Comparing Prices andCosts of Solar PV in
Japan and Germany
The Reasons Why Solar PV is more
Expensive in Japan
RENEWABLE ENERGY INSTITUTE
March 2016

Renewable Energy Institute:Renewable Energy Institute, REI (formerly called Japan Renewable Energy Foundation,
JREF) is a non-profit organization which aims to build a sustainable, rich society based on
renewable energy. It was established in August 2011, in the aftermath of the Fukushima
Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant accident, by its founder Mr. Masayoshi Son, Chairman & CEO
of SoftBank Corp., with his own private resources. The institute is engaged in activities suchas; research-based analyses on renewable energy, policy recommendations, building aplatform for discussions among stakeholders, and facilitating knowledge exchange and joint
action with international and domestic partners.

Authors:
Keiji Kimura, Senior Researcher
Romain Zissler, Researcher

Renewable Energy Institute, Comparing Prices and Costs of Solar PV in Japan and Germany- The Reasons Why Solar PV is more Expensive in Japan – (Tokyo: REI, 2016), 25 pp.
[Translated from Japanese]
Copyright © 2016 Renewable Energy Institutewww.renewable-ei.org/en/
Disclaimer: Although the information given in this report is the best available to the authors at
the time, REI cannot be held liable for its accuracy and correctness.

Acknowledgments

This study was made possible thanks to the cooperation of 125 solar PV distributors/installers
who participated in our questionnaire survey, and 10 companies who agreed to be directlyinterviewed, despite their busy schedules. We would like to express our deep appreciation tothese companies for their cooperation in the study. However, we are not able to list the namesof individual companies, as they responded on condition of anonymity, and their responses
included cost data and other sensitive information such as that related to know-how.
We also received highly valuable information and hints from Tobias Kelm (Zentrum fürSonnenenergie- und Wasserstoff-Forschung Baden-Württemberg: ZSW), Bernhard Brand(Wuppertal Institute for Climate, Environment and Energy), Tobias Rothacher (Germany
Trade and Invest), and Christoph Kost (Fraunhofer-Institut für Solare Energiesysteme ISE),
concerning technical and economic aspects of solar PV systems in Germany. We would like toexpress our heartfelt gratitude to them for their collaboration.

Contents
1

2

3

Background, Purpose, and Methods of the Study .....................................................................1
1.1

Background and purpose of the study...................................................................................1

1.2

Methods of the study ............................................................................................................3

System Prices in Japan and Germany ........................................................................................5
2.1

Comparison of system prices ................................................................................................5

2.2

Cost breakdown of system prices .........................................................................................5

Comparison of Solar PV Module Costs......................................................................................9
3.1

Price disparity of modules produced by foreign companies between Japan and overseas ...9

3.2

Japanese-produced module costs ........................................................................................10

4. Comparison of Construction Costs and Other Expenses .......................................................13
4.1

Comparison of construction industry labor costs................................................................13

4.2

Construction periods ...........................................................................................................14

4.3

Factors for construction period disparity ............................................................................15

5. Discussion and Future Issues ....................................................................................................18

List of Figures
Figure 1 Changes in global cumulative solar PV installed capacity .................................. 1
Figure 2 Price of residential solar PV systems (below 10 kW).......................................... 2
Figure 3 Solar system prices around the world (USD/W; 2014 figures) ........................... 2
Figure 4 Solar PV system prices in Japan and Germany: Median values (2014) .............. 5
Figure 5 Comparison of costs of solar PV systems in Japan and Germany by elements(10 kW or more and less than 50 kW)........................................................................ 6
Figure 6 Comparison of costs of solar PV systems in Japan and Germany by elements(50 kW or more and less than 500 kW)...................................................................... 7
Figure 7 Module cost variation between Japan and Germany by module manufacturer ... 9
Figure 8 Median module costs in Japan by module manufacturers’ country/region ........ 11
Figure 9 Module share in Japan by module manufacturers’ country/region .................... 11
Figure 10 Median module sosts in Germany by module manufacturers’ country/region 12
Figure 11 Module share in Germany by module manufacturers’ country/region ............ 12
Figure 12 Construction periods of 50 kW solar PV systems (Japanese Case) ................. 14
Figure 13 Examples of foundation and mounting systems in Japan and Germany ......... 16
List of Tables
Table 1 Number of data values for price and cost .............................................................. 4
Table 2 Construction wages as of early 2015 (USD per hour) ......................................... 14
Table 3 Standard construction periods in Germany ......................................................... 15
Table 4 Standard construction period for 50 kW systems with screw pile driving method.................................................................................................................................. 15

Executive Summary

There is a considerable difference in the price of solar PV systems among the advanced
industrialized nations where deployment of solar PV is increasing. In particular, the price of
solar PV systems in Japan is relatively high compared to global standards. Given this situation,
and with the aim to revise the price structure of solar PV systems in Japan, we compare theprice of solar PV systems in Japan with that in Germany, where the price of solar PV has
come down, and explain the cost difference for each item included in the system price. Then,
we analyze the elements in which the most significant differences were found between Japan
and Germany.
The results of our analysis are described below.
When we compared median prices of solar PV systems installed in 2014, system prices were
almost twice as high in Japan than in Germany. This trend was common across systems ofdifferent scales, from small to large.
Cost analysis of each element in the system price revealed that the element creating the mostsignificant cost difference between Japan and Germany was “construction costs and otherexpenses.” Difference in module cost was the element with the second largest impact.
Two factors were suggested to contribute to the difference in module costs in Japan andGermany. First, the modules produced by overseas manufacturers may be sold at slightly
higher prices in Japan than in Germany. This was implied in the 2013 cost data for modules.
However, the price gap between domestic and foreign products was narrowing in 2014.
Second, the cost of modules produced by Japanese manufacturers is relatively high, and they
are the ones widely selected in Japan. We found that this was the factor raising module costs
in Japan as a whole.
Next, we looked into factors causing a considerable difference in construction expenses inJapan and Germany. Results revealed that installation time for solar PV systems differedconsiderably between Japan and Germany. It was suggested that installation time is at least
twice as long in Japan than in Germany, and is seven times as long at the maximum.
In Germany, mounting system designs as well as the hardware used for installation are
optimized to keep the installation time shorter, and this was suggested as one of the factors
contributing to the difference in installation time. Difference in skills of constructors may also
affect the installation time.
The key to revising the high-cost structure of Japanese modules is to reduce the cost of
modules produced by Japanese manufacturers. Lowering of cost is important for Japanesemanufacturers as well, for them to expand to overseas markets. Making installation timeshorter is the key to reducing construction expenses. Taking into account the different naturalenvironment in Japan and Germany, Japanese manufacturers are expected to absorb theGerman know-how concerning design and installation, and to develop solar PV mounting
systems and installation methods that allow drastic reduction in installation time, while
retaining the adequate strength required under the natural environmental conditions in Japan.

1

Background, Purpose, and Methods of the Study

1.1

Background and purpose of the study

Solar PV is being rapidly deployed across the world. According to IEA-PVPS (2015), at least
approximately 40 GW of solar PV capacity was installed globally in 2014 alone, and the total
installed capacity of solar PV reached 177 GW by the end of 2014. The figure has increased
by eight fold in just five years from 2009 (cumulative installed capacity in 2009: 23 GW)(Figure 1). Deployment of solar PV has accelerated in Japan as well, after the introduction of
the Feed-in Tariff system (hereinafter referred to as FIT) in July 2012, and the cumulative
installed capacity of solar PV has reached 23 GW by the end of 2014.
200
180
160

GW

140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
1992

1994

1996

1998

2000

2002

2004

2006

2008

2010

2012

2014

Figure 1 Changes in global cumulative solar PV installed capacity
Source: Based on IEA-PVPS (2015)

System prices are declining rapidly, along with the wide deployment of solar PV as describedabove. Figure 2 shows the price of residential solar PV systems in Germany, the US, and Italy,
where the level of solar PV installed capacity is high compared to other countries in the world.
The solar PV system price is the price faced by final purchasers, and includes: procurement
costs of structural components required for the system, such as the PV module (hereinafterreferred to as “module”), inverter, and mounting system; design expenses and construction
expenses required for setting up the system; and grid connection fees (but excluding
value-added tax and sales tax). Decline in system prices is significant in European countries
like Italy and Germany, in particular. The price in Italy, which was $8.9/W in 2007, dropped
to as low as $2.2/W in 2014, amounting to a 75% decline. In Germany, the figure dropped
from $6.6/W in 2007 to $2.1/W in 2014, recording a decline of 68%.

1

10
9
8

USD/Watt

7
6

ドイツ
Germany

5

アメリカ
US

4

Italy
イタリア

3
2
1
0
2007
2007年

2009
2009年

2011
2011年

2013
2013年

Figure 2 Price of residential solar PV systems (below 10 kW)
Source: Based on IEA-PVPS (2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015)
Note: It should be noted that prices are in nominal terms, as US dollar inflation rate is not factored in.

Meanwhile, the price of solar PV systems in Japan is said to be relatively high compared to
global standards. According to IEA-PVPS (2015), the solar PV system price in Japan in 2014
was $3.5/W for residential solar PV and $2.5/W for ground-mounted PV. These prices arelower compared to the price of residential solar PV in the US, but higher than the prices in
Europe and Australia. Notably, the price of residential solar PV and ground-mounted PV areabout 60% and 90% higher than those in Germany, where the deployment of solar PV is
increasingly widespread. As we have seen above, there is a considerable disparity in solar PV
system prices among Australia, Germany, Japan, and the US, although they are all advanced
industrialized nations where deployment of solar PV is increasing.

USD/W

Residential
住宅用Commercial
商業用

Ground-mounted
地上設置

5.0
4.5
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
オーストラリア
Australia

ドイツ
Germany

イタリア
Italy

日本
Japan

アメリカ
US

Figure 3 Solar system prices around the world (USD/W; 2014 figures)
Source: Based on IEA-PVPS (2015)
Note: Where there is a range in price, the value represents the average calculated from minimum andmaximum values.

2Many studies focusing on factors contributing to these price disparities have been conductedin the US, where the price of residential solar PV systems is known to be particularly high.
For example, a study conducted by the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, funded by
the Solar Energy Technologies Program of the U.S. Department of Energy, focuses on the
disparities of residential solar system prices in Germany and the US (Seel, et al, 2014). This
study identifies the following causes that contribute to the high price of residential solar PV
systems in the US. First, customer acquisition costs are high. 1 Customer acquisition costs
amounted to $69/kW in the US (in 2010), while the figure was only $7/kW in Germany (in2011), about one-tenth of the US figure. Second, the installation time is longer. It takes 75
person-hours in the US to install one system, whereas it takes only 39 person-hours inGermany. This difference in installation time is mentioned in a similar study by the Rocky
Mountain Institute as well (Morris, et al, 2013). Third, it has been pointed out that costs
related to licensing of construction and installation, grid access procedures, and powerpurchase agreements are higher in the US.
Comparative studies of Japan and the US are also available. The National Renewable Energy
Laboratory (NREL) has conducted a study which looks into price disparities of residential
solar PV and small commercial solar PV (Freidman, et al, 2014). According to this study,
hardware costs (module cost in particular) are higher in Japan, and other costs are lower inJapan than in the US. The study suggests that this may be related to the way distributors ofresidential solar PV and small commercial solar PV sell the products. The study points outthat the lower customer acquisition costs in Japan compared to the US is one reason why costs
other than hardware costs are lower in Japan. This is due to the way distributors in Japan sellsolar PV to customers; they cross-sell PV to customers purchasing other products and services
such as appliances, and new construction and renovations of home.
On the other hand, the cost of residential solar PV module, which is a component of hardware
costs, is as much as 60% higher in Japan than in the US. The study attributes this to the twotiered wholesale distribution system of PV modules in Japan. Large distributors, trading
companies, and large-scale housing manufacturers lie between PV module manufacturers anddistributors/installers, which may be generating extra fees and margins.
As described above, many analyses have been conducted on solar PV prices and costs, mainlyin the US. Studies point out that prices in Japan are also high compared to other countries, asmentioned above. With the aim to revise the price structure of solar PV in Japan, this study
compares the price of solar PV systems in Japan with that in Germany, where the price of
solar PV has come down, and reveals the cost difference for each item included in the systemprice. Then, we analyze the elements in which the most significant difference is foundbetween Japan and Germany. Since a prior study was conducted by Freidman, et al. (2014) on
the price of residential solar PV below 10 kW, in this study report we analyze the price andcost of non-residential solar PV of 10 kW or more.
1.2

Methods of the study

In this study, we collected information on price, cost, installation time, and other details
through questionnaire survey of solar PV system distributors/installers and through othermeans. We also conducted direct interviews of 10 companies in total, including PV
1 Customer acquisition costs include general advertising expenses, business telephone calls, direct solicitation and related

travel time and associated costs, as well as costs related to designing, preparation of cost estimates, and contract
negotiation.

3

manufacturers, solar PV system distributors/installers, and mounting system manufacturers(Box). In addition, we conducted direct interviews of solar PV researchers and experts
involved in the industry in Germany, to learn about technical trends and economics of solar
PV in Germany.
Price and cost data of solar PV in Japan were compiled from the questionnaire survey(conducted in November 2014), which mainly targeted solar PV installers (hereinafterreferred to as REI data). 2 We sent out the questionnaire to 888 companies and received 125
valid responses. There were 120 data values for price and cost of solar PV of 10 kW or more
for systems which started operation between January 1 and October 30, 2014 (Table 1). The
price and cost data of Germany are from EuPD Research (2015), referred to as EuPD data
hereafter. The number of data values for 2014 was 1406, among which 1209 were price andcost data for solar PV less than 10 kW. The number of data values for solar PV of 10 kW or
more was 197, which bears comparison with the number in REI data.
Table 1 Number of data values for price and cost
GermanyJapan
Category of scale(EuPD)(REI)
10 kW or more and less than 50 kW
186
62
50 kW or more and less than 500 kW
1136
500 kW or more and less than 2,000 kW
0192,000 kW or more
03
Box: Companies involved in direct interviews• Company A: Japanese PV module manufacturer• Company B: Foreign PV module manufacturer (Foreign-owned)• Company C: Mounting system manufacturer (Foreign-owned)• Company D: Engineering, Procurement, and Construction (EPC)
provider for solar PV (Foreign-owned)• Company E: Japanese solar PV system distributor• Company F: Japanese solar PV distributor/installer• Company G: Japanese solar PV distributor/installer• Company H: Japanese solar PV distributor/installer• Company I: Foreign PV module importer• Company J: Japanese solar PV power producer

2

Refer to Japan Renewable Energy Foundation (2015) for details of the questionnaire survey.

4

2

System Prices in Japan and Germany

2.1

Comparison of system prices

When comparing median prices 3 of solar PV systems installed in 2014 based on EuPD data
and REI data, the price disparity was close to two-fold, as shown in Figure 4. Morespecifically, the price for facilities of 10 kW or more and less than 50 kW was approximately
350 yen/W in Japan, compared to about 190 yen/W in Germany. Similar price disparities ofabout two-fold was seen in relatively larger, high voltage facilities (50 kW or more and lessthan 500 kW) as well. While no data are available in EuPD data for facilities of 500 kW or
more, Kelm et al. (2014) indicates that the price of 5,000 kW ground-mounted solar PV
systems was 980 Euro/kW (138 yen/W) in 2014 (Kelm, et al, 2014, p. 25). This is about half
the price of facilities of 1,000 kW or more in Japan, which is 286 yen/W. 4
Two points are evident from the above: First, the price of solar PV systems is around twice ashigh in Japan than in Germany; and second, the degree of price disparities is similar acrossdifferent scales.
Germany
400

346

350

310

JPY/W

300
250
200

188

150

Japan

282

166

100
50
0

10〜50kW50〜500kW

500〜2000ｋW

Figure 4 Solar PV system prices in Japan and Germany: Median values (2014)
Note: Data for Japan are based on REI (2015), and data for Germany are based on EuPD (2015). Prices areconverted using the average foreign exchange rate in 2014, which was 140.42 yen to the Euro(“Exchange Quotations - Yearly Averages -,” Mitsubishi UFJ Research and Consulting, available at
http://www.murc-kawasesouba.jp/fx/year_average.php. The rate is calculated by taking the averageof the yearly-average TTS and the yearly-average TTB).

2.2

Cost breakdown of system prices

Next, we compare each cost element included in system prices to see the factors causing large
disparities in solar PV system prices in Germany and Japan. Cost elements were grouped in
the following five categories for the purpose of comparison: First are the costs for the maintypes of hardware used in solar PV systems, such as (i) module, (ii) inverter, and (iii)
3 For information, the average values presented by the Agency for Natural Resources and Energy, Ministry of Economy,

Trade and Industry (2015), which represent average values of each quarter in 2014, were: 322 to 362 yen/W for facilities of
10 kW or more and less than 50 kW; 319 to 325 yen/W for facilities of 50 kW or more and less than 500 kW; and 284 to
302 yen/W for facilities of 500 kW or more and less than 1,000 kW. REI data do not differ substantially from METI data.
4 The average system price of projects that started operation between October and December 2014, according to the Agency
for Natural Resources and Energy, METI (2015).

5

mounting system; the next is (iv) grid connection fees to get connected to the electric powersystem; and finally (v) construction costs and other expenses for setting up the power plant.
The other expenses include design expenses for the power plant, costs incurred by
distributors/installers, including business expenses, materials handling costs, and otherexpenses, and may also include profits of distributors/installers. Here, hardware costs mean
costs incurred by solar installers to procure the hardware. In other words, it must be noted thatthe term cost does not mean manufacturing cost here. It must also be noted that median valueof the data is compared for each expenditure item in the analysis below.
When cost elements were compared for facilities of different scales, similar trends were seen
for both low voltage facilities of 10 kW or more and less than 50 kW (Figure 5) and highvoltage facilities of 50 kW or more and less than 500 kW (Figure 6). The most significant
difference between Japan and Germany was found in the cost element of “construction costs
and other expenses.” In the case of facilities of 10 kW or more and less than 50 kW,
construction costs and other expenses in Japan were 129 yen/W (out of which construction
expenses alone accounted for 63 yen/W). In Germany, on the other hand, “construction costs
and other expenses” were 32 yen/W, which was as much as 97 yen/W cheaper, making thiscost equivalent to about a quarter that in Japan.

Figure 5 Comparison of costs of solar PV systems in Japan and Germany by elements(10 kW or more and less than 50 kW)
Source: Data for Japan are based on REI (2015), and data for Germany are based on EuPD (2015)

6

Figure 6 Comparison of costs of solar PV systems in Japan and Germany by elements(50 kW or more and less than 500 kW)
Source: Data for Japan are based on REI (2015), and data for Germany are based on EuPD (2015)

Hardware costs, such as costs of module and inverter, were also different in Japan andGermany. For facilities of 10 kW or more and less than 50 kW, in particular, the difference ofmodule cost was quite large, with the cost in Japan being 31 yen/W higher than in Germany.
This difference makes the solar PV system price approximately 10% higher in Japan than inGermany, which is by no means a small difference. In facilities of 50 kW or more and lessthan 500 kW, it is the costs of inverter and mounting system, not the cost of module, that drive
the overall cost higher; the cost of a inverter is 24 yen/W higher and the cost of a mounting
system is 26 yen/W higher in Japan.
It must be noted, however, that mounting system cost differs depending on whether thesystem is rooftop or ground-mounted. In general, rooftop systems require less supporting
materials, which makes mounting system cost lower. If the facilities installed in Germany
were dominated by rooftop systems, then the mounting system cost would be low, but data
could not be separated by type due to data constraints. REI data, on the other hand, separates
data of rooftop and ground-mounted systems. In Japan, the mounting system cost for rooftop
systems is 21 yen/W, whereas the mounting system cost for ground-mounted systems is 41
yen/W, indicating, as expected, that the latter is close to twice as expensive (figures are bothfor facilities of 50 kW or more and less than 500 kW). Even when these differences are taken
into consideration, the mounting system cost in Germany (10 yen/W) is kept at half theamount of the mounting system cost for rooftop systems in Japan.
Grid connection fees are almost the same in Japan and Germany; in fact, they are cheaper inJapan. Grid connection fee for low voltage facilities of 10 kW or more and less than 50 kW is
10 yen/W in Germany, whereas it is 7 yen/W in Japan, which is 30% lower. Grid connection
fee for facilities of 50 kW or more and less than 500 kW is 8 yen/W in Germany, whereas it is7

4 yen/kW in Japan, which is about half the amount in Germany.
To summarize, we compared solar PV system prices in Japan and Germany by cost elements.
From the analysis, it has been revealed that the significant disparities in system prices ofJapan and Germany (system price is as much as twice as high in Japan), can be mainly
attributed to “construction costs and other expenses,” while the disparities in hardware costs,
such as PV module cost, also contribute to a certain extent. Among the hardware costs, thelargest cost element is the module, which means that the cost difference of a module also hasa considerable impact on the system price. In view of the above findings, we will look into
further details concerning the factors that make construction costs and other expenses as well
as module cost so different between Japan and Germany.

83Comparison of Solar PV Module Costs

Solar PV modules make up a major part of a solar energy system’s price. Of the system price,
modules account for 30-40% in Japan and 50% in Germany. For this reason, a large disparity
in module costs has a significant influence on the total price of the system. As indicated above,
module costs in Japan in 2014 were approximately 20% higher compared to Germany; wepresume that two factors contributed to generate this difference. The first factor is pricedisparity between domestic and foreign markets. Even for the same manufacturer’s products,
selling prices may vary between the Japanese and overseas markets; prices may have been set
slightly higher in Japan. The second factor is that modules made by Japanese manufacturers
have a higher share in the Japanese market. This is because consumers in Japan preferhigher-priced modules produced by Japanese companies to low-priced modules produced byforeign companies. We will elaborate on these two points below.
3.1

Price disparity of modules produced by foreign companies between Japan andoverseas

First, we will examine whether there was any difference in cost between Japan and Germany
even for the same manufacturers’ products. Although REI data and EuPD data are not strictly
comparable because the data were not collected using the same method, we can at least
capture the overall picture of the trend. Module costs in this context refer not to wholesale
price but to all module-related costs that are covered by solar PV suppliers and installers.
They include shipping costs, temporary storage costs, and other costs, in addition to wholesale
price. In the case of purchasing modules through wholesalers or trading companies, module
costs would also include costs, profits, and miscellaneous costs.
With regard to the module cost difference between Japan and Germany, we will look at two
foreign manufacturers, Company α and Company β. For both manufacturers, the costs werehigher in Japan than in Germany (Figure 7). This cost difference was larger in 2013 andreduced in 2014. In the case of foreign manufacturer α, the cost difference between Japan andGermany was more evident in 2013 and the costs were approximately the same in 2014. In thecase of foreign manufacturer β, despite the reduced difference in 2014, there still remained an
approximate 15% difference in cost between Japan and Germany.
Costs in Germany
ドイツでのコスト

Costs
in Japan
日本でのコスト

1.4
1.2
USD/W

1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
2013年

2014年

2013年

2014年

2013

2014

2013

2014

海外メーカーα

海外メーカーβForeign manufacturer α

Foreign manufacturer β

Figure 7 Module cost variation between Japan and Germany by module manufacturer
Source: Created based on REI (2015) for Japan’s data and EuPD (2015) for Germany’s data.

9

Reports have revealed that costs and prices vary by country or region even for the same
manufacturers’ products. Munsell (2015) pointed out regional disparity in PV module prices 5in the world. Prices of modules produced by Chinese major manufacturers were 0.56-0.58
USD/W in Chile, China, and India whilst the prices were 0.65 USD/W in Europe and 0.67
USD/W in Japan. The world’s highest-priced market was the United States, at 0.72 USD/W.
We speculate that the reasons behind the high module prices in the United States wereanti-dumping and countervailing duties imposed on solar cells 6 produced by Chinese
manufacturers. In Europe, prices gradually fell because minimum prices were set for
Chinese-produced modules.
In Japan, although no duties were imposed on foreign-produced modules and no influenceswere received from such duties, module prices were approximately the same as those inEurope. According to Munsell (2015), Japan was the world’s highest priced region in 2013
but depreciation of the Japanese yen and increased market competition dropped module prices
down to the same level as in Europe in 2014. We can presume that price disparity of modules
produced by foreign manufacturers will steadily be reduced in the future, driven by a drop inpurchase prices under the Feed-in Tariff system and depreciation of the Japanese yen. Because,
foreign module manufacturers could not sell their modules at higher prices (in USD) in theJapanese solar PV market under this circumstance.
3.2

Costs of module produced by Japanese manufacturers

Next, we will examine modules produced by Japanese manufacturers. Based on the REI data,
in Figure 8 we compared median module costs of plants (less than 500 kW) that began
operation between January and October 2014. This shows that module costs ofChinese/Taiwanese manufacturers and German manufacturers were approximately 80 yen/Wand module costs of North American manufacturers and Korean manufacturers were between
110 yen/W and 120 yen/W. In comparison, we found that modules produced by Japanesemanufacturers are relatively expensive, 145 yen/W. This shows that modules produced by
Japanese manufacturers were approximately 45% higher in cost compared to modules
produced by German manufactuers.

5 Price in this context refers to delivered module price, which is the sum of FOB price, shipping costs, insurance, and custom

duties.
6 Investigations by the United States found that Chinese/Taiwanese solar cell module manufacturers were receiving asignificant amount of dumping margins from the government. This resulted in imposition of anti-dumping andcountervailing duties effective from the end of 2012.

10

160
140

JPY/W

120
100
80
60
40
20
0

Chinese/Taiwanesecompanies

Germancompanies

North
Americancompanies

Koreancompanies

Japanesecompanies

Figure 8 Median module costs in Japan by module manufacturers’ country/region
Note: Comparison conducted on plants producing less than 500 kW that began operation between January and October
2014 based on the REI data. Note that the cost information of the companies with small market share is based on asmall number of samples.

Chinese/Taiwanesecompanies
22%
Japanesecompanies
71%

Germancompanies
2%
North
Americancompanies
3%
Koreancompanies
2%

Figure 9 Module share in Japan by module manufacturers’ country/region
Note: Comparison conducted on plants producing less than 500 kW plants began operation between January and October
2014 based on the REI data.

By using the REI data, we compared the ratio of modules used in less than 500 kW plants by
manufacturing companies’ country and region (Figure 9). Of all plant capacities examined in
the survey, 71% used modules produced by Japanese manufacturers. This finding proves thatJapanese-produced modules are widely used in Japan 7. This implies that solar PV utilities inJapan tend to introduce modules produced by Japanese manufacturers despite them being
comparatively more expensive.
7 Shipment statistics released by Japan Photovoltaic Energy Association (JPEA) reported that modules produced by Japanesemanufacturers accounted for 72% of domestic module shipments from January to September 2014. Given this fact, themarket share the REI data demonstrated is not in any way inconsistent with the overall data of Japan.

11

Next, we will analyze module costs in Germany. By using the EuPD database, we compared
median module costs by manufacturers’ country and region in the same manner as theJapanese analysis. In Germany, module costs other than those produced by North Americancompanies were approximately the same, around 750-800 euros/kW(Figure 10). Also, thefinding suggests that many of the modules introduced in Germany are modules produced byGerman or Chinese/Taiwanese manufacuturers(Figure 11). We can presume that that thesemodule manufacturing companies have strong cost competitiveness in the German market andcontribute to decreased module costs in the country.

1,200

EUR/kW

1,000
800
600
400
200
0

GermanChinese/companies Taiwanesecompanies

Koreancompany

NorwegiancompanyNorth
Americancompany

Japanesecompany

Figure 10 Median module sosts in Germany by module manufacturers’ country/region
Note: Comparison conducted on plants producing less than 500 kW that began operation in 2014 based on the EuPD data.
Note that the cost information of the companies with small market share (North American companies, Japanese companies) isbased on a small number of samples.

North
Norwegian Americancompany
company
5%
3%
Koreancompany
11%

Japanesecompany3%Germancompanies
43%

Chinese/Taiwanesecompanies
35%

Figure 11 Module share in Germany by module manufacturers’ country/region
Note: Comparison conducted on plants producing less than 500 kW that began operation in 2014 based on the EuPD data.

12

4.

Comparison of Construction Costs and Other Expenses

Of solar PV system prices between Japan and Germany, the largest cost difference exists inconstruction costs and other expenses; we will examine this point below. Construction of solar
PV systems can be roughly divided into two steps. The first step is system assembly work.
This is the process of assembling the mounting system for supporting modules andsubsequently installing and mounting modules on the ground or roof. The second step is
electrical work. This is the process of wiring electrical cables for each module. Also, when
installation work is impossible due to locational difficulty such as mountains and forests orcomplicated terrain, site preparation work will be done prior to assembly work.
The main costs for these construction processes include labor costs for assembly work andelectrical work, machine charges such as forklifts for carrying pile drivers and otherequipment, and construction site expenses (transportation expenses of workers, wiring
cables, construction waste disposal charges, and other expenses). Of these costs, labor costs
make up a significant portion of the total construction cost, and hence have a large influence.
In general, labor costs are proportional to the number of workers and the number of workdays(to be referred to here as construction man-days). For the same work, using a larger number ofworkers and taking a longer construction period will incrementally increase labor costs andwill result in increased construction costs.
When conducting international comparisons, unit work costs of workers and construction
man-days may serve as an important factor. If unit work costs are higher in Japan than inGermany, there will be differences in labor costs even with the same work man-days. In orderto define the factors of the significant disparities in construction costs between Japan andGermany, we will first compare labor costs in the construction industry and subsequently theconstruction periods for solar PV installations between Japan and Germany.
4.1

Comparison of construction industry labor costs

Since no international statistics are available on labor costs of solar PV construction, we willuse international wages in the general construction industry as a reference. Table 2 shows
construction labor costs by occupation in Tokyo and Munich as of early 2015. We can assume
that tradesmen (electrician / plumber), general laborer, and site foremen relate to solar PVs.
At any rate, labor costs for all occupations are higher in Munich than Tokyo by approximately
1.5 to 2 times.
However, it is uncertain whether this difference between Munich and Tokyo precisely reflectsconstruction labor cost disparity between Germany as a whole and Japan as a whole.
Regardless of this uncertainty, it is improbable that construction wages in other areas of Japanbe higher than the wages in Tokyo. Based on this, we can infer that construction wages inJapan are not higher than the wages in Germany.

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Table 2

Construction wages as of early 2015 (USD per hour)Japan (Tokyo) Germany (Munich)
Tradesman (electrician / plumber)
26
52
Tradesman (carpenter /25
44
bricklayer)
Tradesman (tiler / plasterer)
25
44
General laborer
22
33
Site foreman
29
48
Source: Created based on Turner & Townsend (2015)
Note: Labor costs include hourly wage, allowances, social insurance premium, and transportation expenses.
It excludes overhead, bonuses, and company profits.

4.2

Construction periods

With regard to construction periods, we found that there is a significant difference between
Japan and Germany. Figure 12 shows construction periods of 50 kW systems in Japan basedon the REI data. In the case of 50 kW systems, the greatest number of installer takes 6-10
days for construction. Evidently, it is common for construction to take around this length oftime. Meanwhile, many installers also take 26-30 days; this means that they spend 3-5 times
more days for construction compared to the installers that take 6-10 days. This suggests that
there are differences in construction methods and techniques, the level of construction skills,
and other elements among installers in Japan.

Number of responses

30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0-5
days

6-10
days

11-15 16-20 21-25 26-30 31-35 36-40 41-45 46-50 51-55 56-60
days days days days days days days days days days

Figure 12 Construction periods of 50 kW solar PV systems (Japanese Case)
Source: Created based on the REI data

Since no statistical data are available on average construction periods in Germany, we
conducted interviews with the German solar PV utilities and researchers and roughly obtained
responses as in Table 3. In the same Table, we added the standard construction periods inJapan obtained from the REI data. From Table 3, we can see the general trend that solar PV
construction takes more than five to seven times longer in Japan than in Germany.

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Table 3
Plant capacity
10 kW
50 kW
500 kW
1000 kW

Standard construction periods in Germany
Germany
Reference:(Difference fromJapan
Germany)
1 day
2-5 days
2-5 times
2-3 days
6-10 days
2-3 times
1-2 weeks
2-3 months
4-6 times
2-3 weeks
4-5 months
5-7 times

Source: Germany’s data based on interviews with utilities and experts. Japan’s numerical values from the REI
data.

4.3

Factors for construction period disparity

With regard to the factors generating the differences in construction periods, this survey
focused on the possibilities of (1) different mounting system designs and (2) different piledriving machines. However, it is not fair to make general statements about these factors,
because creative efforts of manufacturers have developed diverse mounting system designs
and construction methods for solar PV. Construction methods would also change dependingon the abilities of installers and site conditions.
In Japan, a screw pile driving method has been promoted as one of the fast and affordable
ways of construction. This method uses screw piles as the foundation for supporting solar PV
systems. Driving screw piles directly into the ground allows for fast construction. The
distinctive feature of this method is that screw-like pile tips make it possible to adapt even to
relatively soft ground 8, compared to the method of using typical single piles as the mounting
system. According to our interview survey with a supplier/installer (Company F) that has
adopted this screw pile method, “construction for 50 kW systems usually completes in about 6days” (Table 4). This means that construction is possible in a relatively shorter period of days
among different periods indicated in Figure 12. Also, site restoration is considered easy,
because power plants can be removed by simply pulling piles out of the ground.
Table 4Standard construction period for 50 kW systems with screw pile driving
methodProcess
Work period
Pile driving
1 day
Mounting system assembly 1 day
Panel installation
1 day
Electrical work
3-4 days
Source: Interview survey conducted on Company F

As described, the screw pile driving method has high construction efficiency. In Germany,
however, even higher efficient mounting systems have been widely adopted.
Figure 13 shows an example (Please note that the figure is merely one example and there arevarious other shapes of mounting systems). In Japan, mounting systems consist of several
components, in addition to two screw piles for front and back for installing the mounting
system. In this case, pile driving work and bolting work will be necessary to bond the
8 Some ground types are not suitable for the screw pile driving method. For example, sites which have a large amount ofstones under the ground and extremely hard ground are not suited because piles do not penetrate into the ground.

15

foundation with the mounting system as well as each component of the mounting system. In
Germany, mounting systems that are integrated with the foundation are promoted and they aredesigned to reduce bolting work. In particular, system types that support the panel weight witha single large pole are widely used as well. These structural designs allow for minimum
bolting work and also reduce driving work by half. We can assume that they contribute to
reduce the costs of mounting systems as well. Even with these simplified designs, structural
calculation provides sufficient strength to ensure safe power generation for 20 years.
Moreover, there are other mounting systems with optimal designs allowing speedy mounting
work of solar PV modules. For instance, module installation generally takes the following
steps: transferring from a truck to a forklift, opening the modules, carrying them by hand, andfinally installing the modules. However, in Germany, there are mounting systems allowing
module installation by directly sliding modules from a truck to the mounting system. This
enables remarkable reduction in the number of workers and time required for module
installation.
Japan
Example of mounting system forscrew pile driving method

Fastener

Germany
Example of integrated
mounting system

Mounting system

Foundation

Figure 13 Examples of foundation and mounting systems in Japan and Germany

In addition to the innovative designs of mounting systems, different machines are used todrive piles. In Japan, typical excavators are used with a pile driving attachment on the tip of
the arm (See Photo 1). Based on our interviews with installers, the speed of pile driving isapproximately 100 piles a day in the case of experienced workers.

16

Photo 1

Example of machine used for pile driving in Japan
Source: Photographed by Kimura (REI)

In contrast, in Germany it is common to use specialized machinery engineered for the piledriving purpose (See Photo 2). Optimal designs enable rapid and accurate pile installation. For
instance, some are equipped with a function that automatically adjusts the distance from theground surface (automatic level adjustment function). By using specialized machinery, theaverage installation speed of approximately 250 posts a day can be achieved (according to thewebsite of Schletter Inc.). Also, another German company’s pile drivers are designed to ram 2
posts at once, making it possible to install 300 posts a day (from the interview with Company
C). This means that if there are four of these machines, pile driving for mega solar willcomplete in a day. Taking these factors into account for a simple calculation, the pile driving
speed varies by a factor of two to three times between when specialized pile drivers are used
as in Germany and when excavators with pile driving attachment are used as in Japan.

Photo 2

Example of machine used for pile driving in Germany(Manufactured by GAYK Baumaschinen GmbHs)

This chapter focused on labor costs and construction periods as the possible factors
influencing construction costs. As the results suggested, labor costs are lower in Japan. Basedon this finding, we can argue that labor costs are not the cause of higher costs. Despite highlabor costs in Germany, all work processes are optimized in order to improve construction
efficiency, including the designs of solar PV mounting systems and specialized pile drivers for
installation. This finding further suggests that through these efforts, it is possible tosignificantly reduce the time required for assembly work.

17

5.

Discussion and Future Issues

The objective of this report is to generate suggestions to reduce the cost of solar PV systems
in Japan by comparing solar PV system prices between Japan and Germany by eachcomponent. In particular, we placed a focus on non-residential solar PV systems, which wererapidly promoted following the introduction of the Feed-in Tariff system (FIT).
Module Costs
First, we found from the results of the analysis that there was a possibility of a price disparity
in modules produced by foreign manufacturers between domestic and foreign markets. Thispossibility was suggested from the module cost data of 2013. However, we can infer that theprice disparity between Japan and Germany was reduced in 2014. Second, we found thatmodules produced by Japanese manufacturers have been widely selected for solar PV systems
in Japan despite their higher costs. Evidently, this is the major factor for increasing the overall
module costs in Japan.
However, this trend may indicate a rational choice. From the perspective of PV utilities, who
aim to carry out stable solar PV business in the long run, modules produced by Japanesemanufacturers seem to have more advantages in terms of long-term operation andmaintenance of the systems. For this reason, PV utilities tend to find higher values added todomestic-produced modules than foreign-produced modules. Moreover, there is also a
possibility of sales power disparity. Whilst Japanese manufacturers have already developed
their sales networks, foreign manufacturers must develop their sales networks from scratch.
This situation is also shared with Germany; modules produced by German manufacturers
have the highest share in the German market.
Despite the commonality, the difference between Japan and Germany is that German
manufacturers are keeping up with Chinese and Taiwanese-produced modules in pricecompetition; they have maintained the cost level equal to Chinese and Taiwanesemanufacturers in the German domestic market. In the Japanese domestic market, in contrast,
modules produced by Japanese manufacturers cost nearly 50% higher than modules producedby foreign manufacturers.
Hence, Japanese module manufacturers need to decrease their module costs further in order torealize cost reduction of solar PV system prices in Japan. According to a Japanese module
manufacturer Company A, an effective methodology of module cost reduction is: (1) thinningof films and (2) mass production. Additionally, increasing module performance (capacity
factor) can reduce unit cost of power generation. Therefore, improving the capacity factor isalso important.
The efforts for module cost reduction and performance improvement will contribute to reducethe costs of solar PV systems and unit cost of power generation in Japan. Also, the same
efforts will be effective when Japanese module manufacturers expand into overseas markets.
Demand for solar PV is rapidly growing equally in developed countries and emerging
countries. China has set its target to increase solar PV deployment to 150 GW by 2020
(Roselund, 2015). India has released its aggressive target to increase solar PV capacity to 100
GW by 2022 (Clover, 2015). In order for Japanese-produced modules to be widely adopted insuch overseas markets where demand is rapidly accelerating, it is important for Japanesemanufacturers to improve their price competitiveness and focus on factors other than quality.

18

Construction Costs and Other Expenses
As the analysis in this report shows, the largest cost difference between Germany and Japan
existed in construction costs and other expenses. This study focused on construction costs. As
a result, we found a significant variation in the lengths of time spent on construction inGermany and Japan; construction in Japan took about two to seven times longer than inGermany.
The analysis in this paper suggests that one of the factors generating the disparity inconstruction periods was the optimization of mounting system designs and machines for
installation designed to reduce the construction period in Germany. Also, different levels of
construction skills among installers may have affected the length of construction. Company D
is an Engineering, Procurement, and Construction (EPC) contractor for Germany and they
have experience in development both in Germany and Japan. According to them, Japanese
installers carry out more unnecessary procedures and rework than do German installers.
Based on the above, reducing construction costs largely depends on know-how and empiricalknowledge regarding system design and installation. This includes mounting system designs
and improvement of construction methods rather than components such as modules andinverters. Presumably, this first and foremost requires creative efforts by utilities based on
their accumulated experience.
From the perspective of experience, non-residential solar PV became widely promoted after
July 2012 following the introduction of FIT. Three and a half years have passed since then to
the end of 2015 (Note that we conducted the cost survey in 2014, at an approximately 2-year
point since the introduction of FIT). In this short period, massive quantity of non-residential
solar PV plants (ground-mount systems in particular) has been deployed.
Through interviews with installers, we found that they all have made progresses by learningfrom trial and error; none of them initially started with their current designs or methods. In thecourse of trial and error, mounting system designs and construction methods have beendeveloped steadily to improve both construction efficiency and strength. A similar situation is
also observed in Germany. The Feed-in Tariff system has been utilized for nearly 15 years inGermany and remunerations for solar PV, in particular, have rapidly reduced in stages. We
heard from several interviewees that Germany’s phased reduction of FIT purchase prices has
encouraged engineering development of the German solar PV industry and contributed tosystem price reduction 9 . Such tenacious policy inducement may have played a role inenhancing competitiveness of the German solar PV industry.
Furthermore, we need to consider differences in the natural environment. As compared toGermany, Japan is more prone to natural disasters such as typhoons and earthquakes.
Measures against wind are particularly important for solar PV systems. Since PV modules arelightweight, it is increasingly important for mounting systems to feature the function of“fixing all system components to be resistant to strong wind,” in addition to the function of“supporting” the weight of the top. According to a German mounting system manufacturer
Company C, “the standards for wind load are higher in Japan than in Germany 10,” and9 This was equally mentioned in our verbal interviews with: Mr. Kelm (ZSW) (held in March 2015), Dr. Brand (Wuppertal

Institute for Climate, Environment and Energy) (held in March 2015), and Mr. Rothacher (Germany Trade and Invest) (heldin April 2015).
10 JIS C8955 “Design guide on structures for photovoltaic array” stands as the Japanese standard and DIN 1055 as the19therefore “mounting system designs with higher strength are required.” 11 As described, it isimportant to keep in mind that there are more disadvantages faced by Japan than by Germany
in terms of designing mounting systems.
Given the differences in experience and the natural environment with Germany, there are a
few advantages in Japan. In terms of the natural environment, Japan has more solar radiation
than Germany12. In terms of engineering, whilst Germany has accumulated experience fromscratch, Japan can learn from the German experience. By utilizing these advantages andabsorbing the German know-how regarding design and construction, Japan may be able tocontinue making efforts to develop mounting systems and construction methods that cansecure necessary strength under the natural environment of Japan, simultaneously allowing
for efficient construction. We can extrapolate that solar PV system prices in Japan may befurther reduced in the course of these efforts.
Future Issues
To find out the reasons why solar PV system prices are expensive in Japan, this reportexamined two types of costs, PV module costs and construction costs, which are major factorsof the price disparity. However, there remain issues that have not been thoroughly examined.
These issues are indicated in the following.
The first issue is the high-cost factor of modules produced by Japanese manufacturers.
According to JPEA (2014, 2015), the overseas production ratio of Japanese manufacturers
was 46% in 2014. At least for overseas production, it is unlikely that the playing field forcompetition between Japanese modules and those of other countries would significantly differ.
For domestic production, high labor costs are a likely driver of high costs compared todeveloping countries. However, a comparative analysis of module production costs between
the United States and China by Goodrich et al. (2013) advocates that the merits of low laborcosts in China are set off due to high capital costs driven by its high inflation rate and country
risks in China (Goodrich et al, 2013, p.2813). The study analyzed that higher pricecompetitiveness of Chinese manufacturers is due to a massive scale of production and supply
chains, rather than the low labor costs. Module production costs involve various factors, so amore detailed analysis is required.
The second issue is the verification of costs other than construction costs. As this report shows,the major disparity between system prices in Japan and Germany exists in “construction costs
and other expenses.” Although this survey focused on and attempted to analyze theconstruction costs, we have not conducted an analysis of miscellaneous costs. Applicable
costs include business expenses, plant design expenses, connection agreements for gridinterconnections, specified contracts regarding electricity sales, administrative expenses for
FIT including plant accreditations for the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry, overhead,and profits of suppliers and installers. In particular, profits of contractors depend on supply
and demand. Profits may also increase if there is more demand. Since detailed data were notobtained regarding these issues, we will examine these points in the future.

German standard.
11 In terms of differences between Japan and Germany, Company C pointed out the relative disadvantages of Japan

including: (1) many installations in sloped locations (2) difficulty with securing traffic for machines and trucks in the caseof narrower lands especially in Western Japan, in addition to the wind load mentioned above.
12 With regard to solar radiation by country, SolarGIS of GeoModel Solar(http://solargis.info/doc/free-solar-radiation-maps-GHI) is easy to understand.

20

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EuPD Research (2015) “PV Sales Monitor Germany 2014: Monitoring PV system”

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Friedman, B., James, T., Margolis, R., and J. Seel, (2014) Comparing Photovoltaic (PV) Costs and
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Goodrich, A., Powell, D., James, T., Woodhouse, M., and T. Buonassisi, (2013) “Assessing the drivers ofregional trends in solar photovoltaic manufacturing”, Energy Envision, Sci., 6, pp. 2811-2821.

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Comparing Prices and Costs of Solar PV in Japan and Germany- The Reasons Why Solar PV is more Expensive in Japan Issued in March 2016
(original Japanese version issued in January 2016)
Renewable Energy Institute3F, 2-18-3, Higashi Shinbashi, Minato-ku, Tokyo 105-0021 Japan
Phone +81-3-6895-1020
www.renewable-ei.org/en/
Japan Renewable Energy Foundation (JREF) changed its organization name in English
to Renewable Energy Institute (REI) on 30 March 2016.

1