Chapter 2: Mineral Industry Emissions

CHAPTER 2

MINERAL INDUSTRY EMISSIONS

2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories

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Volume 3: Industrial Processes and Product Use

Authors
Lisa Hanle (USA)
Pedro Maldonado (Chile), Eiichi Onuma (Japan), Milos Tichy (Czech Republic), and Hendrik G. van Oss (USA)Contributing Authors
Victor O. Aume (USA), George H. Edwards (USA), and M. Michael Miller (USA)2.2

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Chapter 2: Mineral Industry Emissions

Contents
2

Mineral Industry Emissions ..........................................................................................................................2.6
2.1

Introduction ...........................................................................................................................................2.6

2.2

Cement production ................................................................................................................................2.7

2.2.1
2.2.1.1

Choice of method.....................................................................................................................2.7

2.2.1.2

Choice of emission factors.....................................................................................................2.11

2.2.1.3

Choice of activity data ...........................................................................................................2.13

2.2.1.4

Completeness.........................................................................................................................2.15

2.2.1.5

Developing a consistent time series .......................................................................................2.16

2.2.2

Emission factor uncertainties.................................................................................................2.16

2.2.2.2

Activity data uncertainties .....................................................................................................2.16
Quality Assurance/Quality Control (QA/QC), Reporting and Documentation ...........................2.18

2.2.3.1

Quality Assurance/Quality Control (QA/QC)........................................................................2.18

2.2.3.2

Reporting and Documentation ...............................................................................................2.18

Lime production ..................................................................................................................................2.19

2.3.1

Methodological issues .................................................................................................................2.19

2.3.1.1

Choice of method...................................................................................................................2.19

2.3.1.2

Choice of emission factors.....................................................................................................2.22

2.3.1.3

Choice of activity data ...........................................................................................................2.23

2.3.1.4

Completeness.........................................................................................................................2.24

2.3.1.5

Developing a consistent time series .......................................................................................2.25

2.3.2

Uncertainty assessment ...............................................................................................................2.25

2.3.2.1

Emission factor uncertainties.................................................................................................2.25

2.3.2.2

Activity data uncertainties .....................................................................................................2.26

2.3.3

2.4

Uncertainty assessment ...............................................................................................................2.16

2.2.2.1
2.2.3

2.3

Methodological issues ...................................................................................................................2.7

Quality Assurance/Quality Control (QA/QC), Reporting and Documentation ...........................2.26

2.3.3.1

Quality Assurance/Quality Control (QA /QC).......................................................................2.26

2.3.3.2

Reporting and Documentation ...............................................................................................2.26

Glass production..................................................................................................................................2.27

2.4.1

Methodological issues .................................................................................................................2.27

2.4.1.1

Choice of method...................................................................................................................2.28

2.4.1.2

Choice of emission factors.....................................................................................................2.29

2.4.1.3

Choice of activity data ...........................................................................................................2.30

2.4.1.4

Completeness.........................................................................................................................2.31

2.4.1.5

Developing a consistent time series .......................................................................................2.31

2.4.2
2.4.2.1

Uncertainty assessment ...............................................................................................................2.31
Emission factor uncertainties.................................................................................................2.31

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2.4.2.2
2.4.3

2.5

Activity data uncertainties .....................................................................................................2.31
Quality Assurance/Quality Control (QA/QC), Reporting and Documentation ...........................2.32

2.4.3.1

Quality Assurance/Quality Control (QA/QC)........................................................................2.32

2.4.3.2

Reporting and Documentation ...............................................................................................2.32

Other process uses of carbonates.........................................................................................................2.32

2.5.1

Methodological issues .................................................................................................................2.32

2.5.1.1

Choice of method...................................................................................................................2.34

2.5.1.2

Choice of emission factors.....................................................................................................2.36

2.5.1.3

Choice of activity data ...........................................................................................................2.36

2.5.1.4

Completeness.........................................................................................................................2.36

2.5.1.5

Developing a consistent time series .......................................................................................2.38

2.5.2

Uncertainty assessment ...............................................................................................................2.39

2.5.2.1

Emission factor uncertainties.................................................................................................2.39

2.5.2.2

Activity data uncertainties .....................................................................................................2.39

2.5.3

Quality Assurance/Quality Control (QA/QC), Reporting and Documentation ...........................2.39

2.5.3.1

Quality Assurance/Quality Control (QA/QC)........................................................................2.39

2.5.3.2

Reporting and Documentation ...............................................................................................2.40

References.....................................................................................................................................................2.40

Equations
Equation 2.1

Tier 1: Emissions based on cement production .....................................................................2.8

Equation 2.2

Tier 2: Emissions based on clinker production data ..............................................................2.9

Equation 2.3

Tier 3: Emissions based on carbonate raw material inputs to the kiln.................................2.11

Equation 2.4

Emission factor for clinker ..................................................................................................2.12

Equation 2.5

Correction factor for CKD not recycled to the kiln .............................................................2.13

Equation 2.6

Tier 2: Emissions based on national lime production data by type......................................2.21

equation 2.7

Tier 3: Emissions based on carbonate inputs.......................................................................2.21

Equation 2.8

Tier 1: Default emission factor for lime production ............................................................2.22

Equation 2.9

Tier 2: Emission factors for lime production.......................................................................2.23

Equation 2.10 Tier 1: Emissions based on glass production.......................................................................2.28
Equation 2.11 Tier 2: Emissions based on glass manufacturing process ....................................................2.28
Equation 2.12 Tier 3: Emissions based on carbonate inputs.......................................................................2.28
Equation 2.13 Tier 1: Default emission factor for glass production ...........................................................2.29
Equation 2.14 Tier 1: Emissions based on mass of carbonates consumed..................................................2.34
Equation 2.15 Tier 2: Method for other process uses of carbonates ...........................................................2.34
Equation 2.16 Tier 3: Carbonate input approach for other process uses of carbonates ..............................2.35

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Chapter 2: Mineral Industry Emissions

FiguresFigure 2.1

Decision tree for estimation of CO2 emissions from cement production...............................2.9

Figure 2.2

Decision tree for estimation of CO2 emissions from lime production .................................2.20

Figure 2.3

Decision tree for estimation of CO2 emissions from glass production ................................2.29

Figure 2.4

Decision tree for estimation of CO2 emissions from other process uses of carbonates .......2.35

TablesTable 2.1

Formulae, formula weights, and carbon dioxide contents of common carbonate species .....2.7

Table 2.2

Clinker fraction of blended cement ‘Recipes’ and overall product mixes (based on U.S.
standards ASTM C-150 and C-595; U.S. data may be illustrative for other countries) ......2.14

Table 2.3

Default uncertainty values for cement production...............................................................2.17

Table 2.4

Basic parameters for the calculation of emission factors for lime production.....................2.22

Table 2.5

Default uncertainty values for estimation of CO2 emissions from lime production ............2.25

Table 2.6

Default emission factors and cullet ratios for different glass types .....................................2.30

Table 2.7

Emissive and non-emissive uses of carbonates ...................................................................2.37

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2 MINERAL INDUSTRY EMISSIONS
2.1

INTRODUCTION

This chapter outlines methodologies for estimating process-related carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions resulting
from the use of carbonate raw materials in the production and use of a variety of mineral industry products.
There are two broad pathways for release of CO2 from carbonates: calcination and the acid-induced release ofCO2. The primary process resulting in the release of CO2 is the calcination of carbonate compounds, during
which, through heating, a metallic oxide is formed. A typical calcination reaction, here shown for the mineral
calcite or calcium carbonate, would be:
CaCO3 + heat Æ CaO + CO2
Acid-induced release of CO2, for example, via an equation such as:
CaCO3 + H2SO4 Æ CaSO4 + H2O + CO2
This occurs in a variety of industries, but is typically the result of small quantities of carbonate being present as
an impurity in an acidification process to upgrade a non-carbonate material. For example, in the treatment ofphosphate ores with sulphuric acid to produce phosphoric acid, the phosphate concentrate that is to be acidified
may contain a small percentage of carbonate minerals. In general, the amount of CO2 released by acidification ofthese carbonate impurities will be small.
The focus of this chapter is therefore on the emissions resulting from calcination of carbonate materials.
Although the principal process by which calcination-related emissions are released is similar among the source
categories in the mineral industry, three source categories are highlighted because of their relatively significant
contribution to global emissions. These source categories are Cement Production, Lime Production and Glass
Production. In addition to these source categories, this chapter considers emissions resulting from theconsumption of carbonates in a variety of other mineral industries including ceramics, soda ash use, andcarbonate consumption for non-metallurgical magnesia production.
Limestone and other carbonate materials also are consumed in a variety of other industries not covered in thischapter. Examples include carbonates used as fluxes1 and slagging2 agents in metals smelting and refining (e.g.,iron and steel production and base metals such as copper), and as inputs to the chemical industry (e.g., fertiliser).
The methods outlined in this chapter for estimating emissions from the use of carbonates are applicable to theseother industries as well. It is good practice to allocate emissions from the use of limestone, dolomite and othercarbonates to the industrial source category where they are emitted (e.g., iron and steel production).
As noted throughout Volume 3 on Industrial Processes and Product Use (IPPU), the emission estimation
methodologies outlined below consider only process-related emissions and do not consider energy-related
emissions. Inventory compilers should ensure that energy-related emissions from these industries are accounted
for in the Energy Sector and that there is no double-counting of emissions between the Energy and IPPU Sectors.
For example, the calculation of CO2 emissions from fuel consumed in cement manufacture should consider the
combustion of both fossil fuels and waste fuels (tyres, waste oils, paints, etc.) These combustion-related
emissions, however, should be included with energy-related emissions and not with IPPU, which should include
only the emissions from calcination.
Although methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) may be emitted from some minerals industry source categories,
given current scientific knowledge, these emissions are assumed to be negligible and thus are not addressed inthis chapter. CO2 emissions may result from additional mineral-related activities not identified here; where these
are known and can be estimated, they should be included in the inventory.
The source categories in this chapter share a common approach to methodological tiers. Tiers 1 and 2 are basedon estimates of the amount of raw materials consumed or products manufactured, along with emission factorsthat represent the amount of CO2 emitted per unit of mass. Tier 3 describes direct calculations based on the site1

Fluxes are raw materials, such as limestone, dolomite, lime and silica sand, which are used to reduce the heat or otherenergy requirements of thermal processing of minerals (such as smelting of metals). Fluxes also may serve a dual function
as a slagging agent.

2

Slag is a residual silicate melt deliberately formed during the smelting of metallic ores, or in subsequent furnaces (e.g.,steel), by the addition of slagging agents (commonly lime, limestone and/or dolomite). Slag contains most of the nonvolatile impurities stripped from the ores as well as components derived from any fluxes added to the smelting process.

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Chapter 2: Mineral Industry Emissions

specific chemistry of raw materials. If site-specific raw materials data are used, it is vital that all sources ofcarbonate in the raw materials and fuels are accounted for (not just the limestone). The basic emissions
calculations for all carbonate-burning industries are similar. They are based on common formula weights andCO2 ratios, which are presented in Table 2.1 below for convenience.
TABLE 2.1
FORMULAE, FORMULA WEIGHTS, AND CARBON DIOXIDE CONTENTS OF COMMON CARBONATE SPECIES*
Carbonate

Mineral Name(s)Formula Weight

Emission Factor(tonnes CO2/tonne carbonate)**CaCO3

Calcite*** or aragonite

100.0869

0.43971

MgCO3

Magnesite

84.31390.52197

CaMg(CO3)2

Dolomite***184.4008

0.47732

FeCO3

Siderite

115.8539

0.37987

Ca(Fe,Mg,Mn)(CO3)2

Ankerite****185.0225−215.6160

0.40822−0.47572

MnCO3

Rhodochrosite

114.9470

0.38286

Na2CO3

Sodium carbonate or soda ash

106.0685

0.41492

Source: CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (2004)* Final results (i.e., emission estimates) using these data should be rounded to no more than two significant figures.
** The fraction of emitted CO2 assuming 100 percent calcination; e.g., 1 tonne calcite, if fully calcined, would yield 0.43971 tonnes of
CO2.
*** Calcite is the principal mineral in limestone. Terms like high-magnesium or dolomitic limestones refer to a relatively small
substitution of Mg for Ca in the general CaCO3 formula commonly shown for limestone.
**** Formulae weight range shown for ankerite assumes that Fe, Mg, and Mn are present in amounts of at least 1.0 percent.

2.2

CEMENT PRODUCTION

2.2.1

Methodological issues

In cement manufacture, CO2 is produced during the production of clinker, a nodular intermediate product that isthen finely ground, along with a small proportion of calcium sulfate [gypsum (CaSO4·2H2O) or anhydrite(CaSO4)], into hydraulic (typically portland) cement. During the production of clinker, limestone, which ismainly calcium carbonate (CaCO3), is heated, or calcined, to produce lime (CaO) and CO2 as a by-product. The
CaO then reacts with silica (SiO2), alumina (Al2O3), and iron oxide (Fe2O3) in the raw materials to make theclinker minerals (chiefly calcium silicates). The proportion in the raw materials of carbonates other than CaCO3
is generally very small. The other carbonates, if present, exist mainly as impurities in the primary limestone raw
material. A small amount of MgO (typically 1-2 percent) in the clinker-making process is desirable as it acts as aflux, but much more than this amount can lead to problems with the cement (van Oss and Padovani, 2002).
Cement may be made (ground) entirely from imported clinker, in which case the cement production facility may
be considered to have zero process-related CO2 emissions. As discussed in Section 2.2.1.2, cement kiln dust
(CKD) may be generated during the manufacture of clinker. Emission estimates should account for emissions
associated with the CKD.
There are no additional emissions associated with the production of masonry cement. Where masonry cement is
produced by adding lime to portland cement (or its clinker), the emissions associated with the lime should
already be accounted for under lime production. The addition of ground limestone to portland cement or its
clinker to produce masonry cement does not lead to additional emissions.

2.2.1.1

C HOICE OF METHOD

The decision tree in Figure 2.1 describes good practice in choosing the most appropriate method based onnational circumstances. In the Tier 1 method, emissions are based on clinker production estimates inferred from
cement production data, correcting for imports and exports of clinker. The estimation of emissions directly from
cement production (i.e., applying an emission factor directly to cement production without first estimating
clinker production) is not considered to be a good practice method because it does not account for clinker
imports and exports.
In Tier 2, emissions are estimated directly from clinker production data (rather than clinker production inferredfrom cement production) and a national or default emission factor. The Tier 3 approach is a calculation based on

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the weights and compositions of all carbonate inputs from all raw material and fuel sources, the emission factor(s)for the carbonate(s), and the fraction of calcination achieved. The Tier 3 approach relies on plant specific data. If
the inventory compiler considers plant-level data to be unreliable or highly uncertain, then it is good practice to
use Tier 2.
Tier 2 and Tier 3 should also include a correction for CKD. Tier 2 includes a correction addition for emissions
associated with CKD not recycled to the kiln. Tier 3 also should account for CKD. Unlike the Tier 2 approach,when using Tier 3, emissions attributed to uncalcined CKD not recycled to the kiln should be subtracted from thetotal emissions estimate.
Should CO2 capture technology be installed and used at a plant, it is good practice to deduct the CO2 captured ina higher tier emissions calculation. The default assumption is that there is no CO2 capture and storage (CCS)
taking place. Any methodology taking into account CO2 capture should consider that CO2 emissions captured in
the process may be both combustion and process-related. In cases where combustion and process emissions areto be reported separately, e.g. for cement production, inventory compilers should ensure that the same quantities
of CO2 are not double counted. In these cases the total amount of CO2 captured should preferably be reported in
the corresponding energy combustion and IPPU source categories in proportion to the amounts of CO2 generated
in these source categories. For additional information on CO2 capture and storage refer to Volume 3, Section
1.2.2 and for more details on capture and storage to Volume 2, Section 2.3.4.

TIER 1 METHOD: ESTIMATING CLINKER PRODUCTION THROUGH USE
OF CEMENT PRODUCTION DATA
As noted above, calculating CO2 emissions directly from cement production (i.e., using a fixed cement-based
emission factor) is not consistent with good practice. Instead, in the absence of data on carbonate inputs or
national clinker production data, cement production data may be used to estimate clinker production by taking
into account the amounts and types of cement produced and their clinker contents and including a correction forclinker imports and exports. Accounting for imports and exports of clinker is an important factor in theestimation of emissions from this source. Emissions from the production of imported clinker should not be
included in national emissions estimates as these emissions were produced and accounted for in another country.
Similarly, emissions from clinker that is ultimately exported should be factored into national estimates of thecountry where the clinker is produced. An emission factor for clinker is then applied and the CO2 emissions arecalculated according to Equation 2.1.
EQUATION 2.1
TIER 1: EMISSIONS BASED ON CEMENT PRODUCTION⎡⎤
CO 2 Emissions = ⎢∑ ( M ci • C cl i ) − Im + Ex ⎥ • EFclc⎣i⎦

Where:
CO2 Emissions = emissions of CO2 from cement production, tonnes
Mci = weight (mass) of cement produced3 of type i, tonnes
Ccli = clinker fraction of cement of type i, fraction
Im = imports for consumption of clinker, tonnes
Ex = exports of clinker, tonnes
EFclc = emission factor for clinker in the particular cement, tonnes CO2/tonne clinker
The default clinker emission factor (EFclc) is corrected for CKD.

3

In some statistical compendia production of cement is taken to mean production of cement plus the exports of clinker. If
this is the case, it is good practice to subtract clinker exports from the Mci factor in Equation 2.1.

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Chapter 2: Mineral Industry Emissions

Figure 2.1

Decision tree for estimation of CO 2 emissions from cement production
Start

Is clinker
produced in the
country?

No

There are no process-related emissions
from cement production. Reportemissions as "not occurring".
Box 4: Emissions Not OccurringYes

Are detailed
data available for carbonate
inputs used in clinker
production?

Yes

No

Collect plant-specific activity data on
carbonates consumed (their chemicalcomposition and calcination achieved) andrelevant emission factors as basis for Tier 3
method. Where analysis of carbonates is doneon a periodic basis, clinker
production data may be used as a proxy.
Correct for CKD.
Box 3: Tier 3

Are national
clinker production data
available?

Yes

Calculate emissions based on national
clinker production statistics. Estimate
CaO content of clinker. Correct for CKD.
Box 2: Tier 2

No

Is this a key
category1?

No

Yes

Collect cement production data by type
and the clinker fraction of cement.
Collect trade data for clinker.
Use a default emission factor.
Box 1: Tier 1

Collect data for the Tier 3
or Tier 2 method.
Note:
1. See Volume 1 Chapter 4, Methodological Choice and Identification of Key Categories (noting Section 4.1.2 on limited resources), for
discussion of key categories and use of decision trees.

TIER 2 METHOD: USE OF CLINKER PRODUCTION DATA
If detailed and complete data (including weights and composition) for carbonate(s) consumed in clinker
production are not available (Tier 3), or if a rigorous Tier 3 approach is otherwise deemed impractical, it is goodpractice to use aggregated plant or national clinker production data and data on the CaO content in clinker,
expressed as an emission factor in the following Equation 2.2:
EQUATION 2.2
TIER 2: EMISSIONS BASED ON CLINKER PRODUCTION DATA
CO2 Emissions = M cl • EFcl • CFckd
Where:

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CO2 Emissions = emissions of CO2 from cement production, tonnes
Mcl = weight (mass) of clinker produced, tonnes
EFcl = emission factor for clinker, tonnes CO2/tonne clinker (See discussion under Section 2.2.1.2,
Choice of Emission Factors, for Tiers 1 and 2 below.) This clinker emission factor (EFcl) is notcorrected for CKD.
CFckd = emissions correction factor for CKD, dimensionless (see Equation 2.5)
The Tier 2 approach is based on the following assumptions about the cement industry and clinker production:
1.

The majority of hydraulic cement is either portland cement or a similar cement, which requires portland
cement clinker;

2.

There is a very limited range in the CaO composition of clinker and the MgO content is kept very low;3.

Plants are generally able to control the CaO content of the raw material inputs and of the clinker withinclose tolerances;

4.

Even where the output of clinker is calculated by a plant rather than directly measured, there is generally
close agreement between the two determination methods when audits are performed;

5.

The CaO content of clinker from a given plant tends not to change significantly over the years;

6.

The main source of the CaO for most plants is CaCO3 and, at least at the plant level, any major noncarbonate sources of CaO are readily quantified (see Section 2.2.1.2 below);7.

A 100 percent (or very close to it) calcination factor is achieved for the carbonate inputs for clinker
manufacture, including (commonly to a lesser degree) material lost to the system as non-recycled CKD; and8.

Dust collectors at plants capture essentially all of the CKD, although this material is not necessarily recycled
to the kiln.

TIER 3 METHOD: USE OF CARBONATE(S) INPUT DATA
Tier 3 is based on the collection of disaggregated data on the types (compositions) and quantities of carbonate(s)consumed to produce clinker, as well as the respective emission factor(s) of the carbonate(s) consumed.
Emissions are then calculated using Equation 2.3. The Tier 3 approach includes an adjustment to subtract any
uncalcined carbonate within CKD not returned to the kiln. If the CKD is fully calcined, or all of it is returned to
the kiln, this CKD correction factor becomes zero. Tier 3 is still considered to be good practice in instanceswhere inventory compilers do not have access to data on uncalcined CKD. However, excluding uncalcined CKD
may slightly overestimate emissions.
Limestones and shales (raw materials) also may contain a proportion of organic carbon (kerogen), and other raw
materials (e.g., fly ash) may contain carbon residues, which would yield additional CO2 when burned. Theseemissions typically are not accounted for in the Energy Sector, but, if used extensively, inventory compilers
should make an effort to see if they are included in the Energy Sector. Currently, however, too few data exist on
the kerogen or carbon contents of non-fuel raw materials for mineral processes to allow a meaningful default
value related to the average kerogen content of raw materials to be provided in this chapter. For plant-level raw
material-based calculations (Tier 3) where the kerogen content is high (i.e., contributes more than 5 percent of
total heat), it is good practice to include the kerogen contribution to emissions.
The Tier 3 approach will likely only be practical for individual plants and countries that have access to detailed
plant-level data on the carbonate raw materials. Emissions data collected on the plant level should then be
aggregated for purposes of reporting national emissions estimates. It is recognized that frequent calculations ofemissions based on direct analysis of carbonates could be burdensome for some plants. As long as detailed
chemical analyses of the carbonate inputs are carried out with sufficient frequency to establish a good correlation
between the carbonates consumed at the plant level and the resulting clinker production, the clinker output may
then be used as a proxy for carbonates for emissions calculations in the intervening periods. That is, a plant may
derive a rigorously-constrained emission factor for the plant’s clinker, based on periodic calibration to thecarbonate inputs.

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EQUATION 2.3
TIER 3: EMISSIONS BASED ON CARBONATE RAW MATERIAL INPUTS TO THE KILN
CO2 Emissions = ∑(EFi • Mi • Fi ) − M d •Cd • (1− Fd ) • EFd + ∑(M k • X k • EFk )i

Emissions fromcarbonatesk

Emissions from
uncalcined CKD
not recycled to
the kiln

Emissions fromcarbon-bearing nonfuel materials

Where:
CO2 Emissions = emissions of CO2 from cement production, tonnes
EFi = emission factor for the particular carbonate i, tonnes CO2/tonne carbonate (see Table 2.1)
Mi = weight or mass of carbonate i consumed in the kiln, tonnes
Fi = fraction calcination achieved for carbonate i, fractiona
Md = weight or mass of CKD not recycled to the kiln (= ‘lost’ CKD), tonnes
Cd = weight fraction of original carbonate in the CKD not recycled to the kiln, fractionb
Fd = fraction calcination achieved for CKD not recycled to kiln, fractiona
EFd = emission factor for the uncalcined carbonate in CKD not recycled to the kiln, tonnes CO2/tonne
carbonateb
Mk = weight or mass of organic or other carbon-bearing nonfuel raw material k, tonnesc
Xk = fraction of total organic or other carbon in specific nonfuel raw material k, fractionc
EFk = emission factor for kerogen (or other carbon)-bearing nonfuel raw material k, tonnes CO2/tonne
carbonatec
Notes on defaults for Equation 2.3:
a:Calcination fraction: In the absence of actual data, it may be assumed that, at the temperatures andresidence times achieved in cement (clinker) kilns, the degree of calcination achieved for all material
incorporated in the clinker is 100 percent (i.e., Fi = 1.00) or very close to it. For CKD, a Fd of <1.00
is more likely but the data may show high variability and relatively low reliability. In the absence of
reliable data for CKD, an assumption of Fd = 1.00 will result in the correction for CKD to equal zero.

b: Because calcium carbonate is overwhelmingly the dominant carbonate in the raw materials, it may be
assumed that it makes up 100 percent of the carbonate remaining in the CKD not recycled to the kiln.
It is thus acceptable within good practice to set Cd as equal to the calcium carbonate ratio in the raw
material feed to the kiln. Likewise, it is acceptable to use the emission factor for calcium carbonate
for EFd.
c:2.2.1.2

The CO2 emissions from non-carbonate carbon (e.g., carbon in kerogen, carbon in fly ash) in the nonfuel raw materials can be ignored (set Mk • Xk • EFk = 0) if the heat contribution from kerogen orother carbon is < 5 percent of total heat (from fuels).

C HOICE OF EMISSION FACTORSTIER 1 METHOD
In Tier 1, it is good practice to use a default CaO content for clinker of 65 percent; assume that 100 percent of
the CaO is from calcium carbonate material; and to incorporate a 2 percent correction factor for CKD (for morediscussion on CKD, please refer to the Tier 2 method discussion below.)
For the default CaO composition, 1 tonne of clinker contains 0.65 tonnes CaO from CaCO3. This carbonate is
56.03 percent CaO and 43.97 percent CO2 by weight (Table 2.1). The amount (X) of CaCO3 needed to yield 0.65
tonnes CaO is: X = 0.65/0.5603 = 1.1601 tonnes CaCO3 (unrounded). The amount of CO2 released by calcining
this CaCO3 = 1.1601 • 0.4397 = 0.5101 tonnes CO2 (unrounded). Assuming a correction addition of 2 percent toaccount for CKD, the rounded default emission factor (EFclc) for clinker is:2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories

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EQUATION 2.4
EMISSION FACTOR FOR CLINKER
EFclc = 0.51 • 1.02 (CKD correction) = 0.52 tonnesCO 2 / tonne clinker

Under Tier 1, the default EFclc incorporates the correction for CKD. This should not be confused with EFcl under
Tier 2, which does not account for the CKD. EFcl should be multiplied by a correction factor, CFckd (seeEquation 2.5) to generate the combined EF for clinker and CKD.

TIER 2 METHOD
Emission factor for clinker (EFcl)

In the Tier 2 method, if sufficient country-specific data on CaO content of clinker and inputs of non-carbonate
CaO sources are available, it is good practice to estimate a country-specific CO2 emission factor for clinker. As
noted above, the derivation of an emission factor for clinker requires that the CaO content of the clinker beknown, as well as the fraction of CaO that was derived from a carbonate source (generally CaCO3). The CaO
content of clinker is generally within the range of 60 to 67 percent. At a given plant the CaO content will remain
stable to within 1 to 2 percent. The basic default emission factor, as recommended under Tier 1, assumes that theclinker is 65 percent CaO and that this is 100 percent derived from CaCO3 and that 100 percent calcination isachieved in the kiln.
The base (i.e., uncorrected for CKD) 0.51 emission factor in Equation 2.4 assumes a 65 percent CaO content inclinker. A similar calculation would yield emission factors for different CaO contents, if these contents are
known. For example, for a clinker with 60 percent CaO all derived from CaCO3 the EFcl (not including acorrection for CKD) is 0.47, and for 67 percent CaO the EFcl is 0.53.
If it is known that a plant is deriving a significant fraction of CaO from a non-carbonate source (such as steelslag or fly ash), then this component of CaO should first be subtracted. For example, if 4 percent of the CaO in a
65 percent CaO clinker is from slag, then the CaO from carbonate is 61 percent and the calculation for this yields
an EFcl of 0.48.
The default emission factor does not include a correction for MgO. For every 1 percent of MgO derived fromcarbonate the emission factor is an additional 0.011 tonne CO2/tonne clinker (i.e., EFcl = 0.510 + 0.011 = 0.52
tonne CO2/tonne clinker). Because MgO also may come from a non-carbonate source and because the MgO isdeliberately kept low in portland cement, the true MgO from carbonate is likely to be very small. Given the factthat the assumption of a 100 percent carbonate source for the CaO already yields an overestimation of emissions(there is likely to be at least some contribution of CaO from non-carbonate sources) and the fact that some of the
MgO is also likely to be from a non-carbonate source, a correction for MgO is not required for a Tier 2
calculation. For uncertainties associated with these assumptions please refer to Table 2.3.
Emissions correction factor for cement kiln dust (CFckd)

Dust may be generated at various points in the kiln line apparatus used to make clinker. The composition of thisdust can vary depending on where it is generated but all may be included under the term ‘cement kiln dust’(CKD). CKD includes particulates derived from the raw materials, and the original carbonate component of thedust may be incompletely calcined. CKD can be efficiently captured by dust control technology and thenrecycled to the kiln (the preferred practice), or it may be directly returned to the kiln in the combustion air, or(after capture) it may be disposed of. The degree to which CKD can be recycled to the kiln depends on whether
or not this causes a quality problem (e.g., excessive alkali content) with the clinker or subsequent finishedcement. Any CKD not recycled to the kiln is considered to be ‘lost’ to the process and emissions associated with
it will not be accounted for by the clinker. To the degree that the lost CKD represents calcined carbonate raw
materials, the emissions from these calcined raw materials represent an addition to the clinker emissions in the
Tier 1 and 2 calculations, and a subtraction in the Tier 3 calculation.
As data on the amount of CKD produced may be scarce (except possibly for plant-level reporting), estimating
emissions from lost CKD based on a default value can be considered good practice. The amount of CO2 fromlost CKD can vary, but ranges typically from about 1.5 percent (additional CO2 relative to that calculated forclinker) for a modern plant to about 20 percent for a plant losing a lot of highly calcinated CKD (van Oss, 2005).
In the absence of data, the default CKD correction factor (CFckd) is 1.02 (i.e., add 2 percent to the CO2 calculated
for clinker). If no calcined CKD is believed to be lost to the system, the CKD correction factor will be 1.00 (vanOss, 2005). In addition to CKD, the World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD) separately
addresses emissions from bypass dust (which is fully calcined). If the data are available, countries may refer tothe WBCSD Protocol to estimate these emissions (WBCSD, 2005).
Where data are available, a correction factor (CFckd in Equation 2.2) for the ‘lost’ CO2 emissions can becalculated using Equation 2.5.

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The CKD correction factor (CFckd) for use in Equation 2.2 can be derived as:
EQUATION 2.5
CORRECTION FACTOR FOR CKD NOT RECYCLED TO THE KILN
CFckd = 1 + ( M d M cl ) • C d • Fd • ( EFc EFcl )Where:
CFckd = emissions correction factor for CKD, dimensionless
Md = weight of CKD not recycled to the kiln, tonnesa
Mcl = weight of clinker produced, tonnes
Cd = fraction of original carbonate in the CKD (i.e., before calcination), fractionb
Fd = fraction calcination of the original carbonate in the CKD, fractionb
EFc = emission factor for the carbonate (Table 2.1), tonnes CO2/tonne carbonate
EFcl = emission factor for clinker uncorrected for CKD (i.e., 0.51 tonnes CO2/tonne clinker), tonnes
CO2/tonne clinker
Notes:a:

It is assumed that 100 percent of the CKD is first captured. If any CKD vents to the atmosphere, anestimate of this quantity must be made and included in the Md.

b: It is acceptable to assume that the original carbonate is all CaCO3 and that the proportion of original
carbonate in the CKD is essentially the same as that in the raw mix kiln feed.
For example, for Md/Mcl = 0.2, Cd = 0.85, Fd = 0.5, original carbonate all CaCO3 (hence EFc = 0.4397 tonne
CO2/tonne carbonate), and EFcl = default value of 0.51 tonne CO2/tonne clinker, the CFckd = 1.073 (unrounded) that is, this represents about a 7 percent addition to the CO2 calculated for the clinker alone.

TIER 3 METHODThe Tier 3 emission factors are based on the actual CO2 contents of the carbonates present (see Equation 2.3 andTable 2.1). The Tier 3 approach requires the full accounting of carbonates (species and sources).

2.2.1.3

C HOICE OF ACTIVITY DATATIER 1 METHOD
In Tier 1, national-level (or where available, plant-level), data should be collected on the types of cement
produced and the clinker fraction of the cement in order to estimate clinker production. Most hydraulic cement
produced worldwide is either portland cement, or blended (composite) cements based on portland cement (i.e.,
portland cement (or clinker) plus pozzolanic or cementitious additives) or masonry-type cements (portland
cement plus plasticizing materials such as ground limestone). If cement production cannot be disaggregated bytype and it is suspected that significant amounts of blended and/or masonry cements are being produced inaddition to portland cement, it is acceptable within good practice to assume an overall clinker fraction of 75
percent. If cement production is known to be essentially all portland cement, then it is good practice to use adefault value of 95 percent clinker. Unfortunately, even if the types of cement produced in the country are
known, there can be large variability in the clinker fraction of cement within a given blended or masonry cement
type. Table 2.2 provides an illustration of the range of clinker fractions in various cement types. For additional
information see DIN (1994) and ASTM (2004a, 2004b). Countries should document clearly any assumptions
about the composition of cement and the clinker fraction used to estimate emissions.

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TABLE 2.2
CLINKER FRACTION OF BLENDED CEMENT ‘RECIPES’ AND OVERALL PRODUCT MIXES (BASED ON U.S. STANDARDS ASTM
C-150 AND C-595; U.S. DATA MAY BE ILLUSTRATIVE FOR OTHER COUNTRIES)
Cement Name

SymbolRecipe% Clinker

Portland‘PC’

100% PC

Notes

95 - 97

Some U.S. states allow inclusion of 3% GGBFS.

90 - 92

Latest standards allow inclusion of ≤ 5% ground limestone.

Masonry‘MC’

2/3 PC

64

Slag-modified portland

I(SM)slag < 25%>70 - 93

Portland BF SlagISslag 25-70%

28 - 70

Portland pozzolan

IP and P

pozz 15-40%

28 - 79/81 base is PC and/or IS

Pozzolan-modified portland

I(PM)pozz <15%

28 - 93/95 base is PC and/or IS

S

slag 70+%<28/29Slag cement

varies considerably

can use CaO instead of clinker

PERCENT CLINKER IN THE PRODUCT MIX
Percent Additives (Pozzolan + Slag) in the Blended Cement*
Product Mix (PC/blend)**

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

100/0

95 - 97

0

0

0

0

0

0/100

0

85.5

76

66.5

57

23.8

15/85

14.2

86.9

78.9

70.8

62.7

26.4

25/75

23.8

87.9

80.8

73.6

66.5

41.6

30/70

28.5

88.35

81.7

75.1

68.4

45.2

75%

40/60

38

89.3

83.6

77.9

72.2

52.3

50/50

47.5

90.3

85.5

80.8 ***

76

59.4

60/40

57

91.2

87.4

83.6

79.8

66.5

70/30

66.5

92.2

89.3

86.5

83.6

73.6

75/25

71.1

92.6

90.1

87.8

85.4

77.1

85/15

80.8

93.6

92.2

90.7

89.3

84.3

Notes:* The inclusion of slag allows for the blend to be portland and/or portland blast furnace slag cement.
Except for 100 percent portland range itself, all other portland assumed to be 95 percent clinker.
** Product Mix refers to range of products of a country, e.g., 75 percent of total production is portland and the rest is blended.
It is assumed that all the hydraulic cement is portland and/or blended, or pure pozzolan. Masonry would approximate a product mix of
60/40 to 70/30 portland/blended, for the 75 percent additive column. Other hydraulic cements (e.g., aluminous) are assumed to be zero.
*** Example: Clinker fraction where a country's cement output is 50 percent portland cement and 50 percent blended cement, and theblended cement contains 70 percent portland cement and 30 percent additives.

Tier 1 also requires a correction for imports and exports of clinker. Data on the quantity of clinker imported andexported from a country are usually available from national customs agencies, the United Nations, national
cement associations or trade associations and/or departments of commerce. The typical tariff codes in use forclinker trade are 661.21 (SITC) and 2523.10.00 (HTS). It is important to distinguish trade data for clinker itself
from those for the combined category of hydraulic cement and clinker: [codes 661.2 (SITC) and 25.23.0000(HTS)], and from data on cement imports: [codes 661.22 – 661.29 (SITC) and 2523.21 – 2523.90 (HTS)].

TIER 2 METHODThe Tier 2 method requires collection of clinker production data. It is suggested that if national surveys currently
canvass cement production data, the inventory compiler should investigate the possibility of expanding them tocollect clinker production data. It is good practice to collect clinker production data directly from national
statistics or, preferably, from individual plants. It is also suggested that inventory compilers collect informationon the CaO content of the clinker and the fraction of this CaO from carbonate. Where data are available on CaO
from non-carbonate sources (e.g., slags and fly ash), this CaO should not be included in the CaO content ofclinker used for calculating emissions. If possible, data should be collected to document CKD collection andrecycling practices at the plants and likewise on the average or typical composition and calcination fraction of
the CKD. Collecting data from individual producers (if complete), rather than using national totals, will reduce
the uncertainty of the estimate because these data will account for variations in plant level conditions.

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TIER 3 METHOD
The type of activity data required for Tier 3 is likely available only at individual plants. Any reporting entity
using Tier 3 should ensure that all carbonate inputs (i.e., types, amounts, all sources) to the kiln are fully
investigated as part of the initial implementation of the Tier 3 method, and the full investigation repeated
whenever there is any significant change in materials or processes. After a full analysis of the carbonate inputs iscompleted, and assuming that no significant change in the composition of materials or production process takes
place, it is consistent with good practice to develop a rigorous plant-specific emission factor based on the
carbonate input analysis and apply that emission factor to clinker production (which is typically calculated daily).
Subsequently, the clinker production data may then be used as a proxy for the carbonate calculations to estimate
emissions. To be consistent with good practice, this linkage should be periodically recalibrated.
In general, limestone or similar carbonate rocks will be the dominant (80-90 percent) raw materials used at a
typical cement plant, and these data should be collected annually. However it is likely that there could be acarbonate component within clay, shale, sandstone, and other supplementary raw materials, as well as in coaland perhaps some other fuels. If, during the full investigation, it is determined that the amount of carbonatesfrom non-major sources is small (e.g., less than 5 percent of total carbonate) the plant can apply a constant value
for the minor source(s) in intervening years before the next full investigation. Recognizing that estimating
activity data for these smaller sources may lead to analytical (and other) errors, it may be assumed for emission
calculation purposes that the minor source of carbonate is CaCO3, but this assumption should be transparently
documented.
Activity data should exclude any carbonates that are not fed into the kiln but are merely introduced into thefinish (grinding) mill. For example, a plant may ‘dilute’ its finished portland cement by blending in a small
percentage (1-5 percent) of ground limestone. Carbonates added in the finish mill are not calcined and so do notcontribute CO2.

2.2.1.4

C OMPLETENESS

When following a Tier 1 method, inventory compilers should be sure to account for imports and exports ofclinker. For countries that are net importers of clinker, failure to deduct the net clinker imports would result in an
overestimation of emissions from cement production. For countries that are net exporters of clinker, failure toinclude the net exports would result in an underestimation of emissions from the cement plants. Potential sourcesof trade data are discussed in Section 2.2.1.3.
Clinker production data may be available in national statistical databases, or could be collected, even if such data
have not been published in national statistics. Cement and/or clinker production data from national statistics may
not be complete in some countries where a substantial part of production comes from numerous small kilns,
particularly vertical shaft kilns, for which data are difficult to obtain.
Completeness is a particularly important issue to consider where plant specific data are used to estimate nationalemissions using Tier 3. Under Tier 3, it is important that all clinker-producing plants are considered, and that all
carbonates consumed to make clinker are included in the emission calculation. Clinker production plants are wellidentified in each country, but data on the fraction weight of carbonate(s) consumed may not be readily available.
In order for the Tier 3 method to be considered ‘complete’, all carbonates consumed must be recorded.
In countries where only a subset of clinker plants report data for the Tier 3 method or where there is a transition
from Tier 2 to Tier 3, it may not be possible to report emissions using a Tier 3 for all facilities during thetransition. Where data on the carbonate inputs are not available for all plants to report using Tier 3, it may bepossible to determine the share of production represented by non-reporting plants and use this information toestimate the remaining emissions using Tier 2 in order to ensure completeness during the transition period. A
similar approach could be undertaken as a country moves from Tier 1 to Tier 2.
The potential for double counting also should be considered. For example, inventory compilers should review
statistics used to estimate emissions from the source category ‘Other Process Uses of Carbonates’ to ensure thatemissions reported in that source category do not result from the use of these carbonates in cement production.
Where carbonates are used for cement production, the emission should be reported under Cement Production.
Finally, inventory compilers should include only process-related emissions from cement production in thissource category. To avoid double-counting, it is good practice to account for combustion-related emissions in
the Energy volume.
There is one additional issue that, while not included in the current methodology, may become relevant forconsideration in the future. Free lime (CaO not part of the formulae of the clinker minerals mentioned above)
released during the curing of concrete (i.e., from the hydration of the clinker minerals) can potentially re-absorb
atmospheric CO2 - a process called carbonation. However, the rate of carbonation is very slow (years to centuries)

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and, as a practical matter, should not be considered for good practice. This is an area for future work before
inclusion into national inventories.

2.2.1.5

D EVELOPING A CONSISTENT TIME SERIES

These Guidelines introduce two changes in the estimation of emissions from cement production. First, under Tier
1, the default emission factor now includes a correction factor for CKD of 2 percent. The correction factor for
CKD is now included in Tier 1 because it better reflects the sources of emissions during clinker production It isgood practice to recalculate previous Tier 1 emissions estimates using the emission factor presented in Section
2.2.1.2.
Also, a new Tier 3 approach based on carbonate inputs to clinker production has been introduced. These data
may or may not be available historically. If the inventory compiler chooses to implement Tier 3 (vs. a historical
Tier 2 approach) for current and future inventories, they are encouraged to collect these data for historical years
to ensure time series consistency. Where these data are not available, the inventory compiler may refer to the‘Overlap approach’ (see Volume 1, Section 5.3) to attempt to recalculate previous estimates. The relationshipbetween emissions estimated from the carbonate input approach (Tier 3) and the output-based clinker production
approach (Tier 2) should be relatively constant over time for a given plant, but may fail if the number of plants
or their technologies or raw materials has changed significantly over time. Once that relationship is established,previous estimates can be recalculated based on this relationship (see Volume 1, Section 5.3). A similar approach
could be used where inventory compilers move from a Tier 1 to a Tier 2 approach.

2.2.2

Uncertainty assessment

Uncertainty estimates for cement production result predominantly from uncertainties associated with activity
data, and to a lesser extent from uncertainty related to the emission factor for clinker.

2.2.2.1

E MISSION FACTOR UNCERTAINTIESFor Tier 1, the major uncertainty component is the clinker fraction of the cement(s) produced. If reliable clinker
import and export data are not available, then the uncertainty of the clinker production estimate will be higher.
Although the default CKD correction factor itself has a very large uncertainty, its effect on the overall emissions
calculation is still less than the uncertainty associated with the clinker fraction. Under Tier 2, the major source of
uncertainty is associated with determining the CaO content of clinker. If clinker data are available, theuncertainty of the emission factor is equal to the uncertainty of the CaO fraction and the assumption that it was
all derived from CaCO3 (Table 2.3). For Tier 3, there is relatively little uncertainty associated with the emission
factors of the source carbonates because they are based on stoichiometric ratios. There may be some uncertainty
associated with assuming, in Tier 3, that there is 100 percent calcination of carbonates in the CKD.
In general, CKD is the least characterised factor for estimating CO2 emissions from cement production,
regardless of the Tier implemented.

2.2.2.2

A CTIVITY DATA UNCERTAINTIES

Where clinker production data are estimated from cement production, the uncertainty of the activity data can beas high as about 35 percent. For Tier 2, the uncertainty in data on clinker production tonnages, when available, isabout 1-2 percent. Collecting data from individual producers (if complete) rather than using national totals will
reduce the uncertainty of the estimate because these data will account for variations in conditions at the plantlevel. This is particularly important for determining possible differences in clinker composition and irregularities
in annual production (i.e. using clinker stockpiles instead of production to produce cement at various times).
Except for CKD the greatest sources of uncertainty associated with Tier 3 are the uncertainties associated withidentification of carbonate species (1-5 percent) and the weight of raw materials.
Although emissions are much smaller than from carbonates, there may be considerable uncertainty associatedwith estimating emissions from CKD in Tier 2 estimates, and also in Tier 3 if plants do not weigh the CKD thatis not recycled to the kiln or if the plants lack CKD scrubbers. Where the weight and composition of CKD are
unknown for a plant, the uncertainty will be higher. As an example, an attempt has been made to estimate theapproximate uncertainties for different factors in Equations 2.1-2.5 and/or the steps in the manufacture of clinker
and cement. The uncertainties are presented in Table 2.3 and are approximate component uncertainties - that is,they are those associated with a particular step or activity in clinker manufacturing. In order to quantify
uncertainty for cement (clinker) production, the default uncertainties provided in Table 2.3 should be combined

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according to the guidance in Volume 1, Section 3.2.3. Where ranges are given for the uncertainty values, themid-range should be used unless country-specific or plant-specific circumstances suggest that another value
should be used.

TABLE 2.3
DEFAULT UNCERTAINTY VALUES FOR CEMENT PRODUCTION
Uncertaintya

Comment

Tier

Chemical Analysis/Composition
2-7%

Assumption of 95% clinker factor in portland cement

1

1-2%

Chemical analysis of clinker to determine CaO

2

3-8%

Assumption of 65% CaO in clinker

2

1-3%

Assumption that 100% CaO is from CaCO3 (uncertainty is higher if ash or slag feeds are used but
not accounted for.)2

1%

Assumption of 100% calcination of carbonate destined to become clinker

2, 3

1-3%

Kerogen (or other non-carbonate carbon) determination

3

1-3%

Overall chemical analysis pertaining to carbonate content (mass) & type

3

1-5%

Assumption that the carbonate species is 100% CaCO3

3

Production Data
1-2%

Reported (plant-level) cement production data

1

35%

Assumption that country output is 100% portland cement1

10%

Use of estimated country (or aggregated plant) production data (national statistics).

1, 2

VariableUse of reported but rounded weight data in cement or clinker (e.g., national-level reporting inlarge units); uncertainty is one unit in last significant digit shown)

1, 2

1-2%

Weighing or calculation of clinker production, assumes complete reporting

2

1-3%

Uncertainty of plant-level weighing of raw materials

3

CKD
25-35%

Default assumption that emissions from CKD are 2% of process-related emissions from clinker
production. Uncertainty assumes that 33-50% of clinker not recycled. If no recycling takes place
or if the calcination percentage significantly exceeds 50%, uncertainty could be 50% or more

1%

Assumption that original components in CKD are same as raw mix

2, 3

1%

Assumption that all carbonate (calcined or remaining) in CKD is CaCO3

2, 3

10-35%

Estimation of % calcination of CKD

2, 3

20-80%

Assumption of 100% calcination of CKD

2, 3

up to 60%

Assumption of 50% calcination of CKD

2, 3

5%

Weighing of CKD captured by scrubbers

2, 3

1-3%

Weighing of scrubber-captured CKD returned to kiln

2, 3

5-10%

Weighing of scrubber-captured CKD not recycled to kiln (other disposal)

2, 3

10-15%

Estimation of weight of CKD automatically rerouted to kiln

2, 3

20-30%

Estimation of weight of CKD if none is recovered or scrubbed

2, 3Imports/Exports
10%

Trade data for clinker (if tariff codes are correctly isolated and cement is not included)

50% of import Overestimation from failure to deduct for net clinker imports for consumption (this is because,
tonnageper Equation 2.4, CO2 is approximately one half the weight of clinker)a11

Estimates are based on expert judgement.

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2.2.3
2.2.3.1

Quality Assurance/Quality Control (QA/QC),
Reporting and Documentation
Q UALITY A SSURANCE /Q UALITY C ONTROL (QA/QC)

In addition to the general guidance on QA/QC, specific procedures of relevance to this source category are
outlined below.

COMPARISON OF EMISSIONS ESTIMATES USING DIFFERENTAPPROACHES
Comparisons could be made between emissions estimated using different tiers. For example, if a bottom-up
approach is used to collect activity data (i.e., collection of plant-specific data), then inventory compilers should
compare the emissions estimates to the estimates calculated using national production data for cement or clinker(top-down approach). In cases where a hybrid Tier 1/2 or Tier 2/3 approach is used during a transition period, it
is considered good practice also to estimate emissions for all facilities using the lower Tier in order to compare
the results of the analysis to the results derived using the hybrid approach. The results of such comparisonsshould be recorded for internal documentation, including explanations for any discrepancies.

REVIEW OF EMISSION FACTORS
Inventory compilers should compare aggregated national emission factors with the IPCC default factors in orderto determine if the national factor is reasonable relative to the IPCC default. Differences between national factors
and default factors should be explained and documented, particularly if they are representative of different
circumstances.
If the aggregated top-down approach is used, but some limited plant-specific data are available, inventory
compilers should compare the site or plant level factors with the aggregated factor used for the national estimate.
This will provide an indication of the reasonableness and the representativity of the data.

SITE-SPECIFIC ACTIVITY DATA CHECKFor site-specific data, inventory compilers should review inconsistencies between sites to establish whether theyreflect errors, different measurement techniques, or result from real differences in emissions, operational
conditions or technology. For cement production, inventory compilers should compare plant data (content of
CaO in clinker, content of clinker in cement) with other plants in the country.
Inventory compilers should ensure that emission factors and activity data are developed in accordance withinternationally recognised and proven measurement methods. If the measurement practices fail this criterion,
then the use of these emissions or activity data should be carefully evaluated, uncertainty estimates reconsideredand qualifications documented. If there is a high standard of measurement and QA/QC in place at most sites,
then the uncertainty of the emissions estimates may be revised downwards.

2.2.3.2

R EPORTING AND D OCUMENTATION

It is good practice to document and archive all information required to produce the national emissions inventory
estimates. Specific documentation and reporting relevant to this source category follow.

TIER 1 METHOD
In addition to cement production data, the quantity of clinker imports and exports also should be reported. Any
information regarding the CaO content of clinker should be documented, including use of default values
different from those discussed in section 2.2.1.2.

TIER 2 METHOD
Tier 2 documentation should include a description of how clinker production was estimated by the reporting
entity (i.e., directly weighed, weight determined by volume of clinker pile, calculated from raw material inputs,etc.) and at what level the activity data were collected (i.e., plant level or national level). The method (e.g.,country specific or IPCC default) for determining the CaO content of clinker should be documented along withany plant-specific information regarding the quantity and type of non-carbonate feeds to the kiln, such as slags or
fly ash. All procedures used to quantify and determine the degree of calcination of CKD should be documented.
Where the assumption that emissions of CKD are equal to 2 percent of emissions from clinker production is
made, this should be transparently reported.

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TIER 3 METHOD
When documenting the Tier 3 method it is important to document all the procedures undertaken andmethodologies used to identify the weight fraction and identities of all carbonates, including carbonates
incorporated in any clay, shales, sandstone or other supplementary raw materials, consumed as raw materials,
along with the corresponding emission factors.
Estimating total emissions from carbonate inputs can overestimate emissions if the carbonates are not fully
calcined. Any corrections should be documented. This includes documenting the fraction calcination of the raw
materials and the quantity and fraction calcination of the CKD.
It is likely that plants will find it impractical to undertake chemical analyses of all raw material inputs on a daily
basis for the purpose of CO2 calculations. Instead, a full investigation will take place at each facility on a numberof occasions throughout the year to fully characterise the carbonate inputs. Facilities will likely develop a
relationship between carbonate input and clinker production that will be applied to the plant’s routine calculationof clinker output for intervening periods. In addition to identifying all procedures used to calculate emissions
from the carbonate inputs, all steps necessary to identify the relationship between carbonate input and clinker
production should be documented.
All underlying information should be documented and reported, it is not considered good practice to report just
final emissions estimates.

2.3

LIME PRODUCTION

2.3.1

Methodological issues

Calcium oxide (CaO or quicklime) is formed by heating limestone to decompose the carbonates. This is usually
done in shaft or rotary kilns at high temperatures and the process releases CO2. Depending on the productrequirements (e.g., metallurgy, pulp and paper, construction materials, effluent treatment, water softening, pH
control, and soil stabilisation), primarily high calcium limestone (calcite) is utilized in accordance with thefollowing reaction:
CaCO3 (high-purity limestone) + heat Æ CaO (quicklime) + CO2
Dolomite and dolomitic (high magnesium) limestones may also be processed at high temperature to obtain
dolomitic lime (and release CO2) in accordance with the following reaction: CaMg(CO3)2 (dolomite) + heat Æ
CaO·MgO (dolomitic lime) + 2CO2. At some facilities, hydrated (slaked) lime also is produced, using additional
hydration operations.
The production of lime involves a series of steps, including the quarrying of raw materials, crushing and sizing,
calcining the raw materials to produce lime, and (if required) hydrating the lime to calcium hydroxide.
The consumption of lime as a product may in some cases not result in net emissions of CO2 to the atmosphere.
The use of hydrated lime for water softening, for example, results in CO2 reacting with lime to re-form calcium
carbonate, resulting in no net emissions of CO2 to the atmosphere. Similarly, precipitated calcium carbonate,
which is used in the paper industry as well as for other industrial applications, is a product derived from reacting
hydrated high-calcium quicklime with CO2. During the process of sugar refining, lime is used to remove
impurities from the raw cane juice; any excess lime can be removed through carbonation. Any recarbonation inthese specific industries may be calculated and reported only where proven and validated methods are used to
calculate the amount of CO2 that reacts with lime to re-form calcium carbonate. Where these conditions are met,
this may be reported under Category 2H, Other.
As discussed in Section 2.3.1.3, lime kiln dust (LKD) may be generated during the production of lime. Emission
estimates developed using Tier 2 and Tier 3 should account for emissions associated with the LKD.

2.3.1.1

C HOICE OF METHOD

As is the case for emissions from cement production, there are three basic methodologies for estimating
emissions from lime production: an output-based approach that uses default values (Tier 1), an output-based
approach that estimates emissions from CaO and CaO·MgO production and country-specific information forcorrection factors (Tier 2) and an input-based carbonate approach (Tier 3). Unlike the Tier 3 method which

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requires a plant-specific assessment, the Tier 1 and Tier 2 methods can be applied either to national, or where
possible, plant statistics. The choice of good practice method depends on national circumstances, as shown in
Figure 2.2.
It is good practice to assess the available national statistics for completeness, and for the ratio of limestone todolomite used in lime production. Some industries produce non-marketed lime reagents for their own processes(e.g., the iron and steel industry for use as a slagging agent). All lime production, whether produced as amarketed or a non-marketed product should be reported under IPCC Subcategory 2A2 Lime Production.
Figure 2.2

Decision tree for estimation of CO 2 emissions from lime production
Start

Are data
available for carbonate
inputs?

Yes

Box 3: Tier 3

No

Are national orplant level data available on typesof lime produced?

Collect facility-specific activity dataon carbonates consumed (their chemicalcomposition and calcination achieved)
and relevant emission
factors as basis for Tier 3 method.

Yes

Collect data on quantity of different
types of lime produced and calculate
relevant emission factors.
Apply correction factors.
Box 2: Tier 2

No

Is this a key
category1?

No

Use fraction for quantity oflime produced by type and apply
respective default emission factors.
Box 1: Tier 1

Yes
Collect data for the Tier 3
or Tier 2 method.
Note:
1. See Volume 1 Chapter 4, Methodological Choice and Identification of Key Categories (noting Section 4.1.2 on limited resources), for
discussion of key categories and use of decision trees.

TIER 1 METHODThe Tier 1 method is based on applying a default emission factor to national level lime production data. Whilecountry-specific information on lime production by type (e.g., high calcium lime, dolomitic lime, or hydrauliclime) is not necessary for good practice in Tier 1, where data are available to identify the specific types of lime
produced in the country, this may be used. It is not necessary for good practice to account for LKD in Tier 1.

TIER 2 METHOD
Where national level data are available on the types of lime produced, it is good practice to estimate emissions
using Equation 2.6. The Tier 2 method requires country-specific information on the proportion of hydrated lime
produced. Typical plant-level ratios of lime product to LKD production should be obtained.

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Chapter 2: Mineral Industry Emissions

EQUATION 2.6
TIER 2: EMISSIONS BASED ON NATIONAL LIME PRODUCTION DATA BY TYPE
CO2 Emissions = ∑ ( EFlime,i • M l ,i • CFlkd ,i • C h,i )iWhere:
CO2 Emissions = emissions of CO2 from lime production, tonnes
EF lime,i = emission factor for lime of type i, tonnes CO2/tonne lime (see Equation 2.9)
Ml,i = lime production of type i, tonnes
CF lkd,i = correction factor for LKD for lime of type i, dimensionlessThis correction can be accounted for in a similar way as for CKD (Equation 2.5, but omitting thefactor (Efc/EFcl))
Ch,i = correction factor for hydrated lime of the type i of lime, dimensionless (See discussion under
Section 2.3.1.3, Choice of Activity Data.)
i = each of the specific lime types listed in Table 2.4

TIER 3 METHOD
Tier 3 is based on the collection of plant-specific data on the type(s) and quantity(ies) of carbonate(s) consumed
to produce lime, as well as the respective emission factor(s) of the carbonate(s) consumed. The Tier 3 method toestimate emissions from lime production is similar to Equation 2.3 for cement production, except there is acorrection for LKD, as opposed to CKD and there is no need to correct for emissions from carbon-bearing nonfuel materials. Unlike the case with CKD and cement kilns, LKD is seldom recycled to the lime kiln (but LKD
can be used as a feed to a cement kiln). For purposes of estimating emissions in Equation 2.7 it is assumed that
no LKD is recycled to the kiln.
EQUATION 2.7
TIER 3: EMISSIONS BASED ON CARBONATE INPUTSCO2 Emissions = ∑ ( EFi • M i • Fi ) − M d • C d • (1 − Fd ) • EFdi

Where:
CO2 Emissions = emissions of CO2 from lime production, tonnes
EFi = emission factor for carbonate i, tonnes CO2/tonne carbonate (see Table 2.1)
Mi = weight or mass of carbonate i consumed, tonnes
Fi = fraction calcination achieved for carbonate i, fractiona
Md = weight or mass of LKD, tonnes
Cd = weight fraction of original carbonate in the LKD, fractiona. This factor can be accounted for in asimilar way as CKD.
Fd = fraction calcination achieved for LKD, fractiona
EFd = emission factor for the uncalcined carbonate in LKD, tonnes CO2/tonne carbonateb
Notes on defaults for Equation 2.7
a:Calcination fractions: In the absence of actual data, it is consistent with good practice to assume thatthe degree of calcination achieved is 100 percent (i.e., Fi = 1.00) or very close to it. For LKD, a Fd of<1.00 is more likely but the data may show high variability and relatively low reliability. In theabsence of reliable data for LKD, an assumption of Fd = 1.00 will zero out the subtraction correction
for uncalcined carbonate remaining in LKD.

b: Because calcium carbonate is overwhelmingly the dominant carbonate in the raw materials, in theabsence of better data it may be assumed that it makes up 100 percent of the carbonate remaining in
the LKD. It is thus consistent with good practice to set Cd equal to the calcium carbonate ratio in the
raw material feed to the kiln. Likewise, in the absence of better data it is consistent with goodpractice to use the emission factor for calcium carbonate for EFd.

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2.3.1.2

C HOICE OF EMISSION FACTORSTIER 1 METHOD
Tier 1 is an output-based method and applies an emission factor to the total quantity of lime produced. The
emission factor is based on the stoichiometric ratios illustrated in Table 2.4, which vary depending on the type oflime produced. The stoichiometric ratio is the amount of CO2 released by the carbonate precursor to the lime,
assuming that the degree of calcination was 100 percent and assuming no LKD. For example, 1 tonne of CaO
requires the calcination of 1.785 tonnes of CaCO3 and this releases 0.785 tonne CO2 if fully calcined.
In the absence of country specific data, it is good practice to assume 85 percent production of high calcium limeand 15 percent production of dolomitic lime (Miller, 1999). Based on this, Equation 2.8 illustrates how to
calculate the Tier 1 emission factor for lime production.
EQUATION 2.8
TIER 1 DEFAULT EMISSION FACTOR FOR LIME PRODUCTION
EFLime = 0.85 • EFhigh calcium lime + 0.15 • EFdolomitic lime
= 0.85 • 0.75 + 0.15 • 0.77 a= 0.6375 + 0.1155= 0.75tonnes CO 2 / tonne lime produced

Notes on defaults in Equation 2.8
a: The default EF for dolomitic lime may be 0.86 or 0.77 depending on the technology used for lime
production. See Table 2.4.

TABLE 2.4
BASIC PARAMETERS FOR THE CALCULATION OF EMISSION FACTORS FOR LIME PRODUCTION
Lime Typea

High-calcium lime

StoichiometricRatio[tonnes CO2 per
tonne CaO or
CaO·MgO](1)

Range of
CaO
Content [%]

0.785

93-98

Range of
MgO
Contentd[%]

0.3-2.5

Default Valuefor CaO or
CaO·MgO
Content[fraction](2)

Default
Emission Factor[tonnes CO2 per
tonne lime]

0.95

0.75

b

0.913

55-57

38-41

0.95 or 0.85

0.86 or 0.77c

Hydraulic lime b

0.785

65-92e

NA

0.75e

0.59

Dolomitic limec(1) • (2)Source:aMiller (1999b) based on ASTM (1996) and Schwarzkopf (1995).

bMiller (1999a) based on Boynton (1980).

c

This value depends on technology used for lime production. The higher value is suggested for developed countries, the lower for
developing ones.

d

There is no exact chemical formula for each type of lime because the chemistry of the lime product is determined by the chemistry of
the limestone or dolomite used to manufacture the lime.

eTotal CaO content (including that in silicate phases).

TIER 2 METHOD
Similar to Tier 1, the emission factor for lime production in Tier 2 reflects the stoichiometric ratios between CO2
and CaO and/or CaO·MgO, and an adjustment to account for the CaO or the CaO·MgO content of the lime.
However, unlike Tier 1, Tier 2 requires the use of national level data on lime production by type. It is goodpractice to apply Equation 2.9 to develop the emission factors and to account for the CaO or the CaO·MgO
content.

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Chapter 2: Mineral Industry Emissions

EQUATION 2.9
TIER 2 EMISSION FACTORS FOR LIME PRODUCTION
EFlime,a = SRCaO • CaO Content
EFlime,b = SRCaO⋅MgO • CaO ⋅ MgO Content

EFlime,c = SRCaO • CaO Content

Where:
EFlime a = emission factor for quicklime (high-calcium lime), tonnes CO2/tonne lime
EFlime b = emission factor for dolomitic lime, tonnes CO2/tonne lime
EFlime c = emission factor for hydraulic lime, tonnes CO2/tonne lime
SRCaO = stoichiometric ratio of CO2 and CaO (see Table 2.4), tonnes CO2/tonne CaO
SRCaO·MgO = stoichiometric ratio of CO2 and CaO·MgO (see Table 2.4), tonnes CO2/tonne CaO·MgO
CaO Content = CaO content (see Table 2.4), tonnes CaO/tonne lime
CaO·MgO Content = CaO·MgO content (see Table 2.4), tonnes CaO·MgO/tonne lime

TIER 3 METHODThe Tier 3 emission factors are based on the actual carbonates present. (See Equation 2.7 and Table 2.1.) Tier 3
requires the full accounting of carbonates (species and sources) and may include a correction (i.e., subtraction)
for uncalcined lime kiln dust.

2.3.1.3

C HOICE OF ACTIVITY DATA

Some industries produce lime and consume it for their operations. This quantity of lime may never be introduced
into the market. It is important when collecting activity data for lime production that both marketed and nonmarketed lime production are included. In many countries, obtaining statistics on non-marketed lime production
may be challenging. It is suggested that inventory compilers identify potential industries where non-marketed
lime may be produced (e.g., metallurgy, pulp and paper, sugar refining, precipitated calcium carbonate, watersofteners) and inquire whether there is such production. As industries and countries may vary significantly withrespect to the quantities of non-marketed lime produced, it is not possible to provide a default value to estimate
this activity data.

TIER 1 METHOD
In Tier 1, inventory compilers may use default values for either of the following variables: (1) the types of lime
produced and/or (2) the proportion of hydrated lime produced. Table 2.4, provides data on stoichiometric ratios,
the ranges of CaO and CaO·MgO contents and the resulting default emission factors, for the main lime types
produced. Where there are no disaggregated data for the breakdown of lime types, it is good practice to assume
that 85 percent is high-calcium lime and 15 percent dolomitic lime (Miller, 1999) and the proportion of hydrauliclime should be assumed zero unless other information is available.
The Tier 1 method for lime production does not incorporate a correction for LKD. The potential exists to exclude
some lime sources in the national inventory due to problems with the activity data (see Sections 2.3.1.4 and2.3.2.2). The Tier 1 method could considerably underestimate emissions if these issues are not carefully
considered.

TIER 2 METHOD
In implementing the Tier 2 method, it is important to collect disaggregated data for the three types of lime, as
this will improve the emissions estimate. There are three main types of non-hydrated lime:•

High-calcium lime (CaO + impurities);•

Dolomitic lime (CaO·MgO + impurities);•

Hydraulic lime (CaO + hydraulic calcium silicates) that is a substance between lime and cement.

The main reason to distinguish these types is that the first two have different emission factors. It is also
important to correct for the proportion of hydrated lime in production. Similar to the Tier 2 method for cement
production, data should be collected on all non-carbonate sources of CaO (if applicable).

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Significant amounts of LKD may be produced as a by-product during lime production. The quantities generated
depend on the type of kiln used and the characteristics of the carbonates used. According to Boynton (1980) an
average rotary kiln will yield a dust attrition loss of 9 to 10 percent per tonne of lime produced, or 16 to 18
percent of the raw material input. The chemical composition of the LKD varies depending on the raw material
input, but a typical high-calcium lime LKD may contain 75 percent combined calcium oxide and uncalcined
calcium carbonate (at roughly a 50:50 ratio), with the remaining impurities consisting of silica, aluminum andiron oxides, and sulphur (depending on the fuel used). Correction for LKD in the Tier 2 and Tier 3 methods isanalogous to CKD in cement production in both methodology and default value. If possible, data should becollected on typical ratios of LKD to lime production and on the typical composition of the LKD. In the absenceof data, the inventory compiler may assume a correction addition of 2 percent to account for LKD (i.e., multiply
emissions by 1.02).
Vertical shaft kilns generate relatively small amounts of LKD, and it is judged that a correction factor for LKD
from vertical shaft kilns would be negligible and do not need to be estimated.

TIER 3 METHOD
It is good practice to collect plant specific data for the weight fraction of carbonate(s) consumed for lime
production and the fraction of calcination achieved. Data should also be collected for the amount (dry weight)
and composition of LKD produced. Similar to the Tier 3 method for cement production, emissions from LKD
should be subtracted from the Tier 3 estimates.
A couple of key issues should be considered when estimating carbonate consumption data. Data must be
available and collected on the plant level, as national level statistics on carbonate consumption for lime
production may not be complete. Similar to cement production, although limestone and or dolomite are likely tobe the predominant carbonates, it is important to ensure that all carbonate inputs are identified and accounted for.

CORRECTION FOR THE PROPORTION OF HYDRATED LIME
Both high-calcium and dolomitic limes can be slaked and converted to hydrated lime that is Ca(OH)2 or
Ca(OH)2·Mg(OH)2. It is good practice to include a correction for hydrated lime under Tier 2, and where data are
available, under Tier 1. If no data are available for Tier 1, it is good practice to assume zero production of
hydrated lime.
If x is the proportion of hydrated lime and y is the water content in it, it is good practice to multiply the
production by a correction factor 1 – (x • y). Since the vast majority of hydrated lime produced is high-calcium(90 percent), the default values are x=0.10 and y = 0.28 (default water content), resulting in a correction factor of
0.97. This default correction factor for hydrated lime may be included in Equation 2.6.

2.3.1.4

C OMPLETENESS

Complete activity data (i.e., lime production) are needed for good practice. Typically, reported production
accounts for only a portion of the actual production, because lime production statistics may consider only
product that is sold on the market. Use or production of lime as a non-marketed intermediate is not wellaccounted for or reported. For example, many plants that produce steel, synthetic soda ash, calcium carbide,magnesia and magnesium metal, as well as copper smelters and sugar mills, produce lime but may not report it tonational agencies. Omission of these data may lead to an underestimation of lime production for a country by afactor of two or more. Likewise, there may be village-scale or artisanal production of lime for sanitation
purposes or for whitewash. All lime production should be reported in this source category, whether produced bylime kilns as a marketed product, or whether produced as a non-marketed intermediate reagent.
Inventory compilers should be cautious to avoid double counting, or omissions, between this source category andemissions from limestone and dolomite consumption. Another potential source of double counting that theinventory compiler should be aware of is associated with hydrated lime. If lime production is corrected forhydrated lime without first establishing whether the lime used to produce hydrated lime is included in total lime
production, production of this lime could be double-counted.
Similar to the discussion for cement, when using Tier 3 it is important that all carbonate inputs (e.g., limestone,
dolomite, etc.) are accounted for on a plant-specific basis.
Finally, lime-based mortars used in construction gain their strength through the absorption of CO2, but the ratesof the carbonation reaction that occur in practice are very uncertain. As it is believed that this process for the
carbonation of mortars can take months to decades, it has not been factored into emission calculations. It is notconsidered good practice to include this factor in emissions calculations at this time. This is an area for future
work before inclusion into national inventories.

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Chapter 2: Mineral Industry Emissions

2.3.1.5

D EVELOPING A CONSISTENT TIME SERIESIt is good practice to calculate emissions from lime production using the same method for every year in the timeseries. These Guidelines introduce a new Tier 3 approach based on carbonate input to lime production. These
data may or may not be available historically. If the inventory compiler chooses to implement this Tier for
current and future inventories they are encouraged to collect this data for historical years to ensure time seriesconsistency. Where these data are not available, the inventory compiler may refer to the ‘Overlap approach’ (seeVolume 1, Section 5.3) to attempt to recalculate previous estimates.
Where data are not available, inventory compilers moving from a Tier 1 to a Tier 2 approach may assume that
there has not been a significant shift in the country from use of one carbonate input to another for lime
production. This is likely a reasonable assumption, specifically since limestone typically is the predominantcarbonate input.
Inventory compilers should disaggregate lime production data into the three mentioned types: high calcium lime,
dolomitic lime, and hydraulic lime. Where country specific data are not available for the entire time series for the
proportion of lime consumed, or the proportion of hydrated lime, missing years may be estimated by theInterpolation or Trend Extrapolation Approaches as outlined in Volume 1, Section 5.3, or by assuming that thecurrent year is reflective of the proportion of lime produced in earlier years of the time series.

2.3.2

Uncertainty assessment

Uncertainty estimates for lime production result predominantly from uncertainties associated with activity data,
and to a lesser extent from uncertainty related to the emission factor. For more information, refer to theuncertainty discussion above for cement production.
TABLE 2.5
DEFAULT UNCERTAINTY VALUES FOR ESTIMATION OF CO2 EMISSIONS FROM LIME PRODUCTION
Uncertainty

Comment

Tier

4-8%

Uncertainty in assuming an average CaO in lime

1, 2

2%

Emission factor high calcium lime

1, 2

2%

Emission factor dolomitic lime

1, 2

15%

Emission factor hydraulic lime

1, 2

5%

Correction for hydrated lime

1, 2Order of magnitude errors possible if non-marketed lime production is not estimated

1, 2, 3

Uncertainty of plant-level lime production data. Plants generally do not determine
output better than this. Assumes complete reporting.

2

Correction for LKD

2, 3

1-3%

Error in assuming 100% carbonate source from limestone (vs. other feeds).

3

1-3%

Uncertainty of plant-level weighing of raw materials

3

1-2%

See Table 2.3

Source: Based on expert judgment.

2.3.2.1

E MISSION FACTOR UNCERTAINTIESAs outlined above for cement, there is little uncertainty associated with the emission factor component in the
Tier 3 approach. In Tier 2 and Tier 1, the stoichiometric ratio is an exact number and therefore the uncertainty ofthe emission factor is the uncertainty of lime composition, in particular of the share of hydraulic lime (theuncertainty of the emission factor for hydraulic lime is 15 percent and the uncertainty for other lime types is 2
percent). There is uncertainty associated with determining the CaO content and/or the CaO•MgO content of thelime produced.

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2.3.2.2

A CTIVITY DATA UNCERTAINTIESThe uncertainty for the activity data is likely to be much higher than for the emission factors, based on
experience in gathering lime data (see Section 2.3.1.4, Completeness, above). Omission of non-marketed lime
production may lead to order of magnitude underestimates. The correction for hydrated lime typically leads toadditional uncertainty.
As described above for CKD, there is significant uncertainty associated with quantifying the mass of LKD
produced and the degree of calcination (and thus emissions) of LKD. It can be assumed that the uncertainty
associated with estimating LKD is at least equal to and likely greater than, the uncertainty associated with CKD.
Where ranges are given for the default uncertainties in Table 2.5, the mid-range should be used unless the upperor lower estimates are more reflective of country-specific circumstances.

2.3.3
2.3.3.1

Quality Assurance/Quality Control (QA/QC),
Reporting and Documentation
Q UALITY A SSURANCE /Q UALITY C ONTROL (QA /QC)

In addition to the cross-cutting guidance on QA/QC, specific procedures of relevance to this source category are
outlined below.

COMPARISON OF THE EMISSIONS ESTIMATES USING DIFFERENTAPPROACHES
Comparisons could be made between emissions estimated following the Tier 2 approach based on lime
production and Tier 3 approach based on carbonate input. Similarly, if the bottom-up approach is used toestimate emissions (i.e., collection of plant specific data), then inventory compilers should compare theemissions estimates to the estimate calculated using national or plant-specific lime production data (top-down
approach). In cases where a hybrid Tier 1/2 or Tier 2/3 approach is used during a transition period, it isconsidered good practice also to estimate emissions for all facilities using the lower Tier in order to compare theresults of the analysis to the results derived using the hybrid approach. The results of such comparisons should
be recorded for internal documentation, including explanations for any discrepancies.

ACTIVITY DATA CHECKInventory compilers should confirm the correct definitions of the different types of lime produced in the country.
Inventory compilers should also carefully consider industries that may produce non-marketed lime to ensure thatthese data have been included in the activity data for the inventory.

2.3.3.2

R EPORTING AND D OCUMENTATION

It is good practice to document and archive all information required to produce the national emissions inventory
estimates. Below are general notes that apply to reporting and documentation of emissions and emission
reductions from lime production followed by specific information to be reported for the individual tiers.
•

If an inventory compiler is reporting on CO2 recovery from sugar refining, precipitated calcium carbonate orwater softening under Category 2H, detailed information should be reported on the methods used for
calculating emissions recovered. Both emissions and emission reductions should be reported separately; it is
not considered good practice to report only net emissions from lime production. In addition, documentation
should be provided to illustrate that emission reductions from recarbonation are only reported in the year inwhich recarbonation occurs (see 2.3.1 above).

•

Regardless of the method implemented, inventory compilers should document procedures undertaken to
ensure that both marketed and non-marketed lime production are reported (see discussion in Section 2.3.1.4,
Completeness).

TIER 1 METHODThe Tier 1 approach is methodologically the same as Tier 2 except that default values may be used instead ofcountry-specific information to estimate the various parameters. Documentation for Tier 1, therefore, follows
Tier 2 below except a clear indication should be made as to where default values are used.

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Chapter 2: Mineral Industry Emissions

TIER 2 METHOD
Tier 2 documentation should include a discussion of the types of lime produced in the country (including
hydrated lime) and how that determination was made (collection of sales data, collection of plant specificconsumption data, etc.) The procedures used to identify the CaO and/or CaO·MgO content of lime, as well as
non-carbonate feeds to lime kiln also should be reported.

TIER 3 METHOD
Reporting and documentation for Tier 3 for lime production is the same as the Tier 3 method outlined above forcement production, with one minor difference. Instead of collecting information on CKD, data on the quantityand fraction of calcination achieved of LKD should be collected. All underlying information should be
documented and reported, it is not considered good practice to report just final emissions estimates.

2.4

GLASS PRODUCTION

2.4.1

Methodological issues

Many kinds of glass articles and compositions are used commercially, but the glass industry can be divided into
four main categories: containers, flat (window) glass, fibre glass, and specialty glass.
The great bulk of commercial glass is in the first two categories, and is almost entirely soda-lime glass,consisting of silica (SiO2), soda (Na2O), and lime (CaO), with small amounts of alumina (Al2O3), and otheralkalies and alkaline earths, plus some minor ingredients. Insulation grade fibre glass - a major component of thethird category - is similar in composition. Individual manufacturers will have proprietary compositions, but thesewill be minor variations on the basic composition.
This source category also includes emissions from the production of glass wool, a category of mineral wool,
where the production process is similar to glass making. The term mineral wool may also be used to refer tonatural rock- and slag-based wool. Where the production of rock wool is emissive these emissions should bereported under IPCC Subcategory 2A5. Emissions related to slag production should be reported in the relevant
metallurgical source category. The re-melting of slag to make mineral wool does not involve significant process-related emissions and does not need to be reported.
The major glass raw materials which emit CO2 during the melting process are limestone (CaCO3), dolomite
Ca,Mg(CO3)2 and soda ash (Na2CO3). Where these materials are mined as carbonate minerals for their use in theglass industry they represent primary CO2 production and should be included in emissions estimates. Wherecarbonate materials are produced through the carbonation of a hydroxide they do not result in net CO2 emissions
and should not be included in the emissions estimate. Minor CO2-emitting glass raw materials are barium
carbonate (BaCO3), bone ash (3CaO2P2O5 + XCaCO3), potassium carbonate (K2CO3) and strontium carbonate(SrCO3). Additionally, powdered anthracite coal or some other organic material may be added to create reducing
conditions in the molten glass, and will combine with available oxygen in the glass melt to produce CO2.
The action of these carbonates in the fusion of glass is a complex high-temperature chemical reaction, and is not
to be directly compared to the calcination of carbonates to produce quicklime or burnt dolomitic lime.
Nevertheless, this fusion (in the region of 1500°C) has the same net effect in terms of CO2 emissions.
In practice, glass makers do not produce glass only from raw materials, but use a certain amount of recycled
scrap glass (cullet). Most operations will use as much cullet as they can obtain, sometimes with restrictions forglass quality requirements. The cullet ratio (the fraction of the furnace charge represented by cullet) will be in
the range of 0.4 to 0.6 for container applications, which are the bulk of glass production. Insulation fibre glassmakers will generally fall below this level, but will use as much cullet as they can purchase.
Cullet comes from two sources: in-house return of glassware broken in process or other glass spillage or
retention, and foreign (i.e., external to the plant) cullet from recycling programs or cullet brokerage services.
This second source is important in developed economies, but will be less so in developing countries, where
recovery of glassware is not popular.
The retention of dissolved CO2 in glass is determined to be relatively insignificant and can be ignored for the
purposes of GHG emission estimation.

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2.4.1.1

C HOICE OF METHODTIER 1 METHODThe Tier 1 method should be used (Equation 2.10) where data are not available on glass manufactured byprocess or the carbonates used in glass manufacturing. Tier 1 applies a default emission factor and cullet ratio tonational-level glass production statistics. The uncertainty associated with this method may be considerably
higher than the uncertainty associated with the Tier 2 and Tier 3 methods.
EQUATION 2.10
TIER 1: EMISSIONS BASED ON GLASS PRODUCTION
CO2 Emissions = M g • EF • (1 − CR)

Where:
CO2 Emissions = emissions of CO2 from glass production, tonnes
Mg = mass of glass produced, tonnes
EF = default emission factor for manufacturing of glass, tonnes CO2/tonne glass
CR = cullet ratio for process (either national average or default), fraction

TIER 2 METHOD
Tier 2 is a refinement of Tier 1. Instead of collecting national statistics on total glass production, emissions are
estimated based on the different glass manufacturing processes undertaken in the country. As discussed below,
different glass manufacturing processes (e.g., float glass, container glass, fibre glass, etc) typically use different
types and ratios of raw materials. The Tier 2 method applies default emission factors to each glass manufacturing
process. The emission estimate must, however, be corrected for the fact that a portion of recycled glass (cullet)
may also be supplied to the furnace (Equation 2.11).
EQUATION 2.11
TIER 2: EMISSIONS BASED ON GLASS MANUFACTURING PROCESSCO2 Emissions = ∑ [ M g ,i • EFi • (1 − CRi )]i

Where:
CO2 Emissions = emissions of CO2 from glass production, tonnes
Mg,i = mass of melted glass of type i (e.g., float, container, fibre glass, etc.), tonnes
EFi = emission factor for manufacturing of glass of type i, tonnes CO2/tonne glass melted
CRi = cullet ratio for manufacturing of glass of type i, fraction

TIER 3 METHODThe Tier 3 methodology is based on accounting for the carbonate input to the glass melting furnace (Equation
2.12).
EQUATION 2.12
TIER 3: EMISSIONS BASED ON CARBONATE INPUTSCO2 Emissions = ∑ ( M i • EFi • Fi )i

Where:
CO2 Emissions = emissions of CO2 from glass production, tonnes
EFi = emissions factor for the particular carbonate i, tonnes CO2/tonne carbonate (see Table 2.1)
Mi = weight or mass of the carbonate i consumed (mined), tonnes
Fi = fraction calcination achieved for the carbonate i, fraction
Where the fraction calcination achieved for the particulate carbonate is not known, it can be assumed that thefraction calcination is equal to 1.00.

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Chapter 2: Mineral Industry Emissions

Figure 2.3

Decision tree for estimation of CO 2 emissions from glass production
Start

Are data
about input carbonatesavailable?

Yes

Collect facility-specific activity dataon carbonates consumed (their chemicalcomposition and calcination achieved)
and relevant emission factors
as basis for Tier 3 method.
Box 3: Tier 3

No

Are data
available on types of glass(including cullet ratio) producedby manufacturing
process?

Yes

Calculate emissions based on quantityof glass melted in each manufacturing
process, and process-specific emission
factors and cullet ratio.
Box 2: Tier 2

No

Is this a key
category1?

No

Estimate emissions based on total
glass production and a default
emission factor.
Box 1: Tier 1

Yes
Collect data for the Tier 3
or Tier 2 method.
Note:
1. See Volume 1 Chapter 4, Methodological Choice and Identification of Key Categories (noting Section 4.1.2 on limited resources), for
discussion of key categories and use of decision trees.

2.4.1.2

C HOICE OF EMISSION FACTORSTIER 1 METHOD
Tier 1 applies a default emission factor, based on a ‘typical’ raw material mixture, to national glass production
data. A ‘typical’ soda-lime batch might consist of sand (56.2 weight percent), feldspar (5.3 percent), dolomite(9.8 percent), limestone (8.6 percent) and soda ash (20.0 percent). Based on this composition, one metric tonneof raw materials yields approximately 0.84 tonnes of glass, losing about 16.7 percent of its weight as volatiles, inthis case virtually entirely CO2.
EQUATION 2.13
TIER 1 DEFAULT EMISSION FACTOR FOR GLASS PRODUCTION
EF = 0.167 / 0.84 = 0.20 tonnes CO 2 / tonne glass

TIER 2 METHODThe Tier 2 method relies on applying default emission factors and cullet ratios to the various types of glass
produced in the country (Table 2.6). Where country specific or even plant specific data are available countries

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are encouraged to use these data to supplement or replace the defaults provided below. Cullet ratios, in particular,
can vary significantly both within a country and across countries.
It is good practice to use the mid-point values of the ranges provided unless some other value in the range isknown to be more representative of country specific circumstances.

TABLE 2.6
DEFAULT EMISSION FACTORS AND CULLET RATIOS FOR DIFFERENT GLASS TYPES
Glass Type

CO2 Emission Factor(kg CO2/kg glass)

Cullet Ratio (TypicalRange)

Float

0.21

10% - 25%

Container (Flint)

0.21

30% - 60%

Container (Amber/Green)

0.21

30% - 80%

Fiberglass (E-glass)

0.19

0% - 15%

Fiberglass (Insulation)

0.25

10% - 50%

Specialty (TV Panel)

0.18

20% - 75%

Specialty (TV Funnel)

0.13

20% - 70%

Specialty (Tableware)

0.10

20% - 60%

Specialty (Lab/Pharma)

0.03

30% - 75%

Specialty (Lighting)

0.20

40% - 70%

Source: Communication with Victor Aume (2004)

TIER 3 METHODThe Tier 3 emission factors are based on the actual carbonates consumed in the melting furnace (for the relevant
stoichiometric ratios see Table 2.1). The Tier 3 approach requires the full accounting of carbonates (species andsources).

2.4.1.3

C HOICE OF ACTIVITY DATATIER 1 METHOD
Activity data for the Tier 1 method includes national statistics for glass production by weight as well a correction
for the quantity of cullet used in glass production. Tier 1 assumes a default cullet ratio of 50 percent, therefore
national level data on the mass of glass produced can be multiplied by 0.20 • (1 - 0.50) = 0.10 tonnes CO2/tonne
glass in order to estimate national emissions. If country specific information is available for the average annual
cullet ratio, countries are encouraged to modify the emission factor accordingly [i.e., EF = 0.20 • (1 - countryspecific cullet ratio)].

TIER 2 METHODThe Tier 2 method requires, at a minimum, the collection of national level data on the quantity of glass melted
by manufacturing process. Data for glass often is provided in different units (e.g., tonnes of glass, number ofbottles, square meters of glass, etc.) and these should be converted into tonnes. Where possible, data should becollected on a plant-specific basis and aggregated to the national level. Although the Tier 2 method provides
default factors for the cullet ratio, if country-specific or plant-specific data are available countries are encouraged
to collect these data.

TIER 3 METHOD
For the Tier 3 method plant-level activity data should be collected on the various types of carbonates consumed
for glass production.

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2.4.1.4

C OMPLETENESS

Inventory compilers should consider a number of issues regarding completeness when compiling emission
estimates for glass production. First of all, glass is produced from a variety of raw material carbonates. Where
emissions are estimated based on carbonate inputs (Tier 3), it is important to ensure that all species and sourcesof carbonates are included in emission estimates.
Soda ash is a significant input into glass manufacturing in many countries. Inventory compilers are encouraged
to ensure that there is no double counting of emissions from soda ash used in glass manufacturing (which should
be reported under Category 2A3, Glass Production) and emissions from ‘Other Uses of Soda Ash’, which should
be reported separately below. It is important to consider, however, that there may be a number of smaller
facilities (e.g., art glass and specialty glass) that are not accounted for in national statistics. Efforts should bemade to ensure complete coverage of the industry.

2.4.1.5

D EVELOPING A CONSISTENT TIME SERIESGlass can be a difficult source for which to acquire activity data because, as noted above, glass production ismeasured in a variety of units. In order to develop a consistent time series, it is important that the same data
sources are used for all years in the Inventory. For additional information for ensuring time series consistency,
see Volume 1, Chapter 5.

2.4.2
2.4.2.1

Uncertainty assessment
E MISSION FACTOR UNCERTAINTIES

Similar to cement and lime, where emissions from glass production are estimated based on the carbonate input(Tier 3), the emission factor uncertainty (1-3 percent) is relatively low because the emission factor is based on a
stoichiometric ratio. There may be some uncertainty associated with assuming that there is 100 percent
calcination of the carbonate input (1 percent).
Because emissions are estimated based on quantity of melted glass in each manufacturing process and default
emission factors, the uncertainty of Tier 2 is higher than Tier 3. The emission factors can be expected to have an
uncertainty of +/- 10 percent. As illustrated in Table 2.6, the typical range for the cullet ratio varies among
different glass types. For the purposes of uncertainty analysis it can be assumed that the ‘typical range’ reflects
the 95 percent confidence interval.
Uncertainty associated with use of the Tier 1 emission factor and cullet ratio is significantly higher, and may beon the order of +/- 60 percent.

2.4.2.2

A CTIVITY DATA UNCERTAINTIESAs with cement and lime production, the uncertainty associated with weighing or proportioning raw materials
under the Tier 3 approach is approximately 1-3 percent. While it is possible that some carbonate containing raw
materials may be brought into the facility but lost as dust (i.e., never calcined) this amount is assumed negligible.
Glass production data are typically measured fairly accurately (+/-5 percent) for Tier 1 and Tier 2. As mentioned
above, inventory compilers should be cautious where activity data are not originally available in mass, but rather
as a unit (e.g., bottle) or area (e.g., m2). If activity data have to be converted to mass, this may result in additional
uncertainty.

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2.4.3
2.4.3.1

Quality Assurance/Quality Control (QA/QC),
Reporting and Documentation
Q UALITY A SSURANCE /Q UALITY C ONTROL (QA/QC)

If emissions are estimated using a Tier 3 approach these could be compared with the results using a Tier 2
approach to see if the results are of a similar order of magnitude. Similarly, if emissions were estimated from top
down data using the Tier 2 method, these results could be compared with a more rigorous Tier 3 approach at asmall number of facilities to see if the Tier 2 defaults used reflect national circumstances. The Tier 2 method
relies on estimating emissions based on the different types of glass produced. These estimates could be comparedwith the results of an audit of the various suppliers of raw materials to the glass industry. For example, national
estimates could be compared with estimates of the amount of limestone, soda ash and other carbonates that are
sold to the glass industry. Such trade data could be elicited from individual suppliers, or from trade associations.
One of the largest sources of uncertainty in the emissions estimate (Tier 1 and Tier 2) for glass production is thecullet ratio. The amount of recycled glass used can vary across facilities in a country and in the same facility
over time. The cullet ratio might be a good candidate for more in-depth investigation.

2.4.3.2

R EPORTING AND D OCUMENTATIONTIER 1
For Tier 1, data should be documented and reported to indicate the total quantity of glass produced, and theemission factor applied to estimate emissions (including whether a default or country-specific cullet ratio isused). The process for collecting activity data should be documented (i.e., plant level or national estimates) as
should any calculations made to convert glass production to a common unit (e.g., kg).

TIER 2Tier 2 documentation should include the quantity of glass melted in each manufacturing process outlined inTable 2.6, including any calculation necessary to convert different types of glass into the same units (e.g.,convert bottles into kilogram). Emission factors by glass type and cullet ratio should be reported, indicating if
defaults are used, and whether data were collected on the plant level or at the national level. It is also useful toreport whether cullet was internally generated at the facility or is post-consumer cullet (i.e., purchased cullet).
This information may be important for identifying, or verifying, mitigation activities that are based on recycling.

TIER 3The inventory should include summaries of methods used and references to source data such that the reported
emissions estimates are transparent and steps in their calculation may be reproduced. Where the Tier 3 method isimplemented, inventory compilers should document the species of carbonates consumed and indicate how they
ensure that all carbonate inputs are accounted for (see discussion for Tier 3 in Section 2.2.3.2).

2.5

OTHER PROCESS USES OF CARBONATES

2.5.1

Methodological issues

Limestone (CaCO3), dolomite (CaMg.(CO3)2) and other carbonates (e.g., MgCO3 and FeCO3) are basic raw
materials having commercial applications in a number of industries. In addition to those industries alreadydiscussed individually (cement production, lime production and glass production), carbonates also are consumed
in metallurgy (e.g., iron and steel), agriculture, construction and environmental pollution control (e.g., flue gas
desulphurisation.). As noted in the introduction of this chapter, the calcination of carbonates at high temperatures
yields CO2 (Table 2.1). It should be noted that some uses of carbonates, for example, the use of limestone as anaggregate, do not result in the release of CO2 and, therefore, do not need to be included in the national GHG
inventory (see Table 2.7).
The following discussion provides the general methodologies for estimating CO2 emissions from the use ofcarbonates within the mineral industry. These methodologies, however, also are applicable where carbonates areused as fluxes or slagging agents in other source categories. Inventory compilers are suggested, in particular, to

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Chapter 2: Mineral Industry Emissions

consider four broad source categories: (1) ceramics, (2) other uses of soda ash, (3) non-metallurgical magnesia
production, and (4) other uses of carbonates.
It is good practice to report emissions from the consumption of carbonates in the source category where thecarbonates are consumed and the CO2 emitted. So, where limestone is used for the liming of soils, emissions
should be reported in the respective source category of the Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use (AFOLU)
Sector. Where carbonates are used as fluxes or slagging agents (e.g., in iron and steel, chemicals, or forenvironmental pollution control etc.) emissions should be reported in the respective source categories where thecarbonate is consumed. As discussed in Section 2.3.1.1 above, all marketed and non-marketed production oflime should be reported under Lime Production. The specific source categories discussed below (ceramics, othersoda ash use and non-metallurgical magnesia production) should be reported within the minerals category. The
Other source category should contain estimates of emissions that do not fit into any of the major categories
presented in Table 2.7 below.

CERAMICS
Ceramics include the production of bricks and roof tiles, vitrified clay pipes, refractory products, expanded clay
products, wall and floor tiles, table and ornamental ware (household ceramics), sanitary ware, technical ceramics,
and inorganic bonded abrasives. Process-related emissions from ceramics result from the calcination ofcarbonates in the clay, as well as the addition of additives. Similar to the cement and lime production processes,
carbonates are heated to high temperatures in a kiln, producing oxides and CO2. Most ceramic products are madefrom one or more different types of clay (e.g., shales, fire clay and ball clay). The raw materials are collected andfinely crushed in successive grinding operations. The ground particles are then fired in a kiln to produce a
powder (which may be liquefied). Additives are subsequently added and the ceramic is formed or moulded and‘machined’ to smooth rough edges and achieve the desired characteristics of the ceramic. In the case of
traditional ceramics, the ceramics are then dried and glazed prior to firing in the kiln. After firing, some ceramics
may undergo additional treatment to achieve the final desired quality.
CO2 emissions result from the calcination of the raw material (particularly clay, shale, limestone, dolomite andwitherite) and the use of limestone as a flux.

OTHER USES OF SODA ASH
Soda ash is used in a variety of applications, including, glass production, soaps and detergents, flue gas
desulphurisation, chemicals, pulp and paper and other common consumer products. Soda ash production andconsumption (including sodium carbonate, Na2CO3) results in the release of CO2. Emissions from soda ash
production are reported in the Chemical Industry, while emissions from use are reported in the respective end
use sectors where soda ash is used. Emissions from soda ash used in glass production are already accounted forabove. Similarly, where soda ash is used in other source categories such as chemicals, emissions should bereported in that source category.

NON-METALLURGICAL MAGNESIA PRODUCTION
This source category should include emissions from magnesia (MgO) production that are not included elsewhere.
For example, where magnesia is produced for use as a fertiliser, good practice is to report those emissions under
the appropriate section of Chapter 3, Chemical Industry Emissions.
Magnesite (MgCO3) is one of the key inputs into the production of magnesia, and ultimately fused magnesia.
There are three major categories of magnesia products: calcined magnesia, deadburned magnesia (periclase) andfused magnesia. Calcined magnesia is used in many agricultural and industrial applications (e.g., feed
supplement to cattle, fertilisers, electrical insulations and flue gas desulphurisation). Deadburned magnesia isused predominantly for refractory applications, while fused magnesia is used in refractory and electricalinsulating markets.
Magnesia is produced by calcining MgCO3 which results in the release of CO2 (Table 2.1). Typically, 96-98
percent of the contained CO2 is released in the production of calcined magnesia, with nearly 100 percent of theCO2 released during further heating to produce deadburned magnesia. Production of fused magnesia also resultsin nearly 100 percent release of the CO2.

OTHER
Emissions may result from a number of other source categories that are not included above. When allocating
emissions to this source category, inventory compilers should be careful to not double count emissions alreadyrecorded in other source categories.

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2.5.1.1

C HOICE OF METHOD

There are two primary methodologies for estimating emissions from the use of carbonate(s) for these source
categories. The Tier 1 method assumes that only limestone and dolomite are used as carbonate input in industry,
and allows for the use of a default fraction of limestone versus dolomite consumed. Tier 2 is the same as Tier 1
except country specific information on the fraction of limestone versus dolomite consumed must be determined.
The Tier 3 method is based on an analysis of all emissive uses of carbonates.
It is possible that Tier 3 could be used for some sub-categories, and a Tier 1 or 2 method used for othercategories with limited data availability. Such a hybrid approach is consistent with good practice. The selectionof method depends on national circumstances.

TIER 1 METHODThe Tier 1 method is based on Equation 2.14.
EQUATION 2.14
TIER 1: EMISSIONS BASED ON MASS OF CARBONATES CONSUMED

CO2 Emissions = M c • (0.85 EFls + 0.15 EFd )Where:
CO2 Emissions = emissions of CO2 from other process uses of carbonates, tonnes
Mc = mass of carbonate consumed, tonnes
EFls or EFd = emission factor for limestone or dolomite calcination, tonnes CO2/tonne carbonate (seeTable 2.1)
It is suggested that inventory compilers ensure that data on carbonates reflect pure carbonates and not carbonate
rock. If data are only available on carbonate rock, a default purity of 95 percent can be assumed. For clays adefault carbonate content of 10 percent can be assumed4, if no other information is available.
Soda ash is primarily sodium carbonate, not limestone or dolomite. Therefore, the Tier 1 method for soda ash
does not require the default fraction of 85%/15%. Emissions are estimated by multiplying the quantity of soda
ash consumed on the national level by the default emission factor for sodium carbonate (see Table 2.1).

TIER 2 METHOD
Under Tier 2, the amount of CO2 emitted from the use of limestone and dolomite is estimated from a
consideration of consumption and the stoichiometry of the chemical processes. Tier 2 uses a similar equation to
Tier 1, but Tier 2 requires national data on the quantity of limestone and dolomite consumed in the country(Equation 2.15). It is not good practice to use a default for the allocation between these two primary carbonates.
EQUATION 2.15
TIER 2: METHOD FOR OTHER PROCESS USES OF CARBONATES
CO2 Emissions = ( M ls • EFls ) + ( M d • EFd )Where:
CO2 Emissions = emissions of CO2 from other process uses of carbonates, tonnes
Mls or Md = mass of limestone or dolomite respectively (consumption), tonnes. (Refer to Equation 2.14
above regarding purity.)
EFls or EFd = emission factor for limestone or dolomite calcination respectively, tonnes CO2/tonne
carbonate (see Table 2.1)

TIER 3 METHODThe Tier 3 methodology is similar to the approach outlined for cement above, but there is no need to correct for
dust or other raw material inputs (Equation 2.16). As noted above, wherever this approach is used, it is importantthat all carbonate inputs are considered in the analysis.

4EU-BREF (2005) reports a range of carbonate contents for relevant clays used in the ceramics industry ranging from 0 to
over 30 percent.

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Chapter 2: Mineral Industry Emissions

EQUATION 2.16
TIER 3: CARBONATE INPUT APPROACH FOR OTHER PROCESS USES OF CARBONATES
CO2 Emissions = ∑ ( M i • EFi • Fi )i

Where:
CO2 Emissions = emissions of CO2 from other process uses of carbonates, tonnes
Mi = mass of the carbonate i consumed, tonnes (Refer to Equation 2.14 above regarding purity.)
EFi = emission factor for the carbonate i, tonnes CO2/tonne carbonate (see Table 2.1)
Fi= fraction calcination achieved for the particular carbonate i, fraction. Where the fraction calcinationachieved for the particular carbonate is not known it can be assumed that the fraction calcination isequal to 1.00.

i= one of the carbonate uses

Figure 2.4

Decision tree for estimation of CO 2 emissions from other process uses ofcarbonates
Start

Are
data for all carbonate
inputs available for different
source categories?

Yes

Collect facility-specific activity dataon carbonates consumed (theirchemical composition and calcinationachieved) and relevant emission
factors as basis for Tier 3 method.
Box 3: Tier 3

NoArelimestone and dolomite
consumption data available fordifferent source
categories?

Yes

Collect quantity of limestone anddolomite consumed in each source
category. Apply relevant emission
factors.
Box 2: Tier 2

No

Is theOther Process Usesof Carbonates a key category1, and is
this subcategory
significant?

No

Similar to Tier 2 (Box 2 above),
however, use default weight fractions.
Box 1: Tier 1

Yes
Collect data for the Tier 3
or Tier 2 method.
Note:
1. See Volume 1 Chapter 4, Methodological Choice and Identification of Key Categories (noting Section 4.1.2 on limited resources), for
discussion of key categories and use of decision trees.

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2.5.1.2

C HOICE OF EMISSION FACTORSTIER 1 AND TIER 2
The emission factor for the Tier 1 and Tier 2 methodologies is based on the mass of CO2 released per mass ofcarbonate consumed (see Table 2.1.) The distinction between Tier 1 and Tier 2 is in the activity data.

TIER 3
The Tier 3 emission factor represents the weighted average of the emission factors of the individual carbonates(see Table 2.1). The Tier 3 approach requires the full accounting of carbonates (species and sources).

2.5.1.3

C HOICE OF ACTIVITY DATATIER 1In the Tier 1 method, the inventory compiler should collect activity data for total carbonate consumption foremissive uses (see Table 2.7 for uses of carbonates that are emissive.) In the absence of better data, it isconsistent with good practice for inventory compilers to assume that 85 percent of carbonates consumed arelimestone and 15 percent of carbonates consumed are dolomite. For soda ash use, the inventory compiler shouldcollect national or plant level data on the total quantity of soda ash used. For clays used in the ceramics industry,
the inventory compiler should collect national production data for bricks and roof tiles, vitrified clay pipes, andrefractory products and calculate the amount of clay consumed by multiplying production with a default loss
factor of 1.1.

TIER 2
It is considered good practice to collect activity data to illustrate the total quantity of carbonates consumed ineach end use sector. Where specific data are not available to identify the different carbonates consumed in theseend use sectors, it is good practice to collect national level activity data for limestone and dolomite consumed.
Similar to the Tier 1 method, where the fraction of calcination achieved is unknown, it is consistent with goodpractice for the inventory compiler to assume that 100 percent calcination is achieved. Inventory compilers
should be cautious not to assume that all limestone and dolomite consumed in the country results in the releaseof CO2 emissions. For example, limestone and dolomite are often used as aggregates in a number of processes
and this use of crushed stone does not result in emissions (Table 2.7).

TIER 3The most accurate method is to collect activity data on carbonate consumption by end use. Good practice is tocollect plant-specific data of the carbonate(s) consumed for that source category and the fraction of calcinationof the carbonate achieved. Carbonate consumption is assumed to be equal to the raw material mined (or dredged),plus raw material imported minus material exported. Where the fraction of calcination achieved is unknown, it isconsistent with good practice for the inventory compiler to assume that 100 percent calcination is achieved. For
clay use in the ceramics industry, the inventory compiler should collect clay consumption data for all relevant
ceramics products.

2.5.1.4

C OMPLETENESS

Completeness is a particular challenge with respect to carbonate-consuming (calcining) industries, because thepotential for both underestimation and overestimation exists. As has been noted throughout this chapter, where amethod is based on carbonate input, the potential for underestimating the total quantity of carbonates consumed
is possible. As such, the Tier 3 method for other process uses of carbonates should only be applied at the plantlevel.
The potential also exists for double counting. Inventory compilers should carefully consider how national
statistics on limestone, dolomite and other carbonate uses were developed. For example, a data source for theiron and steel industry may contain the total quantity of limestone consumed as a flux, especially to the degree
that emissions were part of blast furnace gas or other combustible gas that were included in the fuel combustion
emissions from the relevant sector. At a national level, on limestone statistics should be carefully examined todetermine whether the data also contains consumption of limestone in the iron and steel industry.
Often national statistics on limestone, dolomite and other carbonate uses contain categories such as ‘otherunspecified uses’. Inventory compilers should be cautious that this consumption is not already accounted for inother sources.

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Chapter 2: Mineral Industry Emissions

The Guidelines separately identify two categories (Other Uses of Soda Ash and Non-metallurgical Magnesia
Production) that are intermediate products used in a variety of other source categories. Soda ash, in particular, isused in a variety of industries, such as glass production, soaps and detergents. It is suggested that inventory
compilers carefully review statistics for those source categories to ensure that no double counting has occurred.
For example, where soda ash is used in glass production, emissions should be reported in that category. Where
soda ash is used in another industry, emissions should be reported in that industry. Where soda ash is used inanother mineral industry or where information is not sufficient to determine where it has been consumed, thenemissions should be reported in the Category 2A4b, Other Uses of Soda Ash.
Table 2.7 highlights some questions that inventory compilers may ask themselves to help assure that theseemissions are allocated appropriately, and not over-or underestimated.

TABLE 2.7
EMISSIVE AND NON-EMISSIVE USES OF CARBONATES
Where are Carbonates Consumed?

Is sourceemissive?

If yes, where should emissions bereported?

Agricultural:
Agricultural limestone

Yes*

Poultry grit and mineral foodNo

Other agricultural uses

No

AFOLU: 3C2 Liming

Chemical and metallurgical:
Cement manufacture

Yes

IPPU: 2A1 Cement Production

Lime manufacture

Yes

IPPU: 2A2 Lime Production

Yes

IPPU: 2A2 Lime Production, where
deadburned; outside of lime industry
under Other (2A4d).

Yes

IPPU: 2C Metal Industry, Industry
where consumed; unless counted within
Energy (for combustible off-gases soldoff-site)

Chemical stoneYes**

Source category where consumed

Glass manufacture

Yes

IPPU: 2A3 Glass Production

Sulphur oxide removal

Yes*

Source category where consumed

Fertilisers

Yes**

IPPU: 2B Chemical Industry

Yes

IPPU: Mineral Industry: 2A4a Ceramics

Yes

IPPU: Mineral Industry: 2A3 Glass
Production or 2A4d Other, depending
on production process.

Mine dusting or acid water treatment

Yes*

Source category where consumed

Asphalt fillers or extendersNo

Whiting or whiting substitute

No

Other fillers or extenders

No

Dead burning of dolomite

Flux stone

Ceramics and mineral wool:
Ceramics
Mineral wools

Special:Construction:
Use as a Fine or Coarse AggregateNo2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories

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TABLE 2.7 (CONTINUATION)EMISSIVE AND NON-EMISSIVE USES OF CARBONATES
Production

Is sourceemissive?

If yes, where should emissions bereported?

Other miscellaneous uses:
Refractory stoneNo

Acid neutralization

Yes*

Chemicals

No

Paper manufactureNo

Abrasives

No

Sugar refining

Others

Source category where consumed

Yes

IPPU: Emissions from lime production
at sugar mills should be reported under
2A2 Lime Production; all otheremissions in 2A4 Other Process Uses ofCarbonates. Removals should bereported under 2H2 Food and Beverages
Industry.

Yes*, No

Where Yes, IPPU: 2A4 Other Process
Uses of Carbonates* Emissions are by an acidification reaction.
** Emissions could be by calcination and/or acidification.

2.5.1.5

D EVELOPING A CONSISTENT TIME SERIES

Fundamentally, these Guidelines treat the consumption of limestone, dolomite and other carbonate uses
differently than earlier IPCC Guidelines documents. Previous guidance suggested that, except for the case of
limestone and dolomite consumed in cement production, lime production and the liming of agricultural soils, allconsumption of limestone and dolomite be reported under the source category Limestone and Dolomite Use.
In the 2006 Guidelines, emissions from other process uses of carbonates should be reported in the source
category where they are consumed, and thereby emissions are reported in the sector where they are emitted. Thischange could require recalculations to ensure time series consistency for the Other Process Uses of Carbonates
source category in the Minerals Industry, and also in the other source categories where the carbonates are
consumed.
There are a number of ways that inventory compilers may help ensure time series consistency: It is good practicefor the inventory compiler to consider the following in accordance with Volume 1, Chapter 5.
•

If data are available to complete the Tier 3 (or the Tier 2) method for all years, this should be followed.

•

If data are only available for certain years, the intervening years may be estimated by interpolation or
extrapolation of the trend lines.

•

If data on other process uses of carbonates are available at a disaggregated level for only the most recent
year, the inventory compiler may elect to apply the proportion of carbonates consumed in each industry forthe most recent year, to production trends for the respective industries, similar to the Surrogate Method
outlined in Volume 1, Section 5.3. Inventory compilers should be cautious when using this approach
however, and consider if there are national circumstances which may have led to the greater use of fluxes or
slagging agents for certain industries over the time period.

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2.5.2
2.5.2.1

Uncertainty assessment
E MISSION FACTOR UNCERTAINTIESIn theory the uncertainty associated with the emission factor for this source category should be relatively low, as
the emission factor is the stoichiometric ratio reflecting the amount of CO2 released upon calcination of the
carbonate. In practice, there are uncertainties due, in part, to variations in the chemical composition of thelimestone and other carbonates. For example, in addition to calcium carbonate, limestone may contain smaller
amounts of magnesia, silica and sulphur. Assuming that the activity data are collected correctly, and thus thecorrect emission factor is applied, there is negligible uncertainty associated with the emission factor. There may
be some uncertainty associated with assuming a fractional purity of limestone and dolomite in cases where only
carbonate rock data are available (+/- 1-5 percent).

2.5.2.2

A CTIVITY DATA UNCERTAINTIES

Activity data uncertainties are greater than the uncertainties associated with emission factors. Assuming thatcarbonate consumption is allocated to the appropriate consuming sectors/industries, the uncertainty associatedwith weighing or proportioning the carbonates for any given industry is 1-3 percent. The uncertainty of theoverall chemical analysis pertaining to carbonate content and identity also is 1-3 percent. The uncertainty
associated with use of the Tier 2 and Tier 1 methods, including the assumption of a default breakdown oflimestone versus dolomite of 85%/15%, varies depending on country specific circumstances.
Activity data for limestone and dolomite use may be difficult to collect, as there are a variety of end uses indifferent industries, some of which are emissive and others not. National statistics may include an end use
category of ‘other unspecified uses’ (or an otherwise similar category) and it may be difficult to allocate ‘otherunspecified uses’ to the appropriate consuming sector. Where all uses can not be properly identified this will
increase uncertainty.

2.5.3
2.5.3.1

Quality Assurance/Quality Control (QA/QC),
Reporting and Documentation
Q UALITY A SSURANCE /Q UALITY C ONTROL (QA/QC)

COMPARISON OF EMISSION ESTIMATES USING DIFFERENTAPPROACHES
Emission estimates derived from any Tier can be compared with the other Tiers, even though the Tier 3 approach
may be accounting for additional carbonate species not included in the Tier 1 or 2 analyses. Assuming that thesame fraction of calcination achieved is used for all Tiers, the emissions estimated using the respective
approaches will likely be similar in magnitude, considering that limestone and dolomite likely contribute thegreatest percentage of emissions for these sources.

ACTIVITY DATA CHECKAs limestone, dolomite and other carbonates are consumed in a variety of industries there may be a number ofdifferent data sources available containing carbonate consumption in the respective industries. For example, data
for limestone consumption at various facilities in the iron and steel industry could be compared to see if thequantity of flux used in proportion to facility level production is similar.
Also, plant specific information on use of limestone, dolomite and other carbonates as a flux could be comparedwith industry association statistics. These industry association statistics could in turn be compared with national
level statistics on limestone, dolomite and other carbonate consumption.
It is often useful to examine trends in activity data over time to see if there may be large fluctuations year to year.
Inventory compilers should be cautious when drawing conclusions based on trends data, as there may be large
year to year fluctuations in these statistics.

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2.5.3.2

R EPORTING AND D OCUMENTATION

The inventory should include summaries of methods used and references to source data such that the reported
emissions estimates are transparent and steps in their calculation may be reproduced. As noted above, the mostimportant consideration that inventory compilers should make when reporting emissions from other process usesof carbonates is that emissions should be reported in the source category where the carbonates are consumed.

TIER 1 AND TIER 2
Information should be reported on the quantity of limestone and dolomite consumed by each industry. Where thebreakdown of carbonates consumed in a particular industry is unknown, and a default allocation of 85 percent
limestone and 15 percent dolomite is used, this should be documented.

TIER 3Documentation required for the Tier 3 approach is analogous to the other source categories in this chapter that
calculate emissions based on carbonate inputs.

References
ASTM (1996). ASTM International. Standard Specification for Quicklime, Hydrated Lime, and Limestone for
Chemical Uses, Designation: C911-96, Table 1.
ASTM (2004a). ASTM International. Standard Specification for Portland Cement, Designation: C-150-02.
ASTM (2004b). ASTM International. Standard Specification for Blended Hydraulic Cements: C-595-03.
Boyd, D. C. and Thompson, D. A. (1980) "Glass", Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, Third
Edition, Volume 11, pp 826-827.
Boynton, R. S. (1980). Chemistry and Technology of Lime and Limestone, 2nd edition, John Wiley and Sons,
Inc., New York, USA.
CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (2004). (David R. Lide, Ed in Chief); CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL;
Sec. 1, p.12-14
DIN (1994). Deutsche Industrie Norm. DIN 1164-1 Zement, Teil 1: Zusammensetzung, Anforderungen. Edition
1994-10.
EU-BREF Ceramics (2005). Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control (IPPC) Reference Document on Best
Available Techniques in the Ceramic Manufacturing Industry. (http://eippcb.jrc.es/pages/FActivities.htm)
Hendriks et al. (1998). Proceedings of the 4th International Conference of GHG Control Technologies. August30-September 2. Interlaken.
Miller, M. (1999a). US Geological Survey, Calculations based on Boynton, 1980.
Miller, M. (1999b). U.S. Geological Survey. Calculations based on ASTM, 1996b and Schwarzkopf, 1985.
Schwarzkopf, F. (1985). Lime Burning Technology (2nd Edition), Table 2, June 1985.
Van Oss, H. (2005). Personal communication with Hendrik van Oss, January 2005.
Van Oss, H. and Padovani, A. (2002). Cement Manufacture and the Environment. Part I: Chemistry andTechnology. Journal of Industrial Ecology. Vol.6, Number 1, page 89-105.
WBCSD (2005). World Business Council for Sustainable Development The Cement CO2 Protocol: CO2
Accounting and Reporting Standard for the Cement Industry. Version 2. June 2005

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