6. Igneous rocks
Igneous rocks form whenever molten rock cools and minerals crystallize to produce a solid rock.
Hence the prerequisite for the formation of igneous rocks is the melting of rocks. Molten rock iscalled magma if it occurs within the lithosphere and becomes lava when the molten rock is
extruded on Earth’s surface through volcanic activity.
Where does magma form?
Magma forms whenever the conditions of pressure and temperature cause a solid rock to start
melting. This happens primarily in three major geological settings: (1) mid-ocean ridges, (2)subduction zones, and (3) hotspots. Details about the melting process in these three settings arepresented in section 6.2.

6.1. Classification of igneous rocks
Igneous rocks are classified according to their texture (coarse-grained vs. fine-grained) and theirchemical and mineralogical compositions. The texture and chemical or mineralogical compositionsof an igneous rock can give us information on where and how the rock formed.
6.1.1. Classification based on rock texture
Extrusive igneous rocks
These rocks cool rapidly on or very near the Earth’s surface. The rapid cooling is due to the great
difference in temperature between the hot molten rock and the relatively cool surrounding
environment. These rocks are fine-grained since minerals crystallize too rapidly to form large
crystals. A common example of an extrusive igneous rock is basalt. Basalt is a major componentof the oceanic crust and produced in great abundance at mid-ocean ridges.
The extremely fast cooling of a lava extruded on Earth’s surface results in the production of
volcanic glass in which atoms do not have time to form a regular crystal lattice.
When lava is ejected out of a volcano, pieces of lava cool and solidify in the air. The pieces ofigneous rocks then fall on the ground by gravity. These pieces of igneous rocks are called
pyroclasts. They may have various sizes, from volcanic ash (<2 mm) to large volcanic bombs(>6.4 cm). Pieces of intermediate size are called pumice. Explosive volcanic eruptions are
sometimes characterized by a sudden and massive release of a dense mixture of extremely hotgas and ash rushing down the volcano’s flank at very high speed. This is called a pyroclastic flow
and represents a major hazard for anyone being in the vicinity of the volcano when it happens.
Intrusive igneous rocks
These rocks cool slowly within the Earth’s crust. The slow cooling enables minerals to grow large.
The texture of these rocks is coarse-grained. An example of an intrusive igneous rock is granite.
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Granite is a major component of the continental crust.
Igneous rocks may sometimes consist of a combination of fine-grained and coarse-grainedtextures which tells us something interesting about their history. Porphyry is the name given to an
igneous rock composed of large crystals (or phenocrysts) “floating” in a fine-grained matrix. Thisparticular texture indicates that the rock started to cool slowly at some depth beneath the surface
producing large crystals, and then began to cool faster as it approached the surface forming tiny
crystals out of the remaining melt.
6.1.2. Classification based on chemical and mineralogical compositions
Igneous rocks enriched in silica (SiO2) and silicates rich in Al, K, and Na (e.g. feldspar) are called
felsic (from feldspar and silica). These rocks are characteristic of the continental crust (e.g.
granite, Fig. 1)
Igneous rocks with a high proportion of silicates rich in Mg and Fe (e.g. olivine) are called mafic(from magnesium and ferric). These rocks are particularly abundant in the oceanic crust (e.g.
basalt, Fig. 1).
Igneous rocks composed of a large proportion of silicate of Mg and Fe (e.g. olivine, (Fe, Mg)2SiO4)
are called ultramafic. Ultramafic rocks are characteristic of the upper mantle. Peridotite is a rockcomposed mostly of olivine and pyroxene and is believed to be a major constituent of the Earth’s
mantle (Fig. 1).
Felsic and ultramafic rocks are the two end-members of a continuum of compositions. Igneousrocks may be more or less felsic, more or less mafic depending on how they formed. Igneous rocks
with different chemical and mineralogical compositions have different properties. Felsic igneousrocks tend to be lighter than mafic igneous rocks. Felsic rocks have a lower density and start
melting at a lower temperature. Magma with a felsic composition is more viscous than magma witha mafic composition (Fig. 1).
Note that the name given to igneous rocks (granite, basalt…) depends on both texture andcomposition. For instance, the name of a coarse-grained intrusive igneous rock with a felsic
composition is granite whereas the name of the fine-grained extrusive rock with a similar
composition is rhyolite. Also, basalt is the name given to a fine-grained extrusive igneous rockwith a mafic composition but the intrusive equivalent is called gabbro (Fig. 1).
The figure below summarizes the main characteristics of extrusive and intrusive igneous rocks.

Pyroxene is a silicate mineral formed of single chains of silicate tetrahedra. The pyroxene commonly occurring in peridotite is(Mg, Fe)SiO3. The mineral with the formula MgSiO3 is called enstatite. The mineral with the formula FeSiO3 is called ferrosilite.

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Figure 1: Classification model of igneous rocks. Igneous rocks are classified according to their mineralogical andchemical compositions, which is illustrated by the graph showing the proportion of certain minerals in the rocks(expressed as a % of rock volume) as a function of the silica content (expressed as a % of rock weight). The upper
part of the figure shows images of rocks samples. Note the difference of color between felsic (lighter) and maficth(darker) rocks. Source: modified from Understand Earth 6 edition (rock images: Imperial College Rock Library,
except granodiorite: US National Park Service website, and peridotite: Wikipedia).

6.2. Processes of magma formation
6.2.1 Heat and pressure
Temperature increases with depth. This is called the geothermal gradient. On average thegeothermal gradient of the Earth’s crust is 30°C/km. As depth increases, temperature increases
but pressure increases too which prevents rocks from melting. In “normal” conditions rocks of thecrust and mantle cannot melt extensively. At mid-ocean ridges however where hot mantle rockrises to the surface, the geothermal gradient increases sharply and partial melting occurs at
relatively shallow depth where the pressure becomes too low to maintain the whole rock at thesolid state. The resulting melt is the source of the new oceanic lithosphere generated at mid-oceanridges (see section 6.4). Since pressure drop plays such a crucial role in the melting process, it iscalled decompression melting. Decompression melting occurs also beneath hotspots (e.g.
Hawaii) where a mantle plume rises toward the surface. In this setting, the source of the plumemay be as deep as the boundary between the mantle and the outer core, and therefore the risingmantle rock is even hotter than beneath mid-ocean ridges.
6.2.2. Influence of water
Besides mid-ocean ridges and hotspots, another geological setting where abundant magma isproduced is the subduction zone. In subduction zones, an oceanic plate is sliding beneath anotherplate and plunges into the asthenospheric mantle. The subducting oceanic plate is relatively cold incomparison with the surrounding rocks. What is causing rock melting in this case? The answer iswater and the process of magma formation is called water-induced melting. The subducting
oceanic plate carries a lot of sediments and sedimentary rocks with relatively high water content.
Water is present in the open space between sediment grains (pore space) and in the crystal latticeof clay minerals. Water molecules disrupt chemical bonds and lower the melting temperature ofrocks.

No melt is normally allowed except a tiny fraction of the upper asthenosphere (up to 1% of the rock volume only) directly below
the moving tectonic plates.

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6.2.3. Magma composition and style of volcanism
The composition of the rock from which magma is initially derived (parent rock) is important indetermining magma composition. The magma may also gain components by melting thesurrounding rocks during its ascension toward Earth’s surface. Magma composition also depends
on temperature because different minerals melt at different temperatures (Fig. 1).
An important property of magma is its viscosity. A magma that is more viscous has more chance
to remain stuck in the volcano’s vent. The pressure building up under this natural “cork” isparticularly dangerous and may result in a violent explosive volcanic eruption.
The viscosity of magma is proportional to its silica content and inversely proportional to its
temperature (the cooler, the more viscous). The most violent volcanic eruptions are related tomagmas that are both viscous and rich in volatiles (water, CO2…). A volatile-rich, highly viscousmagma is much more likely to give rise to an explosive eruption. A magma nearing the surface
behaves like a soda drink when you unscrew the bottle cap. The volatiles contained in the magma
form gas bubbles which expand due to the pressure drop. Decreasing the amount of volatiles
dissolved in the magma make it also more viscous. A volatile-rich, highly viscous magma is likely togive rise to an explosive eruption due to the pressure that progressively builds up in the chimney
and is suddenly released in the form of a violent explosion.
Hawaii is an oceanic hotspot where magma is derived from mantle rock. The magma has a mafic
composition and therefore contains little silica. Moreover it is particularly hot because the parent
rock originates from very deep in the mantle. As a result, Hawaiian volcanoes are characterized bya low-viscosity lava that can easily flow out and spread over large areas forming so-called shield
volcanoes (volcanoes with low-angle flanks). The risk of explosive eruptions in Hawaii is very low.
Conversely, in continental hotspots (e.g. Yellowstone), continental rifts (e.g. East African Rift) andocean-continent subduction zones (e.g. Japan), the magma may become more felsic as it
penetrates the continental crust and melts the surrounding rocks. Felsic magma is highly viscous
because it contains a lot more silica. The magma may also become enriched in volatiles.
Consequently, the risk of explosive eruption in these settings is much greater!
6.2.4. Magma chambers
Magma has a lower density than the surrounding solid rock and therefore tends to migrate slowly
toward the surface. It rises through cracks and by melting its way up. Magma tends to accumulate
in regions of the crust called magma chambers. During its ascent, the magma composition may
change by mixing with other magmas or by melting surrounding rocks.

6.2. Magma crystallization and the formation of igneous rocks

Silica molecules (SiO2) tend to form chains which greatly increase the viscosity of the magma. More felsic magmas are moreviscous.

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The process by which magma composition is modified during crystallization is called magmaticdifferentiation. Magmatic differentiation can lead to the formation of various igneous rocks from asingle initial melt through the following processes:(1) Different minerals crystallize at different temperatures. The order at which minerals crystallize
has been determined experimentally (see related slide showing the Bowen’s reaction series).
(2) In a cooling magma, minerals crystallizing first tend to settle down first. This is called crystal
fractionation. However, the crystal settling rate does not only depend on the timing of
crystallization but also on the density and size of crystals and the viscosity of the remaining
magma.
The result of magmatic differentiation is that a cooling magma produces a succession of igneousrocks whose chemical compositions vary from relatively more mafic to relatively more felsic.
Besides magmatic differentiation, other factors should be accounted for in order to explain thediversity and abundance of igneous rocks. Two of these factors are:(1) Variability in parent magma composition
At mid-ocean ridges and oceanic hotspots, the initial parent magma is derived from the meltingof mantle rock and its composition is mafic (i.e. basaltic).
In subduction zones, the initial parent magma is derived from the melting of the oceanic crust(including various sedimentary rocks) and mantle rock. Its composition is mafic to intermediate(i.e. andesitic).
In the case of continental rifts, continental hotspots, and ocean-continent subduction zones inwhich continental crust is involved, magma may become more felsic (i.e. granitic) as it
penetrates the continental crust and melt surrounding rocks.
(2) Mixing of different magmas
Magmas that can mix with each other are said to be miscible. Crystallization of a magma
resulting from the mixing of two miscible magmas produces rocks whose chemicalcompositions differ from those which would have been produced if each magmas had
crystallized separately. Some magmas however cannot mix and are called immiscible.

6.3. Forms of igneous intrusions
The path taken by the magma from its source to the surface can result in the formation of different
geological structures described in figure 2.

6.4. Formation of new oceanic crust at mid-ocean ridges
The asthenosphere is convecting and asthenospheric mantle rock rises slowly toward the surface
beneath mid-ocean ridges. The ascending hot mantle rock is composed of peridotite (olivine andlesser pyroxene and garnet). Decompression melting of the peridotite occurs at shallow depth. Up
to 15% of the rock volume can melt. Magma accumulates in a magma chamber beneath the30

mid-ocean ridge. Since pyroxene and garnet melt first, the composition of the resulting partial melt
is not peridotitic but basaltic (enriched in silica and iron). The remaining solid, which has not melted,
is enriched in olivine and forms a layer of ultramafic peridotite at the base of the oceanic crust. One
part of the basaltic magma cools slowly in the magma chamber to form a layer of gabbro overlying
the ultramafic peridotite. The other part of the basaltic magma rises to the surface and solidifies
quickly near or on the seafloor to form a layer of basalt. As the two plates are pulled apart, theoceanic crust grows laterally by successive intrusions of basaltic magma which produce numerous
dykes (see related slide for an illustration).

Figure 2: Cross section of a portion of the lithosphere through which magma is rising to the surface. Magmatypically accumulates in the crust in large magma chambers (1). Pieces of surrounding rocks can be incorporated
in the magma and change its chemical composition (2). The magma may start to crystallize upon cooling which
also change the chemical composition of the remaining melt (3). Some of the magma leaves the chamber throughfractures and may form large sheets, either parallel to rock layers －sill－ (4) or intersecting rock layers －dyke－(5). A volcano is composed of a central vent (6) which may branch off and form a side vent (7). Lava is ejectedfrom the vents and form lava flows (8). Other materials which may be ejected from vents are pyroclasts (ashes,volcanic bombs…) and gas (9).

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