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CHAPTER 4

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COASTAL WETLANDS

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Coordinating Lead Authors

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Hilary A. Kennedy (UK), Daniel M. Alongi (Australia), Ansarul Karim (Bangladesh)

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Lead Authors

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Guangcheng Chen (China), Gail L. Chmura (Canada), Stephen Crooks (USA), James G. Kairo (Kenya), Baowen
Liao (China), Guanghui Lin (China)

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Contributing Author

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Tiffany G. Troxler (USA)14
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Review Editors

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Nuria Marba Bordalba (Spain) and Georgi Karl Hiebaum (Bulgaria)

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Contents

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4.1

Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 4.5

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4.1.1

Land remaining in a land-use category........................................................................................... 4.9

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4.1.2

Conversion from a land-use category that includes coastal wetlands ........................................... 4.12

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4.1.3

Conversion to a land-use category that includes coastal wetlands ............................................... 4.13

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4.2

Land remaining in a land-use category ............................................................................................. 4.13

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4.2.1

Biomass ........................................................................................................................................ 4.14

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4.2.2

Dead Organic Matter .................................................................................................................... 4.22

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4.2.3

Soil Carbon ................................................................................................................................... 4.25

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4.2.4

Non-CO2 emissions ...................................................................................................................... 4.35

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4.3

Conversion from a land-use category that includes coastal wetlands ............................................... 4.41

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4.3.1

CO2 emissions and removals ........................................................................................................ 4.42

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4.3.2

Non-CO2 emissions ...................................................................................................................... 4.42

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4.4

Conversion to a land-use category that includes coastal wetlands .................................................... 4.42

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4.4.1

CO2 emissions and removals ....................................................................................................... 4.42

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4.4.2

Non-CO2 emissions ...................................................................................................................... 4.42

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4.5

Completeness, Times Series consistency, Quality Assurance and Quality Control .......................... 4.43

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4.5.1

Completeness ............................................................................................................................... 4.43

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4.5.2

Developing a consistent time series.............................................................................................. 4.43

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4.5.3

Quality assurance and quality control .......................................................................................... 4.43

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4.5.4

Reporting and documentation....................................................................................................... 4.44

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4.6

Future Methodological Development ............................................................................................... 4.44

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References .......................................................................................................................................................... 4.45

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Annex 4 .............................................................................................................................................................. 4.66

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Equations

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Equation 4.1 Annual change in carbon pools in land remaining in a land use category .................................. 4.13

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Equation 4.2 Change in soil C in coastal wetlands with aquaculture, salt production activities in threephase of sub-activities and extraction ......................................................................................... 4.27

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Equation 4.3 Annual change in carbon stocks in drained organic and mineral soils ....................................... 4.32

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Equation 4.4 Annual change in soil C in restored and created coastal wetlands.............................................. 4.33

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Equation 4.5 Direct N2O emissions from Aquaculture use .............................................................................. 4.38

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Figures62

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Figure 4.1

Decision tree to estimate greenhouse gas emissions and removals due to management
activities in coastal wetlands.......................................................................................................... 4.7

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Tables66

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Table 4.1

Management Activities in Coastal Wetland Ecosystems Related to Land-Use Category andChapter section ........................................................................................................................... 4.5

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Table 4.2

Management Activities, Tier 1 Equations or Default EF for Biomass Pool Changes ................ 4.1470

Table 4.3

Carbon content of aboveground mangrove forest biomass (% DW) .......................................... 4.17

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Table 4.4

Aboveground Biomass in Mangrove forests (tonnes DW. ha-1) ................................................. 4.17

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Table 4.5

Aboveground biomass growth in mangrove forests (tonnes DW ha-1 yr-1)................................. 4.18

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Table 4.6

Ratio of belowground biomass to aboveground biomass (R) in mangroves forests ................... 4.18

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Table 4.7

Wood Density (D) of Common Mangrove Tree Species ............................................................ 4.18

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Table 4.8

Aboveground and Belowground biomass for Tidal Marshes (tonnes C ha-1) ............................. 4.19

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Table 4.9

Aboveground biomass for seagrass meadow .............................................................................. 4.20

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Table 4.10

Ratio of belowground biomass to aboveground biomass (R) for seagrass meadow ................... 4.20

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Table 4.11

Carbon content of aboveground and belowground seagrass biomass (% DW) .......................... 4.21

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Table 4.12

Management Activities, Tier 1 Equations and default EF for Dead Organic Matter C Pool
Changes ...................................................................................................................................... 4.22

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Table 4.13

Tier 1 default values for litter and dead wood carbon stocks...................................................... 4.24

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Table 4.14

Management Activities, Tier 1 Approaches and Tier 1 Equations for Soil Carbon Pool
Changes ...................................................................................................................................... 4.26

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Table 4.15

Emission factors (EF) associated with construction (EFCONSTR) of aquaculture (AQ), salt
production (SP) and extraction (EXT) on organic soils (tonnes C ha-1) at start of activity ........ 4.29

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Table 4.16

Emission factors (EF) associated with construction (EFCONSTR) of aquaculture (AQ), salt
production (SP) and extraction (EXT) on mineral soils (tonnes C ha-1) at start of activity ........ 4.29

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Table 4.17

Annual emission factors (EF) associated with use (EFUSE) of aquaculture (AQ) on organicand mineral soils (tonnes C ha-1 yr-1) .......................................................................................... 4.30

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Table 4.18

Annual emission factors (EF) associated with abandonment after aquaculture (AQ) or salt
production (SP) under saturated conditions (EFABAN-S) on organic and mineral soils andharvesting of aquatic resources (EFHARV) in mangrove forests (tonnes C ha-1 yr-1) .................... 4.30

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Table 4.19

Annual emission factors (EF) associated with nutrient enrichment (EFNUTR) on organic andmineral soils (tonnes C ha-1 yr-1) ................................................................................................. 4.31

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Table 4.20

Annual emission factors (EF) associated drainage (EFDR) on organic and mineral soils(tonnes C ha-1 yr-1) ...................................................................................................................... 4.32

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Table 4.21

Annual emission factors (EF) associated with restoration or creation (EFRES/CRE) on organicand mineral soils (tonnes C ha-1 yr-1) after 20 years of vegetation reestablishment .................... 4.34

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Table 4.22

Activities and Tier 1 Assumptions for non-CO2 emissions for the Ecosystems Affected .......... 4.36

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Table 4.23

Emission factors for N2O emission from aquaculture in coastal wetlands ................................. 4.38

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Table 4.24

Emission factors for CH4 emissions from nutrient enrichment (agricultural run-off andaquaculture effluent) (tonnes CH4 ha-1 yr-1) ................................................................................ 4.39

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Table 4.25

Emissions factors for N2O emissions from nutrient enrichment (aquaculture effluent) (kg N2O
ha-1 yr-1) ....................................................................................................................................... 4.39

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Table 4.26

Emission factors for CH4 from unmanaged coastal wetlands for Tier 1 estimation of rewetting
and restoration ............................................................................................................................ 4.40

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Boxes

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Box 4.1

The following respresent examples of different management activities that do or do not result in achange in land-use category ........................................................................................................... 4.8

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4.1

INTRODUCTION

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This chapter provides guidance on estimating and reporting anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions andremovals from managed coastal wetlands.

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Coastal wetlands are defined here as organic and mineral soils vegetated by vascular plants that are covered or
saturated for all or part of the year by tidal freshwater or salt water (>0.5ppt) at or near the coast. The boundaryof coastal wetlands is recognized as the landward extent of tidal inundation and extending seaward to the
maximum depth of vascular plant vegetation with 95% of seagrass meadows being found shallower than 40
meters water depth (Duarte 1991).This description is derived from recent definitions in a specialized treatise on
coastal wetlands (Perillo et al. 2009) and from a global treatise on all wetlands (Aber et al. 2012). This definition
and this chapter thus refer specifically to tidal freshwater and salt marshes, seagrass meadows, and mangrove
forests. All vegetation types occur on both mineral and organic soils. The guidance in this chapter applies to all
managed coastal wetlands that can occur in any IPCC land category and addresses all IPCC pools (Table 4.1).

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Supplementary guidance (Table 4.1) is structured to address greenhouse gas emissions and removals for Land
Remaining in a Land-use category (Section 4.2), Land Converted to another Land-use category in which the landthat is converted is a coastal wetland (Section 4.3), and Conversion to a Land-Use category that includes coastal
wetlands (Section 4.4) regardless of how it is classified. Management activities that have significant impacts onnational level CO2 emissions and removals vary depending on country circumstances. This chapter provides
guidance on management activities that will not be relevant for all countries but is meant to be inclusive of those
activities that are common in managed coastal wetlands. The guidance is thus structured to aid the inventory
compiler to identify areas of managed coastal wetlands and report on management activities that impact
greenhouse gas emissions and removals. It should be noted also that depending on how managed coastal
wetlands are classified, the effect of the management activity may or may not result in a land-use change. This isan especially important consideration for the guidance provided in this chapter. Inventory compilers should also
be mindful that, significant greenhouse gas emissions and removals can result in an IPCC Wetlands land
category that is key regardless of whether a land-use conversion has occurred (in reference to significant and key,
see Chapter 4, Volume 1 of the 2006 IPCC Guidelines). As such, to ensure complete coverage, this guidance
enables the use of the IPCC Land category reporting system. Methodological assumptions and issues more
specific to the three categories are discussed in the corresponding sections of this chapter. Readers are referred toVolume 4 of the 2006 IPCC Guidelines for many of the basic equations to estimate greenhouse gas emissions,but methodological assumptions and other deviations are highlighted throughout the text, especially with regard
to new activities including aquaculture and salt production where new methodological guidance is provided. The
Decision Tree guides the inventory compiler to the appropriate Tier level estimation methodology as is followedin the 2006 IPCC Guidelines (Figure 4.1).
TABLE 4.1 MANAGEMENT ACTIVITIES IN COASTAL WETLAND ECOSYSTEMS RELATED TO LAND-USE
CATEGORY AND CHAPTER SECTIONLAND REMAINING IN A LAND-USE CATEGORY: Section 4.2 (This section covers management activities that
occur in coastal wetland ecosystems and that may or may not result in a conversion to another land-use category.)
Activity

Ecosystems Affected

SubtypeAquaculture (AQ)

Mangrove forests, Tidal
marshesFish, shrimp ponds

Seagrass meadows

Fish cages, pens

Salt Production (SP)Mangrove forests, Tidal
marshes
Seagrass meadows

NA1

Extraction (EXT)

Mangrove forests, Tidal
marshes, Seagrass meadowsDredging; Port, harbour and marina construction; filling

Harvesting of Aquatic
Resources (HARV)Mangrove forests

Wood, Charcoal, Land clearing

Tidal marshes

Grazing (cattle, sheep)

Seagrass meadowsFish, Shellfish

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Nutrient Enrichment(NUTR)

Mangrove forests, Tidal
marshes, Seagrass meadows

Hydrologic/Sediment
Diversion (DIV)

Mangrove forests, Tidal
marshes

Impoundments, barriers, oil and gas extraction resulting in soil elevation loss

Seagrass meadows

NA

Mangrove forests, Tidal
marshes

Agriculture, forestry, mosquito control

Seagrass meadows

NA

Mangrove forests, Tidal
marshes

Reestablishment of vegetation following hydrologic or
sediment modifications

Seagrass meadows

Reestablishment of vegetation following water quality
improvements

Mangrove forests, Tidal
marshes

Recreation (hunting), fire management

Seagrass meadows

Recreation (anchoring, mooring, boating), salt
production

Drainage (DR)Restoration (RES) and
Creation (CRE)

Other Activities

CONVERSION FROM A LAND-USE CATEGORY THAT INCLUDES COASTAL WETLANDS Section 4.3(This section covers the conversion of a Land-use category that includes coastal wetlands to another Land-use
Category, primarily including (1) drainage in which the soil water table is lowered for conversion to Cropland or
Grassland or (2) excavation of soil resulting in conversion to Settlement.
CONVERSION TO A LAND-USE CATEGORY THAT INCLUDES COASTAL WETLANDS Section 4.4 (Thissection covers restoration and creation of coastal wetland ecosystems in which a Land-use conversion occurs.
NA =not applicable; 1no available Tier 1 guidance

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WHAT IS NOT COVERED IN THIS CHAPTER

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For constructed wetlands that occur in coastal zones that are modified to receive and treat waste water, refer to
Chapter 6 (this Supplement). Chapter 6 also covers semi-natural treatment wetlands which are natural wetlands
where wastewater has been directed for treatment but the wetland is otherwise unmodified. With reference tonutrient enrichment as an activity in coastal wetlands, this chapter on coastal wetlands covers CO2, CH4 and N2Oemissions from aquaculture and effluent derived from aquaculture as well as CH4 emissions from untreated,uncollected agricultural runoff and leaching resulting from direct nutrient application to terrestrial soils. Nutrient
enrichment effects on CO2 emissions from this type of agricultural run-off affecting mangroves and tidal
marshes is not covered as there is inadequate information to provide emission factors for all pools and risk of
double-counting across pools. Direct and indirect N2O emissions from soils associated with N applied toterrestrial soils (direct and indirect) are covered in Chapter 11, Volume 4 of the 2006 IPCC Guidelines. This
Chapter only covers N2O emissions during stocking of aquaculture and as a result of effluent from aquaculture in
the coastal wetland. This chapter covers emissions from these lands, but excludes carbon losses or gains via tidal
exchange (see Section 4.6).

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SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE APPLICATION OF THE WETLANDSSUPPLEMENT GUIDANCE FOR COASTAL WETLANDS

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Special considerations for the application of the Wetlands Supplement guidance for coastal wetlands include anunderstanding of: A) how to identify coastal wetlands, B) treatment of managed lands in coastal wetlands, C)
identification of coastal ecosystems, D) soil type, and other generally applied assumption for soils.

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A. Identification of coastal wetlands

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Figure 4.1 Decision tree to estimate greenhouse gas emissions and removals due to management
activities in coastal wetlands.

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*A key source/sink category is defined in Chapter 4, Volume 1 of the 2006 IPCC Guidelines, “as one that is prioritised within the national
inventory system because its estimate has a significant influence on a country’s total inventory of greenhouse gases in terms of the absolutelevel, the trend, or the uncertainty in emissions and removals”. The 2006 IPCC Guidelines recommend that the key category analysis isperformed at the level of land remaining in or converted to a land-use category. If CO2, CH4 or N2O emissions/removals from coastal
wetlands are subcategories to a key category, these subcategories should be considered as significant if they individually accounts for 25-30%
of emissions/removals for the overall key category (see Figures 1.2 and 1.3 in Chapter 1, Volume 4 of the 2006 IPCC Guidelines.

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The first priority for inventory compilers is to determine if the managed wetlands under consideration conformto the definition and boundary of coastal wetlands that have been described. In many regions, these boundaries
have been mapped using aerial photographs or remotely sensed data, and confirmed by field inspections, and in
the form of freely available data (refer to respective sections on Activity Data and Annex 4.2). Wetlands are bydefinition lands with minimal slope and vegetated by species adapted to temporary, regular or permanent
coverage by tidal freshwater or salt water (>0.5ppt) and saturated soil conditions. Many plant species are salt
tolerant or salt resistant and may be adapted to grow fully submerged. Thus, wetlands can be identified by thepresence of these specialized plant species or by soil characteristics that reflect flooded conditions (e.g., organiccarbon content >12% or in mineral soils the presence of mottling).

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B. Treatment of managed lands in coastal wetlands

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C. Identification of ecosystem types

The second priority for inventory compilers is to apply the concept of managed land in order to focus time andresources and report on management activities that impact anthropogenic emissions and removals of greenhousegases at the national level. The activities that will result in the largest greenhouse gas emissions or removals arethose that: 1) include removal and oxidation of soils (eg. aquaculture, salt production, extraction, drainage), 2)
have both initial and sustained effects (eg. aquaculture, salt production, restoration) or 3) affect more than one
pool. Additionally, for example, those activities which result in removal of forest biomass would have a larger
impact than those that result in removal of tidal marsh biomass. So, the land area in which the activity occurs(coastal wetland ecosystem type) is also an important consideration in documentation and reporting ofmanagement activity impacts. Furthermore, IPCC good practice guidance requires documentation and reportingof all IPCC pools.
A further consideration when applying the guidance in this chapter is the ecosystem type that is the subject of the
management activity. Just as all management activities will not occur in all countries, not all management
activities occur in all ecosystem types nor will all coastal wetland ecosystem types be considered managed.
Coastal wetlands can occur in any IPCC land-use category regardless of how the land is classified (see examples
Box 4.1). While countries should follow their own national definitions of coastal wetland ecosystem types, some
general features that may help in consistent identification can be found throughout this guidance.

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BOX 4.1. THE FOLLOWING REPRESENT EXAMPLES OF DIFFERENT MANAGEMENT PRACTICE THAT DO OR DO NOTRESULT IN A CHANGE OF A LAND-USE CATEGORY.

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For Land remaining in a land-use category:

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When areas of fish pens constructed within seagrass meadows are classified as Wetlands.

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When tidal marshes or mangrove forests are classified as Wetlands and exploited for aquaculture or
drained for agriculture that is also classified as Wetlands.

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When selective harvesting or forest clearing occurs in mangrove forests that are classified as Wetlands toprovide wood for fuel, charcoal or construction.

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For Conversion from a land-use category that includes coastal wetlands:

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When areas of fish pens constructed within seagrass meadows are classified as Settlements or Other Land.

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When tidal marshes or mangrove forests are classified as Wetlands and exploited for aquaculture or
drained for agriculture with that land area classified as Cropland. If the soils are organic and permanently
drained for Cropland uses, refer to guidance in Chapter 2 of this Supplement. If the soils are mineral andpermanently drained for Cropland uses, refer to guidance in Chapter 5 of the 2006 IPCC Guidelines.

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When mangrove forests classified as Forest Land are deforested, drained and maintained as grazing landand subsequently classified as Grassland.

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D. Identification of soil types
A unique aspect of this chapter in the Supplement is that coastal wetland ecosystems can occur with either
mineral or organic soils. For some management activities, soils may be aggregated and the same emission factor
applied regardless of the soil type (i.e. drainage, restoration and nutrient enrichment). However, emission factors
do vary based on ecosystem types and Tier 1 methods disaggregate ecosystem types on this basis. For othermanagement activities, emission factors are disaggregated by soil type (i.e. aquaculture, salt production). This

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refinement results from the differing methodologies applied in these cases. Once management activities are
identified, the inventory compiler should consider whether soil type must be determined. Thus, the fourthpriority for inventory compilers is to distinguish organic from mineral soils in coastal wetlands once
management activities and ecosystem types have been identified for Tier 1 estimation in the absence of soil map
data. There are two assumptions that can be applied at Tier 1:

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(i)

Assumption 1: Soils which are or become colonised by seagrass meadows are assumed to be mineral.

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(ii)

Assumption 2: Soils in or at the mouth of estuaries or adjacent to any river characterised by a large
and/or mountainous catchment and high flow are assumed to be mineral soils. For all other mangrove
forests (sometimes termed oceanic mangroves) and tidal marshes the soils are assumed to be organic.
See Durr et al. 2011for additional national level guidance.

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4.1.1

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The known management activities that occur in coastal wetlands and that may not result in their conversion toanother IPCC land-use category depending on how those lands are classified are aquaculture, salt production,
extraction, harvesting of aquatic resources, nutrient enrichment, hydrologic/sediment diversion, drainage,
restoration/creation and other activities (Table 4.1). In the following sub-section, these activities and how theyaffect the coastal wetlands they primarily impact are described. All methodological guidance is found in section
4.2. When management activities do not result in a land-use category conversion, follow guidance in section 4.2.
When a land-use category conversion is involved, refer to guidance in sections 4.3 and 4.4 which direct theinventory compiler to the appropriate methodological guidance.

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Aquaculture (shrimp ponds, fish ponds, fish cages)

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There exists a range of aquaculture practices, but the most important, and ones that commonly occur in coastal
wetlands, are fish farming and shrimp ponds (World Bank 2006).
Mangrove Forests and Tidal Marshes. Shrimp and fish ponds in these settings are identified through threephases: construction, use and abandonment. In the first phase they are constructed by clearing vegetation,levelling, followed by excavation of surface soils to build containing berms within which water is held. During
construction, carbon from the cleared biomass and excavated soils is lost from storage and subsequently oxidized(World Bank 2006). While in use (second phase), ponds are stocked with fish and shrimp, and soils underlying
ponds receive excess organic matter leading to an enhancement of benthic CO2 fluxes from the oxidation of theorganic matter (Burford & Langton 2001), N2O will be emitted from aquaculture systems primarily as a byproduct of the conversion of ammonia (contained in fish urea) to nitrate through nitrification and nitrate to N2
gas through denitrification (Hu et al., 2012). While CH4 production may occur if bottom muds are anoxic, someof the CH4 will be oxidized as it passes through the water column, which must be oxygenated for fish culturing(Bose et al., 1991). However, there is considerable uncertainty regarding N2O and CH4 fluxes associated withaquaculture and additional research is necessary. When stocking of the ponds is discontinued, the ponds areabandoned. On abandonment, the area utilized for aquaculture is often left with saturated soils. In this guidance,
this Chapter covers CO2 emissions and removals from all phases of aquaculture and N2O emissions only during
the period when the ponds are being stocked.
Seagrass Meadows. Fish farming is a rapidly expanding industry in Asia (FAO 2007a). The fish are retained infloating cages or pens made up of nets often fastened to bamboo sticks that are anchored in the sediment (Alongi
et al., 2009). Fish farming generates organic waste that impacts the immediate environment resulting in nutrient
enrichment of the water column and organic enrichment of sediments beneath the farm. Nutrient overenrichment of seagrass meadows has led to water and sediment quality deterioration, algal overgrowth, and lossof seagrass (Apostolaki et al., 2010; Apostolaki et al., 2011). Increased organic matter accumulation increases
benthic metabolism leading to anoxic conditions and high sediment sulfide concentrations have been associatedwith seagrass die-off events (Holmer & Heilskov 2000; Borum et al., 2005). Gas bubbles have been observed in
the sediments underlying fish pens and the sulphate concentration were depleted in the surface layers, thus it isthus likely that methane production occurs in these settings but no measurements have been made to date(Holmer et al., 2002).

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Salt production

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Mangrove Forests and Tidal Marshes. The Ramsar convention recognizes salt exploitation sites or solar salterns
as a type of wetland. These are sites where salt is produced by evaporating seawater. The area covered can be

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extensive and sites are found along tropical and subtropical coasts worldwide (Oren 2009). Many solar salterns
have long histories, on the order of centuries (Thiery and Puente 2002). More recently, salt production has beenshown to displace mangroves on the coast of Java (Sukardjo 1993). Some production sites, as in San Francisco
Bay and on the Camargue, have been abandoned and restoration activities are underway. Establishment of the
production system is similar to the construction phase of aquaculture and can include clearing vegetation,levelling, diking and constructing channels to develop a multi-pond production system (Oren 2002). Scientificevidence is not adequately developed to provide default emission factors for effects on CO2 emissions while thesalt production ponds are in use. The CO2 emissions and removals of salt production are similar as those of
aquaculture during construction and abandonment and so similar guidance in given in both instances.

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Extraction (dredging; port, harbour and marina construction; filling)

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Mangrove Forests and Tidal Marshes. Dredging excavates soil often leading to loss of coastal wetlands. In
mangrove forests and tidal marshes this most often occurs by direct physical removal of biomass and soil. The
CO2 emissions and removals associated with this extraction are the same as those of aquaculture during
construction and so the same guidance in given in both instances. The area that has had the soil removed issometimes subsequently filled with other soil, whether extracted within or outside the coastal ecosystem. Fillingof coastal wetlands is also considered a significant management activity affecting CO2 emissions; if filling
occurs, it is preceded by extraction. Similarly as for extraction, CO2 emissions and removals must be reported.
Once the extraction is complete, the area that has had the soil removed may become covered with water and CO2
emissions are assumed to be negligible.
Seagrass Meadows. Extraction effects on seagrass meadows can take two forms: 1) direct via on-site physicalremoval of soil and biomass (Zainal et al. 1993. Ertlinmeyer et al 2012) or 2) indirect via sediment resuspensionthat causes high turbidity and reduces water quality impacting biomass stocks through inhibition ofphotosynthesis (Erftemeijer and Lewis, 2006) leading to major die back (Cyrus et al. 2008) and/or seagrass loss
(Cabaço et al. 2008). The direct effects of extractionon seagrass meadows are when soil is removed todeepen andmaintain navigation channels and harbour entrances or for extraction of fill materials from seagrass meadows(Larkum and West 1990; Da Silva et al. 2004). These activities have been reported to represent the greatest
environmental threats to seagrass meadows, particularly in the Gulf region where more than 40% of the coastline
has now been modified and developed (Sheppard and Price, 1991).The indirect effects of extraction can result
from any significant dredging activity (i.e. beach renourishment, channel dredging or widening, changes in landcatchments, etc) that occurs landward of seagrass meadows. The CO2 emissions and removals associated withextraction (direct physical removal of biomass and soil) are similar to those of aquaculture during construction
and so similar guidance is given).

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Harvesting of aquatic resources
Mangrove Forests. Throughout the tropics, mangrove wood is harvested for fuel, charcoal, and construction(Ellison and Farnsworth 1996, Walters et al. 2008). Harvesting can range from extensive forest clearing, to more
moderate, selective harvesting of individual trees to minimally invasive incidental bark removal. In wetlands
dominated by woody vegetation change in biomass C stocks should be considered during both selective
harvesting and forest clearance. CO2 emissions from soils due to forest clearing should also be considered in C
stock estimations (Alongi et al. 1998). To date, there have been no studies that suggest a change in N2Oemissions with harvests. Plant-mediated transport of methane has been documented (Kreuzwieser et al. 2003;
Cheng et al. 2007), but few data are currently available.

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Tidal Marshes. Harvesting of marsh vegetation is assumed to have negligible impacts on biomass and soil C
stocks. However, in cases where extensive harvesting of vegetation or grazing is known to occur, it is goodpractice to document and report the CO2 emissions and removals associated with this activity.
Seagrass Meadows. Physical disturbance is an issue with harvesting marine resources such as bivalves and othershellfish. On-ground shellfish culture and harvest methods can result in trampling and disturbance from boat
wakes and propeller scars in shallow waters (Dumbauld et al. 2009). Intertidal seagrass beds can be particularly
impacted by bait collection, through digging and trenching as well as pumping of sediment for prawns (Pillay et
al. 2010) and associated trampling. Thus, harvesting of aquatic resources can have impacts on CO2 emissions
and removals primarily through changes in biomass C stocks where seagrass meadows have been lost.

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Nutrient enrichment

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Human activities can provide excess organic matter, nitrogen and phosphorus to coastal waters throughagriculture runoff, discharge of sewage and industry effluent (Seitzinger and Harrison 2008). Nutrient

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enrichment stimulates algal production, adding to organic matter loads in coastal waters. Nitrate, ammonium anddissolved organic N are the major forms of N input (Dai et al. 2008, Seitzinger and Harrison 2008).
Decomposition of organic matter and nutrients supplied through anthropogenic sources can result in enhanced
emissions of greenhouse gases.
Mangrove Forests and Tidal Marshes. In mangrove forests and tidal marshes, the effects nutrient availability on
plant community structure and aboveground and belowground biomass is not well understood. Numerous
fertilization experiments indicate that aboveground production in saline wetlands is limited by availability of N,
while tidal freshwater marshes may be limited by availability of P (Megonigal and Neubauer 2009). Fertilization
with N in tidal salt marshes has resulted in an increase in plant height, photosynthetic rates, and abovegroundbiomass production (e.g. Valiela and Teal 1974; Leendertse et al., 1997; Pennings et al., 2002). However,
belowground production decreases with increased nutrient supply (Valiela et al., 1976; Darby and Turner 2008;
Deegan et al., 2012). Since belowground production is the major source of carbon sequestered in marsh andmangrove soils, fertilization may result in no, or perhaps decreased, rates of carbon sequestration (Deegan et al.
2012). However, scientific evidence is not adequately developed to provide default emission factors for nutrient
enrichment effects on CO2 emissions and removals associated with biomass or soils in mangrove forests andtidal marshes. For instance, most mangrove research has focused on short-term increases in foliage nutrient
content (e.g., Simpson et al., 2013) than on actual measurement of increases in biomass over time and the rate ofincrease in biomass increases initially with rate of nutrient supply (Alongi 2011). Thus, for the management
activity nutrient enrichment, this chapter covers only CH4 emissions due to effluent from aquaculture andurbanisation of the coastal zone and agricultural run-off and N2O due to effluent from aquaculture. For non-CO2
gases associated with other types of nutrient enrichment, covers N2O emissions from agricultural run-off(through N leaching from application of N to terrestrial soils) are covered in Chapter 11, Volume 4 of the 2006
IPCC Guidelines. In this Supplement, N2O and CH4 emissions from waste water (including sewage) are coveredin Chapter 6 on semi-natural treatment wetlands.
Seagrass Meadows. Decline of seagrass populations associated with anthropogenic nutrient loading including
effluent from aquaculture (Yang and Yang, 2009) has been observed in many estuarine embayments (Waycott etal. 2009). Increased availability of nutrients may lead to blooms of macroalgae, phytoplankton, and epiphytes, allof which shade seagrass, reducing the light available for photosynthesis that can lead to seagrass loss (Waycott etal. 2009). Because the effects due to agricultural run-off and effluent discharge from aquaculture result in adecrease in both aboveground and belowground biomass stocks as well as increased CO2 emissions from soils,
with sufficient scientific evidence of both, CO2 emissions and removals due to nutrient enrichment are coveredin this Chapter.

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Hydrologic/Sediment diversion (soil elevation loss)
Mangrove Forests and Tidal Marshes. The processes by which elevation in tidal wetlands is maintained against
sea level rise and in some cases, coastal subsidence, rely upon the supply of mineral soils (Kirwan et al., 2011)derived from nearby rivers, cliffs, seabeds and oceanic import as well as growth of belowground biomass tomaintain elevations against sea level rise. Therefore management practices that alter soil supply or cause
subsidence will impact on coastal ecosystems. For example, many coastal wetlands are impacted by upstream
diversions of water, such as from the construction of dams that is accompanied by diversion of sedimentresulting in sediment starvation. Reduction of sediment delivery brought about by coastal structures can also
result in sediment starvation, erosion of coastal wetland soils and release of stored carbon. Oil and gas extraction
also affects coastal wetlands and results in soil subsidence and vegetation drowning in coastal areas (Craig et al.
1979; Dahl 2011). Thus hydrologic diversion from coastal areas with mangrove forests and tidal marshes,
resulting in reduced elevation relative to sea-level rise or subsidence, can cause significant impacts to above andbelowground C stocks if the soil becomes subtidal. As C in decayed vegetation is released to the water column
and to the atmosphere, these C stock changes should be reported.
Drainage
Mangrove Forests and Tidal Marshes. Coastal wetlands have been diked and drained to create agricultural land
(pasture and croplands) and settlement since before the 11th century (Gedan et al., 2009). The practice continues
today on many coastlines. On some diked coasts, groundwater of reclaimed former wetlands is pumped out tomaintain the water table at an optimum level below a dry soil surface while on other coasts drainage is achieved
through a system of ditches and tidal gates. Drainage causes a reduction in the degree of soil saturation andordinarily increases rates of organic matter decomposition, resulting in loss of soil carbon (Armentano andMenges 1986). This response will vary regionally with climate (Pozo and Colino 1992) and locally with soil
salinity, soil texture, and the quantity of labile organic matter available in the drained soil (Heminga et al., 1998;
Setia et al., 2011). Drainage can also lead to CO2 emissions due to oxidation of dissolved organic and particulate

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organic carbon in the water carried by drainage channels (see Annex 4.2). Drainage could be accompanied byland clearing, resulting in changes in biomass and soil carbon pools. If burning accompanies drainage, emissions
from changes in those C pools (e.g. DOM) should also be reported.
Restoration and Creation.
Mangrove Forests and Tidal Marshes. Rewetting as a component of restoration, results where hydrologic
modifications reverse drainage or remove impoundments or other obstructions to hydrologic flow (i.e. levee
breach). Rewetting of drained soils through reconnection of hydrology can reduce oxidation of soil C but may
lead to CH4 emissions depending on salinity of reintroduced water (Harris et al 2010). The reestablishment ofvegetation can reinitiate soil carbon sequestration leading to wetland restoration. Improved estimates of soil
carbon accumulation rates in mangroves and tidal marshes (Chmura et al. 2003, Breithaup et al., 2012) haverecently been obtained making it possible to quantify C gains in restored systems. Also included in this activity
are created mangrove forests and tidal marshes that are typically established by removing the upper layer of
upland soil or dredge spoil and grading the site until the appropriate tidal elevation is reached. Hence, the initialsoils at created wetland sites are typically upland soils and/or dredge spoil. A peat layer can eventually develop
in the surface soils with soil properties equivalent to soil properties within the upper layer of natural wetlands(Osland et al. 2012). Mangrove forests can also be created through high riverine sediment load, leading to rapid
sediment accumulation, so that previously sub-aqueous soils can be elevated above tidal influence. This naturally
created land can be naturally or purposefully vegetated. Time lags for equivalence of C pools between createdand natural mangrove sites also suggest a timescale of ~20 years for restoration of functionally equivalent soil C
accumulation rates (Craft et al. 2003, Osland et al . 2012).
Seagrass Meadows. Water quality improvements can reverse seagrass loss due to increased light penetration.
The re-establishment of seagrass vegetation can increase C gains, albeit slowly. For example, a 3-5 year time lag
between nutrient load reduction and initiation of seagrass recolonization has been observed (Vaudrey et al. 2010),
with a further 12-15 yr time lag before seagrass biomass attains a relatively stable distribution with potential forsoil carbon accumulation rates equivalent to natural settings (McGlathery et al., 2012). Restoration of sites
previously supporting seagrass meadows can be mediated by purposeful dispersal of seed or planting of seagrass
modules (Orth et al., 2012). These same techniques can also be used to create new seagrass meadows (Jones etal., 2012)

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Other Activities.
Mangrove Forests, Tidal Marshes and Seagrass Meadows. In order not to omit any potentially significant
management activity that may now or in the future constitute significant CO2 emissions or removals or emissionsof non-CO2 gases, a final subtype “other activities” is identified. For example, currently salt production iscurrently not considered a management activity that significantly impacts seagrass meadows and thus no Tier 1
guidance is provided However, as economic or social conditions change, so might management practices. Thus,
the management activity termed, other activities, is provided to capture such potential changes in conditions.

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4.1.2

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Conversion from a land-use category that includes
coastal wetlands

This section covers coastal wetland ecosystems that have been converted from the Wetlands land-use category toother land-use categories (see Section 4.3 for further guidance). Drainage or extraction are activities that are
most likely to result in land-use category conversion from Wetlands to another IPCC land-use category, however,this is largely a function of how the land is classified (see Box 4.1). Excavation of soil may also result in
conversion to Settlements. However, not all cases of land-use conversion result from drainage or extraction. For
example, in the case of forested coastal wetland ecosystems, a land-use conversion can occur simply based on
how the land is classified. For example, a mangrove forest that was cleared for timber harvest or otherwise
deforested could undergo a change in land-use category if the mangrove forest had been classified as Forest land,
but would not undergo a change in land-use category if the mangrove forest had been classified as Wetlands.
Although the scale and resulting management activity may result in a land-use category change, themethodology to estimate CO2 emissions is the same as given in section 4.1.1. There are cases in which a change
in land-use category involves implementation of new methodologies and emission factors. For example, if acoastal wetland is drained to the extent that it is dry all year round, it does not meet the definition of wetlands aspresented in this Chapter. Thus, a new land-use category would necessarily be applied. In the case that thecoastal wetland has organic soils and is permanently drained wetland, refer to Chapter 2 of this Supplement (see

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Box 4.1 for further examples). If conversion results in a land-use category with mineral soils, refer to therespective Chapter in the 2006 IPCC Guidelines.

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4.1.3

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Conversion to a land-use category that includes
coastal wetlands

This section considers rewetting and restoration or creation of coastal wetlands that occurs where hydrology,
water quality or soils have been altered for establishment and survival of functioning vegetation (see Section 4.4
for further guidance). This includes restoration of coastal wetlands, where vegetation that was present prior tothe current land use has been re-established, or creation, where actions have been taken to develop coastal
wetlands in areas where they cannot be confirmed to have occurred previously.

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LAND REMAINING IN A LAND-USE
CATEGORY

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This section details methodology necessary to estimate impacts of various human activities on greenhouse gas
emissions from Land remaining in a land-use category. Sub-sections detail the methods for estimates as a resultof change in biomass (subsection 4.2.1), DOM (subsection 4.2.2), soil (subsection 4.2.3), and for non-CO2 gases(sub-section 4.2.4). Methods for biomass, DOM and non-CO2 gases in large part reference the methodologicalguidance of the 2006 IPCC Guidelines which should be read before and referred to in conjunction with, thisguidance.

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Guidance is provided here on estimating greenhouse gas emissions from management activities that do not resultin a land-use conversion. These activities either take place without any changes of the water table over all landarea (e.g. nutrient enrichment, harvesting of aquatic resources) or over part of the land area (e.g. salt production,
extraction) within the managed coastal wetland. If these management activities can result in a change from thecoastal wetland land-use category to another IPCC land-use category, then they will be considered in section 4.3.

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The general approach that is applied combines the change in CO2 emissions and removals for each activity
summed for each pool with non-CO2 gases treated separately. The following equation (Equation 4.1) is used foreach of the carbon pools:

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EQUATION 4.1
ANNUAL CHANGE IN CARBON POOLS IN LAND REMAINING IN A LAND USE CATEGORY∑ΔCpool(1…i) =ΔCAQ + ΔCSP + ΔCEXT + ΔCHARV + ΔCNUTR + ΔCDIV + ΔCDR+ ΔCRES + ΔCCRE

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where:

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479∑ΔCpool(1…i) = the sum of carbon stock changes for each pool with activities summed within each poolfrom 1 to i activities.

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ΔCAQ = Change in carbon stocks associated with aquaculture activity

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ΔCSP = Change in carbon stocks associated with salt production activity

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ΔCEXT = Change in carbon stocks associated with extraction activity

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ΔCHARV = Change in carbon stocks associated with harvesting activity

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ΔCNUTR = Change in carbon stocks associated with nutrient enrichment activity

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ΔCDIV = Change in carbon stocks associated with hydrologic/sediment diversion activity

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ΔCDR= Change in carbon stocks associated with drainage activity

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ΔCRES= Change in carbon stocks associated with restoration activity

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ΔCCRE= Change in carbon stocks associated with creation activity

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4.2.1

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This section addresses estimation of changes in aboveground and belowground biomass carbon pools associatedwith management activities in coastal wetlands in all categories i.e. land remaining in a land-use category,
conversion from a land-use category that includes coastal wetlands and conversion to a land-use category that
includes coastal wetlands. It builds on the 2006 IPCC Guidelines and the Good Practice Guidance for Land Use,
Land-Use Change and Forestry (GPG-LULUCF). For coastal wetlands with mangroves forest changes inbiomass carbon stocks follow equations provided in Chapters 2 and 4, Volume 4, of the 2006 IPCC Guidelines.
For managed coastal wetlands with tidal marshes and seagrass meadows, changes in biomass carbon stocks
follow largely follow equations in the Chapters 2 and 6, Volume 4, of the 2006 IPCC Guidelines. However,there are some deviations from these general methods as applied to the Land Remaining in a land-use category
guidance as presented in Volume 4 of the 2006 IPCC Guidelines. Thus, Table 4.2 should be used to identify theappropriate Tier 1 approaches and equations that should be applied when following this guidance. The main Tier
1 approaches and equations for each activity are presented in Table 4.2 below.

Biomass

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TABLE 4.2 MANAGEMENT ACTIVITIES, TIER 1 EQUATIONS OR DEFAULT EF FOR BIOMASS POOL CHANGES
Activity

Ecosystem

Tier 1 Equation1 and Default EF

Aquaculture (∆CB-AQ),
Salt Production (∆CB-SP),
Extraction (∆C B-EXT)

Mangrove forest

AQ, SP, EXT-D2: at start of activity, apply Eq. 2.9 or 2.10 andEq. 2.11 & 2.14; ∆CG = 0 and ∆CL = Ldisturbance; Tabel 4.3 – 4.6
AQ, SP: for use phase, ∆CG = ∆CL.; Table 4.3-4.6
AQ, SP: for abandonment phase, apply Eq. 2.9 or 2.10 and Eq.
2.11 - 2.14; Table 4.3-4.7

Tidal marsh

AQ, SP, EXT-D2: at start of activity, apply Eq. 2.8a where Ct2=0
and Ct1=initial C stock3; Table 4.8
AQ, SP: for abandonment phase, apply Eq. 2.8a; Table 4.8
AQ: for use phase, ∆CG = ∆CL; Table 4.8

Seagrass meadow

AQ, EXT-D and EXT-I4: at start of activity, apply Eq. 2.8a
where Ct2=0 and Ct1=initial C stock3; Table 4.9-4.11

Harvesting of Aquatic
Resources (∆C B-HARV),
Hydrologic/Sediment
Diversion (∆C B-DIV)

Mangrove

Apply Eq. 2.9 or 2.10 and Eq. 2.11 - 2.145; Table 4.3-4.6

Tidal Marsh

Apply Eq. 2.8a; Table 4.8

Seagrass Meadow

NA

Nutrient Enrichment (∆C

Mangrove

NA

B-NUTR)

Tidal Marsh

Drainage (∆C B-DR),
Restoration (∆CB-RES) &Creation (∆CB-CRE), Other
Activities (∆C B-OTHER)

Seagrass Meadow

EXT-I4: at start of activity, apply Eq. 2.8a where Ct2=0 and
Ct1=initial C stock3; Table 4.9-4.11

Mangrove

DR, RES, CR, OTHER: apply Eq. 2.9 or 2.10 and Eq. 2.11 2.14; Table 4.3 – 4.7

Tidal Marsh

DR, RES, CR, OTHER: apply Eq. 2.8a; Table 4.8

Seagrass Meadow

DR: NA, RES, CR, OTHER: apply Eq. 2.8a; Table 4.9-4.11

Note -- 1Equations in the section can be found in the 2006 IPCC Guidelines; 2 EXT-D = where biomassare is
physically removed; 3Ct1=initial C stock can be found in Table 4.9-4.11; 4EXT-I = biomass C stock change resulting
from sediment deposition effects; 5reporting Ldisturbance as loss due to harvest; NA = not applicable

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4.2.1.1

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Removal or loss of biomass resulting from management activities that occur during aquaculture, salt production,and extraction for mangrove forests, tidal marshes and seagrass meadows are estimated at Tier 1 level with the

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key assumption that carbon in biomass lost in the year of the start of the activity is oxidised to CO2 (Table 4.2).
For mangrove forests, this is estimated with the Gain-Loss method as ∆CL = Ldisturbance. For tidal marshes andseagrass meadows, this is estimated with the Stock-Difference method with the biomass C stock at t2 = 0. For
harvesting of aquatic resources and hydrologic/sediment diversion, guidance follows equations provided in
Chapter 2 as noted in Table 4.2. For nutrient enrichment, change in biomass C stocks are only estimated forseagrass meadows as EXT-I (indirect effect of extraction activity; see Section 4.1.1) and follows the StockDifference approach with the biomass C stock at t2 = 0 (lost in the year that the activity starts). For drainage,
restoration/creation and other activities, methodology follows guidance in 2006 IPCC Guidelines as described inTable 4.2 with the exception of drainage for seagrass meadows, an activity for which there is no evidence of its
occurrence.

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TIER 1

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Mangrove, Tidal Marsh and Seagrass Meadow

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TIER 2

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Tier 2 methods are used where countries have country-specific emission factors, and substantial national data ordata that can be gathered based at reasonable cost. Country-defined methodology (e.g., high priority is empiricalmeasurement of above-ground biomass which for mangroves involves use of allometric equations) may be basedon detailed inventories of permanent sample plots for coastal wetlands. Tier 2 can include such otherimprovements as, in the case of mangroves, use of allometric relationships to accurately measure abovegroundbiomass; a priority in this case would be to measure diameter-at-breast height of trees in the permanent plots (seeAnnex 4.3). To estimate carbon gain using country-specific annual increment, wood density (Table 4.7) and BEF
values should be applied (Chapter 3 in 2003 GPG-LULUCF). In the case of seagrasses, where extraction,
nutrient enrichment, or aquaculture resulting in either reduced water quality or redeposition of sediments issignificant leading to a land category or pool that is key, Tier 2 methods can involve data collected frompermanent sample plots or other means of acquiring country-specific data as covered in standard texts. For
seagrass meadows, the lag time between water clarity impacts and biomass C stock change could be employed
where t2 was estimated as a fraction of initial stock.

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Tier 3 approach for biomass carbon stock change estimation allows for a variety of methods, including process
based models. Implementation may differ from one country to another, due to differences in inventory methods,
coastal wetland conditions and activity data. Tier 3 requires use of detailed national coastal wetland inventories.
They may be supplemented by allometric equations and models calibrated to national circumstances that allow
for direct estimation of biomass growth. Tier 3 could also involve inventory systems using statistically-based
sampling of biomass over time and/or process models, to further stratify ecosystem type into subtype, ecologicalzone and salinity.

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4.2.1.2

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Mangrove, Tidal Marsh and Seagrass Meadow

The method for estimating changes in mangrove biomass for Tier 1 follows Eq. 2.9 and Eq. 2.11-2.14 and fortidal marsh and seagrass biomass Eq. 2.8a is applied (see Volume 4 of the 2006 IPCC Guidelines for details).
Default values presented in Tables 4.3-4.11 are used in these equations, depending on whether the ecosystem ismangrove forest, tidal marsh, or seagrass meadow and their climate domain. For mangroves, Tables 4.3-4.7
contain default factors for average aboveground biomass, the ratio of belowground to aboveground biomass, anddry weight:carbon conversion factors, differentiated by humid and dry tropical regions and the subtropics. To
estimate losses due to wood-removals and fuelwood, wood density (Table 4.7) and BEF values should be applied(Chapter 3 in 2003 GPG-LULUCF). For tidal marshes, Table 4.8 contains default factors for average
aboveground and belowground biomass by climate and salinity. For seagrass meadows, methodology also
generally follows the Stock-Difference approach with data provided for aboveground biomass, the ratio of
belowground to aboveground biomass and C conversion factors (Tables 4.9-4.11). It should be noted that theloss of biomass C stock from seagrass meadows due to nutrient enrichment and indirect effects of extraction
results in loss of water clarity and light available (as described in Section 4.1.1) and should be reported.

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Countries using a Tier 1 method should utilize default data for mangrove forests, tidal marshes or seagrassmeadows provided in this guidance. For mangrove forests, prior to when or where aquaculture, salt production,
extraction or harvesting, or hydrologic/sediment diversion occurred, Tier 1 emission factors for biomass stocks
can be calculated using a Stock-Difference approach or a Gain-Loss approach using biomass growth, primarily
differentiated at the level of climate domain (and in the case of tidal marshes, also by salinity for the temperate
climate domain). For mangrove forests, the use of Tables 4.3 – 4.7 including guidance on estimating BCEF
based on woody density for losses of fuelwood and wood-removals found in the 2006 IPCC Guidelines areneeded. For tidal marshes, the default emissions factors to be used are in Tables 4.8. For seagrass, emission
factors found in Tables 4.9-4.11.

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The higher Tier methods described in Chapter 2 of the 2006 IPCC Guidelines (Eq. 2.18-2.23) will permit better
estimates when national data are applied. Estimate of loss of below-ground root biomass should also be
empirically measured rather than using the ratio of aboveground to belowground biomass.

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Tier 3 modelling would include country-specific emission factors derived or modelled from measurement data.
The models should capture variation in emission rates driven by extent and depth of biomass extraction and in
the case of water/sediment diversion, the rate of biomass decline. The incremental growth rates of the dominant
species can be multiplied by the current biomass estimate to derive a figure of projected change over time, if
required. For seagrass meadows, aerial photographs may be used in regions of high water clarity, good contrast
between seagrass meadows and soil and low cover of other macrophytes. Field validations can be implemented
to verify model output using field measurements by diving or underwater camera. Other examples of data
improvements for aquaculture, salt production and extraction, for example, include ground-truth estimates of
total area impacted, the depth at which removal of biomass has occurred or the completeness of biomass removal
could also be verified. Furthermore, with indirect effects of extraction on seagrass meadows, because the time
periods for biomass loss will vary based on national circumstances, some seagrass meadows will show more
rapid decline than seagrass meadows in other areas. Total areas can be estimated with greatest certainty coupling
aerial or remote sensing with field measurements.

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All tiers require information on areas of managed coastal wetlands for ecosystem types, climate, andmanagement activities which vary depending on national circumstances. The default methodology for all Tier 1
estimates requires data on the area of managed wetland, the type and dominant species present in the wetland,and soil type. The type of wetland present as well as soil type can be obtained from national wetland and soil
type maps (if available or the International Soil Reference and Information Centre; www.isrig.org); wetland
distributions for most countries can be obtained from the RAMSAR web site (www.ramsar.org). When
information is gathered from multiple sources, cross-checks should be made to ensure complete and consistent
representation and avoid omissions and double-counting. Please refer to the extended list of activity data sourcesin Annex 4.2 in this Chapter.

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A qu ac u l t u re , S a lt p r odu c t i on
The ponds or structures used to create conditions conducive to aquaculture and salt production can be identified
from aerial photographs or by inspection and measurement of the total area where biomass has been removed.
Information on regional aquaculture projects worldwide can be obtained from the GISFish database of the FAO(www.fao.org) and similar project information for salt production projects can be obtained from the Salt Instituteat www.saltinstitute.org.

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E xt r act i on or H a r ve st in g
Information of current extraction/harvesting projects may be obtained from local, state or regional government
department websites as many countries and regional government authorities require documentation ofenvironmental impact assessments. For seagrass meadows, aerial photographs may be used in regions of highwater clarity, good contrast between seagrass and soil and low cover of other macrophytes. If these conditions
are not present, remote sensing imagery providing data on water clarity using intensity of chlorophyll orconcentration of suspended particles other photoimagery can be used and readily available.

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We can expect to find nutrient-affected systems downstream of major urban centers, municipal sewage treatment
facilities, and watersheds where a large portion of the land is under intensive agricultural use. For seagrassmeadows the N load per estuary that relates to complete loss of seagrass has been predicted to be at loading
values between 100 and 175 kg N ha-1 yr-1 (Steward and Green 2007; Latimer and Rego 2010). Information
about changes in seagrass biomass as a result of nutrient enrichment may be obtained from national government
departments, marine conservation trusts and societies and global seagrass networks (http://seagrasswatch.org).
Review papers in the scientific literature (e.g. Waycott et al., 2009) have collated information on localised
seagrass loss. Historical records of seagrass cover including aerial photographs may be used in regions of highwater clarity, good contrast between seagrass and soil and low cover of other macrophytes.

617
618
619
620
621
622
623
624
625
626
627
628
629
630

H ydr ol ogic/S ed iment D ive rs ion, D rai n age
Total areas impacted by upstream diversions of water and sediment result in soil elevation loss and coastal
subsidence can be assessed using aerial or remotely sensed data as well as reports from Environmental ministries
or other agencies reporting rates of coastal subsidence and at higher Tiers validated with field measurements.
Drainage is recognized by presence of levees and rectilinear channel networks that stand out in comparison to
the normally flat surface with curving, bifurcating channels. Restoration would be recognized by the removal of
levees, tidal gates, enlargement of culverts, and possibly development of new hybrid channel networks thatincorporate both constructed and natural channels (MacDonald et al., 2010). Channels may visibly widen.
Immediately after rewetting, dead vegetation may be visible in tidal marshes, in both mangroves and tidal
marshes fresh mud will be deposited over previous soil surface. These information can be easily detected on
aerial images that are freely available. If following Approach 1 for land classification, information of drainage
and diversion projects may be obtained from local, state or regional government department websites as many
countries and regional government authorities require documentation of environmental impact assessments forthese activities.

631
632
633
634
635
636
637

R est or at ion/ Cre at io n
Estimates of biomass change as a result of wetland restoration or creation requires knowledge of previous
wetland coverage (in the case of restoration) and of biomass growth rates (in the case of restoration or creation).
Historical photos may be used to most readily estimate the pre-restored wetland area. Information on regional
wetland restoration and creation projects worldwide can be obtained from the Global Gateway to Geographic
Information Systems of the FAO (www.fao.org) as well as from the websites, www.wetlands.org andwww.globalrestorationnetwork.org.
Table 4.3 Carbon content of aboveground mangrove forest biomass ((gC/100gDW) or % DW)
Component%C

95% CI

Range

References

Leaves45.0 (n =
35)

42.8,
47.3

42.3-50.9

Spain and Holt, 1980; Saenger, 2002; Alongi et al.,
2003; 2004; Kristensen et al., 2008

Wood (stems +branches)

45.4 (n =
12)

43.1,
47.7

41.6-47.2

Spain and Holt, 1980; Gong and Ong, 1990; Twilley
et al., 1992; Bouillon et al., 2007; Alongi et al., 2003,
2004

638
Table 4.4 Aboveground Biomass in Mangrove forests (tonnes DW. ha-1)
DomainRegionAboveground biomass

95%CI

Range

TropicalTropical Wet

196 (n=53)1

186, 205

3.7-557

Tropical Dry

2

92 (n = 13)

88, 97

3.2-2013

76, 84

3.9-129

Subtropical75 (n= 10)

1

References: Golley et al., 1975; Christensen, 1978; Ong et al., 1982; Putz and Chan, 1986; Tamai et al., 1986; Komiyama et al., 1987,
1988, 2000, 2008; Lin et al., 1990; Mall et al., 1991; Amarasinghe and Balasubramaniam, 1992; Kusmana et al., 1992; Slim et al.,
1996; Fromard et al., 1998; Norhayati and Latiff, 2001; Poungparn, 2003; Sherman et al., 2003; Juliana and Nizam, 2004; Kirui et al.,2006; Kairo et al., 2008; Fatoyinbo et al. 2008; Camacho et al., 2011; Kauffman et al., 2011;Thant and Kanzaki, 2011.
2

References: Golley et al, 1962; Briggs, 1977; Suzuki and Tagawa, 1983; Steinke et al., 1995; Alongi et al., 2003; Medeiros andSampoia, 2008; Khan et al., 2009.
3
References: Lugo and Snedaker, 1974; Woofroffe, 1985; Lee, 1990; Mackey, 1993; Tam et al., 1995; Saintilan, 1997; Ross et al.,
2001; Coronado-Molina et al., 2004; Simard et al., 2006; Fatoyinbo et al., 2008; Komiyama et al., 2008; Abohassan et al., 2012.

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Table 4.5 Aboveground biomass growth in mangrove forests (tonnes DW ha-1 yr-1)
DomainRegionAboveground biomass growth

95%CI

Range

TropicalTropical Wet

9.9 (n=23)1

9.4, 10.4

0.1-27.4

Tropical Dry

1

3.1, 3.5

0.1-7.5

1

17.1, 19.1

5.3-29.1

Subtropical3.3 (n = 6)

18.1 (n= 4)1

References: Ajonina 2008; Kairo et al., 2008; Alongi 2010

641
Table 4.6 Ratio of belowground biomass to aboveground biomass (R) in mangroves forests
DomainTropicalRegionTropical Humid
Tropical Dry

Subtropical

R

95%CI

Range

1

0.47, 0.51

0.04-1.1

2

0.28, 0.30

0.09-0.79

30.91, 1.0

0.22-267

0.49 (n=18)
0.29 (n = 9)0.96 (n= 18)

1

References: Golley et al., 1975; Tamai et al., 1986; Komiyama et al., 1987, 1988; Gong and Ong, 1990; Lin and Lu 1990; Tam etal., 1995; Poungparn, 2003
2

References: Golley et al, 1962; Alongi et al., 2003; Hoque et al., 2010.

3

References: Briggs, 1977; Lin, 1989; Saintilan, 1997.

642
TABLE 4.7. WOOD DENSITY (D) OF COMMON MANGROVE TREE SPECIES
Bruguiera gymnorrhiza

0.74

Heritiera littoralis

0.8

Xylocarpus mekongensis

0.72

Heritiera fomes

1.1

Xylocarpus granatum

0.7

Excoecaria agallocha

0.45

Sonneratia apetala

0.56

Ceriops tagal

1.1

Sonneratia alba

0.08

Ceriops decandra

0.96

Rhizophora mucronata

1.1

Bruguiera gymnorrhiza

0.86

Rhizophora mangle

0.83

Avicennia officinalis

0.67

Rhizophora apiculata

1.1

Avicennia marina

0.9

Laguncularia racemosa

0.6

Avicennia germinans

0.66

Site average of above values

0.77

Data sources: Kauffman and Donato, 2012; Bosire et al., 2012.

643
644
645
646
647
648
649
650

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651
TABLE 4.8 ABOVEGROUND AND BELOWGROUND BIOMASS FOR TIDAL MARSHES (TONNES C HA-1)
Salinity

DomainRegionAbovegroundbiomass

Oligohaline
to polyhaline

SubtropicalWarmtemperate
moist1Warm
temperate
dry2

Temperate3

Tidal
freshwater

95% CIn

Belowgroundbiomass

1.40

1.35, 1.44

3

9.2

8.58, 9.80

2

5.64

5.57, 5.71

11

11.02

10.89, 11.15

4

3.32

3.30, 3.34

91

23.9

23.37, 24.32

34

6

6.94, 7.18

8Polar40.64

0.62, 0.66

3ND

Temperate5

4.03

4.00, 4.07

20

7.11

95% CIn

Sources:1
AG: da Cunha Lana et al. 1991; Kirby and Gosselink 1976; Darby and Turner 2008; BG: da Cunha Lana et al. 1991; Darby andTurner 2008
2
AG: Curco et al. 2002; Neves et al. 2007; Scarton et al . 2002; Linthust and Reimold 1978; Cartaxana and Catarina 1997; BG: Neveset al. 2007; Scarton et al. 2002; also referred to as Mediterranean3
AG: Benito and Onaindia 1991; Bouchard and Lefeuvre 2000; Boyer et al. 2000; Connor and Chmura 2000; Figueroa et al. 1988;
Gallagher and Plumley 1979; Groenendijk 1984; Gross et al. 1986; Hopkinson et al. 1978; Hussey and Long 1982; Jeffrey and Hayes
2005; Jeffries et al. 1981; Jenssen 1980; Keefe and Boynton 1973; Ketner 1972; Kirby and Gosselink 1976; Kistritz et al 1983;
Linthust and Reimold 1978; Mahall and Park 1976; Mendelsohn and Marcellus 1976; Morris and Haskin 1990; Pierce 1983;
Schubauer and Hopkinson 1984; Smith et al. 1979; Squires and Good 1974; Whigham et al.1978; White et al. 1978; Williams andMurdoch 1972; BG: Boyer et al. 2000; Connor and Chmura 2000; Dame and Kenny 1986; Dunn 1981; Elsey-Quirk et al. 2011;
Groenendijk and Vink-Lievaart 1987; Gross et al. 1991; Hussey and Long 1982; Kistritz et al. 1983; Livingstone and Patriquin 1981;
Mahall and Park 1976; Roman and Daiber 1984; Smith et al. 1979; Whigham et al.1978
4
AG: Curco et al. 2002; Neves et al. 2007; Scarton et al. 2002; Linthust and Reimold 1978; Cartaxana and Catarina 1997; BG: Neveset al. 2007; Scarton et al. 2002
5

Birch and Cooley 1982; Doumlele 1981; Hopkinson et al. 1978; Whigham et al.1978

6

No data available

652
653
654
655
656
657
658
659
660
661
662
663
664
665
666

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TABLE 4.9 ABOVEGROUND BIOMASS FOR SEAGRASS MEADOW
DomainAboveground biomass for seagrassmeadow (tonnes DW ha-1)

Tropical1

95%CI

Range

n

6.0

6.20, 7.89

0.1 – 75.4

137

Subtropical2

15.2

14.17, 16.26

1.2 - 810

260

Temperate3

19.9

18.16, 21.77

4.3 - 206

108

1
Aioi & Pollard 1993, Brouns 1985, Brouns 1987b, Brouns & Heijs 1986, Daby 2003, de Iongh et al. 1995, Devereux et al. 2011,
Fourqurean et al. 2012, Heijs 1984, Hertbert 1986, Holmer et al. 2001, Ismail 1993, Kaldy & Dunton 2000, Lee 1997, Lindeboom& Sandee 1989, Long et al. 1993, McDermid & Edward 1999, McKenzie 1994, Mellors et al. 2002, Moriarty et al. 1990, Nienhuis
et al. 1989, Ogden & Ogden 1982, Paynter et al. 2001, Poovachiranon & Chansang 1994, Povidisa & Delefosse 2009, Rasheed
1999, Terrados et al. 1998, Uku & Bjork 2005, van Lent et al. 1991, van Tussenbroek 1998, Vermaat et al. 1993, Vermaat et al.
1995, Williams 1987.
2
Aioi 1980, Aioi et al. 1981, Asmus et al. 2000, Bandeira 1997, Bandeira 2002, Boon 1986, Bulthuis & Woelkerling 1983, Burd &Dunton 2001, Cabaco et al 2012, Calleja et al. 2005, Cambridge & Hocking 1997, Carruthers 1994, Collier et al. 2009, de Boer
2000, Dillon 1971, Dixon & Leverone 1995, Dos Santos et al. 2012, Dunton 1990, Dunton 1994, Dunton 1996, Fourqurean et al.
2012, Goshima & Peterson 2012, Heck & Thoman 1984, Heijs 1984, Herbert & Fourqurean 2009, Herbert & Fourqurean 2008,
Hillman et al. 1995, Holmer & Kendrick 2012, Holmer et al. 2004, Iverson & Bittaker 1986, James et al. 2009, Kaldy & Dunton
2000, Kenworthy & Thayer 1984, Kerr & Strother 1989, Kim et al. 2012, Kirkman & Cook 1987, Kirkman & Reid 1980, Kirkman& Reid 1979, Kirkman et al. 1982, Kowalski et al. 2009, Kraemer & Alberte 1993, Larkum et al. 1984, Lee & Dunton 1996, Leeet al. 2005, Lewis 1987, Longstaff et al 2000, Marba & Walker 1999, Masini et al. 2001, McGlathery et al. 2012, mcMahan 1968,
McMahon & Lavery 2008, Meling-Lopez & Ibarra-Obando 1999, Moncreiff et al. 1992, Morgan & Kitting 1984, Mukai et al.
1979, Murray and Wetzel 1987, Nienhuis & Bree 1980, Odum 1963, Orth & Moore 1986, Paling & McComb 2000, Park et al.
2011, Perez-Llorens & Niell 1993, Perez-Ruzafa et al. 2012, Phillips et al. 1983, Powell 1989, Preen 1995, Reyes et al. 1995,
Schwarz et al. 2006, Stevensen 1988, Terrados & Ros 1992, Thayer et al. 1977, Tomasko & Lapointe 1991, Townsend & Fonseca
1998, van Houte-Howes et al. 2004, van Lent et al. 1991, van Tussenbroek 1998, Walker 1985, Walker & McComb 1988, Walker
et al. 1988, West & Larkum 1979, Yarbro & Carlson 2008, Zavodnik et al. 1998, Zieman et al. 1989.
3
Auby & Labourg 1996, Bay 1984, Cebrian et al. 1997, Cebrián et al. 2000, Dennison & Alberte 1985, Duarte et al. 2002,
Fourqurean et al. 2012, Guidetti et al. 2002, Gullstrom et al. 2012, Hebert et al. 2007, Jacobs 1979, Kaldy 2006, Kentula &McIntire 1986, Larned 2003, Laugier et al. 1999, Lillebo et al. 2006, Mann 1972, Marba & Duarte 2001, Martin et al. 2005,
McRoy 1974, Nienhuis & Bree 1980, Nixon & Oviatt 1972, Olesen 1999, Olesen & Sand-Jensen 1993, Olesen & Sand-Jensen
1994, Ott 2008, Pedersen & Borum 1993, Perez & Romero 1994, Plus et al. 2003, Rismondo et al. 1997, Robertson & Mann 1984,
Robertson & Mann 1974, Roman & Able 1988, Sand-Jensen & Borum 1983, Sfriso & Ghetti 1998, Terrados et al. 2006, Vermaat& Verhagen 1996, Vermaat et al. 1987, Zavodnik et al. 1998.

667
668
TABLE 4.10 RATIO OF BELOWGROUND BIOMASS TO ABOVEGROUND BIOMASS (R) FOR SEAGRASS MEADOW
DomainTropicalR
1

Subtropical2
Temperate3

95%CI

Range

n

1.7

1

1.62, 1.78

0.05 – 25.62

396

2.4

2

2.33, 2.54

0.07 – 16.8

391

1.3

3

1.18, 1.39

0.14 – 13.8

91

1

Aioi & Pollard 1993, Brouns 1985, Brouns 1987, Coles et al. 1993, Daby 2003, Devereux et al. 2011, Fourqurean et al. 2012, Halun etal. 2002, Holmer et al. 2001, Ismail 1993, Lee 1997, Lindeboom & Sandee 1989, McKenzie 1994, Mellors et al. 2002, Moriarty et al.
1990, Nienhuis et al. 1989, Ogden & Ogden 1982, Paynter et al 2001, Poovachiranon & Chansang 1994, Povidisa et al. 2009, Rasheed
1999, Udy et al. 1999, van Lent et al. 1991, van Tussenbroek 1998, Vermaat et al. 1993, Vermaat et al. 1995, Williams 1987.
2
Aioi 1980, Aioi et al. 1981, Asmus et al. 2000, Bandeira 2002, Boon 1986, Brun et al 2009, Collier et al. 2009, de Boer 2000, Devereux
et al. 2011, Dixon & Leverone 1995, Dos Santos et al. 2012, Dunton 1996, Fourqurean et al. 2012, Hackney 2003, Herbert andFourqurean 2009, Herbert & Fourqurean 2008, Holmer & Kendrick 2012, Jensen & Bell 2001, Kim et al. 2012, Kirkman & Reid 1979,
Kowalski et al. 2009, Larkum et al. 1984, Lee et al. 2005, Lee et al. 2005b, Lipkin 1979, Longstaff et al. 1999, Masini et al. 2001,
McGlathery et al. 2012, mcMahan 1968, Meling-Lopez & Ibarra-Obando 1999, Mukai et al. 1979, Paling & McComb 2000, Park et al.
2011, Powell 1989, Preen 1995, Schwarz et al. 2006, Stevensen 1988, Townsend & Fonseca 1998, Udy & Dennison 1997, van HouteHowes et al. 2004, van Lent et al. 1991, van Tussenbroek 1998, Walker 1985, West & Larkum 1979, Yarbro & Carlson 2008.
3

Agostini et al. 2003, Cebrian et al. 2000, Fourqurean et al. 2012, Hebert et al. 2007, Holmer & Kendrick 2012, Larned 2003, Lebreton etal. 2009, Lillebo et al. 2006, Marba & Duarte 2001, McRoy 1974, Olesen & Sand-Jensen 1994, Rismondo et al. 1997, Sand-Jensen &Borum 1983, Terrados et al. 2006

669
670
671

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Table 4.11 Carbon content of aboveground and belowground seagrass biomass ((gC/100gDW) or %DW)
Component

CF

95% CI

Range

References

Above groundbiomass

33.4 (n = 72)

32.9, 33.9

23.6 – 43.8

Augier et al. 1982; Erftemeijer 1994; Fourqurean &Zieman 1992; Fourqurean et al. 1997; Fourqurean et al.
2007; Kenworthy & Thayer 1984; Longstaff & Dennison
1999; Mascaro et al. 2009; Mateo & Romero 1997;
Nienhuis et al. 1989; Pergent et al. 1994; Plus et al. 2001;
Rublee & Roman 1982; van Lent et al. 1991; Vinther &Holmer 2008; Wahbeh 1988.

Below groundbiomass

32.3 (n = 50)

31.8, 32.9

24.7 – 42.1

Erftemeijer 1994; Kenworthy & Thayer 1984; Mascaro etal. 2009; Mateo & Romero 1997; Nienhuis et al. 1989;
Plus et al. 2001; van Lent et al. 1991; Vinther & Holmer
2008; Wahbeh 1988.

672
673

4.2.1.5

U NCERTAINTY ASSESSMENT

674
675
676
677
678
679
680
681
682

This section considers source-specific uncertainties relevant to inventory estimates. Estimating country-specificand/or disaggregated values requires more accurate information on uncertainties than given below. Chapter 3,
Volume 1 of the 2006 IPCC Guidelines provides information on uncertainties associated with sample-based
studies. The literature available on uncertainty estimates on emission factors and activity data is limited.
Seagrass aboveground biomass averages values from species that have very different leaf characteristics,
resulting in a wide range of values. In the case of mangrove aboveground biomass, a comparatively large numberof forest sites are extant, but the range of values is very large due to inherent differences in species composition,
forest age, tidal height, and soil fertility. These uncertainties may be minimized as much as possible using Tier 2
or Tier 3 methods which can incorporate or classify forests by factors other than climate domain.

683
684
685
686
687
688
689

Variability in tidal marsh biomass will be due to differences in dominant species and competition between
species, as well as salinity of flood waters, frequency of tidal flooding and climate. The high biomass inMediterranean climates is due to the frequent dominance of perennial shrubs. For all vegetation there can beconsiderable yearly variability in production of biomass and seasonal variability in standing biomass. The
empirical data available is biased by the prevalence of data from temperate regions and North America - the tidal
fresh marsh data comes almost entirely from the Atlantic coast of the United States. Also lacking are data fromboreal and subtropical marshes.

690

EMISSION AND REMOVAL FACTORS

691
692
693
694
695
696
697

The major sources of uncertainty for all wetland types are dominant species-specific differences in carbon
content and differences as a function of ecosystem age, species composition, intertidal location, and community
structure. As indicated in Tables 4.3 to 4.11, coefficients of variation range from about 24-200%. To reduce
uncertainty, countries are encouraged to develop country- or region specific biomass expansion factors and
BCEFs that fit their conditions. In case country- or regional-specific values are unavailable, the sources ofdefault parameters should be checked and their correspondence with species present and specific conditions of acountry should be examined.

698
699
700
701
702

The causes of variation of annual increment of mangrove growth include climate, site growth conditions, andsoil fertility. Artificially regenerated and managed stands are less variable than natural forests. The major ways
to improve accuracy of estimates of these wetlands are by application of country-specific or regional estimates ofgrowth stratified by the dominant species present. If the default values of growth increments are used, theuncertainty of estimates should be clearly indicated and documented.

703
704
705

Tier 3 approaches can use growth curves stratified by species, ecological zones, site productivity andmanagement intensity. For example, similar approaches are routinely used for mangroves in timber supply
planning models and this information can be incorporated into carbon accounting models (e.g., Kurz et al., 2002).

706
707
708

For mangroves, data on commercial fellings are relatively accurate, although they may be incomplete or biased
due to illegal fellings and underreporting due to tax regulations. Traditional wood that is gathered and useddirectly, without being sold, is not likely to be included in any statistics. Countries must carefully consider these

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709
710
711
712
713
714

issues. The amount of wood removed from forests after storm breaks and pest outbreaks varies both in time andvolume. No default data can be provided on these types of losses. The uncertainties associated with these losses
can be estimated from the amount of damaged wood directly withdrawn from the forest or using data on
damaged wood subsequently used for commercial and other purposes. If fuelwood gathering is treated separatelyfrom fellings, the relevant uncertainties might be high, due to high uncertainty associated with traditional
gathering.

715

4.2.2

716
717
718
719
720
721
722
723
724
725
726
727
728
729
730
731

The dead organic matter (DOM) pool in coastal wetlands includes coarse woody debris, fine litter, and deadroots. Fine litter and dead wood are differentiated as fractions <10 cm and >10 cm diameter, respectively (Table
1.1, Chapter 1, Volume 4 of the 2006 IPCC Guidelines). The dead roots less than 2 cm diameter are included in
the soil pool and not considered within the DOM pool. This fraction of dead roots turns over rapidly with theassumption approximating steady state. DOM C stocks can vary depending on tidal inundation and frequency, as
well as soil oxidation and vegetation cover. Fine litter can be exported with tidal activity while a larger fractionof senesced woody biomass is buried or decomposes in-situ. In wetlands, decomposition of DOM, especiallywood and coarse woody debris, is slow and accumulates as soil organic matter. In estimating inputs, outputs orchanges of DOM C stocks, careful consideration of pools should be made to avoid double-counting. Consistency
in how these fractions are determined and reported is good practice to avoid double-counting. DOM pools underconditions of low soil oxidation-reduction potential that occur under saturated conditions can be large and when
exposed to oxidation constitute large CO2 emissions. Thus, DOM C stock changes should be considered for theactivities as described above with changes in mangrove forest cover. This is a notable deviation from Tier 1
assumptions for Land Remaining in a Land-Use Category as laid out in the 2006 IPCC Guidelines and isnecessary as certain types of management activities have large impacts on CO2 emissions and removals without
resulting in a conversion to another IPCC land-use category.

732
733
734
735
736
737
738
739
740
741
742
743
744
745
746
747
748
749

General assumptions for estimating changes in the DOM pool can be differentiated between mangrove forest andprimarily non-woody coastal wetland types including tidal marsh and seagrass meadow. At Tier 1, tidal marshand seagrass meadow ecosystems are assumed to have relatively fast turnover of DOM and a steady-state
assumption applies. However, extensive management activities that result in vegetation or soil disturbance intidal marsh with perennial biomass could have large impacts on C emissions and removals. In Land remaining ina land-use category, management activities where changes in the DOM pool are likely to be significant include
aquaculture, salt production, extraction, where the start of the activity results in loss of the DOM pool.
Methodologies for mangrove forests are supplied for Tier 1 estimation for management activities include
aquaculture, salt production, and extraction (Table 4.1). In these cases, DOM inputs may cease as extant
vegetation is cleared and DOM outputs are the extant stock of DOM. For drainage, DOM inputs may beunchanged if there is no disturbance to the biomass pool and DOM outputs are equivalent to the stock of DOM
at the start of the activity where all C is assumed oxidized at Tier 1. For the harvesting activity and all otheractivities that affect mangrove forests, generic equations provided in 2006 IPCC Guidelines are directly
applicable. For all management activities that occur in tidal marsh and seagrass meadow, the change in C stocksof DOM is assumed to be zero at Tier 1 (Table 4.12). If mangrove forest clearing is a significant activity, Tier 2
or 3 approaches should be used and the assumption of instantaneous oxidation of the DOM pool is not valid.
Both changes in dead wood and litter should be reported and summed to obtain changes in total dead organic
matter due to each activity as detailed in Table 4.12 below.

Dead Organic Matter

TABLE 4.12 MANAGEMENT ACTIVITIES, TIER 1 EQUATIONS AND DEFAULT EF FOR DEAD ORGANIC MATTER C POOLCHANGES
Activity

4.22

Ecosystem

Tier 1 Equation1 and Default EF

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Aquaculture (∆CDOM-AQ), Salt
Production (∆CDOM-SP), Extraction(∆CDOM-EXT)

Mangrove forest

AQ, SP, EXT-D2: At start of activity, apply Eq.
2.18 or 2.19; DOMin = 0 and DOMout = DOM
oxidized upon disturbance; Table 4.13
AQ, SP: for abandonment phase, apply Eq. 2.18
and 2.20 or 2.19; Table 4.13
AQ: for use phase, ∆C = 0.

Tidal marsh∆C = 0

Seagrass meadow
Drainage (∆C B-DR)

Mangrove forest

At start of activity, apply Eq. 2.18 and 2.20-2.22 or
2.19; DOMout = DOM oxidized upon disturbance ;Table 4.13

Tidal marsh∆C = 0

Seagrass meadow
Harvesting of Aquatic Resources (∆C
DOM-HARV), Nutrient Enrichment (∆CDOMNUTR), Hydrologic/Sediment Diversion(∆CDOM-DIV),Restoration (∆CDOM-RES) &Creation (∆CDOM-CRE), Other Activities(∆CDOM-OTHER)

Mangrove forest

Apply Eq. 2.18 and 2.20 or 2.19; Table 4.13

Tidal marsh∆C = 0

Seagrass meadow

Note – 1Equations in this section can be found in the 2006 IPCC Guidelines; 2EXT-D = physical removal of DOM poolassociated with Extraction activity; EXT-I is not considered as it is only considered to have potentially significant
impacts on seagrass meadows

750

4.2.2.1

751
752
753
754
755
756
757
758

Changes in DOM resulting from management activities that occur in mangrove forests are estimated at the Tier 1
level because they represent potentially large CO2 emissions to or removals from the atmosphere. Conversions
that result in loss of mangrove forest biomass or oxidation of soils can have large implications for CO2 emissions
and removals. For tidal marsh and seagrass meadow, the default assumption is that no changes in C stocks occur
at the Tier 1 level of estimation. For significant management activities in mangrove forests and extensive
management activities that impact DOM pools in tidal marshes with perennial biomass, Tier 2 and higher
estimation methods should be used and these values reported. In these cases, stock changes should bedisaggregated relative to climate, vegetation type and salinity where applicable.

759

TIER 1

760
761
762
763
764
765
766
767

Mangrove forest

CHOICE OF METHOD

At Tier 1, for Aquaculture, Salt Production, and Extraction activities, it is assumed that C in DOM stocks is lostas CO2 emissions in the year of conversion and that no change in DOM C stocks occurs afterward. For these
activities, apply either Gain-Loss or Stock-Difference methods, following Chapter 2, Eq. 2.18 or 2.19 from
Volume 4, 2006 IPCC Guidelines. If applying Gail-Loss, apply Eq. 2.18. If applying Stock-Difference, apply Eq.
2.19. However, at the start of the activity (construction phase, including extraction), instead of applying Eq. 2.20
to estimate DOMin of Eq. 2.18, DOMin = 0. For Stock-Difference, DOMt2 = 0. In years subsequent to the start of
the activity, the Tier 1 assumption is no change in DOM stock.

768
769

Tidal marsh and Seagrass meadow

770

TIERS 2 AND 3

771
772
773
774

Tier 2 methodologies also employ Equations 2.18 or 2.19. However, country-specific data are encouraged,
especially where management activities are expected to have significant impacts on CO2 emissions and removals.
For instance, after a management activity that results in a significant change in aboveground biomass stocks,
conversion of aboveground biomass to DOM as litter can be significant. Countries should use in such cases

For all management activities, the Tier 1 assumption is no change in DOM stock.

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775
776
777
778
779
780
781
782
783

national estimates for litter stocks for mangrove forests and tidal marshes disaggregated by tidal regime, whereapplicable. Loss estimates of dead wood and litter exports due to tidal advection should also be considered (seeAnnex 1 regarding C exports). Tier 3 methods may further employ stratification by ecological zone or
disturbance regime to reduce uncertainties. Field measurements can further inform and be used to validate model
output at Tier 3. For mangroves, Tier 3 methodologies should employ empirical measurements of canopy litter
fall and census of downed wood lying on the forest floor. This methodology should involve the establishment ofreplicate forest plots of at least 5 X 5 m area with monthly census taking of changes in wood and measurementof litter lying within 1 X 1 m traps placed below the canopy but above highest astronomical tide (see Saenger
and Snedakar, 1993, for full description of these methods).

784

4.2.2.2

785

TIER 1

786
787
788
789
790
791
792

Mangrove forest

793
794

Tidal marsh and Seagrass meadow

795

TIER 2

796
797
798
799

The higher Tier methods described in Chapter 4 for Forest Land and Chapters 5 and 6 on Cropland andGrassland of Volume 4 of the 2006 IPCC Guidelines will permit better estimates when national data are applied.
Additional requirements may arise if the assumption that carbon stocks in dead wood or litter pools of tidal
marsh are zero cannot be justified, such as where intensive management activities have occurred.

800

TIER 3801

Tier 3 emission factors include model output and validation and disaggregated data sources.

CHOICE OF EMISSION / REMOVAL FACTORSCountries using a Tier 1 method require data on the default dead wood and litter carbon stocks as defined inTable 4.13. For coastal wetlands that are identified as mangrove forests prior to when the activity took place andactivities including aquaculture, salt production, extraction or hydrologic/sediment diversion occur, Tier 1
emission factors for DOM stocks should be used (Table 4.13). The Tier 1 assumption is that carbon stocks inlitter and dead wood pools in all non-forested coastal wetlands and in coastal wetlands where activities including
nutrient enrichment and harvesting of aquatic resources occur are zero.
For all management activities, the Tier 1 emission factor for DOM stock change is zero.

802
TABLE 4.13 TIER 1 DEFAULT VALUES FOR LITTER AND DEAD WOOD CARBON STOCKS
DomainEcosystem type

Litter carbon stocks ofmature forests (tonnes Cha-1) with 95% CI

Dead wood carbon stocks
of mature forests (tonnes
C ha-1) with 95% CI

Tropical/SubtropicalMangrove forest

0.7 (0-1.3)

10.7 (6.5-14.8)

Source:Litter: Utrera-Lopez and Moreno-Casasola 2008, Liao et al 1990, Chen et al 2008, Richards et al 2011, Ramose-Silva et al 2007, Twilley etal 1986
Dead Wood: Kauffman et al 2011, Donato et al 2012, Allen et al 2000, Steinke et al 1995, Robertson et al 1989, Tam et al 1995, Krauss et al
2005

803
804

4.2.2.3805
806

Choice of activity data follows from guidance provided in the 2006 IPCC Guidelines in the Forest Land chapter(p. 4.38). Also, refer to Section 4.2.1.3 for guidance relative to specific management activities.

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807

4.2.2.4

CALCULATION STEPS FOR TIER 1

808
809

Calculations steps for Tier 1is presented in the 2006 IPCC Guidelines and follows from guidance provided in theForest Land chapter (p. 4.38).

810

4.2.2.5

811
812
813

Guidance on uncertainty assessment for dead organic matter pools is unchanged from the 2006 IPCC Guidelines
in the Forest Land chapter (p. 4.38). With specific regard to coastal wetlands, uncertainties follow from Tier 1
assumptions about tidal export of C as well as assumptions of only non-woody biomass in tidal marshes.

814

4.2.3

815
816
817
818
819

Activities that occur within coastal wetlands can influence organic and mineral stocks of C in soils. The
methodological approach follows equation 4.1 which combines the emissions from the activities listed in Table
4.14. Current data on inorganic soil C are not sufficient to provide generic methodologies and so themethodological approach provided here only takes into account the possible emissions and removals associatedwith changes in organic C of organic and mineral soils.

820
821
822
823
824
825
826

Management activities that include extraction of saturated soils that are then deposited above the existing watertable, or that lead to drainage due to lowering of the water table, result in enhanced soil oxidation. The
management activities Aquaculture, Salt Production, Extraction and Drainage result in the most significant
effects on the soil carbon pool. These management activities however do not necessarily result in a land-use
category change and this consideration needs to be applied when reporting CO2 emissions. Conversely,
restoration or creation of coastal wetlands can result in increased net C accumulation and subsequently net
removals of CO2 from the atmosphere. These activities can also be significant.

827
828
829
830

Activities associated with either localised or extensive lowering of the water table are often associated with theconstruction of drainage channels leading to CO2 fluxes due to oxidation of dissolved organic and particulateorganic carbon in the water carried by drainage channels. However, there is currently not enough information toprovide emission factors for C exports (see Future Methodological Development).

UNCERTAINTY ASSESSMENT

Soil Carbon

831
832
833
834
835
836
837
838
839
840
841
842
843
844
845
846

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Table 4.14 Management Activities, Tier 1 Approaches and Tier 1 Equations for Soil Carbon Pool Changes
Activity

Ecosystem

Tier 1 Equation and Default EF

Aquaculture (∆CSO-AQ),
Salt Production (∆CSO-SP)

Mangrove forest

AQ, SP: Apply Eq. 4.2. EF in Tables 4.15-4.18, this section
SP: only construction and abandonment phases are considered

Tidal marsh

Extraction (∆CSO-EXT)

Seagrass meadow

AQ: Only use phase is considered.
Apply Eq. 2.61; Table 4.17, this section,

Mangrove forest

EXT-D: ∆CSO-EXT = A,e * EFCONST,e * P from Eq. 4.2. EF in
Tables 4.15 & 4.16, this section

Tidal marsh

Harvesting of Aquatic
Resources (∆CSO-HARV)

Seagrass meadow

If EXT-D, ∆CSO-EXT = Ac,e * EFCONST,e * P, Eq. 4.2, Table 4.17,
this section; if EXT-I ∆C = 0

Mangrove forest

Apply Eq. 2.61; Table 4.18, this section

Tidal marsh∆C = 0

Seagrass meadow
Nutrient Enrichment(∆CSO-NUTR)

Hydrologic/Sediment
Diversion (∆CSO-DIV)

Drainage (∆CSO-DR)

Mangrove forest

NA2

Tidal marsh
Seagrass meadow

Apply Eq. 2.61; Table 4.19, this section

Mangrove forest∆C = 0Tidal marsh
Seagrass meadow

NA

Mangrove forest

Apply Eq. 4.3; Table 4.20, this section

Tidal marsh

Restoration (∆CSO-RES) &Creation (∆CSO-CRE)

Seagrass meadow

NA

Mangrove forest

Apply Eq. 4.4; Table 4.21, this section

Tidal marsh
Seagrass meadow

Other Activities (∆CSOOTHER)

Mangrove forest

Apply Eq. 2.61

Tidal marsh
Seagrass meadow

1

Note Volume 4 of the 2006 IPCC Guidelines
2

no available Tier 1 guidance

847

4.2.3.1

848
849
850
851

In aquaculture and salt production, the activity is broken down into three phases ─ construction, use andabandonment ─ and emission factors are provided for each of these phases. Extraction effects can take twoforms: 1) direct via on-site physical removal of soil (EXT-D) or 2) specifically in seagrass meadows, indirectly
via effects of soil deposition and loss of water clarity (EXT-I)

852

Construction phase and Extraction

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853
854
855
856
857
858
859
860
861
862
863
864
865
866

In excavation there is only one phase, which is equivalent to the construction phase of aquaculture and salt
production. During the construction phase of shrimp or fish ponds, or for salt production in mangrove forest andtidal marsh ecosystems, soil is excavated to build containing berms within which water is held. Depending on thetype of aquaculture (intensive, extensive etc.) and the species stocked in the ponds (shrimp, fish) the soils can be
excavated to make ponds of 50 cm to 2.5 m depth (Cruz, 1997; Kungvankij et al. 1986; Wang 1990; Robertsonand Phillips 1995). In a similar manner the depth of solar salterns varies between depths of about 0.5 to 2.5m
(e.g. Ortiz-Milan 2006, Madkour & Gaballah 2012). Therefore at Tier 1, it is assumed that soil is excavated to 1
m depth and that this is appropriate for aquaculture and salt production in the construction phase, as well as
extraction. It is assumed that the soil excavated at the year in which these activities start is instantaneously
oxidized. Differentiation between organic and mineral soils should also be made when reporting on theconstruction phase of aquaculture and salt production activities and extraction in mangrove forests and tidal
marshes. Available data suggest that only direct extraction will impact the soil C pool of seagrass meadows
through physical disturbance. Aquaculture in seagrass meadows using fish cages and pens is known to be asignificant activity in some coastal areas but requires no soil excavation.

867
868
869
870
871
872
873
874
875
876
877
878
879

Use phaseIn the second or use phase of aquaculture and salt production, ponds, pens or cages are stocked or ponds
maintained for salt production. In aquaculture, the use phase results in CO2 emissions from nutrient enrichmentof the soils due to feeding and growing of stock (Holmer et al. 2003; 2004). For aquaculture, there is currently
not enough information to provide emission factors for the use phase in tidal marshes and it is assumed that theemission factor is the same as that for, use, in mangrove forests. Once aquaculture begins, it is assumed thatemissions persist until the ponds (constructed in mangrove forests and tidal marshes) or cages (established inseagrass meadows) are abandoned. The average lifetime of a shrimp pond is variable depending on various
factors (management, water quality, and sediment characteristics) and a viability of 7–15 years has been
estimated, considering improved management (Flaherty and Karnjakesom 1995, Pa´ez-Osuna 2001). Thus anaverage lifetime of 10 years is assumed before the activity ends. During the use phase, no differentiation is madebetween organic and mineral soils. For salt production, there is currently not enough information to provide
emission factors for the use phase.

880
881
882
883
884
885
886
887
888
889

Abandonment phase

890
891
892
893

For aquaculture and salt production, the total change in C stocks in organic and mineral soils is estimated using
Equation 4.2 below, which combines emissions from soil organic matter decomposition during all phases. Direct
extraction of soil (EXT-D) is applied as for the construction term. In seagrass meadows there is the indirect
impact of extraction (EXT-I), which affects the soil C pools differently.

894
895
896
897

EQUATION 4.2
ANNUAL CHANGE IN SOIL C IN COASTAL WETLANDS WITH AQUACULTURE, SALT PRODUCTION
ACTIVITIES IN THREE PHASES OF SUB-ACTIVITIES AND EXTRACTION
CO2-SOa,e = ∑e(ACONSTR,e * P * EFCONSTR,e) + (AUSE,e * EFUSE,e) + (AABAN,e * EFABAN,e)]898

The final phase of aquaculture and salt production is the abandonment of the ponds, pens, or cage. In aquaculture
the ponds are usually abandoned due to disease or declining water quality (Stevenson et al 1999). During thisphase, the area utilized for aquaculture or salt production is assumed to leave the soils in a saturated condition.
For abandoned ponds maintained as saturated soils in mangrove forests the emissions are assumed to be the same
as for forest clearance until which time vegetation reestablishment begins. On abandonment, the area utilized foraquaculture is generally left unchanged and the ponds can remain unproductive for decades, but sometimes
restoration of the local hydrology eventually leads to revegetation. In the abandonment phase, solar salterns
established in tidal marshes or fish pens and cages constructed in seagrass meadows, there is currently notenough information to provide emission factors for these ecosystem types.

where:

899
900
901

CO2SOe = CO2 emissions from either organic or mineral soils that are used in Aquaculture or Salt
Production occurring in the three phases of construction, use and abandonment or during Extraction andecosystem type(e) (mangrove forest, tidal marsh and seagrass meadow), unit = tonnes C yr-1

902
903

Ae = Total area under aquaculture and salt production activities during the construction, use andabandonment phases (for mangrove forests or tidal marshes), during use phase (for seagrass meadows) or

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904
905

during extraction (for mangrove forests, tidal marshes or seagrass meadows) by ecosystem type (e) as
specified, unit = ha

906
907
908
909

EFCONSTRe = CO2 emissions from either organic or mineral soils that are excavated for aquaculture or salt
production during the construction phase (for mangrove forests or tidal marshes) or during extraction (formangrove forests, tidal marshes or seagrass meadows) by ecosystem type (e) as specified, unit = tonnes C
ha-1

910
911
912

P = fraction of area excavated for aquaculture or salt production during the construction phase. The samevalue of P is used during the subsequent phases of use and abandonment. Tier 1 assumes P=1 foraquaculture or Salt Production, or during use phase (for seagrass meadows), dimensionless.

913
914
915

EFUSEe = CO2 emissions from aquaculture or salt ponds in mangrove forests and tidal marshes or coveredby aquaculture cages or pens in seagrass meadows by ecosystem type (e) as specified, unit = tonnes C ha-1
yr-1

916
917

EFABANDe = CO2 emissions from saturated soils after abandonment of aquaculture or salt production
practices in mangrove forests as specified, unit = tonnes C ha-1 yr-1

918

a = activity (aquaculture, salt production; extraction method is based on equation provided)

919
920

e = ecosystem type (specified ecosystem in which the activity has potentially significant impacts inmangrove forest, tidal marsh, or seagrass meadow)

921
922

CHOICE OF METHOD - ORGANIC AND MINERAL SOILS

923

Tier 1

924
925
926
927
928
929
930
931
932

Mangroves and Tidal Marsh
The method for estimating changes in soil carbon for Tier 1 uses Equation 4.2 for CO2 emissions from organicand mineral soils. For Tier 1, extraction (EXT-D) is applied in the case of physical removal and CO2 emissions
are reported for either or both ecosystems where this activity occurs. For salt production, emissions are only
reported for construction (mangrove forest and tidal marsh; Tables 4.15 & 4.16)) and abandonment (mangrove;
Table 4.18). For aquaculture, CO2 emissions in mangroves and tidal marshes are reported for all three phases,
construction, use and abandonment following Equation 4.2. Data pertaining to CO2 emissions from abandoned
aquaculture ponds on tidal marshes were not found and so the Tier 1 CO2 emissions are assumed to be zero. It is
assumed that after 10 years the emissions associated with aquaculture use cease as the practise is abandoned.

933
934

At Tier 1, the area affected during use and abandonment must remain the same as that during the construction
phase and it is assumed that the entire area is affected (P=1).

935
936
937
938
939
940

Seagrass Meadow
For Tier 1, if extraction (direct extraction, EXT-D) is an important management activity, CO2 emissions arereported. For Tier 1 indirect effects of extraction (EXT-I), the default assumption is that no changes in C stocks
occur. For significant aquaculture activities in seagrass meadows, emissions are only reported for the use phase.
It is assumed that after 10 years the emissions associated with aquaculture use cease as the practise is abandoned(Holmer et al., 2003).

941
942
943
944
945
946
947

Tier 2

948
949
950
951
952
953

At Tier 2 countries should use national data on their particular aquaculture practices to include more specificinformation on, depth of pond excavated during the construction phase and determine how type of stock andfeeding regime during the use phase affect CO2 emissions and removals. Disaggregation of mineral and organicsoils during abandonment, and consideration of more appropriate differentiation with respect to salinity andclimate regime are some higher Tier improvements. For salt production, a Tier 2 level method requires more
specific information on depth of pond excavated. For extraction the method countries should use national data to

During the phases of construction, use, and abandonment of aquaculture and salt ponds or aquaculture cages andpens, the area in which the activities primarily occur may be better approximated as a proportion of the total area
identified for Tier 1 estimation. That is, higher Tier methods may define the area of the activity as the area of soil
actually excavated to construct the pond or covered by fish pens (i.e. P<1). For significant activities, Tier 2 andhigher estimation methods should be used and these values reported. In these cases emissions should be
separated relative to climate, ecological zone and salinity where applicable.

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954
955

determine their particular extraction processes and the volume of soil removed as well as taking into account thefate of the excavated soil.

956
957
958
959
960
961
962
963

Tier 3Tier 3 methods can employ models to estimate CO2 emissions based on the whether the practise involves
extensive or intensive farming techniques, the species farmed, stocking density and feeding regime, all of which
affect CO2 emissions during use and likely abandonment phases. The effect of temperature and salinity on
benthic metabolism both seasonally and with climate and ecological zone should also be included. Tier 3
methods using models should be validated with field measurements. In salt production, the CO2 emissions andremovals associated with the use phase would be improved by providing data to quantify these fluxes and how
the magnitude of the fluxes vary with the salt pond management practices.

964

CHOICE OF EMISSION FACTORS - ORGANIC AND MINERAL SOILS

965

Tier 1

966
967
968
969
970

Mangrove forest, Tidal Marsh and Seagrass Meadow
Default Tier 1 emission factors for aquaculture, salt production and extraction in organic and mineral soils are
given in Tables 4.54-4.18 and where appropriate, for each phase of the activity, as well as ecosystems affected.
These values should be used in conjunction with Equation 4.2 to estimate emissions. Land area must remain thesame through all three processes.

971
TABLE 4.15 EMISSION FACTORS (EF) ASSOCIATED WITH CONSTRUCTION (EFCONSTR) OF AQUACULTURE (AQ), SALT
-1
PRODUCTION (SP) AND EXTRACTION (EXT) ON ORGANIC SOILS (TONNES C HA ) AT START OF ACTIVITY
Ecosystem

EFCONSTR

Mangrove forests

95% CI

range

n

4711

454, 490

216 – 727.1

432

328, 352

221 – 579

35

Tidal marsh

340

Seagrass meadow

NA

1

Adame et al. (2012), Breithaupt et al. 2012, Chmura et al. 2003, Donato et al. 2011, Kauffman et al. 2011, Osborne et al. 2011, VegasVilarrúbia et al. 2010 .
2

Anisfeld et al. 1999, Callaway et al. 1996, Callaway et al. 2012, Chmura & Hung 2004, Craft et al. 1988, Craft 2007, Hussein et al.
2004, Kearney & Stevenson 1991, Orson et al. 1998, Markewich et al. 1998, McCaffrey & Thomson 1980.

972
973
TABLE 4.16 EMISSION FACTORS (EF) ASSOCIATED WITH CONSTRUCTION (EFCONSTR) OF AQUACULTURE (AQ), SALT
-1
PRODUCTION (SP) AND EXTRACTION (EXT) ON MINERAL SOILS (TONNES C HA ) AT START OF ACTIVITY
Ecosystem

EFCONSTR

Mangrove forests
Tidal marshes
Seagrass meadow3

95% CI

range

n

2861

266, 306

80 - 1376

77

226

2

214, 239

15.6 – 623

82

140

4

9.1 – 829

89

1
Donato et al. 2011, Chmura et al. 2003, Breithaupt et al. 2012, Fujimoto et al. 1999, Adame et al. 2012, Perry & Mendelssohn 2009,
Ren et al. 2010, Kauffman et al. 2011, Ray et al. 2011, Zhang et al. 2012, Khan et al. 2007, Matsui 1998.
2
Cahoon et al. 1996, Callaway et al. 2012, Chmura & Hung 2004, Connor et al. 2001, Craft et al. 1988, Craft 2007, Hatton 1981,
Kearney & Stevenson 1991, Livesley & Andrusiak 2012, Loomis & Craft 2010, Morris & Jensen 2003, Oenema & DeLaune 1988,
Patrick & DeLaune 1990, Roman et al. 1997, Yu & Chmura 2009.
3

For EXTRACTION (EXT) only; 4 Fourqurean et al 2012

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TABLE 4.17 ANNUAL EMISSION FACTORS (EF) ASSOCIATED WITH USE (EFUSE) OF AQUACULTURE (AQ) ON ORGANIC AND-1-1
MINERAL SOILS (TONNES C HA YR )Ecosystem

EFUSE

95% CI

rangen

Mangrove forests andTidal marshes

2.21,2

1.7, 2.7

0.34-5.9

15

Seagrass meadow

9.53

7.8, 11.6

1.4-28.8

22

1

Alongi 1999b, Alongi et al. 2004, Blackburn et al. 1988, Lovelock et al. 2011;2

It is assumed that EF for tidal marsh is the same as that for mangrove forests.

3

Holmer et al. 2003, Holmer et al. 2005, Heilskov & Holmer 2001

975
TABLE 4.18 ANNUAL EMISSION FACTORS (EF) ASSOCIATED WITH ABANDONMENT AFTER AQUACULTURE (AQ) OR SALTPRODUCTION (SP) UNDER SATURATED CONDITIONS (EFABAN-S) ON ORGANIC AND MINERAL SOILS AND HARVESTING OF-1-1
AQUATIC RESOURCES (EFHARV) IN MANGROVE FORESTS (TONNES C HA YR )Ecosystem

EFABAN-S/EFHARVMangrove forests

1

1.8

95% CI

Range
0.9, 3.5N
0.40 – 7.9

4

1

Alongi et al. (1998), Lovelock et al. (2011), Cahoon et al. (2003). Data from forest clearance assumed to be the same as Aquaculture
during the abandonment phase.

976
977
978
979
980
981
982
983

Tier 2

984
985
986
987
988

Tier 3
A Tier 3 approach could use models that take into account the time-dependent nature of the CO2 fluxes over arange of timescales. For example, during the construction phase a pulse of CO2 efflux from soil directly after
mangrove clearing and prior to excavation, followed by a logarithmic decline in CO2 fluxes over time should beconsidered.

989

4.2.3.2

990
991
992
993
994

Guidance on annual change in soil carbon stocks on coastal wetlands managed for resource harvest is provided
only in the case of deforestation or complete clearing of aboveground biomass in mangrove forests. Theseemissions result in net CO2 flux to the water or atmosphere as there are assumed to be no C inputs to soil once
aboveground biomass has been removed. It is assumed that mangrove wood harvesting does not affect the heightof the water table and that the soils remain saturated.

995
996
997
998

Selective logging in mangrove forests, harvesting of vegetation in tidal marshes or shellfish in seagrass meadows,
are likely to have a low impact on carbon soil stocks and so the Tier 1 C stock change is assumed to be zero. If
any of these activities contribute to emissions that represent a key category, then Tier 2 or Tier 3 estimation
methodologies are recommended.

999

CHOICE OF METHOD & EMISSION/REMOVAL FACTORS

1000

Tier 1

1001
1002
1003
1004

Default Tier 1 emission factor for harvesting of mangrove wood, resulting in forest clearance, is presented inTable 4.17. For harvesting of aquatic resources, the methodology follows Eq.4.2, however only the abandonment
term is reported.

Tier 2 could include the use of country specific emission factors for each ecosystem that take into account local
climatic factors. For fish and shrimp ponds, the actual area excavated (P<1) and depth to which soil is excavated,should be taken into account as this varies with aquaculture and salt production practices. During the phase, use,
and the phase, abandonment in mangrove forests, the EF could be disaggregated to provide separate values fororganic and mineral soils. Furthermore, country-specific data would include emission factors for tidal marshes
and seagrass meadows in the abandonment phase.

HARVESTING OF AQUATIC RESOURCES

Mangrove forest

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1005
1006
1007
1008
1009
1010

Tier 2 methods for wood harvesting may take into consideration the species of mangrove being felled anddetermination of country specific emission factors to disaggregate between organic and mineral soils. It may bepossible to disaggregate emission factors for tree clearance and selective logging. At Tier 2, country andecosystem specific emission factors may be also used to reflect the regional importance of harvesting specificresources.

1011
1012
1013
1014
1015
1016
1017
1018
1019

A Tier 3 approach requires a comprehensive understanding of the processes that lead to CO2 emissions andremovals and the factors that drive these fluxes. The Tier 3 approach will involve country-specific models and/or
measurement-based approaches along with disaggregated land-use data to incorporate information on the type ofresources being harvested, the nature of the disruption to the soil, tidal regime, and local salinity. Tier 3
modelling would include country-specific emission factors derived or modelled from measurement data
encompassing different resource harvesting and the physical methods deployed. The models should capture
variation in emission rates driven by soil disruption, seasonal changes in precipitation and temperature and tidal
influence.

1020

4.2.3.3

1021
1022
1023
1024

Guidance on annual change in emissions associated with nutrient enrichment is provided only in the case ofmangrove forests and seagrass meadows. Note that data for tidal marshes is insufficient to generate an emission
factor for nutrient enrichment and so it is assumed that the emission factor is the same as reported for mangrove
forests.

1025

CHOICE OF METHOD AND EMISSION FACTOR

1026
1027
1028
1029

Mineral and organic soils have been aggregated for default Tier 1 emission factors for Nutrient Enrichment inseagrass meadows and are presented in Table 4.19. The emissions should be quantified by applying Eq. 2.6, Vol.
4 and be used in conjunction with equation 4.2.

Tier 2Tier 3

N UTRIENT E NRICHMENT

Tier 1TABLE 4.19 ANNUAL EMISSION FACTORS (EF) ASSOCIATED WITH NUTRIENT ENRICHMENT (EFNUTR) ON ORGANIC AND-1-1
MINERAL SOILS (TONNES C HA YR )EFNUTR
Seagrass
Meadow
1

3.5

195% CI

Range

N

2.7, 4.5

1.9 - 7.2

5

Holmer et al. 2005, Heilskov et al. 2008; No data available for tidal marshes.

1030
1031
1032
1033
1034
1035
1036
1037
1038
1039
1040

A Tier 2 approach will involve country-specific emission factors and may take into consideration the source ofthe nutrient enrichment and their regional importance. Disaggregation of mineral and organic soils should beconsidered. A Tier 3 approach will use measurement-based approaches along with disaggregated land-use data
to incorporate data on variable rates that will better capture variation in emission rates associated nutrient
application or discharge rate as well as factors that include consideration of diel fluctuations in temperature, tidal
regime, and salinity. If this activity contributes to emissions that contribute to a category that is key, then Tier 2
or Tier 3 estimation methodologies are recommended. If nutrient enrichment is a significant activity constituting
managed coastal wetlands in tidal marshes and mangrove forests, Tier 2 or 3 estimation methodologies are also
recommended.

1041

4.2.3.4

1042
1043

Annual change in carbon stocks on coastal wetland managed for hydrologic and sediment diversion can occur inmangrove and tidal marsh. The Tier 1 emission factors for soils in all ecosystems as a result of coastal

Tier 2 and 3

H YDROLOGIC /S EDIMENT D IVERSION

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1044
1045

subsidence are also considered to be zero. If this activity contributes to emissions that contribute to a categorythat is key, then Tier 2 or Tier 3 estimation methodologies are recommended.

1046

4.2.3.5 D RAINAGE

1047
1048
1049
1050

Emissions from drained coastal wetland soils are estimated at Tier 1 for mangrove forests and tidal marshes
because they represent potentially large CO2 emissions to the atmosphere. Annual C losses from both drainedmineral and organic soils in mangrove forests and tidal marshes are aggregated at Tier 1 level of estimation
using Equation 4.3.

1051
1052
1053

EQUATION 4.3

1054

ANNUAL CHANGE IN CARBON STOCKS IN DRAINED ORGANIC AND MINERAL SOILS
CO2DR = ∑,e (A,e • EFe • FPD)
where:

1055

CO2DR = CO2 emissions from organic or mineral soil C through drainage, units = tonnes C yr-1

1056

A = land area under drainage, units = ha

1057
1058

EFDR,e = CO2 emissions from organic or mineral soil C through drainage ecosystem type (e), units =tonnes C ha-1 yr-1

1059

FPD = fraction of area that is partially drained. Tier 1 assumes FPD=11060
TABLE 4.20 ANNUAL EMISSION FACTORS (EF) ASSOCIATED DRAINAGE (EFDR) ON ORGANIC AND MINERAL SOILS (TONNES-1-1

C HA YR

Ecosystem
Mangrove forests
and tidal marshes

EFDR

)

95% CI
7.91,2Range
6.5, 9.6

1.2 – 43.9

1

Camporese et al. (2008), Deverel & Leighton (2010), Hatala et al. (2012), Howe et al. (2009), Rojstaczer & Deverel (1993).

2

Based on aggregated data from tidal marshes and mangrove forests.

N
22

1061
1062

CHOICE OF METHOD AND EMISSION/REMOVAL FACTORS

1063

Tier 1 – Organic and Mineral Soils

1064
1065
1066
1067
1068
1069

The default Tier 1 assumption for drainage is that organic C is lost linearly over time until the stock is fully
oxidised to CO2, further drainage is initiated, or a new land use has started. Our default assumption is that thewater table has been changed to 1 m below the soil surface for organic and mineral soils. If drainage does not
result in a land-use change, the inventory compiler is referred to the aggregated emission factor for drainedorganic and mineral soils in tidal marshes and mangrove forests as reported in Table 4.20.

1070
1071
1072

If drainage results in conversion to a new Land Use category, the inventory compiler is referred to Section 4.3 ofthis Chapter It is important under these reporting conditions to retain information about the conversion so thatwetlands guidance can be applied if a reversal of drainage conditions occurs.

1073
1074
1075
1076

Tier 2 and Tier 3

Mangrove forest and Tidal Marsh

The Tier 2 approach should incorporate country specific data on emission for soils disaggregated for mineral andorganic soils. Higher Tier methods could take account of differences in the management of the drained coastal
wetland, drainage and the fraction of area that is partially drained (FPD) should be determined.

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1077

4.2.3.6

1078
1079
1080
1081
1082
1083
1084
1085
1086
1087

Rewetting saturates the soil, which can lead to colonization by new wetland vegetation, that is, the subsequent
natural re-establishment of original vegetation type in mangrove or tidal marsh ecosystems. Alternatively,
rewetting of the soil can be followed by active replanting that restores the original vegetation type. In seagrassmeadows, soils remain saturated and it is the water quality that must reach a satisfactory level before reestablishment of vegetation or its restoration. The original ecosystem can be either re-established naturally, or bymanual replanting. Under these conditions, where vegetation becomes re-established, ecosystem restoration or
creation is assumed to occur. Creation occurs where coastal wetlands cannot be verified to have previously
occurred but likely occurred given the proximity of the land to the coastal margin. Rehabiliation, a form ofcreation where the re-establishment of any vegetation type results in soil C sequestration upon maturation(defined as 20 year since establishment).

1088
1089

Guidance for inventories of rewetting and restoration of coastal wetland ecosystems follows several general
simplifying assumptions at Tier 1 level of estimation of CO2 emissions from soil:

1090
1091
1092
1093

1.

upon rewetting of previously drained soil, or re-establishment of water quality, creation of biomass by
purposeful planting or restoration of biomass is initiated. During this 20 year transient period it is assumed
that soil emissions and removals are insignificant, so that rewetting of coastal wetlands results in a Tier 1 EF
=0

1094
1095
1096
1097
1098

2.

after the 20 year transient period, restoration results in a change to a coastal wetland ecosystem supporting
growth of mangrove, tidal marsh or seagrass biomass, which can then accumulate soil C whereby a Tier 1
soil EFRES is applied. At this time it is assumed that soil C accumulation rates are functionally equivalent to
the natural system net soil C accumulation (flux) and the Tier 1 EFRES is applied (Table 4.20) with the same
EF applied regardless of soil type (Craft et al 2003, McGlathery et al 2012, Osland et al 2012).

1099
1100
1101
1102
1103

If the re-establishment of functioning vegetation is demonstrated to be unsuccessful during rewetting an, EF=0 isapplied for a further 20 year period or until creation or restoration of biomass occurs. For creation it is assumed
that once the site has been purposefully planted the EF=0 for soil for a 20 year transient period, by which timefunctionally equivalent soil C accumulation rates are assumed to occur and EFCRE can be applied. Therefore
EFRES is the same as EFCRE

1104
1105

EQUATION 4.4 ANNUAL CHANGE IN SOIL C IN RESTORED AND CREATED COASTAL WETLANDS

1106

R ESTORATION AND CREATION

CO2SO-RESe = (ARESe * EFRESe)

CO2SO-CREe = (ACREe * EFCREe)

where,

1107
1108

CO2SO-RESe = CO2 emissions associated with rewetted, improved water quality and restored coastal
wetlands by ecosystem type (mangrove, tidal marsh and seagrass meadow), units = tonnes C yr-1

1109
1110

CO2SO-CREe = CO2 emissions associated with rewetted improved water quality and created coastal
wetlands by ecosystem type (mangrove, tidal marsh and seagrass meadow), units = tonnes C yr-1

1111
1112

ARESe = Area of soil that has been modified by rewetting, improved water quality and/or restoration, by
ecosystem type (e), units = ha

1113
1114

EFRESe = CO2 emissions from mineral and organic soils that have been modified by restoration, by
ecosystem type (e), units = tonnes C ha-1 yr-1

1115
1116

ACREe = Area of soil that has been modified by rewetting and/or creation, by ecosystem type (e), units =
ha

1117
1118

EFCREe = CO2 emissions from mineral and organic soils after creation by ecosystem type (e), units =tonnes C ha-1 yr-1

1119
1120
1121

This method can be applied for lands with either mineral or organic soils. At Tier 1, organic and mineral soils are
not differentiated and land area estimates should be based on vegetation classification within the new land
category to apply Tier 1 EFs.

1122

CHOICE OF METHOD AND EMISSION/REMOVAL FACTORS

1123

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1124
1125
1126
1127
1128
1129
1130
1131

Mangrove, Tidal Marsh and Seagrass Meadow
Changes in soil carbon resulting from management activities that occur during rewetting and restoration or
creation are estimated at Tier 1 level because they represent potentially large C removals from the atmosphere.
During the transitional, rewetting period, the soil EF=0 regardless of the vegetation that is present. An EF=0 isapplied until 20 years after vegetation re-establishment. The land can be assumed restored with functioning
vegetation unless the definition of a classified vegetation type (as determined by country land classification
system) is not met. Once the land enters the new land category, the EF in Table 4.21 can be applied. EF values
should be used in conjunction with Equation 4.4 to estimate emissions.

1132
TABLE 4.21 ANNUAL EMISSION FACTORS (EF) ASSOCIATED WITH RESTORATION OR CREATION (EFRES/CRE) ON ORGANIC-1-1
AND MINERAL SOILS (TONNES C HA YR ) AFTER 20 YEARS OF VEGETATION REESTABLISHMENT
Ecosystem

EFRES/CRE

95% CI

1.62

1

0.73

3.63

0.10 – 10.2

69

0.91

2

0.82

1.02

0.05 – 4.65

66

0.43

3

0.28

0.67

0.09 – 1.12

6

MangroveTidal marsh
Seagrass meadow
1

range

n

Breithaupt et al. 2012, Chmura et al. 2003, Fujimoto et al. 1999, Ren et al. 2010.

2

Anisfeld et al 1999, Cahoon et al. 1996, Callaway et al 1996, Callaway et al 1997, Callaway et al 1998, Callaway et al 1999, Callaway et
al. 2012, Chmura & Hung 2003, Hatton 1981, Craft 2007, Kearney & Stevenson 1991, Markewich et al. 1998, Oenema & DeLaune 1988,
Orson et al 1998, Patrick & DeLaune 1990, Roman et al 1997.

3

Mateo & Romero 1997, Serrano et al. 2012.

1133
1134
1135
1136
1137
1138
1139
1140
1141
1142
1143

For key categories, Tier 2 and higher estimation methods should be used and these values reported. Soil types,
organic and mineral, should be disaggregated in order to apply suitable country-specific factors. Country-specificemission factors applied during the rewetting of the lands and the transition period should be used under Tier 2
methods, and the inventory compilers are encouraged to estimate the transient time from rewetted to restored
wetlands. Under the tier 3 method, the land use prior to rewetting, climate and vegetation type should be taken
into account. A comprehensive understanding and representation of the dynamics CO2 gas emission factors,
based on field measurement is involved in Tier 3. A Tier 3 approach would also use models that take into
account the time-dependent nature of the CO2 fluxes over a range of timescales and the effects of sea-level riseon soil C sequestration rates (Morris et al., 2012) or other dynamics (Craft 2001).

1144

4.2.3.7

1145
1146
1147
1148

This category is retained to draw attention to the fact that all significant activities may not be covered in thisguidance. It is good practice to consider other activities which may, based on national circumstances, havesignificant C emissions or removals associated with that management activity. A generic method is provided inTable 4.13.

1149

4.2.3.81150

See guidance provided in Section 4.2.1.3.

1151

4.2.3.9

1152
1153

The following summarizes steps for estimating change in carbon stocks in soils for Land Remaining in a Landuse Category where managed coastal wetlands occur.

1154
1155

Step 1: Organize data into inventory time periods based on the years in which activity data were collected (e.g.,
1990 and 1995, 1995 and 2000, etc.).

Tier 2 and 3

4.34

O THER A CTIVITIESCHOICE OF ACTIVITY DATACALCULATION STEPS FOR TIER 1

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1156

Step 2: Determine the area of coastal wetland in the last year of the inventory time period.

1157
1158

Step 3: Determine the activities to be included in the assessment and their representative areas. Area data should
be obtained using the methods described in Chapter 3 of the 2006 IPCC Guidelines.

1159
1160

Step 4: Determine the activity categories by stratifying representative areas into soil type and previous coastal
wetland vegetation type.

1161

Step 5: For each activity category, assign the appropriate emission factor (EF) for annual losses of CO2.

1162
1163

Step 6: Estimate total emissions by summing the product area (A) multiplied by the emission factor (EF) for all
activity categories.

1164

Step 7: Repeat for additional inventory periods.

1165
1166
1167
1168
1169
1170
1171
1172
1173
1174
1175
1176
1177

Example: The following example shows the calculations for aggregate areas of soil carbon change incoastal wetlands. There is a 1Mha area of coastal wetlands. At the beginning of the inventory time period(1990 in this example) the total area of coastal wetlands was 500,000 ha. From this total 200,000 ha wasidentified as unmanaged and 300,000 ha was actively managed. The individual areas relevant to activities
included in the inventory are; 50,000 ha of area under aquaculture with organic soils in previous
mangrove forest (with 50%) under construction and 50% under use); 10,000 ha of area under aquaculture
with mineral soils in previous tidal marsh (with 90% under use and 10% abandoned); 50,000 ha of area
under fish cages in seagrass meadows (100% under use); 100,000 ha of area under salt production withmineral soils in previous tidal marsh (with 100% under construction); and 90,000 ha of area underhydrologic diversion. The CO2 emissions for the inventory time period are calculated as (50,000 ha • 0.5• 471 tonnes C ha-1) + (50,000 ha • 0.5 • 2.2 tonnes C ha-1) + (10,000 ha • 0.9 • 2.2 tonnes C ha-1) +(10,000 ha • 0.1 • 7.9 tonnes C ha-1) + (50,000 ha • 9.5 tonnes C ha-1) + (100,000 ha • 340 tonnes C ha-1) +(90,000 ha • 0 tonnes C ha-1) = 46,332,700 tonnes C for 1990. Repeat for additional inventory periods.

1178

4.2.3.10 UNCERTAINTY ASSESSMENT

1179
1180
1181
1182
1183
1184

Few studies have addressed the questions of emission factors specifically and few reports are available to give
specifics of activities which we expect to vary geographically. Thus, derivation of emission factors was based
upon expert knowledge and application of data from reports of biomass and production of vegetation, the amountof carbon is living biomass and the amount of carbon held in soils, and how easily it is decomposed. There is
uncertainty in the time, depth of soil affected, the rate of CO2 loss from dead vegetation and soils and the C
gained during wetland creation or restoration.

1185

4.2.4

1186
1187

This section provides methods for estimating the emissions of N2O and CH4 from coastal wetlands under
different management activities.

1188
1189
1190
1191
1192
1193
1194

N2O is an intermediate product of both nitrification (oxidation of ammonium by nitrifying microbes under oxic
or aerobic conditions) and denitrification (reduction of nitrite and nitrate by denitrifying microbes under anoxic
conditions). The flux of N2O thus is controlled by oxygen availability and tidal influence, but also by theavailability of N substrates (Purvaja and Ramesh, 2001; Kreuzwieser et al., 2003; van den Heuvel et al., 2009,
Moseman-Valtierra et al. 2011). Therefore, management activities that change hydrology or N availability insediment, e.g. N management or rewetting of wetlands, could lead to changes in N2O emissions from coastal
wetlands.

1195
1196
1197
1198
1199
1200
1201

In reduced and anoxic environments microbial decomposition of the organic matter may produce CH4. However,flooding seawater contains sulfate and microbial reduction of sulfate to sulfide will generally occur before
methanogens produce CH4. A strong inverse relationship between CH4 emission and salinity of mangrove soils
was reported by Purvaja and Ramesh (2001) and later work by Poffenbarger et al. (2011) showed that polyhaline
tidal marshes (salinity >18) had significantly lower CH4 emissions than oligohaline (salinity 0.5-5) andmesohaline (salinity 5-18) marshes. The depth distribution of methanogenesis in tidal marsh soils is closely
related to the methanogenic substrate utilization (Parkes et al. 2012).

Non-CO2 emissions

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1202
1203
1204
1205
1206
1207

Aquaculture has been shown to lead to changes in N2O emissions from coastal wetlands. Shrimp and fish
cultivation increases nutrients loads in culture ponds. The body of research is growing, and sufficient fordeveloping emission factors for non-CO2 emissions from this activity but is relatively limited. Coastal wetlands
subject to intensive carbon and nutrient loading may also be sources of CH4 emissions, however, only whensalinity <18 are present. In aquaculture, anaerobic conditions are not appropriate for maximized fish production
and are therefore assumed negligible, however, they may increase over time.

1208
1209
1210
1211
1212
1213
1214

If soil conditions prior to rewetting were aerobic, then it is likely that CH4 emissions will increase where tidal
water salinities are <18 ppt. If tidal waters rewetting coastal wetlands are carbon- or nutrient-enriched, thenwetlands with salinities >18 ppt also are likely to be sources of CH4 emissions. One of the main controlling
factors in N2O production is the availability of inorganic N in the soil. If, prior to rewetting, the area of coastal
wetland was subject to increased N supply (e.g. in fertilized land) it may be a source of N2O emissions during
the rewetting. However, experimental studies have shown that the substrate N is rapidly depleted (MosemanValtierra et al. 2011), thus N2O is likely to be negligible after the N is depleted and no continuous N is supplied.

1215
1216
1217
1218
1219
1220
1221
1222
1223
1224
1225

N2O emissions from managed terrestrial soils are covered in Chapter 11, Volume 4 of the 2006 IPCC Guidelines,
which estimates N2O emissions due to N additions to soils (e.g. synthetic or organic fertilizers, deposited manure,crop residues, sewage sludge), or of mineralization of N in soil organic matter following management of organicsoils or cultivation on mineral soils (e.g., Forest Land/Grassland/Settlements converted to Cropland). For organicsoils, these emission factors have been updated for these specific land uses and can be found in Chapter 2 of thisSupplement Table 4.21 presents the equations and emission factors for managed coastal wetland. The mostsignificant activities contributing to non-CO2 emissions from managed coastal wetlands are Aquaculture andspecific cases of nutrient enrichment, such as aquaculture effluent (indirect N2O emissions from aquaculture use)
for which there are available data Non-CO2 emissions are assumed equal to zero except in the cases of
Aquaculture effects on N2O emissions and nutrient enrichment effects on CH4 emissions caused by aquaculture
and agricultural run-off in coastal wetlands.
TABLE 4.22 ACTIVITIES AND TIER 1 ASSUMPTIONS FOR NON-CO2 EMISSIONS FOR THE ECOSYSTEMS AFFECTED
Activity

Ecosystem

Non-CO2 gas/sub-activity

Tier 1 Equation

Aquaculture (EFAQ)1

Mangrove

CH4: EF=0

NA

N2O: EF=based on fish production or N
fed or nutrient-enriched EF

Apply Eq. 4.5; Table 4.23

CH4: EF=0

NA

N2O: EF=based on fish production or N
fed

Apply Eq. 4.5; Table 4.23

Seagrass
Meadow

CH4: EF=0
N2O: EF=0

NA

Salt Production (EFSP),
Extraction (EFEXT),
Hydrologic/Sediment
Diversion (EFDIV),
Harvesting of Aquatic
Resources (EFHARV),
Drainage (EFDR)

Mangrove

CH4: EF=0
N2O: EF=0NA

Tidal Marsh

CH4: EF=0
N2O: EF=0

Seagrass
MeadowNA

Nutrient Enrichment(EFNUTR)

Mangrove

CH4: EF=nutrient-enriched wetland(agricultural run-off including
aquaculture effluent)

Apply Eq. 2.62; table 4.24,
this section

N2O: Run-off from terrestrial soil N
application

Chapter 112

N2O: Enrichment from aquaculture
effluent

Apply Eq. 2.62; table 4.25,
this section

Tidal Marsh

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Tidal Marsh

CH4: EF=nutrient-enriched wetland(agricultural run-off including
aquaculture effluent)

Apply Eq. 2.62; table 4.24,
this section

N2O: Run-off from terrestrial soil N
application

Chapter 112

N2O: Enrichment from aquaculture
effluent

Apply Eq. 2.62; table 4.25,
this section

CH4: EF=0

NA

N2O: Run-off from terrestrial soil N
application

Chapter 112

N2O: Enrichment from aquaculture
effluent

NA

Mangrove

CH4: EF=unmanaged wetland
N2O: EF=0

Apply Eq. 2.62; table 4.26,
this section

Tidal Marsh

CH4: EF=unmanaged wetland
N2O: EF=0

Seagrass
Meadow
MangroveTidal Marsh
Seagrass
Meadow

NA

NA

NA

NA

Seagrass
Meadow

Restoration (EFRES)
and Creation (EFCRE)

Other Activities(EFOTHER)

Note
1

for aquaculture, only the use phase is considered; EF for phases of construction and abandonment are assumed negligible

2

Volume 4 of the 2006 IPCC Guidelines

1226
1227

4.2.4.1

A QUACULTURE

1228

CHOICE OF METHOD AND EMISSION FACTORS

1229
1230
1231
1232
1233
1234
1235

Seitzinger et al. (2000) estimated that one-third of global anthropogenic N2O emissions are from aquatic
ecosystems, but there has been limited research aimed at quantifying the contribution of aquaculture to the global
budget. N2O is emitted from aquaculture systems as a by-product of the conversion of ammonia (contained infish urea) to nitrate through nitrification and nitrate to N2 gas through denitrification (Hu et al. 2012). Hu et al.
(2012) estimates that 1.8% of the nitrogen fed to aquaculture systems is emitted as N2O , and that 1.7 g N2O-N
is emitted per kg fish produced in an aquaculture system. These are applied only during the use phase of
aquaculture. In the construction and abandonment phases, non-CO2 emissions are assumed negligible and EF=0.

1236

Tier 1

1237
1238

The Tier 1 method estimates the CH4 emissions from aquaculture ponds are assumed negligible and reported as 0.

1239
1240
1241
1242
1243

N2O emissions from aquaculture ponds can be estimated based on fish production or the amount of N feed in theaquaculture activity. The default Emission Factors for these two methods are provided in Table 4.23. The
emission estimation follows a modified form of Eq. 11.1 from Chapter 11, Volume 4 of the 2006 IPCC
Guidelines and is presented here in (Eq. 4.5).

MethaneNitrous Oxide

1244

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1245
1246
1247
1248
1249

EQUATION 4.5
DIRECT N2O EMISSIONS FROM AQUACULTURE USE
N2O-NAQ = FF * EFF OR FI * EFIWhere:

1250

N2O-NAQ = annual direct N2O-N emissions from Aquaculture use, kg N2O-N yr-1

1251

FF = annual fish production, kg fish yr-1

1252

EFF = emissions factor for N2O emissions from fish produced, kg N2O-N (kg fish produced)-1

1253

FI = annual N amount of fish feed applied

1254

EFI = emission factor for N2O emissions from N of fish feed applied, kg N2O-N (kg N fed)-1

1255
Table 4.23 Emission factors for N2O emission from aquaculture in coastal wetlands
WetlandDefault EF

Aquaculture

0.003 kg N2O per kg fish
produced per yr
0.028 kg N2O per kg N
fed per yr

Uncertainty
Range

Reference

Hu et al. 2012

1256
1257
1258
1259
1260
1261
1262
1263
1264

Under Tier 2 method, country specific emission factors for these two gases need to be applied. N2O emissions
from aquaculture ponds could also be estimated using the country specific emission rate from the water if suchdata is available. In terms of CH4, Tier 2 or 3 methods could include change in CH4 emissions with extended use,
based on age of the pond and intensity of use. A comprehensive understanding and representation of the
dynamics based on direct field measurements or models is involved under Tier 3 method, which estimatesemission factors considering the category of aquaculture (fish species or feed stuff), aquaculture use intensity,and impact of environmental factors e.g. climate zone, season, and salinity.

1265

4.2.4.2

Tiers 2 and 3

1266
1267

S ALT P RODUCTION , E X TRACTION ,H YDROLOGIC /S EDIMENT D IVERSION , H ARVESTING OFA QUATIC R ESOURCES , D RAINAGE

1268
1269
1270

As was noted in Table 4.22, CH4 and N2O emissions from the management activities of salt production,
extraction, hydrologic/sediment diversion and harvesting of aquatic resources are assumed to be zero. However,under higher Tiers, emissions associated with these activities should be reported using country-specific data.

1271
1272
1273
1274

As was noted in Table 4.22, CH4 and N2O emissions from the management activities of drainage are assumed to
be zero. However, if drainage is a significant activity within the Land Use category under which it is reported, it
is good practice to apply Tier 2 and 3 estimation levels following generic methodologies (Eq. 2.6, 2006 IPCC
Guidelines) and using country-specific data.

1275

4.2.4.3

1276

CHOICE OF METHOD AND EMISSION/REMOVAL FACTORS

1277

Me than e and Nitr ous Oxi de - Mang rov e an d Tidal Mars hes

1278

Tier 1

4.38

NUTRIENT ENRICHMENT

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1279
1280
1281
1282
1283
1284
1285

For the Tier 1 method, the default emission factors are given in Tables 4.24 and 4.25. The default method toestimate non-CO2 gas emissions from coastal wetlands is to multiply wetland area by the gas emission rates. For
nutrient enrichment from agricultural run-off in the coastal zone, only CH4 emissions are reported. N2Oemissions for this activity are covered in Chapter 11 of the 2006 IPCC Guidelines. For nutrient enrichment fromaquaculture effluent coming from aquaculture production both CH4 and N2O emissions are reported as there iscurrently no guidance in 2006 IPCC Guidelines on non-CO2 emissions from this impact of aquaculture activities.
Data were not available on impact of aquaculture effluent on seagrass meadows.

1286
1287
1288
1289
1290
1291

Calculation of CH4 emissions follows the same method applied in the case of agricultural run-off to the coastalzone and aquaculture effluent within the coastal zone (Table 4.24). For calculation of N2O emissions associatedwith agricultural run-off from terrestrial sources that comes from either direct or indirect N application toterrestrial soils the inventory compiler is referred to Chapter 11 of the 2006 IPCC Guidelines. The following
assumption is applied under Tier 1 estimation: vegetation of coastal wetlands is not a source of non-CO2 gases
and the emission factor represents only fluxes directly from the soil to atmosphere.

1292
1293
1294
1295
1296

A second method for estimating indirect N2O emissions from nutrient enrichment resulting from aquaculture
effluent uses a modified form of Eq. 11.9 and 11.10 for effluent effects from aquaculture. The leaching factor
can be applied and the EF from estuaries following this method. This method is recommended when absence ofdata on land area impacted by aquaculture effluent prevents use of that approach (see Chapter 11, Volume 4 ofthe 2006 IPCC Guidelines).
TABLE 4.24 EMISSION FACTORS FOR CH4 EMISSIONS FROM NUTRIENT ENRICHMENT (AGRICULTURAL RUN-OFF AND-1-1
AQUACULTURE EFFLUENT) (TONNES CH4 HA YR )Ecosystem

EF

95% CI
1.131

Mangrove forest and Tidal marsh(oligohaline - polyhaline)

range
0.68, 1.18

n0.015 – 27.83

18

1

Mukhopadhyay et al. 2002, Kreuzwieser et al., 2003, Alongi et al., 2005, Biswas et al., 2007, Chauhan et al., 2008, Krithika et al., 2008,
Liikanen et al., 2009, Allen et al., 2010, Chen et al., 2010, Tong et al., 2010, Adams et al., 2011.

1297
TABLE 4.25 EMISSIONS FACTORS FOR N2O EMISSIONS FROM NUTRIENT ENRICHMENT (AQUACULTURE EFFLUENT) (KG N2O-1-1
HA YR )
EcosystemEF

Mangrove forest and Tidal marsh(oligohaline - polyhaline)

95% CI
3.71

range
0.19, 5.4

-4.6 – 66.3

n17

1
Corredor et al., 1999, Bauza et al., 2002, Kreuzwieser et al., 2003, Alongi et al., 2005,, Krithika et al., 2008, Liikanen et al., 2009, Chenet al., 2010, Adams et al., 2011, Allen et al., 2011, Chen et al., 2012.

1298
1299
1300
1301
1302
1303

Tier 2 methods are used where countries have their country-specific emission factors and substantial national
data. The Tier 2 method allows the inventory complier to adjust the assumptions applied to the Tier 1 method. It
is a good practice to use the representative data of climate zones and vegetation type from published literature,e.g. papers, reports and books, and estimate the non-CO2 gases emissions from wetland plants, where applicable.

1304
1305
1306
1307
1308

Tier 3 methods involve a comprehensive understanding and representation of the dynamics of non-CO2 gasemission factors, taking account parameters such as salinity, season, N load, tidal elevation and tidal cycle (hightide vs. low tide). Field research should be carefully carried out at representative sites for empirical gas fluxes.
Countries are encouraged to setup their own methodology or modelling exercises based on the N input rates for
estimation of emission factors.

1309

4.2.4.4

1310
1311

The degree of water saturation is a key factor controlling CH4 and N2O emissions. Rewetting of coastal wetland
soils shifts microbial decomposition from aerobic to anaerobic conditions, increasing the potential for CH4

Tier 2 and 3

R ESTORATION AND C REATION

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emissions. If water used to rewet coastal wetlands increases N supplies through ground water or tidal water, a
new source of N2O emissions is possible.

1314
1315

Guidance for inventories of rewetting and restoration or creation of coastal wetlands follows several general
simplifying assumptions at Tier 1 level of estimation.

1316
1317

(i)

The default assumption is that water introduced for rewetting, by whatever means, is ambient water
free of excess nutrients.

1318
1319
1320

(ii)

Once rewetting occurs, the EF equals 0 for N2O during a 20 year transition period is the default
transition period unless the re-establishment of functioning vegetation is demonstrated to be
unsuccessful.

1321
1322

(iii)

Once rewetting occurs, the EF for CH4 in Table 4.27 should be applied during a 20 year transition
period.

1323
1324
1325

(iv)

After the 20 year transition period which begins with the reestablishment of vegetation, the EF
remains the same for both N2O and CH4 while the land continues to be subject to the management
activity of restored or created, regardless of the land-use category that is applied.

1326
1327
1328
1329
1330
1331

In the case of rewetting of lands that had been previously been in agricultural (or any other drained) land-use or
category, for example, the prior land use is not considered at Tier 1 as any increase in emissions from rewetting
has not only been shown to be a transient effect and data are insufficient to assign an EF to capture this effect.
The water quality should be reevaluated to determine whether the EF for nutrient-enriched wetlands should
continue to be applied. If water applied in the rewetting activity is enriched in nutrients and the restoration
activity contributes to a land-use category or pool that is key, Tier 2 and 3 methods should be applied.

1332

CHOICE OF METHOD AND EMISSION FACTORS

1333

Tier 1

1334
1335
1336
1337
1338
1339
1340
1341
1342

The Tier 1 method in this section estimates the non-CO2 emissions without considering the land use prior to
rewetting. The Tier 1 default assumption is that the lands are rewetted with uncontaminated water. Thus, theemission factor for N2O = 0 and for CH4, emission factors are found in Table 4.26. For mangrove forests, the EF
for CH4 is zero. Default Tier 1 emission factors for rewetting and restoration or creation of coastal wetlands withorganic and mineral soils are given in Table 4.21. These values should be used in conjunction with equation 4.2
to estimate emissions and take into account the ambient soil salinity and vegetation type. For tidal marshes, theCH4 EF is based on salinity (which is controlled by factors such as proximity to ocean water, the supply offreshwater through precipitation and fluvial inputs, and evapotranspiration).

Mangrove and Tidal MarshTABLE 4.26 EMISSION FACTORS FOR CH4 FROM UNMANAGED COASTAL WETLANDS FOR TIER 1 ESTIMATION OF
REWETTING AND RESTORATION

WetlandType

Salinity type

Salinity(ppt)

Default EF(tonnes
CH4-C ha-1
y-1)

EF Range(tonnes CH4C ha-1 y-1)

Tidal
Marsh

Tidal fresh

0.5-5

1.12

0.03-4.04

Oligohaline/
Mesohaline

5-18

0.28

0.02-0.24

Polyhaline(>18ppt)>1800-0.04

Saline>180Mangrove

Error(95%CI)

Reference±80%

Poffenbarger et al. 20111
Poffenbarger et al. 20111±90%

Poffenbarger et al 20111±90%

Page and Dal 20101

Note Review paper

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Tier 2 and Tier 3

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1351
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Country-specific emission factors applied during the rewetting of the lands and the transition period should be
used under Tier 2 methods, and the inventory compilers are encouraged to estimate the EF for the land during
the transition to the new land category for the rewetted lands. Under the tier 3 method, the land use prior to
rewetting, climate and vegetation type should be taken into account. A comprehensive understanding andrepresentation of the dynamics of non-CO2 gas emission factors, based on field measurement, is involved in Tier
3. Tier 2 could include the use of country specific emission factors for each ecosystem that take into accountlocal climatic factors, salinity, and species composition of the vegetation. The quality of the water should also be
considered in the case of seagrass restoration.

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1355
1356
1357
1358
1359

In the case of rewetting of lands that had been previously been in agricultural (or any other drained) land-use or
category, for example, the prior land use is not considered at Tier 1 because data are insufficient to assign an EF
to capture this transient effect. The emissions of N2O and CH4 are considered to also depend on the
nutrient/organic matter available in the tidal water. The water quality should be reevaluated to determine whether
the EF for nutrient-enriched wetlands should continue to be applied. If water applied in the rewetting activity isenriched in nutrients and the restoration activity contributes to a land-use category or pool that is key, Tier 2 and3 methods should be applied.

1360
1361

Tier 2 and 3 should also consider the effect of vegetation as plants can act as conduit for gas exchange between
the soil and atmosphere.

1362

4.2.4.5

1363
1364
1365
1366
1367
1368
1369

For aquaculture, this is the fish production, the amount of feed, and amount of N in feed. These data can beobtained from FAO (http://www.fao.org/fishery/statistics/global-aquaculture-production/en). To estimate nonCO2 gas emissions from aquaculture activities, the area under cultivation must be determined either by on-sitemeasurement or from aerial photographs. Also required is the rate of nitrogen input as feed, which can usually beobtained from the pond operator, and the sediment type beneath the cages or at the bottom of the pond. For
additional guidance, see Section 4.2.1.3

1370
1371
1372
1373
1374
1375
1376
1377

To estimate CH4 emissions, the area receiving agricultural runoff must be determined by visual inspection of the
maximum ingress of tidal waters within the wetland. For Tier 2 and 3 methods, the rate of N input should bedetermined although this may be very difficult and may involve knowledge of the tidal prism and N
concentrations in the waters in question. For nutrient enrichment, this is the area of nutrient--affected land. We
can expect to find nutrient-affected systems downstream of major urban centers, municipal sewage treatment
facilities, and watersheds where a large portion of the land is under intensive agricultural use. For additional
guidance, see Section 4.2.1.3.

1378
1379
1380
1381

To estimate non-CO2 gas emissions, the area restored, created and/or rewetted must be determined by visualinspection of pre- and post-impact stages. The type of wetland and the salinity regime must be measured. For
additional guidance, see Section 4.2.1.3.

1382

4.2.4.6

1383
1384
1385
1386

There have been few empirical measurements upon which to base emission factors and the factors identified forincorporation in Tier 2 and 3 will reflect variability. Uncertainties in non-CO2 emissions associated withaquaculture can be reduced greatly by better estimation of fish production, quality of N in feed, area of ponds
relative to total area under aquaculture use. For additional guidance, see Section 4.2.1.3.

1387

4.3

CHOICE OF ACTIVITY DATA

Aquaculture ponds

Nutrient enrichment

Restoration/Creation

U NCERTAINTY ASSESSMENT

1388

CONVERSION FROM A LAND USE CATEGORYTHAT INCLUDES COASTAL WETLANDS

1389
1390
1391

This section references methodology provided in Section 4.2 to estimate impacts of soil drainage, extraction orother activity when lands are classified under a land-use category other than Wetland. Examples of whenclassification of land into a different land-use category may occur are given in Box 4.1. In these cases, the

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inventory compiler is directed to the guidance in those chapters of Volume 4 of the 2006 IPCC Guidelines(Chapter 5-Croplands, Chapter 8-Settlements) but applying the assumptions and default EFs provided here.

1394

4.3.1

CO 2 emissions and removals

1395

4.3.1.1

B IOMASS , DOM AND S OIL C ARBON

1396
1397
1398
1399
1400
1401
1402

Permanent drainage under agriculture use or conversion to Settlements are cases in which a land-use conversion
may be considered to have occurred. For biomass and DOM, see sections 4.2.1 and 4.2.2 unless land isconverted to lands with dry soils in which case follow guidance in 2006 IPCC Guidelines (following flow chart
provided in Chapter 1). For soil carbon, refer to Chapter 2, this supplement for drained organic soils and therespective Chapters in the 2006 IPCC Guidelines for land use conversion to lands with mineral soil. Regardlessof how the land is classified, supplementary guidance provided in this Chapter should be followed wheremanagement activities where coastal wetlands are involved.

1403

4.3.2

1404
1405
1406
1407
1408
1409

This section provides guidelines for estimating non-CO2 gas emissions from coastal wetlands, especiallymangroves and tidal marshes being drained for conversion to other dry land uses. The land use following coastal
wetland drainage (e.g., agriculture, settlement, forestry), will have a major impact on emissions of non-CO2
greenhouse gases from soils. Refer to the respective chapter depending on end Land Use in the 2006 IPCC
Guidelines. For guidance on drainage of organic soils and conversion to another IPCC Land-use category, referto the guidance provided in Chapter 2, this supplement.

1410

4.4

CONVERSION TO A LAND USE CATEGORYTHAT INCLUDES COASTAL WETLANDS

1412

4.4.1

CO 2 emissions and removals

1413
1414
1415
1416
1417

This section includes management activities that result in rewetting and restoration or creation of coastal wetland
ecosystems and subsequent classification as Wetland. Land that is exposed to rewetting can previously havesustained mangroves or tidal marshes, but the previous land-use is characterised by (A) unsaturated soils due tosediment infill to a height above the water table, (B) drainage of the original ecosystem, (C) construction ofdikes or levees that prevent tidal flooding, or (D) emplacement of culverts that restrict flow of tidal waters.

1418
1419
1420
1421
1422

Methods for biomass and DOM pools follow guidance provided in Sections 4.2.1 and 4.2.2. Non-CO2 emissions
are covered in section 4.4.4 and follow a similar approach with EFs for rewetting applied during the transitional
land-use and EFs for restoration or creation applied when functioning vegetation has become re-established. For
example, an aquaculture facility that is classified as Settlement or Cropland and restored to Wetlands would
involve a change in IPCC land use category.

1423
1424
1425
1426
1427
1428
1429
1430
1431

Guidance for inventories of rewetting and restoration of coastal wetland ecosystems follows similar general
simplifying assumptions at Tier 1 level of estimation of C emissions from soil (as presented in Section 4.2.3): 1)
upon rewetting, EF=0 for a 20 year transition period (as opposed to transient period in the case of Land
Remaining in a Land-use Category). The default transition period is 20 years unless the re-establishment offunctioning vegetation is demonstrated to be unsuccessful, 2) after conversion to the new (restored or createdcoastal) land use category, a new EF is applied. The new EF is equivalent to the natural system net soil C
accumulation (flux). Regardless of the land category, reestablishment of functioning vegetation is assumed tooccur after a 20 year transition period (in the case of a land-use change to Wetlands) and a new EF is applied forsoils (Table 4.21) following general guidance in Section 4.2.3.

1432

4.4.2

1411

4.42

Non-CO2 emissions

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This section provides guidelines for estimating non-CO2 gas emissions from coastal wetlands, especiallymangroves and tidal marshes, undergoing management activities that result in rewetting and restoration or
creation of coastal wetland ecosystems. These activities will have a major impact on emissions of non-CO2
greenhouse gases from soils. Apply methods and default EF provided in section 4.2.4.5.

1437

4.5

COMPLETENESS, TIMES SERIESCONSISTENCY, QUALITY ASSURANCE ANDQUALITY CONTROL

1440

4.5.1

Completeness

1441
1442
1443
1444
1445
1446
1447
1448
1449

Completeness is a requirement for greenhouse gas inventories, and it is good practice to address all wetland
carbon gain and losses. For completeness, it is good practice to include all carbon pools and non-CO2 gases. The
wetland area used for calculation for different carbon pools must be the same, and emissions from organic andmineral soils on mineral soils should be estimated. Country-specific information should be incorporated intohigher tier methodologies. A complete accounting of emissions and removals of CO2 associated with for Land
Remaining in a Land-use category, Land Converted to another Land-use category in which the land that isconverted is a coastal wetland, and Conversion to a Land-Use category that includes coastal wetlands regardlessof how it is classified. It is good practice that all losses from biomass carbon pools that result in transfers to deadorganic matter pools are first accounted for as changes to biomass carbon stocks.

1450

4.5.2

1451
1452
1453
1454

It is good practice to develop a consistent time series of inventories of anthropogenic emissions and removals ofgreenhouse gases using the guidance in Chapter 7 in this volume. Achieving time series data may require
extrapolation or interpolation from longer time series data or from long term trends, as few long-term data are
available for most coastal wetlands.

1455
1456
1457
1458
1459
1460

Consistent accounting over time of wetland areas included in biomass and soil C emissions and removals
inventory requires that activity data be stratified by the common definitions of wetland type/ soil type. Wetlands
subject to land-use change must not be lost or double-counted due to accounting errors resulting frominconsistent stratification of wetland types/ soil types. Ideally, the same protocol should be applied consistently
every year in the time series, at the same level of disaggregation and where country-specific data are used, it isgood practice to use the same values and methods for equivalent calculations throughout the time series.

1461
1462
1463
1464
1465

New values should be included if the inventory capacity and information and data sources improve over time. It
is good practice in these circumstances to consistently recalculate the earlier emissions and removals. Otherchanges during the time series need to be consistent to take account of new data or methods and their consistency
with the earlier data. It is good practice to recalculate the entire time series of data if the default values arechanged; changes in wetland types need to be tracked for long periods of time.

1466
1467
1468

It is good practice to use the same model parameter values for the entire time series and to recalculate the entire
dataset if one of more of the parameters has changed. Failure to do so may result in either under-or overestimates of the true changes in carbon and non-CO2 gas emissions or removals.

1469

4.5.3

1470
1471
1472
1473

Different levels of precision and accuracy, and as a result, bias will invariably apply to a number of the values
used to assess greenhouse gas inventories. Estimates are influenced by the quality and consistency of data andinformation available as well as knowledge gaps, all of which will vary among countries. Depending on the tierlevel used, estimates will be affected by different sources and degrees of error, such as sampling error.

1474
1475
1476
1477

It is good practice to execute quality control checks through Quality Assurance (QA) and Quality Control (QC)
procedures as detailed in Chapter 7, and review the emission estimation procedures by experts. Additional
quality control checks as outlined in Chapter 7 and quality assurance procedures may also be applicable. This isespecially so if higher tier methods are used. It is good practice to supplement the general QA/QC related to data

1438
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processing, handling, and reporting and documenting, with source-specific procedures. QA/QC proceduresshould be documented separately for Land Remaining in a Land-use category, Land Converted to another Landuse category in which the land that is converted is a coastal wetland, and Conversion to a Land-Use category that
includes coastal wetlands regardless of how it is classified.

1482
1483
1484
1485
1486

Organizations and institutions which collect the data are responsible for reviewing data collection methods andall aspects of the data handling and analysis procedures, and ensure that they are done correctly, and arecomplete and consistent over time. It is important to document all procedures and processes as it enables
reviewers to identify inaccuracy, gaps and to suggest improvements. Transparency is most important in other toensure consistency and clarity of the processes and procedures over time.

1487
1488
1489
1490
1491
1492

All data should be checked against other reliable sources of information that are independent. Any differences ordiscrepancies must be documented, and consistency must be applied to total areas involved in the inventory toensure that wetland area are neither ‘created’ or ‘lost’ overtime. When using country-specific data, the inventory
compiler should compare these data to the IPCC default values or the Emissions Factor Database (EFDB) anddetail any differences. These country-specific data must be of high quality, adequately described, anddocumented.

1493
1494
1495
1496

If factors are based on direct measurements (i.e., soil C content) the inventory agency should review themeasurements to ensure that they are representative of the actual range of environmental conditions. It is goodpractice to review and, if necessary, revise the default assumptions and to compare model estimates with fieldmeasurements and other data sources.

1497

4.5.4

1498
1499
1500
1501

General requirements for reporting and documentation are set out in Chapter 7. It is good practice to archive anddocument all data and information applied to produce the national emissions/removals inventory. Definitions of
all carbon pools should be included in the inventory, including evidence that these definitions have been appliedconsistently over time.

1502
1503
1504
1505
1506
1507
1508

Documentation is necessary for demonstrating transparency, completeness, consistency of all data and methods
for interpolating between samples, methods and years, and for recalculating and avoidance of possible double
accounting or ‘loss’ of C inventory. Regardless of Tier methodology used, explanations are required for
decisions regarding choice of methodology, approaches and use of default or other data. This is necessary tofacilitate examination by independent third parties; inventories should include summaries of approaches andmethods used and references to data sources so that the reported emissions estimates are transparent and can beretraced or recalculated.

1509
1510
1511
1512

All data sources, including default values, must be quoted. The scientific basis for any country-specific data andmethods must be completely described and justified, as well as describing sources and magnitudes of uncertainty.
This is especially so for any large-scale estimates as in these cases the statistical procedures should be described
and well as the level of uncertainty.

1513
1514

Differences between years in emissions should be explained and the possible reasons for these differences
documented as much as possible.

1515

4.6

FUTURE METHODOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT

1516

4.6.1

C export

1517
1518
1519
1520
1521
1522
1523

The amount of dissolved and particulate carbon potentially available for export is highly variable among coastal
wetlands, depending on a large number of factors such as: net primary productivity, tidal range, the ratio of
wetland to watershed area, lateral trapping of tidal water, the presence of high salinity plugs in the tropical dry
season, total wetland area, frequency of storms, amount of precipitation, and volume of water exchange Eachecosystem is unique; some wetlands export DOC but import POC, others import DOC and POC but export DIC,
while other systems import or export all forms of dissolved and particulate carbon. The direction of net exchange
also usually varies within the same estuary with change in season.

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1525
1526
1527
1528
1529
1530
1531
1532
1533

Accurate estimation of tidal exchange in a particular wetland is not a straightforward process. Many workers
have provided rough estimates by multiplying carbon concentrations suspended in wetland creeks and waterways
by the tidal range multiplied by the creek/waterway cross-sectional area. Estimates derived from such simple
calculations are invalid and misleading for a number of reasons, including the inherent assumption that there aredifferences in carbon concentrations between ebb and flood tide stages and that the tidal prism is symmetrical. In
fact, carbon concentrations in many wetland waters do not show significant differences between tides. Further,tides in most wetlands are asymmetrical, characterized by a pronounced asymmetry between ebb and flood tides
with the ebb most often being of shorter duration but with stronger current velocity than the flood tide. Also,
tidal velocities vary across a waterway with faster surface current velocities mid-stream than those just above thecreekbed or proximal to the wetland.

1534
1535
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1540
1541
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1544

For these reasons, it is not possible to make simple generalizations regarding total carbon export from mangroves,seagrasses or tidal marshes and, in fact, comparatively few such measurements have been made properly. The
correct method would be to measure water volume and velocity over entire tidal cycles over several seasons inrelation to position in the water-column to derive an overall annual estimate of average water flow by volume.
This involves fairly complex instrument measurements and sophisticated mathematical modelling as well as
extensive and expensive repetitive measurements of dissolved and particulate carbon concentrations. For
mangroves, net exchange of carbon has been properly measured in only twelve systems, with no clear exchange
patterns among locations, although it does appear that most mangroves export POC as litter but with rates
ranging widely from 0.1-27.7mol C m-2yr-1(Alongi, 2009). This export equates globally to only about 10% of
total carbon fixed by trees; respiration to the atmosphere is by far the largest loss of C to the atmosphere. Suchappears to be the case for tidal marshes (Chmura et al., 1993) and subtidal seagrass beds (Fourqurean et al., 2012)

1545
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References

1547

Aber JS, F Pavri, S. Aber. 2012 Wetland Environments: A Global Perspective. Wiley-Blackwell.

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Abohassan, R.A.A., C.A. Okia, J.G. Agea, J.M. Kimondo and M.M. McDonald, 2012. Perennial Biomass
Production in Arid Mangrove Systems on the Red Sea Coast of Saudi Arabia, Environmental Research
Journal 6(1), pp. 22-31.

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Adame, M. F., Reef, R., Herrera-Silveira, J. A., and Lovelock, C. E. (2012). Sensitivity of dissolved organiccarbon exchange and sediment bacteria to water quality in mangrove forests. Hydrobiologia, 691:239–253.

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1554

Adams, C.A., Andrews, J.E., Jickells, T. (2011). Nitrous oxide and methane fluxes vs. carbon, nitrogen andphosphorous burial in new intertidal and saltmarsh sediments. Science of the Total Environment (in press)

1555
1556

Agostini, S., Pergent, G., & Marchand, B. (2003). Growth and primary production of Cymodocea nodosa in acoastal lagoon. Aquatic botany, 76(3), 185-193.

1557
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1559

Aioi, K. (1980). Seasonal change in the standing crop of eelgrass (Zostera marina L.) in Odawa Bay, central
Japan.
Aquat. Bot. 8: 343-354.

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Aioi, K., & Pollard, P. C. (1993). Biomass, leaf growth and loss rate of the seagrass Syringodium isoetifolium on
Dravuni Island, Fiji. Aquatic botany, 46(3), 283-292.

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Aioi, K., Mukai, H., Koike, I., Ohtsu, M., & Hattori, A. (1981). Growth and organic production of eelgrass(Zostera marina L.) in temperate waters of the pacific coast of Japan II. Growth analysis in winter. Aquatic
Botany, 10, 175-182.

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Ajonina, G. N. 2008. Inventory and M odelling M angrove Forest Stand Dynamics Following Different Levelsof Wood Exploitation Pressures in the Douala-Edea Atlantic Coast of Cameroon, Central Africa (Doctoral
dissertation, Faculty of Forest and Environmental Sciences, Albert-Ludwigs-Universität).

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Alberts, J. J., Filip, Z., Price, M. T., Williams, D. J., & Williams, M. C. 1988. Elemental composition, stablecarbon isotope ratios and spectrophotometric properties of humic substances occurring in a salt marsh
estuary. Organic geochemistry, 12(5), 455-467.

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Allen, J. A., Ewel, K. C., Keeland, B. D., Tara, T., & Smith, T. J. 2000. Downed wood in Micronesian mangrove
forests. Wetlands, 20(1), 169-176.

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Allen D.E., Dalal R.C., Rennenberg H., Meyer R.L., Reeves S. and Schmidt S. 2007. Spatial and temporalvariation of nitrous oxide and methane flux between subtropical mangrove soils and the atmosphere. Soil
Biology and Biochemistry 39: 622–631.

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1577

Allen, D., Dalal, RC, Rennenberg, H, Schmidt, S. 2011. Seasonal variation in nitrous oxide and methane
emissions from subtropical estuary and coastal mangrove sediments, Australia. Plant Biology 13: 126-133.

1578

Alongi, DM. 2010. The Energetics of Mangrove Forests. Springer Science.

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1580

Alongi, D.M. 2011. Early growth responses of mangroves to different levels of nitrogen and phosphorus supply.
Journal of Experimental Marine Biology & Ecology 397: 85-93.

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Alongi, DM, BF Clough, P. Dixon, F Tirendi. 2003. Nutrient partitioning and storage in arid-zone forests of themangroves Rhizophora stylosa and Avicennia marina. Trees 17: 51-60.

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Alongi, D. M., Sasekumar A, Chong CV, Pfizner J, Trott LA, Tirendi F, Dixon P, Brunskill GJ (2004). Sedimentaccumulation and organic material flux in a managed mangrove ecosystem: estimates of land-oceanatmosphere exchange in peninsular Malaysia. Mar Geol, 208: 383-402.

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2502
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Zainal A.J.M., Dalby D.H. and Robinson, I.S., 1993. Monitoring marine ecological changes on the east coast of
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2504
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Zieman, J., Fourqurean, J. W., & Iverson, R. L. (1989). Distribution, abundance and productivity of seagrasses
and macroalgae in Florida Bay. Bulletin of Marine Science, 44(1), 292-311.

2508
2509
2510

Zhang, J.P., Shen, C-D., Ren, H., Wang, J., Han, W-D. 2012. Estimating change in sedimentary organic carbon
content during mangrove restoration in southern China using carbon isotopic measurements. Pedosphere
22:58-66.

2511
2512

Zhang, Y., Huang, G., Wang, W., Chen, L., and Lin, G., (2012). Interactions between mangroves and exotic
Spartina in an anthropogenically disturbed estuary in southern China, Ecology, 93(3), 588–597.

2513
2514
2515
2516

ANNEX 4.1 PERCENT REFRACTORY CARBON

2517
2518
2519

Percent refractory carbon in organic/mineral soils were estimated for mangrove soils based on either the amountof phenolic compounds/lignins in soils or % TOC in mangrove soils deeper than 1 m if there was no further
decline in TOC concentration (Table 4.3).
2520

PERCENT REFRACTORY CARBON APPLIED TO ESTIMATE % C OXIDATION FOR MANGROVE SOILS (% BY SOIL
DRY WEIGHT)
2521
Mean

3.98

2522

Median

3.4

2523

N

16

2524

Prasad & Ramanathan 2009; Marchand et al. 2003;Dittmar & Lara 2001; Koch et al.2011; Ranjan et al.,2010; Marchand2525
et al. 2005), which is similar to that in tidal marshes (Filipet al. 1988; Alberts et al., 1988; Ramesh et al. 2008)

2526
2527
2528
2529

ANNEX 4.2 ADDITIONAL SOURCES FOR ACTIVITY DATA

2530
2531
2532
2533
2534
2535
2536

The following web sources provide links to domestic and international data sources pertaining to coastal wetland
areas and other activity data for management activities contained in this chapter. Other web sources are provided
in the text of the chapter in the respective activity data sections. Resources providing recent trends in coastal
wetland area can help countries understand circumstances of those trends and what management activities
contribute
to
them
(FAO
2007;
Green
and
Short
2003
http://archive.org/stream/worldatlasofseag03gree#page/n5/mode/2up;
Sifleet
et
al.
2011,
http://nicholasinstitute.duke.edu/publications/; Fatoyinbo & Simard 2013)

2537
2538

Mangroves
Mangrove.org: http://mangrove.org/

2539

Mangrove Action Project: http://www.mangroveactionproject.org/

2540

Mangrove, National Geographic Magazine: http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2007/02/mangroves/warne-text

2541

FAO Mangrove Management: http://www.fao.org/forestry/mangrove/en/

2542

USGS National Wetlands Research Center: http://www.nwrc.usgs.gov/index.html

2543

World Atlas of Mangrove: http://www.fao.org/forestry/20067/en/

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2544
2545

World
Distribution
of
Coral
Reefs
wcmc.org/marine/data/coral_mangrove/marine.maps.main.html

andMangroves:

http://www.unep-

2546

International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems: http://www.mangrove.or.jp/

2547

Global Mangrove Database & Information System: http://www.glomis.com/

2548

The UNESCO Mangrove Programme: http://www.unesco.org/csi/intro/mangrove.htm

2549

Mangrove and the Ramsar Convention: http://www.ramsar.org/types_mangroves.htm

2550

USGS Global Mangrove Project http://lca.usgs.gov/lca/globalmangrove/index.php

2551
2552

http://data.unep-wcmc.org/

2553
2554

Global distribution of seagrasses (V2.0, 2005) prepared by UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre(UNEP-WCMC) in collaboration with Dr. Frederick T. Short.

2555
2556

Global distribution of Mangroves (V3.0, 1997) compiled by UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre(UNEP-WCMC) in collaboration with the International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems (ISME).

Mangroves, tidal marshes and seagrass meadows

2557
2558
2559
2560

ANNEX 4.3 ACCURATE ESTIMATION OF ABOVEGROUND MANGROVEBIOMASS: HIGHER TIER METHODOLOGY

2561
2562
2563
2564
2565
2566
2567

Because of field conditions and heavy weight of wood, an accurate survey of a mangrove forest is difficult andtime-consuming. Allometric methods (Soares and Schaeffer-Novelli, 2005; Komiyama et al., 2008) estimate thewhole or partial weight of a tree from measurable tree dimensions, notably trunk diameter and height, using
allometric relations developed from empirical measurement of weight of individual tree components (leaves,branches, stem). Use of allometric equations is favored because it is non-destructive and is therefore useful for
estimating temporal changes in forest biomass by means of subsequent stem diameter measurements oversubsequent years.

2568
2569
2570
2571
2572
2573

Up until recently, the major drawback of this method has been the site- and species-specific differences inallometric relations, necessitating the use of different allometric equations for different sites (e.g., Smith andWhelan, 2005) and, at a minimum, different species. However, a number of workers, using global datasets, havedeveloped a common allometric equation applicable for all tropical tree species, with the most applicable
equations for aboveground biomass being those developed for all tropical trees by Chave et al. (2005) and for all
mangrove species by Komiyama et al. (2005):

2574

Wtop = 0.168pDBH2.47 (Chave et al. 2005)

2575

Wtop = 0.251pD2.46 (Komiyama et al. 2005)

2576
2577
2578
2579
2580
2581
2582

where Wtop = aboveground tree weight in kg DW; D = tree diameter; DBH = diameter-at-breast height. The
relative error of each equation varies among species, but is typically within the range of -10% to +10%. There
are, of course, arguments to be made that empirical measurements should be made in all mangrove forests,
considering the significant allometric differences between species and for the same species at different locations(Smith and Whelan, 2005; Soares and Schaeffler-Novelli, 2005). However, this idea is impractical for inventory
compliers; a relative error of ± 10% is acceptable being within the range of error for allometric relations within aforest where biomass has been weighted.

2583
2584
2585
2586

Comparing the two equations, the Chave estimation gives lower aboveground weight estimates than that of the
Komiyama equation. Presuming that a complete census of all trees, with species identified, and their diameter
have been undertaken from replicate plots within a given forest, these numbers can then be used in either
equation to derive individual tree weight.

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