THE ＧＬＯＢＡＬＩＺＡＴＩＯＮ ＆ ＧＯVＥＲＮＡＮＣＥ ＰＲＯＪＥCＴ， ＨＯＫＫＡＩＤＯ ＵＮＩＶＥＲＳＩＴＹＷＯＲＫＩＮＧ ＰＡＰＥＲ ＳＥＲＩＥＳThe Soviet Union, the UN and the Cold War
in East Asia
Ⅲ−０８

Nobuo Shimotomai, Hosei University＊

Paper for the Symposium, The Role of the United Nations in International

Politic - A Historical Re-examination from the Member States’ Perspectives-,
20-21 December 2003.
＊

None of these papers should be cited without the author’s permission.

The Soviet Union, the UN and the Cold War in East Asia

Paper presented to the International Symposium
Role of the UN in International Politics-A Historical Re-examination from the Member State’s PerspectiveSapporo Hokudai
2003/12/21

Professor Nobuo Shimotomai
Faculty of Law, Hosei University

This is a draft. Please do not refer to it without consent of the author.
(Revised Draft)

The Soviet Union, the UN and the Cold War in East Asia’
Professor Nobuo Shimotomai(Hosei Univ. Tokyo)

Preface
The aim of this essay is to investigate the role of the United Nations in Asia in theformative years of the Cold War, with special emphasis on the Korean War period(1950—53) and its aftermaths.
The Cold War in Asia has never been ‘cold’; it turned into a ‘hot’ spot in the global
confrontation especially between 1950 and 1953.

American specialists, S. Goncharov, J.

Lewis and X. Litai have called this conflict as ‘marginal’.i However, Korea became anacute theatre of the armed struggles between the two ‘camps’.
One of the main victims of this conflict was the United Nations (hereafter UN),
which had been born with difficulty, and had to face with dramatically changing
circumstances of the Cold War.

The UN had to cope with incompatible expectations;

namely to be a fair arbitrator in a situation of bipolarizing among the leading forces,
namely the U.S. and the U.S.S.R.

Or one can argue that fragility of the UN might havetriggered the conflicts of Korea, which still haunt global community with uncertainty
even today.
Among others, the UN authorized to use the UN flag for the US and her allies in
the Korean War, urged by the sudden invasion on the part of the Kim Il Song’s North
Korean army.

This was made possible by the boycott tactics on the part of the USSR.

The Soviet delegation had been absent from the Security Council activity, claiming topermit the newly born Communist China to be given a seat in the Security Council,
replacing Chiang Kai Shek’s defeated Kuomintang government.

Soviet diplomat A.

Gromyko recollects that he had advised Stalin not to take boycott tactics, but in vain.ii
This paper claims that this was not a coincidental mistake on the part of Stalin, but
a deliberate evolution of his strategic thinking. Stalin apparently downgraded the roleof the UN, stimulated by the emergence of Soviet–Chinese strategic alliance ofFebruary 1950s to counter the US-NATO alliance and began to underestimate the roleof the UN.

He thought the alliance was more important than the UN as a form of ‘classstruggles’.
This miscalculation on the part of Joseph Stalin and Mao Zedong, coupled with theambition of Kim Il Song, made the US military and his allies to combat under thebanner of the UN. The US government could easily condemn the attacks of the DPRK as‘aggression and intervention’, pushing aside the Russian claims as a ‘civil war’ andcould rally the UN army under the US command. iii

This experience of the UN

employment of forces was unique. Thus, the United Nations chose one-sided role in the
Korean War (1950-53), whilst China and North Korea had fought with the UN forces,
and China was declared to be ‘the enemy of the UN’ in 1951.
This naturally alienated East Asian members from taking important roles,
especially in the initial stages of the UN. China had to wait until 1972 before she could
join the UN and become a full Security Council member.

Japan was able to participate

the UN system after the Japan-Soviet normalization of 1956. The two Korean
governments, namely the Republic of Korea (hereafter ROK) and the Democratic
People’s Republic of Korea (hereafter DPRK) could participate legally only in 1992.
Inevitably, legitimacy on the role of the UN in this region was contradictory; in one
sense the activity of the UN became idealized, whilst it was also regarded as an‘unrealistic’ factor in a realistic world.

This was mainly due to its historical context,

above all the unfinished Korean War. Because the peace treaty was not concluded, theKorean War is not yet over in legalistic terms.
Illustration of this issue from a historical point of view is a hard task, partly
because materials concerned are scarce and still difficult to obtain, from China, theSoviet Union, and the US, to say nothing of the two Koreans, above all the DPRK. Still
the Cold War in Asia is becoming new topics of historical research. Above all, theformer Soviet sources are being opened in this respect.iv

The Russian archival andother sources are showing somewhat surprising and ‘unexpected history’ of the issue.

1

Stalin’s Korean Policy (1945-1949)

To understand these new findings and their significances, one should understandmotives of Joseph Stalin on Korean after 1945 briefly. Joseph Stalin was basicallyinterested in the geopolitical gains, especially the North East Asia, after the end of theWorld War Two. Stalin’s view on Asia after the defeat of the Japanese militarism wasbest illustrated in V. Molotov’s unauthorized memoir, “Sto sorok vesed s Molotobym”.v
Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov recalled Stalin’s reaction on the post war situation,
when he saw the maps of the world as follows;“It is about a map with new borders of the USSR that was brought after the war to
the Stalin’s dacha. “Let’s see what we have here. Every thing is all right to the North…．”And he turned to the eastern borders; “What we have there? The Kuril Islands now
belong to us. Sakhalin is completely ours, you see, it is good.

And the Port Author isours, and Dairen is ours…and Chinese Eastern Railways is ours.

China, Mongolia

every thing is in order… In short, it was good that the Russian Czars took so much landfor us in war’. viThis recollection shows how Stalin saw the East Asian region through prism ofgeopolitics, formulated in the Yalta agreements between F. Roosevelt, W. Churchill and
J. Stalin.

This geopolitical thinking was not solely Stalin’s original but also sharedwith the Soviet Foreign Ministry.

In fact, Soviet deputy Foreign Minister I. Maiskii in

January 1944 send a memorandum to Stalin, showing that the Soviet tasks in Asia
were to prepare ‘the defeat of Japanese militarism without the participation of theSoviet Union and establishment of the ‘democratic, progressive, nationalistic andfriendly China’. vii

In other words, Stalin was to abide by the principles of Yalta.

Actually Stalin’s partner in China was not a Communist Mao Zedong, but a nationalist
leader Chiang Kai Shek.
On the other hand, Soviet leaders were negative on the near possibilities of thesocialism in Asia, especially for Korea. A Russian expert on Korea, Vladimir Tkachenko
may be right when he argues that socialism in North Korea was the least thing to be
imagined by J. Stalin.

Indeed, the first Soviet directive in September 1945 was toestablish “bourgeois democratic republic” in North Korea. viii Stalin was neverinterested in neither revolution nor forced unification.

According to Soviet official viewat that time, Korea was basically an agrarian society, ‘was not yet ripe for socialism’ andthe working classes were only minority; less than three per cent of her population.ix
Thus, Soviet position towards Korea was within the frame work of the 1945
December agreements the three Foreign Ministers (the US, UK and the Soviet Union),
which was embodied in the joint control system over Korea between the Soviet and the
US.

Although Kim Il Song met Stalin, first secretly in 1946, and in 1949 March

officially, their relation was cool and restrained.
From this geopolitical point of view, the North Korea may be characterized as‘Stalin’s Manchugo’, to say straightforwardly.

This provocative characteristic wasadmitted by the Russian official history of the Foreign Ministry “the Two Hundred
Years’ History of the Foreign Ministry”, when authors wrote that ‘ The Soviet Union has
pursued her geopolitical object to prevent to use this peninsula as a strategic corridor
for Manchuria and Soviet Far East’.x
This may also explain Stalin’s modest request in demarcating the line along the 38
parallel, when the US government (including the future secretary of the State
Department, Dean Rusk) rather hastily drew a line there and asked the consent of the
USSR government in the middle of August 1945.xi Though the Soviet military had
abundant chances to incorporate the whole Korea at that time, they were modestly
satisfied with the US occupation in the southern part of Korea. xii
This conciliatory spirit, especially with regard to Korean, was apparent when thethree Foreign Ministers met in Moscow December 1945.

The Koreans simply wanted

an independence, whilst Soviet Foreign Minister V. Molotov was satisfied with theslight modification of the US initial proposals to introduce ‘five year’s trusteeship’ under
the guarantee of the US and USSR. Thus Koreans were far from accepting thisunpopular decision, though formally Korean lefts including the North Koreans wereforced to accept this future plan. xiii
Korean political history between 1945-50, from the occupation of the Northernparts by the Soviet Army in August, and outbreak of the Korean War in 1950, is
illustrated by Russian historian A. Lankov in his new book ‘From Stalin and Kim Ilsong’,
using Soviet declassified materials. xiv Professor Lankov depicts that the North Korean
regime was made solely by J. Stalin and the Soviet troops. He points that it was Stalin
and his generals in the Far Eastern Front, who made the state of DPRK, thus

diminishing the role of Kim Il Song as the founder of the North Korean state, as is often
portrayed by North Korean propaganda.
At the initial stage of 1945-46, the US and the USSR were still trying hard tomaintain conciliatory mood of the post war period. However, coexistence between the
US and the USSR gave way swiftly to the emerging confrontational tone of the Cold
War by 1946-47.

Stalin’s Korean policy at the formative years is being rewritten froma revisionist point of view by recent Russian publications.

According to them,Russians were much interested in geopolitical situation in this peninsula. Soviet
diplomat A. Gromyko emphasized to Foreign Minister V. Molotov that Soviet could notlag behind in constructing the infrastructures than the US in the South.

In fact,

Russians were much interested in getting strategically important resources, above all,Uranium in the Northern part of Korea. Moscow had few uranium within the USSR
until 1947 and had to import sometimes by using force, from Germany and Bulgaria.
North Korea was also a new target.xv

The Soviet had constructed the railway between

North Korean and Soviet Far East, apparently carrying Korean resources, above alluranium.xvi
Thus we can draw conclusions that J. Stalin was not interested in theestablishment of the Socialism in Asian arena when the DPRK was set up in September
1948. By them, however, Stalin found it advantageous to move to geopoliticalconfrontation with the US and allowed to set up the DPRK as an adjutant reserves.
The institutional setup of the DPRK was totally controlled by the Soviet government.
It was Stalin, Molotov, A. Zhdanov, and the first ambassador T. Shtykov (Zhdanov’s
son-in -law) who decided to construct this ‘Socialism in a half of the Korean country’.
No Koreans were invited to discuss their future. The politico-institutional structure ofthe DPRK including the Constitution were decided by these four persons when they
discussed over it on Stalin’s dacha in the end of April 1948.xvii
Still Moscow was not interested in expanding their influences beyond the 38
parallels. Prime minister Kim Il Song’s relentless request to unite the Korean peninsula,
if necessary by force, was refuted severely by Stalin and the politburo, as was instructedto the Soviet ambassador I. Shtykov in August 1949. xviii

2

Role of the United Nations

Comrade Joseph Stalin’s view on the role of the United Nations evolved as time
passed by.

At first, Soviet views on the role of the International coordination after the

victory of the WW2 was not at all negative. They have accepted a fact that the coalition
among the US, UK and USSR should dominate the post war world order at least by
mid-1945. Among others, Joseph Stalin and his Foreign Minister, Vyacheslav Molotov
welcomed the idea of the “Peace keeping mechanism” at the meeting of Foreign
Ministers who met in Moscow October 1943.
This official view was in line with the informal policy proposals for the Soviet
government by the commission that had been organized under the auspices of the Soviet
Foreign Ministry and composed of former Soviet Foreign Minister Maxim Litvinov andambassador I. Maiskii. This organization was to propose a plan for the post war worldorder for Stalin. Especially ambassador I. Maiskii proposed that ‘a kind of internationalorganization for keeping the Peace after the war’ should be set up in his January 1944
memorandum to Joseph Stalin.

I. Maiskii also proposed that ‘the Big four of the USSR,

US, UK and China’ should be responsible for ‘keeping the world order’ after the WorldWar Two. xix This report also suggested that a kind of ‘compulsory measures’ should betaken to carry out necessary decisions, apparently taking lessons from weakness of theUnited League.

‘Former hostile nations’ were to be excluded for the first period,

according to Maiskii document.xx
In November 1944, Stalin characterized this newly emerging international
institution as an ‘specially empowered international organization that has the fullnecessary capacity to keep the peace, prevent new aggression’ xxi .

Thus by the

beginning of the 1945 when the leaders of the grand coalition met in Yalta, they werecertain to set up the United Nation as the new institution to guarantee the ‘peace andstability’ of the post war period.
It was indeed the Soviet Foreign Minister V. Molotov who visited New York and San
Francisco to take part in the first foundation meeting of the United Nations in May
1945.xxii Thus, it was natural that V. Molotov in his 6th November 1945, or the 28th
anniversary address of the October revolution stressed the importance of the US-UK
and Soviet alliance as the basis of the ‘United Nations’. He also cautioned that neworganizations should not be the ‘weapons for the leading role of the super powers’.xxiii
This Soviet commitment to the UN organization affected to the on goingnegotiations on the alliance treaty between the Soviet Union and Chiang Kai Shek
government in July-August 1945. Whilst Chinese original draft aimed at Japan as the‘common enemy’, Molotov declined to accept this view and proposed to ‘the enemy’s of
the United Nations’ instead.xxiv The treaty was agreed on 14th August 1945.
However, Stalin’s priority towards the UN had been significantly diminishedeventually and he did not hesitate to discredit the UN openly. This was true of 1948
when he requested the North Korean leadership to pass a resolution to criticize ‘the UN
general assembly and commissions which had taken without the commitment of theKorean people’ in the April 1948 conference. This politically meaningless conference
was successful from the Stalin’s propaganda point of view, because Koreans were
mobilized to welcome the Soviet military withdrawal and ‘all-Korean elections after thewithdrawal of foreign military’. xxv
Still both Korean governments wanted status of the UN membership by 1949 andeach patron began to rally for supports so that the respective client country to be invited
as a membership, while denouncing the others request for membership. Example isgiven by ambassador the statement of J. Malik on 15th February 1949, when he said
that ‘the ROK is a marionette country, while the DPRK is the central government of the
all Koreans, and should be therefore invited as an full member’.xxvi Of course bothmaneuvers were in vain.

3

Changing Asian Political Configurations 1949-1950

Though the Cold War has deepened by 1949, Asian political configurations seemed
far from bipolar dichotomy.

Stalin was stick to the old ally in Asia- Chiang Kai Shek’s

Guomintang-China. He even sent a special envoy (A. Mikoyan) to Mao Zedong of theChinese Communist Party in January 1949 to the effect that Chinese communists
should refrain from attacking Soviets’ old ally totally.
However, Mikoyan’s mission failed and it was inevitable that Chinese communists
would win. New tides of Chinese revolutionary campaign began to prevail by 1949,
which gave a serious impact on the global and regional structure of the East-West
confrontation.

Among others, Chinese revolution made a fundamental change in the

Asian political context including North Korea. To the surprise for Stalin who had been

pessimistic towards Asian liberation movement, Chinese revolution became inevitableby 1949.

Thus Stalin had to react to this reality.

Thus, the year of 1949 proved to be fatal for Stalin; the Cold War confrontation
came to its peak.

By then, Stalin’s policy to cooperate with the United Nations was

also disappointing.

Above all, the emergence of the North Atlantic Treaty

Organization (NATO) was a serious blow to Stalin’s policy towards ‘Peace’ in Europe.
This was serious implication on the work of the United Nations.

On one side, thisalliance was set up in accordance with article 51 of the UN charter, which allowed on
the self and collective defense as an instrument of sovereignty. xxvii While on the other,
this was a clear defeat of the security system formed after the World War Two. The
NATO was set up, along with other western alliance systems, without consent or
consultation of the UN. Soviet foreign ministry declaration on the formation of theNATO characterized this as ‘Intrigue under the UN organization’.xxviii
A failure of the spirit of the grand coalition symbolized in the UN charter, wasapparent, although the NATO had cited the article 51 of the UN as legitimizing
ground.xxix
peace’.

Stalin criticized the NATO organization as a ‘weapon of aggression, not for

The success of the unclear test by the USSR in August 1949 only heightened

the international tension and the control of the atom energy became a severe issue.
Both criticized the other’s aggressive intentions, ambition of world dominance etc.
Between July and October 1949, Stalin’s strategic thinking, especially in this region
had dynamically modified.

Stalin again and again criticized the UK and US policy aspolitics of aggression and politics of new war.

This was motivated by the ‘succession of

defeats suffered in the spring and summer of 1949 (M. Shulman)’. xxx In fact, Soviet
foreign policy had to face series of failures.

Germany was divided. Schisms among theEast camp, caused by the expel of Yugoslavia from the Cominform, damaged the imageof the USSR. The political purges in the East European capitols only worsened thesituation. The Soviet foreign posture had to cope with the deteriorating conditions.
J. Stalin, appreciating the change of the tide, did not hesitate to dismiss V. Molotov
from the Foreign Minister. He was more or less associated to the alliance with the US
and UK, from the foreign ministry and was replace by more royal dogmatist A. Ya.
Vishinskii by February 1949. A. Vishinskii had been the prosecutor at the great purge
trial of 1930s.

Although, V. Molotov remained as deputy premier, but was removed

from the decision making body, the bureau of the presidium (politburo) by the 19th party
congress of 1952.

Mikoyan also lost confidence by 1952.

Both came very near to be

executed by the beginning of 1953, when Stalin and his entourage began a new wave of
purge.
Meanwhile, Vyshinskii’s first statement at the UN session in September 1949 has
marked the turn of the atmosphere.

He categorically criticized the US and UK which

has neglected the UN charter and had set up the NATO.xxxi

Yugoslavia was accepted

as a Security Council member of the UN, despite protests of the Soviet block.

Another

tough-minded ideologue M. Suslov came to propagate militant 'Anti-War movement'.xxxii
One of the striking reveals after the Cold War was the fact that the Soviet leader
Joseph Stalin had allowed a kind of autonomy for the Chinese communist party tocontrol over the Asian and Eastern international matters after 1949. Thus, J. Stalin
really intended to give a more autonomous status for Mao Zedong as the leader of theeastern communist ‘camp’. In other words, the Soviet Union made a kind of power
sharing mechanism with the Chinese Communists Party, especially with regards to the
Asian security and communist matters.

Russians documents are still vague on this matter.

North Korean specialist, A.

Tkachenko wrote in his work on ‘Russian interest on the Korean Peninsula’ 2001, that
Moscow allowed Chinese communists to lead other Asian communists over the Asian
matters, especially for Vietnamese and Korean matters, provided the global mattersshould be consulted with Moscow.xxxiii He has never cited sources, but there is somereason to believe this thesis.
This means that by the fall of 1949 when the People’s Republic of China wasestablished, Moscow allowed that Beijing should be more responsible over Asian
security and leadership over Asian communists’ affairs.

Even cautions V. Molotov also

endorsed the ‘socialist camps headed by the Soviet Union and the People’s Republic ofChina’.xxxiv By then, bitter experience in the formation of the Soviet block including theCominform and expel of the Yugoslav from the East “camp” gave lessons to Stalin. He
had to be more realistic to the newly born alliance forces that had been more or lessautonomous from the 1920s.

The turning point, in retrospective, was less known visitof Chinese delegation led by Liu Shaoqi and Gao Gang (who was in charge of North East
Government) to Moscow in June-August 1949, where they met with Stalin and made anarrangement on Chinese political upheavals.

Soviet Ambassador A. M. Ledovskii’s

documents on this visit show this clearly, though this was done by somewhat
enigmatically.
At first, Chinese made a draft admitting a total subjugation of the Chinese to CPSU
and comrade J.Stalin.xxxv

Stalin was critical of this Chinese ‘loyalty’, and marked

negative on these statements. Several Chinese documents also suggest Stalin’s critical
attitudes. A Chinese translator Shi Zhe recalled later that Stalin spoke on his banquet
speech for Liu delegation to the effect that Chinese communists should hold greater roleover Asian matters.xxxvi
This thesis of Chinese autonomy was officially stated at the Asian trade union
congress held in Shanghai by Liu Shaoqi in November 1949. In his speech he clearlystated the hegemonic role of the Chinese party over the Asian socialists matters.
xxxviiThus, Chinese autonomy was hailed; even the former Comintern network within

China was also subjugated to the Chinese party.
Thus, Chinese communists succeeded to establish its own identity and hegemony
over the Asian Communist world. This thesis was also endorsed in August 1952 when
Zhou visited Moscow and held a second summit between Moscow and Chinese
leadership. xxxviii It was inevitable that an autonomous position of China would lead tothe special relations between Moscow and Beijing. Moscow had been at first reluctant
revise the Moscow-Beijing alliance system that had been concluded in 14 August 1945
between Moscow and the Kuomintang government led by Chiang Kai Shek. This legal
framework had to be changed even after the victory of the Chinese Communists by 1949.
Although Mao was afraid of US commitment to Chinese affairs, Stalin was more
optimistic about the future of Asia and he even joked to Mao that “I wonder Kim IL sungmay come to Beijing (to fight)”.
Thus radicalism came to the foreground and Soviet–Chinese alliance pact of 1950
was concluded under these surroundings. Chinese Premier and Foreign Minister Zhou
Enlai came to Moscow in January 1950 to talk with A. Vishinskii on the alliance
between the Soviet Union and China.

More anti-Americanism emerged.

Russianmaterials tell that Zhou Enlai was harder on this respect. He was backed by moreradical group of ‘Manchurian School’ communists (Gao Gan, Li Fuchun and others).xxxix
Thus, both Beijing and Moscow began to defy the Yalta agreement and coalition withthe US.
Main researchers agree that Stalin was negative of Korean unification at first.
This was due to his commitment to the agreement on the Korean Peninsula with the US.
Although Kim met Stalin first in 1946 secretly and in 1949 March officially, the relation
was rather cool. Thus, the Soviet politburo categorically opposed the Kim’s idea of theunification Moscow even in September 1949. This sober message was communicated to
Kim through Soviet ambassador by the beginning of October.
However, the Soviet- Chinese alliance of 1950 gave new impetus for both global andregional politics. Thus, all Asian communists were given impetus to more radical
confrontation with the US and UN.

Stalin wanted to reverse the failure of 1949.

It was inevitable that Japan became a renewed target of eastern alliance. Soviet
paper ‘Izvestya’ printed a long and detailed report on the Soviet military tribune on the
Kwantoung army for the preparation of the biological warfare on 29 December 1949.
This was a part of the total reassessment of the Far Eastern strategic situation.xl
Japanese communists were no exception to be mobilized. The Cominform organ ‘For
the eternal Peace’ on 2nd January printed a letter ‘ On the situation of the JapaneseCommunist party’ and began to criticize its leader S. Nosaka who had been criticized tobe ‘soft’ to the US occupation. It was unusual in a sense that the Japanese communist
party never been associated to the Cominform. But Chinese communist newspaper also
endorsed this.xli Reportedly, this letter was written by Stalin himself.xlii The Soviet
wanted to mobilize the JCP as an instrument to carry out anti-US, anti-military
campaignxliii This criticism gave serious impetus for struggles within the JCP and split
and factional struggles followed. xliv
Stalin’s coalition with Mao made another impact; the downgrading the role of theUN for the Soviet policy. In 13th January 1950, Soviet delegation J. Malik in his speechat the UN declared that Soviet would boycott the work of the Security Council and otherbodies, unless Chiang Kai Shek government ousted. xlv

Historians have discussed

Stalin’s pro-Chinese shift differently. Above mentioned book by H. Goncharov, Lewis
and Litai have argued that this tactic was cunningly utilized by Stalin to hamper the
conciliation of communist China towards the UK-US.

In fact, the UK government was

willing to oust Chiang’s nationalist China from the UN Security council and thus was
prepared to reconcile, thus Stalin had to made harsher counter measures to boycott the
UN solution to separate China from the west, according to this version. xlvi However,this interpretation seems to be a hindsight.

4

Korean War (1950-1953)

Preparation
Thus, new political alignment emerged in the East Asian ‘front’. The establishmentof the People’s Republic of China in October 1949, and new alliance between the twosocialist countries became a fact accomplishment.

Also the establishment of theEastern Cominform was discussed, but did not came to the conclusion by 1949.
Apparently the Chinese Communist Party led the hegemonic roles.
Among others, North Korean Premier Kim Il Song seemed to be stimulated bythese new events. He stressed the feasibility of the armed intervention to Ambassador T.
Shtykov, who was rather skeptical of Kim’s proposals by the beginning of 1950.
Historians are divided on the date of the visit of Kim Il Song to Moscow.

Usually Kim

seems to have visited to Moscow, namely in from 30 March through 25th April. Comrade
Kim met with Stalin three times in Moscow including the important meeting at the end

of April. However, A. Torkunov’s little known article suggests that Kim might havevisited twice to Moscow in 1950. xlvii According to him, Stalin oscillated and once
rejected at the first meeting, asking Kim to present the detailed war plan. Kim brought
the new plan of armed unification at the meeting in late April. Stalin again was notdecided, but some politicians and the military thought that Kim’s plan could beachieved, according to A. Torkunov. Stalin told Kim that he should consult with the
Chinese communists, Mao above all.
Thus, the DPRK began offensive maneuver on 25th June. Pravda printed twostatements by Radio Pyongyang, telling that it was the KOR that began offensive attack
firstly.

However it was no secret in the North that Kim Il Song began the War, as

famous the DPRK leader Kan San Ho said; It is crazy or idiot if we don’t understandthat Kim Il Sung began the War” who was in the 38th parallel at that time.

Thus, thefact that Korean War was initiated by Kim Il Song was no longer challenged byhistorians, after the publication of the Russian sources.xlviii Stalin finally endorse Kim’s
plan on their April 25th meeting and was further blessed by Mao Zedong in May. In its
turn, Mao was also well informed with the Kim’s secret mission to Moscow and had
already informed that Mao would meet with Kim after the meeting with Stalin,
according to Moscow Archives.xlix

Joseph Stalin, in his turn, had informed Mao on the

results of the meeting with Stalin (pseudonym, Filipov) with Kim.

Thus, Kim flied to

Beijing informally on the 13th of May to see Chairman Mao who was positive on this andgave a green light to Kim’s forced unification plan. On 15th dinner with Mao, Kim
thanked to Stalin that Mao endorsed the war plan which had been agreed with Stalin.
Stalin, in its turn, supplied with the 90 per cent of the demand on the part of the DPRK.

Process
The process of the war is rather known. l Perhaps we need not to go into details of
the major turning points of this War.
It would be divided into four stages;
First stage 25 June until 14 September;the offensive of the North, or the Korean people’s Army
Stage two 15 September 1950-24 Oct. 1950;
Counter offensive of the US-UN and the South
Stage three 24 Oct-7 July 1951;
Participation of the Chinese Voluntary army
Stage four 10 July 1951-27 July 1953;
Stalemate and Peace talks

Anyway, it was general Mac Arthur, who was alarmed by the imminent danger on
the South Korea and send a telegram of the danger of ‘total collapse’ of the South. Thus
the UN was naturally involved in this conflict.li On the same day of the invasion, theextreme meeting of the Security Council took place in the UN and US government
prepared a resolution, charactering the action of the DPRK as ‘aggression’ and asked towithdraw immediately the North Korean troops to the 38 parallel. On 27th another
resolution was adopted.

The emergency meeting of the Security Council of the NU,

under the request of the US government adopted a resolution, condemning theaggression. The US government appointed General Douglas MacArthur - commanderof the Far Eastern Army - as the commander of the UN Army.

On 28th UK, Australia

and New Zealand governments permitted to send troops to the United Nation’s army.

On 7th July the US government gave a new resolution that gave all the UN
member’s troops and other resources to be controlled by the General MacArthur as thecommander of the UN army thus allowing to use the United Nation’s flag against theNorth Korean campaign.

Fifty three states supported this resolution, though two

thirds of the UN army was Americans.

On 8th July US President Truman appointed

General MacArthur as the UN commander.

In all, the US, UK, Australia, Belgium,

Holland, Greece, Canada, Columbia, Luxembourg, New Zealand, Thailand, Turkey,
Filipino, French, South Africa, and Ethiopia fought under the banner of the United
Nation army.lii On the same day President Truman agreed to give a military aide to the
ROK government.
From a Soviet point of view, on 4th July, Deputy Minister A. Gromyko officiallyrecognized the invasion and even legitimized the action, saying that ‘Korean people
have a right by their own discretion to remove their own national works by uniting theSouth and North into her national state’. liii
Meanwhile, the Soviet Union has been boycotting the work of the United Nations.
This was related to the status of Chinese Security Council membership after theformation of the People’s Republic of China in October 1949.

The USSR was in linewith their request to expel Chiang Khai Shek’s China from the UN as a legitimate
Security Council member.

Ambassador Ya. Malik on 13th January 1950 declared toboycott the work of the Security Council and other works as a means of protest. Russian
diplomatic historians of the Korean War characterizes this was a ‘diplomatic mistake’ ofStalin, because this gave the US to monopolize the legitimacy of the UN on the Korean
issue. liv
vain.

Only in 10th August, Soviet Ambassador came back to the work of the UN, in

Stalin’s boycott tactics gave a gain for the US involvement in the Korean War

under the blue flag of the UN in the Korean War.
After the initial victory of the North, the UN forces entered Inchon and tides
reversed. The DPRK came very near to be defeated by the end of September.

On 13thOctober, Stalin cabled Kim that “Resistance has no chance of success. Chinese areresisting from the help”.

Realist Stalin was prepared to retreat from the hopelessadventure, according to Russian researcher A. Y. Mansourov, who had checked Soviet
archives. lv

In Stalin’s own words, recalled by N. Khrushchev, he was willing toabandon North Korea and allow the United States to become the USSR’s neighbor.
Stalin almost accepted the defeat of the North and even Chinese delegation Zhou Enlai
came to this conclusion. According to Soviet diplomat M. A. Menshikov, who was close to
Stalin at that time, he got old, unhealthy; and his stamina lost by the middle of 1950. lvi
But suddenly Chinese ‘voluntary army’ led by Marshall Pen Dekhai came toforeground on October. Again situation drastically changed in favor for the North by the
beginning of 1951. General MacArthur was moved by this and wanted to counter byusing Chiang Kai Shek’s army in the South of China. This caused a serious disputes
with the officials of the Truman government (D. Acheson and D. Marshall). Thus
General MacArthur was dismissed from the commander of the UN army on 11 April
1951.lvii
Although Soviet returned to the UN Security Council by August, the Russians stillneglected this organization even after this.

It is also noteworthy that Stalin suggested

to Zhou Enlai who visited on August 1952 that both should establish an alternative
organization to the UN in Asia, although he added carefully that “the UN is an US
organization and this UN should be destroyed, though we should keep the face of we are
not against the UN.” lviii

Since the termination of the Korean War in 1953, Moscow and Beijing have beendisputed over who was responsible for the war. In 1960, for example, the first secretaryof the CPSU N. Khrushchev argued that the war was endorsed by both Stalin and Mao.
This was apparently moved by his own agendas of criticizing both.

In its turn, Chinesedelegation Pen Chzhenya to the International congress in Moscow claimed that thisdecision was made by Stalin and Kim, but, Mao was informed only in the summer of1950, but he at first was also against the war”. Pen’s statement may be overstated, but
Mao’s position was motivated by the priority to unite his own country first by defeating
the Kuomintang in Taiwan.

6

Delayed Peace Talks(1951-53)
Thus, the role of the military came to stalemates and negotiation began. However, thenegotiation positions among Stalin, Mao and Kim were surely not identical from theonset. Each party was moved by its own interest. The Chinese were in eager to get
resources from their elder brother.

Communications between Mao and Stalin showsthat Stalin was annoyed by the excessive requests on the part of chairman Mao,
especially on the latter half of 1951. Facing with the stalemate and difficult position,
Mao wanted to lower the conditions of termination and to stop the War, which isabundantly clear on his letter to Stalin on 20th July 1951.lix
Especially, Stalin’s policy to this war became known; he was categorically against thetermination of the War, though his Asian associates were inclined to stop the War. Thiswas known by his message to Mao on 5th June 1951 on which Stalin, while agreeing tonegotiate with the US, he also ordered to Mao that he should not make haste on
negotiations.lx

He said that Chinese military can master modern warfare techniques

and damage the US prestige.
Kim Il song’s position was unique; Chinese wanted to subjugate Koreans, Kim
wanted to enhance his position by communicate with Stalin directly.

While Maowanted to monopolize the communication with Stalin, Kim in his turn wanted tocommunicate with Stalin directly. However, apparently Kim lost favor by the decisive
defeat and had to appeal to the chairman Mao and Marshall Pen Dekha to change
courses.lxi
Thus, communication pattern between the three parties was neither direct‘boss-subordinates’ relations, nor ‘equal partner among them’. This asymmetrical
relation was further damaged by miscommunication among others. This was further
exacerbated by the indirect communication channel of North-Eastern Chinese buro,which connected between Kim and Mao. Soviet-Chinese relation between 1950-53 wascomplicated and not necessary well informed each other.
In due course, Mao and Kim came to the same conclusion that Peace was necessaryand negotiation with the US should be accelerated.

However, Soviet positions weredifferent; the politburo decision on 28 August 1951 was categorical that the US was
weaker and Mao should not hastily conclude the agreement. lxii

At that time

Ambassador Shtykov was removed, apparently voicing the North’s requests.
Stalin never replied for Mao’s letters for several months.

After this,On 19th November, thePolitburo again sent a message to the effect that Mao should not accelerate the peace
talk. Newly appointed ambassador to the DPRK, V. Razbaev was twice reprimanded
because he sent messages from North Korea that showed Kim’s their desire to stop theWar.lxiii
Still, Foreign Minister Park and the DPRK could not hesitate to appeal to Mao via

Chinese top military Pen Dekhai to stop the War in the beginning of January 1952 in
his private conversation with Pen. This political atmosphere was shared with evenAmbassador Razubaev who again wanted to publish from TASS Kim’s ‘peace oriented’interview in March 1952.

Deputy Minister Gromyko again had to reprimand him.

This did not prevent Mao and Kim again to agree on a process of peace and would
appeal to Moscow on this matter on July 1952. This led to the dispatch of Zhou Enlai tovisit to Stalin in August. This was the third high level meetings among the Allianceleaders after February 1950.

The dialogue between Stalin and Zhou that took place on

20th August 1952 was partly printed in Russian materials.

Stalin again maintainedthat the US position was weak and they would not fight the Third World War, thus the
Korean War can contribute to prevent of the third World War. “Americans soldiers are
speculators, they can not handle this tiny war”, he claimed.lxiv It is noteworthy that hestressed that PRC should play dominant role in the Asian arena. He added that because
there were panic mood among the DPRK leaders, thus he avoided to meet with Kim.
Thus, Stalin was categorical to continue the Korean War, which could serve to avoid or
prolong the start of the Third World War.
In November 2nd, Stalin’s polituburo (renamed as Presidium buro) again emphasizedthat it is necessary to continue the struggle. Despite Eisenhower’s election as a new
President inevitable, Stalin was pessimistic and continued the course of the War,though Mao and Kim was in favor for the peace settlements.

Meanwhile Molotov andMikoyan came very near to be physically purged.
Only the death of Stalin on 5th March could change the course and stop the War.
Molotov came back to as the Foreign Minister. New leaders like Beriya andMalenkov could drastically change the foreign course, to the effect that peace came tothe foreground. V.Molotov recalls that the Korean War was initiated by Kim Il Song andhis entourage. “The situation was developing in a way not in our interests. It waspressed on us by the Koreans themselves.” lxv Stalin said it was impossible to avoid thequestion of a united Korea. We prepared a draft proposal on the German question,
besides that I raised the Korean question”.
After the death of Stalin (5th March 1953), politics, both international and domestic,
began to change. The first violin was played by L. Beria.
Ministry of Foreign Affairs.

V. Molotov returned to

He was always as conservative, but he seemed evenradical when he criticized Beria, as O. Troyanovskii recalls.lxvi

Thus, changes of thecourses were inevitable including the position to the Korean War.

In all, the Soviet lost

335 airplanes and 120 pilots in this conflict. 399 Soviet military men were lost including
138 officers.
This gave serious political results. Firstly, from an asymmetrical interdependence
among the socialist brotherhood turned independent search for their own identity.
Contradictory enough, this search for independence in respective countries took serious
domestic political victims.

In China, the establishment of the Maoist way was followed

by following purges like Gao Gan (1954), Pen Dekha (1959), Lyu Shaoqi (1966) and Lin
Piao (1972).

In Korea, Kim Il Song’s one man rule was heralded by the victims like

Park he Nyon (1954), pro Chinese factions and pro Moscow factions.
Secondly, independence for the Asian communist regimes and movements often
meant serious struggles among regimes and movements for both within and beyond.
The DPRK’s search for ‘Independence or, Chu zhe’, turned into a kind of isolation fromthe surrounding world and their search for ‘Unification’, often by forces, took an violent
forms.

The lack of collective security framework (such as WTO) in Asia was a result of‘independence’ and mutual interdependence and, thus peculiar multi-polarizm resulted.
However, this multipolar world often accompanied with the schism and conflicts among
the socialist countries. Ten years after the agreement on the alliance with Moscow,
China departed towards more independent position and schism among socialist’s giants
became inevitable, resulting in the armed struggle on the national border in 1969 and it
took for thirty years before their relation normalized.

Normalization with US andJapan (1972) for China was followed severe struggles within the socialist regimes.
The DPRK also searched for alliance with the Soviet Union, which resulted in thealliance treaty with the Soviet Union in 1961, apparently being freed from the Chinese
tutelage. However, when N. Khrushchev suggested this treaty would be short-lived
once the US government would agree a détente with the USSR, Kim in its turn, rushed
to Beijing in five days, without noticing the Soviet side to conclude the alliance treaty.
Khrushchev and his successor Leonid Brezhnev never strongly felt the DPRK as an ally.
For both China and USSR, the DPRK was an ally without trust.
Among others, the United Nations as security institution was the victim of this War.
The US-USSR schism has resulted in the debacle of the peace settlement mechanism
especially in Asia, where institutionalization was still weak and chaos prevailed. Stillworse, the UN took on the US side, thus alienating from China, which had every reason
to be invited to the Security Council by 1949. Kim Il Song’s adventurous initiative,
coupled with Stalin’s miscalculation led to the collapse of the security framework
symbolized in the UN.
Meanwhile, the Soviet searched for normalization with ROK for a long time.

But

it was only in 1988 when they have agreed to normalize. Chinese also followed twoyears later and ROK-Chinese relation was normalized after forty years intervals,
though the DPRK complained severely. In its turn, the DPRK has failed to normalize, oreven contact with the former enemy, the USA.

Its contact with the Japanese Prime

minister Ichiro Koizumi has half succeeded in September 2002, but half failed to make a
final break through.

Thus, the Cold War still haunts the responsibility still in larger

part fells in the miscalculation of the DPRK leader as was true some half a century ago.
The process of the six party talks on Korean nuclear issue exemplifies weak role of
the UN in this region on regional security. This is rooted in historical legacy of the
Korean War which is not yet over in legal terms.

How to cope with these negative

lessons from the past totally depend on all parties involved.
i

S. Goncharov, J. Lewis and X. Litai, Uncertain Partners,Stalin,Mao and the Korean

War,Stanford,1993,p.5.

A.Gromyko,Pamyatnoe,M.,1988,p. ;Martin Walker,The Cold War,London,1994,p.74.
Marshall D Shulman,Stalin’s Foreign Policy Reappraised,1963,p.152.
iv See my translation ‘Chosen sensou no nazo to Shinjitu, Sosisya, 2001 This is antranslation of A.Torkunov’s book, “Zagadochnaya voina –Korean konflikty 1950-53’ M.,
2000. This is based on the declassified Soviet politburo documents of the Korean War.
v Nobuo Shimotomai,”Sorenn-tougasyoyuusita kokka”,Kodasnsya,2002. This is a bookon Vyacheslav Molotov and his role in the political history the Soviet Union.See also
Molotov Remembers, Chicago, 1993.
ii

iii

vi

Istochnik,No. ,1995.p. .
Mainiti Sinbun, 26 Feb., 1993, citewd in Haruki Wada,Kitachosen, Yuugekitaikokka
no genzai,1998,p.63.
Paradoxically, Prof. Wada’s book is weak on Russian sources andis sometimes misleading. He exaggerates the role of Kim Il Song in the formative
process of the DPRK which is a political myth.
ix
V.Tkachenko, Koreiskii poluostrov I interesy Rossii, M., 2000, p.18.
x Ocherki Istorii Ministerstva Inostrannykh Del Rossii,t.2 191702002,M.,2002,p.369.
xi Michael Schaller, The American Occupation of Japan, The origin of the Cold War in
Asia, Oxford Univ. Press,1985,
xii Michael Schaller, The American Occupation of Japan, The origin of the Cold War in
Asia, Oxford Univ. Press, 1985, p.75.
xiii Vneshnyaya politika Sovetskogo Soiuza 1945 god, M., 1949, p.86-89.
xiv
Andrei Lankov, From Stalin to Kim il Song, Rutgers Publisher, 2002. This is arevised version of his earlier work, Severnaya Koreya,M.,1995
xv Ocherki Istorii Ministerrstva inostrannikh del Rossii,t.vtoroi,M., 2002, p.369.
xvi See, Yosuke Kosaka, Senkou,beiso jyohousen to Dosankonougakusya,Dousinnsensyo,1997,p.chap.three; Nihonjingari,Shincyo,2000,p.118. The
Soviet was anxious to get information of the North Korean Uranium, and the chief
vii

viii

commander Otoza Yamada was interrogated seriously. The Russian new document
suggests they found in the DPRK area and used it.
xvii A. Lankov, ibid.
xviii Ocherki Istorii, tom2, p.369.
xix Vestnik, No.4, 1995, p.135, p139. The work of this commission itself had been
proposed to be set up by deputy foreign minister S. Lozovskii in December 1941, whenthe British Foreign minister A. Eden visited and negotiated with J. Stalin and V.
Molotov on the strategic alliance between the US, UK and the Soviet Union, three
weeks after the attacks on Pearl Harbor by Japanese navy. J. Stalin in the name of thepolitburo allowed to set up this commission to prepare in a preliminary way ‘On the
Future Peace Commission’ within the Soviet foreign ministry.
xx Vestnik, No.4, 1995, p.135, p139.
xxi Vneshnyaya Politika Sovetskogo souiuza/1946 god/. 1952, p.222.
xxii Nobuo Shimotomai”Sorenn-Tou ga syoyuusita Kokka” koudannsya 2002,
See also
Molotov remembers,1993,
xxiii Vneshnyaya politika Sovietkogo Soiuza 1945 god, 1949, p.128. It should be notedthat Stalin at that time was heart problem and was absent from the leadership for twomonths. Molotov was assigned to lead the country. However, his rivals, Malenkov,
Beriya and Mikoyan were apparently unhappy with the role of Molotov. In this situation,
Molotov announced to ease censorship for the foreign press. The US press Daily Herald
printed an article where V. Molotov may become a next leader instead of Stalin. Thismight have been manipulated by Beriya. But Stalin was angry and was punished. His
satted among the leadership fell and his role became secondary even with regard toforeign policy. Instead such prominent Stalinist like Vyshinskii came to foreground (A.A.
Danilov and A.V.Pyzhkov, Rozhdenie Sverkh derzhavy, M.,2001,p.202.).
xxiv A. M. Ledovskii, SSSR i Stalin v sud’bakh Kitaya, M.,1999,p.303. Although thenegotiations took place on June-July period before the Soviet declaration on war against
Japan, both had agreed to lay the Yalta agreement as a basis. Molotov persuaded thatthe treaty covers for thirty years, thus Japan is not an appropriate target as an enemy.
xxv Lankov, p.45. this is the Politburo decision of 12 April, 1948 which was handed to
Kim Il Song.See also Politburo TsK RKP(b)-VKP(b),t.3,2001,p.509.
xxvi Vneshnyaya politika SSSR, 1949. 287-92.
xxvii NATOspravochnik,Bryussel,1995,p223-26.
xxviii Vneshnyaya politica 1949, 1953, p.63.
xxix
NATO sprabochnik, 1995 in Russian. p.20.
xxx Marshall Shulman, Stalin’s Foreign Policy Reappraised ’, West View, 1985, p.123.
xxxi Vneshnyaya politika, 1949, p444.
xxxii Ibid., p.121.
xxxiiiV.Tkachenko,Russian interests in the Korean penninsla,M.,2001,p.18.
xxxiv A.Aleksandrov-Agentov,Ot Kollontai do Gorbachova,M.,1994,p.57.
xxxv

According to Chinese communist report to the Soviet politburo, 6th July 1949,

Chinese delegate insisted that “ the Soviet Communist Party (B) is the headquarters of
the International Communist Movement, and Chinese communist party is only thehead of one direction…Chinese party will be subordinated to the will of the Soviet
Communist party”. If the division of the opinion emerges between the two parties,

Chinese, while, maintaining his opinions, would decisively carry out the decisions of theSoviet Party.

xxxvi“In the communist world matters, both Soviet and Chinese party must owe joint

responsibility, therefore they must be a division of labor between the two. I hope that
China would aid the liberation movement of the colonial, half colonial and subordinatedcountries. …You should make a contribution on the movements of the Eastern, colonial,half-colonial world, meanwhile we would take larger responsibilities in the Westernworld” Stalin said that “in the eastern revolution Chinese communist party should
carry out his revolutionary tasks”.
He even mentioned ‘the way of Mao Zedong’ in this context.
Stalin endorsed that “although Soviet is only partial Asian, China is all Asian
country, so China should play primary role in Asian matters.”
xxxix Ledovskii..,op.cit.
xl Vneshnyaya politica.., p631-672.
xli In fact, Chinese communists were not so informed on the internal struggles among
the Japanese communists from Moscow and had to ask it afterwards in 1956 Presidium
TsK KPSS 1954-1964,2003,p .
xliiThis letter also was never sent to China and Chairman Mao and Lyu Shao Shi in
1956 had to complain on this, because Japanese party experienced serious internal
struggle (Presidium TsK KPSS 1954-1964, M., 2003, p179). Presumably, this letter
was written by former political officer of the 25th Army which occupied the North, Mr. V.
Kovyzhenko, who promoted Kim il song to leadership. Kovyzhenko worked in 1950 in
Tokyo and was close to Kenji Miyamoto of the JCP, who were leftists oppositionists in1950 split of the JPC. Kovyzhenko later became Japan desk of the Soviet Communist
party. Incidentally, Kovyzhenko later apologized to Professor XX for this left turn,
Professor XX was associated to Miyamoto faction at that time. In short, Stalin wanted
to use JCP to make a counter measure against the US against Soviet-China newalignment especially in Korea.
xliii This maneuver was repetition of what Stalin did in 1932, when Kolkhoz anddomestic crisis deepened after the 1931 Manchurian Incident. He gave the JCP famous
programme of 1932 thesis, stressing the struggle with the Japanese army. Then JCP
also split into a tiny factions (See Shimotomai. Stalina and city Moscow1931-34,
Macmillan,1991,)
xliv This document was prepared by CC international department (presumably
Kovyzhenko) and was modified by Stalin and Molotov, According to Kovalenko memoir,
p.168. The S
xxxviixxxviii

xlv

According to Gromyko, he in vein persuaded Stalin to go back to UN to veto, but J.

Gaddis argues that Stalin was cunning enough to do so, because the US declaration of
War would evolve Sino-Soviet alliance treaty automatically (J. Gaddis, We know now,
Rethinking Cold War History,Oxford,1997,.76). The present author think that Stalin
was moved by emotion of old generation. He was far from realistic for other state’s fate.
xlvi Goncharov, Lewis and Litai, Uncertain Partners,Stanford,1993.p.111
xlvii Koreiskii poluosrov,ch.2,M.,2001,p.134,
xlviiiA. V. Torkunov (Zagadochnaya voina 1950-53, M.2000), translated by Prof. Kim
Song Ho and the present from Sosisyua, 2002).
xlix A. Torkunov, “Chousennsennsou no Nazo to Shinzitu”, 2002, p.110-111.
l See my paper presented to Korean Asssociation of the ..June 2003.
li Among the American leaders, such a realist like G.Kennan, the State Department,
thought it necessary to expulse the North to the status quo of the 38th parallel, but henever had imagined that the UN should be involved in this process. So he was surprisedby this involvement (G. Kennan, Memoirs 1925-1950, Pnantheon, 1967, p.490.) Anyway
he was to go to academic circles of Princeton University by August 1950.
lii Voina v Koree, 1950-53, M., 2000. p.880-81. This was a reprint of the secret documentof the Korean War, prepared in the 1950s for Soviet officials and generals.
liii p.13.
liv Voina v Koree, 1950-53, M., 2000. p.10; Ocherki istorii., t.2, p.370..
lv CHIPS,xxx
lvi M.A.Menshikov,S vintovkoi I vo frake,M.,1996,p.132.
lvii p.16.
lviii Ledovskii, op.cit.,p.171.
lix
My translation,chapter 11.
lx Ibid., esp. p.248.
lxi Ibid., esp. chap.12.
lxii Ibid., p.339.
lxiii Politburo TsK RKP(b)-VKP(8b)t.3,M.,2001,p843,847 I dr.,lxiv Ledovskii, pp.153-176.
lxv Molotov Remembers, Inside Kremlin politics, Chicago, 1993, p.75: Feliks Chuev,
Molotov poluderzhavnyi vlastelin,M.p150.
lxvi O. Troyanovskii, Cherez gody I rasstoyaniya,M.,1997,p124-143.