The Bodhisattvas of the Earth in the Lotus SËtra:Involvement in the Human Society

Hiroshi Kanno

The Problem

T

HIS paper considers the Lotus SËtra’s bodhisattvas of the earth.1
Even though Buddhism is often regarded as a pessimistic religion,
the idea of Humanistic Buddhism, advocated by the Chinese monk
Taixu (1890–1947), established an innovative Buddhist notion, by urging us not to place priority on salvation after death, but rather to focus
on our role in the society where we actually live and act. Even though
Taixu involved himself in commentarial work, evinced in his writingof the Fahua yanjiang lu (Record of Lectures on the Lotus SËtra),2 itseems that there was a direct relationship between his idea of Humanistic Buddhism and the Lotus SËtra. On the other hand, we can findthe attitude of valuing one’s interaction with society in the form of
Buddhism established by Nichiren (1222–1282), which is also distinct
from other, more commonly seen Buddhist approaches. Nichiren also
valued salvation in this sahå world while criticizing vehemently thehope of being reborn in the Pure Land after death. It seems quite clearthat Nichiren’s thought on this matter was inspired by the themes of
the Lotus SËtra.3 Nichiren regarded himself as the “practitioner of the
Lotus SËtra” and emphasized that he was a successor of the practiceof the Bodhisattva Never Disparaging.4 It is known that in his later
years he identified himself with Bodhisattva Superior Practices, one of
the bodhisattvas of the earth.5 Nichiren’s approach of valuing one’s lifein everyday society is deeply related to his awareness from his youthof being a practitioner of the Lotus SËtra, and it seems not to have
had a direct relationship with his identification with the bodhisattvasof the earth. But it might also be possible to locate his self-understanding as a bodhisattva of the earth as an extension of his being apractitioner of the Lotus SËtra.
On the other hand, the fact that JØsei Toda (1900–1958), the second
President of the Soka Gakkai, which has a major influence in the field ofJapanese religions, had a self-realization as a bodhisattva of the earth6
seems to have had a deep influence on the thought and practice of the108

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Soka Gakkai. In addition, we can infer that the attitude of valuing theimportance of one’s membership in society of new religions related to
the Lotus SËtra in contemporary Japanese society—including the Soka
Gakkai—comes not only from the general tendency of emphasizing
benefits in this life, which is shown often in new religions, but also fromideas of the Lotus SËtra, including its bodhisattvas of the earth.
This paper considers the bodhisattvas of the earth from the viewpointof positive involvement in society. In the first section, the story of the
Lotus SËtra from the tenth chapter “Dharma Preacher” to the fifteenth
chapter “Emerging from the Earth” is outlined briefly and in the second
section, the bodhisattvas of the earth in the Lotus SËtra are considered.

1. The Development of the story from the “Dharma Preacher” chapter to the “Emerging from the Earth” chapter
There is a big difference in themes between the ninth chapter “Prophecies Conferred on Learners and Adepts” and the tenth chapter “Dharma
Preacher.” The theme of chapters from the second chapter “Skillful
Means,” which follows the first chapter “Introduction” (a preface to theentire Lotus SËtra) through the ninth chapter “Prophecies Conferred on
Learners and Adepts” advocates the idea of the “one Buddha vehicle”
and confers prophecies on ßråvakas based on this vehicle. On the contrary, the theme of who will uphold and propagate the Lotus SËtra
underlies the chapters from the “Dharma Preacher” to “Emerging fromthe Earth.” I will briefly introduce the development of the story within
this range.
The “Dharma Preacher” chapter clarifies that followers of the LotusSËtra after Íåkyamuni’s extinction, i.e. at the time without the Buddha,
are powerful bodhisattvas who have realized enlightenment in a pastage, and are born as bodhisattvas on the basis of their vows who dare tovoluntarily choose to incarnate in the impure and evil sahå world after
the Buddha’s death, out of their great compassion for sentient beings.
The fact that these bodhisattvas, who are born on the basis of their vows,
are none other than the bodhisattvas of the earth in the “Emerging fromthe Earth” chapter will be discussed below.
The eleventh chapter “The Emergence of the Treasure Tower”
describes the emergence of the treasure tower, the purifying of the sahåworld and its surrounding worlds by the three purifying transformationof lands (),7 the gathering of all the Buddhas who are Íåkyamuni’s emanations from the worlds of the ten directions, and the two Buddhas, Íåkyamuni and Many Treasures, sitting together. Afterwards the

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audience rises into the air by Íåkyamuni’s supernormal powers and thepreaching after this takes place in the air until the 22nd chapter “Entrustment.” Then Íåkyamuni Buddha announces that he will enter extinction
in a short time and addresses the audience, saying, “Who on earth will
be responsible for propagating the Lotus SËtra after his death.” In addition, the verses at the end of this chapter indicate through the usage ofparables that it will be extremely difficult to uphold the Lotus SËtra afterÍåkyamuni’s extinction.
Most scholars know that the twelfth chapter “Devadatta” was notincluded in Kumåraj¥va’s translation, but was incorporated into the
Lotus SËtra later. At least, as for the present text, it is easier to understand the story if the eleventh chapter “The Emergence of the Treasure
Tower” and the thirteenth chapter “Encouraging Devotion” are consecutive.
In the thirteenth chapter “Encouraging Devotion,” first Bodhisattva
Medicine King, Bodhisattva Great Joy of Preaching and other bodhisattvas vow to uphold and propagate the Lotus SËtra after Íåkyamuni’s extinction. Then, they say that because sentient beings in the evil
age after Íåkyamuni’s extinction are very low in religious capacities andare difficult to cultivate, they need to summon up the power of great
patience. Next, five hundred arhats and eight thousand ßråvakas, whohave received a prophecy of enlightenment, make a vow to propagate
the Lotus SËtra. However, they vow to propagate it in lands other than
this sahå world, which is at odds with the bodhisattvas’ vow. The sËtra
doesn’t explain the reason for this, but contrasting ßråvakas’ vows withbodhisattvas’ allows us to infer that because ßråvakas lack the power ofgreat patience shown in bodhisattvas’ vows, they cannot propagate theLotus SËtra at all to sentient beings in the sahå world, whose religious
capacities are very low. Next, nuns such as Mahåprajåpat¥ and
Yaßodharå were bestowed with prophecies by Íåkyamuni Buddha andthey also made a vow to propagate the Lotus SËtra in lands other than
this sahå world. In the verses at the end of the chapter, the bodhisattvas
expressed the decision to endure any persecution of Buddhism anduphold and propagate the Lotus SËtra.
Accepting the vows of bodhisattvas of propagating the Lotus SËtra of
the “Encouraging Devotion” chapter, the fourteenth chapter “Peaceful
Practices” preaches the four kinds of peaceful practices including thoseof bodily action, speech, thought, and vows as the method of propagating in the evil age after Íåkyamuni’s extinction.8
While the chapter on “Encouraging Devotion” preaches the spirit ofpropagating the sËtra despite persecutions, the chapter on “Peaceful

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Practices” shows a spirit of compromise, saying in effect that reconciliation with the society and the surrounding people should be regarded as
most important. As for this difference between the two chapters, some
Chinese exegetes made the following interpretations, namely, the“Encouraging Devotion” chapter is for high-ranking bodhisattvas andthe “Peaceful Practices” chapter is for beginning bodhisattvas. For
example, in the fourth fascicle of the Fahua yishu, Jizangsays:
The end of the “Encouraging Devotion” chapter states that if we propagate the sËtra in the evil age, we will be despised and assaulted andreceive a lot of suffering. If this is the case, followers of trivial practices
cause the feeling of retrogressing and cannot propagate the sËtra. Therefore it is now clarified that if we abide comfortably in the four practices,
we can always have pleasure even in the evil age. Now in order to show
exemplary methods of propagating the sËtra in the latter days, this chapter is expounded (T 1721.34.594a11-14).

Zhiyi 2 and Guanding
cle of the Fahua wenju

state in the second part of the eighth fasci:

Question: These ßråvakas became great beings. Why can they not propagate the sËtra in this [sahå] world?
Answer: Because [the Buddha] guides beginning bodhisattvas, whohave just started as bodhisattvas and cannot propagate the sËtra by conducting arduous practices. And [the Buddha] wants to preach the“Peaceful Practices” chapter (T 1718.34.117b9-12).

They state likewise:
If bodhisattvas, who are the first reliance [of four reliances9] and initially give rise to the intention for enlightenment, want to conduct practices
in the perfect teaching and enter the defiled age to propagate the sËtra,they are bothered by the defiled age and their own practices are notestablished and they don’t have achievement of cultivating others. As it
is necessary to show methods [of propagating the sËtra] and clarify
peaceful practices for the sake of these people, this chapter [on “Peaceful Practices”] is preached (T 1718.34.118c28-119a3).

These interpretations quoted above seem to be possible, but we need to
pay attention to the possibility of other interpretations.

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The first possible interpretation is as follows. From the historical
viewpoint of the compilation of the Lotus SËtra, the “Encouraging
Devotion” chapter can be interpreted as a reflection of the early circumstance on the process of the compilation of the Lotus SËtra. The majorreligious idea is the “one Buddha vehicle,” which was an innovative andrevolutionary idea at that time. Based on the content of the chapter on“Encouraging Devotion,” we can infer that this idea elicited an icy
reception from surrounding people, as well as harsh criticism.10 The
chapter “Encouraging Devotion” emphasizes the spirit of “patience” ofupholders of the Lotus SËtra in such harsh circumstances. The “Peaceful
Practices” chapter is presumed to have been compiled after the “Encouraging Devotion” chapter at the point in time where its compilers took up
a policy of reconciliation with the present society and part of the traditional and conservative Buddhist community, which is presumed to havewielded significant power.
The second approach is that of not paying attention to the differencesin the respective teachings for high-ranking bodhisattvas and beginningbodhisattvas between the “Encouraging Devotion” chapter and the“Peaceful Practices” chapter but try to look at the continuity. A thoroughunderstanding of the description of the “Encouraging Devotion” chapter
seems not to indicate a recommendation of aggressive propagation at all,but instead to point out the persecution which the ideas of the LotusSËtra inevitably invites and preach patience in the face of it. This persecution is unavoidably provoked by the themes of the Lotus SËtra, and isthus to some extent inevitable. Nonetheless, in order to promote prudent
relations with society and the established Buddhist community, theavoidance of pointless friction is valued. We can say that the “Peaceful
Practices” chapter explains the methods for this. At present I personallythink that the latter interpretation has greater validity.
Next, in the “Emerging from the Earth” chapter the agents of upholding and propagating the Lotus SËtra after the passing away of Íåkyamuni show their true colors for the first time. Innumerable bodhisattvas far
outnumbering the sands of eight Ganges Rivers, who came from lands
other than sahå world, vow to propagate the Lotus SËtra. Then,Íåkyamuni declines their offer for the reason that there exist in his own
world—the sahå world—other bodhisattvas equal in number to thesands of 60 thousand Ganges Rivers, and that they are the very ones
who propagate the Lotus SËtra. Just then, those bodhisattvas, who have
lived in the space under the sahå world, emerge from the earth through acleft in the ground. These are the bodhisattvas of the earth. Representing
the audience, Bodhisattva Maitreya inquires who the bodhisattvas of theBODHISATTVAS OF THE EARTH IN THE LOTUS SŪTRA

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earth are (the first question) and Íåkyamuni replies that they are disciples whom he has taught since his becoming Buddha. Bodhisattva
Maitreya, still perplexed as to how Íåkyamuni could have taught somany brilliant bodhisattvas in the short period (some 40 years) after his
attaining Buddhahood, continues to beg Íåkyamuni to relieve his doubt(the second question). In response to this second question, Íåkyamuni
reveals in the next chapter of “The Life Span of the Thus Come One”
that his attaining Buddhahood was not realized 40 or so years ago, but inthe remote past shown by the account of “numberless major world-system dust-particle kalpas.” In sum, the Life Span Chapter explicates“elaborating the near to reveal the distant,” which is a core tenetof the Lotus SËtra along with “elaborating the three to reveal the one.”
Next, in the second section I will take up the description of the bodhisattvas of the earth for consideration.

2. The Bodhisattvas of the Earth in the Lotus Sūtra
2.1 The Description of the chapter “Emerging from the Earth”
To begin with, relying on the chapter “Emerging from the Earth,” where
the bodhisattvas of the earth appear on the scene, I will clarify by setting
up some items which describe the characteristics of the bodhisattvas ofthe earth.
2.1.1 The numbers of the Bodhisattvas of the EarthAs for the numbers of the bodhisattvas of the earth, at the beginning of
the “Emerging from the Earth” chapter the sËtra says:
Because in this sahå world of mine there are bodhisattva-mahåsattvas
who are as numerous as the sands of sixty thousand Ganges Rivers, andeach of these bodhisattvas has followers equal to the sands of sixty
thousand Ganges Rivers (T 262.9.39c25-27; B.Watson, The Lotus Sutra
and Its Opening and Closing Sutras, Tokyo: Soka Gakkai, 2009, p. 252[with minor changes]).

There are vast numbers of the bodhisattvas of the earth, equal to thenumber of the sands of 60 thousand Ganges Rivers,11 and each of thesebodhisattvas is accompanied by as many followers as there are sands insixty thousand Ganges Rivers. This number of followers is explained indetail immediately in the following part as follows:

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Each one of these bodhisattvas was the leader of his own great assembly, and each brought with him followers equal in number to the sandsof sixty thousand Ganges Rivers. To say nothing of those who brought
followers equal to the sands of fifty thousand, forty thousand, thirty
thousand, twenty thousand, or ten thousand Ganges Rivers. Or followers equal to as little as the sands of one Ganges River, half a Ganges
River, one fourth of a Ganges River, or as little as one part in a thousand, ten thousand, a million nayutas of a Ganges River. Or those
whose followers were only one thousand ten thousand million nayutas.
Or only a million ten thousand. Or only a thousand ten thousand, a hundred ten thousand, or just ten thousand. Or only one thousand, one hundred, or ten. Or who brought with them only five, four, three, two, or
one disciple. Or those who came alone, preferring to carry out solitary
practices. Such were they, then, immeasurable, boundless, beyond anything that can be known through calculation, simile, or parable (T262.9.40a4-12; B.Watson, p. 253 [with minor changes]).

According to this description, each bodhisattva is accompanied by amultitude of followers, and is called “the leader of his own great assembly.” As for the number of followers, the bodhisattva who has the most
followers is accompanied by followers equal in number to the sands ofsixty thousand Ganges Rivers, and the one who has the least followers isaccompanied by nobody. And the number of bodhisattvas who have thelesser number of followers is greater.12 As the followers are the ones
who the bodhisattvas of the earth have taught, the more followers there
are, the more abundant experiences of cultivating sentient beings they
have, and the higher ranking they have in general. If we accept such a
presupposition13, the number of low-ranking bodhisattvas who have lessfollowers is, conversely, more than that of high-ranking bodhisattvas
who have more followers.14
2.1.2 The Dwelling Place of the Bodhisattvas of the Earth prior to theirEmergence
As at the beginning of the chapter on “Emerging from the Earth”Íåkyamuni states about the bodhisattvas of the earth, “In this sahåworld of mine there are bodhisattva-mahåsattvas who are as numerous
as the sands of sixty thousand Ganges Rivers,” (T 262.9.39c25-26;
B.Watson, p. 252 [with minor changes]) which was quoted above, hereferred only to “the sahå world” for their dwelling place. And responding to Íåkyamuni’s preaching that those bodhisattvas of the earth would
be in charge of propagating the Lotus SËtra after his extinction, the earth

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trembled and split open and they emerged from it. As for their dwellingplace, the sËtra says:
Previously they had all been dwelling in the world of empty space
underneath the sahå world (T 262.9.40a2-3; B.Watson, pp. 252-253[with minor changes]).

The previous dwelling place of the bodhisattvas of the earth is regarded
as empty space underneath this sahå world. According to Buddhist cosmology, the world is suspended in the air. The power of the karma ofliving beings, who will be born, first causes a small wind to arise inempty space out of thin air and this circles into a wheel shape. Upon thiscircling wind, circling water and then a gold circle take shape, and uponthem form the land (earthly circle), mountains and seas. Therefore, if
the earth splits open and we penetrate to its core, we will reach to empty
space. Thus it is reasonable to assume that the bodhisattvas of the earth
live in this empty space. Why, then, do they not dwell up in the world
but underneath the earth? Because the summit of Mt. Sumeru is regarded as the dwelling place of heavenly beings. As heavenly beings are oneof sentient beings of six paths and transmigrate, they are lower in status
than bodhisattvas. In addition, there is a scene in which bodhisattvas
from other worlds come to the dharma-gathering of the Lotus SËtra andin this case they fly to the dharma-gathering from above. Therefore,“empty space underneath this sahå world” has a rationale based on Buddhist cosmology as an appropriate place which fulfills the condition that
Maitreya had never seen or heard of the bodhisattvas of the earth as inhis statement.
I have tried to explain the dwelling place of the bodhisattvas of theearth based on Buddhist cosmology. On the other hand, the first part of
the ninth fascicle of the Fahua wenju gives a religious explanation, saying:
The dwelling place [of the bodhisattvas of the earth] is Land of Eternal. “Eternity” symbolizes virtue of eternity,ly Tranquil Light“tranquility” symbolizes virtue of happiness, “Light” symbolizes virtueof purity and true self, respectively. It is a secret store of four virtues
and their dwelling place. [They] abide in the secret store in the way of
non-abiding. As “underneath” is the deep bottom of dharma nature andthe ultimate stage of profound truth, [the sËtra] says “underneath.”
Underneath does not belong to here, nor the air belongs to there. Neither
here, nor there is none other than the middle way. As [they] emerge

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from here, they dwell in the air, neither upside nor underneath. It shows
the middle way (T 1718.34.125a1-7).

In sum, the dwelling place of the bodhisattvas of the earth is expressedas Land of Eternally Tranquil Light with four virtues of eternity, happiness, true self and purity and further described as dharma nature, profound truth and the middle way.15 It shows the high stage of the bodhisattvas of the earth.
2.1.3 The Physical Features of the Bodhisattvas of the Earth-Focusingon Thirty-two Features
It is said that the bodhisattvas of the earth are endowed with the thirtytwo features which are those of a great man:
The bodies of these bodhisattvas were all golden in hue, with the thirtytwo features and an immeasurable brightness (T 262.9.40a1-2; B.Watson, p. 252).

The thirty-two features are physical characteristics with which Buddhas,
bodhisattvas, and wheel-turning sage kings are endowed. As Íåkyamuni
is sure to be endowed with the thirty-two features as a Buddha, the statement in the Maitreya’s second question that the bodhisattvas of the earth
are more venerable than Íåkyamuni in appearance16 may be related to“an immeasurable brightness.” The description “the bodies of these bodhisattvas were all golden in hue” is the same as the fourteenth feature of“golden body” and light of a fathom’s distance around the Buddha’s
body is regarded as the fifteenth feature of “light of a fathom’s distanceradiating from the body.”17 The “immeasurable brightness” of the bodhisattvas of the earth may be said to be superior to this ordinary featureof “light of a fathom’s distance radiating from the body.”
In addition, the fact that bodies of the bodhisattvas of the earth arehuge seems to be regarded as their superior characteristic. However,while there is a concrete explanation of the height of the Bodhisattva ofWonderful Sound, there is not such a description about the bodhisattvasof the earth.18
2.1.4 The Leaders of the Bodhisattvas of the Earth—Four Bodhisattvas
There are four leading bodhisattvas among the bodhisattvas of the earth,namely, Superior Practices, Boundless Practices, Pure Practices andFirmly Established Practices:19

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Among these bodhisattvas were four leaders. The first was called Superior Practices, the second was called Boundless Practices, the third wascalled Pure Practices, and the fourth was called Firmly Established
Practices. These four bodhisattvas were the foremost leaders and guiding teachers among the entire group (T 262.9.40a23-26; B.Watson, p.
254[with minor changes]).

However, there is no explanation given concerning these four bodhisattvas. We can only assume the characteristics of their practices basedon their names.
2.1.5 The Religious Abilities and the Past Practices of the Bodhisattvasof the Earth
Bodhisattva Maitreya states about the bodhisattvas of the earth:[They are] with great supernormal powers, unfathomable in wisdom,
firm in their intent and thought, with the power of great perseverance,
all the living beings delight to see (T 262.9.40b26-28; B.Watson, p.
256[with minor changes]).

This points out that the bodhisattvas of the earth are excellent in termsof supernormal powers, wisdom,20 and power of perseverance. “Thepower of great perseverance” might be one of indispensable abilities topropagate the Lotus SËtra to sentient beings of the sahå world, who are
low in religious capacities, as described above. As for “firm in theirintent and thought,” there are other similar descriptions, such as “firm in
the power of will and concentration” (T 262.9.41b21; B.Watson, p. 260)and “firm in will, in no way timid or immature” (T 262.9.42a16; B.Watson, p. 263). In addition, they are described as possessing authoritative
virtues and diligence.21
This being the case, in what practices had they engaged sinceÍåkyamuni’s enlightenment in the past so that they could attain suchreligious abilities? As for this question, Íåkyamuni states in his reply to
Maitreya’s first question:
These good men take no delight in being in the crowd and indulging inmuch talk. Their delight is constantly to be in a quiet place, exertingthemselves diligently and never resting. Nor do they linger among
human or heavenly beings, but constantly delight in profound wisdom,
being free from all hindrances. And they constantly delight in the Dharma of the buddhas, diligently and with a single mind pursuing unsur-

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passed wisdom (T 262.9.41b6-10; B. Watson, p. 259).

It is said that the bodhisattvas of the earth seek wisdom diligently andtheir distinctive characteristic is “taking no delight in being in the crowd
and indulging in much talk. Their delight is to constantly be in a quiet
place.” Also the verses, which correspond to this citation state:
These are my sons, they dwell in this world, constantly carrying outdhËta practices, preferring a quiet place, rejecting the fret and confusionof the crowd, taking no delight in much talk. In this manner these sonsstudy and practice my teaching of the way. And in order that day andnight with constant diligence they may seek the Buddhist practice, inthis sahå world they have been dwelling in the empty space in its lower
part. Firm in the power of will and concentration, with constant diligence seeking wisdom, they expound various wonderful doctrines andtheir minds are without fear (T 262.9.41b15-22; B. Watson, p. 260 [withminor changes]).

This citation also refers to “preferring a quiet place, rejecting the fretand confusion of the crowd, taking no delight in much talk” besidesdhËta practices, diligence, wisdom, the power of will and concentration,and fearlessness, which attracts our attention. The text also states:
They have no wish to remain among the crowd but constantly favor astate of meditation, and in order to seek the Buddha’s enlightenment22
they have been dwelling in the space under the earth (T 262.9.42a21-22;
B.Watson, pp. 263-264 [with minor changes]).

If someone likes, in this way, to reside in a quiet place and a state of
meditation, the concern may arise that he cannot propagate the sËtra.
However, as Maitreya said that he had never seen or heard the bodhisattvas of the earth before their emergence in the “Emerging from the
Earth” chapter, the sËtra explains that they have practiced without being
seen in quiet places, where there are few people. As their mission is topropagate the sËtra after Íåkyamuni’s extinction, the patience shown in“Encouraging Devotion” chapter, the four peaceful practices of the“Peaceful Practices” chapter, and the mental attitude of “room, robe, andseat of the Thus Come One” shown in the “Dharma Preacher” chapter23
are needed for realizing the mission. Therefore, it seems that the pastpractices of the bodhisattvas of the earth and positive propagation of thesËtra, which are demanded after Íåkyamuni’s extinction, are different

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from each other.
In addition, the sËtra points out that they planted good roots andengaged in pure practices:
Since the far distant past, in the dwelling places of immeasurable,boundless numbers of buddhas, they must have planted good roots, carried out the bodhisattva way, and engaged constantly in pure practices(T 262.9.41c10-12; B.Watson p. 261[with minor changes]).

In the previous quotation above dhËta practices are taken up and here
pure practices are taken up. Based on these statements, we can understand that the bodhisattvas of the earth are described as renunciantmonks, or fully ordained monks.
The sËtra also states:
It has in fact not been long since you attained the enlightenment. But
this great multitude of bodhisattvas have already for immeasurable
thousands, ten thousands, millions of kalpas applied themselves diligently and earnestly for the sake of the buddha’s enlightenment. They
have learned to enter into, emerge from, and dwell in immeasurable
hundreds, thousands, ten thousands, millions of samådhis, haveacquired great supernormal powers, have over a long period carried out
pure practices, and have been able step by step to practice various good
doctrines, becoming skilled in questions and answers, a treasure among
persons, something seldom known in all the worlds (T 262.9.41c15-20;
B.Watson, pp. 261-262 [with minor changes]).

Here, diligence, samådhis, supernormal powers, pure practices, andskillfulness in discussion are taken up.
It is said that the bodhisattvas of the earth are pure beings, which are
unsoiled by worldly things, like the lotus flower in the water.24
In addition, the sËtra says:
These bodhisattvas are firm in will, in no way timid or immature. For
immeasurable kalpas they have been practicing the bodhisattva way.
They are clever at difficult questions and answers, their minds know nofear. They have firmly cultivated persevering minds, upright in dignity
and virtue. They are praised by the buddhas of the ten directions as able
and adept at preaching distinctions (T 262.9.42a16-20; B. Watson, p.
263).

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Here, the sËtra refers to persevering minds and the ability of skillfulpreaching.
Also the bodhisattvas of the earth are said to recite and understandmany sËtras.25
The past practices of the bodhisattvas of the earth, which were considered above, are similar to the six påramitås as constituting the bodhisattva way and are not special. However, as they have carried out suchpractices for a long time, they are said to have attained superior religious
abilities, which are praised by the buddhas of the ten directions.
2.1.6 The Disciples from the Remote Past
As mentioned above, Íåkyamuni’s reply to Maitreya’s first question
about the bodhisattvas of the earth is that they are his disciples, whom
he has taught since he attained Buddhahood:
After I attained supreme perfect enlightenment in this sahå world, I
converted and guided these bodhisattvas, trained their minds, andcaused them to develop a longing for enlightenment (T 262.9.41b2-4;
B.Watson, p. 259 [with minor changes]).

The verses corresponding to this passage also state:
These great bodhisattvas for countless kalpas have practiced the Buddha
wisdom. All have been converted by me; I caused them to set theirminds on great enlightenment (T 262.9.41b12-14; B.Watson, p. 260[with minor changes]).26

The sËtra clarifies in this manner that the bodhisattvas of the earth arethose who Íåkyamuni has taught since the remote past. The following
Life Span Chapter will explicate this matter in more detail.
2.1.7 The Stage of the Bodhisattvas of the Earth—Non-retrogression
The bodhisattvas of the earth abide in the stage of non-retrogression andwill surely become buddhas:
Now all of them dwell in the stage of non-retrogression, and all in time
will be able to become buddhas (T 262.9.41b26; B.Watson, p. 260 [withminor changes]).

As for the “non-retrogression, the verses of the Maitreya’s second question state:

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So we beg you now to explain. These immeasurable bodhisattvas—how
in such a short time did you teach them, cause them to have aspiringminds, and to dwell in the stage of non-retrogression? (T 262.9.42a2628; B.Watson, p. 264 [with minor changes]).

Even though the Lotus SËtra does not explain which stage of bodhisattvas the stage of “non-retrogression” corresponds to, it should be arather high stage.
2.2 The Vow of Propagating the SËtra by the Bodhisattvas of the Earthin the “Supernormal Powers of the Thus Come One” Chapter
The bodhisattvas of the earth, who appeared in the “Emerging from the
Earth” chapter, vow to propagate the sËtra after Íåkyamuni’s extinction
at the beginning of the “Supernormal Powers of the Thus Come One”
chapter as follows:
At that time the bodhisattva-mahåsattvas who had emerged from theearth, numerous as the dust particles of a thousand worlds, all in thepresence of the Buddha single-mindedly pressed their palms together,gazed up in reverence at the face of the honored one, and said to the
Buddha: “World-Honored One, after the Buddha has entered extinction,in the lands where the emanations of the world-honored one are present,
and in the place where the Buddha has passed into extinction, we will
preach this sËtra far and wide. Why? Because we ourselves wish to gain
this great Dharma, true and pure, to accept, uphold, read, recite, explain,preach, transcribe, and offer alms to it” (T 262.9.51c9-14; B.Watson, p.
314 [with minor changes]).

The bodhisattvas of the earth vow to propagate the Lotus SËtra afterÍåkyamuni’s extinction around the sahå world, where Íåkyamuni carried out his activities. As they are his disciples from the remote past,
they carry out activities around the sahå world as inheritors ofÍåkyamuni’s task of saving sentient beings, which is different from theßråvakas vow to propagate it in lands other than this sahå world.27
Íåkyamuni gives instructions in response to this offer of the bodhisattvas of the earth:
To put it briefly, all the Dharmas possessed by the thus come one, all
the freely exercised supernormal powers of the thus come one, thestorehouse of all the secret essentials of the thus come one, all the mostprofound matters of the thus come one—all these are proclaimed,

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revealed, and clearly expounded in this sËtra. “For this reason, after theThus Come One has entered extinction, you must single-mindedly
accept, uphold, read, recite, explain, preach, and transcribe it, and practice it as directed (T 262.9.52a17-21; B.Watson, p. 316 [with minorchanges]).

These are the instructions concerning practices for the bodhisattvas ofthe earth. As Íåkyamuni recommends that they carry out acts of the fivekinds of dharma preachers and practices as instructed, we can say itshows the entrustment of the Lotus SËtra to them.
Further, Íåkyamuni entrusts many bodhisattvas—including the bodhisattvas of the earth—with the Lotus SËtra, explicitly in the “Entrustment” chapter as follows:
At that time Íåkyamuni Buddha rose from his Dharma seat and, manifesting his great supernormal powers, with his right hand patted theheads of the immeasurable bodhisattva-mahåsattvas and spoke thesewords: “For immeasurable hundreds, thousands, ten thousands, millions
of asaµkhya kalpas I have practiced this hard-to-attain Dharma ofsupreme perfect enlightenment. Now I entrust it to you. You must single-mindedly propagate this Dharma abroad, causing its benefits to
spread far and wide” (T 262.9.52c4-8; B.Watson, p. 319 [with minorchanges]).

2.3 Bodhisattvas who can be born on the basis of their previous vows in
the chapter “Dharma Preacher”Íåkyamuni variously expounds the true religious identity of followers of
the Lotus SËtra in the “Dharma Preacher” chapter. As the Lotus SËtra isregarded as the final preaching immediately before Íåkyamuni’s death,
we can say that “followers of the Lotus SËtra” described in the “Dharma
Preacher” chapter actually mean agents of the Lotus SËtra afterÍåkyamuni’s extinction. In view of the fact that these are none otherthan the bodhisattvas of the earth, it can be said that explanations of the“Dharma Preacher” chapter have significance that cannot be overlooked
in understanding the bodhisattvas of the earth. Since I took up this problem for detailed consideration in a previous paper,28 I will only explain
the point briefly as follows.
In fact, followers of the Lotus SËtra are said to be advanced bodhisattvas who have already offered alms to innumerable buddhas andhave fulfilled their great vow of becoming enlightened. And though they

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could have amply enjoyed their splendid reward, they are born in thisevil world out of deep compassion for sentient beings.29 Further, it isemphasized that they should be regarded as great bodhisattvas who havecompleted Supreme Perfect Enlightenment and as honorable beings whoshould be offered alms as the Thus Come One would be.30 In addition, it
is pointed out that they abandoned the rewards of their pure karma.31 In
sum, here is indicated the idea of bodhisattvas who can be born not on
the basis of their past karma but on the basis of their vows. The idea of
bodhisattvas who can be born on the basis of their vows was seen in theschool of the Mahåsåµghikas in the period of Nikåya Buddhism.32 This
description is applicable to the bodhisattvas of the earth. And bodhisattvas who can be born on the basis of their vows, namely, the bodhisattvas of the earth, are regarded as “the envoys of the thus come one”:
Then you should know that these people are the envoys of the thus
come one. They have been dispatched by the thus come one and carryout the thus come one’s work (T 262.9.30c27-28; B.Watson, p. 200[with minor changes]).

Conclusion
The subject of the Lotus SËtra is not salvation by Amitåbha Buddha of
the West or Bhai∑ajyaguru of the East but salvation of sentient beings ofthe sahå world by the Íåkyamuni, who became enlightened in the
remote past; This is discovered in the background of the Íåkyamuni,
who existed in history. Even though Íåkyamuni, who became enlightened in the remote past, has an immense life span, he enters nirvåˆa on
the basis of a “skillful display of nirvåˆa.” The inheritors of Íåkyamuni’s task are none other than the bodhisattvas of the earth, who remain
after Íåkyamuni’s extinction. If it is so, it might be natural that the bodhisattvas of the earth value this sahå world, which is our actual worldand society to us, as a place where the task of salvation is accomplished.
As ßråvakas, who are conferred with prophecies of future enlightenment
in the Lotus SËtra, probably lack “the power of great perseverance,” they
vow to propagate the Lotus SËtra in other lands giving up on propagating it in the sahå world. This story might indicate even more the intimate relationship between the bodhisattvas of the earth and the sahåworld.
And the idea of valuing the sahå world is shown well in the thoughtof the Life Span Chapter that the Íåkyamuni, who became enlightenedin the remote past, abides eternally at Vulture Peak. To value the sahå

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world is identical with valuing this actual world where we live.
In addition, these bodhisattvas of the earth, as envoys of theTathågata, dispatched by the Tathågata, are in charge of saving sentient
beings by propagating the Lotus SËtra, which is the task of theTathågata. The consciousness with which someone is particularly selected and entrusted to this task by the Buddha can be called the consciousness of the apostle. This apostle-consciousness becomes the ground that
supports the activities of saving sentient beings on the basis of propagating the Lotus SËtra in human society, which is filled with hardship. It isshown well in the emphasis on perseverance based on the apostle-consciousness in the “Encouraging Devotion” chapter.
It can be said that Nichiren’s valuing of society shown in his thought
and action was stimulated by the thought of valuing human society inthe Lotus SËtra and its basic orientation was the salvation of sentient
beings by propagating the Lotus SËtra on the basis of the apostle-consciousness as a practitioner of the Lotus SËtra and a bodhisattva of theearth. His ideas are thought to have a certain amount of influence on thetendency to value the effort to deal with concrete societal problems seenin new religions related to the Lotus SËtra in contemporary Japanesesociety.
Note: I would like to offer my sincere thanks to Prof. A. Charles Muller
and Prof. Gene Reeves for their expertise in editing the English versionof this paper.
Notes
Even though the term “yongchu pusa
” is more common than “diyong pusa
” in China, we can find the term “diyong pusa”in the Fahua xuanyi
vol. 10A (T 1716.33.801a5) and the Fahua wenju ji
vol. 4B (T 1719.34.
233b6).
2This book is included in vol. 10 and 11 of Master Taixu’s complete works Q.
3
See Hiroshi Kanno, “The Bodhisattva Way and Valuing the Real World in the LotusSËtra,” The Journal of Oriental Studies 17 (2007), pp. 180–197.
4
See Hiroshi Kanno, “The Practice of Bodhisattva Never Disparaging in the LotusSËtra and Its Reception in China and Japan,” The Journal of Oriental Studies 12 (2002),
pp. 104–122.
5
Nichiren wrote at the age of 56 in “The Letter of Petition from Yorimoto,” “Thereason is that, if what the sËtra states is true, the Sage Nichiren is the envoy of the Thus
Come One who attained enlightenment in the remote past, the manifestation of Bodhisattva Superior Practices, the votary of the essential teaching of the Lotus SËtra, andthe great leader in the fifth five-hundred-year period [following the Buddha’s passing].
In an attempt to have this sage executed, the Honorable Ryokan submitted a letter of1

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125

petition to the authorities proposing that he be beheaded; but for some reason the execution was not carried out, and he was instead exiled far away to Sado Island. Was this not
the doing of the Honorable Ryokan?” (Showa teihon Nichiren ShØnin ibun, p. 1352; The
Writings of Nichiren DaishØnin, volume I, Tokyo: 1999, p. 807 [with minor changes]).
cf. Watanabe HØyØ, “Nichiren no ‘HokkegyØja’ ishiki to ‘Jiyubosatsu’ ninshiki,” Bosatsu-kan (edited by Nihon bukkyØ gakkai, Kyoto: Heirakuji shoten, 1986, pp. 445– 458)
and Asai EndØ, “JØgyØ bosatsu,” DaijØ bosatsu no sekai (Tokyo: KØsei shuppansha,
1988, pp. 171–181).
In addition, if we view the compilation of the Lotus SËtra from a historical perspective,
we can infer that the bodhisattvas of the earth represent compilers of the Lotus SËtra andits surrounding followers at the time when it was compiled in India. In China the bodhisattvas of the earth seemed to have not been interpreted as real figures who appear in
the historical world after Íåkyamuni’s death.
6
President Josei Toda stated at the second general meeting of men’s youth group (atthe auditorium of Hoshi Yakka [Pharmacy] College in Tokyo on the 23rd of December in1953), “The inner realization of Great Sage Nichiren is the Thus Come One endowedwith unconstructed three bodies. My inner realization is a pillar of the bodhisattvas ofthe earth, while my outer behavior is that of the Great Subjugating General” (Toda JØsei
ZenshË [Collected Works of JØsei Toda], Tokyo: SeikyØ shinbunsha, 1984, vol. 4, p.
106). This self-realization was based on his religious experience in prison. See JØsei
Toda, ShØsetsu Ningen kakumei [Human Revolution: A Novel] (included in Toda JØsei
ZenshË [Collected Works of JØsei Toda], vol. 8, Tokyo: SeikyØ shinbunsha, 1988, p.
519).
In addition, Tatsuko Sugiyama (1867–1932), the founder of HØonji
of theNichiren school, which used to be named BukkyØ kanka kyËsaikai, had
a realization as the reincarnation of Bodhisattva Firmly Established Practices. See Ranjana Mukhopadhyaya, Shakai sanka BukkyØ [Engaged Buddhism], Tokyo: TØshindØ,2005, pp. 132–137.
7
As for the term “the three purifying transformation of lands,” see the Fahua xuanyi
vol. 6A (T 1716.33.751c10).
8These four peaceful practices are given different names by different exegetes. HereI provisionally rely on the Fahua wenju
of Zhiyi 2 and Guanding. As
for the names given by Daosheng, Fayun, Huisi, and Jizang, see
Daniel B. Stevenson and Hiroshi Kanno, The Meaning of the Lotus SËtra’s Course of
Ease and Bliss: An Annotated Translation and Study of Nanyue Huisi’s (515–577)
Fahua jing anlexing yi, 2006, Bibliotheca Philologia et Philosophica Buddhica, vol. IX,
The International Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology, pp. 208–213.
9“Four reliances” means four kinds of bodhisattvas, who people would depend uponafter the passing away of the Buddha. The first reliance is the lowest among these four.
10
For example, see “These monks are greedy for profit and support and therefore theypreach non-Buddhist doctrines and fabricate their own scriptures to delude the people of
the world. Because they hope to gain fame and renown thereby they explain this sËtra”(T 262.9.36c3-6; B. Watson, The Lotus Sutra and Its Opening and Closing Sutras,
Tokyo: Soka Gakkai, 2009, p. 233 [with minor changes]).
11
There is a case in which the chapter indicated only a “great number” and did not
specifically say “the sands of sixty thousand Ganges Rivers.” See, “A multitude of great
bodhisattvas such as this—a person might spend a thousand, ten thousand, a million
kalpas counting them and never be able to reach the end or discover the limit!” (T126

BODHISATTVAS OF THE EARTH IN THE LOTUS SŪTRA

262.9.41c9-10; B. Watson, p. 261 [with minor changes]). Also see, “yet these sons of
the Buddha are immeasurable in number!” (T 262.9.42a3; B. Watson, p. 262 [withminor changes]).
12
The verses, which correspond to prose sentences quoted in the main body of thispaper, show this point more clearly. See, “Each one of these bodhisattvas brings withhim followers immeasurable in number like the sands of the Ganges River. Some ofthese great bodhisattvas bring numbers equal to the sands of sixty thousand Ganges
Rivers. And this great multitude with a single mind seek the buddha way. These greatteachers equal in number to the sands of sixty thousand Ganges Rivers together come tooffer alms to the Buddha and to guard and uphold this sËtra. More numerous are thosewith followers like the sands of fifty thousand Ganges Rivers, those with followers likethe sands of forty thousand, thirty thousand, twenty thousand, ten thousand, one thousand, one hundred, or the sands of a single Ganges River, half a Ganges River, one third,
one fourth, or only one part in a million ten thousand; those with one thousand, ten thousand nayutas, ten thousand, a million disciples, or half a million—they are more numerous still. Those with a hundred thousand or ten thousand followers, a thousand or a hundred, fifty or ten, three, two, or one, or those who come alone without followers, delighting in solitude, all coming to where the Buddha is—they are even more numerous thanthose described above” (T 262.9.40b29–40c15; B. Watson, pp. 256–257 [with minorchanges]).
13
This presupposition does not apply to those who are not accompanied by anyone.
The reason why they do not have any followers is that they particularly prefer to carryout solitary practices. The Lotus SËtra does not exclude such people. It might show thegenerosity of the Lotus SËtra.
14
See note 12.
15
The second part of the seventh fascicle of the Fahua xuanyi states, “With regard to
the seventh subtlety of the original retinues, the sËtra states, ‘They had all been dwellingin the world of empty space underneath the sahå world. These are my sons and I am
their father.’ With regard to ‘underneath,’ the under is named bottom. The
Mahåprajñåpåramitå SËtra preaches the samådhi of bottom of all dharmas. The
Dazhidu lun states, ‘The Buddha understands great way of prajñåpåramitå thoroughly.’
It should be understood that these bodhisattvas understand the bottom of prajñåpåramitå
next to the Buddha. ‘Empty space’ is Tranquil Light of complete emptiness of dharma
nature. [The bodhisattvas of the earth emerge] into the air of Tranquil Light of the present time from the air of Tranquil Light of the original time. Ones of the air of Tranquil
Light of the present time are those who do not know the original time. Because of this,[the sËtra] says, ‘Even though I have journeyed from land to land, there is not one person that I know.’ The bodhisattvas of the earth, who are equal in number to the dust particles of a thousand worlds, are all manifested retinues of the original time” (T1716.33.768b5-12).
16
See, “Suppose, for example, that a young man of twenty-five, with ruddy complexion and hair still black, should point to someone who was a hundred years old and say,‘This is my son!’ or that the hundred-year-old man should point to the youth and say,‘This is my father, who sired and raised me!’ This would be hard to believe” (T262.9.41c13-15; B. Watson, p. 261).
17
For example, see the Dazhidu lun, vol. 4, “the fourteenth feature is that of golden
body. ------ The fifteenth feature is that of light of a fathom’s distance radiating from thebody. The Buddha is the most beautiful in this light” (T 1509.25.90b26-c9). Various

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127

texts give slightly differing sets of thirty-two features and the feature of light radiatingfrom the body seems to be not necessarily common.
18
See, “Huge body” (T 262.9.40b26). The Bodhisattva of Wonderful Sound comes tothe sahå world from a world of Adorned with Pure Light where Pure Flower Constellation King Wisdom Buddha lives. That Buddha advised him that he should not lookdown upon sentient beings of the sahå world because he is huge in body and sentient
beings of the sahå world are small in body. To wit: “At that time the buddha Pure Flower Constellation King Wisdom said to Bodhisattva Wonderful Sound: ‘You must notlook with contempt on that land or come to think of it as mean and inferior. Good man,that sahå world is uneven, high in places, low in others, and full of dirt, stones, mountains, foulness, and impurity. The Buddha is puny in stature and the numerous bodhisattvas are likewise small in form, whereas your body is forty-two thousand yojanas inheight and mine is six million eight hundred thousand yojanas. Your body is foremost in
shapeliness, with hundreds, thousands, ten thousands of blessings and a radiance that isparticularly wonderful. Therefore when you journey there, you must not look with contempt on that land or come to think of the Buddha and bodhisattvas or the land itself asmean and inferior!” (T 262.9.55b8-14; B. Watson, p. 332 [with minor changes]).
19
As for the Buddhist meanings of the names of the four bodhisattvas, see YØenAruga, “HokekyØ ‘Jiyu Bosatsu ni tsuite’ part one,” Indogaku bukkyØgaku kenkyË 21-1
(1972), pp. 128–129.
20
As for supernormal powers and wisdom, see, “These bodhisattvas possess supernormal powers and the power of great wisdom” (T 262.9.40c22; B. Watson, p. 257 [withminor changes]). Also see in the verse of the Maitreya’s second question, “yet thesesons of the Buddha are immeasurable in number! Already for a long time they havepracticed the buddha way, dwelling in supernormal powers and the power of wisdom”(T 262.9.42a3-4; B. Watson, pp. 262–263 [with minor changes]).
21
See, “This host of bodhisattvas with authoritative virtues and diligence” (T262.9.40c18; B. Watson, p. 257 [with minor changes]).
22
I think that the Chinese term fodao
has two main meanings. One is Buddha’s
enlightenment. Another is Buddhist practice. I sometimes translate fodao
as Buddha’s enlightenment based on the Sanskrit version and the context, even though Prof.
Watson always translate it as “buddha way.”23
The “Dharma Preacher” chapter states that after the Thus Come One has enterednirvåˆa, those who wish to expound the Lotus SËtra for the four kinds of followers
should enter the Thus Come One’s room, put on the Thus Come One’s robe, sit in theThus Come One’s seat, and then expound the Lotus SËtra. The “Thus Come One’sroom” is nothing less than the state of mind that shows great pity and compassion
toward all living beings. The “Thus Come One’s robe” is the very mind that is gentle
and forbearing. The “Thus Come One’s seat” is the ultimate emptiness of all phenomena. See T 262.9.31c21-27; B. Watson, p. 205.
24
See, “yet these sons of the Buddha are immeasurable in number! Already for a longtime they have practiced the buddha way, dwelling in supernormal powers and thepower of wisdom, skillfully learning the bodhisattva way, unsoiled by worldly things
like the lotus flower in the water” (T 262.9.42a3-6; B. Watson, pp. 262–263 [with minorchanges]).
25
See, “They read, recite, understand the various scriptures, ponder them, analyze
them, and keep them correctly in mind” (T 262.9.41b5-6; B. Watson, p. 259 [with minorchanges]).

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26
See, “Ever since the long distant past I have been teaching and converting this multitude” (T 262.9.41b28; B. Watson, p. 261) and “Since the far distant past, in thedwelling places of immeasurable, boundless numbers of buddhas, they must have planted good roots, carried out the bodhisattva way, and engaged constantly in pure practices” (T 262.9.41c10-12; B. Watson, p. 261 [with minor changes]).
27
See, “At that time the bodhisattva-mahåsattvas who had gathered from lands inother directions, greater in number than the sands of eight Ganges Rivers, stood up in
the midst of the great assembly, pressed their palms together, bowed in obeisance, andsaid to the Buddha: ‘World-Honored One, if you will permit us in the age after the Buddha has entered extinction to diligently and earnestly protect, embrace, read, recite,
copy, and offer alms to this sËtra in the sahå world, we will preach it widely throughout
this land!’ At that time the Buddha said to the bodhisattva-mahåsattvas: ‘Leave off,good men! There is no need for you to protect and embrace this sËtra. Why? Because inthis sahå world of mine there are bodhisattva-mahåsattvas who are as numerous as the
sands of sixty thousand Ganges Rivers, and each of these bodhisattvas has followers
equal to the sands of sixty thousand Ganges Rivers. After I have entered extinction thesepeople will be able to protect, embrace, read, recite, and widely preach this sËtra’” (T
262.9.39c19-28; B. Watson, p. 252 [with minor changes]).
28
See, Hiroshi Kanno, “The Bodhisattva Way and Valuing the Real World in the
Lotus SËtra,” The Journal of Oriental Studies 17 (2007), pp. 180–197.
29
See, “You should understand that these people have already offered alms to a hundred thousand million buddhas and in the place of the buddhas have fulfilled their greatvow, and because they take pity on living beings they have been born in this humanworld” (T 262.9.30c13-15; B. Watson, p. 200 [with minor changes]).
30
See, “You should understand that these people are great bodhisattvas who have succeeded in attaining supreme perfect enlightenment. Pitying living beings, they havevowed to be born among them where they may broadly expound and analyze the LotusSËtra of the Wonderful Law” (T 262.9.30c21-23; B. Watson, p. 200 [with minorchanges]).
31
See, “You should understand that these people voluntarily relinquish the reward due
them for their pure deeds and, in the time after I have passed into extinction, because
they pity living beings, they are born in this evil world so they may broadly expound
this sËtra” (T 262.9.30c24-26; B. Watson, p. 200 [with minor changes]).
32
For example, in the section describing Mahåsåµghika views, the Yibu zonglun lun
translated by Xuanzang
states, “If the bodhisattva [Íåkya] wishes to beborn in the evil realm to confer benefits to living beings, he has freedom to do that” (T2031.49.15c10-11). Another translation by Paramârtha
, the Bu zhiyi lun,
states, “If the bodhisattva [Íåkya] wishes to be born in the evil realm, he can rapidly beborn there because of the power of vow” (T 2033.49.20c11-12).