Feature Article

Languaging, Star Power, and L2
Motivation

Simon D. Cooke
Tohoku Institute of Technology
This article details research which focused on the effects of languaging activities on Japanese
university students’ L2 learning motivation. Following a study which showed these
activities’ effect on Korean elementary and junior high school students’ motivation, carriedout after watching proficient English speakers, this research demonstrated how watching
performances of English spoken by Japanese media personalities, in conjunction withlanguaging practices, helped to develop motivation among Japanese university students.
この論文は、Languaging (学習者自身が思ったことや考えたことを外化すること)活動が日本人学生英語学習の動機付けに与える影響を詳しく調査したものである。この研究の基礎となっているのは、英語が堪能なスピーカーを見た後、これらの活動が韓国の小中学生のモチベーションに及ぼす影響を示した研究である。今回の研究では、言語の実践と併せて英語を話すタレントを視聴することがどのように日本の大学生のモチベーションを高めるのに役立つかを検証した。

This article details research which looked at the effect of languaging activities on
Japanese university students’ second language (hereafter L2) learning motivationand the function of unconventional role models, in the form of Japanese media
celebrities, in helping to generate student output for these activities. The role oflanguaging in helping students to consolidate and subsequently demonstratecognition through spoken (Swain & Lapkin, 1995) and written (Suzuki, 2012)reflective practices has been well demonstrated in a number of both L1 andL2 contexts. Following Kim’s (2013) study, the present study builds on thebreadth of work on the possible effects of languaging on learner cognition bydemonstrating the impact that languaging and consociate activities can have on
a number of L2 motivational constructs. In addition, after briefly examining the25

Cookechallenges in creating motivational L2 class content in the Japanese context, thearticle considers the role that Japanese media personalities, so-called tarento, playin Japanese society and their potential for motivating students. The results of thestudy indicated that even unorthodox sources from within L2 learning contexts,
in conjunction with languaging activities, can provide inspiration for L2 learners.
Literature review
Languaging has been defined by Swain (2006) as “the process of making meaningand shaping knowledge and experience through language” (p. 98) and the act ofdevelopment through reflection. In an oft-cited article, Swain (2006) describes
a class of young adolescents in Toronto learning French and the positive impact
on their L2 study of having them notice and vocalise the linguistic differences
between their own written L2 output and a reformulated version. Swain
demonstrates how, through this process, students can learn both through andabout language. The approach draws on the Vygotskian sociocultural theory ofhuman learning and the relationship between language and thought. According
to Vygotsky (1986), “Thought is not merely expressed in words; it comes into
existence through them” (p. 218), and that “thought undergoes many changes as
it turns into speech. It does not merely find expression in speech; it finds its reality
and form” (p. 219). As Swain (2011) points out, this process is not one of merelytransforming thought into words to aid in communication, but instead, actually“plays critical roles in creating, transforming, and augmenting higher mental
processes” (p. 106). Cognitive development, according to this theory, is achieved
when the knowledge arising from its co-construction is internalised and usedautonomously, as demonstrated in Swain’s 2006 study. The role of languaging
in helping students to consolidate their conceptions and understanding throughspoken (Swain & Lapkin, 1995) and written (Suzuki, 2012) reflective practices,and to demonstrate learning following these practices in subsequent output, hasbeen well demonstrated in a number of L2 and non-L2 contexts (Maturana,
Mpodozis, and Letelier, 1995; Hall, 1996).
A number of studies have examined how classroom culture might be reexamined to allow for importance to be afforded languaging activities. One such
26

Star Power, and L2 Motivation, OnCUE Journal, 12(1), pages 25-46

study, and the one on which this study was based, was by Kim (2013), who sought
to examine the effect of a variety of languaging activities on Korean elementaryand junior high school students’ L2 motivation. Kim found that students thattook part in written languaging activities showed significant increases in theirmotivation for learning English, leading him to conclude that these activities
could be adopted to assist in aiding students’ motivation for L2 learning.
Research into motivation, such as that carried out by Markus & Nurius(1986) and expanded upon and brought into the field of language motivation
by Dörnyei (2005), has examined the conceptual link between cognition andmotivation. Dörnyei’s L2 Motivational Self System (2005) proposed threecomponents of a self-based approach to language learning: the ideal self,
representing the person that the learner would like to become, which generates
motivation as learners work to reduce the discrepancy between their actual
and ideal self; the ought-to self, which represents what the learner believes theyought to do and the person they ought to be in order to avoid possible negative
outcomes; and, the L2 learning experience which concerns motivation relating
to attitude toward the learning environment and the interplay between thelearner, the teacher, the curriculum, etc.
In further examining construction of the ideal L2 self, studies by Dörnyei(2009, 2010) and Ushioda (2009) have revealed the valuable influence of
creating realistic mental images of one’s possible future L2 self. Rather thanbeing a purely cognitive construction on the part of the student, these images
can help them to acquire L2 identities which are then played out in actual or
imagined learning environments. A number of studies have suggested waysof fostering motivating environments to allow learners to do this (Dörnyei &Kubanyiova, 2014; Falout, Fukada, Murphey, and & Fukuda, 2013), illustrating
the value in helping students to develop and sustain L2 motivation throughnurtured future selves, even in environments without immediate relationship to
L2 contexts. Such a pursuit can be regarded as being essential in Japan, where
tertiary education has been described as an environment with a “tendency forthe learners not to exert extra effort beyond what is required to pass the course,
unless a force, such as a strong incentive or a vision of the future, encourages
27

Cookethem to do otherwise” (Yashima & Arano, 2014, pp. 289-290). In other words,
it is crucial that in order to promote positive L2 learning behaviours and goals,
these students must encounter valid incentives and models.
In addition to materials designed to foster motivational environments,
Murphey (1998) and Dörnyei (2013) suggest that students might also be
inspired by their teacher or by near peer role models. While Murphey (1998)
claims that the former might be unattractive to students due to age or social
position, the latter, either in person or shown on video talking about their L2use, can help more greatly inspire students, aiding to visualize their future selves.
Students at the institution in which the current study took place are able toselect English conversation classes only as freshman students. The opportunity,
therefore, for near peers or other students to act as role models is limited at bestin this context, and while the teacher may offer their services to the students,
Murphey’s suggestion of reluctance to engage with the tutor outside of class timerings true. This study, therefore, aims to examine the effect of immediate peerinteraction and students’ exposure to sources of inspiration that might serve toinspire English study. In Kim’s aforementioned (2013) study, he chose video clips
of people he classed as proficient English speakers, such as Mr. Ban Ki-moon, thethen UN secretary General, as English-speaking role models for his students. For
this study, I chose to use video clips featuring Japanese media celebrities striving
to produce English.
As has been described in a number of studies (Galbraith and Karlin, 2012;
Kirsch, 2014), media celebrities play a large role in Japanese culture. Whereit might be accurate to claim that such personalities the world over hold acertain fascination with a fickle youth culture, in particular, the Japanese media
celebrities exert an influence on Japanese culture in a much broader sense,
spanning age groups and all forms of daily media. Japanese media celebrities
do not merely populate but dominate the media programming landscape. TV
news and variety programs often feature sections devoted to and even sometimes
presented by them. Sometimes serious and informative, sometimes playful,
naive, and open, they are thrust, if not welcomed, into the family living room
day after day and hour after hour. Such exposure to them enables the viewer
28

Star Power, and L2 Motivation, OnCUE Journal, 12(1), pages 25-46

to feel both a sense of other-worldliness (as we view the luxury of their homes’interiors and exteriors during segments of variety shows) and their ordinarinessand our commonality with them, as we hear of their foibles and missteps in theireveryday lives. Indeed, as Galbraith and Karlin (2012) offer, the Japanese TV
viewers have no need for the reality TV shows that abound on many western TV
channels, as the part-documentary, part-entertainment components of this genre
are reproduced for the Japanese in all its benign voyeurism, whenever they turnon the television and see these personalities entertain and inform. In a medium
where they are asked to present, react to, and comment on, both amusing andserious current affairs, the celebrities become both the recipients and the giversof information. Their presence renders nearly obsolete the general public’s faces
and voices from the TV screen, often seen as the representatives of the viewers inmany western broadcasts.
While the Japanese word for these media celebrities is ‘tarento’, derived
from the English word ‘talent’, West’s (2006) observation that these celebrities
are required to emanate personality, rather than talent, is a very cogent one.
Kirsch (2014) goes one step further, deeming these celebrities as “often of no
particular talent at all” (p. 1). In a fascinating scrutiny, Kirsch examines theirenduring appeal to the Japanese populace, drawing on Dyer’s (1998) descriptionof the transformation of western stars and their perceived image over time.
Where once, Dyer claims, stars were embodiments of heroism, good deeds, andmodels of demeanor, people more recently tend to celebrate their ordinarinessand “typical ways of behaving” (p. 22), while still holding them as being apartfrom the everyman. Kirsch views the Japanese tarento and peoples’ perceptionsof them as being an inversion of this idea, and instead regarding them as being“people like you and me, but embodiments of ideal ways of behaviour” (p.
79). With their omnipresence in Japanese media and the potential influenceon affecting a broad range of opinions, I sought to establish whether Japanesetarento could act as role-models of English usage and help to promote English
motivation for my students. Furthermore, I sought to establish whether giving
students opportunities to think and or write about their present and future
relationship to English would facilitate the cognitive and motivational changes
29

Cookeseen in related research.
In the present study, I looked for answers to the following research questions(RQs):
RQ1. Is languaging effective in enhancing students’ L2 English learning
motivation?
RQ2. If so, which types of languaging activities are most useful for thispurpose?
RQ3. Do Japanese tarento provide students with viable role models to
promote ideal L2 selves?

Methods

A total of 84 non-English major Japanese freshman students studying at atechnical university in northeast Japan participated in the study. The students
were between 19 and 20 years old, all without reported experience of using
English outside of the classroom. The original number of students from eachclass taking part in the study varied between 30 and 60 participants. At the endof the study, the class with the least number of respondents of both the pre- andpost-course questionnaire (n = 21) was selected as the cut-off point, and the same
number of students was selected randomly from each of the three remaining classgroups, making a total of 84 students. Of the four groups, three consisted ofentirely male participants and one group of 5 female and 16 male students. The
students were all participants in elective English conversation classes taught by
the same teacher.
To gauge students current English skill levels (the university does not have a
specific English level test for incoming students), the students were administereda self-perceived proficiency test (Tono & Negishi, 2012). The CEFR-J is basedon the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR)
and has been adapted for the English language context in Japan. It consists of aseries of “can do” descriptors, which indicate what the test-taker feels they can dowith language. It is based upon the “action-oriented approach” proposed in theoriginal CEFR and has 12 levels based on the original six A1 to C2 levels foundon the CEFR (see Markel, 2018, for delineation). According to Markel’s profile,30

Star Power, and L2 Motivation, OnCUE Journal, 12(1), pages 25-46
Table 1
Average CEFR-J Scores from Student English Skills Self-Assessment
Speaking
Group number (interaction)

Speaking(production)

Writing

Understanding Understanding(reading)(listening)

1

A2.1

A1.3

A2.1

A2.1

A2.1

2

A1.3

A1.3

A1.3

A1.3

A1.3

3

A1.3

A1.3

A1.3

A1.3

A1.3

4

A1.3

A1.3

A2.1

A2.1

A2.1

the participating students (Table 1) all come under the classification of “basicuser”.
The questions used in the study sought to examine changes over time ofstudents’ responses to a number of motivational constructs. The questions
were based on those from established questionnaires which sought to validate
Dörnyei’s L2 Motivational Self System (2009). The constructs of ideal L2 self,
ought-to L2 self, integrativeness, instrumentality-promotion, instrumentalityprevention, and attitudes to learning English were taken from Taguchi, Magid,
and Papi (2009). Other questions relating to motivated behaviours, in particularautonomous behaviour both inside and outside the classroom, were taken from
Al-Shehri (2009). The questions were all translated into Japanese by the author
and checked for accuracy by two Japanese teachers of English in the author’s hostinstitution. A brief description of the constructs used now follows:
Ideal L2 self: This relates to the L2 speaker which the individual would liketo become. Its potential to affect motivation lies in the desire of the learner toreduce the difference between the current and potential L2 self.
Ought-to self: This relates to the attributes that a learner believes they shouldhave in order to avoid possible negative outcomes. It also concerns students’
perceptions of the importance of learning English, according to the opinions offriends, families, colleagues, etc.
Integrativeness: The core concept in Gardner’s (1985) theory, in which heclaimed that L2 motivation “always has an integrativeness component” (p. 168),31

Cookereconceptualised by Dörnyei (2005) as one of the processes of identification
within the concept of the self, forming part of his aforementioned L2 Self
System.
Instrumentality (promotion): This relates to students’ efforts to attain certain
goals related to their studying of the L2, such as attaining higher proficiency.
Instrumentality (prevention): This relates to the regulation of students’learning behaviours towards studying the L2 in relation to passing tests.
Motivated behaviours and efforts: This incorporates questions relating tostudents’ desire to learn English and the efforts they are willing to make to learn
it. An example used in this study is “I am determined to push myself to learn
English”.
Attitude toward learning English: This relates to students’ attitudes towards
their current L2 learning environment and their enjoyment and interest in
learning English.
After piloting the questionnaire, the final version (Appendix) consisted of
53 statement-type questions measured by five-point Likert scales, ranging from“strongly disagree” to “strongly agree”. The number of questions used for eachsection and the Cronbach alpha internal consistency coefficient are shown(Table 2).
Examples of tarento speaking English were found on the video-sharing
Table 2
Motivational Construct Question Distribution with Cronbach Alpha Coefficients
Motivational construct

Question number

α36, 53, 20, 42, 37, 1, 34, 4

0.87

Ought-to L2 self

46, 12, 28, 39, 41, 29, 3, 24, 52, 10

0.86

Integrativeness32, 19, 16

0.62

Instrumentality (promotion)

2, 44, 21, 6, 22, 38, 33

0.86

Instrumentality (prevention)

35, 49, 9, 11, 5

0.85

25, 48, 31, 8, 30, 50, 15, 18, 13, 43, 45, 14, 40, 23, 47, 7

0.9

Ideal L2 self

Motivated behaviours

32Star Power, and L2 Motivation, OnCUE Journal, 12(1), pages 25-46

platform YouTube. The tarento that featured in the short segments include
the singer, Kazunari Ninomiya, from the pop group Arashi, who is asked to
explain his next project in English to the Federation of Japanese Foreign Pressand comedian Yoshio Kojima, who is asked to explain in English how to get toAsukasa in Tokyo to a foreign tourist (Lee, 2018).
Each group’s roles during the study will now be detailed. The four classes
were assigned different tasks to take up the final 20 minutes of a class every
second week, for a period of ten weeks during the first semester of a fifteenweek semester. The control group (hereafter Group 1) was asked to complete avariety of vocabulary-building tasks, such as identifying synonyms and matchingwords to their correct definitions. Group 2 participants were asked to watch
a video of Japanese media celebrities speaking English in a variety of contexts.
The video and the celebrities featured therein changed for each session. Group
3 participants were asked to do the same and subsequently to write, in either
English or Japanese, their impressions of the video and any inspiration regarding
their own English learning, thus inducing reflective practice, creating a visual
representation of their thought processes that they could return to in subsequentweeks. Group 4 participants were asked to carry out the same tasks as group
3 but upon finishing writing their impressions of the video, to then compareand discuss in English what they had written with their group members, thus
inducing collaborative dialogue that could be shared and compared with otherparticipants. The written comments made by Groups 3 and 4 in the final classwere collected to examine the ways in which students reacted to the videos,
specifically whether they viewed the activity as worthwhile, and if/how thecelebrities featuring in them had any effect on their motivation for learning
English. Apart from the above mentioned activities, class content was the samefor all classes.
SPSS version 22 was used to generate statistical indices for the variables
within each of the four groups. Split-plot analyses of variance were thenconducted to measure changes in pre- and post-test Likert-scale scores. Visual
representations of these changes were created in the form of profile plots as partof this analysis.
33

CookeResults and Discussion

Initial analysis revealed non-significant changes and/or decreases to pre- andpost-course mean scores for the variables Integrativeness and Instrumentality(both promotion and prevention). These variables were excluded from further
analysis. The lack of significant changes for integrativeness reflects the lack ofapplicability of the construct in this context.
The lack of significant changes in either of the instrumentality variables (datanot shown) suggests that the languaging activities were not effective in changing
the importance students gave to learning English. This result is somewhat
surprising given the increases shown in scores for the Ideal L2 selves variable(Table 3). It is possible that students did not relate to the nature of the wordingof the questions for these two variables, which infer using English in a future
career.
Split-plot Analysis of Variance Data
While the results for Ideal L2 selves were not statistically significant (F(3,80)= .857, p = .467), examination of the profile plots (Figure 1), showing meanscores on the y-axis, visually confirms increases for all groups. Inspection of theTable 3
Descriptive Statistics for Ideal L2 Selves for Each of the 4 Groups Pre- and Post-test
Group

1

2

3

4

Mean

SD

Skewness

Kurtosis

95% CIpre 2.89

pre 0.68

pre -.49 (SE = 0.50)

pre 1.28 (SE = 0.97)

pre [2.52, 3.26]

post 3.11 post 0.71 Post -0.59 (SE = 0.50) post 1.63 (SE = 0.97) post [2.80, 3.43]
pre 3.08

pre 0.97

pre 0.00 (SE = 0.50)

pre -0.12 (SE = 0.97) pre [2.72, 3.47]

post 3.23 post 0.84 post 0.34 (SE = 0.50) post -1.03(SE = 0.97) post [2.92, 3.55]
pre 2.73

pre 0.99

pre 0.82 (SE = 0.50)

pre 0.36 (SE = 0.97)

pre [2.36, 3.10]

post 3.32 post 0.68 post -0.54 (SE = 0.50) post -0.46 (SE = 0.97) post [3.00, 3.63]
pre 2.33

pre 0.72

pre 0.85 (SE = 0.50)

post 2.96 post 0.63 Post -0.38 (SE = 0.50)

34

pre -0.04 (SE = 0.97) pre [2.00, 2.70]
Post (SE = 0.97)

post [2.65, 3.28]

Star Power, and L2 Motivation, OnCUE Journal, 12(1), pages 25-46

confidence intervals (Table 3) reveals minimal overlapping in Groups 3 and 4.
The results suggest that the videos and other activities helped to develop students’vision of their L2 futures. This interpretation is strengthened by comments
collected from students in groups 3 and 4 in which they make reference to an
imagined future self.
Example entry from group 3 student (author’s English translation follows
Japanese original):
英語を話すことが出来れば、海外で買い物をする際にスムーズに注文。交渉ができる。また海外に友人を作ることができるので行動範囲がにほんだけでなくて様々な所に行けるので良いと思いました。

I thought that if you can speak English, when you go abroad and buy things,
you can ask for them smoothly. You can negotiate. Also, when you go abroad,
you can make friends and you can go to various places, not just in Japan. I
thought that was great.
Example entry from group 4 student (author’s English translation follows

Figure 1. Profile plot for Ideal L2 selves showing changes in pre and post mean scores.

35

CookeJapanese original):
グループの中とかで一人だけ上手だと目立つしすごいなぁと思いました。また、頑張って伝えることが大切なのだと感じました（文法がちがくても）。
突然外人に話しかかれたりするかもしれないので、基本的な動詞や名詞は知っていた方が、単語だけでも伝わることがあるので基礎こそ大切にしていきたいと思いました。

I thought that it was really great when there was one person in the groupthat stood out because they were speaking English well. I thought that it isreally important to do one’s best to get one’s message across, even if you makemistakes in your grammar. I think it’s possible that a foreigner might speak tome, so it’s possible to communicate with a knowledge of some basic verbs andnouns or even words. So, I’d like to develop my basics.
The results and comments appear to answer all of the research questionsin that they suggest the effectiveness of languaging activities, specifically thewatching of tarento speaking English in videos and reflective writing. However,the lack of statistical significance means that further investigation is required toconfirm this interpretation.
The results for Ought-to L2 selves were not statistically significant (F(3,80)= 1.824, p = .149). Examination of the profile plots (Figure 2), showing meanscores on the y-axis, visually confirms increases for Groups 2-4, although data forGroup 4 revealed both skewed and leptokurtic distribution in the pretest.
Group 3 showed a significant increase as shown in the confidence
intervals for this variable (Table 4). It is possible that the reflective practice ofcomposing written reactions to the videos was instrumental in this result. Thisis substantiated by a written comment from a Group 3 student who reflected on
how others may judge her English skill, in addition to how her English ability
compared to one of the video’s participants (author’s English translation follows
Japanese original):
自分の英語のレベルは今の所阿部サダヲレベルなのでもう少し上達させたいと思った。難しい英語で話せればはもちろんいいことだけれど、基礎レベルの英語で話していてもスピーキングさえできていれば格好良く見えたのでス
ピーキングも大事だと思った。阿部サダヲは英語を全然話していなかったけ
れどジェスチャーでも十分に伝わっていて面白かった。

36

Star Power, and L2 Motivation, OnCUE Journal, 12(1), pages 25-46

Figure 2. Profile plot for Ought-to L2 selves showing changes in pre and post mean scores.
Table 4
Descriptive Statistics for Ought-to L2 Selves for Each of the 4 Groups Pre- and Post-test
Group

Mean

1

pre 3.52

SD

Skewness

Kurtosis

pre 0.59 pre -0.55 (SE = 0.50) pre 1.57 (SE = 0.97)

95% CIpre [3.21, 3.83]

post 3.64 post 0.39 post -0.06 (SE = 0.50) post -1.22 (SE = 0.97) post [3.39, 3.89]
2

pre 3.32

pre 0.72

pre 0.04 (SE = 0.50) pre 0.70 (SE = 0.97)

pre [3.91, 3.63]

post 3.27 post 0.65 post 0.71 (SE = 0.50) post 1.74 (SE = 0.97) post [3.02, 3.52]
3

pre 3.02

pre 0.81

pre -0.97 (SE = 0.50) pre 0.98 (SE = 0.97)

pre [2.71, 3.33]

post 3.64 post 0.49 post -0.36 (SE = 0.50) post 0.45 (SE = 0.97) post [3.39, 3.89]
4

pre 2.90

pre 0.70

pre 1.39 (SE = 0.50) pre 2.66 (SE = 0.97)

pre [2.59, 3.21]

post 3.02 post 0.69 post -0.45 (SE = 0.50) post 1.71 (SE = 0.97) post [2.78, 3.27]

37

CookeI think my current English level is about the same as Abe Sadao, so I think I’dlike to improve just a little. Of course, it’s good if you can use difficult English
when speaking, but I thought even with a basic level of English, if you canspeak, it looks good, so I thought that speaking is also important. Abe Sadao
didn’t speak English at all, but with gestures he was able to communicate, andthat was interesting.
The results for Motivated behaviours and efforts were not statisticallysignificant (F(3,80) = 2.030, p =.116). Examination of the profile plots (Figure3), showing mean scores on the y-axis, visually confirm increases for Groups 3
and 4, although data for Group 4 revealed platykurtic distribution in the pretestand skewed distribution in the posttest. The confidence intervals (Table 5)
revealed minimal overlapping in Group 4.
In light of the positive results seen in the variables for both Ought-to and
Ideal L2 selves, the lack of significant changes here was disappointing. To wit, it
appears that although the languaging activities carried out may have assisted inhelping students to develop an ideal L2 self, they alone were not enough in helping
to promote greater effort in their L2 learning. Measures could be implemented in
the classroom to assist students to this end, such as demonstrating the benefits ofundertaking the practices suggested in the statements for motivated behaviours andefforts, e.g., asking the teacher for assistance and reflecting on what has been taught.
Contrary to the data of the previous variables, the results for Attitudes tolearning English were statistically significant (F(3,80) = 5.831, p = .001, ηp2= .179). Examination of the profile plots (Figure 4), showing mean scores on
the y-axis, visually confirms the increases for Groups 3 and 4. The increases forGroup 4 were confirmed in the confidence intervals (Table 6). Examination of
the results for the other variables in this study has not shown any significant
benefit to allowing students to share their opinions and reactions to the videos
shown. The significant increase in the mean scores for Group 4, verified throughconfidence intervals, reveals the benefits this practice can have to students’attitudes in the L2 classroom, echoing the findings of Kim’s study. It suggeststhat this distinct type of interaction can improve students’ enjoyment of theclass, offering them agency and the chance to think about, develop and share
38

Star Power, and L2 Motivation, OnCUE Journal, 12(1), pages 25-46

Figure 3. Profile plot for Motivation to learn English showing changes in pre and post
mean scores.
Table 5
Descriptive Statistics for Motivated Behaviours and Efforts for Each of the 4 Groups Pre- and Post-test
Group

Mean

SD

Skewness

Kurtosis

95% CI1

pre 3.58

pre 0.56

pre -0.45 (SE = .50)

pre 0.15 (SE = 0.97)

pre [3.32, 3.86]

post 3.56 post 0.57 post -0.89 (SE = .50) post 0.19 (SE = 0.97) post [3.31, 3.81]
2

pre 3.59

pre 0.65

pre -0.03 (SE = 0.50) pre -0.62 (SE = 0.97) pre [3.32, 3.86]

post 3.41 post 0.64 post 0.04 (SE = 0.50) post -0.04 (SE = 0.97) post [3.16, 3.66]
3

pre 3.44

pre 0.62

pre -0.69 (SE = 0.50) pre -0.35 (SE = 0.97) pre [3.17, 3.71]

post 3.56 post 0.55 post -0.23 (SE = 0.50) post -0.54 (SE = 0.97) post [3.31, 3.81]
4

pre 2.93

pre 0.63

pre 0.47 (SE = 0.50) pre 2.74 (SE = 0.97)

pre [2.67, 3.21]

post 3.43 post 0.52 post -1.14 (SE = 0.50) post 0.75 (SE = 0.97) post [3.19, 3.68]

39

CookeFigure 3. Profile plot for Motivation to learn English showing changes in pre and post
mean scores.
Table 6
Descriptive Statistics for Attitudes to Learning English for Each of the 4 Groups Pre- and Post-test
Group

Mean

SD

1

pre 3.80

pre 0.69

Skewness

Kurtosis

95% CIpre -0.51 (SE = 0.50) pre -0.01 (SE = 0.97) pre [3.44, 4.16]

post 3.79 post 0.68 post -0.14 (SE = 0.50) post -0.27 (SE = 0.97) post [3.49, 4.08]
2

pre 3.75

pre 0.89

pre -0.26 (SE = 0.50) pre -0.57 (SE = 0.97) pre [3.39, 4.11]

post 3.60 post 0.77 post -0.19 (SE = 0.50) post -0.54 (SE = 0.97) post [3.31, 3.90]
3

pre 3.65

pre 0.68

pre -0.01 (SE = 0.50) pre -0.54 (SE = 0.97) pre [3.30, 4.01]

post 3.58 post 0.72 post 0.10 (SE = 0.50) post -0.71 (SE = 0.97) post [3.29, 3.88]
4

pre 2.82

pre 0.99

pre -0.22 (SE = 0.50) pre -0.14 (SE = 0.97) pre [2.46, 3.18]

post 3.98 post 0.52 post -0.19 (SE = 0.50) post 0.58 (SE = 0.97) post [3.69, 4.27]

40

Star Power, and L2 Motivation, OnCUE Journal, 12(1), pages 25-46

thoughts concerning their English learning.

Conclusion and Limitations

The results of the study indicate that in a number of instances, languaging
activities, specifically, watching videos showing Japanese tarento speaking English
and writing impressions about this, were influential in enhancing students’English motivation. In studying the effectiveness of watching non-peer speakers
of English, it was speculated that, based on their prevalence in Japanese society,tarento would provide motivational models of English fluency. Future research
could use more proficient models, similar to those employed in Kim’s study to
examine differences in this regard.
The lack of recorded material taken from the discussion of students’ written
notes means that the influence of spoken group interaction must be inferredfrom the results. Future research should include recording of these interactions,which could reveal pertinent comments and developments over subsequent
recordings during the research period.
Results of the split-plot analyses provided visual data which, in association
with analysis of a number of confidence intervals, may help to understandthe effectiveness of languaging activities to enhance motivation in thiscontext. However, the lack of significant results for all but one of the variables
is disappointing. The low numbers of participants in each group is likely
responsible for this outcome. Higher numbers of participants in each group willallow for more nuanced verification of normalized data. Future research willneed to address this shortcoming.

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Author bio

Simon Cooke is an associate professor in the Center for General Education at the
Tohoku Institute of Technology in Sendai. His fields of research include motivational
dynamics in second language acquisition, autonomous learning, and computerassisted language learning (CALL). cookesimon@tohtech.ac.jp
Received: March 8, 2018
Accepted:

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Star Power, and L2 Motivation, OnCUE Journal, 12(1), pages 25-46

Appendix

Sample of questions used in the study. Please contact the author for complete list.
Ideal L2 self
I can imagine myself living abroad and having a discussion in English
外国に住んでいて英語で、話し合いする私を想像できる。

Whenever I think of my future career, I imagine myself speaking English.
私の将来の仕事を想像するとき、英語で話している私を想像する。

Ought to self
Studying English is important to me in order to gain the approval of my peers/
teachers/family/boss.
私の同等・先生・家族の評価を得るために私は英語を勉強するのが大事だと思う。

It will have a negative impact on my life if I do not learn English.
英語を勉強しなければ、私の人生にマイナスの影響を与える。

IntegrativenessLearning English is important in order to learn about the culture and art of its
speakers
英語を話せる人々の文化または芸術を学ぶために英語を学ぶことが重要だ。

I want to become similar to the people who speak English
私は英語を話せる人と同じようになりたい。

Instrumentality (promotion)
Studying English is important to me because I think it will someday be useful ingetting a good job.
将来、いい仕事を得るために役立つので、英語を勉強するのは大事だと思う。

Studying English is important for me because with English, I can work globally.
英語を使えるようになれば、グローバルに(地球のどこでも)働くことが出来るか
ら、英語を勉強するのは大事だと思う。

Instrumentality (prevention)
I have to learn English because I don’t want to fail this English course
私は単位を落としたくないので、英語を勉強している。

Studying English is important for me because if I don’t have knowledge of45

CookeEnglish, I’ll be considered a weak student.
英語の知識がなければ学力がない学生だと思われるので、私にとって英語を勉強するのは大事だと思う

Motivated behaviours and efforts
I am prepared to make a big effort in learning English.
私は英語を勉強するためなら多大な努力を払う気持ちがある。

After I get my grades back in an English test, I always check them and look at/correct my mistakes.
英語のテストの結果を受け取ったら、必ず自分が間違っている部分を確認して直す。

Attitudes to learning English
I find learning English really interesting
私は英語を勉強するのはとても面白い。

I always look forward to English class
私は英語の授業はいつも楽しみにしています。

46