PART 1

PRINCIPLES OF TRAINING
Training programmes are designed to improve performance by developing
the appropriate energy sources, increasing muscular structures, and improving
neuro-muscular skill patterns. Sports medicine professionals must be familiar withthe basic principles and processes of training, so that they can evaluate training
programmes and determine their adequacy in maintaining an athlete’s health andpreventing injury.
Training theory encompasses all aspects of ﬁtness knowledge, including social,
psychological, and scientiﬁc. The coach uses this information, along with knowledge
about the athlete as an individual, to devise the most effective training programme.
The scope of training theory is illustrated in Figure 3-1.

Sports psychology

Philosophy
Teaching skills
Physiology

Biomechanics

TRAINING
THEORY

AnatomyHistory
Nutrition

Growth and development

Injuries and ﬁrst aid

Figure 3-1. Scope of training theory.

A. Principles

1. Progressive Loading (“Overload”)
Biological systems can adapt to loads that are higher than the demands of normal
daily activity. Training loads must be increased gradually, however, to allow the
body to adapt and to avoid injury (system failure due to overloading). Varying thetype, volume, and intensity of the training load allows the body an opportunity torecover, and to over-compensate (Figure 3-2). Loading must continue to increase
incrementally as adaptation occurs, otherwise the training effect will plateau andfurther improvement will not occur (Figure 3-3).

CHAPTER 3, TRAINING

Stimulus

Overcompensation
Fitness

Fatigue
Compensation

Figure 3-2. The law of overload.

i

i

i

i

i

i

Fitness

Figure 3-3. Principle of progressive overload—optimal improvement.

2. Adaptation
Adaptations to the demands of training occur gradually, over long periods oftime. Efforts to accelerate the process may lead to injury, illness, or “overtraining”(see Part 2, of this chapter Restoration, Recovery, and Overtraining). Many adaptivechanges reverse when training ceases. Conversely, an indadequate training load
will not provide an adequate stimulus, and a compensatory response will not occur.
Figure 3-4 illustrates the effects of various training loads.
Stimulus

Overcompensation
Fitness

Fatigue

Compensation (recovery)– – – – – Training too easy———— Training adequate• • • • • • • Training too hard

Figure 3-4. Different training loads have different effects on the athlete’s recovery.

CHAPTER 3, TRAINING

3. Speciﬁcity
Energy pathways, enzyme systems, muscle ﬁber types, and neuro-muscularresponses adapt speciﬁcally to the type of training to which they are subjected. For
example, strength training has little effect on endurance. Conversely, endurance
training activates aerobic pathways, with little effect on speed or strength. Even so,a well-rounded training programme should contain a variety of elements (aerobic,
anaerobic, speed, strength, ﬂexibility), and involve all of the major muscle groups inorder to prevent imbalances and avoid injuries.
4. Reversibility
A regular training stimulus is required in order for adaptation to occur and to be
maintained. Without suitable, repeated bouts of training, ﬁtness levels remain low or
regress to their pre-training levels.
5. Variation and Recovery
Muscle groups adapt to a speciﬁc training stimulus in about three weeks andthen plateau. Variations in training and periods of recovery are needed to continue
progressive loading, without the risks of injury and/or overtraining. Training
sessions should alternate between heavy, light, and moderate in order to permit
recovery. The content of training programmes must also vary in order to preventboredom and “staleness”.
6. Individual Response
Each athlete will respond differently to the same training stimulus. There aremany factors that alter the training response: genetics, maturity, nutrition, prior training, environment, sleep, rest, stress, illness or injury, and motivation, to name a few.
7. Periodisation of the Training Cycle
The training programme must consist of a variety of elements, including cardiorespiratory (aerobic) ﬁtness, general strength, anaerobic ﬁtness (power), speed,neuro-muscular skills development, ﬂexibility, and mental preparation. The emphasis
placed upon each of these elements must vary during the training year, but will also
depend on the athlete’s event and level of experience and maturity. Generally, basic
preparation for all events should focus on general strength and aerobic ﬁtness.
Training cycles usually last about 3 weeks, with a week of lower-intensity
recovery before starting the next cycle. Skills acquisition should not be emphasised
during a high-intensity training cycle, but should be reserved for periods of lower
volume and intensity.
8. Maintenance
Gains achieved during high-intensity training periods can be maintained witha moderate level of work. Thus, by means of periodisation, some elements can be
maintained with less work, while other elements are stressed.

CHAPTER 3, TRAINING

B. Planning the Training Programme

1. Elements of Training and Fitness
A ﬁtness training programme encompasses ﬁve basic biomotor abilities:
strength, endurance, speed, ﬂexibility, and coordination (Figure 3-5). Other elementsthat must be considered in a holistic programme include: speciﬁc skills acquisition,
psychological training, and competition preparation.

Figure 3-5. Relationship of the biomotor abilities.

A complete training programme must encompass all of the above elements.
However, not all elements can receive equal emphasis throughout the training cycle.
Many factors determine the type of training programme, and the stress placed uponeach element. These include the age and sports maturity level of the athlete, his or
her prior state of ﬁtness, and the event(s) for which the athlete is preparing (Figure
3-6).
Although these biomotor elements are thought of as discrete entities, they are
actually closely interrelated (Figure 3-7). The application of a training programme
will impinge on a number of systems, and the coach must understand these relationships when devising a training programme.

CHAPTER 3, TRAINING

Elite level training andcompetition

24–25 Years
High level training.
Development to elite
performance levels.

Elite level international
competition.
Olympic Games
World Championships
World Cup
National senior levelcompetition.
Exposure to international
competition.

20–21 Years
Specialisation in training.
Speciﬁc development ofphysical capacities
and techniques.

Under 20 national levelcompetition. Exposure tosome senior competition.

17–18 Years
Development ofgeneral training
speciﬁc to eventor group.
Weight training–commence whenappropriate.

14 Years“Fun” training—
general all arounddevelopment.

Age group competitionsat State andNational levels.

Emphasis on general
fun competition.
Aerobic running,
gymnastics, ﬂexibility,
basic skills.

Figure 3-6. Training at any time must be seen as part of a long-term plan.

2. The Training Programme
The training process is divided into several periods (periodisation). These
periods are usually termed as—• General preparation• Speciﬁc preparation• Competition, and• Transition (active rest)
The emphasis placed upon the various elements of training will vary both involume and intensity. Volume refers to the total quantity of work, i.e., metres ofrunning, or kilograms lifted during strength training. Intensity indicates the qualityof training, usually in reference to the athlete’s maximal capability in that activity(percent of best performance).

CHAPTER 3, TRAINING

Figure 3-7. Inter-relationship of the various motor abilities.

Specific
preparation

Main competitions
PREPARATIONCOMPETITION

VolumeIntensity
Athletic shape

Figure 3-8. The general structure of periodised training.

TRANSITION

Generalpreparation

Main competitions

During the preparatory periods, the volume of training is gradually increased,
while the intensity is kept lower (Figure 3-8). As the competition phase is reached,
the volume is slowly reduced as the intensity is raised. If both volume and intensity
remain high, overtraining may occur (see Chapter 3, Part 2).

PART 2RESTORATION, RECOVERY AND OVERTRAINING
Whenever a group of athletes is subjected to a training programme, some will
respond optimally to the training stimulus, a few will not be adequately trained(undertrained), and others will experience an overly stressful response to the training
load (overtraining).
A systematically applied, gradually progressive training load is required for
an athlete to adapt and improve performance. However, for this adaptation to takeplace, adequate recovery strategies must be utilised. As the stressors associated withtraining gradually increase, so must the implementation of a broad range of recovery
and restoration modalities be carefully included in the training process. While thisconcept may seem counter-intuitive to many highly-motivated athletes and coaches,it should be considered as integral to the training programme, i.e., “invisible training.”
It is the cumulative effect of training and non-training stressors, alongwith “under-recovery” that leads to performance decrements and the “overtraining
syndrome.”
A. Restoration and Recovery

Restoration and recovery measures encompass a broad range of techniques, bothactive and passive. Recovery should include the physiological, psychological, andsocial realms.
1. Plan Training
The ﬁrst step in preventing under-recovery is for the athlete and coach to develop
a carefully- planned training strategy, with a periodisation system and allowances for“active rest.”
2. Self-monitoring
The athlete should keep a training diary and record not only the results of eachworkout, but also his or her subjective responses to it. Such an assessment mightutilise such measures as the Rating of Perceived Exertion (RPE) and the Total
Quality of Recovery (TQR) scales (see Kellmann 2002, p.16 table 1.2). Use of theweekly Recovery–Cue assessment (Kellmann 2002, appendix 12.A) may aid in
following the athlete’s responses over time and allow for early intervention in casesof incipient over-stress.
Self-monitoring of the athlete’s responses to training and the athlete’s selfperceived mental state are the most sensitive cues to the total volume of stressors
and his or her adaptation to them.
3. PsychologicalPsychological strategies are important factors in reducing and managing stress.
Relaxation training, imagery, and autogenic training are valuable tools in helping theathlete to maintain focus during competition, allaying excessive tension, and aiding

CHAPTER 3, TRAINING

in recovery processes. Relaxation training is helpful for inducing sleep. Adequate
sleep is essential for recovery, as many endocrine systems undergo optimal recovery
during sleep.
4. SocialSocial interactions can be a pleasant diversion from the rigours of training,
especially if they are done in settings outside of the training milieu and with otherfriends who are not involved in sports.
5. Medical
Many medical modalities that have been found to be valuable restoration tools.
Different massage techniques are useful in aiding warm-up, relaxing muscles after
training, and in re-activation for subsequent exercise sessions. Hydrotherapy inseveral forms is used to ﬂush out waste products and improve peripheral circulation,
both locally and by nervous system activation. Ice baths, contrast baths, and hydromassage stimulate venous circulation.
Active and passive stretching help muscles to lengthen, relieve tension within
the muscle bundles, and enhance relaxation.
6. Nutrition
Maintaining adequate nutrition is essential for complete recovery (see Chapter
6, Part 1, Nutrition and Athlete Health). During and after exercise, it is important toremain hydrated. For short sessions water is adequate, but for longer periods glucose/electrolyte solutions replace losses and maintain caloric and salt stores. Glycogenrepletion should begin immediately after exercise, using glucose /electrolyte
solutions. Carbohydrate/protein mixtures may enhance glycogen repletion as well
as restore muscle amino acids and rebuild muscle tissue. A high-carbohydrate meal
should be eaten within 2–4 hours after exercise.
B. Planning a System for Recovery and Restoration

1. Before Training or Competition
a. Develop a check-list of necessary preparations and form a consistent routine,
but be ﬂexible and prepare for unexpected changes (altered time schedule,
order of competition, change of venue, weather conditions)—i.e., “stuff
happens”!
b. Carry out a gradual warm-up, stretch gently, and develop a sense of muscle“awareness.”c. Have a brief, activating massage.
d. Utilise relaxation and imagery to focus on the competitive task and remove
distractions.
2. During a Training Session
a. Maintain hydration—consume water or a carbohydrate/ electrolyte drink.
b. Rest between exercise bouts.

CHAPTER 3, TRAINING

3. Between Multiple Daily Training Sessions or Rounds of Competition
a. Replace nutrients and ﬂuids.
b. Stretch. Obtain a light massage. Take a brief nap.
4. During Competition
a. Maintain ﬂuids and electrolytes.
b. Use psychological techniques to “psych-up” and “psych- down”.
c. Manage the environment: stay cool (or warm), use sun block if necessary.
5. After Training or Competitiona. Cool down and stretch.
b. Replace ﬂuid losses—use a carbohydrate/electrolyte/protein drink.
Consume 150% of ﬂuid losses (weigh before and after event).
c. Massage: stroking, to stimulate waste removal and elicit relaxation.
d. Hydrotherapy: cold (or ice) bath, or hydro-massage.
e. Nutrition: eat a high-carbohydrate meal within 2–4 hours to restore
glycogen.
f. Psychological: carry out a post-event evaluation with the coach, assessing
both the good and bad aspects of the event (see questionnaire).
6. During Recovery Days (“Invisible Training”)
a. Use “active rest” by doing some form of light activity or cross-training, orplay games (safely and not competitively!). Allow the muscles to work,
while the mind and nervous system rest.
b. Do easy stretching or yoga.
c. Become involved socially and get away from the sports routine.
d. Use “nature therapy”—have a complete change of scene by walking in thepark or forest, going to the beach, etc.
Remember that each athlete is unique, with individual ways of responding
to stressors and to recovery techniques. What may be restorative to one may be
stressful to another. Hence, each athlete must create his or her own armamentariumof restoration strategies, and use them diligently.
C. Overtraining vs. Under-Recovery

Overtraining is a poorly-deﬁned complex of the body’s psycho-physiologicalresponses to a wide variety of “stressors,” including: 1) an excessive or monotonoustraining load; 2) too-frequent competitions; 3) inadequate recovery time following an
intensive work-load, or any combination of these; 4) other “stressors” in the athlete’s
life, such as ﬁnancial or work pressures, social issues, excessive travel (jet-lag),inadequate sleep and nutrition, or lack of recreational opportunities.

CHAPTER 3, TRAINING

1. Deﬁnitions (See Ref. 7)
a. Overreaching (or Short-term Overtraining)
Overreaching (or short-term overtraining) can be deﬁned as an accumulationof training and/or non-training stress resulting in short-term decrement in
performance capacity with or without related physiological or psychologicalsigns and symptoms of overtraining, in which restoration of performancecapacity may take from several days to several weeks. Note that overreaching
may be difﬁcult to distinguish from the normal sense of fatigue that accompanies
an intensive training program.
b. Overtraining (or Long-term Overtraining, “Staleness” or “Burnout”)
Overtraining can be deﬁned as an accumulation of training and/or nontraining stress resulting in long-term decrement in performance capacity withor without related physiological signs and symptoms of overtraining, in which
restoration of performance capacity may take several weeks or months.
Overtraining may be looked upon as the OUTCOME of several systems’
failures due to inadequate restoration and recovery strategies. Although thecontinuum between overreaching and overtraining syndromes appears logical,
there is no scientiﬁc evidence to indicate that 1) overreaching precedes overtraining, or 2) symptoms of overtraining are worse than those of overreaching.
2. Incidence of Overtraining
The incidence of overtraining in high-level athletes has been reported from
5–15% over a 1-year period, according to different authors. However, it is difﬁcult
to interpret these data because many of these studies diagnosed overtraining
without any performance measurement or performance decrease (a very important
prerequisite). Moreover, terminology used is sometimes inconsistent and it islikely that some of the overtrained athletes only underwent transient overreaching
syndrome.
3. Prevention of Overtraining
The highly-trained, strongly-motivated elite athlete constantly treads a ﬁne line
between optimal levels of training, and overtraining. Close communication between
insightful coaches and athletes who are “tuned-in” to monitoring their own mental
and physical responses to training is required to detect the “early warning signs” ofovertraining (see below) and to react appropriately.
a. Guidelines for an Optimal Training Load
The optimal training load for an individual athlete depends on various
factors, including genetic make-up, lifestyle, degree of physical and mental
maturity, and state of initial ﬁtness.
There are no hard and fast rules for determining how and when to adjust thetraining load, but empirical evidence suggests that an increase of no more than
5% each week during a training micro-cycle allows for adaptation and recovery.
Furthermore, intensity and volume of training should not be increased
simultaneously.

CHAPTER 3, TRAINING

Not being able to devise a numerical index for training intensity and volume
makes it difﬁcult to quantify the training load. Therefore, training must be
carefully documented in the athlete’s diary. The athlete’s subjective responses
to and feelings about the training should be monitored and recorded, as should
lifestyle factors such as hours and quality of sleep, nutrition, and other stressors.
If signs of overtraining do become apparent, a careful record of activities
should help pinpoint possible causes.
b. High-risk Activity Patterns
Certain activity patterns are especially likely to cause overtraining. These
include:i. closely-spaced competitions without adequate recovery, or without anadequate recovery interval between a series of competitions
ii. a sudden increase in training volume and/or intensity without a gradualbuild-upiii. use of a single, monotonous training format, such as interval training,which fatigues one muscle group or energy system
iv. increase in other life stressors, such as inadequate sleep or nourishment,
travel (especially across time zones), or adverse psychological encounters,
etc.
Avoiding these patterns, especially by ensuring adequate recovery or
diversion, is the best way to prevent overtraining.
4. “Early Warning Signs” of Overtraining
Athletes beginning to show evidence of overtraining exhibit several symptoms,
often in combination. Sports medicine personnel and coaches should be alert forthese early warning clues, and activate recovery efforts:
a. An athlete feels that greater effort is needed to complete a training session,
time trial, or competition. A longer recovery time is needed between exercise
bouts.
b. An athlete complains of persistent muscle stiffness and soreness, andrequests frequent massage.
c. An athlete feels a persistent sense of fatigue and inadequate recovery after
a training session. A poor sleep pattern and elevated morning heart rate may
accompany this feeling.
d. An athlete exhibits irritability and moodiness in dealing with routine
activities.
e. An athlete loses the drive to train, and dreads the outcome of a poor training
session.
f. A female athlete experiences alterations of the menstrual cycle, especiallyamenorrhea (see Chapter 13, Part 1, Endocrine/Menstrual Factors).
These warning signals should indicate to the athlete, coach, and medical staff
that a major adjustment in the training program is necessary. The team physician can

CHAPTER 3, TRAINING

be of value in conﬁrming this “diagnosis” and encouraging a programme of recovery
rather than allowing the athlete to persist in a potentially harmful process.
5. Physiological and Laboratory Detection
Despite numerous efforts, the ability to detect incipient overtraining or overreaching has been elusive. Many athletes with overreaching or overtraining may
show few or no measurable physiological changes, while others may have alteredlaboratory and psychological ﬁndings with no clinical evidence of being overtrained.
Many different markers have been suggested as being useful, but none has been
carefully validated in a research setting with adequate controls.
A number of indicators have been recommended, and if carried out on a regularbasis to monitor the athlete, may be of some value:
Although it has not been agreed on by all, time to fatigue tests seem to be themost appropriate technique to diagnose states of overreaching or overtraining. This
type of submaximal test allows different kinds of metabolic measurements that can becompared over the course of the season. In the ﬁeld of maximal physiologicalparameters, reduction of maximal oxygen uptake and maximal heart rate, obtained
during incremental tests, are frequently reported in overtrained or overreached athletes.
However, whether the reduction of these parameters is the cause or the consequence ofthe premature fatigue associated with overtraining remains unknown.
Overtraining can disrupt the immune system, which makes the athlete more
susceptible to infections. Upper-respiratory tract infections (URTI) have often
been considered as a hallmark of the overtraining syndrome, but this has not beenfound by other researchers. In fact, it seems that a higher URTI incidence and thefrequently associated low salivary IgA concentration more likely reﬂect an increasein the training load rather than a training dysadaptation syndrome (overreachingor overtraining). Some biochemical and immunological studies recently reported
decreased serum glutamine, and glutamine/glutamate ratio, in overtrained subjects.
This ﬁnding deserves further studies.
The endocrine system may show a stress response, with an initial rise inepinephrine and nor-epinephrine, ACTH and cortisol, and growth hormone (GH),followed by a decline in the level of these hormones (Selye’s “exhaustion stage”).
For instance, the maximal blood cortisol response to exercise stress is often
decreased in overreached athletes. Early hormonal studies on overtraining reported
a decrease (more than 30%) in the testosterone/cortisol ratio due to a rise in cortisol
and a reduction in testosterone (due to gonadotropin suppression). Unfortunately, theusefulness of this ratio as a diagnostic tool has not been supported in the literature.
Similarly, overtraining can profoundly affect the psychological status of theathlete. The widely-used Proﬁle of Mood States (POMS) shows a characteristic“inverse iceberg proﬁle,” with low levels of vigour, and high indices of fatigue,
depression, and anger. This proﬁle can be reversed with appropriate managementof training, and time allowed for recovery. Others have shown that a simple sevenquestion proﬁle administered daily or weekly may help to discriminate those who
may become overtrained.

CHAPTER 3, TRAINING

These psychological markers seem to be the most sensitive indicators of theathlete under stress, and should be administered on a regular basis, along with areview of the training diary and discussions between coach and athlete.
Changes in the levels of certain biochemical markers (CPK, ferritin, haptoglobin,etc.) are potentially suggestive of overtraining. However, these levels are also alteredby intensive training, so unless there is frequent, regular testing of the athlete toestablish an individual baseline and “normal range,” these tests cannot deﬁnitively
diagnose overtraining.
Heart rate variability (HRV), which results from signal processing of the RR
intervals (consecutive heart beats), has been recently investigated as a non-invasive
diagnostic tool of overtraining. This hypothesis was supported by the fact that HRV
can reliably attest for the sympathetic and parasympathetic tones. As overtraining
is believed, by some authors, to be associated with autonomic nervous system
disturbances, HRV monitoring was a good candidate. Unfortunately, most of thestudies showed that the clinical value of HRV in the diagnosis of overtraining is nothigh enough for this method to be considered as a valuable tool.
Several other simple physiological indices may be useful in detecting overtraining IF they are recorded under carefully standardised conditions:a. Amount and quality of sleep. Sleep disturbances and insomnia may be an
early indication of stress.
b. Morning heart rate, if measured under standard conditions, may be ameasure of recovery from training.
c. Body weight. A stable morning (post-void) weight may indicate theadequacy of re-hydration and nutrition. Weight loss and a decline inappetite may be warning indicators of overtraining.
D. Summary

Clearly, overtraining remains a poorly-understood syndrome and much further
research needs to be done. For now, coaches, athletes, and medical staffs must be
alert to the many and varied possible early warning signs. Athletes should keep adetailed diary in which they record their training work, their subjective reactions toand feelings about it, and other pertinent life events such as sleep, nutrition, appetite,and personal stressors. A brief psychological proﬁle test should be obtained at least
weekly. Remind the athlete that overreaching or overtraining are always associatedwith an objective decrease in physical performance. Physiological factors such as
resting morning heart rate, body weight, and amount and quality of sleep should
be monitored. If possible, some hematologic and biochemical markers should bemeasured every two to three months to assess an athlete’s normal range of responses
to training, in order to detect any deviations from the usual range.
The best method of avoiding the overreaching/overtraining syndrome is
to monitor the athlete’s programme carefully, and adopt as an integral part of theathlete’s programme the restoration and recovery methods that have been described.

CHAPTER 3, TRAINING

References

1.

2.

3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

8.

9.

Dressendorfer, R. H., C. E. Wade, and J. H. Scaff. Increased morning heart rate
in runners: a valid sign of overtraining? Phys. and Sportsmed. 13(8):77-86,
1985.
Flynn, M. G., F. X. Pizza, J. B. Boone, Jr., F. F. Andres, T. A. Michaud, and J.
AR. Rodriguez-Zayas. Indices of training stress during competitive running andswimming seasons. Int. Journal of Sports Medicine 15:21-26, 1994.
Halson, S. L., and A. E. Jeukendrup. Does over-training exist? An analysis ofoverreaching and overtraining research. Sports Medicine 34(14):967-981, 2004.
Hooper S. I., L. T. McKinnon, et al. Markers for monitoring overtraining andrecovery. Med. and Sci. in Sports and Exercise 27(1):106-112, 1995.
Kellmann, M. (ed.). Enhancing Recovery. Preventing Underperformance inAthletes. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 2002.
Kreider, R., A. C. Fry, and M. O’Toole (eds.). Overtraining in Sport.
Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 1998.
Morgan, W. P., D. R. Brown, J. S. Raglin, P. J. O’Connor, and K. A. Ellickson.
Psychological monitoring of over-training and staleness. British Journal ofSports Medicine 21:107-114, 1987.
Nieman, D. C., et al. Effects of long-endurance running on immune systemparameters and lymphocyte function in experienced marathoners. Int. Journalof Sports Med. 5:317-323, 1989.
Uusitalo, A. L. T. Overtraining. Making a difﬁcult diagnosis and implementing
targeted treatment. Phys. and Sportsmed. 29(5):35-50, 2001.