10th Asian Regional Conference of IAEG (2015)

Geohazards in Asian countries
Masahiro CHIGIRA(1)(1) Disaster Prevention Research Institute, Kyoto University, Japan
E-mail:chigira@slope.dpri.kyoto-u.ac.jp
Abstract
Geohazards, particularly rock or debris avalanches, travel extremely rapidly for long
distances, causing severe damage over wide areas. This paper summarizes the geologicaland geomorphological features of such events, which were induced by earthquakes andrainstorms in Asia, and then uses these features to predict future potential sites of failures.
Most of the rock avalanches are preceded by gravitational slope deformation with
topographic features, in which small scarps along future head of landslide are the mostrepresentative; the scarps can be identified in topographic images made by high-resolution
airborne LiDAR DEMs and may suggest the instability just before catastrophic failure.
Earthquake-induced debris avalanches of pyroclastic fall deposits are not preceded bygravitational slope deformation but are of specific sequence of deposits, in which
halloysite-rich soil and pumice may accommodate a sliding surface.
Keywords: geohazards, deep-seated landslide, rock avalanche, Asia
1.

Introduction

slide avalanches are especially hazardous, and such
events must be anticipated and prepared for, as theygenerally occur suddenly and travel quickly over long
distances, affecting large areas. This paper
summarizes the geological and geomorphologicalfeatures of potential sites of rock or debris slide
avalanches with respect to predicting the locations ofthese types of landslides. For more detailed
descriptions, see Chigira (2014). Catastrophic
earthquake-induced landslides, such as those thathave occurred in North America as a result of quick
clay produced by glaciers (Hansen, 1965; Seed andWilson, 1967), do not occur along the coastal regionsof east or Southeast Asia, and therefore this type oflandslide is not discussed here. Similarly, landslides
induced by the collapse of large volcanic edifices,such as occurred during the 1982 Mt. Saint Helens
event (Voight et al., 1983; Waitt et al., 1983), arerelated to volcanic activity, not rainfall or earthquakes,
and therefore also lie outside the scope of this paper.
On the basis of our studies on the geological andgeomorphological features of catastrophic rock anddebris-slide avalanches in Asian countries, I havereached the conclusion that it is possible to predict atleast the potential sites of such events. Most of thecatastrophic rock-slide avalanches induced by either
rainstorms or earthquakes are preceded by aparticular type of gravitational slope deformation(Chigira, 1992; Chigira, 2009; Crosta et al., 2006;
Dramis and Sorrisovalvo, 1994; Kilburn and Petley,

The numbers of lives lost in landslides intectonically active regions is generally constantly
large in comparison with those resulting from
episodic earthquakes or volcanic eruptions (Petley,2012), although the latter have received more
attention as fatal natural hazards. In recognition of thefatal nature of landslides in such regions, theJapanese government changed its policies regarding
earthquake prediction research after the 2011 Tohoku
earthquake, to also include earthquake-induced
hazards such as landslides, since research only onearthquakes cannot mitigate the associated hazards
that contribute to the scale of such disasters. Most
Asian countries are located in tectonically active,
high-rainfall areas, and devastating landslides
triggered by rainstorms, earthquakes, and snowmelt
are frequent in many locations. Recent notable
triggers include the 2011 typhoon Talas (Chigira etal., 2013b), 2011 Tohoku earthquake in Japan, 2009
typhoon Molakot in Taiwan (Tsou et al., 2011), 2009
Padang earthquake in Indonesia (Nakano et al., 2013),
and 2008 Wenchuan earthquake and subsequent
rainstorms in China (Chigira et al., 2010; Chigira etal., 2012a) (Table 1).
To mitigate landslide-induced disasters, it isnecessary to know where and when landslides arelikely to occur, and how and when to evacuatethreatened areas prior to an event. Rock or debris

1

10th Asian Regional Conference of IAEG (2015)

Table 1 Recent landslide hazards in Asia.
Country
China

Trigger

Type of landslide

Rainstorms after the 2008
Wenchuan earthquake

Debris flows

1999 Chi-Chi earthquake

Landslide on natural and valley fills ofresidential houses

Typhoon Molakot, 2009Landslide on natural slopes

Typhoon Greg, 1996

Landslide on natural slope

Chuan Tang (oralcommunication)
39/Chiu-fen-erh-shan Chigira et al. (2003)
29/Tsaoling
Wang et al. (2003)
More than 400 by the
Tsou et al. (2011)
Shiaolin landslide
Lim Chounsian (oral302communication)

Indonesia 2009 Padang earthquake
Phillipine 2006 Rain

Japan

3029

Nakano et al. (2013)Landslide on natural slopes

More than 400

Landslide on natural slopes

1100 by Ginsaugon Guthrie et al. (2009)
Evans et al. (2007)
landslide2011 Tohoku earthquake

Landslide on natural and valley fills for 12
bylandslides
Chigira et al. (2014)
residential houses(mostly by tsunami)

Typhoon Talas, 2011

Landslide of natural slopes

56 by landslides

2003), whereas debris-slide avalanches caused byearthquake-induced failure of pyroclastic fall deposits
are not (Chigira, 1982; Chigira et al., 2014). The
latter, however, occur in areas of a particular type of
pyroclastic succession characterized by heavily
weathered pyroclastics or paleosol(s) at depth.
2.

References

Huang and Fan (2013)>20000

Taiwan

Malaysia

Fatality by landslides

2008 Wenchuan earthquake Landslide on natural slopes

weathering or gravitational deformation of rocks havepreceded and reached near-threshold conditions justprior to the catastrophic failure induced byearthquakes.
2.1 Landslides prepared by chemical weathering
processes(1) Pyroclastic fall deposits
The 2011 Tohoku earthquake induced
long-run-out catastrophic landslides in pyroclastic fall
deposits with sliding surfaces in a halloysite-rich
paleosol, which was originally formed by chemical
weathering and then buried by subsequent
pyroclastics. Similar landslides involving a sliding
surface in a paleosol have occurred during manyother earthquakes (Table 2) The distribution of
halloysite-rich soil could be predicted by the study ofboth volcano-stratigraphic characteristics andEarthquake-induced landslides

Recent earthquakes, such as the 2011 Tohoku
earthquake in Japan, 2009 Padang earthquake inIndonesia, 2008 Wenchuan earthquake in China,
2008 Iwate–Miyagi inland earthquake in Japan, 2005
northern Pakistan earthquake, and 2004 Mid-Niigata
Prefecture earthquake in Japan, have proved of use inunderstanding where and why large catastrophic
landslides are induced by earthquakes. Theselandslides have generally occurred where chemical

Table 2

Chigira et al. (2013)

A list of catastrophic landslides of pyroclastic fall deposits.

Earthquake

1949 Imaichi

1968 Tokachi-Oki

1978 IzuOshima-Kinkai

1984 NaganokenSeibu

2011 Tohoku

2001 El
Salvador

2009
Padang

13 Jan.

30 Sept.

Date

26 Dec.

16 May14 Jan.

14 Sept

11 March

Magnitude

Mjma 6.4

Mjma7.9 (Mw8.2)

Mjma 7.0

Mjma6.8

Mw 9.0

Seismic Intensity at landslide
sites (JMA)
Rain gage
Anteceden
10 dayst rain30 days(mm)
60 days

5～6

5

5～6

6

6-~6+

Utsunomiya
22.5
80.8
255

Hachinohe
181
292
307

Ontakesan
183
555
839

Shirakawa
12.5
83.5
93.5

Number of collapsinglandslide

88a)

152b)

Inatori
121723347d) (controlled by
the material
distribution)

5j)

<10e)

>1000g)

160i)

Sliding surface

Slid material

WeatheredpumiceHalloysitea)
Paleosolm)
Shichihonzakura
pumice andImaichi pumicel)

Paleosol（Sandy ash）
Halloysitec)

Paleosol
Halloysited)

Weathered pumiceand scoria
Halloysitek)

Paleosol
Halloysitee)

Paleosolf)
No report ofclay minerals

Mixed layer of
paleosol andpumiceHalloysitei)

TowadaHachinohe
tephrab,c)East Izu
monogenic
volcanic tephrad)

Scoria, lava,
agglutinate,terrace deposits,

Tephra from
Nasu volcanoe)

Pumice etc.

Pumice (Qhpt)

Ontake Volcano

Nasu Volcano?

Tandikat
Volcanoi)

Source of the slid materials

Nantai volcano

Towada Volcano

Higashi-Izu
monogenetic
volcanoes

Sliding surface depth (m)3~5 ma)<3 mb), 1~2.5 mc)

2~6 md)Slope-parallel bedding

○

○

○

5 m~
200 m (Ontake)j)○

UndercutUnknown

Unknown○○

Fatality
Reference

Mw7.7
Mw 7.5
MM 6, 7
MM 8 （USGS)
4~55+(JMA)――no dataUnknown(Nov.-Apr.: dry (occurred during arainstorm)
season)h)○50~70 m (Las
Colinas)f)○○○

3~9 me)3.5~5.5 mi)○
Mostly

g)

8
33
7
29
13
600?
844
a: Morimoto (1951); b:Inoue et al. (1970)；c: Yoshida and Chigira (2012)；d: Chigira (1982)；e:Chigira et al. (2012); f: Crosta et al.
(2005); g: Jibson et al. (2004); h) Evans and Bent (2004); i: Nakano et al. (2013); j: Hirano et al. (1985); k: Tanaka (1985); l: Suzuki(1993); m: Chigira (unpublished data)2

10th Asian Regional Conference of IAEG (2015)

weathering mechanisms.
Landslides of this type do not occur on steep
slopes because the pyroclastic fall deposits
themselves do not form slopes steeper than the angleof repose, and such landslides may occur on gentle
slopes even shallower than 20°; these landslides arecommonly very mobile with low equivalentcoefficients of friction. Equivalent coefficients offriction are known to decrease with increasinglandslide volume (Hsu, 1975; Scheidegger, 1973), but
landslides of this type have exceptionally low values
even for small-volume landslides.

earthquake triggered many such landslides in
Neogene marine mudstone areas as well as insandstone areas (Chigira and Yagi, 2005). Landslides
in these areas may be related to the weathering ofmarine mudstone, whose weathering is dominated by
the oxidation of pyrite (Chigira, 1990).
2.2 Mechanical preparationThe
mechanicalpreparation
for
large
earthquake-induced landslides is deep-seatedgravitational slope deformation, which has preceded
many landslides (Chigira et al., 2003; Wang et al.,
2003; Chigira et al., 2012b). Deep-seatedgravitational slope deformation reduces the strengthof rocks forming the slope, which would then become
more susceptible to mass movement triggered byearthquake tremors.
Gravitational slope deformations that precede andprepare a site for earthquake-induced catastrophic
landslide failure include several particular types(Table 3). The Chiu–fen–erh–shan landslide waspreceded by buckle folding on a convex dip slope(Wang et al., 2003, B in Table 3); deformation on thisslope was expressed topographically as linear
depressions and steps. The Qingping landslide
induced by the Wenchuan earthquake occurred on anunderdip cataclinal slope and formed a landslide dam.
This landslide left clearly observed buckle folding on
the landslide scar.
A special type of underdip cataclinal slope that
may become the site of an earthquake-induced
landslide is a buttress-type structure, in which
resistant beds at the foot of the slope support the(2) Carbonate rocks and mudstone
Carbonate rocks are easily dissolved by carbonicacid in groundwater, thereby leading to the formationof karstic landscapes with features such as caverns
and dolines. The 2008 Wenchuan earthquake induced
numerous landslides of carbonate rocks. Groundwaterflow along a bedding plane dissolves carbonates anddecreases the areas of contact between rock masses
above and below the surface; these contacts are
finally broken by seismic shaking. Catastrophic
landslides of carbonate rocks were also induced inmany places during the 2005 Kashmir earthquake(Sato et al., 2007).
Many slow-moving landslides in weak mudstone
have been recorded in Japan, Malaysia, and Indonesia.
These landslides are generally induced by melting
snow or rainfall (Matsuura et al., 2008). Although
rapid and catastrophic landslides of mudstone are
generally not reactivated or newly induced byearthquakes, the 2004 mid-Niigata Prefecture

Table 3 A list of earthquake-induced landslides with special reference to geological

Earthquake

Country Magnitude

715 earthquakeJapan

1707 Hoei

Japan
Papua
New
Guinea1985 Papua New
Guinea1999 Chi-Chi

TaiwanM 6.57.5**
M 8.4
M 7.1

Mw 7.6

Seismic intensity at
the landslide site

Landslide

Volume63(10 m )

Unknown

Ikeguchi93

5-6(JMA)**
MM 8?
(14 km from theepicenter)465.3 gal EW
370.5 gal NS, and274.7 gal UD
6 km north of thesite

2004 Mid Niigata
PrefectureJapan

Mw 6.6(Mj 6.8)

6+~7 (JMA)2005 Northern
Pakistan

PakistanMw 7.6

MM 82008 Wenchuan
2008 Iwate
Miyagi Inland

China

Mw 7.9Japan

Mw 6.9(Mj 7.2)

dip (°)

Structure*

Precursory
landform

50-60

UC

Bt

Head scarp

Chigira (2013)

60-90

A

FT

Furrows

Chigira (2000)

8

OC

U

Lineardepression

King et al. (1989)

20-36

UC

B

Lineardepression,
steps

Wang et al. (2003)

Chigira et al. (2003)

Reference

Kanagi

8.5

Sandstone, mixed
rocks, green stone
Sandstone, mudstone

Bairaman200

Limestone

Chiu-fen-erh-shan

50

Sandstone, mudstone,
shale

Tsaoling

125

ditto

14

OC

U

V-shapedlineardepression

20

OC

CU

Head scarp

CU
CU
B

Head scarp
Head scarp
Unknown

CU

Small scarps Chigira (2007),
Schneider (2008)

CU

Head scarp
Lineardepression
Unknown
Lineardepression

Higashitakezawa

2Sandstone, mudstone

ShionoTeranoKazefukitoge

5
0.5
0.09

ditto
ditto
ditto

Dandbeh
Pir Bandiwala824.1 gal EW,
802.7 gal NS, and622.9 gal UD
328 gal EW,
413 gal NS

Rock type

Daguanbao
Yinxinggou
Aratozawa

14
OC
14
OC
30-42
UC
20
(plunge
65
Sandstone, mudstoneOCof asyncline)
1
Sandstone, mudstone Unknown Unknown
35-38
UC
837 Carbonate rocks(oblique)100? Carbonate rocks
25?
OC
67
Sandstone, siltstone,
0-2
OC
million tuff, welded tuff

B
U
CU

Chigira and Yagi (2005)

Chigira (2010)
Ohno et al. (2010)*: OC: overdip cataclinal; UC: underdip cataclinal; A: anaclinal: Bt: buttress; B: buckling; FT: flexural toppling; U: undercut; CU: collided the opposite slope then undercut**: Usami (2003)3

10th Asian Regional Conference of IAEG (2015)

upper part of the slope (Bt in Table 3). A well-known
case is the Madison landslide, which was triggered by
the 1959 Hebgen Lake earthquake in the USA(Hadley, 1964).
An overdip cataclinal slope, in which a slope dipsin the same direction as the bedding but more steeply(OC in Table 3), may be subject to gradual sliding,forming a linear depression or a scarp upslope. The
Tsaoling landslide induced by the 1999 Chi–Chi
earthquake had an overdip cataclinal slop structure,and linear depressions had developed along theposition of its future crown before the earthquake.
Another type of landslide frequently triggered byearthquakes is the reactivation of a previous landslidethat ran out across a river from one side of the valley
and collided with the opposing slope, and which was
subsequently undercut by erosion (CU in Table 3).

occurrence, as discussed above, must be consideredwhen a landslide hazard map is constructed on thebasis of historical records, because the pattern andnumber of landslides induced by previous
earthquakes might have been very different if thoseearthquakes had been preceded by smaller or larger
amounts of rainfall.
3. Rainfall-induced landslides
In addition to the occurrence of earthquakes, mostAsian countries are located in rainy areas, where large
amounts of precipitation increase the probability oflandslide occurrence. To predict the potential sites ofshallow landslides, the effects of rainstorms havebeen studied deterministically using physical models(Montgomery and Dietrich, 1994; Montgomery et al.,2000). However, such modeling needs data on bothslope geometry and mechanical properties, whichvary widely and are often not able to be estimatedappropriately. Potential sites of shallow landslides
may thus not be easily identified. In contrast,
deep-seated landslides occur on slopes with verysite-specific geological and geomorphologicalconditions; many such landslides are characterized byprior gravitational slope deformation (Chigira, 2009;
Chigira et al., 2013b).
Deep-seated catastrophic landslides induced bytyphoon Talas 2011 in Japan were significant,because ten were surveyed using 1-m high-resolution
digital elevation models (DEMs) before the landslide
events (Chigira et al., 2013b). These landslides
occurred mainly in the Shimanto Belt, which isunderlain by Cretaceous to Paleogene accretionary
complexes represented by mixed rocks and broken
formations. In a recent study, Chigira et al. (2013b)
analyzed the topography existing prior to thecatastrophic failures triggered by typhoon Talas andthe results indicated that the catastrophic failures had
been preceded by gravitational slope deformation.
Chigira (2013) analyzed the pre–typhoon Talas
topography for an additional 29 catastrophic
landslides using high-resolution DEMs and found thatthey were all preceded by gravitational deformationand 26 of the total of 39 deep-seated catastrophic
landslides had small scarps marking the positions of
the heads of the subsequent landslides (Chigira, 2013).
Typical landslides featuring these small scarps
occurred on slopes with wedge-shaped discontinuities
dominated by thrust surfaces that were undulating andwhich discontinuously sandwiched competent rocksof sandstone, chert, or greenstone. Chigira et al.
(2013a) analyzed the internal structures of agravitationally deformed slope with irregularly
shaped depressions and protrusions, and proposedthat gravitational shear zones are first nucleated andthen develop and connect to each other to form athrough-going shear zone, which appears as a small

2.3 Landslides induced by water blow-out during
earthquakes
A distinctive type of landslide was induced by the
1966 Matsushiro earthquake, which caused
groundwater to gush out along seismogenic faults,
with the rise in water pressure inducing rotationallandslides (Morimoto et al., 1967). Faults may locallycause groundwater pressure to build up by theaccumulation of tectonic strain on them (Sibson,
1996), and the affected areas are in some situations
more than 100 km away from the source fault (Toda
et al., 1995). The locations of induced landslides are,however, limited to those areas close to surface fault
ruptures.
2.4 Preceding rainfall
Rainfall that precedes an earthquake (antecedent
rainfall) is known to be a significant influence on theoccurrence of landslides, because the groundwaterlevel can rise and decrease the suction forces withinsoil through the development of positive pore waterpressure. The 2004 mid-Niigata Prefectureearthquake, Japan, triggered about 100 landslides
with volumes exceeding 105 m3 (Chigira and Yagi,
2005), but the 2007 Noto–hanto and the 2007
off-mid-Niigata Prefecture earthquakes induced very
low numbers of landslides, even though theseearthquakes had similar seismic intensities in theareas with similar geological and geomorphologicalsettings to those of the 2004 mid-Niigata Prefectureearthquake. The occurrence of landslides inpyroclastic fall deposits is also strongly influenced byantecedent rainfall. The effects of antecedent rainfall
on earthquake-induced landslides have also beenreported from New Zealand (Dellow and Hancox,2006). In Pakistan, Petley et al. (2006) reported thatthe 2005 northern Pakistan earthquake induced rather
a low number of landslides because the amount ofantecedent rainfall was small.
The effects of antecedent rainfall on landslide410th Asian Regional Conference of IAEG (2015)

scarp on the slope surface along the head of themoving body of material. The small scarps before
catastrophic failure may therefore indicate anincipient landslide.
Typhoon Talas also induced one landslide with alarge headscarp on a dip slope of alternating beds ofsandstone and mudstone. This landslide had been
gravitationally deformed with a buckle folddownslope (Chigira et al., 2013b). Buckle folds
commonly accommodate large headscarps because
the support from the lower slope at the lower limb
remains even after a substantial amount of
deformation. However, if the lower limb is exposed
to intense erosion or failure, even a small amount ofgravitational deformation may be sufficient to cause acatastrophic failure of the whole slope. The Shiaolin
landslide, induced by typhoon Molakot in 2009 in
Taiwan (Tsou et al., 2011), is an example of this typeof landslide. The Shiaolin landslide had a volume of
25 million m3 and demolished one village, causing
over 400 fatalities.
The Ginsaugon landslide in Leyte, the Philippines,
occurred without a clear trigger but had beenpreceded by about 700 mm of rainfall within the
10-day period before the landslide event (Evans et al.,2007). There is no report of whether this landslide
had distinctive precursory topography, but judging
from the nearby slopes and the fact that the landslide
had a sliding surface along a spray fault of thecreeping Philippine Fault (Evans et al., 2007), it isvery likely that there was a small headscarp before
the catastrophic event.

Acknowledgements
T. Kamai, Y. Matsushi, and C.-Y. Tsou of theDisaster Prevention Research Institute are thanked for
helpful discussions, and some of the research results
used in this paper was derived from collaborative
research studies with these authors. C. Lim of the
University of Kebangsaan, Malaysia and C. Tang ofChengdu University of Technology, China provided
the statistics of landslide hazards in their respective
countries. This research was supported by the
Research Collaboration with Disaster Prevention
Research Institute, Kyoto Unviersity, and JSPS
KAKENHI Grant Number 26282102.
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3. Conclusions
The geomorphological features of deep-seatedcatastrophic landslides are evaluated in this paper as abasis for hazard mapping. Potential sites of shallow
landslides are generally difficult to identify becauseof the wide variations in both subsurface structuresand properties, In contrast, deep-seated landslides are
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5

10th Asian Regional Conference of IAEG (2015)

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