State of Eritrea
Ministry of Land, Water and Environment
Department of Environment

National Adaptation
Programmeof Action
April 2007

TABLE OF CONTENTSPAGE

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS………………………………………………………….

IV

PREFACE……………………………………………………………………………

V

NAPA PROJECT TEAM…………………………………………………………….

VI

LIST OF TABLES……………………………………………………………………

VII

LIST OF FIGURES…………………………………………………………………..

VII

LIST OF ACRONYMS………………………………………………………………

VIII

1.

INTRODUCTION AND SETTING………………………………………….

1

Population and Geography……………………………………………

1

Climatic Patterns……………………………………………………..

1

Infrastructure…………………………………………………………… 2

2.

3.

4.

Economy…………………………………………………………………

2

Institutions……………………………………………………………..

3

Development Challenges and Vulnerability to Climatic Variability...

4

FRAMEWORK FOR ADAPTATION PROGRAMME…………………….

5

Key Climatic Haza rds………………………………………………….

5

Key Vulnerability……………………………………………………….

5

National Goals, Plans and Frameworks………………………………

7

Barriers to the Implementation of NAPA Results…………………..

9

IDENTIFICATION OF KEY ADAPTATION NEEDS…………………..

10

Vulnerability Groups in Urgent Need of Adaptation………………...

10

Key Adaptation Activities……………………………………………..

11

Proposed Adaptation Projects…………………………………………

12

CRITERIA FOR SELECTING PRIORITY PROJECTS…………………..

13

Stakeholders and Evaluation Criteria…………………………………

13

Approach to Developing Criteria……………………………………… 13

5.
6.

7.

Assigning Scores to Evaluation Criteria………………………………

14

Standardization and Weighting………………………………………

15

LIST OF PRIORITY ACTIVITIES…………………………………………..

16

Highest Priority Adaptation Projects…………………………………

16

NAPA PREPARATION PROCESS…………………………………………..

17

Organizational Structure………………………………………………

17

Activities………………………………………………………………..

17

LIST OF REFERENCES………………………………………………………. 19

Continued overleaf…

ii

ANNEX 1: COPING STRATEGIES AND POTENTIAL ADAPTATIONPROJECTS IDENTIFIED BY STAKEHOLDERS…………………...

23

Agricultural Sector……………………………………………………………..

23

Livestock Sector………………………………………………………………… 24
Forestry Sector………………………………………………………………….

25

Water Resources Sector……………………………………………………….

26

Marine and Coastal Zone Sector……………………………………………..

27

Public Health Sector……………………………………………………………

28

ANNEX 2: PROJECT PROFILES………………………………………………….

29

Introducing Community Based Pilot Rangeland…………………………….

29

Introducing Community Based Pilot Projects to Intensify Existing 32
Production Models……………………………………………………………
Encourage Afforestation and Agroforestry through Community Forestry
Initiative……………………………………………………………………….

34

Groundwater Recharging for Irrigation Wells……………………………..

37

Introduction and Expansion of Irrigated Agriculture……………………..

39

iii

Acknowledgementsin their support of the NAPA Document
and various interim reports, as well as inproviding technical assistance to thevarious task force units. I also would liketo thank Mr. Aklilu Hadgu from T.
Consult for his tireless efforts infacilitating the stakeholder consultations
which proved to be a great success;I would like to take the opportunity to express
my deep appreciation and gratitude to thefollowing individuals, and groups that were of
key importance in the development of thisdocument. All involved in the NAPA process– from local communities to upper levels ofgovernment – benefited from the diligent andconcerted efforts of these entities, mentioned
below in no particular order of precedence:q Horizon Business and Consulting Groupfacilitated the regional consultative
processes by providing valuable help withworking in local languages;

q The national Steering Committee members

provided strategic oversight and policy
guidance to the NAPA team that was
valuable in keeping the ultimate objectivesof the NAPA preparation process inconstant view. In particular, thecontributions of Mr. Estifanos Bein, Dr.
Ogbeghebriel Berakhi, Mr. Debessai
Haile, Dr. Semere Habtetsion and Mr.
Micheal Negashe are highly appreciated.

q Dr. Bill Dougherty, Senior Scientist fromthe Stockholm Environment InstituteBoston – US Center provided technicaladvice,contributed
tocapacitystrengthening, and helped review and edit
this document and various interim reports;
q UNDP/GEF, and especially the Leastq Members of the Technical Committee andDeveloped Country Fund, provided thefinancing and implementation support for
the Eritrean NAPA. In particular, Mr.
Yoseph Admekom and Mr. Issac Habte
from the UNDP country office were
catalytic in keeping the NAPA on the righttrack and their continual efforts are highly
appreciated; andthe various task force units carried out thevarioustechnical
assessmentsinconsultationwithnationalandinternational consultants. Were it not for
their efforts, this document would havenot been come into reality. Special thanks
go to Mr. Tesfai Gebrhiwot, Mr. Solomon
Tesfamariam, Mr. Mussie Tesfahiwot, Mr.
Esayas Haile, Mr. Esaw Tikue, Mr. Berihu
Araya, Mr. Tewelde Zerezgi and Mr.
Yohannes Bein.

q Dr. Kifle Gebru, Mr. Estifanos Bein and

Mr. Amanuel Naggasie did a great job inreviewing and editing various reports.

q Members of the National and Regional

Project Coordination Units (NPCU)
coordinate all of the NAPA activities incollaboration with its secretariat at the
DepartmentofEnvironment.
The
stakeholder consultative process was
possible because of their excellent
coordination efforts. In particular, I would
like to extend special thanks to Mr.
Kebrab Haile, Mr. Aman Salih and Mr.
Merhawie Tekelay.

Seid Abdu Salih
NAPA National Project Coordinator,
Department of Environment
Ministry of Land, Water and Environment
Asmara, Eritrea

q Mr.

Mogos Wolde-yohannis, Director
General, Department of Environment in
the Ministry of Land, Water &Environment supervised the entire work of
the NAPA effort in Eritrea and was a
supportive presence throughout theprocess;

q T. Consult, particularly Dr. Teklemariam

Zeggu, were diligent and highly engagediv

Preface
Eritrea is a Least Developed Country
situated in an arid and semi-arid region of
Sahalian Africa. The country has low
adaptive capacity relative to constraints in
wealth, technology, education, institutions,information, infrastructure and social
capital. This renders Eritrea highly
vulnerable to climate variability, extreme
weather events, and long-term climatechange.

national strategies, plans, and frameworks
for sustainable development. The resulting
prioritized adaptation projects are closely
linked with national plans regarding
poverty reduction, improving foodsecurity, disaster preparedness andprevention strategies, and promoting
sustainable development. At the policy
level, the NAPA process in Eritrea has
been actively seeking to identify ways tomainstream adaptation to climate change
into national development processes by
inclusion of climate and vulnerability insectoral and development policies.

Eritrea has special needs regarding
adaptation to climate change. With lowlying coastal regions, arid and semi-arid
areas, areas liable to drought anddesertification,
areas
with
fragileecosystems
includingmountainous
ecosystems, and an economy highly
dependent on consumption of fossil fuels
and associated energy- intensive products,
Eritrea is particularly vulnerable. An
overriding need is for developed country
parties to the Convention to take fullaccount of these circumstances in order tofacilitate the transfer of needed technology
and resources so that effective adaptation
can continue to take place.

As the climate change Focal Point inEritrea, I believe the priority adaptation
projects identified through the consultative
process possess great potential to help
vulnerable groups through relieving
hardship,safeguarding
livelihoods,
improving food security, and strengthening
education. The experience gathered indeveloping the NAPA also lays important
groundwork for long-term climate change
adaptation activities in Eritrea.
Eritrea’s NAPA document is not an end in
itself, but a way for us to present to theinternational community our highest
priority actions that are urgently needed toadapt to climate change. Each priority
project will need strong donor support
coupled with effective local project
implementation,
monitoring
andevaluation programmes. I take great pridein the work accomplished thus far andeagerly look forward to seeing priority
adaptation
projects
successfully
implemented in Eritrea.

Climatic hazards such as temperature
increases, reduced precipitation, chronic
drought, flash flooding, heat stress, El
Niño effects, and sea level rise are
expected to adversely affect food security,
water supply, public health, wildlife,
coastal resources and fragile ecosystems
are raising serious concerns in Eritrea
about a changing climate. Those of its
citizens most likely to be affected are also
those least able to cope. These include
subsistence farmers, spate and irrigatedwell farmers, pastoralists, the rural poor,
small-scale traders, urban and semi- urban
poor, artisanal fishermen and island
inhabitants. These groups are alreadyfinding it difficult to cope with increasingclimatic variability. Women, children, andelderly people are particularly vulnerable.

Mogos Wolde-Yohannis
Director General,
Department of Environment
Ministry of Land, Water & Environment
Asmara, Eritrea

The NAPA process in Eritrea wasdesigned to be consistent with ongoingv

NAPA Project Team
Steering Committee
Mr. Mogos Wolde-yohannes
Mr. Seid Abdu Salih
Dr. Ogbeghebriel Berakhi
Dr. Kesete Araia
Dr. Semere Habtetsion
Mr. Estifanos Bein
Mr. Tewolde Woldemikael
Mr. Micheal Negash
Mr. Debessai Haile
Mr. Ogbe Beyene
Mr. Yoseph Admekom
Mr. Issac Habte

DG, DOE & Focal Point UNFCCC, Chairman
NAPA & UNFCCC NPC, DOE, Secretary
University of Asmara
MOH
MoEM
MOA
MOF
MoTC
MOTC
MOT
UNDP CO Eritrea, Senior Task Manager
UNDP CO Eritrea (alternate member)Central NAPA Project TeamMr. Tesfai Gebrhiwot
Mr. Solomon Tesfamariam
Mr. Mussie Tesfahiwot
Mr. Esayas Haile
Mr. Berihu Araya
Mr. Tewelde Zerezgi
Mr. Esaw Tikue
Mr. Yohannes Bein

Member of TC, MOEM
Member of TC, MoTI
Member of TC, MLWE
Member of TC, MOF
Member of TC, MOH
Member of TC, MLWE
Member of TC, MOF
Member of TC, MOH

Regional NAPA Project Participants
Mr. Aman Salih
Mr. Kebrab Haile
Mr. Merhawie Tekelay
Mr. Seid Abdu Salih

Member of RPCU, NRDS & SRDS regions,
MLWE
Member of RPCU, Anseba & Gash Barka
regions, MLWE
Member of RPCU, Anseba & Gash Barka
regions, MLWE
Member of RPCU, Debub & Maakel regions,
MLWE

vi

List of Tables
Page
Table 3-1: Adaptation projects identified ................................................................................ 12
Table 4-1: Ranked Set of Potential Adaptation Projects for Each Vulnerable Sector........ ….15
Table 5-1: Final list of priority adaptation projects for Eritrea……………………………………….16

List of Figures
Page
Figure 1-1: Map of Eritrea ......................................................................................................... 1
Figure 2-1: Eritrea’s rain- fed crop areas.................................................................................... 5
Figure 2-2 Eritrea’s biomass coverage ...................................................................................... 6
Figure 2-3: Eritrea’s river systems ............................................................................................ 7
Figure 6-1 Organizational Chart of Eritrean NAPA Process................................................... 18vii

List of Acronyms
CC
Climate Change
CBA
Cost Benefit Analysis
CBOs
Community Based Organizations
CCD
Convention to Combat Desertification
CEA
Cost Effectiveness Analysis
CO2
Carbon Dioxide
COP
Conference of the Parties of UNFCCC / UNCBD / UNCCD
EINC
Eritrean Initial National Communication
FAO
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
GCM
General Circulation Model
GEF
Global Environment Facility
GDP
Gross Domestic Product
IDPs
Internally Displaced People
IPCC
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
LDC
Least Developed Countries
LDCF
Least Developed Countries Fund
LEG
Least Developed Countries Experts GroupMCA
Multi Criteria Analysis
MDGs
Millennium Development Goa ls
M&E
Monitoring and Evaluation
MEAs
Multilateral Environmental Agreements
MIAT
Multidisciplinary Integrated Assessment Team
MLWE
Ministry of Land, Water & Environment
MOA
Ministry of Agriculture
MOF
Ministry of Fisheries
MOEM
Ministry of Energy & Mines
MOH
Ministry of Health
MOTC
Ministry of Transport & Communication
MOTI
Ministry of Trade & Industry
NAPA
National Adaptation Programme of Action
NBSAP
National Biodiversity and Strategy Action Plan
NCCC
National Climate Change Committee
NRDS
Northern Red Sea
RBM
Roll Back Malaria
SNC
Second National Communication
SRDS
Southern Red Sea
UNDAF
United Nations Development Assistance Framework
UNDP
United Nations Development Programme
UNEP
United Nations Environment Programme
UNFCCC
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
V&A
Vulnerability and Adaptation
WHO
World Health Organization

viii

1.

Introduction and Setting
to 500 meters in the eastern lowland areas;
and from about 700 to 1,400 meters in thewestern lowlands.

The National Adaptation Program of Action(NAPA) of Eritrea has been developed
based on a review of existing studies andextensive stakeholder input. Climatic shocks
have already produced serious negative
impacts on rural and urban livelihoods in
Eritrea. Unless addressed, Eritrea is likely to
become increasingly susceptible to impacts
from climate variability and climate change.

The population of Eritrea is estimated at 3.56
million as of 2003 National Statistics with anannual growth rate of about 2.7 percent.
Much of the population is clustered in thecooler climates of the central highlands.
More than 80% of the population live in rural
areas.

Population and Geography
Climatic Patterns

Eritrea is located at the northern part of the°?
Horn of Africa, between latitudes 12 40°
and 18 02I North of equator and longitudes°?
?
36 30 and 430 20 east of Greenwich. It
has a landmass area of, about 125,700 km2
inclusive of the islands, and a coastline
spanning some 1,720 kilometres. It sharesborders with Sudan in the north and west,
with Ethiopia in the south, and with
Djibouti in the southeast (see Figure 1
below).

Eritrea’s climate regime is highly variable,
being influenced by the expanding SahelSaharan desert, the proximity to the Red Sea
and the land’s physical features. Altitude
and topography play major roles indetermining climate in general andtemperature in particular. Typically, mean°annual temperature declines by 1 C for each
200-meter rise in elevation. Ambient
average temperatures vary considerably,with the eastern lowland having an annual°°
mean of 31 C reaching as high as 48 C;
while in the highland areas the annual mean°°is 21 C with a maximum of 25 C. In thewestern lowland areas, the annual mean is°°
29 C with a maximum of 36 C.

Figure 1-1: Map of Eritrea

The whole country is divided into six agroecological zones representing two rainfall
regimes, summer and winter, whose patterns
and amounts are affected by the differenceof physiognomic regions. The summer rains
are brought by south-westerly monsoon
winds and are concentrated mainly in themonths of July and August. They affect thecentral highland and the western lowland
areas. The winter rains typically occur from
November to March and are influenced by
the north-easterly continental winds. These
rains affect coastal areas and the eastern andsouthern escarpments.

Source:www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/africa/eritrea_pol86.jpg

Eritrea’s physical features are characterized
by central and northern highlands extending
for about 350 km north to south; flat coastal
plains of the eastern lowlands; and flat
plains of western lowlands interspersed withhills. The altitude across the country varies
considerably, from 1,500 to 2,400 meters
above sea level in the highland area; from 0

Eritrea has a mostly arid climate with about
70% of its land area classified as hot andarid and receiving average annual rainfall of
less than 350 mm. The main rainy season in1most parts of the country is from June to
September. There is also a short rainyseason involving a small number ofhighland areas which occurs between Marchand May. In the eastern coastal areas andparts of the adjacent escarpment, the rainyseason is between December and February.
The eastern lowland has an average annual
rainfall between 50 and 200 mm; whilenorthern areas, given that they fall within
the eastern limit of Sahelian Africa, receive
less than 200 mm/year of rain. Southern
areas
experience
averageannualprecipitation of 600 mm, with the central
highland areas receiving about 400-500 mm
per year.

Road transport has been very muchdamaged by the 30-year war of
independence. The Government has madeconsiderable progress to rehabilitate oldroads and to construct new ones, particularly
linking the productive regions to major
consumption canters. Nonetheless, with theroad density of only 0.6 Km per square Km
and 2 Km per 1000 people, many challenges
still remain.

A main feature of rainfall patterns in Eritrea
is the extreme variability within andbetween years, and spatial variation oververy short distances. The southwest
monsoon winds are responsible for the mainand small summer rains in Eritrea. The
northern and north-eastern continental air
streams are responsible for the winter rains
along the coast and in southern part of theescarpment of the central highlands. The
northern and north-eastern winds are dry intheir nature but take moisture while crossing
the narrow Red Sea water body.

EconomyEfforts are also being made to improve theseaports at Massawa and Assab. Eritrea has
a steadily improving education, healthfacilities, telecommunication and postal
services throughout the country.

The 30- year liberation war for independence
has resulted in the destruction of economic
and social infrastructures. Immediately after
independence in 1994, however theGovernment formulated economic policy ina Macro-Policy Paper. This policy document
encouraged, inter alia, private investment invarious sectors and the establishment of an
efficient, outward looking private sector- ledmarket economy.
Eritrea is a poor country with an estimatedannual GDP of about US$ 180 per capita
according to World Development Report of2003. Agriculture, fisheries, industries,
tourism and mining, inter alia, play animportant role in the economic developmentof the country.

Infrastructure
Eritrea is currently confronted with major
infrastructural challenges. Since the end of
the war for independence with Ethiopia(1961-1993), significant strides have been
made in the development of criticalinfrastructure.

Agriculture accounted for about 21 % of the
GDP as of 2003. Over 80% of the
population depend on traditional subsistence
agriculture, including crop production andlivestock husbandry. However, agricultural
production is affected by a host of factors
including high rainfall variability withrecurrent and long drought periods,
continuous degradation of the soil, frequent
pest outbreaks and lack of research andextension services. About 66% of
population was below the poverty line in2003 according to national Statistics Office.

Although the extent and the quality of
infrastructure are still inadequate to attract
private investment, Eritrea has madesignificant progress in rehabilitating andexpanding its basic infrastructure. Powergeneration has been critical to investment
opportunities in the past but with thecommissioning of the Hirgigo project,
Eritrea’s power generating capacity has
been boosted from 35 MW in 1991 to morethan 135 MW in 2002.

2

Poverty is concentrated in rural areas, and ismost severe in arid highland areas.

rehabilitating and expanding infrastructure
and resettlement and reintegration.

Marine and coastal resources, particularly
fisheries, are recognized as one of the very
important areas, which could have a very
crucial role in the economic development of
the country. Eritrea has the potential tosustainably harvest around 70,000 tones offish annually, but nonetheless the current
fish catch is known to be around 13,000
metric tones per year. Having 1900 km ofcoastline, Eritrea has a very high potential
not only to exploit its fish and other marine
resources but also has an excellent
opportunity to develop its tourist industry.

Institutions
Eritrea did not inherit a sound institutional
set up from the previous regime. All
administrative, legal, commercial, judiciaryand regulatory institutions started to beestablished
after
1991.
Althoughconsiderable progress has been made in thisrespect much remains to be done to achievea standard that can help to facilitate theintegration of adaptation concerns into
national policy making.
The Department of Environment (DOE) in
the Ministry of Land, Water & Environmentis the major institution responsible forcoordinating environmental actions in
Eritrea. In addition, there are several
Ministries that deal with environmental
issues in their areas of mandate such as the
Ministry of Energy & Mines, the Ministryof Agriculture, the Ministry of Trade &Industry, the Ministry of Fisheries, theMinistry of Transport & Communication,
University of Asmara, the Ministry of
Public works, and the Ministry of Health.

Eritrea is also believed to have goodpotential of minerals including gold, copper,
potash, silver, marble, oil and natural gas.
The potential of gold, petroleum and gas isbelieved to be high. Mining is believed tohave good prospects in contributing to theeconomic development of the country.
Mining and Quarrying on the average
accounted for about 1.5% of GDP for theperiod 1992-1997.
Industry accounts for about 22% of GDP
and the balance of national income isaccounted for by the service sector, which
was 58% of GDP in 2002.

The National Environmental Management
Plan for Eritrea was adopted in 1995 andprovides the basic policy document foraction in the environmental sector and laysout a strategy for action for conservation
activities. Its guiding principles include
recognition of the strategic importance ofconserving
naturalresourcesandmaintaining environmental quality as a partof national economic growth anddevelopment
processes,
todevelopintegrated and multiple uses of natural
resource use strategies at the same timeensuring local involvement and equity inenvironmental.

Eritrea’s long-term development objective
is to attain rapid and widely sharedeconomic growth with macroeconomic
stability and a steady and sustainablereduction in poverty. The transitional
medium-term (2004-06) objectives sought
to promote economic growth anddevelopment including developing exports,
increasing
agricultural
productivity,
attracting investment in fisheries, tourism,
construction, manufacturing, developing
strong financial sector, and expanding andmodernizing
thecountry’s
basic
infrastructure. During this transition period,
Eritrea’s immediate development priorities
have been to meet the basic needs of the
population,achieving
macroeconomic
stability, managing the public debt,

The Ministry of Agriculture (MOA)
develops agricultural strategies and policies.
Regarding improvements of existing crops,
technologies and traditional knowledge
systems, the National Agricultural ResearchInstitute (NARI) has been conducting

3research on different agronomic crops
including breeding for drought and diseases
resistant cultivars. Regarding forestry
policy, the MOA, in consultation with all
stakeholders, has prepared a draft policy.
This draft has sought to integrate many
climate change adaptation issues.

Development Challenges and Vulnerability
to Climatic Variability
As indicated above, traditional subsistence
agriculture dominates the Eritrean economy,
with the overwhelming majority of the
population dependent upon crop production
and/or livestock husbandry to support theirlivelihoods.

To facilitate the implementation of“National Integrated Water resources
Planning development and Management
Strategy”, a set of management tools,
policies and legislative guidelines, taking
into account of climate change concerns,
have been prepared.

Over 66% of the population lives below thepoverty line. The average Eritrean
household lives on approximately US$ 15
per capita per month, with slightly wealthierfamilies living on US$ 317 per capita permonth Currently, 80% of those living inrural areas support themselves throughsubsistence farming.

To safeguard the sustainability of marine
resource and protect the country’s marine
and coastal biodiversity, the Government
has adopted two proclamations and thirteen
legal notices. There is also an ongoingproject ent itled Eritrean Coastal, Marine andIsland Biodiversity (ECMIB) Project aimed
to address the environmental and marine
biodiversity concerns of Eritrea in the Red
Sea Region.

Small-scale
farmersdominatetheagricultural sector. Typically, such farmers
are living in conditions of persistent poverty
and rely on rain- fed and traditional
practices. This combination renders themhighly vulnerable to climate variability. The
eradication of poverty through improved
agricultural production is among Eritrea’s
primary development objectives. Poverty is
deeply entrenched in rural areas, home to amajority of the population living on lessthan US$1 per day.

Finally, every institution both governmental
and NGO is required to conduct
Environmental Impact Assessment before
implementing any development projectusing the “National Environmental Impact
Assessment Procedures and Guidelines”.
Some institutions are developing their own
procedures and guidelines in consultation
with relevant stakeholders, mainly the
Department of Environment.

Numerous other development challenges aretaking place simultaneously with increasingclimate risks. For example, depletion offorests – primarily for household fuel use –threatens biological diversity, humancommunities, and reduces other valuable
services forests provide.

4

2.

Framework for Adaptation Programme

The vulnerability of communities andeconomic sectors in Eritrea to climaterelated impacts is primarily associated withweather fluctuations in the near term (i.e.,
climate variability), as well as fluctuations
in weather patterns over the long term (i.e.,
climate change). Current major climate
hazards are discussed in the sections below
relative to the nature of the hazard and theserious threats they pose to local
livelihoods, ecosystems, and economic
sectors.

and human health. Moreover, impacts are
already being observed in each of these
sectors, as briefly outlined below:q

Key Climatic Hazards
The main climatic hazards identified in thecourse of the desktop and participatory
vulnerability assessments are as follows:q

Increased climatic variability: Relative
to baseline conditions, there have been
observed changes in average, range, andvariabilityoftemperatureandprecipitation throughout the country;q

Recurring drought: The occurrences ofdry spells, seasonal droughts and multiyear droughts are more frequent than in
the past;q

Flash flooding: there has been aperceived increase in episodes oftorrential rainfall with heavy runoff andflooding; andq

Sea level rise: Coastal areas and thehundreds of Eritrean islands in the Red
Sea are susceptible to rising sea levels
associated with climate change.

Agriculture: Relative to total surface
area, Eritrea has modest land resources
for rain- fed cultivation (see Figure 2-1).
Small rains that usually occurred during
April/May have all but disappeared. In
recent years, the main rainy season starts
later and finishes earlier than thehistorical pattern resulting in somewheat and millet varieties, as well assome native cultivars, disappearing fromproduction, due to recurring rain- fed
crop failures. New crops pests areappearing that have been previously
unknown or uncommon. Irrigated crops
are also adversely affected due todepletion and drying of water wells on
which irrigation depends, as well as
unusually heavy flooding during therainy season. These circumstances are
increasing the heavy toll on subsistence
farmers.
Figure 2-1: Eritrea’s rain-fed crop areas

Key Vulnerabilities
Eritrea’s Initial National Communication(INC) showed that a doubling of carbon
dioxide concentrations would lead to an
average temperature inc rease 4.1 o C.
Rainfall is also expected to be seriously
affected by climate change, varying by aratio ranging from 0.1 in 0.15. Such longterm changes in climate will have serious
adverse impacts on agriculture, water
resources, forestry, coastal environments,q5

Livestock: Frequent droughts between
1992 and 2004 have led to the deaths ofthousands of cattle and camels. Inaddition, thermal stress is increasingly
exceeding thresholds that animals cantolerate, leading to decreased feedintake,interferencewithanimalproductive and reproductive functions,requiring a shortening of grazing hours,
and increasing exposure to pathogens.
Pastoralists in the eastern lowlands andnorth-western rangelands are the mostvulnerable to these patterns.
qqfrom the sea. Fresh and scarcegroundwater is found mostly underneaththe larger ephemeral rivers and is
extracted using very shallow open wells.
Because of these sources proximity to
the sea and its arid climate, the coastal
village’s water supplies are very
sensitive for salt-water intrusion andflooding.
q

Forestry: Most of Eritrea’s land areas
are characterized by sparse to medium
coverage of shrubs with almost not areas
covered with trees (see Figure 2-2).
Climate variability impacts soil moistureand adversely affects the growth ofshrubs and trees. As temperature
increases, it has been observed that there
are increasing shortages of biomass bothfor energy and local house construction,
as well as declines of biomass products
such as frankincense, gum Arabic, doum
palm leaves, wild fruit, wild medicine
and fodder. The most vulnerable species
are those shallow rooted with narrowtemperature
tolerance
including
Dodonaea
angustifolia,
Psiadiapunctulata, Meriandra bengalensis andOtostegia integrifolia in the eastern andwestern escarpments of the country andthose with slow growing habits such as
Olea africana and Juniperus procera.

Coastal and Marine Environment: thedistress of coral reefs in the Red Sea as aresult of temperature rise has had adevastating effect both on Eritrean
fisheries as well as the reefs themselves.
Temperature changes affect throughimpacts on food and nutrient supply,
growth, survival, reproduction, preypredator
dynamics
andhabitat.
Similarly, temperature increase causes
toxic algal blooms (such as red tide) thatthreaten the shellfish population throughlethal and chronic impacts. Climatechange is likely impacting mangroves
and sea grasses through altered sedimentbudgets.
Figure 2-2 Eritrea’s biomass coverage

Water Resources: Eritrea has anextensive river system with seasonal
flow pattern (see Figure 2-3). However,recurrent drought, warmer temperatureand high evaporation pattern are
resulting in smaller stream flows, lower
groundwater level, deterioration in water
quality, and disappearance of base flows
which are the sources of water supply
for urban, rural, livestock and industry.
All towns located in the upper part ofthe major drainage basins (Mendefera
and Dekemehare) or at the water shadedividing ridges (Adikeyih and Barentu)
are particularly vulnerable. On the other
hand, most of the coastal villages arelocated with in less than 15 km distanceq

6

Public Health: Malaria has now been
observed at altitudes close to 2,000
metres in Eritrea, a new phenomenon
that is attributed to climate change.

Increasing climate variability will
exacerbate food security and lead tomalnutrition,
impairedchilddevelopment and decreased adultactivity. Also, diarrhea is being
manifested from flooding and drought
events. During floods, the spread of
infective micro-organisms and parasites
increase contamination particularly of
waste. During drought, water supply isdecreased creating difficulties inmaintaining hygiene.

Agreements (MEAs), United Nations
Development
Assistance
Framework(UNDAF), disaster preparedness andprevention strategies, and various sectoral
ongoing and formulated projects andpolicies.
Moreover, the NAPA process in Eritrea has
been actively seeking to identify ways tomainstream adaptation to climate change
into national development processes, by
inclusion of climate and vulnerability insectoral and development policies that arecomplementary to climate change. In
particular, there are several national policy
processes that have parallel aims to climatechange adaptation have been the focus of
scrutiny. Some of them are listed below.

Figure 2-3: Eritrea’s river systemsq

Poverty reduction strategy: Major
portions of Eritrea’s interim Poverty
Reduction Strategy Paper (2007) focuseson an overview of the nature of poverty
in Eritrea and a statement of theGovernment’s commitment to poverty
reduction. It lays out the Government’s
macroeconomic framework and steps tocreate the conditions for resuming rapid
economic growth, and policies andprograms for poverty reduction. It
represents an initial articulation of anational strategy that aims at directly
impacting on poverty through broad
based economic growth and targetedinterventions. The strategy and theprocesses followed in its formulation are
country-owned and reflect national
priorities and local realities.

q

Environment Management Plan: The
plan comprises four parts, eachconsisting of several sections. The firstpart considers environmental anddevelopmental prospects for Eritrea
within a broader (i.e., international)
context, including the United Nations
Conference on Environment andDevelopment (UNCED). The second
part addresses the major environmental
and development issues confronting
Eritrea. The third part defines major
steps and responses involved in an

National Goals, Plans, and Frameworks
The NAPA process in Eritrea was designed
to be consistent with ongoing national
strategies, plans, and frameworks. In
particular, the NAPA process is closely
linked and highly complementary withexisting nationa l development plansregarding food security, poverty reduction
and sustainable development.
Strong linkages have been established under
the NAPA framework with a number of key
national initiatives. These include Eritrea’s
Poverty Reduction Strategy, the National
Environmental Management Plan (NEMP),
Eritrean Initial National Communication(EINC),
Multilateral
Environmental

7integrated
environmentalanddevelopment planning process. The lastpart examines in detail the requirements
for implementation of the plan and its
associated project activities, institutional
prerequisites,
andfinancial/humanresources.
qcreates an informative snapshot of thecountry’s policy and programmatic
successes, upon which an adaptation
strategy might be built, as well as its
persistent and emerging areas ofunsustainable
development
andvulnerability.

Initial National Communications: Aspart of its obligation under the
UNFCCC, Eritrea communicated arange of information to the COP throughits initial national communication
submitted in 2001. There is close
linkage between the initial national
communication and the NAPA process,particularly as related to vulnerability
and adaptation assessments with key
findings from the NAPA process to be
integrated
into
Eritrea’s
SecondNational Communication (SNC). Most
members of the NAPA team have beenretained for the vulnerability andadaptation assessment to be undertaken
as part of the SNC. Many of the issues,concerns and needs identified in the
NAPA process will be further exploredin the SNC while taking advantage ofstakeholder networks established.

q

National Capacity Self-Assessment: The
NCSA has already identified the major
capacity requirements of Eritrea in thethree main environmental agreements
including CBD, UNCCD and UNFCCC.
Adaptation and capacity building are
considered in NCSA project as being
cross cutting issues that would promotesynergy between and among the
UNFCCC, CBD and UNCCD. NCSA
helps
identify
key
deficitsininstitutional capacity and institutional
linkages and aids the process of creatingsynergies. The experience gained by the
Eritrean NCSA team during the
preparation of NCSA will also enable
Eritrea to implement its SNC.

q

Sustainable
Development
Summit:Eritrea’s assessment of national progresson sustainable development is highly
relevant to NAPA, particularly in that it
8qDevelopment Assistance Framework:
The UNDAF is intended to represent“collaboration and coherence in the UN
Programmes of assistance”, an endeavor
which includes a range of climatechange adaptation and adaptationrelevant activities. In achieving its
overarching goal of contribution to the
reduction in absolute poverty in Eritrea,
UNDAF will pursue activities in six
major areas including the highly relevant
areas of food security and sustainableagricultural development.

qMultilateral Environmental Agreements:
The United Nations Convention on
Biological Diversity (UNCBD) has
many direct, potential linkages toadaptation to climate change, including
its topical foci (e.g., ecosystemvulnerability),
its
policyrecommendations (e.g., maintaining
ecosystem resilience and adaptive
capacity),
andits
participating
institutions at the national andinternational level. For each of theseareas, there are strong potential
synergies
withtheadaptation
recommendations identified in the
NAPA and EINC. Similarly, the United
Nations
ConventiontoCombatDesertification and Mitigate the effects
of Drought (UNCCD) has manypotential linkages to adaptation toclimate change, including its topical foci(e.g., ecosystem vulnerability), its policy
recommendation (e.g., improved natural
resource management), and the overlap
in participating institutions. For each ofthese areas, there are strong potential
synergies
withtheadaptation
recommendations identified in the
NAPA and EINC.

Barriers to the Implementation of NAPA
Resultsq

Policy gaps: While Eritrea has macro
policies in place, there is a lack ofregional and/or micro policies for thevarious socio-economic sectors. Where
regional/macro policies are in place,they suffer from important gaps that
inhibiteffective
actiontowardsustainable development. There is also alack of regulatory mechanisms forexisting legislation and sectoral policy.
Lack of approved laws and regulations
that are directly linked with CC likeenvironmental law, water law, andmaritime code have not being approved.

q

Lack of clear institutional mandates:
There is no clear mandate andresponsibility among institutions as aresult there is duplication and overlap ofactivities; andq

Funding: There is concern that
inadequate funding both at the national
and international levels may limit thelevel of implementation of all measures
identified in the Eritrea NAPA.

Eritrea faces numerous challenges andbarriers
when
it
comes
to
the
implementation of urgent and immediate
activities identified by the NAPA process.
Some of the major barriers that will need to
be overcome can be summarized as follows:qqInstitutional Organization. Institutional
coordinationislacking
inthe
implementation of development projects
andMultilateral
Environmental
Agreements (MEA). Due to the lack of aclear and transparent legal framework,
institutional organization is sometimes
inappropriate and has overlapping
mandates and responsibilities that create
conflicts of interest among stakeholders;
Capacity: There is also a chronic
shortage of human resources and skills
essential for the implementation ofpotential adaptation initiatives;

93.

Identification of Key Adaptation Needs

Eritrea is a country of rich resource
potential, richly varied geography, anddedicated human capability. It has madesignificant development strides as it
emerges from a long-running war inpromotingsustainable
development
policies,
engaging
ininternational
environmental processes, and seeking tostrengthen its human and institutional
capacity.

Subsistence
rain- fed
farmingisparticularly vulnerable to climatic
hazards due to the low adaptive capacityand practices that are increasingly
incompatible with climatic variability.
Small-scale irrigation farmers are also
vulnerable because decreased rainfall
and drought reduce the availability ofirrigation
water
thus
affectingproductivity. Flooding also destroys
wells and other irrigation infrastructure.

Climatic risks pose a serious challenge toEritrea’s emerging development priorites
for agricultural development, livestockraising, forestry conservation, water
resource ma nagement, coastal and marine
environmental protection and safeguarding
public health. For each of these sectors,
adaptation options have been identified on
the basis of desk-based assessments coupledwith ground-truthing through extensive
stakeholder
consultations,
includingindividuals from governmental agencies,
non-governmental organizations, and grassroots communities across the country.
In the subsections below, major adaptationneeds and initiatives are summarized
relative to the key vulnerable sectors
identified during the regional stakeholder
consultation processes in the coummities
around Masawa, Asmara and Keren. These
needs
represent
theoutcomeofconsultations that addressed climatic
hazards, priority vulnerabilities, andexisting coping strategies.

q

Rural dwellers: Forest or woodlanddependent rural inhabitants are also
highly vulnerable. People that harvest
gum and incense, as well as women thatderive their livelihoods by weaving
doum palm leaves and selling wood andother forest products are also vulnerablesocial groups.

q

Pastoralists: Pastoralists are mostimpacted by recurrent drought throughreduced livestock production andreduced livestock products such as milk.

q

Urban poor: The urban poor are
vulnerable to thermal stress and sea level
rise through destruction of livelihood
activities, price increases in local
market, increases in diseases burdensuch as Acute Respiratory Infections(ARIs), shortage of water both inquantity and quality due to drought andsalt water intrusion and shortage of fuel
wood.

q

Fishermen: Artisanal fisheries will bevulnerable to sea level rise in a different
ways through low harvests that result
from erosion and sedimentation of thecoral reefs and mangroves which are
breeding sites for fisheries.

qIsland residents: Inhabitants of Eritreanislands in the Red Sea are vulnerable toclimatic hazards through growing
shortages of freshwater both in quantityand quality due to saltwater intrusion.

Vulnerable Groups in Urgent Need of
Adaptation
In Eritrea, the groups that are mostvulnerable to climate risks are those that
directly depend upon natural resources fortheir livelihood. Women, children, andelderly people are the most affected in anygroup. A brief description of eachvulnerable group appears below.
qSubsistence farmers: These include rainfed and spate and well- irrigated farmers.

10While each of the above communities isalready adversely affected to some degree,
long-term climate change will deepen theirvulnerability to a variety of health impacts.
The most highly impacted will be people
with low immunization, refugees, ruralchildren, pregnant women, pre-school
children and people living in camsin areas.
Key Adaptation Activities
In many parts of Eritrea, the vulnerable
groups identified above have devised
numerous kinds of coping strategies to deal
with agricultural production in the face ofclimatic va riability. However, many ofthese strategies are proving to be no longer
effective. Key adaptation activities neededin each of the vulnerable sectors are briefly
summarized below.

q

Implement
community-based
development and/or rehabilitation ofrangelands in specific areas;q

Select animal species and breeds moreable to cope with climatic variability;q

Establish dairy production
suitable for specific areas;q

Increase job opportunities in order todiversify household income; andq

Reduce overall livestock numbers, while
simultaneously improving productivity
livestock retained.

modelsForestry
Major adaptation activities and needs thathave been identified for tree- and shrubcovered
areas
duringstakeholder
consultations are as follows:

Agricultureq

Major adaptation activities and needs
identified for crop production during
stakeholder consultations are as follows:

Encourage afforestation of degradedlandscape/watersheds by constructing
terraces, micro basins, and check dams;

q

Improve soil fertility and moistureretentionusing
conservation,
fertilization, and alternative cropping
techniques;

Promote agroforestry practices as a wayof diversifying land production systems;qIncrease water supply through irrigation,water diversion structures, ponds, wells,
and the optimization of farming
practices;

Plant a mix of drought resistantindigenous and fast growing exotic
species through community forestry
inititives;q

Encourage natural regeneration throughenclosures augmented with enrichment
planting in biodiversity protected areas;q

Promote wood energy substitutes (solar,
wind, kerosene, liquid propane gas,
electricity) and wood consumption
efficiency (i.e., improved stoves); andEncourage alternatives for wood in
traditional house construction

q

q

q

Control pests and plant diseases throughregular weeding, crop rotation, andplanting of appropriate crops;q

Time crop cultivation in direct responseto changing patterns of rainfall; andq

Breed drought- and disease-resistanthigh- yield crops to maintain and/or
improve crop production levels.

Water Resourcesq

Major adaptation activities and needs thathave been identified for water resource
management
duringstakeholder
consultations are as follows:

Livestock
Major adaptation activities and needs thathave been identified for livestock
production during stakeholder consultations
are as follows:q11

Improve water use efficiency byintroducing water saving irrigation

systems likeirrigation;

drip

and

Enhancegroundwater
mechanisms;

rechariging

q

Develop effective soil
conservation projects;

andqIncreaser awareness, education andtraining for farmers, MoA staff andZoba offices on resource utilization,
particularly on soil/water conservation;

q

q

q

q

q

q

q

sprinkler

Developaccessible
community
awareness programmes on climatechange and adaptation options.

Public HealthUpgradetheexisting
climatological network;

water

Major adaptation activities and needs that havebeen identified for the protection of publichealth during stakeholder consultations are as
follows:q

Establish drought early warning systems;q

Improve the quality of water supply andsanitation systems;q

Improve emergency preparedness;q

Encourage supplementary feeding;qUpgrade health infrastructures (i.e., enhance
vaccination, improving housing standards,
monitor and raise awareness of vectors anddiseases); andq

Develop integrated control approach forvector-borne diseases.

national

Increase knowledge of water resources
through stream flow gagging stations for
major river basins and groundwater
monitoring;
Introduce/expand irrigated agriculture,especially spate- irrigated agriculture for
crop/livestock production;
Promotegood
water
resource
management and efficiency through new
regulations; andProposed Adaptation Projects
During regional stakeholder consultations,numerous specific projects were identified foreach type of key adaptation need identified
above. These projects were considered to havethe potential to decrease vulnerability of keygroups and sectors relative to climate variability,
extreme events, and long-term climate change.

Conduct impact and adaptation researchon water resources.

Marine and Costal Zones
Major adaptation activities and needs thathave been identified for coastal zones andmarine ecosystems during stakeholder
consultations are as follows:q

Strengthen Integrated Coastal
Management (ICAM) practices;q

Promote research to bridge existingknowledge gaps regarding sea level rise;q

Implement a management programme
for mangroves;q

Introduce
marineandinfrastructure protected areas;q

Promote traditional adaptation measures
such as natural bench nourishment;q

Provided assistance for relocation ofisland inhabitants; andOverall, there were a total of 102 specificadaptation projects across the crop, livestock,
forestry, water resource, coastal and marine
environments and public health sectors (seeTable 3-1 for a summary). A complete listing ofthese projects is provided in Annex 1 in tabularform, which also includes a listing of current
coping strategies and programmes.

Area

Table 3-1: Adaptation projects identified
Number of potential
Vulnerable sector
adaptation projects
Agriculture
18
Livestock
9
Forestry
15
Water resources
29
Marine & coastal zones
14
Public health
17
Total
102

coastal12

4.

Criteria for Selecting Priority Projects

The potential adaptation projects listed in
Annex 1 had sufficient consensus among
stakeholders to warrant their evaluation
relative to a set of criteria. This section
provides an overview of the process thatwas used to develop locally-driven
evaluation criteria to rank potential
adaptation options emerging from thestakeholder consultations.

against existing national policies and actionplans related to national development
priorities. This resulted in an initial set of
evaluation criteria that emerged as findings
from the initial desk-based assessment ofpossible criteria.
Second, in order to integrate the needs andconcerns of local communities and othersegments of vulnerable communities, the
NAPA team developed a set of locallydriven evaluation criteria based on specificeconomic,social,culturalandenvironmental factors that emerged fromstakeholder consultations in the coummities
around Masawa, Asmara and Keren.

The criteria were ultimately used in a multicriteria assessment of potential adaptation
options using NAPAssess, a tool for multicriteria assessment that integrates thevarious components of a multi-criteria
assessment (i.e., scoring, weighting,standardization, and project ranking). 1

§
§
§
§
§
§
§
§
§
§
§
§
§
§

Stakeholders and Evaluation Criteria
Throughout the NAPA process in Eritrea,
there was an emphasis on the engagement oflocal stakeholders. This provided a basis fordetermining appropriate trade-offs between
potential adaptations initiatives directly
related to the unique concerns of the rangeof stakeholders engaged.
A list of key types of stakeholders issummarized in Box 1 below. The role ofstakeholders in the development ofevaluation criteria was focused on providing
a better understanding of the key metrics
that they would use in judging theperformance of adaptation activities.
Several regional and national extensive
stakeholders discussions were held with thecoummities drawn from all regions ofEritrea.

Rural heads of households
Farmers
Pastoralists
Fishermen
Urban and semi urban dwellers
Government officials
Academic researchers
NGO representatives
CBO representatives
Community leaders
Regional officials
Women’s groups
Agriculture/health extension
Local school teachers
Box 1: Types of stakeholders consulted

Finally, a high- level expert group drawn
fromvariousnational
stakeholder
institutions, as well as the technicalcommittee of NAPA, merged these two setsof evaluation criteria into one final andpractical set that was then used for theprioritization of adaptation projects. The
stakeholders involved at this level ofconsultation were all based in Asmara.

Approach to Developing Criteria
The process for the development ofevaluation criteria was threefold. First, thegeneral criteria suggested by the NAPA
Annotated Guidelines were reviewed

As a practical matter, the total number ofcriteria was kept to a manageable level by
combining those criteria that tended to havea high degree of overlap. This helped toreduce the analytical burden associated withthe manipulation of the scoring matrices that1

The NAPAssess model, available fromhttp://130.64.126.18/SEIUS/napassess/index.asp,
was tailored to Eritrean conditions.

13were deve loped. The expert group also
assigned weights to the final list of criteria
based on their understanding of the
stakeholder perspectives that emerged
during the consultation process.
In all, the final list of evaluation criteria
included seven key criteria that emerged
from the process described above. These
criteria are listed below together with ashort description. They are listed in order ofhighest to lowest weighting. It is important
to note that these criteria represent a mix ofboth quantitative and qualitative indicators
and were fully established and approved bystakeholders assembled.
qqReduction of threats or impacts ofclimate change: This refers to thepotential of adaptation measures tosignificantly contribute to a reduction of
the adverse impact of extreme eventsand climate variability. The relative
weight of this criterion was 20%.
Cost-effectiveness and feasibility: Thisrefers to the degree of implementationease, overall cost, potential to overcome
barriers, and long-term sustainability
relative to the conditions and constraintsof the vulnerable groups identified. The
relative weight of this criterion was
20%.

q

Impact on vulnerable groups andresources: This refers to the potential of
adaptation measures to relieve hardship,safeguard livelihoods, improve foodsecurity, and strengthen education,
particularly among the vulnerable
groups identified. The relative weight ofthis criterion was 20%.

q

Synergy with multilateral environmental
agreements: This refers to thecompatibility of adaptation measureswith existing national action plans thathave been developed to combat
desertification and preserve biodiversity
resources. The relative weight of thiscriterion was 10%.

q

Synergy with national plans: This refers
to the compatibility of adaptatio nmeasures with national sustainable
development, poverty reduction, andresource conservation policies andstrategies. The relative weight of thiscriterion was 10%.

q

Contribution to poverty reduction: Thisrefers to the potential of projects tocontribute to the creation of adaptive
capacity among the vulnerable groups
identified. It is particularly related to
how adaptation projects can contributeto income growth of poor people in bothurban and rural areas. The relative
weight of this criterion was 10%.

q

Equity: This refers to the potential forthe adaptation measures to be equitable
regarding gender, income distribution
opportunities, empowerment acrosscommunities, and risk reduction acrosslivelihoods. The relative weight of thiscriterion was 10%.

Assigning Scores to Evaluation Criteria
Once the evaluation criteria were fully
identified, each of the 102 adaptation
projects (see Annex 1) that had been
proposed by the stakeholders was assigned a
raw score for each of the proposed criteria.
The process of assigning raw scores took
place one vulnerable sector at a time. Thatis, adaptation projects were evaluatedrelative to other projects within the same
vulnerable sector. For example, potential
adaptation projects in agriculture competedagainst only those projects that wereagriculture-based.
These raw scores were determined on thebasis of discussions - sometimes quite
extensive – with stakeholders. Where
necessary, uncertainty in stakeholder
consensus was resolved on the basis of thebest judgement as exercised by the NAPA
team under the direction of the Project
Coordinator.

14

Standardization and Weighting

These final weighted scores made it possible
to rank the projects in the order of theirimportance, as perceived by the stakeholders
affected and relative to the individual
vulnerable sector categories. The top 22 of
the overall 102 projects appear in Table 4-1,
ranked relative to all the other projects in thevulnerable sector in which they wereclassified.

Once all raw scores had been assigned, they
were standardized using conventional
mathematicaltechniques.
Oncestandardization process was complete, theweight assigned by stakeholders to eachcriterion was integrated into the analysis
and a final weighted score for each of the
102 potential adaptation projects wasdeveloped.

Table 4-1: Ranked Set of Potential Adaptation Projects for Each Vulnerable Sector

15

5.

List of Priority Activities
project rankings sought to ensure that the
final outputs of the NAPA process would bewell linked to the government’s ongoingstrategies to reduce poverty.

The process for the final prioritization ofadaptation projects across vulnerable sectors
was twofold. First, the top-ranked sectoral
projects that emerged from the processdescribed in the previous section wereidentified. This resulted in the 22 projects
identified in Table 4-1 in the previous
section being put forward as the highest
priority adaptation activities for Eritrea.

The resulting prioritized options assummarized in Table 5-1 below, ranked
from highest to lowest priority. Nonetheless,it was agreed that the first raked project
which is “Breeding Drought and Disease
Resistant Crops” is essentially a research
project and as such it seems difficult toharmonize it as an adaptation project thatcan meet the “urgent and immediate needs”
of vulnerable communities in Eritrea.
Therefore, it was agreed to replace thisproject by the second ranked project as thefirst highest priority project and the third as
the second and so on. It was also agreed thatthe sixth raked project which is“Introduction and expansion of irrigatedagriculture especially spate irrigatedagriculture (for crop and livestock
production)” to be included in the final listof priority adaptation projects for Eritrea.
Full project profiles are provided for each ofthese options in Annex 2. After the processof selection and prioritization of adaptation
projects was completed, the NAPA
consultation process gave considerable
emphasis to the analysis of existing policies
and institutional framework so as to assess
their suitability for integration andimplementation of the NAPA in national
development context.

Then, as a final step, these highest priority
projects were themselves ranked by a groupof technical experts, subject matter
specialist and senior policymakers, most ofthem are members of the National Steering
Committee, to produce a final prioritized setof projects across all vulnerable sectors.
This represents a final prioritized list of themost needed projects in Eritrea to meet theurgent and immediate needs of vulnerable
communities for adaptation to increasingclimatic risks.
Highest Priority Adaptation Projects
Each of the highest ranked sectoral
adaptation projects aims to support andimprove livelihoods in Eritrea relative to theset of vulnerable sector identified earlier,particularly among those living in ruralcommunities.
The development of the final list of priority
projects attempted to rank the five highest
priority projects. The subject matter
specialists, experts and senior policymakers
who conducted the final evaluation and

Table 5-1: Final list of priority adaptation projects for Eritrea

16

6.

NAPA Preparation Process
the project both at the national andregional levels;

The overall objective of the NAPA process
in Eritrea was to build awareness aboutclimate risks, solicit feedback on urgent andimmediate needs, and synthesize a wide
range of information to decide on thehighest priority adaptation projects to put
forward.

Activities
Following the establishment of theadministrative structure, the NAPA process
in Eritrea was launched with a kick-off
workshop. The objectives of this workshop
were to publicize the program activities of
the NAPA Project and to cultivate publicawareness of the adverse effects of climatechange to Eritrea.

By necessity, this process involved
contributions from a wide range ofstakeholders which were solicited throughconsultations, workshops, meetings, androundtable discussions. The overall process
was guided by the approach recommended
in the LEG Annotated Guidelines. A brief
overview of the process is provided below.

A major activity in the NAPA process wascarrying out the participatory vulnerability
assessment, which identified climate change
related problems as well as traditional
coping mechanisms and strategies. Hence,both a desktop research component and a
consultative component were included in thevulnerability assessment.

Organizational Structure
A participatory process, involving multiple
stakeholders and national consultants,
guided the implementation of the NAPA
document in Eritrea. This process beganwith the establishment of an administrative
structure, which included the entities
described below. An organizational diagramis provided in Figure 6-1.
q

National Steering Committee: this unit
consisted of senior policymakers who
provided strategic oversight andguidance to the overall activities
involved in the NAPA process;q

Multidisciplinary Integrated Assessment
Team: this team was organized into a
set of task force units that consisted ofexperts and specialists who reviewed
and synthesized pertinent studies andassessments;qTechnical Committee: this group wasconsisted of experts and specialists who
provided a periodic review andevaluation of technical materials
prepared during the NAPA process;q

Project Management Team: this unit
consisted of personnel from the
Department of Environment who were
responsible day-to-day administration of

The vulnerability assessment was followedby meetings of expert committees and anational stakeholders’ consultation. In
addition to summarizing the climate change
related issues and traditional coping
strategies, the consultation identified
requisite adaptation needs of Eritrea as wellas barriers to proposed adaptation measures.
The end-of-project workshop concluded the
NAPA process with the identification of
ranked adaptation projects.
Development of Interim Technical Reports
Expert groups were formed to synthesize
available information, undertake synergy
assessments, and prepare a variety ofinterim technical reports. These reports had
the result of consolidating emerging
knowledge and represent a library ofpermanent material at the climate change
Secretariat at the DOE. The following
topical reports were prepared by expert
groups:q

17

Stakeholder Assessment: The purpose ofthis report was to identify key
stakeholders,
basedonpriority
vulnerabilities, whose participation inthe NAPA process would provide
critical experience and perspectiveq

Stakeholder Consultation Methodology:
The purpose of this report was toconceptualize a consultation process
through which participatory assessmentsof both vulnerability and adaptation
options could be achieved.

qParticipatory Assessment: The purposeof this report was to document
stakeholder perceptions and areas ofagreement on priority vulnerabilities.

qqSynthesis of Vulnerability Information:
The purpose of this report was tocollate, review and synthesize available
information on adverse effects ofclimate change in order to provide abaseline of climate information, andhelp sharpen understanding of criticalvulnerabilities to which adaptation
decisions should respond.
Synergy and Barriers to Adaptation to
Climate Change: The purpose of thisreport was to collate, review andsynthesize available information on
existing national policy linkages withclimate adaptation, in order to clarify
synergies and provide an overview of
the relevant policy context within which
adaptation decisions must be made.

q

Identification of Coping Strategies andAdaptation options: The purpose of thisreport was to collate, review andsynthesize available information on
existing strategies and measures forcoping with the adverse effects ofclimatic variability in order to orient the
NAPA process toward tested, effective
approaches, and help make the processof selecting adaptation projects as
informed and strategic as possible.

q

Identification of Adaptation Projects:
The purpose of this report was to
identify
andelaborate
potential
adaptation activities for consideration in
the final project selection process.

qCountry-Driven Evaluation Criteria:
The purpose of this report was to
identify, assess and prioritize evaluation
criteria suitable for use in the selectionof adaptation activities that address
immediate and urgent needs in the
Eritrean context.

q

Selecting Adaptation Projects: The
purpose of this report was to select andpropose adaptation activities for
implementation, through the applicationof agreed criteria.

Figure 6-1 Organizational Chart of Eritrean NAPA Process
Department of Environment
Consultative
Assessment Task
Force

Steering Committee

Synergy
Assessment Task
Force
National Project
Coordination Unit

Technical
Committee

Evaluation
Criteria Task
Force
Project Portfolio
Task ForceRegional Project Coordination Units
Massawa

Keren

AsmaraRegional & National Stakeholder Consultation
Process18

7. List of References
Baede, A., Ahlonsou, Y., Ding, Y., and Schimel, D., 2001. The Climate System: an Overview.
In: Climate Change 2001, The Scientific Basis. Contributions of Working Group I to theThird Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
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Annex 1: Coping Strategies and Potential Adaptation Projects identified bystakeholders
Agricultural Sector
Autonomous

Current coping strategies
Projects/programmes§ Diversion of small
streams and run off tofields§ Stone and earth bundterraces§ Check dams
§ Crop rotation§ Fallow systems§ Contour farming§ Mixed cropping§ Late planting and earlymaturing crops§ Cash for work
§ Off farm labour§ Remittance from family§ Accumulation of food ingood rain years§ Growing expensive
products§ Integrating crop/livestock§ Constructing wells,
dams, ponds§ Using water conservation
oriented irrigation system(e.g. drip irrigation)§ Using early maturing
vegetable plants§ Reduction of irrigatedfield size during drought§ Replacing perennial
plants by annuals§ Increasing depth of water
wells during drought§ Growing expensive
products§ Integrating crop/livestock§ Sell of fire wood andcharcoal§ Produce vegetables,
fruits forage/fodder which
require less water§ Growing expensive
products§ Integrating crop/livestock§ Safety net for food§ Family remittance§ Seed selection§ Crop rotation§ Crop diversion§ Developing wells, ponds& dams§ Water supply from spring& river beds
§ Mulching§ Drill planting (chulika)§ Deep seeding

Potential Adaptation Activities§ Research in drought
resistance crops§ Multiplication anddistribution of drought
resistant crops§ Food safety nets for needy
households during
disasters such as drought§ Promoting diversion of
streams and run off tofields§ Preparing integrated
production models§ Water use management
and regulation§ Developing water
conserving irrigation
techniques§ Enhance spate irrigation§ Applied research on crop
resistant vegetables§ Promoting self-relianceprogrammes for womenheaded families§ Stone and earth bund terraces on farmlands
to conserve soil and moisture.
§ Breeding of drought and disease resistanthigh yielding crops to promote crop
production§ Implementation of diversion structures tosupplement water to rain-fed agriculture§ Application of fertilizer (both organic andinorganic) to improve soil nutrients anincrease water holding capacity of soil
§ Conservation tillage through application ofcrop residue to reduce evaporation andaccordingly retain moisture.
§ Planting moisture efficient crops such as
pearl millet and water melon on river beds
§ Crop rotation (rotating legume and non
leguminous crops) to improve soil nutrients,
soil mois ture and decrease soil born pests
and disease.
§ Selection of healthy and vigorous seeds toincrease resistance to drought, pests anddiseases and to increase productivity§ Improve farm management technology suchas row planting depth of planting etc. toincrease production.
§ Use late planting and early maturing crops tosecure crop production at times of low andvariability of rains§ Contour farming to retain soil and moisture
on cultivated fields.
§ Weeding to reduce competition of weeds
against plants for soil nutrients and moisture§ Mulching using crop residue to retain soil
moisture from evaporation§ Increase irrigation through construction ofdams, ponds, and water wells for increased
crop production§ Mixed cropping such as barley and wheat,sorghum and finger millet, sorghum andsesame etc. to secure production if one typeof crop fails.
§ Soaking of seeds into water prior to planting
to hasten and secure germination.
§ Biological soil conservation (strip cropping,planting grasses and leguminous plants onedges of plots) to strengthen physical soil
conservation structures so as to retain
moisture and soils in the cultivated fields.
§ Introduction/ expansion of irrigatedagriculture especially spate irrigated for cropand livestock production.

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Livestock Sector
Current coping strategies
Autonomous
Projects/programmes§ Seasonal extensive movement,§ Range development
distance depends on severity(reseeding, spate§ Concentration in riverine area
irrigation, terracing, etc.)§ Increase digging shallow wells in§ Provision of ponds, deepriverbeds
wells, motorized§ Forage conservation§ Early warning§ Crop residue conservation, purchase§ Restocking of breeding§ Digging deep wells by communities
animals and oxen for the§ Moving animals to villages with bettervery needy households
water sources§ Provision of health§ Selling animals except for breeding
services§ Movement to cooler uplands§ Early warning§ Movement to raised grounds§ Rural sustainable§ Keeping herds isolated
development programmes§ Decreasing grazers (cattle)§ Food aid§ Increasing browsers (goat, camel)§ Food or cash for work
§ Overall reduction of herds§ School feeding§ Selling of animals even breeders§ Supplemental feeding for§ Casual work in towns or permanentchild and motherdisplacement of young people§ Food aid§ Fuel wood sale
§ Food or cash for work
§ Trade (within and across boundaries)§ School feeding
e.g. western lowland area with Sudan,§ Early warning
eastern area with Yemen.
§ Food aid dried milk
§ Fishing (eastern lowlands)§ Price control on milk and§ Remittance from relatives (within andmeatfrom outside)§ Supplemental feeding§ Riverbed planting with pearl-millet§ Early warning§ Loan from friends, relatives, merchants§ Priority for dairy the§ Elimination of animals or substitution ofindustrial by-product feed
cattle (except ox) by goat/sheep§ Reducing number of oxen
§ Selling oxen at the end of cultivationseason and buying at the onset of next
cultivation season§ Casual work in towns§ Food/cash for work
§ Remittance from relatives§ Substitution of ox by hiring tractor
service§ Loan from friends, relatives, merchants§ Importing of animals (eastern Sudan,
northern Ethiopia)§ Changing to other trade§ Reduction of meet, milk consumption§ The poor substitute beef, mutton/goatmeat with chicken meat and pulses§ Restriction of milk only to young
children§ The poorest families substitute meatwith pulses§ Substitute forage scarcity with low
energy level feeds and imported feeds
but limited by supply availability andcost§ Reduction of herd size
§ Sales of male calves at early age

24

Potential Adaptation Activities§ Range development bycommunity in specific area
§ Local institutional capacity
building§ Rangeland management§ Selecting animal species andbreeds§ Reduction of livestocknumbers, but improve
productivity of individual§ Establish production models§ Increase job opportunities§ Substitute cattle with small
ruminants§ Establish dairy models suitable
for specific areas

Forestry Sector
Current coping strategies
Autonomous
Projects/programmes§ Promoting community§ Promoting community
forestry/Agro- forestry
forestry/Agro- forestry(multipurpose trees planting at§ Constructing hillside
home stead, individual plots,
terraces, check dams,
etc)
micro-basins and different§ Off farm job; formal or informalbunds, to enhance plant
employment locally or in urban
survival and growth
areas§ Selection and multiplication§ Remittance from familyof drought resistant plants
members or relatives from
§ Raising seedlings on
urban areas or abroad
polythene tubes to develop§ Planting drought resistantcompacted fibrous rootstrees or shrub species
prior to planting§ Mixed planting (indigenous§ Institutional capacityand exotic) in rows, one after
building
the other or in blocks to§ Organizing community
minimize risk of failure,based committees to§ Establishment andmanage local forestry
management of permanent§ Selecting fast growing tree
and temporary enclosures
species§ Collaborative management§ Research on energy(community and government
substitutes and distribution
joint management, under theat economic cost;principle of cost benefit
promotion of the private
sharing)
sector to develop§ Planting fast growing species
substitutes
recommended by government§ Developing fast growing§ Promoting fuel woodtree species
conserving stoves (Adhanet);§ Developing afforestation
use animal dung and crop
technologies for different
residues
regions§ Wood energy substitute (solar, § Research on fodder trees
wind, electrical, kerosene,and shrubs
liquid propane gas etc§ Planting fast growing species
recommended by government§ Substitute house roofs withcorrugated iron sheets andother roofing materials§ Afforestation and enclosureswith rotational taping§ Enclosure with rotational
cutting§ Planting fodder trees andshrubs, enclosure, rotationalgrazing, rotational pollarding,
Reseeding, cut and carry

25

Potential Adaptation Activities§ Promote climate change research
relating to forestry and disseminate
scientific information§ Conservation and management of thehighland forest ecosystem§ Conservation and management of thewoodland ecosystem of the south
western lowland and promote thesustainable utilization of none woodforest products such as gum andincense§ Strengthening institutional and legal
aspects of the sector§ Conduct woody biomass survey andintroduce proper utilization of wood
resources§ Encourage Afforestation of degradedlandscapes/watersheds and promoteagro forestry, by constructing terraces,
micro basins, check dams and using a
mix of drought resistant indigenous andfast growing exotic species, throughcommunity forestry initiatives. These will
help in producing diversified productionof food, wood and fodder in line withother environmental protection§ Encourage natural regeneration throughenclosures and augment withenrichment planting with indigenous
plants to fill gaps
§ Establish biodiversity protected areas§ Introduce collaborative forest resourcesmanagement in the riverine forest andpromote proper utilization of the Doum
Palm leaves (Laka)§ Encourage alternatives for traditional
house construction§ Delineate some forest land in
Semienawi and Debubwi Bahri forgenetic resource conservation§ Encourage the use of improved woodstoves (Adhanet)§ Promote wood energy substitutes(solar, wind, kerosene, liquid propane
gas, electricity)§ Encourage proper livestock
management (rotational grazing,rotational pollarding, cut and carry,
reseeding grasses, planting fodder trees
and shrubs ) to reduce overgrazing§ Promote fire protection mechanisms

Water Resource Sector
Current coping strategies
Autonomous
Projects/programmes§ Rainwater harvesting§ Construction of new dams andfrom roofs and hillsides
ponds and increasing the§ Introduction of watercapacity of existing dams
rationing, water tariff and § Increase availability of water
water trucking
supply by digging of new wells§ Establish village leveland shifting from shallow
water committees
aquifers to deeper rock aquifers§ Soil and Water§ Awareness, education andConservation measures
training of farmers on resources§ Change in land use
utilization,§ Construction of stream§ Soil and Water Conservation
diversions in themeasureslowlands§ -Capacity Building Awareness,§ Construct shallow wells
education and training of§ Construction of shallow
farmers, MoA staff and zoba
and deep wells, dams
offices on resources utilization,and ponds andparticularly on soil and water
increasing the capacity
conservationof existing dams by§ -Introduction of irrigatedraising their heights
agriculture§ Reduce irrigated land
§ -Digging of new wells andsize and grow mainly
shifting from shallow aquifers toshort maturing
deeper rock aquifers
vegetables§ -Construction of new dams,§ Establish village level
ponds and increasing thewater and irrigation
capacity of existing dams
committees§ -Improve/upgrade urban§ River bank protection
groundwater supply systems§ Construction of shallow§ -Introduction of regulations towells, ponds and smallenhance water management
dams for human and§ -Enhance groundwater
livestock watering
recharging mechanisms like Soil
§ Rainwater harvestingand Water Conservationfrom roofs and hillsides
measures and forestation§ Introduction and§ -Construction of shallow/deep
expansion of spate
wells, dams and ponds andirrigated agriculture
increasing capacity of existing§ Introduction of waterdams by raising heights
tariff and water trucking§ -Improve on farm level water§ -Livestock movement
use efficiency
depending on the§ -Improve water use efficiency byavailability of grazing
developing and introducing
and water point Reducewater saving irrigation system
livestock population
like drip and sprinkler irrigation§ -Introduction of water§ -Construction of wells, ponds
tariffand small dams for human andlivestock watering§ -Improve/upgrade existing
coastal fresh water sources§ -Introduction and expansion of
spate irrigated agriculture§ -Improve design/construction
procedures of water works§ -Awareness, education andtraining on resources utilization§ -Construction of ponds, wells
and dams for livestock watering

26

Potential Adaptation Activities§ Upgrading the existing national
clim atologically network .
§ Upgrading Massawa water supply sourcesand distribution.
§ Upgrade existing dams to increase theirreservoir storage capacity.
§ River bank protection.
§ Research low cost water treatment§ Reduce irrigated land size and growmainly short maturing vegetables.
§ Rainwater harvesting from roofs/hillsides.
§ Prepare drought management plan for all
major cities and towns.
§ Introduction of water rationing, water tariff
and water trucking.
§ Introduction of regulations to enhancegood water management and improvewater use efficiency.
§ Ground water recharge for irrigation wells§ Implement rural/urban water supply of
new dams and ponds and wells.
§ Improving and upgrading existing coastal
fresh water sources.
§ Improve water use efficiency bydeveloping and introducing irrigation
systems like drip/sprinkler irrigation§ Improve the design and construction
procedures of water works.
§ Improve the design and construction ofexisting traditional spate irrigation system.
§ Improve farm level water use efficiency.
§ Groundwater recharge for Harsille well
fields (Asseb) .
§ Establishing groundwater monitoring.
§ Establish village level water and irrigationcommittees§ Establish a stream flow gagging station for
major river basins.
§ Enhance groundwater recharging
mechanisms§ Develope better system of information
flow about climate change impact.
§ Develop an effective Soil and Water
Conservation projects.
§ Construction of livestock watering points§ Conduct impact and adaptation research.
§ Capacity Building to Water Resources
Department, Zoba offices and MoA on
groundwater assessment anddevelopment.
§ Capacity building for city and town watersupply administration bodies.
§ Awareness, education and training of
farmers, MoA staff and Zoba offices on
resources utilization, particularly on soil
and water conservation.

Marine and Coastal Zone Sector
Current coping strategies
Autonomous
Projects/programmes§
Migrate to highlands§
Prepare insulated housing made§Use wooden housesof fiber plastic and easily§
Planting trees aroundconstructed
their houses§
Minimize working hour to avoid§
Shifting of their daily
thermal stress.
activities when the sun§
Mobilize community
is setting§
Provide tents and other§
Spend their time in thenecessary materials
shore (swim) during day§
Distribute mosquito protecting net
time when there is§
Financial support from fisheries
extreme thermal stresscooperatives§
Proclamation of land§
Community based marine§
Temporary protect theresource management
coast with stones andprogramme
other barriers such as§
Food aid
dikes§
Small scale aquaculture useful as§
Shifting to uplifted landa vehicle to stabilize food supplierof the coast to avoid
and employment
flooding§
ECBIM project§
Closed seasons and§National Biodiversity Strategy andareas (take rest)
Action Plan§
Shift to other livelihood,§
Manazanar project (mangrove
small traders
planting)§
Migrate to relatively§
Enforcing community by laws,
suitable and cold area
e.g. regulations where fine is§
Stock dried fish before
imposed if a person uses banned
the change take placefishing methods§
Pelagic fish migrate to§
Closed season and close area,other less stressed
i.e. restocking depleted species
place
§
NBSAP
§
Avoid spawning§
Loss activity during the
day to store energy

27

Potential Adaptation Activities§
Integrated Coastal Area
Management§
Capacity building for village socialgroups, and assistance to improveexisting coping capacity§
Community awareness programme
to raise awareness on climatechange and adaptation options§
Promote research studies to bridge
the existing gap of knowledge ofclimatic change§
Promote traditional adaptation
measures such as natural benchnourishment§
Coastal infrastructure protection§
Assistance for relocation of island
inhabitants§
Emergency contingency pan§
Introducing low-tech community
based coas tal aquaculture andmanagement§
Encourage communities to diversify
their livelihood in response to themulti-dimensional impact of climatechange§Marine protected area§
Management programme for
mangroves§
Mangrove afforestation programmeand establishment of nursery
grounds§
Fisheries management

Public Health Sector
Current coping strategies
Autonomous
Projects/programmes• Constructing houses with materials of poor • Multi-targeted healthheat conductivity
programmes• Using ventilators, air conditioners• Vaccination of children• Dressing style: light, white, loose fitting• Supplementary feeding forwith the bodychildren and mothers• Planting trees for shade around the house • Food aid• Frequent washing of the body
• Awareness on health anddisease• Adjusting work time to late afternoon, earlymorning, nights• Improved health infrastructure• Avoiding to take drinking water from flood• Increasing clean waterpools
sources• Boiling of water before drinking• Distribution of drugs and bed
nets for malaria• Avoiding water contamination with humanfaeces• Early warning on weatherchanges• Digging of water well for adequate andclean water source• Draining wet areas• Water conservation by collecting rain
• Insecticide applicationwater from roof
• Eliminating breeding site
• Avoiding washing in stagnant water which • Create disaster preparedness
is contaminatedprogrammes• Cooking food thoroughly and eating it• Land use planning to reduce
without storing
flash floods• Using bed nets impregnated with the• Destroy unfit residenceschemicals• Fortify sanitation systems• Taking prophylactic medication against• Surveillance for disease,malaria during risk season
vectors• Controlling insect breeding sites around• Constructing sanitary facilities
the house• Integrated control approach• Taking awareness informationfor vector-borne diseases• Constructing latrines• Housing programmes• Conserving food for periods of shortage(sanitary, wire mesh fitting• Avoiding swimming in pond or stagnant
strong)water in riverbeds• Emergency food aid until
resettlement• Irrigation system that is not suitable forvector breeding (e.g. snails)• Provision of temporary health• Taking prophylactic medicaments against
facilities, equipment, drugs
malaria before moving to malaria endemic • Emergency cooking materials
areas• Provision of emergency water• Avoiding swimming in pond or stagnant
supplywater in riverbeds• Provision of sanitary facilities• Controlling insect breeding sites around• Health education
the house (water pools)• Digging water wells for clean water
source, water treat• Water conservation by collecting rainwater from roof
• Install mosquito proof mesh or window
screens• Organizing households in managing
refugee camps• Preparing households for returning to theirvillages• Participating in refugee camp sanitation

28

Potential Adaptation
Activities• Upgrading healthinfrastructure• Building awareness on
diseases and causes• Establishing early warning
systems• Improving water andsanitation systems• Emergency preparedness
for disasters• Improving housing
standards• Land use planning• Town and village planning• Coastal protection fromstorms• Supplementary feeding• Vaccination• Developing bed nets andaccessories at economic
prices so that people haveaccess in already malaria
endemic areas• Surveillance of vectors anddiseases, drug/insecticide
resistance (malaria risk
areas)• Programmes for destructionof vector breeding sites• Developing integrated
control approach for vectorborne diseases• Preparing programmes forresettlement involving
socioeconomic
infrastructure• Provision of initialrequirements that lead to
self-sufficiency

Annex 2: Project Profiles
This Annex presents a total of five projects that have emerged from the complete NAPA consultative
process in Eritrea. They represent the highest priority interventions as determined through a structured
the Multi-Criteria Analysis (MCA) process that involved a broad range of stakeholders (see Section 6
for a discussion of the NAPA stakeholder consultation process). Each project is briefly described
regarding its rationale, objectives, activities, expected outcomes, implementation arrangements, andbudget.

Project Profile 1:
Introducing community based pilot rangeland improvement and management
in selected agro-ecological areas in the north western lowlands rangeland
Project area: The north-western lowland, a hot arid region with extreme rainfall variability andfrequent drought years, is the geographic focus for this project. The vegetation is of the savannah type
and the topography is flat plain crossed by major ephemeral rivers flowing from the central highlandarea. The populations are pastoralists, hence their livelihood is almost exclusively dependent on
livestock. The production system is featured with extensive seasonal movement to cope with shortageof feed and water. However, the system is becoming less sustainable and as a result the pastoralists
are impacted by the low animal productivity and because many animals are lost due to starvation andlack of drinking water. The rangeland, the pastoral system and the livelihoods of the pastoralists in the
project area are highly vulnerable to climate variability, extreme events such as drought and climatechange. The most vulnerable populations in the project area are those thriving in the Kerkebet area. In
general, 6 villages, 200 HH/village and 20,000 ha of rangeland will be covered by this project.
Rationale: The pastoralists in the project area are dependent on livestock for their livelihood. The
extensive livestock production system has however failed to sustain their livelihood because theproductive and reproductive efficiencies have been declining progressively and direct losses ofanimals due to lack of feed and water during the dry season and drought years have been increasing.
The rangeland has been negatively affected by climate variability, drought and climate change where
the total biomass has been decreasing sharply and the nutritive plant species have been replaced byplant species and associations of less nutritive value. The traditional coping practice of animal
movement in search of water and feed has been disturbed by land use change and climate variability.
As a sequel to this, the rangeland is currently unable to sustain profitable livestock production andbecause of this the system is not capable to sustain the livelihood of the pastoralists. This project has
been designed to adapt the livestock system into the new conditions produced by climate variability
and frequent droughts. The strategy is to increase feed and water supply for the long dry season andestablish community based rangeland management system. This is expected to improve the productive
efficiencies of the livestock and decrease the direct losses of animals due to starvation and thirst. In
this way, the pastoral system will be intensified, avoiding long distance movement, to become moresustainable allowing also the pastoral households more time for other activities.
Objectives: The immediate objectives are to:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

improve rangeland productivity;
improve livestock productivity (milk and meat);increase incomes of the pastoralists;
through these:
establish livelihood of the pastoralists on a sustainable basis; andimprove nutrition of the population and in particular children.

Activities: Key project activities include the following:29

1. preparing detailed strategy design and implementation plan.
2. Construction of soil/water conservation and small stream diversion structures on therangeland.

3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Reseeding of the rangeland with suitable grass and legume species.
Constructing water points and equipping them.
Establishing community based rangeland and water management systems.
Training of communities in managing their resources.
Providing mineral supplement to improve animal nutrition.
Providing machinery for forage conservation and rangeland maintenance.
Monitoring and evaluation.

Short-term outputs: The following are key short-term outputs expected from the implementation of
the project

1. Strategy design prepared.
2. Sustainable forage supply system established.
3. Water supply system present.
4. Forage conservation system established.
5. Community institution for resources management established.
6. Local personnel trained for specific skills available.
7. Monitoring and evaluation system established.
Potential long -term outcomes: The following are key short-term outputs expected from theimplementation of the project

1. Pastoral communities will be able to cope with climate change by adapting the conditions offeed and water supply to become sustainable.

2. Establishing improved livestock production model through intensification of the pastoral
system.

3. Improve food security and nutrition through increased incomes and food availability.
4. Reduce poverty.
Implementation: The main implementing body will be the Ministry of Agriculture through its
regional office and its structure. The communities and the local government will participate inpreparing the strategy design, implementing and monitoring and evaluation.
Risks and Barriers: Key risks are associated with Rangeland allocation for specific community use
avoiding free access of others, as well as the technical Capacity of the Ministry of Agriculture.
Monitoring and Evaluation: The project will prepare a monitoring and evaluation system and thisfunction will be jointly carried-out by the Ministry of Agriculture, the community and the local
government.
Financial Resources: The project will be the main source of finance; however, the Ministry ofAgriculture will contribute for certain activities such as extension services and the local government
in organizing the communities. A summary of project costs appear in Table 4. The project duration is
3 years starting from the time funds made available.

30

Table 1. Cost estimates to improve rangeland for sustainable livestock production
Project Components
Preparation of detail strategy design
Soil/water conservation on rangeland
Small stream diversion structures
Reseeding
Padlocking
Machinery
Construction and equipping water points
Establishing community institution
Monitoring and evaluation
Total

31

Cost (US$)
120,000
2,800,000
1,300,000
900,000
1,100,000
700,000
240,000
40,00030,0007,230,000

Project Profile 2:
Introducing community based pilot projects to intensify existing production
models, area and species specific in eastern lowlands selecting suitable sheep
and goat breeds
Project area: An eastern coastal lowland area, the most arid in Eritrea, is the geographic focus of thisproject. Rainfall in this region is generally very low and with extreme variability and frequent
droughts. The vegetation type is of the steppe and desert like shrubs; while the topography is flat plainintercepted by some hills. The plain is crossed by several ephemeral rivers and streams flowing fromthe eastern escarpment and highlands. The pastoralists move towards the escarpments during the dry
hot season as a coping mechanism for shortage of feed and water. The population in these coastal
areas is basically pastoralist and their livelihood is dependent on livestock. The livestock species
raised are mainly browsers such as goats and camels; while the grazers such as cattle are increasingly
becoming insignificant source of livelihood. The cause for this is the progressive decline of grasses
due to climate variability and drought. The livestock numbers are also continuously decreasing due tolack of feed and drinking water and considerable number of them dying each year. In these areas,
livestock productivity is poor and the trend is negative. The rangeland is unable to sustain livestock
and as a result the livelihood of the population is very vulnerable to climate change. In the project
area, the most vulnerable populations are those communities living between Zula and Tio areas.
Generally, six villages, 1200 Households (HHs), 6000 population, 400 ha/village, and 6 spate
irrigation sites in the eastern lowlands will be covered by this project.
Rationale: The pastoral system in the project area is failing to sustain the livelihood of thepastoralists. This is because the rangeland is vulnerable to climate variability, drought and climatechange. The extensive pastoral system of production in the project area is not any more sustainable
and the communities have failed with their coping mechanism which involved seasonal animal
movement between their villages in the lowland and the corresponding eastern escarpment. The
composition of animal species had been altered where grazers are not produced any more except somedesert type sheep breeds. The only animal species that are being able to resist the impacts of climate
variability and drought are some varieties of goats and sheep. The exiting extensive livestock systemand production models should be intensified to the degree that they are sustainable and have thecapacity to become sustainable source of livelihoods. The general coping strategy should be by using
the most efficient varieties of goat and sheep, keeping their numbers to correspond the available feed
and increasing the individual animal productivity. This project is designed to enable the pastoralists tocope with the impacts of climate variability, drought and climate change by intensifying the pastoral
system. The elements of the strategy will be by using selected varieties of small ruminants that are
more suitable for the project area that is vulnerable to climate change. The system will be further
intensified by producing feed under spate irrigation and providing drinking water sources.
Objectives: The main immediate objectives of the project are to:

1. increase incomes of the population by reducing direct loss of animals due to lack of feed andwater and by increasing individual animal production and productivity efficiency through theuse of selected breeds and improved management;
2. improve nutrition of the population by producing protein food of high biotic value such as
milk and meat; and3. enable the communities to cope with the current impacts of climate variability and drought
and future climate change.
Activities: The main activities will include selection and breeding of suitable varieties of indigenous
goat and sheep breed types, evolving suitable breeding males, establishing sustainable animal feed
and water supply, and organizing and training of communities.

1. Selecting dual purpose breeding goats.
2. Selecting sheep for higher mutton production.
32

3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Selecting suitable forage seeds.
Providing tools for pasture maintenance.
Establishing community based pastures under spate irrigation.
Constructing spate irrigation structure.
Training farmers on spate irrigation pasture management and overall small ruminant
production system.
8. Establishing community based institution and providing with the required infrastructure.
Short-term outputs: The following are key short-term outputs expected from the implementation of
the project

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Goat varieties with high milk and meat production established.
Sheep varieties with high meat productivity established.
Forage production under spate irrigation system established.
Community based institution formed.
Farmers have acquired skills in animal production.
Farmer have acquired skills in forage production.
Farmers trained in milk and meat production.

Potential long -term outcomes: The following are key short-term outputs expected from theimplementation of the project

1. Sustainable coping of livelihood with impacts of climate change.
2. Food insecurity and poverty reduced.
Implementation arrangements: Implementation arrangement will be mainly the Ministry ofAgriculture branch in Zoba Northern Red Sea, agricultural research, and other participating bodies
will be the Zula communities, and local government.
Risks and Barriers: Key risks are associated with land allocation for communities to be spate
irrigated, as well as the technical capacity of the agricultural office in Zoba Northern Red Sea.
Monitoring and Evaluation: The project design will contain monitoring and evaluation system. The
responsible agency for monitoring and evaluation will be the agricultural office in Zoba Northern Red
Sea and the beneficiary communities.
Financial Resources: Table 3 summarizes the costs associated with the implementation of thisadaptation project. The project duration is 3 years starting from the time funds made available.
Table 2. Cost estimates for developing and utilizing suitable sheep and goat breed types
Project Component
Breeding animals (1200 HHs @ 12 animals)
Spate irrigation structure (5 villages)
Earth moving machinery
Construction water point (5 wells + equipment)
Farm tools
Forage seeds (1200 ha) 4 kg/haCommunity infrastructure and training
Monitoring and evaluation
Detail strategy design
Project management
Total

33

Cost (US$)
800,000
3,000,000
400,000
150,000
12,000240,000
120,000
25,00090,000240,000
5,077,000

Project Profile 3:
Encourage Afforestation and Agroforestry through Community Forestry
Initiative
Project area: The whole country is vulnerable to this climate related impact on forests. However,
populations in the highland area are already suffering from the shortage of wood for cooking andhouse construction purposes and for this reason these areas are the geographic focus for this project.
Forest goods and services are important sources of livelihood in Eritrea. However, these are made to
be vulnerable to climate change mainly through human activities. Most parts of the highland Eritrea
are highly degraded due to continuous absence of natural resources management resulting into
deforestation, climate variability characterized with low and variable rainfall, as well as extreme
events such as droughts and climate change.
The most important trend is desertification, loss of topsoil and lowering water penetration andretention of soils. The livelihoods of the populations in the western lowland area and in particular
those in the main river basins (Barka River and tributaries, Gash River) and the south-western
lowland are suffering from declining supply of goods and services obtained from forests. Although
this is well recognized and that efforts have been made to reforest through cash and food-for-work,
students summer campaigns, national development campaign etc…in the last 15 years, the success is
minimal as compared to the magnitude of deforestation rate. Therefore, in order to address fullparticipation of the entire communities at individ ual households/ families/ levels is needed to plantand grow trees in different settings.
Rationale: The impacts of climate change and variability, compounded with distractive humanactions on the forest resources, have led to the loss of biodiversity, as well as wood and none wood
products and services. Such problems will continue unless wider participation of the individuals,
households and the entire rural and urban communities is secured in planting and maintaining trees intheir respective areas.
In the Forest policy and legislation, provisions are made to secure trees for the person who has planted
and maintain them on areas designated to use the land in accordance to the Eritrean Land Law No
58/1994. Therefore, the plan is that each village will allocate part of the marginal land undercommunity use such land to be holding of individual households of the village. These holdings will beplanted and grow trees, and use them accordingly. Similarly planting trees will be promoted bycommunities along homesteads, roadsides, school compounds, sacred areas, cemeteries, parks, riverbanks, scenic sites, farm boundaries and the like.
Objectives: The immediate objectives are to:

1. Rehabilitate degraded landscapes through afforestation, and control run-off and loss of arable
land on down stream areas through soil erosion.

2. Create healthy and well managed forest plantations so as to withstand impacts of climatechange.

3. Encourage individual households in a community to plant and own trees and produce
sustainable wood, fruit and fodder.
Activities: The main immediate objectives of the project are to:

1. Strengthen forest extension system and develop a strong relationship with farming
communities through frequent visits and interaction

2. Assist communities to determine size and boundary of marginal land and to be allocated toindividual households in the community for tree planting

34

3. Establish new or upgrade existing community forest nurseries
4. Train the communities to integrate tree planting and management in their farming systems
Short-term outputs: The following are key short-term outputs expected from the implementation of
the project

1.
2.
3.
4.

New forestry nursery established and existing nurseries upgraded.
Households have been trained.
Individual land holding for afforestation distributed.
Marginal land has been afforested.

Expected long-term Outcomes: The following are key short-term outputs expected from theimplementation of the project. A table summarizing indicators to measure long-term outcomes
follows.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Availability of fire wood, construction wood in the rural communities ensured.
Production of none wood forest products such fruit, fodder, bee forage etc… enhanced.
Degraded catchments protected and rehabilitated.
Micro climate of the area improved.
Awareness of communities in planting, growing and managing trees increased.

Indicators/Expected Outputs-Frontline forest extension agents trained andequipped with training manuals,-Frequent meetings convened with the local
communities and forest development committees
in each village established, and-Local communities trained on appropriate
forestry techniques, use-Individual households identify their own plot of
lands for tree planting, and-Tree planting sites prepared, planted, andmaintained by respective households.
-Existing forest nurseries upgraded and newforest nurseries established at strategic sites,- Multipurpose tree seedlings raised/distributed.
-Multipurpose trees are integrated with crop andlivestock production systems (Agro-forestry).

Potential Long Term Outcomes-Awareness level of communities on forest
conservation and use of trees in ameliorating
the effects of climate change raised-Tree planting and maintenance at individual
household and community level enhanced-Accessibility of individual households in therural community to their own wood and nonewood forest plantation products increased,-Degraded watersheds resonated,-Downstream water reservoirs protected,-Micro climate of the area improved.
-Healthy and vigorous trees established, and-Availability of wood and none wood forest
products increased.
-Increased production of wood, fruit, fodder-Cumulative household income from woodand none wood components increased

Implementation: The project will be based with in the Ministry of Agriculture and will have its own
management team and coordinator. The project team will work in collaboration with Regional MoA
Branches. Steering committee will be established from different stakeholders to guide the project
management.
Risks & Barriers: Key risks are associated with the following:

1. A shortage of skilled human power,
2. Conflicting land use (for grazing & tree growing), and the redistribution of arable land tomembers of the communities every 5-7 years in the highland discourages the development
agro-forestry,

3. Insufficient coordination among different stakeholders,354. Financial capacity to support communities with planting stocks and provision of hand tools,
and

5. Lack of enforcement for national and regional action plans and regulatory instruments
pertinent to forest conservation and development.
Monitoring and Evaluation: Monitoring and evaluation will be carried out on regular bases andmore specifically after rainy season and in the late dry season. Village development committees,
forest extension agents and subject matter specialists will conduct frequent monitoring and evaluation.
An independent evaluation assessment team will also be selected from the steering committee andconduct evaluation assessment in the middle and final project term
Financial Resources: The total project coast is estimated at USD 5.15 million, out of which US$
150,000 will be for project office. Government contribution will be made for support activities as
indicated in Table 5. The project duration is 5 years starting from the time funds made available.
Table 3. Estimated Cost for Community Forestry Development
Project Components
Infrastructure/Civil works(construction of roads, office, community forest nurseries )Equipment and supplies(Field and office equipment, hand tools, water pumps, vehicles
etc)
Community development support(forest extension services)
Silviculture(seedling production and distribution)
Recurrent costs(Staff salaries, allowances, maintenances etc)
Total

36

Cost (US$)
1,150,000
1,000,000
950,000
1,100,000
850,000
5,050,000

Project Profile 4:
Groundwater Recharging for Irrigation wells
Project area: A decline in groundwater is already being experienced in most parts of the country andin particular in the more arid areas of the coastal plains and certain valleys in the highland such as
Tsilma, Adi-Keih, Hagaz and Ala. In these areas, wells are drying up and groundwater supply forcontinuation of irrigation as well as for livestock and human uses has become critical. These areas arevery vulnerable to climate variability, drought and climate change and the focus of this adaptation
project.
Rationale: Urban and rural communities, irrigated agriculture and industries who rely on groundwater resources for their water supply are already suffering from the negative impact of climate
variability in particular low and unreliable rainfall, short rainy season, extreme weather events such as
drought and climate change. The wells are drying up and the population in some villages are walking
long distance to fetch water. Small holder irrigated agriculture from ground water is failing examples
are like in Alla and Hagaz are depending on water tracking. Rural inhabitants are paying more thandouble the price they use to pay costal areas groundwater sources are threatened with seawater
intrusion. So far, no projects have been implemented whose main objective is to enhance groundwater volumes as coping mechanizes strategies have not been effective. In Eritrea, about one million
cubic meters of water flow out of the country as surface flow. If a substantial amount of this water isallowed to be stored in under ground aquifer as ground water, this will enable communities andlivelihood resource to better adapt to the negative impact of climate changes. To cope with thisproblem and sustain the resource activities to enhance groundwater recharging will be required.
Objectives: The immediate objectives are as follows:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

To enhance ground water recharging.
To ensure easily accessible water supply for domestic and agricultural use.
To increase spring water supply and protect natural forest and wild animals from extinction.
To prevent costal ground water supply from salt water intrusion.
To prevent salt water intrusion to costal ground water supply.

Activities: The key activities of the project are as follows:

1.
2.
3.
4.

Develop integrated watershed management programme
Construct an effective soil and water conservation structures for farm and non-farm lands
Establish ground water monitoring
Capacity building of *farmer* MOA and WRD

Short-term outputs: The following are key short-term outputs expected from the implementation of
the project. A table summarizing indicators which which to measurfe long-terms outcomes follows.

1. Water recharging structures are in place.
2. Community institutions for water use management established.
3. Water supply and demand control legislation present.
Potential long-term Outcomes: The following are key short-term outputs expected from theimplementation of the project

1. Increased availability of good quality and quantity of ground water for urban and rural uses.
2. Increased availability of ground water for irrigation.
3. Quality and quantity of coastal water supply improved.

37

4. Improved wild life habitats through increased water supply availability.
5. Contribution to food security, health, nutrition, and poverty reduction.
6. Sustainable coping strategy to climate change
Expected outputs/ Indicator
Wild life habitats and natural forests maintained.
Community based IWPP establishing and functioning effectively.
Sustainable ground water resource.
Ground water source improved and sustained.
Well-maintained and effective terraces constructed, gullies
stabilized erosion and stream and river flow reduced substantially.
Monthly report produced to decision makers well informed.
Ground water use regulated accordingly

The Technique of ground water recharging well understood andpracticed.
Capacity of MOA extension agents improved in constructing
effective soil and water conservation structures
Capacity of farmers improved in construction and maintaining soil
and water conservation structures

Potential long term
outcomes
Good quality and quantity ofground water available tourban and rural communities.
Irrigated agriculture makesustainable
Ground Water Resources are
better understood and wellcontrolled. In addition
efficiently managed andutilized.
Soil moisture increased andland productivity increased;
adequate spring water isavailable for wild animals.

Implementation arrangements: The national implementing agencies would be the MoA and the
WRD. The MoA is the most appropriate body to implement this project. This is because it has awidely spread network of extension agents who are quite experienced in working with farmers. The
farmers are the implementing bodies of most of the activities of the project. The WRD will be
involved in monitoring ground water resource and in preparing appropriate legislation on
management and utilization of groundwater resource.
A project management unit will be established to follow the day-to-day activity of the project. Project
steering committees will be formed at national and local level and will consist of executive level
officials of respective ministries and community representatives and private stakeholders like NGOs.
The duty of the steering committees is to make sure that the project is financially and technically
implemented according to an agreed project document.
Risks and Barriers: Key risks are associated with shortage of budget to implement this project, lackof existing national legislation on the proper utilization of ground water delays, and the physicalstructures constructed to enhance ground water recharging are not properly maintained and managed.
Monitoring and Evaluation: The project will be monitored and evaluated regularly every six
months. It will also be evaluated by external consultants at the end of its life relative to the matrix
shown below.
Financial Resources: The table below summarizes the costs associated with the implementation ofthis adaptation project. The project duration is 3 years starting from the time funds made available.
Table 4. Cost estimates to Enhance Groundwater Recharging
Project Component
Develop integrated watershed management programme
Construct effective soil & water conservation structures for farm and non-farm lands (6,000 ha)Establish ground water monitoring programme
Capacity building of *farmer* MOA and WRD
TOTAL
38

Cost (US$)
2,000
5,700,000
1,500,000
50,0007,252,000

Project Profile 5:
Introduction and expansion of irrigated agriculture especially spate irrigatedagriculture (for crop and livestock production)
Title: Increase Agricultural Production through Spate Irrigation and Range Development
Project Area: The Project site location is in the Northern Western Lowland, which makes part ofthe lower Barka River Basin, and more specifically it is in the Dighe Sub region of the Gash
Barka Region involving villages situated along both side of the funeral Barka River. The area islocated between Tekeret and Keru Villages. The area is hot arid featured with low and extremely
variable rainfall and high drought frequency. The rangelands-rainfed cropping are highly
venerable to climate variability as a sequel to this, livestock production and the populations
dependant on these activities are venerable to climate variability, extreme events such as drought,
and climate change. In respect to rainfall, the project area falls in the threshold or margin for
rainfed-cropping; hence this activity is venerable to the impacts of climate variability and drought.
The populations in the project area consist of Tigre and Hidarbe tribes organized in about fivemain villages. The average household number in a village is 400, while the average household
size is 5persons; while the women headed households make about 30% of the total households.
Traditionally, their source of livelihood was Pastoralism; but as the pastoral system has been
failing gradually to sustain their livelihood, different autonomous coping mechanisms werepracticed. The most important autonomous strategy has been growing drought resistant cereal
crops such as Sorghum and Pearl Millet wherever moisture is favourable including riverbeds. In
this way, the communities have become agro- pastoralists for the most part. However, frequentcrop failure and animal loss are destabilizing their livelihoods.
Rationale: The populations in the project area have been suffering from the low productively ofthe extensive livestock system, and the failure of rain-fed crop. The rangelands have been undercontinues human pressure, climate variability and drought, which have led in to seriously
degradation and land and water use changes. Due to this, the rangeland productivity has reachedits lowest point destabilizing the pastoral system. Rain-fed cropping is also failing due to climate
variability and successive drought years with tendency of increased frequency and severity. The
fail of the mixed crop-livestock farming system has severely impacted the livelihood of the
population and their traditional coping strategies have become ineffective. This existing situation
has made the farming system and the populations’ dependant on it for their livelihood highly
venerable to climate viability, drought and climate change.
This project is designed to adapt this vulnerable community to climate variability and drought
immediately and to cope with climate change in the long term. The strategy is by intensifying thepresent practices of agro-pastoralism. It is expected to improve cereal food production andincomes by avoiding crop failure and low livestock productivity including death due to low andvariable rainfall and drought. This will involve increase in soil moisture for cereal crop production
and for feed productively of the rangeland. Through this the livelihoods of these communities will
be sustainable.

39

Objectives: The main major objectives are two:ooIncrease food crop production by avoiding crop failer due to climate variability
and drought;
Increase cash income and protein food of animal origin by avoiding direct loss ofanimals and poor productivity due to starvation;

Strategies: The main strategy taken by the project to achieve its objectives is by:
o
o
o
o
o

establishing spate irrigated cereal crop production system;
improving livestock production through improving rangeland;
restocking of small ruminants;
providing machinery and initial agricultural inputs; andestablishing community based effective institution.

Activities: The main activities are:
o
o
o

o
o

designing detail strategy and implementation plan;
constructing river diversion and earth embankment structures for spate irrigation;
providing in itial seed, farm tools and machinery for construction and maintenanceof spate irrigation and soil and water conservation structures;o construction of soil water conservation structures on rangeland;o reseeding of rangeland;o providing initial good sheep breeding stock for women headedhouseholds and the poor in general;o constructing water wells and equipping them for human and livestock
uses;
training communities to manage their resources; andmonitoring and evaluation.

Short-term outputs
o
o
o
o
o
o

spate irrigated cereal crop production system established;
improved rangeland for livestock present;
sheep goat breeding flocks for women headed households and the poor present;
safe and adequate water supply system established;community organization and management systems made available;
initial agricultural inputs present;

Potential long term outcomesoooocoping strategy for agro-pasturalists to climate variability, extreme weather events and climatechange have been established on a sustainable bases;sustainable source of livelihood for the agro-pasturalist developed;
lesson on adaptation strategies to climate change and climate variability have been learned toenable replication at wide scale; anddecreasing food insecurity/malnutrion and poverty levels.

40

Implementation Arrangements
The main implementing body will be the Ministry of Agriculture through its Regional Agricultural
Office in Gash-Barka Administrative Region. Other relevant stakeholders will be the target
communities, local administration, the Ministry of Land, Water and Environment. The arrangement
will be within the organizational structure of the stakeholder bodies.
Risks and Barriersooocapacity of the Ministry of Agriculture for implementation;
capacity to prepare detail strategy design; andland tenure and use for each of the village communities for purposes of spate irrigation andrangeland development.

Monitoring and Evaluation
The monitoring and evaluation system will be designed with the project strategy design. It should beestablished and implemented to ensure guidance of the project by collection information on problems
and deciding on possible modification and adjustment of plan. The regional Agricultural Office incollaboration with the participating farmers will conduct the monitoring and evaluation function.
Financial Resources
The financial contribution will be mainly from the project, however, the Ministry of Agriculture will
provide extension services on crop and livestock and in the control of major animal and crop pests.
The Local Administration will provide assistance in organizing the agro-pastoral communities. The
target communities will provide source of labor, but mostly on cash for work.

Table 5: Activities and Cost Estimates
Activities

Cost estimates(USD)(a) Construction of Spate Irrigation Structures (at five sites)(b) Initial Agricultural Inputs

4,200,000
300,000(c) Construction of soil water conservation structures on rangeland

2.600.000(2500ha)(d) Livestock breeder stock for women headed households/poor

400,000

households(e) Machinery for construction and maintenance of enhancements

600,000(f) Community capacity building

160,000(g) Detail Project design preparation

130,000(h) Monitoring and Evaluation and related project management

150,000

Total

8,540,00041