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ページ 66The 21st Century Is a Century of Women——Buddhism and Women

Toshie KuriharaI

N the 21st century, we stand to learn much from the Buddhist view ofwomen. Today, at this symposium cosponsored by the Daisaku Ikeda
Research Society of Beijing University, I will discuss SGI (Soka Gakkai
International) President Ikeda’s view of women from the viewpoint of
Buddhism.
SGI President Ikeda released a peace proposal titled “Creating andSustaining a Century of Life: Challenges for a New Era” in January,
2001, the very opening of a new century. He argued that the 21st century
must be a “century of life.” He made plain his great hope for the emergence of women in converting civilization, saying “a century of life
must also be a century of women.”1
SGI President Ikeda has long cherished hope for women to be able touse their latent abilities to help solve the problems afflicting the world:
Moreover, he has worked to create conditions where women can play
active roles in the Soka Gakkai and in society, even in Japanese society
where women tend to be despised and oppressed. Dr. Zheng Ishu, thevice president of Fuchien Instructor University, once remarked: “The21st century is called a century of women. Yet SGI President Ikeda has
already recognized the critical importance of women in the world andhad the foresight to support the women’s movement some forty years
ago, when he was inaugurated as the third president of the Soka
Gakkai.”2
SGI President Ikeda’s view of humanity and women are both basedon Buddhist thought—the Buddha, the Lotus Sutra, and Nichiren. He
uses his understanding of the Buddhism originally based on the conceptof gender equality and interprets it for use in the current age and ourcontemporary society.
On the other hand, Buddhism has been the object of criticism for its
long-term discrimination of women. Especially in recent years, with the
emergence of the feminist movement, many religions, including Buddhism, are being re-examined from ‘a feminist viewpoint,’ and are being
impeached for having functioned as ‘tools that oppressed women.’ From66

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the historical perspective, social, economical, political, and cultural factors worked together to turn women into the so-called ‘second sex’: andit would be true to say that the religious factor had done so as well.
There still remain many unresolved problems.
In the new century, when gender equality is becoming the ethos of theage, it is important to consider a new relationship between Buddhism
and women, by paying careful attention to the concept of gender equality originally embraced by Buddhism and demonstrating appreciation of
women. Prof. Kyoko Nakamura once remarked “It is a historical factthat religion in both the Eastern and the Western worlds has repressedand discriminated against women. Yet, although such repression is by
no means a thing of the past, it is also true that religion has served to liberate women.”3
SGI President Ikeda has studied the genealogy of women’s emancipative thought in Buddhism. Considering the social position of women in
Indian society at the time Buddhism was being founded, and in subsequent propagation areas, it is surprising that transcendental genderequality thought was advocated in such conditions and locales. Today, I
will survey how women are viewed by the Buddha; in the Lotus Sutra;
and by Nichiren. I will also introduce you SGI President Ikeda’s view ofwomen which is based on all three sources.

1

Buddha’s View of Women

India at the time of the founding of Buddhism had a demonstrated tendency to discriminate against and belittle women. Women were nottreated as respectable human beings, and their rights and activities wererigidly restrained. However, it is thought that the Buddha’s view ofwomen recognized the religious equality of both sexes. Although
women might be restricted for being obstacles to the practice of monks,4the female religious nature or the female capacity itself were not necessarily denied. For example, the Buddha once explained his dharma,comparing it to a cart, and said, “be it woman, be it man for whom/Suchchariot doth wait, by that same car/Into Nibbåna’s presence shall theycome.”5 Moreover, the Buddha described the Brahman as follows: “Notby birth does one become an outcaste, not by birth does one become abrahman. By (one’s) action one becomes an outcaste, by (one’s) action
one becomes a brahman.”6 For the Buddha, one’s preciousness was
based on deed rather than attribute, and neither status nor gender was ofimportance.
Furthermore, having allowed the ordination of women into the priest-

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hood symbolizes the Buddha’s attitude toward women. Although a nun’s
practice was circumscribed with special rules (Hakkyoho)—there once
were more precepts for nuns (348) than for monks (250)—the ordination of women was still an epoch-making fact. The motives of womenordained into the priesthood varied from deliverance from worldly troubles to protecting their life. Every woman had her drama—one woman
had lost her child, another woman had struggled under her husband’s
physical abuse and became mentally incompetent, another had been
widowed and had no relatives, while there was even one who had been acourtesan.
In the THERÁGÓTHÓ (The Elders’ Verses), nun’s situations and theirpractices are described vividly. In this book, Buddha was speaking tothem as follows. To Dh¥rå, he said “Dh¥rå, attain cessation, the stillingof the (evil) notions, happiness; gain quenching, unsurpassed rest-fromexertion.”7 And to Mittå, “Mittå, having gone forth in faith, be one who
delights in friends (mitta); develop good mental states for the attainmentof rest-from-exertion.”8 These passages show that Buddha considered it
natural that nuns could reach the state of Nirvana.
Nuns proclaimed that they attained Buddhahood in a dignified manner. For example, the nun Vimalå, who once was a courtesan, is reputed
to have said, “All ties, those which are divine and those which arehuman, have been cut out. Having annihilated all the åsavas, I havebecome cool, quenched.”9 Moreover, the nun Somå proclaims, “What(harm) could the woman’s state do to us, when the mind is well-concentrated, when knowledge exists for someone rightly having insight into
the doctrine?”10
During the lifetime of the Buddha, monks and nuns practiced equally,
and there was no discrimination in religious qualification between men
and women. However, after the Buddha’s death, Buddhist groups andmovements were mainly led by monks, and the status of nuns was gradually diminished. Then the theory that women are subject to the five
obstacles appeared. This theory purports that women cannot become a
Brahma heavenly king, a King Shakra, a devil king, a wheel-turningsage king, or a Buddha. This is not a mere evasion of the female capacity, but a denial of female essential religious qualification.
The following are purposed to be the Buddha’s words stated on theoccasion of an ordination into the priesthood of a group of women. But
in fact, they were supposed to have originated with monks who did notvalue the activities of nun after the Buddha’s death. “If women did not
become priests, ascetic practices would be kept forever, and this true
dharma would circulate around the world for 1,000 years. But if theJ ̲Orient̲05 06.2.1 4:54 PM

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ordination of women is allowed, this dharma would circulate for only
500 years.”11 Thus, the Buddhist religious groups overlooked the gradual
deterioration of the concept of gender equality.

2

Women in the Lotus Sutra

The Mahayana Buddhist movement, which emerged around 1 BCE, wasstrongly influenced by the social institutions of the day, because of thelarge role the laity played in the movement. Its view of women was also
influenced by the socially accepted ideas of that time as incorporated in
the “Code of Manu.” In this code, it is written “woman always has notbeen independent,” “woman being a malignancy originally,” and“women can not read the Veda.” As Mahayana Buddhism absorbed thesocially accepted ideas of those early days, the attainment of Buddhahood by women was denied strongly: Moreover, women’s sinfulness
was emphasized.
However, even under these circumstances, some Buddhist scriptures
were going to overcome the tendency to hold women in contempt andexclude them from ordination. For the Mahayana Buddhist movement,
which explains that ‘all living beings have the Buddha nature’ and‘everyone is a Bodhisattva,’ it became a serious problem how a deeprooted view of women is treated according to the Buddhist dharma of its
movement. For example, in the Muryoju Sutra and Dai Amida Sutra,
women are said to attain Buddhahood after they change into men, by the
Original Vow of Amida Buddha. And in the Vimalak¥rti Sutra and theShr¥mårå Sutra, it was explained that it was illusion to be caught by thedistinction of man and woman from the viewpoint of ‘emptiness (ku).’
Furthermore, an epoch-making thing is that the attainment of Buddhahood of the dragon girl was declared in the 12th chapter, Devadatta
Chapter, of the Lotus Sutra. In this chapter, a dragon girl, the 8-year-old
daughter of Ryuo who lived in a marine bottom, obtained spiritualenlightenment. But Shariputra inserted doubt into it. He was caught by
Theravada Buddhist thinking and the theory of the five obstacles.
“At that time Shariputra said to the dragon girl, ‘You suppose that inthis short time you have been able to attain the unsurpassed way. But
this is difficult to believe. Why? Because a woman’s body is soiled anddefiled, not a vessel for the Law. How could you attain the unsurpassed
bodhi? The road to Buddhahood is long and far-stretching. Only after
one has spent immeasurable kalpas pursuing austerities, accumulating
deeds, practicing all kinds of paramitas, can one finally achieve success.
Moreover, a woman is subject to the five obstacles. First, she cannot

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become a Brahma heavenly king. Second, she cannot become the kingShakra. Third, she cannot become a devil king. Fourth, she cannot
become a wheel-turning sage king. Fifth, she cannot become a Buddha.
How then could a woman like you be able to attain Buddhahood soquickly?’”12
Then, the dragon girl handed the Buddha a precious jewel, changed
into a man in front of the assembly. And she carried out all the practicesof a bodhisattva, immediately proceeded to the Spotless World of thesouth, took a seat on a jeweled lotus, and attained an enlightenment. By
this, every member including Shariputra was convinced.
Here appears the attainment of Buddhahood after changing into aman. This is the point criticized as ‘unification to the male of spiritualenlightenment,’ but this is also considered to be the compromise measure united with the socially accepted ideas of those days. As Hindu
society made the predominance of men over women a socially accepted
idea, it might be thought that to embrace the theory of gender equality inpublic was dangerous. Anyway, it is an epoch-making thing that women
who were being denied the attainment of Buddhahood in many Buddhist
sutras had the way paved for it in the Lotus Sutra.

3

Introduction of Buddhism into Japan

Buddhism was introduced into China in the time of the Later-Han; many
Buddhist sutras were translated into Chinese during this period. The
Lotus Sutra was translated by Kumarajiva amongst others. Buddhism
was introduced in the 6th century to Japan traveling from China throughthe Korean Peninsula.
Buddhism was deployed in Japan with its original policy of genderequality intact. The first nun in Japan was a young girl, named Shima,
the daughter of Shiba Tatto, a naturalized Japanese. The reason she waschosen was, firstly, because she was a virgin and seemed to haveshamanistic power; secondly, she could read and write because she wasa daughter of educated people who had emigrated to Japan. Thus, in the
Buddhism of the introductory term, it was presupposed that a woman
was not religiously inferior and she was not discriminated against based
upon her gender. This tendency was extended into the Nara period. For
example, the “Statute for Priests,” the regulation governing temples andpriests comprised of 27 articles, had many provisions about priesthood,irrespective of sex.
However, this situation changed in the Heian period. As a result of theinstitutionalization of Buddhism, major functions within temples began

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to be carried out mainly by male priests. No longer was any importanceattached to the female shamanistic nature. It was out of this climate thatpaternalism took over. One historic characteristic of this time was the‘elimination of women in temples and shrines.’ It started in the second
half of the eleventh century. This was a system in which women wereprohibited from being within the sanctuary of temples, such as Todaiji
temple, Enryakuji temple, Kongobuji temple.
The logic which was used to justify such a system was, firstly, women
were seen as a distraction and, therefore, a hindrance to the practice ofmonks. Secondly, the theory of the five obstacles of women was used tojustify the exclusion of women from the sacred areas. However, considering that women were not discriminated against in early Japanese
Buddhism, there were some factors that were manipulated in order toestablish such a discriminatory system.
One of the factors was the impurity of women. In ancient Japan,
extraordinary physiological phenomena such as death, bleeding (menstruation), and childbirth were not understood as natural phenomena, butwere considered impure ones. They were considered contagious like avirus and should be avoided. In order to avoid infection, people believedthat they needed to isolate the cause and never touch anything to do withsuch phenomena. If they came in contact, they took a bath to purify
themselves.
While the impurity of death is common to men and women, menstruation and childbirth are peculiar to women. Initially, women were considered impure only during the concerned periods, and they could returnto their daily lives after the periods had ended. However, around the11th century, women themselves began to be considered impure. A temporal, limited taboo had changed into a lasting, constant taboo. With
such change, impure women were excluded from sacred and holy
places, such as temples and some mountains. Thus, ancient Buddhism
turned from its early generosity, emphasized the depth of female sin,
and worked to institutionalize the discrimination of women. Such thinking was rampant in temples and aristocrat society and gradually came topermeate the lives of ordinary women.

4 Nichiren’s View of Women
During the Middle Ages, Buddhism in Japan underwent a significant
transformation, resulting in new schools of thought and culminating inthe so-called Kamakura New Buddhism. Although the founders of these
new schools of Buddhism had varied views of women, Nichiren

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deserves special mention. Nichiren denied clearly the discrimination
against women practiced by others, and refuted their idea that women
can not attain Buddhahood, basing his view on the dragon girl’s attainment of Buddhahood in the Lotus Sutra.13
He states as follows, “In the various Hinayana sutras that werepreached before the Lotus Sutra, it is denied that women can ever attain
Buddhahood. In the Mahayana sutras other than the Lotus Sutra, it
would appear that women can attain Buddhahood or be reborn in thepure land. But they may do so only after they have changed into someother form. It is not the kind of immediate attainment of Buddhahoodthat is based on the doctrine of three thousand realms in a single
moment of life. Thus it is an attainment of Buddhahood or rebirth in thepure land in name only and not in reality. The dragon king’s daughter
represents ‘one example that stands for all the rest.’”14
A major point he emphasizes is that women have the capacity for theattainment of Buddhahood in their present form. This belief is based on
the doctrine of three thousand realms in a single moment of life (Ichinen
Sanzen), which holds that all life possesses infinite possibilities that canbe manifested from moment to moment. Therefore, he clearly denies thetheory of the five obstacles. “The ropes that bind you to the three obediences will be severed in this lifetime, and the five obstacles have alreadydisappeared. The moon in your mind shines through unclouded, and theimpurities of your body have been completely eradicated. You are a
Buddha in your present form. How deserving of veneration!”15
Moreover, he also denies the impurity of women. For example, when
the wife of Hiki Yoshimoto asked Nichiren in a letter about what is theproper practice during menstruation, he answered, “This is a matter thatconcerns all women and about which they always inquire. In past time,
too, we find many persons addressing themselves to this question concerning women. But because the sacred teachings put forward by the
Buddha in the course of his lifetime do not touch upon this point, no one
has been able to offer any clear scriptural proof upon which to base ananswer,” and “I would say that menstruation does not represent any kindof impurity coming from an external source. It is simply a characteristicof the female sex, a phenomenon related to the perpetuation of the seedof birth and death. Or in another sense, it might be regarded as a kind ofchronically recurring illness. In the case of feces and urine, though theseare substances produced by the body, so long as one observes cleanly
habits, there are no special prohibitions to be observed concerning them.
Surely the same must be true of menstruation.”16 Nichiren’s answer provides a glimpse into the empirical and practical sensibilities he adopts

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regarding everyday issues, a remarkably progressive approach in an ageof universal gender discrimination based on impurity of women.
For Nichiren, faith, not gender, is the primary determinant for theattainment of Buddhahood. The accuracy and depth of ones faith isimportant. He declares, “There should be no discrimination among those
who propagate the five characters of Myoho-renge-kyo in the Latter Dayof the Law, be they men or women. Were they not Bodhisattvas of the
Earth, they could not chant the daimoku.”17 Moreover, “the Buddha surely considers anyone in this world who embraces the Lotus Sutra,
whether lay man or woman, monk or nun, to be the lord of all living
beings.”18
Nichiren, who stands on such a view of women, is encouraging themany female believers to live courageous lives. For example, he encouraged a wife whose husband shook his faith. “You two wives should haveno regrets even if your husbands do you harm because of your faith in
this teaching. If both of you unite in encouraging your husbands’ faith,
you will follow the path of the dragon king’s daughter and become amodel for women attaining Buddhahood in the evil latter age.”19
Anyway, Nichiren who puts the Lotus Sutra at the core of his teachings declares that gender is unrelated in religious qualification. He
understands that as the original view of Buddhism. In those days when
women’s attainment of Buddhahood was denied and women were prohibited from the sacred places, it was a revolutionary proclamation. It isnatural that Nichiren is distinguished by the remark “the posture about awoman and Buddhism is the most progressive in the founders of the‘Kamakura Buddhism.’”20

5

SGI President Ikeda’s View of Women

The genealogy of women’s emancipation in Buddhist thought has beenpresented above. The Soka Gakkai, born in modern Japan, is connectedwith the Buddha, the Lotus Sutra, and Nichiren in this genealogy. I
would like to introduce SGI President Ikeda’s view of women’s attainment of Buddhahood as revealed in the Lotus Sutra, and provide youwith some insight to his view of women.
First, SGI President Ikeda points out that the attainment of Buddhahood of a dragon girl is “also a grand declaration of human rights that
refutes, by means of actual proof, ideas and beliefs that discriminate
against women.”21 And added, “Everyone, men and women alike, possesses the ‘attainments that were inherent in her nature.’ It is a jewel thatexists in the lives of all living beings. This is the meaning of the mutualJ ̲Orient̲05 06.2.1 4:54 PM

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possession of the Ten Worlds and three thousand realms in a single
moment of life; this is the Lotus Sutra’s fundamental revelation. The
Ten Worlds include the realm of Animals. The dragon girl has the formof an animal, and naturally, the world of Buddhahood is also inherent in
the realm of Animals. Her Buddhahood is invisible, however, to an eyethat is tainted by prejudice. The Lotus Sutra teaches that all living
beings possess the world of Buddhahood. There is not even a hint of discrimination toward women. If it were true that women could not become
Buddhas, then the doctrine of three thousand realms in a single momentof life would fall apart.”22 Here, the thought is that discrimination by
attributes including sex is said to be reprehensible.
And he discusses, “the dragon girl’s enlightenment indicates the principle of attaining Buddhahood in one’s present form. The crucial pointis that she had already become a Buddha in her female form. The dragon girl’s changing into a man is nothing more than an expedient meansthat she employs to drive home the fact of her Buddhahood to Shariputra and the others, who were convinced only men could attain Buddhahood. It does not mean that a woman can only attain Buddhahood by
first turning into a man.” And “fundamentally, Buddhism views all living beings as individual manifestations of a single great golden life. Thisis the truth to which Shakyamuni had become enlightened. This is what
is illustrated by the principles of dependent origination and nonsubstantiality. This, in essence, is the Mystic Law. From this enlightened standpoint, it would be ludicrous to assert that one sex is superior to theother.”23
Yet, the problem which might also be called ‘concession of thought’is mentioned as a trap into which thought tends to fall. That is, “to cause
the Law to spread and take root in society, however, the Buddha had toconsider how to explain it in terms people would accept. Under certain
circumstances, Shakyamuni, while fundamentally determined to teachthe Law ‘in accord with the Buddha’s own mind,’ had to employ wisdom and adapt his teaching to the capacities of his listeners simply to
get a hearing; he had to draw others gradually toward his own enlightened state of life. When explanations are tailored to the biases of society
in this fashion, however, there is a danger that even people of sincere
faith will become attached to those biases, leading to a distorted interpretation of the teaching. The effect often is that when a distorted teaching gets handed down it does nothing but exacerbate and harden thediscriminatory attitudes of society. If we were to trace the historical viewof women in Buddhism, we would probably find many such instances.”24This is an important point, and when considering the change of originalJ ̲Orient̲05 06.2.1 4:54 PM

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thought, it is the problem that one cannot avoid dealing with.
SGI President Ikeda has explored the source of gender equality in
Buddhist thought, and has been urging women to contribute to society
and to their areas with a sense of independence and self-actualization.
For example, he said, “...before being a woman and being a mother, justcreate a truly happy life unfettered by pain. It is the extreme of women’semancipation,” “I hope you are victorious. I think it is single-minded
determinedness and philosophical depth that brings about victory tohuman beings.”25
Moreover, he is especially emphasizing the role of women in creating
peace. He has stated, “...throughout the long history of humanity,
women have suffered the most whenever society has been wracked bywar, violence, oppression, abuse of human rights, disease and famine. It
has been women, in spite of this, who have persevered in turning society
in the direction of good, in the direction of hope and in the direction ofpeace. Women hold the key to opening a future filled with hope.”26 It is
well known that the women who are emboldened to challenge discrimination to overcome unfair circumstances are following the way of selfactualization and philanthropy as calmly as men.
Furthermore, SGI President Ikeda has engaged in dialogues andexchanges with many female leaders around the world. A person whom
he resonated with deeply and held in high esteem is Ms. Deng Yingchao
of your country. This year is the centennial of her birth. He participatedin a total of eight interviews with her, which made deep impressions on
the lives of the SGI women. He talked about her optimism, power, andbelief with which she encouraged the women who surrounded her. For
example, in a message to a Soka Gakkai female student convention, hesaid, “nothing is stronger than a young woman’s solidarity which does
not fear anything, either, but progresses bravely and dies,” and the revolutionary action in 1919 is introduced as “the big power which opened
the dawn of modern China was the scrum of female students including
Ms. Deng Yingchao,” and the “‘wise action’ and ‘voice of women’ will
dispel the darkness of time. It is indicated that this is a historical equation.”27
Thus, SGI President Ikeda admires the activity of independent womenand praises their role in society and history.

Conclusion
As mentioned above, despite the fact that Buddhist thought and Buddhist systems have oppressed women in many scenarios, it turns out thatJ ̲Orient̲05 06.2.1 4:54 PM

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the genealogy of earnest women’s emancipative thought has flowed continuously, as seen in the thoughts of the Buddha, in the Lotus Sutra, andin the view of Nichiren. And this genealogy is connected to the presentday SGI. Practicing Buddhism does not mean only being attached to theexegetics of the faith, but to interpret or re-interpret it according to ones
generation, to revive it freshly and employ it efficiently. SGI President
Ikeda is doing so in the present age, appealing to people and society, andapplying the teaching himself.
The gathering of women of the SGI are courageous believers who
have answered President Ikeda’s clarion call for women globally tostand up. They are acting to make the 21st century ‘the century of a life,’
in which both men and women are treated with great care, share responsibility, realize self-actualization and contribute to society. The manifestation of ‘living Buddhism’ will take place like this. Here is one of theprime viewpoint which considers ‘Buddhism and woman’ in the present
age.
Notes
The Seikyo Shimbun, Jan. 26, 2001.
The Seikyo Shimbun, May 3, 2002.
3
Kyoko Nakamura, Religious Consciousness and Practices of contemporary Japanese Women, in Haruko Wakita, Anne Bouchy et al (eds.), Gender and Japanese
History, vol. 1, Osaka University Press, 1999, p. 145.
4
For the priests, women were considered as the first intruders who inhibit practice. In
original Buddhism, the precept not to commit illicit sexual intercourse was especiallystrict. The instruction the Buddha gave monks practicing asceticism was the evil of
woman was sexual desire. For example, “Passionately attached to the form of woman,the sound of woman, and the touch of woman too, (and) the scents of woman, one finds
various sorts of pain.” Elders Verses I, 738) etc.
5
The Books of the Kindred Sayings (SANYUTTA-NIKÓYA), Part 1, Pali Text Society,1971, London, p. 45, Budda Kamigami tono Taiwa translated by Hajime Nakamura(Iwanami bunko, 1986), p. 74.
6
The Group of Discourses (SUTTA-NIPĀTA), vol. II, Pali Text Society, 1995,
Oxford, p. 16, Budda no Kotoba translated by Hajime Nakamura (Iwanami bunko,
1984), p. 35.
7
The Elders’ Verses II (THERÁGÓTHÓ), Pali Text Society, 1995, Oxford, p. 1,
Butsudeshi no Uta translated by Kyosho Hayashima (KØdansha, 1985), p. 192.
8
Ibid., p. 2.
9Ibid., p. 11.
10
Ibid., p. 9.
11
Taisho Shinshu Daizokyo, vol. 22, p. 186a.
12
The Lotus Sutra, tr. by Burton Watson, Columbia Univ. Press, New York, 1993, p.
188.
13
I already discussed Nichiren’s view of women. “Women’s Issues in Buddhist History: Nichiren’s Theory of Women’s Attainment of Buddhahood,” in The Journal of Ori12

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ental Studies, vol. 41, no. 1, 2002.
14
The Opening of the Eyes, The Writings of Nichiren Daishonin (WND), Soka
Gakkai, 1999, p. 269.
15
Konichi-ama gohenji (Reply to Lay Nun Konichi), Nichiren Daishonin Gosho Zenshu (GZ), Soka Gakkai, 1952, p. 934.
16
The Recitation of the “Expedient Means” and “Life Span” Chapters, WND, pp.
71–2.
17
The True Aspect of All Phenomena, WND, p. 385.
18
The Unity of Husband and Wife, WND, p. 463.
19
Letter to the Brothers, WND, p. 502.
20
Junko Oguri, Nyonin ojo: Nihon-shi ni miru onna no sukui (Women’s Capacity to
Be Reborn in the Pure Land: Women’s Salvation in Japanese History), Jimbun Shoin,
1987, p. 122.
21
Daisaku Ikeda (et al.), The Wisdom of the Lotus Sutra: A Discussion, vol. III, World
Tribune Press, 2001, p. 93.
22
Ibid., p. 99.
23
Ibid., pp. 102–4.
24
Ibid., pp. 104–5.
25
Soka Gakkai Shidoshu Hensan Iinkai (ed.), Soka Gakkai Shidoshu, Seikyo Press,
1976.
26
The Seikyo Shimbun, Jan. 26, 2000.
27
The Seikyo Shimbun, Sep. 22, 1997.