PART 1

TRIAGE AND ACTION PLANS
Most events in track and ﬁeld have a low risk of serious or critical injury, withthe exceptions of events such as the pole vault, javelin, hammer, and discus. When
providing medical care for an athletics event, both athletes and spectators should beconsidered. Therefore, planning should cover various athletic medical conditions aswell as sudden illness (heart attacks, strokes, fainting, hypoglycemia, heat illness,
asthma).
Sports medicine personnel must be acquainted with the principles of acute care,as much depends on the initial response. Personnel carrying out ﬁrst aid must be
familiar with the devices and medicines needed for primary care.
The following should be considered when providing medical support for anathletics event:• Medical team and medical supplies• Plan of Action (Emergency Action Plan)• Triage and ﬁrst aid measures
A. Medical TeamThe medical team providing medical services for an event should include thefollowing:
1. Medical physician with training in emergency medicine
2. Support staff (athletic trainers/physiotherapists, nurses, emergency medical
technicians)
3. First Aiders (Red Cross)
4. Ambulance and driver on standby
5. Allied health care providers: masseurs, chiropractors, acupuncturists, etc.
As a guide, the number of First Aid staff required for an event would vary from
3–6 for a small event involving about 100 participants to 50–100 for a large event,e.g. a marathon involving more than 3000 participants.
B. Planning and Logistics

Planning and logistics for a major athletics competition include:
1. The need to have designated ﬁrst aid stations, which could be in theform of tents or other cool, shady areas to treat injuries/illnesses.
2. Designated parking spaces for the ambulances.
3. Adequate ﬁrst aid equipment and supplies including:a. First aid kitsb. Portable, lightweight, reliable stretchersc. Coolers of water, towels, cold packs (or ice cubes in plastic bags)d. Communication sets (e.g. Walkie Talkie, cell phones)

CHAPTER 8, EMERGENCY CARE

4. Notiﬁcation of all local medical facilities regarding the upcoming competition.
5. In addition, the team physician should coordinate:a. Compliance with all local, state, and federal regulations regarding
storing and dispensing pharmaceuticals.
b. Development of a chain of command that establishes and deﬁnes the
responsibilities of all parties involved.
c. Regular rehearsal of the emergency response plan.
d. Establishment of a network with other health care providers, including
medical specialists, athletic trainers/physiotherapists, and allied healthprofessionals covering all competition sites (polyclinics, ﬁeld events).
e. Establishment of a policy that includes the team physician and athletic
trainers/physiotherapist in the dissemination of any information regarding
the athlete’s health status.
C. Competition-Day Planning

1. Optimised Medical Care
Competition-day planning optimises medical care for injured or ill athletes.
The team physician should coordinate:a. Medical operations and administrative medical policies.
b. Preparation of the stadium/ ﬁeld medical bags and station medical supplies.
2. Administrative Protocol
It is essential for the team physiotherapist/athletic trainer to coordinate:
a. Assessment of environmental concerns and playing conditions.
b. Presence of medical personnel at competition site with sufﬁcient time
for pre-competition preparations.
c. Plan with the medical staff of the visiting teams for medical care of
the athletes.
d. Introductions of the medical team to competition ofﬁcials.
e. Review of the emergency medical response plan.
f. Checking and conﬁrmation of communication equipment.
g. Identiﬁcation of examination and treatment sites.
h. Arrangements for the medical staff to have convenient access tothe competition site.
i. Post-meet review and necessary modiﬁcations to medical andadministrative protocols.
3. On-Site Medical Supplies
The team physiotherapist/athletic trainer should have competition-day on-site
medical bags and stadium medical supplies (see Appendix 6, On-Site Medical
Supplies for Injury Prevention and First Aid).

CHAPTER 8, EMERGENCY CARE

D. Emergency Action Plan

Planning for any medical emergency is a must (“a failure to plan is the same asa plan for failure”). Points to note in planning include:
1. Speciﬁc instructions for speciﬁc personnel.
2. The route of evacuation by ambulance.
3. Medical supplies required.
4. Steps to take for likely serious problems e.g. collapse/unconsciousness,fracture, bleeding, medical transport for head and spine.
Once developed, the plan must be communicated to all concerned.
Some other important points to note about emergency planning:
1. Must include personnel trained (and certiﬁed) in CPR, athletic trainers/
physiotherapists who are familiar with the ﬁrst aid kit available (training/practice required).
2. Must include names and contact numbers of important persons, e.g.
physician in charge.
3. Must include a map that shows site of sports event/training ground,evacuation route for ambulance (to nearest hospital), locations ofemergency telephone(s) (and include emergency telephone numbers),
ﬁrst aid kits. For coin phones, the emergency plan should include havingcoins available (if necessary).
4. Get valuable input to the plan from physicians, facility managers, local
emergency medical service personnel.
5. Plans need to be reviewed and improved regularly, e.g. yearly.
E. Triage and First Aid Measures

To ensure adequate and timely care of casualties, proper triage is important.
The steps would include primary survey (ABCDE [airway, breathing, circulation,
disability/neurologic status, expose athlete]), resuscitation, and secondary survey, as
well as the other necessary ﬁrst aid (for bleeding, fractures, head and spine injury,
see Part 2 of this chapter, First Aid Management of Acute Sports Injuries). Common
causes for sudden collapse include heart attack, stroke, heat exhaustion/stroke, andfainting.
1. Airway assessment is the ﬁrst priority in any casualty. The airway must
be kept open and patent (remove foreign debris, chin lift or jaw thrust).
2. Breathing is then assessed with “look, listen and feel” method. If thecasualty is not breathing, then mouth-to-mouth resuscitation must be
instituted. Medical coverage staff for sports events should be CPR- anddeﬁbrillator-trained (see Appendix 7, CPR/Adult Basic Life Support).
3. Palpating peripheral pulse, e.g,. the carotid pulse at the angle of the jaw
next assesses circulation. If there is no pulse, then external cardiac
compressions are instituted, along with deﬁbrillation where appropriate.

CHAPTER 8, EMERGENCY CARE

4. Disability is then determined with a very rapid and brief neurologic
assessment using the pneumonic “AVPU” (alert, responding to vocal
stimuli, responding to painful stimuli, unresponsive).
5. Exposure of the casualty must be adequate to allow for a careful
examination and assessment.
Following the primary survey, the necessary resuscitative measures must be
implemented, e.g. continued CPR, use of deﬁbrillator when available/appropriate,ﬂuid replacement (if necessary with an intravenous line), cooling of the athlete (ifheat stroke/exhaustion suspected), stopping any bleeding (direct pressure is best
and adequate for almost all types of bleeding), splinting of suspected fractures.
Secondary survey may not always be feasible at the site of the event, and may need
to be done only at the hospital (or in the ambulance while on the way to hospital).
This involves surveying the whole body from head to toe to check for injuries.
Procedures would include evaluating pupillary size, checking the fundi, assessing
possible cervical spine injury, chest injury (e.g. pneumothorax), abdomen andextremities.
For athletes who are stable and conscious, management should focus on the
injuries sustained or other medical conditions. The following section describes
common problems and their ﬁrst aid management.
Reference

1.

American Heart Association. 2005 American Heart Association Guidelines for
Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care, 2005.
http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/vol112/24_suppl/

PART 2

FIRST AID MANAGEMENT OF ACUTE SPORTS INJURIESSport is a potentially dangerous activity; fortunately, life-threatening injuries
are rare. A sports physician should be acquainted with the principles of acute care,as much depends on ﬁrst aid. It is very important to recognise injuries with serious
outcome, and transport the injured to the adequate institution after proper ﬁrst aid
has been carried out. The physician carrying out ﬁrst aid should be acquainted
with the devices and medications of primary care. In this section we will deal withprimary care during the pre-hospital phase of injury management.
A. Spinal Injuries

Injuries to the spine may occur when a faulty landing happens after jumping, asa result of being struck by an implement, or during conditioning training. Trauma
to the spine may result in injuries to the bone, cartilage, tendon, or spinal cord. In
severe vertebral or cordal injury, stability of the spine may be compromised andthere may be evidence of neurological ﬁndings. Whenever the mechanism of injury
or the clinical ﬁndings indicate bone or tendon involvement, spinal cord injury
should be taken into consideration, unless proven otherwise.
If the patient is conscious, a fracture or cord injury is accompanied by severeneck muscle spasm and pain, which indicates the nature of the injury. However,the unconscious athlete is open to further cord injury unless the medical staff is notalert to this possibility. It is essential that no neck manipulation be carried out on theﬁeld.
During the initial evaluation, proper preventive steps must be utilised in order toprevent severe nervous system complications. These can occur, for example:
1. When nerve lesions remain unrecognised after bone-injury.
2. When ﬁrst aid is delayed and irreversible nerve damage occurs.
3. When the unstable spine is improperly treated and deterioration
develops.
The following indicates spinal or spinal cord injury:
1. Tenderness to the spine
2. Palpable spinal deformity or haematoma
3. Nervous system injury is suspected if there is:a. Abnormality in chest breathing.
b. Abnormality of movements.
c. Segmental anaesthesia or numbness.
d. Pain that is referred to the limbs.
According to the above-mentioned principles, ﬁrst aid should be carried out asfollows:
1. Ensure breathing and circulation.

CHAPTER 8, EMERGENCY CARE

Figure 8-1. Proper technique for transferring a patient suspected of having
sustained a neck injury, in the absence of a stretcher.

2. When spinal injury is suspected, a thorough neurological examination is
to be performed as soon as possible, after breathing and circulation havebeen maintained.
3. If the mechanism of injury is unknown and the patient is unconscious,
spinal injury must be assumed initially and treated accordingly. The
same is necessary if the patient is conscious and spinal injury cannot be
deﬁnitely ruled out.
4. If cervical injury cannot be ruled out, the neck should be stabilised routinely
in a neutral position with a rigid brace or collar, sandbags, or with a Schantzcollar (but not a soft collar).
5. Having stabilised the neck, a vacuum mat is to be used as in spinal injuries.
The injured should be laid on a scoop or shovel-stretcher, or, if these
are not available, transfer should be carried out as shown in Figure 8-1.
6. The seriously injured should be transferred to a hospital where bothmodern diagnostic and therapeutic facilities are available. Transfer
should be carried out by helicopter if possible.
7. In case of a deﬁnite cord injury, high dose methyl-prednisolone should
be administered during the pre-hospital phase (30mg/kg within 15
minutes, 5 mg/kg 45 minutes later, 4 mg/kgh for 23 hours). Smaller
doses of steroids are inadequate, as only with high doses is oedema,
which is responsible for later neurological symptoms, prevented.
8. Volume substitution may be necessary, because cross sectional lesionsof the spine may lead to vasodilation and shock. Therefore infusion andalpha-adrenergic medication (epinephrine or dopamine) may benecessary.
9. The injured should be protected from being over-heated or cooled.
10. Narcotic analgesics are contraindicated in case of spinal injury.

CHAPTER 8, EMERGENCY CARE

Table 8-1. Glasgow Coma Scale used to assess degree of head injury.
Reaction

PointsEye opening
j Spontaneous
j To speechj To pain
j No response

4
3
2
1

Motor response
j Follows commands
j Localises pain
j Movement or withdrawal to painj Decorticate ﬂexion
j Decerebrate extension
j No response

6
5
4
3
2
1

Verbal response
j Alert and oriented
j Disoriented conversation
j Speaking but nonsensicalj Moans or unintelligible sounds
j No response

5
4
3
2
1

B. Head Injuries

Head injuries usually occur as a direct trauma to the head. Often concomittant
injury to the spine or spinal cord must be considered. Injuries to the soft tissues of
the head are treated as in other soft tissue injuries (disinfection of the wound andsurroundings, sterile gauze, and tetanus anti-toxin). If the athlete is unconscious, wemust proceed under the assumption that there is a fracture of the cervical spine.
In cases of head injury, attention must be focused on potential intracraniallesions (cerebral concussion, cerebral contusion, subdural, or epidural haematomas).
Treatment should be carried out as follows:
1. A thorough neurological assessment should be made. During the examination, signs and symptoms of possible neurological deﬁciencies are sought.
Symptoms of increased intracerebal pressure should be looked for. The
seriousness of head injury can be estimated by the Glasgow Coma Scaleas seen in Table 8-1, which is also useful as an indicator for intratracheal
intubation or for later assessment.1
2. Complete CPR if necessary (see Appendix 7, CPR/Adult Basic Life Support).
3. In case of increased intracranial pressure, the following should be initiated:a. The patient’s head should be placed at 30º.
b. Intravenous diuretics should be administered (40 mg of furosemide).
c. Mannitol 0.25–1 g/kg IV.

CHAPTER 8, EMERGENCY CARE

The signs and symptoms of intracranial pressure should be sought for
carefully: (headache, vomiting, tachycardia, hyperventilation, hypertension,
meningeal signs (Brudzinki, Kernig-sign), stiffness of the neck, drowsiness,
stupor, wide-, non-reacting pupils, anisocoria, coma, Kussmaul-breathing,convulsions, increase in muscular tone, bradycardia, hypotension, ﬂaccid
muscles, hyperpyrexia, slow breathing, brady-arrhythmias, nocirculation, no breathing).
4. If inadequate circulation or breathing are noticed, oxygen should be
administered.
5. An IV line should be ensured and intravenous crystalloids should begiven, so that mean pressure of 90mm Hg is maintained. In the laterstage, reduced cerebral perfusion pressure is necessary in order toprevent cerebral oedema.
6. The patient should be transferred to a hospital where neurosurgery isavailable.
Please note: If the examiner notices symptoms of brain concussion (transient
unconsciousness, dizziness, nausea, vomiting, paleness), the patient should be admitted to the hospital, because an intracranial lesion should be suspected. It is possible
that, in case of head injury, the patient will regain consciousness and be symptomless.
However, small veins around the dura may rupture causing a haematoma, which will
present with late neurological symptoms. This is called the lucid state (status lucidum).
C. Fractures

Fractures may result from several causes, including direct trauma, such as ablow; from twisting; or as the end result of an unrecognised incomplete stress fracture.
The diagnosis can often be made from the history, plus physical ﬁndings. The
physical examination will reveal the classical signs and symptoms of fractures (local
oedema, pain, deformity, restriction of movement).
First aid in case of fractures:
1. Do not move the patient until the injury is totally immobilised. Do not
attempt to straighten a misshapen bone or joint to change its position.
2. Fractures should be stabilised (most commonly pneumatic devices areused). If the ends of these fractures are not stabilised, secondary injuries
to the nerves and vessels may occur. A compartment syndrome may also
develop.
3. If a broken bone pierces the skin, take steps to prevent infection.
4. Take steps to prevent shock. Lay the patient ﬂat, elevate the feet 20–25
cm and cover with a coat or blanket. Keep ﬂat if a head, neck, or backinjury is suspected.
5. Analgesics may be administered if there is severe pain (see Soft Tissue
Injuries, below).
6. The patient may need to be admitted to the hospital for ﬁnal care.

CHAPTER 8, EMERGENCY CARE

D. Joint Dislocation and Subluxations

Always keep in mind that dislocations or subluxations of the joint may injure thesurrounding area (vessels, nerves, tendons), as well as the capsule of the joint.
In case of joint injury the following is recommended:
1. The joint should be examined thoroughly. An unstable joint and haematoma
indicate capsule injury. Every joint has its own method of examination,
which will not be discussed in this text.
2. The joint should be put at rest and stabilised with a splint or bandage.
3. In case of pain, local or general anaesthetics are necessary.
4. Ice packs should be administered to prevent eventual later consequences;
they also lessen pain.
5. The patient should be referred to a clinic or hospital, where diagnostic
procedures including X-ray, ultrasound, or MRI are available to diagnose
fractures or intra-articular lesions and cartilage and soft tissue involvement.
E. Ligament Strains

Strains of the ligaments usually take place on the proximal and distal endings,
rarely along the whole ligament.
In case of strains, the following is recommended:
1. A thorough physical examination, which will reveal the degree of the
injury of the ligaments as follows:a. First degree: swelling and tenderness is possible, the joint is stable.
b. Second degree: under loading the ligament is loose, but there is astable end-point.
c. Third degree: the whole ligament is disrupted, movement is lax (noendpoint).
2. In case of ﬁrst degree injury, treatment is as for soft tissue injuries (seebelow).
3. Second and third degree injuries should be treated in hospital after exact
diagnostics. Third degree injury is usually treated surgically.
F. Muscle Strains

Muscle strain is the most frequent injury in sports. It usually occurs due to badtechnique: while strengthening the agonist muscular group, the antagonist groupis not relaxed accordingly, due to ionic imbalance or fatigue. Strains usually occur
where the muscle attaches to the bone, or in the muscle itself at the musculotendinous junction. In children, the muscle may avulse the apophysis; for example,
the hamstring attachment at the ischial tuberosity
In case of strains, the following is recommended:
1. For muscle strains, determine the degree of the injury according to its
anatomic and functional status.

CHAPTER 8, EMERGENCY CARE

a. First degree: the muscle ﬁbres are partially injured. There is local
swelling and tenderness if the patient contracts the muscle against
resistance.
b. Second degree: more ﬁbres are injured. Minor contraction will cause
pain or the muscle cannot contract; the injury is palpable.
c. Third degree: the tendon of the muscle is detached from its adhesion
point or a large amount of the muscle is damaged. The muscle isfunctionless, the lesion can be palpated, haematoma results within ashort time.
2. Principles of ﬁrst aid for muscle strains are the same as for soft tissue
injuries (see below).
G. Soft Tissue Injuries (see also Chapter 9, Soft Tissue Damage and Healing)

There are many mechanisms that may cause soft tissue injury in athletics,
from overload of soft tissues (e.g. overextension of the muscle) to direct trauma.
Soft tissue injury is accompanied by surrounding oedema, haematoma, and tissue
necrosis. The accumulated blood sets off an inﬂammatory cascade that results infurther swelling. This leads to increased pressure on the surrounding tissues causing
hypoxia, which will increase the degree of the injury. In case of inadequate ﬁrst aid,
the injured area and its surrounding develop scarring and muscle atrophy due tohaematoma, tissue necrosis and oedema.
Soft tissue treatment is performed according to the mnemonic PRICES:
1. P = protection: protect the injured area from further damage.
2. R = rest: the limb should be put at rest (this should be done before
examination), the degree of injury should be quickly assessed because
the least load may result in deterioration.
3. I = ice: icing of the injury has many beneﬁts:
a. Lessens the pain, so the surrounding muscle tone will decrease.
b. Increases vasoconstriction, which reduces bleeding.
c. Hypothermia reduces the oxygen and nutrition demands of the
injured tissues.
d. Local inﬂammatory reaction decreases.
Please note: In case of minor injuries the athlete should be instructed tocool the injury. In case of extensive injury, an ice bath should be used.
After training, it is recommended that ice be applied to the muscles, because
loading leads to microtraumas. If chemical ice packs are used, they should beapplied through a layer of clothes or wrap in order to prevent freezing.
Usually cold packs are used for 10–20 minutes every 2 hours, during the ﬁrst
2 days.
4. C = compression: compression raises the tissue pressure, which reduces
bleeding and swelling. Compression should be used during and after ice
therapy. The bandage should be applied ﬁrmly, from distally to proximally,

CHAPTER 8, EMERGENCY CARE

with an overlap of one-half the bandage’s width. An ice pack can be placed
over a layer of compression wrap.
5. E = elevation: the injured area should be elevated above the level of theheart. This will decrease swelling by enhancing drainage via lymphatic
channels, and reducing venous stasis.
6. S = support: use braces, splints, etc. to support the injured area.
H. Medical Treatment

Effective medication should be administered throughout the entire treatment
process, taking into account banned drugs. If in spite of local measures the patient
still has pain, the ﬁrst drug of choice is paracetamol (500 mg–1g). If paracetamol
is not enough, more effective drugs should be administered. NSAIDs are usefuland popular: diclofenac 50 mg given parenterally (maximum daily dose 150 mg),
ibuprofen 800 mg (maximum daily dose 2400 mg), indomethacin 50 mg (maximum
daily dose 100 mg); in addition to their analgesic effect they are also good antiinﬂammatory drugs. NSAIDs can cause stomach irritation for some individuals. In
this case, an H2-blocker may be used to reduce the amount of gastric acid secretion.
If the injury is accompanied by extreme bleeding, the administration of an NSAID
should be considered carefully, as they reduce platelet aggregation and increase
bleeding. Corticosteroids have no place in ﬁrst aid treatment.
Please note: Pain is a good indicator of the status of the injury. Analgesics andanti-inﬂammatory drugs should never mask pain in an effort to allow an athlete tocontinue to compete or train, which may lead to severe consequences.
I. Follow-Up Management

Depending upon the site of injury and its extent, additional treatment may beutilised as a part of the treatment/rehabilitation process (see Chapter 9, Soft Tissue
Damage and Healing, for additional details).
1. Protected Mobilisation
Protective taping and bracing permits the injured area to be mobilised actively
and passively while damaged tissue is protected. This prevents excessive stress on
muscles, joints, and ligaments during the healing process.
2. Electro-Therapeutic Modalities
Electrical therapies are an additional means of providing heat energy to deep
tissues, mobilising lymphatic and capillary circulation, and promoting healing.
These modalities include: interferential current, ultrasound, and magnetic ﬁeld
therapy. Ultrasound should be used with caution around children’s physes.
3. Manual Therapy
Manual techniques are useful in the healing process and in reducing thesequelae of injury. Stretching is valuable in reducing tissue contraction and muscle

CHAPTER 8, EMERGENCY CARE

spasm, and preserving muscle and ligament length. Friction massage is helpful indecreasing scar tissue contraction that follows the inﬂammatory reaction. Mobility
exercises, both passive and active, are essential for maintaining joint range of
motion and muscle length.
4. Fitness MaintenanceDuring the acute phases of the healing process, as well as during rehabilitation,
cardiovascular ﬁtness must be maintained. This can be accomplished in a variety ofways, depending upon the site of the injury. An exercise bicycle can be used if thelower extremity can bear weight. Otherwise, swimming, or running in a swimming
pool with a ﬂotation jacket, can be used. At ﬁrst, the athlete can “run” in deep water,
and then progress to shallower water with partial weight bearing. Strength and rangeof motion of all the uninjured parts must be maintained with appropriate stretching
and resistive exercises.
J. Evaluation of Treatment

The clinician should constantly assess each treatment’s effectiveness bycomparing symptoms and signs prior to and after treatment. Continual evaluation
leads to the most appropriate treatment course for the speciﬁc injury and allows the
programme to be adapted to the individual’s needs.
References

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.
6.
7.

Bambi, S., and G. Becattini: Use of devices for spine immobilization for trauma
patients at the emergency department, Assistenza infermieristica e ricerca– AIR/Italy, 22 (1): 5-12 ISSN: 1592–5986, 2003.
Banerjee, R., M. A. Palumbo, and P. D. Fadale. Catastrophic cervical spine
injuries in the collision sport athlete, part 2: principles of emergency care. Am.
J. of Sports Medicine 32 (7):1760–4, 2004.
Baron, B. J., and T. M. Scalea. Spinal cord injuries. In Emergency Medicine(Sixth Edition), Judith E. Tintinalli (ed.), pp. 1569–1582. New York: McGraw
Hill, 2003.
Garcia-Sola, R., P. Pulido, and P. Capilla. The immediate and long-term effects
of mannitol and glycerol. A comparative experimental study. Acta Neurochir.
(Wien) 109:(3–4): 114–121, 1991.
Haller, P.R. Compartment Syndromes. In Emergency Medicine (Sixth Edition),
Judith E. Tintinalli (ed.), pp. 1746-1749. New York: McGraw Hill, 2003.
Kakarieka, A., R. Braakman, and E. H. Schakel. Subarachnoid hemorrhage
after head injury. Cerebrovasc. Dis. 5:403-406, 1995.
Kirsch, T. D., and C. A. Lipinski. Head injury. In Emergency Medicine (6thEdition), Judith E. Tintinalli (ed.), pp. 1557-1569. New York: McGraw Hill,
2003.

CHAPTER 8, EMERGENCY CARE

8.

Larson, J. L., Jr. Injuries to the spine. In Emergency Medicine: A Comprehensive
Study Guide (6th Edition), Judith E. Tintinalli (ed.), pp. 1702-1711. New York:
McGraw Hill, 2003.
Mower, W. R., A. B. Wolfson, J. R. Hoffman, and K. H. Todd. The CanadianC-spine rule. New England Journal of Medicine 350 (14):1467–9; author reply
1467–9, 2004.
Muizelaar, J. P., E. P. Wei, and H. A. Kontos. Mannitol causes compensatory
cerebra vasoconstriction and vasodilatation in response to blood viscosity
changes. J. Neurosurgery 59:822-828, 1993
Pickard, J. D., and M. Czosnyka M. Management of raised intracranialpressure. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psych. 56: 845-858, 1993
Sanchez Ii, A.R., M. T. Sugalski, and R. F. Laprade. Field-side and prehospitalmanagement of the spine-injured athlete. Curr. Sport Med. Rep. 4 (1):50-5,
2005.
Stiell, I. G., et al. The Canadian C-Spine Rule versus the NEXUS Low-Risk
Criteria in patients with trauma. New England Journal of Medicine 349:2510-8,
2003.

9.

10.

11.
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13.

Footnote

The Glasgow Coma Scale is the most widely used scoring system for quantifying the level of consciousness following traumatic brain injury. It is used primarily
because it is simple, has a relatively high degree of interobserver reliability, andcorrelates well with outcome following brain injury.
The Scale is easy to use, particularly with a table such as shown in Table 8-1(page 3 of this section). One determines the best eye opening response, the best
verbal response, and the best motor response. The score represents the sum of thenumeric scores of each category. A Coma Score of 13 or higher correlates with amild brain injury, 9–12 is a moderate injury, and 8 or less a severe brain injury.
However, there are limitations to a simple application of the table. If there isan endotracheal tube in place, the patient cannot talk. Hence, it is important todocument the score by its individual components. For example, a Glasgow Coma
Score of 15 would be detailed as follows: E-4, V-5, M-6. An intubated patient would
be documented as E-4, V intubated, M-6. Of these factors, the best motor response isprobably the most signiﬁcant.
Other factors that alter the patient’s level of consciousness will interfere with the
Scale’s ability to reﬂect the severity of the brain injury. Hence, shock, hypoxemia,
drug or alcohol use, or metabolic disturbances may alter the Scale independentlyof brain injury. A spinal cord injury will invalidate the motor score, and an orbital
injury may impair the ability to open the eye.
For more information on the Glasgow Coma Scale, see www.trauma.org/scores/gcs.
html.
1