RESOURCE MATERIAL SERIES No. 54

GROUP 3
REHABILITATION AND CORRECTIONAL PROGRAMMES IN
THE COMMUNITY TO PREVENT RECIDIVISIM BYDISCHARGED PRISONERS: THE ACTUAL SITUATION,
PROBLEMS AND COUNTERMEASURES

Chairperson
Co-Chairperson
Rapporteur
Co-Rapporteurs
Members

Advisers

Ms. Josephine Muthoni Murege
Ms. Fumi Muraoka
Mr. William Kwadwo Asiedu
Mr. Yoon, Bo-Sik
Mr. Mamoru Suzuki
Mr. Sairusi Gauna Tuisalia
Mr. Hideharu Maeki
Mr. Satoshi Nakazawa
Mr. Mamoru Takatsu
Professor Tomoko Akane
Professor Shoji Imafuki

I. INTRODUCTION
The search for effective measures for the
rehabilitation of the offender has led thecriminal justice world to look beyond thewalls of the prisons for programs in thecommunity, which are effective incomplementing the rehabilitative efforts ofthe penal institutions.
Rehabilitation, the philosophy that has
gained root in modern penology, is in itself
a very useful concept. The prisons however,are choked with cases which could havebeen best dealt with outside it; either
thorough alternative non-custodial
sentences or by preventing the re-offendingof some of the convicts through treatment
programs while they were on release fromprison. Studies and experience have shownthat the prison setting is not always ideal
for preparing the offender to reintegrate
successfully into society. They can be worseoff on release.
It has also been felt that the ultimate
aim of correctional programs is the414(Kenya)(Japan)(Ghana)(Republic of Korea)(Japan)(Fiji)(Japan)(Japan)(Japan)(UNAFEI)(UNAFEI)

rehabilitation of the convict-prisoner insociety. By keeping the prisoner away, they
are further removed from society, thus
making readjustment very difficult.
Therefore, community-based treatment
programs have been commended as having
more hope for rehabilitation than theprisons.
Accordingly, some countries have
evolved packages of community-based
treatment programs. So much importancehas been placed on non-custodial measuresthat various international forums havebeen convened to design and recommend
measures for effective treatment programsin the community.
Rather than see issues as domestic, with
the need to implement local prescriptions,
the world community has, through various
forums, treated the search for effective
measures as a global concern. The effortsof the world community have resulted in
the formulation of the Standard Minimum
Rules for Non-custodial Measures (the108TH INTERNATIONAL SEMINARREPORTS OF THE COURSETokyo Rules ) drafted by UNAFEI andsubsequently adopted by the General
Assembly of the United Nations, for theguidance of all communities in thetreatment of offenders.
Since our scope of discussion is limited,
we intend to discuss community-based
programs for discharged prisoners. The
group’s plan is to conduct a comparative
study of the various types of programs in
actual use for preventing discharged
prisoners from re-offending, and for
promoting their reintegration into society.
We will also consider the categories ofdischarged prisoners who benefit from
specific programs and the roles played byformal and informal organization. An indepth study of the problems of
implementation follows. The group further
attempts to propose pragmaticcountermeasures that take the sociopolitical and economic situations of thevarious countries into consideration.
II. GENERAL ISSUES
A. Discharged Prisoners in Selected
Countries
The scope of the discussion is on earlyand full-time release of prisoners as far as
it relates to their supervision, aftercare andguidance. Whenever practicable, young
offenders serving prison terms will be
discussed in the course of the study. It will
become apparent that different
terminologies are used for systems andproblems that are essentially similar.
The discussion is based on the practiceof countries not only of group members;Fiji, Ghana, Japan, Kenya and Korea, butalso four countries with programs of which
information is available: Hong Kong,
Papua New Guinea, Philippines andThailand. These practices will be discussed
for identification of shortcomings andcountermeasures. The discussion on theearly release of prisoners focuses onfollowing systems:

(i)

(ii)

(iii)
(iv)

(v)

Parole in Japan, Korea, Papua
New Guinea, Philippines andThailand;Remission in Ghana (withlicense), Kenya (for long-term
prisoners) and Thailand;
Release Under Supervision in
Hong Kong;
Extra Mural Punishment (EMP)and Compulsory Supervision
Order (CSO) in Fuji;
Release on License in Kenya (foryoung offenders).

III. PROGRAMMES IN ACTION
A. Operation of Various Programs
for Different Categories ofDischarged Prisoners
1. Working Definition of Supervision,
Aftercare and GuidanceSupervision in the context of communitybased corrections involves the institutionof control measures to prevent theoffenders from re-offending. Aftercare
involves measures to help them to reformand reintegrate into society by meeting thematerial and immaterial needs ofdischarged prisoners. Guidance generally
involves counseling the discharged
prisoners and teaching them life skills inorder to overcome the many obstacles andfrustrations they would come across after
release.
2. Classification System
In Japan, the classification system has
been in operation since 1971. Probation
officers use Needs/Risk Assessment toclassify parolees. This system was
implemented to classify and treat
individual discharged prisoners according
to their limited resources of Professional
Probation Officers. Parolees are classified
into two groups: Groups A requires more
attention and intervention by probation
officers, and Group B does not present any

415

RESOURCE MATERIAL SERIES No. 54
acute or serious problems. Factors inclassification to be considered are:unemployment, no fixed residence, drug or
alcohol abuse, recidivism, poor attitude
toward supervision and association withorganized criminals. Cases are reviewed
occasionally for possible re-classification.
As of December 1997, 22.3% of adultparolees throughout Japan were classified
as Group A.
Meanwhile other countries do not haveclassification systems for parole and otherforms of early release.
3. Supervision, Aftercare and Guidance
for Early Released
Conditions
Supervision is largely based on
conditions. The objectives that aresupposed be achieved include theprevention of recidivism and facilitation ofrehabilitation and reintegration.
(a) Japan
Articles 34 of the Offenders
Rehabilitation Law of Japan stipulates theconditions for granting parole as:(i)
To live at a fixed residence andengage in an honest calling:(ii)
To be of good behavior;(iii) To keep away from persons who
are of criminal or delinquenttendencies; and(iv) To ask their supervisor for
permission in advance forchanging residence or going on along journey (exceeding a week).
In addition to general conditions, theparolee is also required to abide by special
conditions such as no gambling, overindulgence in alcohol and dealings withdrugs. Special conditions vary widely as
they are designed to meet the individual
needs of each parolee.
(b) Korea
The parolees of Korea are subject to416

supervision these conditions:(i)Refrain from committing crimes;(ii)
To live at a fixed residence;(iii) Report to probation office once amonth and sometimes more if
necessary; and(iv) To be of good behavior.
(c) Papua New Guinea
In Papua New Guinea, the parolee
immediately reports to the office of the
Parole Service. The other conditions are:reporting to a Parole Officer or Voluntary
Parole Officer as and when required by theoffice of the Parole Service; keeping thepeace and being of good behavior; following
any direction or instructions given by aParole Officer; and not changing the placeof residence unless s/he has given the
Parole Officer reasonable notice of theintention to do so, as well as the reasonsfor the proposed change.
The Parole Officer must give permission
for the change of residence and the parolee
must comply with any orders given by the
Parole Officer in relation to the change ofresidence. The Parole Officer must be
notified in reasonable time of the intentionof the parolee to change their employment,
the reasons for wanting to do so and thenature and place of his /her proposed
employment.
The parolee must give reasonable noticeto the Parole Officer of any contracts, debts
or financial undertakings they propose toincur or enter into which might have asignificant effect on their income or family
situation. They shall allow a Parole Officer
or Voluntary Parole Officer to enter theirhome, during reasonable hours, in
executing their duties. The parolee inPapua New Guinea may be further orderedby the Parole Board to follow special
conditions of the Parole Order. The Board
has discretion in imposing additional
conditions. The goals of the Board areensuring compliance of the order and thegood conduct and welfare of the parolee.

108TH INTERNATIONAL SEMINARREPORTS OF THE COURSE
These additional conditions may include:
residing in a named place for the period ofparolee, refraining from entering a named
town, actively looking for employment orfor a legal means of supporting the parolee
and their family, undertaking alcohol
counseling, family counseling, marriage
counseling and avoiding contact with a
named person. They may also be ordered
to refrain from using alcohol or illegal
drugs, or be required to participate in otherrehabilitative programs offered in thecommunity and view videos on law andorder.
The parolee is however, exempt frompaying compensation, doing community
work or paying a fine since these arealternative punishments at the sentencing
level.
(d) Thailand
Prisoners who benefit from early releasein Thailand, either through parole orremission, are given conditions on theirearly release. They are to refraincommitting crimes, from entering areas
determined by the competent authority andare required to report in person to acompetent authority as designated by the
Director-General of the Department ofCorrections.
They are to continue with the occupation
arranged and supervised by the competenta u t h o r i t y, t o r e s u m e t h e i r f o r m e roccupation or take the occupation arranged
and supervised by close friends or relations,and to practice their religion.
(e) Fiji
The conditions or release in Fiji are: (1)the prisoner released on Compulsory
Supervision Order shall at all times
produce the order when demanded by amagistrate or police officer, (2) they shallabstain from any violation of the law, (3)they shall not habitually associate withnotoriously bad characters such as reputed
thieves, law breakers, receivers of stolen

properties and the like, (4) they shall notlead an idle or dissolute life, (5) they shallreport personally to the person named as
responsible for their supervision withinseven days after release, (6) they shall notchange their place of residence without
prior notification of such change to theirsupervisor and (7) they shall, during thefirst week of every month, report in person
to the person named as being responsible
for their supervision.
(f) Ghana
There are only three conditions forrelease on licensee in Ghana. The licensee
on their immediate release has to reportto the police with their license. Thereafter
they report to the police periodically on
their movements and change of address.
For the unexpired period of the original
sentence, and while at liberty, the licensee
must not be convicted of any criminal
offense involving fraud or dishonesty.
(g) Hong Kong
The conditions of release under
supervision in Hong Kong are: (1) the
prisoner released shall comply with theconditions of their release specified in theorder, (2) s/he shall comply with thedirections of their supervising Probation
Officer on matters concerning work
placement and rehabilitation and (3) s/heshall immediately notify their supervising
Probation Officer of any change in address.
(h) Philippines
The conditions for release in thePhilippines are: (1) the released prisoner
shall be placed under the supervision of aParole and Probation Officer so that s/hemay be guided and assisted towards
rehabilitation, (2)s/he shall report in person
to the Parole and Probation Office as
specified in the Release Document forsupervision, (3) s/he shall comply will theterms and conditions appearing in the
Release Document and (4) s/he shall not

417

RESOURCE MATERIAL SERIES No. 54transfer from the place of residence
designated in the Release Document
without prior written approval of theBoard.
Duration and Routine Process ofSupervision(a) Japan
In the case of a person serving lifeimprisonment in Japan, the parole period
is for the rest of their life unless s/he isparadoned in the course of the parole
period. In all other cases, the average
duration of supervision is five months.
There was no data on duration ofsupervision for most counties.
In Japan, the Probation Officer takes
into consideration all information
presented at the various interviews,
together with the data in the case records,
to assess the individual’s needs andproblems which require special attention,and to eventually work out a treatment
plan. The Professional Probation Officer
and Volunteer Probation Officer, who is
working under the supervision of theProfessional Probation Officer, work intandem according to the treatment plan.
The methods of supervision are: (1)Volunteer Probation Officer is to observe
the behavior of the parolee by maintaining
close contact with parolee. The parolee
visits the Probation Officer or the Volunteer
Probation Officer twice a month. In turnthe Probation Officer or the Volunteer
Probation Officer visits the parolee once amonth; (2) the Professional Probation
Officer and the Volunteer Probation Officer
give the parolee such instructions as are
deemed necessary and pertinent to makethem observe all the conditions given and(3) the Professional Probation Officer andthe Volunteer Probation Officer take othermeasures necessary to make the parolee a
law abiding member of society.
The Volunteer Probation Officer submitsa regular monthly progress report to the418

Probation Office. In the addition they senda report whenever an unusual incident
occurs, in relation to the parolee. Whenconsidered necessary, judging from thereport of the Volunteer Probation Officer
or information of the police or parolee’sfamily, the Probation Officer visits theparolee, sends a letter to the appear at theProbation Officer or other local offices. The
Chief of Probation Office has power tosummon and interrogate, even though s/
he has no power of arrest. The Chief ofProbation Office can have the parolee, who
is in breach of the conditions of their parole,arrested under a warrant (in advance) by
a judge.
(b) Papua New Guinea
In Papua New Guinea, supervision ofparolee is conducted by a Parole Officer
from the Attorney General’s Department.
If a parolee is going to stay far away fromthe probation centers, s/he is required toreport to a volunteer parole office in theircommunity. The Volunteer Parole Officer
will then work closely with the Parole
Officer. Supervision requires always
ascertaining that the parolee is of good
conduct and observes the conditions ofparole.
(c) Thailand
Supervision in Thailand is conducted by
the Probation Officers who belong to the
Department of Corrections of the Ministryof Interior and Volunteer Probation
Officers. They supervise the living
conditions of the early release. They pay
attention to the releasee’s relationship with
their family, neighbors and attitude
towards work. The supervisors give
guidance to the family and neighbors, aswell as the release.
(d) Hong Kong
Supervision of the early released is doneby Probation Officers of the Hong Kong
Correctional Department’s, Secretariat for108TH INTERNATIONAL SEMINARREPORTS OF THE COURSE
Security. The objectives of supervision are
to assist the early releasees to berehabilitated and reintegrated into society,as well as to protect the public from theperils of re-offending.
(e) Philippines
The Philippines operates a system where
the Probation Officer of the Department ofJustice supervise the parolees. They are
assisted by Volunteer Probation and Parole
Aides whose task is to assist in supervisingparolees, pardonees and probationers.
They are specifically tasked to supervise
their charges by devoting not less than 4hours a week. They have a maximum of 5clients and must prepare and submit to theChief of Probation and Parole Officemonthly reports on their clients.
They must keep all information about
the job in strict confidence and in close
consultation and cooperation with Chief,
perform incidental duties periodically. The
Probation and Parole Office where theparolee reports to, will issued with a copyof the release documents of the parolee. The
office must then ensure that the paroleereports within 15 working days. They mustalso ensure that the parolee complies withthe terms and conditions of the release andmake immediate report to the Board of any
breath of the conditions.
(f) Fiji
In Fiji, the early released prisoner under
EMP will undertake public work for 6hours each day, or not less than 30 hours
per week, at any identifiable government
department or provincial office near theirresidence until their term expires. They
will be under the supervision of agovernment official appointed by thegovernment department or provincial officeduring their extra mural labor.
The prisoner released on CSO is underno supervision but s/he must report to thepolice station nearest their place ofresidence during the first week of every

month, until their term expires. A life term
prisoner will be released on pardon and s/
he will be under CSO for the average
duration of 12 months. In other cases of
CSO release, the average duration ofsupervision is the unexpired portion of thesentence to the date of discharge.
(g) Ghana
A person released on license in Ghana
is supervised by the police until the termof imprisonment expires. The prisoner
reports immediately after s/he leaves theprison, with a copy of the license. The police
are sent a separate copy by the prison
authorities. The licensee must
subsequently report on their movements
to the police on fixed days. This works as acontrolling and check mechanism against
reoffending. The licensee is aware that thecommunity is monitoring him/her. The
community, knowing the offenders in aparticular crime, is reassured. Of course
there is a lot of goodwill between the policeand communities in Ghana.
(h) Korea
The parolee in Korea is supervised byprobation officers. The duration ofsupervision is the remaining days of theoriginal sentence. This system ofsupervision was introduced in 1989. The
parolees engage in community services likesnow-clearance, rubbish collection at
historical sites and palaces. They perform
library services like bookbinding and also
engage in ecological activities.
Suspension and Revocation(a) Japan
The Regional Parole Board in Japan may
suspend probationary supervision whichmeans supervision can no longer be carriedout because the Probation Office does notknow the whereabouts of the parolee. The
penal term shall cease to run and shall be
restored on withdrawal of the ruling of419

RESOURCE MATERIAL SERIES No. 54
suspension of probationary supervision.
Revocation takes place when the Regional
Parole Board which has jurisdiction overthe parolee, upon the request of the Chiefof Probation Office, decides that the breachof conditions of the parole is serious enoughto warrant revocation. The parolee is thenrecommitted to prison.
(b) Papua New Guinea
When a parolee is in breach of theconditions of parole in Papua New Guinea,
by either committing another offence orfailing to adhere to the parole conditions,s/he is taken to court and the parole iscancelled. Subsequently s/he is made toserve the unexpired period of the original
sentence, and any new sentence that may
be imposed for the subsequent offence. The
consequence for breach of the conditions forearly release is re-arrest without warrant
and re-imprisonment for the remaining
period of the original sentence. S/he will
face additional disciplinary charges.
(c) Hong Kong
In Hong Kong a beach of supervisionconditions or a relapse with drug use(under the drug treatment programs)
would result in the parolees recall forfurther treatment for twelve months fromthe date of first admission, or four months
from the date of recall. A general breach of
the conditions for early release under
supervision, or pre-release employment,
may result in suspension of the order andrecommittal into prison for the unexpired
term of the original sentence.
(d) Fiji
In Fiji, a prisoner released on EMP, uponbreach of a condition of release, would be
returned to the prison to serve theremaining portion of the sentence; in
addition to any other punishment theCommissioner of Prisons would impose forbreaching the condition of release. In thecase of CSO, the releasee who breaches a420

condition of release, would be apprehended
after their CSO is revoked by the Ministerof Home affairs and Justice, and amagistrate issues an order ofapprehension. They would then serve theunexpired portion of the sentence from thedate of release on CSO, plus a sentence of
three months imposed by a magistrate forbreach of condition.
(e) Ghana
A person released on licensed on licensein Ghana who breaches the conditions by
being convicted of any criminal offence
i n v o l v i n g f r a u d o r d i s h o n e s t y,
automatically forfeits their license and has
to serve the unexpired period of the original
sentence, in addition to any fresh sentence
for the new case.
For failure to notify police of their
movements, change of address or failure
to report as a convict on license, the licensee
receives a twelve-months term of
imprisonment or serves the unexpired termof the original sentence.
(f) Korea and Thailand
Also in Korea and Thailand, if parolees
fail to comply with any condition, they haveto be re-imprisoned for the remaining
period of their terms of sentence.
The statistics on revocation rates areavailable in Appendix one.
Aftercare and Guidance(a) Japan
In Japan aftercare and guidance,
referred to as the method of rehabilitationaid, is effected by helping the parolee toobtain the means of education, training,accommodation and vocational guidance.
The discharged prisoner is helped to reform
and adjust to their environment and is
aided to return to a destination suitable
for rehabilitation.
Parolees are specifically assigned to108TH INTERNATIONAL SEMINARREPORTS OF THE COURSE
Volunteer Probation Officers who counsel
them in various areas of life, for instance,
their human relationship with friends,
family members and neighbors. The
Volunteer Probation Officers use theirabilities and knowledge to impart social
and living skills to the parolees. They are
actively involved with the parolees andeven assist them in finding jobs. Sometimes
the Chief of Probation Office requests
halfway houses accommodate parolees who
have need or are designated by theProbation Office.
(b) Thailand
The service providers in Thailand are
not clearly identified. Some organizations
liaise with the Department of Public
Welfare and Labor to help releasees. They
are not restricted to prisoners, but help exprisoners who call for assistance.
(c) Hong Kong
Hong Kong’s aftercare system isdelivered by experienced aftercare works
who use a dynamic, therapeutic and outreach methods to monitor the programs orwork of the releasees. During the period,
regular contact is maintained between the
supervisor and client. The aftercare agents
provide timely and appropriate guidance
and assistance. The agents are anxiousthat their success rate, which is measured
by the percentage of releasees whocomplete supervision, is always high.
(d) Philippines
The Volunteer Probation and Parole
Aides of the Philippines provide guidance,
counseling and placement assistance for
their clients. Since 1996, the Philippine’s
halfway house has been offering aftercare
monitoring of its ex-residents incooperation with the Department of Social
Welfare and Development, the Departmentof Justice and the Department of Local
Government.

(e) Fiji and Ghana
Although Fiji and Ghana have no formal
aftercare systems, there are several
attempts currently being made by the
Presbyterian Church of Ghana and a few
religious groups and district councils in Fijito provide halfway house for releasees. In
addition, in Ghana the society is so cohesivethat a released prisoner who goes home,repentent, would be taken in quickly andhelped to be financially independent. S/heis offered help in putting up a house or
preparing a farm. The chiefs, elders,pastors, schoolmasters and the public are
all agents for guidance and counseling.
When a young person misbehaves,s/he is asked if there are any elders in theircommunity to advise them. Guidance andcounseling are expected to come from theelders of the community and the wellplaced in society.
(f) Korea
Parolees in Korea receive help from theProbation Officers in terms of lodging,
vocational training and job referrals. The
Korea Rehabilitation Protection
Foundation provides accommodation, foodand commutation allowance to the parolee.
(g) Papua New Guinea
Papua New Guinea has no aftercare
system.
4. Supervision, Aftercare and Guidance
for Full-time Released(a) Japan
Japan has no supervision system for
prisoners who serve full time. It has
aftercare for this category for a maximum
period of six months from the date ofrelease. The Chief of the Probation Officein Japan interviews and investigates the
background of released offenders whorequest aftercare services. Decisions are
based on the urgency of the situation andthe willingness of the released person to421

RESOURCE MATERIAL SERIES No. 54
rehabilitate themself. Aftercare services
are temporary and cover meals, clothing,travel fares, lodging and referral to public
employment of welfare services. Issues ofaccommodation are referred to halfway
houses which can provide lodging, board
and living guidance.
(b) Thailand
Thailand does not have programs forfull-times released, except the invitation tosettle in penal colony for those selected.
This system allows discharged prisoners totreat parcelled-out land as their private
property. While they are still serving timeon the penal colony, they can invite theirfamilies to live with them. This
arrangement continues after release, but
due to the problem of land sharing, thissystem has been stopped.
(c) Fiji, Ghana & Papua New Guinea
Fiji, Ghana and Papua New Guinea haveno programs of supervision or aftercare forthe full-time released.
(d) Kenya
In Kenya, in the case of a high-risk
offender, an order is sometimes made forsupervision after completion of thesentence. The Court decides the period ofsupervision. When on supervision, thereleasee is required to report to the police
station or post nearest to their home atleast once a month. The releasee’s
movement and actions are monitored
closely during this time by the police.
5. Young Offenders(a) Japan
In Japan, Article 58 of the Juvenile Law
provides that parole may be grated to ayoung offender sentenced to imprisonment(with or without labor) when s/he was ajuvenile, after the lapse of the following
periods: seven years in the case of a penalty
for life; three years in the case of a penalty

422

for a determinate term and one-third of theminimum period in the case ofindeterminate sentence.
Also the young offender must show
genuine reformation, which is judged by
the Regional Parole Boards, taking into
account the following factors: the degreeof repentance; eagerness to rehabilitate;
the likelihood of recidivism and thesociety’s willingness to accept parole.
The following general conditions, as
provided by law, are automatically imposed
upon a parolee from juvenile prisons: to liveat a fixed residence and engage in a lawful
occupation; to be of good behavior; to keepaway from persons who are of criminal ordelinquent tendencies and to ask theirsupervisor for permission, in advance, forchanging residence or going on a long
journey.
In addition to these general conditions,the parolee is also required to abide byspecial conditions which the Regional
Parole Board sets forth as a guide towards
a law-abiding life. Guides to rehabilitation
contain prohibitions, obligations andencouragement. Special conditions vary
widely as they are designed to meet theindividual needs of each parolee.
The parole board may terminate only
indeterminate sentence. Clause 1 of Article
48 of the Offenders Rehabilitation Law
provides that in case the minimum periodof the penalty which has been imposed
upon a person under the provisions of theJuvenile Law has passed while s/he is onparole from the prison, the execution of thesentence may be regarded as having been
completed by a ruling rendered by the
Regional Parole Board, at the request of
the Director of the Probation Office, if it
deems it proper in view of the merits s/he
has achieved while under probationary
supervision.
The Regional Parole Board revokes
parole upon the application of the Directorof Probation Office. The parolee may be
confined in the prison for the original

108TH INTERNATIONAL SEMINARREPORTS OF THE COURSE
parole period, but s/he may be granted
parole on the revoked sentence in the
future.
(b) Kenya
Kenya has a well-designed treatment
program for young offenders who go on
release on license, either early or after
serving a full-time sentence of maximum
three years at the Borstal Institution(under prisons). In Kenya the After-Care
Committee decides on early release issues.
Probation Officers have been called upon
to provide the above services, through an
administrative arrangement, until the“Parole Bill” is enacted by Parliament.
Supervision and aftercare services areprovided by the Home District Probation
Officer. The immediate aim of the programis to resettle them back home so they reportto the Probation Officer immediately on
release. Assistance usually ranges fromtools (for various trades undertaken in theinstitution), counseling and ensuring thatthey go back to school if they are off formal
school-going age. They are also assisted to
get trade training in the local training
institutions like polytechnics. The
Probation Department has also establishedan aftercare resettlement fund thatassistant the released inmates with tools
and payment for their training, depending
upon the availability of funds. The
probation officer actually helps the exinmate and their families in order tofacilitate proper reintegration.
Kenya’s conditions of supervision andaftercare for young offenders include: beingof good behavior; being truthful; reportingto the Probation Officer at least once amonth or as required, refraining fromkeeping bad company, especially bad peers;
informing the Probation Officer of their
movement; remaining in regular
employment, school or training program;
avoiding intoxicating liquor or drugs; andobserving any other condition laid down by
Probation Officer.

On failure to observe any of theconditions, the Probation Officer would
first issue a warning. That failing, thereleasee would be recalled by theCorrections Commissioner to the Borstal
Institute where s/he would be detained fora period not exceeding three months. After
this s/he would remain on suspension forthe period s/he was originally committed
to serve.
6. Specialized Programs for Solving
Specific Rehabilitative Needs(a) Hong Kong
Drug addiction treatment centers areused in Hong Kong to commit a minor
offender who is found to be a drug user. S/
he is committed for a period of not morethan twelve months, with discharge
depending on progress. The program aims
at detoxifying and restoring the health ofthe offender, by attacking the basis of theirdrug use and re-integrating them into
society. Treatment involves counseling,
work and vocational training.
On release, such an offender is placed
under a year’s mandatory aftercare andsupervision, aimed at assisting social
reintegration. The correctional staff visit
the offender’s and work place to check on
possible drug use. The Hong Kong
Correctional Services Department requires
the released prisoner to submit to urine
tests and notify their supervisor on changeof residence. On violation of the conditions,the Commissioner of Corrections, if
satisfied, would issue a recall order. The
prisoner would be recalled and required toserve the remaining sentence or serve fourmonths imprisonment, whichever is longer.
(b) Japan
Referred to as categorized treatment inJapan, the Regional Parole Board classifies
parolees with special situations into six
groups; thinner sniffing, stimulant drug
abusers, gang members, sex offenders,

423

RESOURCE MATERIAL SERIES No. 54
mentally disturbed and long termers.
Probation officers re-classify them during
the supervision process.
(c) Thailand
Chemical substance abuse programs
exist in Thailand’s prison, but they havenot been extended to the community tobenefit discharged prisoners specifically.
Non-governmental organizations run
similar programs for the general public,
although not discharged prisoners inparticular.
(d) Other Countries
There are no drug or substance abuse
treatment programs in the other countries.
In the countries which have some form oftreatment, the information gathered was
not enough to warrant fuller discussion.
7. Halfway Houses
Halfway houses can be defined ascommunity-based centers where offenders
can obtain basic necessities like food,clothing and shelter. They generally caterfor probationers, parolees and discharged
prisoners.
(a) Japan
In Japan, all halfway houses are run bya private association(Juridical Person for
Offenders Rehabilitation Services).
Halfway houses accommodate nearly aquarter of parolees lacking a suitable place
to live.
Japan has 99 halfway houses which are
under the authority of the Ministry ofJustice. The capacity of each facility ranges
from 10 to 110. Currently their total
capacity is 2,267. During 1996, the numberof adult parolees who received assistancefrom halfway houses was 4,595. The
number of full-time discharged prisoners
who received assistance was 3139.
Residents comprised 61.4 percent ofauthorized capacity of all halfway houses,

424

countrywide. Average term of stay inhalfway house is about 3-4 months.
Resident’s of halfway houses are spoken to
and treated by staff in a homelike
atmosphere. When the staff notice anyslight change in the mood of the residents,
the staff take it upon themselves to resolve
the problem. Halfway houses offer
vocational guidance to discharged
prisoners and help them to find suitable
employment. Most residents work outside
the halfway house on a daily basis.
Employment offers them financial
independence and builds in them goodwork ethics. Guidance on life skills is alsooffered at the halfway house.
The Japanese system has a nationwide
special type of supervision and aftercare
for discharged prisoners whose sentences
are eight years and above, including life
sentenced prisoners. They areaccommodated for the first month after
release on parole and receive intensive
group counseling, as assistance andguidance to help them cope with social life.
The halfway house in Japan has
historically been operated by private
people.
(b) Korea
In Korea, if the discharged prisoners
have no family or house, the Korea
Rehabilitation Protection Foundation
provides accommodation, money, food aswell as training and job referrals for thedischarged prisoners. There are 72 halfway
houses in Korea. In 1995, the total numberof discharged prisoners who received somekind of services mentioned above was
18,537 (capacity for the accommodation
was not available).
(c) Thailand
In Thailand, there is only one halfway
house run by the Rehabilitation Bureau.
Referred to as “Baan Sawaddee” whichmeans Greeting House in English, theHalfway house is available to all releasees.

108TH INTERNATIONAL SEMINARREPORTS OF THE COURSE
The assistance includes the offering ofaccommodation, meals, job placement andcounseling services. This system has juststarted, so no assessment has yet been
made of it.
(d) Philippines
1996 saw the operation of a real halfway
house for adults in the Philippines. The
Philippines-Japan Halfway House aims at
providing residential facilities for released
and pre-released prisoners. The occupantsreceive home life and group living
experience. They acquire vocational andeconomic skills and are subsequently
placed in jobs.A multi-disciplinary
approach by social workers, psychologists,
educators and people in allied occupations,create the opportunity for emotional,
mental, physical and spiritual growth,
They would require these ingredients intheir eventual reintegration into the family
and community.
(e) Hong Kong
In Hong Kong, accommodated in the
halfway house as a condition of their
Supervision Orders are those: released
from prisons under the Pre-release
Employment Scheme; young offenders
identified as having special needs ondischarge from training centers or
detention centers; and those in need of
temporary accommodation support
immediately after release from drug
addiction treatment centers. They are
required to go out to work or attend fulltime school during the day and return inthe evening.
B. THE ROLE OF FORMAL AND
INFORMAL ORGANIZATIONS
1. Public Institutions
While public institutions play a majorrole in community-based supervision andaftercare for discharged prisoners, different
departments may be tasked with jobs

aimed at either controlling andincapacitating the offender, or providing fortheir needs after serving the term of
imprisonment.
In Japan, the Rehabilitation Bureau of
the Ministry of Justice has been performing
such role and the Probation Service is partof the Bureau. Supervision is provided by
Probation Officers and Volunteer Probation
Officers working for the Probation Service.
Probation Officers offer aftercare andguidance as well. The government gives not
only financial support to the halfway house
but also supervision, so that it can provide
appropriate services.
In the Philippines, the Department ofSocial Welfare and Development plays avery important role in the area ofcommunity-based treatment of offenders.
The Department was instrumental increating the halfway house for adults.
In Ghana, the police have the mandate
to supervise the discharged prisoners. In
Fiji, public authorities supervise prisoners
on EMP while the police supervise
prisoners released on CSO. The particularinstitutions liaise with the prison
authorities in this respect. In the samemanner, breaches of the conditions arereported back to the prison authorities. In
Korea, the Ministry of Justice controls thecorrectional service as well as the agency
which governs parole and probation.
2. Private Institutions
The Cooperative Employers of Japan
play an important role by employing
released offenders in the construction,
manufacturing, service, wholesale andretail sectors. This is a very important stepin assuring reintegration, for with
employment comes confidence and selfdignity. Thereby the discharged prisoner
is able to meet their material needs, pay
bills and live up to responsibilities. They
can also have the means to makereparation to their victims.
In Papua New Guinea, it is the church

425

RESOURCE MATERIAL SERIES No. 54that plays a role in this regard byaccommodating selected discharged
prisoners whom they had been in contact
within the prison. The church provides
basic necessities like food and clothing. The
discharged prisoners are given counselingand guidance, and after grounding in
doctrine, they participate in anti-crime
campaigns and sometimes take up the
mantle of leadership in the churches.
3. The Community and Families ofVictims and Discharged Prisoners
Before parole is granted, the probation
officer conduct investigations into thefamilies of the victims, the families of theprisoners and in the community. They canprovide probation officers with relevant
information for the rehabilitation plan.
Victim’s acceptance of a releasee backinto the community leads to theunderstanding and reintegration of thereleasees. Compensation is a method used
to facilitate victim’s understanding andacceptance of releasees. If releasees
recognize that the victim has suffered both
physical and mental damage, they willrecognize the seriousness of their crime.
The family of the offender, in developing
countries like Kenya and Ghana, normallywelcome the offender back, offer them theirold accommodation in the family house or
help to build a new one. Members of thefamily help to prepare a farm or start abusiness venture and generally to begin a
new life. So long as the discharged prisoner
goes back to their roots, there is enoughgoodwill for them to build on inrehabilitation. The chiefs and elders offer
guidance and counseling together with thehead teacher, the post-master and the local
priest. With such tremendous support, thedischarged prisoner has a great chance of
reintegrating into society.
In addition, interchange between thefamilies of the victims and the offender who
is now discharged, can only happen insmall communities where they are

426

expected to live together; in the urban
sector the situation is different. It is often
seen in small and traditional communities
that the community leaders bring the twoparties together, and peace is made after
the offender and his or her family.
At the same time as s/he lives among thecommunity, the released offender ismonitored as they are known by everyone.
S/he is thus inhibited and this serves as acheck on the tendency to re-offend. At thecommunity level, the policeman is regarded
as kin and the community cooperates withthe police in checking the movements of thedischarged prisoner. Supervision, thus, isknown as quite effective.
4. Volunteer Probation Officers and Other
Volunteers
Japan utilizes the services of volunteers
in an extensive manner. With 50,000
Volunteer Probation Officers, supporting
700 Probation Officers, who are directly
working with parolees in the field, it isobvious that volunteers perform the bulkof the work in controlling and monitoring
the discharged prisoners, as well as in
assisting the family through counselingand guidance.
Voluntary Probation Officers in Japanpromote crime prevention programs, aswell as educate individuals and the generalpublic on rehabilitative measures and theneeds of the discharged prisoners. They
also promote cooperative efforts toeradicate environmental conditions whichlead to crime.
Another feature of the voluntary spiritof the Japanese is the existence andactivities of the Women’s Association for
Rehabilitation Aid. With a membership of
194,000 nationwide, the Association isconcerned about matters of crime,delinquency, and the problems and welfare
of offenders and their families. They
provide financial, material and moral
support to Volunteer Probation Officers,
halfway houses and also help the public to108TH INTERNATIONAL SEMINARREPORTS OF THE COURSE
understand the rehabilitative ideas andefforts through discussions at meetings.
Their activities are supported by Probation
Officers in the neighborhood.
With the introduction of the parole
system in 1991, Papua New Guinea has
been using Volunteer Probation Officers toassist the regular Probation Officers insupervising the parolees. Until then,Volunteer Probation Officers were assistingin looking after probationers. They receive
training in counseling and interviewing
skills and are very effective in their roles.
Coming from the same community as theparolee, the Volunteer Probation Officer
has good rapport with their client. By 1986,
there were 300 active Volunteer Probation
Officers. Through their activities, they help
in getting the community to support theparolee in ways which facilitate
rehabilitation.
Thailand’s Volunteer Probation Officers
who number 14,000 work with Probation
Officers of the Department of Correctionsof the Ministry of Interior. They are drawn
from among local people who have stablejobs and fixed addresses and no criminal
record.1 The parolees who are supervisedby the Volunteer Probation Officers are
subject to observation of the conditions
attached to their release. Although, mostof the countries studied have no Volunteer
Probation Officers who substitute forregular Probation Officers, it should be
noted that volunteers in many countries
implement informal supplementary
programs.

1

They are distinguished from the Volunteer
Probation Officers who work for the Departmentof Probation. While the former supervise parolees,
the latter takes care of probationers.

IV. PROBLEMS OF
IMPLEMENTATION AND
SOLUTIONSIn the implementation of communitybased programs for the treatment ofoffenders we considered whether the needsof discharged persons and the needs of thecommunity have been met by the
programs. We further considered if the
problems are the result of flaws in thedesign of the programs or that the
programs are not suitable for the needs
they seek to address.
A. Inadequacy of Personnel
The issue of inadequate staff to carry out
community-based programs wasrecognized as common to all the countries
studied. Japan for instance, was cited ashaving only 700 Probation Officers directly
working with parolees throughout thenation. Supported by 50,000 Volunteer
Probation Officers, the number is still notenough to offer top level service for,parolees especially, those with high risk/needs such as drug offenders, mentallydisordered offenders, sex offenders andviolent offenders who require special
treatment programs.
This problem extends to all otheragencies involved in community correctionsin the nine countries represented, andconceivably all over the world. Many
probation officers are young andinexperienced. Combined with otherproblems such as lack of good supervisorysystems, shortage of staff and poor training
opportunities, the quality, of fieldwork andcasework suffer. Specialization is missing,
especially in relevant fields like psychology
and sociology. Administration of probation
services, generally suffers from lack ofmanagerial and supervisory skills on thepart of some administrators. At the root of
the problems of treatment staff is the lackof adequate compensation, incentive andgood conditions of service.

427

RESOURCE MATERIAL SERIES No. 54
B. Lack of Aftercare Programs
Many countries are obsessed withsecurity at the cost of developing treatment
programs for the reintegration of theoffender. The countries studied gave theimpression that the needs and concerns of
the discharged prisoner are less important.
For instance, a common phenomenon
throughout the countries we studied
reveals the crippling disadvantage thedischarged prisoner faces in the job market.
A bedrock of rehabilitation, employment
enables the discharged prisoner to meettheir responsibilities, yet, the lack of skills
and the stigma of imprisonment play
negative roles in ready absorption into thejob market; as most prisoners are in thefirst place unskilled and do not receive
adequate training in the prisons.
Programs like vocational training andjob placement are limited. It is very difficult
to fully implement and develop resources
for programs of such kind. Thisphenomenon is attributable mainly to thevalues of the society. Kenya, for instance,
has focused on protecting society from theactivities of the criminal. Aftercare services
are hampered by lack of funding for
programs. Many useful programs have had
to be shelved because of this problem.
It is perceived by the group thatdevelopment of aftercare programs in thecommunity may require the modificationof administrative organizations. For
instance, further involvement of social
welfare agencies or the rehabilitation of
released offenders is necessary. With
probation officers as service providers, they
are not always oriented towards
rehabilitation and aftercare, instead focus
is towards control and monitoring.
C. Inadequacy of Supervision
Supervision tends to create loopholes forthe released offender bent on committing
another offense. The releasee is only
controlled and monitored for a short partof the day and in cases like Fiji, Ghana and428

Kenya, reports on average once a month.
Releasees are virtually on their own.
Particularly, more effective and intensive
ways to supervise offenders posing highrisk to the society should be explored
including adequate conditions.
It is very easy for parolees and others
under supervision to run away. So many
parts or these countries are virtuallyinaccessible and record-keeping is very
poor. It is difficult to track them. In theabsence of citizen registration or
identification systems, chances of rearresting an escapee are bleak.
Some participants expressed the viewthat increasingly complex cases saddle
supervisors with heavy workloads. Thoughstatistics are not readily available, it isobvious that they find it impossible to pay
the necessary attention to detail. With
logistical support not forthcoming,
especially vehicles and monitoring devices,
the supervisors are crippled in their work.
D. Lack of Programs for Specific
Rehabilitative Needs
Countries do not seem to pay muchattention to programs which address the
specific rehabilitative needs of theoffenders, outside the prison. Though there
are many categories of offenders who
require specific treatment, like psychiatriccases, sexual offenders, violent offenders
and alcoholics, we could only identify drug
and substance abuse programs in thecommunities of three countries; Hong
Kong, Japan and Thailand.
The programs do not address the specificrehabilitative needs of the offender who isin the community for treatment which
would complement their progress toeventual social reintegration. Although
there appears to be no need for suchprograms, it is our view that the lack oftreatment for specific types of offenders is
attributable to some forms of ignorance.
Several factors, such as limited awarenessof the seriousness of the harm done by

108TH INTERNATIONAL SEMINARREPORTS OF THE COURSE
those offenders due to non-availability of
data, and limited faith in criminal justiceadministration, can contribute to theignorance about special treatment
measures.
Even though the necessity for thesetreatment measures is acknowledged bypractitioners and policy-makers,
considerations such as the following, deter
them from implementing these treatment
measures:(i)
Absence of established andeffective treatment programs.
(ii) Prohibitive cost of programs.
(iii) Lack of community support for the
implementation of such programs.
E. Absence of Inter-Departmental
Cooperation and Support
Various organizations are involved in therunning of community-based correctional
programs. Since they have similar
objectives, they are expected to cooperatewith each other. While state and private
institutions are likely to cooperate witheach other, for instance, the prisons andthe churches, the same cannot be said
about governmental bodies, particularly
probation and prison officials.
The exchange of information between
the two is not smooth; yet the two bodies
could complement the work of each other;
the prison officer letting the probation
official know about the nature andpeculiarities of the offender before release,and the probation officer letting the prison
authorities know in advance thepeculiarities of the convicted person as they
are being brought in to serve theirsentence. The interchange of information
would help both bodies plan theirtreatment measures in respect to theoffender. Many countries reported thisproblem of lack of inter-departmental
cooperation and mutual support.
It was observed that the prisons are
reluctant to offer information about theattitudes, health situation and otherdetails the probation officers need, to workout case plans. Several reasons for thissituation were pointed out. In somecountries, restrictions are legally placed on
the giving of information and prison
officials have to be careful.
Though it is desirable that programs
instituted in the prisons for the
rehabilitation of prisoners should be
carried through to the community, there isa lack of cooperation between thecorrectional and probation agencies on the
program design. Many countries pointed
out the lack of coordination amongsupervisory agencies, social welfare andsocial development services engaged insimilar rehabilitation efforts.
F. Unfulfilled Expectations
1. Victims and Families
Victims and their families cannot accept
discharged prisoners easily. Inadequate
compensation is a major source of thevictims and their families’ inability totolerate the releasee. Generally speaking,discharged prisoners lack funds and the
support systems for them are insufficient.
Although some countries such as Hong
Kong, Japan and the Philippines havesome official compensation systems for thevictim and the family, other countries likeFiji, Ghana and Kenya do not have clearlystructured compensatory systems forvictims of criminal activities.
The victim needs to see the offender pay
for the crime, and observing them comeback in the community without having paid
for their criminality dose not satisfy thepsychological craving of the victim. The
urge is for the victim and their family tovisit retribution on the offender. The victim
and their family are appeased when they
see the offender making restitution
through their earnings in the prison, or
during the period s/he is on the community
correctional program. Post-releaseprograms in the community however, do

429

RESOURCE MATERIAL SERIES No. 54
not address the psychological needs of thevictim. The victim is also not protected fromre-victimization by the offender. The
programs fail to impose conditions which
would restrict the offender from coming
into contact with the victim.
2. Community
The community’s first need is to beprotected from re-offending by the released
prisoner. The recidivism rates all over showthat this need is not satisfied by thetreatment of the discharged prisoner in thecommunity. The need to appreciate change
and reformation in the discharged prisoner
is of great importance to the community. If
the community-based programs do notaddress this need and released offenders
are held in trepidation and fear by thecommunity, it would be impossible fordischarged prisoners to reintegrate into thecommunity.
Society also expects the discharged
prisoner to find employment and contribute
their quota to the efforts to improve thecommunity. Without the requisite skills to
obtain jobs, the discharged prisoner
becomes a burden on the community. Thisis the case all over. Stigmatization is adifficult tag to cope with. Many discharged
prisoners cannot cope and prefer hanging
at the fringes of society, afraid to come inand be rehabilitated.
To carry out successful community-based
schemes, the community is expected tosupport materially and non-materially, but
all the countries represented complained
about the absence of such community help.
G. Lack of Social Assistance for
Discharged Prisoners
1. Volunteer
Volunteerism in Japan is traditionallyhigh. Apart from the Volunteer Probation
Officers, the Juridical Person for Offenders
Rehabilitation Services and Women’s
Association for Rehabilitation Aid have430

been supporting the operation of thehalfway house system. Declining fortunes
have created financial problems for theseassociations and their support has suffered
as a result. Membership of the WARA has
declined as younger people are notinterested in rehabilitation goals.
Mobilizing public interest is not easy andrequires resources which are not available.
There is a lot of potential in the informal
sector and such resources must be tappedfor community support of the programs.
2. Private Institutions
The problem of lack of skills of thedischarged prisoner is endemic. Most
prisoners have no skills before
incarceration. They acquire no skills in theprisons nor in the rehabilitation programsin the community. Coupled with the stigma
of imprisonment, they are heavily
disadvantaged.
Business establishments in thecommunity are unwilling to offer jobs toreleased offenders because they lack therequisite skills and face antagonism of the
public towards discharged prisoners. The
economic slump has worsened the situationin many countries. Private institutions
which give job opportunities to discharged
prisoners are scarce in many countries.
V. RECOMMENDATIONS
Our recommendations are divided into
two parts. The first part consists ofprogram design for general and specialized
packages for rehabilitation of the early
released offender. The halfway house is also
considered in this part. Some of theprescriptions are suitable as programs forfull-time releasees. The second part
touches on prescriptions for
implementation of programs, stressing
personnel, inter-departmental cooperationand community involvement.

108TH INTERNATIONAL SEMINARREPORTS OF THE COURSE
A. Program Design
1. General Program• It is desirable that programs aredesigned in such a way as to have thefunctions of supervision, aftercare
and guidance.
• As much as possible, programs are to
be based on research. It is necessarythat they have clear objectives ofoffender rehabilitation andreintegration.
• In designing programs, factors sucha s c o n s i s t e n c y, a d a p t a b i l i t y,f e a s i b i l i t y, s u i t a b i l i t y a n daffordability ought to be given prime
attention.
• Management information systems
may have to be improved to keep andmaintain up to date records ofreleasees. As far as practicable,
computers should be utilized.
• Citizen identification systems could
be improved by taking advantage of
tried and tested methods like social
security numbers and national
identification cards, so that the
chance of re-offending can be reduced.
• It is important that program
designers recognize that employment
is the key to rehabilitation for the
released offender. With the prisons
having failed to equip the prisoners
with employable skills, it isincumbent up on the communitybased programs to focus on skills
training to increase the chance of thereleased prisoner in getting a job.
• At various stages of implementation,
programs ought to be evaluated andadapted to suit the objective
conditions.
2. Specialized Program• Policy makers would have to explore
the special needs of the community
which require solution-including
types of offences/offenders,prevalence of these offences andseriousness of harm done by themthrough the collection of data.
• Practitioners have to contribute to
identification of the problems by
expressing their views andexperiences to policy makers, as they
are in the front line and know therealities of these problems.
• Programs should be planned toaddress the criminogenic needs ofparticular offenders. The subjects,
approaches, duration and providersof services should be elaborated on in
the programs.
11.Priority would have to be placed onprograms for the high risk/need
offenders in order to reduce thechances of reoffending and effectively
utilize limited resources.
12.Government organizations involvedin forensic science, health and social
welfare services, particularly thosespecializing in the treatment ofoffenders with multi-faceted andserious psycho-social problems, could
further exchange information andcollaborate with each other in
implementing treatment programsfor special categories of offenters.
3. Halfway House
13.Countries which have halfway houses
are to utilize them extensively.
Countries which do not have these
are invited to consider introducing
them.
14.Halfway houses in addition toproviding boarding and lodging, may
offer mental care, living skill
guidance and job placement services
to the discharged prisoner.
B. Program Implementation
1. Personnel
15.To raise the level of efficiency, theconditions of service of personnel

431

RESOURCE MATERIAL SERIES No. 54
involved in community-based
programs, for example probation andparole officers, may have to be
improved to motivate them and also
to attract highly qualified personnel.
16.T r a i n i n g f a c i l i t i e s r e q u i r e
improvement to offer Probation/
Parole workers access to newtechniques in carrying out theirtasks. The staff would have access toinstitutions where they can acquire
higher knowledge and qualifications.
Incidentally, the various clauses ofarticle 16 of the Tokyo Rules 1
advocate making training part of theconditions of service to attract and toretain staff for the demanding
requirements of the job, and offering
opportunities for improving theirprofessional competency.
• To reduce the burden on Probation/
Parole Officers, countries which do
not have the Volunteer Probation
Officer system may consider its
introduction.
• To complement the staff strength,
capable Volunteer Probation Officers
may be appointed permanent
Probation Officers. Incentives to
1 16. Staff training

16.1 The objective of training shall be to make clear
to staff their responsibilities with regard torehabilitating the offender, ensuring the offender’srights and protecting society. Training should also
give staff an understanding of the need to cooperateand coordinate activities with the agencies
concerned.
16.2 Before entering on duty, staff shall be given
training that includes instruction on the nature of
non-custodial measures, the purposes ofsupervision and the various modalities of theapplication of non-custodial measures.
16.3 After entering on duty, staff shall maintain andinprove their knowledge and professional capacity
by attending in-service training and refresher
courses. Adequate facilities shall be made available
for that purpose.

432

Volunteer Probation Officers must be
substantive, even if non-material.
• Efforts have to be made to seek the
involvement of volunteers with
relevant specialization to implement
specialized programs at minimum
cost.
• To achieve greater efficiency, it isimportant to maintain a close
relationship between Volunteer
Probation Officers and Professional
Probation Officers.
2. Inter-departmental Cooperation• To r e s o l v e t h e i s s u e o f n o n cooperation and lack of interdepartmental support, top
management of correctional andprobational departments may have torecognize the necessity forc o o p e r a t i o n w i t h e a c h o t h e r,
particularly when they belong to thesame parent organization. Thisrequires having continuous dialogue
and regular meetings.
• It is necessary that personnel
engaged in the delivery of programs,
exchange information with eachother.
• Private institutions could beapproached to contribute towards
offenders’ rehabilitation by offering
vocational training and employment
to discharged prisoners.
• The government may want tomotivate private institutions byoffering incentives like tax breaks.
3. Community Involvement• In the designing of programs, public
relations outfits may be incorporated
to tap the informal resources in thecommunity. The public relations
units have to survey the communityand network with groupings andorganizations, that can be asked tocontribute to the rehabilitation
efforts and which can mobilize

108TH INTERNATIONAL SEMINARREPORTS OF THE COURSE

•

•

•

•

community support, especially insmall communities where programs
are sited.
It is desirable that responsible stateagencies respect informal activities
done in the community in pursuit ofoffender rehabilitation, give publicrecognition and where necessary,
recommend improvements.
It is important that the victim isfirstly compensated by the offenderby means of public or private
assistance. Then the victim andoffender can be reconciled, to prevent
retaliation by the victim or society.
This would make the offenderrecognize their antisocial behavior
and assume responsibility for thedamage they have caused the victim.
It is important to avoid revictimization through effective
supervision. It is equally important
to offer adequate psychological careand counseling to help the victim
overcome the trauma of
victimization.
Reduce stigmatization from thesociety by involving the offenders invarious local community activities
like sports and cultural events.

to reintegrate these releasees througheffective programs. Emphasis should be on
effective and efficient aftercare programs
if the goal has to be achieved. The essential
question to ask ourselves is how we can
improve the existing supervision andaftercare methods applicable today. Thereis need for international cooperation andmore research on these issues.

VI. CONCLUSION
The goal of the group was to discuss
effective rehabilitative programs for the
released prisoners for their proper
reintegration into society. It must berecognized that the kind of rehabilitation
treatment given to offenders differs fromcountry to country. The group has realizedthat there are no well-structured programs
in most countries, as discussed in the paper.
Emphasis is mainly placed on observanceof conditions of parole or license, rather
than on specialized treatment for thedifferent categories of releases. There is,therefore, the need to come up withcomprehensive plans and strategies on how

433

RESOURCE MATERIAL SERIES No. 54
APPENDIX 1
TABLE I
BREACHES OF CONDITIONS OF EARLY RELEASE IN FIJI

Year

EMP

Breach of
EMP

Percent ofbreachCSO

Breach of
CSO

Percent ofbreach

1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996

508
637
456
460
424
358
349
296
211
204
387

122
91
47
86
60
41
30
31
10
5
23

24.0
14.3
10.3
18.7
14.2
11.5
8.6
10.5
4.7
2.5
5.9

40
42
6
88
25
55
39
45
13
11
12

2
0
0
2
2
8
2
1
1
0
1

5.0
0.0
0.0
2.3
8.0
14.5
5.1
2.2
7.7
0.0
8.3

Source: Reseach in Planing Section, Prison Headquaters, Fiji

TABLE IINUMBER OF PAROLES IN JAPANYear

Terminationof Parole

Expiration

Percent of
Expiration

Revocation

Percent of
Revocation

1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996

17,396
17,262
16,427
15,393
14,272
13,09812,745
12,556
12,312
12,202

15,783
15,60715,017
14,11913,118
11,995
11,655
11,485
11,244
11,223

90.7
90.4
91.4
91.7
91.9
91.6
91.4
91.5
91.3
92.0

1,438
1,489
1,207
1,109
979
891
908
915
891
846

8.3
8.6
7.3
7.2
6.9
6.8
7.1
7.3
7.2
6.9

Source: Annual Report of Statistics Rehabilitation, Ministry of Justice, Japan

434

108TH INTERNATIONAL SEMINARREPORTS OF THE COURSETABLE IIINUMBER OF EARLY RELEASEES AND BREACHES OF CONDITIONS IN
THAILANDYear

Sentence
remission
grantedParolegrantedBreach ofcondition

Percent ofbreachconditions

1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997

11,49010,871
9,721
10,392
9,363
11,321
12,02014,003
17,46017,543
19,824

2,778
787
1,220
1,768
956
945
1,282
2,088
2,114
805
1,114

88
20
48
43
44
54
50
86
88
62
42

0.6
0.2
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2

Source: Department of Corrections, Ministry of Interior, Thailand, 1998

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