沙漠研究 19-1, 347- 350 (2009 )Journal of Arid Land Studies“Desert Technology IX ”
Refereed Paper

The Short Term Effects of Organic Matter and Ripping on Degraded Soilin Western Australia
Takuro SHOJI1, Yuichi ISHIKAWA1, Jun KUMAMARU2, Kiwamu SHIIBA2, Toshinori KOJIMA3,
Satoshi MATSUMOTO4, Shin HIDAKA1
Abstract: The effect of wheat bran and ripping application on degraded soil such as saline soil,
compacted soil and low fertile soil in Western Australia was investigated from the chemicaland biological points of view. Ripping decreased ECe because of leaching of water soluble
cation from topsoil. Wheat bran increased soil fertility due to enhanced enzyme activity.
Potassium from bran displaced exchangeable sodium in soil, and resulted in reduction of soil
dispersion and was absorbed by barley grain. Wheat bran increased number of spikelet andgrain yield in degraded soil.
Keywords: Acid phosphomonoesterase activity, Available potassium, ECe, Ripping
application, Wheat bran application

1. Introduction
Agricultural land is expected to produce food stably, because the number of malnourished people
would reach 80 million at 2004 according to FAO (2008). On the other hand, degraded soil is expanding
agricultural land in all over the world. Soil salinity, soil compaction and low fertile soil are the major
land degradation issues in Australia as well as in other arid and semiarid areas in the world.
Recently importance of organic matter for salinity control in Europe was reported (Tejada et al.,2006; Tejada and Gonzalez, 2006, 2008) with regard to soil chemistry (i.e. EC and/or ESP), soil physics(i.e. bulk density and/or permeability), and soil biochemistry (enzymatic activity). Physical practices canbe a beneficial management of soil compaction, which are important for eliminating soil compaction,destroying hard pans and ameliorating hard setting soil. Ripping application is focused as a physicalpractice in Western Australia (WA) (Hamza and Anderson, 2005). We focused on wheat bran as anorganic amendment because bran contains much nutrient (N, P, and K) and is decomposed easily.
The objective of this study was to assess the effect of wheat bran, ripping and their interactions as anamendment of soil salinity, soil compaction and low fertile soil in WA.
2. Materials and Methods
A field experiment planted with barley was conducted in Wallatin (31˚30’ S, 117˚51’ E, WA) during
two consecutive growing seasons (2006 and 2007). Bran was applied at the level of 0, 10, 20 and 40 t ha-1
before ripping (BR) and without ripping (NR). Applied wheat bran had 420 g kg-1, 25 g kg-1, 1.2 g kg-1 and
14 g kg-1 of total carbon, total nitrogen, total phosphorous and total potassium, respectively, and its particle
was less than 2 mm.
Topsoil (0-10 cm) samples were taken at the beginning of rainy (June) and dry seasons (November).
ECe was determined by water saturated method. Water soluble cations (Ws-Na, K, Ca and Mg) within thesame extraction were determined using SpectrAA-55B, VARIAN. Exchangeable cations (Ex-Na, Ex-K)
were estimated as described in equation (1) and (2) after extraction from soil with neutral ammonium acetate.
Ex-Na (cmolc kg-1) = Ammonium acetate extracted Na (cmolc kg-1) – WS-Na (cmolc kg-1) (1)(2)
Ex-K (cmolc kg-1) = Ammonium acetate extracted K (cmolc kg-1) – WS-K (cmolc kg-1)
Neutral ammonium acetate extracted K was determined as an available potassium (available-K).
Available phosphoric acid (available-P) was extracted by the Truog Method and P content in the extract wasdetermined by the molybdenum blue method. Acid-phosphomonoesterase (aPM) assay was measured by amethod of Tabatabai (1994b) except for toluene addition. In the present study, toluene addition to topsoil
1

Faculty of Bioresource Sciences, Akita Prefectural University, Akita City, Akita 010-0195 JAPANTsukuba Institute, Nisshin Flour Milling Co., Tukuba City, Ibaraki 300-2611 JAPAN3
Faculty of Engineering, Seikei University, Musashino City, Tokyo, 180-8633 Japan
4Japan Soil Associations, 1-58 Kanda, Chiyoda Ku, Tokyo 101-0051 JAPAN23480R0NR

10BR

10NR

20BR

20NR

40BR

40NR
-1

NR-R
20

15

1025

Water soluble cation (cmolc kg )25

ECe (dS m-1)

before incubation omitted to prevent
excess of aPM assay. Diversion ofsoil particle was determined bysedimentation test. Plant analyses
were conducted during planting andpost harvest (number of spikelet,grain yield, and potassium in grain).
GLM and CORR procedure in SAS
9.1 (SAS Institute Inc.) was used forstatistical analysis.

NR-R

NR-R

50R0NR

10BR

10NR

20BR

20NR

40BR

40NR

20NR-R
NR-R
1510NR-R

5-1

Available-P (mg-P 2 O 5 kg ) *‡‡3. Results and discussion
00Rainy
Dry season
Rainy
Dry season
Rainy
Dry season
Rainy
Dry season
Figure 1 shows the results ofseason
seasonseasonseason2006
2007
ECe and WS-cation. The trend of2006
2007
Soil sampling period
Soil sampling period
ECe was similar with that ofFig. 1. Temporal variation of ECe‡‡ and water soluble Cation‡‡ in theWS-cation, and ECe and WS-cation
topsoil. * and ‡ in the title shows the effect of bran and ripping isin BR was lower than those in NR
significant, respectively during the experimental period. ‡p<0.05,
significantly during experimental‡‡p<0.01, ‡‡‡p<0.001. 0-10 t ha-1, 0-20 t ha-1, 0-40 t ha-1, 10-20 t
season.
Hamza and Anderson-1
ha, 10-40 t ha-1, 20-40 t ha-1, and NR-R in figure shows significant(2003) reported ripping enhancedifferences between levels (p<0.05).
infiltration.
WS-cation wouldleach from topsoil with infiltration
250
0BR
0NR
10BR
10NR
of rainfall, and would be difficult to rise to topsoil
20BR
20NR
40BR
40NR
again. Consequently, ripping application reduces
the effect of salt on plant in topsoil at least for two
years compared to control.
Figure 2 shows the result of available-P andaPM activity in the dry season of 2006. Wheat
R=0.697
bran application of 40 t ha-1 increased available-P.
150
The most significant interaction between wheat branand ripping application was on aPM activity.
Especially, surface application of bran (10NR,20NR, 40NR) enhanced aPM activity, which would
play the role of substrate. Positive correlation
between aPM activity and available-P was
significant during experimental period (Table 1).
50This indicates applied wheat bran supplies
0100
200
300
400-1-1
available-P through mineralization by aPM, becauseaPM activity (mg-p -nitrophenol kg hr ) ** ‡‡‡‡ ▼aPM plays an important role in soil P-organicFig. 2. Relationship between aPM activity andmineralization and plant nutrition (Tabatabai,available-P in topsoil in dry season in 2006.
1994a).
*, ‡, and ▼ above the title of axis shows theFigure 3 shows temporal variation ofeffect of bran, ripping and their interaction isavailable-K during the experimental period.
significant,respectively
duringtheexperimental period, *p<0.05, **p<0.01,
Wheat bran application of 40 t ha-1 increased***p<0.001 ‡p<0.05, ‡‡p<0.01, ‡‡‡p<0.001. ▼available-K since the dry season of 2006, and that of-1
p<0.05, ▼▼p<0.01, ▼▼▼p<0.001. † in figure
20 t ha was since the rainy season of 2007.
-1showsresult of correlation test. †p<0.05,
Wheat bran contains much of potassium (14 g kg ).
††p<0.01, †††p<0.001, ††††p<0.0001
Available-K would be supplied through the similar
process with available-P.
Figure 4 shows temporal variations of Ex-K, Ex-Na and dispersion of soil particle in 0 t ha-1 and 40 t
-1
ha of bran during the experimental period. Ex-Na was decreased by bran application according tocomparison of means. Ex-K at 40 t ha-1 of bran was higher than that at 0 t ha-1 of bran after the dry season††††349

Table 1. Correlation coefficient between aPM activity and available-P.
Rainy season
in 2006

0.478**aMP activity

0.697****

0.454**

1.8

Dry season
in 2007

0NR40NR

0R40BR

1.6

0.450**

Available-K (cmol c kg -1)

Available-P
Dry season Rainy season
in 2006
in 2007

Figures in the table show correlation coefficient* above the correlation coefficient shows significance correlation (n = 32)*p<0.05, **p<0.01, ***p<0.001, ****p<0.0001

0-40 t ha -1
NR-R

1.4

0-40 t ha -1
NR-R

0-40 t ha -1
NR-R1.2

1.0of 2006 statistically, and Ex-K in NR was also higher than that inBR. Wheat bran application decreased dispersion statistically.
0.8
Dispersion of soil particle (< 0.02 mm) at 40 t ha-1 of bran waslower than that at 0 t ha-1 of bran during the experimental period.
0.6
It is well known that the ratio of Ex-Na in cation exchangeable
capacity affects soil dispersion, and that dispersible soil is easy to0.4
Rainy
Dry
Rainy
Dry
be consolidation. In the present study, Ex-Na tended to displaceseasonseasonseasonseasonEx-K from wheat bran. This exchange would cause reduction
2006
2007of dispersion. These results indicate that bran application canFig. 3. Temporal variation of available -K***
modify consolidation.
‡‡in topsoil in dry season in 2006.
Figure 5 and 6 shows the result of the number of spikelet per* and ‡ above the title shows the effecthead and grain yield, and potassium in barley grain in 2006 andof bran, ripping and their interaction is2007, respectively. It was drought in WA in 2006 and 2007, andsignificant, respectively during thethe latter was heavier. The average of barley grain yield aroundexperimental
period,*p<0.05,-1
the experimental field in 2006 and 2007 was 1.3 t ha and 0.9 t**p<0.01, ***p<0.001. ‡p<0.05,‡‡p<0.01, ‡‡‡p<0.001. 0-40 t ha-1 andha-1, respectively, and yield in most treatments higher than the
NR-R in figure shows significant
averages. Grain yield in 2006 was increased 12%, 19%, and 15%
differences between levels (p<0.05)
for wheat bran application at 10 t ha-1, 20 t ha-1 and 40 t ha-1,respectively. Grain yield in 10NR, 20NR and 40NR in 2007 washigher than that in 0NR, but this was not significant because of heavy draught. Wheat bran application
increased the number of spikelet per head in 2006 and 2007 significantly. Potassium in barley grain at 40 t
ha-1 of bran was higher than that at 0 t ha-1 significantly. It was reported the grain number per head, thousand
grain weight and grain yield were increased by topdressing of potassium sulfate (Hara et al. 2006). The
results of increase of available-K in soil and potassium in grain indicate that increase of spikelet number
would relate to decomposition of wheat bran.

40NR0BR

40BR

40NR

0BR

40BR

10.8
0.6

1.2
1NR-R

0.8
0.6

0.4

0.4

0.2

0.200
Rainy
seasonDryseason200680)0-40 t ha -1
NR-R

-1

0-40 t ha -1
NR-R

Ex-Na (cmol c kg )

-1

0NR

0NR

40NR

0BR

40BR

1.4

0-40 t ha -1
NR-R

1.2
Ex-K (cmol c kg )

1.6

-1

1.40NR

Soil perticle (> 0.02mm) (g kg1.6

Rainy
seasonDryseason2007
Sampling period

7060

50

0- 40 t ha -1

4030
Rainy
Dry
seasonseason
2006

Rainy
Dry
seasonseason2007
Sampling periodRainyseasonDryseason

2006

Rainy
seasonDryseason2007

Sampling period

Fig. 4. Temporal variation of Ex-K*** ‡‡, Ex-Na and soil particles (< 0.02mm) in topsoil. * and ‡ in the title shows the effect ofbran and ripping is significant, respectively during the experimental period. *p<0.05, **p<0.01, ***p<0.001. ‡p<0.05,‡‡p<0.01, ‡‡‡p<0.001. 0-40 t ha-1 and NR-R in figure shows significant differences between levels (p<0.05)

350
3.025

Grain yield in 2006 *Spikelet number in 2006 *3.5

Spikelet number in 2007 *Grain yield in 2007Potassium in grain in 2007 *

3.0

2.0

1.5

1.0

Potassium in grain (g kg -1 )Numer of spikelet per head

2.5Grain yield (t ha -1)

Potassium in grain in 2006 ***20152.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.5
10Treatments

NR
40
BR

40

R

BR

20BR

N

1020R

R

10N

R

0B

0.0

0N

0N
R0B
10 R
N
10 R
B
20 R
N
20 R
B
40 R
N40 R
BR

0.0

0NR

0BR

40NR

40BR
Treatments

Treatments

Fig. 5. Grain yield and spikelet number in 2006 and 2007. *, ‡ above
the title of item shows the effect of bran, ripping and theirinteraction is significant, respectively during the experimentalperiod. *p<0.05, **p<0.01, ***p<0.001. ‡p<0.05, ‡‡p<0.01,‡‡‡p<0.001

Fig. 6. Potassium in barley grain in 2006
and 2007. * and ‡ above the titleof item shows the effect of bran,ripping and their interaction issignificant, respectively during theexperimental period.
*p<0.05,**p<0.01, ***p<0.001. ‡p<0.05,‡‡p<0.01, ‡‡‡p<0.001

4. Conclusions
Wheat bran and ripping application for amelioration of saline soil, compacted soil and low fertile soilin semi-arid region of WA were studied. Ripping application reduced ECe via leaching WS-cation andthis effect can last at least two years. Wheat bran application improved soil fertility through the alterationof soil biology, because its application increased available-P due to enhancing aPM activity. Available-K
was also increased by wheat bran application. The number of spikelet and grain yield of barley wasincreased by wheat bran application, because a lot of nutrition was supplied from its decomposition.
Particularly decomposition of potassium in wheat bran induced increase spikelet number and grain yield.
Decomposed potassium from wheat bran improves not only soil fertility, but also soil physical properties.
Wheat bran application changed contents of soil exchangeable cation and this led to improvement of soil
physical properties. Modification of soil compaction would be driven by exchange of Ex-Na for Ex-K,
and this exchange was observed in wheat bran application at 40 t ha-1.
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