Local Autonomy in Japan
Current Situation & Future Shape2009

Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications (MIC), Japan1 Outline of Local Autonomy in Japan
1) The central government and local governments have different juridical personalities.

The structure of local autonomy and the relation between the central government andlocal governments are stipulated in the Local Autonomy Law, based on the Japaneseconstitution.
※ Japan is not a federal country.

2) The local government system is two-tier; prefectures and municipalities.
※ 47 prefectures and 1,777 municipalities exist as of April 1, 2009.

3) Each local government has an assembly as the highest decision making body whose
members are directly elected by its citizens. The assembly has an authority to approvebudgets and establish ordinances within law.
※ The national diet system is a two-chamber system; House of Representatives
and House of Councilors.

4) Local governments operate according to the chief executive system (the presidential
system).
※ The parliamentary cabinet system is adopted in the national level.
※ Administrative committees are established in education, police, election and so forth.

5) Local governments have more functions than the central government.
※ Most of local governments’ activities are limited by national laws.

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2 Status of Local Self-Government
in the Constitution of JapanCHAPTER 8. LOCAL SELF-GOVERNMENT
Article 92. Regulations concerning organization and operation of local public
entities shall be fixed by law in accordance with the principle of local
autonomy.
Article 93. The local public entities shall establish assemblies as theirdeliberative organs, in accordance with law.
②
The chief executive officers of all local public entities, the members of theirassemblies, and such other local officials as may be determined by law shallbe elected by direct popular vote within plural communities.
Article 94. The local public entities shall have the right to manage their property,
affairs and administration and to enact their own regulations within law.
Article 95. A special law, applicable only to one local public entity, cannot beenacted by the Diet without the consent of the majority of the voters of thelocal public entity concerned, obtained in accordance with law.
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3 Local Autonomy System(Types of Local Governments)

Classification

Prefectures

Number（Breakdown）

Population（Maximum ～ Minimum）

as of April 1, 2009

unit：person
as of April 1, 2005

Metropolis（to）（Tokyo）・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・1

12,576,601(Tokyo)Province（do）（Hokkaido）・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・1

5,627,737(Hokkaido)

City prefectures（fu）（Osaka ・ Kyoto）・・・・・・・・・・・・・2

8,817,166（Osaka）

・

2,647,660（Kyoto）

Prefectures（ken）・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・43

8,791,597（Kanagawa）～

607,012（Tottori）

Government-designated cities・・18

3,579,628（Yokohama） ～674,746（Okayama）

Core cities・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・41

669,603（Kumamoto） ～290,693（Shimonoseki）

Special case cities・・・・・・・・・・・41

480,079（Kawaguchi） ～194,244（Kofu）

Other cities・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・683

560,012（Hachioji）

～

5,221

（Utashinai）

Towns・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 802

53,560（Miyoshi）

～

1,796

（Yonakuni）

Villages・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 192

53,560（Takizawa）～

214（Aogashima）

・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・23

841,165（Setagaya）～

41,778（Chiyoda）

47

Cities・・・ 783

Municipalities

Special wards（Establishedin Tokyo）

1,777

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3 Local Autonomy System(Local Assembly)

1) The number of local assembly members varies, basically in accordance withpopulation.
Prefectures: 127 in Tokyo (max.) / 38 in Shimane (min.)Municipalities: 92 in Yokohama City (max.) / 6 in Toshima Village (min.)2） The term of office of local assembly members is four years.
3） Candidates for election of the assembly members must be a citizen of the local
entities and at least 25 year-old.
4） Local assembly consists of;Chairperson, Vice Chairperson, Committee and Special Committee
5） Major Authorities of local assembly are;creating ordinances, approving budgets, reviewing settled accounts, andcensuring non-confidence motion against the executive chief officer
6） Regular sessions are held four times a year.
Ad-hoc sessions take place, if necessary.
Terms of sessions differ among local governments.
Regular sessions usually last from a week to a month.
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3 Local Autonomy System(Relation Between Chief Executive and Assembly)
Appointment of Deputy Governor, Deputy Mayor,
Treasurer of a prefecture, Treasurer of a city,and members of Board of Education(Executive body)

Right to agree(Decision-making body)

Assembly

Right to audit, investigate, request explanation,
submit opinions, and accept accounting
Chief
Executive

Right to submit a bill
【Direct election by citizens】【 Direct election by citizens 】
Conflict of opinions between Chief
Executive Officer and Assembly(1) Objections to the establishment/improvement/elimination of regulations and decision of budgets by assembly→ Chief Executive Officer can submit the matter to assembly for reconsideration by presenting reasons.
(2) Breach of the law concerning decision and election of assembly→ Chief Executive Officer must submit the matter to assembly for reconsideration or conduct reelection of
Coordination
methods

assembly.
(3) Unenforceable revenue and expenditure decided by assembly→ Chief Executive Officer can submit the matter to assembly for reconsideration.
(4) No-confidence resolution of Chief Executive Officer by assembly→ Chief Executive Officer can dissolve assembly.
(5) Establishment, opening, or convening of assembly fails or matters for decision are not decided.

→ Arbitrary decision of chief executive officer can be conducted.

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3 Local Autonomy System(Organizations of Prefectures and Municipalities)
1) Deputy Governors or Deputy Mayors are appointed by their governors or mayors with the consent of
their assemblies with the four-year term of office.
2) Directors of departments or divisions, classified as general employees are appointed by their governors
or mayors.
3) Members of Board of Education and other commissions are appointed by their governors or mayors withthe consent of their assemblies.
Typical Administrative Organization of Prefecture

Typical Administrative Organization of Municipality
General Affairs
Division

General Affairs
Department

Taxation
Division

Planning
Department

Governor

Deputy Governor

Mayor

Deputy Mayor

Living and Environment
Department
Board of Education

Health and Welfare
Department

Head of the boards ofeducation

Citizen's Affairs
Division
Commerce andTourism Division

Board of Education
Head of the boards ofeducation

Agriculture
Division

Election Administration
Commission

Industry, Commerce andLabor Department

Personnel Commission

Agriculture, Forestry and
Fisheries Department

Personnel Commission(Equity Commission)

Public Safety Commission

Public Works
Department

Agricultural Commission

Fire Department
Headquarters

Accounts
Department

Fixed Assets Assessment
Examination Commission

Accounts
DivisionEnterpriseBureauAuditorElection Administration
Commission

Health and Welfare
Division
Construction
Division

Police Commissioner
Local Labor Relations
Board
AuditorPublic EnterpriseManager

Public EnterpriseManagerEnterpriseBureau6

４ Division of Administrative Affairs(Central Government / Local Government)

FieldsInfrastructure

Central Government

Prefectures
Local Government

Municipalities

Education

WelfareOthers・Highways
・National Roads(Specified Sections)

・Universities

・SocialInsurance

・Defense
・Diplomacy
・Monetary・National Roads(Others)・Prefectural Roads・Senior HighSchools・Elementary andJunior HighSchools (Salaryand Personnel
Affairs)

・Public HealthCenters

・Police・Passport

・Urban Planning(Zoning, Urban
Facilities)
・Municipal Roads

・Elementary andJunior HighSchools・Kindergarten and
Nurseries

・Garbage
・Human Waste
Disposal・Fire Defense
・Resident
Registration
・Foreigner
Registration

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5 Election System
Candidates for PublicService

Members of theHouse ofRepresentatives

Members of theHouse ofCouncilors

Prefectural
Governors

Municipal
MayorsTerm of Office

Number of Seats

Four years,

480with adissolution
systemadoptedSingle-seat constituencies: 300
Proportional representation
constituencies:180

Six years,

242
Single-seat constituencies: 146

Half of themembers areelected every
three years.

Four years

Four years

Members ofPrefectural
Assemblies

Four years

Members ofMunicipal
Assemblies

Four years

Proportional representation
constituencies:

Constituencies

Eligible for
Candidates

Election
franchise

Period for campaign

Single-seat constituencies: 300
Proportional representation
constituencies:
11(6-29 seats for each)

25 yearsor older20 yearsor older12 days

Constituencies:
47(1-4 seats for each prefecture)
Proportional representation
constituencies:
1(48 seats)

30 yearsor older20 yearsor older17 days

1－

30 yearsor olderCitizen of
20 yearsor older17 days1－

25 yearsor olderCitizen of
20 yearsor older96

Provided for in the ordinance within
the Local Autonomy Law (40 - 130 inaccordance with the population)city, ward or county (which covers
multiple towns and villages)

Citizens of
25 yearsor olderCitizens of
20 yearsor olderProvided for in the ordinance within
the Local Autonomy Law (12 - 96 inaccordance with the population)

None

Citizens of
25 yearsor olderCitizens of
20 yearsor olderDesignated cities: 14 days
Other cities:

7 daysTowns / Villages:

5 days9 daysDesignated cities: 9 days
Other cities:

7 daysTowns / Villages: 5 days

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6 The Number of Local Government Staff( 1 ) Prefecture
Fire fighting
18,416（1.2%）

Public enterprises (Water supply,
Sewerage , Hospital , Transportation , etc )88,254（5.7%）
Social welfare
62,756
General（4.0%）
administration
193,369（12.4%）( 2 ) Municipality
Public enterprises (Water supply,
Sewerage , Hospital , Transportation , etc )306,114（22.9%）

Generaladministration
390,861（29.2%）

Police281,181（18.0%）
Total
1,560,755（100%）

Education
916,779（58.7%）

Education, Police, Fire fighting,Social welfare
1,279,132（82.0%）

Fire fighting
138,686（10.4%）

Total
1,338,623（100%）

Education
173,934（13.0%）

Social welfare
329,028（24.6%）

Education, Fire fighting,Social welfare
641,648（47.9%）

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7 Local Government Finance(Ratio of Expenditure by Function between the National and Local Government)
The area related to daily life such as
public health and sanitation, school
education, social education, policeand fire services accounts for highpercentage of local governments’annual expenditure.

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7 Local Government Finance(Allocation of Financial Resources between the National and Local Government)
The ratio of the national government to local governments is about 3:2 in tax revenue.
In contrast, the ratio in expenditure to local government is approximately 2:3.
Accordingly, there is a wide gap between allocation of financial recourses and that ofexpenditure.

Allocation of Financial Resources Between the National and Local Government (FY 2007)
Taxes paid by Japanese nationals
Total amount of taxes: ¥92.9 trillion

National tax

Local tax

¥52.7 trillion (56.7%)¥40.3 trillion (43.3%)

National : Local
57 : 43(≒3:2)

Local allocation
tax and others¥37.4 trillion (40.3%)
National fiscal expenditure(net total) ¥61.4 trillion (41.1%)¥55.5 trillion (59.7%)
National
treasury
disbursements

Local fiscal expenditure(net total) ¥87.9 trillion (58.9%)

41 : 59(≒2:3)

Services provided to the public
Total amount of the national and local government expenditure(net total) ¥149.2 trillion

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7 Local Government Finance (Revenues)
Local taxes account for about ４０％ of the revenue of local governments, followed by the
local allocation tax grant, national treasury disbursements and local government borrowings.
・Local transfer tax : Fund collected as a national tax and transferred to local governments.
・Special local grant : A revenue source with the character of a substitute for local tax, introduced to supplement a part of the decrease of local tax caused
by tax cut since FY 1999.

・Local allocation tax : An intrinsic local revenue source aiming at adjusting imbalances in the revenue sources of local governments and securing revenue
so that each local government can provide public services for residents at the national minimum level.
・National treasury disbursements : Funds disbursed from the central government to local governments for specified uses.
・Local government borrowings (Local bonds): Borrowing of local governments not redeemed within the fiscal year.

Breakdown of Revenue (FY 2007)12

7 Local Government Finance(Local Tax)
Composition of Prefectural Taxes (FY 2007)

Composition of Municipal Taxes (FY 2007)13

7 Local Government Finance(Local Allocation Tax Grant)

1) The local allocation tax grant is an local revenue source aimed at adjusting imbalances in revenue sourcesamong local governments and securing revenue so that each local government can provide administrative
services at a standard level. Use of the local allocation tax grant is decided on initiative of each local
government.
2) The total amount of the local allocation tax grant is predetermined ratios of five national taxes*, with an
adjustment based on estimates of revenue and expenditure of local governments as a whole.
*32.0% of income tax and liquor tax individually, 34.0% of corporate tax, 29.5% of consumption tax, and25.0% of tobacco tax3) The local allocation tax grant is divided into the ordinary local allocation tax grant (94%) and the special local
allocation tax grant (6%).
4) The ordinary local allocation tax for each local government is calculated by the following mechanism:
Local Allocation tax for each local government = Standard Financial Needs* - Standard Financial Revenues*** Standard Financial Needs: Fiscal needs of each authority to provide certain level of service which is
supposed to be covered by general revenue, which is calculated by the following
formula:Unit cost (standard government administrative costs per unit)  measurement units (population, area, etc.)  adjustment coefficient** Standard Financial Revenues: Estimated the total general revenue of each authority.

5) The total amount of local allocation tax grant in fiscal year 2009 is approximately 15.8 trillion yen (approximately
158 billion dollar).
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8 Decentralization Reform(1995-2000)(Comprehensive Decentralization Law)

1. History of the Decentralization Reform The dissolution to promote decentralization was unanimously adopted by the diet in June, 1993.
 The Decentralization Promotion Law was promulgated in May 1995, and the Decentralization Promotion
Committee was established in July.
 A series of (1st through 4th) recommendation reports on the decentralization policy submitted to the prime ministerby an official study group from December 1996 to October 1997.
 The Cabinet decided the Decentralization Promotion Plan in May 1998.
 The Comprehensive Decentralization Law was promulgated in July 1999 (and took effect in April 2000).

2. Contents of the Comprehensive Decentralization Law
1) Clarification of the respective role of the central and local government.
 Changing the hierarchical relationship between the central and local governments to the equal andcooperative one.
2) Abolishment of the system of delegated functions (which is an administrative system where the central government
delegates some of its authorities to local governments, placing them on a organ of the central government within ascope of the delegated authorities.)
 Local government functions were restructured into self-governing functions and statutory entrusted functions.
 The system of local administrative officials dispatched by the central government was abolished.
3) Re-examination of the central government’s involvement into local government.
 The local Autonomy Law establishes the basic principles, the basic types and the procedures for the central
government’s involvement in local government policy, as well as the procedures for handling disputes
concerning such involvement.
4) Promotion of the delegation of authority
 Transfer of authorities from the central government to prefectures and from prefectures to municipalities Creation of the “Special Case Cities System” where authority is collectively transferred to the cities with apopulation of 200,000 or more
5) Curbing obligations to set up organizations
 In order to enhance efficiency in the administration of local governments, the obligation to strictly require theformation of certain secondary organs or placement of certain officers will be discontinued or relaxed.

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8 Decentralization Reform(2001-2006)(Reform of Finance & Tax System)
1) Final Report of the Decentralization Promotion Committee (June 2001)
The main issue of the next Decentralization Reform is how financial resource and tax resource of local
government is secured.
2) A lot of discussions are held in the meetings of the Council on Economic and Fiscal Policy (June 2001 – June
2003).
3) Basic Policies for Economic and Fiscal Management and Structural Reform for 2003 （June 2003）
The reform package of three issues (so called “Trinity Reform” or “Triangle Reform”) will be promoted toachieve the fundamental objective of local autonomy, which is to further allow local government authority tomake its decisions on its initiative.
4) Basic Policies for Economic and Fiscal Management and Structural Reform for 2004 (June 2004)
The proportion of expenditure to be covered with local government’s own authority, responsibility and financial
resource will be increased, and, in addition, the complete picture of the Trinity Reform (the reform package ofthree issues) will be clarified in autumn of 2004 with a view to constructing a simple and efficient system ofadministration and finance for both the central and local governments.
5) The complete picture of the Trinity Reform (the reform package of three issues) to be implemented up to the fiscal
2006 (Agreement between the government and the ruling parties of November 2004)○ Reform of national subsidy to local governments• Abolishment and reduction of national subsidies to local government will be made by around 3 trillion yen.
○ Transfer of tax revenue sources from the central to local government• The target amount is about 3 trillion yen by way of transfer of tax resource from the income tax of thecentral government to local inhabitant tax.
○ Reform of the local allocation tax• The total amount of general revenue sources such as local allocation tax grant, local taxes and so forth,necessary for the stable fiscal operation, will be secured.
• Increase in the disparity in financial capability among local governments caused by the transfer of tax
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revenue sources will be avoided, and smooth fiscal operation and change of the systems will be secured.

8 Decentralization Reform(Municipal Mergers)

1) Numbers of Municipalities
1889: 71,314 (before The Big Merger of the Meiji era)
1890: 15,859 (Enactment of municipal system / The Big Merger of the Meiji era)
1953: 9,868 (Enactment of the Promotion Law for Municipal Mergers)
1956: 4,668 (The Big Mergers of the Showa era)
1999: 3,229 (Amendment of the Special Mergers Law)
2009: 1,777 (as of April 1)
2) Purpose of the Present Municipal Merger Promotion
1. Promoting of Decentralization
2. Responding to aging of society
3. Responding to diversifying needs of citizens
4. Responding to expansion of residential area
5. Streamlining municipal administration
3) Present Situation of the Municipal Mergers○ Achievement of municipal mergers
3,229 (April 1999)
1,777 (April 2009): reduced by 1,452 (-45%)○ Scheduled mergers in the future
to 1,760 municipalities (by March, 2010)17

9 Further Reforms Towards Decentralization
1. Basic Policy for Economic and Fiscal Policy Management and Structural Reforms for 2006
(decided at a cabinet meeting on 7 July 2006) (extract) Through an overall review of related laws, the new division of responsibilities between the national
government and local governments will be set out and the national government’s involvement in local
governments’ policies and subsidies to local governments will be eliminated or reduced to promote
decentralization.
Local taxation system will be under a comprehensive consideration including a review to division of tax
resource between the central government and local governments, together with review to local allocation
tax grant and national subsidy, taking into account financial condition in both the central government andlocal governments
2. Outline of the Decentralization Reform Promotion Law (effective from 1 April, 2007)
1) Basic Principles
With the goal of creating distinctive and dynamic local communities, through* clarifying the division of roles between the national and local governments and* enhancing the autonomy and independence of local authorities,
an administrative management based on local authorities’ own judgment and responsibility will bepromoted.
2) The Decentralization Reform Promotion Plan
The government will draft the Decentralization Reform Promotion Plan in order to establish thenecessary legal and financial measures to promote decentralization reform.
3) The Decentralization Reform Promotion Committee
The Decentralization Reform Promotion Committee will be established in the Cabinet Officeand composed of seven members.
The Prime Minister will appoint the members after getting approval from both houses of the Diet.
The committee will recommend a specific guideline for the Decentralization Reform PromotionPlan.
4) Duration of the law
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Until 31 March, 2010 (temporary legislation)

10 “Doshusei” Regional System
1. Basic Policy for Economic and Fiscal Policy Reform for 2007 (decided at a cabinet meeting on June 19,2007) (extract)○ To draw up the “Doshusei High Vision” plan for the introduction of a full-scale “Doshusei” regional
system.
○ To complete an interim report on the issues regarding the principle and framework at the “Doshusei
Vision Meeting” for drawing up the “Doshusei High Vision.”
2. Points in the “Doshusei” Vision Meeting Interim Report (March 24, 2008)○ Principle of “Doshusei” Regional System
・Toward “a new shape of country”, adopting to the current situation- From a centralized to a decentralized country“Doshusei Regional Autonomy Model”○ Review of Division of the Responsibilities among the Central Government, “Doshu” Regional
Governments and Municipal Governments
・The central government’s roles: 1) to conduct international affairs, 2) to draw up a national strategy,3) to maintain the country’s infrastructure, 4) to set up a standard that should be a nationally unified
one
・The “Doshu” regional government’s roles: 1) to arrange broad regional governance, 2) to establish
standards, 3) to adjust the fiscal disparity among municipalities
・The municipal government’s roles: to provide public services closely tied to the community○ Matters to be taken into consideration for creating each “Doshu” region.
1) an economically and financially independent scale, 2) geographical unity with sense of belonging forresidents, 3) commonality of history, cultural and customs, 4) conditions of exchanges in daily lives andeconomy-> Aiming at an introduction of the “Doshusei” Regional System in around 10 years

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