139

Practice of Sandeel Fisheries Management in Ise Bay toward
Responsible and Sustainable Fisheries
Minoru TOMIYAMA1*, Claire-Marine LESAGE2 and Teruhisa KOMATSU3
1

Marine Resource Research Center, Aichi Fisheries Research InstituteToyohama - Minamichita, Aichi 470-3412, Japane-mail: minoru_tomiyama@pref.aichi.lg.jp
2
Institut National Agronomique Paris-Grignon
16, rue Claude Bernard, 75231, PARIS Cedex 05, France3
Ocean Research Institute, Tokyo University
1-15-1, Minamidai, Nakano-ku, Tokyo 164-8639, Japan*author for correspondence

Abstract
Ise Bay is a shallow semi-closed bay located in central Honshu Island, Japan, facing the Pacific
Ocean. This bay provides one of the major fishing grounds for Pacific sandeel, Ammodytes personatus
Girard, in Japan. Sandeel juveniles targeted by the fisheries in Ise Bay are mainly caught bypelagic-trawl fleets consisting of two net boats and one or two transport boats. At present about 200
fleets are engaged in this fishery. The lifespan and maximum body size of Pacific sandeel are three
years and about 16 cm, respectively. The stock of sandeels in Ise Bay once collapsed between the late1970s and early 1980s for five years because of over-exploitation and environmental deterioration. Afterthe collapse in 1980, fishermen and researchers started to conduct regulatory measures on acollaboratory basis between the two prefectures surrounding Ise Bay. In 1990 they decided on threemeasures to establish management as follows: 1) protection of spawners, 2) setting an opening day and3) setting a closing day for the sandeel fisheries. Sandeels have a characteristic behavior of burrowing
into sand for aestivation during May to November. Using this unique property, the number of spawners
could be controlled through establishment of a closing day for fishing. This helps to control and survey
the number of spawners. Protecting spawners for successive reproductive seasons and establishment ofa Marine Protected Area (MPA) have played an important role in adaptive management. The area of the
MPA increased if the remnants of the stock are small. Community-based unions play an important rolein enforcing these management measures.
Key words: adaptive management, fisheries management, Ise Bay, responsible fishery, sandeel,
two-boat pelagic trawl

1. Introduction
At present, a large proportion of the world’s fishstocks are fully exploited, over-exploited, depleted orin need of recovery (FAO, 1997). The FAO established the Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries(1995) in response to global concern over clear signsof over-exploitation of fish stocks throughout theworld and to recommend new approaches to fisheries
management, including conservation and environmental, social and economic considerations (Cochrane,2002). Furthermore, the Millennium Ecosystem
Assessment (MA) warned that the present condition ofmarine ecosystems has been heavily damaged by commercial fisheries (United Nations, 2005). The MA
Global Environmental Research9(2)/2005: 139-149
printed in Japan

explained the ‘collapse of Atlantic cod stocks off theeast coast of Newfoundland in 1992’ as a case of an
over-exploited fish stock. The Pacific sandeel(Ammodytes personatus Girard) stock in Ise Bay,central Honshu Island, facing the Pacific Ocean(Fig. 1) is one of the most important resources of thetwo-boat pelagic trawl fisheries in Ise Bay. The annual
value of sandeels landed in Aichi and Mie Prefectures
exceeds two billion yen. The sandeel stock in Ise Bay
has also experienced declines in the 1970s and 1980s(Funakoshi, 1997). After the collapses of the stock in
Ise Bay, however, several management measures were
established to recuperate the stock using collaboration
between fishermen and fisheries scientists in both prefectures surrounding Ise Bay (Figs. 1 and 2). Because©2005 AIRIES140

M. TOMIYAMA, et al.

the fish stock has been maintained at a sustainablelevel, our experiences may serve as a model for recovering fish stocks for many countries suffering fishstock declines because of over-exploitation.
This paper introduces the ecology of the sandeel
and its fisheries, and explains the history and measures of sandeel-fisheries management. Emphasis is puton the importance of organization and community-based management.

2. Study Area
Ise Bay constitutes one of the major fisherygrounds for sandeel in Japan, along with the Tohoku
area of northeastern Honshu Island and Seto Inland
Sea of western Honshu Island. Ise Bay is a shallow
semi-enclosed bay with a mean depth of 19.5 m(Fig. 2). It has an area of 1,738 km2 and a volume ofabout 33.9 km3. Ise Bay has a narrow strait, Irago

Tohoku Area

Ise Bay & Mikaw a Ba y
Seto Inland Sea

Fig. 1 Distribution of Ammodytes around Japan and major sandeel
fishery grounds in Japan.
a: Southern group of A. personatus, b: Mixed group ofnorthern and southern groups (A. personatus), c: Northerngroup of A. personatus, d: A. hexapterus, e: Mixed group of A.
personatus (northern) and A. hexapterus.

Fig. 2 Migration of sandeels from spawning grounds tonursery grounds in Ise and Mikawa Bay. Arrows
indicate the migration paths of juveniles. Closed
circles indicate the location of sandeel landing ports
around Ise and Mikawa Bay.

Sandeel Fisheries Management in Ise Bay

Channel, connecting it to the Pacific Ocean. This bay
is a typical estuary influenced by the relatively large
discharge of three major rivers: the Kiso, Nagara andIbi Rivers located at the innermost point of the bay.

141

they start to spawn at the mouth of Ise Bay(Yanagibashi et al., 1997; Tomiyama et al., 1999). The
life span of Ammodytes personatus is three years theand maximum body length is almost 16 cm.
Sandeel larvae hatch at a size of 3 to 4 mm in total
length. Juvenile fish hatched in the spawning grounds
at the mouth of Ise Bay in December-January arebrought into the bay by currents directed from themouth to head of the bay, where they are harvested.
Therefore the amount of sandeel juveniles transported
to the bay depends on the direction and intensity ofcurrents near the bay mouth under the influence ofoffshore currents (Tomiyama, unpublished).

3. Ecology of Sandeel
Worldwide, the sandeel family Ammodytidae contains five genera and 18 species (Froese & Pauly,2000). Two groups of Japanese sandeels have been
distinguished on the basis of vertebral number (63 &65; Hashimoto, 1984). Furthermore, genetic studies
have revealed that A. personatus could be divided into
northern and southern groups (Okamoto et al., 1988;
Hashimoto, 1991). Sandeels in Ise Bay belong to thesouthern group (Fig.1). The Japanese sandeel begins
to burrow into bottom substrates to start aestivation in
May, when bottom water temperatures increase to
17-20°C (Tomiyama & Yanagibashi, 2004). Theirbody length when they start the aestivation is from 7
to 10 cm. During the period, they aggregate in thesand over the summer dormant period. The aestivationof sandeels in Ise Bay was precisely described by
Tomiyama and Yanagibashi (2004).
The aestivation grounds are widely distributed at a
depth of 20 to 50 m along the coast of the Atsumi
Peninsula in the Enshu-nada Sea (Fig. 2). The aestivation of the sandeel finishes in November to December
when the water temperatures fall below 15°C. Maturation starts in November during the last period of aestivation. When the temperature falls below than 12°C,

4. Sandeel Fisheries
4.1 Two-boat pelagic trawl
The sandeel fisheries can be classified as two-boatpelagic trawl according to Bjordal (2002). About 200
fleets consisting of 700 fishing boats from Aichi and
Mie Prefectures participate in the sandeel fisheries.
Departing and landing ports for sandeel-fishing boats
are located all around the fishing grounds (Fig. 2).
Sandeel fisheries target three categories from juveniles to adults: (1) adult fish in January and February,(2) juveniles with a body size of 3 to 5 cm called‘shirasu’ in March and April (Figs. 3 and 4a), and (3)immature fish in April-May (Figs. 3 and 4b).
Over 90% of the catch in number is composed ofshirasu. Aichi Prefecture fishermen target sandeel
shirasu as processed food material while Mie Prefec-

Fig. 3 Growth of sandeels and related biological and fisheries events.

aFig. 4bPictures of sandeels (a) larvae (shirasu), (b) juveniles.

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M. TOMIYAMA, et al.

ture fishermen target larger sandeels (6-10 cm in bodylength) as a frozen food for fish aquaculture. Therefore there are a lot of frozen sandeel factories in Mie
Prefecture and a lot of food processing factories fully
equipped for shirasu in Aichi Prefecture.
The pelagic-trawl fleet for sandeels consists of
two-net boats (about 15 tons) equipped with a net
winch and one or two transport boats (about 15 tons)(Fig. 5). This pelagic trawl with two-net boats iscalled ‘Funabiki’ in Japanese, meaning boats (fune)
dragging (hiku) nets. Funabiki in Ise Bay is capable ofcatching sandeel schools at any depth, from the bottom to the surface by adjusting the length of the net
rope dragged by the boats and the length of the rope
attached to big float (Fig. 6). The towing speed of the
net is about 1.5 knots. Before deploying the net, atransport boat followed by the two-net boats at a distance of 100 m scans and searches sandeel schools byecho sounder. The fishermen can distinguish species
and size compositions of fish schools by the depth,
shape and echo intensity of detected schools. In general, fish schools of smaller size fish swim in the intermediate layer whereas those of larger size fish stay inthe bottom layer during the day. Only the cod end of

the net can be changed using the zip system. Catches
are transferred from the cod end of the net into plastic
baskets with crushed ice on the deck of the transportboat (Fig. 7a). While the transport boat brings the harvest to landing port, two-net boats continue their net
operation.
4.2 Landings
Sandeels over 5 cm are directly pumped from thestorage chambers of the transport boat into a 1 ton
container (Fig. 7b). On the other hand, sandeel smaller
than 5 cm are directly landed from the boat deck to themarket floor or forklift pallet using conveyor belts(Fig. 7c). Landings are sold to food process industries
or middlemen by auction in fish markets organized byfishermen’s cooperatives. The prices of the fish depend on their quality estimated mainly from size andthe color of the fish (Fig. 7d).

5. Sandeel Fishery Management Procedures
5.1 History of stock management
The landing of sandeels in Ise Bay declined drastically from 1978 to 1982. This was caused by techno-

Fishing boat
Fishing boat

Transporting boat

Fig. 5 Picture of fishing boats and a transporting boat. The distance
between the two fishing boats is almost 100 m.

Fig. 6 Schema of the two-boat pelagic trawl fishing net of the sandeel fisheries. A
cod-end zip system enables deliver of the catches directly from the bag into
the transport boat. The bag can be changed when necessary.

Sandeel Fisheries Management in Ise Bay

143

Fig. 7 (a) Packing sandeels from the cod end to plastic baskets on the deck of the transport boat. (b) Pumping
big-sized sandeels from the storage tank of the transport boat. (c) Baskets landed from the transport boat
to the market by conveyor belt. (d) Buyers evaluating the quality of the product, based on the color andthe size of the fish.

logical improvements such as increases in engine
power of fishing boats, enlargement of fishing gearand installation of echo sounders. The meander ofKuroshio occurred also affected the stock as a deteriorative oceanographic condition (high water temperatures) and accelerated the decline. This drastic decline
in the sandeel catch (1978-1982) urged many fishermen in Ise Bay to conduct some kind of fisheries management (Fig. 8).
Fishermen and fisheries scientists at the fisheries
research institutes of Aichi and Mie Prefectures inquired into effective measures for stock recover. Leading researchers such as Mr. Sadao Itokawa at Mie and
Dr. Shigeo Funakoshi in Aichi had already started tocarry out meaningful monitoring of stocks andfisheries, as recommended by Bergh and Davies(2002), in Ise Bay before the stock collapse in 1978.
After the collapse, the first measure for recuperationof the sandeel stock was to regulate fisheries during
the spawning period of the sandeel starting from 1979.
The second measure was to regulate large sandeel
juveniles of (6 to 8 cm in body length) from 1986.
Though there was no adequate scientific knowledge ofnatural fluctuation mechanisms and fisheries impacts
on sandeel stocks, these controls acted as a kind of
feedback management (Tanaka, 1980; Matsuda &Katsukawa, 2002) or adaptive management (Hilborn& Sibert, 1988).

In the middle of the 1980s, various studies on fisheries management based on fishermen’s communities
were launched for different fish species all around
Japan, financed by the local governments and thenational government of Japan. The research on sandeel fisheries in Ise Bay was also extended in thisframework. Through the research programs, a lot of
information such as on reproduction, aestivation transport and economies were gained. The Aichi and Mie
Fisheries Research Institutes contributed mainly toresearch on stock management, mechanisms of sandeel stock fluctuation and methods for an effective
utilization of the stock in Ise Bay. They obtained
mathematical relationships between the body length
on the opening day and catch value during one fishingseason for a simulation model called the ‘sandeel fisheries management model,’ which could calculate theeconomic value of sandeel fisheries (Figs. 9 and 10).
This model can provide sandeel fisheries withstock-management methods based on scientificknowledge.
By the early 1990s, fishermen and researchers
established three major fishery regulatory measuresregulating fisheries for conservation of the sandeel
stock in Ise Bay: protection of spawners, establishment of an opening day for the shirasu fisheries, andestablishment of a closing day for the shirasu fisheries.
These measures are explained below.

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M. TOMIYAMA, et al.

Fig. 8 Landing of sandeels in Aichi prefecture. Legends in the figure
show the regulations of the fisheries management.
Input
Recruitment

Growth speed
Fisheries management
simulation model

PriceControl factors
Opening day
Closing day
Fleet number
Marine protested area

CatchLanding money
Cost
ProfitEstimated values

Fig. 9 Flow chart of calculations of the fisheries management simulation model (from Funakoshi, 1997).

6( ×10 Yen )2,000( ton )
10,000

1,500

1,000

5,000

500

Fig. 10

Schematic diagram of the method of deciding on the optimaldate for opening the fishing season for sandeel fisheries (fromFunakoshi, 1997).
A: Relationship between body length and price;
B: Growth of sandeels; C: Example of a calculation by thefisheries management simulation model.

Sandeel Fisheries Management in Ise Bay

5.2 Protection of spawners
Fisheries for adult sandeels adjacent to Ise Bay
open after confirming the end of the spawning periodby the local government of Mie Prefecture because
these fisheries are run by only part of the Mie Prefecture fishermen. The end of spawning is defined aswhen 80% of adults have spawned, and the fisheries
focusing on adult populations only conducted theirwork for 20 days. Fishermen in Aichi Prefecture haveagreed not to fish adults populations in order to preserve the adult stock of sandeels in Ise Bay, because
they know their fishing capability for sandeels greatly
surpasses that of Mie’s.
For forecasting the occurrence of spawning, adultsandeels in sand beds during aestivation are sampled

145

by a specialized apparatus known as a ‘karatsuri’(Figs 11 and 12). The detailed method is described in
Tomiyama and Yanagibashi (2004). Fishermen of
Aichi and Mie Prefectures determine the opening day
for the adult sandeel fisheries based on the scientificinformation provided by the fishery scientists of bothprefectures (Fig. 13).
5.3 Establishment of an opening day for the
sandeel-shirasu fisheries
5.3.1 Biological survey
Evaluation of the 0-year-group fish stock size iscalculated using an empirical formula and dataobtained almost every ten days by bongo-net (frame
diameter of 60 cm, net length of 3 m and mesh-size of

5m

Fig. 11 Diagram of karatsuri sampling gear to hook sandeels burrowing in the sandin order to check maturation of sandeels and present results to thefishermen to explain the degree of aestivation and maturation.

Fig. 12 Upper pictures: sampling aestivating
sandeels and matured sandeels burrowing
in the sand by using karatsuri rake. Lower
picture: showing mature sandeel sampled
by karatsuri rake.

Fig. 13 Researchers investigating the maturation of sandeels.

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M. TOMIYAMA, et al.

0.335 mm) surveys by research vessels (Fig. 14). In
most of the case using the simulation model (Fig. 10),the optimum body size at opening day occurred
around 3.5cm. So, researchers of both prefectures
forecast the day when average the body length willreach 3.5cm, taking into account annual fluctuations
in growth rate.
5.3.2 Environmental surveys
Knowing the environmental conditions is crucial
for estimating the abundance of sandeel larvae in Ise
Bay, because they influence the transport and survivalof thelarvae. Bongo-net surveys focuse on sandeel
larvae sampling. From December to February, thechlorophyll-a content of seawater in sandeel fisheries
grounds is also measured to learn about the foodenvironment of the sandeel larvae because their foodconsisting of copepods, depend on diatoms andphytoplankton. Satellite images of ocean color(Modis/Terra) available two or three times a week if
not cloudy are also utilized to make maps of the chlorophyll-a content distribution in Ise Bay and offshore
waters. Waters containing much chlorophyll-a are anindex of good feeding conditions for sandeel larvae(Fig. 15a).
Satellite images of surface water temperatures(NOAA AVHRR) permit us to observe the intrusion ofwarm waters offshore transporting sandeel larvae from
offshore spawning grounds to their nursery grounds
from Ise Bay (Fig. 15b). Intrusion of warm waters into

Ise Bay is a good index for effective passive transportof sandeel larvae from their hatching area to the harvesting grounds (Tomiyama, 2003).
5.3.3 Process of establishing the opening day forsandeel-shirasu fisheries
Fisheries scientists and fishermen hold discussions
to decide on the opening day for sandeel-larvae fisheries, after distributing documents to the fishermen on
the present situation of the larvae stocks and environments and the forecasts from scientists. Meetings forthese discussions precede the general meeting are heldin both Aichi and Mie Prefectures. The general meeting by the most important people involved in bothprefectures determines the opening day of the fisheries.
This management based on fisheries science andfishermen’s participation saves fishermen from substantial economic losses resulting from stock collapse,
in contrast to the previous case of determining the
opening day based on their own experience.
5.4 Establishment of the closing day for the
sandeel-shirasu fisheries
Growing from the larva to adult through the juvenile stage, sandeels move gradually from the interior
toward the mouth of Ise Bay, where they enter into
aestivation in May-June when bottom water temperatures exceed 17°C (Tomiyama & Yanagibashi,2004).
Data on sandeel larvae landings are used to decideFig. 14 Sampling sandeel larvae by research vessel using a bongo-net.

Fig. 15

Satellite images around Ise Bay. (a) Ocean color (Modis/Terra) representing
chlorophyll-a distribution in the surface layer. (b) Surface sea watertemperatures (NOAA AVHRR)

Sandeel Fisheries Management in Ise Bay

when the sandeel-shirasu fisheries should stop forprotection of the spawners. The port offices at shirasu
landing ports transmit data on landings and fleet number to the Aichi Fisheries Research Center via facsimile just three hours after the landings. Fishermen
voluntarily present their own information on the fishing spots of each fishing boat (latitude and longitude)
to the institutes by themselves (Fig. 16). By consensus
among the fisheries scientists of Aichi and Mie Prefectures, two billion sandeel adults are required to remain to assure production of a stable catch and sustainable stock (Funakoshi, 1997). To calculate thenumber in the remaining stock, fisheries scientists of
Aichi and Mie Prefectures use the DeLury method
using catch statistics from daily operations (Fig. 17).
Relationship between number of spawner and the recruitment of the next year indicated the stable stock
condition, only when the spawners exceed two billion(Funakoshi et al., 1997). So, the estimated number ofpotential sandeel spawners approaches two billion,

Body length (cm)147

fisheries scientists notify the representatives of fishermen’s organizations that the end of the sandeelshirasu fisheries is approaching. The fishermen consequently ask the scientists for advice on an appropriate closing day on the basis of a good, tight-knit
relationship between them. The closing day was sometimes decided in a very short time just by telephone
discussions. Therefore responsible scientists of bothprefectures play an important role in this decision.
In the latter part of the sandeel fishing season, fishermen and researchers of Aichi and Mie Prefectures
establish a zone prohibiting fishing, a kind of marine
protected area (MPA) for conservation (Sissenwine &Murawski, 2004) of sandeel spawners (Fig. 18). The
area of the zone depends on the yearly stock size ofsandeels. If the remaining stock is smaller, the area ofthe zone is broader (Fig. 16). The position and area ofthe zone change annually according to ecologicalinformation such as juvenile distribution andmigration paths. Thus this measure is classified as a

Body length (cm)Body length (cm)Body length (cm)Fig. 16 Monitoring the size distribution by two-boat pelagictrawl during thefishing season in Ise Bay and in a zone in which pelagic trawl fishingis prohibited as a marine protected area.

Accumulated number of fisher*108

Fig. 17 Delury method of analyzing the initial andremaining stock.

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M. TOMIYAMA, et al.

Fig. 18 A marine protected area zone for protecting the spawners halfway through fishingseason. The area changes according to the remaining stock.

typical case of adaptive management. Patti-Ami,pelagic-trawl fisheries of for adult anchovies orsardines and Funabiki for anchovy-shirasu areforbidden in this zone until the start of sandeel
aestivation.
Sandeel aestivation is examined using karatsuri
surveys at the sandeel aestivation grounds in
May-June, to determine the beginning of aestivation.
The surveys also provide data about the number ofsandeels burrowing in the sand. If they show thatsandeels have entered into aestivation, pelagic trawl
for adult and shirasu anchovies is permitted in Ise Bay
and also in the zone where trawl is nornally prohibites.
Aestivation is an ecological characteristic ofsandeels. During this period they stay under the sandwithout consuming any food. As the natural mortality
during the aestivation period stays relatively stable ataround 10% (Tomiyama & Yanagishima, 2004), it ispossible to manage the number of spawners for the
next year by controlling the harvest before aestivation.
In other words, it is possible to manage reproductionof the stock by choosing the closing day of fishing
operations.

6. Management Organization and Partnerships
As mentioned by Pinkenton (2002), partnerships
play an important role in fisheries management. In thecase of fisheries management of the sandeel in Ise Bay,many fishery cooperative associations (each FCA has
one landing port, Fig. 2) are concerned with sandeel

fisheries there. In other words, management of sandeel
fisheries needs a large-scope partnership (Pinkerton,
2002) to make adjustments among the interests offishermen in Aichi and Mie Prefectures, surpassing
the scope of local fishery cooperatives. Voluntary organizations of fishermen engaging in sandeel fisheriesin Aichi and Mie Prefectures play this role. They comprise four principal Fishermen Unions (FUs), namely,
the shirasu FU (fishing focused on anchovies and sandeel shirasu) and the Patti-Ami FU (fishing focusedon sandeels, anchovies and sardines) in Aichi and Mie
Prefectures. During the sandeel fishing season, sandeel fishermen from both unions work together for
sandeel management (the Aichi Sandeel Fisheries
Associates and Mie Sandeel Fisheries Associate).
They work together with Aichi and Mie Fisheries
Research Centers for sandeel management. Throughthese organizations, fishing vessels belonging to 200
fleets can engage in this community based management.

7. Concluding and Prospective Remarks
Sandeel management developed in Ise Bay is agood example of Japanese adaptive fisheries management. In sandeel fishing, voluntary fishery organizations of Aichi and Mie Prefectures play an importantrole in managing sandeel stocks in Ise Bay with strong
aid from fisheries scientists at two fisheries research
centers in each prefecture providing current information and forecasts of sandeel stocks through continuous surveys. Fishermen make decisions by themselveson the basis of economic and scientific information

Sandeel Fisheries Management in Ise Bayfrom fisheries scientists.
Voluntarism and arm-in-arm relationships between
different actors are consequently important points in
conducting efficient management. Self and bottom-up
management involves no need to spend enormous
amounts of money in implementing stock management.
However, it is very difficult to forecast naturalfluctuations in sandeel stocks. For example, recent
global warming affects the survival of the larvae during the growing season. Furthermore, little is known
about the larval transport mechanism from the hatching area to Ise Bay. Therefore fisheries scientists
together with fishermen must seek more effective
ways of monitoring sandeel stocks to utilize themmore rationally.

Acknowledgements
One of the authors, Ms. Claire-Marine LESAGE
thanks all the staff at Aichi Fisheries ResearchInstitute; the sandeel fishermen; the staff at thelaboratory of the Behaviour, Ecology and Observation
Systems, Ocean Research Institute, the University ofTokyo; and Prof. C. Mariojoul at Institut National
Agronomique de Paris-Grignon for their help andencouragement in conducting field surveys andcollecting information about sandeel fisheries in Aichi,
Japan. We also thank Prof. Dr. Funakoshi for providing us information about the sandeel fisheries in Ise
Bay.
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(Received 2 June 2005, Accepted 29 August 2005)