India-Japan Cooperation towards a Rule-Based Order in the Asia-Pacific:
Mapping Indian and Japanese Strategic Thinking
Shamshad A. Khan, PhD
Summary

The political leadership of the leading democracies in the Asia-Pacific has been arguing for thecreation of a rule-based order in the region. Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe put forth thisidea in his speech at the 2014 Shangri-La Dialogue urging the international community toadhere to “international law” when making their claims and resolving their disputes. Similarstatements have been made by leaders in the US, the G-7, and India. They have expressed
concerns about China’s expansive behavior and claims in the South China Sea and the East
China Sea. This research paper evaluates the statements and speeches of Japanese and Indian
leaders. It also tries to assess how the strategic thinkers and the media that help shape public
opinion view their calls for forging a new regional architecture. Analyses of their debates inIndia and Japan would be helpful in understanding the converging and diverging points toward
creating a new rule-based order. Interestingly, though both Indian and Japanese leadership havesounded positive about forming a rule-based order to check China’s rise, they have not hesitatedto embrace China wherever their national interests converged with Beijing’s. While Japandenounces China’s aggressive behavior, Tokyo has been amenable to the idea that Beijing
should play an influential role in the Six-party Talks to restrain Pyongyang’s provocations. The
need for a new architecture can be seen not only in the field of security but also in the economic
realm. While Japan so far finds itself comfortable with the European- and US-led economicorder, India is uncomfortable with this Western-led economic order as the existing order isbased on the 1950s economic order and does not represent the changed economic realities of thepresent world. Though India allies with Japan on security issues, it has aligned with China toforge a new alternative economic order that includes the China-led Asian Infrastructure
Investment Bank (AIIB). This paper, while summarizing the Japanese and Indian strategic
thinking, suggests India and Japan to bridge their perceptions over various global and regional
issues and offers policy recommendations in order to forge a strongly-knit rule-based order inthe Asia-Pacific.

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1. Introduction
The leading democracies in the Asia-Pacific have been arguing for the creation of a rule-basedorder within which all countries can flourish “free from the arbitrary intention of any national
government 1 .” To achieve this objective, the democracies in the region are forging stronger
strategic ties among themselves. The calls from the regional powers to achieve this goal are
based on their assumption that, when a new power rises, it changes the status quo of the existingorder. Moreover, the new power tries to dominate the region by undermining the existing
internationally-accepted norms and laws. The new power that is being debated in strategic andpolitical circles across the globe is none other than China2. Concerns are being expressed about
Beijing’s expansive behaviour and its claims in the South China Sea and the East China Sea. Of
late, Russia’s expansionist behaviour has also drawn their attention, and similar concerns havebeen expressed by various leaders. At international forums such as East Asia Summit and G-7,
various leaders and statesmen have expressed unease over these developments.
In Asia, Japan and India have been at the forefront in urging the democracies to come forward tocreate a rule-based regional order. This research paper identifies three key variables in thiscontext– political leaders, strategic thinkers and the media– to assess the strategic thinking ofIndia and Japan. This researcher believes that these three variables play an important role informulating and influencing the strategic debate in the democracies. The paper attempts toevaluate the statements and speeches of Japanese and Indian leaders to assess how they envisagea rule-based order for the Asia-Pacific and beyond. The paper also analyses Indian and Japanese
strategic thinking using the opinion pieces written by strategic experts and editorials that haveappeared in newspapers. Since the popular debate generated by the media and strategic thinkers
help influence the decision-making process of the states, analyses of their debates will be helpful
in understanding the converging and diverging points of the different constituencies in bothcountries toward creating a new rule-based order that in turn will be helpful in assessing if thisgoal can be achieved.
The paper has been divided into various subthemes to understand the issues involved towards
creating a new order in the Asia-Pacific. The first subtheme attempts to define the concept and it
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analyses the statements and speeches of leaders in India and Japan regarding the concept of arule-based order. Then the paper goes on to analyse and compare different shades of Indian andJapanese strategic thinking expressed through opinion articles and editorials in order tounderstand the convergences and divergences of their approaches vis-à-vis a rule-based order ora new security architecture.

2. Quest for a Rule-Based Order in the Asia-Pacific2-(1) Defining the concept
While several interpretations of the term ‘rule-based order’ or ‘the new world order’ have beenin use in strategic circles, it remains an ideological notion associated with the concept of global
governance through collective efforts. 3 At the core of the debate are the new developing
relationships among various democracies, including India and Japan. Notably, India and Japan,
the two Asian democracies, have developed a global and strategic partnership and have madecommitments to work together on various regional and international issues.
Japan and India view themselves as complementary to each other in both economic and security
matters. In their strategic and global partnership agreement signed in 2006, they identified astrong and prosperous India as being in the interest of Japan and vice versa. Both countries are
networked internationally. Japan has used its different foreign policy tools, including its overseas
financial aid and Overseas Development Assistance (ODA), to remain engaged with theinternational community. India, since the end of Cold War, has signed a number of strategic
partnerships with countries across the globe, which is reflective of the fact that India is much
more engaged with the world than ever before. Because of their growing inter-dependence with
the international community both politically and economically, it is quite natural that both India
and Japan are cooperating for a rule-based order to safeguard the global commons. Of late, both
India and Japan have argued for creating a global economic and security environment that could
benefit all nations in the international community. Their demand that freedom of navigation andover-flights be safeguarded as global commons stems from their common understanding.

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2-(2) Japanese and Indian leaders’ quest for a rule-based order
Various statesmen have called for creating a rule-based order and have presented their views on
the methods to achieve this goal. Japan’s search to create a new architecture based on the “rule oflaw” can be traced to a 2006 speech by Taro Aso when he was the Foreign Minister of Japan. In
2006, Aso enunciated the idea of an “arc of freedom and prosperity.” He argued that, in its
diplomacy, Japan should lay emphasis on “universal values” such as “democracy, freedom,human rights, the rule of law, and the market economy.”4 This statement was one of the rare“pro-active” foreign policy pronouncements by Japan, which is widely considered a “reactive
state.” Japan at that time wanted to “design” an “arc of freedom and prosperity” by forging
stronger ties with “budding democracies.” Presenting his views towards creating this arc, Aso
included budding democracies that “line the outer rim of the Eurasian continent.” Apart from thebudding democracies, his value-oriented diplomacy also included the friendly nations sharing
common views and interests. He argued:
I firmly believe that Japan must make its ties even firmer with friendly nations thatshare common views and interests, namely of course, the United States as well asAustralia, India, and the member states of the EU and NATO, and at the sametime work with these friends towards the expansion of this “arc of freedom andprosperity.”5
It was clear from Aso’s pronouncement that Japan wanted to create an exclusive global
architecture where countries not espousing democracy and the rule of law had no place.
Taking the idea forward, Prime Minister Shinzo Abe, during his first stint in office, mooted
the idea of a “broader Asia” at the confluence of the Indian and Pacific oceans and urged thatthe democratic nations located at the opposite edges of these seas deepen the friendshipamong their citizens at every possible level. He highlighted that “this ‘broader Asia’ will
evolve into an immense network spanning the entirety of the Pacific Ocean, incorporating theUnited States of America and Australia.”6
These pronouncements and ideas from Japanese leaders were generally appreciated by otherdemocracies, but they did not take concrete shape. By then, China had already started voicing
concerns, terming these ideas an attempt to encircle China.

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Abe gave yet another push to revive the idea of creating a regional security architecture
consisting of democracies in 2012. Just before resuming office for his second term as Prime
Minister of Japan, Abe mooted the idea of a “Democratic Security Diamond”. In his oftquoted article published by Project Syndicate, he argued:
I envisage a strategy whereby Australia, India, Japan, and the US state of Hawaii
form a diamond to safeguard the maritime commons stretching from the Indian
Ocean region to the western Pacific. I am prepared to invest, to the greatest
possible extent, Japan’s capabilities in this security diamond.7
Moreover, in his speech at the 13th Shangri-La Dialogue in 2014, Abe urged theinternational community to resolve disputes in light of “international law.” Clearly,
Abe’s exhortations to the international community to uphold the “rule of law” werereiterations of statements made by previous Japanese administrations. At this ShangriLa Dialogue, he presented three principles of the “rule of law” at sea for “states” toresolve their disputes:a) states shall make and clarify their claims based on international law;b) states shall not use force or coercion in trying to drive their claims; andc) states shall seek to settle disputes by peaceful means.8
These three principles of the “rule of law” at sea for the resolution of disputes were also
reiterated by Abe during his maiden speech before the US Congress. Abe’s enunciation of thesethree principles for the resolution of disputes was in consonance with the Japanese
government’s policy of creating a rule-based order. By renewing this pledge before the US
Congress, Abe made it clear that he considers the US an important partner in achieving a rulebased order in the Asia-Pacific. Later, in an opinion article published in various newspapers,
Abe presented this idea more emphatically:
We must make the vast seas stretching from the Pacific to the Indian Ocean azone of peace and freedom, where all adhere to the rule of law. For this reason,
too, it is our responsibility to fortify the US-Japan alliance9.
Indian leaders have not been as emphatic as their Japanese counter parts on the issue of a rulebased order. However, they have presented a vision somewhat similar to that of Japan toward
creating a new world order in their speeches and statements. Indian Prime Minister ManmohanPage 5 / 21

Singh, while addressing a gathering of serving Indian diplomats, underscored the need for
creating “a global economic and security environment”10 in the changing world order. He said
that India is “prepared to work with the international community” to create this kind of global
environment “beneficial to all nations.”11 Notably, the seminar was entitled “India’s Place in
the Changing World Order: Where Do We See Ourselves? What Do We Wish to Achieve?”
The seminar attended by Singh was aimed at identifying the way forward for promoting India’s
key foreign policy interests across the regions.
In the context of India-Japan relations, Indian leaders have also voiced their support for
creating a stable regional order in Asia. Manmohan Singh argued:
India’s relations with Japan are important not only for our economic development, but also
because we see Japan as a natural and indispensable partner in our quest for stability andpeace in the vast region in Asia….12
He further emphasised that “there are strong synergies between our economies, which need an
open, rule-based international trading system to prosper.”Similarly, Prime Minister Manmohan Singh’s successor Narendra Modi voiced concerns about
the “expansionist” tendencies of some Asian states. His reference to expansionist tendencies
was taken as an apparent reference to China. While addressing business leaders in Tokyo, Modi
stated that the world is divided into “two camps.” He stated:“One camp believes in expansionist policies, while the other believes in development. We
have to decide whether the world should get caught in the grip of expansionist policies or
we should lead it on the path of development and create opportunities that take it to greater
heights.”13
2-(3) The case of a “rule-based” global maritime order: understanding convergences anddivergences
With the rise of China, successive turbulence is being witnessed at sea and in the air. Beijing’s
expansive behaviour and its claims in the South China Sea and the East China Sea have drawn
concerns from various countries. India, Japan, the US and other democracies around the worldargue that seas (especially the high seas) are part of the global commons and that all nations
have the right to freely transit through the seas. The leaders of India and Japan have also time

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and again reiterated their demand that China abide by the internationally-accepted laws andnorms on the freedom of navigation. As mentioned in the previous section, Japanese leadersmooted the idea of an “Arc of Freedom and Prosperity”, the “Confluence of Two Seas” andmost recently a “Democratic Security Diamond” primarily aimed at establishing a rule-based
maritime order. Nevertheless, India was a little circumspect about embracing this idea.
However, India has started raising the issue of a rule-based maritime order more emphaticallysince China objected to India’s hydrocarbon exploration and exploitation projects in the South
China Sea off the coast of Vietnam in 2011. It was reported widely in the Indian media that a
Chinese warship confronted the Indian Navy vessel INS Airavat shortly after it left aVietnamese port in the South China Sea in late July 2011. While maintaining a studied silenceover this issue, India stated that “it supports the freedom of navigation in international waters
including the South China Sea, the right of passage and unimpeded commerce in accordancewith accepted principles of international law, and peaceful settlement of maritime disputes.
These principles should be respected by all.”14 Since this episode, India has been consistently
making statements about developments in the South China Sea, maintaining that it is not a“party to the dispute” and that its interest in the South China Sea is “purely commercial.”
However, whenever the situation in the South China Sea has escalated, India has madestatements. Expressing concern over a stand-off between China and the Philippines in May
2014, India observed that the “maintenance of peace, stability, growth and prosperity in theregion is of vital interest to the international community.” India’s Ministry of External Affairs
also maintained that the “freedom of navigation in the South China Sea should not be impeded
and calls for cooperation in ensuring the security of sea-lanes and the strengthening of maritime
security.” 15 Finally, the South China Sea issue also surfaced in India-Japan joint statement
signed during Shinzo Abe’s Delhi visit in December 2015. The joint statement stated that “thetwo Prime Ministers noting the developments in the South China Sea called upon all States toavoid unilateral actions that could lead to tensions in the region.”16
India has been reiterating a similar stance on the freedom of navigation in its bilateral andmultilateral engagements with Japan and the US. For example, in the first-ever trilateralmeeting attended by the US Secretary of State and his Japanese and Indian counterparts, thePage 7 / 21three democratic countries “underscored the importance of international law and peacefulsettlement of disputes; freedom of navigation and over-flight; and unimpeded lawful commerce,
including in the South China Sea.”17
It may be noted that China of late, after these concerns were raised by various states, hasstarted acknowledging the concept of freedom of navigation. China’s stance on the freedom ofnavigation, however, differs with that of the US, Japan and India. The Chinese stance can bebest understood by a recent statement by its Ministry of Foreign Affairs that argues “The
Chinese side advocates the freedom of navigation in the South China Sea, yet the freedom
definitely does not mean that foreign military vessels and aircrafts can enter one country’s
territorial waters and airspace at will.”18
Apparently, China is pushing for a new norm by asking that military vessels seek permission
from the coastal state before innocent passage. Citing UNCLOS, which extends the sovereignty
of coastal states on waters up to 12 nautical miles, China is building new man-made islands byreclaiming sea in the South China Sea. However, the international community at large has
expressed concern over China’s reclamation activities and has argued that the 12 nautical mile
stipulation of UNCLOS should not be applied to artificial islands to interfere with the innocent
passage.
However, the reactions and responses by the US, Japan and India vary on this issue. The US, on
27th October 2015, responded to China’s reclamation activities with a Freedom of Navigation
Program by sailing a US Navy guided missile destroyer right by those newly reclaimed islands,
apparently to demonstrate that these waters remain international. Meanwhile, India has notmade any public statement on this issue, and Japan is weighing its options in the disputed South
China Sea. The dominant opinion within Japanese strategic thinking insists that Japan should
not engage in such navigation within the 12-nautical-mile limit of the man-made island because
Japan, unlike the US military, did not have a “next option” to deal with a possible military
clash with China.19

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3．Analyzing Indian Strategic Thinking and Media
Reactions among the strategic thinkers, both from India and Japan, have been mixed. While theleaders of the two leading democracies of Asia in their speeches have presented broader
outlines of cooperation, the strategic thinkers have been quick to suggest how the two
democracies India and Japan should interact with each other as well as what their level ofcooperation with another nations in the region should be to realise this goal. To maintain
diplomatic niceties, the leaders of the two countries have omitted references to China when
they envision a new order in Asia but the strategic thinkers have been quite explicit in naming
the pillars upon which the new order or security architecture should be built.
3-(1) Assessing Indian strategic thinking on the new order/architecture
Some Indian strategic thinkers welcome closer partnership among the US, Japan, India andother nations to hedge China. This kind of argument has been put forward by leading Indianstrategic thinkers such as Brahama Chellaney and C. Raja Mohan. Chellaney, who has written anumber of articles on this issue in the last few years, sees the relationship between India andJapan as a significant milestone in building “Asian power equilibrium.” He opines that“concerned over China’s lengthening shadow, Japan and India are bracing for a strategic
challenge in the Asian heartland.” However, he believes that the partnership between the twocountries is not aimed at gaining preeminence but to “thwart preeminence.”20
K.Shankar Bajpai, a strategic thinker and former Indian diplomat, in the context of burgeoning
India-Japan relations states that “power-politics and balance-of-power calculations…are factsof life.” He further states that “in our totally changed world, we ourselves have evolved tocooperate strategically with the US. Doing so with Japan is no less important.” Bajpai clearlysees the relationship between Japan and India as a byproduct of an assertive China and opinesthat “we can both (India and Japan) honestly say we are not building relations in hostility
against China; but it is right and proper for us to examine what to do if China acts in hostility
against us.”21
Similarly, C. Raja Mohan sees India and Japan as important players in the evolving security
architecture in the region. Raja Mohan has been critical of India’s slow approach towards
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embracing Japan in the event of a rising China. In an opinion piece, he statesthat “don’t
provoke China” has been the “mantra behind New Delhi’s recent ‘go slow’ strategy with Japan.”He asserts that “holding it back until now was the political fecklessness in Tokyo and Delhi.”
Raja Mohan further opines that “at the very moment when many Asian countries are frightenedby the prospect of China’s non-peaceful rise and are looking to Indian leadership inconstructing a stable Asian balance of power, Delhi seems trapped in strategic hesitation.” He
is of the view that “a genuine strategic partnership between India and Japan will be a gamechanger for Asian geopolitics.” 22 On similar lines, Harsh V. Pant believes that “the rise of
China in the Asia-Pacific and beyond has altered the strategic calculus of India and Japan,
forcing them to rethink their attitudes toward each other.” As regards the emerging regional
order, Pant opines that “India seems most willing to acknowledge Japan’s centrality in shaping
the evolving Asia-Pacific security architecture.”23
A number of Indian columnists have also seen India-Japan relations through the prism of
ongoing power politics in the Asia-Pacific. An Indian observer commenting on the geopolitics
of Asia stated that “Japanese seek greater cooperation in trade with India while India is
attempting to forge a larger relationship so that Japan could act as a counterfoil to China once itrises to the pinnacle of its power.”24 Similarly, another observer opined that China’s “peacefulrise” is unlikely to remain “peaceful” for much longer. He suggests that “in its own interest,and in the larger equation of maintaining the balance of power in Asia, Japan must take the leadin such a way that the Chinese behemoth does not swallow the world with its influence.”25
A group of Indian academicians, including Rajesh Rajagopalan, views ongoing India-Japan
relations purely from a realist paradigm. In the context of China’s rise Rajagopalan writes:
To paraphrase the Athenian historian, philosopher and general Thucydides,
China’s rise and the fear this causes in Asia and elsewhere is at the root of India’s
importance. China’s aggressiveness has frightened even the more powerful Asian
powers such as Japan.26
He is among those scholars who debunk the theory that economic interdependence between
China and India will help moderate China’s aggressive behavior vis-à-vis India and the region.
He opines that “a strong and welcome new theme in India’s foreign policy is a focus on the

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economic side of diplomacy. But it would be a mistake to assume that closer economic
relations will minimise strategic challenges.”27
On the other hand, there is another strand of strategic thinking in India that believes in an
inclusive regional security architecture for the Asian subcontinent. This group of strategic
thinkers argues that India, Japan and China are key players in the Asia-Pacific region and that,without China, forming a regional architecture would not be possible. They consider that, since
the US is an outside power, it does not fit into the inclusive security architecture of the AsiaPacific. More importantly, they believe that both Japan and China are equally important for
India.
SiddharthVaradarajan, a well-known journalist and strategic thinker, argues that “India, Japan,
South Korea and China, which have emerged as principal powers in Asia, should havemultilateral and bilateral interactions with each other.”28 Varadarajan adds that “without thesefour countries and Russia establishing a relationship of comfort among and between themselves,
it will not be possible to develop the security architecture of Asia.”29
How should India interact with Japan in forging the new security architecture? Varadarajan isof the view that “in its interaction with Japan, the Indian side needs to encourage a constructive
approach to Asian security based on addressing current concerns as well as the lingeringburdens of history.”30
While others argue that the US should be an inalienable partner of the emerging Asian security
architecture, Varadarajan is apprehensive of a “trilateral element” (read the US) creeping into
the bilateral arrangement between India and Japan. He has reasons for this apprehension:
The trilateral idea has two dimensions. At the military level, the United States
would like to enhance the inter-operability of Asian forces loosely aligned with
Washington. And at the political and strategic level, it would like to demonstratethat India, Japan, and the US will provide the nucleus around which any emerging
security architecture in Asia must be built.31
Varadarajan critically suggests that the government maintain a balance in its policy towards
Japan and China:
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Modi might represent a party that has traditionally favoured a more muscular
Indian approach towards China and that is not averse to the neo-containment talkcurrently fashionable in Tokyo, but the last thing India wants is to be forced tochoose between Japan and China.32
Similarly, “Non-Alignment 2.0”, a policy paper compiled by a group of Indian strategic
thinkers including one former Indian diplomat, also suggests India to maintain a balanced
approach in its foreign policy in the changing world order. This semi-official policy paper
offers various alternative proposals to the government of India for crafting its foreign policy. It
argues that:
Alongside the US and China, there will be several other centers and hubs of powerthat will be relevant, particularly in regional contexts. This means that NonAlignment will no longer be limited to avoiding becoming a frontline state in a
conflict between two powers.33
As mentioned previously, various Indian strategic thinkers have seen the blossoming India-Japanties as a response to a rising and aggressive China. In opposition to this, Srinath Raghavan, whois among the co-authors of “Non-Alignment 2.0”, opines that “from a strategic standpoint, it
would be unwise to convey an impression to China that our relationship with Japan is primarily
directed against it.”34
Raghavan has suggested that India should not bandwagon with any country to balance another.
He opines that “it is certainly not in India’s interest to convey an impression that its security
partnerships are subordinate parts of the US ‘pivot’ to Asia.”35 Notably, he suggests that India“avoid making sharp choices or premature commitments” in its dealings with Japan and China.36
Yet another Indian strategic thinker suggests India adopt a cooperative foreign policy approachto the regional order. Ramesh Thakur opines that “China, India, and Japan should join forces toconstruct an architecture of regional order that fosters peace and promotes prosperity across Asiaand the world without cutting across existing bilateral relations of any of the three.”37
Thakur warns that rivalry among them will have an adverse impact on the world. “The destiny of
Asia in this century will be shaped by the triangular relationship between China, India, and Japan.

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The ‘strategic footprint’ of that triangle will cover the world. Cooperation between them will
help to anchor peace and prosperity in Asia. Rivalry and conflict will roil the world.”38
Atul Aneja, a Beijing-based correspondent for The Hindu, an influential Indian newspaper, whilewriting his opinion piece on Prime Minister Modi’s visit to China opined that “in redefining
India’s geopolitical relationship, Mr. Modi would have to take a call on balance of power in the
Asia-Pacific.” 39 Within the context of an emerging balance of power in the region, Aneja
observed that “While it is tempting to enmesh in security arrangements that have Japan,
Australia and the United States as the major players, a more prudent and bolder course that thePrime Minister can pursue is to propose and push for an integrated dialogue that involves all the
major players in the region on a single dialogue platform.”40
3-(2) Towards a rule-based order in Asia: mapping the views of the Indian press
In the Indian press, including the vernacular Hindi press, various articles and editorials havecome to the fore highlighting the level of interactions between India and the world. Like thecountry’s strategic thinkers, the media in India are also divided over the issue of forging a new
security architecture. Some are favouring a hedging of China with the help of Japan and the US
as well as other like-minded countries while others are arguing against stoking insecurity in
China by forging a partnership with other countries.
The Hindu in its editorials has been urging caution on not letting India-Japan ties affect India’s
relationship with China. In one of its editorials, The Hindu argues that “New Delhi needs toguard against allowing ties with Japan to get underpinned by the shared wariness of Beijing.
There is nothing to be gained for India, Japan and China in a polarised Asia.”41 Following Prime
Minister Abe’s India visit, the Hindu reminds that “India should be wary of the great game goingon in Asia.” 42 It argues that rather than joining any geopolitical alliance “India should build
strong ties with each power, instead of aligning with any particular bloc.”43
By contrast, Business Standard opines that “fear of China’s reaction cannot be allowed to standin the way of natural cooperation with Japan.” The daily suggests that India forging closer ties
with other regional powers to check an assertive China is the “only option”. It adds that “India so
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far has had a distressing habit of refusing to commit itself all the way, although realpolitik in thiscase clearly suggests that closer alliances with other regional powers concerned about anassertive China is the only option.”44 The Indian Express, yet another leading Indian daily, statesthat the “India-Japan partnership cannot, however, be explored without reference to the China
factor” adding that “….it is undeniable that China’s rise is reordering the Asian balance of power.
Japan and India are both adapting to that fact and trying to improve their individual prospects
through a deeper strategic collaboration.”45
In the context of an merging regional order in the Asia-Pacific, The Asian Age in its editorial
opines that “the build-up (between India and Japan) has been gradual but focussed. But it isexaggerated to see in this a threat to China, with which India as well as Japan actually desires thebettering of ties.”46 On the similar lines, The Hindustan Times opines that “symbolically closer
ties would help put China on warning that its increasingly imperialist actions will inevitably leadto bandwagonning against it in the Asia-Pacific area.” It further argues that “at a time when the
US cannot seem to make up its mind whether it is prepared to stand up to China and theSoutheast Asian countries are selling out to Beijing’s money power, the India-Japan relationshipshould be seen as being ultimately about ensuring the stability of Asia as a whole.”47
The vernacular press also has shown keen interest in India-Japan ties and their possible impact
on relations with China. The Navbharat Times, in this context, states that “a stronger relationshipwith Japan should not be forged at the cost of China as momentary benefits may later result into
loss.”48 The daily Hindustan Hindi in an editorial views India-Japan relations in the context ofChinese claims in the Asia-Pacific. It opines that one of the reasons for the growing ties between
India and Japan is to “counter China’s growing preeminence in the Asia-Pacific region.” The
Hindustan Hindi further states that “in this region India is the only country which can confront
China and for this, Japan needs India’s cooperation.”49

4 Analyzing Japanese Strategic Thinking and Media
4-(1) Towards a rule-based order in Asia: assessing Japanese strategic thinking
Like Indian strategic thinking, Japanese strategic thinking is also divided on the question ofwhether the new security architecture should include or exclude China. Yoriko Koike, a former
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defence minister of Japan and presently a member of the Japanese Diet, has been one of theleading voices in Japan who argue the need to construct security architecture sans China. She
argues that “America alone cannot construct a viable security structure for the region. From India
to Japan, every Asian country must play its part.” Koike is aware that various countries in theregion face a dilemma over how to deal with China. She suggests that “… fear of provoking
China should not stop Asia’s leaders from seeking a regional security consensus, such as the
proposed code of conduct for disputes in the South China Sea.”50
Similarly, Takashi Shiraishi and others argue for a strong partnership among democracies in the
Asia-Pacific region to check China’s dominating tendencies. In an article in Japan Echo,
Shiraishi considers India as one of the important elements in forging a regional balance. He
argues that “Japan’s relations with India should remain grounded in the Japan-US alliance.
Engaging with India within the framework of the Japan-US alliance is a balancing act in some
aspects….”51 Pointing to the quadrilateral partnership among Australia, India, Japan and the US,
he states that “whatever the actual intentions were, the scheme was quite naturally regarded as a
strategy for containing or encircling China.” As regards India’s role as a balancer to China,
Shiraishi opined that “while using India to counterbalance China may appear sound in theory, it
will not work in practice because India is unlikely to allow itself to be used in that manner.”52
Tomohiko Taniguchi, Prime Minister Abe’s political adviser, believes that containing China is
not feasible as China is economically interlinked with the region. However, India and Japan must
engage with each other wherever their interests converge.53
Quite contrary to these views, there are views within Japan who caution the government to use
relationship with India to counter China. Yoichi Funabashi is one of the strong advocates who
argue that the bilateral relationship between India and Japan should not be aimed atcounterbalancing China. He opines that “in both Tokyo and New Delhi, there are people seeking
to elevate Indo-Japanese relations to the status of a de facto alliance and to pursue a strategy ofencircling China.”54 Funabashi adds that “it is not necessary, however, to look for the China
factor in every new initiative in Indo-Japanese relations.” 55 He suggests that both Asian
democracies “should exercise restraint and take a stance of “quiet deterrence” to avoid provoking
China.”56
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In a recent opinion piece, Yoichi Funabashi argues, “Japan’s long-term strategic aim must be theformation of a world and regional order based upon the model of a “liberal international order”
and “rooted in the rule of law.” More importantly, he suggests that Japan “hone” its geo-politicalskills and that it avoid becoming a strategic pawn “in someone else’s game.”57 Norio Kondo,
Takenori Horimoto and some young scholars such as Ryohei Kasai and Kazutoshi Tamari haveviews similar to that of Yoichi Funabashi. Japanese Indologists believe that India and Japan
should not pursue a strategy of encircling China. Their arguments are in favour ofaccommodating China in the regional architecture wherever possible. Norio Kondo on the issueof growing trilateral engagement among the US, India and Japan believes that “such a trilateralarrangement will probably work against alleviating tension between China and neighbouring
countries.”58
4-(2) A rule-based order in Asia: mapping the views of the Japanese press
Similarly, the Japanese media is also divided into two opposing camps. Analyses of editorials in
the Yomiuri Shimbunand the Asahi Shimbun show that, while both favour a closer partnership
between India and Japan, the former recommends a strong partnership with India tocounterbalance China while the latter has maintained ambivalence over this issue.
The Japanese press has mostly highlighted the economic benefits of stronger Japan-India
relations in its editorials and analysis. At times, though, they have seen this relationship in thecontext of China. For example the Japan Times in one of its editorials opines that “by deepening
ties with India, Japan can counter China, which is trying to increase its maritime influence, andcan reduce the risk of excessive economic reliance on China.” However, the leading Japanesedaily asks the government not to antagonise China. It adds that “Japan must act carefully to
avoid antagonising China.”59 The Asahi Shimbun is of the view that “India has been expanding
military exchanges with the United States, Australia and Southeast Asian countries. They all
have a common objective to keep China in check.” Against this context The Asahi Shimbun
opined that “intensifying bilateral relations to counter China is risky.”60 On the other hand, theYomiuri Shimbun asserts that “India is an important partner for Japan in the regional cooperative
framework centered on the East Asia Summit.” Given this context, it asks Japan to “call on India
to play constructive roles that fit its new status as a major power.”61The Yomiuri Shimbun states
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that “Japan faces a direct threat from China’s maritime expansion in the East China Sea, while
India is exposed to a similar threat in the Indian Ocean.” The editorial asks Japan and India “toactively utilise vice-ministerial talks between their foreign and defence ministries, to discusscommon strategy regarding China, such as measures to ensure the safety of sea lanes.” The
Yomiuri Shimbuncalls on India and Japan to widen their cooperation to achieve this goal:“The two countries also need to seek partnerships with the United States, and then with theSoutheast Asian countries that stand at the forefront of friction with China. To realise this goal,
Japan and India, regional powers in Asia, must further deepen bilateral relations.”62

5. Conclusion and Policy Recommendations
The analyses in this research suggest that, though the leaders of the Asian democracies espouse
the idealism of the so-called value-based order, a significant gap remains among them over how
to forge this order. Notably, this paper finds that both Indian and Japanese leaders have sounded
positive on forming a rule-based order to check China’s assertive behaviour; however, they have
not hesitated to embrace China wherever their national interests converged with those of Beijing.
For example, Tokyo denounces China’s aggressive behaviour but, when it comes to restraining
Pyongyang, it has been amenable to the idea that Beijing should play an influential role in the
Six-party Talks.63 Japan has also opened up negotiations with North Korea and eased sanctions
on the country, despite the US and South Korea urging Japan not to do so. These tendencies have
weakened Japan’s campaign for a “rule based” and “value based” order in the region.64
Secondly, the talks on forming a new architecture/order remain heavily focussed on security,especially maritime security. A number of other factors and fields, including the economic order,
the global nuclear order, and climate change have not been taking into account.65 These are thefactors that act as intervening variables and hinder India and Japan’s goals in forging a rule basedorder. These are issues on which states, especially India and Japan, are not necessarily in accord
with each other. While Japan finds itself comfortable with the European- and US-led economicorder, India is uncomfortable with this order. India argues that Western-led financial institutions
based on the Breton Woods system do not represent the changing realities of the present
economic system. India wants more say in these financial institutions commensurate with its
present economic status. China, more or less, has similar grievances with the international
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financial systems and wants more say in the decision-making process. China has been taking
various steps to challenge the existing financial order by mooting the idea of establishing a
BRICS bank and the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB). Apparently, this is the reason
that, rather than allying with Japan on the issue of the AIIB, New Delhi has gone with Beijing toforge a new alternative economic order. India has joined the China-led AIIB as a founding
member but Japan has gone with the US and opted not to join the bank. Japan argues that the
AIIB’s loan disbursement mechanism is opaque while that of the ADB is very transparent, andthat the AIIB may be “nothing more than a policy instrument of the Communist regime.”
Moreover, a number of Japanese strategic thinkers consider the AIIB to be an institution that will
help establish “China’s regional hegemony.”66
Furthermore, Japan is of the view that the AIIB is competing with existing lending banks,
including the Asian Development Bank (ADB) led by Japan. On the other hand, India thinks that
the AIIB is not necessarily a rival to the Japan-led ADB and that in fact it can complement the
ADB. It seems that India has accepted China’s invitation to join the AIIB as a founding member
to gain more say in forging a new financial order in the region as well as acknowledgement of its
growing economic stature.
While India and Japan talk about democratic ideals to achieve a rule-based order in Asia, theirdiffering national interests sometimes compel them to take different steps and they thus have tocompromise their own ideals with their own national interests. Though India and Japan take an
identical position on United Nations Security Council reform and the freedom of navigation andover-flight bind them together, their national interests differ on various key issues and fields,
including the nuclear order, climate change and the emerging economic architecture. Therefore,
the two Asian democracies should bridge their perceptions over various global and regional
issues in order to forge a strongly-knit rule-based order.
It may be noted that at present Japan and India are at different levels in their economic
development. While Japan is a developed country, India is still a developing economy. The gap
between them over different global issues will persist until they reach the same level of
economic development. Japan should help India, by way of sharing key technologies andPage 18 / 21

providing economic and infrastructure aid, to achieve parity with the developed world.
Undoubtedly India is aligning with major powers, and its global outlook has substantiallychanged in the post-Cold War period. It is willing to embrace and respond to the changing global
order but, at the same time, it is seeking greater participation and say in shaping the emerging
global order. It is seeking membership in various forums, including the Asia Pacific Economic
Community, the Nuclear Supplier Group, the Wassenar Group, etc. It is also asking for a greater
voice in various global financial institutions commensurate with its economic power. Japan has
made commitments to bring India on the table in these bodies in its joint statements issued after
summit level meeting at Prime Ministerial levels and it must be welcomed. However, it should
move beyond commitment should take a leading and supporting role to facilitate India’s entry
into these bodies and organisations. India’s participation in these institutions will help India gain
greater participation and say in shaping the emerging global order, paving the way for a greater
partnership between Japan and India on various global and regional issues.
Dr. Shamshad A. Khan is Senior Researcher and Japan Foundation Fellow at Keio
Research Institute, Keio University, Fujisawa, Japan.

Brief biography of the researcher:Shamshad Ahmad Khan has a PhD degree in Japanese Studies from the School of International Studies,
Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi. He keenly follows developments in India-Japan relations. He was a
Mombukagakusho Fellow at Waseda University, Tokyo while he was pursuing his PhD. He has subsequently
been associated with various institutes in Japan including the Slavic Research Centre, Hokkaido University(December 2010 to March 2011), the Institute for Developing Economies (November 2012 to February 2012)
and the Japan Institute of International Affairs (November 2014 to January 2015) as a Visiting Research
Fellow. He has also been associated with Indian think tanks such as the Institute of Defense Studies andAnalyses (2009-2013) and the Indian Council of World Affairs (2013 to 2015). Presently he is JapanFoundation Fellow and Senior Researcher at Keio Research Institute, Keio University. Because of his
contribution to Japanese studies at such a young age he was presented with the Nakasone Yasuhiro Award by
Japan’s former prime minister Nakasone Yasuhiro in 2011. He can be contacted at shamshadnhk@gmail.com.

Acknowledgement
The initial draft of this research paper was written during author’s Visiting Research Fellowship at Japan Institute ofInternational Affairs (JIIA) from November 2014 to January 2015 and was presented at JIIA after the completion of
the research project. The researcher is thankful to Ms Marie Yoshioka-IZUYAMA (Head, Asia and Africa Division,
Regional Studies Department), National Institute for Defense Studies, Tokyo for reviewing the paper and offeringvaluable suggestions. The paper has been thoroughly revised based on her valuable suggestion and has been updated

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considering the topicality of the subject. Special thanks to Dr. Yasuyuki ISHIDA, Research Fellow JIIA who fixed
meetings with various Japanese experts.
1

Shinzo Abe, “Towards an Alliance of Hope”, Project Syndicate/The Japan Times, May 12, 2015
John J. Mearsheimer, a professor of political science at the University of Chicago, argues that message, i.e., China
is a benign power, will be drowned out by China’s behaviour, which will be much more oriented towards altering
the status quo, by military force if necessary. Full interview of Mearsheimer by Nikkei Asia Review is available
athttp://asia.nikkei.com/Politics-Economy/International-Relations/US-China-heading-toward-face-off-saysMearsheimer (accessed August 10, 2015)
3
This definition was adopted by the concept note of a seminar held in November 2014 organised by the School Of
International Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi on the theme of “India in the Emerging Global
Order: Political, Strategic and Economic Dynamics.”
4“Arc of Freedom and Prosperity: Japan’s Expanding Diplomatic Horizon,” Speech by Taro Aso, Foreign Ministerof Japan, delivered at the Japan Institute of International Affairs, on November 30, 2006; speech available at
http://www.mofa.go.jp/announce/fm/aso/speech0611.html
5
Ibid.
6
“Confluence of Two Seas,” Speech by Shinzo Abe, Prime Minister of Japan at the Parliament of the Republic ofIndia, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Government of Japan, August 22, 2007.
7
Shinzo Abe, “Asia’s Democratic Security Diamond,” Project Syndicate, December 27, 2012.
8
For details please refer to Shinzo Abe’s keynote address at the IISS Shangrila Dialogue, 2014, available online
athttps://www.iiss.org/en/events/shangri%20la%20dialogue/archive/2014-c20c/opening-remarks-and-keynoteaddress-b0b2/keynote-address-shinzo-abe-a787
9Shinzo Abe, “Towards an Alliance of Hope”, Project Syndicate/The Japan Times, May 12, 2015.
10Highlight of Prime Minister’s address at the Annual Conclave of Indian Ambassadors/High Commissioners abroadin New Delhi; full speech of Prime Minister Manmohan Singh is available at http://www.mea.gov.in/SpeechesStatements.htm?dtl/22428/Highlights+of+Prime+Ministers+address+at+the+Annual+Conclave+of+Indian+Ambass
adorsHigh+Commissioners+abroad+in+New+Delhi
11
Ibid.
12
Prime Minister’s address to Japan-India Association, Japan-India Parliamentary Friendship League andInternational Friendship Exchange Council; full text of Manmohan Singh’s speech is available at
http://www.mea.gov.in/SpeechesStatements.htm?dtl/21754/Prime+Ministers+address+to+JapanIndia+Association+JapanIndia+Parliamentary+Friendship+League+and+International+Friendship+Exchange+Council
13
Quoted in Bruce Einhorn, “Visiting Japan, India’s Modi pokes at China”, Bloomberg, September 2, 2014,
available online at http://www.bloomberg.com/bw/articles/2014-09-02/visiting-japan-indias-modi-pokes-at-china(Accessed August 10, 2015).
14This statement was made by the then Minister of State for External Affairs Praneet Kaur in the lower house of the
Indian Parliament in response to a question raised by a member of the parliament; details available online at
http://www.mea.gov.in/lok-sabha.htm?dtl/19800/Q5353+Exploration+in+south+china+Sea
15
Full text of the statement is available at http://www.mea.gov.in/mediabriefings.htm?dtl/23312/Official+Spokespersons+response+to+a+media+query+on+the+South+China+Sea
16“Japan India vision 2025 Special Strategic and Global Partnership Working Together for Peace and Prosperity of
the Indo-Pacific region and the World,” ( joint statement), Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Government of Japan,
December 12, 2015, available at http://www.mofa.go.jp/s_sa/sw/in/page3e_000432.html
17
The full statement is available at “ Inaugural US-Japan-India Trilateral”, September 29, 2015, available at
http://www.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2015/09/247483.htm
18
Hua Chunying of the Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs quoted in Graham Webster, “South China Sea: What 12
nautical miles really means,” The Japan Times, October 18, 2015.
19“Japan weighs course of action in disputed South China Sea,” The Japan Times, November 6, 2015.
20
Brahama Chellaney, “Japan, India: Natural allies”, The Japan Times, August 16, 2007.
21
K Shankar Bajpai, “Japan, India and the balance of power,” The Hindu, January 27, 2014.
22
C. Raja Mohan, “Talking Tokyo,” The Indian Express, May 27, 2013.
23
Harsh V. Pant, “Turning towards Tokyo,” Business Standards, January 1, 2012.
24
Rahul K. Bhonsle, “Indo Japan Relations- Strategic Realignment in Asia”, News Blaze, January 1, 2007.
2

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25

Rajeev Sharma, “How Japan should tackle China’s ‘peaceful’ rise,” The Asahi Shimbun, June 21, 2010.
Rajesh Rajagopalan, “India needs to deftly deal with multiple strategic partners, including China,” The Economic
Times, September 18, 2014.
27
Ibid.
28
Siddharth Varadarajan, “Perils of Three-way Security Cooperation,” The Hindu, February 14, 2006.
29
Ibid.
30
Ibid.
31
Ibid.
32
SiddharthVaradarajan, “Calibrating India’s term of engagement with Japan,” Business Standards, August 30, 2014.
33
Sunil Khilnani, et al., “Non-Alignment 2.0:A Foreign and Strategic Policy for India in the 21st Century,” Center for
Policy Research, New Delhi, 2012, available online at
http://www.cprindia.org/sites/default/files/working_papers/NonAlignment%202.0_1.pdf.
34
Srinath Raghavan, “China is most important for India, Japan,” The Economic Times, October 29, 2010.
35
Srinath Raghavan, “Why China and Japan are wooing India,” The Business Line, May 31, 2013.
36
Ibid.
37
Ramesh Thakur, “Asia’s strategic triangle: China, Japan and India,” The Hindu, September 14, 2007.
38
Ibid.
39
Atul Aneja, “In China, going beyond optics,” The Hindu, May 14, 2015.
40
Ibid.
41
“Love in Tokyo,” The Hindu, May 31, 2013.
42
Cautious cooperation with Japan, The Hindu, December 14, 2015.
43
Ibid.
44
“Natural partners: Closer relations with Japan are a strategic must”, Business Standards, May 29, 2013.
45“Stronger together,” The Indian Express, December 15, 2015.
46“Indo-Japan ties no threat to China” The Asian Age, January 28, 2014.
47“India-Japan relations: Ties that ensures stability in Asia,” The Hindustan Times, December 15, 2015.
48“Ugte Suraj kesath (with the rising sun)” Navbharat Times, Hindi Daily, May 29, 2013.
49“Japan se Dosti (Friendship with Japan)” Hindustan, May 30, 2013.
50
Yoriko Koike, “To kowtow or cooperate in Asia,” The Japan Times, November 29, 2012.
51
Shirashi Takashi, “Crafting Japan’s Asia Policy in a Multipolar World,” Japan Echo, August 2008, p.29.
52
Ibid. Shirashi offered similar views on these issues during an interview with the author on January 7, 2015.
53
Author’s interview with Tomohiko Taniguchi, January 16, 2015.
54
Yoichi Funabashi, “Build strong Japan, India ties without taking aim on China,” The Japan Times, August 14,
2014.
55
Ibid
56
Author’s interview with Yoichi Funabashi, January 23, 2015.
57
Yoichi Funabashi, “Japan needs geopolitical skills,” The Japan Times, April 15, 2015.
58
Author’s interview with Norio Kondo, December 30, 2014.
59“Bolstering Japan-India ties”, TheJapan Times, January 21, 2012.
60“Japan-India relations aimed at countering China” (analysis), The Asahi Shimbun, December 29, 2011.
61“Japan should cement ties with new big power India”, The Yomiuri Shimbun, December 29, 2009.
62“Japan-India must deepen security, economic ties”, The Yomiuri Shimbun, October 26, 2010.
63
Author’s interview with Yasushi Watanabe, January 13, 2015.
64
Ibid.
65
Because of paucity of space in this paper, India and Japan’s stance on these issues have not been analysed here.
66
Masahiro Matsumura, “The AIIB has little to offer to Japan and the US,” The Japan Times, May 20, 2015.
26

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