2.3 Indonesia
1 | Country Information

Table 2.3.2 Spatial distribution of water availability
IslandTable 2.3.1 Basic indicators
Land Area (km2)

1,904,569 (2017)*

Total Population

267.7 million (2018)**

GDP (current USD)

970 billion (2019)**

million m 3/yearJava

164,000

Sumatera

840,737

Sulawesi

299,218

Kalimantan

1,314,021

GDP per capita (current USD)

4,200 (2019)**

Bali and Nusa Tenggara

49,620

Average Precipitation (mm/year)

2,702 (2020)***

Maluku176,726

Total Renewable Water Resources (km3)

2,019 (2011)

Papua

1,062,154

Total

3,906,476

Total Annual Freshwater Withdrawals(billion m3)
Annual Freshwater
Withdrawals
by Sector

222.6 (2019)****

Agriculture

85.2% (2017)

Industry

4.1% (2017)

Municipal(including domestic)

10.7% (2017)(Source: FAO 2020, *World Atlas 2017, **World Bank 2018,***World data atlas 2020, ****Ministry of Public Works and Housing 2019a)(Source: ADB 2016)

As of 2014, the total reservoir capacity was 12.6
billion m3, or 49.2 m3 per capita, which is half the capacity
prior to 1945 (105.5 m 3 per capita) (ADB 2016). To
enhance water security, the government planned tobuild 49 new reservoirs with total capacity of 3 billion m3
between 2015 and 2019 (Government of Indonesia2015).
Indonesia has almost 8,000 watersheds (Daerah
Aliran Sungai [DAS]), which are managed in 131 river
basins. Five river basins (304 DAS) cross internationalboundaries (Malaysia, Timor-Leste, and Papua
New Guinea), 29 basins (859 DAS) cross provincial
boundaries, and 37 basins are considered as having
national strategic importance (ADB 2016).

3 | State of Ambient Water Quality
3.1 Rivers

Figure 2.3.1 Citarum River in Bandung, Indonesia

2 | State of Water Resources
Water resources in Indonesia account for about 6%of the world’s water resources or about 21% of total
water resources in the Asia-Pacific region. Total water
availability is estimated at 690 billion m3/year whereas
total demand is 175 billion m 3/year. However, theavailable water is unevenly distributed spatially andtemporally (Table 2.3.2).

46

There are 5,590 major watersheds in Indonesia, divided
into 131 river basin territories. Status of surface water
quality compliance against the national guidelines
and its provincial distribution in Indonesia are shownin figures 2.3.2 and 2.3.3, respectively. The percentageof heavily polluted rivers, as defined by Class II Water
Quality Criteria in Government Regulation No. 22/2021,
exceeded 70% in 2016. As a result of monitoring 44
large rivers across Indonesia, it was found that only
four met Class II standards throughout the year (ADB
2016). A recent research by the Indonesian Ministry ofEnvironment and Forestry showed that at present 75% ofrivers in the country are seriously polluted, 52 of which
are categorized as heavily polluted, and 118 watersheds
out of 450 monitored watersheds are critically polluted.

Chapter 2: Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

90%

Heavily Polluted

80%

Moderately Polluted

70%
309

443

407

420

Lightly Polluted

438Class II Compliant

50%

China

60%

Cambodia100%* numbers indicate
sampling points

40%

20%
10%
0%

93

80

80

7
2012

19
2013

21
2014

154

109

40

39

2015

2016

Indonesia

30%

Japan

Figure 2.3.2 Status of compliance with water quality in Indonesia (Source: created by WEPA based on data from MOEF 2017)

Polluted

Moderate

Good

Figure 2.3.3 Provincial distribution of surface water quality

100

15
10

10
5
1

pa
r
m
Ka

Figure 2.3.4 Water quality of major rivers in 2019 in(Source: PUPR 2019b)
Indonesia

Numberof basinsArea(km 2)

Volume (million m 3/year)
Unconfined Confined

Sumatera

65

272,843

123,5286,551Java and
Madura80

81,14738,851

2,046

Kalimantan

22

181,362

67,963

1,102

Sulawesi

91

37,778

19,694

550

Bali

8

4,381

1,577

21

West Nusa
Tenggara

9

9,475

1,908

107

East Nusa
Tenggara

38

31,9298,229

200

Maluku68

2,583

11,943

1,231

Papua

40

26,287

222,524

9,098

Total

421

907,615496,217

20,906

Viet Nam

Name of rivers

RegionThailand

Ba
Ri
ve
ta
ng
r
ha
ri
Ri
ve
r
M
us
iR
ive
Ci
sa
r
da
ne
Ri
ve
Ci
liw
r
Be
un
ng
g
Ri
aw
ve
an
r
So
lo
Ri
ve
Ci
r
ta
ru
m
Ri
ve
r

0

Table 2.3.3 Regional distribution of groundwater potential

Sri Lanka

Concentra�on (mg/L)

1,000

Philippines

20

10,000

CFU/100 ml

25

E.coli/Fecal coli (CFU/100ml)
BOD (mg/L)
COD (mg/L)
NO3-N (mg/L)
PO4-P (mg/L)

Groundwater is an important water source and thepotential of groundwater basins is promising on several
islands, with a total area of 907,615 km2 and total basin
capacity of about 520 billion m 3/year (Table 2.3.3).

Nepal

30

3.4 Groundwater

Myanmar

Water quality data covering five key indicators for the
majority of river bodies in Indonesia for 2019 is shown in
Figure 2.3.4 (PUPR 2019b). It can be seen that most of
the rivers are moderately to severely polluted, especiallyin terms of E.coli.

Indonesia is the largest archipelago in the world,with 13,466 islands, about 5.8 million km2 of sea areaand 81,000 km of coastline. Pollution threatens theIndonesian seas.

Malaysia(Source: ADB 2016)

3.3 Coastal Water

Lao PDR

Heavily Polluted

Similarly, with conditions in rivers, there is significant
pressure on water quality in lakes from various sources,
such as domestic activities, agriculture, livestock, forestry
and industry. Water quality monitoring of 15 lakes on thegovernment’s priority list revealed that most fell into thehyper-eutrophic category (ADB 2016).

Republic of Korea

3.2 Lakes and Reservoirs(Source: ADB 2016)47

Indonesian Ministry of Health Regulation with Decree
No. 416/1990 aimed at water quality monitoring looks
for different provisions and controls which stipulates
groundwater quality standards. In Jakarta, 45% ofgroundwater shows contamination by faecal coliform
and 80% by E. coli. Major sources of contamination
include septic tank leakage, discharge of untreateddomestic wastewater, landfill leachate, and industrial
effluent contamination. Saltwater intrusion due tooverexploitation is common in coastal aquifers (ADB
2016).

4 | State of Wastewater Treatment
Wastewater and major pollutants
Domestic wastewater contains large amounts of chemical
oxygen demand (COD), nutrients, and faecal coliform,
and is the largest contributor to surface water pollution
in Indonesia. Agricultural wastewater contains COD,n u t r i e nt s , fe r t i l i ze r s u c h a s u re a a n d t r i p l esuperphosphate, and pesticides, and is a non-point
source of pollution. Industrial wastewater contains awide variety of pollutants depending on industrial
activity (e.g., Chromium (Cr) in tanning, Mercury (Hg) inillegal mining, color in textiles). The practice of using
wastewater in fishponds previously was widespread but
is now declining due to health concerns. Using
wastewater to produce fish feed, like duckweed, offers asafer alternative (UNESCO 2017).

Domestic wastewaterIn urban areas (population 110 million), about 1% of thewastewater is safely collected and treated, whereas inrural areas (population 130 million) wastewater is neither
collected nor treated (ADB 2016).

Industrial wastewater
There are about 24 thousand large- or medium-scaleindustries and about 3.5 million small-scale industries inIndonesia, employing a total workforce of 14.8 million.
Food and beverage, textile, vehicle, and petrochemicalindustries have all seen positive growth rates based on
GDP in recent years. Industries including cement, pulp
and paper (capacity over 300,000 t-pulp/year), upstream
petrochemicals, industrial estates, shipyards with graving
docks, explosives, and smelting are obligated to obtainan Environmental Impact Assessment (AMDAL) permit
to conduct business according to the Decree of Ministryof Environment concerning Type of Business Plan/
Activity Required Environmental Impact (MOE Decree
No. 5/2012).

48

There are various frameworks to assist green
industries, such as the government-based soft loan
program, which supports investment in waste reduction
and management. This program targets small andmedium-sized enterprises (assets less than 10 billion
Indonesian Rp) with maximum loans of 5 billion
Indonesian Rp.
Green Industry Standards have been laid out in Law
on Industrial Affairs (Law No. 3/2014). Eight industries
have individual standards under this law: cement, pulp
and paper, ceramic tiles, textile dyeing, milk powder,crumb rubber, ribbed smoked sheet rubber, andinorganic fertilizer.

5 | Frameworks for Water
Environmental Management
5.1 Legislation
For water environmental management, there are two
primary regulations: Law on Water Resources (Law No.
17/2019) and Government Regulation concerning theManagement of Water Quality and Control of Water
Pollution (Government Regulation No. 82/2001).
The purpose of the former is holistic water resource
management (both quality and quantity) in line with theSDGs, whereas the latter’s is to focus on water quality
management and pollution control – specifically strict
implementation of water quality standards, effluent
standards and TMDLs. To improve implementation ofthese guidelines and regulations in the field, some newelements have since been introduced through Law No.
17/2009, such as establishment of a water resource
information system for more comprehensive monitoring,and licensing and empowerment for authorities engagedin water resource supervision and management.
The objective of environmental management inIndonesia is to enable environmentally sustainable
development, and the basic legislative structure for water
environment management is shown in Figure 2.3.5.
Integral water resources management is regulated by
Law No. 17/2009. The main subjects regulated in this Law
on Water Resources include state control and people’s
rights to water; the authorities and responsibilities of theCentral Government and Regional Governments in the
management of water resources, water resourcesmanagement, water resources utilization permits, water
resources information system, empowerment andsupervision, funding, rights and obligations, society
participation, and coordination. Apart from that, it also
regulates the provisions regarding criminal investigationand provisions for violations of the provisions of this Law.

Chapter 2: Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Cambodia

Law Concerning Environmental Protec�on and Management (Law No. 32/2009）*
Law on Water Resources (Law No. 17/2019)
Decree of the Ministry of Environment and Forestry concerning
Domes�c Waste Water Quality Standard(Decree of MOEF No. 68/2016)
Decree of the Ministry Environment and Forestry concerning
Waster Water Quality Standards (Decree of MOEF No. 5/2014)* The Law Concerning Environmental Protec�on and Management has been amended by the Omnibus Law on Job Crea�on (Law No. 11/2020)
to revise some provisions on environmental impact assessment, forest management, and environmental licensing system.

Philippines
Sri Lanka

Designation

Nepal

Table 2.3.4 Classes of inland water quality
Class

Myanmar

The Long-Term Development Plan 2005–2025 (RPJPN:
Law No. 17/2007) stipulates the role of government
as facilitator, regulator, and development catalyzer toincrease the effectiveness of public services (ADB 2016).
In Indonesia, several ministries deal with water
management, such as the Ministry of Environment andForestry (MOEF), Ministry of Public Works and Housing(PUPR) and State Ministry of National Development
Planning (BAPPENAS). MOEF is responsible for water
quality management and pollution, PUPR deals withwater resource management especially focusing on
quantity and water uses, and BAPPENAS is responsible
for the overall national development.

Water quality criteria (WQC) are set as the benchmarks
for water quality conservation under the Government
Regulation No. 22/2021. These criteria are the minimum
standards set by the national government, though local
governments are free to set their own, which may
be even stricter and include additional parameters inaccordance with local settings.
To date, water quality standards have been developed
for surface inland water bodies such as rivers, lakes(approved in 2001) and coastal waters (approved in 2004),
though no standards have been developed and approvedfor groundwater, which is a matter of concern. Nationally,
river water quality is presently monitored through 510
water quality monitoring sites, and for lakes there are 10.
WQC sets standard values for different parameters
in four classes, which are determined based on the typeof water usage (Table 2.3.4). However, as rivers have notbeen fully categorized into classes, the state of water
quality in the country is evaluated based upon complianceof values with Class II. The Decree of the State Ministerof the Environment concerning Standard Quality of Sea

Malaysia

5.2 Institutional Arrangement

5.3 Ambient Water Quality Standards

Lao PDR

The Government Regulation No. 22/2021 strives toregulate the inventory of water bodies which consists of
the identification and characterization of water bodies,including surface water and groundwater and different
pollutants (point as well as non-point source). It also
regulates economic instruments for water pollution
control.

Republic of Korea

Figure 2.3.5 Basic legislative structure for water environment management

Japan

Integrated of the eﬄuent standards for 36 speciﬁc industries
including palm oil, tex�le, processing of fruit and vegetables,
coconut, cows and pigs husbandry, reﬁned sugar, oleo chemicalindustry

Decree of the State Minister of the Environment concerningStandard Quality of Seawater (Decree of the State Ministerof the Environment No. 51/2004)

Indonesia

Decree of the Ministry of Environment concerning
Management of Water Pollu�on Control(Decree of MOE No. 1/2010)

China

Government Regula�on concerning the management of
Water Quality and Control of Water Pollu�on(Government Regula�on No. 82/2001)

Standard (mg/L)
COD

Cl2

PhenolTotal Coliform

E. coli

Drinking water

2

10

0.03

0.001

1000

100

II

Water recreation facilities

3

25

0.03

0.001

5,000

1,000

III

Freshwater for fish, farmingand husbandry

6

50

0.03

0.001

10,0002,000

IV

Crops irrigation

12

100

0.03

0.001

10,0002,000(Source: Purwati et al. 2019)

Viet Nam

I

Thailand

BOD

49

Water (MOE Decree No. 51/2004) stipulated three setsof standards for coastal water quality: Marine water
quality standards for ports and harbours (Annex I in MoE
Decree 51/2004), standards for marine recreation(Annex II) and standards for marine ecosystems (Annex
III). Water quality standards for marine ecosystems,
notably, are subdivided further into clarity, TSS,
temperature and salinity for coral, mangrove, and sea
grass (lamun) (Table 2.3.5).
As with water criteria for surface water, local
governments can set stricter standards, such as theRegulation of the Governor of DKI Jakarta Province
No.93/2006, which applies stricter standards for capitals
of provinces and the special region of Jakarta (DKI Jakarta
Province).

Water quality monitoring framework
Water quality monitoring schemes are determined under
the Management of Water Quality and Control over
Water Pollution Government Regulation as follows:
1. Monitoring of water sources in the regency/municipal region is carried out by the regency/municipal government.

No.

Parameter

Unit

Coral

Standard value
Mangrove Sea grass

Physical parameters
1

Clarity

m

>5

-

2

Odor

-

Normal3

Turbidity

NTU

<5

4

TSS

mg/L

5

Refuse-6Temperature°C

7

Oil film-

undetected
7.0-8.5

20

80

28–30

28–32

1

pH

-

2

Salinity

‰

3

DO

mg/L

>5

4

BOD

mg/L

20

5

Free ammonia
mg/L(NH4-N)
Orthophosphate mg/L
(PO4-P)
Nitrate nitrogen mg/L
(NO3-N)

6
7

33–34

34

28–30

33–34

0.3
0.015
0.008

8

Cyanide (CN)

mg/L

0.5

Sulphides

mg/L

0.01

10

PAHs

mg/L

0.003

11

Phenols

mg/L

0.002

12

PCB

μg/L

0.01

13

mg/L

1

3. Monitoring of water sources in two or more
provincial regions and/or water sources onborders with other countries is observed by thenational government.

Surfactants(MBAS)

14

Oil and grease

mg/L

1

15

Pesticides

mg/L

0.01

16

Tributyltin (TBT)

μg/L

0.01

Water quality observations are carried out at least
once in six months and results are submitted to theministry of environment and forest. The mechanisms andprocedures for water quality monitoring are stipulated
further in detail through ministerial decree.

1

Hg

mg/L

0.001

2

Cr

mg/L

0.005

3

As

mg/L

0.012

4

Cd

mg/L

0.001

5

Cu

mg/L

0.008

6

Pb

mg/L

0.008

7

Zn

mg/L

0.05

8

Ni

mg/L

0.05

National wastewater quality standards are specified
by governmental regulation after due considerationof suggestions from related government agencies(Government Regulation No. 22/2021). As with water
quality standards, provincial governments can specify
similar or tighter wastewater quality standards than thenational wastewater quality standard.

20

Chemical parameters

9Effluent standards>3

undetected

2. Monitoring of water sources in two or moreregency/municipal regions within one province iscoordinated by the provincial government andcarried out by each regency/municipal government.

5.4 Effluent Standards

50

Table 2.3.5 Coastal water quality standards for marine
ecosystems

Dissolved metals
6+

Organic parameters
1

Total coliform

2

Pathogens3

Plankton

MPN/
100mL
nb/
100mL
-

1,000
undetected
No abnormal blooms

Radioactive parameters
1

Radioactive
substances

Bq/L

4

Chapter 2: Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

Republic of Korea

Table 2.3.6 PROPER evaluation levels
Performancelevel

Category

Number ofcompanies
in 2016Gold

Zero emissions

12

Green

Beyond compliance

172

Blue

ComplianceRed

Failure to reachrequirementsBlack

Non-compliance, andinsignificant efforts at
improvement

1,422

Malaysia284

5

MyanmarTotal

Lao PDR

1,895(Source: MoE 2017)

Nepal

5.5 Major Policies on Water Environmental
Management
The Long-Term Development Plan 2005–2025 (RPJPN)
presents the main policies and strategies, which inturn sets the direction for the National Medium-Term
Development Plan (RPJMN) 2015–2019, which includes
the following targets regarding conservation of the water
environment:• Rehabilitation of 5.5 million ha of Indonesian Forest• Increase community involvement in watershedmanagement through development of Community
Plantation Forest, Community Forest, Village Forest,
development of ecotourism and development of
non-timber forest products• Rehabilitate 3 million ha and construct 1 million haof irrigation networks

Philippines
Sri Lanka
Thailand
Viet Nam

In the absence of any economic tools or concrete plans
for water quality management and enforcement ofregulations, Indonesia has some judicial and non-judicial
measures for managing non-compliance with effluent
water quality standards. In order to enforce the water
management guidelines, effluent standards for industrial
and domestic sectors were approved in 2014 and 2016
respectively, with either the Environmental Agency ofLocal and Provincial government or MOEF managing
inspections in accordance with to the permit issued.
While each industry has an obligation to monitor thequality of effluent once a month, rates of effluent
discharge and pH are monitored daily. Reporting is done
every three months, inspections for which involve a
three-step process: a) on-site inspection, b) submittal ofeffluent quality report by the industry, and c) online
report submission.
Based on Article 76 of Law No. 32/2009 on
Environmental Protection and Management, the Minister,
Governor, Regent, or Mayor can impose administrative
sanctions on business actors in accordance with thedegree of violation of environmental permits (e.g.,
effluent quality), which include:a. Written warning
b. Government coercion
c. Freezing of environmental permits
d. Revocation of environmental permit

Japan

Measures against non-compliance

The Program for Pollution Control Evaluation and Rating
PROPER: Program Penilaian Peringkat Kinerja Perusahaan
is executed to encourage compliance of companies
with applicable rules and regulations, and the results
are published as information reflecting the reputationof companies in respect of environmental management.
In 2016, 1,895 companies were rated under the PROPER
program (Table 2.3.6).

Indonesia

All industries are required to send wastewater samples toregistered laboratories once a month or more frequently
depending on their activities, with the analysis reports
then submitted every six months to local authorities andthe MOEF. Local and national authorities have the rightof access and sampling of effluent at any time.

Compliance management

China

Effluent inspection procedure

Although an enforcement regulation previously
existed, the Minister of Environment and Forestry
introduced a new aspect of monitoring of effluent
quality, which stipulates it be performed automatically,
continuously and online, under Decree of the Minister ofEnvironment and Forestry No. 93/2018 (No. P.93/
MENLHK/SETJEN/KUM.1/8/2018).

Cambodia

General industrial effluent standards were firstcreated in Government Regulation No. 20/1990. Under
the Decree of Ministry of Environment No. 3/1991 (no.
KEP-03/MENKLH/II/1991), specific effluent standards
were first identified for 14 industrial activities, whichthen increased to 21 by the Decree of Ministry ofEnvironment No. 51/1995. However, these Decrees weremerged into the Decree of Ministry of Environment andForestry No. 5/2014, which integrated the effluent
standards of 36 industries in those Decrees. Local
governments such as in DKI Jakarta, West Java andJogjakarta have established tighter wastewater quality
standards than the national government.

51• Establish flood management schemes in 33 river
basins• Improve water quality in 15 lakes and 5 rivers

Analysis of watershed status, water source
protection and restoration is to be carried out in fourpriority watersheds (Ciliwung, Citarum, Kapuas and Siak)and vegetation management is to be conducted in 26
sub-priority watersheds.
Presidential Decree No. 33/2011 lays out thenational policy of water resource management from2011 to 2030.

6 | Recent Developments inWater Environmental Management
Regarding the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs),
the Ministry of National Development Planning(Bappenas) is assigned to coordinate the entire processof planning, implementation, monitoring as well as
evaluation and reporting by involving all stakeholders.
Indonesia maintains a working relationship based on
mutual trust between all stakeholders, consisting of thegovernment, CSO, philanthropy and business, andacademics. Active engagement of all stakeholders is
encouraged and enhanced by their involvement andrepresentation in the Implementing Team and Working
Group within the SDGs National Coordinating Team. All
stakeholders are not only involved in the implementation,
but also in determining the direction of SDG
implementation.
The national medium-term development plan
(RPJMN) 2015–2019 targets universal access to waterand sanitation by 2019. Since 2019, WEPA started
implementing a WEPA Action Program in Indonesia,

providing technical support to the Indonesian Ministry ofEnvironment and Forestry of Indonesia (MOEF) todevelop a ”Guidelines on Implementation of Total
Maximum Daily Load (TMDL) as Water Quality
Management Approach”. The introduction andimplementation of the Guidelines is expected to address
water pollution caused by domestic and industrial
wastewater, which has been a longstanding issue inIndonesia. The final draft of the Guidelines is going to be
finalized by the MOEF, in collaboration with the Instituteof Technology Bandung (ITB) and the WEPA Secretariat.
Indonesia’s specific response to achieve its SDG
targets on water quality (SDG targets 6.2, 6.3 and SDG
target 6.A specifically) is described in Table 2.3.7.

Major flagship program for improvement ofwater environment
Indonesia has developed and implemented the Ecoriparian Program, a water body restoration program thataims to improve water quality and restore ecological andsocio-cultural functions of water bodies. The Program
includes:1. Maintaining quantity and continuity of water andprevent flooding
2. Improving water quality and restore aquatic
ecosystems
3. Revitalizing environmentally friendly river-based
culture4. Empowering local communities in water protection
and management
5. Implementing regulations that strengthen water
quality management and control water pollution

Table 2.3.7 Country’s response to achieving SDG 6

52

Response

YesNo

If yes, please provide short description

Mapping of agencies for SDG targets
6.2 and 6.3✔

- Ministry Public work and Settlement and Ministry of Environment and Forestry

Set up/revision of country’s indicatoron SDG targets 6.2 and 6.3✔

- By 2030, achieving access to improved sanitation and hygiene adequate andequitable for all, and stop the practice of defecation in open spaces, paying
special attention to the needs of women and vulnerable groups of people.

Available datasets to measureprogress of SDG targets 6.2 andSDG targets 6.3✔

- Central Bureau of Statistics (BPS): National Socio-Economic Survey (Susenas)
health and housing modules.
- Ministry of Public Works and Settlements: Annual Report.

Chapter 2: Country Profiles of Water Environmental Management in WEPA Countries

China

Challenges: Overall, key challenges are divided into thefollowing four categories:• Institutional Challenges: Challenges in coordinationand integration at the implementation level

Cambodia

7 | Challenges and Future Plans• Enforcement challenges: Limited number of• Resource and financial challenges: Limited

Japanbudgetary allocation to control water pollution andlimited number and quality of human resources that
handle water protection and management at the
local level

Indonesia

environmental inspectors at the local level• Technical challenges: The necessary of increasing

Table 2.3.8 Necessary actions to address the above

Republic of Korea

the capacity of innovation in developing andapplying science and technology related to water
protection and management

mentioned challenges

i. Increasing the number of inspectors and training
on inspection and enforcement of environmental
law
ii. Encourage policy makers at the local level toempower environmental inspectors

Resource
and financial
Challenges

i. Increasing the capacity of local governments withguidance and budgetary assistanceii. Implement an effective incentive and disincentive
system for local government

Technical
Challenges

i. Increased collaboration between researchers andmanagers in the development and application ofscience and technology
ii. Increasing the technical capacity of staff andmanagers in industry and government agencies inwater protection and management

Philippines

Enforcement
Challenges

Nepal

i. Need to build an effective system in implementing
joint programs and actions between related
ministries and institutions and communities

MyanmarInstitutional
Challenges

Malaysia

Necessary actions to be taken

Lao PDR

Challenges

Sri Lanka
Thailand
Viet Nam

53