The Idea of Symbiosis and Harmony in Buddhism:
From the Perspective of the Lotus Sutra’s Philosophy
in the Chinese Tiantai Buddhism
Hideyuki Matsumori

1. IntroductionW

hen using the terms “symbiosis” and “harmony,” we bear inmind a harmonious and symbiotic relationship between a self andits object. This relationship can be seen from the following two aspects:
one aspect is harmonious coexistence among people, and the othercongruent symbiosis between humans and the environment. The former
aspect signifies a peaceful coexistence with various “other people” whohave different backgrounds from one’s self in terms of ideology, culture,religion, ethnicity, and suchlike. The latter aspect refers to a harmonious
coexistence with the greater “others,” that is, the environment which
encircles human beings.
This paper mainly focuses on the former aspect, which is the
symbiotic relationship among people who have different backgrounds,
and discusses how Buddhism can contribute to the issue of symbiosis
and harmonization through examining its philosophy. In particular, forour examination of Buddhism, this discussion will focus on the Chinese
Tiantai understanding of the Lotus Sutra and its philosophical develop­
ment that was systematized by Tiantai Zhiyi (538–597).
The Lotus Sutra is an early Mahayana Buddhist text, which isconsidered to have been established sometime between the first century
BCE to the second century CE in ancient India and to have beentransmitted to China through Central Asia. Throughout history, while
the Lotus Sutra was translated into various languages, one of its
Chinese translations, Miaofa lianhua jing (hereafter the Lotus Sutra) by
Kumarajiva (344–413 or 350–409), has been well received in China andwidely transmitted into East Asian countries, such as Korea and Japan.
Centering on this Chinese translation of the Lotus Sutra, Tiantai Zhiyi,
who was active during the Chen and Sui periods in China, establishedthe foundation of Buddhist philosophy for the Chinese Tiantai school.
His understanding of the Lotus Sutra has influenced the East Asian
Buddhist communities to a great extent.
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In principle, Zhiyi finds “zhufa-shixiang (the true aspect of all
phenomena),” a conceptual term expounded in the Lotus Sutra, as thefundamental truth of the text. I believe that Zhiyi’s view of this concept
provides us with the key to considering Buddhist ideas of harmony andsymbiosis.
Zhiyi philosophically applies the concept “zhufa-shixiang” into
“zhongdao-shixiang (the true aspect of the Middle Way)” and “sandiyuanrong (perfectly integrated threefold truth)” along with pragmatictheories including “yuandun-zhiguan (perfect-and-sudden cessationand-contemplation)” and “yinian-sanqian (three thousand realms in asingle thought).” Through the aspect of the idea of harmony andsymbiosis, his pragmatic philosophy of “three thousand realms in asingle thought” contains the concepts, such as “shijie-huju (the mutual
possession of the ten-dharema-realms)” and “guotu-shijian (a realm of
the environment),” as they distinctively signify the characteristics ofsymbiosis and harmony. Thus, this discussion will seek the possibility
that Buddhism, in particular, the Lotus Sutra, can contribute to thepressing issue of symbiosis and harmony through examining Zhiyi’s
philosophy relating to the aforementioned theories that he has developed
based on the Lotus Sutra.

2.	The True Aspect of All Phenomena As the Fundamental
Truth of the Lotus Sutra
In his treatise, the Fahua xuanyi (Fundamental Meaning of the Lotus
Sutra: a compilation of Zhiyi’s lectures on the Lotus Sutra compiled byhis disciple Zhanan Guanding 561–632), Zhiyi intends to systematicallyclarify the philosophy of the Lotus Sutra by analyzing the sutra throughthe following five categories: 1) ming (name: interpretation of the title ofthe sutra), 2) ti (essence: the fundamental truth of the sutra), 3) zong(gist: practices and the resultant rewards described in the sutra), 4) yong(function: the function that the sutra works for saving the people), and5) jiao (teaching: the status of the sutra among various of Shakyamuni
Buddha’s teachings). Among these classifications, it is the second, “ti(essence),” that Zhiyi utilizes to analyze and to clarify the fundamental
truth of the Lotus Sutra. Therefore, I would like to shed light on Zhiyi’s
understanding of the fundamental truth of the Lotus Sutra throughexamining his description about the “essence” in his Fahua xuanyi.
According to the first half of Volume One in the Fahua xuanyi, Zhiyi
explains “jingti, the essence of the sutra” of the Lotus Sutra as follows:

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All things, such as good and evil, ordinary beings and sages,
bodhisattvas, and Buddhas, are nothing but faxing (dharma nature, thatis, the true nature of all phenomena). Shixiang (the true aspect) itself isexactly what the proper “essence” (of the Lotus Sutra) is about.1

This passage discusses that all things or phenomena, including goodand evil, ordinary beings and sages, bodhisattvas, and Buddhas, areencom­passed by the true nature, that is, dharma nature, and the dharma
nature, which is itself shixiang, the true aspect, is the “essence” of the
Lotus Sutra.
The second chapter of the Lotus Sutra expounds “the true aspect of all
phenomena,” which Zhiyi stipulates as ti, the essence of the Lotus Sutra,
as follows: “Because what the Buddha has achieved is the rarest andmost difficult-to-understand Law. The true entity (that is, aspect) of all
phenomena can only be understood and shared between Buddhas. This
reality consists of the appearance, nature, entity, power, influence,
inherent cause, relation, latent effect, manifest effect, and theirconsistency from beginning to end.”2 According to this description,although what the Buddha achieved in enlightenment is “the true aspectof all phenomena,” it is so difficult that it can only be understood andshared among the Buddhas.
After the Fahua xuanyi stipulates the true aspect of all phenomena tobe ti, the essence, it points out that the texts, such as the chapter of“Tathagata’s Life Span” in the Lotus Sutra, the Commentary on
Dasabhumika-sutra, and the Madhyamaka-karika, also describe the“essence” as “shixiang, the true aspect,” as well. For example, Zhiyi
interprets a citation from the chapter of “Tathagata’s Life Span” in the
Lotus Sutra as follows:
Therefore, the chapter of Tathagata’s Life Span (in the Lotus Sutra)
reads that (the way in which the Buddha sees) is not like (the way that)those who belong to the three realms (of the desire, form, and non-formsee), neither like the way of ru (the unified), nor yi (the manifold).3 That
is to say, those who belong to the three realms see these realms as therealms of the manifold; those who are of the two vehicles see the three
realms as the realms of the unified; bodhisattvas see them as the realmsof both the unified and the manifold; and Buddhas see them as therealms of neither the manifold nor the unified and illuminate both theunified and the manifold. Now, [I] consider the Buddha’s perspective [tothe three realms] to be the proper “essence” of the true aspect.4

the idea of symbiosis and harmony in buddhism

67This passage of the chapter of “Tathagata’s Life Span” in the Lotus
Sutra cited in the Fahua xuanyi describes how the Buddha sees theworldly realms, in which all sentient beings transmigrate, as a reason
why the Buddha expounds the words of truth. Using the concept of the“non-unified or non-manifold” shown in the Lotus Sutra, the Fahua
xuanyi clarifies that the perceptions to see the three realms, which are
the realm of desire, the realm of form, and the realm of non-form, aredifferent among people, depending on the categories they belong to,including those who belong to the three realms (in other words, thebeings of the six paths), those who belong to the two vehicles,
bodhisattvas, and the Buddhas. And, the text claims that the Buddha’s
perception itself is the “proper essence of the true aspect.”
While in the Sanskrit text of the Lotus Sutra, “ru” and “yi” corre­
spond to “tathå—suchness,” and “anyathå—a different way,”respectively, in the Fahua xuanyi, these two terms are used as symmetricconcepts in that “ru” signifies uniformity and equity and “yi” signifies
difference and variance.5 According to the explanation of the Fahua
xuanyi, sentient beings who transmigrate the six paths perceive theworld to be “manifold”; sages, such as sravaka and pratyekabuddha,“unified”; bodhisattvas “both unified and manifold”; and the Buddhas“neither unified nor manifold.” The different perceptions among the“manifold,” “unified,” “both manifold and unified,” and “neither mani­
fold nor unified,” reflect the distinction of the seer’s religious state. The
state that perceives the world to be “neither manifold nor unified,”
which is equal to the “proper essence of true aspect,” is unobtainable
unless one reaches the state of Buddhahood, which is the final goal of
the Buddhist practice.6
While these differences of perception, such as “the manifold,” “theunified,” “both the manifold and unified,” and “neither the manifold nor
unified,” are four categorizations based on pairing the concepts of“manifold” and “unified” in the Fahua xuanyi, the similarly related
subject is also explained in Zhiyi’s other treatise, Mohezhiguan, which
was, like the Fahua xuanyi, compiled by his disciple, Guanding. The
Mohezhiguan uses the terms “you, existence,” “kong, emptiness,” “jia,provisional,” and “zhongdao, the Middle Way,” which respectively corre­
spond to the four different perceptions of the Fahua xuanyi.7
According to the description of the Mohezhiguan, the religious stateof a person is decided by how the person perceives all phenomena. Thatis, if one perceives all phenomena as “existence,” as if things permanent­ly exist as fixed existences, then he belongs to those who transmigrate
the delusional world of the six paths. Those who perceive them as

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the idea of symbiosis and harmony in buddhism“emptiness,” which sees that things have no fixed or substantial nature,
are considered to be sages of sravaka and pratyekabuddha. On the otherside, those who perceive them as “provisional,” which is a perceptionthat sees things conditionally arising without a fixed substantial nature,
belong to the bodhisattvas. Finally, those who perceive all the phe­nomena as “the Middle Way,” which sees things in an integrated mannerthat never leans toward either extreme, are called Buddhas. This defini­tion is a thought to identify the religious state of “self” based on his or
her perception toward “others” that are surrounding “self.”
Those in the six paths see that all phenomena possess a fixed andsubstantial nature, and conceptualize “the manifold” among various
phenomena. Those of the two vehicles, who are Buddhist sages, observe
all phenomena as something that has no fixed substantial nature, whichis “emptiness,” because they see these things arise through cause andcondition. In this perception, the discriminatory nature of the “the mani­fold” is transformed based on the idea of “the unified” as all phenomena
are considered or seen to be “empty.” Though, according to Zhiyi,
extreme perception of “emptiness” causes attachment to “being empty”
itself, and could result in an extreme position that perceives “emptiness”
itself as a fixed existence. On the other hand, bodhisattvas see no fixedor substantial nature in all phenomena; at the same time, they also seethat all phenomena provisionally exist dependently co-arising based on
causes and causations. By doing so, it is said that although their bodies
are non-existent, they are able to appear themselves with their bodies orthey are able to teach emptiness to people while there is no such observ­
able thing as emptiness. In this way, both “the manifold” and “theunified” are apparent simultaneously. Nevertheless, even bodhisattvas, if
lopsidedly inclining to “being provisional,” come to have attachment to“the provisional,” as well. At this point, what is sought is the truth that
integrates these two extremes, “emptiness” and “provisional,” in ahigher dimension. That is, it is “the Middle Way,” a state in which the
Buddha perceives the world. In this state, instead of utilizing thepolarized distinctions, such as “the manifold” and “the unified,” “theMiddle Way” is used to demonstrate the true aspect of all phenomena.
As seen above, these two categorizations by Zhiyi, in fact, correspondto each other. That is, one category uses classification terms, such as“the manifold,” “the unified,” “both manifold and unified,” and “neither
manifold nor unified,”; and the other uses terms including “existence,”“emptiness,” “provisional,” and “the Middle Way.” Therefore, “neither
unified nor manifold,” which is stipulated as the “proper essence of true
aspect” in the Lotus Sutra, corresponds to “the Law of the true aspect of

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the Middle Way,” a state which transcends the discriminative andconfrontational thinking patterns, and which is obtained throughperceiving all phenomena as they are. Zhiyi conceives “the true aspectof all phenomena” as the true aspect of the world perceived by the
Buddhas, that is, the Middle Way, also called the true aspect of the
Middle Way, which transcends discriminative and confrontational
thinking patterns.
Furthermore, Zhiyi applies “the true aspect of the Middle Way” into
the philosophy of perfect integration. In Tiantai Buddhist terms, thethree manners of perception, which see the true aspect of all phenomena
as “emptiness,” “provisional,” and “the Middle,” are called “the truth of
emptiness,” “the truth of the provisional,” and “the truth of the middle,”
respectively. In turn, when focusing on “a seer” who perceives the true
aspect of phenomena, these three manners are considered to be “contem­
plation on emptiness,” “contemplation on the provisional,” and“contemplation on the Middle,” respectively. Zhiyi names a gradualcultivation method as “the gradual threefold contemplation” that
achieves the three truths in a gradual way starting from “contemplation
on emptiness,” through “that on provisional,” to “that on the middle.”
Zhiyi calls the aspect of truths that are obtained through gradualcultivation as “the distinct and progressive threefold truths.” On theother hand, in “yuanjiao, the perfect teaching,” which is represented by
the Lotus Sutra, these three truths are not obtained by the gradualapproach, but are simultaneously perceived in a single moment of themind. This approach is called “the threefold contemplation in a single
thought.” The truths that are obtained through this simultaneous
approach are called “the threefold truth of perfect integration.” This
aspect provides the worldview that the true aspect of all phenomena is
stipulated in a way that each of the three truths, “emptiness,” “provi­
sional,” and “the middle,” is mutually possessed and integrated with theothers without any obstructions.
In sum, Zhiyi considers the “essence” of the Lotus Sutra to be “thetrue aspect of all phenomena,” and based on that finding, he develops
perfectly integrated ideas, such as “the true aspect of the Middle Way”
and “the threefold truth of perfect integration.” He elaborates histhought through the process of critical distinguishing and categorization
among Buddhist truths, which are taught in various sutras. Zhiyi, bycompleting the critical thinking process, establishes the ideal state of
Buddhahood for which all Buddhists should be aiming, a state whichtranscends all the discriminatory and confrontational thinking patterns,
and which perceives all phenomena as they are. It can be said that being

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a Buddha refers to the realization that transforms himself or herself into
the most ideal character. While many other Mahayana sutras
theoretically admit a potentiality of becoming a Buddha in every single
individual, it is Zhiyi who demonstrates the very method to achieve
one’s own perfection as a Buddha through contemplating on all
phenomena as they are.

3. Perfect-and-Sudden Cessation-and-Contemplation—
The Idea of Symbiosis and Harmony found in a Pragmatic
Philosophy
As mentioned above, Zhiyi finds the perfectly integrated thoughts, suchas “the true aspect of the Middle Way” and “the perfectly integrated
threefold truth” in the concept of “the true aspect of all phenomena” inthe Lotus Sutra, and he demonstrates the aspect of truth that is theperception of the Buddha, which perceives the true aspect among all
phenomena by discerning them as they are, and which transcends any
discriminatory and conflicting thinking patterns. At the same time,
Zhiyi demonstrates the pragmatic philosophy as “the threefold contem­
plation at a single thought,” in which one can simultaneously perceive
three truths at a single moment of the mind as a method to perceive thetruth in “yuanjiao, the perfect teaching.” “The threefold contemplation
at a single thought” is explained as “the perfect-and-sudden cessationand-contemplation” in Zhiyi’s Mohezhiguan.
In the introduction of the first volume of the Mohezhiguan, which
was written by Guanding, there is an explanation about this “perfectand-sudden cessation-and-contemplation” as follows:
The perfect-and-sudden [method of practicing cessation-andcontemplation] involves taking the true aspects [of reality] as the object
from the very beginning. Whatever is made to be the object [ofcontemplation], it is the Middle; there is nothing that is not truly real.
[When one attains the state of contemplation wherein] reality itself isfixed as the object [of contemplation], and thoughts are integrated withreality itself, [then one realizes that] there is not a single color or scentthat is not the Middle Way. It is the same for the realm of theindividual, the realm of the Buddhas, and the world at large. All[phenomena experienced through] the aggregates (skandha) and senses(ayatana)8 are thusness; therefore there is no [substantial] suffering thatneeds to be removed. Since ignorance and the exhausting dust [ofpassionate afflictions] are indivisible with bodhi-wisdom, there is nothe idea of symbiosis and harmony in buddhism

71

origin [of suffering; i.e., craving] to be severed. Since the extreme[dualities] and false [views] are [indivisible with] the Middle and what
is right, there is no path to be cultivated. Since [this cyclic world of]samsara is [indivisible with] nirvana, there is no extinguishing [ofcraving] to be realized. Since suffering and its causes do not exist[substantially], there is no mundane world [to be transcended]; since thepath and the extinction [of craving] do not exist [substantially], there isno transcendent world [to be gained]. There is purely the single true
aspect [of reality-as-it-is]; there are no separate things outside this true
aspect. For things in themselves (dharmata) to be quiescent is called“cessation”; to be quiescent yet ever luminous is called “contempla­
tion.” Though earlier and later [stages] are spoken of, they are neither
two nor separate. This is called perfect-and-sudden cessation-andcontemplation.9“The perfect-and-sudden cessation-and-contemplation” is a pragmatictheory to directly contemplate on “the true aspect of the Middle Way”
immediately from the beginning, instead of gradually achieving thetruth. When this contemplating practice is perfected, then one canachieve the Buddha’s harmonious and integrated state that allows him or
her to see any differences among various phenomena dispersed as hestates, “there is not a single color or scent that is not the Middle Way.”
This state of Buddhahood attained through “the perfect-and-sudden
cessation-and-contemplation” signifies a state of the true aspect that
harmonizes various differences among phenomena, which include
manifold differences possessed among human beings, let alonedifferentia between humans and environmental realms. From themodern perspective, it is important to consider that the significance of
the Buddhist practice which aims for the state of Buddhahood is not
only that in which a practitioner can achieve the ideal state, but also thatin which the practitioner can actively engage himself in order toactualize the ideal world from the perspective of the Buddha. The world
wherein all beings harmoniously coexist would be the ideal from evenour modern perspective. This is the very point that Buddhists can contrib­
ute to modern society. It can be interpreted to mean that the Buddhists
are entrusted with making a contribution to transcend the discrimina­
tions and antagonisms caused by the existing differences in modern
society, such as ethnicity, culture, and religion, and to actively partici­
pate in the creation of a world where everyone can coexist and thrive
harmoniously.
“The perfect-and-sudden cession-and-contemplation,” as well as “the72

the idea of symbiosis and harmony in buddhism

threefold contemplation in a single thought,” is based on a principle of“three thousand realms in a single mind.” The following description,found in the Mohezhiguan, is an explanation of this principle:
The mind possesses ten-dharma-reams, [which include hell beings,
hungry ghosts, animal beings, asura, human beings, heavenly beings,
sravaka, pratyekabuddha, bodhisattva, and the Buddha], and each of theten-dharma-realms also encompasses the ten-dharma-realms. In total,
there are a hundred-dharma-realms. Because each [dharma] realm has
thirty-kinds of worlds, each of the hundred-dharma-realms holds three
thousand kinds of realms. These three thousand [realms], in fact, areencompassed by the mind in a single moment. If there is no mind, thenthere is nothing; yet, if there is the mind, even in an instant, then, it
possesses the three thousand [realms].10

This explanation of “the perfect-and-sudden cession-and-contempla­tion” describes the way that a practitioner discerns his or her own mind
to perceive “the true aspect of all phenomena” and, by doing so,
approaches the Buddha’s true realm that transcends discriminatory
thoughts. The citation above is well known as a stipulation of theprinciple of “the three thousand realms in a single mind” by the later
Tiantai school. “A single mind” refers to a thought at an instant11 and thenumber, “three thousand,” means hundred-dharma-realms times thirtykinds of worlds. Here, the term “world” in this context means “distinc­tion,” so that, the term “three thousand” signifies manifold classifica­
tions of all phenomena that are deduced by the three major categories,“the ten-dharma-realms,” “the ten-suchnesses,” and “the three-worlds.”
According to the Mohezhiguan, each single dharma-realm mutuallycontains the ten-dharma-realms. This theory is called “the mutual
possession of the ten-dharma-realms.” Consequently, it becomes the“hundred-dharma-realms.” At the same time, each single dharma-realm
possesses thirty-kind-worlds, which means “the three-worlds” times“the ten-suchnesses”; as a result, it claims that these are, in total, three
thousand kinds of worlds.
“The ten-dharma-realms” refers to the ten kinds of beings who belong
to the ten different realms, respectively; that is, hell beings, hungry
ghosts, animal beings, asura, human beings, heavenly beings, sravaka,pratyekabuddha, bodhisattva, and the Buddha. “The three-worlds”
means the three distinctions of the world based on the teaching of theDazhidulun, including “a world of the five components,” “a world ofsentient beings,” and “a world of environment.”12 “A world of the fivethe idea of symbiosis and harmony in buddhism

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components” refers to the five components, such as form, perception,
conception, volition, and consciousness, which constitute each sentient
being; “a world of sentient beings” means a world of beings who areprovisionally constituted by the five components; and “a world ofenvironment” signifies a world wherein sentient beings reside.
“The ten-suchnesses” indicate the ten ways of existence found in eachsentient being, which are based on the teaching of the second chapter ofthe Lotus Sutra, that reads: “This reality consists of the appearance,
nature, entity, power, influence, inherent cause, relation, latent effect,
manifest effect, and their consistency from beginning to end.”13 Never­theless, the number, “three thousand” itself does not have a particularsignificance. The Mohezhiguan, rather, intends to exhaustively express avastness of the amount of existences, which show manifold distinctions,through emphasizing the number “three thousand.”
What is notable here is that this principle of “three thousand realms ina single mind” is itself the one that Buddhists can offer as a principle ofsymbiosis, especially with regard to its aspect that the entire beings,
which are signified as “three thousand,” are, in fact, encompassed by
one’s own mind in an instant.
For example, the Mohezhiguan discusses “a world of environment” ina way that describes how the beings of each dharma-realm reside,
respectively.14 Then, it states, “Because each environment in which theten kinds of beings reside, respectively, is different, it is called the worldof environment. These thirty-kinds of worlds are created by the mind.”15
What this description indicates is that the thirty-worlds, that is, thethree-worlds, such as, “a world of the five components,” “a world ofsentient beings,” and “a world of environment,” times the ten-dharmarealms, is all created by the mind of an individual. As the ten-dharmarealms refer to all kinds of beings, their worlds mean every kind ofworld. Thus, it can be said that, while there are various ethnicities,
ideologies, religions, and others which exist in our world, according tothis principle, all the differences of the world are to be internalized andto be integrated into one’s own mind.
For this point, we should investigate further through the perspectivesof the theory of “the mutual possession of the ten-dharma-realms,”
which is the most important element of “three thousand realms in asingle mind.”
As mentioned above, “the mutual possession of the ten-dharmarealms” means that each single dharma-realm possesses the ten-dharmarealms, and the ten-dharma-realms is a classification based on the
Buddhist world-view that divides various beings into ten different

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categories, such as hell beings, hungry ghosts, among others. This
categorization also extends to spatial categorization, that is, worlds
where these ten different categories of beings reside, respectively.
The significance of this theory, in particular, for human beings as oneof the ten-dharma-realms, is that the ideal of Mahayana Buddhism, that
is, all sentient beings have potentiality to attain enlightenment, isdemonstrated more clearly than ever in this context. That is, the pointthat all beings, as well as the worlds in which they reside, are encom­
passed into a practitioner’s own mind means that the Buddhas and theirworld are also integrated into his or her own mind, and this is the very
provision that demonstrates the theoretical basis for human beings toattain enlightenment.
From the aspect of symbiosis and harmony, the significance of thetheory of “the mutual possession of the ten-dharma-realms” is tocomprehend all existences in relation to and coalescent with one’s own
mind through utilizing the category of the ten realms. This means tointernalize “others,” that is, all beings who are different from oneself,
into one’s self. As mentioned previously, the section explaining “theworld of environment” in the Mohezhiguan states that there aredifferences in locus for each being among the ten-dharma-realms toreside. However, through the theory of “the mutual possession of theten-dharma-realms,” these beings of the ten-dharma-realms, as well as
their worlds, are not understood as “others” existing outside of oneself,
but are comprehended as the ten different kinds of inner-states that areencompassed in one’s own mind, instead.
Because of the theory, this claim is not a mere symbolical or
metaphorical discourse, either, but an approachable method forpractitioners to cultivate. That is, we can discuss this theory from thepragmatic aspect, an aspect to actualize the state of Buddhahood that
embodies Buddhist truth and its world within one’s own mind. In this
aspect, actualizing the state of Buddhahood does not refer to eliminating
the other existences of the nine-dharma-realms from one’s own mind,
but rather it refers to simultaneously encompassing the existences of theother nine-dharma-realms in one’s own mind.
While the state of Buddhahood personifies enlightenment, the othernine-dharma-realms signify delusion. In Buddhism, mental function thatafflicts the body and mind of sentient beings is called klesa, that is,defilements, and by the karmic cause of these defilements, sentient
beings experience suffering. Buddhism in general also claims thatthrough gradually eliminating each defilement one after another, one canattain liberation and enlightenment. Thus, it can be said that the Buddha

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is a being who removes all the defilements while beings of the ninedharma-realms are ones who still remain in the delusive state. However,
the theory of “the mutual possession of the ten-dharma-realms” demon­
strates that the state of Buddhahood exists within the mind of each beingof the ten-dharma-realms. At the same time, within the mind of the
Buddha, the delusive beings in the nine-dharma-realms simultaneously
coexist.
Zhiyi’s theory of “the mutual possession of the ten-dharma-realms”
provides us with a method to remedy defilements in one’s own mind andto achieve the state of Buddhahood through discerning his or her own
mind. However, this does not mean that all defilements are extinct in theenlightened state which one can achieve by Buddhist cultivations, but it
does mean that these defilements, too, are to coexist as an integral partof the state of Buddhahood. This point, in which all the various beingsof manifold states are encompassed in the state of Buddhahood, in turn,comes to be a theoretical basis in which the beings in the Buddhahood
state are able to actively exert influence upon the other beings of thenine-dharma-realms. In terms of the aspect of both enlightenment anddelusion, it is not that only either one of these two exists, but that bothcomplement each other as an integral whole. As such, one could notembody the truth in Buddhism without harmonizing with non-Buddhist
existences.
In sum, it is possible to say that the theory of “the mutual possessionof the ten-dharma-realms” is a philosophy of harmonization, which
accepts and discerns the manifold differences of all existences within
one’s own mind, and which harmoniously transcends these differences,while keeping them as they are, through internalizing them into one’s
own mind. In other words, in terms of harmoniously overcoming
differences which are found among the ten kinds of existences in the“ten-dharma-realms,” the philosophy of “the mutual possession of theten-dharma-realms” can be understood as one expression of “the true
aspect of all phenomena,” a philosophy that articulates the true aspect
found among all the distinctions in multitudinous phenomena, and thatinspires to transcend discriminatory and confrontational thinking
patterns in order for us to harmoniously coexist.
The method, which Zhiyi applies in order to symbiotically internalize
all existences into one’s own mind, is for practitioners to cultivate
exhaustive contemplation on their own minds, the mind which is theclosest to each practitioner. That is, based on Zhiyi’s Buddhist philoso­phy, symbiosis and harmony in Buddhist terms are, ultimately, not tomake external approaches to the world or the environment outside

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the idea of symbiosis and harmony in buddhism

oneself, but to discern that every existence is integral with the state of
Buddhahood of one’s own mind. It can be only achieved by exhaustive
contemplation on the mind to actualize one’s own Buddhahood.
As previously discussed, Zhiyi’s theory of “the mutual possession of
the ten-dharma-realms” demonstrates the understanding that one’s own
mind encompasses entire beings and their locus. Meanwhile there are
multiplex value-systems based on various thoughts, religions, andcultures in the real world where we are living. The pressing issue we arefacing with respect to harmonious coexistence is how we deal with the“others” that are different from “self.” In this regard, the theory of “themutual possession of the ten-dharma-realms” provides us with the key
understanding that the “others” are no longer alienated from “self”;
rather, the “others” are firmly connected and integral parts of one’s own
mind.

4. Conclusion
As examined above, Zhiyi considers the concept of “the true aspect ofall phenomena” to be the fundamental truth of the Lotus Sutra anddevelops his religious theory of “the true aspect of the Middle Way” and“the perfect and integrated threefold truth” based on the truth. Also, as
his pragmatic philosophy, he develops “perfect-and-sudden cessationand-contemplation,” which is also called “the three thousand realms in asingle mind.”Viewing Zhiyi’s thought through the perspective of symbiosis andharmonization, the state of Buddhahood, which is attained through thecultivation of “the perfect-and-sudden cessation-and-contemplation,”
actualizes harmonious co-existence with all beings and transcends not
only the differences from “others” appearing among people, but also the
distinction from the surrounding environment, which is the greater“others.” This state illuminates the world of “the true aspect of all
phenomena,” which harmonizes every single phenomenon.
Also, the theory of “the mutual possession of the ten-dharma-realms,”
which Zhiyi emphasizes, is a theory based of the cultivation of “perfectand-sudden cessation-and-contemplation.” This theory indicates thephilosophy that observes “others,” various beings of manifold states
who have different thoughts, cultures, religions, among others, as anintegral part of one’s own “self.” This perspective provides us with the
Buddhist contribution in respect to its approach toward symbiosis andharmonization.16
In the real world, there are a multitude of differences caused by the

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77

divergence of ethnicity, culture, religion, ideology, economic
circumstance, and so forth, as such multi-dimensional value-systems
have been formed based on these distinctions. Buddhism itself is one ofthese constituents. But, what matters here is its orientation towardharmonious co-existence that is shown in “the true aspect of all
phenomena,” as a perspective from the aspect of the Buddha, an
enlightened being.
Based on Zhiyi’s idea, this Buddha’s17 world-view thoroughly contem­
plates a world wherein multi-dimensional value-systems exist as an
issue of one’s own mind, and, in turn, discerns the state of Buddhahoodequally existing within the mind of each individual. Thus, every single
phenomenon is understood as a being integral with the state of
Buddhahood. This approach toward symbiosis and harmony based on
this transformation of the mind exhibits the critical significance andcontribution of Buddhism to the modern world.
Notes
T. no.1716, 33. 682b25–26.
T. no.262, 9. 5c10–13. English translation, Watson 1993: 24.
3
T. no.262, 9. 42c12–16.
4
T. no.1716, 33. 682b26–c1.
5
Kanno 2011: 229–230.
6
Zhiyi also shows that “the true aspect of all phenomena” is the “essence” of thevarious Mahayana sutras. However, he, at the same time, makes a sharp distinction
among these various truths, “essences,” that Buddhist practitioners can achieve byfollowing these Mahayana sutras. And, by doing so, he exhibits “the true aspect of all
phenomena” in the Lotus Sutra as the primal truth. This means that Zhiyi does notconsider that all thoughts are simply equal or they indiscriminately co-exist.
7
T. no.1911, 46. 52b23–c4.
8
Both the (five) aggregates and (twelve) senses are constituents of the real world.
The aggregates are form, perception, conception, volition, and consciousness. The
senses comprise the six sense organs (eyes, ears, nose, tongue, body, and mind) and theircorresponding six objects (color and form, sound, odor, taste, and phenomena).
9
T. no.1911, 46. 1c23–2a2. English translation, Swanson: 21–22.
10
T. no.1911, 46. 54a5–9.
11
The Mohezhiguan discusses “a single mind” as follows: “Also, a sutra says that
there are six-hundred-arisings and perishings in a single mind, and a master of theChengshi school said that there are sixty-moments in a single mind.” (T. no.1911, 46.
27c23–25) “Some said that a single mind includes sixty-moments, other said threehundred-million-moments. A moment never stays. Each mind is transient.” (T. no.1911,
46. 32b4–5)
12
For example, “There are three worlds: a world of the five components,” “a world ofsentient beings,” and “a world of environment.” (T. no.1509, 25. 546b29–c2)
13
T. no.262, 9. 5c11–13. Watson 1993: 24.
14
T. no.1911, 46. 53a1–10.
1
2

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the idea of symbiosis and harmony in buddhism

T. no.1911, 46. 53a9–10.
What we need to make a note of is that, as Zhiyi was active during the Chen and Sui
periods in China, there should be historical conditions within his thought system. Fromthe modern aspect, it is difficult to consider him to be entirely an advocate of symbiosis
in a modern sense; rather, in a way, he can be said to be a self-justified advocate forsymbiosis. There is a problematic issue in that the theory which attempts to actualize aharmonious world through the concept of unification and integration could be inverted tobe that which has a totalitarian tendency. Also, Zhiyi himself does not claim the conceptthat all beings indiscriminately coexist without any pre-condition.
		 However, the state of the Buddhahood which Zhiyi aims for is the religious statusthat is applicable to any times regardless of historical conditions, a status that transcends
discriminatory and confrontational thinking patterns. This perspective provides afundamental position for Buddhists in modern times, that shed light on the issue relating
to symbiosis and harmonization.
15
16

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