J ̲Orient̲05 06.2.1 4:54 PM

ページ 170

Xixia Language Studies and the Lotus Sutra (I)1

Tatsuo Nishida
1. The Role of the Lotus Sutra in Xixia Language Studies

I

N 1904, M. G. Morisse published his Contribution préliminaire àl’étude de l’écriture et de la langue Si-hia, an attempt to decipher
Xixia Lotus Sutra texts that marked an epoch in the history of Xixia language studies.2 It was an illustrious achievement accomplished at theoutset of the 20th century, following G. Devéria’s identification of Xixia
characters in 1898. Ten years later, Luo Fucheng 羅福成 published the
Xixia yi Lianhua jing kaoshi 西夏譯L華經考釋 (Study of the Xixia Translation of the Saddharmapuˆ∂ar¥ka-sËtra) (Higashiyama Gakusha,
1914). This was an attempted analysis of the texts on the three photographs of the Xixia Lotus Sutra (juan 7) that Dr. TØru Haneda 羽田亨
had presented to him when he lived in Kyoto as well as on a facsimile(juan 1) attached to the book Morisse published in 1904. These he collated with the Tianpin Miaofa lianhua jing 添品妙法L華經.
In this way, all the early Xixia studies were closely connected with
Lotus Sutra texts. But there has been little progress in study of the Xixia
Lotus Sutra since. This is true even now at the beginning of the 21st
century.3 I did not think initially that the Xixia version of the Lotus Sutra
would have any particular characteristics helpful to Xixia language studies. However, after having an opportunity to view some photographs of
the Lotus Sutra (juan 6 and 7) in the Kozlov collection, this preconception was completely overturned.
This Xixia version of the Lotus Sutra has a great many more remarkable linguistic features than other scriptures, including the Flower
Garland Sutra (Avataµsaka-sËtra 華嚴經). The text is also exceedingly
difficult to understand. It clearly has a writing style different from what I
called the “style modeled on Chinese writings” that appears in scriptures
like the Flower Garland Sutra. Herein lies the reason that the Lotus
Sutra has not been a basis for research in Xixia language studies. The
text of the Xixia Lotus Sutra does not show complete word-to-wordaccordance with the Chinese version, and it contains many indecipherable portions.
170

J ̲Orient̲05 06.2.1 4:54 PM

ページ 171

XIXIA LANGUAGE STUDIES AND THE LOTUS SUTRA (I)

171

Though the reason is unknown, both Morisse and Luo Fucheng collated the Xixia text with the Tianpin Miaofa lianhua jing. Actually, however, in the extant Xixia version of the Lotus Sutra is clearly written“Yao Qin Sancang Fashi Jiumoluoshi hanyi 姚秦三藏法師鳩摩羅什漢譯 ”(Yao Qin [dynasty] Tripi†aka Master Kumåraj¥va translated into Chinese).
2. The Extant Texts of the Xixia Lotus Sutra
Apart from small fragments, the following texts (printed editions andmanuscripts) are extant in several parts of the world:
I. Eight-Volume Blue-Paper Chrysography Texts Formerly Owned
by Morisse and Othersa) The Collection of the Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin
Five volumes: juan 1, 3, 4, 5 and 7; chrysography on blue paper(according to JuntarØ Ishihama 石浜純太郎).4b) The Collection of the Musée National des Arts Asiatiques Guimet
in ParisThree volumes: juan 2, 6 and 8; chrysography written in a refined calligraphic style on blue paper (according to the present writer’s research).5
Accordion-folded large-sized books; 12.3×32 cm; text range, 24.9 cm,
bordered by two threads of double (thick outside and thin inside) lines;
six 19-character lines to one ori or a half of a folded leaf. Only juan 2 iscontained in a slipcase. The cover of each juan is coated with dark-green
cloth and gilded. There are insertions of one line at several places. Theselines must have been added because the scribe mistakenly skipped one
or several lines, as the added line starts with the same character as theline appearing thereafter. It can be surmised that this manuscript would
have been copied in comparatively later years.
The following are further details: juan 2, including chapter 3, “Simile
and Parable,” and chapter 4, “Belief and Understanding,” consists of 101
pages (page(s), in this case, meaning ori or a half of a folded leaf); juan
6, containing chapter 16, “The Life Span of the Thus Come One,” chapter 17, “Distinctions in Benefits,” chapter 18, “The Benefits of Responding with Joy,” and chapter 19, “Benefits of the Teacher of the Law,”consists of 92 pages; and juan 8, containing chapter 25, “The Universal
Gateway of the Bodhisattva Perceiver of the World’s Sounds,”
chapter 26, “Dharani,” chapter 27, “Former Affairs of King Wonderful
Adornment,” and chapter 28, “Encouragements of the Bodhisattva
Universal Worthy,” consists of 69 pages. On the two pages at the begin-

J ̲Orient̲05 06.2.1 4:54 PM

172

ページ 172

XIXIA LANGUAGE STUDIES AND THE LOTUS SUTRA (I)ning of juan 8, a Buddha’s image is drawn, with the attached caption in
Xixia characters,(the eighth arranged illustration), within aframe at the pages’ top right corner.
The last two lines of juan 8 of the Xixia version can be interpreted asfollows:“The bodhisattvas, including Samantabhadra, and the Íråvakas,
including Íåriputra, as well as the whole great assembly, including theheavenly beings, dragons, humans and nonhumans were all overjoyed
and, accepting and keeping the Buddha’s words, bowed in obeisanceand departed.”
Thereafter follows the ending title, “The Lotus Sutra of Wonderful
Law, juan eight,” with the following two lines of postscript attached:“One single mind embraces and comprehends the realm of the profound and wonderful Dharma. The wisdom of the Buddhas has been
universally [revealed], with nothing remaining, to all sentient beings and[the sutra] concludes without residue. Though comprehending the [Buddha] vehicle is difficult, [the Lord] invents, employs and assembles[various] expedient means, according to what is appropriate to cause[sentient beings] to enter the true [vehicle]. [Thus he expounds] thethree skillful [teachings] and seven parables . . . . ”
In his work mentioned above, Luo Fucheng cites eight lines of Xixia
text in juan 1 from Morisse’s edition (“citing from the text in the collection of Mr. Morisse” 録毛氏藏本) and 55 lines in juan 7 from the threephotographs presented by TØru Haneda (“citing from the text in thecollection of the École Française d’Extrême-Orient” 録東洋學院藏本).
Strangely, Luo Fucheng added interpretive notes to the Xixia texts byciting counterparts from juan 1 and juan 7 of the Tianpin Miaofa lianhua jing (in the Song [dynasty] Tripi†aka) translated by 隋三藏崛多笈多三
法師 (Three [sic] Tripi†aka Masters [Jñåna]gupta and [Dharma]gupta of
the Sui [dynasty]), though both of the colophons attached to the two
Xixia texts clearly read 姚秦三藏法師 鳩摩羅什 漢譯 今上皇帝 奉詔 再校正(Yao Qin [dynasty] Tripi†aka Master Kumåraj¥va translated into Chinese, His Majesty the Present Emperor issued an imperial edict to proofread again). At the end of his notes, Luo Fucheng concludes:“I note that this [juan of the] sutra begins with the ‘Bodhisattva Never
Disparaging’ chapter and ends with the ‘Bodhisattva Wonderful Sound’chapter. I think that juan 7 [of the Xixia text] is identical with that of theSong [Tripi†aka] version Tianpin Miaofa lianhua jing. The original [ofthe Xixia version] is now kept in the collection of the École [Française]d’Extrême-Orient in Hanoi. I collated this [Hanoi text] with that of the‘Introduction’ chapter of the sutra from Mr. Morisse’s collection; bothJ ̲Orient̲05 06.2.1 4:54 PM

ページ 173

XIXIA LANGUAGE STUDIES AND THE LOTUS SUTRA (I)173

are completely identical with each other in terms of line [number perpage] style, format and calligraphy. Since the [Xixia] texts handed downin the Eastern countries are extremely rare, I now attach the collotype
facsimiles of the two manuscripts together at the end of this volume forreaders’ reference.”
Exact correspondence is confirmed when one collates the text fromjuan 7 of Luo Fucheng’s book with Kumåraj¥va’s translation. But Luo
Fucheng puts portions of chapter 20, “Bodhisattva Never Disparaging,”(Taisho shinshu daizokyo, 9.50b24–c4, 51a26–b26) along with a portionof chapter 24, “The Bodhisattva Wonderful Sound,” (ibid., 9.56b13–c1[end]). In addition, it is not confirmed whether any Xixia texts were kept
in the École Française d’Extrême-Orient that was then situated in Hanoi.
(It is safely assumed that the manuscript formerly owned by Morisse
was once kept in the École and moved later to the Musée National desArts Asiatiques Guimet in Paris). In any case, according to the knowledge we presently share, I cannot but assume that the Xixia version of
the Tianpin Miaofa lianhua jing is not extant.
II. Texts in the Kozlov Collection
According to A Catalogue of Buddhist Texts in the Xixia Language《西夏語仏教典籍目録》 authored by Evgenij I. Kychanov in 1999, the socalled Kozlov collection at the St. Petersburg Branch of the Institute ofOriental Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences includes a goodnumber of manuscripts and printed editions that have already been identified and put in order. In addition, there still remains the possibility that
portions of the Lotus Sutra texts may be contained among unidentified
fragments. The following is the list of the texts compiled in the Xixia
Version of the Lotus Sutra from the St. Petersburg Branch of the Instituteof Oriental Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences, which has been
recently published.
List of the Xixia Version of the Lotus SutraNo.
Juan
6253a (preface)manuscript

787*7(preface)

edition2436

1

edition4562* 2

editionCat. 218

Content
Preface and chapter 1 (Introduction);
35 lines extant.6
Preface; 10 lines remain; a portion of juan 3,
chapter 7 (The Parable of Phantom City), is
contained.
Chapter 1 (Introduction), complete; chapter
2 (Expedient Means), end is lost.
Sutra title and honorific titles,

J ̲Orient̲05 06.2.1 4:54 PM

174

805

ページ 174

XIXIA LANGUAGE STUDIES AND THE LOTUS SUTRA (I)2edition3900* 3

edition7231* 3

edition2317

4

edition67

5

edition719

6

manuscript782

6

edition4674* 6

edition6452b 7

edition3 lines; chapter 3 (Simile and Parable),
5 lines from beginning remain.
Chapter 3 (Simile and Parable),
beginning is lost; chapter 4 (Belief andUnderstanding),
end is lost.
Sutra title and honorific titles, 3 lines;
chapter 5 (The Parable of the Medicinal
Herbs), 5 lines from beginning remain.
Chapter 7 (The Parable of the PhantomCity), 10 lines remain. Both beginning andend are lost; continues from the latter part ofno. 787.
Chapter 8 (Prophecy of Enlightenment for
Five Hundred Disciples), complete; chapter
9 (Prophecies Conferred on Learners and
Adepts), complete; chapter 10 (The Teacherof the Law), complete; chapter 11 (The
Emergence of the Treasure Tower),end is lost.
Chapter 12 (Devadatta), complete; chapter
13 (Encouraging Devotion), complete;chapter 14 (Peaceful Practices), complete;chapter 15 (Emerging from the Earth),complete.
Chapter 16 (The Life Span of the Thus
Come One), complete; chapter 17 (Distinctions in Benefits), complete; chapter 18(The Benefits of Responding with Joy),complete; chapter 19 (Benefits of the
Teacher of the Law), complete.
Chapter 16 (The Life Span of the Thus
Come One), complete; chapter 17 (Distinctions in Benefits), complete; chapter 18(The Benefits of Responding with Joy),complete; chapter 19 (Benefits of the
Teacher of the Law), end is lost.
Chapter 19 (Benefits of the Teacher of theLaw), last 7 lines remain.
Chapter 20 (The Bodhisattva Never Disparaging), beginning is lost; chapter 21

J ̲Orient̲05 06.2.1 4:54 PM

ページ 175

XIXIA LANGUAGE STUDIES AND THE LOTUS SUTRA (I)6452g 7

edition6452g 8

edition175(Supernatural Powers of the Thus ComeOne), complete; chapter 22 (Entrustment),
complete; chapter 23 (Former Affairs of theBodhisattva Medicine King), complete;chapter 24 (The Bodhisattva WonderfulSound), end is lost.
Chapter 23 (Former Affairs of the Bodhisattva Medicine King ), last 8 lines remain;
chapter 24 (Bodhisattva Wonderful Sound),
12 lines of beginning remain.
Chapter 25 (The Universal Gateway of theBodhisattva Perceiver of the World’s
Sounds), beginning is lost; chapter 26 (Dharani), complete; chapter 27 (Former Affairsof King Wonderful Adornment), complete;chapter 28 (Encouragements of the Bodhisattva Universal Worthy), end is lost.

In his “A brief note on the Tangut Translation of [the] 妙法L華經 [Miaofa lianhua jing] preserved in St. Petersburg Institute for Oriental Studies” (manuscripts unpublished), Mr. K. T. Solonin, a respected friend ofmine, classifies all the Xixia Lotus Sutra texts from the Kozlov collection into six groups. I introduce these groups in the manner I arranged
using unified terms with necessary data added, as follows:(Tang. 218)
1. Old edition (8 juan), accordion-folded, height: 34 cm, 5 lines per
page, each containing 17 characters.
2. Old edition (8 juan), accordion-folded, height: 24.5 cm, 7 lines per
page, each containing 16 characters.
3. New edition (8 juan) Type I, accordion-folded, height: 28.5 cm, 5lines per page, each containing 16 characters.
4. New edition (8 juan) Type II, accordion-folded, height: 29 cm, 6lines per page, each containing 16 characters.
5. Manuscripts, accordion-folded, height: 34 cm, 5 lines per page,each containing 17 characters.
(Tang. 219)
6. Separate editions of chapter 25 (The Universal Gateway of theBodhisattva Perceiver of the World’s Sounds), height: 18.5 cm, 20
lines per page, each containing 10 characters, many pieces.

J ̲Orient̲05 06.2.1 4:54 PM

176

ページ 176

XIXIA LANGUAGE STUDIES AND THE LOTUS SUTRA (I)

Comparing this classification with the list described above, the details ofeach group are as follows:
1. Old edition type I (8 juan), accordion-folded
1. 3900 a. Juan 3, chapter 5 (The Parable of the Medicinal
Herbs), though classified as complete, in actuality
8 lines remain.
b. Chapter 11 (The Emergence of the Treasure Tower),
10 lines.
c. 1) Chapter 26 (Dharani), 9 lines.
2) Chapter 27 (Former Affairs of King Wonderful
Adornment).
d. Unidentified, 5 lines.
e. Chapter 27 (Former Affairs of King Wonderful
Adornment), 10 lines.
2. Old edition type II, not included in the list described above
2. 6723 Preface (?), 4 pages.
3. 7966 1) Chapter 15 (Emerging from the Earth), 3 pages.
2) Chapter 3 (Simile and Parable), 1 page.
3. New edition type I, accordion-folded
4. 6452 Not included in the list described above.
a. Chapter 17 (Distinctions in Benefits), 26 pages.
b. 1) Chapter 20 (The Bodhisattva Never Disparaging),
107 lines [sic].
2) Chapter 21 (Supernatural Powers of the Thus
Come One), complete.
3) Chapter 22 (Entrustment), complete.
4) Chapter 23 (Former Affairs of the Bodhisattva
Medicine King), complete.
5) Chapter 24 (The Bodhisattva Wonderful Sound),131 lines, 110 pages [sic].
5. 6452 c. 1) Chapter 25 (The Universal Gateway of the Bodhisattva Perceiver of the World’s Sounds), 108 lines.
2) Chapter 26 (Dharani), complete.
3) Chapter 27 (Former Affairs of King Wonderful
Adornment), complete.
4) Chapter 28 (Encouragements of the Bodhisattva
Universal Worthy), 105 lines, 85 pages [sic].
6. 927 Not included in the list described above.

J ̲Orient̲05 06.2.1 4:54 PM

ページ 177

XIXIA LANGUAGE STUDIES AND THE LOTUS SUTRA (I)

7. 67

8. 4674

9. 782

10. 4631

11. 6723
12. 4562
13. 4011
14. 66
15. 7231
16. 6310
17. 2317

1771) Chapter 14 (Peaceful Practices), 20 lines.
2) Chapter 15 (Emerging from the Earth), 61 lines,
12 pages.
Same as the list described above; juan 5.
1) Chapter 12 (Devadatta), 115 lines.
2) Chapter 13 (Encouraging Devotion), complete.
3) Chapter 14 (Peaceful Practices), complete.
4) Chapter 15 (Emerging from the Earth), complete.
Same as the list described above; juan 6.
Chapter 19 (Benefits of the Teacher of the Law), 6 lines,
1 page; (according to the present writer, actually 7 lines
remain.)Included in the list described above.
1) Chapter 16 (The Life Span of the Thus Come One),complete.
2) Chapter 17 (Distinctions in Benefits), complete.
3) Chapter 18 (The Benefits of Responding with Joy),complete.
4) Chapter 19 (Benefits of the Teacher of the Law),
205 lines.
Not included in the list described above.
1) Preface (different version from that of the Taisho
Tripi†aka); chapter 1 (Introduction), 10 lines.
2) Chapter 1 (Introduction), 3 lines.
Not included in the list described above.
Chapter 1 (Introduction), 9 pages.
Same as the list described above; juan 2.
Chapter 3 (Simile and Parable), 4 pages.
Not included in the list described above.
Chapter 1 (Introduction), 16 pages.
Not included in the list described above.
Chapter 2 (Expedient Means), 27 lines.
Included in the list described above.
Chapter 7 (The Parable of the Phantom City), 4 pages.
Not included in the list described above.
Chapter 4 (Belief and Understanding), 8 pages.
Included in the list described above; juan 4.
1) Chapter 8 (Prophecy of Enlightenment for Five
Hundred Disciples), complete.
2) Chapter 9 (Prophecies Conferred on Learners and
Adepts), complete.

J ̲Orient̲05 06.2.1 4:54 PM

178

ページ 178

XIXIA LANGUAGE STUDIES AND THE LOTUS SUTRA (I)3) Chapter 10 (The Teacher of the Law), complete.
4) Chapter 11 (The Emergence of the Treasure Tower),
91 pages.
18. 2436 Included in the list described above; juan 1; the text
amount for 3) doesn’t accord between the two.
1) Chapter 1 (Introduction), complete.
2) Chapter 2 (Expedient Means), 160 lines.
3) Chapter 23 (Former Affairs of the Bodhisattva
Medicine King), 30 lines [sic], 91 pages [sic].
19. 218 A fragment without number; not included in the list
described above.
Chapter 3 (Simile and Parable), verses, 19 pages.
4. New edition type II, accordion-folded
20. 7350 Not included in the list described above.
1) Chapter 7 (The Parable of the Phantom City),
20 pages.
2) Chapter 25 (The Universal Gateway of the Bodhisattva Perceiver of the World’s Sounds), 6 pages.
3) Chapter 4 (Belief and Understanding), 6 pages.
4) Chapter 23 (Former Affairs of the Bodhisattva Medicine King), 5 pages.
5) Chapter 23 (Former Affairs of the Bodhisattva Medicine King), 1 page.
21. 6621 Not included in the list described above.
1) Chapter 7 (The Parable of the Phantom City),
3 pages.
2) Chapter 19 (Benefits of the Teacher of the Law),
2 pages.
3) Chapter 7 (The Parable of the Phantom City),
4 pages.
4) Preface, 4 pages.
5) Chapter 7 (The Parable of the Phantom City),
3 pages.
6) Chapter 7 (The Parable of the Phantom City), 1 page.
7) Chapter 2 (Expedient Means), verses, 2 pages.
22. 6310 Not included in the list described above.
1) Chapter 3 (Simile and Parable), 16 pages.
2) Chapter 4 (Belief and Understanding), 6 pages.
3) Unidentified.
4) Chapter 6 (Bestowal of Prophecy), 2 pages.

J ̲Orient̲05 06.2.1 4:54 PM

ページ 179

XIXIA LANGUAGE STUDIES AND THE LOTUS SUTRA (I)

23. 6723

24. 2665
25. 2264

26. 7178

27. 7791

28. 7726
29. 7323

30. 7762

1795) Chapter 25 (The Universal Gateway of the Bodhisattva Perceiver of the World’s Sounds), 4 pages.
6) Unidentified, 7 pages.
7) Chapter 9 (Prophecies Conferred on Learners and
Adepts), 2 pages.
Not included in the list described above.
1) Chapter 4 (Belief and Understanding), 6 pages.
2) Chapter 11 (The Emergence of the Treasure Tower),
5 pages.
3) Unidentified, verses, 2 pages.
4) Chapter 16 (The Life Span of the Thus Come One),
3 pages.
5) Unidentified, an eulogy on the sutra, 2 pages.
Not included in the list described above; unidentified;
preface in Xixia; 3 pages.
1) Preface (complete), important preface, containing thedata on the time of the translation of the 妙法L華經
Miaofa lianhua jing into the Xixia language.
2) Chapter 7 (The Parable of the Phantom City),
2 pages.
Not included in the list described above.
Chapter 25 (The Universal Gateway of the Bodhisattva
Perceiver of the World’s Sounds), 7 pages.
Not included in the list described above.
1) Chapter 24 (The Bodhisattva Wonderful Sound),4 pages.
2) Unidentified (verses).
Not included in the list described above; unidentified.
Not included in the list described above.
Chapter 11 (The Emergence of the Treasure Tower),
2 pages.
Not included in the list described above.
1) Chapter 25 (The Universal Gateway of the Bodhisattva Perceiver of the World’s Sounds), complete.
2) Chapter 26 (Dharani), complete.
3) Chapter 27 (Former Affairs of King Wonderful
Adornment), complete.
4) Chapter 28 (Encouragements of the Bodhisattva
Universal Worthy).
5) Xixia postscript, an eulogy on Buddhas’ names andxylographic illustration(s), complete, 91 pages.

J ̲Orient̲05 06.2.1 4:54 PM

180

ページ 180

XIXIA LANGUAGE STUDIES AND THE LOTUS SUTRA (I)

31. 580

32.

33.
34.
35.

Not included in the list described above.
1) Chapter 9 (Prophecies Conferred on Learners and
Adepts), 5 pages.
2) Chapter 10 (The Teacher of the Law), 5 pages.
805 Same as the list described above; juan 2.
1) Chapter 3 (Simile and Parable).
2) Chapter 4 (Belief and Understanding), 33 pages.
692 Not included in the list described above.
Chapter 3 (Simile and Parable), 16 pages.
583 Not included in the list described above.
Chapter 1 (Introduction), 7 pages.
7467 Not included in the list described above.
1) Chapter 8 (Prophecy of Enlightenment for Five Hundred Disciples).
2) Chapter 9 (Prophecies Conferred on Learners and
Adepts), complete.
3) Chapter 10 (The Teacher of the Law), complete.
4) Chapter 11 (The Emergence of the Treasure Tower),
75 pages.

5. Manuscripts, accordion-folded, 5 lines per page, each containing
17 characters
36. 6253 The contents of 1) and 2) are identical with those in thelist described above.
1) Chapter 1 (Introduction), 1 page.
2) Preface, complete.
3) Chapter 24 (The Bodhisattva Wonderful Sound),5 pages.
4) Chapter 28 (Encouragements of the Bodhisattva Universal Worthy), 2 pages.
37. 64
Not included in the list described above; juan 4.
1) Chapter 8 (Prophecy of Enlightenment for Five Hundred Disciples), complete.
2) Chapter 9 (Prophecies Conferred on Learners and
Adepts), complete.
3) Chapter 10 (The Teacher of the Law), 50 lines [sic],
42 pages [sic].
38. 719 Same as the list described above; juan 6.
Juan 6 including chapters from 16 (The Life Span of theThus Come One) to 19 (Benefits of the Teacher of theLaw), complete, 88 pages.

J ̲Orient̲05 06.2.1 4:54 PM

ページ 181

XIXIA LANGUAGE STUDIES AND THE LOTUS SUTRA (I)181

39. 68Not included in the list described above.
Juan 7 including chapters from 20 (The Bodhisattva
Never Disparaging) to 24 (The Bodhisattva WonderfulSound), 75 lines [sic], 65 pages [sic].
40. 63
Not included in the list described above.
1) Chapter 10 (The Teacher of the Law), 56 lines.
2) Chapter 11 (The Emergence of the Treasure Tower),complete.
41. 65
Not included in the list described above.
Chapter 13 (Encouraging Devotion), 2 pages; slightly
different in size from others.
42. 5838 Not included in the list described above.
Chapter 5 (The Parable of the Medicinal Herbs), 2
pages.
43. 3259 Not included in the list described above.
Chapter 7 (The Parable of the Phantom City), 16 pages.
6. Separate editions of chapter 25 (The Universal Gateway of theBodhisattva Perceiver of the World’s Sounds)
Not included in the list described above.8(Tang. 219)
44. 586 Xylography with illustration(s), accordion-folded, 20
lines per page, each containing 10 characters, 4 pages.
45. 221 Same as 586, 15 pages.
46. 757 Xylography without illustrations, 5 lines per page, eachcontaining 12 characters, 10 pages.
47. 758 Same as 757, 4 pages.
48. 760 Same as 757, 2 pages.
As described above, Solonin lists a total of 48 sutra texts. I cannot but
avoid judging whether Solonin’s classification categories of the “old edition” and the “new edition” are relevant, since I do not have access tothe original texts or their copies. Kychanov does not set such criteria in
his 1999 catalogue mentioned above. He classifies the whole texts of the
Lotus Sutra in the following manner:
Tang. 218
Tang. 430
Tang. 219

No. 78, manuscripts.
Nos. 79, 80, editions.
No. 81, Miaofa lianhua xinjing 妙法L華心經,
booklet form, manuscript.
No. 82, an independent text of chapter 25 (The Univer-J ̲Orient̲05 06.2.1 4:54 PM

182

ページ 182

XIXIA LANGUAGE STUDIES AND THE LOTUS SUTRA (I)sal Gateway of the Bodhisattva Perceiver of the World’s
Sounds), without illustration. No. 83, an independent
text of chapter 25 (The Universal Gateway of the Bodhisattva Perceiver of the World’s Sounds), with illustration(s).
This classification is not so different from that of Solonin except that the
number of the texts included in each category differ. I rearrange
Solonin’s numbers according to Kychanov’s classification and attach
them to the excavation number of each item, as follows:
Kychanov
No. 78, manuscripts

Excavation no.
6253q†
5838e
3259e
64r
63r
719y
68u
6253uiSolonin’s no.
361), 2)
42
43
37
40
38
39
363), 4)

†The number in the small circle indicates the juan number.

Solonin 41, No. 65, chapter 13 (Encouraging Devotion), 2 pages, is notincluded in Kychanov’s list. This may suggest Kychanov omitted small
fragments in his list. Such omissions of small fragments can be seen in
the following.
Kychanov
No. 79 edition/accordion-folded

Excavation no.
2436q
66q
564q
4631q
4011q
6723q
4562w
7231e
3900e
2317r
6452r
67t
927t

Solonin’s no.
18
14
—
10
13
2, 11, 23
12
—
1
17
—
7
6

J ̲Orient̲05 06.2.1 4:54 PM

ページ 183

XIXIA LANGUAGE STUDIES AND THE LOTUS SUTRA (I)No. 80

782y
4674y
3901y
4502u
6452u
7231i
692w
805w

183

9
8
—
—
4, 5
15
33
32

In addition, the following excavation numbers in Solonin’s list are notincluded in Kychanov’s classification:
7966–3, 6310–16, 7350–20, 6621–21, 6310–22, 2665–24, 2664–25,
7178–26, 7791–27, 7726–28, 7323–29, 7762–30, 580–31, 583–34,
7467–35, 6253–36. (Solonin’s number is attached after the excavation
number.)No. 82, an independent text of chapter 25 (The Universal Gateway of
the Bodhisattva Perceiver of the World’s Sounds), without illustration.
574, 575, 576 (not included in Solonin’s list),757–46, 758–47, 760–48.
No. 83, an independent text of chapter 25 (The Universal Gateway of
the Bodhisattva Perceiver of the World’s Sounds), with illustrations.
221–45, 586–44, 940 (not included in Solonin’s list).
The item described last above, no. 83, an independent text of “The Universal Gateway of the Bodhisattva Perceiver of the World’s Sounds”
chapter (accordion-folded xylography with illustrations), is included as
no. 28-2 in the catalogue of the exhibition “The Lotus Sutra and Its
World: Buddhist Manuscripts of the Great Silk Road” (held in Tokyo in
November 1998). This is a rare text with attached illustrations in the top
section of all folios for interpretation. Another copy of the same type ofthe text was discovered in a stËpa on the east bank of the Dangquanriver 宕 泉 河 beside the Mogao grottoes in Dunhuang in 1958. Thissuggests that this type may have once been widely distributed. The
Dunhuang text is presently kept at the Dunhuang Academy (formerly,
Dunhuang Institute of Cultural Relics). (An article appears in the Dunhuang yanjiu 敦煌研究 (Dunhuang Research), no. 3, 1985.)
Tang. 430, excavation no. 4072, Miaofa lianhua xinjing 妙法L華心經(Lotus Heart Sutra of the Wonderful Law), is a small booklet style manuscript; dimensions: 7×5 cm; 27 pages, 3 lines per page, each containing 7 characters.

J ̲Orient̲05 06.2.1 4:54 PM

184

ページ 184

XIXIA LANGUAGE STUDIES AND THE LOTUS SUTRA (I)

III. Texts in the Stein Collection
The Stein collection at the British Library does not include sizable manuscripts of the Lotus Sutra other than small fragment remains belonging
to a scroll manuscript of the Miaofa lianhua xinjing (Lotus Heart Sutraof the Wonderful Law), which corresponds to Tang. 430 in the Kozlov
collection.
BM No. 3862, 17 lines extant; cf. Tatsuo Nishida, Seikabun KegonkyØ
西夏文華厳經 III, (Xixia Version of the Avataµsaka-sËtra), p. 46.
IV. Texts in the Beijing Library
I once wrote that juan 1, 4 and 7 (manuscript) and juan 2 and 3 (edition)
were kept at the Beijing Library (presently, National Library of China)
based on the description of E. D. Grinstead’s The Tangut Tripitaka. But
I was mistaken about the location of these texts. Actually, they arethought to be the holdings in the Kozlov collection. It appears that infact the [former] Beijing Library actually holds only juan 2 (edition), as
Zhou Xujia 周淑迦 referred to it previously and Shi Jinbo 史金波 more
recently. Nevertheless, Shi Jinbo also puts its title as Tianpin Miaofa
lianhua jing, juan 2. (Xixia Fojiao shi lüe 西夏佛教史略 (A Brief Historyof Xixia Buddhism), 1988, p. 373).
It is reported that a “butterfly-bound” brochure, hudie zhuang 蝴蝶装of the Miaofa lianhua jing 妙法L花經 was included among the archeological finds excavated at the site in Gansu Sheng Wuwei Xiaxigouxian甘肅省武威下西溝s (Kaogu 考古 , no. 3, 1974).9 As mentioned above,
almost all the extant texts are booklets (except the texts in the Stein collection that are fragments of scroll manuscripts) so the “butterflybound” brochure is unique.
3. An Attempt at the Collation of Variant Texts
As a matter of course, collating variant texts is indispensable for the
study of Xixia Buddhist scriptures. Unfortunately, however, it is unavoidable that the extent of collation is limited as most of the texts have notbeen made fully available to the public. Regarding the Lotus Sutra, I
would emphasize that most prerequisite is collation between the manuscripts and the editions (movable wood-type prints) within the Kozlov
collection, and between the texts from the Kozlov collection and thoseformerly owned by Morisse and presently kept in the collections in Parisand Berlin (hereafter referred to as Morisse’s text).
It is very apparent that such attempts, were they undertaken, would
undoubtedly yield rich results. Nevertheless, we cannot but be satisfiedJ ̲Orient̲05 06.2.1 4:54 PM

ページ 185

XIXIA LANGUAGE STUDIES AND THE LOTUS SUTRA (I)185

with collating only the following two sets of texts:
1. Collation between the text published by Morisse (beginning ofchapter 1, cited by Luo Fucheng) and the equivalent from the Kozlov
collection.
2. Collation between the dhåraˆ¥s in chapter 26 (Dharani) that I once
copied at the Musée Guimet in Paris and the equivalent from Kozlov’s
text. I would attempt to collate these texts as follows:
I. Text Collation of the Beginning of Chapter 110
1. Variants in Kozlov’s and Morisse’s texts
Kozlov’s text appears to be older than Morisse’s which is thought to be arevised version of the former so that the variant from Kozlov’s comes
first in each comparison. (Variant portions are underlined. “L” and “R”
indicate “level tone” 平声 and “rising tone” 上声, respectively.)
KozlovMorissetha (L20)tha (R17)1

Chinese version Variance11
其 (pronoun)2

L : R; R is correct.

阿若t陳如

———
a d˘a2 k˘əw th˘ɔn ńź˘u˘uńź- : -(?) (R16) (L45) (L16) (L2)

(R2)

L:R

3

———
mɔ xɑ ka ˘amɑ ŋɑ

(R42) (R14) (L20) (L19)(R14)(R56)y˘əw ləw ph˘ən lɔy˘əw(R40) (L43) (L16) (L49)

(L45)

4

———

5

—

———
ya

(L17) (L26)

(R17)

—

-ɔ : -ɑx- : ŋ-優楼頻螺u葉-ɔ : -ɑ
R:Lkha y˘an

6

摩訶u葉

——

伽耶u葉
-˘an : -a

大目v連(大 is literal translation.)

大 mbυ kh˘an l˘enmbɔw(L5) (R24) (L42)(R45)

mɔ xɑ ka t˘a y˘anmɑ ŋɑ t˘a y˘an(same as no. 3)(R42)(R14)(L20)(L19)(L26)(R14)(R56)(L19)(R24)

L:R

a ndəw ləw thonth˘ew(?)(L43)(L43)(L54)(R41)

劫 p˘ən nɔka(L16)(L49)

(L20)

7

-υ : -ɔw

摩訶u旃延

8

—

9

——

——

阿w楼x
nd- : th-əw : -˘ew

劫賓那
literal translation: kaJ ̲Orient̲05 06.2.1 4:54 PM

ページ 186186

XIXIA LANGUAGE STUDIES AND THE LOTUS SUTRA (I)

10

—

離婆多

[phɔ] homophonicdifferent charactersli phɔ tonli phɔ

(R9)(L49)(L54)(L10)(L49)p˘ən l˘ən ka phɔ sonphɔ son(L16)(L42)(L20)(L49)(L54)(L49)(L54)

11

畢陵伽婆蹉

——

12

[phɔ/son] homophonicdifferent characters

薄拘羅

—

—

[li] R : L[k˘əw] homophonicdifferent characters

phu k˘əw lɔk˘əw(L1)(L45)(L49)(L45)

mɔ xɑ k˘əw ti lɔmɑ ŋɑ thi(L45)(R9)(L49)(L14)(R56)(R9)13t- : th-

摩訶拘y羅

14

swən

(L15)(L54)(L49)

(L15)

15

—
xu ləw nɔ mi tɔ lɔ(same as no. 3)

孫陀羅——swən thon lɔmɔ xɑ : mɑ ŋɑ[swən] homophonicdifferent characters——

富楼那彌多羅尼子 tɔ : ton
子: literal translation

i子

ton

(L1)(L43)(L49)(L11)(R42)(L49)(L10)

(L15)

16

須菩提
s˘u phu this˘u phɔ t˘en2(R3) (L1) (L11)(L3) (L49)(L42)[s˘u] homophonicdifferent charactersphɔ t˘en2 became theestablished translation for
菩提

17

—
ya ˘u thon lɔ
(R17)(L2)(L54)(L49)18——˘u : ˘υ˘υ

L2 : L7

(L7)

——

—
phɔ tsɑ mɔ ŋɑ tsɑmɑ ŋɑ

(L49)(L17)(R42)(R14)(L17)(R14)(R56)

19

耶輸陀羅

—

——

a nυ tɔ lɔ

ton(?)(R5)(R42)(L49)

(L54)

菩薩摩訶薩
mɔ : mɑŋɑ : ŋɑ阿耨多羅tɔ : ton

Beside the above mentioned, there are many examples which show nodifference between the two texts. Among them are:nɔ thika ˘a 那提u葉,
k˘əw x ən phɔ thi t梵波提,
a na 阿難,lɔ xəw lɔ 羅z羅

These names of ßråvakas are described in Xixia characters that areconverted from the transliterated Chinese equivalents in Kumåraj¥va’s
version, so they do not show direct phonetic correspondence with the
Sanskrit originals.
Why did the above-mentioned differences between Kozlov’s text andMorisse’s appear? Variations between homophonic characters offer few
problems, and variations between level tone characters 平声字 and rising
tone characters 上声字 do not appear to be especially problematic. Varia-

J ̲Orient̲05 06.2.1 4:54 PM

ページ 187

XIXIA LANGUAGE STUDIES AND THE LOTUS SUTRA (I)

187

tions in other cases, however, may reflect the fact that the Xixia language itself changed over time, or a difference in the colloquialisms ofthe translators. The following contrasts between the two versions oftransliteration are notable: 如 ńź˘u : ź˘u, 多 tɔ : ton, 菩 phu : phɔ, 目 mbυ :mbɔw, 耶 y˘an : ya, and variants transliterated for 摩訶. I surmise thatthe two similar sounds for 輸 in 耶輸陀羅, ˘u (L2) and ˘υ (L7), reflect thesituation that the sound couple would be unified later. This is also thecase with nd˘ew (R41) and ndəw (L43). There appears to be a witticism in thefact that the first character˘u for 須 and the thirdthi for 提 in 須
菩 提 from Kozlov’s text by chance mean “medicine” and “to drink,”
respectively.
2. Phonetic correspondence between Chinese and Xixia transliterations
At the beginning of the 20th century, Morisse tried to suppose the pronunciation of Xixia characters by contrast with Sanskrit forms. Today,
however, we have already reached the stage at which we can reconstruct
Xixia sounds based on the reliable ground of fanqie 反切 [a traditional
method of indicating the pronunciation of a character by using two othercharacters, the first having the same initial consonant as the given character and the second having the same rhyme (vowel and final consonant,and tone)] recorded in the extant phonological works. The comparison
between the two texts (Kozlov and Morisse) made previously must also
be considered from the viewpoint of whether the conversion from Chinese forms to Xixia equivalents appears regularly.
Hereafter I will roughly consider correspondence between Chineseand Xixia phonetic forms, though the extent of reference is quite limited(to examples from the beginning of chapter 1).
‡“K” and “M” indicate Kozlov’s and Morisse’s texts, respectively.

Chinese transliteration
1 支
離
来支
彌
明支
2 脂
尼
泥脂
y
徹脂
利
来至
3 斉
提
定斉
4 魚
如
日魚
5 虞
拘
見虞
須
心虞
6 模
菩
並模

Xixia transliterationKli (R9) = M

KMmi (L11)KM

li (L10)i (L10)Kti (R9) ≠ M

KM

rir (R72)

K

thi (L11) ≠ Mt˘en (L42)Kńź˘u (L2) ≠ Mź˘u (R2)Kk˘əw (L95) ≠ MKs˘u (R3) =K

phu (L1) ≠ Mthi (R9)Mk˘u (L3)s˘u (R3)phɔ (L49)J ̲Orient̲05 06.2.1 4:54 PM

188

XIXIA LANGUAGE STUDIES AND THE LOTUS SUTRA (I)

7 真

8
9
10
11

ページ 188

魂
阮
寒
仙

12 宵
13 歌

頻
賓
陳
孫
v
難
延
連
旃
t
訶

並真
I真
澄真
心魂
群阮
泥寒
余仙
来仙
章仙
見宵
暁歌

KM

ph˘ən (L16)KM

p˘ən (L16)KMth˘ən (L16)K

swən (L15) = M

KM

kh˘an (R24)KMnɑ (L17)

KM

swən (L15)y˘an (L26) = M

KMl˘ən (L42)KMt˘a (L19) = M

KMk˘əw (L45)

KM

xɑ (R14), Ky˘an (R24)t˘a (L19)ŋɑ (R14)ŋɑ (R56)

≠M

KM
羅
来歌
lɔ (L49)
K多
端歌tɔ (R42) ≠ M
ton (L54)
KM
x
定歌thɔ (L49)KM
陀定箇thɔ (L49)KM
那泥箇nɔ (L49)
K
14 戈
摩
明戈
mɔ (R42) ≠ Mmɑ (R14)K
婆並戈phɔ (L49) = M
phɔ (L49)
K
15 麻
伽
群麻
kha (R17) KMka (L20)
KMu
見麻ka (L20)KM耶余麻y˘an (L26) ≠ Mya (R17)
KM
16 蒸
陵
来蒸
l˘en (L42)
KM
17 尤
富
I宥
xu (L1)K優影尤y˘əw (L45) = M
y˘əw (R40)
KM
18 侯
楼
来侯
ləw (L43)
KMz
匣候xəw (L43)
Kw
泥候
ndəw (L43) ≠ Mnd˘ew (R41)
KM
19 凡
梵
並梵
x an (R25)
K
20 屋
目
明屋
mbυ (L5) ≠ M
mbɔw (R45)
KM
21 鐸
薄
並鐸
phu (L1)
KM
22 薬
若
日薬
d˘a (R16)
KM
23 葉
葉
書葉
˘a (L19)M劫
見葉ka (L20)(In Guangyun 廣韻, a Chinese phonological work, “葉” is given as yusheqie
與渉切 and shisheqie 式渉切. The Xixia transliteration corresponds with the latter.)2

The correspondence described above between the examples from thetwo languages can be summarized as follows:J ̲Orient̲05 06.2.1 4:54 PM

ページ 189

XIXIA LANGUAGE STUDIES AND THE LOTUS SUTRA (I)1 支脂 -i, -i
2 歌戈 -ɑ, -ɔ, -on
34

薬葉 -˘a, -a
模 -u (-ɔ)魚虞 -˘u, -˘u
侯 -əw
真 -˘ən

斉 -i
麻 -a
阮 -˘an
屋 -υ (-ɔw)
尤 -˘əw
魂 - ən寒 -ɑ仙 -˘an, -˘a, -˘en
鐸 -u

189

凡 - an
蒸 -˘en宵 -˘əw

Furthermore, concerning initial consonants, the following rules of correspondence are applicable to the above examples:
1 Voiceless unaspirated initials in Chinese are converted to the
Xixia equivalents:
bangmu I母: p- (x-); jianmu 見母: k-; duanmu 端母 : t-;zhangmu 章母: t2 Voiceless aspirated initials in Chinese are converted to the Xixia
equivalents:
chemu 徹母: th- (t-)3 Voiced stops and affricate initials in Chinese are converted tovoiceless aspirated initials in Xixia:
bingmu 並母: ph- (x -); dingmu 定母: th- (t-); qunmu 群母: kh- (k-);
cheng 澄母: th4 Nasal initials in Chinese are converted to nasal initials or voicedstop consonants preceded by nasals in Xixia:
mingmu 明母: m-, mb-; nimu 泥母: -, n-, nd5 Some initial consonants including fricative, liquid, etc. in Chinese are converted in Xixia as follows:
xinmu 心母: s-; shumu 書母: -; xiaomu 暁母: x- (ŋ-);
xiamu 匣母: x-; yumu 喩母: y-; yingmu 影母: -; rimu 日母: ńź-,d-; laimu 来母: lII. Analysis of Dhāranı̄ Transliterations in Chapter 26 (Dharani)
Next, the following are the comparison between the two transliterationsof each dhåraˆ¥ of the Bodhisattva Medicine King in chapter 26 (Dharani) from Kozlov’s and Morisse’s texts. If each set of two versions ofdhåraˆ¥s is compared, a certain rule can be found between them, though
the ways in which they were transliterated appear to be considerably different. It may be surmised that Morisse’s text reflects the temporalchange of the Xixia language itself and that the translator of this text
must have revised the old version by imitating original Sanskrit soundsof dhåraˆ¥s as far as possible (probably by means of Tibetan monks’J ̲Orient̲05 06.2.1 4:54 PM

190

ページ 190

XIXIA LANGUAGE STUDIES AND THE LOTUS SUTRA (I)readings) and by improving the method of transliteration.
*(K) and (M) indicate Kozlov’s and Morisse’s texts, respectively.12
1 安（影寒）爾（日紙）
Skt. anye(K)an (L24) i (L10)(M)
a (?) ne (R33)
2 曼（明願）爾 Skt. manye(K)
mbɑn (L24) i (L10)(M)
ma (L20) ne (R33)
3 摩（明戈）禰（泥E）Skt. mane(K)mɔ (R42) ni (R10)(M)
ma ne4 摩摩禰
Skt. mamane(K)mɔ mɔ ni(M)ma ma ne
5 旨（章旨）隷（来E）
Skt. citte(K)ti (R9) li (R9)(M)
tsi (R10) te (R33)
6 遮（章麻）犂（来脂）第（定霽） Skt. carite(K)t˘a (L19) li (R9) thi (R10)(M)
tsa (L20) rir (L79) te (R33)
7 F（書麻）B13（?）（羊鳴音）Skt. ßame
(K)˘a (L19) ma (L20)(M)
˘a (L19) me (L36)
8 F履 罔雉反（明・旨）多（端歌）H（云尾）Skt. ßamitåvi
(K)˘a li ton (L54) v  (L8)(M)
˘a mi (L11) ta (L20) 長 mbi (R10)9 羶 輸千反（書・先）帝（端霽） Skt. ßånte
(K)˘an (L26) ti (R10)(M)
˘a (L19) n% (R28) 長 te (R33)
10 目（明屋）帝（端霽）Skt. mukte(K)mbɔw (R45) ti (R10)(M)
mu (R4) k% (L30) te (R33)
11 目多履（来旨） Skt. muktatame(K)
mbɔw ton li(M)mu k% ta 長 t% (L30) me (L36)
12 沙（山麻）履 Skt. same(K)sɔ (R42) li (R9)(M)
sa (L20) me (R33)
13 阿（影歌）H沙履
Skt. avi∑ame(K)a (?) v  sɔ li

J ̲Orient̲05 06.2.1 4:54 PM

ページ 191

XIXIA LANGUAGE STUDIES AND THE LOTUS SUTRA (I)

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

191

(M)
a (?) mbi (R10) ˘a me
桑（心唐）履
Skt. sama(K)sɔ (R42) li (R9)(M)
sa (L20) ma (L20)
沙履
Skt. same(K)sɔ (R42) li (R9)(M)
sa (L20) me (R33)
叉（初麻）裔（余祭）
Skt. k∑aye / jaye k∑aye(K)tha (L18) i (L10)(M)
dza (L20) ya (R17) kh% (L30) ˘a e (L36)阿叉裔Skt. ak∑aye(K)a thɑ i(M)
a kh% ˘a e阿耆（群旨）膩（泥至） Skt. ak∑iˆe(K)a khi (L11) i (L10)(M)
a kh% i (L10) ne (R33)
羶（書・先）帝
Skt. śånte(K)˘an (L26) ti (R33)(M)
˘a (R16) n% 長 te (R33)
F（書麻）履
Skt. ßame
(K)˘a (L19) li (R9)(M)
˘a (L19) me (L36)
陀（定歌）羅（来歌）尼（泥脂） Skt. dhåraˆi(K)
thon (L54) lɔ i(M)nda (R17) 長 rar (L82) ni阿廬（来模）伽（群麻）婆（並戈）娑 蘇奈反（心・泰）簸（I過）蔗（章J）M（並脂）叉膩
Skt. ålokabhå∑e pratyavek∑aˆi(K)
a lu (L1) kha (L17) phɔ (L49) sɔ (R42) pɔ (L49) t˘a (L19) phi(L11) tha (L18) i (L10)

(M)

23

24

a lɔh (L42) ŋ&a (L21) pa (R17) 長 se (L36) p% (L30)rar (L82) tya (R17) fε (R32) kh% (L30) ˘a (L19) ni (R10)禰M剃（透霽） Skt. nivi∑†e(K)ni (R10) phi thi (R10)(M)
ni (R10) mi (L11) te (R33)
阿便（並線）A 都餓反（端・箇）邏（来歌）禰履剃

Skt. abhyantaranivi∑†e(K)a ph˘en2 (L42) tɔ (R42) lɔ ni (R10) li thi (R10)(M)

J ̲Orient̲05 06.2.1 4:54 PM

192

ページ 192

XIXIA LANGUAGE STUDIES AND THE LOTUS SUTRA (I)a mya (R17) n% ta rar ni wi (R9) % (L29) te

25 阿亶（端旱）A波（I戈）隷輸（書虞）地 途賣反（定・卦）Skt. atyantapårißuddhi(K)a tan (L24) tɔ (L49) pɔ (L49) li ˘u (L2) ˘ε2 (R31)

(M)

26

27

a tya (R17) n% ta (L20) pa (L20) rir (L79) ˘υ (L7) nde (R33)
K（影侯）究（見宥）隷Skt. ukkule(K)əw (L45) k˘əw (L45) li (R9)(M)
u (?) ku (L1) le (R33)
牟（明尤）究隷 Skt. mukkule(K)mɔ (42) k˘əw li(M)
mu (R4) ku le

Skt. ara∂e(K)a lɔ li (R9)(M)
a rar (L82) nde
波羅隷Skt. para∂e(K)pɔ (L49) lɔ li(M)pa (L20) rar nde首（書有）迦差 初几反（初・旨） Skt. ßukåk∑i(K)˘əw (R40) ka (L20) thi (R9)(M)
˘υ (L7) ŋ&a (L21) 長 kh% i (L10)
阿三磨三履
Skt. asamasame(K)a san (L24) mɔ san li(M)a sa (L20) ma (L20) sa me
佛（並物）xM吉（見質）利N (澄質)14 帝
Skt. buddhavilokite(K)28 阿羅隷

29

30

31

32

f % (L29) thon (L54) phi k% li t% (L29) ti (R10)(M)
mu (L1) nda mbi (R10) lɔ (R42) ke (L36) te (R33)

33 達（定曷）磨波利差 猜離反（清・支）帝

Skt. dharmapar¥k∑ite(K)tha (R14) mɔ (R42) pɔ (L49) li tshi (L11) ti (R10)(M)
nda r%r ma (L20) pa rir 長 kh% i (L10) te
34 僧（心登）伽涅（泥屑）瞿（群虞）沙禰
Skt. saµghanirgho∑aˆi(K)sən (L15) kha nd˘en (R35) kh˘u (R3) a ni(M)sa (L20) ŋ ) (L27) ŋ&a (R17) r%r ŋ&ɔ (L49) ˘a ni

35 婆舎（書馬）婆舎輸地(K)(M)

Skt. bhå∑yåbhå∑yå ßoddh¥pɔ ˘a pɔ ˘a ĕ (L9) ˘ε2 (R31)pa ya 長 pa ya ɔ (L48) nda niJ ̲Orient̲05 06.2.1 4:54 PM

ページ 193

XIXIA LANGUAGE STUDIES AND THE LOTUS SUTRA (I)193

36 曼A邏

37

38

39

40

41

Skt. mantre(K)mban (L24) thon lɔ(M)ma n% t% r˘e曼A邏叉夜多Skt. mantråk∑ayate(K)mban thon lɔ tha ya ton(M)ma n% t% rar kh% ˘a ya 長 te
郵（云尤）樓A
Skt. rute(K)y˘əw ləw tɔ(M)r˘ur (R70) te郵樓At舎略盧遮反（来・麻） Skt. rutakaußalye
(K)y˘əw ləw tɔ k˘əw ˘a l˘a (R18)(M)
r˘ur ta kɔ (L49) ˘a le
悪（影鐸）叉邏Skt. ak∑aye(K)ɑ (L17) tha lɔ(M)a kh% ˘a ye悪叉冶（余馬）多冶
Skt. ak∑ayavanatåya
(K)
ɑ (L17) tha ya ton ya(M)a kh% ˘a ya v ɑ (L17) na (R17) ta 長 ya

42 阿婆盧Skt. abalo?
(K)a pɔ lu (L1)(M)
a pa lɔ
43 阿摩若 荏蔗反（日・O）那多夜
Skt. amanyanatåya
(K)
a mɔ d˘a2 nɔ ton ya(M)
a ma n% ˘a na ta 長 ye

The above-presented comparisons of shengmu 声母 (initial consonants)
and yunmu 韻母 (vowels with/without final consonants, or rhymes) fromthe two texts indicate that there are fundamental differences in themethod of transliteration between them while the two show rough concordance in general terms. Though it is uncertain whether Morisse’s text
was based on another version of the Chinese translation or if it was
influenced by the Tibetan translation (transliteration), it shows more
proximity than Kozlov’s text to the Sanskrit original.
For example, 達磨 (定曷) (明戈) (dharma) is transliterated asthɑ(R14) mɔ (R42) in Kozlov’s text, which is apparently a transcription fromthe Chinese 達磨. On the other hand, rendered asnda r%r ma(L20), the counterpart in Morisse’s text becomes more proximate to theoriginal Sanskrit dharma by containing a character corresponding to -r-.
Chan/Zen texts in the Xixia version always use the former, i.e., the transcription from the Chinese.

J ̲Orient̲05 06.2.1 4:54 PM

194

ページ 194

XIXIA LANGUAGE STUDIES AND THE LOTUS SUTRA (I)

In the same way, concerning 陀羅尼 (定歌) (来歌) (泥脂) (dhåraˆi), thetransliteration in Morisse’s text,nda (R17) 長 long rar (L82) ni
(R10) is more proximate to the original Sanskrit than the counterpart in
Kozlov’s text,
thon (L54) lɔ (L49) i (L10). The latter is more frequently used in Buddhist scriptures in general. This means that thetransliterations used in the primary stage were accepted to a fairly wide
extent. In this regard, I would like to point out that the first characteristicof the transliteration in Morisse’s text is that, in general terms, it
becomes more proximate to the Sanskrit original forms.
To put it concretely, first, the long vowel is indicated by the small
Xixia character(長 long), which is equivalent to yin 引 in the Chinesetransliteration, as in the above-mentioned instances of the dhåraˆ¥s.
Second, small Xixia characters are added to the end of the words inorder to represent the final consonants, -n , -ŋ, -k. This clearly indicatesthat the Xixia language at that time had neither nasal consonants norstop consonants, -p, -t, -k, in the final position but it had only nasalized
vowels.
Chinese Skt.
ßån
tyan
bhyan

羶
亶
便

Both

and

(R10) andKozlov’s text
˘an
tan
ph˘en2Morisse’s text˘a-n%tya-n%mya-n%are fanqie compound characters made of the left half of(L11), respectively, with the addition of the left half of(R17).

Chinese Skt.
Kozlov’s text
Morisse’s textmanmban
ma-n%manyamɔ dz˘a2
ma-n%- ˘asaµ(gh)sənsa-ŋ ) (L27)
muk
mbɔw
muk%
, ,
represent -n, -ŋ, -k, respectively.

曼
摩若
僧
目

Third, methods of transliterating double consonants should be discussed.
i) k∑-type
In transliterating into Chinese, a Chinese character corresponding toth- or kh- is applied. In Kozlov’s text, the syllable is transcribed with a
Xixia character, and in Morisse’s text, it is represented by two Xixia

J ̲Orient̲05 06.2.1 4:54 PM

ページ 195

XIXIA LANGUAGE STUDIES AND THE LOTUS SUTRA (I)195

characters so as to describe the original Sanskrit form.
Skt.
k∑a
k∑i
k∑i
k∑i

Chinese叉
差耆
差Kozlov’s text

Morisse’s text

tha
thi
khi
tshi

kh%-˘akh%-˘
kh%-ikh%-iii) tr-type
Here are only a few examples of contrast between Kozlov’s andMorisse’s texts: thon-lɔ/t% rar, t% r˘eSkt.
mantraChinese曼A羅

Kozlov’s text

Morisse’s text

mban thon lɔma n% t% rar
ma n% t% r˘e

The above-mentioned correspondence of shengmu 声母 (initial consonants) in the transliteration of dhåraˆ¥s in chapter 26 (Dharani) is within
the rules shown earlier. It should be specially mentioned that, to the consonant transliteration with the Chinese characters of zhaoxi 照系 (zhaoseries) and zhixi 知系 (zhi series), Morisse’s text applies ts-, tsh-, dz-,
which is different from t-, t- in Kozlov’s text. For yumu 喩母 initialconsonants, mb- is used in Morisse’s text and v - in Kozlov’s text.
The following is a list of correspondence of yunmu 韻母 (vowels with/without final consonants).
Kozlov’s text
1 支
-i
2 脂
-i, -i微
3 斉, 祭
4 佳
5 虞
6 模
7 質
8 物
9 元
10 寒
曷
11 仙

-
-i, -i
-i
- ̆u
-u
-%
-%
-ɑn
-ɑn
-ɑ
-˘an

Morisse’s text-i (-e)-i, -i, -ir
-i
-e
-i
- ̆υ-ɔ-e-u-a, -an%
-an%
-a
-˘an%J ̲Orient̲05 06.2.1 4:54 PM

196
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23

ページ 196

XIXIA LANGUAGE STUDIES AND THE LOTUS SUTRA (I)

宵
歌
戈
麻
唐
鐸
尤
侯
登
談
屋
薬
葉

-ɔ, -ou-ɔ, -ou-ɔ, -ou-ɔ, -˘a-ɔ-ɑ-ɔ, -˘ɔw
-əw
-ən
-ɑn
-ɔw
-˘a
-a

-a
-a
-a
-a
-a
-a
-u
-u, -˘u, -˘ur-aŋ )
-a
-uk%
-ɑ
-˘a

The dhåraˆi transliteration technique of Kozlov’s text was fairly unrefined, but examples in Morisse’s text suggest that they are improved
forms of their predecessors. It can be understood that this improved
technique would further develop to the transliteration system adopted in
the Sovereign King of the Golden Light Sutra 金光明最勝王經 (SuvarˆaprabhåsottamasËtra), which was translated in the later Hexi period, andin the wall inscriptions at Juyong-guan 居庸關 in the Yuan dynasty.
The Sovereign King of the Golden Light Sutra includes following
examples:Xixia
in%nd% (R28) rar
muk%tes˘u k% rir te
kh% ˘akh% it% rir

Skt.
indra
mukte
suk®ti
k∑a
k∑i
trir

The inscriptions at Juyong-guan include following examples:
Xixiata tha long ŋ&a ta
naŋ )
sa ŋ )t%r˘et%rar
mun d% r˘e

Skt.
tathågata
nåµ
saµ
trai
tra
mudre

J ̲Orient̲05 06.2.1 4:54 PM

ページ 197

XIXIA LANGUAGE STUDIES AND THE LOTUS SUTRA (I)197

Though there are no examples of the final consonant, -k, the inscriptions
include examples of the final consonants, -µ, -t:na m% (L30) [Skt.] naµ;˘a t% [Skt.] ∑at.

As a matter of course, one must consider examples of transliterationfrom other various scriptures. I can surmise that there was a period when
the technique of transliterating Sanskrit words was improved in theprocess of extensive translation of volumes of Buddhist scriptures into
the Xixia language. There is an apparent relationship to progress in thetechnique of transliterating foreign vocabularies with Chinese charactersthat was soon adopted in the Jiazhong ben Huayi yiyu 甲種本《華夷譯語》(A-type edition of [a series of bilingual] dictionaries of Chinese and thelanguages of neighboring peoples and countries) and《元朝秘史》Yuanchao mishi (Secret history of the Yuan dynasty), which were compiled
immediately after Xixia’s golden age of Buddhist translation. I would
like to consider this problem as a theme in the history of translating
Buddhist scriptures on another opportunity.
Notes
This article was written a fairly long time ago for inclusion in the Xixia Version of
the Lotus Sutra, edited by Tatsuo Nishida and published by the Soka Gakkai in March
2005, but for various reasons it is being published here, independently from the newbook.
2Contribution préliminaire à l’étude de l’écriture et la langue Si-hia. Paris, 1904.
3
Concerning Xixia language Studies till around 1960, see present writer’s Seikago no
kenky『西夏語の研究』(A study of the Hsi-hsia language), I, (The Zauho Press 座右宝刊
行会 , 1964). Regarding more recent studies, see Shi Jinbo 史金波 , “Xixiaxue bainian
huigu” “西夏學百年回顧” (Tangutology during the past century in retrospect), included
in both Zhongguo minzu yanjiu nianjian, 2000 nianjuan《中国民族研究年鑑》2000 年巻(Yearbook of China’a nationalities studies, 2000) and Guojia Tushuguan xuekan, 2002
zengkan, Xixia yanjiu zhuanhao《国家圖書館學刊》2002 増刊 西夏研究専号 (Journal of
the National Library of China, 2002 supplementary issue for Xixia studies). The two
versions of the article are the same except for minor differences.
4
The reasons why Morisse’s text and F. Berteaux’s text (originally 3 juan, each) are
now in the collections of the Musée National des Arts Asiatiques Guimet in Paris andthe Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin and the why the latter owns 5 juan are not clear. Juntaro
Ishihama writes that the Staatsbibliothek owns 5 juan (juan 1, 3, 4, 5 and 7) in “Seika
ibun zatsuroku”「西夏遺文雑録」(A miscellany on extant Xixia documents) (foreword
to N. A. Nevsky, “Seika moji benran”「西夏文字便覧」[A Brief Manual of the Si-hia
Characters with Tibetan Transcriptions],『 大 阪 東 洋 学 会 亜 細 亜 研 究 』 四 号 1926刊[Research Review of the Osaka Asiatic Society, no. 4, 1926], p. xiii) and that all 5 juan
had been owned by Morisse. Hereafter, the present writer calls all 8 juan “Morisse’s
text” for convenience. There are illustrations at the top of each juan including illustra1

J ̲Orient̲05 06.2.1 4:54 PM

198

ページ 198

XIXIA LANGUAGE STUDIES AND THE LOTUS SUTRA (I)tions of the Buddha’s sermon. Further details are related in “On the Xixia Version of the
Lotus Sutra” (Nishida, op. cit., note 1, pp. liv-lv).
5This research was carried out in November 1970.
6
Eric Grinstead, ed., The Tangut Tripitaka, includes several pages from juan 1 (edition) (pp. 1502–1506), which is the portion following chapter 2 (Expedient Means),
Kozlov collection no. 2436. Its last line can be read as “(unclear) . . . . . the xylography
was carved by Preceptor Daoshun () □ hui □” (. . . . . 雕印面者道順 [
] 和尚□
慧□）
7
* indicates monochrome facsimile.
8
On the top of the independent text of the Miaofa lianhua jing Guanshiyin pusa
pumen pin「妙法L華經觀世音菩P普門品」 is an illustration of Shuiyue Guanyin 水月観
音図 (Water Moon Avalokiteßvara). A color facsimile is printed on the reverse side ofcover of the above mentioned (note 3) Journal of the National Library of China supplementary issue for Xixia studies. E. I. Kychanov, ed., Seika BukkyØ tenseki mokuroku『西夏仏教典籍目録』(A catalogue of Buddhist texts in the Xixia language), published by
the Department of Linguistics of Kyoto University, 1999) has a monochrome plate of
the illustration at the end of the volume (p. 760).
9Shi Jinbo, et. al., “国内現存出土西夏文献簡明目録” (A brief catalogue of the Xixia
literature preserved domestically) (op. cit., note 3, supplementary issue for Xixia studies,p. 222) reads: “北平圖書館, 91. 添品妙法L華經巻二、刻本、經文共110面、面6行、行16
字 ” (Beiping Library, 91. Tianpin Miaofa lianhua jing juan 2, wood-block print, total
110 pages, 6 lines per page, 16 characters per line). According to the list (p. 226), Xixia
Lotus Sutra texts extant in China are as follows:
7 Collection of the Gansu Province Museum (甘粛省博物館)(1) Excavated in the cave of Mt. Tianti (天梯山石窟)1) Miaofa lianhua jing, manuscript, 2 pages, 6 lines per page(2) Excavated at Zhangyi Xiaxigouxian (張義下西溝s)8) Miaofa lianhua jing, manuscript, “butterfly-bound” brochure 蝴 蝶 装 32
pages, 10 pages blanked. (This manuscript seems to have been introducedin Kaogu《考古》1974.)
13 Collection of the Inner Mongolia Institute for Ancient Cultural Relics andArcheology (内蒙古文物考古研究所)
18) Miaofa lianhua jing Guanshiyin pusa pumen pin 妙法L花經觀世音菩P普門品, wood-block print, an incomplete sheet, front cover 刻本 残葉一紙
封面 (p. 230)
Further details of all texts are unknown.
10
The following reconstruction of Xixia dhåraˆ¥s depends on the system devised by
the present writer in 1980. Though several problems remain and he hopes to improve inthe future, this article follows the 1980 system.「西夏語韻図『五音切韻』の研究」(上・中・下) [“A Study of the Xixia Rhyme Tables ’Wuyin qieyun’ ” I, II and III],『京都大学
文学部研究紀要』 [Memories of the Faculty of Letters, Kyoto University], no. 20–22,
1981–83.
11
The variation between the two texts is indicated by the relationships among shengmu 声母 (initial consonants), yunmu 韻母 (rhymes) and shengdiao 声調 tonal accent. The
comment on the first line of each item refers to differences; on the second line to concrete different points.
12
The separation of dhåraˆ¥s follows HokekyØ『法華経』(Iwanami Bunko 岩波文庫)
with the exception: “郵楼A郵楼A三十八 t舎略三十九” revised as “郵楼A38 郵楼A t舎略39.”J ̲Orient̲05 06.2.1 4:54 PM

ページ 199

XIXIA LANGUAGE STUDIES AND THE LOTUS SUTRA (I)199

It is unclear whether the pronunciation note “× × 反” was considered in the Xixia version. Dhåraˆis in Sanskrit are listed in reference to Keisho Tsukamoto 塚本啓祥「法華経陀羅尼呪の覚え書」『法華文化研究』第 4 号 (1978) and Seishi Karashima 辛嶋静志『妙法蓮華經詞典』Soka University 2001.
13
B is an onomatopoeia of sheep’s bleating.《龍龕手G》refers to as “迷爾切” so thewriter reads “m˘e.”
14Both 広韻 and 切韻 have no D.
zh˘ (真一切 (證質) (《漢語大詞典》).

Additional Notes
It is probable that some Xixia editions of the Lotus Sutra are printed with movablewood-type xylography, but it is difficult to affirm this.
As in the case of the Huayan jing (AvataµsakasËtra), letters indicating the sheet number are printed in the middle of the right margin, for example(Fahua [lotus
flower] di yi [no. 1]). There are 20 lines on each sheet. A sheet would usually be folded
into four sections (accordion style), with each section containing 5 lines. There are three
ways in which the sheets were folded (other ways are conceivable but, in the case of the
Lotus Sutra, the three styles described below are certainly used). The margin, on which
the sheet number is printed, is on the right edge of the sheet and, in all cases, the preceding sheet is pasted on top of this margin (thus, the last line of text of the preceding sheet
is pasted over the margin).
A-type: For this type, the fold is made at the join (between the last line of text of thepreceding (right) sheet and the first line of text of the next (left) sheet).
B-type: In this type, the fold is made before the last line of text on the right sheet (i.e.
before the join/pasting line).
C-type: In this type, the fold is made after the first line of text of the left sheet (i.e. tothe left of, and one line down from, the join).
It appears that the A-type past is least secure and peels off most easily.