Generative AI and Critical Pedagogy: Towards a Developed
Methodology for Zhuangzi Studies in the Age of Algorithms
Anthea CHEUNG, Yanwen HOU & Yurong MA
Hong Kong Shue Yan University
Recent developments in Artificial Intelligence (AI) have ushered in new researchpossibilities across nearly all disciplines, with varying degrees of effectiveness. This paper offers
a test case of using AI in the humanities, a field traditionally rooted in qualitative analysis. The
influential Daoist classic Zhuangzi has been chosen owing to its unique and subtle notion of
wuwei (non-action). The authors have applied leading AI-aided databases such as Semantic
Scholar, Elict, and Scite to the vast amount of literature in the Zhuangzi study so that relevant
research papers can be sifted through rapidly and key points highlighted can be analyzed andeven summarized, offering an increasingly streamlined approach to the process of literature
review (LR) and data curation. This is useful to both graduate and post-graduate students.
However, our study discovered that the algorithm-driven nature of these platforms sometimes
has overlooked and even misinterpreted the nuances of philosophical discourse regarding wuwei
as found in the Zhuangzi. This is reflected in the contextual intricacies surrounding the text’s
political philosophy. According to the primitivist view of the Zhuangzi, the most salient featureof the polity of wuwei is not to be found in the paragraphs that address the term itself directly,
but in the narrative of the illuminating or illustrious king (mingwang ) in pursuit of a finely-tuned
state of harmonious governance. Such subtleties have not been detected by the AI tools thisstudy applied. Given this, a more advanced methodology capable of incorporating
conventional Zhuangzi scholarship with textual analysis, historical understanding, andphilosophical excursion proves necessary. That is to say, the supremacy of human intelligencecannot be dispensed with in the field of fine research in the AI era, especially for conventional
philosophical topics of this kind.
1. Background
The advent of Artificial Intelligence (AI) has ushered in a new era of research possibilities
across many disciplines (Kong, 2023). Humanities, traditionally considered a field rooted in deep
qualitative analysis, has also begun to explore the potential of AI in augmenting its
methodological approaches (Pavlidis 2022). Among the various sub-fields within humanities, thestudy of classical Chinese philosophy represents a rich and complex domain where AI’s
computational prowess can be harnessed to uncover new insights and understandings.
The Zhuangzi 莊 子, one of the most influential pre-Qin Daoist classics, encapsulates
a profound philosophical discourse that has been dissected through myriad lenses since
its appearance. The interdisciplinary nexus of AI and the study of the Zhuangzi has the potential
to foster novel methods that can contribute to a broader and deeper understanding of
Zhuangzi’s philosophical expositions, especially within the framework of Critical Pedagogy(Cooper, 2015) emphasizing transformative education and social justice.

The objective of this research paper is to bridge the huge gap between the traditional
methodological approaches to the Zhuangzi and the emerging AI-driven methods within theframework of Critical Pedagogy. By demonstrating the possibilities and limitations of AI in the
study of the composite work Zhuangzi, this research aims to contribute to a deeper understandingof classical Daoist philosophical concepts and the development of a more robust, integrative
research methodology. The significance of this research lies in its attempt to harmonize traditional
humanistic inquiry with present-day technological advancements. Such a synergy in the study ofthe Zhuangzi holds promise for a deeper, multi-dimensional analysis, opening up avenues forenhanced accessibility to and global discourse on classical Daoist philosophy. As an initial attempt,
this paper intends to address primarily the following two questions: (1) How can AI accelerate thestep of data mining for research in the contemporary period attempted on classical Daoist
philosophical notions? (2) To what extent does generative AI help deepen the understanding of therather intricate yet extremely inspiring political notion of wuwei 無 為 (non-action) of theinfluential Daoist classic Zhuangzi?
2. Existing Methodologies in the Study of the Zhuangzi
The study of the Zhuangzi has a rich methodological tradition in China and beyond, adopting
numerous approaches (e.g. literary, textual, historical, philosophical, religious, etc.) to explore theprofound philosophical discourse embedded within the text (Cheung, 2010). A cornerstone of thishas been traditional textual analysis, where scholars delve into the original text, employing
philological and hermeneutic approaches to unearth the contextual meanings and philosophicalunderpinnings (Teubert, 2015). The encompassing nature of the Zhuangzi thought also attracts
comparative studies (Chai, 2009 - as a telling example). Scholars would utilize a comparative
methodology to draw parallels and contrasts between Zhuangzi’s philosophy and otherphilosophical traditions, both within and outside the Chinese context (Wang, 2021). Meanwhile,
understanding the historical context in which the Zhuangzi was written is crucial for a wellrounded analysis. Engaging with the Zhuangzi on a philosophical level often involves a deep
inquiry into the fundamental questions posed in the text, catalyzing dialogues within contemporary
philosophical frameworks as well as traditional Chinese philosophical discourse (Liu, 2016).
In addition, the composite nature of the Zhuangzi text, thirty-two chapters divided into threeparts (namely, the “Inner Chapters”, “Outer Chapters”, and “Miscellaneous Chapters”), has
inspired interdisciplinary approaches, blending philosophical inquiry with literary analysis,
religious studies, and even scientific discourse. In recent years, the emergence of Digital
Humanities (DH) has marked a significant stride in studying the Zhuangzi. Scholars have begun
utilizing computational tools for semantic mapping, network analysis, and to a lesser extent,
textual analysis, providing fresh insights into understanding the Zhuangzi (Lin, 2012). Each ofthese methodologies brings a unique perspective to the Zhuangzi, contributing to the rich tapestryof interpretations and understandings of the text. The advent of AI represents a new turning point,
offering an opportunity to augment these traditional methodologies and to explore new routes
toward the hidden aspects of the Zhuangzi.

3. Implications of the AI Application in Humanities and Classical Studies
3.1 A Global Perspective
The integration of AI into humanities and classical studies signifies a paradigm shift, opening
up novel paths for research in this traditional research field. Globally, academic institutions andscholars have begun leveraging machine learning algorithms, natural language processing, andother AI technologies to delve deeper into textual corpora, uncovering patterns and insights thatwere previously unattainable or extremely time-consuming (Iqbal et al., 2020). For instance, AIpowered tools have facilitated the analysis of large datasets, enabling comparative studies acrossvast bodies of literature or historical records (Deshpande & Kumar, 2018; Ngwenyama & Rowe,2024). Additionally, AI has enabled the development of semantic networks and topic modeling,aiding in exploring thematic trends and the interconnection of ideas across different cultures andperiods (Chen et al., 2022; Boyd-Graber, Hu & Mimno, 2017). Furthermore, the global perspectiveof AI applications in humanities has fostered a collaborative ethos, transcending geographical andlinguistic barriers. Digital platforms and AI-assisted databases have enabled scholars fromdifferent continents to engage with and contribute to a shared body of knowledge, enriching thediscourse within classical studies including the domain of Zhuangzi studies (Liu, 2020).
3.2 The Role of Critical Pedagogy in Technologically Driven Research
Critical Pedagogy, with its roots in transformative education and social justice, offers apertinent framework for evaluating the application of AI in humanities research. It advocates for areflexive, dialogical approach toward knowledge construction, promoting a critical engagementwith technological tools and methodologies (Panicker, 2020). In the context of technologicallydriven research, Critical Pedagogy challenges researchers to interrogate epistemological andethical implications of AI applications, fostering a discourse that moves beyond mere technicalefficiency to encompass social, cultural, and ideological considerations (Boyd & Crawford, 2012).
The infusion of Critical Pedagogy into the AI-assisted Zhuangzi studies, for instance, prompts athorough examination of how AI tools and algorithms may shape, constrain, or enhance theinterpretative processes. It underscores the importance of maintaining a dialogical relationshipbetween human scholars and AI technologies, ensuring that nuanced or context-rich analyses
inherent in humanities research are not overshadowed by the application of AI that is in principle
or nature heavily quantitative and data-driven.
4. Case Study
The focal database for this study was the China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI),
which was selected due to its comprehensive repository of academic resources pivotal to Daoist
studies in the Chinese language. Our access to CNKI was facilitated through institutional
subscriptions from a curated selection of 8 universities, including mainland China and overseas
regions. The institutions selected for this comparative study include (a) the University of Hong
Kong, Hong Kong Shue Yan University, the University of Macau, the Hong Kong University of
Science and Technology, and the Australian National University – representing the overseas cohort,and (b) Fudan University, Sun Yat-sen University, and Fujian Normal University – representing
the mainland China cohort. The data collection process was initiated by setting meticulous searchparameters to identify all academic resources with the two key terms of “Zhuangzi” and “wuwei”,
appearing in the title, keyword, or abstract. The data concerning the availability of these resources
was diligently retrieved on a specified timepoint - 7 October 2023, to ensure a consistent basis forcomparative analysis. It is observed that the findings being obtained (or the data collected) fromthe 5 overseas institutions were highly identical to the findings obtained from the institutions
within mainland China, illustrating a consistency in database archives across similar geographicaland institutional landscapes.
4.1 Findings
The data collected was systematically tabulated to provide a clear juxtaposition between thenumber of archives available at institutions in mainland China and overseas, respectively. The
tabulation revealed that overseas institutions had 1568 archives in total number, with 923
Academic Journals, 440 Theses/Dissertations, 20 Conferences, 32 Monographic Serials, and 153
Magazines. Conversely, mainland China institutions had 1540 archives, comprising 924 Academic
Journals, 441 Theses/Dissertations, 19 Conferences, 32 Monographic Serials, and 124 Magazines.
A discerning analysis of the overlapping and unique results was conducted. There were 1536
overlapping results from the overseas and mainland China databases, indicating a substantial
commonality in the academic resources available across the different geographical andinstitutional landscapes. However, 32 results were unique to the overseas database, while 2 wereunique to the mainland China database, as illustrated in Figure 1. The pertinent information ofthese unique references is meticulously presented in Table 1.
Figure 1

Table 1
Numbers of Archives

Overseas

Mainland China

All (Chinese)

1568

1540

Academic Journals

923

924

Theses/Dissertations

440

441

Conferences

20

19

Monographic Serials

32

32

Magazines

153

124

The similarities and differences observed in the data provided above provide a detailed
understanding of the global scholarly discourse on the wuwei notion of the Zhuangzi. The
impressive level of academic engagement with “Zhuangzi” and “wuwei” across the different
institutions is illustrated by the overlapping part of Figure 1. Conversely, the unique results of eachgeographical and institutional cohort potentially indicate differing scholarly focuses or resource
availabilities.
4.2

Limitations

As we can see, the advancement of research databases heralds a promising era in the academic
analysis of the Zhuangzi’s wuwei. The modern academic landscape has been substantially enrichedby AI-powered tools designated to streamline the LR or the initial-stage research process. Tools
like Semantic Scholar and Elicit employ advanced search engines to swiftly identify relevant
papers, significantly reducing the time traditionally spent on manual searches. Moreover, tools like
Concensus and Scite offer various benefits, including AI-powered searches, summarization of
PDFs, extraction of key information, and citation analysis, which further aid in scientific researchand enhance the efficiency and precision of academic endeavors. A notable limitation shown in the
database is its inadequacy in handling Chinese research articles with AI-assist tools. Whileelectronic platforms like CNKI can provide a robust repository for Chinese research articles, AIassist tools like Scite and Semantic Scholar may fall short of AI generative results from research
articles published in the Chinese language. This limitation poses a challenge for researchers todelve into Chinese philosophical texts or any other Chinese scholarly works using AI-powered
tools that are not tailor-made to process Chinese language texts efficiently. The discrepancy indatabase search capabilities across different geographical and linguistic landscapes hence
underscores a critical area for improvement. There is an urgent need to enhance the multilingual
processing capabilities of AI-assist tools to ensure a more inclusive search functionality across adiverse spectrum of academic literature, encapsulating texts written in both English and nonEnglish (for our case study, the Chinese language).

4.2.1. The Semantic Complexity of wuwei: A Case for Human-Centric Analysis
The exploration of the political philosophy of the Zhuangzi would invariably involve
examining core Daoist concepts such as wuwei. The semantic richness of wuwei poses significant
challenges for AI-driven analysis nevertheless. The composite nature of the Zhuangzi text and themulti-dimensional, contextual interpretations associated with wuwei demand a human-centric
analytical approach. While the prowess of AI can expedite the data collection process andpreliminary analysis, the depth of understanding and interpretative insights necessitated for acomprehensive exploration of wuwei primarily reside in the human domain of intellectual
engagement. The juxtaposition of AI and human analysis in this regard highlights a symbiotic
relationship where the computational capabilities of AI are harmonized with the intuitive,
experiential understanding of human scholars to foster a deeper exploration of the philosophicalaspect of the Zhuangzi.
In fact, according to the perennial study of the first author on the Zhuangzi (Zhang, 2007;
Cheung 2010; Zhang, 2024), there are three types or forms of wuwei inside the composite work
Zhuangzi, representing three different orientations, namely, personal, political, and philosophical.
The third one is the most fundamental, which, most likely, represents the ideal form of harmonious
governance advocated by Zhuang Zhou 莊周 (a. 375-295 BCE, commonly called “Zhuangzi”), thesecond most influential master of the Daoist school besides Laozi (or Lao Dan). In the front partof Chapter 7 (“Responses to inquiries on how to be fit for emperors and kings” 應帝王 from “theInner Chapters”) of the Zhuangzi, it is so written:
Jian Wu went to see the madman Jie Yu. Jie Yu said, “What was Zhong Shi telling you
the other day?” Jian Wu said, “He told me that the ruler of men should devise his own
principles, standards, ceremonies, and regulations, and then there will be no one whowill fail to obey him and be transformed by them.” The madman Jie Yu said, “This is
bogus virtue! To try to govern the world like this is like trying to walk the ocean, to drill
through a river, or to make a mosquito shoulder a mountain! When the sage governs,
does he govern what is on the outside? He makes sure of himself first, and then he acts.
He makes absolutely certain that things can do what they are supposed to do, that isall. …
Yangzi Ju went to see Lao Dan and said, “Here is a man swift as an echo, strong as abeam, with a wonderfully clear understanding of the principles of things, studying the
Way without ever letting up - a man like this could compare with an illuminating king,couldn’t he?” Lao Dan said, “In comparison with the sage, a man like this is a drudging
slave, a craftsman bound to his calling, wearing out his body, grieving his mind. Theysay it is the beautiful markings of the tiger and the leopard that call out the hunters, thenimbleness of the monkey and the ability of the dog to catch rats that make them end up
chained. A man like this - how could he compare with an enlightened king?” Yangzi Ju,
much taken aback, said, “May I venture to ask about the government of the enlightened
king?” Lao Dan said, “The government of the illuminating king? His achievements
blanket the world but appear not to be his own doing. His transforming influence touches
the ten thousand things, but the people do not depend on him. With him there is nopromotion or praise - he lets everything find its own enjoyment. He takes his stand on
what cannot be fathomed and wanders where there is nothing at all.” …
[Guo, Zhuangzi jishi (vol. 1): 289-296; translation slightly modified from
Watson, 2013 ed. (tr.): 55-57]
As vividly explained by the madman Jie Yu, an aggressive form of governance, with“principles, standards, ceremonies, and regulations” all stipulated by the ruler to make everyone“obey him” is by no means a good one. The reason is simple. “To try to govern the world like thisis like trying to walk the ocean, to drill through a river, or to make a mosquito shoulder a mountain!”
To Zhuang Zhou, a policy of non-interference is nothing but the best. This kind of noninterference governance is nicely called “wuwei” 無為 (literally, “non-action”), which first andvery elaboratively appears in the Laozi (or the Daodejing) and then in the Zhuangzi, Guanzi 管子,
Huainanzi 淮南子 and so on. To explain in modern words, it is something resembling the idea oflaissez-faire (literally “allow to do”, “let things pass”) coined by a group of 18th-century
French economists, “favoring a ‘hands-off’ policy” (Merriam-Webster Dictionary 2024).
However, the term wuwei is absent from the paragraphs we have cited above, and what we
can find there is merely the spirit of “non-action” or “non-interference”, meaning to let theruled act according to their abilities or as they like.
Wuwei is a core notion of the Laozi, appearing 11 times in 9 chapters (2-3, 37-38, 43-48,
57, 63-64). The case of the Zhuangzi is rather complex. As mentioned, there are three types
of wuwei depicted in the Zhuangzi, of which two belong to the ideas of Zhuang Zhou. The
first type is typically personal or individualistic (Cheung 2010, chap. 3), meaning “idle ofoneself” (concentrating on spiritual cultivation) or “hermit-spirit” (staying far away fromofficialdom). Conventional Chinese scholars such as Guo Xiang 郭象 (a. 252-312) and Zhu
Xi 朱熹 (1130-1200) mostly perceive this as the sole manifestation of wuwei of Zhuang Zhou,
which is highly inaccurate or strongly biased (Zhang 2024). The second type is strictly
political or pragmatic, belonging apparently to the school of Huang-Lao (Cheung, 2010,
chaps. 6-7), and can be found in “Tiandao” 天道 and “Tiandi” 天地 of the “Outer Chapters”
of the Zhuangzi. The third type is purely philosophical. This one is not only close to thewuwei of the Laozi in spirits but also in content and narrative form (the Laozi, chaps. 2, 7,
34, 37; Zhang, 2023a & 2023b; Zhang, 2024). The most pronounced ones include: (a) Zhuang
Zhou cites Lao Dan’s words directly; and (b) both Laozi and Zhuangzi appraise thegovernment of shengren (Laozi’s word) - the sage-king or mingwang (Zhuangzi’s word) - theilluminating or illustrious king, who does not show off his merits before his people. It is just as
said by Lao Dan, “The government of the illuminating king? His achievements blanket the world
but appear not to be his own doing. His transforming influence touches the ten thousand things,
but the people do not depend on him. With him there is no promotion or praise - he lets everythingfind its own enjoyment. He takes his stand on what cannot be fathomed and wanders where there
is nothing at all.”
The third type of wuwei, an ideal form of governance repeatedly advocated by Zhuang Zhou,
can be found in the chapters of “Keyi” 刻意, “Zhile” 至樂 and “Zeyang” 則陽 of the Zhuangzi,

and even in its exact wording “無為”. Regrettably, it is more than often neglected by influential
Chinese scholars in the past. But this kind of in-depth understanding is crucial as the Zhuangzi
thought has been appraised by sinologists (such as A.C. Graham and Jean-François Billeter) andcontemporary Chinese scholars (such as Chen Guying 陳鼓應, Hsi-San Lai 賴錫三, and Chen Yun陳贇) for its openness and the spirit of loving-kindness and hence, a world heritage to the mankind.
Meanwhile, the current development of AI is far from sufficient to replace human-centric analysis
and expert knowledge of human researchers of such kind because as we can see it clearly, thekeyword wuwei, which is nearly indispensable for any AI processing, is completely absent fromthe quotations we cited above from Chapter 7 of the Zhuangzi.
4.2.2. Gaps in AI-Driven Methods: A Critical Review
AI-driven methods, despite their innovative potential, exhibit certain gaps when applied to therealm of the Zhuangzi study. One of the primary limitations stems from the inherent design of AI
algorithms which are predominantly data-driven, lacking the ability to discern contextual andcultural subtleties crucial for a deep understanding of classical Chinese philosophical texts like theZhuangzi. Moreover, the heavy reliance on pre-defined keyword search strategies could
automatically constrain the scope of exploration, overlooking the interdisciplinary and intertextual
engagements characteristic of the Zhuangzi study. Critical reviews also underscore the ethicalconsiderations entailed with AI applications, particularly concerning such things as data privacy,
intellectual property, and the potential for algorithmic biases (Boyd & Crawford, 2012).
Addressing these gaps necessitates a multidisciplinary approach, melding the technicaladvancements of AI with the ethical, philosophical, and contextual insights offered by Critical
Pedagogy and traditional methodological approaches.
4.3 Potential Improvements
4.3.1 Topic Modeling
Topic modeling, employing algorithms such as Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA), emerges
as a potent tool for uncovering thematic structures within extensive textual datasets (Barde &Bainwad 2017; Vayansky & Kumar 2020). It holds the promise of enhancing the efficiency andscalability of a large textual corpora analysis for the composite Zhuangzi. The method facilitates
an expedited analysis, enabling scholars to sift through a broader range of texts in a fraction of thetime that traditional methodologies would demand substantially. Furthermore, by statisticallyanalyzing word co-occurrences and distributions, topic modeling can reveal latent themes andtrends that might escape the naked eye, offering fresh perspectives and novel avenues for
exploration. This is one advantage.
Another notable advantage of topic modeling is its potential to bridge interdisciplinary gaps.
By identifying thematic overlaps and intertextual engagements, topic modeling fosters a crossdisciplinary exploration, intertwining the examination of the Zhuangzi with a philosophical,
literary, or even scientific domain. However, this algorithm-driven analysis is not without its
limitations. It may yield a more surface-level analysis, potentially overlooking important nuances
inherent in the composite Zhuangzi’s philosophical discourse. A deep understanding of andinterpretive insights crucial for a comprehensive exploration of Zhuang Zhou’s teachings primarily
reside in the human domain of intellectual engagement, which topic modeling might not fully
encapsulate. Furthermore, the effectiveness of topic modeling is heavily contingent on the quality
and representativeness of the data. Any misrepresentation or biases inherent in the textual data cansignificantly skew the results, leading to a distorted understanding of the thematic structures within
the text.
In the broader scope of the Zhuangzi study, topic modeling can serve as a springboard for indepth analysis. For instance, setting it with a high-level overview of prevalent themes, topic
modeling can guide scholars toward other areas (such as high literature, religion, aesthetics, andarts) warranting further exploration. And, when applying topic modeling across a diverse range oftexts, including comparative analyses with other cardinal philosophical texts (such as the Laozi
and the Guanzi), can help scholars yield a rich interdisciplinary insight. This, when fused withother AI-driven methods and traditional methodologies under the framework of Critical Pedagogy,
could even foster a more nuanced and holistic approach to exploring the intricate landscape ofpolitical philosophy of the Zhuangzi.
4.3.2 AI-Aided Databases (like Semantic Scholar, Elict, Scite) in the Zhuangzi Study
The advent of AI-aided databases such as Semantic Scholar, Elict, and Scite has significantly
enriched the research landscape of the Zhuangzi study by providing advanced tools for LR, data
analysis, and citation context understanding.
Semantic Scholar is an AI-powered research tool developed by the Allen Institute. It is
designed to help researchers find relevant information swiftly by navigating through millions ofresearch papers across various disciplines. Semantic Scholar distinguishes itself from general AI
tools (e.g. CNKI) by using machine learning (ML) to understand the context and relevance of
research papers, summarizing key points, and highlighting influential citations. This allows
scholars in the Zhuangzi study to sift through a vast pool of literature efficiently, identifying themost pertinent and impactful works related to their interests and fields.
Elict represents a newer class of research tools that leverage AI to extract and synthesize
information from scientific texts. It is built to assist researchers in identifying relationships
between concepts, methodologies, and results across a wide array of documents. For scholars
focused on the Zhuangzi and Daoist philosophy, Elict can be instrumental in tracing the evolutionof specific ideas, comparing interpretations, and integrating insights from interdisciplinary studies
that touch upon these ancient texts.
Scite is a platform that goes beyond traditional citation metrics to provide ‘Smart Citations’ byanalyzing the citation context. It evaluates whether a paper has been supported or contradicted bysubsequent research, offering a more nuanced understanding of its scientific impact. For theZhuangzi study, Scite can be particularly useful in tracking how interpretations of the Zhuangzi
have been received and critiqued over time, which is crucial for an area or field that relies heavily
on historical scholarship and textual analysis.
All these AI-aided databases represent a significant advancement in research technology,
allowing for a more systematic and interconnected approach to scholarly work. They enable
researchers to uncover new relationships between texts, gain insights into a broader discourse, andcritically assess the influence of specific works within the realm of the Zhuangzi study. These
platforms leverage AI to enhance the efficiency and quality of searching, retrieving, and analyzing
scholarly articles, offering a more streamlined and reliable approach to data collection and LR.
One primary advantage of these AI-aided databases is their prowess to help and handle a vast
amount of data for researchers, offering quick access to a wide array of resources pertinent to theZhuangzi study. They employ advanced algorithms to filter, categorize, and recommend relevant
articles, saving enormous time and energy that would otherwise be spent on manual LR. Moreover,these databases often feature intuitive interfaces and powerful search engines that enable precise
keyword searches and provide insightful analytics on the retrieved data.
In addition, AI-aided databases facilitate a global collaborative environment for scholars. By
centralizing and organizing the scholarly literature, they foster a shared knowledge base that
researchers across the globe can tap into and contribute to, thereby promoting a more inclusiveand collaborative scholarly ecosystem.
However, there are limitations to these AI-aided databases. The algorithm-driven nature ofthese platforms may sometimes overlook or misinterpret hidden discourses inherent in the
Zhuangzi study, as explained above (see 4.2.1). The search results and recommendations are boundby the design and biases of the underlying algorithms, which may not always align with theresearchers’ objectives or the contextual intricacies of Zhuang Zhou’s political philosophy.
Furthermore, the dependency on pre-defined keywords and algorithmic categorizations
may sometimes constrain the scope of exploration, potentially sidelining lesser-known orseemingly self-contradictory perspectives within the Zhuangzi. This highlights a potential gap
where the rich, multifaceted philosophical discourse of the Zhuangzi may be somewhat flattenedor oversimplified when viewed through the lens of algorithm-driven platforms.
In sum, while AI-aided databases offer notable advantages in terms of efficiency,
accessibility, and collaborative potential, they also present certain limitations that necessitate abalanced, critical approach. The synthesis of AI-aided databases with traditional, humancentric methodologies could possibly provide a more holistic and promising avenue foradvancing the Zhuangzi study in the AI era.
4.4

Expanding the Keyword Pool: A Multi-Lingual Approach

The endeavor to delve deeper into Zhuang Zhou’s philosophical discourse necessitates aclearer and broader understanding of the terminologies and notions inherent in the Zhuangzi. A
robust keyword pool, transcending linguistic barriers, emerges as a pivotal asset in this regard. The
proposition of expanding the keyword pool by adopting a multi-lingual approach, encapsulating
keywords in both Chinese (Simplified and Traditional) and English, along with other relevant
European languages that hold scholarly discourse on the Zhuangzi should be considered. As such,an expanded, multi-lingual keyword pool can augment the search capabilities within AI-aided
databases and traditional database platforms alike. It can then facilitate a more comprehensive andinclusive search process, encompassing a broader spectrum of scholarly literature that spans acrosslinguistic, geographical, and cultural boundaries. This approach potentially unveils a more richly
textual and cultural understanding of the Zhuangzi’s philosophical landscape, drawing from adiverse array of scholarly perspectives and interpretations.

A multi-lingual keyword pool also helps foster an environment of inclusivity and global
scholarly engagement. It bridges linguistic gaps, enabling scholars from varied linguistic
backgrounds to engage with, contribute to, and enrich the global discourse on the composite
Zhuangzi. This approach not only amplifies the depth and breadth of the research but also nurtures
a global community of scholars united by a shared intellectual pursuit.
However, the task of curating and managing an extensive, multi-lingual keyword pool presents
its own set of challenges. It demands a thorough understanding of the linguistic and semantic
nuances across different languages. For example, “Zhuangzi” (in Hanyu pinyin) can be written as“Chuang Tzu” (in Wade-Giles) in English, and “Tchouang-tseu” in French. Moreover, thecontinuous updating and refining of the keyword pool to reflect the evolving scholarly discourse
and terminologies require a collaborative effort and a well-coordinated, systematic approach. Last
but not least, the effectiveness of a multi-lingual keyword pool is in part contingent on thecapabilities of the search engines and databases employed. The ability to accurately interpret andsearch for keywords across different languages and scripts is pivotal for realizing the full potentialof a multi-lingual keyword pool in advancing the Zhuangzi study.
In summary, expanding the keyword pool through a multi-lingual approach holds significant
promise for enhancing the scope, inclusivity, and depth of research in the Zhuangzi and Zhuangzi
studies. It presents an avenue for leveraging the synergies between AI technologies and humanexpertise, fostering in the research area a more robust and holistic exploration of Zhuangzi’s
philosophical discourse in the AI era.
5. Reflections
Our first-stage exploration of the Zhuangzi study in the AI era presents a confluence oftraditional scholarly rigor and cutting-edge technological innovation. Our investigation
underscores that AI research tools and methods are not standalone solutions. Rather, they must
synergize with the researchers’ expertise in the related research field (cf. Dantas, Lucimar, Elsa
Estrela & Zhe Yuan, 2022). The intricate philosophical discourse inherent in the composite
Zhuangzi text necessitates a deep-seated understanding and interpretative prowess that resides
predominantly within the domain of human intellect.
From a purely learning standpoint, integrating AI into the Zhuangzi study which has been
conventionally attached to humanities, a field traditionally rooted in qualitative analysis, has
proven to be an evident advancement, particularly in second and third-hand publication entries
access. This integration facilitates a more streamlined and productive LR process, enabling
research students to commence their scholarly journey with a substantial body of knowledge anda sense of encouragement. The rapid access to a wide array of resources, facilitated by AI, serves
as a valuable springboard for deeper, more focused inquiry (see Chart 1-4). For novice researchers
embarking on the path of the Zhuangzi study, the AI-assisted databases and tools act as a catalyst,
accelerating the initial phases of literature exploration, and aiding in identifying key research gaps,
seminal works, and emerging trends in the field.

Chart 1

Chart 2Chart 3

Chart 4

Second, the AI-driven approach fosters an environment conducive to collaborative learningand interdisciplinary engagement (Newman, 2023). By automating the tedious process of datacollection and preliminary analysis, AI frees up time and cognitive resources for researchers andresearch students, allowing them to engage more deeply with the discourse they work on, and to
cross-pollinate ideas with other related fields of study. This enhances not merely the learning
experience, but also nurtures a culture of intellectual curiosity, critical thinking, and collaborative
exploration, especially among research students.
Third, the AI-enabled analytics and visualizations provide researchers with intuitive, easy-tograsp insights into the thematic structures and intertextual relations within the Zhuangzi text andrelated scholarly literature. This visual, interactive mode of learning facilitates a better
understanding and retention of complex philosophical ideas, particularly for individuals who are
new to the Zhuangzi study, or new to classical Daoist/Chinese philosophy.
Despite these advantages, it is imperative that the use of AI tools is to be guided by expert
mentorship. Sound interpretative skills and critical engagement necessitated for a meaningful
exploration of Zhuang Zhou’s teachings should be developed through rigorous academic training
empowered by mentorship. In this vein, the AI tools serve mainly as a complement, rather than asubstitute, for the traditional mentor-mentee relationship, classroom discussions, and scholarly
debates that form the bedrock of a robust learning experience. Because of this, from the lens offine research, the current state of AI integration into the Zhuangzi study falls short of expectations.
The findings of this paper have illustrated a prevailing need for substantial scholarly interference
to supplement, compensate, or upgrade the AI-generated findings. The limitations of AI,
particularly in grappling with the semantic complexity and contextual intricacies of Zhuang Zhou’s
philosophical discourse, with the example of wuwei, underscored once again the indispensablevalue of human-centric analysis. While AI can be a powerful tool for data collection andpreliminary textual/thematical analysis, the depth of understanding, interpretative insights, andcritical engagement requisite for a comprehensive exploration of Zhuang Zhou’s teachings are stillnothing more than human endeavors.
The AI algorithms at their core are designed to identify patterns and trends within large datasets.
However, any nuanced and especially innovative philosophical discourse of the Zhuangzi, ladenwith metaphorical expressions and contextual subtleties, often eludes the algorithmic analysis. The
depth of interpretive insight required to engage with Zhuang Zhou’s unique philosophicaldiscourse, to discern the implicit meanings of the text, and to draw connections with broader sociocultural and historical contexts with the Daoist school, is inherently a human, intellectual endeavor.
The human scholar’s ability to engage in reflective thinking, and to delve into the different layersof meaning within the composite text Zhuangzi (cf. Liu, 2015), is irreplaceable and paramount foradvancing the scholarly discourse in this research area.
In addition, the critical review and discussion among scholars, the debates and dialogues thatwill ensue, and the professional mentorship provided to research students during postgraduate
studies are all crucial aspects of fine research in the well-established and long-history scholarshipof the Zhuangzi. This kind of human interaction fosters a deeper understanding, sparks new ideas,
and drives the iterative process of knowledge construction and validation in the long run. The AI
tools, despite their computational prowess, cannot replicate the rich, dialogical process of humaninteraction, the exchange of novel ideas, and the critical discourse central to the scholarly
investigation after all.
Last but not least, ethical considerations, the questioning of biased/over-simplified
assumptions, and a critical evaluation of textual/scholarly sources and methodologies available foruse are integral to fine research in the Zhuangzi study. All these active engagements ensure theintegrity, validity, and ethical soundness of the research, aspects that are beyond the purview of AI
tools even in the long term. The human researcher’s ability to engage in ethical reasoning,
challenge unjustified assumptions, and critically evaluate the methodologies carefully applied andeven to the findings already reached is central to ensuring the rigor and ethical soundness of any
research in the Zhuangzi study.
In summation, the journey towards a developed methodology for the Zhuangzi study in the AI
era must be a clever collaboration between man and machine. The fusion of AI’s computational
capabilities with the researchers’ expertise and critical pedagogical framework could potentiallyusher in a new paradigm of scholarly exploration. This collaborative model not only augments theefficiency and breadth of research in the field of humanities but also ensures that a meaningful,multi-dimensional discourse (philosophical or something else) of the Zhuangzi is thoroughly
explored and interpreted within the broader scholarly and societal context in the contemporary
world.

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