Economic Cooperation in Northeast Asia ：Views of the Japanese Local Governments andEnterprises， and Changchun's Proposal for
the Tumen River Area Development

Chiwai Cheung

1 lntroduction
1．1 The lssue of Concern

The lssue of Tumen River Area Development Program （TRADP） has
first caught worldwide attention as the Far Eastern Economic Review （16January 1992） revealed the February inaugural meeting for the manage‑

ment committee sponsored by the United Nations Development Program（UNDP） with delegations from North and South Korea， Japan， China，Russia and Mongolia． Of course， the UNDP and the GeographicalInstitute of Northeast Normal University at Changchun， P． R． China
have done a series of research studies leading to the proposal of an inter‑national areal development at the value of 30 billion US dollars only for
infrastructure investment for the next 20 years as estimated in May 1993．

The emergence of local economic zones such as South China Economic

Zone （including the Hainan lsland， Greater Hong Kong， Taiwan‑Fujian
area and Shanghai‑Pudong area）， and the Baht Economic lnf｝uence Zone

comprising Thailand， Laos， Kampucha and Burma have caught many
concerns in Japan （Watanabe， 1991；Inagaki， 1992）． ln comparison， thisPan‑Japan Sea Economic Zone （PJSEZ） i） is of much bigger scale and more

untapped resources （Figure 1）， consisting of areaS of the five nations
around the Japan Sea （or East Sea）， with focuses of the Pan‑Yellow Sea

Zone， the TRADP， Valdivostok and Okhotsk for possible development2）．
Moreover， the TRADP becomes a sensitive ground for catching the policy

directions of Russia and North Korea or a stimulus to promote theirpolicy change in foreign and economic development policies．

一71一Tokuyama Univ． Ronso

Figure 1

No． 41， 1994

： Cities and Regions in Northeast Asia （Pan‑Japan Sea Region）
Source： Ohsono （1993）， p． 159．

一72一

Cheung ： Economic Cooperation in Northeast Asia

The regional characteristics of the PJSEZ can be summarized asfollows ：1） The scale of development potential is enormous． The'Far East
Region of Russia and the three Northeastern provinces of China are full of

natural and land resources， its development will not only affect theeconomic zone itself， but the world in areas of energy， foodstuffs and
indu＄trial production． For this reason， big projects are best realized withmultinational involvement and cooperation．
2） The production and marketing factors of natural resources， labor，
capital， technology， market and etc． at the present stage are unevenly dis‑tributed， efforts to promote complementarity and integration will even‑tually benefit all． The dynamism of economic growth is great．
3） The economic growth will best take place with local regions of in‑volved countries as the main actors， and without the dominance of any
single nation． However， if enterprises are left to act as the major agent

in integrating the whole zone， the pattern of growth will probably be

spontaneous and dispersed．
1．2 The Neglected National Land Axis Along the Japan Sea
The development for the PJSEZ has special meaning for the regional
development and distribution of economic activities in Japan． Japan has

been facing the problem of unbalanced growth and development between
the three metropolitan regions （along the Tokaido） centered at Tokyo，
Osaka and Nagoya and the rest‑local regions． This gap has once slowed
down but again widened to form a three‑tier structure （Tokyo capital at
the top， other metropolitan regions in the middle， and non‑metropolitan／local regions at the bottom） as Tokyo has emerged as one of the threelargest world financial market （others being London and New York） since
it then assumed the status of biggest creditor nation since the mid‑1980s

and ran into buoyant securities and real estate markets before the bubble
was burst out in 1990．

The local regions or prefectures which are situated away from theTokaido， are comparatively lagged in the economic and infrastructuredevelopment such as high‑speed ground transportation． The Tokaido
being extended from Tokyo to Fukuoka， served with Shinkansen and amore complete system of highway development is taken as the first

一73一No． 41， 1994

Tokuyama Univ． Ronso

national land axis． ln the late 1980s， as domestic demand and infrastruc‑ture building are forced to be an important part of the national develop‑
ment policy due to the agreement from the U． S． 一Japan Trade Structure

Consultative Committee， two groups consisting of prefectural govern‑
ment and their chambers of commerce and industry compete for the early
development and national budget outlay for the second national land axis．

They are the Wakayama‑Shikoku‑Kyushu group at the southwest andTohoku group at the northeast． Both have their good reasons to call for

more financial spending and infrastructure investment．
However， one mote group is still left over． This group comprises theprefectures lying along the Japan Sea， represented by Yamane， Tottori，
Fukui， Toyama， and Niigata． These prefectures demand for better trans‑

portation network along the coastline， known as the Japan Sea National
Land Axis in contrast to the first and second （eastern and western Japan）

axes （Figure 2）． They have started to promote exchange activities with

regions or cities in Russia， China and South Korea． These exchange
activities take the form of cultural， academic and sports activities inthe beginning and become more economic in nature． And based on further
sistership establishment， opening or addition of flight or shipping routes
are under discussion at local and national levels． Prefectures see these
activities as an important way to vitalize their regions in this age ofborderlessglobalization． Kyushu region is more Pan Yellow Sea‑

oriented in cultural exchange policy and active in exchange activities withcities／regions in China and South Korea．
Within this bigger trend， Japanese enterprises are also very active．
A report tells that 20 firms in Niigata Prefecture have investments in the

opposite shore， and three joint‑ventures took place between firms in

Toyama Prefecture and those in the Far East of Russia． A firm in
Ishikawa Prefecture has its products manufactured in a joint‑venture in
China， and then exports them to Russia． Joint efforts between the gov‑

ernment and private sector also took place． The
Environment Preparation Corporation

CIS lnvestment

has been set up in Niigata， andAomor'i Prefectural Japan‑CIS Trade Corporationin Aomori．

Recent efforts include the Meeting of Governors of the Eight
Prefectures Along the Japan Sea in 1991 ； the Conference Among the Six

一74一Cheung ： Economic Cooperation in Northeast Asia

戸一瞬．．．〉：．lo Sapporo

Japan Sea National Land Axis

AomoriMorioka

Akita'

Kamaishi

Niigata '●ノ．！！

y7
Toyama！ ：MatsueTottori

ノ

1

Sendai。！ ，・'．ど ●Fukushima

。・'

コ

ノ

ロ

サ

： ．

Iwaki

… ・ ・

鳥
9
．／●，．．
．： x＞：： 一：k．

・／Fukuoka

'

z

一

畳㍉

一

̲s．v！

一'

1．

一
t一一
．．U．．fo・

2nd NLA

bdNL与，颪。'

Eastern Japan・・'

一一一一 一 一 一et

．

一一
．
．

一一t‑t一一一一t

NagoyaNagasaki ．s2（sfiE1

Tokyo：IJA，． 一

Matsuyama
Oita Tokushima

2nd NLA， Western Japan

Wakayama

Kumamoto
Figure 2 ： Japan Sea National Land Axis and other National
Land Axes （NLA）
Source： Nakato （1993）， p． 2．

Asian Cities including the cities of Kita‑Kyushu， Shimonoseki， Dalian，

Qingdao， Pusan and lnchon ； Symposium on Pan‑Japan Sea Exchange
Activities among Kanazawa， Shimonoseki， Niigata cities and etc． ； theInternational Conference to Promote Fisheries in the Pan‑Japan Sea ； theEconomic Exchange Promotion Conference of the Three Prefectures ofNiigata， Toyama and lshikawa in 1992． Osaka， with its new KansaiInternational Airport to be opened in September 1994， claims itself as the
hub center for Asia's air network．

With the view of balanced national land development， no doubt fur一

一75一

Tokuyama Univ． Ronso

No． 41， 1994

ther economic exchange activities among the countries around the Japan
Sea will enable dispersion from existing development pattern concentrated
in large cities along the Pacific Ocean， and produce aggregation and pos‑sibly agglomeration effects for prefectures along the Japan Sea． This de‑velopment along the Japan Sea will help ameliorate the concentration of
economic activities at and only at Tokyo and lead to a more multi‑nuclear

pattern of national land development for Japan．

1．3 The Survey by Japan's Economic Planning Agency
In order to find out the pattern of existing and future exchange activi‑

ties， expectations towards local and central governments for policy

making， the Economic Planning Agency of Japanese Government hascontracted the Survey on

Regional Economy

The Age of Pan‑Japan Sea and Vitalization of

to the lnstitute of Japan System Development in 1991

for implementation． The survey took the form of mailed questionnaire
sent to two different sets of respondents， one to local governments，
defined as prefectural， or city／district governments with a population
over 300，000 people； and the other to enterprises．

206 questionnaires were sent to local governments ； out of which 111

questionnaires were returned， giving a responding rate of 54％． Amongst
which the prefectural governments returned 25 out．of 47 （53％）， and thecity or district governments 86 out of 159 （54906）．

Questionnaires towards enterprises were limited to those situatedin prefectures of Hokkaido， Aomori， Akita， Tokyo， Niigata， Toyama，Ishikawa， Fukui， Kyoto， Tottori and Fukuoka only． The responding rate
was 20％o ， a return of 208 out of 1，020 questionnaires from the enterprises．

Of which effective replies were at 95％o． Results of the questionnaires
will be highlighted and discussed in the following sections．

1．4 Discussions on international cooperation for Northeast Asia
Wang ＆ Quan （1993） have surveyed that 15 international conferences

for the regional cooperation in Northeast Asia and／or Tumen River Area
have been held from July 1990 to December 1992． Main themes of these
conferences／symposia were of the two following types ： （a） those related

to international relations in Northeast Asia， conditions or frameworks
for international cooperation， and background of or scenarios for Tumen
River development ； （b） those organized by UNDP， especially on coopera一一76一

Cheung ： Economic Cooperation in Northeast Asia
tive frameworks， legislative issues， development p｝anning and program

planning for TRAD． The conference sites were mostly within Northeast
Asia， namely China （7 times）， D． P． R． Korea （2）， Mongolia （1）， F． R．
Russia （1）， R． of Korea （3）， and U． S． A． （1）．

ll Japanese Local Governments：Views on Economic Cooperation in
NE Asia
2．1 Expected Complementarities in Technology and Natural Resources
Local governments were asked to give a list of five priorities for thetechnologies and resources they can offer and those they want to acquire．

Their answers are tabulated in Table 1， giving the ranking of the choiceand number of local governments choosing it． Local authorities （prefec‑tures and cities） are classified into five regions： Hokkaido； Aomori
and Akita ； Niigata， Toyama and lshikawa， known collectively as the
Hokuriku region ； other coastal areas like Fukui， Kyoto， Tottori and
Shimane prefectures ； and non‑coastal areas．

Table 1 shows． the complementarities perceived by the local govern‑ments in the category of

to offerin contrast to that ofto acquire．

More replies come from the other coastal areas， non‑coastal areas and the

Hokuriku Prefectures．
In the category

to offer， water resources processing technology／skills，

agricultural technology， machinery manufacturing and processing tech‑
nology rank high， and there exist soft programs like language study pro‑grams and business administration diagnosis．
From Russia， respondents from local governments expect to acquire
forest resources， water resources （fisheries and water plants inclusive），

mineral resources， energy， and exchange programs in cultural and eco‑nomlc acttvlties．
From China， they want to acquire mineral resources， water resources，

forest resources and human resources for complementary development．

From North Korea， local governments want to acquire water
resources and mineral resources and forest resources．

From South Korea， they want to acquire water resources， mineral
resources， forest resources， and exchange programs， and etc．

一77一

@

@

@

㎝

ロ︒①O臼づOの① ﹄ ﹄ Φ ρ 酪 タ 一

ω①OhづOのΦ臼﹄Φ9邸きHの①O臼⇒OのΦ﹄剛 雨 ﹄ ① 賃 刷 霞 一〇αのOづ℃O﹄q︒﹄bD邸一円

一一 ののOづ℃O旨Ω．ρ邸舶Φ90ρの一一

一

一

一

@

．①寸．q．︵一①曾︶oδヨ璽臼罵N刷Φ図⁝8葺︒の．罵8℃亀日3︒＃①q①℃三︒自属bpおq国︵︒・︒器︒毎︒ω①二壽冠§︒﹂津℃聴の碧①甥娼Φ℃暑石ω①︒諺︒ω①臼§尉津︵寸⁝の①哨b︒2︒ヨ§bρ§着図℃壽bD唱ヨ︒調⇒昆目面ε≧Φの︑bD巷な①℃暑肩bρq写①の唱邸bD口筆石図︵㎝のΦO﹄⇒Oq層Φ﹄︻邸旨Φ賃帽6口一一の①O﹄50g励Φ臼旨Φの吋韓一の①O拍コOのΦ角一而﹄①q哨日一〇ロΦO旨⇒Oの①﹄旨Φの邸津円

Q0属ヨ﹄oZ一

oつの①O﹄づOの①﹄一門﹄①自哨d口一

邸qヨO

一

㎝

のΦO旨コOω㊤臼ρのΦ臼O舶一一

の①O﹄づOoΩΦ旨蹟①の邸津一のΦO﹄5000①臼旧邸旨Φ目哨自門

ωΦO﹄づOのΦ旨のの①旨O舶一σつ︒6哨の︒︒ゴ国のΦO臼づOの①﹄旧邸旨①環哨d口◎00つ一の藍O賃qO一①卜①ρあ﹄邸ρ目Φ8①︻q實OO﹄O舶Φ泊づσO＜O騨ω8﹄50ω①国℃口邸ω①嘱bpO一〇口幽8臼邸Φ﹄o図ヨコ︒の一@bρ目減℃︻咽ゴρ℃偶而①﹄つのOO出﹄O臼邸一

器Φ﹄＜一蝉器oQ︐qo乞器①﹄＜罵拐邸oO臼①ヨO

邸≧㊥図ヨのH曙︑邸霞邸眺O臼．邸の邸bp璃2の①ヨ﹄o調ぢく

罵8日

o℃罵図漏︒国臥boO一〇q﹄08．﹄bD月一069哨図く同一臼OdHO＜ω℃口O︻℃一〇〇口嘱眺boO一〇口﹄OΦρ

お出OBω①O旨コOωΦ国遡の①嘱bDO一〇自詞OΦ白

ﾌ8毎︒の①餌℃壽の①咽bD20q﹄泡︒のΦ白Φ署為ぢΦ霞Φ宣岳oQqOの≧①咽﹀のぢΦ目蝦お＞oO届oo日FΦ三⑩ト㎝

一．bpq踏奪おω毛月 ．拐ぞq哨⁝℃①捻︒刷おε ．ρε⁝︒哨8お︒Φ定 ︐魯8届⁝鵠︒ヨ8も ．︒①霜⁝届強弓づ︒屑b︒︒δ ．哨﹄bD邸⁝8咽捻﹄域肩自隠 ．日℃﹃切8お鰻﹀①おρ＜@ ⁝Φ毎旨きΦのづ2出①①旨bρ℃qd．bD屓同調含℃巴．bp肩員ε窯錯貫︒︑著︒拐Φ﹀肖①℃づ君唱の§づ○ω①工︒ご毎出づ︒葛＜︵﹃ω①ぢZ．島︒︻︒ヨ§ ︐§⁝ω8毎︒︒︒Φと．磐⁝bp肩のω80拭 ︒︒○鼠⁝bD目塞︒ε⇒亜目⁝．bp舶目邸目⁝貯Φqヨ器日 ︐︒邸日⁝①bp雪bDq些

@︵ヨbp官8﹄Φ諏霞﹄建刷Φヨ曙ρ舶①三︒b︒眉着田︶

一一

一78一

@

。6

No． 41． 1994'

Tokuyama Univ． Ronso

Cheung ： Economic Cooperation in Northeast Asia

2．2 Exchange Programs to be Needed
The first three exchange programs as expected by local governmentsin the Pan‑Japan Sea Zone are （1） economic exchange based on import andexport promotion， 81％ of the respondents ； （2） receiving and dispatching
programs for technology research students， 68SO）60 ； and （3） art and cultural

exchange， 56％ ； covering economic， technical， art and cultural areas（Figure 3）．

The other programs expected include （4） holding international confer‑ences or events， 21906 ； （5） establishing sister relationships with overseas
prefectures， provinces， or cities， 20％o ； （6） dispatching or receiving pro‑grams for youths， children， and／or women， 15％； and （7） promotion offoreign language education， 10％o．

2．3 Expectations Towards the National Government
Respondents from local governments expect the central government
in the following areas ： （1） to establish trade and investment risk insur‑

ance agreements between governments， and to promote economic exchange
activities in private sector， 68％ ； （2） to develop transportation accesssuch as new air and sea routes for further exchange， 629060 ； （3） to allow forfurther initiatives from the prefectures and cities in an institutional set‑ting， 51％ ； （4） to develop the infrastructure framework within Japan tolink well the cities and areas along the Japan Sea， 36％． ln short， local

governments express their demand for inter‑governmental agreements， in‑frastructure building， and decentralization of power to local regions（Figure 4）．

皿 Japanese Enterprises＝Views on Economic Cooperation in NEAsia
The enterprises that have replied are classified according to． theirtypes （Figure 5‑a）， capital outlay （Figure 5‑b）， and prefecture of ori‑gin （Figure 5'c）．

Processing， services， commerce， assembly， transportation and stor‑

age comprise the major types of firm＄ responded to this survey． Minor
types include fishery， forestry and agriculture， and construction．
Firms of less than 50 million yen in capital outlay comprise the big‑gest group （2710）60） in responding to the survey， the scale of 10 billion yen

一79一No． 41， 1994

Tokuyama Univ． Ronso

100

90
80
70

60
50

40
30
20
10
o

■麗□

Al

A2

A3

A4

A5

A6

A7

A8

A9 AIO

Prefectural Governments

1
A2
A3
A4
A5
A6
A7
A8
A

Municipal／District Governments
All

Economic exchange activities by export‑import trade， or investment ；Dispatching or receiving groups of young people， children， qr women ；Art or cultural exchange activities ；Sport exchange activities by games ；Dispatching or receiving technical trainees ；Promotion of foreign language study ；Holding of international conference or，event ；Information or technical exchange closely related to way of life， such as
gourmet， living， or recreation ；A9Sister relationships with local governments overseas ；AIO Others
Figure 3 ： Local Governments ： Exchange Activities Needed
Source ： Keizai Kikaku Cho （1992）， p． 29．

一80一Cheung ： Economic Cooperation in Northeast Asia

70

60
50
40
30
20
10
o

Al A2 A3 A4 A5

A6A7

一 Prefectural Governments［ ］ Municipal／District Governments

D AII
AI To foster economic exchange activities through signing inter‑govern‑
mental trade pacts or lnvestment insurance agreements；

A2 To hold seminars on Pan‑Japan Sea Economic Zone and to provide
inforrnation on other countries in the Zone・コ

A3 To send mission abroad to survey on actual condltions， and／or
exchange opinions with related agencies／departments；

A4 To expand exchange flow by improving the transportation access， suchas opening of new air or sea routes；

A5 As inter‑exchange concepts should relate closely with local development
needs， so consideration for sustaining the initiative of localities in akind of legal framework is needed．

A6 Serving a coordination role among different regions， or prefectures
wlthin the country；

A7 To foster development of the domestic interreglonal infrastructurefra】〔nework along the Japan Sea coastal area；

A8 0thers．
Ftgure 4 ： Local Governments ： Expectations Towards the National
Government
Source： Keizai Kikaku Cho （1922）， p． 44

一81一

A8

Tokuyama Univ． Ronso No． 41， 1994a） Type of industries
NA （3．5％） agriculture， fishery and forestry （5．6％）
construction （4．0％）

others （13．6％）

mining （1．0％）

processing of raw
materials （14．6％）
services （13．6％）． V'r ／ 1 X ／assembly and processing
transportation． ． A．．X ／ 1 × ／ ' （11．69（or）
and storage （7．6％）

finance and health （12．19060） commerce （12．6％）b） Capital outlay of the enterprises
NA （4．0％）

less than ￥50 m （27．3SO）6）

over ￥10 b （20．2％）￥1 b一￥10 b （14．6％o）￥so m一￥loo m （13．6％）￥100 m一￥1 b （20．2％）

Addtess of the enterprisesc）

NA （3．5％） Hokkaido （3．5％）
Tottori （9．1％）

Aomori （10．1％）

Fukuoka （4．5％）
Akita （11．1％）

Kyoto （7．6％）

Fukui （6．1％）

Tokyo （10．1％o）

Ishikawa （10．1％）

Niigata （13．6％）
Toyama （10．6％）

Figure 5 ： Responded Japanese Enterprises ： Their Characteristics
Sourse ： Keizai Kikaku Cho （1992）， p． 58．

一82一Cheung ： Economic Cooperation in Northeast Asiaand O．1 to 1 billion yen the two second groups， 1 to 10 billion yen the
fourth group， and 50 million to O．1 billion yen the fifth group．'

Prefecture of origin are in general evenly distributed among the

responded regions． Prefectures with over 9％o of response include
Niigata， Akita， Toyama， Tokyo， lshikawa， Aomori and Tottori．

3．1 Expected Complementarities in Technology and Natural ResourcesEnterprises view that they can offer their expertise in more practicalfields such as knowhow in business administration and management，knowhow in tourist trade， water resources processing technology， machin‑

ery plant construction technology， civil and construction technologies，and etc． （Table 2）．

Enterprises expect Russia to offer forest resources， water resources，mineral resources， and energy resources．
China is expected to be rich in human resources， mineral resources，

water resources， forest resources， agricultural resources and products．
North Korea is expected to be rich in agricultural resources， mineral

resources and human resources．
Sduth Korea is expected to be abundant in water resources， mineral
resources， capital， human resources， agricultural products and foodstuffs．

3．2 Regions／Cities ldentified for Exchange and Cooperation
The regions or cities identified for further exchange in economic
activities are Russia and its Far East region with 69 firms， a share of 35％of the total number of firms；China and its Northeast Region， with 50
firms or 25％ of the total． The third region of interest is South Korea，represented by cities of Seoul and Pusan．

3．3 Expectations Towards Local Government
The expectations of enterprises towards local government are as fol‑lows ： （1） establishment of information collection and provision system
to nations in the opposite shore， with 87 firms and a share of 45％； （2）dispatching and receiving exchange groups of people， with 71 firms and ashare of 42％o； （3） increasing the international linkage of airports， 71

firms and 36％ ； （4） involving more private sector and nurturing morecitizen organizations for economic exchange with nations in the opposite
shore， 56 firms and 28％ ； （5） develoPment of trade ports and port facili‑ties， 51 firms and 26％ （Figure 6）．

一83一

霞

﹄○鯛oo咽邸刷﹄Φρ砧摂口≧邸﹄H．唱唱⁝貯拐 弓 眉

Φq哨O嘱℃Φ臼bρ賃浄土

︐﹄o舶肩

一

の①O﹄一﹂FOのΦ﹄ d︻邸d日ゴFd︻ 一cqω①O﹄ゴOoα①﹄h①の￠津H㎝のΦO﹄づOのΦ﹄﹄Φρ酪津一の①OhコOqα①﹄q邸d口づ﹄一Φ絹OぞΦ8bD自一出邸ヨ﹄O鰍の︻￠賓①の面日≧酪﹄一洩︒︒のづ餌㏄

H

扁謡q吋O鵡①O目O口娼σつ0っ．︒っ①．ρ．︵cq①①H︶20量璽臼届N哨Φ属⁝8葺︒の器Φ﹄＜︻邸のの邸OQ︐自OZ

器Φ旨く一邸ρの邸O︹︶﹄①﹄ρO

邸津邸着甥H曙d目邸眺○臼dの郎bρ旧Z

邸β哨鋤く遡肩旨O霞O＜．のbO日当．田℃邸．のづρ目四二○団≧・O潜函一

o℃冨諸図︒出葭唱のΦω℃q﹄①ρ目国NΦ一Ω⑩ト︐8の．OO﹄qgO写づ⊇唱ρ辺℃一

津O目的のヨ08dqOO口哨．診○詔≧・O自図㎝寸ωρOづ℃O﹄q窟O刷℃Φ貫州H

お亀OBの①O翫50ωΦ国曙ω①咽りρ〇一〇自調O①臼ω口○旧劇﹀①おρ＜． 8日暮①お尋屑℃婁臼︒舶の98日曾づg℃壽①越州℃①日b︑眉湿雪實8場ヨ§d貝器さ℃三︒肩の℃︒︒b︑尋咽℃Φ薯︵一⁝ω①の︒Z

qo℃OObp﹄8づ℃O﹄qoO㎝の℃OObp℃①のの80﹄qoつ一 ．8ρ︐OO﹄q．の①h﹄ΦのO律︒っ㎝

一絈奄nの①の官費Φのq国ΦのΦ口巴醇

一84一．
．島20ヨ︒＄⁝．︒＄⁝ω8葺︒のΦ﹄∵の①旨⁝切口刷のの80鼠⁝．︒oa⁝boq嘱望ぢ譜⇒器日⁝．bp当壽貫ピ○屑捻實．でq二︒石︒お8届 ．お8届ご邸︒唄お8筍 ．§①⁝撰Φ霞qo︻①﹀Φ℃⁝．q＞℃二田ヨ弓︒唱旨bp﹃．唱bD ⁝8門馬お・︐ヨ日℃宍．自隠

一一dΦ﹄O︶︷﹄の旨O乞。6◎Qの口Φ日Ω⊇①卜①∩摺鉦邸の口①8Φ宣日OQ﹄O︸Φ﹄刷づσO＜Oのの8﹄づOの℃
Φq
国OのΦ嘱配O︻○口囲OΦ臼

σ5①旨O︶︷団の⇒O の

@
@
@
@

@ω8当︒の①国℃壽の①州bD28
旧畷の8Φ臼着目ぢΦ自Φ覧目OO口︒の津Φ咽﹀︵ヨ智8hΦρ日づ田嘱①ヨ℃口ε峯8b︒旧着田︶@@No． 41， 1994

Tokuyama Univ． Ronso

Cheung ： Economic Cooperation in Northeast Asia
50

40

30

20

10

o

Al A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8 A9 AIO AII A12 A13

Al

Suppor七for in‑coming and out‑going visiting groups in order to pro‑

mote goodwill and friendship；

A2

To establish an information center to collect and provide information on

00
A
A4

countries in the Economic
Zone・ナ
To hold seminars on the Pan‑Japan Sea， and to publish magazines；
To provide education facility for developing language ability， and to re‑A5tain people with language skills；
To expand the receiving system for usual foreign students and technicalA6

tralnees；
To lncubate and give support for private organizations to develop eco‑nomic relationship wlth countries in the Economic Zone；

A7

To consult with the economic organizations on issues of securing a trade
flow／route， e． g． selecting import‑export ltems， and establishment oftrade companies；

A8

To look into possible ways to help the partner country to attain eco‑nomic lndependence；

A9

To expand trade by sending economic trade missions；

AIO To develop trade ports and port facilities ；All To develop domestic airports so that they are capable of operating inter‑national flights ；A12 To foster interrelationships with other areas by establishing consulta‑
tive organization for the larger region， and to foster economic exchangewith more concrete results ：'A13 Others．

Figure 6 ： Enterprises ： Expectations Towards Local Governments
Source ： Keizai Kikaku Cho （1992）， p． 84．

一85一

No． 41， 1994

Tokuyama Univ． Ronso
3．4

Expectations Towards the National Government
Responded enterprises expect the national・ government to proceedwith （1） signing of intergovernmental agreements on trade and invest‑

ment risk insurance and promotion of economic flows and exchange， a
reply of 133 firms or a share of 67906； （2） strengthening the transporta‑tion access with opening of new air and sea routes， as replied by 125 firms，
63％ of the total．

The other replies are （3） strengthening the domestic network of com‑munication within the coastal line area along the Japan Sea， 75 firms or
389060 ； and （4） decentralization of power from Tokyo to regions， 63 firms
or 32％o （Figure 7）．

In general， the expectations towards the national government between
the local governments and enterprises are very similar．

IV Changchun's Proposal for Tumen River Area Development
The proposals of Chinese delegates at the lnternational Conferencewith the theme ofRegional Development and Cooperation in Northeast

Asia and Tumen River Area Development

at Changchun， July 25‑27，

1993， co‑organised by the lnstitute for Northeast Asia Studies， Northeast

Normal University and the Northern Relations Council of Republic ofKorea， were summarized as the

Changchun's Proposal． Their propos‑

als are more concrete， and they follow the line of that has been proposedby the UNDP． The proposal by UNDP suggests to develop the delta areaof 10，000 sq． km． in Tumen River into an international free‑trade systemof cities by building 10 modern ports or cities， an international airport， a

new European‑Asian railway line， and several free trade zones in a periodof 20 years and with investment of 30 billion US dollars． Several concrete

proposals from Chinese delegates are as follows ： 一

4．1 Regional Development Concept ： Big and Small Triang［esBig and small triangular areas are named as

golden triangles

by

Chinese colleagues and noted as development concepts for the Tumen
River area （Figure 8）． The big triangle stands with the vertices at Yanji

in China， Vladivostok in Russia and Chongjin in Korea， covering an areaof approximately 10，000 sq． km．， and a population of 2．45 million persons．

一86一Cheung ： Economic Cooperation in Northeast Asia

70

60
50
40
30
20
10
o

Al

A2

A3

A4

A5

A6

A7

AI To promote economic exchange activities by signing inter‑governmental
trade pacts or investment insurance agreements；

A2 To hold seminars on Pan‑Japan Sea Economic Zone， and provide infor‑
mation on countries in the Zone；

A3 Sending missions to survey the actual conditions of other countries， orto exchange opinions with counterpart agencies／departments in theZone・タA4 To foster flow increase by improving the transport access， e． g． opening
neW alr Or Sea rOUteS；

A5 Further development shall relate more with the regional development
issues of prefectures， so consideration should be given to enable the local
inltiative to develoP；

A6 Playing the role of coordlnator for regions and prefectures within
Japan；

A7 To improve the national infrastructure in order to enable better inter‑regional linkage within the coastal areas along the Japan Sea；

A8 0thers．
1

Figure 7：

Enterprises ： Expectations Towards National Government
Source ： Keizai Kikaku Cho （1992）， p． 85．

一87一

A8

No． 41， 1994

Tokuyama Univ． Ronso

R． RUSSIA

P． R． CHINAニ！

Wangching

ノ＿
ノ リ

の

，一一一一ノ！ @ 〜

dぺ）

Tum
Yanji＼7i輔

o耳unchun《＿。．ノ
し へ

'

黛、'

、l
ココ ノ

t tt

8グ蘭論g

SongbongSYtlkAa，

考M．，an

／

、

／

：xY'

River 1：

！

！
！
！
／

、

／

！

t ／、＼Posyet

j‑i n‑g． ．x i n．x

㍉ミ

：

むロ

1 ＼。ノ

一

Tumen River Estuary

Rajin． ｝ 7 ／
〉／

x

瓢

，ノ

l

1

．ク

／

N

Pury6ng

‑

x

t
ノ

一︑

覧

1

／

／
7
7

﹀

玉しChongjin

D． P． R． KOREA

o City
主 P。rt＋H＋ Railway
一・・一

Kilchu@National Boundary

Figure 8 ： The Big and Small Triangles and Urban System Proposed
for the Tumen River Area
Source ： Wang ＆ Wu （1993）， p． 67．

The small triangle is located within the big one， with its vertices at

Hunchun in China， Posyet in Russia and Songbong in Korea， covering an
area of 1，000 sq． km． （Wang ＆ Wu， 1993， p． 67）．

4．2 lnternational System of Cities／Ports
An hierarchical urban system of cities／ports for the small triangulararea is suggested by Wang and Wu （1993 ： pp． 67‑69） with the regional
central place at Jingshin in China， with a present population of 6，000 per‑sons now and estimated to grow into a city of 2．5 million persons in 2020
（Table 3） ．

The cities／towns of the second order are suggested to be vertex‑cities

一88一

Cheung ： Economic Cooperation in Northeast Asia
Table 3 ： Chinese Proposed Scenario of Urban Population Growth inTumen River Area（in 'OOO persons， O／o）

Cities

32．5

1，200

28．2

2，500

3．0

900
4eo

6．1

1，300

4．8

600

7．2

9．6

5．0

300
300
300

7．2

400
500
400

2．3

1，100

2．0

1，350

32．5

300
350

11．6

500
400

678

100
500
250
150
120
150
900
100
180
850

2．3

1，000

1．6

1，300

2，122

3，300

4．5

6，150

6．4

9，250

Jinshin（敬信， C）

6

Yanji（延吉， C）

371

Hunchun（去春， C）

Rajin（羅津， K）

93
91
51
92

Chongjin（油津， K）

719

Posyet （R）

6

Slavyanka （R）
Vladivostok （R）

15

Total

Tumen（図椚， C）

Songbong（先鋒， K）

1，170

F． R． Russia

28．2

1，130

1，600

1，700
工，650

6．9

ピ00σ3

900

862
699

8．9

QV8Qソ

561

D． P． R． Korea

5．1

81←Qゾ
4
004

P． R． China

10．4

2，300

3．7

2，250

2．8

2，200

2．9

Notes： C means People's Republic of China， K means Democratic People's Republic ofKorea， and R means Federal Republic of Russia．
Source： Wang ＆ Wu （1992）， p． 68．

for the big triangle above‑mentioned， that is to say， Yanji' （China， pro‑

jected to grow from 371，000 persons in 1991 to 1．3 million persons in2020） ， Vladivostok （Russia， projected to grow from 678，000 persons to 1．3

million persons in the same period） and Chongjin （Korea， from 719，000
persons to 1．35 million persons in the same period）．

The cities／towns of the third order are proposed to be six， namely

Hunchun and Tumen in China， Songbong and Rajin in Korea， Posyet and
Slavyanka in Russia． Most of these cities／towns carry a populatibn lessthan 100，000 persons now， and are projected to expand to a size of 400，000
to 600，000 persons in 2020．

It is clear that this proposal will make use of the human， technologi‑

cal， capital and land resources of the most energetic partner‑China， andallow it to play a bigger role in the Tumen River development area， withmore urban places and faster growth．

4．3 lndustrial Development Policies
Taking into the locational factors such as port， accessibility and cen‑tral place'

狽??盾窒凵C Wang and Wu （1993 ： pp． 69‑70） suggest that the in一

一89一

63
84
12
95
22
92
15
21
32
74
2
7

Present
2000 2010 2020
Pop'n Popln Growth9（ol Pop'n GrowthSO6 Pop'n Growth％oTokuyama Univ． Ronso

No． 41， 1994

dustrial and functional emphases of these cities should be as follows： 一

The cities within Korean boundary （Chongjin， Rajin and Songbong）
are nearby the sea， and bestowed with other environmental resources， they

can be developed into maritime transport nodes and heavy／chemical in‑
dustrial places． Chongji'n can be developed to specialize in metal， cement，

automobile， chemical and shipbuilding industries （Figure 9） ．

The cities within Russian boundary （Vladivostok， Slavyanka andPosyet） have favorable port， technological and educational conditions
and can be developed to become bases for maritime trade， tourist and hightechnological industries． Vladivostok can specially develop in new areas
such as high tech， finance and insurance， commerce and trade， and woodprocessing， and at the same time modernize her port and airport facilities
for regional transport needs． Posyet can develop her tourist and port in‑
dustries．

The cities within China's boundary （Jingshin， Hunchun， Tumen andYanji） should develop the land transport along Tumen River as the majoraxis， and concentrate in light industries， agricultural products and service

industries． The city Jingshin at the central place of the Tumen Riverdelta shall develop as the main transport node and urban place with high‑order central functions such as high tech， finance， trade， and information．

Proposals for infrastructure development include a new airport in theproximity but inside the Russian soil and river port facilities for ships of
3，000 tons． Yanji can specialize in paper milling， chemical fiber， tobaccoand pharmaceutical industries． Tumen city can put emphasis into trans‑
port node， tobacco， foodstuffs and paper milling． Hunchun can give pri‑ority to foodstuffs， commerce and tourist industries．

4．4 lndustrial Land Development Strategy
Ding and Wang （1993） further proposed the conceptual plan for in‑

dustrial corridor development for the Chinese part of Tumen River area．
It included two new cities／towns （Jingshin and else） and the designated

Tumen River Economic Zone with tax and other incentives， four expanded
cities （Hunchun， Tumen， Yanji and Lungcheng） and the export‑processing

zones nearby them， and free trade zones at borders and major transport

nodes． Surrounding areas were suggested to be protected greenery andfarming／ranching areas． The major transport links were to be railway

一90一

Cheung ： Economic Cooperation in Northeast Asia?

t

☆ '：コ．
ノノコ

多・多．，，誓'e 〉， ，〈rg6g
ll

ll ll

z

﹂

z．．

?G

t／ttl

：

Jingxirp．．一．．．ノ

ノ'

・●

☆痴

e

p

ri｛

診

殉

︶9

隔 p

Tume'
i'

Slavyanka

Nakhodka

ロ 【：コ

DOO6．
〈t・f'：

VnyposYel

∫、里

Song‑

ク望
：．

コロロロ

．

D︒

DOI ll llee t｝［ti ），，Ci 7． 'r・

，'tt

ド

縮il：T，，1

Yanji

堰It／t

ノ：'嚥O

Wangching
Hunchun， ・士

R， RUSSIA

Vladiv＋ 唐狽盾汲窒w

P． R． CHINA

bong，（S ±一t'一v'

誉'圏

冒

Rajin

Japan Sea

態

Tumen River Es七uary

直

．グ

7

；i

Chongjirf

D． P． R． KOREA婦5

Figure 9

Industries／Urban Functions ：（｛1） Tobacco

O Port‑relat．

O Finance

＠ Medicine

＠ Automobile

＠ Tourist

＠ Polymer F．

＠ Wood Proc．

O Others（｛［li） Foodstuff

＠ Transp． Node（t' N） proposed

＠ Metal＠ High‑teche Papermill

＠ lnformation．

S Shipbuild．

ss Cement

＠ Commercee chemical

Airportdi PortExisting／

Proposed

City Functions of the Proposed Urban System
Source ： Wang ＆ Wu （1993）， p． 69．

route and highways leading into the Sea of Japan or neighboring cities in
Russia or Korea （Figure 10）．

4．5 Another Link for Asia‑Europe
As it has been proposed by the UNDP， another link for Asian‑
European continents is possible by establishing the land bridge link， tech‑nically a double‑track railway or highway， extending from the mouth of

Tumen River （Hunchun and Tumen） through Changchun to Manchouli，
and then to Ulan Bator in Mongolia and Semipalatinsk in Russia， runningparallel to Trans‑Siberian Railway （Figure 11）． This will give sea andexport access to the inland country Mongolia and so stimulate its urban

一91一

＼

1

、

O

．◎つ︒つ︒qバ◎つ①①一︶bρ口邸≧南bpq哨∩⁝①O旨づOの

︑・

ミ︒

O
●

o●

一

＼
一

dΦ旨︿﹄Oq邸国﹀邸旨づ出ゴO唱bD＜m川山dΦξ8郭§︒占賃§塁・芝團園

@

@

@

@

@

@

@

︒曾屑く︵◎@9・︒山↓

Φ口ONO額qO賃OO国旨Φ卜帽国口Φd口づ臼國@@

眺記Q℃Φ℃q邸q×国Φ目ON①℃邸角臼1①①﹄﹄﹇

霞oNbρεのの80占省︒脅国ρO嘱旨のの嘱∩﹇円06哨旨9のづ℃qH

Φのづ○国図qづ旨臼L

眺邸≧一刷d函ロ■爵H

@

むδ≧①Z

一92一

N︑

ミ

ミ︾

ミ

幽■1炉

o＠＠o＠

9

〜

臼

r

邸①角くお﹀田5ヨ占も損￡①の①月δ旨︒弦bD①届角あ揖①岳q2①﹀Φ∩唇鎖霜ムのぞ日6FΦ≒o正

㊥︑

一

＼
、

●

〜

＼

No． 41． 1994，

Tokuyama Univ． Ronso

Cheung ： Economic Cooperation in Northeast Asia

らく国餌O出．の･〜
自屈罵∩．トゆ．q︑︵oつ①①一︶三口あO面O⁝8旨50の

＼k＼
．

︑ ∬
・︐

O鵠

OoO︒q

O

二Φ﹄コ9﹂

罵君衛邸○○﹄Oρ旨邸寓＼眺出QO

ノ

声
．
O

︑︐．ノピ〜〜ノ＜H己U︹X︶乞○芝．ノ・︶︵図O邸負臼︒の︶眺邸き唱σδ餌︵謂O邸旨臼．∩︶眺邸津嘱σδ国﹈■﹇

@

︹

秩D・し

ノノ

︑

．国①bo℃眉m﹇℃q邸口■℃①のOqO﹄山．ρq．口H

財ケノ＼メ＼

恥〃1
d脇目q邸一h︸

へ︑︑
旨O

ｶノ

＼ノr hピノノ＼︑＜7HHH肖︷∪．一山︒︵H量①qO﹄⇒国‑d刺のく翫○︸唱ΦのOqO畠山εづ○山①bo℃賓口q℃￠邸目

軸且刷①ρqのO調口ΦΦ﹄国﹇

︑︒．〜
＼．

＼

9qごωH而迫﹄O謂Q．ノmー

図の口写邸円弱q哨毎①の肩d蜜邸m

図ω﹄刷ρ唱ωO卜OウH

一93一

bp口邸眺bDqO眺幽

＼

り

．メく％

﹄

琉．

︑

サ

●．

ヨOΦの

⑳q 跳口Φ澱の

'・＼．

コで

W想昆暑︑

ロ

へ㌦煽
ク嵐︑

自づ囮Obp目d戯Q

臼邸d︻唄のの刷の臼﹂①℃D口洩⇒＜Hののh戸餌．幽国冨山．∩﹇国@

ﾖ

量のbp昆≧

口三拍邸国︑＜国餌OM︻︐ツH之％

旦醒＼＼
目Φ8⇒臼

︑
︑
︑︑︑

@
@＼

@
@

@
@
@
@
@
@

図9の︒＞
︐も邸一﹀

♂§国
！

＼

^︵・・k・︒k

．／／

7●︑．ノ♪●・﹁●●'・＼図のトO﹄邸ρd謂︶四

唱目

ノ

@卜

@評

｝

N

@
@
一

Tokuyama Univ． Roriso

No． 41， 1994

and economic development along the route， and enlarge the total flow
capacity of commodities and passengers between Asia and Europe．

V Concluding Comments
5．1 Evaluating the TRADP with Other Alternatives
We shall have some critical observations of the possibilities of imple‑

menting the TRADP with other alternatives， and evaluate the real objec‑
tive of each participated nation for this region．

a． P． R． China： the dilemma among national， regional and local goals

Concerning the TRADP， the P． R． China is still ambiguous between
making it a national project， or just a local／regional project as there areso many new port developments， urban and interurban infrastructure con‑struction projects after the whole opening of the eastern coastal line fyan‑an）． ln addition， policy has also allowed for more opening to foreign

economic investment

along the Yangtze River fyanjiang）

the frontiers （oranbian）

， and

aiong

． The TRADP is mainly sponsored and pro‑

moted by Jilin， among the three northeastern provinces， and for which theformer‑phase opening policies have not benefited at all． To the nation，
an strategic outlet into the Japan Sea is certainly the goal．

What is the significance of TRADP compared to alternative projects
like （1） upgrading the passenger travel and commodity flow of Dalian‑Harbin line to the level of Shinkansen in Japan allowing a speed over 150

km． per hour； or （2） technological and efficiency improvement in thequality and productivity of automobile manufacturing up to an export
level， like joint‑venture projects in Changchun ； or （3） upgrading the inter‑national and dbmestic air network of Changchun by increasing directflight connections and modernizing the facilities of the airport ； or （4）establishing more export processing zones at existing ports in Dalian or

Yingkou in the Northeast？
The advantages from regional development's viewpoint一 are that the
TRADP shall lead to development along the east‑west dimension， provide
an additional link to Europe via Mongolia and Siberia， and legitimate theinternational utilization of lower Tumen River course for Jilin and north‑east China．

一94一Cheung ： Economic Cooperation in Northeast Asia

Another important issue is the ethnic dimension． Korean ethnic
groups in China are concentrated in several areas in the northeastern prov‑

inces， and especialJy around Yanji and Tumen River area． They are ofhigher educational attainment compared to the Han and other minorities，
but live only at lower income level due to insufficient development oppor‑
tunities． lt is quite true that TRADP and・opening of the entire northeast

region will give them more employment opportunities， infrastructure andthe share of development returns． During the 1993 post‑conference tour，

we met several young local mayors／CCP leaders of Korean origin， andthey play an active role in the vitalization and development of the region's

economy．
However， large investment costs for urban development and transpor‑
tation have to be analysed carefully for their benefits．and returns． What

Jilin province wants may be unique in the Northeast． May be what she
really needs is just an open．policy from the central government at Beijing

for self‑discretion in accepting foreign investment and upkeep of bigger

percentage of industrial and development profits from development． ln
fact in 1992， the cities of Yanji and Hunchun have been designated as cities

open for foreign investment and with certain discretion for signing joint‑
venture projects．

b． The Democratic People's Republic of Korea
North Korea has opened several toWns for foreign investment． Whatsignificance does she give to opening of Rajin， Songbong， or the newly pro‑

posed port Ungsang in the northeast against those in the east coast？ ls
that what she wants are foreign investment， and processing factories andexpanding export for exchange of hard currency？ What she can contrib‑
ute are at least large tracts of land for development of cities and ports inthe free zone（s） and labor． Of course， her consistent efforts in develop‑

ment of this zone will provide evidence to other nations of her open‑door

policy． She has invited the overseas Koreans and Japanese scholars／en‑

trepreneurs to study the possibilities of the TRADP， and passed new
Iegislations for foreign investments， joint‑ventures， and establishment ofexport processing zones． Japan and western nations are more concernedwith her openness for nuclear inspection， and peaceful development of the

Korean peninsula．

一95一Tokuyama Univ． Ronso

No． 41， 1994

c． The Federal Republic of Russia

Russia sometimes presents a complicated picture as the Far East
regional autonomies may be different in policy and pace with the central

government at Moscow． However， for the regional autonomy or the cen‑tral government， the continuing investment to the port‑city Vladivostok
to transform it into a・commercial， tourist， high tech and livable city
seems to be the first priority in all the alternatives． Plans to develop thegreater Vladivostok into a free economic zone， including port develop‑
ment， import／export processing zones， bonded areas and industrial parks

have been suggested by Shimazu （1992） of Japanese Development
Institute． The city now holds the trunk link to Siberia and Europe． One

can expect Vladivostok．and its neighboring cities of Nakhodka／Partzansk

and Khasansky will have the priority of development from Russia．
Though she may not play so active a role at Tumen River area in terms oflabor or capital， but she can contribute in leasing land for development of

free trade／processing zones in TRAD．
d． The Republic of Korea
South Korea has important political and national goals in the projectof TRADP as she for the first time shall promote investment and develop‑

ment in a land which has once been confronted with war． Any action
leading to peace and future unification of the Korean peninsula is the wishof the people of Korea as a whole， and probably for overseas Koreans too．
Besides， capital in South Korea also look for cheaPer land and labor some‑where else for their processing as the currency won has risen much higher
than that in 1985／6． Dialogues， discussions， cultural or sports exchange
activities， and trade agreements are necessary steps to help the two for‑mer parts of a nation to foster trust and understanding toward eachother． South Korea， with her ethnic similarity， capital and technology，

willingness and management knowhow of entrepreneurs and the bigger
national goal should have a lot to offer and be benefited from the realiza‑tion of this TRADP． The Northern Relations Council， Republic of Korea

has played an important role in this development and co‑sponsoredsuccessfully the July conference with Northeast Normal University at

Changchun．
e． Japan

一96一Cheung ： Economic Cooperation in Northeast Asia
Japan has her di｝emma， too． Her enterprises including shoshas havebeen most active in resource development and commodity trades in Asia，
heavy investments are spent in Hainan lsland for tourist resort develop‑
ment， offshore oil exploration along the South China Sea and recently at

Vietnam， electrical appliances in Malaysia and Singapore， cameras andcomputer keyboards and drives in Taiwan， and finance and department
stores to Hong Kong and other large cities in Southeast Asia． Most re‑cently， their interests and investments head towards cities in mainland
China for their economic growth and market potential． What is the sig‑
nificance of the TRADP for Japan's publi．c and private sector ？

From the survey results we know that the private sector in Japan are
more resource‑oriented， the pipeline to the oil resources in Siberia， or coalreserves in China and North Korea， and various forest， mineral and tour‑
ist resources， or a more efficient rail link with the European continent．
The bigger part of their interests seem to lie in the Far East of Russia．

However， they are hes二tated to invest much as the inter‑governmental
agreement on insurance of investment loss is still pending because thesovereignty problem of the four Northern lslands is not solved yet． lf
there exists some international body to coordinate the development or tobear the investment risk and responsibility， Japanese banks are willing to

inject their financial capital for development． However， they need nothurry to be the first to participate in such programs．
To the public sector of cities and prefectures the picture is a little dif‑ferent． Their concerns are threefold ： one is encouraging more cultural，

medical， technological and economic exchange with cities／regions／nations
on the opposite shore by regular exchange programs or international con‑ferences， and establishment of think‑tank organizations for this concern ；the second is coordinated efforts to build up the domestic transport andcommunication network at the coastline along the Japan Sea ； and thethird being a long domestic and political issue for gradual decentraliza‑tion of power and financial resources to loca｝ authorities from the central

ministries in Tokyo．

5．2 Policy Change Required from the National Government of Japan
There are two issues for the national government， one concerns
Russia， and the other North Korea．

一97一Tokuyama Univ． Ronso

No． 41， 1994

It is the moment to decide whether to push more for the return of thefour Northern lslands， or to leave them alone and change for a more real‑istic attitude for economic cooperation program for mutual benefits．
The former alternative cannot be an immediate goal with regard to the in‑ternal political and economic situation of the Republic of Russia． As re‑gards the latter alternative， local governments along the coast of Japan
Sea and large number of enterprises are of the idea to put away the politi‑

cal issue at this moment and to plan for economic cooperation and tradeand international transportation or communication agreement withneighboring countries in the Pan‑Japan Sea． The less‑developed prefec‑tures there will then get their share and phase of infrastructure develop‑

ment when the Pan‑Japan Sea Economic Zone development moves ahead．
It is time to make a policy change for the national government of Japan
in foreign policy which in return shall bring good effects on the prefec‑tures along the Japan Sea with long neglected development．
It is also time for Japan to show more sincerity and enter into con‑crete procedure for establishing diplomatic relationship with North
Korea． North Korea has been showing rather consistent efforts in sup‑porting and promoting the TRADP． As South Korea has established dip‑
lomatic relations with the former Soviet Union， and P． R． China． North

Korea is left alone now． She has to choose between two policy alterna‑
tives ： either to continue its non‑compromiSing and close‑door一 policy， or

to change to a market‑oriented and open‑door policy like China has done．
In this aspect， Japan should show enough carrots for the latter by express‑
ing its willingness to support her initiative， and move forward to normal‑ize their diplomatic relationship．

5．3 Establishment of Northeast Asia Development Fund
The UNDP has been very active and effective in pushing forward the

TRADP． ln May 10‑11， 1993 the Conference in Pyongyang the represen‑tatives of the governments from China， North and South Korea， Russia
and Mongolia have agreed to set up an international corporation to pro‑

mote the development of TRADP， and the three local nations （China，North Korea and Russia） agree to lease land to this body for develop‑
ment． This body shall seek for public and private funds for its capitaloutlay and operation． The vision of TRADP is grandeur． The project

一98一Cheung ： Economic Cooperation in Northeast Asia
shall last for about 20 years， with a goal to build another free trade port‑

region like Hong Kong or Rotterdam in this northern part of Asia． Thisagreement is certainly a step forward for the whole TRADP issue． And
the Japanese enterprises will now be more willing to give loans to， toinvest directly in， or to have joint‑venture with， this new international

corporatlon．

In addition， for making bigger programs a Northeast Asia
Development Fund is much needed， With the participation of national andprivate banks in the area， and international banking bodies like World

Bank， Asian Development Bank， and Official Development Aids of vari‑
ous countries． The public and private sectors of Hong Kong， Taiwan，United States， Canada， or European nations should also be involved for fi‑

nancial and technical assistance and cooperation of this project and others
for the NE Asia region （Figure 12）．

Japan， R． Korea， China

NORTHEAST ASIA

DEVELOPMENT FUND

‑qE｛一U' S' A'1 ADB， IBRD， ＆Priva七e Sec七〇r：

Capital ＆ Management〈JAPAN＞
ggtEiYa！！一［1ggl｝gg1ggzpital，Technology〈R． of Korea＞

Possible Development Projects

Capital， Technology〈UNDP， UNIDO＞
Plan Developmentin

Ity1｛t｝pgglblg1一一npower

一 Far Eastern Russia〈Other Nations ：一 D． P． R． Korea

U． S． A．， Germany， etc．＞

一 Northeastern China

Coordination，

Evaluationg｛t｝Ei11g！t一［1get｝pglggzpital，Technology〈Private Enterprises＞
Hong Kong， Taiwan， etc．
g｛t｝pi！g！i一［1］ggh！1g1gg￥pital，Technology〈Public／Private
Partnerships＞，〈ADB， IBRD＞
Local Contribution ：一 Land一 Labor
一 Natural ＆ Energy Resources

Feasibility Test，

tetpital

一 lnvestment Environment

12ati2i！｛｝L！［lgg1｝ug1ggxrpitai，Technoiogy

Setting‑up of ProjectManagement Qrganization ＆Execution of Approved Project

Figure 12 ： Setting‑up of Northeast Asia Development Fund and lnter‑national Cooperation '一99一

No． 41， 1994

Tokuyama Univ． Ronso

Last but not least， the environmental assessment of all programs of

the TRADP should be conducted before any project approval． ls the plan

too ambitious？ Development should not be seen only as increase ingross domestic product， but with environment and long‑term perspective．
Sustainable development should not be seen as a fashionable slogan， but
as a necessary and attainable goal to be pursued for all long‑term projects

extending into the twenty‑first century．

Acknowledgments

The author would like to express his sincere gratitude toProfessor Chen Cai， Professor Yuan Shuren and Mr． Chung Hae
Hoon of the Organizing Committee at Northeast Normal Univer‑sity and other staffs for successfully holding the lnternational

Conference on Economic Coopera七ion and Regional Developmentin Northeast Asia， July 25‑27， 1993， and the post‑conference ex‑cursion to Changbai Mountains， Yanji， Hunchun， Tumen， andlower course of Tumen River． Thanks are also due to Professor
Sui Xishan and Professor Zhang Jinming （President） of the Jilin
Commercial College for their kindness in arranging various visitsand discussions in Changchun． Needless to say， opinions expressedin this article remain the sole responsibility of the author．

Notes1 ） Pan‑Japan Sea Economic Zone in this paper includes the Far
East of Russia， North Korea， South Korea， the northeastern re‑gion （Heilongjiang， Jilin and Liaoniang provinces） of China，and Japanese prefectures surrounding the Japan Sea．
2 ） The term

Japan Sea

is adopted for common understanding

within Japan， and has been used in the survey by the Economic

Planning Agency in 1991． lt is also known as

East Sea

in

Korean and Chinese geographical terms． The correct name forthe sea has to be discussed in international arena s．uch as organi‑zations under the United Nations． T． Shimakura （1992） in theInstitute for Development Studies has used the term
Ajia （Northeast Asia）

instead of

Pan‑Japan Sea

一100一

Tohokuin his book．

Cheung ： Economic Cooperation in Northeast Asia

References
Chen Cai，

Changes of Economic and Political Situation in Northeast AsianRegion and lnternational Cooperative Development for Tumen River
Area，

Renwen Dili （Human Geography）， Vol． 8 ： 2， 1993， 1‑12．

Cheung Chiwai，Decentralization of Power and Resources from Tokyo to
Regions ： a Review of lssues and Proposals， Review of Tohuyama
Universitor， No． 38， 1992， 97‑124．

Chung Jae Ho， Sino‑South Korean Economic Cooperation ： an Analysis ofDomestic and Foreign Entanglements， in Journα1（ゾNortheαst AsiαnStudies， 1990 summer， 59‑79．

Ding Sibao ＆ Wang Lianqin，River Area，

FEER，

lndustrial Development Strategy for Tumen

Renwen Dili （Human Geograpdy）， Vol． 8 ： 2， 1993， 27‑34．

Northeast Asia ： Tumen Project，

Far Eastern Economic Review，

16 Januar'y 1992， 16‑20．

Fukakawa， Yukiko，

Tohoku Ajia Keizai‑ken no Keisei to Nippon no

Yakuwari （The Formation of the Northeast Economic Zone and the Roleof Japan），

T． Shim'akura， op． cit．， 267‑300．

Gao Shali ＆ Liu Li，

The New Asian‑European Continental Bridge andthe Economic Development of Mongolia，Renwen Dili （Human

Geo8・r（zpんッ），Vol．．8：2，1993，54‑59．

Hanabusa， Masao，Kankoku no tai hokupu keizai no hatten to Tohoku‑

Ajia Keizai‑Ken （Development of the Northern Relations of the Republicof Korea and the Northeast Asia Economic Zone）， T． Shimakura， op．
cit．， 227‑266．

Hasumi， Yu， Roshia Kyokuto Chiiki no keizai hatten to taigai keizai
kankei （Economic Development of the Far East of Russian and lts
External Economic Relations），

Imai， Ken'ichi，

T． Shimakura， op． cit．， 149 pt192．

Tohoku Ajia no chiiki boeki to sogo izon （Regional Tradeand lnterdependence Among Countries in Northeast Asia），

in T．

Shimakura， op． cit．， 1992， 29‑76．

Inagaki， Kiyoshi， Shidosuru Kan‑Nippon Kai Keizai‑Ken （The Emerging
Pan‑Japan Sea Economic Zone），
in The Weehly Toyo Kei2ai， 22 May

1992， 66‑71． ．

Kasai， Nobuyuki， Kankoku no Chokusetu Toshi to Tohoku Ajia （Direct
Investments of Republic of Korea and Their lmpacts on Northeast
Asia），

Sekai Kei2ai Hyoron （Review of World Economics）， 1992 ： 7，

24‑30．

Keizai Kikaku Cho， Sogo Keikaku Kyoku （Economic Planning Agency
Comprehensive Planning Bureau）， ed．， Kan IVippon‑Kai Jidai to Chiiki

no Kasseika （The Age of Pan‑Japan Sea and The Vitalization ofRegions）， Okurasho， 1992．

Kitamura， Hajime，
Tohoku‑Ajia o meguru koteki keizai kyoryoku tominkan chokusetu toshi （Public Economic Cooperation and Private
Direct lnvestments in the Northeast Asia），

T． Shimakura， op． cit．， 301

‑341．

一101一

No． 41， 1994

Tokuyama Univ． Ronso
Komai， Masakazu，Chugoku Tohoku keizai‑ku no kaiho‑kata keizaika（The Opening of the Economy of China's Northeastern Region），

Keizai

σhirigαhuハlenpo（Annuα1げ」（xpan Associαtion・f Econornic Geog‑
raphers）， Vol． 39：1， 1993， 18‑33．

Kovrigin， Evgenii，

Difficulties and Outlook of the Far East of Russia，

in

ICSEAD News （lnternational Center for the Study of East AsianDevelopment）， No． 18， 1993 spring， 4‑10．

Kuribayashi， Sumio，Chugoku Tohokuchiku no keizai Hatten （Economic

Development of the Northeastern Region of China，T． Shimakura， op．

cit．， 109‑148．

Lee Kuen ＆ Lee C． H．，
International Perspective，

Trade Between Bohai of China and Korea： an
in Journal of Alortheast Asian Studies， 1990

summer， 15‑35．
Lee Kuen， Lee C． H． ＆ Kim W． B．，
Problems and Profitability of Direct
Foreign lnvestment in China ： an Analysis of the Survey Data，
JournaZof IVortheast Asian Studies．， 1990 summer， 36‑52．
Li Yung， ed．， Tongbei‑a 」'iansanjiao de e‑dian （The Development Spots in
the Golden TriangZe at Northeast Asia）， Jilin Renmin， 1992．
Ma Cheng‑san，
Chugoku to Tohoku‑Aji'a shokoku to no keizai kankei （The

Economic Relationships between China and other Northeast AsianCountries），

T． Shimakuara， op． cit．， 77‑108．

Ma Hung， ＆ Fang Weichung， eds．， Zhongguo Diqu Fa2han yu Chanye
Zhengce， （China's Regional Development and lndustrial Policy），
Chapters on Liaoniang （274'320）， on Jilin （321‑368）， on Heilonjiang（369‑427）， Zhongguo Caizheng Jinji Chubansha， 1991．

Morizawa， Mari，

Tomen‑ko ni tatsu （Standing at Tumen River），

The

WeekZy Tayo Keizai， op． cit．，' 72‑73．

Nakato， Yasutoshi，Kan Nippon‑kai Keizai Ken keisei no igi to kadai （TheMeaning and lssues of the Formation of Pan Japan‑Sea Economic
Zone，
Kei2ai Chirigahu IVenpo （AnnuaZ of Japan Association of
Economic Geographers） Vol． 39 ： 1， 1993a， 1‑17．

Nakato， Yasutoshi，Chugoku no keizai kaikaku oyobi kaiho seisaku to
Nippon no keizai kyoryoku （The Economic Reform and Open‑door
Policy of China and Japan's Economic Cooperation），
Kan‑Nipponhai
Keizai Koryu ni Kansuru Chosa， Nipponkai Keizai Kenkyu Jo， Toyama
University， 1993b， 71‑92．

Ohsono， Tomokazu， A加。：yomu ehi2u（Reαding the Recentエ）evelopments
in Asia Through Maps）， Kodansha， 1993．

Ogawa， Kazuo，

Kan‑Nippon Kai Keizai‑ken no keisei （Formation of the

Pan‑Japan Sea Economic Zone），

in Watanabe 1992a， op． cit．， 231‑258．

Ogawa， Kazuo， Saigo no Nyu‑Furontia 一 Kan Nippon Kai Kei2ai‑ken （TheLast IVew Frontier 一 Pan‑Japan Sea Economic Zone， Keizai Chosa Kai，
1993．

Ogawa， Kazuo ＆ Komaki， Teruo， Kan‑Nippon Kai Kei2ai Ken （The Pan‑
Japan Sea Economic Zone）， Nippon Keizai Shimbunsha， 1991．
Omata， Toshio， Seiji keizai saihenka ni okeru Roshia Kyokuto keizai nochiiki hendo （Prospects for Regional Economic Changes in the Russian

一102一Cheung ： Economic Cooperation in Northeast Asia
：Far East under the Drastic， Politico‑economic Restructuring），

Kei2αi

Chirigαku Nenpo， Vol．39：1，1993，34‑49．

Quan Hexiu，Action and Position of Chinese K：oreans in Development of

Tumen River Area，

Renωen Dili（一Elurnan Geograρh：ソ），Vo1．8：2，1993，

114‑117．

Shimazu， Hideyo， Greater Vladivostok Free Economic Zone Development
Concept， paper presented to Pacific Rim Council on Urban Deve‑lopment， Yokohama conference， November 11，1992．
Shimakura， Tamio， ed． Tohoku／AJ'iα Kei2αi‑ken no Tαido（The Quicheningエ）evelopment（：ゾthe 2＞ortheαst Asiαn Econornic Zone）． Ajia Keizai
Kenkyusho，1992．

Son Byon‑Kai， Tohoku Ajia／Kyokuchi teki keizai togoron no tenkai‑senk6i jiyu boeki chitai koso一（Northeast Asia：Development of：Local
Economic Integration‑aLinear Free Trade Zone Concept）． Seんαi
Keizαi HOVoron（VVorld Economic．Revietv），1992：6，48‑56． Translated
by Nobuyuki Kasai．

Sun Lihua＆Yang Qingshan，

Dynamic Trends and Graphic Represen‑tation of Tumen River Area Development，Renωenエ）ili（HumαnGeo8raρ dy， Vol．8：2，1993，35‑40．

Taniura， Takao，

Chosen Minshu Shugi Kyowa K：oku no keizai to taigai

kankei（The Economy and External Economic Relations of the
Democratic People's Republic of Korea），

T． Shimakura， op． cit．，193‑226．

Twu Jianw‑yan，Kan‑Nipponkai‑ken jidai no unyu kotsu taikei o kangaeru（Considering the Transportation System in the Age of Pan‑Japan Sea），
Unyu to Kei2αi（Trαnsl）ortαtionαη，（1 Economics），Vol．52：8，1992，54‑
62．

Yuan Shuren＆Song Deqing，Tumen Triangle Area，

An Analysis of State Counter Measures inRenωen 1）ili（Huη乞αn Geograph：y）， Vol．8：2，

1993 13‑19．
ナWang Li＆Wu Dianting，

A Proposal for the International Urban

Development in Tumen River Area，

Renωen l）ili（Humαn Geo8'rap hy），

Vo1．8：2，1993，66‑73．

wang Lianqin＆Quan Hua，

An analysis of the Studies and Related

I．iteranture on the Regional Cooperation in Northeast Asia andDevelopment of Tumen River Area，op． cit．，118一．125．

Watanabe， Toshio， ed．， K：yoんuchi Keizαi．ken no Jidαi（．Emerging LocαlEeononzic Zones‑Theσhαnging Map cゾAsiα），Simul，1992a，
Watanabe， Toshio， Kyokuchi Keizai‑ken no jidai to Chugoku no shorai（The Age of Local Economic Zones and the Future of China），

Seんαi

Kei2αi Hovorbn，1992b：8，24‑33．

Zumbrunnen， Craig， Problelns and Prospects for the Development of New
Commercial Structures in Russia and the Russian Far East， Kei2αi
Chiri8αku Nenpo， Vol．39：1，1993，50‑67．

一103一