Number 58, Fall 2007

cartographic perspectives

61

Mapping: Methods & Tips
Color Design for the Color Vision Impaired
Bernhard Jenny
Institute of Cartography
ETH Zurich, Switzerland
jenny@karto.baug.ethz.chNathaniel Vaughn Kelso
The Washington Post
Washington, DC
nvkelso@gmail.com
The layout of this document differs slightly from the printed version.

Eight percent of men are affected by color vision
impairment – they have difﬁculties distinguishing
between colors and thus confuse certain colors thatthe majority of people see readily. Designers of maps
and information graphics cannot disregard the needsof this relatively large group of media consumers. This article discusses the most common formsof color vision impairment, and introduces Color
Oracle, a new software tool that assists the designer
in verifying color schemes. Color Oracle ﬁlters maps
and graphics in real-time and efﬁciently integrates
with existing digital workﬂows. The paper also
discusses color combinations and alternative visualvariables for map symbology that those with color
vision impairments can distinguish unambiguously.
The presented techniques help the cartographer produce maps that are easy to read for those with color
vision impairments and can still look good for thosewith normal color vision.
Introduction
One in twelve men sees color differently than the restof the population. Afﬂicted by a condition often inappropriately described as colorblindness, these men
confuse certain colors that the majority of people areable to distinguish.1 Their perception of hue, saturation and brightness varies. Color vision impairment
is typically inherited due to a sex-linked recessive
gene carried on the X chromosome and predominantly affects men. Eight percent of the male population
may not appear as a large number, but when publishing in a mass market (e.g. for a major newspaper)
the number of affected readers may reach tens of
thousands. Maps with smaller circulation have fewer
affected readers, but they may be critical members of
the audience.

Designers, and especially cartographers, should
ensure that their work is clear to the color impaired
as well as to the viewer with full color vision. Suchbarrier-free, “universal” design is especially importantwhen readers have very limited time to read maps andinformation graphics, as, for example, for the readingof evacuation plans in emergency situations. Universal design can even be required by law: In the UnitedStates, Section 508 of the Rehabilitation Act amendments to the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)
requires disabled people receive equal or comparative
access to information. Cartographers may also consider barrier-free design as part of their professional
ethics, since color vision impairment is probably themost widespread physiologic impairment hampering
map reading.
It is thus important for cartographers and designersof information graphics to know how the color vision
impaired perceive color and what color combinations
are confused. The ﬁrst part of this article addresses
this question by describing the most common formsof color vision impairment, and how they affect color
perception. We then introduce Color Oracle, a new
application for the digital simulation of color vision
impairment. This software assists designers in verifying that color combinations are universally legible byﬁltering graphics on computer monitors in real-time.
The ﬁnal section provides practical tips for the selection of colors, and demonstrates how map legibility
can be improved by the use of alternative visual variables and direct annotation.
Common types of color vision impairment
A wide range of color vision anomalies exist – some
genetic and some the outcome of degenerative diseases, poisoning or physical injury. The commonly called“red-green blindness” is by far the most frequent form.
It affects about 8% of all males, mainly causing difﬁculty when distinguishing colors emanating from the
red-green portion of the visible spectrum.
Color vision is linked to the cones that respondto light entering the eye. People with full color vision perceive color with three types of cones, which
are called L, M and S-cones. Each type registers lightfrom a different portion of the spectrum. People who
confuse red and green are affected by a complete lackor a dysfunction of the L and M-cones. A complete
lack is called protanopia or deuteranopia. These formsof color impairment are relatively rare and can be62cartographic perspectives

thought of as “pure” form of color deﬁciency. Dysfunctions of lesser degree are much more common.
They are usually caused by a slight shift in sensitivityof one cone type towards another color hue in the light
spectrum (protanomaly and deuteranomaly).
Table 1 lists the percentages of affected males by
the four forms of red-green deﬁciency, and illustrates
the perceived color spectra. The degree of impairment
varies from one person to another between almost fullcolor vision and “pure” protanopia and deuteranopia.
Indeed, the measurable variation among individuals
with “normal” vision is so large that the boundary
between normal and color impaired vision is arbitrary. The spectra for protanomaly and deuteranomaly
displayed in Table 1 (stared) are therefore very speculative and only provide a rough guess of how affected
people could perceive color.
Cones

Affected Estimated perceivedmencolor spectrum

Protanopia

L-cones absent

1%

Protanomaly

L-cones abnormal

1%

Deuteranopia

M-cones absent

1%

Deuteranomaly M-cones abnormal

5%

Full color vision

92%

*

*

Table 1. The four forms of red-green confusion. The protanopia anddeuteranopia spectra are very similar, the protanomaly and deuteranomaly
spectra are rough estimations (numbers are rounded, after Birch, 1993).

Women are much less likely to be affected by
red-green confusing vision than men with only 0.4%
women impaired (Birch, 1993). Other rare forms ofcolor vision impairment exist, which affect less thanapproximately 0.3% of all men and women. Tritanopia
is a very rare lack of S-cones. The similarly rare monochromatic vision—true color blindness as the generalpublic thinks of it—impedes any discrimination basedon color (see Birch 1993 for more information about
the different forms of color vision impairment).
The consequence of color vision impairment isthat afﬂicted people are slower and considerably lesssuccessful in search tasks, when color is the primaryattribute of the target object, or if color is used to organize visual displays (Cole, 2004). Seeking to address
this problem, section 508 of the U.S. Rehabilitation Act
states:“Color coding shall not be used as the only meansof conveying information, indicating an action,
prompting a response, or distinguishing a visualelement.” 1194.25(g).

Number 58, Fall 2007

While map reading by the color impaired has notbeen studied extensively, it was found that readerswith impaired color vision make errors naming theboundary lines on multi-colored terrain maps (Kuyk
et al., 1987). Another study conﬁrmed that only a small
percentage of color-impaired readers could namethe colors of a weather radar display without error(Mertens and Milburn, 1996). A low level of illumination further impedes successful reading of color-coded
information. Investigations have shown that under
reduced illumination, subjects with impaired color vision make considerable more errors when identifying
color (for more details see Cole, 2004).
A variety of assistive computer software can help
the color impaired to more easily read color-coded
information on screen. Examples include programs
such as eyePilot (http://colorhelper.com/) or Visolve(http://www.ryobi-sol.co.jp/visolve/en/). These
programs do not allow color impaired individuals to
see the full range of colors. Instead, they increase thecontrast between confusing colors. While this assistive technology can be extremely useful to the colorimpaired, it must be considered as a last resort. For
printed “hard copy” graphics, these digital tools are
not convenient. Instead, maps and information graphics should be designed for universal legibility.
Specialized software helps the designer selectuniversally legible color combinations, for example
ColorBrewer, a popular online tool that suggests
color schemes (Harrower and Brewer, 2003; www.
colorbrewer.org). Color Oracle and other simulatorsof color-impaired vision are complementary tools that
help verifying the legibility of a design.
Color Oracle
Color Oracle software allows the designer to see colors
on screen as people with color vision impairments see
them. It is permanently accessible via the Mac OS X
menu bar or the Windows system tray. Color Oracle
works by ﬁltering whatever appears on the computer
monitor, therefore its beneﬁts are universally available
to all applications. The Color Oracle user triggers asimulation by selecting the type of color impairment
in a drop down menu (Figure 1). Color Oracle thentakes a snapshot image of the pixel values currently
shown on the monitor, and ﬁlters the pixels accordingly. The ﬁltered image is displayed afterward in aborderless full-screen window ﬂoating above all otherwindows—the user sees the monitor colors switching
to color impaired vision, without noticing the additional window. The window disappears when theuser presses any key or clicks any mouse button. The
designer can toggle between normal color vision andthree varieties of simulated impaired vision to identify problematic color combinations. This approachNumber 58, Fall 2007

cartographic perspectives

Color Oracle Screenshot

63

Confusing and Easily Distinguished Colors
Easilydistinguishedcolors for
red-green
impaired

Confusingcolors for
red-green
impaired(LAB b-plane)(Hues of a-plane)

Figure 2. The Lab color mode in Photoshop can be used to explore red-green
confusing vision.
Figure 1. Screenshot of Color Oracle on Mac OS X simulating
deuteranopia on a color picker wheel.

does not interfere with the user’s usual workﬂow andworks with any graphics or mapping software.
Color Oracle simulates deuteranopia, protanopia,
and tritanopia, which are the “pure” forms of color
vision impairment. As explained in the previous section, these extreme forms, which are characterized by
the complete functional absence of one type of cones,
are not as common as the milder forms with partial or
shifted sensitivity. These milder, intermediate forms
are more difﬁcult to simulate, since the dysfunctions
vary to a high degree from person to person. It canhowever be assumed that if a color scheme is legible
for someone with extreme color vision impairment, it
will also be easily legible for those with a minor afﬂiction.
To simulate how a color will appear to a color
impaired viewer, Color Oracle uses an algorithm
based on confusion lines.2 Simulations by Color Oracle
are accurate, except for very saturated colors, whichmight slightly deviate from the values that are seen by
persons with “pure” forms of color vision impairment.
The software was developed by the authors of thisarticle and is freely available from http://colororacle.
cartography.ch.
Color as seen by the color vision impaired
The blue-yellow color table in Figure 2 contains anestimation of all colors that a red-green confusing
viewer can unambiguously distinguish comparedwith a normal vision viewer. Other colors can only be
distinguished with difﬁculty or not at all, especiallythose along the vertical red-green ramp in Figure 2.
The ﬁgure shows the b-plane of the CIE Lab color
space, which is similar to the colors discernable by a
red-green impaired reader. The Lab b-plane can bevisualized in the color picker of Adobe Photoshop by
selecting the “a” button to the right of Figure 2 andentering 0 in the associated ﬁeld. The number of colors
that red-green confusing readers can unambiguously
distinguish is rather small.

Besides the well-known red-green combination,
they also confuse other color pairs, as illustrated by
Figure 3. Swatches grouped at the left show colors thatreaders with normal color vision can easily distinguish. The right side shows how red-green impaired
readers confuse these colors. Dark green, brown,orange and dark red in the ﬁrst row appear as almost
indistinguishable olive-green tones to the red-green
impaired. The second row contains less saturated blue,
turquoise and purple, which are all seen as undistinguishable pale violet-blue. The saturated purple andvarious blue tones of the third row manifest as almost
identical bluish tones. Cartographers should be waryof pairing these colors, especially for diverging quantitative color schemes.

Normal Vision

Deuteranopia

Figure 3. Colors as they appear to readers with normal vision anddeuteranopia.

For example, the map in Figure 4 visualizes theapproval and rejection of a ballot with a diverging
red-green scheme (top left). Shades of red and green
appear as undistinguishable shades of olive-green toa reader with deuteranopia (top right). Because thebrightness varies between classes, the intensity of thevoters’ opinion can be understood, but not the type of
opinion (approval or rejection). The alternative purplegreen color scheme is also legible by the red-green impaired reader (bottom row). The ColorBrewer online
tool can help choose other, universally accessible color
schemes.

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cartographic perspectives

Number 58, Fall 2007

Diverging Red-Green Color Scheme

Normal Vision

Deuteranopia

Diverging Purple-Green Color Scheme

Normal Vision

Deuteranopia

Figure 4. Color schemes on a choroplethic map of voting results. Readers with deuteranopia cannot interpret the red-green scheme of the top row. The purplegreen scheme in the bottom row is legible by everyone. The diverging color ramps are depicted below the maps. (©Atlas of Switzerland 2, 2004).

Designing maps to accommodate the color vision
impaired
Greater clarity can be brought to maps by (1) choosing
unambiguous color combinations, (2) using alternativevisual variables, and (3) directly annotating features.
These techniques will improve maps for those withfull color vision and will establish a level of distinction
for those with color-impaired vision. In this section,
we concentrate on red-green confusion, since it is by
far the most frequent form of color vision impairment.
Maps are made under optimal illumination, butthey are often read in poorly illuminated rooms, hallways, or subway stations, making it hard to tell colors
apart. A strong ﬁgure-ground contrast with a clear
difference in brightness and saturation, as well as a reduced number of classes in color ramps help everyone
to more easily read a map under normal and poorly
lighted conditions.
Distinguishing point classes
Dot maps often use hue as the only differentiating
variable between different classes of points. This hue
coding can be difﬁcult to interpret for color-impaired
readers. Figure 5 illustrates how point symbols can beredesigned to increase legibility. Varying the saturation increases contrast and differentiates the dots

only slightly for red-green impaired readers (“poor”
column). While shifting hue from green to blue improves legibility (“better” column), the best solutionis achieved with distinguishing geometric shapes incombination with varying hue and saturation. The lastcolumn shows that color could even be discarded andthe map would still be legible with differing geometricshapes. Well-designed symbols are easy for the reader
to decode without consulting a legend.
Distinguishing line classes
To minimize confusion, color-coded lines on maps
can be redesigned in a manner similar to color-coded
dots (Figure 6). Changes to line width must be applied with care, however, since different stroke widths
imply varying quantities (“poor” column). Directly
annotating the lines with labels is a better solutionthat clariﬁes ambiguous colors and reduces the needto reference a legend. Figure 7 shows an example of adiagrammatic transportation map that uses labels for
metro lines and stations. Readers can follow the line toits label at the route terminus to discern routes directlyon the map, without relying on a color-coded legend.

Number 58, Fall 2007

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65

Point Features
Bad
Hue Coding

Poor

Best

Better
Shift Hue

Vary Saturation

Vary shape

Also best inBlack & White

Normal Vision
Full color
visionDeuteranopia
Red-green
confusion

Protanopia
Red-green
confusion

Figure 5. Point classes typical of a dot map distinguished by saturation, hue and shape.

Line Features
Okay
Annotation

Normal Vision
Full color
visionGood
Shift Hue

BetterPattern

Best
Combination
Subway

Rd.

Rd.

er

ute

Ro

u
te

Deuteranopia
Red-green
confusion

Riv

Ro

Subwayte

Rd.

uProtanopia

er
Riv
ute
Ro

Ro

Rd.

Poor
Width & Sat.

Subway

Rd.

er

te

ute

u

Ro

Ro

Riv

Red-green
confusion

Rd.

Bad
Hue Coding

Figure 6. Line classes distinguished by width and saturation, annotation, hue and line pattern.

Altering color hue is another way to improve legibility (“better” column in Figure 6). A combinationof modiﬁed hue and saturation with varying line
patterns and annotations is our preferred solution, because it is legible to everyone (“best” column). Whileline patterns (dash, dot, etc.) can imply unwanted
qualitative or quantitative meaning or create undesir-able visual noise, for complex maps with more than a
handful of line classes, texture can become essential.
Distinguishing area classes
Qualitative mapping can combine problem color hues
as long as they are differentiated by saturation and66

cartographic perspectives

Annotated Line Classes

Figure 7. Annotation of metro lines and stations in the transportation
diagram of Madrid.

value (dark red, bright green). The use of overlay
hatching can sometimes avoid the use of problematiccolor combinations in choropleth maps.
For continuous tone raster data where colors merge
into one another, scientists often apply spectral rainbow color ramps, which typically include red, orange,
yellow, green, blue and purple. Brewer (1997) foundNumber 58, Fall 2007

that many readers prefer such spectral color schemes,
and that they are also easy to read and interpret. Thisﬁnding challenges the opinion of many cartographers,
who advise against the use of spectral schemes for ordered data. To accommodate red-green impaired readers, Brewer makes the following suggestions: (1) Varylightness on the red-orange-yellow end of the rainbow.
(2) Omit yellow-green to avoid confusion with orange.
(3) For bipolar data, omit green and use a scheme withred, orange, yellow, light blue and dark blue; and alignthe yellow-blue transition with the pivot point of thediverging data range.
The precipitation map in the ﬁrst row of Figure 8,
for example, shows low quantities of rainfall in red,and intermediate values in green. Hence, low andintermediate values appear identical for readers with
deuteranopia. The map in the second row uses analternative spectral ramp that omits yellow-green, uses
a darker red, and places the transition between yellow
and blue at the mean of all values. To bring further
clarity to the map, selected high and low values could
be labeled when the map is printed. For a digital map,the user could query values by hovering the mouseover map locations.

Spectral Color Scheme

Normal Vision

Deuteranopia

Modified Spectral Color Scheme. 268mm. 268 mm

. 45mmNormal Vision. 45 mmDeuteranopia

Figure 8. Spectral color schemes for precipitation maps with rainbow colors (top row) and with an improved spectral scheme (bottom row). Color ramps are
depicted below the maps. (Mean monthly precipitation in January, ©Atlas of Switzerland 2, 2004).

Number 58, Fall 2007

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67

Conclusion

References

Color impaired vision affects a significant portionof the population and therefore must be taken into
account by the cartographer. Color Oracle provides aconvenient method to verify that colors on a map are
legible to everyone. Indeed, we have discovered many
problematic color combinations in our daily mapmaking work thanks to the help of Color Oracle. Adjusting color schemes is not always simple and forces
the cartographer to reassess well-established conventions—for example, red-green color schemes for voting
maps or rainbow color ramps for precipitation maps.
When adjusting a color scheme, the cartographer
has to find a balance: On one side, the 8 percent of men
who are color impaired have the right of equal accessto information. On the other side, the 96 percent of the
population with normal vision has the right for pleasant maps that are easy to read. It is the cartographer’s
responsibility to adjust colors where judged appropriate.
To avoid problematic color combinations, thecartographer should use colors with strong contrast
and supplemental visual variables, such as shape, size,and pattern variations to allow all readers to discernand directly interpret a symbol without consulting alegend. Additional techniques include simplification of
the map design and annotating the map directly where
the reader might be confused.
Interactive digital maps can further support color
impaired readers by providing tooltips or labels thatare displayed on-demand. Digital environments
should additionally allow the user to customize color
schemes to suite their needs, and provide methods toquery individual values.
Color Oracle provides a convenient tool for seeing
maps the same way that color impaired readers do. It
is now an integral part of our workflow and we hope
you also find it valuable for designing maps that are
universally accessible to all.

Birch, J. 1993. Diagnosis of Defective Colour Vision. Oxford University Press, 204 pp.

Notes

Olson, J. M. and Brewer, C. A. 1997. An Evaluationof Color Selections to Accommodate Map Users with
Color-vision Impairments. Annals of the Association ofAmerican Geographers, 87:1:103-134.

1. Anomalous color vision is commonly called "colorblindness". This term, however, is not appropriate
because it erroneously suggests that affected subjects
cannot see colors. This article generally uses "color
vision impairment", as suggested by Olson and Brewer(1997).
2. For more information about the algorithm, see
Brettel et al. (1997) and Vienot et al. (1999). Meyer andGreenberg (1988) propose a related method. Fulton(2005) suggests that the confusion lines, which are thebase for this algorithm, should be improved, especiallyfor saturated colors.

Brettel, H., Viénot, F. and Mollon, J. D. 1997. Computerized Simulation of Color Appearance for Dichromats. Journal of the Optical Society of America,
14:10:2647-2655.
Brewer, C. A. 1997. Spectral Schemes: Controversial
Color Use on Maps. Cartography and Geographic Information Systems, 24:4:203-220.
Cole, B. L. 2004. The Handicap of Abnormal Colour
Vision. Clinical and Experimental Optometry, 87:4/5:258275.
Fulton, J. T. 2005. Processes in Biological Vision. Chapter
18: Clinical Electrophysiology & Visual Abnormalities
in Man. <http://www.4colorvision.com/> (February
14, 2007).
Harrower, M. and Brewer, C. A. 2003. ColorBrewer.
org: An Online Tool for Selecting Colour Schemes for
Maps. The Cartographic Journal, 40:1:27-37.
Kuyk T. K., Veres, J. G., Lahey, M. A. and Clark, D. J.
1987. Ability of Deutan Color Defectives to Perform
Simulated Air Traffic Control Tasks. American Journal of
Optometry and Physiological Optics, 64:1:2-10.
Mertens H. W. and Milburn N. J. 1996. Performance ofColor-dependent Air Traffic Control Tasks as a Function of Color Vision Deficiency. Aviation, Space, andEnvironmental Medicine, 67:10:919-27.
Meyer, G. W. and Greenberg, D. P. 1988. Color-defective Vision and Computer Graphics Displays. IEEE
Computer Graphcis and Applications, 8:5:28-40.

Viénot, F., Brettel, H. and Mollon, J. D. 1999. DigitalVideo Colourmaps for Checking the Legibility of
Displays by Dichromats. Color Research and Application,
24:4:243-251.