BEAM
DIAGNOSTICSANDRADIATION DETECTION SYSTEM

longitudinal diagnostics methods. For moredetails, readers advised to follow references atthe bottom of the article.

1. Introduction

2. Transverse beam diagnostics

Particle accelerators are the main tool inhigh-energy physics. In addition, a large

2.1 Luminescent screens

number of synchrotron radiation sources andfree electron lasers are operating and underconstruction in the world. Particle accelerators
are also used in industry and for medical
purposes. Very high requirements are imposedon the quality of beams in modern accelerators;
therefore, the efficient operation of accelerator
facilities is practically inconceivable without
accurateandreliablesystemsforbeamdiagnostics, which provide the possibility of
regular tuning of the accelerator parameters
based on the measurement results [1-7].
Efforts to achieve the beam with small sizes
are ongoing. Collider luminosity is directly
dependent on cross beam size at the interaction
point, therefore, measuring and controlling asmall beam size (<< 1 um) is critical to collider
experiments. Free electron lasers (FELs) also
require a high brightness beam. In theplasma-based accelerator, the beam size should
be in the range less than millimeters [8-14]. A
compact electron accelerator whose structure is

The simplest and most accessible means ofvisual observation of a particle beam is aluminescent screen (phosphor screen) placed in
the path of the beam [41-43]. A phosphor screen
is a plate (usually aluminum) with a layer ofphosphor deposited on it - a substance thatemits photons of visible light when beam
particles hit it. Interacting with the phosphor
substance, the beam particles lose part of theirenergy for ionization, and, in turn a part of theionization losses is converted into opticalradiation. The radiation process takes place inthree stages: 1) absorption of the energy of thebeam particles by the atoms of the substance;2) transfer of a part of the absorbed energy to
the luminescence centers with their excitation
to the emitting state; 3) return of luminescencecenters to the ground state with emission ofphotons. The mechanisms of luminescence at
the molecular level in different luminophores
are different.

a femtosecond laser pulse (dielectric laser
accelerator), excited dielectric microstructure
requires a sub-um beam size measurements.
Therefore,

measuring

a

beam

with

a

micrometer size is an important task inaccelerator physics [15-20].
The beam diagnostics can be considered in atransverse(spatial)

and(temporal)

directions.

The

longitudinal
methods

andassociated apparatus for these diagnostics are
sometimes similar but have certain differences
for particular cases [21-40]. Here we will

Fig. 1. Typical screen monitor vacuum chamberconsider the most common transverse and10－ 1

and a screen holder.

A photograph of a phosphor screen in aand usually amounts to several tens of

vacuum chamber is shown in Fig. 1. The screen

microns. Such screens are economical andis introduced into the vacuum chamber using a

versatile due to their simple manufacturing

remotely controlled drive, the image of theprocess. For measurements with a highbeam on the screen is recorded by a CCD

temporal resolution, compositions with ancamera (Fig. 2).

emission time of no more than 45 ps havebeen developed.
2.Ceramic

phosphors.

Ceramic

phosphorscreens are made by sintering a luminescentpowder, usually aluminum oxide Al2O3,
doped with chromium (Chromax). This
material has a 20-30 times higher light yieldcompared to zinc sulfide (300-400 photons
per one high-energy particle) and has good
linearity up to densities of the order of 1014
particles/cm2.
Fig.2. Typical CCD image of the electron beam
The coordinate grid applied either to thesurface of the screen or to the screen holder
makes it possible to determine the position of
the center of mass of the beam and its shape.
Having measured for a specific sensor andcamera the experimental dependence of the
spot size displayed on the screen on the value ofthe beam current, it is possible to determine
the root-mean-square dimensions of the beamin the vertical and horizontal planes using thecoordinate grid with satisfactory accuracy. The
sensitivity of such a sensor is high, reaching
107 particles/cm2 even with the traditional
coating of the screen with a layer of zinc sulfide
ZnS.

Many

laboratories

areintensively

developing materials with a high light yield,
high linearity of the light characteristic, good
spatial resolution, and radiation resistance.
The most common materials used for the
manufacture of a phosphor screens are thefollowing:
1.Powder phosphors. The resolution of such aphosphor is limited by the average grain size

10－ 2

Cerium-doped

yttrium-

aluminum garnet (YAG: Ce), boron nitride
BN, which has better thermal stability, andzirconium oxide ZrO2 are also quite often
used [22]. Screen sizes and thicknesses areusually

selected

based

on

operational

requirements. Since the phosphor grains arelinked together, the spatial resolution isdetermined by the size of several grains andis of the order of 100 μm.
3.Monocrystalline scintillators. Translucent
cerium-doped

yttrium-aluminum

garnetsingle crystals were proposed for beamdiagnostics about 30 years ago, but their use
was limited by their high cost. Recently, alarge number of YAG crystals are being
manufactured for the laser industry, andtherefore

their

cost

has

droppedsignificantly. Monocrystalline scintillators
have a number of advantages over powder
and ceramic phosphors. They are effective inhigh vacuum conditions, have good light
output, are radiation resistant, emit in anarrow

spectralrange,

which

reduceschromatic aberration. The main advantage
of single crystal scintillators is their highspatial resolution. In the case of YAG
crystals,ahigh-density

resolution
beams

of

40

µm

for

and

10

µm

for

low-density beams was achieved. Speciallymanufactured YAG crystals with a thinbetatronoscillations

or

the

presenceof

dispersion in combination with a large energy
spread of the beam, the phase ellipse rotates inthecoordinate

space

x,

y

duringtransportation along the line. In this case,(several micrometers) surface layer doped

observing the evolution of the beam image on

with cerium provide a resolution of about 1

the screens installed along the line, one can

μm. The spatial resolution of single-crystal
scintillators is limited by the saturation
effectthat

occursatbeamobtain necessary information for injection
tuning.

densities

2.2 Wire scanner

exceeding 1013 particles/cm2 and leads tospreading of the light spot. Luminophores

To measure the transverse distribution of thewith good linearity open up the possibility ofbeam density in particle accelerators, sensors

diagnosing

transverse

with a moving wire (wire scanner) is used, seedimensions of the order of 0.1 mm using

for instance [44, 45]. In such a sensor, thin,linear optics with high magnification and

5-10um tungsten or carbon wire moves in the

projecting an enlarged image of the beamtransverse direction, crossing the beam path.

onto the input of a digital camera system.

The

Subsequent data processing, taking into

proportional to the intrinsic amount of charged

account nonlinearities in the measuring

particles interacting with the wire is detected

system, makes it possible to obtain thedownstream of the scanner.

beams

with

bremsstrahlung

radiation

intensity

particle density distribution over any beamcross section with a spatial resolution of tensof micrometers.
The main disadvantage of phosphor screensis their opacity for the beam. Intensive use ofphosphor screens for diagnostics of beams,
especially proton and ion beams, leads to arather rapid damage to the screens due topulsed thermal and electrical loads. Therefore,
the choice of material and design of a modern
phosphor screen is a non-trivial task. In
addition, the camera, the lens system and theFig.3 Wire mount in the wire scanner chamberwindow for light output from the vacuum
chamber are exposed to radiation. Glass lenses
and light windows darken when exposed toradiation and must be replaced after a certain
period of use. Quartz windows are more stable.
Luminescent screens traditionally used inbeam transport lines and beam injectors. If
there is a significant coupling coefficient of

The scanner design is shown in Fig. 3. Threewires for horizontal, vertical and 45 degree
projection,allow

measurements

of

beam

density.
Figure 4 shows a graph of the dependence ofthe position of the wire. Scanning speed islimited by the backlash and inertia of themoving parts of the drive. The drive motor

10－ 3

driveof variable cross-section, for example, throughmechanism in vacuum. The most complex

a hole in a foil or through a collimator. In thiselement

drivecase radiation is refer to as Diffraction

mechanism, since very high requirements are

Radiation. Radiation is directed to the upper

imposed on it both in terms of the linearity of

and

the

determinesboundary of two media and, for relativistic

accuracy, and in terms of reliability whenparticles, is concentrated in narrow cones withworking in a vacuum.

an opening angle of 1/, where  is the Lorentz

operates

in

the

of

wire

atmosphere,such

sensors

movement,

the

is

the

which

lower

hemispheres

relativetothefactor.
Using the formalism developed in [49], thedistribution of the intensity of the transition
radiation of a single relativistic electron (γ ≫1) over the horizontal θ and vertical  angles
can be written as:

where  is the angle between the direction of
motion of the particle and the plane of theboundary of the two media. In Fig. 5 an

Fig.4: Example of scanned beam profile.

example of the angular distribution of thetransition radiation for a different electron

2.3 Transition radiation

Despite the convenience of phosphor screens,energies is shown.

their use for diagnostics of beams withtransverse sizes of less than 100 um ispractically impossible due to the spreading of
the light spot. For diagnostics of such beams,
sensors based on transition radiation are being
developed [46,47], the spatial resolution ofwhich is limited only by the diffraction limit. In
addition, the angular distribution of transition
radiation depends on the energy and emittanceof the beam, which makes it possible to use it

Fig. 5 TR angular distribution

for measuring of these values.
A charged

particle,

movingthroughamedium that is inhomogeneous in terms ofelectromagnetic properties, emits photons, aspredicted by I.M. Frank and V.L. Ginzburg [48]back in 1945. Transition radiation is generated
when particles passes through a boundary
betweenmatters

withdifferent

dielectric

In reality, electron beam consist of a large
number of electrons emitting such a two-lobe
distributed intensity profile. That is why forelectron beam sizes greater than 50um one canalwaysobservesmooth2D

Gaussian-like

intensity distribution. A typical OTR image isshown at Fig. 6.

constants. Similar radiation appear when acharge particle moves in a conducting chamber

10－ 4

Fig. 6 Typical OTR image
The resolution in this case is determined by
the diffraction limit of the focusing optics used
along

with

CCD

camera

for

the

image

acquisition.
Fig. 8 Typical OTR image and projected beamprofilesRecently, the OTR-based diagnostics was
extended beyond diffraction limit and the 1um
resolution was demonstrated [50, 51].
3. Longitudinal diagnostics
Over the last decade, with the construction ofmodernaccelerators,

thelongitudinal

diagnostics of charged particles beams become
an important topic [52-60]. Nowadays, theFig. 7 A schematic of the OTR setup

well-established

The diagram of a OTR setup is shown in
Fig.7. A metal foil is placed in a vacuum
chamber at an angle of 45 ° to the beam
trajectory so that the radiation is directed
perpendicular

to

the

chamber

axis.

The

extracted radiation is recorded by a digital
CCD camera and then processed in the control
computer according to the following algorithm.
First, the center of the three-dimensional
angulardistribution

isdetermined,

then

two-dimensional sections are selected near thecenter in the horizontal and vertical directions.
Fitting experimental data the calculated curve
gives the value of the angular divergence andbeam energy. Examples of beam images andfitting results are shown in Fig. 8 [26].

deflecting

methods

cavities,

electro-optics

based

streakmethods.

onRF

camerasand

Althoughrecentadvances in these directions provide promising
results, reliable methods of the femtosecond
electron bunch length determination still need
to be developed. The streak camera can provide
a temporal resolution of about 300 fs. RF
deflecting

cavities

providetherequiredresolution, but the changes of the accelerator
high-power RF distribution is required. In
addition, such equipment requires significant
beamline

space

allocationforequipment

installation. The electro-optic method requires
fs laser source and careful calibration [61-62].
Anotherpromisedtechnique

for

the

longitudinal bunch profile reconstruction are
based

on

the

measurementofcoherent

radiation spectrum. The polarization radiationin this case is usually chosen. That includes

10－ 5coherent transition and diffraction radiations,

fixed M2 mirrors), an alignment system, THz

coherent

polarizer, and a detector.

Smith-Purcell

and

Cherenkov

radiations. The common problem is the correct

The BS is installed at the center of thespectra acquisition and data post-processing.

interferometer at 45 degree with respect to theincoming

3.1 Michaelson interferometerradiation.

autocorrelation

Michaelson interferometer (MI) is the mostcommon configuration for optical interferenceToobtainthedependency (interferogram),the M2 is moved back and forth along theoptical axis.

measurements. It can be extended to the longwavelength range covering THz and IR [16, 24].
Interferometer design is much simpler than
that

of

the

so-called

Martin-Puplettinterferometers [25, 26, 27, 28], as it requires
only one detector and does not use wire gridpolarizers. MI also works without any specialalignment techniques. It significantly increases
the quality of the measurements. Figure 9shows a general MI layout for THz spectral
range.

Fig.10 Interferogram obtained with Michelsoninterferometer. The inset shows reconstructedbunch longitudinal profile.
3.1.1 MI beam splitter
The beam splitter determines the quality of
the interferogram. PET or Si beam splitters are
now widely used in MIs. The Mylar type iscommerciallyavailable.

Mylar

splitters

generally used to study a wide spectrum where
the efficiency of PET beam splitters is strongly
dependent on splitter thickness and emission

Fig.9 General layout of Michaelson

wavelength. Silicon splitters have recently

interferometer and THz emission transport

been found to be much more efficient than PET

line.

splitters in the terahertz region. The beam

The interference pattern is produced by
splitting the incoming radiation into two paths,
reflecting and recombining them through the

splitter's reflectance and transmission vary
according to the incidental angle, index ofrefraction, and thickness.

splitter again. The setup consisted of a THz

3.1.2

radiation transport line, beam splitter (BS),two flat aluminum mirrors (movable M1 andMI mirror motion system

The MI motion system directly affects thequality of the spectral measurements. The
system should have sufficient mechanical10－ 6resolution,

stability,

compatibility withrepeatability,

modernandhardware anddetectors are favored for short-wavelength,
broadband measurements. The infrared portion

beof the electromagnetic spectrum is a crossover

calibrated and its linearity should be checked

region where the eventual choice between

softwarecontrollers.

Itshouldalso

for high accuracy.

coherent and incoherent detectors is dictated

To evaluate the mechanical resolution andby the application requirements such as

travel range of the operating system required

spectral range, spectral resolution, and spatial

by an MI for the measurement of constantresolution.

frequency spectra, one should consider the

Except for devices using photocathodes,

target spectral resolution and emission spectral

electron multiplication and some of rectifiers,

bandwidth. In order to determine the radiation

all incoherent infrared detectors presently inspectrum in the range of 0.1-4 THz by 10 GHz

use (photoconductors, photovoltaic devices, andresolution, it needs to consider the operating

bolometers)

system with a resolution of 19.2 μm, and theminimum travel range of 15 mm.

make

use

of

sophisticatedelectronic circuitry to measure very weakcurrents or voltages produced in the device.
This is always restricts the speed of response of
these detectors.

3.1.3 Detectors for THz spectroscopy
To choose an appropriate detector for the

The sensitivity of direct detectors is often

microwave spectroscopy based longitudinalmeasured in terms of the noise equivalentbeam diagnostics, one should understand thepower (NEP). The smaller the NEP, the morepresent status and commercial availability ofsensitive the detector. The NEP of a detector isthedirectly related to the minimum number ofdetectionsystems.

Practical

detector

devices falling into the broad groups ofthermal, rectifying and photoconductive types.
More exact information can be found in a
number of excellent reviews of millimeter-

photons at a particular wavelength that can bedetected in 1 sec.
In

addition

to

the

NEP,

many

other

characteristics must be considered in thesubmillimetre detectors which have been given

selection of a receiver for real observations.

by several authors such as [63,64].

These

The submillimetre region lies between thecharacteristics

independentareparameters,

notusuallysodetector

microwave region and that part of the far

performance must be optimised in accordance

infrared around 10 um wavelength. The usual

to the application. References in which thedetection systems respond to only one mode of
the radiation field and, for the best sensitivity,
heterodyne receivers are often used. The

general principles of infrared detection are
discussed include [65-68].
In most spectroscopic measurements being

ultimate limit to detector performance ismade interferometrically, most commonly byprovided by signal fluctuations, which in mostthe multiplex method of Fourier-transformcases can be described as thermal in origin.

spectrometry. This has generally favored the

As a general rule, coherent detectors aredevelopment of detectors operating over large

more useful at the longer infrared wavelengths

spectral ranges, with quite large etendue andand for experiments requiring narrow infraredwith emphasis often placed on good sensitivity

bandwidths. From the other hand, incoherent

rather than convenience, ruggedness or fast

10－ 7

response time. Such detectors have also been

physics.

used with coherent sources. Detector devices ofproblems, achievements and trends in thethe rectifier type are single-mode devices

further development of beam diagnostics is

although they do not generally offer any

published in the materials of specialized

improvement in sensitivity, but are usuallyinternational

employed for their high speed of response.

Instrumentation Workshop (BIW) and Beam

Many of the most popular IR and THz detectors

Diagnostics and Instrumentation for Particle

are available commercially. Many types andAccelerators (DIPAC), as well as in thevariations

materials

ofdetector

device

have

been

The

latestinformation

conferences:

of

the

on

the

Beam

EuropeanAccelerator

considered and investigated, although only a

Conferences (EPAC), American (PAC), Asian

relatively(APAC) and Russian (RuPAC). Proceedings of

small

numberhave

achieved

the above conferences are presented on thewidespread use.

JACoW web portal (http://www.jacow.org).
3.1.4 Schottky barrier diode detector
Schottky

diodedetectors

arerectifier
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