N-TAG TEN
Proceedings of the 10th Nordic TAG conferenceat Stiklestad, Norway 2009
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Ragnhild Berge
Marek E. Jasinski
Kalle Sognnes

BAR International Series 2399
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N-TAG TEN. Proceedings of the 10th Nordic TAG conference at Siklestad, Norway 2009
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The introduction of sails to Scandinavia: Raw materials, labour and land
Lise Bender Jørgensen

Norwegian University of Science & Technology

Abstract
The paper explores the logistical consequences of the introduction of sails to Scandinavia on the threshold to the Viking Age.
Calculations stating that the sails of the Viking fleet comprised 1 million square meters of sailcloth form the starting point. Data fromexperimental archaeology, ethnology, history, and textile science are used to calculate the demand for raw materials and labour causedby the need for sailcloth, and for additional textiles needed for seafaring such as sailor’s clothing and blankets. For a cargo ship of the
knar type, this amounts to well over 200 kg wool and some 10 years of labour; for a warship with a crew of 65-70 men, more than 1,5
tonnes of wool and 50-60 years of labour. Further data from botany and life sciences are employed to estimate the relationship between
land and the increased demand for fiber – wool, flax or hemp. It is argued that the introduction of sails to Scandinavia must have causedchanges in agrarian production and how farmers disposed of their lands.

Wool is traditionally an important resource in northern
Europe, for clothing, bedding, soft furnishings and amultitude of other purposes.1 In this paper, I shall focus
on the use of wool textiles for seafaring, outlining someconsequences of the introduction of sails to Scandinavia
which seems to have happened sometime during the 8th
century AD, much later than in other parts of Europe(Andersen and Andersen 1989, 90ff; Kastholm 2009;
Westerdahl 1995,). Once introduced, sails were a great
success. Scholars at the Viking Ship Museum in Roskilde
have calculated that by c. 1030, the time of King Canute’s
North Sea empire, the total fleet of warships, cargo ships,
fishing boats etc carried sails corresponding to 1 million
square metres of sailcloth – most of it supposedly made ofwool (Andersen et al. 1989, 12).
How do we know that? Research and experiments haveshown that the sails of the Viking ships were constructedmuch like those used by certain traditional boat types
still used in parts of Norway such as the Nordlandsbåt orthe Åfjordsbåt (Eldjarn and Godal 1988a; 1988b; 1990a;
1990b). They used to carry square sails of wool, usually
woven in twill, with cloth weights of 300-750g per square
metre for smaller boats. For a large sail of c. 100 square
metres, heavier cloth of 950-1050 g per square meter isneeded. A square sail consists of several lengths of cloth –webs – that are sewn together by the sail maker. Further it
is greased with fatty substances such as tallow, fish oil etc
mixed with ochre, in order to reduce air permeability. The
greasing also smoothes out irregularities, and differences
between individual webs. Experiments have shown suchwool sails to be very seaworthy, and well suited to therough seas and winds of the North Atlantic. In fact, “oldsalts” of Viking seafaring are reported to prefer them toother sails. The processes of reconstructing them havealso established some very interesting data on the amounts
1

A first version of this paper was presented at the 58th International
Sachsensymposion held in Trondheim in September 2007. As it
unfortunately proved unfeasible to publish it in the proceedings of that
conference, I was happy for the possibility to present a shorter version
at the 10th Nordic TAG, as a prelude to Ulla Isabel Zagal-Mach’s paper.
The current paper is a reworked version of the 2007 one.

of raw materials and labour needed (Andersen1995;
Andersen and Andersen 1989; Andersen et al. 1989; 1997;
Andersson 2003; Bender Jørgensen 2005; Cooke et al,
2002; Cooke and Christiansen 2005; Damgaard-Sørensen
1998, Lightfoot 1997).
Raw Materials
At the Tømmervik Textile Trust, situated on the island of
Hitra some 3 hours drive from Trondheim, Amy Lightfootand her staff have produced 3 successive wool sails,
employing traditional methods of wool working, and wool
from the double-coated old Norse sheep type that belonged
to the traditional fishing/farming communities along thecoast of Norway and in other parts of the Norse world(Kvamme et al. 2004, 18f; Lightfoot 1991; 1996; 1997).
The wool of these sheep has a high content of lanolin thatmakes it water-repellent – something that is very usefulindeed for textiles used at sea, including sails. The long,coarse, hairs of the outer coat are well suited for warp
yarns, where strength and tenacity is essential, while thefine bottom wool is used for the weft (fig. 1). The annual
yield of wool per sheep of this ancient breed is 1-2,5 kg(Adalsteinsson 1990, 286). A fleece consists of several
different kinds of wool, suited for different purposes(Christiansen 2004); and as some waste is unavoidable
during the processing of it into yarn and cloth, we cannot
equate the full wool yield with finished cloth. Estimates of
how much wool from each fleece was suitable for sailcloth
vary (Andersson 2003, 49; Lightfoot 1997,15); weaver
Anna Nørgård has suggested an average of 500 g/sheep(Nørgård 1999, 9). At an average weight of 750-950g/
m2, the supposed one million square metres of sailcloth of
the Danish-Norwegian Viking Age fleet would thus haverequired wool from some two million sheep. So the firstpoint I want to make is that the introduction of sails musthave caused a significant increase in the demand for wool
and sheep.
Sails, however, are by no means the only textiles neededon board. On the cold waters of the Northern seas – theBaltic, the North Sea and the North Atlantic - sailors

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Fig. 1: the double coAt oF the old norse sheep. photo: oddmunn FArbregd.

Fig. 2: contents oF clothes chest For winter Fishing At loFoten. photo: hilde murvold, kystens Arv

174lise bender jørgensen: the introduction oF sAils to scAndinAviA

Fig. 3: sjørya on top oF clothes chest. photo: hilde murvold, kystens Arv
also need warm, water-repellent clothing and bedding tosurvive. Wool is excellently suited for this, with properties
such as insulation against cold as well as heat, and theability to absorb large amounts of moisture without
becoming actually wet, while still being warm. Sailors’
clothing, mittens, caps, pullovers and underwear, all madefrom wool specifically selected for the exact purpose, havebeen indispensable parts of the equipment for sailors andfishermen up to very recent times (fig. 2). For fishing at
Lofoten, or other sites on the Norwegian coast, each man
brought a chest of clothes (Eldjarn and Godal 1988a, 133,Trætteberg 1999, 29). Its contents were the pride andhonour of his womenfolk (Elstad 2002, 111). Torun Herje
has estimated that 6,6 kg wool was needed for the 3 shifts
of underwear, a woollen shirt, 5 pairs of sea mittens and2 pairs of ordinary mittens, and the equivalent number ofleggings and stockings that were needed for three monthsof winter fishing (Herje and Alsaker 1999, 73). That would
mean wool from at least 3 sheep.
A sailor’s blanket – a sjørya, a heavy, shaggy wool rug,
could weigh up to 18 kg (Eldjarn and Godal 1988a, 134;
Kjellmo 1996, 62). It kept its owner warm even when wet;
unlike sheepskin, it did not rot or get felted when soakedwith sea water, and could be washed at the end of theseason (Elstad 2004, 30). Quality was essential to secure
the sailor’s safe return; his wife made sure to make his gearfrom the best materials available (fig. 3). Again, wool froma considerable number of sheep was needed, depending on
the weight of the rug and the amount of suitable wool fromeach sheep. For a rug of 15 kg, somewhere between 7 and15 sheep were needed.

Quality is my next point. Sheep farming and the workingof wool requires sophisticated knowledge of the propertiesof fibres, and when and how to harvest them. For pullovers,
wool from a two-year-old wether was considered the best,
according to Amy Lightfoot’s investigations; for sailor’s
mittens, white ewe lambs with especially shiny wool
were selected, the wool only to be harvested when the
animal was three years old. In the meantime, the young
ewes were kept safe from the advances of rams, to prevent
pregnancies that would reduce the quality of the wool. The
pasture where the sheep were grazing, and the time andway of harvesting the wool each had an important bearing
on the properties of the final product (Lightfoot 1991,
1996, 1997). This, of course, also applies to wool for a sail,especially for warp yarns that were made mainly from thelong hairs of the outer coat of the traditional Norse sheep.
Flock Sizes
Tax lists from 1657 inform us of sheep numbers in Norway.
The double monarchy of Norway and Denmark was in direstraits, at war with Sweden, and the war chest needed tobe filled. Taxmen were sent out to list every single animalon all and every farm. The total number of sheep listed
is 297.893; as some lists have been lost, the full numberof sheep in Norway has been estimated to 329.000 (Olsen
1875, 413). The number of Viking Age farms in Norway isestimated as 27.000-30.000 (Solberg 2000, 240f).
The tax lists from 1657 also show that most flocks numbered
12 animals or less (fig. 4). Few sheep farmers had morethan 20. In Rissa, on the peninsula of Fosen, the largest

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Fig. 4: Flock sizes in oppdAl According to the tAx lists oF 1657. 253 Flocks wererecorded.

Fig. 5: rooing in the shetlAnds, the 1920s, photogrAphed by j.d. rAtter.
courtesey oF the shetlAnd museum photogrAphic Archive, photo no.
r02548.

Fig. 6: mAking roving. the FinAl phAse oF combing. photo: oddmunn
FArbregd.

176lise bender jørgensen: the introduction oF sAils to scAndinAviA
flock consisted of 36 sheep; the average farmer had only
four (Dybdahl 1990, 137f). Translated to the Viking Age,
this would indicate small-scale sheep farming rather thanspecialised, large-scale wool production. As square sails
are made from several lengths of cloth we may, perhaps,
imagine a number of farms and households contributing to
a new sail, each supplying wool and/or labour, e.g. a skeinof yarn per cottage, a length of cloth per farm, as a joint
enterprise or as a form of tribute.

hours or four and a half modern working years. This does
not include the time needed for harvesting the wool, or
finishing processes such as fulling (Nørgård 1999, 8). Still,
it would make the one million square metres of the Viking
fleet represent some 50.000 years of presumably women’s

Durability is, of course, an important factor in thecalculation of the demand for raw materials caused by the
introduction of sails. Few data are available on the lifetimeof wool sails; Erik Andersen of the Viking Ship Museum in
Roskilde estimates that - if properly maintained - it would
last 40-50 years (Andersen 1995, 250f). A good sailor’s
blanket lasted at least a generation (Kjellmo 1996, 91). It
usually ended its days on shore as bed or floor covering.
Clothing would not have lasted quite as long, but certainly
longer that modern clothing made from industriallyprocessed wool.
Labour
The labour invested in wool sails and other items wasconsiderable. That included a long series of wool-working
processes, starting with rooing (fig. 5) or plucking thewool from the sheep when ready for moulting in early June
(Christiansen 2004, 12f). Wool harvested this way is muchless prone to absorb water than shorn wool (Lightfoot
1997, 14). Sorting the wool into categories, and separating
the outer coat from the bottom wool were the next steps,
to be followed by combing (and carding) and the makingof roving, i.e. pre-yarn (fig. 6). Before spinning, the roving
was placed on a distaff, or simply wound around thespinner’s arm. Warp and weft yarns were spun on different
tools, often in different directions (fig. 7). After spinning,yarns had to be set, i.e. wound tautly onto a stick or reel,wetted and dried (fig. 8). This process stops curling, and is
especially important for warp yarns for sailcloth. If not set,
the fabric would be very elastic and unsuited for sailcloth.
Warping and weaving were the next steps, followed byfinishing processes such as wetting, fulling, brushing etc.
(fig. 9).

Fig. 7: spinning. note the roving wound Around thespinner’s Arm. photo: oddmunn FArbregd.

Experiments indicate that a good spinner can produce 3050 m yarn per hour using spindle and distaff (Mårtensson
et al. 2006, 8; Nørgaard 1999, 10). For a wool sail of 90
square metres, that would mean 4.800 hours of spinning –two and a half modern working years.2 As regards weavingon the warp-weighted loom commonly used in the Viking
Age, weaver Anna Nørgaard inserts on average 25 wefts
per hour. It takes 20 hours to weave one metre of sailcloth,and she estimates that it would take almost 3.200 hours
to make the 157 metres needed for such as sail. The total
consumption of time for spinning and weaving is 8.000
Eva Andersson (2003, 46ff) calculates 20 m yarn/hour including
preparations and subsequent work, and reaches a total of 15.000 hours ofspinning for a sail of 100 square meters.

2

Fig. 8: wArp yArn beFore, during, And AFter setting.
photo: oddmunn FArbregd.

177

N-TAG TEN
labour.3 As crews would not have gone naked, however, weshould add close to another year of labour for the clothing
and bedding of each man on board (tables 1-2). Making
a sailor’s blanket took about six months, according tooral sources of the early 20th century.4 The productionof clothing would have required several months of work
too. In the 1860s, the average household on Ytre Senja
produced 11-12 metres of wool cloth and 4 kg yarn for
knitting each year, requiring at least 3 months of labour(Elstad 2004. 31).
Is this just a game of arithmetic, an equation with too many
unknown factors? Perhaps, but hopefully it makes it clearthat the introduction of sails to Scandinavia must have hadsignificant impact as regards fibre production and labour.
Although focus in this paper is on wool and sheep farming,other relevant fibres such as hemp and flax should not be
forgotten. They, too, require farming and labour. Flaxneeds a rich soil and a mild wet climate; hemp thrives
in drier, slightly warmer conditions and has a high yield;
their processing includes pulling, rippling, retting, drying,breaking, scutching and heckling, not to speak of spinningand weaving (Walton Rogers 2007, 14, 17ff) . Nettle may,perhaps, be added to the potential fibre sources; traditional

3

Fig. 9: weAving on A wArp-weighted loom. photo:
oddmunn FArbregd.

Textile tools in a number of male graves from the 7th-10th centuries in
Norway suggest that men also participated in textile production (Rabben
2002)4Lightfoot, personal communication c. 1999. This corresponds qiuite wellwith the reconstructing a sailor’s blanket performed by Ellen Kjellmo(1996, 106f). She needed 2 hours to produce 100 g yarn (shearing/rooing
and wool sorting not included). Kjellmo’s blanket weighed only 5,5 kg.
For a 18 kg blanket 360 hours would be needed. Kjellmo used about 250
hours weaving the blanket.

Cargo ship, knarr crew 6-8 Sail 90 m2

Rugs à 15 kg

Wool

90 – 120 kg

90 kg

Labour1

8000 hrs

5040-6720 hrs

4,8 years

3-3,6 years

2

Clothing à 6,6 kg

Total

40-53 kg

220-263 kg

2520-3360 hrs
1,5-2 years

3

15-18.000 hrs
c. 10 years

1

Estimates of labour a based on the modern working year of 1680 hours
Estimate based on half a modern working year, 840 hours
3
Estimate based on a quarter of a modern working year, 420 hours
2

tAble 1: cAlculAtions oF the Amount oF wool And lAbour needed For textiles on boArd A
viking ship oF the type represented by skuldelev i (knarr).
Warship, skeid Sail 112 m2
crew 65-701
Wool
200 kgRugs à 15 kg

Clothing à 6,6 kg Total

975-1050 kg

429-462 kg

1600-1700 kg

Labour30-32,5 years

15-17,5 years

54-59 years

2

9 years

1

Crew and sail size and weight of fibre for sail based on data from the Viking Ship Museum in
Roskilde and the reconstruction of Skuldelev 2, the Sea Stallion of Glendalough.
2
Estimate, basically doubling of the working hours needed for making 90 m2 sail weighing 90 kg

tAble 2: cAlculAtions oF the Amount oF wool And lAbour needed For
textiles on boArd A viking wArship oF the type represented by skuldelev 2(skeid).

178

lise bender jørgensen: the introduction oF sAils to scAndinAviA
boats of the Nordlandsbåt type reportedly often had sailsof nettle cloth (Eldjarn and Godal 1990a, 268).
Land for Fibre
How much land is needed for the production of fibre?
Price lists from Emmenthal in Switzerland,1940, inform
us that 15 square metres of land sown with flax will yield
6 kg flax stems, which is what is needed to produce a linen
tablecloth; 100 kg of flax stems result in c. 4kg of firstquality fibres (Rast-Eicher 2008, 24). To make a sail fora Viking warship, some 200 kg of processed flax fibres
would have been needed.5 According to the agricultural
standards represented by the Swiss price list of 1940,
this would represent some 12.500 square metres of land
– that is if sailcloth was made from the same quality offibres as tablecloth. As the introduction of artificial
fertilizers c 1840 have caused harvest outputs to multiply,
agricultural tracts from the time of the Enlightment are abetter source for data on fibre production comparable tothe Viking Age. According to H.J.C. Høegh, who offered
his advice to farmers and cottagers in Denmark after theland reforms of the 18th century, half a skæppe land (c.
345 m2) could be expected to yield some 4-5 lispund (3240 kg) of hemp (Høegh 1797, 475). Professor ChristianOlufsen, addressing farmers and cottagers in Denmarkand Norway, calculated 2000 square ells of land (780m2) sown with one skæppe (17.39 litres) of hemp seeds
for a similar yield of scutched hemp (Olufsen 1812, 16).
He further estimated that the yearly demand of the double
monarchy for 10.000 skippund of hemp (1.694 tonnes)
could be produced on c. 6.600 tønder land (2.640 hectare)(Olufsen 1812, 3). That would correspond to some 644
kg hemp/hectare. Unfortunately, none of these learned
gentlemen have supplied the equivalent information on
flax yields, except that they were lower. Investigationsof economic perspectives on fibre production in modern
Germany may, however, give us an idea of the relative
proportions between hemp and flax. They propose hemp
yields of 1775-3000 kg/hectare, depending on soil typeand sowing density (Kaup 1996, 5-36, Abb. 5-1; vonFrancken-Welz and Léon 2003, 35, Tab. A1). According
to Kaup, flax yields are 1200-1860kg/hectare; he also
assesses the yield of fibre nettle, at 750 kg/hectare (Kaup
1996, 5-36, abb. 5-1). These figures suggest that hemp
yields are 50-100% larger than those of flax. Flax yields
around 1800 could thus have been something like 300-440
kg /hectare. Whether these estimates are applicable to theViking Age is a good question, and certainly one that it
would be interesting to pursue. Regardless, it follows thatthe cultivation of flax or hemp for sailcloth would havenecessitated the setting aside of good arable lands for the
purpose of fibre production.
Wool farming requires large expanses of land, but muchless arable. The coastal heathlands of Norway offer
excellent grazing for the double-coated old Norse sheep
http://vikingeskibsmuseet.dk/index.php?id=1316&L=1 (retrieved 20.
November 2009)5

all year round. They were first established 5.000 years
ago and have been expanded recurrently (Kvamme et al.
2004, 10). Investigations of pollen data from Southernand Western Norway show that the heathlands expanded
during the Merovingian and Viking Periods, e. g. theperiod when sails were introduced and gained importance(Myhre and Øye 2002, 179). The site of Lurekalven in
Hordaland is a good example; it was turned into heathlandc. 750 AD (Kvamme et al. 2004, 12). Here, recent research
has shown that the optimal grazing pressure is around one
adult sheep per hectare of actively managed heathlands
during winter (Kvamme et al. 2004, 46f). Amy Lightfoothas suggested 2.5 hectare per animal (Lightfoot 1991, 6).
A hectare of heathlands would thus yield 1-2 kg of wool
annually. It may not appear much compared to the amountof hemp or flax that can, or could, be produced per hectare;
the type of land, and the amount of manure and labour tobe invested would, however, be very different. Even today,
less than 3% of Norway is fully arable (Myhre and Øye,2002. 234); in the Viking Age, this supposedly was less.
Pollen diagrams from areas of mountain dairy farming inWestern Norway show that grazing pressure intensified
during the 7th and 8th centuries (Myhre and Øye 2002,177); this, presumably, applied to cattle as well as goats andsheep. Cultivation of hemp seems to have increased after
600 AD in Norway and Sweden (Myhre and Øye 2002,
174, 193; Pedersen and Widgren 1998, 382). Evidenceof hemp and flax processing (retting) has been found atseveral sites dated to the 8th and 9th centuries in Norway
and Denmark (Myhre and Øye 2002, 193; Møller-Hansen
and Høier 2000). All of this indicates that the productionof fibres gained significantly in importance in Scandinavia
about the time when sails were introduced.
Acknowledgements
Thoughts presented in this paper spring from myparticipation in the project ‘Textiles of Seafaring’ 19981999, financed by the EU’s Raphael Programme, anddiscussions with fellow participants from the Viking
Ship Museum, Denmark, the University of Manchester
Institute of Science & Technology (UMIST), Tømmervik
Textile Trust, and craftswomen Anna Nørgaard and Lena
Hammarlund. Fellow members of the SoDiTech network
have contributed further ideas and inspiration, especiallyDebbie Olausson and Ulla Isabel Zagal-Mach, both fromthe University of Lund, Sweden. Antoinette Rast-Eicher,ArcheoTex in Switzerland, Janken Myrdal at the Swedish
University of Agricultural Sciences, and the librarians at
the Gunnerus Library, Trondheim, have all helped finding
data on relationships between land and fibre yield. My
husband, Oddmunn Farbregd, supplied detailed data on
Oppdal from the tax lists of 1657, allowing me to establish
flock sizes of sheep. Audun Dybdahl helped me find further
information on the 1657 lists. Dr Carol Christiansen, theShetland Museum and Archives, courteously supplieda photograph of the rooing of sheep, and Hilde Murvold
at the museum Kystens Arv, now part of The Museums179

N-TAG TEN
in South-Trøndelag Ltd., very kindly photographed thecontents of a fisherman’s clothes chest and a sjørya.

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Lise Bender Jørgensen,
Norwegian University of Science & Technology,
Department of Archaeology and Religious Studies
N-7491 Trondheim, Norway
lise.bender@ntnu.no181