宮城教育大学 環境教育研究紀要

第 12 巻 (2010)

Bioacoustics as a Tool for Environmental Education
Lazaro Miguel ECHENIQUE-DIAZ * and Chiemi SAITO*

環境教育における音響生物学の応用
エチェニケ - ディアズ ラザロ ミゲル・斉藤千映美
Abstract : 野生動物を題材とする環境教育プログラムでは、自然界の豊かな音響が十分に活用されていない。子どもたちが自然に対する興味関心や自然への親和的な態度を培う上で、自然界の音への気づきを深めたり、静寂の価値を知ることは有意義で、したがって音響生物学の知見は、環境教育のツールの一つになりうると考えられる。音響生物学を活用した環境教育教材による、障害のある子どもたちや、学校教育への支援について検討する。
キーワード : bioacoustics, environmental education, wildlife, children, school curriculum

Introductionused in hospitals and public spaces around the world.

Animal vocalizations and sounds are probably one of

Recreational reasons include ecotouristic activities suchthe most common ways that humans have historicallyas bird watching, where practitioners take advantage

used to identify and locate many species importantof their knowledge of bird songs to locate and identify

for their survival. This ability obviously needs somesinging birds. Commercial reasons may also be linked toknowledge of the species in a particular habitat and an

ecotourism, as nature guides use their knowledge of theawareness of the importance of natural sounds that isnatural sound environment in a profitable way. Likewise,

both, culturally transmitted and experientially learned.

scientific reasons are highly diverse. Some scientists, for

The ability to use the surrounding acoustic information

instance, study animal vocalizations to understand humanis not exclusive to man though. Many animal species

language evolution (Aitchison, 2000), and others toalso eavesdrop and get advantage of other individuals’

understand the origin and evolution of music (Tecumseh,or species’ communication (Fenton and Ratcliffe 2004,

2006). The study of animal communication (animal and

Beecher et. al 2007), which results in a better adaptation

human sound production and reception in general), isto their environment. In today’s human populations,an intense research subject that has been around for

however, the adaptive value of natural sound awarenessnearly a century, and eventually led to the emergence

may not be so important in urban areas, because natureof bioacoustics, a cornerstone in our understanding andsounds are only a few compared to the amount of artificial

appreciation of the natural environment.

ones, such as traffic noise.

During the past few centuries, our way of living

Nowadays there are reasons other than historicalhas been increasingly separating us from natural

ones to listen to wildlife and other nature sounds.

sound sources, changing almost completely the soundSound therapy, for instance, which works by reducing

environment that used to be important for human

the contrast between tinnitus sounds and backgroundsurvival. This disconnection may affect our appreciation

ones (Handscomb and McKinney, 2006), is increasinglyof the natural environment as we stop feeling it, urging a＊Environmental Education Center, Miyagi University of Education（宮城教育大学附属環境教育実践研究センター）－ 41 －

Bioacoustics as a Tool for Environmental Educationneed for actions that could potentially reconnect us with

communication. It origins date back to the 1800s andnatural sounds, and create environmentally educatedearly 20 century, when methods existed for capturing

citizens. In this sense, environmental education (EE fromwildlife sounds (Pavan, 2008). However, bioacoustics

here on) is a justifiable, although seldom recalled reason

remained virtually unnoticed until practical recording andto eavesdrop wildlife and nature sounds

analyzing tools became readily available to the scientificNowadays, more than 40% of East Asia’s population lives

community in mid 20 century (Op. cit.). In its early days,in urban areas (MacDonald, 2010), and the urbanization

research was hampered by technological constrains such

trend continues to increase. By 2050, the cities of theas the size of recording and storage devices as well as

world will swell by 3.2 billion people (Op. cit.). Children

their fragility. However, the so called digital revolution

growing in these environments will need many different

has changed the way bioacoustics is done. Recent

EE approaches, available in for mal and infor mal

advances in electronic and subsequent miniaturizations

education, to be able to develop environmentally friendlyof the equipments have paved the way for a bioacoustics

attitudes. The use of bioacoustics as a tool for EE canspread (Op. cit.). Nowadays, it is easy and relatively cheap

be one of these approaches, providing the opportunity

to obtain basic equipment for bioacoustical research, andto feel the natural sound environment, in contrast to theeven powerful laptops can now be used in the field along

unnatural sound settings of an urban area. However,with high-end sound recorders and advanced software.

traditional EE programs focusing on wildlife have seldom

These new technologies have transformed the way in

exploited the richness of the sound environment ofwitch sounds can be sampled, analyzed, stored, andwhich animals are an important element. In a similar way,accessed.

despite the existence of bioacoustics resources in theinternet available to educators, quite few serious efforts

Bioacoustics and EE

have been putted into the use of bioacoustics to foster

In the Internet, there is a plethora of resources with

self-determined environmental behaviors. As a result,wildlife sound recordings as a reference for educators

while scientifically literate citizens may have a wide

and researchers. The British Library Sound Archive, forknowledge of environmental issues, their knowledge

instance, has more than 150000 recordings of over 10000

of wildlife sounds may remain limited, and their natural

species (http://www.bl.uk/reshelp/findhelprestype/sound/sound awareness may not necessarily be as good as

wildsounds/wildlife.html). Likewise, sites such as Xeno-

desired.

Canto (http://www.xeno-canto.org/), and the Macaulau

In this paper we focus on bioacoustics as a potentially

Library (http://macaulaylibrary.org/index.do?lk=lpro)

important and powerful EE tool to promote environmentallyat the Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology, altogether

friendly attitudes. We aim at discussing some of the features

represent the world’s largest collection of animal sounds.

and outreach potentials of bioacoustics in EE, and provide

Resources for Japanese animals are also available, such as

general considerations to develop an EE roadmap thatthe library for Japanese crickets and grasshoppers sounds

begins with a deep appreciation of the sound environment.

(http://www.nat-museum.sanda.hyogo.jp/wave/wav_koroi.
html), and the site of the Japanese sicadas (http://vivace.

Bioacoustics as a scientific discipline

cs.kumamoto- u.ac.jp/song.html). These web resources

Bioacoustics is a cross-disciplinary science thatare readily available for educators to introduce the natural

specifically investigates sound production and reception

sound environment to a target audience. However, theyin animals, including man, and a plethora of ecological,

do not constitute by themselves an EE resource. Sounds

social, and evolutionary aspects of animal sound-basedpresented in these sites are usually isolated, having no－ 42 －

宮城教育大学 環境教育研究紀要

第 12 巻 (2010)reference to the environment the animals that produce

above-mentioned Japanese experience (Op. cit.), a series

them live in, and in most cases fail to create a linkof courses to learn about the sound environment were

between the sound-source, the animal image, and theoffered to parents and children. Sounds such as thosefunction that such sounds do for the animal in question.

from birds, frogs, cicadas, crickets and bush crickets

As a result, the connection between bioacoustics and EE

were used for the training. For schoolteachers and local

remains elusive.

nature guides, a special course on nature sounds andIn Japan, several facts favoring the use of bioacoustics

basic bioacoustics research skills was also offered. Theseas an EE tool can be recognized (Fig. 1). The main

experiences resulted in a positive reaction from local

problems stem from the fact that wildlife visual materials

citizens. However, it was evident that without a propersuch as picture books and DVDs are very common, in

educational and outreach strategy, the public will remain

contrast to EE materials that exploit the auditory senses,

difficult to reach (Oba, 2004). As a possible solution towitch are almost inexistent. With a single exceptional

increase awareness, it was proposed to involve local

case (Oba, 2004) to the extent of our knowledge,

primary schools to promote the use of bioacoustics in thethere is no current EE program that specifically uses

curriculum (Op. cit.).

bioacoustics as a tool to address environmental issues inJapan. The situation in other countries is more difficult

Bioacoustics in the school curriculum

to assess given the lack of information. However, in a

Including a new subject in the school curriculum could

thorough search on the internet we came across several

be a difficult task. Oba (2004) outlined the characteristics

organizations that rely on bioacoustical information andof a learning program in formal education to listen to

activities (such as listening to bird songs) in their EE

nature sounds. He suggested that it should be a step-work. Nevertheless, their use of bioacoustics is very

by-step procedure, designed to cope with the different

limited, and is not central to their programs. In thestages of development and varying degrees of outdoor

Figure 1 : Facts favoring the use of bioacoustics as an EE tool in Japan. Arrows indicate the direction in witch facts
affect each other. (*) Oba (2004)－ 43 －

Bioacoustics as a Tool for Environmental Education

experiences. This is an impor tant consideration

match the same pitches makes our voices to be unique.

from the cognitive development theory stand point

This implies that active participation in an EE using(Jacobson et al., 2007), as children go through different

bioacoustics begins with the recognition of individuality

developmental stages in which their capacity to acquire

as an encouragement to investigate the world of sounds.

certain knowledge, particularly putting abstract concepts

Second, bioacoustics can be incorporated into theinto practice, varies. Therefore, any EE program using

school curriculum as a complement to music education,

bioacoustics as a tool should be carefully planned andand reinforced in extracurricular activities available toadapted to the needs of each age group, going hand in

all grades. Third, given that noise contamination is ahand with other age related curricular activities in thecommon problem in all urban areas around the world, of

school. Animal sounds are attractive to children andwhich Japan is no exception, community wide efforts toin some cases easy to learn and remember. However,reduce noises can be brought into the classroom throughassociating sounds with animals in the field when otheractivities such as the elaboration of neighborhood soundspecies sounds and undesirable noises abound, and relatemaps, and the restoration of bird communities by setting

them to ecological and other environmental knowledge

nest boxes in green areas and parks around the school.

could be very difficult for children under the age of 10 (fifth

These activities in turn serve as action training in EE

grade) (Op. cit.).

for children. The use of bioacoustics in EE to promote
self-determined proenvironmental behaviors should also

Using bioacoustics to promote an environmentally

include ample opportunities for students to actively solve

centered intention to act (IA) in school children

environmental problems of their choice, and give themOba (2004) has stressed that an EE program involving
bioacoustics must have a long-term perspective for thethe choice on how to act, rather than provide them with
instructions (Darner, 2009).

6-year primary school curriculum, while offering practicallearning modules with several choices and variations to

Promoting wildlife sound awareness andfit in with daily teaching. These considerations, whileconservation through bioacoustics in EE programs

being critical in attaining an IA in school children, are

It is often the case that animal sounds are the only

not necessarily enough. Other factors, recognized as

reference we have of a species occurrence in a particularnecessary for an EE to be successful in promoting

area. This is because most animals can usually be heard

an IA in environmentally friendly ways, must be also

before they could be seen, particularly in clutteredconsidered (see Darner, 2009), including: 1- Children

environments such as different kinds of forests. This

involved as active, rather than passive, participants in

is, of course, under the assumption that our hearing

learning process; 2- Formal EE preferred over informal

perception and sound awareness is well developed. In

EE; 3- L onger EE programs; 4- Incorporation ofJapan, animal sounds such as those of cicadas and birds

community wide efforts into classroom efforts; and 5-

are widely known. Cicadas sing so laud that they are

Incorporation of action training in EE.

probably impossible to ignore. However, attractive as

Bioacoustics offers many opportunity windows thatthey may be, there are many wildlife sounds that arecan be used to attain the above mentioned factors.

totally unknown or even unconsciously ignored. For

First, school children are not only to be introduced to

instance, in large urban areas of Japan such as Sendai city,

new nature sounds; they also produce sounds that canmating calls of the bat Nyctalus aviator can be heard evenbe used as study materials. The fact that all individuals

around Sendai Station. It is a laud call that is emitted

have a different timbre when talking even if they

several tens of meters above the ground (Fukui, 2009)－ 44 －

宮城教育大学 環境教育研究紀要

第 12 巻 (2010)

rendering visualization of the bat nearly impossible. For
this, its call has been coined as “nazo koe” or “mysterious
voice”. Nazo koe is probably one of the many examplesof wildlife sounds ignored due to people’s focus onother sounds, such as traffic noise, or people’s failure
to notice different sounds, better translated as a lack ofsound awareness. By taking animal sounds as the unitof attention, wildlife sound awareness as well as soundpollution awareness are among the things that can beachieved in a Bioacoustics-EE program.
The bioacoustic approach to EE also offers noticeable
perspectives on nature protection and conservation (Oba,1999), by imposing the least cost and damage upon livingorganisms in the processes of monitoring. It also offers

Figure 2: Graphical depictions of sounds are abstract, butdidactic representations that allow deft children to“see” and appreciate the richness of the naturalsound environment.

an important ecological viewpoint in the evaluation ofquietness, a concept that is usually difficult to perceive

hearing animal sounds should remain high, becoming a

by children living in urban areas. Likewise, this approachsource of inspiration and respect for nature. Moreover,offers unique opportunities to study very elusive, usuallychildren with limited vision or even blind can fully

endangered animals, in a noninvasive way. It also allows

participate in EE activities involving animal sounds

extracting the information about complex biologicalsuch as nature walks. Likewise, children with mental

activities and different environmental phenomena from

retardation, especially children with autism for who

the composition and delivery pattern of natural sounds

sounds are especially attractive, would also benefit from

(Op. Cit.), with minimum impact to wildlife.

participating in this activities. At the same time, given
the positive (healing) effects that nature sounds have

Outreach potential of bioacoustics in EE

on humans (Handscomb and McKinney, 2006), it is

The use of wildlife sounds to introduce school children

possible to create relaxing environments at school withto the animals that produce them, as well as deepening

the sounds to which children are introduced, extending

children’s knowledge of wildlife‘s environment,

the influence of bioacoustics not only to the class hours

ecological networks, threats, etc., has a high potential

but to other recreational activities as well. In theseto change children’s attitudes towards nature. There arehealing experiences, animal and nature sounds could

many potential activities in which children can engage

be purposely listened at for relaxation and appreciation

either at the classroom or in the field. The attractivenessof the recreational value of nature. Similarly, becauseof wildlife sounds appeals to children’s imagination as

special software allows us to visualize wildlife sounds (Fig.

they try to guess how an animal may look like, how2), even hearing impaired children can benefit from an

it lives, and how it interacts with other organism andEE program based on animal vocalizations. Each soundthe environment, while stimulating students to makein nature will have a visual match that is both, fun to see

observations using the sense of hearing, rather than theand play with.

usual sense of sight.
As animals can be heard even if they are not seen, thesense of success that children get after a field experience－ 45 －

Technical constrains
Although there is basic equipment for researchBioacoustics as a Tool for Environmental Education

Figure 3: Stages of a bioacoustic-EE program. In the implementation stage, EE activities should meet the different needs andlearning capabilities of children from grades 1 to 6, going from simple experiences such as feeling natural sounds andunderstanding the urban way of life, to more complex experiences such as understanding the value of quietness andcare for nature. Continuous feedback between school and field experiences in the implementation of activities, and theirgeneralization to a wider audience (including handicap children), serves as a basis for including bioacoustics in the school
curriculum.

available in affordable prices, bioacoustics can be

animal sounds and vocalizations should pave the way fortechnologically demanding, and in many cases a very

teaching them more profound ecological concepts such as

expensive science. As basic equipments we understandhabitat, niche, ecological interaction, food chain, behavior,a tape recorder and a PC for sound analysis. However,species conservation, and sustainable development.

wildlife sounds are not isolated, and usually recordings

However, the primary focus includes the realization ofare affected by noises other than the desirable animal

the natural sound environment, and giving children an

sound. Isolating an animal sound requires sophisticated

opportunity to feel nature with their hearing senses, anddirectional microphones, and posterior edition inunderstand the value of quietness (Fig. 3). The programcommonly expensive software. This also makes theshould not be limited to wildlife sounds, as there areprocess of sound acquisition a time consuming endeavour.

many natural sounds that are part of the environment in

Fortunately, once a wildlife sound library is completed,which animal live in. Furthermore, it should be designed

sound reproduction and sonogram visualization can beto also reach children that because of their disabilities aredone with simple, free software available in the Internet,

often unable to participate in EE activities. The program

such as Raven Lite (http://www.birds.cornell.edu/brp/should also be implemented in rural and urban areas inraven/RavenVersions.html#RavenLite).

order to reach children with many different backgrounds.

A bioacoustics-EE program outline
A program focused on introducing school children to

Before any bioacoustics-EE program begins, naturalsounds should be thoroughly sampled and edited into a－ 46 －

宮城教育大学 環境教育研究紀要

第 12 巻 (2010)

sound library. The role of universities in this regard isopportunities for self –determined, environmentallyvery important. Bioacoustics requires knowledge andfriendly behaviors to develop in school children. Its

training, and in order to produce practical EE materials,

outreach potentials goes beyond that of traditional EE

research has to take place. In areas such as Miyagi

programs, by including children that because of theirPrefecture, where bioacoustics research is almost

physical or mental disabilities has been usally neglected.

inexistent, the basis for a bioacoustics-EE program

For this potential to realize, however, the inclusion ofshould begin with intense sound recording surveys.

bioacoustics as an EE tool in formal education must be

Information qathered in these surveys should be usedattained. In Japan, conditions favoring this inclusion exist,

to produce easy-to-use, readily available sound andalthough it may take several years for it to take place.

other multimedia materials. These materials in turnThis is because of the different stages of development

can be used by primary schools to develop their own

which a bioacoustics-EE program must go through inbioacoustics-EE programs, under professional guidance.

order for it to be successful in fostering environmentally

The above mentioned considerations have several

centered IA in school children.

implications for the implementation of bioacousticsEE programs in both, formal and informal education. In

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