The Buddhist Perspective of Life andthe Idea of Human Rights

Yoichi Kawada

Introduction: How Buddhism Is Relevant to Human Rights

B

UDDHISM was established by Sakyamuni Buddha who lived andtaught around the 5th century BCE in India. At that time, India wasin a state of turmoil with continuous wars and conflicts in which smaller
states were taken over by larger states. The constant warfare was thevery reason for Sakyamuni Buddha’s departure to seek his own enlightenment and to learn how peace and coexistence on the earth could be
realized.
Through asceticism and meditative practice, Sakyamuni Buddha
deepened his insight and was able to see “the Inner Cosmos” common
to all people. Thus he became “the Enlightened One” by realizing “thefundamental cosmic Law (Dharma),” which was the source of the existence of every sentient being. He then began guiding people to realize
their own “fundamental cosmic Law,” as well, and directing them to thepath of peaceful coexistence in the world, the path which overcomeswars and violations of human rights, through transforming their own“Inner Cosmos.”In the West, the modern idea of human rights was established basedon the idea of the Natural Law. Historically, the idea of human rights
has developed from the first stratum of the right of freedom, to the second stratum of social rights, and to the third stratum which designates
the right of solidarity.
The third stratum includes the rights of peace, of development, and ofa healthy and sustainable environment. It is through the development of
the human rights movements that everyone on the globe can jointly
work together to build a harmonious world which concentrates on creating a means for “peace,” “development,” and “environment.”
A starting point of Buddhism was the Buddha’s wish for peace andcoexistence in the world. Having the Buddha’s realization as the source,
the Buddhists in the Orient have been developing the bodhisattva path,the means by which all people can be saved and enlightened.
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Paying attention to the common desire in the West and the Orient forhuman rights, it is essential to attempt to relate the Buddhist approachfor humanity to the struggles for human rights in the modern West,which has been developing the third stratum of human rights. How is
Buddhism relevant to today’s human right movements, and what role
can it play in realizing global peace and coexistence?
When considering the mutual relationship between Buddhism and thehuman right movements, there are two dimensions to discuss: the first
dimension is how to lay the foundation of the concept of “human rights”
and the second is how to discuss the bodhisattva path practiced by the
Buddhists as a human rights movement. The former discussion should
be a philosophical inquiry and the latter the practical exploration of thebodhisattva path. This paper will examine these two aspects respectively.

1. The Philosophical Foundation of Human Rights:
Concerning Article One in the Universal Declaration of
Human Rights
To inquire into the philosophical foundation of human rights means to
examine the fundamental questions, such as “Why are human beingsborn free?” or “Why are humans inherently equal?” In other words, it isan inquiry about the foundation of human dignity and of the respect paid
to all humans.
How to lay a philosophical foundation for the concept of humanrights was the very focus of the dialogue between Mr. Athayde, thenPresident of the Brazilian Academy of Letters, and Dr. Ikeda, presidentof Soka Gakkai International, in A Dialogue of Human Rights for the
Twenty-First Century. This issue was discussed in great detail by Mr.
Athayde who, as a representative of Brazil, participated in the “Committee Three” of the Commission on Human Rights in the UN, which stipulated the draft of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. The following is the citation from the dialogue, in which Mr. Athayde describes
the discussion that took place among the members of Committee Three.
ATHAYDE: Article One of the Human Rights Committee draft began,‘All human beings are born free and are born equal in dignity andrights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act
towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.’ I objected to this. To
guarantee respect for the rights we were setting forth, we needed a statement closer than this to the feelings of all peoples. The language should

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be less abstract. ... Article One should encourage us to act in a brotherly
way because God created us in his image and endowed us with conscience and reason.
IKEDA: You interpret humanity in terms of an image—from Latin
imago—that is a universal, indestructible entity transcending time andspace. The draft version of the preamble speaks of innate endowments,
thus suggesting that conscience and reason start at birth and are limited
in terms of time and space. You perceived that this is not true and thatreason and conscience are common to all humanity and are universal inboth time and space.1

Mr. Athayde, in the dialogue, also mentioned the Committee Three’s
examinations of the foundation of human rights, in which they traced
the history of human rights beginning with the Code of Hammurabi (ca.
1700 BCE). During the committee’s discussion, the participants freely
shared their opinions based on their own beliefs, including the thoughtsof Eastern traditions such as Buddhism, that of Christianity which was abasis of the Western tradition, and that of Islam based on the Qur’an. In
the end, Mr. Athayde withdrew his proposed revision because he wasconvinced that the original intention of his proposal, that is, the idea thathuman rights originate in something universal and not from physicalbirth, was fully accomplished. In this episode, it is critical to pay attention to the point concerning Article One, in that the Committee Three
discussed the fundamental issue of how to lay the foundation for theunderstanding that human rights are a fundamental essence of being
human.
In general, the thought of the fundamental nature of human rights,
which states that all humans are born free and equal, is considered tohave been established by the idea of the Natural Law which emerged
during the Enlightenment era of the 18th century. This concept of the
Natural Law was a result of the attempt to move from the standpoint of
medieval theology from God’s perspective to the perspective of viewing
human life from man’s perspective. Along with this stream, the thoughtthat the humanity is born free and equal rose as a counterpart to thepolitical absolutism during the pre-modern time.
This current of thought brought about the Declaration of Independence in the United States of America and the Virginia Bill of Rights in
1776, and the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen during the French Revolution in 1789.
On the other hand, another stream of thought is represented by

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Jacques Maritain and Levi Carneiro, which attempts to lay a foundation
for human rights on the basis of the Creation of the Universe by God.
Yasuhiko Saito states that Jacques Maritain’s claim is the most suitable
when discussing the foundation of the universality of human rights andthe universal deference to the concept of rights, and summarizes the perspective as follows:
While the humanism that was established during and after the Renaissance and the Reformation is considered humanity-centered, the humanism that is centered on God is called “an integrated humanism of solidarity.” ... Vladimir Solovyov, who is as equally respected as Maritain,
stated that the nature of the integrated humanism of solidarity is “Inorder to make a change on earth, it is essential that the force of change
should not be of the earth.” As he said, it is critical to have a metaphysics that is beyond the humanism centering on humanity in order toestablish the new social order for human rights and for respecting
humanity.2

Furthermore, Saito describes the meaning of life:
In fact, human beings participate in the process of the Creation with
their own free will. In taking full responsibility of their choice to choose
good and to avoid evil, and to choose the just and to reject the unjust,they join in the process. In other words, the meaning of life exists in thenoble mission that participates in God’s grand project to create the universe through humanity’s act to realize truth, goodness, and justice inthe earth. ... When we say the equality of all human beings, it meansthat all are equal in front of God with regard to this mission3.

He states that all human beings are equal in front of God in terms of themission to join His project of Creation. Further, being different fromother kinds of creatures, humans have the ability of ethical judgment
and can choose goodness and justice, and carry out their mission with
their own free will. In this perspective, free will and ethical choice are
the basis of humanity’s inherent equality and freedom. Mr. Athayde’s
revision proposal was based on this very position of God-centeredhumanism, a proposal that stated that the idea of “All human beings areborn free and born equal” was not good enough. It should be revised tosay: “God created us in his image and endowed us with conscience andreason.” As this statement shows, Christian humanism, while claiming it
is humanity-centered in terms of their ethical ability and awareness of

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their own mission, in fact, seeks its basis on the idea of a transcendent
God.
However, Mr. Athayde in the dialogue with Ikeda, also, expresses his
interest in and support of Buddhist humanism. Saito, too, delineates that
he believes that giving meaning to the idea of human rights could bemade sufficiently by other schools of Christianity, Judaism, Buddhism,
Islam, and other great religious traditions, as well as Marxism and atheism4.
How does Buddhist humanism lay the foundation for human rights?
Buddhism does not have an absolute transcendent God as Christianity
does. Hideo Mineshima poses a question: “Buddhism that does not have
God as the Absolute can be said to be literally humanistic and humanity-centered. What type of structure does Buddhism encompass in regard
to the relationship with something transcendent in order for humanity to
be truly human and for humanism to be truly humanism?”5 Mineshimathen states a position of “the immanent transcendence” in Buddhism, as
opposed to “the transcendent immanence” in Christianity.
“It can be seen that Buddha’s enlightenment and his action to save thepeople indicate transcendence in a specific meaning. The legend says:
Sakyamuni Buddha, through meditation under the bodhi-tree, attained
the realization of the Dharma, that is, the truth that penetrates both theuniverse and humans. Then, he went to Deer Park to preach the truth. At
that moment, the five monks who saw the Buddha cast themselves at his
feet. This veneration by the five monks was not just for Sakyamuni as aperson, but was veneration for the Buddha who was an embodiment of
the Dharma, while he was still a human being. Through his meditation,
Sakyamuni Buddha had gained the standing of transcendence while
keeping his human appearance.”6

According to this statement, it is possible to perceive that, in the context
of Buddhist humanism, true humanism is established when exhibiting
the transcendental dimension that goes beyond human norms in reality
and then, acting to transform reality.

2. The Buddhist Perspective of Life:The Structure of Internal Existence and Transcendence
In Buddhism, the meditative practice initiated by Sakyamuni Buddha
lays the basis for the foundation of human rights. It can be explained by
the structures of “internal existence” and “transcendence” that are mani-

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fested through the discernment of the “Inner Cosmos” existing within ahuman life. We can discuss this point from two aspects: (i) Sakyamuni
Buddha’s enlightenment, and (ii) the development in the Lotus Sutra,
which is relevant to the idea of human rights.
(I) Sakyamuni Buddha’s Enlightenment
Sakyamuni Buddha’s enlightenment unfolded in the deepest point of his
meditative practice. The meditative practice that starts from an outerstratum of consciousness is an exploration toward finding and unfolding
the “Inner Cosmos.”
The process of this “introspection,” that is, to deepen from the outerstratum into the depths of consciousness, initiates with illuminating
one’s own past deeds, which are called “karma” in Buddhist terminology. Then, the process unfolds beyond individual karma into the “sharedkarma” in the transpersonal realm, which is the karma shared amongfamily members and friends. Further, the process reaches into thedimension that is shared with the community, one’s ethnicity, and thestate. In this realm, the depth of consciousness shared by each community or ethnicity, and the nation-state in contemporary times, too, fuseseach to the other. In the deepest dimension, the consciousness of all
human beings fuses on the base layer of the ecological system.
Sakyamuni Buddha’s meditation went through the profound depths ofthe collective consciousness of humanity, and through the numerous differences of race, ethnicity, gender, or occupation, he sought out theshared horizon of the universal and fundamental equality among all
human beings. Sakyamuni Buddha, at the same time, perceived “thearrow of earthy desire” piercing the depth of everyone’s consciousness,an arrow that drives people to conflicts and wars. “The arrow of earthy
desire” is the symbolic cause that leads the people to discriminate
against each other, prevents recognition of the equality of others, andcompels people into fights.
“Then, I saw a barb, hard to see, nestling in the heart.”7“Affected by this barb, one runs in all directions. Having pulled thatbarb out, one does not run, nor sink.”8 (Sutta Nipåta)Dr. Ikeda sees a fundamental human evil in “the arrow of earthy desire,”
and indicates the path for humanity’s peaceful co-existence throughovercoming it.
“The ‘invisible arrow’ of evil is not to be found in the existence of races

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and classes external to ourselves, but is embedded in our own hearts.
The conquest of our own prejudicial thinking, of our own attachment todifference, is the necessary pre-condition for open dialogue.”9This claim makes the control over our prejudicial thinking, that is, our“attachment to difference” found in multiple dimensions of family, ethnicity, the nation-state, and humanity, the necessary condition in order toestablish universal human rights. That is, through overcoming the “fundamental ignorance” of prejudicial thinking existing in the depths of ourconsciousness, the basis for the human rights is established in thedimension of humanity’s life itself. This is also an indication of the fundamental nature of equality.
How was Sakyamuni Buddha able to overcome the “attachment todifference,” and to pull out “the arrow of earthy desire”?
The meditative practice of Sakyamuni Buddha allowed him to beunaffected by “the arrow of earthy desire” that struck “the smaller self.”
His brilliant wisdom cultivated through the meditative practice illuminates the contour of his inner cosmos and was integrated with the realm
that is fused with the ecosystem of the planet, a stratum beyond a layerof the collective consciousness of humanity. Sakyamuni Buddha discerned the arrow of earthy desire, which is the prejudicial thinking, or
arrogance, pierced throughout humanity, and by removing the arrow andby breaking through even the dimension of the vicissitude of planets
and, further, of stellar systems, he “introspected” to the deepest stratumof meditative states in order to integrate himself with the universe itself,
or with the cosmic life. In other words, through his meditation he developed his “introspection” into the ultimate state of “Inner Cosmos” that isshared by all humanity, in which he sought the base of universal “equality.” By doing so, he finally became an Enlightened One who brokethrough the fundamental darkness at the very moment when realizing“something eternal” or “the fundamental Law (Dharma)” within the
deepest of his life strata, the strata that penetrated the cosmic life itself.
The moment of Sakyamuni Buddha’s experience of realization wasdelineated in the poem of the Udåna.
“When things become manifest
To the ardent meditating Brahman,
He abides scattering Mara’s hostLike the sun illuminating the sky.”10This “Dharma” is itself the great state of life that scatters all earthy

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desires and fundamental ignorance, and that illuminates them as does
the Sun giving light in the sky. This “Law (Dharma)” became the basisof Mahayana Buddhism as “Tathågata (Thus Comes One)” and has
been developed as the teachings of “Buddha nature” and “Tathågatagarbha (womb of Tathågata)” that are the foundation of all people’s
enlightenment.
Right before his death, Sakyamuni Buddha left these words in theMahå-parinibbåna suttanta,“Be islands unto yourselves, refuges unto yourselves, seeking no external refuge; with the Dhamma as your island, the Dhamma as yourrefuge, seeking no other refuge.”11

Among Buddhists, this passage is well known by terms such as “islandof self” and “island of Dharma.” The “self” here refers to one that is
fused with “Law (Dharma),” and that manifests as “transcendence” thatexists “within.” This is not the “smaller self” that “the arrow of earthy
desire” pierced, which Sakyamuni Buddha rejected and overcame. Thatis, the “Self” as a refuge of one’s own self is one that manifests from thestate that is integrated with the fundamental Law of the universe.
The “Self,” which breaks through the earthy desire of multiple dimensions, which rejects “the smaller self,” and which ultimately manifests
as one that is integrated with the fundamental Law of the universe, isitself the “true Self” or “the Great Self,” the one that is the ideal in Buddhism. The “Self” possesses spontaneous free will to discard the internal“arrow of earthy desire” while breaking through the external restraints.
It is the fundamental “freeness” that is inseparable from the dimension of “transcendence.” Through the Buddhist perspective of life, this“freeness” is the basis that activates the universal “rights of freedom.”At the same time, this active “Self” encompasses the “equality” shared
not only with all of humanity, but also with all types of sentient beings
because it has the fundamental wisdom that discerns and discards “thearrow of earthy desire” piercing the Inner Cosmos of all humanity. In
other words, the “Self” is the wisdom that perceives the fundamental
equality, and that forms the foundation which supports the universal“rights of equality” from the perspective of life.
Therefore, in his Sutta Nipåta, Sakyamuni Buddha expresses the ideal
appearances of the phenomenal realm that is illuminated by the wisdomof the fundamental “equality,”“This (difference) is not found individually among men in respect toTHE BUDDHIST PERSPECTIVE OF LIFE

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their own bodies, but among men difference is spoken of as a matter ofdesignation.”12“Not by birth does one become a Brahman; not by birth does one
become a non-brahman. By action one becomes a Brahman; by action
one becomes a non-brahman.”13“Thus the wise, seeing conditional origination, knowing the fruit ofaction, see this action as it really is.”14

Sakyamuni Buddha, by claiming the wisdom of the fundamental “equality,” the wisdom of prat¥tya-samutpåda (interdependence) in Buddhist
terminology, denies a caste system and advocates the equal existence of
all humanity. This breaks through the earthy desire of “the attachment todifference” among lineage, tribe, occupation, gender, culture, and religion. By doing so, then, Sakyamuni Buddha asks actions (karma), inother words, the way to live, of every single human being as a criticalsignifier.
That is, by making an inquiry, he encourages both himself and all
people to live the true way of life as human beings, a life that manifests
fundamental “freeness” and “equality.” By following his contemporary
Indian social norms, Sakyamuni Buddha expresses the ideal figure withthe term “Brahman,” a term that signifies the “Self (Great Self)” whichis integrated with the cosmic life, and which encompasses the fundamental “compassionateness” that encourages all the people to actualize“freedom” and “equality.” From the Buddhist perspective of life, thisfundamental “compassionateness” encompassed in the “Self” is also thefoundation that assures the universality of the “rights of solidarity” andsupports the actualization of the rights of peace, environment, and development. The foundation of these qualities takes root as the fundamental
Law of the universe that appears from the “realm of transcendence.”
Sakyamuni Buddha expresses this fundamental “compassionateness”
as follows:“Whichever are seen or unseen, whichever live far or near, whether they
already exist or are going to be, let all creatures be happy-minded.”15“And loving-kindness towards all the world. One should cultivate an
unbounded mind, above and below and across, without obstruction,
without enmity, without rivalry”16

This activation of the fundamental “compassionateness” is, needless tosay, beyond the temporal and spatial limitation in the phenomenal
realm; that is, spatially speaking, it reaches the people who are not in his

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sight and encompasses beings in the entire globe, and temporally speaking, all of humanity from the timeless past through the future are included in the horizon of his vision.
Sakyamuni Buddha, by activating his spontaneous “free-will,” whichis encompassed in the fundamental Law of the universe, and by illuminating the phenomenal world by his wisdom that sees the universal
equality, gave his immeasurable energy of compassion for sentient
beings to the people in his contemporary East India and cultivated thepath of life to save all of them. Buddhism, therefore, is the religion of
the “wisdom” that illuminates the fundamental concept of “free-will”
and equality, and its activity in the real world is the practice of “compassion” to save all people.
(II) Application of the Lotus Sutra
The Lotus Sutra reveals the Sakyamuni Buddha’s life of enlightenment,that is, the series of steps in the process of “introspection” towards the“Inner Cosmos,” the integration with the transcendence at the momentof realization, and the “manifestation” of the “fundamental Law of theuniverse” into the phenomenal world. This process is symbolicallyenacted in the Lotus Sutra as the transformation of the locus of the threeassemblies where the Sakyamuni Buddha preached his teachings, whichare “the First Assembly on Eagle Peak (Mt. Grdhra-kuta),” through “theCeremony in the Air,” to “the Second Assembly on the Eagle Peak.”
The teaching, from the first chapter, “Introduction,” to the tenth chapter, “The Teacher of the Law,” is set on Eagle Peak. Eagle Peak signifies
the phenomenal realm, and Sakyamuni Buddha demonstrates the internal existence of the state of Buddhahood, or the Buddha nature withineach sentient being of the nine worlds. In other words, the teachings ofthe First Assembly on Eagle Peak show the process of the introspection
to the “Inner Cosmos” existing in all people through Sakyamuni Buddha’s instruction. In the second chapter, “Expedient Means,” Sakyamuni
Buddha expounds that “The Buddhas, the World-Honored Ones, appear
in the world for one great reason alone,”17 and indicates “the reason” isto have “Buddha’s wisdom” being manifested within the life of eachsentient being.18
These passages show the fundamental equality of all beings, and,after teaching them, Sakyamuni Buddha reaches into the inner realms ofall people’s lives to break through their prejudicial mindset, their unreasoning emphasis on and attachment to differences. He breaks throughtheir prejudice, their beliefs that those who are in the two vehicles(sravakas and pratyekabuddhas), those who committed evil deeds, orTHE BUDDHIST PERSPECTIVE OF LIFE

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those who are women are not able to attain Buddhahood, and he thenpreaches the attainment of the two vehicles, for evil doers and for
women. The basis of his conviction is itself the Buddha nature, that is,
the fundamental equality innate in all sentient beings including those
who were thought to be unable to attain Buddhahood. This principle offundamental equality is applicable beyond the differences of race, gender, culture, lineage, occupation, and physical or mental conditions.
Nevertheless, the inherence of the Buddha nature, the state of Buddhahood, is nothing but principle in the context of the First Assembly on
Eagle Peak. It does not mean that the Buddha nature within humans has
been realized in the phenomenal realm.
In order to actualize the Buddha nature, the state of Buddhahood, it isessential to experience “the Ceremony in the Air.” Eagle Peak is thephenomenal realm that is conditioned by the temporal and spatial framework. In order to manifest the Buddha nature in the phenomenal realm,
one ultimately has to go through the realm of transcendence by breaking
through the phenomenal realm as Sakyamuni Buddha did when hegained attainment under the bodhi-tree.
The Ceremony in the Air signifies the realm of “transcendence,”
which is beyond the temporal and spatial framework. The beginning of
the eleventh chapter, “The Emergence of the Treasure Tower,” in the
Lotus Sutra describes an enormous “treasure tower” that erupts from theearth and stays in the air. From this point, the Ceremony in the Air is set
forth.19
The earth means the phenomenal realm. The expression of the tower’s“staying in the air” demonstrates the direction that transcends Eagle
Peak, symbolizing transforming the phenomenal into the air, a pictorial
representation of transcendence. The enormous “Treasure Tower” epitomizes the “fundamental Law of the universe,” that is, the Buddha nature,
which is inherently shared by all sentient beings in their “Inner Cosmos.”
The teaching then continues to the “three-time purification of thelands,” the “gathering of the emanation Buddhas from the ten directions,” and the “two Buddhas, who are Sakyamuni and Many Treasures
Buddha, who are sitting side by side.” The teaching goes on to the Buddha’s supernatural power that raises all members of the assembly into
the air, which indicates the initial point of the Ceremony in the Air. This
ceremony lasts through the fifteenth chapter, “Emerging from the
Earth,” in which a group of bodhisattvas called the Bodhisattva of the
Earth appears, the sixteenth chapter, “The Life Span of the Thus Come
One,” in which expounds the Buddha with Eternal Life, up through the

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twenty-second chapter, “Entrustment.” The meanings of what is
described during the Ceremony in the Air are as follows:
1) To raise the assembly into the air means that the phenomenal realm
has been broken through and that the members of the assembly haveentered into the realm of “transcendence.”2) The “three-time purification of the lands” and the “gathering of theemanation Buddhas from the ten directions” signify the cosmicsized spatial expansion, as well as the aggregation, that is, at one
hand, the expansion of Sakyamuni Buddha’s life, the state of Buddhahood that spread to the universe as the emanation bodies, and, on
the other hand, their returning back to Sakyamuni Buddha himself.
3) The appearance of the Many Treasures Buddha, who is said to havecome from the Eastern Pure Jewel World, signifies that Sakyamuni
Buddha’s teachings are relevant to the Truth (Law) in the past as“East” symbolizes the past. Also the following twenty-first chapter
on “Supernatural Powers,” expounds the entrustment of the Bodhisattva Superior Practice, who appeared in the chapter “Emerging
from the Earth,” to the future time, which means that the Truth will
be substantiated in the future. This demonstrates temporal expansionof the fundamental Law of the universe, which Sakyamuni Buddha
realized, to the past and the future. At the same time, it represents
the temporal aggregation into the very moment of the present. Thus,
it shows the principle that “a moment” is itself “eternity.”4) The “two Buddhas sitting side by side” and “the encompassment” ofthe assembly into “the Air” signify an expression of the state of “theAir,” which is beyond time and space. This is the illustration that all
beings in the ten worlds, along with every single phenomenon in theuniverse, are encompassed in the realm of “transcendence,” that is,in the Fundamental Law of the Universe.
5) The sixteenth chapter, “The Life Span of the Thus Come One,”reveals the Buddha to be an eternal presence, that is, the Eternal
Buddha. Through revealing who “Sakyamuni Buddha” is, the “Eternal Sakyamuni Buddha” and “the Buddha of Eternity” arediscerned.20 Later in the chapter, there is a depiction of how Sakyamuni Buddha attained his realization of the eternal past, and of why
his future existence will be twice longer than his past life span,
which essentially signifies his eternal future life span.
“The Eternal Buddha” is identical with “the Eternal Law,” which is
the Fundamental Law of the Universe. And, the realm of “Transcendence” represented by “the Ceremony in the Air” is the locus of theCosmic Life, a space that encompasses lives of all beings and phenome-

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na, and from which all beings and phenomena emerge. The Buddha in
the locus of the Cosmic Life itself is “The Eternal Buddha,” that is,“Sakyamuni Buddha of Eternal Presence.” Thus, “the Eternal Buddha,”
integrated with the fundamental “equality” that is a quality of the locusof the Cosmic Life, possesses fundamental “freeness” that is lively, permeating, and vibrantly throbbing into the entire sphere of the universe.
This fundamental “freeness” is expounded as “True Self,” that is “anisland of Dharma (Law)” and “an island of Self” to his disciple, Ananda,
in the Mahå-parinibbåna suttanta by Sakyamuni Buddha who was bornin India. This is a formation of the “Greater Self” that is unified with the“Eternal Law” and freely throbs without being affected by earthy
desires. This “Eternal Buddha” who possesses both fundamental “equality” and “freeness” simultaneously possesses ultimate “compassionateness.” On the locus of the Cosmic Life as his base, his unrestricted activity as the “Eternal Buddha” engages with the compassionate practice tosave sentient beings. In other words, “the Eternal Buddha” is “the Eternal Buddha for Saving.” In order to actualize his act to save sentient
beings in the nine worlds of the phenomenal realm, he has to reveal
himself in the phenomenal realm. That is, he has to again return himself
into the phenomenal realm after residing in the “transcendence.” Theplace of the assembly comes back again to Eagle Peak. What is different
from the previous first assembly on Eagle Peak is that the compassionate activities by the “Eternal Buddha for Saving” are expressed as thevarious bodhisattvas’ engagements to the people.
The Second Assembly on Eagle Peak lasts from the twenty-thirdchapter, “Former Affairs of the Bodhisattva of Medicine king,” to thetwenty-eighth chapter, “Encouragements of the Bodhisattva Universal
Worthy.” In the second assembly, although it is the same phenomenal
realm, the innate Buddha nature is no longer a theory as it was in thefirst assembly. Because it went through the Ceremony in the Air and therevival from the locus of the Cosmic Life, which is the realm of transcendence, the Eternal Buddha for Saving activates its concrete compassionate practices that lead the transformation of the phenomenal world.
These types of humanistic activities that transform the phenomenal
world are called the bodhisattva path.

3. Bodhisattvas’ Images and Human Rights
The teaching of Christianity declares equality among humans in termsof their mission to participate in God’s project to create the universe. On
the other hand, Buddhism teaches that human beings possess “funda-

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mental equality” in terms of their mission to join the bodhisattva path bytheir free-will based on “the fundamental freeness,” a path that is a manifestation of “the fundamental compassionateness” of the universe that is
also an unfolding of “the Eternal Law” of the universe. In other words,
with regard to their mission to pursue the bodhisattva path, humanity isinherently equal beyond the differences of race, ethnicity, culture, religion, gender, occupation, or social status.
(I) The Eternal Buddha and the Bodhisattvas of the Earth
The Mahayana Buddhist texts describe various bodhisattvas who eachcarry out their own missions. Relating to the Lotus Sutra, among them
are the Bodhisattvas of the Earth who appear in the Ceremony in the Air(the fifteenth chapter, “Emerging from the Earth”). They manifest fromthe basis of the fundamental “freeness” in order to comprehensively
accomplish the mission of the “Eternal Buddha” to save all sentient
beings. They are also considered to be “the messengers of the Buddha”
who, being entrusted with “the Buddha’s task,” save sentient beings
after Sakyamuni Buddha’s death.
Nichiren, in his Records of the Orally Transmitted Teaching, discusses the four representatives of the Bodhisattvas of the Earth, who are theBodhisattvas of Superior Practices, of Boundless Practices, of Pure
Practices, and of Firmly Established Practices, as corresponding withthe four virtues: eternity, happiness, true self, and purity, based on the
Supplement to The Words and Phrases of the Lotus Sutra.21
These four virtues signify that the “Self (Greater Self)” of the Bodhisattva of Superior Practices integrates with “the Eternal Buddha” andit functions to carry out his Cosmic Mission by his own free will. The
virtue of purity of the Bodhisattva of Pure Practices reveals the function
embodying the fundamental compassionateness by breaking through its
own evil mind (earthy desire) and transforming it into a good mind, thatis, enlightenment. The compassionate function to save people, also,
indicates the virtue of eternity, the quality of the function of the Bodhisattva of Boundless Practices that overcomes every obstacle without
limit. It is also a manifestation of “freeness” practiced by the Bodhisattva of Superior Practices. Through the act of saving people freely, thegreater state in “establishing the mind” is built up. This is the virtue ofhappiness that is signified as “Firmly Established Practices.” This is anexpression of the fundamental “equality,” a state of happiness that every
individual is able to obtain.

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(II) Various Bodhisattvas Appearing in the Lotus Sutra
Comparing the functions of the Bodhisattvas of the Earth mentioned
above, which are comprehensive and universal, the bodhisattvas andBuddhas who appear in the Second Assembly on Eagle Peak, as well as
the other Mahayana texts, signify individual functions that support the
Eternal Buddha’s work from each of their own individual positions.
Thus, each Buddha and bodhisattva takes his or her own individual vows
respectively. In this section, we shall examine the content of the individual vows that were made by the bodhisattvas of the Second Assembly on
Eagle Peak from a contemporary perspective.
Before doing so, however, it is essential to categorize the contemporary thought of human rights into three classifications. The first group,
the so-called “Human Rights in the First Generation,” is about civilrights and political rights, which are the rights of freedom from thenation-state and are listed in the second to the twenty-first articles in the
Declaration of Universal Human Rights. The second group, “Human
Rights in the Second Generation,” is about the social and cultural rights
listed from the twenty-second through twenty-seventh articles in the
Declaration. They are the rights that are requests towards the nationstate. Today, the third group, “Human Rights in the Third Generation,”has been advocated; they are, for example, the rights for peace, fordevelopment, and for a healthy and sustainable environment.
Concerning “respect to humanity” as the keynote of human rights,
Mr. ShigejirØ Tabata describes this as follows:“The essential human rights originated from the thought of the Natural
Law during the Enlightenment era, and continued being developed
through “The Declaration of Independence” in the U.S.A. and “TheDeclaration of the Rights of Man and Citizens” in the French Revolution. Concerning human rights in the third generation through the perspective of the history of human rights, I believe that their essential
basis is their respect for humanity. On the basis of the respect forhumanity, we are able to discuss issues such as peace, development, andthe environment. What is essential is to respect the humanity of all people.”22

The base of human rights is laid on the points to pay respect to humanity, to fulfill basic needs for their lives, and to encourage humanity toflourish for not only material but also for spiritual fulfillment. Whenconsidered with “Human Rights in the Third Generation,” they are nolonger contained within the framework of the nation-states, but are to be

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realized through cooperation and solidarity among international agencies, the NGO, and the United Nations, among others. Although humanrights in the third generation are the rights to be realized through solidarity, the agent itself is nothing but “each individual.”
Keeping these facts as a background, we would like to discuss thecontemporary significance of the “vows” that are made by the individual
bodhisattvas respectively in the Second Assembly on Eagle Peak.
(i) Bodhisattva Never Disparaging
The vow made by Bodhisattva Never Disparaging and his actions are an
exemplar of the way of bodhisattvas in Buddhism. An episode of thisbodhisattva is described in the twentieth chapter, “Bodhisattva Never
Disparaging,” which, in a certain era when arrogant monks enjoyedgreat influence, one bodhisattva called Bodhisattva Never Disparaging
appeared and began worshipping every individual whom he encounteredin order to display his respect for all humans.23
He, in fact, paid respect to “the Buddha nature” that innately exists
within each individual despite their arrogance or animosity in theirexternal appearances. This episode shows his actions to respect thenature of “humanity” as brilliant “Buddha nature” existing within those
who would be the future Buddhas, and his aspiration to enlighten them.
By means of his aspiration, he devoted himself to non-violent actions as“a sole act of worship” to others. “The Fundamental Cosmic Life” that
all individuals inherently possess as “Buddha nature,” is only revealedby means of non-violence and good will. Mahatma Gandhi, for example, expressed the cosmic existence as “Truth (satya)” and advocated“Non-Violence (ahimsa)” as a means to embody the ideal. “The Path
toward Peace,” which the Bodhisattva Never Disparaging and Mahatma
Gandhi showed, is the only path to actualize the “rights of peace,” toachieve “freedom from violence” in a community with solidarity, and toenable the realization of “human security.” In fact, all the struggles thatvarious bodhisattvas display share the principle that Bodhisattva Never
Disparaging exhibited, a principle that one pursues a blossoming
humanity as “Buddha nature” and an expansion of actions of good will,such as non-violence.
(ii) The Bodhisattva Wonderful Sound, The Bodhisattva Universal
Worthy, and The Bodhisattva Monjusri
The Bodhisattva Wonderful Sound, the Bodhisattva Universal Worthy,
and the Bodhisattva Monjusri represent “the freedom of scholarship,
thought, and artistic expression.” The Bodhisattva Wonderful Sound

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appears in the twenty-fourth chapter, “The Bodhisattva WonderfulSound,” in the Lotus Sutra. “Wonderful Sound” refers to beautiful musicthat is offered to the Buddha. It is said that this bodhisattva had offered
the Buddha hundreds of thousands of different kinds of music. The sutra
depicts that when this bodhisattva arrived in this world, “the instrumentsof hundreds and thousands of heavenly musicians sounded of themselves without having been struck.”24 This is a symbolic representationof the rights of free artistic expressions, such as music.
The Bodhisattva Universal Worthy appears in the twenty-eighth chapter, “Encouragements of the Bodhisattva Universal Worthy,” the lastchapter of the Lotus Sutra. In the Chinese scripts of his name Puxian, pu
refers to universality that means to permeate through the phenomenal
realm, and xian a function of reason and intelligence that seeks theoretical ideals and pursues truth. This bodhisattva is considered to be, alongwith the Bodhisattva Monjusri, a leader of a group of bodhisattvas who
followed a provisional Buddha. The Bodhisattva Monjusri, on the other
hand, already appeared in the first chapter, “Introduction,” and plays animportant role in the twelfth chapter, “Devadatta,” and the twenty-second chapter, “Entrustment.” As a Japanese saying “Monju no chie”
expresses the “Wisdom of Monjusri (Monju),” this bodhisattva embodies Prajna (wisdom). While Bodhisattva Universal Worthy represents
the theoretical virtue and the determined virtue, the Bodhisattva Monjusri signifies the virtue of wisdom and the attained virtue. In otherwords, the Bodhisattva Monjusri symbolizes the intuitive wisdom that isa religious and philosophical attainment, and the Bodhisattva Universal
Worthy is the scholastic and rational intelligence. These two bodhisattvas represent the rights of “freedom of religion and thought” and“freedom of scholarship and rationality,” respectively.
(iii) The Bodhisattva Perceiver of the World’s Sound
The Bodhisattva Perceiver of the World’s Sound is a bodhisattva wholistens to the people’s poignant voice and gives them the fearless state tofulfill their own wishes. Thus, he is also called the Provider of Fearlessness. The focus of his saving activities is “worldly benefit.” The list
below exhibits his roles that represent “the rights of life, freedom, andphysical safety,” “prohibition against inhumane and humiliating treatments, such as torture or punishments,” and “prohibition against arbitrary arrests, confinements, or expatriation.”25
The list starts with the vow made by the Bodhisattva Perceiver of theWorld’s Sound to secure the people’s physical safety from violence, natural disasters, or poisoning.

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1) Even if one were surrounded by great fire, it can never burn the person, or if one were drifted by a great flood, the person would reachthe shallows.—This vow shows the wish or desire for freedom fromphysical dangers and fear caused by natural disasters.
2) One can avoid the hardship given by rakshasa (demon beings) in the
midst of the great ocean and no rakshasa or yaksha (one kind of
nonhuman being) would ever be able to harm the person.—This vow
signifies the right for physical security by avoiding the various kindsof societal violence, which is expressed by rakshasa and yaksha, andthe right of obtaining “the freedom from violence.”3) One can escape from hostile robbers in the major world system.—This is a claim for the right of freedom from social violence.
4) One who was about to be poisoned could escape from it, and,instead, the person who attempted to poison him would be poisoned
as retribution.—This is “the freedom from murder by poisoning.”
Next two lines, being indications of the struggles with the states, areabout persecutions from the states.
5) Even if one were facing persecution by the state and were about tobe killed as a punishment, the sword would be broken down into
several portions.—This vow signifies the right of freedom from torture or irrational punishments by the state authority.
6) Although if one were restrained by shackles, the person would be
able to escape from them.—This is a claim for the rights of freedom
from the authoritative state power.
(iv) The Bodhisattva Medicine King and The Buddha of Medicine
Master
The vows made by the Bodhisattva Medicine King and the Buddha ofMedicine Master are for “the rights to be saved from illness or poverty,
and to secure the necessary level of life standards for oneself and one’s
own family members’ health and well-being” and “the right to receive
security from society.”
The Bodhisattva Medicine King became a bodhisattva when he, backthen a rich man called a Millionaire of Constellation Light, made a vow
to heal both physical and mental illness that afflicted all the future sentient beings.26 This bodhisattva’s deeds are described in the twenty-thirdchapter, “Former Affairs of the Bodhisattva Medicine King,” and hemade a vow to protect the votaries of the Lotus Sutra in the twenty-sixth

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chapter, “Dharani.”
The Buddha of Medicine Master directly relates to illnesses of all
sentient beings, and his vow to save the people from poverty and sickness was made in the “Twelve Great Vows.”27 Among them are as follows:
1) I would like to save those who suffer hereditary disability, physicaland mental illnesses. (The sixth vow)2) I would like to alleviate circumstances that one suffers from illness
and poverty when no medicine or physician is available. (The seventh vow)3) I would like to save those who suffer starvation and commit evil
deeds in order to obtain food. (The eleventh vow)4) I would like to save those who have no clothes and suffer by cold or
heat. (The twelfth vow)
The points above are the vows to save the people from sickness andpoverty; that is, they are an advocacy for societal and economic rights.
Furthermore, as the fifth point, in his tenth vow, he made a vow tosave those who are apprehended, confined in prison, or are facing flagellation or capital punishment by the state authority. This is a claim of therights of freedom from the state authority.
These vows above, made by various Buddhas and bodhisattvas in the
Lotus Sutra and other Mahayana texts, have inspired Buddhist followers
and have become a beacon of the Bodhisattva Path.
The followers of Buddhism after Sakyamuni Buddha have deeply recognized that the path for peace and coexistence, which the Buddha indicated is the basis for “human rights” and “human security,” and they
have been unfolding their human rights struggles following the peaceful,non-violent practices such as the Bodhisattva Path throughout the East
Asian region. The struggles have been rolling out through the Northernroute, that is, from India to China, the Korean Peninsula, through Japan,
as well as through the Southern route from India to Sri Lanka throughthe entire South Asian region. Throughout history, countless numbers of
Buddhists have accomplished their contributions toward peace, and thestream of their activities to seek peace continues into contemporary
times.
Notes
1
Austregésilo de Athayde and Daisaku Ikeda. 1995. A Dialogue of Human Rights for
the Twenty-First Century. London: I.B. Tauris & Co Ltd. pp. 44–45.
2
Yasuhiko Saito. 1984. Sekai jinken sengen to gendai (The Declaration of the
Human Rights in the World and the Contemporary World). Tokyo: Yushindo kobunsha.

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pp. 7–8.
3
Ibid. p. 8.
4Ibid. p. 6.
5
Hideo Mineshima. 1991. “The Human Rights from the Buddhist Perspective.” The
Journal of Oriental Studies 30–1: 110.
6
Ibid. p. 110–111.
7
Sutta Nipåta. v. 2. 1995. trans. by K.R. Norman. Oxford: Pali Text Society. p. 107
8Ibid. p. 203.
9
Daisaku Ikeda. 1996. A New Humanism. New York: Weatherhill, Inc. p. 155.
10
Shiro Tamaki. 1997. Bukkyo wo tsuranuku mono (That Which Penetrates
Buddhism). Tokyo: Daizo shuppan. P. 42.
11
Mahå-parinibbåna suttanta. 1995. Oxford: Påli Text Society. P. 108.
12
Sutta Nipåta. op. cit. p. 71.
13
Ibid. p. 73.
14
Ibid. p. 73.
15
Ibid. p. 17.
16
Ibid. p. 17.
17
The Lotus Sutra. 1993. trans. by Burton Watson. p. 31.
18
Ibid. p. 31.
19
Ibid. p. 170.
20
Ibid. pp. 225–226.
21
The Records of the Orally Transmitted Teaching. 2004. trans. by Burton Watson. p.
118.
22
ShigejirØ Tabata. 1991. “Taidan: Daisan sedai no jinken to hatten no kenri (Dialogue: The Human Rights in the Third Generation and the rights of Development).” The
Journal of Oriental Studies 30–1: 21.
23
The Lotus Sutra. op. cit. pp. 267–268.
24
The Lotus Sutra. op. cit. p. 293.
25
The Lotus Sutra. op. cit. p. 295.
26
The Sutra of the Meditation of the Two Bodhisattvas of Medicine King and Superior
Medicine. Taisho shinshu daizØkyØ. vol. 20, p. 665 a.
27
The Sutra of the Original Vows and Benefits by the Medicine Master Buddha of
Lapis Lazuli Light. Taisho shinshu daizØkyØ. vol. 14, p. 405 a–b.