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Illuminated manuscripts frescoed in the 15th century in Rome : rivalry
between two major mendicant orders「壁に描かれた」装飾写本 :15世紀ローマにおける二大托鉢修道会の競合意識
荒木, 文果(Araki, Fumika)
慶應義塾大学日吉紀要刊行委員会
2022
慶應義塾大学日吉紀要. 人文科学 (The Hiyoshi review of thehumanities). No.37 (2022. ) ,p.37- 65

Departmental Bulletin Paper
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Illuminated Manuscripts Frescoed in the 15th Century in Rome

37

Illuminated Manuscripts Frescoed in the 15th
Century in Rome:
Rivalry between Two Major Mendicant Orders

Fumika Araki
Cross the Ponte Vittorio Emanuele II over the Tiber River and step into the Borgo
district between Vatican City and Castel Sant’Angelo, there stands a building
façade with ancient style pilasters [Fig. 1]. It is the Hospital of Santo Spirito in
Sassia, which was founded in the late 12th century by Pope Innocent III (papacy:
from 1198 to 1216), then extended and renovated in the 1470s by Franciscan Pope
Sixtus IV (papacy: from 1471 to 1484)⑴. On the walls of the vast hospital ward, 46
narratives are frescoed [see the table on pp. 64-65.]: seven episodes from thefoundation of the Hospital by Pope Innocent III and 39 scenes about the life of Pope
Sixtus IV ranging from a miracle that occurred while he was in the womb to the*This work was supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant-in-Aid for Young Scientists (B)JP16K16731 for research on competitive consciousness between two mendicant orders
at mural decoration projects in the fifteenth century Rome and Grant-in-Aid for Transformative Research Areas (B) 20B103 for basic research on arts of the mendicant orders.
I would like to thank all those who contributed to the development of this project, especially A02 Mendicant Orders Team in Religious Movements and Communication Medium / Worldview / Social Integration: A Synthetic Approach of Historical Research, andAkiko Takano and Emily Kazanecki for the English translation.
⑴ E. Howe’s two books provide us basic information on the Hospital of Santo Spirito in
Sassia. Id., The Hospital of Santo Spirito and Pope Sixtus IV, New York 1978; Id., Art
and Culture at the Sistine Court: Platina’s “Life of Sixtus IV” and the Frescoes of the
Hospital of Santo Spirito, Città del Vaticano 2005.

38

Fig. 1 The view of the Hospital of Santo Spirito in Sassia, Romepope’s entry to heaven. It is interesting that these frescoes were depicted while
Sixtus IV was still on the cathedra. Exactly for this reason, this fresco cycle stands
out in comparison to artworks of the same period. Needless to say, numerous seriesof frescoes depicting the lives of past saints or greats had been created. But there isno other example of such a large-scale biographical painting which had been madeduring the protagonist’s lifetime⑵.
Discussions on the style of this mural have been extremely difficult due to its
poor condition and the lack of relevant documents⑶. Any convincing arguments
have not yet been presented about the painters involved in this enterprise or the dateof its production. Meanwhile, the subject of each scene is clearly specified. Eachpainting has a large rectangular compartment at its bottom for a lengthy inscription⑵

For the history of portraits in Renaissance, Italy, see John Pope-Hennessy, The Portrait in the Renaissance, Princeton 1979（ジョン・ポープ・ヘネシー『ルネサンスの肖像画』中江彬，兼重護，山田義顕訳，中央公論美術出版，2002年）.
⑶ On previous arguments on style of the Hospital frescoes, the following article is ahandy and collective. S. Pasti, “Due cicli affreschi dalla scrittura all’immagine: la chiesa
vecchia di Tor de’ Specchi e la Corsia Sistina dell’ospedale di Santo Spirito (conun’ipotesi per l’ospedale e un miniature),” in Il ’400 a Roma: la rinascita delle arti daDonatello a Perugino, M. G. Bernardini e M. Bussagli, ed., Milano 2008, pp. 179–187.
The restoration of the frescoes currently in progress will open more discussion on thismatter.

Illuminated Manuscripts Frescoed in the 15th Century in Rome

39

Fig. 2 The layout of the compartments of the Hospital frescoes, Rome

explaining the narrative above [Fig. 2]. As Howe discussed in detail (1978), these
inscriptions are closely related to the Lives of the Popes written by the humanist
Bartolomeo Platina (1421–1481), who was taken into Pope Sixtus IV’s confidence
and presented the Lives to the pope in 1474⑷. From this apparent correspondence
between the text and the image, many attempts of interdisciplinary studies have
tried to delve into the idea nurtured among the Vatican humanists around Platina⑸.
Although these studies enriched the historical background of the project, they did
not always unravel what the visual image itself was trying to represent. There havebeen a few attempts to present iconographic interpretations by selecting someparticular scenes from many narratives and comparing them with traditional
images⑹. These previous studies have emphasized the relationship between the
frescoes and the Roman Curia. In contrast, this article takes the stand that thepope’s identity as a Franciscan influenced the frescoes as much as, or even more⑷

E. Howe, op. cit. (1978). The scholar pointed out that the inscriptions have been rewritten for three times and the current version is from the 17th century.
⑸ On previous research, see E. Howe, op. cit. (2005), pp. 13–16.
⑹ I. Walter, “Der Traum der Schwangeren vor der Geburt zur Vita Sixtus’ IV auf den
Fresken in Santo Spirito in Rom,” im Träume in Mittelalter Ikonologische Studien, A.
Paravicini Bagliani and G. Stabile, ed., Stuttgart 1989, pp. 125–136; D. B. Presciutti,“Dead Infants, Cruel Mothers and Heroic Popes: The Visual Rhetoric of Foundling
Care,” in Renaissance Quarterly 64 (2011), pp. 752–99.

40

than, his identity as a pope. The author will propose that one of the most important
motivations to create the large fresco cycles telling the Franciscan pope’s biography
could be an artistic antagonism of Franciscan friars toward a certain artwork
relating to the Dominican Order: the Meditationes frescoes in the first cloister ofBasilica of Santa Maria sopra Minerva, the Dominican main base for the purposeof evangelism in the urban areas of Rome.
At the beginning, the selection of the subject matter, images and compositionsof the Hospital frescoes are examined to propose that they should be regarded ashaving a stronger Franciscan identity than had ever been considered before⑺. Then,some visual singularities of the mural paintings are pointed out and its curious
correspondence with the Meditationes frescoes is verified. Finally, it will be
revealed that Life of Sixtus IV and Meditationes should be understood as a pair inthe context of ideological framework, namely competitive consciousness in thefield of art commission between the Franciscans and the Dominicans, which havebeen deeply rooted since their origins.

1. Subjects of the frescoes and Sixtus IV’s identity as a Franciscan friar
The infrastructure of Rome was dramatically improved during the reign of Sixtus
IV⑻. He reconstructed and maintained roads, water supplies and bridges; a typicalexample was the Ponte Sisto named after the pope himself. At the same time,
numerous facilities were constructed and restored. The extension of Santo Spirito⑺

Some scholars have pointed out the importance of the mentality and the art of theFranciscan Order in considering the Hospital frescoes especially Howe as we will see inthe chapter 3. Other examples are, S. Danesi Squarzina, “Roma nel Quattrocento: ilbrusio dell’architettura”, in Ricerche sul ’400 a Roma: pittura e architettura, Roma
1991, pp. 57–80; M. A. Cassiani, “L’ospedale di Santo Spirito in Sassia:cultura francescana e devozione nel ciclo pittorico della corsia sistina”, in Sisto IV: le arti a Roma nel
primo Rinascimento, F. Benzi, ed., Roma 2000, pp. 167–173, especially pp. 167–168.
⑻ For Sixtus IV, the following book is comprehensive, F. Benzi (ed.), Sisto IV: Le arti aRoma nel primo Rinascimento. Atti del Convegno Internazionale di Studi, Roma 2000.

Illuminated Manuscripts Frescoed in the 15th Century in Rome

41

Fig. 3 Sandro Botticelli, Temptations of Christ, the Sistine Chapel, Vatican City

Hospital was also a part of his “renovation of the city” (Renovatio Urbis)⑼ and it
must have had a special importance among his accomplishments. Speaking of art
projects by Sixtus IV, what immediately comes to mind must be the enterprise todecorate the side walls of the Sistine Chapel conducted in 1481–82. The façade ofSanto Spirito Hospital was depicted at the background of Temptations of Christ by
Botticelli in the pope’s chapel [Fig. 3].
The fresco cycle of the hospital ward begins from narratives of its
establishment by Pope Innocent III on the east wall (Nos. 1–4) and on the south
wall (Nos. 5–7). All other 39 compartments are assigned to episodes of the life of
Sixtus IV told in chronological order. Occasionally figures are inserted between
each narrative such as angels, prophets, patriarchs, saints and a sibyl.
The Pope Sixtus IV’s biography can be divided into three parts: his early life
from the vision of his mother to the miraculous event that occurred when young
Francesco was saved by St. Francis and St. Anthony of Padua (Nos. 8–15), his
career as a Franciscan friar from his joining the order to the election as the Minister
General (Nos. 16–20) and his accomplishments at the Vatican from his appointment
as cardinal, then as pope, to his entry to heaven (Nos. 21–28 at the south wall, Nos.

⑼

For the Renovatio Urbis, see M. G. Bernardini e M. Bussagli, ed., op. cit.

42

Fig. 4 Unknown, Vision of Luchina, Mother of Francesco della
Rovere, the Hospital of Santo Spirito in Sassia, Rome

29–31 at the west wall, Nos. 32–46 at the north wall). The latter four sections (Nos.
40–44) were all painted about one hundred years after the death of the pope
(finished in 1599). Thus, 34 frescoes of the life of Sixtus IV were completed during
his lifetime⑽.
In these frescoes, Francesco della Rovere’s identity as a Franciscan isvisualized in multiple layers besides the direct representation of himself as amendicant friar (Nos. 16–20). First of all, Franciscan saints, St. Francis of Assisi and
St. Anthony of Padua appear frequently in the narrative of his life. For example, in
Vision of Luchina, Mother of Francesco della Rovere (No. 8, Fig. 4), two saints
carrying a Franciscan garb and a knotted cord come to Francesco before birth
represented as a naked child. Their apparitions are repeatedly depicted such as in therelief of young Francesco (Nos. 11, 15) or when St. Francis attends to the pope with
the Virgin as interveners in Sixtus IV Presents his Work to God (No. 45, Fig. 5).
Then, images and compositions of famous Franciscan artworks were applied
to some subjects before starting his career in Vatican. For example, Howe pointed
out the resemblance between Innocent III’s Dream of St. Francis Supporting the⑽

S. Pasti, op. cit, p. 181, note 12.

Illuminated Manuscripts Frescoed in the 15th Century in Rome

43

Fig. 5 Unknown, Sixtus IV Presents his Work to God, the Hospitalof Santo Spirito in Sassia, Rome

Fig. 6 Giotto di Bondone, Innocent
III’s Dream of St. Francis Supporting
the Lateran, the Upper Basilica ofSaint Francis, Assisi

Fig. 7 Unknown, Vision of Innocent III, the Hospitalof Santo Spirito in Sassia, Rome

Lateran in the upper basilica of Saint Francis of Assisi and Vision of Innocent III in
the Hospital⑾ [Figs. 6, 7]. Comparing these two works, it can be seen that they bothshow images of the pope lying on a bed in a room on the right side with two
attendants below him and a building on the left side. The pope’s right arm placedon his upper body further strengthens the direct connection between the two⑾

E. Howe, op. cit. (2005), pp. 143–144.

44

Fig. 8 Giotto di Bondone, Honorius III
Confirms the Franciscan Rule, the Upper
Basilica of Saint Francis, Assisi

Fig. 9 Unknown, Sixtus IV Confirms thePrivileges of the Mendicant Orders, theHospital of Santo Spirito in Sassia, Rome

frescoes. Meanwhile, the latter represents the revelation from an angel to establish
the Hospital and, thus, the original images and the composition are freely adapted
to fit the subject such as by adding an angel above the pope and changing the left
side building to Tor de’ Conti, which was the fortress of the family house of thepope (Lotario dei Conti was his secular name). Nevertheless, viewers of the
Hospital frescoes who were familiar with the history and arts of the Franciscan
would have naturally associated them with Innocent III’s Dream in Assisi. In
addition to Howe’s indication, the author believes the historical importance of thepope’s supernatural vision which led to the approval of the Franciscan Ordertransfers into the episodes of the foundation related to the Hospital. The same could
be applied to Honorius III Confirms the Franciscan Rule in Assisi and Sixtus IV
Confirms the Privileges of the Mendicant Orders in the Hospital⑿ [Figs. 8, 9].
Needless to say, the significance of Honorius III to the Franciscan Order would
have been aroused in viewers of the Hospital frescoes from the composition sharedby both frescoes and emphasizing the importance of Sixtus IV for the Mendicant⑿

The resemblances between two frescoes were also pointed out by E. Howe (Idem., p.
144).

Illuminated Manuscripts Frescoed in the 15th Century in Rome

Fig. 10 Giotto di Bondone, St. Francis
abandoning his wealth, the Upper
Basilica of Saint Francis, Assisi

45

Fig. 11 Unknown, Francesco Receives theFranciscan Habit, the Hospital of Santo Spirito
in Sassia, Rome

Order. From these examples, it can be said that historical events of the Hospitalassumed a certain kind of authority by adopting well-known iconographies ofFranciscan saints and past popes who played an important role in the history of theMendicant Order.
The author suggests that the following examples should be added to these“well-known image utilization”. The iconography of St. Francis abandoning his
wealth in Assisi [Fig. 10] was utilized in the fresco of the same subject by
Domenico Ghirlandaio at the Sassetti Chapel in Santa Trinita in Florence and inthat of another subject, Bestowment of the Garb to St. Bernardin of Siena at the
Bufalini Chapel in Santa Maria Aracoeli in Rome. The scene of Francesco Receives
the Franciscan Habit of the Hospital fresco can be put in this development [Fig.
11].
Furthermore, Francesco preaching in the cities of Italy in the Hospital
reminds viewers of the scene of sermons by Franciscan saints such as St. Bernardinof Siena Preaching at Piazza del Campo by Sano di Pietro [Figs. 12, 13]. Notably,
the latter panel was painted during the saint’s lifetime⒀. So, the connection between
the two images is further strengthened in that these were portraits as well as scenes

46

Fig. 12 Unknown, Francesco preaching in the cities
of Italy, the Hospital of Santo Spirito in Sassia, Rome

Fig. 13 Sano di Pietro, St.
Bernardin of Siena Preachingat Piazza del Campo, Museodell’Opera del Duomo, Sienaof preaching.
Numerous studies on the Sistine Chapel have emphasized the pope’s identity
as a Franciscan and tried to decipher thoughts of the order in the frescoes⒁,although no direct representation of Franciscan friars or saints exists in the Sistine
frescoes depicted in the 15th century. On the contrary, as shown above, in the
Hospital mural paintings, Sixtus IV’s career as a mendicant friar is allocated toeight compartments, Franciscan saints frequently appear among the frescoes andthen the viewer’s visual experience which had been cultivated by looking at
Franciscan art was sophisticatedly leveraged. Therefore, it must be necessary to
precede research on the Hospital frescoes with greater awareness of the relationshipbetween the frescoes and Franciscan art and thoughts.

⒀

M. Seidel, ed., Da Jacopo della Quercia a Donatello: Le arti a Siena nel Primo Rinascimento, Milano 2010, pp. 280–283.
⒁ The previous research on the Sistine frescoes of the 15h century is summarized, F.
Burnelli, A. Duston e J. M. Mejía, The Fifteenth Century Frescoes in the Sistine Chapel:
Recent Restorations of the Vatican Museums, vol. 4, Città del Vaticano 2003; H. Pfeiffer,
S. J., The Sistine Chapel. A New Vision, tr. S. Lindberg, New York – London 2007.

Illuminated Manuscripts Frescoed in the 15th Century in Rome

Fig. 14 The layout of the compartmentsof the Life of Christ in the Sistine
Chapel, Vatican City

47

Fig. 15 The layout of the compartments of theLife of Santa Francesca Romana in the Tor
de’ Specchi, Rome

2. The visual singularities of the frescoes ofthe Hospital of Santo Spirito in Sassia
1) The layout of the compartments for the narrative and the inscription
Normally, inscriptions along the series of frescoes were written inside of oblong
frames. For example, in the Sistine Chapel frescoes, they were written in one line
at the top of each compartment, and in Life of Francesca Romana frescoed at the
Tor de’ Specchi in Rome during the same period, in two lines in small letters insideof the frame located at the bottom [Figs. 14, 15]. On the other hand, in the hospitalwalls, an unprecedentedly large section was reserved for a lengthy inscription
explaining the narrative above for each compartment [Fig. 2]. It is also unique inthat it was composed of such an enormous number of scenes: 44 in total. Indeed, it
is appropriate to call this mural an “illuminated manuscript frescoed”.
2) Repetitive usage of similar images and compositions
Closely examining each scene, it is noticeable that similar images and compositions
were used repeatedly, especially in the story after Francesco was appointed as pope.

48

Fig. 16 Unknown, Sixtus IV in Procession to theBasilica of Lateran, the Hospital of Santo Spirito in
Sassia, Rome / Unknown, Pope Sixtus IV Visiting the
Old Santo Spirito Hospital (damaged), the Hospitalof Santo Spirito in Sassia, Rome

Fig. 17 Unknown, Sixtus IV
Receives Eleanor, Daughterof King Ferdinand of Naples,the Hospital of Santo Spirito
in Sassia, Rome

In Sixtus IV in Procession to the Basilica of Lateran (No. 23) and Pope Sixtus IV
Visiting the Old Santo Spirito Hospital (damaged) (No. 24), the pope on a palanquin
at the former and a horse at the latter take exactly the same pose on the left side ofeach scene [Fig. 16]. Also, Sixtus IV Confirms the Privileges of the Mendicant
Orders (No. 35) and Sixtus IV Receives Eleanor, Daughter of King Ferdinand of
Naples (No. 36) were depicted with identical compositions, the pope with a profilesits on the throne on the right side and the crowds gather on the left side [Figs. 9,17]. Both the throne and pope’s posture are almost the same. This duplicative
mentality can be pointed out in Sixtus IV Dedicates the Women’s Quarters (No. 29)
and Sixtus IV Dedicates the Noble’s Section (No. 30) [Fig. 18]. In these frescoes,even the contents themselves resemble each other. The same theory can also be
applied to Demolition of the Old Hospital (damaged) (No. 27) and Sixtus IV
Rebuilds the Hospital of Santo Spirito (No. 28). These example leads theassumption of intending to present the pope’s biography in an over-segmentalizedmanner. Furthermore, it is reasonable to say that the arrangement of the mural,
which consists of numerous segments reminiscent of illuminated manuscript, wasIlluminated Manuscripts Frescoed in the 15th Century in Rome

49

Fig. 18 Unknown, Sixtus IV Dedicates the Women’s Quarters, the Hospital of Santo
Spirito in Sassia, Rome / Unknown, Sixtus IV Dedicates the Noble’s Section, the Hospitalof Santo Spirito in Sassia, Romeplanned first and then episodes were prepared to fit them, rather than fixing thenumber of narratives and then dividing the wall to satisfy the condition. In addition,these frescoes can be considered as a series of Sixtus IV’s portraits as he was
depicted over 30 times in this cycle which is more than any pope before.
When looking at the entire city of Rome in the second half of the fifteenth
century, it can be noted that there was a mural strikingly similar to the frescoes of
the Santo Spirito Hospital.

3. Frescoes of the first cloister of Santa Maria sopra Minerva
Around the 1450s, a mural decoration was executed on the walls of the first cloisterof Santa Maria sopra Minerva. The fresco cycle was based on the texts ofMeditationes written by an influential Dominican theologian, Cardinal Juan van deTorquemada (1388–1468), and consisted of 34 scenes of which the main subjects
were taken from the New Testament⒂.
⒂

For basic information and previous research of the Meditationes of the first cloister in
the Santa Maria sopra Minerva and relevant manusctipts, see G. De Simone, “L’ultimo
Angelico: Le Meditationes del cardinal Torquemada e il ciclo perduto nel chiostro di S.
Maria sopra Minerva,” in Ricerche di storia dell’arte, 76 (2002), pp. 41–88; A. E. Bourgeois, Reconstructing the Lost Frescoes of Santa Maria sopra Minerva in Rome from50

The mural had been completely lost about acentury after its completion due to the restoration of
the cloister, then a new fresco cycle, Miracle of Our
Lady of the Rosary, was painted. However, we canstill get some information about the subjects andimages of the lost frescoes from the 29 extant
manuscripts and numerous typography books with
Fig. 19 Meditationes, BAV
Lat 973, fol. 1. Meditation 1:
The Creation of the World

woodcut illustrations. Among them, three manuscripts
provide beneficial information about images on thewall. Those are the Vatican manuscript (BAV Lat

973) which believed to heve been originally owned by Torquemada himself andwhich contains illustrations [Fig. 19], and two manuscripts with descriptions of thelost frescoes, inserted in the Meditationes text in Biblioteca Marciana, Venice (Ms.
Marciano Lat. III. 167 (2782)) and Bibliothèque municipale de Lyon (Ms. 651(566)). Judging from these materials, historians have considered that one
compartment of the mural comprised a narrative painting at the upper register anda large frame for the text of praying cited from Torquemada’s Meditationes at thelower register, in which a sitting and meditating friar was also depicted. Donati
called this mural reminiscent of a book, “a huge illuminated manuscript” (ungrande codice miniato) in the title of his article⒃.
Interestingly, Meditationes and Life of Sixtus IV share many distinctive
features. First of all, the circumstance of the production must be pointed out in thata new book was compiled prior to both mural decorations and then the frescoes
were painted based on the texts: Torquemada’s Meditationes for the frescoes of theMinerva cloister and Platina’s Lives of the Popes for the biographical paintings ofMeditationes of Cardinal Juan de Torquemada, Lewiston 2009. From historical documents, it is known that those frescoes were in monochrome of terra verde.
⒃ L. Donati, “Un grande Codice miniato,” in L’Osservatore Romano, 25 (1974), p. 5.

Illuminated Manuscripts Frescoed in the 15th Century in Rome

Fig. 20 Meditationes, BAV Lat 973, fol.
29r. Meditation 29: St. Sixtus with
Cardinal Juan de Torquemada

51

Fig. 21 Unknown, Sixtus IV entering heaven,
the Hospital of Santo Spirito in Sassia, Romethe Santo Spirito Hospital. Secondly, there is the resemblance of the unique layoutof compartments. Two murals have the common characteristics of quite a large
number of narrative paintings for one fresco series (34 of Meditationes and 46 ofLife) and the format of a compartment with an upper register for the image and an
unprecedented large section for the lengthy text beneath. As a result of thesesimilarities that influence the overall impression of the mural, when a viewer saw
one of them, he or she must have remembered the other. Here the mentality toutilize the viewers’ visual experience can be pointed out again, as we have verified
in the first chapter of this article.
Furthermore, the points in common relating to portraits should also be paid
attention to. In Meditationes at the Minerva cloister, there was one scene in thecycle where Cardinal Torquemada appears and prays to St. Sixtus [Fig. 20]. In thisscene, the saint notices Torquemada who belongs to a different time and space from
himself and makes a blessing gesture to the cardinal. Meanwhile, in the scene
Sixtus IV entering heaven that concludes the Life of Santo Spirito Hospital, St. Peterhimself is leading the pope to heaven by the hand [Fig. 21]. These scenes share theconcept that each saint of the past actively intervenes in the life of the respective
donor, Torquemada and Sixtus IV.

52

Fig. 22 Unknown, Annunciation, Victoria andAlbert Museum, London

In Northern Renaissance paintings, donors often appeared in the religious
paintings with a strong presence almost equal to saints⒄. Those examples started toflow into Italian art at this period. However, even in light of the contemporary
representations of donors painted in Italy, it was unusual that the saint and themodel were so intimately involved. The author is convinced that the mentality toaccept new expressions of a close relationship between saints making positive
approaches to portraited figures has been developed at the Santa Maria sopra
Minerva and the origin of that sense must be able to track back to the fresco of St.
Sixtus and Torquemada in the cloister.
At the emblem of the Confraternity of the Santissima Annunciata founded by
Torquemada and active in the Santa Maria sopra Minerva, girls who were getting
married with the support of the confraternity are receiving a dowry from Virgin
Mary⒅ [Fig. 22]. The representation of the direct interaction between saints and⒄

For portraits of donors in Renaissance Italy, see John Pope-Hennessy, op. cit., pp.
257–302（ジョン・ポープ・ヘネシー，前掲書，232–275頁）.
⒅ For the Confraternity of the Santissima Annunciata, see A. Esposito, “Le confraternite
del matrimonio. Carità, devozione e bisogni sociali a Roma nel tardo quattrocentro (conl’edizione degli statuti vecchi della Compagina della SS. Annunziata),” in Un’idea diRoma, società, arte e cultura tra Umanesimo e Rinascimento, L. Fortini, ed., Roma

Illuminated Manuscripts Frescoed in the 15th Century in Rome

Fig. 23 Filippino Lippi, Annunciation,
the Carafa Chapel, Santa Maria sopra
Minerva, Rome

53

Fig. 24 Antoniazzo Romana, Annunciation, theChapel of Annunciation, Santa Maria sopra
Minerva, Romelaymen belonging to a different time and space was succeeded in Annunciation(1488–1493), which was painted by Filippino Lippi as the altarpiece of the Carafa
Chapel in the same church [Fig. 23]. In this, the Virgin Mary who receives the
Annunciation is blessing Cardinal Carafa. A further example is Annunciation
painted in 1499 as the altarpiece of the chapel, located in Santa Maria sopra
Minerva as well. It had been owned by Torquemada and then by the confraternity
after his death [Fig. 24]. Here, Cardinal Torquemada, who died about 30 years
prior, appears together with the girls receiving the dowry from the Virgin Mary.
Even more interesting is the suggestion by De Simone (2002) that all the friars
appearing in Minerva’s Meditationes could have been a Dominican cardinal,
Torquemada himself ⒆. The scholar focused on the fact that Torquemada’s
Meditationes was written in the first person and pointed out that he had been
mentioned as a meditator in the text related to the fresco St. Sixtus and Torquemada(Marciana manuscript). Furthermore, considering that no friar appeared at thebottom of this scene, De Simone concluded that the friars depicted in the lower
register of the cloister were all one person, Torquemada.
1993, pp. 7–51.
G. De Simone, op. cit., p. 46.

⒆

54

The author agrees with De Simone’s opinion for the reasons below. The
opening sentence of the printed book dated December 24, 1472 is as follows, “Themost devout Meditations by Cardinal Juan de Torquemada of St. Sixtus. Compiled
for the frescoes surrounding Maria Minerva. It is described and depicted in a truly
literary text together with the brilliant images⒇.”As shown by this passage, thebooks of Torquemada’s Meditationes have been diffused inextricably linked to theauthor himself. Furthermore, looking at the description of the first meditation in the
Lyon manuscript, the explanation of the painting concludes with the words “ a friarsits as if he was sleeping with resting his chin on his hand. To recite while
meditating ...”, then the text of Torquemada’s Meditationes begins. In otherwords, the texts written in the lower register of the mural were interpreted as thecontent imagined by the friar depicted at the bottom of the compartments. The samestructure is applicable for every explanation of paintings inserted in the Lyon andMarciana manuscripts. Indeed, the authors of these manuscripts seem to haveunderstood that all meditating friars who appeared in the frescoes were all
Torquemada himself.
In addition, De Simone’s ideas can be reinforced with the consideration of themanuscript illustrations that influenced the frescoes. The appearance of friars
praying in various poses in the cloister of Minerva has often been connected to De
Modo Orandi, a textbook for Dominican friars in training. It describes the nine⒇

“Meditationes reverendissimi patris domini Johannis de Turrecremata Sacrosancte
Romane Ecclesie cardinalis posite et dipicte de ipsius mandato in ecclesie ambitu Sancte Marie de Minerva Rome”: Idem, p. 44.
 “Et sub hac pictura. sedet monachus quasi dormiens super unam manum. contemplando ait”: L. Donati, “Prolegomeni allo studio del libro illustrato italiano,” in Maso
Finiguerra, 1/2 (1939), p. 22.
 S. Tugwell, “The Nine Ways of Prayer of St. Dominic: A textual Study and Critical
Edition,” in Mediaeval Studies, 47 (1985), pp. 1–124; W. Hood, “Saint Dominic’s Manners of Praying: Gestures in Fra Angelico’s Cell Frescoes at S. Marco,” in The Art Bulletin, 68 (1986), pp. 195–206.

Illuminated Manuscripts Frescoed in the 15th Century in Rome

55

Fig. 25 De Modo Orandi, BAV. Ms. Lat. Rossianus 3

prayer methods that St. Domenico practiced when he prayed alone. A number of its
manuscripts still exist and among them some were illuminated. For example, in the“Rossianus Manuscript” (BAV. Ms. Lat. Rossianus 3: De Modo Orandi), St.
Domenico repeatedly appears and shows various prayer postures [Fig. 25].
Namely, both fresco cycles have the additional point in common that numerous
portraits of Torquemada and Sixtus IV were depicted in their respective place
during their lifetime.
So far, the common characteristics of two fresco cycles have been examined.
When considering these frescoes in the history of the art of two major Mendicant
Orders, it emerges that Life in the Santo Spirito Hospital, which depicts the life of
Sixtus IV, might have never been created without the inspiration of the Minerva
cloister’s Meditationes frescoes.



Although there is a difference between “vision” and “meditation,” in the tradition ofilluminated manuscript, there is also an expression which can be found in manuscripts
of Apocalypse that John the Evangelist as a narrator frequently appears outside the framethat visualizes his vision. The above was suggested by the study group of the A02 Mendicant Orders Team of Grant-in-Aid for Transformative Research Areas (B) 20B103.

56

Fig. 26 Italian, probably active in Bologna, Dominican and Franciscan Friars Singing
at Lecterns, Ms. 107, Abbey Bible, fol. 224r, The J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles

4. Competitive consciousness between the two mendicant
orders in the art field
The Dominican Order and the Franciscan Order, both founded in the early 12th
century, have been in confrontation in every respect since their establishments. It
is frequently pointed out that, in some cities, the church of each order had been builtwith a certain distance, with their territory in mind. Also, in 1255, the Priors of bothorders felt the need to warn their friars not to quarrel in public. The confrontational
relationship between these two orders can also be confirmed in the illustration of
the manuscript which is believed to have been made in the mid-13th century in
Bologna [Fig. 26]. At the bottom of this foglio are several Dominican andFranciscan friars singing hymns. Christ appears from above to bless the Dominicans
only. Their competitive consciousness had emerged in various ways, including in

See D. Burr, Olivi and Franciscan Poverty, Philadelphia 1989, pp. 149–150; T. McGrath, “Dominicans, Franciscans and the Art of Political Rivalry: Two Drawings and a
Fresco by Giovanni Battista della Rovere,” in Renaissance Studies, vol. 25 No. 2, pp.
185–207.
 T. Kennedy, D. Cooper et al., Sanctity Pictured: The Art of the Dominican and Franciscan Orders in Renaissance Italy, Nashville and London 2014, p. 1.

Illuminated Manuscripts Frescoed in the 15th Century in Rome57

the art field, as exactly revealed in this foglio.
The work mentioned above was displayed at the exhibition Sanctity Pictured:
the Art of the Dominican and Franciscan Orders in Renaissance Italy held in
Nashville in 2014, which was significant in that it was the first attempt to present
art works related to these two orders in comparative ways. It suggests that
discussions on the relationship between the two Mendicant Orders over art should
be further explored in the future. However, the results of the preceding case studies
indicate that the Mendicant friars were very attentive to the competitor’s movementin art and, when a new artwork appeared in the rival’s field, they tried to make asimilar, but more magnificent one.
In the introductive article of the catalogue of Sanctity Pictured, Kennedy gives
an example of what can be considered as the competition of both orders on the scaleof their church buildings in Bologna in the 13th century. That is, the length of the
Dominican Order’s Basilica, San Nicolo delle Vigne (now the Basilica of St.
Domenico) and the Basilica of St. Francesco in the same city. The former’s
expansion had begun in 1228 and it was 282 feet 2 inches in length whencompleted. It had been significantly larger than the Bologna Cathedral at 52 feet 6
inches and had become the largest building in the city at the time. Then, the Basilica
of St. Francesco was completed in 1250, which was 296 feet 3 inches. It resembles
modern countries competing to build a higher tower to show their national power.



Idem.
For example, see J. Cannon, “The Creation, Meaning and Audience of the Early
Sienese Polyptych: Evidence from the Friars,” in Italian Altarpieces 1250–1550: Function and Design, E. Borsook and F. S. Gioffredi, ed., Oxford 1994, pp. 41–79; 松原知生
「列聖の条件，聖者の身体―ピサ，サンタ・カテリーナ聖堂《聖トマス・アク
ィナスの勝利》を巡って」『京都大学文学部美術史学研究室紀要』第十八号（1997），187–230頁．Matsubara mentioned that Saint Louis of Toulouse by Simone
Martini and Triumph of St. Thomas Aquinas which is thought to be painted by Lippo
Memmi and Barna as evidence of rivalry between two mendicant orders.
 T. Kennedy, op. cit., p. 11.

58

Fig. 27 The façade of the Santa Maria in Aracoeli

Fig. 28 A drawing of the old façade of Santa Maria sopra Minerva

The next example in Rome shows the similarity in the appearance of thechurches, in the façade of the Franciscan Basilica di Santa Maria in Aracoeli andthe old façade of the Dominican Basilica of Santa Maria Sopra Minerva [Figs. 27,
28]. The latter was covered with the white rectangular structure in 1725 [Fig. 29],but previously it had been laid with long brown bricks [Fig. 30]. Comparing the twobuildings by complementing that fact, it can be seen that the faces of the church,which were the base of activities of both orders in the city, were like two peas in a

For the history of the architecture of Santa Maria sopra Minerva, see G. Palmerio and
G. Villetti, Storia edilizia di S. Maria sopra Minerva in Roma 1275–1870, Roma 1989.

Illuminated Manuscripts Frescoed in the 15th Century in Rome

59

Fig. 29 The present façade of Santa Maria sopra Minerva

Fig. 30 Long brown bricks of the building covered by thewhite structure of Santa Maria sopra Minerva

pod.
The author also has discussed in another place before in that there are also
examples of mural decorations inside these churches that can be seen from theperspective of their competitive consciousness. Those are the frescoes of Bufalini
Chapel in Aracoeli painted in the early 1480s and those of the Carafa Chapel in
Minerva undertaken in the late 1480s [Figs. 31, 32].
In addition, it is not too much to say that the Minerva’s Meditationes frescoes


F. Araki, Le cappelle Bufalini e Carafa. Dall’odio dottrinale e cultuale tra domenicani e francescani alle rivalità artistiche, Roma 2019, especially pp. 143–152.

60

Fig. 31 Cappella Bufalini, Santa Mariain Aracoeli, Rome

Fig. 32 Cappella Carafa, Santa Mariasopra Minerva, Romethemselves were created with the consciousness of Meditationes Vitae Christi,
which is believed to have been written by Pseudo-Bonaventure, a Franciscan friarat the end of the thirteenth century. The book was translated into various
languages and widely disseminated. The fact that over 200 manuscripts are in
existence also shows its popularity. So to speak, the Franciscan Order was
overwhelmingly influential in practicing meditations. The need of the “manuscript”
style for the frescoes in Minerva Cloister can be explained from the fact that all
Europeans of that time were striving for meditation using Franciscan literature as if
it were a textbook.
Naturally, Sixtus IV was well informed about Torquemada’s Meditationes
frescoes in the cloister of Minerva in Rome. Indeed, he was carefully monitoring

About this issue, the author has discussed in the article, 荒木文果「瞑想するドメニ
コ会士―ローマ，サンタ・マリア・ソプラ・ミネルヴァ修道院の失われた第一
回廊装飾壁画」『西洋中世研究』No. 9, 2018, 64–93頁。
 For Meditationes Vitae Christi, G. Rosalie and I. Ragusa, ed., Meditations on the Lifeof Christ: An Illustrated Manuscript of the 14th Century, Paris, Bibliothèque Nationale,
Ms. Ital. 115, Princeton 1977. For the relationship between Meditationes frescoes andthe Franciscan book, see W. Hood, Fra Angelico at San Marco, New Haven 1993, p.
227.

Illuminated Manuscripts Frescoed in the 15th Century in Rome

61

for Dominican art. He prohibited the visualization of St. Caterina of the Dominican
Order receiving the stigmata or presenting them to the viewer in 1472 at the time of
his ascension to the cathedra. The reason is probably that the Pope thought that
only St. Francis of Assisi should be allowed to be represented in this way. This
prohibition was withdrawn by his successor Innocent VIII in 1491. Also, Sixtus IV
Confirms the Privileges of the Mendicant Orders suggests the fact that the Popewas deeply concerned with both orders. Furthermore, Confraternity of theSantissima Annunciata which had been established by Cardinal Torquemada wasmore influential in the city of Rome after his death. Finally, under the papacy of
Innocent VIII, the Mass on 25th March, the holiday of annunciation performed by
the pope himself at the high altar of Minerva was starting and the bestowal of
dowry follow by the Mass. Sixtus IV could not have been ignorant about theConfraternity, which was closely related to Torquemada. The fact that his successor,
Innocent VIII, lifted the prohibition against images of St. Catherine and establishedthe relationship between the pope and Confraternity of the Santissima Annunciata
could testify Pope Sixtus IV’s dishonest attitude toward the Dominican Order.
From above, it can be said that Sixtus IV as a Franciscan friar was very awareof the Meditationes frescoes and wanted mural paintings similar to the Dominican
artwork but more splendid. It might be more than only a coincidence that 34 of thetotal 39 scenes in the Hospital frescoes depicting the pope’s life were completed
before his death. The number is in exact accordance with that of the frescoes in the
Minerva.

Conclusion
This article verified that two fresco cycles, Life in Santo Spirito Hospital andMeditationes in the first cloister of Minerva have many features in common such as

T. McGrath, op. cit., p. 185.
A. Esposito, op. cit., p. 20.

62

the process of their production, their format reminiscent of a manuscript, therepresentation that suggests the close relationship between saints and donors andthe recurring portraits of Torquemada and Sixtus IV depicted during their lifetime.
It also proposed that these characteristics should be understood with the context ofhistorical confrontation between the Franciscan Order and the Dominican Order.
In the middle of the 16th century, when the Meditationes frescoes wasdemolished, the Life of Sixtus IV cycle lost its counterpart and its intrinsic value atthe same time. As two works had been created from the hostility of both Orders,
their meanings were also dependent on it. The subject of the rivalry between the
two Mendicant orders in the art field is still a novel problem for art history and not
yet well explored. The comprehensive research is required by compiling casestudies as well as pointing out similar examples that this article proposed.

Illuminated Manuscripts Frescoed in the 15th Century in Rome

63

64

Illuminated Manuscripts Frescoed in the 15th Century in Rome

65

Placement of the Frescoes in the Corsia Sistina (E. Howe, Art and Culture at the Sistine
Court: Platina’s “Life of Sixtus IV” and the Frescoes of the Hospital of Santo Spirito, Cittàdel Vaticano 2005, pp. 198–199.)
East wall
1. Infanticide
2. Tiber Scene (damaged)
3. Tiber Scene (damaged)
4. Fishermen Present Dead Babies to Innocent III
South wall
5. Vision of Innocent III
5a. King Solomon
6. Innocent III Orders the Construction of
the Hospital
7. Innocent III Institutes Hospital Order(damaged)
8. Vision of Luchina, Mother of Francesco della Rovere
9. Birth of Francesco della Rovere (damaged)
10. Baptism of Francesco della Rovere
10a. Prophet Isaiah
11. Illness of the Infant Francesco and his
Mother’s Vow
12. Luchina’s Vow (damaged)
13. Infant Francesco Blessed the Towns
people14. Luchina Renews Her Vow (damaged)
15. Francesco saved by Saint Francis andAnthony of Padua
15a. Prophet Isaiah
15b. Angel on Eastern Arch
15c. Angel on Western Arch
15d. Unidentified King
16. Francesco Receives the Franciscan
Habit
17. Francesco at the Cathedra (damaged)
18. Francesco Preaching in the cities of Italy
19. Dispute over Christ’s Blood (damaged)
20. Francesco Elected General of the Franciscans
20a. Unidentified Prophet
21. Francesco Receives the Cardinal’s hat
22. Sixtus IV Elected Pope (damaged)
23. Sixtus IV in Procession to the Basilica
of Laterano
24. Sixtus IV Visiting the Old Santo Spirito Hospital (damaged)
25. Sixtus IV Visits the Members of the
Hospital Order25a. Unidentified Prophet
26. Sixtus IV Rebuilds the Ponte Sisto
27. Demolition of the Old Hospital (damaged)
28. Sixtus IV Rebuilds the Hospital of

Santo Spirito
28a. Unidentified Prophet
West wall
29. Sixtus IV Dedicates the Women’s
Quarters
30. Sixtus IV Dedicates the Noble’s Section
31. Sixtus IV Builds Santa Maria delPopoloNorth Wall
31a. King Solomon
32. Sixtus IV Receives the King of Denmark
32a. King Solomon
33. Sixtus IV Receives King Ferdinand of
Naples33a. King Solomon
34. Sixtus IV Receives the King of Bosnia
34a.Prophet Ezekial
35. Sixtus IV Confirms the Privileges ofthe Mendicant Orders
35a. St. Luke
36. Sixtus IV Receives Eleanor, Daughterof King Ferdinand of Naples
36a. King David
37. Sixtus IV Visits the Vatican Library
37a. King David
38. Sixtus IV Receives Queen Charlotte ofCyprus38a. St. Paul
39. Victory of the Papal Fleets over theTurks
39a. Prophet Joel
39b. Angel on Western Arch
39c. Angel on Eastern Arch
39d. Unidentified Prophet
40. Canonization of St. Bonaventure (addition)
40a. Prophet Isaiah (addition)
41. Construction of Santa Maria della Pace(addition)
41a. St. Augustine (addition)
42. Rebuilding of Rome (addition)
42a. St.Paul (addition)
43. Sixtus IV Receives Eastern Sovereigns(addition)
43a. Sibyl (addition)
44. Funeral of Sixtus IV (addition)
44a. King Solomon (addition)
45. Sixtus IV Presents his Work to God
45a. Unidentified Prophet
46. Sixtus IV entering heaven