Yamaoka and Wallis ﻿Progress in Earth and Planetary Science(2023) 10:62
https://doi.org/10.1186/s40645-023-00594-8

RESEARCH ARTICLE

Progress in Earth andPlanetary Science

Open Access

Clockwise rotation of SW Japan and timingof Izanagi–Pacific ridge subduction revealed
by arc migration
Ken Yamaoka1,2*   and Simon R. Wallis2

Abstract
Igneous rocks associated with the Cretaceous to Paleogene volcanic arc in SW Japan show ages that young from west
to east in a direction parallel to the Median Tectonic Line suggesting corresponding translation of a heat source
traditionally interpreted in terms of oblique subduction of a spreading ridge. However, recent oceanic plate reconstructions suggest ridge subduction may be younger than the main arc activity. Age compilations of 1227 pointsof felsic to intermediate Cretaceous and Cenozoic igneous rocks from the Japan arc show arc magmatism that canbe separated into an early active period 130–60 Ma (stage 1), a subsequent period of quiescence 60–46 Ma (stage2), which is followed by a resumption of igneous activity from 46 Ma onward (stage 3). In southwest Japan, the orientations of the magmatic arcs of stages 1 and 3 show and angular discordance of about 20°. The lack of active arc
magmatism and the occurrence patterns of adakitic and high-Mg andesitic magmas indicate that ridge subduction occurred during stage 2. The arc age distribution pattern of stage 1 is explained by the slab shallowing related
to a younging of the subducting slab as the ridge approaches. Furthermore, the obliquity of the arcs formed at stages
1 and 3 is explained by a 20° clockwise rotation of the inner zone of southwest Japan during the ridge-subduction
phase. Oceanic plate reconstructions show counterclockwise rotation in the subduction direction after the ridge subduction phase, and coupling of the subducting oceanic plate with the upper plate would support microplate rotationin the inner zone. The new proposed tectonic reconstructions provide a framework to related Paleogene subductionof an active spreading ridge along the east Asia margin not only to the distribution of granitic bodies but also to riftrelated basin formation on the eastern margin of the Eurasian continent and to rotation of crustal blocks indicatedby paleomagnetic data of Cretaceous terranes.
Keywords Izanagi plate, Pacific plate, Ridge subduction, Arc migration, Granite, Radiometric chronology, Continental
block rotation, Slab shallowing, Magmatic hiatus*Correspondence:
Ken Yamaoka
yamaoka-ken@aist.go.jp
1
Research Institute of Geology and Geoinformation, Geological Surveyof Japan (GSJ), National Institute of Advanced Industrial Scienceand Technology (AIST), Tsukuba 305‑8567, Japan2
Department of Earth and Planetary Science, Graduate School of Science,
The University of Tokyo, Bunkyo, Tokyo 113‑0033, Japan

1 Introduction
The approach and subduction of active spreading ridges
is a rare but inherent part of the plate tectonic cycle.
Ridge subduction is associated with anomalously warm
subduction zones and has been called on to account fora broad range of events in the geological record, such aschanges in magmatism in the overriding plate, changes
in plate movement vectors, and the onset of phases oforogenesis including exhumation of high-pressure metamorphic rocks (e.g., Sisson et al. 2003a). On the modern
Earth, ridge-trench-trench (RTT) triple junctions have

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Yamaoka and Wallis ﻿Progress in Earth and Planetary Science(2023) 10:62

been identified around Chile and the Woodlark Basin,
and these are two valuable field areas of study that provide real-time data on the characteristic of igneous activity and crustal deformation in domains of active ridge
subduction (Taylor and Exon 1987; Stern 2004; Ramos
2005). The reaction of the hanging wall to ridge approach,collision, and subduction over geological time scales, canbe examined by studying the geologic records of such
convergent margins (Bradley et al. 2003).
The Japanese Islands record evidence of active subduction throughout much of their geological history, andsubduction of a spreading ridge has been highlighted as apotentially important process since the early days of plate
tectonics (Uyeda and Miyashiro 1974). The large number

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of geological data sets and the lack of any major continental collision make the Japanese islands well-suited to
studying possible interactions between spreading ridges
and the eastern margin of the Eurasian continent since
the Cretaceous (Fig. 1; Taira et al. 2016). Cretaceous terranes comprise a major part of the basement rocks of theJapanese Islands and consist of a set of granitoids withpairs of high-P/T and high-T/P type metamorphic rocks(Figs. 2, 3), and it has long been suggested that their formation is closely related to the approach and subductionof a spreading ridge (Uyeda and Miyashiro 1974; Takahashi 1983; Maruyama and Seno 1986; Kinoshita andIto 1986, 1988; Brown 1998; Iwamori 2000; Uehara andAoya 2005; Aoya et al. 2003, 2009; Isozaki et al. 2010).

Fig. 1 The topography map of the eastern margin of Eurasia continent (data from Amante and Eakins 2009). The approximate paleo-locationof the Japanese islands before the formation of the Sea of Japan in Miocene is shown in gray. The paleo-magmatic arcs (> 60 Ma) of NE and SW
Japan are adjusted to be parallel when the southwest Japan is rotated 20 degrees counterclockwise. Several models have been proposed
for estimating paleo-positional relationships (e.g., Otofuji et al. 1985; Jolivet et al. 1995; Yamakita and Otoh 2000). The selected basins record rifting
during the early Cenozoic period of interest (Yi et al. 2003; Imaoka et al. 2011; Gu et al. 2017; Song et al. 2018; Zhu et al. 2020; Liu et al. 2022). The
hatched area represents the estimated Izanagi–Pacific Slab gap based on P-wave tomographic observations and is recognized at an approximate
depth of around 1000 km (Li et al. 2008; Wu et al. 2022a, b). White stars indicate the presence of a geologic record that indicates a clockwise rotationof approximately 20 degrees with respect to Eurasia continent in Late Cretaceous to Early Eocene (Otofuji et al. 1985; Uchimura et al. 1996; Fukuma
et al. 2003; Lin et al. 2003; Park et al. 2005; Wang et al. 2011)

Yamaoka and Wallis ﻿Progress in Earth and Planetary Science(2023) 10:62

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Fig. 2 Distribution of geological terranes in NE and SW Japan (data from Geological Survey of Japan, AIST 2022). NE and SW Japan are divided
by the Tanakura Tectonic Line (TTL). In this study, we interpret the Median Tectonic Line (MTL) as a major fault that defines the northern limitof occurrence of geologic terranes in the outer zone (Sanbagawa, Chichibu, and Shimanto belts) and is essentially identical to the Usuki–Yatsushiro
Tectonic Line (UYTL)

These ideas are in agreement with many of the earliest oceanic plate reconstructions for the Pacific realm,
which proposed a spreading ridge between the Pacificand Izanagi or Kula plates was subducted at a high angle
to the trench in the upper Cretaceous (e.g., Woods andDavies 1982; Engerbreston et al. 1985; Maruyama et al.
1997). However, the uncertainties in these reconstructions are large and recent oceanic plate reconstruction
models that incorporate both newly analyzed ocean floor

magnetic anomaly data and tomographic data constraining the amount of subducted plate—information that was
not available in the 1980s—indicate that the spreading
ridge (Izanagi–Pacific ridge) was oriented roughly parallel to the trench of the East Asian continental margin andsubducted underneath the paleo-Japan arc in Paleogene(Fig. 1; Whittaker et al. 2007; Seton et al. 2015; Wu et al.
2022a, b). However, only a limited number of the available onshore geological data have been used to examineYamaoka and Wallis ﻿Progress in Earth and Planetary Science(2023) 10:62

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Fig. 3 Distribution of Cretaceous–Paleogene igneous rocks in NE and SW Japan (data from Geological Survey of Japan, AIST 2022)

the predictions of this model and examine its implications for the geological evolution of the Japanese Islands.
In this contribution, we first present a detailed compilation of age data and a review of available geochemical
data for contemporaneous magmatic rocks to examine
proposed ideas for the timing and orientation of ridge
subduction in the paleo-Japan Arc. The dataset we havecompiled includes information only available in papers
written in Japanese (Additional files 1, 2: Table S1), andwe hope this contribution will also serve as a gateway tomake these valuable data more widely available.

2 Geological setting
The Cretaceous–Paleogene geological terranes of theJapan can be divided into NE Japan and SW Japan, separated by the Tanakura Tectonic Line (TTL) (Fig. 2).
Throughout this area, plutons are dominantly felsic tointermediate and mafic magmatism is minor (Fig. 3).
In central part of NE Japan, Cretaceous magmatic
intrusions into pre-Cretaceous basement rocks are recognized in the Kitakami and Abukuma areas. Igneous activity along the inner arc part of Japan adjacentto the Japan Sea coast is broadly similar to that in theYamaoka and Wallis ﻿Progress in Earth and Planetary Science(2023) 10:62

Kitakami–Abukuma areas, although knowledge of thebasement rock distribution is limited by the presence ofNeogene and later cover. On the Pacific coast side, information on the Cretaceous forearc is lacking due to progressive tectonic erosion by the Pacific plate subduction(von Huene and Scholl 1991). Cretaceous to Paleogene
volcanic rocks are also present in parts of the Kitakami
area (Fig. 3).
SW Japan is divided into an inner zone north of theMedian Tectonic Line (MTL) (inner part of the arc) andan outer zone to the south (Fig. 2) (outer part of the arc).
In Kyushu, the Usuki–Yatsushiro Tectonic Line (UYTL)
is recognized as the western extension of the MTL. In
the inner zone, Cretaceous-Paleogene felsic magma bodies intrude pre-Cretaceous basement rocks. Associatedvolcanism is recognized over a widespread area in SW
Japan. The age range of high-T/P metamorphism associated with synchronous igneous activity is ~ 120–110 Ma
for the southern Abukuma and Higo metamorphic rocks(Hiroi et al. 1998; Sakashima et al. 2003), and ~ 100–
80 Ma for the Ryoke metamorphic rocks (e.g., Suzuki
et al. 1994a, b; Takatsuka et al. 2017; Kawakami et al.
2022).

3 Post‑Cretaceous spreading ridge subduction
around the Japanese Islands depicted
in previous studies: an overview
3.1 Highly oblique subduction of the spreading ridge
at Cretaceous

The possibility of a correlation between active magmatism and high-T/P type metamorphism in the Cretaceous Japan arc and spreading ridge subduction was first
addressed by Uyeda and Miyashiro (1974), and subsequently, numerical simulations of the thermal structureof subduction zones have examined possible relationships between metamorphic P–T conditions of the Ryoke
metamorphic rocks in SW Japan and associated meltingof the lower crust due to a large heat source related to
subduction of a spreading ridge and very young oceanic
lithosphere (e.g., Iwamori 2000; Okudaira and Yoshitake
2004; Aoya et al. 2009; Okudaira and Suda 2011). Thermal modelling of the high-P/T Cretaceous metamorphic rocks of SW Japan (Sanbagawa metamorphic rocks)
showed the recorded metamorphic P–T conditions are agood match for the thermal models shortly before ridge
subduction (Aoya et al. 2003; Uehara and Aoya 2005).
However, it is important to note that approach and subduction of a spreading ridge subduction is a sufficient but
not necessary conditions to explain the moderately warm
to warm environments in the geologic record. A more
recent study reveals that consideration of the effect ofshear heat generated at subduction boundaries is a viable
alternative explanation for the recorded P–T conditions

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of the Sanbagawa metamorphic rocks that does not
require ridge subduction (Ishii and Wallis 2020).
Regional spatiotemporal information such as theoccurrence, spatial movement with time, and cessation of
igneous activities with a particular chemical composition
may offer stronger constraints on tectonic reconstructions (Bradley et al. 1993, 2003) than is possible fromthermal models alone. In SW Japan, it is recognized that
there is a systematic E–W trend of younger-aged I-typegranitoids parallel to the trend of the Median Tectonic
Line (MTL) from ~ 115 Ma in the west to ~ 65 Ma in theeast, and it has been argued that this trend in geologic
features can be directly related to the subduction of a
spreading ridge (e.g., Kinoshita and Ito 1986; Nakajima
et al. 1990). This model assumes that a spreading ridge,
which subducts at a high angle, i.e., highly oblique to thevolcanic arc, serves as a heat source for magma generation. The granitoids of SW Japan also show a younging
trend in a direction subperpendicular to the MTL withyounger-aged units present in areas further north from
the MTL than the older aged units. In NE Japan, where
granitoids are present with slightly older ages than SW
Japan (~ 130–95 Ma), a similar origin to SW Japan has
been sought for the origin of the magmatism calling on
subduction of a young slab and subsequent approach andsubduction of an active spreading ridge. The main line ofevidence is the adakitic chemical composition of magma(e.g., Osozawa et al. 2019). However, other tectonic settings have also been highlighted as compatible with thecharacteristics of the magmatism in NE Japan: slab rollback or slab rupture (Tsuchiya et al. 2015).
Oblique subduction ridge models for the CretaceousPaleogene history of Japan face two significant problems
when considering the regional distribution of igneous activity and the associated ages. (i) Migration of a
RTT triple junction from west to east along the lengthof the Japanese archipelago requires large-scale left lateral movements with a displacement that is equal to or
greater than the extent of SW Japan after the magmatism to explain the presence of older granite bodies in
NE Japan (Sakashima et al. 2003; Osozawa et al. 2019).
Detrital zircon geochronology does not support the ideathat the geologic terranes of NE Japan and the outer zoneof SW Japan migrated from positions far to the south oftheir present locations because zircon age spectra show
a strong connection to the North China Craton, implying that this was the provenance region and the two areas
were not geographically isolated (e.g., Tokiwa et al. 2019;
Li and Takeuchi 2021). (ii) The proposed ridge subduction models directly relate increased magmatism withthe passage of a subducting spreading ridge. However,this view contradicts the observed cessation of magmatic
activity around modern-day ridge subduction domains.

Yamaoka and Wallis ﻿Progress in Earth and Planetary Science(2023) 10:62

The most likely explanation for this reduction in magmatism despite the expected higher temperatures is the lackof water supplied by an actively subducting slab due tothe formation of a slab window (Thorkelson 1996). Aoya
et al. (2009) suggest that dehydration of serpentinizedmantle wedges at elevated temperatures may provide
the water necessary to cause widespread melting, but
this would imply Cretaceous magmatism in the forearc
region.
Differential exhumation has been proposed as alternative model to explain the east–west trends in granite
ages seen in a direction measured parallel to the MTL in
SW Japan based on the monazite chronometry of granite
bodies in the southern margin of the inner zone (Suzuki
and Adachi 1998). However, both volcanic and plutonic
rocks show the same overall younging to the east (e.g.,
Nakajima et al. 1990; Sato et al. 2016). The preservationof volcanic rocks that were formed at the earth’s surface
shows that the effects of erosion are limited and suggeststhat changes in the locus of magmatic activity are more
important than any differential exhumation.
Intrusion of mid-ocean ridge basalt (MORB) magma
into forearc regions has commonly been highlighted as
evidence for interaction between an active spreading
ridge and an oceanic trench (Hibbard and Karig 1990;
Kaeding et al. 1990; Sisson et al. 2003b). In SW Japan,
Kiminami et al. (1994) report a set of in situ MORB
intrusions in the Shimanto accretionary complex withages that young from west to east that can be chronologically compared to trends in the inner zone igneous rocks.
However, the results of subsequent field work suggest
the lithological boundaries presented in this paper may
be structural rather than intrusive (Onishi and Kimura
1995).
3.2 Subparallel subduction of the spreading ridge at early
Paleogene

Recently proposed oceanic plate motion models makeuse of both an expanded data set of magnetic anomalies
in modern day ocean domains and the information on
the volume of subducted slabs present within the mantle from seismic tomography. The resulting revised plate
reconstructions show roughly parallel subduction of a
spreading ridge under the East Asia continental margin
during the Paleogene (Whittaker et al. 2007; Müller et al.
2008; Facccenna et al. 2012; Seton et al. 2015; Matthews
et al. 2016; Wu et al. 2022a, b). The two types of reconstruction suggest contrasting times for the ridge–trenchinteraction and geometrical relationships with the arctrench system, and the Cretaceous–Paleogene onshore
geological record of the Japanese Islands has great potential to contribute to testing the viability of the two contrasting types of tectonic model.

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Spreading ridge subduction potentially causes extensive geomorphic changes and thermal anomalies in theforearc region associated with the approach and subduction of a warm and buoyant domain, and the corresponding geologic features recorded in accretionary complexes
from Sakhalin to southwest Japan may be interpreted
within the framework of this model (Wu and Wu 2019;
Kimura et al. 2019). The cessation of continental arc magmatism recognized over a wide region that occurred ataround 50 Ma, and the abrupt changes in Sr and Nd isotopic compositions suggesting a depleted mantle influx
recognized immediately after the period of magmaticquiescence can be interpreted as signatures of the existence of the slab window associated with the spreading
ridge subduction (Wu and Wu 2019; Liu et al. 2020).
These proposed models are consistent with observations of modern examples of spreading ridge subduction,
including the cessation of arc igneous activity. However,by itself this model does not account for the trend in theages of igneous activity in SW Japan seen over a distanceof ~ 1000 km E–W. In the following section, we present
a compilation of ages of the igneous activity that sheds
more light on the timing of ridge subduction since theCretaceous and use it to propose a tectonic framework
for the basement units of the Japanese Islands.

4 Method: compilation of ages of igneous activity
4.1 Radiometric ages

We collected 1227 data from the available literature thatreport the timing and location of Cretaceous to Paleogene igneous activity in the Japanese islands (Table 1).
The age range analyzed is from 130 Ma, when Cretaceous igneous activity begins (Tsuchiya et al. 2015;
Osozawa et al. 2019; Harada et al. 2023), to 30 Ma,
shortly before the opening of the Sea of Japan event in
the Miocene (Otofuji et al. 1985). This age range covers
the time period relevant to the proposed ridge subduction models described above. For the compilation, we
focused on intermediate to felsic intrusive and extrusive rocks (Tables 1, Additional files 1, 2: Table S1).
Mafic rocks were not included. The ages in this study
are the averaged ages of multiple analyses from a single rock sample rather than individual measurements.
Reliable crystallization ages for igneous rocks are provided by zircon U–Pb ages from a number of publications. This method uses zircon, which is resistant tohydrothermal alteration and weathering, has a highclosure temperature and is therefore resistant to resetting by later thermal events. In addition, two separate
radiometric decay sequences can be used for the same
analysis to verify the age. We also include U–Th–total
Pb ages for uraninite (UO2) and thorite ­(ThSiO4). The
associated closure temperatures for both minerals may

Yamaoka and Wallis ﻿Progress in Earth and Planetary Science(2023) 10:62

Table 1 List of compiled chronological data counts by method
Measuring target

NumberSW Japan

NE Japan*

Total

275

76

351

Thorite

116

38

154

Uraninite

145

47

192

Biotite

217

42

259

Hornblende

105

35

140

K-feldspar

18

6

24

Muscovite

4

0

4

Plagioclase

5

0

5

Whole rock

66

19

85

Crystallization age
U–Pb ages
ZirconU–Th–total Pb ages

Cooling age
K–Ar ages

Ar–Ar ages
Biotite4

1

5

Hornblende

0

3

3

Plagioclase

0

1

1

Whole rock

4

0

4

959

268

Total

*Age datum from the Oga peninsula is tallied in NE Japanbe somewhat lower than zircon (Yokoyama et al. 2010,2016), but the results are compatible with the zircon
U–Pb ages and we consider they can be regarded as
crystallization ages and make a useful contribution to

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the tectonic discussion of this study (Fig. 4A). Rb–Sr
whole rock or mineral ages and monazite U–Th–total
Pb ages have been given prominent treatment in former studies. However, these are commonly in marked
disagreement with the age values obtained by the above
methods (Shibata and Ishihara 1979; Skrzypek et al.
2018, 2020) and were excluded from the compilation
to avoid complicating the discussion. We also compiled
K–Ar and Ar–Ar age values (whole rock and mineralages). These ages are interpreted as cooling ages rather
than crystallization ages. It is possible that some of theresults were modified by later thermal events. However, when K–Ar ages are compared to zircon U–Pb
ages from the same samples or from samples taken invery close proximity, there is a good agreement in theobserved trends with the K–Ar ages generally showing ages ~ 10–15 Myr younger than the zircon ages
(Fig. 4B). We conclude that the K–Ar age data set is a
useful addition to the geochronological record used inthis study. Due to the limited number of results, it wasmore difficult to compare Ar–Ar ages to the U–Pb ages.
However, we also included these ages because theyshow good consistency with neighboring K–Ar ages. In
our compilation of cooling ages, we exclude data fromsamples where significant alteration of the measured
minerals are described or where the original research
considers them to have undergone secondary alteration. Filtering of data as described above leaves a data
set consisting of 697 crystallization ages and 530 cooling ages (Fig. 5, Additional files 1, 2: Table S1).

Fig. 4 Comparison of uraninite and thorite U–Th–total Pb ages (Yokoyama et al. 2016). A and K–Ar age values, B against zircon U–Pb ages basedon the database of Table 1. Each point is a comparison between samples from the identical or proximal area (within a few kilometers) and expected
to have the similar rock-forming age. Error bars are shown as 1σ

Yamaoka and Wallis ﻿Progress in Earth and Planetary Science(2023) 10:62

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Fig. 5 Spatial distribution of chronological data and associated dating method

4.2 Adakitic magma and high‑Mg andesitic magma

In our literature review, we also recorded reports of samples with geochemical data showing adakite and high-Mg
andesitic magma (HMA) compositions that occur within
the spatiotemporal domain covered by our compilation(Additional files 3, 4: Table S2). Such magmas can form
as a result of the subduction of an oceanic plate into
relatively warm mantle regions. Adakites mainly exhibit
high-Sr/Y and high-La/Yb signatures which are most
likely controlled by high-pressure melting in the presenceof the garnet or amphibole and the absence of plagioclase(Castillo 2012). These features of adakites are generally interpreted to indicate a slab melting origin (e.g.,
Defant and Drummond 1990). However, the possibility of an origin controlled by intracrustal differentiation
processes continues to be debated (e.g., Yada and Owada
2003; Kamei et al. 2004; Takahashi et al. 2005; Takahashi
2008; Tsuchiya 2008; Chiaradia 2015; Chapman et al.
2015). HMA magmatism is thought to be associated withpartial melting of mantle under relatively low-pressure
conditions with hydrated conditions (Tatsumi 1982,
1995). Occurrences of both adakitic and HMA magma

Yamaoka and Wallis ﻿Progress in Earth and Planetary Science(2023) 10:62

compositions are rare in normal arc magmatism and are
generally interpreted as features characteristic of the subduction of young slabs and magmatism during the onsetof subduction.

5 Compilation results
5.1 Radiometric ages distribution
5.1.1 NE Japan

In NE Japan, there is a concentration of data on theeastern side corresponding to the Kitakami–Abukuma

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domain. Basement rocks of the western part of NE Japanare only locally exposed beneath extensive post-Miocene to Quaternary overlying strata on the Sea of Japanside (Fig. 6). The oldest activity is ~ 130 Ma east of theKitakami area, with ages showing a good correlation withlongitude, and an overall westward-younging trend up
to ~ 100 Ma and an average migration rate for NE Japan
can be calculated as ~ 130 km per 20 Myr (~ 6.5 km/Myr)(Fig. 7). Slightly younger ages down to ~ 95 Ma are also
observed in the Abukuma area, but the overall trend isFig. 6 Spatial distribution of compiled age values. Specific colors are assigned according to age value. Data sources are shown in Additional files 1,
2: Table S1

Yamaoka and Wallis ﻿Progress in Earth and Planetary Science(2023) 10:62

Fig. 7 Spatiotemporal variation of arc igneous activity in NE Japan,
with longitude on the horizontal axis because the largest age
gradient in NE Japan is in the east–west direction (e.g., Tsuchiya et al.
2015; Yokoyama et al. 2016). Colored circles indicate crystallization
ages, and colors correspond to latitude. White circles indicate coolingages. Note that the east–west direction on the horizontal axis
is reversed compared to the map to facilitate a direct comparison
with SW Japan in Fig. 14

consistent with the ages of the Kitakami area. Younger
igneous activity is also recorded at Jodogahama, but has
limited distribution (e.g., Tsuchiya et al. 2005).
5.1.2 SW JapanWest of the ISTL, there is a notable difference in thespatial configurations of igneous activity before ~ 60 Ma
and after ~ 46 Ma. Major igneous activity prior to 60 Ma
is 115–100 Ma in Kyushu, 100–90 Ma in the Shikoku,
and 80–70 Ma in the Chubu area, and shows an overall
trend of younging to the east when locations with similar distances measured perpendicular to the MTL arecompared. There is also gradual younging trend to thenorth with increasing distance from the MTL (Figs. 6,
8A). These age distributions indicate that temporal variations in the age of igneous activity cannot be adequately

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expressed solely as a function of distance from the MTL(Fig. 8A). A small number of igneous rocks showing agesof 110–90 Ma are also recognized in the Chubu and Kinki
areas, independent of the overall trend of younger age at
greater distances from the MTL (Fig. 8A). More careful
tracing of the migration of the locus of igneous activity
with time shows that the isochronous lines are oriented
roughly parallel to the modern lines of latitude in a direction ~ 15–20 degrees oblique to the MTL (Figs. 6, 8B,
Additional files 1, 2: Table S1). When plotted in a spacewith horizontal axes of latitude and longitude and a vertical axis of age, the geochronological data define a clear
planer surface (Figs. 8B, Additional files 1, 2: Table S1).
This surface shows a horizontal migration of 300 km
migration of the arc associated with a change in age from
110 to 60 Ma. The average migration rate of the arc calculated from this observation is ~ 6–7 km/Myr, which isin good agreement with the rates of migration recorded
in NE Japan. On the continental side of the arc, there isvigorous igneous activity 115–90 Ma, which is followed
by a quieter period 90–70 Ma and a phase of moderate activity 70–60 Ma. Thus, the region north of ~ 35°N
records two peaks of igneous activity at 110–90 Ma and
70–60 Ma. The spatiotemporal trends of the > 60 Ma
igneous activity of SW Japan do not extend southward
beyond the MTL. In the area between the TTL and ISTL
(identified as part of SW Japan in Fig. 2), a less distinct
spatial change is recognized, although the area does show
a similar bimodal age distribution with activity peaks
at 110–90 Ma and 75–60 Ma (Figs. 6, 7C) similar to theregion north of ~ 35°N in SW Japan. Most of the areas
around the TTL on the NE Japan side show ages in therange 105–95 Ma, and thus, the TTL forms the border
between the age distribution patterns. As shown in Fig. 6,
the two major tectonic lines, the MTL and TTL, crosscut
the trends of the > 60 Ma igneous activity.
Magmatic crystallization ages between 60 and 46 Ma
are almost completely absent from the rock record. The
only exception is the Daito granodiorite, which showsa zircon U–Pb age of 57 Ma (Ishihara and Tani 2013).
Other ages from igneous bodies that fall in this age range
are all cooling ages (Fig. 8). After 46 Ma, the site of igneous activity changes drastically and becomes concentrated along the Japan Sea coast. The < 46 Ma arc front,
which also takes into account the distribution of igneousrocks from 30–20 Ma, is aligned parallel to the MTL andouter zone zonal structures, and no subsequent largescale migration is recognized. This arc front is roughly
consistent with the southern boundary of the San-in Beltin the traditional classification of granitic zones (e.g.,
Murakami 1974).

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Fig. 8 Spatiotemporal variation of arc igneous activity in SW Japan west of ISTL, with distance from the MTL (A) and latitude (B) on the horizontal
axis. Colored circles indicate crystallization ages. The colors correspond to longitude. White circles in (B) indicate cooling ages. The age distribution
in the region between the ISTL and TTL is shown in (C)5.2 Adakitic magma and high‑Mg andesitic magma

The compiled information on adakite and HMA localities shows a variety of ages and spatial distributions(Figs. 9, 10). In many areas, adakite and HMA show asimilar spatial distribution. Based on Sr and Y contents,
the ages of both magma types can be separated into three
distinct stages (Fig. 10). Data for La and Yb contents in
the 100–30 Ma range were not available in sufficientnumbers for our discussion, but there is a good correlation between high La/Yb ratios and high Sr/Y ratios forthe samples with ages in the 130–100 Ma range (Additional file 3: Table S3). The first adakite- and HMArelated magmatism is observed from NE Japan to Kyushu
in the period 130–100 Ma. The second is observed in the
period 70–60 Ma in the Chubu region and adjacent to
the TTL in SW Japan. The third is observed in the period
45–30 Ma in the Chugoku region, the Noto peninsula,
the Oga peninsula, and the Jodogahama area. A comparison of these results with the overall age distribution
shows the first stage corresponds to extensive igneous
activity that extended over a wide part of the continental
margin, whereas the second and third stages correspondto periods immediately before and after the period ofmagmatic quiescence.

6 Discussion: possible tectonic scenarios
In this section, we use our compilation of data related tothe timing, location and type of igneous activity to propose a tectonic history for the Japan arc. We divide thishistory into four distinct stages: (i) subduction initiationof the Izanagi plate, (ii) subducting slab shallowing, (iii)ridge subduction and clockwise rotation of SW Japan, (iv)subduction of the Pacific plate (Fig. 11).
6.1 Onset of extensive magmatism: subduction initiationof the Izanagi plate

The earliest igneous activity of the Cretaceous is recognized in NE Japan at ~ 130 Ma, and this magmatism isaccompanied by significant adakite and calc-alkaline
magma production (Tsuchiya et al. 2015; Osozawa et al.
2019) (Fig. 12). Compilations of detrital zircon U–Pb
ages from the Shimanto and Sanbagawa belts show a lackof igneous zircons in the 160–130 Ma range, suggesting
cessation of igneous activity in the paleo-Japan realm(Fig. 13). The presence of this group of igneous bodies
and the age patterns of igneous detrital zircons indicatethat igneous activity in Cretaceous Japan initiated withan intense phase at 130 Ma marking a major shift from alull during 160–130 Ma. The significance of the period inYamaoka and Wallis ﻿Progress in Earth and Planetary Science(2023) 10:62

Page 12 of 23

Fig. 9 Spatial distribution of adakite and high-Mg andesitic magmas. Both types of magma are represented by different symbols for each active
stage. Data sources are shown in Additional files 3, 4: Table S2

the geological development of east Asia is shown by thesimilar magmatic histories observed in the Korean Peninsula (e.g., Sagong et al. 2005) and the Sikhote-Alin area
(e.g., Wu et al. 2017).
We interpret the onset of this igneous activity as marking the onset of active subduction of a former plate generally identified as the Izanagi Plate (Woods and Davies
1982). Initiation of subduction of the Izanagi plate has
been linked to both the termination of a phase of flatslab subduction of a marginal oceanic plate, and subduction at a former transform boundary due to a change in
relative plate motion (Khanchuk et al. 2016; Grebennikov
et al. 2016; Wu et al. 2022a, b).
The onset of subduction is expected to be associatedwith the formation of a hot and juvenile mantle upwelling
due to the presence of a slab gap and/or the developmentof a return flow in the mantle as the slab is subducted(Wu et al. 2022a; b). The formation of adakites andYamaoka and Wallis ﻿Progress in Earth and Planetary Science(2023) 10:62

Page 13 of 23

Fig. 10 A Adakite discrimination diagram using Sr and Y content in felsic magma during the period 130–30 Ma (Defant and Drummond 1990).
Rocks showing ­SiO2 < 56 wt%, ­Al2O3 < 14.5 wt% and ­Na2O < 3 wt% are not included in the plot to find Sr and Y features in the range of major
elements typical of adakite (e.g., Castillo 2012). ADR = andesite–dacite–rhyolite. B Re-plotted data of (A) with age as the horizontal axis. High-Sr/Y
ratios signify adakite activity. The data sources are shown in Additional file 3: Table S3

HMAs in the period 130–95 Ma can be interpreted asmagma generated as a result of the interaction of the subducting slab with this hot mantle (Fig. 11A, B). Furthermore, such high-temperature mantle influx can induce
long-term and widespread mantle-tectonic thermal
anomalies (Fig. 11B). Thus, it can explain the extended
igneous activity on the continental side of SW Japan that
continues up to 90 Ma. Evidence for widespread igneous
activity from 120 to 90 Ma can be traced to the Korean
Peninsula (e.g., Kim et al. 2012; Zhang et al. 2021).
Further evidence for subduction initiation at this timeis also given by studies of metamorphic rocks. A counterclockwise P–T path showing isobaric cooling documented in higher-grade units of the subduction-type
Sanbagawa metamorphic belt associated with a peakmetamorphic age of 126–116 Ma has been interpreted

by Endo (2010) and Endo et al. (2012) in terms of subduction initiation. The presence of highly depleted
ultramafic rocks of mantle wedge origin in the same
unit showing high degrees of influx partial melting iscompatible with high-T conditions and active mantle
flow associated with the early stages of the Sanbagawa
metamorphism (Mizukami and Wallis 2005; Hattori
et al. 2010).
The common occurrence of thick pelagic charts
accompanying units showing accretion ages around theAlbian–Aptian in the Shimanto belt (e.g., Ota et al. 2019)
and the relationship between monotonous landward arc
migration and younger plate ages as shown in the next
section, suggest that the subducting oceanic plate subducting beneath Japan during the mid-Cretaceous was
not young.

(See figure on next page.)
Fig. 11 Conceptual tectonic model for SW Japan that can explain the spatiotemporal evolution of arc magmatism. The onset of subductionof the Izanagi plate (IZA) beneath the eastern margin of Eurasia (A), the migration of the arc front to the continental side accompanied by slab
shallowing due to the approach of the spreading ridge (B–D), cessation of the arc magmatism accompanied by ridge subduction and formationof the slab window (E), and the onset of subduction of the Pacific plate (PAC) after spreading ridge subduction (F) are shown. The remnantsof the arc formed during (A–D) are oriented at an angle of about 20 degrees to the present arc orientation shown in (F). This rotation suggests
microplate rotation associated with the IZA–PAC ridge subduction

Yamaoka and Wallis ﻿Progress in Earth and Planetary ScienceFig. 11 (See legend on previous page.)(2023) 10:62

Page 14 of 23

Yamaoka and Wallis ﻿Progress in Earth and Planetary Science(2023) 10:62

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Fig. 12 Schematic illustration of magma arc configuration changes in SW and NE Japan for the periods 130–60 Ma (A) and 46–30 Ma (B)and the present (C) in map view. The colored bars indicate the general locations of arc fronts. Subduction of the Izanagi-Pacific Ridge between 60
and 46 Ma produced a magmatic hiatus, and the change in convergence vector associated with the change in the subducting plate induced
a 20° clockwise rotation (CW) of the inner zone of SW Japan and possibly the Korean peninsula. B The blue dotted line indicates that the easternpart of the paleo-magmatic arc has been eroded to a greater extent in the east in association with MTL activity during the period 60–46 Ma.
For simplicity, the TTL–ISTL regions where the IBM arc collided with the other Japanese arcs and the location of the magmatic arc after 30 Ma are
not shown in (C)Fig. 13 Probability density plot based on a complication of U–Pb ages from detrital zircons in the Sanbagawa and Northern Shimanto belts
in representative literatures. The source data do not include U–Pb ages for zircon rims grown by metamorphism, all of which can be interpreted
as igneous ages. The bars show the U–Pb age for each analysis. Sanbagawa: Okamoto et al. (2004), Aoki et al. (2007, 2012, 2009), Tsutsumi et al.
(2009, 2012), Knittel et al. (2014), Endo et al. (2018), Jia and Takeuchi (2020), Shimanto: Aoki et al. (2012, 2015), Tokiwa et al. (2019, 2017, 2021),
Shimura et al. (2017, 2020, 2021) and Jia and Takeuchi (2020)

6.2 Arc migration: subducting slab shallowing 130–60 Ma

In NE and SW Japan, there is evidence of arc migration
at similar rates of 6–7 km/Myr. The younging trends ofcurrently observed paleo-magma arcs formed in the
period > 60 Ma show a nearly orthogonal relationshipbetween NE and SW Japan. However, reversing the NE

Japan and SW Japan rotation vectors related to the Miocene Japan Sea opening, as estimated on the basis of
paleomagnetic studies (e.g., Otofuji et al. 1985; Hoshi
2018), shows the younging trends in both NE Japan and
SW Japan are oriented roughly parallel to the former
continental margin (Fig. 12). These similarities allow

Yamaoka and Wallis ﻿Progress in Earth and Planetary Science(2023) 10:62

Page 16 of 23

Fig. 14 Summary of arc magmatism 130–30 Ma. The white circles in the left show the crystallization ages in NE Japan as in Fig. 7. The black circles
show the crystallization ages in SW Japan as in Fig. 8B, C. The age ranges of occurrences of adakite and high-Mg andesitic (HMA) magma are shownon the right side. Metamorphic ages based on zircon U–Pb chronology for the high-T/P type metamorphism are shown in purple. 1: Abukuma
metamorphism (Hiroi et al. 1998). 2: Higo metamorphism (Sakashima et al. 2003; Maki et al. 2014; Tsutsumi 2020; Kawaguchi et al. 2020). 3–6: Ryoke
metamorphism (Skrzypek et al. 2018; Takatsuka et al. 2018; Kawakami et al. 2019, 2022; Miyazaki et al. 2022)

us to interpret the present NE Japan and SW Japan age
distributions as different parts of the same former magmatic arc (Fig. 12A). The absence of a rock record of the
130–120 Ma arc in the western part of SW Japan can be
explained by excision due to movements on the MTL anderosion. These ideas are compatible with proposals forthe former existence of a ‘paleo-Ryoke’ domain, which isoriginally located to the south of the present Ryoke belt
prior to MTL activity (Fig. 12B, Ichikawa 1990; Ono 2002;
Takagi and Shibata 2000; Takagi and Arai 2003). In thisstudy, we estimate that the magmatic arc migrated awayfrom the trench over a distance of ~ 400 km (Fig. 14).
Such large-scale continentward migration of the arc isbest explained by shallowing of the dip of the subducting slab (Fig. 11B, C; Gianni and Pérez Luján 2021). As weshow in the following section, such shallowing is consistent with increased buoyancy of the subducting slab as its
age decreases until the ridge reaches the subduction zone
between 60 and 46 Ma.
The approach or subduction of an active spreading
ridge has commonly been called on to explain the P–T
conditions of the Ryoke metamorphic rocks (e.g., Brown
1998; Iwamori 2000). However, the spatiotemporalconfiguration of high-T metamorphism including thatin the Abukuma, and Higo regions is in good agreementwith the major younging trends we found in the distribution of paleo-magma arcs, indicating that high-T
metamorphism occurred in association with major arc
magmatism for at least 120–80 Ma (Fig. 14). The temporal and spatial proximity of the high-T metamorphism toarc magmatism indicates that the high-T metamorphism
has moved continentward with time together with themain magma arc trend and that these P–T conditions are
best explained by the subduction of young oceanic lithosphere at some distance from the spreading ridge. Since
the age and subduction angle of the subducting slab may
have changed with time, the slightly older Abukuma–
Higo metamorphism (~ 120–110 Ma) is likely associatedwith older slab ages and deeper subduction angles, andmore recent Ryoke metamorphism (~ 110–80 Ma) withyounger and shallower subduction.
6.3 Magmatic hiatus: ridge subduction at 60–46 Ma

The 60–46 Ma magmatic hiatus in southwest Japan recognized in this study can be correlated with that of Wu
and Wu (2019). However, since igneous activity several

Yamaoka and Wallis ﻿Progress in Earth and Planetary Science(2023) 10:62

million years younger than 60 Ma is reported not only
from the Daito granodiorite but also the Korean Peninsula and detrital zircon chronology (e.g., Tokiwa et al.
2016; Cheong and Jo 2017; Nakano et al. 2021), it is possible that more data on igneous ages in SW Japan will show
the start of this magmatic hiatus is somewhat younger.
As discussed by Wu and Wu (2019), the 60–46 Ma
hiatus in igneous activity is best explained by the arrivalof the Izanagi–Pacific spreading ridge at a low angle tothe trench. This hypothesis implies that the periods justbefore and after the magmatic hiatus should be associated with young slab subduction. Adakite and HMA
igneous activity is commonly interpreted as associated with subduction of young oceanic lithosphere andthe presence of these types of magmatism immediately
before and after the igneous hiatus supports the idea ofridge subduction during the 60–46 Ma igneous hiatus(Figs. 9, 12).
In more general terms, the 70–60 Ma period represents an igneous flare up stage with widespread andvoluminous igneous activity accompanied by very large
ignimbrite forming events typified by the Nohi-rhyolite
deposits (Koido 1991; Yamada and Koido 2005; Sonehara
and Harayama 2007). Likewise, igneous activity after
46 Ma is also characterized by high activity with numerous caldera formations (e.g., Imaoka et al. 2011). Thesestages associated with common caldera-formation both
before and after ridge subduction may be related to highcrustal temperatures due to subduction of younger slabs
and the presence of tensile stress fields.
6.4 Clockwise rotation of SW Japan during the ridge
subduction time

The > 1000-point igneous age compilation allows the recognition of two linear non-parallel arrays of former arcs
in the SW Japan basement (Fig. 6). The linear nature of
the arrays shows there has been minimal deformation
within the separate basement domains and the main
effect of crustal movements has been to cause rotations
about vertical axes. The ages of the arc arrays and their
obliquity allow us to estimate the timing and of this rotation of the different basement domains or blocks. The
locations of the arc arrays can also be used as marker
horizons to estimate displacement of the blocks.
We interpret the observed ~ 20° obliquity between
the 46–30 Ma arc and the 130–60 Ma arc as representing a clockwise rotation of the inner zone of SW Japanbetween 60 and 46 Ma (Fig. 11). Since the overall age
trend of igneous activity before 60 Ma in the Chubu
region and ISTL–TTL regions is very similar, we consider
the ISTL–TTL region acted as a continuous microplateto the west of ISTL region during the period 130–60 Ma.
However, the TTL and MTL cross-cut the continuous

Page 17 of 23

130–60 Ma arc sequence seen in SW Japan, indicating that both these tectonic lines are major boundaries
between two distinct microplates and their cross-cutting
relationships developed after 60 Ma. The age gap along
the TTL is recognized between the ~ 105 Ma arc in NE
Japan and magmatic activity on continent side of the
65–60 Ma arc in SW Japan. This gap indicates that there
is at least a 200 km arc-normal component of sinistral
displacement along the TTL relative to NE Japan. Hence,
the trend noted in previous studies that the igneous ageof the Cretaceous arc front near the MTL is younger tothe east can be explained by clockwise rotation of theinner zone of SW Japan relative to the outer zone and NE
Japan, and the loss of the eastern part of the arc due tomovement along the MTL (Figs. 11, 12). This crustal loss
is discussed in Sect. 6.5.
Paleomagnetism is an ideal method to test for the rotation about a vertical axis proposed in this study. Twosuch studies by Fukuma et al. (2003) and Uno et al. (2021)
report a ~ 20 degrees clockwise rotation of the SW Japanbasement area between 70 and 20 Ma that occurredprior to rotation associated with the Miocene Japan Sea
opening event (Otofuji et al. 1985). The good continuity and parallel nature within each of the 70–60 Ma and
46–20 Ma arcs revealed in our data set imply rotation did
not occur during these periods. This is in agreement withthe results of Fukuma et al. (2003) and Uno et al. (2021)
but potentially narrows the timing of rotation to theperiod 60–46 Ma.
A similar rotational history has been confirmed at multiple locations around the Korean Peninsula (Fig. 1; Linet al. 2003; Huang et al. 2007), suggesting that clockwise
rotation relative to Eurasia continent may have occurred
within a 1000 km-scale microplate that includes SW
Japan (Fig. 1; Uno et al. 2021).
A change in the direction of oceanic plate subduction
may help explain the trigger for the rotational motion.
Recent oceanic plate reconstructions and analysis ofdeformational structures as kinematic indicator in the
Shimanto accretionary complexes suggest there was asignificant rapid shift from pre-ridge subduction of the
Izanagi plate with a sinistral lateral convergence to a dextral lateral convergence of the Pacific plate after ridge
subduction (Whittaker et al. 2007; Byrne and DiTullio
1992; Onishi and Kimura 1995; Raimbourg et al. 2014;
Müller et al. 2022). This counterclockwise change in convergence vector changes the overlying plate at the eastern
margin of the Asian continent into a dextral transpression zone, which in turn allows clockwise rotation of theinner zone of southwest Japan (Fig. 12).
Ridge subduction and the resulting plate rearrangement have the potential to have a major influence onregional geology. A series of fault basins around theYamaoka and Wallis ﻿Progress in Earth and Planetary Science(2023) 10:62

Japan Sea and the East China Sea have been recognizedthat developed or reactivated during the period we propose corresponds to the phase of the Izanagi–Pacificridge subduction (Fig. 1). The development of thesebasin-forming faults may have been influenced by mantle flow driven by subduction of the Izanagi plate or
Izanagi–Pacific ridge and the changes in subduction vectors described above (Cao et al. 2018). A multistage faulting system in the Bohai Bay Basin including movements
before and after the proposed time of ridge subduction
records a clockwise shift of the main extensional trend ofbasin-forming lifting compatible with our proposed rotation history (Zhu et al. 2020; Yuan et al. 2022) and suggests that the switching of subducting oceanic plates withdifferent convergent vectors can result in widespread
deformation of the continental margin.
6.5 Crustal erosion: relationship with the Median Tectonic
Line

Reconstructions of Cretaceous–Paleogene arc migrationin SW Japan suggest the presence of a stage of large-scale
crustal removal along the MTL. The recognition of an arc
deficit and the ~ 20 degrees obliquity of the SW Japan arc
front to the MTL indicates that shallower crustal erosion
occurred associated with block rotation of SW Japan during 60–46 Ma (Fig. 12).
The locations of the paleo-arcs can be used to estimate
the amount of material lost perpendicular to the arc. If
the parallelism of the paleo-arcs is preserved, the crustal loss can be estimated as the distance to the envisaged 130 Ma arc front. For example, since arc fronts of
the 110–100 Ma and 70–60 Ma periods can be observedin the Kyushu and Chubu regions, respectively; thehorizontal distances perpendicular to the 130 Ma arc
estimated based on arc migration rates (6–7 km/Myr)are 100–200 km and 400–500 km. Note that these estimated amounts of crustal shortening are assumed to be
all accounted for by the CW block rotation, but they areminimum estimates because they do not consider the
possibility of erosion of the forearc region between the
130 Ma arc and the younger accretionary complexes.
The age of igneous activity constrains the timing ofcrustal removal associated with block rotation to haveoccurred 60–46 Ma. The crustal removal during thisstage is inferred to have been surface erosion, since the
MTL during the relevant period shows large-scale normal fault movement with the foot wall on the outer zoneside uplifting (Kobayashi 1995; Fukunari and Wallis 2007;
Kubota and Takeshita 2008; Kubota et al. 2020). Largescale normal fault movement at this time is also supported by the exposure of the Sanbagawa metamorphic
belt (Narita et al. 1999; Kusuhashi et al. 2022).

Page 18 of 23

7 Conclusions
A reassessment of the spatiotemporal evolution of felsic to intermediate arc magmatism in NE and SW Japanin the period 130–30 Ma based on a compilation of a1227-entry database, combined with geochemical considerations and contemporaneous the geological eventsin Japan and surrounding regions leads to the following
conclusions.
1. Arc magmatism occurred throughout the period
130–60 Ma in both northeastern and southwesternJapan and during this period underwent a ~ 400 km
migration toward the continental side. This migration is best accounted for by a shallowing of the slab
subducting angle associated with a slab progressively younging following the onset of subduction ofold lithosphere of the Izanagi plate at around 130–
120 Ma.
2. Cessation of arc magmatism is recognized in the
period 60–46 Ma throughout the Japanese arc andis explained by the subduction of the Izanagi–Pacificspreading ridge subparallel to the trench.
3. A new volcanic arc formed in the period 46–30
Ma in SW Japan and remained in a similar location
throughout this time with no significant arc migration.
4. The ~ 20° obliquity between the 46–30 Ma arc andthe 130–60 Ma arc suggests a clockwise rotation of
the inner zone of SW Japan during the ridge subduction stage. Such a rotation is supported by paleomagnetic data. The proposed rotation is accompanied by
dextral transpression tectonics immediately after the
Izanagi–Pacific ridge subduction.
5. Magmatic arcs developed during the period 130–30
Ma in Japan provide a robust reference frame for analyzing microplate rotational motion and recognizing
localized crustal excision within this convergent platemargin domain.

Abbreviations
MTL	Median Tectonic Line
TTL	Tanakura Tectonic LineISTL	Itoigawa–Shizuoka Tectonic LineUYTL	Usuki–Yatsushiro Tectonic Line

Supplementary Information
The online version contains supplementary material available at https://​doi.​
org/​10.​1186/​s40645-​023-​00594-8.
Additional file 1: Table S1. References.
Additional file 2: Table S1. List of compiled ages on igneous rock fromsouthwest Japan (SWJ) and northeast Japan (NEJ).
Additional file 3: Table S2 and S3. References.

Yamaoka and Wallis ﻿Progress in Earth and Planetary Science(2023) 10:62

Additional file 4: Table S2. Summary of descriptions of 130–30 Ma
adakite and High-Mg andesite.
Additional file 5: Table S3. List of Sr & Y features for Cretaceous–Paleogene igneous rock with chronological data.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to two anonymous reviewers and the editor Tim Byrne forconstructive comments on the manuscript.
Author contributions
Conceptualization, methodology, writing, review and editing were contributed by KY and SW. Data were analyzed by KY. All authors read and approved
the final manuscript.
Funding
This work was supported by JSPS Grants-in-Aid, 20J20834 and 23K19076
awarded to KY, and 21H01188 and 21H05202 awarded to SW.
Availability of data and materials
The datasets supporting the conclusions of this article are included within thearticle and its Additional files 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.

Declarations
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Received: 17 July 2023 Accepted: 6 October 2023

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