoE

Public treatment facility
for human/livestockwaste

4 parameters (organic matters) and nutrients(TN and TP)
Different values are applied to human waste
treatment facility and livestock wastewater
treatment facilities(Source: MoE 2012)

Effluent monitoring

In principle, effluent quality should be monitored by those
who need to comply with effluent standards. A computer
network of effluent monitoring measurement data wasrecently introduced (Box 3.5.1).
In case that non-compliance of effluent standards isfound, the Minister of Environment shall give theimprovement order to the business establishments. If thebusiness establishments cannot comply with the required
quality of effluent, they are subject to suspension ofoperations and penalties.

79Box. 3.5.1 Water Quality Tele-monitoring System

Introduction of a water quality tele-monitoring system (Water TMS) was decided in 2006 to monitor effluent discharge
in a more systematic and scientific manner. Under Water TMS, monitoring data of effluent discharged from wastewater
treatment facility is collected at a “Water TMS Control Center” every three hours and checked for compliance with
effluent standards. By using this system, a scientific basis can be ensured for implementation of Total Maximum Daily
Load System (TMDLs) as well as appropriate charging systems for wastewater. It can contribute to improving theperformance of discharging facilities and preventing accidents.
Figure 3.5.8 shows the framework of operation of Water TMS and parties involved in the system. The following
discharging facilities are subject to installing Water TMS.
- Public sewage treatment facilities of which treatment capacity is 2,000m3/day or more
- Wastewater treatment facilities of which annual average discharge is 700m3/day or more
- First to third class discharging facilities of which capacity is 200m3/day or more
- Public prevention facilities of which capacity is 200m3/day or moreME

Contrac with private
agencies
Instruction on
policies/guidelines

Supervision of Water TMS
Establishment and Performanceof policies
Reporting of results

Provision ofadministrative data

KECO
Installation and operation of theWater TMS Control Center
Technical support discharging
facilities

Confirmation of
Installation
Technical support
Remote control

Conveyance of policies/
guidelines

Request for
confirmation of installation

Transmission of data

Watershed environmental
office and local Governments
Monitoring of the discharger
Utilization of administrative data

Management/
Supervision

Discharging facilities
Installation and operation ofmonitoring facilities
Management of precision ofmonitoring facilities

Notice of installation
completion

Figure. 3.5.8. Operational framework of Water TMS

The basic parameters to be monitored are pH, BOD/COD, SS, TN, and TP in addition to cumulative water flow.
The facilities joining the network are exempt from on-site inspection with the introduction of this system. By the end of
December 2009, 588 facilities have installed the Water TMS.
(Source: Chung 2010)

Total maximum daily load system (TMDLs)

The total maximum daily load system contributes toimprovement of ambient water quality by setting
reduction targets for pollutant loads, in addition toconventional concentration-based regulations. Under thesystem, designated pollution sources must keep pollutant
loads within a “total maximum daily allowable load,”which is decided based on scientific fact and in80

consideration of local conditions of all target areas such as
specific beneficial water uses.
Currently, TMDLs have been applied to three majorrivers, namely Nakdong, Geum, Yeongsan since 2004. The
current target parameter is BOD, and T-P will be added asa target parameter in the near future. TMDLs will be
enforced in the Hang River from 2013 (Yu 2011).

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012

Chapter3.5 Republic of Korea

Measures for non-point source pollution

It is projected that the contribution ratio to waterpollution from non-point sources will exceed that of point
sources and reach 68-75% by 2020 (MoE 2012). To copewith non-point sources, the Comprehensive Measures for
Non-point Source Pollution Management in the Four
Major Rivers were established in 2004 under the leadershipof the Prime Minister’s Office and in cooperation withrelated ministries. The Comprehensive Measures contain
three major policy fields: policy system improvements,
pilot projects on the construction and management of
non-point source pollution treatment facilities, andresearch and public relations. Under the measure, highly
vulnerable areas against non-point sources are designatedas non-point source control districts, which includes
Soyang Lake, Doam Lake, Imha Lake, and Gwangju
metropolitan city (Yu 2011).
The first phase (2004-2005) focused on policy system
improvement and pilot projects; the second phase (20062011) focused on best-fit management projects for majorriver basins of the four major rivers. As of March 2011, 43
non-point source reduction facilities have been installed ona pilot basis for different land use types including urban
areas, farmland, and parking lots (Yu 2011).

Box. 3.5.2 Recent Development in Water Environmental Management

In addition to the developments mentioned in this section, recent developments in water environmental management
in Korea include:
Investment for restoration of the “well-being of the freshwater ecosystem” and water quality, which includes theconstruction of wastewater treatment plants, installment of T-P treatment facilities, and creation of natural fish ways.
Increase of water flow mainly by dredging has been promoted to ensure environmental flow, which contributes towater quality improvement.
Establishment of the Water Pollution Response Center, which intends to strengthen the prevention and response towater pollution accidents. A 24-hour surveillance system is operated through the water quality automatic monitoring
network.
Plan for the Restoration of Ecological Waterways was established in 2010 to restore ecological health of water ways.
Consideration of eco-toxicity emission management system to address harmful substances in industrial wastewater.
Introduction of water quality prediction system for algal bloom.
(Source: MoE 2012)

6. Existing and Future Challenges
According to the Environmental Review 2011published by
the Ministry of Environment, Korea, the following items
have been tagged as challenges to improving water
environmental management:
To ensure implementation of water quality improvement
projects which are conducted under the Four Major
Rivers Restoration Project. Reduction of pollution load,
especially that of nitrogen and phosphorous andmaintenance of water environment which reservoirs
originally have.

To strengthen non-point sources of which loads will
increase.
To develop an enhanced water environmental
management system, responding to socio-economicchanges such as the ongoing march of the aging society,enhancement of urbanization and increases in income
levels. The co-existence of water and human beings is a
key goal of the enhanced management system.

81

Lao PDR
1. Country Information
Table 3.6.1. Basic Indicators
236,800 (2005)

Land Area (km2)
Total Population (person)

6.2 million (2010)

GDP (current USD)

7.3 billion (2010)

Per Capita GDP (current USD)

1,177 (2010)

Long-Average Precipitation (mm/year)

1,834 (2009)

Total Renewable Water Resources (km3)

333.5* (2009)

Total Annual Freshwater Withdrawals (billion m3)

Annual Freshwater
Withdrawal by
sectors

4.3* (2005)

Agriculture

93%* (2005)

Industry

4%* (2005)

Municipal(including domestic)

3.1%* (2005)* Estimated(Source: See References)

2. Major Water Basins in Lao PDR

Nam ThaNam OuNan Suang
Nam Ma4. State of Water Quality

Gulf ofTongking

Nam KhanNam NgumNam Kading
Vientiane

Sebangfay

Nam Ngiep

Sebanghieng

Mekong River
ThailandSedone3,700 mm and 1,300 mm in the northern valleys. The
national population is approximately 6.2 million, and per
capita annual water availability is approximately 54,500m3 (FAO AQUASTAT 2011). This number is the highest
among the WEPA partner countries. However, because of
insufficient development of water infrastructure, the watersupply capacity of the country remains limited.
Similar to other Southeast Asian countries, seasonal
distribution of water resources is uneven in Laos—about
80 percent of annual precipitation occurs during the rainyseason (May to October) and 20 percent in the dry season(November to April). In the Se Bang Fai, Se Bang Hiengand Se Done Rivers that flow through the central tosouthern parts of the country, river flow decreases in thedry season to 10-15% of annual average. Most of the rivers
in the country are Mekong tributaries, which is equivalent
to 35% of the average annual flow of and 85% of the landarea of the Mekong basin (WEPA database undated).

Sekong

Surface water quality in Laos is considered good, althoughdeterioration is observed in the rivers/tributaries in urban
areas because of increasing untreated or insufficiently
treated wastewater and wastes. No urban centres, including
the capital Vientiane, have comprehensive piped seweragesystems or wastewater collection, treatment and disposal
systems. At the Mekong River downstream of Vientiane,
for example, low concentrations of dissolved oxygen (DO)have been observed (MRC 2010).
Mining activities and hydropower generation are themajor sources of degradation especially in terms of
sedimentation. Wastewater or water run-off fromagricultural activities are also potential sources of highnutrients and of toxic chemicals originating from fertilizer
and pesticide use (MRC 2010).
RiversFigure 3.6.1. Water basins in Lao PDR

3. State of Water Resources
Lao PDR has rich water resources. Average annual rainfall
at higher elevations in the southern part of the country is

82

River water quality in Laos is good in principle. The resultsof periodic and longitudinal monitoring conducted from2009 to 2010 at the mainstream of the Mak Hiao Riverand its major tributaries of the Hong Ke and Hong XengRivers in Vientiane province show BOD figures ranging
from 10mg/L to 35mg/L (Phonvisai 2011). The results ofmonitoring by the Mekong River Commission (MRC)
show that water quality is polluted in urban areas. At themonitoring points near Vientiane, nutrients andWEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012

phosphorus levels, as well as ammonium levels, increased
between 2000 and 2008 (MRC 2010). The report from
MRC (2010) pointed out that pollution levels may worsen
if human activities in the upstream (e.g. dam operations
and irrigation projects) reduce river water flows.
Sediment is the primary quality problem in the
country, especially in the wet season. Figure 3.6.2 shows
seasonable changes in sedimentation observed in Luang
Prabang in the north region of the country.

Suspended sediment concentration (mg/L)

Chapter3.6 Lao PDR

Lakes and reservoirs

Figure 3.6.2. Seasonal variation in water and sediment
discharge of Mekong at Luang Prabang, Lao PDR

2500

16000

12000
10000

1500

8000
1000

6000
4000

500

2000

0
Jan Feb mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Perennial ponds, marshes and oxbow lakes are fairly(Source: MRC 2010)
common in the lowland-floodplains in Laos. These water
B.Phone Khan
bodies are usually shallow and vary greatly in size during
Nam Muay
B.Phone Keo
the year. They are habitat for many types of aquatic plants,
B.Phone thong
ST-1
XayHhanmolluscs, crustaceans, amphibians and reptiles. Currently, B.Houay
B.Vleng Keo
ST-2
ST-4
data on the water environment in lakes and reservoirs is B.Pha Yaeng Tai
ST-3
Neua
available only on project basis in Lao PDR. For example, B.Pha Yaeng
B.Lak 37
B.Lak 33
water quality monitoring was conducted in the reservoirs
Nam Tong
Nam Koungof the Nam Ngum dams (Nam Ngum 2 and Nam Ngum
B.Lak 241) from 2006-2011 as a part of a hydropower development
Huay Dokmal
project. The result of monitoring at the nine stations
Huay Pamom(Figure 3.6.3) illustrates that DO levels in some stations
ST-5
show a decreasing trend for DO levels (standard if below
ST-6
6mg/L) (Figure 3.6.4). Total phosphorus levels in someST-7
Water Sampling Station
stations in 2009 also highly exceeded the national standard
level of the country (0.05mg/L). Fertilizers and detergents
ST-8
are suspected as one of the potential sources of pollution
NN1 dAM sITE ST-9
(Figure 3.6.5).
Figure 3.6.3. Monitoring stations

Discharge (m3s1)

14000

2000

0

B.Phone Xay Neua
B.Phone Xay Kang
B.Phone Xay Tai
B.Koua Lek
Nam Ngun
B.KomeeB.NaLuang
B.NaTou

Nam MoNam Ngun

Huay Kal
Naw Ngum
NN2 Dam Site
Nam Bak(Source: Komany 2011)

DO (mg/L)
10.0

Station 1
Station 2
Station 3
Station 4

5.0

Station 5
Station 6

DO at station 1-9
0.0

Station 7

Jul Sep Nov Jan Mar May Jul Sep Nov Jan Mar May Jul Sep Nov Jan Mar May Jul Sep Nov Jan Mar May Jul Sep Nov Jan
06 06 06 07 07 07 07 07 07 08 08 08 08 08 08 09 09 09 09 09 09 10 10 10 10 10 10 11

Figure 3.6.4. DO level

Station 8
Station 9

During Period(Source: Komany 2011)

Total P (mg/L)
1.00

Station 1

0.80

Station 2
Station 3

0.60
0.40

Station 4

Total P at station 1-9

Station 5
Station 6

0.20
0.00

Station 7
Jul Sep Nov Jan Mar May Jul Sep Nov Jan Mar May Jul Sep Nov Jan Mar May Jul Sep Nov Jan Mar May Jul Sep Nov Jan
06 06 06 07 07 07 07 07 07 08 08 08 08 08 08 09 09 09 09 09 09 10 10 10 10 10 10 11

Figure 3.6.5. TP value

Station 8
Station 9

During Period(Source: Komany 2011)83

Groundwater

Groundwater information including resource potential,
uses and quality is very limited in the country. Since surface
water is abundant for supply, groundwater is regarded as asource only when and where surface water is not available(Chanthavong 2011). Groundwater is also used as a source
for urban water supply although it covers only about 5% of
total water production volume (If spring water is includedin this definition, about 20% of total water production iscovered by subsurface water.) (Chanthavong 2011) As for
quality, arsenic contamination has been detected near theborder of China (MRC 2010) and in Attapeu province.

Policy Framework

5. Frameworks for Water Environment
Management
Legislation

The Environmental Protection Law (EPL) adopted in
1999 is the basis of water quality management in the
country. EPL specifies a set of rules for conservation of theenvironment to protect human health and natural resources
and to ensure the sustainable socio-economic developmentof the country (Article 1). To reflect the changes in socioeconomic conditions domestically and internationally, andfrom the necessity of clarifying responsibilities inManagement Instruments

Supporting Tools

Constitution
Water and Water Resources Law
Prime Ministerial Decree on the
Implementation of the Water andWater Resources Law

National Water Sector Strategy
and Action Plan

Environment Protection Law
Prime Ministerial Decree on the
Implementation of theEnvironment Protection Law

National Environment Strategy
and Action Plan; EIA Regulation;
Regulations on the Monitoring
and Control of Wastewater
Discharge Environment Standard

Forestry Law
Prime Ministerial Decree on the
Implementation of the Forestry Law

Regulations related to forestry
and biodiversity: National
Biodiversity Conservation Areas
and Aquatic Resources

Decree on the Implementation ofLand Law

Regulations related to wetlands,
land uses and titles

Land Law

Agriculture Law
Prime Ministerial Decree on the
Implementation of the Agriculture
Law

Regulations related to Agriculture
Extension, Livestock and Fisheries
Regulations related to Water
User’s Association, lrrigation
O&M, Supply and Drainage, etc.

Industrial Processing Law

Regulations and standard
related to wastewater discharged
from industry and handicrafts

Mining Law

Regulations related to Mining
Extraction and Management

Electricity Law

Environmental Management
Standard for Electricity Projects

Hygiene and Disease Prevention Law

Drinking Water Standard
Water supply and Sanitation, andStandard

Urban Planning Law

Regulation related to Urban
Planning, Housing, Domestic
Drainage System and Designs

Figure 3.6.6. Legislation system on water environmental management in Lao PDR(Source: MoEJ 2009)84• National Water Sector
Profile• Lao Environment Monitor• Other Relevant Date andInformation• Relevant Training andAwareness Program

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012

Chapter3.6 Lao PDR

reorganized ministries, the EPL is now under revision. The
EPL will strengthen the provision on environmental
monitoring and inspection, and the articles onenvironmental impact assessment (EIA). The Ministry of
Natural Resources and Environment (MoNRE) will begiven full authority in review, approval, and inspection in
the EIA process. In addition, legal requirements forstrategic EIA will be included in the law to ensure thatenvironmental and social impacts are carefully taken into
account in project development processes. The revised
version of the law was submitted in 2009 and it is underdiscussion by the National Assembly as of November 2011
(Phonvisai 2011).
The Law on Water and Water Resources which waspromulgated in 1996 stipulates the principles on the
management, utilization, and development of water. The
purpose of the law is to secure the quantity and quality ofwater by meeting people’s needs as well as ensuring
environmental sustainability. However the law is not clear
on the issue of water supply and wastewater. In response tothis, a draft new “Water Supply Law” was developed by the
Ministry of Public Works and Transportation (MPWT)with the assistance of the World Bank. The Water Supply
Law was approved by the National Assembly in November
2009. As most of the stipulations in this law focused mainly
on water supply services, provisions on sanitation andsewerage are planned to be stipulated by a decree. To reflect
these changes, a revision of the Water and Water Resources
Law has started with assistance from the AsianDevelopment Bank (ADB). The final draft of theframework for the new water resources policy was
submitted in May 2009 and as of November 2011, isawaiting approval (Phonvisai 2011).
Other laws such as the Forest Law and Mining Law arealso relevant to water environmental management asshown in Figure 3.6.6.
Institutional arrangement

In June 2011, MoNRE was created by merging the Water
Resources and Environment Administration (WREA),
part of the National Land Management Authority (NLMA)
and the Geology Department, and the Protection andConservation Divisions of the Department of Forestry(MoNRE 2011). The Department of Environment mainly
manages water environments, and is responsible for setting
ambient water quality standards and effluent standards. The
roles and mandates of each department are still under final
consideration as of November 2011.
Ambient water quality standards

Revisions of environmental standards have been ongoingsince 1999. The revised National Environmental Standardsof Lao PDR were issued on 7 December 2009. Water quality
standards were established through the initiative of MoNRE
in consultation with thirteen relevant organizations.
Ambient water quality standards are surface water
quality standards and groundwater quality standards. Since
standards for surface water did not exist in Lao PDR in thepast, it is completely new. Details are shown in Table 3.6.2.
The standard is rather ambitious in that it currently is very
difficult to observe water quality that satisfies the standard(Phonvisai 2011). For example, a 1.5 mg/L standard value
for BOD5 is generally only found in mountain streams inrural areas. Thus for projects studies such as the Master
Plan for Water Environment Improvement Project inVientiane capital, BOD values reflecting reality were used
(Phonvisai 2011).
Table 3.6.2. Surface water quality standard
No.

Parameter

Unit

Standard Value

1

Color, Odor, Taste

2

Temperature

3

pH

4
5
6

BOD5

mg/L

1.5

7

Coliform Bacteria

MPN/100 mL

5,000

8

Faecal Coliform

MPN/100 mL

1,000

-

Natural Level°C

Natural Level

-

5-9

DO

mg/L

6

CODCr

mg/L

5

9

NO3-N

mg/L

< 5.0

10

NH3-N

mg/L

0.2

11

C6H5-OH

mg/L

0.005

12

Cu

mg/L

0.1

13

Ni

mg/L

0.1

14

Mn

mg/L

1.0

15

Zn

mg/L

1.0

16

Cd

mg/L

0.005

17

Cr+6

mg/L

0.05

18

Pb

mg/L

0.05

19

Hg

mg/L

0.002

20

As

mg/L

0.01

21

CN-

mg/L

0.005

22

Radioactivity - Gross α

Becquerel/L

0.1

23

Radioactivity - Gross β

Becquerel/L

1.0

24

Total organochorine

mg/L

0.05

25

DDT

μg/L

1.0

26

αBHC

μg/L

0.02

27

Dieldrine

μg/L

0.1

28

Aldrin

μg/L

0.1

29

Heptachlor & Heptachlor
epoxide

μg/L

0.2

30

Endrinμg/L

ND(Source: WREA 2010)85

Standards for drinking water quality, drinking water
quality in covered containers, and groundwater for
drinking purposes were developed under the same National
Environment Standards. They were mainly developed by
the Department of Hygiene and Prevention under the
Ministry of Health in cooperation with World HealthOrganization (WHO) and the United Nations Children’s
Fund (UNICEF).
Monitoring of water quality in public water bodies

According to the Agreement on the National Environmental

Standards in 2009, the Department of Environment is
responsible for the administration and monitoring
activities of the agreement throughout the country(WREA 2010). It also states that the Department of
Water Resources is responsible for coordinating withother authorities to conduct surveys, and evaluate andmonitor the quality of surface water and groundwater.
Currently there is no regular structured monitoring ofwater quality in Lao PDR, however, some agencies carryout water quality monitoring and laboratory analysis asnecessary (Table 3.6.3).

Table 3.6.3. Public agencies conducting water quality monitoring
Institution

Type of Samples

Number of Stations

Parameters Monitored

Dept. of Irrigation(Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry)(Analysis is conducted in Water
Quality Laboratory)

Surface water GroundwaterIndustrial wastewater

23 Ad hoc samples taken fromsurface, ground and waste wateras required

14 parameters(DO, dissolved salts, nutrients, andorganic matter)(Plans for As, Hg, Cd, and Pb)

Ministry of Public Health, Pesticide
Laboratory

Surface water

Ad hoc testing

24 parameters(Organic compounds andpesticides)

Ministry of Energy and Mines

Surface water from Hydropowerdams

Ad hoc sampling

Almost 8 parameters(Including temperature, pH, DO,
COD, etc.)

Environment Department (MoNRE)

Wastewater (urban/industrial)

11 (Vientiane municipality)
3 (Vientiane province)

4 parameters(TSS, TDS, BOD, and pH)

Ministry of Industry and Commerce(MIC)

Industrial effluent(Samples collected by Dept. of
Irrigation or MONRE)

Ad hoc sampling

Parameters monitored aremainly related to industrial wastemonitoring

Ministry of Public Health

Rural water supply

Ad hoc testing for groundwaterand newly drilled bore holes, andsurface water resources used inpublic water supply

7 parameters( Fe, Cu, Ba, pH, Ec, TDS, NO3 )(Source: Komany 2008)

Effluent standards

The following effluent standards are stipulated under
the National Environmental Standards issued in December
2009: 1) general industrial wastewater discharge standards,

2) standards for specific industries, 3) effluent standards for
pig farms, 4) gas station effluent standards, and 5) wastewater
discharge standards from urban areas (WREA 2010).
Details are shown in Table 3.6.4.

Table 3.6.4. Effluent standards
Name of standards

Types of Standards

General industrial wastewater discharge standards

1.Standards for general industries
2.Standards for sugar cane factories
3.Standards for textiles and garments factories that dye yarns
4.Standards for pulp products
5.Standards for paper products
6.Standards for slaughtering factories

Standards for specific industries

1.Standards for factories that contain organic substances
2.Standards for factories that contain inorganic substances (metal plating)
3.Standards for battery producing

Effluent standards for pig farms
Gas station effluent standards
Wastewater discharge standards from urban areas(Source: WREA 2010)

86

1.Wastewater discharge standards
2.Wastewater treatment standards for public areas

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012

Chapter3.6 Lao PDR

For wastewater discharge standards from urban areas,buildings such as hotels, dormitories or hospitals areclassified according to the number of rooms and volume ofdischarged wastewater. Buildings such as residences,
temples, schools, offices, markets and restaurants are alsoclassified according to floor area. For the wastewater
treatment standards for public areas, classifications are inplace for areas such as historical sites, public parks, waterparks, and marshes and ponds.
The Agreement on the National Environmental
Standards in 2009 states that those who violate the provisionof the agreement will be warned, fined or subject to criminal
punishment (WREA 2010). Also under the Regulation on
Wastewater Discharge from Industrial Processing Factories
issued in 2005 by the Ministry of Industry and Handicrafts(currently the Ministry of Industry and Commerce), allindustrial factories are required to obtain approval andmajor factories also need to submit treatment andmanagement plans. They also are required to install
wastewater treatment systems and the necessary facilities tomonitor and analyze water samples, as well as frequently
monitor and analyze wastewater and report results to the
Director of the Industry Department of the Ministry or
respective province. The staff of the Industry Department asfactory environmental inspectors are permitted to enter all
areas within factories to inspect, observe, measure, sample
and monitor wastewater discharged into public water
bodies. If violations are found, certifications for wastewater
discharge will be suspended and the Director of the Industry
Department may suspend or terminate wastewater discharge
until improvement and compliance is confirmed. The
penalty for violation of the regulations is set out as follows:(1) first stage: warning, suspension of import/export,
suspension of production, (2) second stage: fine of 5-10
times the amount of certification fee, and (3) third stage:
fine of 10-15 times the amount of certification fee andpenalties for other relevant regulations (Phonvisai 2011).

6. Existing and Future Challenges
Although water quality is, in general, in good condition in
the country, it has deteriorated in major urban areas. No
urban centres, including the capital Vientiane, havecomprehensive piped sewerage systems or wastewatercollection, treatment and disposal systems. The water
quality of urban rivers may further deteriorate in the near
future because of the inflow of untreated wastewater ofwhich volume will increase according to urban growth.
The government of Laos has been developing andrevising environmental management frameworks such as
through the revision of relevant laws. However, there arechallenges in their implementation. For example, various
ministries and departments carry out water quality
management such as monitoring and analysis independently
and do not share results. Also, there are overlaps in the laws.
For example, there is duplication among the Regulation on
the Wastewater Discharged from Industrial Processing
Factories, EPL, EIA regulations and Decree on EIA for the
Industrial Sector in requiring environmental compliancecertificates, and submission/approval of environmental
management plans for factories that discharge wastewater.
It has been reported that the wastewater discharge
certification system is currently not in operation andinspection is conducted according to each regulation(Phonvisai 2011). Capacity and systematic coordination
procedures among responsible agencies for overall water
quality monitoring and management need to be established.
Recent organizational restructuring of MoNRE is expected
to promote and strengthen water environmental
management in Lao PDR.

87

Malaysia
1. Country Information
Table 3.7.1. Basic indicators
330,803 (2010)Land Area (km2)
Total Population (person)

28.4 million (2010)

GDP (current USD)

237.8 billion (2010)

Per Capita GDP (current USD)

8,373 (2010)

Long-Average Precipitation (mm/year)

2,875 (2009)

Total Renewable Water Resources (km3)580* (2009)

Total Annual Freshwater Withdrawals(billion m3)

13.2* (2005)

Annual Freshwater
Withdrawal by
sectors

Agriculture

34.2%* (2005)

Industry

36.3%* (2005)

Municipal(including domestic)

29.5%* (2005)* Estimated(Source: See References)

2. Major Water Basins in Malaysia

Kinabatangan River

Perak River
Kelantan River

South China Sea

Bernam River

Pahang River

Rajang River

Singapore
Indonesia

Figure 3.7.1. Major rivers in Malaysia

3. State of Water Resources
There are ample water resources in Malaysia with seasonalvariations. Most areas in Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah andSarawak in particular, receive a national average rainfall of
2,500 mm and 3,500 mm. Weather in Malaysia is characterizedby two monsoon regimes, namely, the Southwest Monsoon
from late May to September, and the Northeast Monsoon
from November to March. The Northeast Monsoon

88

4. State of Water Quality
RiversBruneiBaram River
Kuala
Lumpurbrings heavy rainfall, particularly to the east coast states ofPeninsular Malaysia and western Sarawak, whereas theSouthwest Monsoon normally signifies relatively drier
weather. (MOSTI 2010). Droughts occur occasionallysometimes coinciding with the El Niño phenomena. The
most prominent droughts happened in 1998.
Droughts are managed through the monitoring of dry
events by the Department of Irrigation and Drainage.
Floods are managed through various flood mitigation
strategies using structural and non-structural means.
Surface water provides 97% of water supply fordomestic, industrial, and agricultural use. About 80 percentof the water withdrawn from the river system is used for
irrigation purposes. In the future, the percentage of water
use for domestic and industrial uses is expected to commanda bigger share of the water withdrawn from surface water
sources. Potable water supply coverage extends to mostareas throughout the country with the exception of a few
isolated spots where water supply network coverageremains difficult or inaccessible due to physical or
geographical factors. Groundwater wells or rural watersupply scheme systems will be provided in those spots.

In Malaysia, the Water Quality Index (WQI) is used toevaluate the status of river water quality. The WQI is
calculated using the values of six parameters: DO, BOD,
COD, NH3-N, SS, and pH (DoE 2011). According to the
WQI, the status of water quality is classified into three
categories: “clean,” “slightly polluted,” and “polluted.” Figure
3.7.2 shows the ratio of river monitoring stations undereach category from 2005 to 2010. Figure 3.7.3 also shows
the ratio of river monitoring stations under the three
categories during the same period in terms of BOD, which
is a parameter to show the state of organic pollution.
Compared with values in past few years, the ratio of“polluted” rivers in 2010 increased. The Malaysia
Environmental Quality Report 2010 analyzed that increaseof untreated or insufficiently treated wastewater fromsewage and agro-based industries. In terms of BOD load,
untreated and partially treated sewage is the largest
contributor of which estimated loads is 1,021,576.05 kg/day.
Figure 3.7.4 shows the composition of pollution sources
by sector.

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012

Chapter3.7 Malaysia

100%
80%
Clean

60%

Slighly
Polluted

40%

Polluted

20%

Analysis of heavy metals in 4,565 water samples in2010 revealed that almost all samples complied with Class
III of Water Quality Standards (Table 3.7.2) for arsenic(As), mercury (Hg), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), lead(Pb) and zinc (Zn), and National Water Quality Standards
for arsenic (As), mercury (Hg), cadmium (Cd), chromium(Cr), lead (Pb) and zinc (Zn). On the other hand, thecompliance ratio of iron (Fe) remains at 94% (DoE 2010).
Lakes and reservoirs

0%

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

Clean

338

335

368

334

306

293

Slighly Polluted

166

180

164

197

217

203

Polluted

90

58

48

48

54

74

Figure 3.7.2. State of river water quality by Water Quality
Index(Source: DoE 2011)100%

Coastal water

80%
60%

Clean
Slighly
Polluted

40%

Polluted
20%
0%
Clean

Since lakes and reservoirs are managed by different
authorities including owners and operators of each lake/reservoir, comprehensive water quality monitoring or water
quality inventories for lakes and reservoirs are not available.
According to a study on water quality of lakes and reservoirs
conducted by the Institute of Environment and Water
Resource Management and Teknologi Malaysia, water
quality is under eutrophic condition in 62% of studied lakes
and reservoirs (Sharifuddin 2011).

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

302

349

376

320

187

104

Slighly Polluted 134

102

117

156

238

225

Polluted

122

87

103

152

211

158

Figure 3.7.3. State of river quality by BOD sub-index(Source: DoE 2011)

Marine water quality was monitored at 161 coastal and 76
estuary monitoring stations in 2010. Figure 3.7.5 shows thenational average exceeding rates for Class 2 of the Marine
Water Quality Criteria and Standards (MWQCS) forsome parameters. The exceeding rate differs from region toregion. For example, high exceeding rate for TSS in marine
water was quite marked in Sarawak and Kelantan, but nosamples exceeded the standards in Kedah and Labuan. The
major causes of marine water quality deterioration for TSS
is considered to result from land-based activities (e.g.
coastal development, land clearance for development,
agricultural activities), untreated or partially treated animaland domestic wastes and wastewater from activities incoastal areas, and discharge or leakage from ships and boats
for oil and greases. (DoE 2010)(%)
100

Animal Farm
(Pig Farm)
4%

Agro-based
Industry2%

costalestuaries

80

40

Manufacuring
Industry
45%

SewageTreatement Plants
49%

Figure 3.7.4. Composition of water pollution sources bysector in 2010
(Source: DoE 2011)

20
0

64.1
62.7

61.5

60
42.8

53.4
45.2

41.3

23

35.2
30.5

40.3
32.9

Cd

Cr

44.4
26.6

23.6
18.5

0.6
0.3

TSS Oil and E coli
Grease

As

Cu

Pb

Hg

Figure 3.7.5. National average of rates exceeding Marine
Water Quality Criteria and Standards in Marine Areas andEstuaries(Source: DoE 2011)89

Groundwater

Groundwater quality status was evaluated using the
National Guidelines for Raw Drinking Water Quality from
the Ministry of Health (revised in December 2000) as abenchmark.
In 2010, 201 water samples were taken from 112
monitored wells situated in eight different land use areas,
namely industrial, landfills, agriculture, municipal watersupply, urban/sub-urban, golf courses, rural areas and exmining (gold mining). The results show that values
exceeding guidelines for As, Fe, Mn, Total coliform, andphenol were observed in all land use areas. The noncompliance ratio of total coliform was 100% in all land use
categories. Other parameters of which exceeding rates arefound in all categories include phenol, arsenic, iron, andmanganese. On the other hand, for chromium, copper, andzinc, all samples satisfy guideline values.
5. Frameworks for Water Environment
Management
The ultimate objective of Malaysia’s environmental
management (including water quality management) is
improvement of living standards and the sustainability of
its citizens’ quality of life. The National Policy on theEnvironment approved in 2002 stated “the nation shall
implement environmentally sound and sustainable
development for the continuous economic, social andcultural progress and enhancement of the quality of life of
Malaysia” (Ministry of Science, Technology and theEnvironment, Malaysia 2002). In line with the policy, thenational policy set eight principles to integrate the economy
and environment as follows:
Stewardship of the Environment
Conservation of the Nature’s Vitality and Diversity
Continuous Improvement in the Quality of theEnvironment
Sustainable Use of Natural Resource
Integrated Decision-making
Role of the Private Sector
Commitment and Accountability
Active Participation in the International Community

90

The Environmental Quality Act (EQA) 1974 is an act
related to the prevention, abatement and control ofpollution, and enhancement of the environment. The act
ordains that the Minister, after consultation with theEnvironmental Quality Council, may elaborate regulations
for prescribing ambient water quality and discharge
standards, and specifying the maximum permissible loads
that may be discharged by any source into inland waters,with reference either generally or specifically to the bodyof waters concerned. Other laws and regulations are also
shown in Figure 3.7.6.
As for the nation’s target for water quality improvement,
the 10th Malaysian Plan (2011-2015) includes efforts totackle river water pollution, which is the country’s main
water source, by addressing major pollution sources.
Pollution countermeasures mentioned in the plan include
the following points (Sharifuddin 2011; Economic
Planning Unit of Prime Minister’s Department 2010):- To strengthen the enforcement of effluent standards(sewage and industries) in line with Environmental
Quality (Sewage and Industrial Effluents) Regulations- To assess total maximum daily loads for both point andnon-point sources- To revise the Water Quality Index by incorporating otherparameters for more accurate river water classification- To develop the National Marine Water Quality Index
Institutional arrangements

The Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment(NRE), established in 2004 as a result of restructuring ofministries, is in charge of environmental conservation which
includes water quantity and quality management. Other
ministries and authorities are also involved in water
resource management such as the Ministry of Water
Energy and Communication for water service monitoringand supervision, Ministry of Science, Technology andInnovation for water research and development, Ministryof Health for drinking water quality, and local governments
for water planning and development (Sharifuddin 2011).
For water pollution control, the Department ofEnvironment (DoE) under NRE is mainly engaged in
implementation of the Environmental Quality Act 1974.

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012

Chapter3.7 Malaysia

Conservation of Water Quality

GeneralEnvironmental Quality Act
Environmental Quality Standards for Surface Water
Effluent Discharge Standards

Specific Area
Selangor Waters Management Authority Enactment (1999)
Kedah Water Resources Enactment (2007)
Sabah Conservation of the Environment Enactment

Sabah Water Resources Enactment (1998)
National resources and Environment
Ordinance Sarawak

Specific Sector
Peninsular Malaysia
1. Agriculture
Irrigation Areas Act (1953)
Drainage Works Acts (1954)

State of Sabah and Sarawak
1. Agriculture
Drainage and Irrigation, Sabah Ordinace (15/1956)
Drainage Works Ordinance Sarawak (1966)

2. Forestry
National Forestry Act (1984)

2. Forestry
Sabah Forest Enactment (1965)
Forest Ordinance Sarawak, Cap126

3. Control of Rivers
Water Acts (1920), Reviewed (1989)
River Rights Enactment of Perak
Kelantan River Traffic Enactment (1955)
Pahang River Launches Enactment 6/49
4. Land Management
National Land Code (1965)
Land Conservation Act (1960)
Earthwork by laws
5. Domestic Water Supply
Water Service Indutry Act
6. Mining
Mining Enctment (1936)
7. Local and Regional Planning
Town and Country Planning Act (1976)
8. Fishery
Fisheries Act (1963)
9. Others
Local Government Act (1976)
Street Drainage Building By law (1974, 1994-R)
Geological Survey Act
Ministerial Function Act (1969)

3. Control of Rivers
Sarawak Water Ordinance,
Sarawak Riverine Transport Bill (1993)
4. Land Management
Sabah Land Ordinance (1930)
Sarawak Land Code (1958)
5. Domestic Water Supply
Water Services Industry Act
6. Mining
Mining Enactment (1960 Sabah)
Mining Enactment (1949 Sarawak)
7. Local and Regional Planning
Town and Country Planning
Enactment Sabah Cap 141
Town and Country Planning Sarawak Cap 87
8. Others
Local Authority Enactment, Sabah Ordinance (11/1961)
Local Authority Ordinance Sarawak Cap 117

Figure 3.7.6. Legislative chart for water quality management(Source: MoEJ 2009)91

Ambient water quality standards

National Water Quality Standards (NWQS), which areapplied to surface waters, set out standard values for 72
parameters in six water use classes (Table 3.7.2). The goal is
not to meet the standards of a particular water class in all
surface waters, but to improve water quality gradually inorder to meet the standards of a water class higher than thecurrent class.
Table 3.7.2. Water quality classes in the National Water
Quality Standards
Class

Uses

I

Conservation of Natural Environment
Water Supply I: Practically no treatment necessary
Fisheries I: Very sensitive aquatic species

IIA

Water Supply II: Conventional treatment required
Fisheries ll: Sensitive aquatic species

IIB

Recreational use with body contact

III

Water Supply lll: Extensive treatment required
Fisheries lll: Common, of economic value, and tolerant
species; livestock drinking

IV

Irrigation

V

None of the above(Source: DoE 2011)

For marine water quality, the Malaysian Marine Water
Quality Criteria and Standards (MWQCS) was establishedwith 20 parameters in five classes. Water classification in
MWQCS is shown in Table 3.7.3.
Table 3.7.3. Water quality classification in the Malaysian
Marine Water Quality Criteria
Class

Uses

Class 1

Preservation, marine protected areas, marine parks

Class 2Marine life, fisheries, coral reefs, recreational and mariculture

Class 3

Ports, oils and gas fields

Class E

Mangroves, estuarine and river-mouth water(Source: DoE 2011)

Groundwater quality standards for Malaysia have notbeen established, but considering the potential ofgroundwater as an alternative source of surface water, theNational Guidelines for Raw Water Quality is referred as

92

the benchmark for evaluating groundwater quality
monitoring results.
Ambient water quality monitoring

The Department of Environment (DoE) of the Ministry of
Natural Resources and Environment (NRE) conducts
monitoring programmes for rivers, marine waters andgroundwater as shown in Table 3.7.4.
Effluent standards

The National Environmental Quality Act 1974 states that“no person shall, unless licensed, emit, discharge or deposit
any environmentally hazardous substances, pollutants or
wastes into any inland waters in contravention of theacceptable conditions specified under Section 21” (Section
25, National Environmental Quality Act 1974). In 2009,
Environmental Quality (Sewage and Industrial Effluent)
Regulations 1979, which set rules and procedures related
to effluent discharge, had been replaced by new three
regulations: Environmental Quality (Sewage) Regulations,
Environmental Quality (Industrial Effluent) Regulations
and Environmental Quality (Control of Pollution from
Solid Waste Transfer Stations and Landfills) Regulations.
Under the regulations, sewage discharge standards,
industrial effluent discharge limits, and leachate discharge
standards were established (DoE 2010).
Effluent monitoring

Monitoring of effluent, recording and maintenance of themonitoring results are obligations that all premises are
required to fulfill under the new environmental regulations
on sewage and industrial effluents. Analytical methods andparameters to be monitored are designated. All premises are
required to submit monthly effluent discharge reports to
DoE. For the monthly report, an on-line reporting system isavailable, as well as hard-copy submission. Authorized DoE
officials can carry out inspections of all premises, including
surprise inspections, to ensure compliance with allprovisions in the act. Non-compliance of the regulations
results in immediate penalties to polluters.
As a measure to improve effluent quality, industrial
effluent treatment systems (IETS) were introduced (Box
3.7.1).

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012

Chapter3.7 Malaysia

Table 3.7.4. Water quality monitoring status (in 2010)
Monitoring types

Starting year

Number of monitoring stations/wells (in 2010)

Major parameters monitored

River water quality monitoring
programme

1978

1,055 stations*1 located at 570
riversParameters included in NWQS

Marine waters

1978(Peninsular Malaysia)
1985(Sabah and Sarawak)

161 stations for coastal areas
76 stations for estuary
72 islands*2

Parameters included in MWQCS[ island marine water quality]
TSS, E.coli, oil and grease

Groundwater monitoring
programme

1997

112 wells

Parameters included in the nationalguideline for raw drinking water
quality*1 There are two kinds of monitoring stations: manual water quality monitoring stations and continuous water quality monitoring stations.
*2 72 islands are categorized into four types: development islands (3 islands), resort islands (32 islands), marine park islands (22 islands)
and protected ones (15 islands).
(Source: DoE 2011)

Box 3.7.1. Industrial Effluent Treatment Systems: A system to encourage self-regulation in the industrial sector

Meeting effluent standards through proper treatment is a crucial issue for water quality conservation. In Malaysia,
the Environmental Quality (Industry Effluent) Regulations 2009 mandate the owner of industrial premises to properly
operate and maintain industrial effluent treatment systems (Section 8 (1)) and monitor the performance of the treatment
systems (Section 9 (1)).
Industrial effluent treatment systems (IETS) aim to promote the optimal operation and maintenance of effluent
treatment by enabling preventive or corrective actions through monitoring of the treatment performance with certain
parameters. Through IETS, companies can benefit from the early identification of deficiencies, identification of proper
dosages for chemicals (Keong 2008), and increasing opportunities to identify preventive actions (How 2008). DoE
provides technical guidance to promote IETS. Within an industry, a competent person who is certified by the DirectorGeneral of DoE should be on duty to supervise IETS.
IETS is expected to encourage industries to be more proactively engaged in pollution control without strong
enforcement action by the public sector.

6. Existing and Future Challenges
Environmental Quality Act 1974 has been successful in
reducing pollution to a certain extent with control ofpoint and non-point sources, and continuous monitoring
and assessment of the water environment. However, there
are still many challenges that need to be addressed toachieve holistic water environment management. The
direction of water environmental management has alreadybeen incorporated in the 10th Malaysian Plan as
mentioned in the previous section. The following elements
are also considered essential to ensure a better future forthe water environment in the country.

Promoting water environmental management at thebasin level, including river basin modeling, considerationof localized water discharge standards in accordancewith the capacity of individual water bodies.
Strengthening effluent management policy to improvewater quality conditions. In line with this, self-regulation
approaches to pollution control should be further
promoted.
Identifying groundwater potential for areas where
surface water is limited or unavailable.
Achieving better management of lakes and reservoirs, inwhich the roles and responsibility of relevant
stakeholders is clarified. Further studies and proper data
management is required to fulfill this target.

93

Myanmar
3. State of Water Resources

1. Country Information
Table 3.8.1. Basic indicators
676,578 (2011)Land Area (km2)
Total Population (person)

48 million (2010)

GDP (current USD)

45.4 billion (2010)
742 (2010)

Per Capita GDP (current USD)
Long-Average Precipitation (mm/year)

2,091 (2009)

Total Renewable Water Resources (km3)

1,168* (2009)

Total Annual Freshwater Withdrawals(billion m3)
Annual Freshwater
Withdrawal by
sectors

33.2 (2000)

Agriculture

89% (2000)

Industry

1% (2000)

Municipal(including domestic)

10% (2000)* Estimated(Source: See References)

2. Major Water Basins in Myanmar

Putao

China

Mekong River

Chindwin River

Rakhine River Basin
51.4
Thanlwin(Salween)
River
Mandalay

Ayeyarwady(Irrawaddy)
River

Tanintharyi
River Basin
48.3
ThanlwinRiver Basin
88.3

SittaungRiver

SittweBay of Bengal

Myanmar has an abundance of water resources. However,the spatial and temporal distribution of water resources isuneven.
The average annual rainfall is about 2341 mm, most ofwhich is concentrated during the southwest monsoon
season (May-October). As with the temporal distributionof rainfall patterns, about 80% falls during the monsoon
season and 20% in the dry season.
The catchment area of Myanmar’s eight principal river
basins is approximately 737,800 km2. The country’s two
major natural lakes are Inle Lake and Indawgyi Lake. As
well as natural water bodies, constructed engineering
structures can reserve 15.46 km3 of surface water.
The potential volume of groundwater resources in the
country is 580 km3 and the estimated total renewable is1,046 billion m3 (river basin level annual groundwater
potential is shown in Figure 3.8.2.) Total water development
is 33.2 billion m3, which represents only 3% of the total
renewable water resources in Myanmar. Approximately
91% of the total water withdrawal comes from surface
water and 9% from groundwater. Groundwater is mostly
used for domestic purposes and irrigation of vegetables andother high value crops.

Chindwiin
River Basin
8.7

Yangon(Rangoon)

ThailandBasseinMoulmein

Mekhaung River Basin
70.8

Sittaung River Basin
34.9

Lower
Ayeyarwad dyRiver Basin
163.9

Upper
Ayeyarwaddy
River Basin
113.9

Figure 3.8.2. Annual groundwater potential (km3) in river
basins(Source: MoEJ 2009)

Andaman andNicobar Islands

4. State of Water Quality
Inland surface water

Figure 3.8.1. Major rivers in Myanmar

94

Myanmar is heavily dependent on inland surface water
bodies for domestic use, agricultural irrigation and industrial
production. Surface water is vulnerable to pollution that is
intrinsically linked to inadequate sanitation. Monitoring

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012

Chapter3.8 Myanmar

data for water quality in Ayeyarwady River, Chindwil River,Thanlwin River, and Sittaung River revealed that water inthese rivers is suitable for irrigation purposes (Table 3.8.2).
However, the quality of some surface water bodies were
inadequate both for human health and aquatic ecosystems.
High levels of phosphate and nitrate and low levels of DO
were measured in Inle Lake, which is most likely caused byrunoff of agricultural fertilizers and discharge of untreatedwaste (Table 3.8.3, Box 3.8.1). In addition, both coliformand E.coli bacteria exceeded standards, making the water ofInle Lake unfit for use as drinking water.
Table 3.8.2. Water quality in selected rivers
RiversDO(mg/L)FeNaCl

Ayeyarwady River

4.02

0.45

0.57

0.30

Chindwil River

4.17

0.01

0.69

0.52

Thanlwin River

3.56

0.02

0.62

0.35

Sittaung River

4.19

0.50

0.77

0.62

(Source: Data from the focal person in 2011)

Table 3.8.3. Water quality of Inle Lake
ParametersValue
7.8-8.0

Alkaline

30.0-50.4

HighpH
Ca (mg/L)

Remarks

PO4-P (mg/L)

0.0078-0.28

High

NO3-N (mg/L)

0.7-0.9High

DO (mg/L)

0.6-8.6

Coliform bacteria (CFU)

18-137

Unfit for drinking

0-23

Unfit for drinking

E. Coli (CFU)

GroundwaterWith increases in population and a greater need for waterfor economic activities, there is increasing pressure on
groundwater extraction. Unrestricted groundwater
extraction can result in land subsidence and saltwater
instruction, and therefore, groundwater must be controlled
and managed appropriately. As well, surface water should bemanaged along with groundwater in an integrated way inorder to ensure the recharge of groundwater aquifers.
Moreover, the rising water requirements of the country’s
rapidly expanding urban and industrial centres, especially inYangon City, and the contamination by pollutants fromindustrial, municipal and agricultural effluents (the latterassociated with the uncontrolled use of pesticides andfertilizers) have lead to the decreasing availability offreshwater. Additionally, salinity intrusion has been reported
in the inland areas along the tidal reaches of the Ayeyarwaddy
River system, and monitoring of the Ayeyarwaddy in the dry
zone shows excessive pollution, particularly in summer.
Salinity intrusion is also a critical problem in the
country, particularly in the Delta Region, the third mostpopulated area in Myanmar and where most rice iscultivated. The Figure 3.8.3 shows the degree of intrusion.
Yandoon

4.4.2007
20.3.2007
4.3.2007

Pathein
MaubinYangonBogalay Pyapon(Source: Khin Lay Swe 2011)

LabuttaBox 3.8.1. Water Environment in Inle Lake

Inle Lake, the second largest lake in Myanmar, serves
as the sole source of domestic water. Water qualityof the lake is impacted by various factors. Amongthem, deforestation and more intense agriculturalactivities on its western and northern watershedareas have brought in increasing amounts of silt andnutrients into the shallow lake. It was reported thatconcentrations of PO4-P, NO2-N, and NO3-N wererelatively high, leading to a eutrophic state. The
direct discharge of domestic wastewater is anothercause of water pollution. A high number of coliform
bacteria was reported, indicating that the lake water
was unfit to drink. The government introduced theuse of latrines with the assistance of WATSAN of
the Community Water Supply and Sanitation projectwith the aim of addressing the specific problem ofpollution in the lake.
(Source: Than 2007; Akaishi et al. 2006)

Figure 3.8.3. Degree of penetration and saline fronts
measured in summer 2007
(Source: Ra 2011)

5. Frameworks for Water Environment
Management
Legislation

Myanmar has no specific laws to control water pollution.
There is a general provision in Section 9 of the Public Health
Law of 1972, which empowers the Ministry of Health tocarry out measures relating to environmental health, such as
garbage disposal, use of water for drinking and otherpurposes, radioactivity, protection of air from pollution,and food and drug safety. However, detailed provisions do
not exist to ensure more effective and comprehensive95

regulation of these matters. As well, there are no provisions
for pollution control in the regulation of hotels and tourism.
Although the Burma Port Act of 1908 contains aparagraph about harbor pollution, this merely focuses on
the detriment to navigation. The only control of waterpollution in the country is through guidelines issued inJune 1994 by the Myanmar Investment Commission.
These guidelines require that new investment projects havewastewater treatment systems. River and lake pollution
from sewage, industrial waste and solid waste disposal areserious problems in Myanmar, but are not explicitly
regulated by a particular law, so new laws relating topollution must be enacted. The draft law on environmental
protection is now awaiting approval by the government.

No

Legislations[ Specific descriptions on water quality control ]1

Penal Code, 1860
[Person(s) who voluntarily pollute the water of public
springs or reservoirs so as to render it less fit for the
purpose for which it is intended, shall be punished withimprisonment or be levied a fine for polluting bodies ofwater within the municipal jurisdiction]

2

Yangon Waterworks Act,1885

3

Canal Act, 1905

4

Yangon Port Act, 1905

5

Port Act, 1908

6

City of Yangon Municipal Act, 1922
[Penalties for polluting bodies of water within themunicipal jurisdiction]

7

Emergency Provisions Act, 1950

8

Factories Act, 1951
[Industries shall provide their own treatment plants toremove or reduce potential pollution from wastewater
before discharging effluent]9

Territorial Sea and Continuous Zone Law, 1977

10

Law Relating to the Fishing Rights of Foreign Fishing
Vessels, 1989

11

Myanmar Marine Fisheries Law, 1990

12

Pesticide Law, 1990

13

Fresh Water Fisheries Law, 1991

14

Development Committees Law, 1993
[Amendment to City of Yangon Municipal Act, 1922
including proper disposal of sewage and pollutant water]

15

Myanmar Hotel and Tourism Law,1993[Includes standards for construction of wastewater
treatment plants for proper disposal wastewater to publicdrainage canals]

16

Protection of Wild Animals, Wild Plants and Preservationof Natural Areas Laws, 1994
[Restrictions on wildlife sanctuaries and reserved forests
for controlling of water quality in upstream watershedareas]

17

Myanmar Mines Law,1994[Prohibits mining works in upstream watershed areas]

18

Conservation of Water Resources and River Law, 2006
[Control of water resources, such as surface water andgroundwater, and riverine management ]19

NCEA Law for Myanmar Environmental Protection
and Conservation (The law has been drafted but not
approved.)

Table 3.8.4. Myanmar’s legal framework withenvironmental implications(Source: MoEJ 2009)96

After the law is officially approved, it is expected thatnational environmental standards will be set up.
Institutional arrangement

There are different government organizations which areresponsible for water environmental management within
respective sectors such as health, irrigation, mining,transport, and industry. For example, the Yangon City
Development Committee (YCDC) is responsible for water
quality management in the former capital (Ra, 2011).
In September 2011, the Ministry of Forestry was
renamed as the Ministry of Environmental Conservation
and Forestry. The new ministry will be responsible for the
implementation of draft environmental protection law.
However, clarification of the responsibility of different
ministries may remain an issue in the promotion ofenvironmental protection in the country, including waterpollution control.
Water quality standards

The main causes of deteriorating water quality are untreatedmunicipal wastewater, solid waste, and industrial
agrochemical solid and liquid wastes. In principle, local
city development committees are responsible for theprotection of water quality. Rapid industrialization has
increased pressure on the environment in many cities, suchas the former capital city of Yangon. The direct discharge ofuntreated industrial wastewater into rivers and streams isthe major cause of pollution. In addition, untreated or
insufficiently treated industrial wastewater is discharged
into the municipal sewage system, which further
complicates the problem. The National Commission forEnvironmental Affairs (NCEA) and NGOs proposed
effluent standards for the proper disposal of wastewaterfrom factories, but it has not yet been approved. Control ofdisposal of wastewater from residential, office buildings
and factories is the responsibility of the Ministry ofEnvironmental Conservation and Forestry.
The government banned the use of some toxic pesticides,
encouraging instead the utilization of conventional biofertilizers as a substitute for chemical fertilizers to mitigate
agricultural based water pollution.
Ministries and departments are currently working tostrengthen water quality management to address thedeterioration of water quality in public waters. National
drinking water quality standards have been developed but
have yet to be approved. Water quality control measures arelooked at on a case by case basis, especially in the productionof bottled drinking water. Arsenic and other parameters
have been tested in collaboration with the Water Resources
Utilization Department (WRUD), Department ofDevelopment Affairs (DDA), and UNICEF. The
Environmental and Sanitation Division under the Ministry

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012

Chapter3.8 Myanmarof Health is jointly implementing a programme on watersupply systems with health institutions and carrying out a
Water Quality Surveillance and Monitoring System Pilot
Project in the former capital city of Yangon.
Water quality monitoring

There are no specific regular monitoring programmes forambient water quality in the country. Similarly, water
quality monitoring is conducted by different governmental
agencies in line with their own respective purposes.
In 2006, the Irrigation Department instituted water
quality monitoring for both irrigation and potable water
purposes at 15 stations in four rivers, namely Ayeyarwady(8 stations), Chindowin (3 stations), Thanlwin (2 stations)and Sittoung (2 stations). Sixteen parameters are monitored
seasonally (twice a year): pH, ECw, turbidity, temperature,
total hardness, TDS, salinity, SAR, RSC, Ca++, Mg++,
K+, Co3+, HCO3, SO4, and Cl. The Irrigation Department
also monitored salt water intrusion in the delta area during
the summer season.
Effluent standards

YCDC convened a meeting in July 2001 to introduce
proposed environmental standards for Yangon, including
standards on air, noise, wastewater effluent and toxic
chemicals. Similarly, governmental departments in YCDC
have set their own standards with regard to the protectionof environmental areas in which they are fully involved.
The main objective of the National Commission forEnvironmental Affairs is to conserve the environment andprevent its degradation when utilizing water, land, forest,
mineral, marine and other natural resources. The current
measures mentioned above are in line with the National
Environment Policy of Myanmar initiated by the National
Commission for Environmental Affairs.

6. Existing and Future Challenges
A number of agencies are responsible for implementing
water supply and sanitation schemes, which should
ideally be carried out in an integrated manner.
Coordination mechanisms among the various agencies
should be strengthened to promote more effective
management of the programme.
Improvement of water use efficiency is an importantfactor for water conservation in the irrigation sector to
reduce both water consumption and pollutant discharge
by enterprises (point sources) and farmland (non-point
source).
The main sources of deteriorating water quality are
sewage, solid waste, industrial waste and agrochemical
waste. Water conservation through water quality
protection is undertaken by the relevant city development
committees. In fact, the control of wastewater is both amunicipal and an industrial problem. In cities undergoing
rapid industrialization, the municipal treatment issue isstill complicated. Thus stricter laws to control water
quality should be imposed. In the agricultural sector, thegovernment has banned the import of some toxic
pesticides and encourages the use of conventional biofertilizers as a substitute for chemical fertilizers to
mitigate water quality deterioration.
Deforestation in catchment areas and around water
resources causes serious degradation of water quality andquantity. The resulting topsoil loss and land degradation
by gully and sheet erosion leads to excessive levels of
turbidity in incoming water and to offsite ecological andphysical impacts from deposition in rivers and lakebeds.
The silt and clay fractions, which carry absorbed chemicals,
are transported by the sediments into the aquatic system.

Box. 3.8.2. Current actions taken in the water sector

Public awareness through community involvement is a key issue on the subject of water use efficiency andconservation. Social development and public education and information programmes lead to an increasingly
knowledgeable public that wants to be involved in government decision making. Training in nurturing forests,
producing firewood substitutes and distributing leaflets on reforestation technology is provided to educate the local
people in forest conservation practices. The government has designated July as the Month of Planting Trees forcommunities countrywide.
YCDC has enacted Law No. 6/99 to improve water distribution systems, including leak detection, construction, repair
and maintenance of city water mains, changes in plumbing codes and prosecution for illegal connections.
Some effective measures have been taken to conserve agricultural water, such as adjustment of cropping patterns,
water supply scheduling, improvement of irrigation facilities and management, land leveling, water pricing, canallining and proper use of fertilizers and pesticides. Rehabilitation works for existing irrigation facilities have been
carried out for efficient use of water instead of building new structures. Programmes that promote irrigation efficiency
directly equate increased efficiency with savings for farmers (reduced energy, labour or cost) or improved productivity.
Laws and regulations related to water resource and environmental management are reviewed in line withenvironmental assessments.

97Nepal
1. Country Information
Table 3.9.1. Basic indicators
147,181 ( - )Land Area (km2)
Total Population (person)

30 million (2010)

GDP (current USD)

12.9 billion (2009)
438 (2009)

Per Capita GDP (current USD)
Long-Average Precipitation (mm/year)

1,500 (2009)

Total Renewable Water Resources (km3)

210.2* (2009)

Total Annual Freshwater Withdrawals(billion m3)
Annual Freshwater
Withdrawal by
sectors

9.8 (2005)

Agriculture

98.2% (2005)

Industry

0.3% (2005)

Municipal(including domestic)

1.5% (2005)* Estimated(Source: See References)

2. Major Water Basins in Nepal
Mahakali

KarnaliWest Rapti

China

GandakiBagmati

Koshi

KamalaKankai

Kathmandu

Babai
India

Other Southern Rivers

Figure 3.9.1. Water basins in Nepal

3. State of Water Resources
Nepal is one of the richest countries in the world for water
resources. The mean annual precipitation is 1,530 mm,
with a range of more than 6,000 mm along the southernslopes of the Annapurna Range in central Nepal to lessthan 250 mm in the north-central portion near the
Tibetan plateau. The snow-capped Himalayas are themain source of rivers in the country (WECS 2000).
There are about 6,000 rivers in Nepal with a totaldrainage area of 194,471 km2. There are 17 river basins.

98

Karnali, Sapta-Gandaki and Sapta-Koshi, with their
origins in the Himalayas, are the major river basins andaccount for around 80% runoff. The Babai, West Rapti,
Bagmati, Kamala and Kankai are medium-sized river
basins accounting for about 7% of runoff. The southernrivers—the Bering, Balan, Khutiya, Pathraiya, Lal Bakaiya,
Ratu, Sirsia, Manusmara and Banganga, have origins in
the Siwalik Hill Range (WECS 2011).
More than 5,000 lakes have been identified in the
country. This includes natural lakes as well as ponds, dams
and other small wetlands (WEPA database). Groundwater
potential is high in the country and annual extraction
potential is about 12 billion m3. People living in Terai(lowland) and inner valleys in the hills and mountains
extract groundwater for domestic use.
Water resources in Nepal can be profitably utilized for
power generation, irrigation, domestic uses, aquaculture
and recreational fisheries. Of the above, hydropower
development has become an attractive option as an energy
source. The theoretical hydropower potential of Nepal is83,200 MW, of which 44,552 MW is regarded astechnically feasible and 42,133 MW is economicallyfeasible. According to the Water and Energy Commission
Secretariat of Nepal, the present situation of water
resources can be summarized as follows (WECS 2011):
72% of the population has access to basic water supply.
About 42% of cultivated area has irrigation facility
and only 17% has year round irrigation.
Less than 632MW of hydropower capacity is currently
available.
Little consideration is being given to environmental
requirements.
4. State of Water Quality
Water quality data available for the country is very limited,
but water quality of public water bodies is generally
considered good. However, urbanising areas, including thecapital Katmandu, are facing the degradation of water
quality which is caused by an increasing volume of untreatedor insufficiently treated domestic and industrial wastewater,
as well as waste dumped directly into rivers and lakes. The
increased use of fertilizer and pesticide is also putting criticalpressure on water quality, especially in rural areas.
Insufficient access to sanitation facilities also leads tonegative impacts on water quality in both surface andunderground waters. In the rainy season, sedimentation
becomes a problem especially in rural areas due to erosion.

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012

Chapter3.9 Nepal

RiversThe Bagmati River is one of the most polluted rivers in
Nepal. Due to lack of proper city development, watersupply, sanitation and wastewater treatment facilities havenot been developed as expected in the basin, which has
resulted in the current water related problems. Water quality
has rapidly deteriorated in the course of only a few decades(Figure 3.9.2) and the quality of water is not suitable for
either drinking, recreation, or irrigation purposes.
Untreated domestic wastewater is considered to be themain cause of pollution in the river, which accounts forabout 42% of total BOD load (NTNC 2009). In addition,
domestic and industrial waste dumped into the river andwastewater from livestock farming have also been identified
as major sources of pollution (NTNC 2009). Besides theincreasing pollution loads from various sectors,
development activities such as sand mining, encroachmentof river banks and improper river bank protection works
have also caused sedimentation issues.
BOD (mg/L)
700
600

2005

500

1989

400
300
200
100
0

S

jal

ari

d
un

P

ati

up

h
as

an

aw

h
inb

M

n

Su

at

gh

ri
da

ar

ov

Ch

ur

Ga

Figure 3.9.2. BOD among 5 sites from the headwaters todownstream along the Bagamati River(Source: ICIMOD 2007)

The availability of water quality data for other river
basins is very limited due to lack of regular water quality
monitoring. The latest environment statistics for Nepal(2008) indicate that water quality in eight major rivers
during the dry season satisfied four parameters (pH, TDS,
DO and BOD) in WHO guidelines (CBS 2008), althoughdata is based on data as of 1998.
Lakes and reservoirs

Similar to river water quality, lake water in the country is
generally good in quality, but some lakes under pressure
from economic development and population growthexperienced water quality degradation. For example,
eutrophication has been observed in Phewa lake and otherwetlands located in the south Terai region, which has also
led to the destruction of local ecosystems. The following
table shows the water quality in selected lakes based on
different studies.

Table 3.9.2. Water quality condition of selected lakes
Parameters

Unit

Phewa

BegnasRupa

Gosainkunda

BOD

mg/L

2

2

2.68

Not available

Total Nitrogen

mg/L

260

233.6

176.4

210

P-PO4

mg/L

30

18.7

23.3

3

Chlorophyll

mg/L

8

5.5

6.5

1.2

(Source: CBS 2008)

Groundwater

Both shallow and deep groundwater in Nepal is at risk ofcontamination. Shallow groundwater is polluted bypathogenic bacteria, pesticides, nitrate and industrial
effluents from industrial and domestic pollutants. Pesticides
and nitrate contamination has mostly resulted from the useof inorganic fertilizers and pesticide sprays in the agricultural
sector. Unplanned urban development and insufficientwaste management facilities are the main causes ofgroundwater pollution in rural areas (Sharma et al. 2005).
Deep groundwater in Kathmandu and Terai is largely
anaerobic and vulnerable to increased concentrations of iron,manganese, ammonium and arsenic. In the deep aquifers ofKathmandu Valley, iron concentrations are in the range of <0.5–9 mg/L and manganese concentrations are in the rangeof < 0.1–0.7 mg/L. Deep aquifers in the Terai become
anaerobic due to overlying poorly permeable thick layers ofclayey soil. According to the Department of Water Supply
and Sewerage (DWSS), 84% of groundwater in the Jhapa,
Morang, and Sunsari districts of eastern Terai show levels ofarsenic contamination below 10 ppb; 12.74% are within
10–50 ppb and 3.2% are above 50 ppb (Sharma et al. 2005).
5. Frameworks for Water Environment
Management
Legislation

National awareness of environmental concerns emerged in
the 1980s with the Sixth Five-Year National Plan (198085) officially stating the need for environmental protection.
Since the 1980s, various acts related to environment andwater have been enacted such as the Water Resource Act(1992) and Environment Protection Act (1996). The
objectives of environmental protection in the country are toprevent adverse impacts on human and natural ecosystems
and conserve natural resources to achieve sustainable
development (Environment Protection Act 1997).
The Environment Protection Act (EPA) is an umbrella
law which covers the basic principles and measures tocounteract environmental degradation, such as environment
impact assessment, issuance of pollution control certificates,
environmental inspections, compensation systems foradverse impacts and environment protection areas.
In terms of water environmental management or water99

pollution, there is no one particular law for environmental
water management or water pollution. In addition to EPA
and Environment Protection Rules which stipulate theoutlines and rules for pollution control and environment
impact assessments, the National Water Resources Strategy(2002) and the National Wetland Policy (2003) also indicate
the importance of developing and strengthening enforcementof environmental protection related regulations andstandards. The outline of legislations related to water
environmental protection is illustrated in Figure 3.9.3.

Water Resources Act 2049 (1994)
Water Resources Regulation 2050 (1995)

Environment Protection Act 2053 (1996)
Environment Protection Rules2054 (1997)

Nepal Drinking Water Quality Standard (Nepal Gazette 2006)
Nepal Water Quality for Irrigation Water (Nepal Gazette 2008)
Nepal Water Quality for Aquaculture (Nepal Gazette 2008)
Nepal Water Quality for Livestock Watering (Nepal Gazette 2008)
Nepal Water Quality for Recreation (Nepal Gazette 2008)
Nepal Water Quality for Industries (Nepal Gazette 2008)

Soil and Watershed Conservation Act 2039 (1982)
Aquatic Animals Protection Act 2017 (1961)

Nepal Water Quality for the Protection of Aquatic Ecosystem(Nepal Gazette 2008)

Industrial Enterprise Act 2048 (1993)
Local Self Governance Act 2055 (1999)

Figure 3.9.3. Outline of legislation system related to conservation of the water environment in Nepal(Source: Created by the WEPA Secretariat)

There are also several related acts which could help
reduce environmental impacts on rivers and lakes. These
include acts related to land use, building codes, waste
management, and conservation and protection of natural
resources and cultural heritages (Table 3.9.3).
Institutional arrangement

The Ministry of Environment is responsible forenvironmental protection by managing and coordinating
the country’s environmental protection policies andmeasures. The Department of Hydrology and Meteorology(DHM) under the ministry implements and coordinates
the monitoring of river hydrology, climate, agro
meteorology, sediment, air quality, water quality,
limnology, snow hydrology, glaciology, and wind and solar
energy. As for water, the Water and Energy Commission
Secretariat (WECS) takes on the role of an apex body fornational planning related to water and energy through theformulation and provision of assistance to water and energy
related policy and strategy development. WECS is also
mandated to ensure sustainability by integrating
environmental agenda into development policies. There arevarious ministries and line agencies at the national levelthat promote water and environmental management and itis necessary to coordinate the work of these ministries.
The Local Self Governance Act (LSGA) 1999 allows
village development committees (VDCs), district
development committees (DDCs), and municipalities

100

Table 3.9.3. National policies/legislations/strategies related
to water environmental conservation
SectorLegislation

Environment(overall)- National Environment Act 1996 andRegulation 1997
- The National Conservation Strategy 1988

Water

- Water Resource Act 1994
- Water Resource Regulation 1995
- National Water Supply Sector Policy 1998
- Water Resource Strategy Nepal 2002
- National Water Plan 2005

Other natural
resources- Nepal Biodiversity Conservation Strategy 2002
- Forest Sector Policy 2000
- National Wetland Policy 2003

Wastes- Solid Waste Management Policy 1996

Industries/Services- Industrial Policy 1992
- Tourism Policy 1995
- Hydropower Development Policy 2001

Agriculture- Irrigation Regulation 2000, Irrigation Policy

Others(administrative rules)- Local Self Governance Act 1999 andRegulation 1999

2003

(Source: Created by the WEPA Secretariat)

more autonomy to manage local natural resources and tointegrate environmental resource management andenvironmental planning.
Ambient water quality standards

Ambient water quality standards were established under
EPA (Article 24). There are two standards for different
purposes, namely Nepal Water Guidelines for Recreation
and Nepal Water Quality Guidelines for Protection of
Aquatic Ecosystems.

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012

Chapter3.9 Nepal

Effluent standards

Recent policy development

Effluent standards for different pollution sources are also
set up under EPA as follows:

In the past two decades, the Nepalese government has
strengthened legislation both in water and environmental
sectors. In water environmental management, both sectors areclosely interlinked but require further coordination. Effluent
standards have been set up in the past three years as prescribedin the National Water Plan (Box 3.9.1). The framework ofwater environmental management already set up the country
is facing enforcement and implementation issues.

Tolerance limits for industrial effluent discharged into
inland surface waters (generic)Tolerance limits for specific industrial effluent discharged
into inland surface waters (for nine industrial sectors,
namely tanning, wool processing, fermentation,
vegetable ghee and oil, paper and pulp, dairy products,
sugar milling, cotton textiles, and soap industries)
Tolerance limits for industrial effluent discharged into
public sewers
Tolerance limits for wastewater discharged into inlandsurface waters from combined wastewater treatment
plants (CWTPs)
Water quality monitoring

Systematic ambient water quality monitoring is notconducted in public water bodies in the country, althoughwater quality is monitored by different ministries andagencies for different purposes (e.g. water quality
monitoring of the source of municipal water supply). The
water quality of the Bagmati River is monitored to someextent considering the critical state of the river quality.
Water related database development is also set out in theaction plan of the National Water Plan. Department ofHydrology and Meteorology under the Ministry ofEnvironment monitors river and lake water quality.

6. Existing and Future Challenges
A framework of management has been set up for water
environmental management in Nepal. The next step to betaken is the actual implementation of the nation’s
regulations and rules. Lack of sub-ordinances enabling
legislation and integration among related legislation andpolicies are major obstacles to achieving a comprehensive
framework for water environmental management.
The lack of regular water quality monitoring is aconstraint to the development of a scientific basis for policy
making, implementation and review. There is a pressing
need to coordinate institutions and develop institutionaland human capacity to promote water quality monitoring.
To improve the present state of Nepal’s water
environment, it is important to issue legal instruments
which facilitate a feeling of ownership in order to improve
the water environment. As well, an environmental databasemust be developed, and regular monitoring carried out toenforce legislation and ensure compliance.

Box 3.9.1. Implementation of water environmental related actions set by National Water Plan (2002)

The National Water Plan (NWP) 2002 has different sectoral policies—hydropower development, irrigation, and drinking
water supply and sanitation. Recognizing the importance of sustainable development principles for the country’s
development, NWP incorporated environmental sustainable principles*1 and included four actions related to water
quality management as follows.
(a) Development of water quality standards/guidelines for irrigation, drinking and recreational purposes(b) Establishment of water quality standards/guidelines for ecosystems maintenance(c) Development of standards/guidelines for the discharge of municipal and industrial wastewater(d) Establishment of minimum in-stream and outflow in important aquatic ecosystems
NWP also has special provisions in its environmental management plan (Part D). The environmental management
plan is “a strategic document which deals with a plan for the implementation of environmental protection measures,monitoring and auditing programmes, institutions and procedures.” The actions introduced under NWP would havean impact on various environmental issues. The summary table of environmental issues included some water
environmental conservation aspects such as downstream water pollution and groundwater quality, sedimentation,water pollution and sanitation, and impacts on aquatic ecosystems.
The environmental management plan aims to ultimately contribute to maximizing positive impacts and minimizing
adverse effects in environmental sustainability in water development/conservation actions. Municipalities, local communities
and the private sector are expected to play an increasing role in the utilization and sustainable use of groundwater.
*1 Definitions and principles of environmental sustainability in NWP include the following elements:
a. to protect, conserve and manage natural resources and ecosystems while orienting technological, economic and institutional changes tomeet the needs of the present and future generations;b. to ensure the rate of consumption of natural resources does not exceed the rate of their regeneration;c. to include consideration of all aspects of the water cycle and all uses for sustainable water resources.
(Source: Government of Nepal 2002)

101

Philippines
3. State of Water Resources

1. Country Information
Table 3.10.1. Basic indicators
300,000 (2007)

Land Area (km2)
Total Population (person)

88.57 million (2007)

GDP (current USD)

199.6 billion (2010)

Per Capita GDP (current USD)

2,140 (2010)

Long-Average Precipitation (mm/year)

2,348 (2009)

Total Renewable Water Resources (km3)479 (2009)

Total Annual Freshwater Withdrawals(billion m3)

81.6 (2009)

Annual Freshwater
Withdrawal by
sectors

Agriculture

82.2% (2009)

Industry

10.1% (2009)

Municipal(including domestic)

7.6% (2009)(Source: See References)

2. Major Water Basins in Philippines
Abulug
Luzon

Abra

Agno
Manila Bay

ManilaCagayan

4. State of Water Quality

Pampanga

Water quality is assessed based on the water quality criteria
set by the Department of Environment and Natural
Resources (DENR) as embodied in DENR Administrative
Order 34, Series of 1990 (DAO 90-34), which states thatthe quality of Philippine waters shall be maintained in a safe
and satisfactory condition according to their beneficial
usages (Table 3.10.2). As of 2005, the Environmental
Management Bureau (EMB) had classified 525 water
bodies, which is about 63 percent of the total water bodies
in the country. Classification is set according to its beneficial
use and water quality.
Major pollution sources for surface and coastal waters
in terms of BOD load are point sources. The type of point
source and contributing ratio is shown in Figure 3.10.2.
Among non-pollution sources, agricultural runoff is the
major source at 74% in terms of BOD.

Seven Lakes of
San Pablo

Pasig Laguna
Taal Lake

Bicol

MindoroNaujan Lake

Samar

Panay
PalawanPanay
JalauoSebu

NegrosIlog Hilabangan
Tagoloan
CagayanLake Wood

Layte

Lake Mainit

Bohol

AgusanMindanao

Tagum
Libuganon
Davao
Buayan Malungan

Agus
Lake Lanao

Mindanao

Figure 3.10.1. Water basins in Philippines

102

Philippines enjoys abundant water resources with water
availability of 5,302m3/year/capita, although availability
is subject to geographical and seasonal imbalances. There
are 18 major river basins with 421 principal river basins
and 79 natural lakes (Cuna 2011). The coastal line is17,460 km and about 64 out of 79 provinces are located in
the coastal areas (Cuna 2011).
Surface water is the main water source of the country
and also an important resource for fishing and transport.
Groundwater is also an important source for domestic anddrinking use in some regions. Groundwater comprises 14%of the total water resource potential, while about 50% of
drinking water sources or 86% for piped water supply
systems depends on groundwater.
Due to population growth and economic development,water demand increases while water quality has
deteriorated. According to monitoring data of the national
government, access to clean water is an issue in some areasof the country especially during the dry season. Such areas
include Metro Manila, Central Luzon, Southern Tagalog,
and Central Visayas.

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012

Chapter3.10 Philippines

Table 3.10.2. Classification of water bodies
Water bodies

For fresh surface waters(rivers, lakes, reservoirs, etc.)

Classification

Beneficial use

Class AA

Public water supply class 1• Waters that require disinfection to meet the national standards for drinking water (NSDW)Class A

Public water supply class 2• Waters that require complete treatment to meet the NSDWClass B

• Waters for primary contact recreation (e.g. bathing, swimming, skin diving, etc.)

Class C• Recreational water class II (boating etc.)• Industrial water supply class I

Class D

• Industrial water supply class II

Class SA

Water suitable for fishery production• National marine parks and marine reserves• Coral reefs parks and reserves

Class SB

• Recreational water class I• Fishery class I for milkfish

Class SC

• Fishery water class II (commercial)• Marshy and/or mangrove areas declared as fish and wildlife sanctuaries

Class SD

• Other coastal and marine waters

Recreational water

Water for fishery production

For agriculture, irrigation, livestock watering

Tourist zones and marine reserves

For coastal and marine waters(as amended by DAO 97-23)

Recreational water class II (e.g. boating)Industrial water supply class II

Non-point sources
11%

Industry
27%

Table 3.10.3. Change in BOD levels of selected priority
rivers from 2003-2010

Domestic
sources
33%

Agriculture-Livestock
29%
Figure 3.10.2. BOD loads from key potential pollution sources(Source: DENR-EMB 2007)

Rivers

EMB has conducted inland surface water monitoring forrivers and lakes since 2001 and prioritized 19 rivers formonitoring under the Sagip Ilog (Save a River) Program.
The prioritized rivers are expected to satisfy 30%
improvement in BOD and DO values by 2010, comparedwith 2003 monitoring results. Table 3.10.3 shows thepercentage of change in BOD values in selected priority
rivers in 2003 and 2010.
According to the monitoring results, signs ofimprovement in BOD levels were observed in the
Paranaque, Marilao, Bocaue, Anayan, and Sapangdaku
Rivers. However, the targeted 30% improvement for BOD
was only observed in Anayan River. At the same time,increasing trends for BOD levels were observed in many

RiversAnnual average of
BOD (mg/L)
2003
2010

% Change

Marikina River

18.2

31

Increased by 70%

Paranaque River

42

38

Improved by 10%

Balili River

14.8

37

Increased by150%

Meycauayan River

38.2

59

Increased by 54%

Marilao River

32.3

24

Improved 26%

Bocaue River

12.2

11

Improved 10%

Imus River

8

12

Increased by 50%

Ylang-ylang River

24.4

119

Increased by 388%

Anayan River

8.9

4

Improved 55%

Iloilo River

2.4

12

Increased by 400%

Luyang River

2.4

4

Increased by 67%

Sapangdaku River

7.6

6

Improved 21%(Source: Date provided by the focal person in 2011)priority rivers, such as an increase of 400% in BOD levels
in Iloilo River in 2010, compared with monitoring resultsin 2003. Monitoring data also showed that about 80% ofmonitored rivers surpassed the DENR criterion of DO(5mg/L) for Class C water.

103

(%)
100

n=84

n=88

n=92

n=69

n=77

90

17

15

17

23

18

80
70

Non-complied
Complied

60
50
40

85

83

83

77

82

six coastal monitoring stations showed DO compliance of
54% with good quality, 46% of fair quality and 0% forpoor quality (DENR-EMB 2007). In terms of fecal
coliform, 34 out of 41 priority bathing beaches meet theClass SB water quality value of 200MPN/100mL(DENR-EMB 2007).

30

Groundwater

20

The status of groundwater quality is assessed through thePhilippine National Standard for Drinking Water Under
the Tap Watch Program of EMB which monitored 88
shallow wells in the country. Of this, only 21 sites met the
potable groundwater quality standard, while 27 failed thefecal coliform standard for drinking water. An additional
forty sites required further testing to confirm portability.
Nitrate levels were monitored in Metro Cebu and Central
Mindanao. Not many sites were contaminated.
Studies conducted for salinity levels in Metro Manila
and Metro Cebu showed an increase in salinity in somelocations in Metro Manila. Over-abstraction is considered
to be the cause.

10
0
2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

Figure 3.10.3. River water quality compliance ratio of DO
values in Class C (2006-2010)(Source: Calculated from EMB monitoring data)

Lakes and reservoirs

Laguna Lake (Laguna de Bay) is an important water bodythat supports thousands of fishermen residing in Metro
Manila. It is also being considered as an alternative to Angat
Dam as a main source of potable water in Metro Manila.
Therefore, rehabilitation and improvement the water
quality of this lake is a priority agenda for the government.
Main sources of pollution in the lake are domestic (77%),
agriculture (11%) industry (11%) and forestry (1%).
According to current water quality classifications, thecentral zone of this lake is fit for fisheries and the west bay
for irrigation. However, peripheral portions in the west bay
are heavily contaminated with high sediment loads andhigh level of coliform counts.
Coastal water

The quality of marine and coastal water is relatively goodwith the exception of Cansaga Bay in Region 7, DO levels
are lower than 5 mg/L in all monitoring stations. Twenty-

5. Frameworks for Water Environment
Management
Legislation

Figure 3.10.4 shows the legislative framework for water
environment management. In addition to the laws/
regulations shown in the figure, there is other legislation
related to water environmental conservation, such as thePhilippines Environmental Policy (PD1151) and Solid
Waste Management Act (RA9003). EMB is thegovernmental agency responsible for water conservationand protection.

Conservation of Water Resources
Conservation of Water Quality

RA 3931 (1964) as amended by PD 984 (1976) as repealed by RA 9275
Clean Water Act of 2004
Objective: To protect, abate and control pollution of water, air and land

DAO 35 (1990) Revised Effluent Regulation- Objective: This rules and regulations shall apply to all industrial and municipal wastewater effluent
DAO 34 - Revised Water Usage and Classification Water Quality Criteria- Objective: shall classify all bodies of water and comply with the water quality criteria

Conservation and Protection of Laguna Lake

RA 4850 (1966) as amended by PD 813 (1975), PD 927 (1983)
Objective: To promote, and accelerate the development and balanced growth of the
Laguna lake area with due regards for environmental management and control,
preservation of un due ecological disturbance, detenoration and pollution.

Marine Water Resources Protection

PD 979 Marine Pollution Decree of 1976
Objective: To control pollution discharge from ship.

Conservation of Water Resources ownership,
development and exploitation

PD 1067 Water CodeConsolidate legislation relating to ownership,
development, exploitation and conservation of water resources

Figure 3.10.4. Legislative chart of water quality management(Source: MoEJ 2009)

104

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012

Chapter3.10 Philippines

The Clean Water Act (RA 9275) and its Implementation
Rules and Regulations (DAO 2005-10) provide aframework for water quality management in Philippines,
and employ an integrated, holistic, decentralized andparticipatory approach. Figure 3.10.5 shows the conceptual
framework of the water environmental management under
the act. Philippines has many water-related laws, but theirenforcement is weak and beset with problems that include
inadequate resources, poor databases, and weak cooperation
among different agencies and Local Government Units(LGUs).
To conserve water quality and mitigate water pollution,

various programmes have been implemented, which includes
the SAGIP ILOG Program (Ilog River conservation andrestoration program linked with LGUs, NGOs and otherinterested parties); LINIS ESTERO Program (clean-up
programme of creeks and esteros in Metro Manila inpartnership with the private sector through MoUs); TAP
Watch Program (monitoring programme for drinking waterin poor communities); Industrial Eco Watch Program(rating programme for environmental performance); Beach
Watch Program (monitoring of tourist beaches); andPhilippine Environment Partnership Program (supporting
self-regulation efforts in industries) (Cuna 2011).

Designation of Water Quality Management Areas (WQMA)
Non-Attainment Areas (NAA)

Integrated Water Quality Management Framework

NatI. Sewerage and Septage Management Program
Classification/Reclassification
Groundwater Vulnerability Mapping
WQ Guidelines

Water Quality Management Action Plan (WQMAP)

Effluent Standards
Categorization of Industry
Waste water Charge System
Discharge Permits
Financial Liability

Households

Industries

Other Non-Point Sources

Programmatic EIA
Incentives and Rewards
Prohibitions/Sanctions/Actions

Figure 3.10.5. Conceptual framework of water quality management under the Clean Water Act(Source: Cuna 2011)

The following are some examples of key features of the
new water quality management framework.
Designation of Water Quality Management Areas

Water Quality Management Areas (WQMA) are a
new feature of water environmental management
introduced by the Clean Water Act 2005, which intends tostrengthen and promote efficient and effective water
quality management at local levels that have similarhydrological, hydro-ecological, meteorological or
geographic conditions (Tuddao 2011). Governing Boards,
which are composed of relevant stakeholders in each
WQMA and chaired by DENR Regional Offices, areresponsible for the development of strategies to coordinate
policies, regulations/local legislation, and other measuresnecessary for the effective implementation of the Clean
Water Act. WQMA applies the concept of basin

management, which will also be beneficial for water quality
management. Reasons for this include (1) the manageable
size of planning and management areas which have similar
physical conditions, (2) enabling focused management andactions to address specific issues in each area, and (3) ease ofmonitoring water quality (Tuddao 2011).
As of September 2011, there are five officially designated
WQMAs within the Laguna Lake Development Authority(LLDA) jurisdiction, Marilao-Meycauayan-Obando Riverin Region 3 (DAO 2008-07), Tigum-Aganan Watershed
WQMA in Region 6 (DAO 2008-18), Iloilo-BatianoRiver System WQMA in Region 6 (DAO 2009-11),
Sarangani Bay WQMA in Region 12 (DAO 2010-12) andSilway River WQMA in Region 12 (DAO 2010-10). Of
these, a ten-year WQMA Action Plan has been preparedfor Marilao-Meycauayan-Obando River, Iloilo-BatianoRiver system and Sarangani River (Tuddao 2011).

105

Designation of non-attainment areas

In cases where specific pollutants exceed water quality
guidelines, DENR shall designate these areas as “nonattainment areas.” In the designated areas, pollution control
measures are strengthened to comply with standards. For
example, new sources of pollution will not be allowed in
the non-attainment areas without plans to reduce total
pollution loads from a facility below the guideline value.
Water pollution permits and wastewater charge system

The wastewater charge formula was established in 2005
(DAO 2005-10) on the basis of payment to the government
for discharging wastewater into water bodies in all water
management areas. It is expected that the system is to be an
incentive for those who discharge pollutants to reduce
their pollution loads such as through modification of
production process and investment in pollution control
technologies. DENR also issues discharge permits for
wastewater, which includes the allowable value of bothquantity and quality of effluents, compliance schedule andmonitoring requirements.
Incentives and rewards

For outstanding and innovative projects, technologies,
processes and techniques, and activities, rewards areprovided to individuals, private organizations and otherentities from the National Water Quality Management
Fund. Incentives for industries are also provided, such as
tax and duty exemptions for industrial wastewater
treatment/collection facilities.
Ambient Water Quality Standards

According to the classification under the DENR AO No.
34 Series of 1990 (Table 3.10.2), the following water
quality criteria has been set up for freshwater and coastal
and marine water, respectively:(1) Water Quality Criteria for Conventional and Other
Pollutants Contributing to Aesthetics and Oxygen
Demand(2) Toxic and other Deleterious Substances (for protectionof public health)
Monitoring of water quality in public water bodies

EMB and its Regional Offices conduct regular water
quality monitoring throughout the country based on theparameters indicated in DAO 34. From 2001 to 2005, 238
water bodies were monitored either for classification or for
regular water quality monitoring. Depending on the106

resources, monitoring for these waters bodies is carried out
monthly or quarterly according to the DENR-EMB Water
Quality Monitoring manual (2009).
Effluent standards

Section 14 of the Clean Water Act requires owners or
operators of facilities that discharge regulated effluents tosecure permits to discharge. Discharge permits are legal
authorization granted by the DENR to discharge
wastewater, provided that the discharge permit specifies
among others, the quantity and quality of the effluent thatsaid facilities are allowed to discharge into a particularwater body, compliance schedule and monitoring
requirements. DENR can also suspend and revoke permits
when business entities are not in compliance with the rules
and regulations and/or permit conditions. Effluent
standards (DAO 35, 1990) are set as follows:a. Effluent standards for conventional and other pollutantsin Protected Waters Category I and II and in Inland
Waters Class C. Standards were set for the following:color, temperature, pH, COD and settleable solids,
BOD, TSS, TDS, surfactants (MBAS), oil and greases,
phenolic substances and phenols. These standards apply
to protected waters (both fresh and marine waters) andinland waters.
b. Effluent standards for toxic and other deleterious
substances (maximum limits for protection of publichealth). For this category, effluent standards are set forarsenic, cadmium, chromium, cyanide, lead, mercury(Tot.), PCB, and formaldehyde. Different standard
values for each substance are set in accordance with waterclassification. Stricter values are applied to “new planned
industries.”c. Effluent standards for conventional and other pollutantsin Inland Waters Class D and Marine Waters Class SC
and SD and other coastal waters which are not classified.
The same parameters as in a. were considered with the
exception of settleable solids.
d. Interim effluent standards for BOD applicable to old or
existing industries producing strong industrial wastes(1990-1994).
e. Effluent standards for new industries producing strong
wastes upon effect of the regulations and for all industries
producing strong wastes starting 1 January 1995. The
standard was based on BOD of raw wastewater. The
standard covers old or existing industries producing
strong waste whose wastewater treatment plants have yet
to be constructed.

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012

Chapter3.10 Philippines

To set Industry-Specific Effluent Standards (ISES), a
draft has been prepared with revision of current Industrial
Effluent Standards. However, the draft still subject torevisions.
The Clean Water Act does not have standards for
effluents discharges to land, but mandates that effluent
emitters not affect the usability of land and groundwater
resources. For effluent discharged for irrigation and otheragricultural purposes, emitters should meet the guidelinesof the Department of Agriculture (DA).
Effluent monitoring

Effluent monitoring must be carried out by those who are
required to comply with effluent standards, in principle. A
manual on effluent monitoring was issued by DENR-EMB
in 2009. In order to determine compliance by industrial
establishments, a series of surveys and follow-up inspections
are conducted by personnel in DENR’s sixteen regional
offices.

Strengthening of the following areas is necessary: nonpoint source management, coastal area management toavert impacts on coastal ecosystems, protection ofgroundwater quality, and rehabilitation of degradedwater bodies.
Water quality management at the basin level should bepromoted. Integration of water quality management
strategies and action plans with basin level development/
management strategies and master plans is a challengethat the country will face in the near future.
Incorporation of water quality parameters should beconsidered when river basin integrated information
management systems (RBIMS) are designed/developed.

6. Existing and Future Challenges
There are various challenges being faced in water
environment management including the following
elements.
Challenges in water quality management include thelimited availability of funds and investments, whichshould be facilitated for effective and efficient
enforcement of the requirements of the Clean Water Act
2004.
Water quality monitoring should be strengthened
through capacity building, and ensuring the necessary
resources and infrastructure.
Sharing of water quality monitoring data is also achallenge. Utilization of networks and strengthening ofinstitutional partnerships could address this particularissue.
Management of wastes should be strengthened to protect
water bodies from contamination, especially that ofdomestic solid waste and hazardous waste.
Strengthening institutional mechanisms and sustaining
multi-sectoral participation in water quality management
is necessary to promote water quality management.
Appropriate land use plans should be enforced tomitigate and prevent pollution both from point andnon-point sources.

107

Sri Lanka
1. Country Information

3. State of Water Resources

Table 3.11.1. Basic Indicators
65,610 (2010)Land Area (km2)
Total Population (person)

20.9 million (2010)

GDP (current USD)

49.6 billion (2010)

Per Capita GDP (current USD)

2,375 (2010)

Long-Average Precipitation (mm/year)

1,712 (2009)

Total Renewable Water Resources (km3)

52.8* (2009)

Total Annual Freshwater Withdrawals(billion m3)
Annual Freshwater
Withdrawal by
sectors

13 (2005)

Agriculture

87.3% (2005)

Industry

6.4% (2005)

Municipal(including domestic)

6.2% (2005)* Estimated(Source: See References)

There are three different climatic zones in the country:
wet, intermediate, and dry. Annual rainfall for eachclimate zone is over 2,000 mm/year for wet zones, between
1,500-2,000 mm for intermediate zones and 1,500 mm/
year for dry zones (IGES 2007). These different climatic
zones constitute a unique natural feature of the country.
There are 103 natural river basins in Sri Lanka, with a
total length of about 4,500km (UNESCO and MoAIMD
2006). The largest river is the Mahaweli River with the size
335km long and 10,448 km2 (MENR and UNEP 2009).
In addition, there are a significant number of reservoirs
including ancient irrigation reservoirs and recently
constructed multi-purpose reservoirs with a total area of
169,941 hectares (Table 3.11.2).
Table 3.11.2. Estimated reservoir areas in Sri Lanka
Type of Reservoir

2. Major Water Basins in Sri Lanka

NumberPadawiya Tank

Kala Oya

Mahaweli Ganga

Kaudulla Tank

RajanganaReservoir
Mundal Lagoon

Kala Wera
Minneriya Tank
Parakrama
SamudraChilaw Lagoon

Maha Oya
Negombo Lagoon
Lunawa Lagoon
Bolgoda Lake

Madura Oya

Kelani
Ganga

Madura Oya
Reservoir
Victoria Reservoir

Randenigala
Reservoir

Rantambe
Reservoir

Kalu Ganga Uda Walawe
Reservoir

Sri Jayewardenepura
Gin Ganga
Kotte

NilwalaGanga

WalaweGanga

Figure 3.11.1. Major water bodies in Sri Lanka

108

Percentage(%)

73

70,85041.7

Medium scale reservoirs (ancient)160

17,001

10>10,000

39,271

23.1

N/A

4,049

2.4

7

Flood plain lakes

Ma Oya(ha)

Major irrigation reservoirs (ancient)

Minor scale reservoirs (ancient)

Bay of Bengal

Area

Upland hydroelectric reservoirs(recent)

8,097

4.8

Mahaweli multipurpose system ofreservoirs

13,6508.0

Other

17,023

10

Total area

169,941

100(Source: MENR and UNEP 2009)

Groundwater resources in the country are estimated atabout 7,800 million m3 per year (IGES 2007; MENR and
UNEP 2009; Nandalal 2010). Groundwater is the major
source of water especially in rural areas, and it is estimatedthat about 72% of the rural population relies ongroundwater for domestic use (Nandalal 2010).
4. State of Water Quality
It is difficult to comprehend the trend of water quality inpublic water bodies due to lack of monitoring data.
However, the Sri Lanka National Water Development
Report (2006) pointed out a variety of quality concerns in
Sri Lanka, including contamination by nitrate and bacteria
in underground and surface waters mainly due to poor
sanitation and untreated wastewater or insufficient

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012

Chapter3.11 Sri Lanka

wastewater treatment, toxic chemicals from industrial andagricultural activities, and eutrophication in lakes/reservoirs(UNESCO and MoAIMD 2006).
RiversDeterioration of water quality has been reported in somerivers. The main cause of water pollution in urban area isdumping of domestic and industrial wastes and untreatedwastewater in to water ways. In agricultural areas,
agrochemicals are the main pollutants (UNESCO andMoAIMD 2006). Water quality in the Kelani River, which
is one of the major water sources for Colombo, isconsidered to be threatened by untreated or insufficiently
treated wastewater (Ratnayake 2010) and solid waste.

Expansion of sand-mining activities also affects theriver water quality such as increasing turbidity decreasingwater flow, and accelerating salt water intrusion. Salt water
intrusion accelerated by sand-mining activities in the
Kelani River affected drinking water supply (MENR and
UNEP 2009) and court cases over sand-mining increased
from 709 in 2002 to 2,496 in 2005 (MENR and UNEP
2009).
Table 3.11.3 shows the recent inland water quality
monitoring results in selected rivers conducted by theCentral Environment Authority (CEA). Overall, thewater quality of these rivers is considered moderate togood, although not all parameters met the interim ambient
water quality standards.

Table 3.11.3. Recent water quality monitoring results in selected rivers
RiversKelani

Mahaweli

Mahaoya

Proposed ambient standards by CEA

Sampling point

Kaduwela

Peradeniya

MawanellaClass 1
Drinking

Month/Year

June 2010

January 2011

November 2011

(with simple
treatment*1)

Class 2Bathing

Class 2
Drinking

Class 2Fish andaquaculture(with conventional
treatment*2)

BOD (mg/L)

2.5

5-10

4-5

3

4

4

5

COD (mg/L)

12.6

15-20

10

15

20

15

30

Total Coliform(MPN/100mL)

13,000

-

170

5,000

1,000

20,0005,000

NO3- N (mg/L)*3

N/A

N/A

0.47

5

5

5

5

PO4- P (mg/L)*4

N/A

N/A

<0.01

0.7

0.7

0.4

0.7

(Notes)*1 Only boiling and no chemical treatment*2 Treated by filtration and chlorination*3 Proposed ambient standards are for NO3-N*4 Proposed ambient standards are for PO4-P(Source: Provided by CEA, based on the results of water quality monitoring conducted by CEA)

Lakes and reservoirs

In general, water quality in lakes and reservoirs is
considered good, with the exception of specific areas
where industrial activities are taking place (Table 3.11.4).

In Beira Lake which is located in the city of Colombo,
blue green algae was observed due to inflow of untreateddomestic wastewater (Ratyanake 2010).

Table 3.11.4. Recent water quality monitoring results in selected lakes
RiversBolgodaKandy

Gregory

Proposed ambient standards by CEA

Sampling point

Centre of thelake

Average from4 locations

Centre of thelakeClass 1
Drinking

Month/YearFeb 2011

Jan 2011

Dec 2009(with simple
treatment*1)

Class 2Bathing

Class 2
Drinking

Class 2Fish andaquaculture(with conventional
treatment *2 )BOD (mg/L)

2

8.4

3

3

4

4

5

COD (mg/L)

12

45.6

15

15

20

15

30

DO (mg/L)

6.9

4.6

6

6

5

3

4

NO3- (mg/L)*3

N/A

N/A

0.96

5

5

5

5

PO4- (mg/L)*4

N/A

N/A

0.02

0.7

0.7

0.4

0.7

(Notes)*1 Only boiling and no chemical treatment*2 Treated by filtration and chlorination*3 Propose ambient standards are for NO3-N*4 Propose ambient standards are for PO4-P(Source: Provided by CEA, based on the results of water quality monitoring conducted by CEA)109

Box 3.11.1. Water quality under threat in Bolgoda Lake in Kelani River basin

Bolgoda lake is a shallow brackish water body located between the southern and northern borders of the Kelani
River basin, about 30 km south of Colombo. The lake water is used for agriculture and domestic purposes including
recreational activities, and its wet land supports a rich bio-diversity of fauna. However, the release of industrial effluents,
agricultural runoff and untreated domestic wastewater as well as other anthropogenic activities such as unplanneddevelopment activities, boat operating for recreational purposes, pose a serious threat to water quality of the lake andits eco system.
Several studies reported high values of total coliform and faecal coliform possibly due to disposal of untreated or
partially treated wastewater from hotels and houses located on the banks. Presence of lead (Pb) and Chromium (Cr)due to industrial effluents is significant considering the proposed ambient water quality standard for category 4 class II
waters (fish and aquatic life).
A recent study carried out by the CEA revealed that BOD ratios met the proposed ambient water quality standard for
category 3 and 4 class II waters, while COD values exceeded the proposed standards at all points, and indicated thatindustrial wastewater contributed to the deterioration. High turbidity level was observed during the study (in September2011) (CEA 2011).
Considering the importance of maintaining the quality of water, Bolgoda Lake was declared an Environmental
Protection Area in 2009 under the provisions of the National Environmental Act No. 47 of 1980. (CEA 2011)

Coastal waterStudies on coastal water quality in Sri Lanka are few innumber, although water pollution in coastal water bodies
has grown over the past few decades due to rapid
development activities and human settlements both inand outside coastal areas. The Coastal Resource
Management Project (CRMP) implemented by the
Ministry of Fisheries and Ocean Resources reported thatthe organic pollution in sea water of the Beruwala andUnawatuna areas attributed to high BOD values
throughout the year (MENR and UNEP 2009).
Groundwater

A common groundwater quality problem in the country ispathogenic pollution mainly caused by poor sanitation
systems such as pit latrines (MENR and UNEP 2009;
Nandalal 2010).
Nitrate is also identified in coastal aquifers such as in
Jaffna (north coast) and Kalptiya (western coast) becauseof excessive fertilizer use and untreated wastewater(Nandalal 2010). High salinity is also an issue especially incoastal zones, which is exacerbated by excessive
groundwater use. Fluoride and arsenic, which is naturally
occuring, was identified in some areas of the country(Nandalal 2010).

110

5. Frameworks for Water Environment
Management
The constitution of Sri Lanka states that protection,
preservation and improvement of the environment for the
benefit of the community is the responsibility of the state(Article 27(14)) and that every person in the country has aduty to “protect nature and conserve its riches” (Article
28). Surface water resources—rivers, streams and lakes, areunder the control of the government under the Crown
Lands Ordinance and the Constitution.
The Haritha Lanka Programme, approved in June
2008, is the current basic national policy document forenvironmental conservation in the country. The policy
aims to promote sound environmental management in Sri
Lanka by balancing the needs for social and economic
development and environmental integrity. The “National
Action Plan for Haritha Lanka Programme” was preparedin the same year, based on the programme. The action plan
includes actions to be implemented between 2009-2016
under the supervision of the National Council for
Sustainable Development (NCSD) (Box 3.11.2). The
proposed strategies and actions in the Haritha Lanka
Programme are a concerted effort of all relevant ministries
and stakeholder institutions. As for the environment
pollution control domain, the Central Environment
Authority (CEA) prepares five year action plans. The
2012-2016 action plan is currently under preparation.

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012

Chapter3.11 Sri Lanka

Box 3.11.2. Water environmental conservation related targets in the National Action Plan for Haritha Lanka Program

The National Action Plan for the Haritha Lanka Programme consists of ten missions related to different environmental
management domains. Among the missions, Mission 7 (Water for All and Always) and Mission 9 (Greening Industries)
include specific strategies related to water environmental management. For coastal and marine water bodies, Mission
4 (Wise Use of Coastal Belt and Surrounding Sea) includes related actions.
Mission 7
Strategy 4: “Keep drinking water sources free from contamination through proper zoning and control measures” is oneof the most popular water quality related targets. Actions include strengthening of inland water monitoring, identification ofpollution sources, promotion of central wastewater treatment plants, and developing water conservation areas
Strategy 6: “Strictly enforce the polluter pays principle for water pollution industries/activities” outlines actions
related to the Wastewater Charge Programme (WCP) which would be introduced by an amendment to the National
Environmental Act. In addition to actions related to institutional arrangements for the introduction and implementation of
WCP, the promotion of cleaner production principles and surveys on prescribed activities in the National Environmental
Acts are also included in the strategy.
Strategy 8: “Reduce fertilizer leaching and eutrophication” is also a target to reduce pollution loads from agriculturalactivities. Soil erosion control is also included in the strategy.
Mission 9
Strategy 1: “ Consolidate Cleaner Production in industries” aims to reduce the amount of resources wasted andminimize water usage in industries. Promotion of environmental and social responsibility in small- and medium-sizedenterprises, and appreciation and reward programmes for industries with good environmental performance areexamples of actions included under this strategy.
Strategy 2: “Establish eco-industrial parks,” Strategy 3: “Certification of industries mostly related to ISO 14000
certification,” Strategy 4: “Greening the supply chain” and Strategy 6: “Incentives for environmental friendly investments”
are not directly related to water quality conservation, but the actions under these strategies could contribute to the
reduction of environmental loads from industrial activities.
(Source: NCSD and Presidential Secretariat 2009)

Legislation

The National Environmental Act No. 47 of 1980
(amended as Act No. 53 of 2000) is the country’s basic law
protecting the environment in the country. Under the Act,
National Environmental Regulations were set up to

Environmental Conservation (Overall)- Constitution of the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka- National Environment Act No.47 of 1980 as amended by
No. 56 of 1988 and No. 53 of 2000
- Effluents discharge standards Gazette No. 1534/18
and the prescribed activities for which a license isrequired in Gazette No. 1533/16- Prescribed projects in Gazette No. 772/22 which

apply the EIA process- EPA - Environment Protection Areas declaredunder the sections 24C and 24D of the National
Environmental Act No. 47 of 1980

- Local Authorities Act(for municipal and urban councils and Pradeshiya Sabah)Management of specific areas

stipulate wastewater quality standards to protect water
quality in public water bodies. There is also a regulation on
environment impact assessments (EIA). Other acts andordinances related to water environmental management
are illustrated in the following figure.

Marine and costal water quality
Marine Pollution Prevention Act of No. 35 of 2008
Coast Conservation Act No.57 of 1984 as amended
by Act No. 64 of 1988

Water resource development /management- Irrigation Ordinance Chapter 453- National Water Supply & Drainage Board Act No.2 of 1974
- Water Resources Board Act No. 29 of 1964

Other acts related to water environmental management- Urban Development Authority Act No. 41 of 1978 as amended
from time to time
- Greater Colombo Economic Commission Law No. 4 of 1978 as
amended by Act No. 49 of 1992

- Mahaweli Authority Act No. 23 of 1979
- North Western Provincial Environmental StatuteNo. 12 of 1990

Figure 3.11.2. Laws and regulations related to water environmental management(Source: created based on the information from CEA)

111

Institutional arrangements

The Ministry of Environment is the national authority that
formulates policies and guidelines for the conservation of
the environment and natural resources in Sri Lanka. Under
the ministry, there are six agencies which are responsible
for policy implementation, including the CEA and theMarine Environment Protection Authority (MEPA).
The CEA is was established in 1981 as the authority
with regulatory powers for activities that have adverse
impacts on the environment under the National
Environment (Amendment) Acts No. 56 of 1988 and No.
53 of 2000. Industrial water pollution control is regulated
under provisions of the NEA by CEA. In addition, there
are different governmental agencies related to water
environment management. MEPA is in charge of the
management of the coastal and marine environment.
National Water Supply and Drainage Board (NWS & DB)
is responsible for water supply and sewerage treatment andmanagement in the country. Other organizations which areresponsible mainly for water resource management include
the Department of Irrigation, Water Resources Board, andthe Mahaweli Development Authority.
Governmental organizations related to construction,engineering services, housing and common amenities suchas the Condominium Management Authority, National
Housing Development Authority, and Board of Investmentof Sri Lanka are not directly related to water environmental
management, but they regulate development/industrial

activities which affect the condition of water quality.
Local governments also play an important -role in water
environmental management. They are responsible forregulating low-impact industries and activities prescribed byorders issued under the National Environmental Act. They
also regulate and control on-site sanitation systems such as
pit latrines and septic tanks; public health inspectors are in
charge of these tasks.
Ambient water quality standards

There are no ambient water quality standards orclassification of water bodies in Sri Lanka. Surface water
quality is evaluated by potable water standards (SLS 614)
and also by proposed ambient water quality standards
which were prepared by CEA and is currently in theprocess of being approved. The proposed ambient water
quality standards cover only surface water quality.
Monitoring of water quality in public water bodies

There is no regular monitoring of surface and undergroundwater quality except the monitoring of water intake quality
conducted by the National Water Supply and Drainage
Board. The CEA conducted ambient water quality
monitoring projects for different river basins such as the
Mahaweli River, Kandy Lake and Kelani River. Under thePavithra Ganga Project, water quality has been monitored
since 2001 (Box 3.11.3).

Box 3.11.3. Recent development of water environmental management: Pavithra Ganga Programme

The Pavithra Ganga (Clean River) Programme was initiated in 1998 by the Ministry of Environment of Sri Lanka
to mitigate water pollution and conserve biodiversity of freshwater bodies in a comprehensive manner. Under the
programme, a pilot project was conducted for the Kelani River which is the main drinking water source for the western
province. The Pavithra Ganga project in the Kelani River included various activities such as the promotion of awarenessprogrammes for industries especially on cleaner production, awareness programmes for school children, waste audits
by the ministry in collaboration with local authorities, and tree-planting along river banks.
Water quality monitoring has been also strengthened under the project. Water quality has been monitored at 12
locations, and since 2003, water quality monitoring results have been made public through water quality information
boards set up at selected locations along the river. The information boards help local people gain an awareness of thestate of water quality in the river.
The project is a good showcase of comprehensive water environment management with the participation of national
government agencies, as well as 13 local governments located in the Kelani River basin and other local stakeholders.
(Source: Documentation from CEA, MENR 2008)

112

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012

Chapter3.11 Sri Lanka

Environmental protection license system

Effluent monitoring

Environmental protection licenses (EPL) are required forall entities in the country which discharge wastes to theenvironment, prescribed by a regulation published under
the National Environmental Act. EPLs are issued by CEA
based on the National Environmental Regulation
No.1533/16 and No. 1534/18 of 2008. 138 activities intotal are mandated to obtain EPLs by Governmental
Notification (Gazette No. 1533/16, 2008). These activities
are divided into three categories according to pollution
load levels. In principle, EPLs are issued for water
discharging activities which comply with national effluent
standards (Ratnayake 2010). However, an industrial
survey conducted by CEA found that some industries arefunctioning without EPL.

In principle, effluent quality should be self monitored bydischarging industries. However, significant number ofindustries do not monitor effluent quality of theirdischarging effluent.
The CEA occasionally monitors effluents discharged
from industries/activities which are suspected of noncompliance with effluent standards. It also checks effluent
quality based on complaints received from the generalpublic.

Effluent standards

Currently, different kinds of effluent standards have been set
based on point of discharge and type of effluent as follows.
General standards for discharge of effluent into inlandsurface waters
Tolerance limits for industrial effluents discharged onland for irrigation purposes
Tolerance limits for discharge of effluents into publicsewers with central treatment plants
Tolerance limits for industrial and domestic effluentsdischarged into marine coastal areas
Tolerance limits for effluents from rubber factories
discharged into inland surface waters
Tolerance limits for effluents from textile industries
discharged into inland surface waters
Tolerance limits for effluents from tanning industries
Considering that current effluent standards do not wellreflect local socio-economic and environmental conditions
and have resulted in implementation problems, a revisionof effluent standards is currently being proposed. Noncompliance actions shall be subject to fine or imprisonment
based on the National Environmental Act.

6. Existing and Future Challenges
There has been a positive development in the developmentof a water quality management framework in past decadesin Sri Lanka. On the other hand, various challenges remain
to ensure implementation of water pollution control
measures.
i) Organization: There is no umbrella body to regulate
water issues and therefore, water resources/quality are
managed by different agencies based on their area ofinterest. Coordination among agencies should be
strengthened to ensure comprehensive water managementin the country.
ii) Legislation: Ambient water quality standards andclassification of water bodies should be established tostrengthen water pollution control. Draft ambient water
quality standards are now awaiting approval.
iii) Scientific data: Lack of baseline data is one of thecritical challenges in promoting water quality management.
The availability of data, as well as accessibility to datastored in different institutions is an issue. Financial andinstitutional arrangements should be improved to establish
systematic data collection and periodical analysis systems.
iv) Awareness: Unwillingness by industries and the generalpublic to contribute to water quality management is abarrier to reduce pollution loads on public water bodies.
Awareness programmes and consultation processes should
be further promoted to ensure sound and sustainable
management for a better water environment.

113

Thailand
3. State of Water Resources

1. Country Information
Table 3.12.1. Basic Indicators
513,116 (2007)

Land Area (km2)
Total Population (person)

69.1 million (2010)

GDP (current USD)

318.5 billion (2010)

Per Capita GDP (current USD)

4,608 (2010)

Long-Average Precipitation (mm/year)

1,622 (2009)

Total Renewable Water Resources (km3)

438.6* (2009)

Total Annual Freshwater Withdrawals(billion m3)
Annual Freshwater
Withdrawal by
sectors

57.3 (2007)

Agriculture

90.4% (2007)

Industry

4.8% (2007)

Municipal(including domestic)

4.8% (2007)* Estimated(Source: See References)

2. Major Water Basins in Thailand

Khong

Kok

Nan
Wang

Yom
Khong

Salween

Chi

Ping

Pasak

Sakae Krang
Tha Chin

Mun

Chao Phraya

Prachinburi
Tonele Sap

Mae Klong
Phetchaburi

Eastern Coast

Western Coast
Bang PakongSouth-East Coast
TapiSouth-West
Coast
Songkhla Lake
PattaniFigure 3.12.1. Water basins in Thailand

114

Based on geographical characteristics, Thailand can bedivided into 25 river basins (Figure 3.12.1). The total
volume of water from rainfall in all river basins in Thailand
is estimated at approximately 800,000 million m3, of which
75% is lost through evaporation, evapotranspiration andinfiltration. The remaining 25% constitutes the runoff thatflows in the rivers and streams. Available water quantity is
about 3,300 m3/capita/year (Office of National Water
Resources Committee 2000).
Groundwater is an important source of water supply in
Thailand. Twenty percent of public water supply and 75%
of domestic water are derived from groundwater resources.
The groundwater system in Thailand is mainly recharged
by rainfall of about 40,000 million m3 and seepage fromrivers. It was estimated from previous hydrological balance
studies that about 12.5 to 18% of rainfall would reach theaquifers. More than 200,000 groundwater well projects
were undertaken by both government and the private
sector with total capacity of about 7.55 million m3/day(information from the WEPA focal person in 2012).
4. State of Water Quality
Surface Water

Water quality monitoring is conducted at 620 generalmonitoring stations in 48 major rivers and four standing
water resources (Kwan Phayao, Bueng Boraphet, NongHan, and Songkhla Lake). Water quality is evaluated bymaking comparisons to surface water quality standards andwater quality index (WQI). Figure 3.12.2 shows the statusof water quality in the country from 2001 to 2010 based on
an assessment of WQI by the Pollution Control of
Department (PCD) under the Ministry of Natural
Resource and Environment (MoNRE). There have been no
points categorized as “highly deteriorated” since 2008,
although points categorized as “deteriorated” have been on
the rise for the same period. Wastewater from communities
is considered to be the main point source of surface water
quality deterioration, and untreated wastewater fromindustries and agricultural activities also contributes todeterioration (PCD 2010).
During the last 10 years, several standards have been
established to control effluent quality emissions torecipients. However, it is still difficult for entrepreneurs andagriculturists to comply with these standards. Sectors such

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012

Chapter3.12 Thailand

as factories, real estate, condominiums, hotels, department
stores, restaurants, and fresh food markets are better able tofollow the standards as they are likely to have more capitalfunds available to establish management systems thanagricultural sectors.
(%)
100
90

18

80

40

32

23

17

19

21

40

50

25

31

22

Good
Fair

70
60

22

31

49
51

35
53

39
54

36

Deteriorated
HighlyDeteriorated

40
30
20
10
0

33
32
9

3

31
6

21
5

29
5

44
23

24

3

2

0

33
0

39

0

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

Figure 3.12.2. Trend of inland water quality by Water Quality
Index during 2001-2010(Source: PCD 2006, 2007, 2010, 2011)
Remarks: “Good” to “Highly Deteriorated” corresponds to the following:
Good: Surface water quality standard Class 2 and Water Quality
Index (WQI) 71-90
Fair: Surface water quality standard Class 3 and WQI between 61-70
Deteriorated : Surface quality standard Class 4 and WQI between
31-60
Highly Deteriorated : Surface water quality standard Class 5 and WQI
between 0-30

Figure 3.12.3 shows the regional differences of water
quality by different parameters. Higher values of TCB andFCB are observed in the rainy season than during the dry
season because pollutants are washed away by rain fromdrain pipes and land, and flow into rivers.
PCD identifies critical areas of water pollution basedon water quality monitoring results. These areas includes
Chao Phraya basin (upper, central and lower Chao Phraya
River), Tha Chin basin (upper, central and lower Chao
Phraya River), Bang Pakong basin (Bang Pakong, Prachin(%)
30

Northern
Eastern

CentralSouthern

Northeastern
Nationwide

Buri, Nakhon Nayok Rivers), Songkhla Lake basins (TalayNoi, Talay-Luang, Songkhla Lake), and Lamtakong basin(upper and lower Lamtakong River) (PCD 2010).
Coastal water

PCD has 240 monitoring stations in 23 provinces alongthe 2,600 km coastline and significant islands. Monitoring
results were evaluated with the Marine Water Quality Index
which is calculated with the monitored value of eightparameters. Figure 3.12.4 shows the chronological changeof water quality in coastal areas and estuaries from 2006 to
2010. There are no significant changes, but the number ofpoints evaluated as “deteriorated” or “highly deteriorated”
increased slightly in 2010 compared with the value in 2008
(PCD 2011).
By region, deterioration was significant in the inner gulfof the country at the estuaries of the four main rivers (ChaoPhraya, Tha Chin, Mae Klong, and Bang Pakong Rivers) for
DO and TCB. TSS values were also high in the Bang
Pakong area. The western seaboard, tourist areas, tiger
shrimp and oyster culturing areas generally appear to have“good” water quality. However, TCB levels in some areas
where domestic wastewater is discharged into the sea
without treatment exceeded the standard (PCD 2010).
(%)
100

90

12

13

16

5

8

Excellent

80
70
60

51
49

52

47

Fair

48

Deteriorated

50

Highlydeteriorated

40
30
20
10
0

Good

25

36

29

7
3

2
1

6
1

2006

2007

2008

34

34

5
5

6
5

2009

2010

Figure 3.12.4. Coastal marine water quality nationwide
2006-2010(Source: PCD 2010 and 2011)

25

Groundwater

20
15
10
5
0

DO

BOD

TCB

FCB

NH3

Figure 3.12.3. Water quality parameters not in compliancewith water quality standards by region in 2010
(Source: PCD 2010)
Note: Standard values for each parameter used in this figure are as follows.
DO: 2.0mg/L, BOD: 4mg/L, TCB: 20,000MPN/100mL, FCB: 4,000MPN/100mL,
NH3: 0.5 mg/L

The country’s groundwater potential is large in general,
except the eastern region. The lower central plain area has
the largest potential of groundwater resources, particularlyin the Bangkok Metropolitan Region and surrounding
provinces. Groundwater in the region has been exploited tomeet growing water demand and has caused severe land
subsidence problems. Regarding water quality, high iron,
fluoride and salinity is observed in some areas of the country,
which is natural contamination. On the other hand,contamination by fertilizers, agricultural chemicals,

115aquaculture and animal wastes have been identified in someregions. Leakage from waste dumping sites and petroleum
wastes are also a cause of contamination. Examples havebeen observed in Pak Chong district (petroleum waste),Sating Phra and Songkhla Lakes (freshwater animalfarming), Muang district, Lanphun, Rayong and Chon Buri
provinces (VOCs), and Bang Pakong and Tha Chin Riverbasins (agricultural wastes) (PCD 2010).
Sources of Water Pollution

The main sources of water pollution can be divided into
three types as follows:
1) Domestic wastewater: The general public which
generates domestic sewage that is discharged into rivers
and other bodies of water after undergoing primary
treatment or no treatment at all. It was estimated thatapproximately 15 million m3/day or 2.77 million kg of
BOD/day of wastewater generated by the population
across the country is discharged into receiving waters
and the environment. This includes the 2,008
municipalities considerably generating approximately
3.8 million m3/day, Bangkok Metropolis and Pattaya
city generating about 2.7 million m3/day, and the areasof 5,767 local administration organizations contributing
about 8.5 million m3/day.
2) Industrial wastewater: Industries which discharge
processed wastes including by-products of various typesof industrial operations. At present, many industries arelocated in high population density areas or mixed withresidential areas in the city. Across the country, there are
more than 120,000 industrial establishments of varying

sizes, carrying on a wide range of activities, locatedwithin the Inner Gulf. They produce a range of products.
3) Agricultural activities: Agricultural activities such as theuse of chemical fertilizers, pesticides and animal wastes
from feedlots. A considerable part of the fertilizer used
for rice paddy fields is washed away by irrigation waterand flows into rivers, estuaries, or other bodies of water.
This fertilizer causes eutrophication and supports thegrowth of water hyacinths. This unwanted plant grows
very fast, covering major areas of water bodies.
5. Frameworks for Water Environment
Management
The constitution of Thailand (2007) stipulates thatenvironmental protection and conservation undersustainable development principles and elimination ofpollution which affects human health and welfare is the
responsibility of the state (Section 5, part 8). Since 1992,
the five-year national economic and social development
plans have emphasized environmental conservation of thecountry. The 10th National Economic and Social
Development Plan (2007-2011) emphasized therehabilitation of natural resources and the environment bystrengthening environmental management and increasing
local community participation as key areas. The national
plan does not include a detailed implementation or action
plan, and in order to bring the environmental strategies in
the plan into action, the related agencies have to formulate
programmes, projects and measures based on the national
plan (Box. 3.12.1).

Box. 3.12.1. Water environmental management policy in Thailand

The environmental policy on water pollution control for 2010-2014 was approved by the National Environmental Board
on 30 October 2009. The summary of this policy is shown below.
Policy:1) Reduce BOD loads from domestic wastewater by using
Grease Traps and On-site method
2) Rehabilitate existing municipal wastewater facilities
3) Build wastewater treatment facilities where there is awater pollution crisis4 ) Unite the Metropolitan Waterworks Authority andWastewater Management Authority
5) Enforce Polluter Pays Principal (PPP): Producers ofpolluted water must be responsible for paying for the
management of water pollution.
6) Promote and support private sector/public participationin co-investing and solving water pollution problems(Source: Information from the WEPA focal person in 2012)

116

Prioritizing operational areas:
Classifying wastewater management based on the
result of prioritization of river basins and importance ofmunicipal areas, which will help establish implementationplans into four phases as below (in order of priority):
Phase 1 : 2010-2011
Phase 2 : 2012-2016
Phase 3 : 2017-2031
Phase 4 : 2032-2041

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012

Chapter3.12 Thailand

The Enhancement and Conservation of the National
Environmental Quality Act (EQA) in 1992 is the basic law
for environmental conservation in the country, which
defines authorities and responsibilities regarding
environmental protection. Some key features of the EQA
are as follows:
Establishment of the Environmental Fund, from which
resources will be drawn to solve environmental problems
in priority areas.
Formulation of a National Environmental Management
Plan, duties of government agencies to implement theplan and for provinces to prepare action plans.
Provision for the National Environmental Board (NEB)
to declare Pollution Control Areas (PCAs) orConservation and Environmentally Protected Areas
when justified from an environmental point of view.
Establishment of a multi-agency Pollution Control
Committee for pollution control matters, including
enactment of discharge standards.
Recognition of the Polluter Pays Principle.
In order to control and manage water quality problemsin Thailand, the regulations can be grouped into three
categories as follows:
The application on environmental impact assessment(EIA) to determine the impact and mitigation plan fordevelopment projects of various types and sizes such as
dams with storage volume of 100 million m3 or more,
irrigation projects of 12,800 ha or more, hotels or resorts
with 80 rooms or more, thermal power plants with capacityof 10 MW or more, all sizes of mining projects, etc.
The establishment and application of effluent standards
such as industrial effluent standards, domestic effluent
standards, effluent standards for pig farms and fish/
shrimp farms, etc.
The ambient water quality standard and classification
based on the state of water quality, socio-economic
aspects, and availability of treatment technologies
The outline of legislation related to water environmental
management in Thailand is shown in Figure 3.12.5.

Conservation of Water Quality in Public Waters
Enhancement and Conservation on National
Environmental Quality Act, B.E.2535

Ambient water quality standards- Surface Water Quality Standards- Coastal Water Quality Standards
Effluent standards- Industrial Effluent Standards- Building Effluent Standards- Housing Estate Effluent Standards- Municipal Wastewater Treatment System Effluent
Standards- Gas Station and Oil Terminal Effluent Standards- Effluent Standards for Pig Farms- Effluent Standards for Coastal Aquaculture- Effluent Standard for Brackish Aquaculture- Effluent Standards for Inland Aquaculture- Water Characteristics Discharged into
Irrigation Systems

Groundwater Act- Groundwater Quality Standards- Water Characteristics Discharged into Deep Wells

Other Laws related to Water
Quality Conservation

Factory Act
Regulations of Industrial
Pollution Control Facilities

Publics Health Act
The Hazardous Substances Act
The Public Cleansing Act

Figure 3.12.5. Legislative chart for water quality
management(Source: MoEJ 2009 modified)Ambient water quality standards
Surface water quality standards

Institutional arrangement

According to the EQA, PCD and the Office of Natural
Resources and Environmental Policy and Planning(ONEP) under MoNRE are responsible for wastewater
management by undertaking national and regional water
quality management planning and facilitating local
authorities in their responsibilities for their own wastewater
management. Under the EQA, the PCD establishes
effluent standards for pollution control from point sourcesin order to meet ambient environmental quality standards.

This standard was the first ambient water quality standard
established in 1994. Surface water quality standards havebeen established for 28 items under five classifications ofwater bodies which were designated according to water
usage as shown in Table 3.12.2. The General Water Quality
Index was established as an indicator to promote people’s
understanding of water quality, which was calculated withthe values of eight parameters (pH, DO, BOD, TS, FCB,
NO3 , TP, SS). These standards are the national minimum
standards.

117

Table 3.12.2. Surface water quality standard classificationClass

Beneficial Use

Objectives

Class 1Conservation not necessary to passthrough water treatment process.
Extra clean
Only requires ordinary process offresh surface
pathogenic destruction, ecosystemwater resources
conservation where basic organisms
can breed naturally.

Class 2

Very clean
freshwater
surface water
resource

Consumption requires ordinarywater treatment process before use,conservation of aquatic organisms,
fisheries, recreation

Class 3Medium clean
fresh surface
water resource

Consumption, but ordinary treatment
process is required before use (foragricultural use)

Class 4

Fairly clean
fresh surface
water resource

Consumption, but requires special
treatment process before use (forindustrial use)

Class 5

Source notincluded inClass 1-4

Navigation(Source: MoEJ 2009)

Coastal water quality standards

There are 30 parameters designated for coastal water
quality standards in six classes, determined according tousage (6 classifications). Different classifications are applied
for the west coast of Phuket Island.
Groundwater quality standard

The parameters included in groundwater quality standards
are divided into four groups: volatile organic compounds(15 parameters), heavy metals (ten parameters), pesticides(nine parameters) and others (four parameters).
Ambient water quality monitoring in public water bodies

Under the EQA, the government conducts monitoring ofreceiving water quality to maintain quality. There are 620
general monitoring stations and 39 automatic monitoring
stations in 48 main rivers in the country and water quality
samples are taken three to four times/year during the wet anddry seasons. The methods of water sampling and analysis
should follow the Standard Method for the Examination of
Water and Wastewater (1998) (Yolthantham 2011). The
monitoring results of ambient water quality conducted by
the government are summarized and made available to the
public through publications and online.
Effluent standards

Based on the EQA (Section 32), a series of effluent
standards have been set up as follows.
a. Industry
Industrial Effluent Standards
Standards are applied to factory Group II and III
categories and all industrial estates under the Factory

118

Act B.E.2535 (1992). The standard value is designatedfor 15 parameters and 12 heavy metals. Regarding
effluent quality control, the Regulations of Industrial
Pollution Control Facilities (1982) stipulates thatspecific industrial plants must have supervisors andmachine operators responsible for pollution prevention.
Such industrial plants include those using heavy metals
in production processes, discharging wastewater athigher than 50m3/day and having a heavy metal content
in the discharged wastewater at designated values.
b. Domestic and Commercial
Building Effluent Standards
Effluent from each type of building, namely apartments,
hotels, hospitals, schools and academic buildings, public
and private offices, department stores, fresh markets andrestaurants, is regulated under these standards. Regulatedparameters, depending on building size, include pH,
BOD, suspended solids, sulfide, TKN, and fat, oil, andgrease.
Housing Estate Effluent Standard
These standards regulate effluent from housing estates
which are classified into two categories, those with thenumber of units exceeding 100 but less than 500, andthose with over 500 units. Regulated parameters include
pH, BOD, suspended solids, settleable solids, total
dissolved solids, sulfide, TKN and fat, oil, and grease.
Municipal Wastewater Treatment System Effluent Standard
This is a new standard established in 2010. There are six
parameters in these standards, namely pH, BOD, SS,
TN, TP and fat, oil, and grease.
Gas Station and Oil Terminal Effluent Standard
There are four parameters in these standards, namely
pH, COD, SS, and fat, oil, and grease.
c. Agriculture
Effluent Standards for Pig Farms
In consideration of the contribution of pig farms towater pollution such as in Tha Chin River and Bang
Pakong River, standards were established in 2001. The
parameters designed by the standards include pH, BOD,
COD, SS, and TKN and different values are applied toType A (more than 600 livestock units) and Type B (60600 livestock units).
d. Others
Effluent Standards for Coastal Aquaculture
Effluent Standards for Brackish Aquaculture
Effluent Standards for Inland Aquaculture
Water Characteristics Discharged into Irrigation System
Water Characteristics Discharged into Deep Wells

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012

Chapter3.12 Thailand

Effluent monitoring

The EQA requires the owner or possessor of point sourcesof pollution designated under the act to monitor thequality of effluent and collect statistics and data, as well as
submit notes and reports (Section 70 and 80). The types of
effluent to be monitored are categorized into four types:
sewage-swine farms; land development, industrial estatesand industrial zones, and Class A buildings (hotels,
hospitals, condominiums, department stores, markets andrestaurants). The point sources of water pollution were also
monitored in three river basins such as Chao Phraya, Tha
Chin, and Bang Pakong.
If the capability to treat or dispose wastewater fails tomeet applicable standards, the owner has a duty to modify
or improve it in conformity with the pollution control
official’s directions. Fees, fines and civil liability and penal
provisions are applied if violation are found or owners
refuse to comply. It is a promising trend that all the sectors
are willing to comply with the standards as it can beadvantageous for business agreements as well as for better
environmental quality which reflects the quality of life.
6. Existing and Future Challenges
Water environmental management in Thailand has been apriority for the country since 1992, in particular.
Legislative frameworks have been developed and improved
to promote implementation. The following aspects arepointed out as key issues for improvement and further
promotion of water environmental conservation efforts(Yolthantham 2011).
Strengthening wastewater treatment

Promotion of wastewater treatment remains a challenge inwater environmental management in Thailand. In urbanizedareas such as Bangkok, water pollution mainly caused bydomestic wastewater remains a serious problem andtherefore, sewage development has been promoted tomitigate water pollution. However, there have been anumber of challenges in the operation and maintenance ofwastewater treatment facilities, including lack ofknowledgeable staff, enough funds for operation andmaintenance, tariff setting and collection. To solve suchproblems and to ensure that the existing and future
wastewater treatment systems can be operated andmaintained effectively and sustainably, the Polluter Pays
Principle (PPP) has been introduced and user charges
imposed.

Promotion of public participation and voluntary
approach

In the policy of the country, public participation andvoluntary approaches by the private sector are encouraged
to improve water quality in public waters. There are a lot of
positive actions related to public participation. However,the communities and people still lack an understanding ofwaste water problems and awareness to protect theenvironment. Regarding the promotion of voluntary
approaches by the private sector, a green procurement
project for small and medium enterprises (SMEs) is now
under development by the Thai government.
Promotion of basin management approach

Promotion of basin management approaches is an emerging
challenge for water environmental management, and water
quality and water quantity management should be
integrated to improve water quality by promoting the basin
approach. The integration of various activities and policy
measures related to water environmental conservation
should be also be built upon current efforts and addressed
further. Actions at the basin level are encouraged incommunity projects to promote such positive actions
through the coordination of local actions, as seen in the
Tha Chin River basin (Box. 3.12.2).
Box 3.12.2. River Basin Management Approach

New directions for urban water quality management
are being considered based upon the assimilative
capacity of receiving waters, budget availability, andprioritized projects within the basin-wide approach.
The most flexible means of water quality management
are being practiced such as simulation models,
geographic information systems, and databasemanagement systems. Waste load allocation is being
considered based upon the assimilative capacity ofwater bodies and guidelines to attain receiving water
quality standards.
For areas where water pollution is serious, theMinistry of Natural Resources and Environment(MoNRE) set basin-level policies, which include the“Master Plan of Songkhla Lake Basin Development(2002)” and “Preventive Measures and Solving Water
Quality in Chao Phraya, Bang Pakong, and Tha ChinRiver Basins (2007).” As a project-based activity,
MoNRE “Prevention and Reclamation of Wastewater
Problems in Lamtakong River Basins” was started
in collaboration with other related ministries andlocal and regional authorities. Thus, river basin
management approaches are being practiced, suchas in the Tha Chin River Basin. Details can be foundat http://welcome.to/thachin.
(Source: Information from the WEPA focal person in 2012)119Viet Nam
3. State of Water Resources

1. Country Information
Table 3.13.1. Basic indicators
331,051 (2009)Land Area (km2)
Total Population (person)

86.9 million (2010)

GDP (current USD)

106.4 billion (2010)

Per Capita GDP (current USD)

1,224 (2010)

Long-Average Precipitation (mm/year)

1,821 (2009)

Total Renewable Water Resources (km3)

884.1 (2009)

Total Annual Freshwater Withdrawals(billion m3)
Annual Freshwater
Withdrawal by
sectors

82 (2005)

Agriculture

94.8% (2005)

Industry

3.7% (2005)

Municipal(including domestic)

1.5% (2005)(Source: See References)

2. Major Water Basins in Viet Nam

Table 3.13.2. River basins in Viet Nam

China

Cau

Viet Nam has 2,373 rivers with length longer than 10km.
There are 17 major river basins, namely Red and Thai
Binh, Bang Giang-Ky Cung, Ma-Chu, Thach Han,
Huong, Tra Khuc, Kone, Ba, Cau, Nhue Day, Ca, Gianh,
Thu Bon, Sesan, Srepok, Dong Nai-Saigon, and Cuu Long
(Table 3.13.2). Viet Nam enjoys abundant water resourcesin general, but uneven rainfall distribution and theprolonged dry season cause serious water shortages inmany areas of the country. Urban development also puts
pressure on water resources. For example, water supply
capacity is predicted to drop about 30% by 2025 in the
Dong Nai River basins where about 40% of total GDP of
the country is produced due to population growth(MoNRE 2006). Climate change is considered to have
impacted the country’s water resources, and total surface
water resources in the country is predicted to decrease up
to 96% by 2025 and 91% by 2070 (MoNRE 2006).

Name of the river basin
Bang Giang-Ky Cung

Active storage
volume (km3)

168,700

137

Bang Giang-Ky Cung

12,8808.92

Ma-Chu28,40020.1

Thach Han

2,660

4.68

Huong

2,830

5.64

Tra Khuc

3,189

6.19

Kone

2,980

2.58

Ba

13,900

10.36

Huong

Cau

6,030

45

Thu BonNhue Day

7,665

28.8

Ca

27,200

24.2

Gianh

4,680

8.14

Thu Bon

10,496

19.3

Red and Thai Binh

Nhue Day

Lao PDR

Ma-ChuCa

Eastern Sea

GianhThach Han

Cambodia(km2)

Red and Thai Binh
Hanoi

ThailandCatchment area

Sesan

Tra Khuc

SrepokKone
Ba

Dong Nai-Saigon

Sesan

Data unavailable

Data unavailable

SrepokData unavailable

Data unavailable

42,655

30.6

795

520.3

Dong Nai-Saigon
Cuu Long

Cuu Long(Source: MoNRE 2006)

Gulf of Thailand

Figure 3.13.1. Water basins in Viet Nam

120

Viet Nam also has copious groundwater resources withtotal potential exploitable reserves of nearly 60 billion m³/
year. However, less than 5% of the total reserves are used.

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012

Chapter3.13 Viet Nam

On the other hand, groundwater is intensively exploited insome areas of the country such as in the Mekong Delta, andoverexploitation of groundwater has resulted in falling
water tables, associated further land subsidence, andsalinity intrusion.
The use of water for agriculture is higher than othersectors. In urban areas, the need for water for domestic,
service, and production purposes is increasing and has
caused a depletion in water resources. Other environment
degradations such as deforestation, inadequate solid waste
management and impacts from development activities
also affect the state of water resources in both quantity andquality.
4. State of Water Quality
Water quality in public water bodies is generally good in
the upstream of rivers (MoNRE 2005). On the other hand,the downstream areas of major rivers, especially in cities,
face serious water pollution which has accelerated due toincreasing populations and growing economic activities.
Wastewater from both industrial and domestic sources is
not well treated and has become the source of organic
pollution. Ninety percent of wastewater discharged fromdomestic sources and 70% from industrial zones and parks
is not served by a centralized wastewater treatment system(Nguyen 2010). Poor sanitation elicits high E-coli values,

BOD (mg/L)

2005

2006

2007

Cam Riverin Hai Phong

Lam Riverin Nghe An

2008

seasonal changes in water quantity also affect the state ofwater quality—water quality in dry seasons is moredeteriorated than that in rainy seasons.
The water quality of coastal waters has also deteriorated asa result of polluted river water flowing into the sea, and humanactivities such as aquaculture, waste dumping and oil spills
increase pressure. Details on groundwater quality are not welldefined due to a lack of information, but some parameterssuch as ammonia and coliform exceed standard values.
Rivers and lakes

River water quality has declined in the downstream,
especially in growing urban areas. Figure 3.13.2 shows thevalue of BOD5 at some monitoring points in the majorrivers in urban areas. The trend shows the gradualimprovement of water quality over a period of five years,
but the value still exceeds 4mg/L, the currently permitted
national standard for Category A1 (water for domestic
water supply with appropriate treatment) at most points.
Pollution in some canals is also serious in cities. For
example, the BOD5 level of the Tham Luong-Vam Thuat
canal in Ho Chi Minh City in 2009 greatly exceeded
standards; it was eight times higher than the ambient water
quality standard for Category B2 (water for watertransportation and other purposes with demand for lowquality water). Untreated or insufficiently treatedwastewater from industries and households is a major
source of pollution.
2009

QCVN 08:2008(A1)QCVN 08:2008(B1)

16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Red Riverin Hanoi

Perfume Riverin HueHan River Dong Nai River Sai Gon River Tien Riverin Da Nang in Dong Nai
in HCMCin Tien Giang

Hau Riverin Can Tho

Figure 3.13.2. Changes in annual average BOD5 content in major rivers (2005-2009)(Source: MoNRE 2010)

Figure 3.13.3 also shows water quality in surface water
bodies in the country’s urban inner precincts and districts.
Most lakes, ponds, canals and rivers have exceeded the
BOD standard set by the National Technical Regulation
on Surface Water Quality 08:2008/MoNRE, Type B2.
Many rivers and canals have become receptacles for

wastewater and ambient water quality standards and manylakes in inner cities are affected by eutrophication. The
surface water in these lakes becomes muddy and emits astrong odour which spoils the environment and appearanceof Viet Nam’s cities.

121

BOD5 (mg/L)
200

2005

2006

2007

Bay Mau Lake
Hanoi

Kim NguuRiver
Hanoi

2008

QCVN 08:2008(A2)2009

QCVN 08:2008(B2)

180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
West Lake
Hanoi

To Lich River
Hanoi

Tam Bac Lake
Hanoi

Tinh Tam Lake Nhieu Loc Canal Tham LuongHue
HCMC
Vam Thuat
Canal - HCMC

Tan Hoa - Lo
Gom Canal
HCMC

Figure 3.13.3. Changes in average BOD5 content in some rivers, lakes and canals inside cities (2005-2009)(Source: MoNRE 2010)

Figure 3.13.4 shows pollution by coliform. The
coliform value tends to have improved but it is still higher
than the standards value of the National TechnicalRegulation on Surface Water Quality 08:2008/MoNRE,
Type A1.

MPN/100mL
10,0002006

2007

QCVN 08:2008(A1)

2008

2009

QCVN 08:2008(B1)

9,000
8,000
7,000
6,000
5,000

Coastal water

Pollution is observed in coastal waters as well (MoNRE
2005). Aquaculture such as uncontrolled shrimp ponds
and untreated industrial and agricultural wastewater
discharged into coastal waters are the major sources ofwater quality deterioration (Nhuan et al. 2010). In addition
to organic matter, higher concentrations of Zinc (Zn) and
Copper (Cu ) have been observed in the southern coastal
areas, as well as sediment. Oil spills are also the issues that
Viet Nam faces in marine water quality (MoNRE 2005).
Groundwater

Salinization is a common groundwater problem in coastal
zones due to sea water intrusion accelerated by theuncontrolled and indiscriminate exploitation ofgroundwater by industries and households. In a text
message to the author on August 12, 2011, Do Nam Thang
states that according to groundwater monitoring, Iron
(Fe), Manganese (Mn, ranging from 0.18-71mg/L), P-PO4,
Ammonium (NH4, ranging from 0.05-8.7ml/L), E.coli
and coliform exceed groundwater quality standards insome areas (Do Nam Thang, pers.comm.).
5. Frameworks for Water Environment
Management
Legislation

Article 29 of the constitution states that “all State offices,
armed forces units, economic establishments, socialorganizations and every citizen have to observe state
regulations on the appropriate utilization of natural
resources and on environmental protection” and that “all

122

4,000
3,000
2,000
1,000
0
Red River
Hanoi

Cam RiverHai Phong

Lam RiverNghe An

Perfume Thi Vai River
River Hue
Dong Nai

Figure 3.13.4. Changes in annual average content of
coliform in major rivers (2005-2009)(Source: MoNRE 2010)acts resulting in depletion and destruction of theenvironment are strictly prohibited.” The constitution is thebasis of environmental protection in the country.
The Law on Environmental Protection (1993, revised2005) is the principle law on environmental protection
including water, and stipulates that the objective ofenvironmental protection is to ensure social progress inorder to achieve national sustainable development.
Environmental standards are also stipulated under the law.
In addition to the environmental law, the Law on Water
Resources (1998), the Land Law (2003) and the
Biodiversity Law (2008) complete the national legislation
related to water environmental management.
In addition to national laws, decrees, decisions andcirculars, and strategies are established for different purposes.
Some set policy targets with timelines (Box.3.13.1). Other
administrative orders establish rules and systems to regulate
pollution sources which includes environmental protection
charges for wastewater (Decision No.67/2003/ND-CP)
and permits for wastewater discharge to water sources(Decree No.149/2004/ND-CP) (Box. 3.13.2).
Based on the revision to the Viet Nam Criminal Code2009 (Chapter XVII for environmental crime) and Decree
No. 117/2009/NĐ-CP on guidance to businesses in

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012

Chapter3.13 Viet Nam

violation of standards set forth by laws and regulations, thesanctions and punishments for such violations have beenstrengthened.

In the context of promoting river basin management,
an integrated water environmental protection approachhas been incorporated in major river basins.

Conservation of Water Quality
Law on Environmental Protection
Ambient standards

Effluent standards

QCVN 08:2008/BTNMT – National technical normon surface water quality
QCVN 09:2008/BTNMT – National technical norm
on underground water quality
QCVN 10:2008/BTNMT – National technical normon coastal water quality

TCVN 5945:2005 has been replaced by TCVN 5945:2010 – industrial wastewater
QCVN 11:2008/BTNMT – National technical norm on the effluent ofaquatic products processing industry
QCVN 12:2008/BTNMT – National technical norm on the effluent of paper andpulp industry
QCVN 13:2008/BTNMT – National technical norm on the effluent of textile industry
QCVN 14:2008/BTNMT – National technical norm on domestic wastewater

Decree on Licensing for exploitation, utilization, use
and discharge of wastewater (2004)
Other Laws Related to Water Environment

Law on Water Resources

QCVN 25:2009/BTNMT – National technical regulation on wastewater of the solid
waste landfill sites
QCVN 28:2010/BTNMT – National technical regulation on health care wastewater
QCVN 29:2010/BTNMT – National technical regulation on the effluent of
petroleum terminal and stations

Land Law
Biodiversity

Law

Figure 3.13.5. Legislative chart for water quality management(Source: MoEJ 2009)

Box. 3.13.1. Water environmental management
related targets in Viet Nam

Box. 3.13.2. Environmental protection charges for
wastewater(1) National Strategy for Environmental
Protection Until 2010 and Vision toward 2020(2003)
These strategies set water pollution related targets
until 2010 and toward 2020. The targets toward 2020
include two water related goals: access by 100% of
the urban population and 95% of the rural population
to clean drinking water supply, 100% provisionof centralized waste treatment systems for urban
centers, industrial parks and export-processing zones.

Environmental protection charges for wastewater
were introduced in Viet Nam in 2003 by the Decree
No. 67/2003/ND-CP and the Circular No.125/2003/
TTLT-BTC-BTNMT. Industries, as well as households,
that discharge effluent into public water are required tocomply with the decision, with a few exceptions, suchas water run-off from hydroelectric power plants, water
circulated in power plants, sea water discharged fromsalt production, households in the region classified
under national subsidies for water supply, households
in communities in rural areas and other areas withoutclean water supply schemes.
The protection charge is determined based on the“percentage of the selling price of 1m3 of clean water”
which does not exceed 10% of VAT clean water selling
prices. The rate of the charge is differentiated basedon the pollution load for six parameters (COD, TSS,
HG, PB, AS, Cd). Although national charging rates are
decided by the central government, local governments
can decide their own charging rates in line with theirlocal situations.
After a part of collected charges are allocated tothe administrative costs of implementing agencies, theremainder is allocated for operational capital of national
environmental protection funds and investment inenvironmental protection facilities/projects.

(2) Decision No. 64/2003 which approved the planfor establishments causing serious pollution(2003)
This decision set short-term objectives to 2007
and long-term objectives to 2012. Out of 4,295
establishments that cause serious environmental
pollution, 439 establishments were scheduled forreview by 2007 and the remaining establishments by
2012. Based on the outcomes of the review, identified
pollution sources have been transferred, shut-down
or suspended.

123

Institutional arrangement

The Ministry of Natural Resource and Environment(MoNRE) is responsible for the management of the quality
and quantity of water resources. According to the Law on
Environmental Protection, MoNRE is responsible forestablishing environmental standards including water
quality and conducting public water quality monitoring,
providing guidance to non-compliant industries, and otherimportant aspects of environmental management. Other
ministries also are involved in water related activities (Table
3.13.3). Under MoNRE, the Vietnam Environment
Administration (VEA), which was established in 2008 tostrengthen institutional capacity to manage environmental
issues, is responsible for policy planning, monitoring ofcompliance and provision of guidance to local governments.
Table 3.13.3. Water quality management related ministries
Name of Ministry

Responsibilities

Ministry of Natural
Resources andEnvironment-Manage water resources and water quality.
-Make plans on the use, overall management
and protection for water resources in large river
basins.

Ministry ofAgriculture andRural Development-Irrigation, flood and storm prevention, rural
water supply, management of hydraulicengineering and dykes.
-Manage water for aquaculture and aquatic
product processing.

Ministry of Planningand Investment-Set guidelines for and check ministries andsectors for the preparation and implementationof strategies on socio-economic development.

Ministry of Industry
and Trade-Develop hydropower via Viet Nam Electricity
Corporation.

Ministry of Scienceand Technology-Appraise drafts and publicize water quality
standards prepared by the Ministry of Natural
Resources and Environment.

Ministry ofConstruction-Manage urban public works, design and build
urban water supply and sewage works.

Ministry ofTransportation-Manage and develop transportation on water,
manage aquatic engineering and port systems.

Ministry of Health-Manage drinking water quality.
-Prepare and supervise water quality standards.

Ministry of Finance-Prepare policy on taxes and fees for water
resources.

(Source: Modified based on Hanh and Dong 2011)

In implementation, local governments play animportant role in environmental management. The
Department of Natural Resources and Environment(DoNRE) under the People’s Committee takes a leadingrole in the promotion of environmental conservation
activities through the implementation of environmental
regulations and provision of guidance.
Ambient water quality standards

Ambient water quality standards are established for surface
water, coastal water, and groundwater, referring to bothinternational standards and standards in developed countries.
The surface water quality standard (TCVN 5942:1995) was
enacted in 1995 and revised in 2001 and 2008. Currently
QCVN 08:2008 is applied. The current standard (QCVN

124

08:2008) sets four classes as shown in Table 3.13.4 andstandard values for 32 parameters in each class.
Table 3.13.4. Classes in surface water quality standards
Class

Objective of Use

A1

Good for domestic water supply and other purposes in A2,
B1 and B2.

A2

Good for domestic water supply, but suitable treatment
technology must be applied; conservation of aquatic life orother purposes in B1 and B2.

B1

Good for irrigation or other purposes with demand for similar
quality water or other purposes in B2.

B2

Good for water transportation and other purposes withdemand for low-quality water.

The Coastal Water Quality Standard (TCVN
5943:1995) was revised to QCVN 10:2008 on 31 December
2008. The current standard sets values for 29 parametersin three categories: beaches, aquaculture, and other areas.
The Groundwater Quality Standard (QCVN 09:2008),
which was revised to TCVN 5944:1995, sets standard
values for 26 parameters.
Monitoring of water quality in public water bodies

The Law on Environmental Protection stipulatesmonitoring and treatment of water pollution anddegradation in river basins by public sector (governments).
The monitoring system of the country has graduallydeveloped since the latter half of 1990s.
The Center for Environmental Monitoring under theVietnam Environmental Administration, MoNRE
conducts water quality monitoring. Considering thenecessity and resource constraints, not all parameters forwater quality standards are monitored, but basic parameterssuch as BOD, COD, DO, TSS, N, P and metals aremonitored four times a year, in principle.
The locations for monitoring are rather concentrated inareas where water quality is deteriorated. In 2007, theNational Master Program for natural resource andenvironment monitoring until 2020 was approved by theDecision No.16/2007/QD-TTG, which includes numericaltargets for water resource monitoring. The national
programme targeted an increase in the number of surface
resource monitoring stations to 348 (existing 248; upgraded:123, and new: 99) step-by-step by 2020. Out of the existing
248 stations, 116 stations are water quality monitoring
stations for surface (river and lake) water (Nguyen 2007).
The monitored data is stored at the Center for
Environmental Monitoring under the Vietnam
Environment Administration, MoNRE and the Center for
Environmental Monitoring under DoNREs (Departmentsof Natural Resources and Environment in the country’s

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012

Chapter3.13 Viet Nam

provinces). Monitoring data is used to review and revise
policies and measures for water quality conservation.
MoNRE issues the State of the Environment Reportannually in which major data is made public.
Effluent standards

There are various effluent standards in Viet Nam as shownin Figure 3.13.5. Industrial wastewater discharge standards
were established in 1995 (TCVN 5945:1995), and revisedin 2005. The revised standards (TCVN 5945:2005) set lessstrict effluent quality targets than previous targets inconsideration of the best technology available in the
country. In 2009, the standard of 2005 was replaced by the
National Technical Regulation on Industrial Wastewater(QCVN 24:2009/BTNMT). The new technical regulation
set the formula and necessary concentration value andcoefficients to calculate the maximum values of pollutants(32 parameters) to be discharged into public water bodies.
Different concentration values were set for the water bodies
that are the source of domestic water use and other water
bodies, respectively.
All industries and industrial activities, business entities,
and service providers should conform to the new technicalstandard except industrial sectors which have different
effluent standards. The specific industries/activities whichhave different standards include the natural rubber
processing industry (QCVN 01:2008/BTNMT), pulp
and paper mills (QCVN 12:2008/BTNMT), domestic
wastewater sector (QCVN 14:2008/BTNMT), andhealthcare sector (QCVN 29:2010).
Industries that are required to carry out environmental
impact assessments (EIA) will have to commit to selfmonitoring four times/year, in accordance with a circularissued by the national government. Inspection ofcompliance with industrial effluent standards is conductedby MoNRE, VEA or/and DoNRE two times/year. The
inspection is carried out with prior announcement and not
more than twice a year. In cases where a violation issuspected, “environmental police” from the Ministry of
Public Security have authority to conduct compulsory
investigations without prior notice, and therefore havemore opportunities to identify possible non-compliance.

capacity of water environment management by addressing
the following challenges (Nguen 2010; Nga 2011).
To further improve legislative systems (such as
elimination of overlapping or uncoordinatedprovisions): Strengthen economic incentives.
To strengthen compliance: Redouble inspection,
improvement and strengthening of technical/
administrate guidelines, socialization of environmental
protection and sustainable development, further
strengthening of administrative sanctions against noncomplianceTo enhance organizational arrangements: Facilitate
coordination and minimize overlapping of functions
and duties of different ministries, sectors and local
authorities on water quality management
To improve institutional capacity at national and local
level to implement water quality management,
especially in the field of water quality monitoring,
control and investigation of pollution sources, how to
impose sanction at ground level, etc.);
To promote basin-management approach: Improve andstrengthen water environment management at the basin
level, especially in the three main river basins (Cau,Nhue-Day, and Don Nai)
To develop a sound information base: Develop reliable
information systems of the state of water quality andmanagement
To choose and introduce appropriate technology to
improve water quality, especially introduction ofwastewater treatment technology which is appropriate
for different local settings:
To increase of budget for environmental protection:
Target is 2% of total state budget allocated forenvironmental activities
To strengthen capacity of human resources both innumber and capacity and financial status.

6. Existing and Future Challenges
Viet Nam has developed its water quality management
system since 1990s. In 2000 in particular, the environmental
legislation of the country was amplified—refining
environmental and effluent standards, strengthening noncompliance responses and applying environmental
protection charges. Now, Viet Nam must work on ensuring
and enforcing implementation by strengthening systems and

125

126

Appendix

Selected social, economic and water related indicators in WEPA partner countries
Country

Geography 1

Land Area(km2)

Cambodia

China

Indonesia

Japan

Republic of Korea

Lao PDR

Malaysia

Myanmar

Nepal

Philippines

Sri Lanka

Thailand

Viet Nam

181,035(2010)a9,600,00(2010)b

1,910,931(2010)

377,950(2008)d99,700(2009)e236,800(2005)f

330,803(2010)

g

676,578(2011)

h147,181(-)

i

300,000(2007)

j

65,610(2010)ck513,116(2007)

l

331,051(2009)m

Population 2

Year

Total
Population(person)1990

9,531,928

2010

14,138,255

1990

1,135,185,000

2010

1,338,299,512

1990

184,345,939

2010

239,870,937

1990

123,537,000

2010

127,450,459

1990

42,869,000

2010

48,875,000

1990

4,192,414

2010

6,200,894

1990

18,208,562

2010

28,401,017

1990

39,268,304

2010

47,963,012

1990

19,081,064

2010

29,959,364

1990

61,628,668

2010

93,260,798

1990

17,337,048

2010

20,859,949

1990

57,072,058

2010

69,122,234

1990

66,016,700

2010

86,936,464

GrowthRate in
20yrs

Urban
Population(person)Economy 3

GrowthRate in
20yrs

1,201,022.9
48%3,223,522.1

600,896,480.7

168%

128,810,693.2

93%

85,136,906.6

128%

40,028,625.0

9%2,058,696.8

27%

20,505,534.3

219%

16,259,461.1

126%

5,452,604.2

66%

61,925,169.9

221%

3,149,852.3

106%23,501,559.6

6%25,037,701.8

4,142,197.2

17%

7,895,482.7-14%31,703,550.98%24,506,759.8

41%

31,335,628.1-1%

17,710,096.7

23%

40,292,872.9
40%

13,401,390.1
32%

-21%

14,355,075.7

16,779,185.1
21%

8,846,375.0

31,553,878.0

2,981,972.3
20%

-7%

17,382,849.3

30,074,790.0
51%

42,313,552.4

29,490,496.3

1,698,214.7
57%

-13%

9,140,698.1

9,777,807.7
22%111,060,243.8

3,546,782.2

9,067,863.9
56%

-11%

11,231,678.0

645,631.8
48%

737,403,030.8

45,585,153.0

31,637,322.0
14%

31%

127,936,081.7

77,951,847.0
3%

10,914,732.9
824,144,310.0

56,409,857.3
30%GrowthRate in
20yrs

8,330,905.1

311,040,690.0
18%

Rural
Population(person)45,620,674.4

13%

52,615,309.9
87%

61,898,762.7

18%

Year

GDP
(current USD)Per
Growth Capita Growth
Rate in GDP
Rate in20yrs (current 20yrs
USD)

1993

2,533,727,592

240

2010

11,242,266,334

1990

356,936,901,184

314

2010

5,926,612,009,750 1560%

4,428

344%

795

1990

114,426,498,045

2010

706,558,240,892

1990

3,058,038,227,118

24,7542010

5,458,836,663,871

79% 42,831

1990

263,776,986,549

6,153

2010

1,014,483,158,314

285% 20,757

1990

865,559,856

206

2010

7,296,361,374

1990

44,024,178,270

2010

237,796,914,597

1990

2,788,000,000

68

2010

45,428,000,000 1529%

742

1990

3,627,559,252

190

2009

12,897,180,525

1990

44,311,595,230

2010

199,589,447,424

1990

8,032,551,173

2010

49,551,751,283

1990

85,343,189,320

2010

318,522,264,429

1990

6,471,740,486

2010

231%

1310%

621
517%

743%

2,946

1,177

374%

73%

237%

471%

2,418
440%

256%

8,373

438

246%

991%

131%

719
350%

2,140

198%

463
517%

2,375

413%

1,495
273%

106,426,845,157 1544%

4,608

208%

98
1,224

1149%

1. a. From the Cambodia Millennium Development Goals Report 2010. b. From China Statistical Yearbook 2010. c. From BADAN PUSAR STATISTIK 2011. d. From the Japan Statistical Yearbook 2012.
e. From the Statistics Korea 2009. f. From the Year Book 2005 of Lao Statistical Bureau. g. From the official website of Department of Statistics of Malaysia. h. From the Health in Myanmar 2011. i. Fromthe country profile in the official website of the Government of Nepal. j. From the Tourism Investment Portfolio of Department of Tourism of the Philippines. k. From the Statistical Abstract 2010 of Sri Lanka.
l. From the 2008 Core Environment Report of National Statistical Office of Thailand. m. From the official website of the General Statistics Office of Vietnam.

128

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012

Appendix

Water Resources 4

LongAverage
Precipitation(mm/year)

Total
Renewable
Water
Resources
(km3)

Year

1,904

476.1*

2006

645.0

2,702

1,668

1,274

1,834

2,875

2,091

1,500

2,348

1,712

1,622

1,821

2,840

2,019

430

69.7*

333.5*

580*

1,168*

210.2*

479

52.8*

438.6*

884.1

Achivements of Water and Sanitation
Goals of MDGs 6

Water Use 5

Total Annual
Freshwater
Withdrawals(billion m3)

2.2

Annual Freshwater
Withdrawal by sectors (%)

Agriculture Industry
94.0

1.5

Population withaccess to safe
water sources(% of population)

Population withaccess toadequate sanitation(% of population)

urban

rural

urban

rural

1995

54

34

40

6

2008

81

56

67

18

Year

Municipal
including
Domestic
4.5

Domestic
Wastewater Treatment

1990

500.0

83.0

10.0

7.0

1995

97

63

52

42

2005

554.1

64.6

23.2

12.2

2008

98

82

58

52

1990

74.3

93.1

0.5

6.4

1995

91

65

60

26

2000

113.3

81.9

6.5

11.6

2008

89

71

67

36

1992

91.4

64.1

17.3

18.6

1995

100

100

100

100

2001

90*

63.1*

17.6*

19.3*

2008

100

100

100

100

2002

25.5*

62.0*

12.0*

26.0*

1995

97

67

100

100

2008

100

88

100

100

1995

78

37

56

10

2008

72

51

86

38

2005

4.3*

93.0*

4.0*

3.1*

1990

10.1*

82.0*

9.9*

8.1*

1995

96

88

91

85

2005

13.2*

34.2*

36.3*

29.5*

2008

100

99

96

95

1987

28.3*

98.6*

0.4*

1.0*

1995

85

51

77

39

2000

33.2

89.0

1.0

10.0

2008

75

69

86

79

2002

9.9*

97.5*

0.4*

2.1*

1995

95

78

44

13

2005

9.8*

98.2*

0.3*

1.5*

2008

93

87

51

27

1975

29.5

61.0

21.0

18.0

1995

93

79

73

52

2009

81.6

82.2

10.1

7.6

2008

93

87

80

69

1990

9.8

96.0

2.0

2.0

1995

93

69

86

74

2005

13.0

87.3

6.4

6.2

2008

98

88

88

92

2007

57.3

90.4

4.8

4.8

1995

98

92

94

83

2008

99

98

95

96

1985

45.3

89.8

6.3

3.9

1995

91

62

70

40

2005

82.0

94.8

3.7

1.5

2008

99

92

94

67

Year

Sewerage
Treatment
Coverage(%)

Remarks

2010<5

estimated by
WEPA

2010

73

only for urban
area

2010

<5

estimated by
WEPA

2010

77

2009

89

-

0

2010

66

except in Sabah
and Sawawak
province

2010<5

estimated by
WEPA

2010

<5

estimated by
WEPA

2010

<5

estimated by
WEPA

-

0

2008

23

2010

<5

estimated by
WEPA

2. From the World Bank’s World Development Indicator Database. 3. From the World Bank’s World Development Indicator Database except for the figures for Myanmar. For Myanmar, from IMF World Economics
Outlook Database September 2011. 4. From the FAO Main AQUASTAT Country Database. 5. From the FAO Main AQUASTAT Country Database except for the figures for the Philippines. For the Philippines,
from World Resources 1996-97 of World Resources Institute. 6. From the Global Health Observatory Data Repository of World Health Organization. * Estimated.

129

130

ReferencesReferences
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FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations). 2012.
AQUASTAT. http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/main/index.
stm. Accessed 18 February 2012
Malaysian Water Association. 2011. Malaysia Water Industry Guide 2011.
Kuala Lumpur.
MoEJ (Ministry of the Environment of Japan). (n.d.). Night Soil Treatment
and Decentralized Wastewater Treatment System in Japan. Tokyo.
UNDESA (United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs).
2011. World Population Prospects, the 2009 Revision and the 2010
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Figure 2.1.4. BOD load from domestic sector in selected
countries and catchment areas of WEPA countries

Indonesia
World Bank. 2003. Indonesia Environment Monitor 2003. http://wwwwds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/
IB/2003/07/16/000012009_20030716161307/Rendered/PDF/26
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Japan
Suishitu Kaizen Senmon Bukai, Kyu-to-ken Shuno Kaigi (Expert
Committee on Water Quality Improvement of Nine Prefectures
Summitt). 2007. Kirei na Tokyo wan wo Mezashite (For Clean Tokyo
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Republic of Korea
Yang-Seok Cho. 2010.Urbanization and Water Quality Control for the
Source of Water in Seoul. Presentation at the 1st WEPA international
workshop, Hanoi, Viet Nam, 8 March.
Philippines
World Bank.2003. Philippines Environment Monitor 2003. http://
www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/
WDSP/IB/2004/05/24/000012009_20040524135608/Rendered/
PDF/282970PH0Environment0monitor.pdf. Accessed 18 February
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Viet NamWorld Bank.2006. Viet Nam Environment Monitor 2006. http://wwwwds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/
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4180VN0Env0M19190001PUBLIC1optmzd.pdf. Accessed 18
February 2012.

Figure 2.1.6. Sewerage coverage ratio of sewerage treatment in
Asia

China
Ministry of Environmental Protection of the People’s Republic ofChina.2012. Report on the State of the Environment in China 2010
(in Chinese). http://zls.mep.gov.cn/hjtj/qghjtjgb/201201/
t20120118_222703.htm. Accessed 18 February 2012.
Japan
Ministry of the Environment of Japan. 2010. Heisei 21 Nendo no
Shorishisetsu betsu Osui Shori Jinko Fukyuu Jyokyo (Population

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Coverage with Access to Domestic Wastewater Treatment Facility atthe end of FY 2009 by Type of Treatment Facility. Tokyo.
Republic of Korea
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Environmental Review 2008. Gyeonggi-do.
Malaysia
The Malaysian Water Association.2011.Malaysia Water Industry Guide
2011. Kuala Lumpur
Thailand
Wangwongwatnana, Supat. 2010. “Presentation at International Conference
on Construction and Environment” Tokyo, Japan, 4 February
Other Countries
Estimated by the WEPA Secretariat based on the information provided byeach WEPA country.

Figure 2.1.7. Historical change of service coverage ratio for
sewerage treatment in selected Asian countries

China
Ministry of Environmental Protection of the People’s Republic of China.
2002. Report on the State of the Environment in China 2001 (inChinese). http://zls.mep.gov.cn/hjtj/qghjtjgb/200206/
t20020605_83097.htm. Accessed 18 February 2012.
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t20030605_85524.htm. Accessed 18 February 2012.
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t20040602_90393.htm. Accessed 18 February 2012.
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t20050610_67563.htm. Accessed 18 February 2012.
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t20060612_77318.htm. Accessed 18 February 2012.
. 2007. Report on the State of the Environment in China 2006 (inChinese). http://zls.mep.gov.cn/hjtj/qghjtjgb/200709/
t20070924_109497.htm. Accessed 18 February 2012.
. 2008. Report on the State of the Environment in China 2007 (inChinese). http://zls.mep.gov.cn/hjtj/qghjtjgb/200809/
t20080924_129355.htm. Accessed 18 February 2012.
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t20090928_161740.htm. Accessed 18 February 2012.
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t20120118_222702.htm. Accessed 18 February 2012.
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Japan
Japan Sewage Works Association.2011. Sewerage Statistics 2009. Tokyo.
. 2009. Sewerage Statistics 2007. Tokyo.
Ministry of the Environment of Japan. 2001. Heisei 12 Nendo no Shori
Shisetsu betsu Osui Shori Jinko Fukyuu Jyokyou (Population
Coverage with Access to Domestic Wastewater Treatment Facility atthe end of FY 2000 by Type of Treatment Facility). Tokyo.
. 2002. Heisei 13 Nendo no Shori Shisetsu betsu Osui Shori Jinko
Fukyuu Jyokyou (Population Coverage with Access to Domestic
Wastewater Treatment Facility at the end of FY 2001 by Type ofTreatment Facility). Tokyo.
. 2003. Heisei 14 Nendo no Shori Shisetsu betsu Osui Shori Jinko
Fukyuu Jyokyou (Population Coverage with Access to Domestic
Wastewater Treatment Facility at the end of FY 2002 by Type ofTreatment Facility). Tokyo.

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012

References. 2004. Heisei 15 Nendo no Shori Shisetsu betsu Osui Shori Jinko
Fukyuu Jyokyou (Population Coverage with Access to Domestic
Wastewater Treatment Facility at the end of FY 2003 by Type ofTreatment Facility). Tokyo.
. 2005. Heisei 16 Nendo no Shori Shisetsu betsu Osui Shori Jinko
Fukyuu Jyokyou (Population Coverage with Access to Domestic
Wastewater Treatment Facility at the end of FY 2004 by Type ofTreatment Facility). Tokyo.
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Wastewater Treatment Facility at the end of FY 2005 by Type ofTreatment Facility). Tokyo.
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Fukyuu Jyokyou (Population Coverage with Access to Domestic
Wastewater Treatment Facility at the end of FY 2006 by Type ofTreatment Facility). Tokyo.
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Fukyuu Jyokyou (Population Coverage with Access to Domestic
Wastewater Treatment Facility at the end of FY 2007 by Type ofTreatment Facility). Tokyo.
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Fukyuu Jyokyou (Population Coverage with Access to Domestic
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Fukyuu Jyokyou (Population Coverage with Access to Domestic
Wastewater Treatment Facility at the end of FY 2009 by Type ofTreatment Facility). Tokyo.
Republic of Korea
Jaehoon Kim. 2011. “Policy of Domestic Wastewater Treatment in
KOREA.” Presentation at the 3rd WEPA Workshop, Manila,
Philippines, 22 September.
Ministry of Construction & Transportation et al.. 1996. Infrastructure
Development and Prospect in Korea. Country Report for the
Ministerial Meeting on Infrastructure, New Delhi, India 23 to 29
October.
Ministry of Environment of Republic of Korea.2007. Green Korea 2006.
Gyeonggi-do.
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January.
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Challenges in Korea.” Presentation at the 6th WEPA Annual
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Malaysia
The Malaysian Water Association.2011.Malaysia Water Industry
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. 2009. Malaysia Water Industry Guide2009. Kuala Lumpur.
Thailand
Estimated by the WEPA Secretariat based on the information provided by
the WEPA countries.

Figure 2.1.8. Relationship between sewerage treatment
coverage ratio and GDP per capita in WEPA countries[Data for GDP per capita]
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[Data for sewage treatment ratio]
China
Ministry of Environmental Protection of the People’s Republic ofChina.2012. Report on the State of the Environment in China 2010
(in Chinese). http://zls.mep.gov.cn/hjtj/qghjtjgb/201201/
t20120118_222703.htm.. Accessed 18 February 2012.
Japan
Ministry of the Environment of Japan. 2010. Heisei 21 Nendo no
Shorishisetsu betsu Osui Shori Jinko Fukyuu Jyokyo (Population

Coverage with Access to Domestic Wastewater Treatment Facility atthe end of FY 2009 by Type of Treatment Facility. Tokyo.
Republic of Korea
Ministry of Environment of Republic of Korea.2009. ECOREA
Environment Review 2008 Korea. Gyeonggi-do.
Malaysia
The Malaysian Water Association.2011.Malaysia Water Industry Guide
2011. Kuala Lumpur
Thailand
Wangwongwatnana, Supat. 2010. “Presentation at International Conference
on Construction and Environment.” Tokyo, Japan, 4 February.
Other Countries
Estimated by the WEPA Secretariat based on the information provided byeach WEPA country.

Table 2.1.3: Septic tank coverage ratio in selected areas/
countries

Malaysia
The Malaysian Water Association. 2011. Malaysia Water Industry
Guide2011. Kuala Lumpur.
Philippines
Leonor C. Cleofas. 2011. “Pollution Reduction Program in Metro Manila:
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Regional Training Workshop on Integrated River Basin and Coastal
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Sri Lanka
Hidenori Harada. 2001. Asia 9 Toshi ni Okeru Mizu Eisei Kankyo Kanri
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Torikumi (Categorization of Constraint Conditions for Managementof Sanitation and Water Environment in nine Asian cities andFormulation of Improvement Strategies). Gekkyan Jokasou. No. 424:
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Viet Nam
General Statistics Office of Viet Nam. 2008. Results of the survey onhousehold living standards 2008. http://www.gso.gov.vn/default_en.
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Table 2.1.4. BOD reduction rates of different treatment
measures for domestic wastewater

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Climate Change and the Water Environment
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Jung, Eun. 2005. “Global Warming Impacts Korean Fisheries Industry.”
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Hoeksema, Bert W. and D.F.R. Cleary. (n.d.) “Climate change andIndonesian coral reef biota.” http://www.nwo.nl/nwohome.nsf/
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University Press.
Kundzewicz, Zbigniew W., L.J. Mata, N.W. Arnell, P. Döll, P. Kabat, B.
Jiménez, K.A. Miller, T. Oki, Z. Sen and I.A. Shiklomanov. 2007.
“Freshwater resources and their management. Climate Change 2007:
Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working
Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change, M.L. Parry, O.F. Canziani, J.P. Palutikof,
P.J. van der Linden and C.E. Hanson, Eds., Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press: 173-210.
Kumagai, Michio, K. Ishikawa, and N. Ishiguro. 2003. “Impact of global
warming on large lakes.” In Water Resources Systems? Water
availability and global change. Franks, S., G. Bloschl, M. Kumagai, K.
Musiake, D. Rosbjerg, eds., IAHS Res Book 280: 65-69.
Ma, Ronghua, H. Duan, C. Hu, X. Feng, A. Li, W. Ju, J. Jian, and G. Yang.
2010. “A Half-centry of changes in China's Lakes: Global Warming or
Human Influence?” Geophsical Research Letters 37(24):2-7.
McMullen, Catherine, P. (Eds.). 2009. Climate Change Science
Compendium 2009. United Nations Environment Programme(UNEP)
Park, Ji-Hyung et al.. 2009. “Regional Collaborative Research on Climate
Change Impacts on Surface Water Quality in Eastern Monsoon Asia:
Towards Sound Management of Climate Risks.” Asia-Pacific Network
for Global Change Research (APN). http://www.apn-gcr.org/
newAPN/resources/projectBulletinOutputs/
finalProjectReports/2008/ARCP2008-04CMY-Park-Final%20
Report.pdf. Accessed 24 February 2012.
Sarjiya, Antonius and Dwi Agustiyani Nurleili. 2009. “Regional long-term
data monitoring of Brantas River-Indonesia: trend of water quality
and its implication.” Presentation at the 2nd International Workshop
on Climate Change Impacts on Surface Water Quality in East Asian
Watersheds, Sabah, Malaysia, 18-20 February.
Wipatayotin, Apinya. 2010. “Andaman Sea coral reefs hit by bleaching.”
Bangkok Post, 8 May. http://www.bangkokpost.com/news/
local/36984/andaman-sea-coral-reefs-hit-by-bleaching. Accessed 18
June 2011.
Wirojanagud, Wanpen, Suwannakom, S. and Sthiannopkao, S. 2007.
“Impact of Ambient Temperature Change on Water Quality: A Case
Study of the Pong River, Northeast, Thailand.” Presentation at the 1st
International Workshop on Climate Change Impacts on Surface
Water Quality in East Asian Watersheds, Chuncheon, Republic ofKorea, 7-10 October.
WWF (World Wide Fund For Nature). 2010. WWF-Malaysia’s statementon coral bleaching. 22 July. http://www.wwf.org.my/media_and_
information/newsroom_main/?11180/WWF-Malaysias-statementon-Coral-Bleaching. Accessed 24 February 2012.

134

Yuasa, Takashi, Y. Kirihara, M. Okada, T. Wakou, and O. Oyama. 2011.
Impacts of Climate Change on Lakes in Japan. A paper submitted to
the 14th World Lake Conference, Austin, Texas USA, October
31–November 4.
Yamaguchi, Atsuko, K. Furumitsu, N. Yagishita and G. Kume . 2010.
Biology of herbivorous fish in coastal areas of western Japan. Coastal
environmental and ecosystem issues of the East China Sea. A.
Ishimatsu and H.-J. Lie. Eds.,pp. 181-190.

Chapter 3
Country Profiles of Water Environmental Managementin WEPA Countries

Land Area

Cambodia
Royal Government of Cambodia. 2009. National Strategic Development
Plan Update 2009-2013. Phnom Penh.
China
National Bureau of Statistics of China. 2011. China Statistical Yearbook
2010. http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjsj/ndsj/2010/indexeh.htm.
Accessed 19 January 2012.
Indonesia
Statistic Indonesia. 2010. Trends of the Selected Socio-Economic Indicatorsof Indonesia. http://www.bps.go.id/booklet/Boklet_Agustus_2010.
pdf. Accessed 19 January 2012.
Japan
Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications. 2012. Japan Statistical
Yearbook 2012. http://www.stat.go.jp/english/data/
nenkan/1431-01.htm. Accessed 19 January 2012.
Republic of Korea
National Statistics Office. 2009. Explore Korea through Statistics 2009.
http://kostat.go.kr/eng2009/emain/explore09_eng/EBook.htm.
Accessed 19 January 2012.
Lao PDR
Lao Statistics Bureau. 2012. “Statistics.”http://nsc.gov.la/index2.
php?option=com_content&view=article&id=37&Itemid=38&lang=en. Accessed 19 January 2012.
Malaysia
Department of Statistics, Malaysia. 2012. “Malaysia @ a Glance.”http://
www.statistics.gov.my/portal/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=472%3Amalaysia-glance-test&catid=115%3Aglance&Itemid=164&lang=en. Accessed 19 January 2012.
MyanmarMinistry of Health. 2011. “Country Profile.” Health in Myanmar.http://
www.moh.gov.mm/file/country%20profile.pdf. Accessed 19 January
2012.
Nepal
Government of Nepal. 2012. “Country Profile.”http://www.nepalgov.gov.np/?option=ngdir&page=countryprofile. Accessed 19 January 2012.
Philippines
DENR-EMB (Department of Environment and Natural Resources,
Environmental Management Bureau). (n.d). Compendium of BasicENR Statistics for Operations and Management (Second Edition)(2000-2008). Manila.
Sri Lanka
Department of Census and Statistics. 2012. “Chapter 1- Area and Climate.”
Statistical Abstract 2010.http://www.statistics.gov.lk/abstract2010/
chapters/chap1/AB1-1.pdf. Accessed 19 January 2012.
ThailandNational Statistics Office Thailand. 2012. “Chapter 1 Background Data.”
The 2008 Core Environment.http://web.nso.go.th/indicator/
environ/bg.pdf. Accessed 19 January 2012.
Viet Nam
General Statistics Office of Viet Nam. “Land use (As of 1 January 2009).”
http://www.gso.gov.vn/default_en.aspx?tabid=466&idmid=3&Item
ID=9846. Accessed 19 January 2012.

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012

References

Total Population[Data for Philippines]
NSO (National Statistics Office of Philippines). 2012. “Philippines in
Figures.” Official Website. http://www.census.gov.ph/. Accessed 20
February 2012.
[Data for Other Countries]
World Bank. 2012. World Development Indicators (WDI) Online
Database. http://data.worldbank.org/indicator. Accessed 19 January
2012.

GDP and Per Capita GDP[Data for Myanmar]
IMF (International Monetary Fund). 2011. World Economic Outlook
Database. September Edition. http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/
weo/2011/02/weodata/index.aspx. Accessed 19 January 2012.
[Data for Other Countries]
World Bank. 2012. World Development Indicators (WDI) Online
Database. http://data.worldbank.org/indicator. Accessed 19 January2012.

Long-Average Precipitation, Total Renewable Water
Resources, Total Annual Freshwater Withdrawals,
Annual Freshwater Withdrawal by sectors[Data for Japan]
MLIT (Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism of Japan).
2011. Heisei 23 Nen Ban Nihon no Mizu Shigen (Water Resources ofJapan 2011). Tokyo. http://www.mlit.go.jp/tochimizushigen/mizsei/
tochimizushigen_mizsei_tk2_000002.html. Accessed 20 January
2012.
[Data for Other Countries]
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations). 2012.
Main AQUASTAT Country Database. http://www.fao.org/nr/
water/aquastat/data/query/index.html?lang=en. Accessed 19 January
2012.

Chapter 3.1 Cambodia

Arsenic Center of Cambodia. 2010. National Arsenic database. http://www.
arseniccenter.com. Accessed 6 October, 2010 (The database iscurrently unavailable as of 24 February 2012).
MoE (Ministry of Environment of Cambodia). 2006. Water Quality in
Coastal Rivers and Near Shore Coastal Waters of Cambodia-Second
Annual Monitoring Report. Phnom Penh. http://www.czmcam.org/
content/documents/Report_WQM_CZM_Final%20_ENG-KH_.
pdf. Accessed 5 December 2011.
. 2009. Cambodia Environment Outlook. Phnom Penh.
. 2010. Annual Environment Report (in Khmer). Phnom Penh.
MoEJ (Ministry of the Environment of Japan).2009. WEPA Outlook on
Environmental Management Strategies in Asia. Hayama: Institute for
Global Environmental Strategies.
MoWRAM (Ministry of Water Resource and Meteorology of Cambodia).
2008. Master Plan of Water Resource Development in Cambodia.
Phnom Penh.
Sokha, Chrin. 2005. Environmental Hazards and Risks in Cambodia: An
Analysis. Phnom Penh: Ministry of Environment of Cambodia.
. 2011. “Progress of Water Environment Management and Future
Challenges in Cambodia.” Presentation at the 6th WEPA Annual
Meeting, Tokyo, Japan, 24 February.

Chapter 3.2 China

Chinese Government’s Official Web Portal. 2011. “China’s State Council
orders underground water safety, protection.” 24 August. http://
english.gov.cn/2011-08/24/content_1932057.htm. Accessed 15
December 2011.
Gang, Chen. 2011. “Water Environment Protection in China.” Presentation
at the 6th WEPA Annual Meeting, Tokyo, Japan, 24 February.
Jin, Zhu. 2011. “Govt Eyes Safety on Underground Water.” China Daily. 25
August. http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/cndy/2011-08/25/
content_13184850.htm. Accessed 15 December 2011.

MEP (Ministry of Environmental Protection of the People’s Republic ofChina). 2007. “Appendix IV: Explanatory Notes on Main Statistical
Indicators.” China Environmental Statistical Yearbook 2006. http://
english.mep.gov.cn/standards_reports/EnvironmentalStatistics/
yearbook2006/200712/t20071217_114397.htm. Accessed 16
December 2011.
. 2010a. Report on the State of the Environment in China 2009.
Beijing.http://english.mep.gov.cn/standards_reports/soe/soe2009/201104/t20110411_208979.htm. Accessed 14 December
2011.
. 2010b. “The First National Census on Pollution Sources Completesin Success.” 10 February. http://english.mep.gov.cn/News_service/infocus/201005/t20100531_190101.htm. Accessed 15 December
2011.
. 2011a. Report on the State of the Environment in China 2010 (inChinese). Beijing. http://www.mep.gov.cn/pv_obj_cache/pv_obj_id_2664F11057268A0849A1871670B91BB09D7C1200/filename/
P020110603390794821945.pdf. Accessed 14 December 2011.
. 2011b. “The Tasks for Reducing the Total Amount of Major
Pollutants in the 11th Five-Year Plan Period (2006-2010)
Accomplished.” 29 August. http://english.mep.gov.cn/News_service/
news_release/201108/t20110831_216799.htm. Accessed 14
December 2011.
. 2011c. “Discharge Standard.” http://english.mep.gov.cn/standards_
reports/standards/water_environment/Discharge_
standard/?4049701387=2310839348. Accessed 15 December 2011.
. 2011d. “The Exhibition on Environmental Protection Achievement
during the ‘11th Five-Year Plan’ Period & 12th CIEPEC Opened in
Beijing.” 8 June. http://english.mep.gov.cn/News_service/infocus/201106/t20110615_212565.
htm?2641070603=2310839348. Accessed 15 December 2011.
MoEJ (Ministry of the Environment of Japan). 2009. WEPA Outlook on
Environmental Management Strategies in Asia. Hayama: Institute for
Global Environmental Strategies.
MWR (Ministry of Water Resources of the People’s Republic of china).
(n.d.). “Facts and Figures.” http://www.mwr.gov.cn/english/cpws.
html. Accessed 15 October 2011.
SEPA (State Environmental Protection Administration). 2006. The State ofEnvironment Report 2005. Beijing. http://english.mep.gov.cn/
standards_reports/soe/soe2005/200706/t20070622_105622.htm.
Accessed 15 October 2011.
UNEP (United Nations Environmental Programme). 2010. Final Review of
Scientific Information on Cadmium. UNEP Chemicals Branch,
Division of Technology, Industry and Economics. Version of
December 2010. http://www.unep.org/hazardoussubstances/
Portals/9/Lead_Cadmium/docs/Interim_reviews/UNEP_GC26_
INF_11_Add_2_Final_UNEP_Cadmium_review_and_apppendix_
Dec_2010.pdf. Accessed 15 December 2011.
Wang, Qian. 2011. “Challenges in environmental protection still serious.”
China Daily, 4 June. http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/
china/2011-06/04/content_12640598.htm. Accessed 15 December
2011.
World Bank. 2008. Mid-term Evaluation of China’s 11th Five-Year Plan.
http://siteresources.worldbank.org/CHINAEXTN/
Resources/318949-1121421890573/China_11th_Five_Year_Plan_
main_report_en.pdf. Accessed 15 October 2011.

Chapter 3.3 Indonesia

Environmental Management Agency of DKI Jakarta. 2007. Jakarta State ofEnvironment Report 2006. Jakarta.
MoE (Ministry of Environment of Indonesia). 2008. State of Environment
Report in Indonesia 2007. Jakarta.
. 2011. State of Environmental Report in Indonesia 2010. Jakarta
MoEJ (Ministry of the Environment of Japan).2009. WEPA Outlook on
Environmental Management Strategies in Asia. Hayama: Institute for
Global Environmental Strategies.
Statistics Indonesia. 2011. Statistical Year Book of Indonesia 2010. Jakarta.
http://dds.bps.go.id/eng/aboutus.php?pub=1&pubs=45. Accessed 9
September 2011.

135

Syarif. L.M. 2010. “Current Development of Indonesian Environmental
Law.” IUCN Academy of Environmental Law eJournal 2010 (1).

Chapter 3.4 Japan

MLIT (Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism of Japan).
2011. “Nihon no Mizushigen no Genjo Kadai (State and Issues ofWater Resources in Japan).” Last modified 1 August. http://www.
mlit.go.jp/tochimizushigen/mizsei/c_actual/index.html. Accessed 20
January 2012.
MoEJ (Ministry of the Environment of Japan).2009. WEPA Outlook on
Environmental Management Strategies in Asia. Hayama: Institute for
Global Environmental Strategies.
. 2011a. “Heisei 22 nendo Kokyoyo Suiiki Suishitsu Sokutei Kekka(Result of Measurement of Water Quality in Public Water Bodies
2010).” Tokyo.http://www.env.go.jp/water/suiiki/h22/full.pdf.
Accessed 20 January 2012.
. 2011b. “Heisei 21 nendo Chikasuishitsu Sokutei Kekka (Result of
Measurement of Groundwater Quality 2009).” Tokyo. http://www.
env.go.jp/water/report/h22-01/01.pdf. Accessed 20 January 2012.
. 2011c. “Mizu Kankyo Sogo Joho Saito (Information Site on Water
Environment).” http://www.env.go.jp/water/mizu_site/index.html.
Accessed 20 January 2012.

Chapter 3.5 Republic of Korea

Chung, Eu Gene. 2010. “Water Quality Monitoring Using IT.” Korea
Environmental Policy Bulletin Issue 4, Volume VII. Gyeonggi-do:
Ministry of Environment-ROK and Korean Environment Institute.
http://eng.me.go.kr/board.do?method=view&docSeq=9188&bbsC
ode=res_mat_pub_bulletin&currentPage=1&searchType=&searchT
ext=. Accessed 30 November 2011.
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations). 2012.
Main AQUASTAT Country Database. http://www.fao.org/nr/
water/aquastat/data/query/index.html?lang=en. Accessed 19 January
2012.
MoCT (Ministry of Construction and Transportation of Republic ofKorea). 2007. Water Resources in Korea 2007. http://www.adb.org/
Documents/Books/AWDO/2007/br04.pdf. Accessed 20 February
2012.
MoE (Ministry of Environment of Republic of Korea). 2006. Environmental
Statistics Yearbook 2006. Gyeonggi-do. http://eng.me.go.kr/board.
do?method=view&docSeq=8058&bbsCode=law_law_paper&curre
ntPage=1&searchType=&searchText=. Accessed 30 November 2011.
. 2011. Environmental Statistics Yearbook 2010. Gyeonggi-do. http://
eng.me.go.kr/board.do?method=view&docSeq=9348&bbsCode=law_law_statistics&currentPage=1&searchType=&searchText=.
Accessed 30 November 2011.
. 2012. ECOREA Environmental Review 2011. Gyeonggi-do. http://
eng.me.go.kr/board.do?method=view&docSeq=8675&bbsCode=law_law_paper&currentPage=1&searchType=&searchText=.
Accessed 30 November 2011.
MoEJ (Ministry of the Environment of Japan).2009. WEPA Outlook on
Environmental Management Strategies in Asia. Hayama: Institute for
Global Environmental Strategies.
Yu, Soon-Ju. 2010. “Progress of Water Environment Management andFuture Challenges in KOREA.” Presentation at the 6th WEPA
Annual Meeting, Tokyo, Japan, 24 February.

Chapter 3.6 Lao PDR

FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations). 2011.
Main AQUASTAT Country Database. http://www.fao.org/nr/
water/aquastat/data/query/index.html?lang=en. Accessed 20
December 2011.
Chanthavong, Phouvong. 2011. “Groundwater for Water Supply in Laos.”Presentation at the Launch Meeting of Asia-Pacific Water Forum
Knowledge Hub for Groundwater Management, Bangkok, Thailand,
2 June.
Komany, Souphasay. 2008. “Water Quality Monitoring and Management in
Lao PDR: The Case Study of Nam Ngum River Basin.” In Oral
Presentation Proceedings, the 3rd WEPA International Forum on
Water Environmental Governance in Asia, Tokyo: Ministry of theEnvironment of Japan.

136. 2011. “Water Quality Monitoring at Reservoir of Nam Ngum 2
Hydropower Dam and Upper Reservoir of Nam Ngum 1
Hydropower Dam.” Presentation at the 3rd WEPA International
Workshop, Manila, the Philippines, 21 September.
MoEJ (Ministry of the Environment of Japan).2009. WEPA Outlook on
Environmental Management Strategies in Asia. Hayama: Institute for
Global Environmental Strategies.
MoNRE (Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment of Lao PDR).
2011. “MoNRE Plan for 2011-2015.” A Presentation Material on 11
July.http://www.rtm.org.la/documents/SWG/Agriculture/
MoNRE%20Plan%20for%202011-2015.pdf. Accessed 20 January
2012.
MRC (Mekong River Commission). 2010. State of Basin Report 2010.
Vientiane. http://www.mrcmekong.org/assets/Publications/basin-reports/MRC-SOB-Summary-reportEnglish.pdf. Accessed 20
January 2012.
Phonvisai, Phengkhamla. 2011. “Water Quality Monitoring in Vientiane
Capital City.” Vientiane: Unpublished material.
WEPA (Water Environment Partnership in Asia) database. (n.d). http://
www.wepa-db.net/policies/measures/currentsystem/laos.htm.
Accessed 20 January 2012.
WREA (Water Resources and Environment Administration of Lao PDR).
2010. Agreement on the National Environmental Standards.
Vientiane.

Chapter 3.7 Malaysia

DoE (Department of Environment, Ministry of Natural Resources andEnvironment of Malaysia). 2011. Environment Quality Report(EQR) 2010. Kuala Lumpur.http://www.doe.gov.my/portal/
publication-2/browse/Publication%20-%20Penerbitan/. Accessed 10
January 2012.
. 2010. Environmental Requirements: A Guide for Investors 11th
Edition. October. http://www.doe.gov.my/portal/wp-content/
uploads/2010/12/A-Guide-For-Investors1.pdf. Accessed 10 January
2012.
Economic Planning Unit of Prime Minister’s Department. 2010. 10th
Malaysian Plan 2011-15. http://www.pmo.gov.my/
dokumenattached/RMK/RMK10_Eds.pdf. Accessed 10 October
2011.
How, Tan Sieow. 2008. “Success Story on Benefits and Issues in
Implementing Performance Monitoring of Industrial Effluent
Treatment Systems (IETS).” Industrial Effluents Issue 1/2008: 22-28.
Kuala Lumpur: Department of Environment, Malaysia. http://www.
doe.gov.my/portal/wp-content/uploads/2010/07/e-magazine01A4.
pdf. Accessed 20 October 2011.
Keong, Loh Chee. 2008. “Success Story on Benefits and Issues in
Implementing Performance Monitoring of Industrial Effluent
Treatment Systems (IETS).” Industrial Effluents Issue 1/2008: 12-21.
Kuala Lumpur: Department of Environment, Malaysia http://www.
doe.gov.my/portal/wp-content/uploads/2010/07/e-magazine01A4.
pdf. Accessed 20 October 2011.
Ministry of Science, Technology and the Environment of Malaysia. 2002.
Dasar Alam Sekitar Negara (National Policy on the Environment).
http://www.doe.gov.my/portal/wp-content/uploads/2010/07/
dasar_alam_sekitar_negara.pdf. Accessed 10 October 2011.
MoEJ (Ministry of the Environment of Japan).2009. WEPA Outlook on
Environmental Management Strategies in Asia. Hayama: Institute for
Global Environmental Strategies.
MoSTI (Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation of Malaysia).
2010. Official Portal Malaysian Meteorological Department. http://
www.met.gov.my/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=
69&Itemid=160&lang=english. Accessed 23 February 2012.
Shariffuddin, Syazrin Syima. 2011. “Progress of water environmental
governance/management and future challenges in Malaysia.”
Presentation at the 6th WEPA Annual Meeting, Tokyo, Japan, 24
February . http://www.doe.gov.my/portal/wp-content/
uploads/2010/07/dasar_alam_sekitar_negara.pdf. Accessed 20
October 2011.

WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012

References

Chapter 3.8 Myanmar

Akaishi, Fumiko., M. Satake, M. Otaki, and N. Tomonaga. 2006. Surface
Water Quality and Information about the Environment Surrounding
Inle Lake in Myanmar. Limnology 7(1): 57-62.
Khin Lay Swe. 2011. “Development of Clean Water and Sanitation in Inle
Lake, Myanmar.” Presentation at the Seminar on Water andEnvironment in Asia’s Developing Communities, Singapore
International Water Week, Singapore, 6 July. http://endeavour.newri.
ntu.edu.sg/Documents/seminar110706-105.pdf. Accessed 10 August
2011.
MoEJ (Ministry of the Environment of Japan).2009. WEPA Outlook on
Environmental Management Strategies in Asia. Hayama: Institute for
Global Environmental Strategies.
Ra, Khon. 2011. “Water Quality Management at River Basin in Myanmar.”Presentation at the 3rd WEPA International Workshop, Manila, thePhilippines, 21 September. http://www.wepa-db.net/
pdf/0712forum/paper38.pdf. Accessed 10 August 2011.
Than, Mu Mu. 2007. “Community Activities Contribution to Water
Environment Conservation of Inle Lake.” Presentation at the 2nd
WEPA International Forum, Beppu, Japan, 4 December. http://www.
wepa-db.net/pdf/0712forum/paper38.pdf. Accessed 9 September
2011.

Chapter 3.9 Nepal

CBS (Central Bureau of Statistics). 2008. Environmental Statistics of Nepal.
Kathmandu.Government of Nepal. 2002. National Water Plan.
Kathmandu. http://www.wec.gov.np/hkk/noticefile/national_
water_plan_1301399606_1303997281.pdf. Accessed 10 September
2011.
ICIMOD (International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development).
2007. Kathmandu Valley Environment Outlook. Kathmandu. http://
books.icimod.org/uploads/ftp/KVEO-Full-text.pdf. Accessed 10
September 2011.
NTNC (National Trust for Nature Conservation). 2009. Bagmati Action
Plan. http://wldb.ilec.or.jp/ILBMTrainingMaterials/resources/
nepal_strategy.pdf. Accessed 10 September 2011.
Sharma, Subodh, R.M. Bajracharya, B.K. Sitaula and J. Merz. 2005. “Water
Quality in the Central Himalaya.” Current Science 89 (5): 774-786.
WECS (Water and Energy Commission Secretariat). 2000. Water Resources
Strategy Formulation Phase II Study. Prepared by WRSF Consortium
for Water and Energy Commission Secretariat, Kathmandu. 2011. Water Resources of Nepal in the Context of Climate Change.
Kathmandu.
WEPA (Water Environment Partnership in Asia) database. (n.d). http://
www.wepa-db.net/policies/state/nepal/overview.htm. Accessed 10
September 2011.

Chapter 3.10 Philippines

Cuna, Juan Miguel T. 2011. “Current Policy Responses to Attain National
Water Quality Target and Future Challenge: Experiences in thePhilippines.” Presentation at the 3rd WEPA International Workshop,
Manila, Philippines, 21 September.
DENR-EMB (Department of Environment and Natural Resources,
Environmental Management Bureau). 2007. Nation Water Quality
Status Report 2001-2005.
. 2009. WATER QUALITY MONITORING MANUAL VOLUME
2: Manual on Effluent Water Quality Monitoring. http://emb.gov.
ph/wqms/policies/Procedural%20Manual%20for%20WQMA%20
Designation-%205%20Oct%202009-rev4.pdf. Accessed 12 February
2012.
MoEJ (Ministry of the Environment of Japan).2009. WEPA Outlook on
Environmental Management Strategies in Asia. Hayama: Institute for
Global Environmental Strategies.
Tuddao, Vicente. B. Jr. 2011. “Water Quality Management in the Context ofBasin Management: Water Quality, River Basin Management andGovernance Dynamics in the Philippines.” Presentation at the 3rd
WEPA International Workshop, Manila, Philippines, 21 September.

Chapter 3.11 Sri Lanka

CEA (Central Environmental Authority). 2011. Review of the water qualityof Bolgoda Lake. Colombo.

. (n.d.). Concept paper on continuation of Pavithra Ganga Programme
Colombo.
IGES (Institute for Global Environmental Strategies). 2007. Sustainablegroundwater management in Asian cities. Hayama: IGES.
MENR (Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources). 2008. Caring
For Environment 2008-2012. Colombo. http://www.
environmentmin.gov.lk/temporary_files/Caring%20for%20the%20
Environment%20(Action%20Plan%202008-2012.pdf. Accessed 10
December 2011.
MENR and UNEP (MENR and United Nations Environment
Programme). 2009. Sri Lanka Environment Outlook 2009.
Battaramulla.
Nandalal, K.D.W. 2010. “Groundwater Resources.” In Proceedings of the
National Forum on Water Research Identification of Gaps andPriorities. 16-17 September, Colombo, Sri Lanka.
NCSD (National Council for Sustainable Development) and Presidential
Secretariat. 2009. National Action Plan for the Haritha Lanka
Programme. Colombo.
Ratnayake, R.M.S.K. 2010. “Urbanization and Water Quality Control for
the Source ofWater in Colombo City, Sri Lanka.” Paper submitted to the 1st WEPAInternational Workshop, Hanoi, Viet Nam, 8-9 March.
UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization) and MoAIMD (UNESCO and Ministry ofAgriculture, Irrigation and Mahaweli Development). 2006. Sri Lanka
Water Development Report. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/
images/0014/001476/147683E.pdf. Accessed 10 January 2012.

Chapter 3.12 Thailand

MoEJ (Ministry of the Environment of Japan).2009. WEPA Outlook on
Environmental Management Strategies in Asia. Hayama: Institute for
Global Environmental Strategies.
Office of National Water Resources Committee. 2000. National Water
Vision: A Case Study of Thailand.
PCD (Pollution Control Department). 2006. State of Thailand Pollution inYear 2005 (in Thai). Bangkok.
. 2007. State of Thailand Pollution in Year 2006 (in Thai). Bangkok.
. 2010. Thailand State of Pollution Report 2008 (in Thai). Bangkok.
. 2011. Thailand State of Pollution Report 2010 (in Thai). Bangkok.
Yolthantham, T. 2011. “Water Environmental Governance/Management
and Future Challenges of Thailand.” Presentation at the 2nd WEPAInternational Workshop, Tokyo, Japan, 23 February.

Chapter 3.13 Viet Nam

Hanh, Hoand Duc and Nguyen The Dong. 2011. “Progress of Water
Environmental Governance/Management and Future Challenges inViet Nam.” Presentation at the 6th WEPA Annual Meeting, Tokyo,
Japan, 23-24 February.
MoEJ (Ministry of the Environment of Japan).2009. WEPA Outlook on
Environmental Management Strategies in Asia. Hayama: Institute for
Global Environmental Strategies.
MoNRE (Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment of Viet Nam).
2005. State of the Environment Report 2005. Hanoi.
. 2006. State of Environment Report 2006. Hanoi.
. 2010. State of the Environment Report 2010. Hanoi.
Nga, Pham Thi Nguyet. 2011. “Current situation of water quality in Viet
Nam and recent policy responses.” Presentation at the 3rd WEPAInternational Workshop. Manila, Philippines, 21-22 September.
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Ministry of the Environment, Japan
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Environmental Management Bureau

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