Saddharma and the One Buddha Vehicle in the Lotus SËtraHiroshi Kanno

1. The Problem

T

he Lotus SËtra is one of the Mahåyåna sËtras, which began to becompiled around the first century BCE in India. Many scholars
suppose that it was composed between the first century BCE and thesecond century CE. We can surely say that since Dharmarak∑a (Fahu 法
護; born around 230; died at age 78) translated it into Chinese as theten-fascicle Zhengfa hua jing 正法華經 in 286, it had been created by thattime.
As for the formation not only of the Lotus SËtra but also theMahåyåna sËtras in general, there are a lot of mysteries. In the case of
the Lotus SËtra, how we think about the relationship between it andsËtras that preceded it, especially the Prajñå SËtras, is problematic. The
theory that the Lotus SËtra was developed on the basis of the Prajñå
SËtras is persuasive, but there is another theory that the Lotus SËtra wasfounded almost at the same time as the Prajñå SËtras and independently
from them. Even though this paper does not take up this problem, it isimportant for considering the idea of the one buddha vehicle of the
Lotus SËtra, which will be discussed in this paper.
Anybody who reads the Lotus SËtra can easily find that its core idea
is the one buddha vehicle taught in the second chapter, Skillful Means.
In its present form, it is obvious that the idea of the “age-old existenceof Íåkyamuni Buddha” is one of the central ideas of the sËtra. On theother hand, from the historical viewpoint of the compilation of the LotusSËtra, the theory that the idea of the one buddha vehicle was formed
earlier than the idea of the “age-old existence of Íåkyamuni Buddha” istaken more seriously1.

2. The Idea of the One Buddha Vehicle of the Skillful Means
Chapter
I will explain the meaning of the one buddha vehicle by introducing the102

saddharma and the one buddha vehicle in the lotus sūtra103

story of the Skillful Means Chapter. In the Introduction Chapter,Íåkyamuni Buddha entered into the samådhi of the place of innumerable meanings and then in the following chapter the Buddha arises
from that samådhi and addresses Íåriputra. Even though what the
Buddha said to him is quite long, since it is very important, I will cite itfrom the Kumåraj¥va’s translation:
The wisdom of the Buddhas is infinitely profound and immeasurable.
The door to this wisdom is difficult to understand and difficult to enter.
Not one of the ßråvakas or pratyekabuddhas is able to comprehend it.
What is the reason for this? The Buddhas have personally attended ahundred, a thousand, ten thousand, a million, a countless number of
Buddhas and have fully carried out an immeasurable number of
Buddhas’ religious practices. They have exerted themselves bravely andvigorously, and their names are universally known. They have realized
the dharmas that are profound and never known before, and preachthem in accordance with what is appropriate, yet their intentions are
difficult to understand. Íåriputra, ever since I attained Buddhahood
I have through various causes and various similes widely expounded myteachings and have used countless skillful means to guide sentient
beings and cause them to renounce their attachments. Why is this?
Because the thus come ones are fully possessed of both skillful means
and the påramitå of wisdom. Íåriputra, the wisdom of the thus comeones is expansive and profound. They have [four kinds of]
immeasurable [states of mind], [four kinds of] unlimited [eloquence],[ten kinds of] power, [four kinds of] fearlessness, [four kinds of]concentration [belonging to world of desires], [eight kinds of]emancipation, and [three kinds of] samådhis, and have deeply enteredthem beyond measure and accomplished dharmas never before attained.
Íåriputra, the thus come ones expound many dharmas skillfully making
various kinds of distinctions. Their words are soft and gentle and delightthe hearts of the assembly. Íåriputra, to sum it up: the Buddhas havefully realized the dharmas that are limitless, boundless, never attained
before. But stop, Íåriputra, I will say no more. Why? Because what thebuddhas have achieved is the rarest and most difficult-to-understanddharmas, and only Buddhas can understand thoroughly the true
characteristics of lots of dharmas. The characteristics of lots of dharmas[accomplished by the Buddhas] consist of the appearance, nature, entity,
power, influence, internal cause, relation, latent effect, manifest effect,
and their consistency from beginning to end” (T09, no. 262, pp. 5b25–
c13; Burton Watson, The Lotus Sutra and Its Opening and Closing

104

saddharma and the one buddha vehicle in the lotus sūtra

Sutras, Tokyo: Soka Gakkai, 2009, pp. 56–57 [with changes]).

The most important points here are that “the Buddhas have fully realized
the dharmas that are limitless, boundless, never attained before” shownat the end of the citation and that “only Buddhas can understandthoroughly the true characteristics of lots of dharmas,” which are those“that are profound and never known before” and which are accomplished by the Buddhas who personally attended a countless number of
Buddhas and have fully carried out an immeasurable number ofreligious practices. And these dharmas are Buddha wisdom consistingof concrete virtues such as the four kinds of immeasurable states ofmind, the four kinds of unlimited eloquence, the ten kinds of power, thefour kinds of fearlessness, the four kinds of concentration, the eightkinds of emancipation, and the three kinds of samådhis.
The description in this Skillful Means Chapter was modeled on thebasis of Íåkyamuni Buddha’s enlightenment to the dharma2. Íåkyamuni
Buddha became enlightened under the Bodhi-tree through contemplation at the age of 35. However, he thought that the people who wereruled by desire would not be able to understand the dharma to which heawakened and considered entering final nirvåˆa immediately, giving upteaching that dharma. At that time, Brahmå appeared before him andasked him to preach. This is called the request or encouragement from
Brahmå. The Saµyutta-Nikåya states:
I have penetrated this Norm, deep, hard to perceive, hard to understand,peaceful and sublime, no mere dialectic, subtle, intelligible only to thewise (Saµyutta-Nikåya, I, p. 136; The Book of the Kindred Sayings, PartI, p. 171, translated by Mrs. Rhys Davids, P. T. S.).

“Norm” in this citation corresponds to “dhamma” in Påli and istranslated as fa 法 in Chinese.
Just after Íåkyamuni became fully enlightened, he thought, “It is ill tolive paying no one the honor and obedience due to a superior.” But he
did not see anyone more accomplished in contemplation or knowledgeof emancipation than himself. Therefore he concluded that he would live
under, pay honor to, and respect this dharma to which he had awakened.
And Brahmå also declared his support for this conclusion of the Buddha
and pointed out that all the Buddhas in the past, present and future
respect the saddharma3.
Thus, the early Buddhist scriptures clarify that Íåkyamuni Buddha
awakened to the dharma (dhamma in Påli) and paid respect to it. Adding

saddharma and the one buddha vehicle in the lotus sūtra105

the adjective “sat” (correct) to “dharma” makes “saddharma,” generallytranslated as Zhengfa 正法 in Chinese.
Yet the Sanskrit title of the Lotus SËtra is Saddharmapuˆ∂ar¥kasËtra, translated as “Zhengfa hua jing 正法華經” by Dharmarak∑a and as“Miaofa lianhua jing 妙法蓮華經” by Kumåraj¥va. We easily see that theterm “saddharma” was adopted for the Lotus SËtra as a part of its title torefer to a fundamental point of the Buddha’s enlightenment. We
understand that the Lotus SËtra valued Íåkyamuni Buddha’s enlightenment to the dharma more than anything else. It is like the Prajñå SËtras
valuing the prajñåpåramitå (perfection of the wisdom).
What, then, is the understanding of this “saddharma” in the LotusSËtra? The answer to this question is shown in the above citation. In the
Skillful Means Chapter the Buddhas’ wisdom is renamed as “dharmas”
and four kinds of immeasurable states of mind, four kinds of unlimited
eloquence, ten kinds of power, four kinds of fearlessness, four kinds ofconcentration, eight kinds of emancipation, and three kinds of samådhis
as concrete contents of “dharmas” are taken up. Though I omit
explanation of these technical terms here, each of them means wisdoms
and various stages of meditations of the Buddha. In a word, “dharmas”
are not abstract and objective truths. They are realized through practices
by Buddhas themselves and are the Buddha wisdom and spiritual stages
explained as the concrete moral items listed here4. Such actuality,
dynamism and subjectivity of the dharma is very important.
The Lotus SËtra emphasizes the transcendence of Buddha wisdom—that this Buddha wisdom cannot be understood by anyone other than the
Buddha, while it clarifies that since the Buddha has the power of skillfulmeans, which is composed of wisdom and compassion, he has taught
Buddha wisdom skillfully in order to have sentient beings acquire thisBuddha wisdom, i.e., to have sentient beings become Buddhas is the one
great purpose for which Íåkyamuni Buddha appears in this world. I will
return to this point and explain it later.
After the above citation, Íåriputra requests Íåkyamuni Buddha topreach three times. When Íåkyamuni Buddha is about to comply withÍåriputra’s request, five thousand arrogant people leave the assembly of
the Lotus SËtra5. However, the Buddha does not stop them and finallyclarifies the reason for his appearing in this world, saying that in theaudience only those of pure faith are left. This is his one great purpose,
which is stated in a repetitive style for emphasis, which is to open thedoor of Buddha wisdom to all sentient beings, to show Buddha wisdom(tathågata-jñåna-darßana in Sanskrit) to all sentient beings, to cause
sentient beings to awaken to Buddha wisdom, and to induce sentient106

saddharma and the one buddha vehicle in the lotus sūtrabeings to enter the path of Buddha wisdom6. In other words, it is tomake all sentient beings become Buddhas. Here the objective for which
the Buddha appears in this world is manifested clearly. This is called“one buddha vehicle.” In short, it is an idea that all sentient beings
equally can become Buddhas. This is one of the most important
religious messages of the Lotus SËtra7.
The Gods, who were very delighted to hear this message, say about
the teaching of the one buddha vehicle, “In the past at Våråˆas¥ the
Buddha first turned the wheel of the dharma. Now he turns the wheel
again, the wheel of the unsurpassed, the greatest dharma of all” (T09,no. 262, 12a15–17; Watson, p. 89 [with minor changes]). This statementcompares the teaching of the “one buddha vehicle” of the Lotus SËtra
with the first turning of the wheel of the dharma (the middle way
transcending self-indulgence and self-mortification, the four noble
truths, and the eightfold path) at Deer Park (M®ga-dåva) in Våråˆas¥(modern Benares). In contrast, the preaching of the “one buddha
vehicle” in the Skillful Means Chapter of the Lotus SËtra is described as
the second turning of the wheel of the unsurpassed dharma.
This idea of “the second preaching,” as contrasted with the firstpreaching, is not only found in the Lotus SËtra8. This fact is clear
evidence that the compilers of the Lotus SËtra were well aware of theirdependence on the second preaching, while early Buddhist sËtras, whichwere accepted by Nikåya Buddhists, were based on the first preaching.
In other words, they knew very well that Mahåyåna sËtras were newcreations.

3. The Relationship between One Buddha Vehicle andSaddharma
I introduced the idea of the one buddha vehicle on the basis of thecontent of the Skillful Means Chapter. In short, the purpose of the one
buddha vehicle is not to lead people to become an arhat or pratyekabuddha, but to open the way for everyone to become a Buddha. So why
can anyone without prejudice become enlightened? Even though thesËtra doesn’t expressly provide the answer, the ground of becoming
enlightened seems to be dharma or saddharma.
As seen above, early Buddhist scriptures also indicated that only the
Buddha realized the dharma sufficiently. Here I organize the LotusSËtra and important things concerning the dharma as follows.
(1) The Lotus SËtra says that not only the present Buddha Íåkyamuni

saddharma and the one buddha vehicle in the lotus sūtra107

but also the past Buddhas preached the Lotus SËtra9. If we draw out
the intention behind this, it seems that the Lotus SËtra is being
recognized as the supreme and ultimate teaching preachedcommonly by all Buddhas in the past, present, and future. All
Buddhas including Íåkyamuni become Buddhas only after
awakening to dharma or saddharma, and the scripture which
expounds that saddharma in detail is none other than the
Saddharmapuˆ∂ar¥ka SËtra, or the Lotus SËtra. Because thecompilers of the Lotus SËtra at least thought in this way, they musthave incorporated “saddharma” into the title of the Lotus SËtra.
Therefore, all Buddhas preach the “saddharma” realized bythemselves, and its content is considered to be none other than the
Lotus SËtra. We can understand the intention of the compilers, whowanted to express the universality and the eternity of the LotusSËtra.
(2) Realization of the dharma is open to not only specific Buddha but
ideally to all people. Based on this, the compilers of the Lotus SËtra
must have formed the idea of the one buddha vehicle in which all
people become enlightened. In other words, the vehicle of theßråvaka with the goal of arhatship and the vehicle of thepratyekabuddha with the goal of pratyekabuddhahood are expedientteachings, and in reality there is only the one buddha vehicle10.
(3) The Lotus SËtra rarely refers to religions other than Buddhism,
limiting its concern to internal affairs of Buddhism. However, I
think that the universality of the saddharma of the Lotus SËtra
might exceed the scope of Buddhism. The “saddharma” does notdiscriminate against followers of other religions at all. In a word, the“saddharma” can be realized by anyone. Concerning this, theMahåparinibbåna-suttanta states, [The disciple] “is possessed offaith in the Truth—believing the Truth to have been proclaimed by
the Exalted One, of advantage in this world, passing not away,
welcoming all, leading to salvation, and to be attained to by thewise, each one for himself.”11 This shows that the truth of Buddhism
is real and can be experienced by anyone. The original wordcorresponding to “welcoming all,” “ehi-passiko” means literally“come and see.” The idea that everyone can come and can see thetruth shows the Buddhist view of truth very well. The claim that thesaddharma can be realized by anyone, will contribute to an attitude
that recognizes the dignity of all people, even if they believe inanother religion. The practice of Bodhisattva Never Disparaging
seems to show this very well.

108

saddharma and the one buddha vehicle in the lotus sūtra(4) Whoever Bodhisattva Never Disparaging happened to encounter,
whether monks, nuns, laymen or laywomen, he would bow inobeisance to them and speak words of praise, saying12, “I haveprofound reverence for you. I would never dare treat you withdisparagement and arrogance. Why? Because you will all practice
the bodhisattva way and will then be able to attain Buddhahood”(T09, no. 262, pp. 50c19–20; Watson, p. 308 [with minor changes]).
His actions express an attitude that attributes the utmost dignity to
all humankind, bespeaking the possibility that all human beings
will, without fail, become Buddhas if they practice the bodhisattva
way. In other words, the scripture counsels us to respect all humanbeings equally as future Buddhas. However, certain persons became
exceedingly annoyed by Bodhisattva Never Disparaging’s bestowals
of prophecies of future Buddhahood, since he had no recognizable
power or authority to make such momentous statements. Someharshly persecuted him. But he kept up this practice for his entire
life. The dedication of Bodhisattva Never Disparaging also
represents a great revelation for us in the present age. His behavior
indicates that we should believe firmly in our own ability to attain
Buddhahood. And it conveys the idea that all other people are noneother than potential Buddhas, all of whom have the ability to attain
Buddhahood. What is important here is not a practice of offeringsomething concrete to other people, but rather the undertaking toteach us all to awaken to our own fundamental dignity. When I bow
in obeisance to another person as Buddha, in response his Buddha
nature bows in obeisance to me as Buddha—even though thisBuddha-nature has not yet been sufficiently manifested in either ofus. In other words, here the scripture establishes the idea that
respecting other people is directly connected with the manifestationof our own Buddha-nature. In the Lotus SËtra the idea of
coexistence is based on interdependent relationships between
people, in which we mutually respect each other as beings ofintegrity, all of us with the prospect of attaining Buddhahood.
(5) If we apply a framework such as that of exclusivism, inclusivism,
and pluralism, which John Hick set forth with regard to how
relations between religions are understood, if we think that the
specific belief and practices of Buddhism are indispensable forrealizing the “saddharma,” we should say that the Lotus SËtra is notpluralist but inclusive. However, should we not think that there is apossibility that the method of realizing the “saddharma” is open
widely to the methods of other religions and to non-religion? This

saddharma and the one buddha vehicle in the lotus sūtra

109

interpretation seems to come close to pluralism. However, eventhough the one vehicle aims at all sentient beings’ attainment of
Buddhahood, it will be regarded as a kind of the inclusivism fromthe standpoint of Buddhism because its ultimate aim is expressed in
the terminology of the “attainment of Buddhahood.”
Now if we describe “Buddha,” the goal at which Buddism aims, as an
ideal state possessing human values that are more universal than
Buddhism, what does this imply? This conception may come close tobeing pluralistic. Even though I am not necessarily in complete
agreement with John Hick’s pluralism, I at least agree with his
motivation to advocate a pluralistic approach so that as much as possible
we can prevent harmful, useless fighting among religions.

4. Conclusion
The idea of one buddha vehicle of the Lotus SËtra that all sentient
beings can become enlightened is an epoch-making idea in the history
of Buddhism and has been very influential. This idea seems to have been
formed on the basis of the universality of “dharma” or “saddharma,”
which enabled Íåkyamuni’s enlightenment. In short, the universal“dharma” or “saddharma” does not discriminate among the possibilities
of enlightenment of human beings. The fact that Íåkyamuni Buddha
appealed to people, “ehi-passiko (come and see [the dharma])”demonstrates this very well. By expanding this universality from insideof Buddhism to outside, Buddhists should take the initiative to re-realize
the primary mission of religions, which is to contribute widely tohumanity and overcome conflicts among religions.
Afterword
I would like to offer my sincere thanks to Prof. Gene Reeves for his
expertise in editing the English version of this paper.
Previous papers related to this paper include:
1. The Practice of Bodhisattva Never Disparaging in the Lotus SËtra
and its Reception in China and Japan, The Journal of Oriental
Studies 12, 2002.12, pp. 104–122.
2. The Modern Significance of the Lotus SËtra, The Journal of
Oriental Studies 14, 2004.10, pp. 95–111.
3. Inclusivism and Religious Tolerance in the Lotus SËtra, The Journalof Oriental Studies 15, 2005.12, pp. 94–108.

110

saddharma and the one buddha vehicle in the lotus sūtra4. The Lotus SËtra and the Dialogue of Religions, The Journal of
Oriental Studies 16, 2006.10, pp. 139–155.
5. The Bodhisattva Way and Valuing the Real World in the LotusSËtra, The Journal of Oriental Studies 17, 2007.10, pp. 180–197.
6. The Core of Íåkyamuni Buddha’s Teachings and the Distinctive
Features of the Lotus SËtra, The Journal of Oriental Studies 19,
2009.8, pp. 36–50.
7. The Bodhisattvas of the Earth in the Lotus SËtra: Involvement in the
Human Society, The Journal of Oriental Studies 20, 2010.9, pp.
108–128.
NOTES
Kariya Sadahiko (HokekyØ ichibutsujØ no kenkyË, Ōsaka: TohØshuppan, 1983) and
Suguro ShinjØ (ZØtei hokekyØ no seiritsu to shisØ, Tokyo: DaitØshuppansha, 1993 [firstedition], 1996 [revised edition]) hypothesized that not only the idea of the one buddha
vehicle but also the idea of the “age-old existence of Íåkyamuni Buddha” were formedat the beginning of the compilation of the Lotus SËtra. In addition to these two central
ideas, I would like to add the idea of the “bodhisattvas of the earth.” Even though thebodhisattvas of the earth are mythological figures appearing in the Lotus SËtra, from ahistorical perspective, they seem to reflect the self-image of the central bearers of the
Lotus SËtra who created the two core tenets and beliefs.
2Íåriputra’s subsequent request and the second turning of the wheel of the dharmathat manifests the Buddha’s “one great purpose” correspond to Brahmå’s request and thefirst turning of the wheel of the dharma in Íåkyamuni Buddha’s life, respectively.
3
Cf. Saµyutta-Nikåya, I, pp. 139–140; The Book of the Kindred Sayings, Part I, pp.
175–176, translated by Mrs. Rhys Davids, P.T.S.
4
See the Parable of the Phantom City Chapter, “The Buddha Great Universal
Wisdom Excellence had a life span of five hundred and forty ten thousand million
nayutas of kalpas. This Buddha at first sat in the place of enlightenment and, havingsmashed the armies of the devil, was on the point of attaining supreme perfectenlightenment, but the dharmas of the Buddhas did not appear before him. This statecontinued for one small kalpa, and so on for ten small kalpas, the Buddha sitting withlegs crossed, body and mind unmoving, but the dharmas of the Buddhas still did notappear before him. . . . The Buddha Great Universal Wisdom Excellence passed ten
small kalpas before the dharmas of the Buddhas finally appeared before him and heattained supreme perfect enlightenment” (T09, no. 262, pp. 22b19–c3; B. Watson, ibid,
pp. 156–157 [with minor changes]). As seen in this citation, realizing “dharmas,” whichmean supreme characteristics possessed by Buddhas, is identified with enlightenment.
5This episode shows that overbearing arrogance (being sure that we have become
enlightened, even though actually we have not) should be abandoned in order to hear the
Lotus SËtra, which teaches that enlightenment of arhats prior to the Lotus SËtra is only
expedient.
6
See T09, no. 262, pp. 7a21–28.
7
If all sentient beings can become enlightened, a new problem develops as to why
the Buddha preached the vehicles of ßråvaka and pratyekabuddha, who aim at the goalof arhatship and pratyekabuddhahood, respectively. The Lotus SËtra reveals that the1

saddharma and the one buddha vehicle in the lotus sūtra111

vehicles of ßråvaka and pratyekabuddha are skillful means to mature their spiritualcapacities. In other words, the Buddhas previous assertions of the existence of threedifferent teachings were only expedient and in reality there exists one buddha vehicle.
This idea was called “elaborating the three to reveal the one” (kaisan xianyi 開三顯一 )in the specialized terminology of Chinese exegetical discourse. It provides the criteria of
forming doctrinal classification, which is one of the major features of Chinese
Buddhism.
8
See the Dapin bore jing, vol. 12, the Unconditioned Chapter, “We see the second
wheel of the dharma turned in the Jambu-dv¥pa (T08, no. 223, p. 311, b15–16).” Also
see the southern edition of the Mahåyåna Nirvåˆa SËtra, vol. 13, the Holy Practice
Chapter, “in the past at Våråˆas¥ I turned the wheel of the dharma for the sake ofßråvakas. Now at Kußinagara here I will turn the wheel of the great dharma for the sakeof bodhisattvas” (T12, no. 375, p. 689, c5–7).
9
In the Lotus SËtra there is not only the Lotus SËtra preached by Sun Moon Bright
Buddha in the Introduction Chapter but also the Lotus SËtra preached by Great
Universal Wisdom Excellence Buddha in the Parable of the Phantom City Chapter, theLotus SËtra preached at the palace of the dragon by Bodhisattva Mañjußr¥ in theDevadatta Chapter, and the Lotus SËtra preached by Awesome Sound King Buddha in
the Bodhisattva Never Disparaging Chapter. The length of time when the Lotus SËtra
was preached and the number of verses of the Lotus SËtra, which expresses the length of
the sËtra, are described in figures that go beyond our imagination. For example, Sun
Moon Bright Buddha preached the Lotus SËtra for sixty small kalpas and his disciple
Bodhisattva Wonderfully Bright preached it for eighty small kalpas (not indicating thenumber of the verses) and Great Universal Wisdom Excellence Buddha preached it inverses of as numerous as the sands of the Ganges for eight thousand kalpas and his
disciples sixteen ßramaˆas preached it for eighty four thousands kalpas and Awesome
Sound King Buddha preached twenty thousand, ten thousand, a million verses of the
Lotus SËtra (not indicating the length of time).
10
The one vehicle is related to the three vehicles of ßråvaka, pratyekabuddha, andbodhisattva. In my understanding, the bodhisattva vehicle (great vehicle) in the threevehicles is related to the two vehicles of ßråvaka and pratyekabuddha (the lesser
vehicles), while that of Buddha transcends the polarity of the two vehicles and thebodhisattva vehicle. On this basis, the bodhisattva vehicle should not be merely equatedwith the Buddha vehicle. From the standpoint of the Lotus SËtra, ßråvaka andpratyekabuddhas should awaken to being bodhisattvas themselves, while bodhisattvas,
for whom the bodhisattva vehicle is preached, should not contest with ßråvakas andpratyekabuddhas, but rather maintain a profound discernment that ßråvakas andpratyekabuddhas are actually practicing the way of true bodhisattvas. Therefore,ßråvakas, pratyekabuddhas, and bodhisattvas, for whom the three vehicles are preached,
are states of existence all of which demand personal transformation.
11Mahåparinibbåna-suttanta, D¥gha-Nikåya, II, p. 93; Dialogues of the Buddha, forth
edition, vol. II, p. 99, translated by T.W. and C. A . F. Rhys Davids, P.T.S.).
12
According to the Lotus SËtra, the people to whom Bodhisattva Never Disparaging
spoke were limited to Buddhist followers. However, I think it may be possible to expand
this to non-Buddhist and interpret it to indicate that all sentient beings can become
enlightened.