ND<I$DBC 0DIMJIU@N,MJ?P>ODJI0@>CIJGJBT<I?.@BDJI<GC<M<>O@MDNOD>N英文(QJOLVK7UDQVODWLRQ‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb//7/.-/.-1//.833‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb/0.

/.-/.-1//.833

Yasu is 25 times bigger than the small bronze bell

$3UHOLPLQDU\6WXG\RQ$QFLHQW&RSSHU
9HVVHOVLQ-DSDQ

in height). Dotaku was also produced by casting.
Bronze mirrors were intensively burnished after the
casting. The mirror surface of the mirror was care-)XPLQRUL6XJD\D

fully smoothed and has no scars although traces$UFKDHRORJLFDO,QVWLWXWHRI.DVKLKDUD1DUD3UHIHFWXUH

left by grinding can often be observable on the edge
and ventral surface of the mirror. Traces left bygrinding can be observable both on domestic mir-7KH2ULJLQVRI0HWDOLQ-DSDQ
In Japan, the Neolithic Period is divided intorors and imported mirrors. Although these traces

two periods. First part is called the “Jomon Period”.

are very useful for understanding the production

The Jomon Period is dated from 12,000 BC to 700

techniques, it is not still clear whether the domes-〜 500 BC. Metal was not used in this period. Onlytic mirrors and imported mirrors were ground withthe site of Misakiyama, Yuza, Akumi in Yamagata

the same techniques or not because of the limited

Prefecture yielded a Chinese Yin Period bronze

studies. However, these traces suggest that theseknife. However, this knife was discovered by ac-

mirrors were smoothed and burnished with a handcident and excavation reports have not been pub-

scraper and grinding stone rather than with a grind-lished yet. Therefore the artifact still remains a mys-

ing wheel and grinding stone. In the Kofun Period,

tery.

mirrors were smoothed and burnished in the same
In the Yayoi Period, bronze objects and ironway. In the Heian Period, some of the domestic mir-objects began to be used. However it is not clear

rors were still smoothed and burnished with a hand

whether metal was already used at the beginning ofscraper and grinding stone.

the Yayoi Period or not because of the following rea-In the Late and Final Kofun Periods, new cop-son. It was generally agreed that the Yayoi Period

per objects such as bowls and footed plates (Theybegan around 3rd century BC (or the late 2nd cen-

are made of cooper alloys) ﬁrst appeared in Japan.

tury BC). However recent excavations at Early Yayoi

According to the study by Toshihiko MORIMITSU,

Period sites, tree-ring dating of excavated woods,

90 copper vessels had been discovered from the Ko-

and radio-carbon dating particularly on charcoals

fun Period sites before 1978. After his study, moreon the surface of pottery reveal that the Yayoi Pe-

copper vessels were excavated from Kofun burial

riod probably dates back to 5th century BC to 7th

mounds 㻝㻕.

century BC. There are still diﬀerent opinions on the

So far copper vessels excavated from Kofun

date of the beginning of the Yayoi Period among

burial mounds have been intensively studied. How-

scholars because of methodological problems. I do

ever, before around 1970, the copper vessels had

not make any comments on this matter here be-

not been studied in a systematic way. But the dis-cause I do not study the Yayoi Period.

covery of the late 6th century copper jug with a

In the Early Yayoi Period, most of the bronze

lid from the burial mound of Kannonyama Kofun,

objects were imported. They include mirrors, dag-Takasaki in Gunma Prefecture gathered much at-

ger-axes and halberds. They were produced by cast-tention because the jag is morphologically similar toing. No forged bronze objects were discovered from

7th and 8th century Buddhist copper jugs stored at

Early Yayoi Period sites. Some of the bronze objects

Horyuji temple and Shosoin, Todaiji temple. The jug

were produced by casting in Japan. Iron objects

is tall and has a beautifully shaped base. The baseused in the Early Yayoi Period include casted ironis thick and its bottom is only slightly concave. The

axes, forged iron weapons and forged iron tools.

bottom of the main body is also thick. The shape

In the Late Yayoi Period, the bronze bell calledof outer and inner faces of the bottom suggest that

Dotaku appeared in Japan. Dotaku is unique to Ja-

the main body and base of the jug were separately

pan and over 500 Dotaku have been discovered. Al-

casted and then jointed together into one piece. The

though Japanese Dotaku originated from the small

lid has a ball on the top. The lid also has two bar

bronze bell in the Korean Peninsula and northeast-

springs on the ventral face, which prevents easy

ern China, the former is several times larger thanseparation of the lid from the jug 㻞㻕.

the latter in size (The largest Dotaku discovered inThis jug is the ﬁrst discovered late 6th century㻝㻞㻝‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb/0//.-/.-1//.833

³$VLDQ+LJK7LQ%URQ]HV3URGXFWLRQ7HFKQRORJ\DQG5HJLRQDO&KDUDFWHULVWLFV´

jug in Japan. The results of qualitative analysis on

store treasures transported from other buildings3).

the composition of the jug were published in the ex-

Therefore late 7th century to 8th century Sawari

cavation report. According to the report, the jug was

objects stored at Buddhist temples such as Horyuji

made of copper-lead-tin alloy. The jug was probably

temple and Todaiji temple are probably related toused as a container of perfume.

the Buddhism. The Sawari vessels are usually di-

However the 6th century jug excavated fromvided into several types as follows. Artifacts other

Kannonyama Kofun and the 7th century Buddhist

than vessels are also added to the following list byjugs stored at Horyuji temple are different in thethe author㻠 㻕.

composition. Although both of the jugs has an

Serving vessel

Serving bowl

egg shaped main body and lid with springs, thebowlLarge bowl

jugs stored at Horyuji temple are made of copper-

Saucertin alloy called “Sawari”. It suggests the shift fromCup

copper-lead-tin alloy to copper-tin alloy in the raw

Spoon/Scoops/Chop sticks

material for the production of jugs. The main body/Serving tableand base of the jugs stored at Horyuji temple were

Storage Vessel

Jar

OthersIron

casted together in the same mold and burnishedJugwith a grinding wheel. The jugs stored at Horyuji
temple are essentially different from the late 6th

Incense container with a handle

century jug excavated from Kannonji Kofun in thisFooted incense container

point 㻟㻕.

OssuaryStandard (e.g. Dragon Headed rod)Bell

 %XGGKLVW7HPSOHVDQG&RSSHU$OOR\9HVVHOVIn Japan, the oldest copper vessels were ex-

In addition, copper was also used as construc-cavated from Kofun burial mounds. However it istional materials and decoration materials in Bud-

noteworthy that the Kinki region, where large Kofun

dhist temples.

burial mounds are concentrated, yielded a few cop-

The constructional materials include various

per bowls.

components of the pagoda finial such as Kurin,

In contrast, the Kanto and Tohoku regions

Suien, Fukubachi and Roban. The decoration mate-yielded more copper bowls than the Kinki region.

rials include various decoration plaques on the end

This is probably because the number of large Ko-of roof rafters, tail rafters and verge boards Copper

fun burial mounds decreased in the Kinki region in

was also used to connect topmost members of three-

7th century while the construction of large Kofun

railed balustrades.

burial mounds began in Kanto region in 7th cen-

It is likely that the use of copper vessels be-tury. Omishinkanji Kofun in Saitama Prefecture andcame more valued in Buddhist temples through the

Kamifusa Kinreidzuka Kofun in Chiba Prefectureuse of copper for the construction of temples.

are typical examples of the large 7th century Kofun

The text of “Daianji Garan Narabini Rugi

burial mounds in the Kanto region.

Shizaicho” written on 11th February in the 19th

As for Nara and Heian Periods copper ves-

year of Tenpyo era (747AD) says that there was asels, they were mostly excavated from remains ofcopper workshop in Daianji temple. The sentences

Buddhist temples or have been stored at Buddhist

concerning the copper workshop are shown below5).

temples such as Shosoin. Copper vessels were also

合水銀貳佰拾壹斤伍兩used as cremation ossuaries in Buddhism. This can

合水金葛壹阡玖佰貳拾壹斤伍兩小 肆拾斤陸兩大

be related to containers for the bones of the Buddha

合銅伍萬貳阡参佰陸拾貳斤小 （割注省略）

buried under pagodas.

合鉄壹佰伍拾陸廷

In Shosoin, Todaiji temple, most of the Sawari
bowls and Sawari spoons are stored in the southern

In the text, several notes were also added on

storehouse. The central storehouse and southerncopper as below.

storehouse in Shosoin store treasures related to the

生銅五万一千六十二斤

consecration of the Giant Buddha statue. They also

錬銅五百九十斤㻝㻞㻞‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb/00/.-/.-1//.833

)XPLQRUL6XJD\D

to the oﬃce of Zoutoudaijishi.

熟銅三百廿七斤As mentioned above, offices for the construc-

悪荒銅三百八十三斤

tion of Buddhist temples such as Zoutoudaijishi proThese notes suggests that copper was divided

duced necessary materials by themselves. It is likely

into several types; Seido, Rendo, Jyukudo andthat theses offices could easily adjust to changing

Akuarado. The meaning of these terms is still un-

demands. This system probably had a great impact

clear. Since this paper does not intend to clarify

on developments of craft industries in Japan.

their meaning, the author introduces my opinion
only on Akuarado here. As far as the author knows,
the term Akuarado first appeared in the 9th cen-  &RQFOXVLRQV &RSSHU 2EMHFWV LQ %XGGKLVW 7HPSOHV
DQG6KLQWR6KULQHV

tury. It is likely that Akuarado is not refined cop-

In the ancient Japanese law system called “Rit-per but fragments of unﬁnished copper objects andsuryo”, Sinto was regarded as the state religion.

failed products obtained during copper production.

This is clearly reﬂected in the administrative system

Temples other than Daianji temple left similar

called “Nikanhassho”. In the system of Nikanhas-

records. For example, Horyuji temple left the text ofsho, Department of Shinto Aﬀairs called “Jingi-kan”“Horyuji Garan Engi Narabini Rugi Sizaicho”. The

preceded Department of State called “Daijo-kan”.

text was written on 11th February in the 19th year

Meanwhile, according to Ritsuryo, Buddhist templesof Tenpyo era (747AD).

were supervised by the office called “Genba-ryo”.

合水錫壹阡漆佰玖拾壹兩参分

However, in fact, the imperial court spent larger ex-

合白金葛壹佰壹斤捌兩

penditures on Buddisht temples rather than shrines.

合黒金葛伍拾壹斤Buddhist temples were actually managed by special
oﬃces called “Reigai-kan”, which were undeﬁned in
the law system of Ritsuryo.

In the Tenpyo era. Horyuji was regarded as anon-state small temple in the law of “Taijinosei” be-Jingu (usually called Ise Jingu) was the maincause this temple is far from the capital and small inshrine for the state ceremonies. Ritual reconstruc-size. However even this small temple owned coppertion of the shrine (this ceremony was called “Shiki-

workshops.

nen Sengu”) was performed every 20 years. Except

Although copper workshops have not been dis-

woods, roof thatch, stones and coating materials,

covered yet in Daianji temple and Horyuji temple,

every necessary material was produced in the impe-

clay tuyeres discovered in these temples strongly

rial court and transported to Ise. Therefore Jingu insuggest that the temples undoubtedly had copper

Ise had no copper workshops. The text of “Toyukeg-

workshops inside .

ugishiki-cho” and the text of “Kotaijingugishiki-cho”,

6)

Todaiji temple also had workshops to produce

which is designated as a national important cultural

small copper objects along with workshops for theproperty, clearly show that ritual objects and deco-

casting of the Great Buddha statue. The text ofrations were produced in the imperial court. Both of“Zoutoudaijishi Chokai”, which is stored at Shosoin,

the texts were written in February, 804.

shows that the oﬃce for the construction of Todaiji

Formal letters issued by Department of State

temple called “Zotoudaijishi” owned copper work-

called “Okurikanpu” from various periods also show

shops. Other documents stored at Shosoin also showthat the necessary materials for Shikinen Sengu

that Todaiji temple owned wood workshops, roof tile

were produced in the imperial court. In addition,

workshops, copper workshops, painting workshops

ritual objects used in Sinto were mostly made ofand workshops for the casting of the Great Buddha

woods and rarely decorated with ﬂowers and artiﬁ-

statue.

cial ﬂowers. As a result, copper objects have beenOﬃcials in the copper workshop included Jyo,rarely used in shrines. Although white porcelains

Sakan, Sisho and Shoryo. Under these oﬃcials, craft

and white pottery are used as sacred jars containing

specialists such as Zatsuko, Shitei and Koko worked.

Sake in modern shrines, wooden jars were originally

Other metal smiths probably worked and produced

used in the pre-modern period. Copper objects havecopper wires at other oﬃces such as “Zousekizan-

not been used in rituals in shrines since the ancientjisho” and “Zoukozenyakushijisho”, which belonged

times until now.
㻝㻞㻟‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb/01/.-/.-1//.833

³$VLDQ+LJK7LQ%URQ]HV3URGXFWLRQ7HFKQRORJ\DQG5HJLRQDO&KDUDFWHULVWLFV´

Since Shinto and Buddhism gradually molded

册 . Recent studies by Toshihiko Morimitsu were

into one syncretic belief after the end of the ancientpublished in this monograph.

times, copper objects was used in its rituals. How-

2. Gunma Archaeological Research Foundation 群馬県埋

ever after Shinto separated from the Buddhism in

蔵文化財調査団 1999『綿貫観音山古墳 II (Excavations

the Meiji era, copper objects has been rarely used inat the Burial Mound of Kannonyama, Watanuki Ⅱ)』

Shinto rituals.

3. Shosoin (ed) 正倉院事務所編 1994『正倉院宝物Ⅰ : 北倉Ⅰ

Meanwhile copper objects have been valued in(Treasures of Shosoin I: Northern Storehouse I)』毎

Buddhism. Large temples in the capital owned cop-

日新聞社 (Mainichi Newspapers). Please refer to pp.

per workshops and workshops produced amounts of

240 to 262.

copper objects. Local temples were gradually inﬂu-

4. See Nara National Research Institute for Cultural

enced by the central temples. After the introduction

Properties (2005) introduced in Note 1.

of Tantric Buddhism into Japan by Kukai and Sac-

5. The sentences are quoted from Rizou Takeuchi 竹内理

cho, copper objects became more valued in temples

三『寧楽遺文 (Naraibun)』中巻 (Second Volume) 東京

because Tantric Buddhism ritual objects used in

堂 (Tokyo-do)

Tang China was exclusively made of copper.

6. The composition of copper alloys varied to a degree,

In the Ming era, copper objects imitating an-which supports this idea. As for the analysis data,

cient copper objects became popular in China.

refer to the following references. As for copper ob-

These objects were soon introduced into Japanesejects stored at Horyuji temple, 179 data are listed

temples. Buddhist temples in Japan still store oldin the paper by Takashi Murakami (村上隆),「材質とcopper objects from the ancient periods while

構 造の歴 史的変 遷 (Historical Developments of Ma-

shrines dose not store any copper objects.

terials and Structures)」, which is included in NaraIn the Kohun Period, copper vessels madeNational Research Institute for Cultural Propertiesof copper-tin-lead alloy were first introduced into

(2005). As for Horyuji treasures dedicated to theJapan. This tradition was inherited by Buddhist

imperial family, refer to Tokyo National Museum 東

temples in Asuka, Nara, and Heian periods. Bud-

京国立博物館 2004『法隆寺献納宝物特別調査報 供養

dhist temples began to own copper workshops and具１(A Report on Horyuji Treasures: Ritual Objects

produced amounts of copper vessels.

1)』and Tokyo National Museum 東 京 国 立 博 物 館

Copper vessels stored at Shosoin were used in2005『法隆寺献納宝物特別調査報 供養具 2 (A Report

Buddhist temples rather than in imperial palaces.

on Horyuji Treasures: Ritual Objects 2)』. As for

Therefore some of the vessels have been kept un-copper objects stored at Shosoin, refer to『正倉院年used. The vessels were left at Shosoin not because

報 (Shosoin Nenpou)』.

they were precious objects imported from the Korean Peninsula but because more objects were imported than those used by participants in rituals. In
Korea, copper vessels became serving vessels in thedaily life while copper vessels were exclusively usedin Buddhist temples in Japan. This is one of the differences in historical developments between Korea
and Japan.

1RWHV
1. Toshihiko Morimitsu 毛利光 敏 彦 1978 ｢古 墳出土 銅 鋺の系 譜 (The Origins of Copper Bowls from Kofun
Burial Mounds)｣『考古学 報 誌 (Koukogaku Gaihou)』64-1
Nara National Research Institute for Cultural Properties 奈良文化財研究所 2005『古代東アジアの金属製容器Ⅱ (Metal Vessels in Ancient East Asia II)』奈良文化財研究所史料 (Nara Bunkazai Kenkyuzyo Siryo)71㻝㻞㻠‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb/02/.-/.-1//.833

structive experiment has demonstrated that a high-&RPSDULVRQVRIWKHPDQXIDFWXULQJWHFKQRORJ\RIKLJKWLQEURQ]HWRROVLQPRGHUQ$VLD

tin bronze bowl containing 15% tin, manufactured
without a hardening process, can be scraped as thin
as to about 0.3mm using a lathe㻝㻕. It is believed thatfragile high-tin bronze containing more than 20%+DUXKLVD0LIXQH 8QLYHUVLW\RI7R\DPD

tin can also be scraped by a lathe to similar thickness when it is hardened. When the surface of high-,QWURGXFWLRQ
Bronze tools have been manufactured in vari-tin bronze tools manufactured by forging is polishedous areas since the ancient times. Among them isin order to erase traces of hammering, its manu-a group of characteristic high-tin bronze artifacts.

facturing method cannot be visually distinguishedBecause high content of tin makes bronze harderfrom that of casting. However, bowls with a ringand its color silver-white, high-tin bronze was usedbase or lids with a knob, which is attached neither

to manufacture weapons and mirrors. If content ofby riveting, soldering or brazing, can be regarded astin is more than 20%, bronze becomes too hard andbeing manufactured by casting. Metallographic ob-

fragile. Bronze containing 30% tin is so hard that it

servation deﬁnitely can clarify whether it was cast

can be easily broken just like glass. Bronze contain-or forged and provide more detailed information ofing 40-50% tin is slightly softer and easy to scrape

manufacturing technology.

although it may sometimes crack in a mold throughThe manufacturing technology of the particularsolidification shrinkage when it is cast. Bronze

group of high-tin bronze tools can be investigatedcontaining 50-60% tin is much softer and easier toby using several diﬀerent methods, 1) archaeologi-

scrape, and more fragile in a solidiﬁcation process.

cal study of artefacts, 2) analysis of their chemical

Bronze containing 70-80% tin is extremely soft andcomposition and metallographic observation, 3)that containing 80% tin is so soft and sticky that it

investigation of manufacturing technology of mod-may not get cracked in casting. Silver-white color

ern high-tin bronze objects as well as their metal-

appears when bronze contains more than 30% tinlographic observation, and 4) reconstructive ex-

and the color does not change among the bronze

periment. Internationally cooperative studies allow

containing more than 30% tin.

us to approach the emergence, diffusion, adoption㻌

To improve brittleness of high-tin bronze, it isand change of the manufacture method of high-tin

heated until it turns red and then rapidly cooled inbronze tools.

water. After this process, its silver-white color turns

This paper reports the results of my own inves-to yellow-orange to its inner part and looks like astigation of modern workshops of high-tin bronze

if low-tin bronze. Thus the amount of tin in bronze

tools, the video footages recently recorded by othercannot be identiﬁed by color. This process does notinvestigators, and the descriptions of manufacturing

decrease the hardness of high-tin bronze, which

methods of high-tin bronze artifacts in excavation

hardly bend too much by hammering with an iron

reports, in order to assemble basic references to thetool.

study of the ancient manufacturing technology ofBronze artifacts are usually manufactured byhigh-tin bronze tools. The investigation of high-tin

casting. In addition, forging, in which bronze isbronze in the area west of India has yet to be car-heated until it turns red (hot forging), can also be

ried out.

used to manufacture high-tin bronze tools. Evena thin sheet of high-tin bronze is so hard that it is6RXWK.RUHD

difficult to bend after hardening. High-tin bronze

In South Korea there are workshops and facto-

cups manufactured by hot forging at workshops inries which manufacture brass ware made of high-tin

modern India are often only 0.5mm thick and somebronze contains 22% tin and 78% copper. As brassparts of these cups are as thin as 0.2mm. A thin rim

ware is used for table ware, such as bowls, spoonsof some bowls gives it resiliency which allows theand chop sticks, gongs (they are in the shape of abowl to be distorted to an oval plan when pressed

circular dish with a vertical wall without having aby hands from the both sides of it and to get back tohemispherical knob called “navel” in the middle ofthe original circular shape when released. A recon-a banging face), religious devices, etc. Eight work㻝㻞㻡‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb/03/.-/.-1//.833

³$VLDQ+LJK7LQ%URQ]HV3URGXFWLRQ7HFKQRORJ\DQG5HJLRQDO&KDUDFWHULVWLFV´

shops and factories of brass ware in South Korea

ever, to raise productivity, electric lathes were only

were investigated in September 2007, February

used for finishing the surface but not for scraping

2008 and August 2008. Five technological methods

the ware to make it thinner by taking longer time.

were: (1) one workshop using both hot forging andGung Gurum Ock Sikgi technique was used in the

hot Gung Gurum Ock Sikgi technique together, (2)manufacture of forged brass bowls in order to makethree factories using casting, (3) two factories us-

it wider at its body than at its rim without taking

ing hot forging, casting and hot spinning together,much time, by extending out the part below the rim(4) one factory using casting, hot spinning and hotfrom the inside. Nevertheless, this method declinedpress together, and (5) one factory using both hot

due to the invention of a new casting method usingpress and hot spinning together. Although theseunbaked molds, in which an inner core is inserted

pyrotechnologies in South Korea have already been

in a model of a copper bowl that is divided to an㻞㻕reported somewhere else , they can be summarized

upper and lower part. This method made possible

here as follows. At every workshop/factory, harden-

the casting of brass bowls which are narrower at

ing is carried out by craftsmen who are in charge ofthe rim and thus replaced Gung Gurum Ock Sikgi

either casting, forging or processing of bronze us-

technique. Thus, at the present, most of brass ware,

ing machines while they are carrying out their own

such as bowls and spoons, is manufactured by cast-task. Every workshop has a lathe for polishing. The

ing using unbaked molds and thus thick. Today,

number of craftsmen at each workshop/factory is

only gongs are made by hot casting and hardening

two to four for casting, one to four for spinning, one

together with final tuning by cold forging because

to four for pressing and two to four for using a lathe,

their manufacture by casting makes its sound poor.

except for the workshop in the case of (1) which
has only one craftsman. There are also craftsmen

,QGLD

specialized for polishing of the products, such as

Six workshops in Kerala, which produce bowls,

spoons, which are diﬃcult to polish with a lathe. For

musical instruments, mirrors, and so on, were in-

the forging in the case of (3), one workshop has two

vestigated in February and September in 2009. Fivecraftsmen and another has three or four craftsmen,

types can be distinguished in the technology used

who are engaged in hammering (the latter case wasand the type of objects produced: (1) two workshops

only assumed from photographs). While the sameof mirrors which are cast using a pair of molds, (2)craftsmen can sometimes be in charge of both spin-

one workshop of bells and basins manufactured byning and machine pressing, the craftsmen in charge

lost-wax casting, (3) one workshop of jugs and ves-of casting and those using a lathe are only engaged

sels by lost-wax casting and also by forging for thein their own task.

latter, (4) one workshop of bowls, table ware, andIn modern manufacture of brass ware, casting ismusic instruments by hot forging, and (5) one work-

carried out using an unbaked mold which is madeshop of music instruments by hot forging. Mirrorsof two iron frames. This method used in modern

produced at the workshops of type (1) are made ofmass-production is unsuitable for the manufacturehigh-tin bronze containing 32.6% tin㻟㻕 and manufac-

of complex-shaped brass products. Ancient high-tured by casting without heat treatment. The work-

tin bronze tools seem to have been manufactured

shop of type (2) manufactures bells containing about

using a baked sand mold. Otherwise, products in

10% or more tin and basins made of brass, withouta simple form were likely to have been shaped byusing heat treatment for either of them. Jugs andhot forging after being cast in a stone mold. The

other objects manufactured at the workshop of typeemergence of modern unbaked molds has facilitated(3) contain about 10% or more (13-15%?) tin andthe production of cast brass ware in a large amountmanufactured by casting. Forged vessels are madebecause this method does not require a process toof sheet copper which is connected by brazing. At

bake molds. Therefore, the production of forged

the workshops of types (4) and (5), high-tin bronze

brass ware, which requires a lot of time, necessar-

consisting of 21-22% tin and 78-79% copper is castily declined and thin brass ware has disappeared

to the shape of discs or the archetypes of spoonsin modern products. In fact, cast brass ware canwhich are about 1cm in thickness and 12 to 15cm inbecome very thin by scraping it with a lathe. How-

diameter and then ﬁnally shaped by hot forging. Af㻝㻞㻢‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb/04/.-/.-1//.833

+DUXKLVD0LIXQH

ter their hardening, cold forging is additionally car-everyday and thus some failures were observed inried out several times for the ﬁnal shaping of bowls

their products, for example cracks which occurredor for the tuning of music instruments.

during hammering out a bulge of cymbals or oc-

There are small electric tools such as handcurred during hot forging of bowls. The workshop

grinder at the workshops of types (2) and (3), andis located under a tree shade in a forest and is built

they are used for the surface treatment by polish-

with pillars standing on an earthen platform anding. There are both electric and hand lathes at thewith a roof. It has a wall only in the position whichworkshop of type (3). At the workshops of types (4)faces the directions of wind (Prefatory Photo 1).

and (5), final manufacturing procedure is scraping

The manufacture process of shallow bowls atwith a hand tool (scraper) after hardening. This is

this workshop is as follows. (1) Old copper bowls

not to erase the traces of hammering but to makeare smashed with an iron hammer and then put

its surface glossy by scraping. Bowls or disc gongs

into a melting pot of 8kg capacity and heated with(the latter are about 18cm in diameter and 5mm incharcoal to make high-tin bronze containing about

thickness and used by hanging them with a code

22% tin. (2) A hollow depression, about 13cm in di-put through two holes at their edges in order toameter and 1.5cm in depth, is made in a sand moldbang with a wooden stick) are decorated by scraping

using various-sized circular clay stamps (the moldtheir surface in various directions in order to haveis made of wet coarse sand including little clay. Its

diﬀerent reﬂections of light. At the workshop (3), acolor is black because it includes charcoal). The

hand lathe is spun by pulling in turn an either end

sand mold is neither dried nor baked. (3) Powder ofof a rope that is rolled on a cylindrical bar. Turn-cereal grains is sprayed to the hollow which is thening direction changes as the one of two ends of thepressed by a stamp again. Molten high-tin bronze

rope is pulled by either a right or left hand. Turn-is poured into the hollow (Prefatory Photo 3). (4)ing distance can be controlled by pulling the rope

A disc about 1cm thick is removed from the moldto different length and thus turning direction can(thickness of the discs is not even at this point). (5)be changed before a long spout of a jug. A bronze

An air vent of the furnace is made by digging a hole

tool is attached at its base to the end of the cylindri-

about 5cm in diameter and by placing two iron bars

cal bar using wax (or resin) and it is scraped with aabout 7mm in thickness (the hole goes down aboutsteel scraper. Two workers are engaged in this work,

10cm deep and then bends at 90 degree and goes

one for turning and the other for scraping. This pa-

horizontally about 1m to a hand bellow which is

per mentions the workshops of the types (4) and (5),made of cow skin). (6) Air is sent through a heap of

which conduct heat treatment, in detail.

burning charcoal bits placed on the mouth of the air $3381, .$/$',3$5$0%,/&+(58.8'$1*$'32

vent, and (7) Four discs are placed in the furnace atonce and covered with charcoal bits which is gath-

3$//,385$03$77$0%,.(5$/$,1',$

Products in this workshop are bowls, largeered with a wet hand-bloom. (8) A pile of two discs

spoons, disc gongs, cymbals (a pair of slightly

is picked up with iron tongs held in a left hand andcurved discs measuring about 18cm in diameter andturned with a right hand using an iron crook with

5mm in thickness. The center of each disc, which isa L-shaped end until the discs are evenly heated.

about 6cm in diameter, bulges and is perforated in(9) The workshop owner places a pile of two discs

the middle. Cords put through these holes are func-

on a concaved stone anvil using tongs held by bothtioned as handles in order to strike each other tohands. He turns the discs and three other workers

make a sound), and so on. At the time of my investi-

hammer them to an incurved shape using iron ham-gation there are a workshop owner named APPUNI

mers at the pace of about 80 times within 50 sec-

(a presumed age is late 50s) and his three relatives

onds (hammering may be ﬁnished at various timing,in the workshop. They said that the relatives werefor example when the discs are still in red color, atcalled for in order to help my investigation. Al-

the moment their red color is disappearing or after

though an old worker, who seems to be a father of

their red color completely disappeared). The ham-the owner, was also there, he had already retired

mering starts at the part near the edge of the discfrom this task because he was too old to conductand moves circularly, gradually going towards thedaily work. Perhaps this workshop is not operated

center of the disc. This is because the edge cools㻝㻞㻣‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb/05/.-/.-1//.833

³$VLDQ+LJK7LQ%URQ]HV3URGXFWLRQ7HFKQRORJ\DQG5HJLRQDO&KDUDFWHULVWLFV´

sooner than the center. A process of hammering

Bowls without any carination are formed. (19) Eachfrom the edge to the center is repeated, except forbowl is heated gradually. When its whole surface

the case in which the center is cooled too quickly

becomes a red, the bowl is held upside down withand thus not hammered (Prefatory Photo 6). (10)tongs and is quenched swiftly in water for harden-

One of the heated discs is placed on a stone anviling (water seems to be ordinary one. It is dirty andand hammered again at the pace of about 80 times

stored in a ﬁxed tank). Three bowls without carina-

within 50 seconds. (11) Another pile of two discs

tion are hardened in total. (20) After hammeringis heated and forged in the same way. (12) A pile

their sides on an iron anvil, a pile of two bowlsof two discs is forged again for 50 seconds. Then,

are heated and hammered on a stone anvil whicha pile of three discs is forged for 60 seconds and it

is carved in the form of the base and the side of ais repeated three times. Then, a pile of four discs

bowl. The inside of the bowls is hammered with ais forged once for 60 seconds. (13) A pile of all six

wooden hammer to form carination of the base anddiscs are placed on the furnace in order to heat

the side (there are two other stone anvils with diﬀer-

them by turning them upside down (it does not mat-ent shapes) (Prefatory Photo 9). (21) These bowls are

ter if charcoals are accidentally inserted between

heated at the temperature apparently lower than thethe discs). (14) The pile of six discs is hammered atcase in which the bowls without carination are heat-

the pace of about 100 times within 60 seconds ined (some parts does not even show a red tinge), andorder to shape them (hammering at the central part

they are carried swiftly to a water tank. The bowls

stops when it is still red. Piling up six discs preventsare dipped into the water with their bottom upwards

them from cooling too quickly and makes it pos-

for hardening (the color of each bowl tells that hard-sible to forge them for a longer time even when theening temperature is not precisely controlled. Whilediscs became thin. It also gives them a standardized

the bowls are always dropped with their bottom up-

thickness and thus allows mass-production). The

wards the angle to drop them into water varies). In

workshop owner turns a pile of six discs using short

total, three carinated bowls are hardened (Prefatory

tongs in a seated position (Prefatory Photo 7). After

Photo 10). (22) After hardening, cold forging is car-that, the pile of six discs is repeatedly forged threeried out using an iron anvil and a hammer to maketimes in the same way. (15) The workshop owner

their thickness even (Prefatory Photo 11). (23) At

stands up and turns the pile of six discs with long

this point their rims are still wavy, so they are madetongs (the angle of the pile of bowls becomes nearlysmooth by cutting them using a steel chisel and a

vertical and their sides can be hammered more

hammer and by rasping them. (24) Only the insideeasily) and repeats this seven times. At the begin-of the bowls is scraped with a hand cutter madening, the discs are heated at higher temperatureof steel with a wooden handle. The edge of theand enlarged remarkably. In the later half of thishand cutter is not sharpened with a whetstone but

process, only short-time forging, about 30 seconds,

is abraded by moving it within a groove ﬁlled withis repeated about 60 times because as the discs be-

silt, which is carved in a wooden board at the samecome thinner it is easy to melt at high-temperature

width as the edge.

heating and cool sooner. (16) The pile of six bowls is

Spoons are large, measuring about 50cm long,heated at lower temperature which does not show aand seem to be used for cooking and ser ving

red tinge. The workshop owner in a crouching posi-

foods from pots. As in the case of the discs, high-tion holds the pile of six bowls with short tongs andtin bronze containing about 22% tin is cast into aforges it by hammering the base of the bowls on his

depressed mold to make their rough form which isown for 20 seconds and repeats this twice (until this

1cm thick. First, a handle is hot-forged and hard-

stage, the same stone anvil is used) (Prefatory Photoened and then a bowl is spread and shaped by hot

8). (17) The pile of six shallow bowls is separated toforging. Finally, the whole spoon is heated andeach that has become about 30cm in diameter. (18)quenched in water for hardening by dipping it hori-

A pile of two of these discs is heated at low tempera-

zontally (a heated spoon is placed on the mouth of ature and placed obliquely against an iron stand. The

water tank horizontally and dropped into the water

discs are made to even thickness by beating theirby pushing it with two sticks) and is taken out of thesides from the inside using a broad iron hammer.

water and immediately cold forged in order to repair㻝㻞㻤‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb/06/.-/.-1//.833

+DUXKLVD0LIXQH

skewness of the handle and make the thickness ofvil and hammered around its side (these processes

the bowl even. The edge of the bowl is sharpened

are conducted for 40 seconds) (Prefatory Photo 23).

with a rasp and the surface of the bowl is polished(4) Two discs with their rims already hammeredwith a steel hand-tool to ﬁnish.

are heated together in a furnace using sliced char-

The methods of forging disc gongs and cym-

coal bits (the eldest brother treats charcoal with abals and their chemical composition are virtually

wet hand-broom as he turns the discs. The second

the same as those of the bowls. Central bulges ofeldest brother nearby the ﬁrst also treats the char-cymbals are formed by hammering them from thecoal with a wet hand-broom and an iron bar with ainside on a depressed stone anvil using a wooden

crooked end as he sends air with a hand-poweredpole with a rounded end. Rope holes are perforated

blower. The structure of the furnace is the same as

by punching with a pointed nail-like iron when thethat at APPUNI workshop) (Prefatory Photo 24). (5)cymbals are still hot. The disc gong is quenched in

The discs are heated in the furnace for 40 seconds.

water in a vertical position for hardening. After that,

Then, one of them is placed on a stone anvil andtwo holes are pierced with a hand drill and a rope

hammered for 40 seconds at the positions previ-

is put through them to hang the gong. The positions

ously hammered after its molding. Another disc isof these holes are decided as the sound of the gong

hammered in the same way. (6) A person controllingis examined (Prefatory Photo 12). They are 5mm

a blower is replaced by the fourth brother, and thethick and because they are thicker than the bowls

second and the third brothers hammer now. The

they are held with tongs while being quenched andﬁrst brother turns the disc with tongs held in bothdipped into water more slowly than when quenchingof his hands, and the disc is hammered around thethe bowls.

part near the edge in order not to make the edge  $/$ )25*(：. 5 68.8 .23$5 $03$7+8 . $

too thin by hammering itself (Prefatory Photo 26).

'$9$/2253275,6685',67.(3$/$,1',$ 

Then the whole disc is hammered in a spiral direc-

The products in this workshop seem to betion towards its center. Hammering is conducted

mainly musical instruments such as disc gongs andat the pace of about 47 times within 20 seconds tocymbals. Four brothers operate it and the age of thefinish one disc. (7) The similar process is carriedeldest is presumed to be early 40s. The workshop,

out again, although the tempo of hammering is now

which is closed by walls on three sides, is a bit

about 60 times within 24 seconds. (8) A person con-

small but functional. Manufacturing of disc gongs

trolling a blower is replaced by the second brother,was documented here. The conduct of each task

and only the third brother hammers around thewas swift and precise and seems to have been ac-edge 43 times within 20 seconds. It is hammeredcustomed through their daily manufacturing.

at the position where a half of the hammering face

The manufacturing process of the disc gongs isof the hammer hits out of the disc edge. (9) Only

described below. (1) Mold sand (wet black sand in-

the third brother hammers in a spiral direction 40

cluding little clay) is heaped directly on an earthen

times within 20 seconds from near the edge towards

ﬂoor, in a form of a disc with about 35cm in diam-

the center. It is hammered more weakly than wheneter and 6cm in height. Then the sand is depressedhammered by two persons. (10) The third brotherwith a clay stamp to make a hollow measuring about

hammers around the edge for 20 seconds on his

13cm in diameter and 1cm in depth, and grain pow-

own, in a way in which the half of the hammering

der is splayed to the hollow. (2) High-tin bronze (22%face of the hammer hits outside the disc edge. Thistin and 78% copper) , which shows silver-white

process is repeated twice. The thickness of the disccolor in its section, is melted in a melting pot withbecomes about 5 mm in this process (a stone anvil

6kg capacity using charcoal heat and then poured

is always employed until this process, and two discs

to the mold. (3) After one minute, it is removed fromare both processed in the same way. Hammering is

the mold and immediately hammered around nearapplied only on the one face and the other face isthe edge of the disc which is placed on a stone an-never hammered). (11) The third brother places avil, using a rounded iron bar which does not have adisc on a slightly depressed wooden anvil and turns

handle and is about 5cm in diameter and 20cm inthe disc. The ﬁrst brother hammers around the part

length. Then, the disc is stood against a stone an-near the edge using a rounded iron bar previously

㻠㻕

㻝㻞㻥

‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb/07/.-/.-1//.833

³$VLDQ+LJK7LQ%URQ]HV3URGXFWLRQ7HFKQRORJ\DQG5HJLRQDO&KDUDFWHULVWLFV´

used. It seems to modulate bulges. (12) Standing theare in the shape of a vertically sided shallow bowl

disc vertically on another wooden anvil, the firstplaced upside down and have a hemispherical pro-brother hammers around its side in a short pitch

trusion called “navel” in the center) is as follows.

using a small iron hammer with a handle while the(1) High-tin bronze (22.2% tin and 77.8% copper)

third brother turns it (Prefatory Photo 27). Thisis poured into a clay mold which has a depression

process is repeated three times. (13) While the ﬁrst

measuring a little less than 40cm in diameter andbrother turns it on the stone anvil, the third brotherabout 2.5cm in depth (the mold is made of clay tem-

hammers on the raised face, which has not been

pered with chaﬀ and is ﬁred with charcoal after it

hammered, in order to make it nearly ﬂat (leaving

is dried). The removal of a solidiﬁed surface layer,

it slightly raised) using a wooden hammer with aby pinching it with wooden sticks and dragging it

hammering face measuring about 8cm in diameter.

out of the mold, removes waste inclusion such as

Hammering is done about 60 times within 20 sec-

ﬂoating charcoal bits. (2) The turner (a worker who

onds and this is repeated twice (all hammering isturns a disc) heats the disc as he holds it with ironhot forging until this process). (14) Heating the disc

tongs and turns it using an iron bar which has auntil it evenly turns red. The third brother holds it

crooked end, as seen in the workshops in India andwith two tongs, and immerses it vertically into dirty

South Korea. Air is sent to a charcoal furnace us-

water in a large bucket for hardening. The speed

ing a two cylindrical bellows standing vertically. Toof immersion is neither so swift nor intentionallymove the disc between the heating furnace and theslow. (15) Because one of these two discs was de-forging anvil, another worker pulls a rope which

formed (skewed) through the hardening process, it

is tied with the tongs through a pulley on the ceil-

was heated, hammered with a wooden hammer andings. (3) Standing the disc vertically, it is at firsthardened again. But it was still slightly deformed.

hammered at its side (a thick part). (4) Then, plac-(16) The disc is cold forged on an iron anvil for two

ing the disc horizontally on an iron anvil (it is an

minutes in order to mend its deformation (Prefatoryiron bar which is about 10cm in diameter and is

Photo 28). The sound is checked by banging it withembedded in the ground. The working face of thisa wooden stick. (17) The side of the disc is rasped

anvil is thus circular) it is forged by three hammer-

and a slightly uneven front face is scraped with aing workers sitting on a chair in the opposite side ofsteel hand-tool. The traces of scraping look like a

the turner. (5) Because the disc is too large for thedecoration motif due to their reﬂection of light. On

turner, who holds it with tongs, to ﬁx the angle be-its convex reverse face, which is covered with an

tween the disc and the iron anvil, the disc is placedoxidized layer and represents dark gray, a draft of aon two clay mounds built at the turnerʼs side of theﬂower motif is drawn and then the lines are incised

anvil in order to lift it and ﬁx the angle. The gong iswith a steel hand-tool to make liner decorations. (18)shaped while the location and the height of the clay

After ﬁnishing the disc by scraping, the edge of themounds are changed. The turnerʼs tongs holding thedisc is pinched by fingers and the disc is banged

center of the disc is positioned between these two

with a wooden stick. While listening to its sound theclay mounds which are about 25cm apart. (6) The

positions to pierce holes for hanging rope are de-first forging is about 45 times within 30 seconds.

cided. After drilling holes at these positions, a rope

While turning the disc, hammering starts from its

is put through them to ﬁnish.

central part. Because the distance that is hammeredin a circle is not so large, the forging ﬁnishes when
the disc is still in a reddish tone. (7) In the second

0\DQPDU
T he manufactur ing technolog y of high-tin

forging, the position outside the central part of thebronze tools in Myanmar is described here by refer-disc is hammered and then hammering positions

ring to the video documents recorded in 2002 by

gradually move towards its edge. Thus, the clay

Mr. Masatoyo Miyoshi, a metalworking artist (liv-mounds are moved far from the iron anvil towards

ing in Kita, Osaka) and to his report (a report of thethe turner and are raised. Forging is conducted forOverseas Study Program for Artists, the Agency

about 30 seconds in one turn. As the distance ofCultural Aﬀairs, 2002)

hammering in a circle becomes longer, it is hammered about 70 times in one turn. By bending

A manufacturing process of large gongs (they㻝㻟㻜‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb/1.

/.-/.-1//.833

+DUXKLVD0LIXQH

the edge of the disc, the side of the gong is almost

same form in a short time. The bowl is hammered

formed. (8) An iron plate is stood on the near half ofwithin a depressed wooden anvil using a round-the iron anvil and the edge of the gong is placed atheaded iron hammer in order to make its curvature

the right angle in the corner between the iron plateeven. All of these processes are hot forging. Afterand the anvil. To make a sharp carination between

hardening, it is scraped, polished and then ﬁnished.

the bottom and the side of the gong which is shaped

For the production of small bowls, a high-tin

like a shallow bowl, the inside of the gong is beaten

bronze disc measuring 5cm in diameter and 1cm

with a wooden hammer which has an acute-angled

in thickness is cast and the ﬁrst forging is carriedhead (Photo 1). (9) The gong is placed on its backout on an iron anvil while it is still very hot. Afteron a large wooden board with a hole about 20cm

hammering the disc hard around its center in orderin diameter and a “navel” (protrusion) is hammered

to spread and thin the disc, the disc is placed verti-

out at its center by beating it from the inside using

cally and its side is hammered around to preventa wooden hammer or a round-ended wooden stick.

its edge from spreading and cracking. Then, it isSimultaneously, two hammering workers make its

hammered in a circle from its center towards its

bottom even with wooden hammers (all hammer-edge. Four bowls are piled together and they areings are hot forging until this process). It becomes

hammered in circle to spread from the center to thea large gong measuring about 80cm in diameter.

edge again to the dimension of 9cm in diameter. As(10) It is evenly heated while holding it upside down

it is hammered one round it is heated again every

and turning it in a furnace. To judge the tempera-

time. This process of hammering from the center

ture suitable for hardening, the color of bronze isto the edge is repeated. And, the inside of the pile

observed by frequently wiping oﬀ charcoal powderof the bowls is hammered on a depressed wooden

lying on its surface using a cloth attached at the end

anvil using a round-headed wooden hammer in or-of a stick. The gong is carried from the furnace to a

der to round the angle between the bottom and thewater tank in ﬁve seconds and quenched in water,side. After dividing it to each bowl, the side of eachholding its bottom upwards, for hardening (Photobowl is hammered in the same way, using a wooden

2). (11) To make it sound better, it is formed by cold

hammer, to make its thickness even. All of these

forging. The both faces are hammered. While ham-processes are hot forging so far, and bowls with amering it is pressed down with a wooden stick inrounded base, measuring 12cm in diameter at theorder to decrease hammering vibrations or is placed

rim and 6cm in height, are formed. After harden-

on an iron anvil. After drilling two holes to put aing, the rim and other parts are made ﬁne circle byrope, it is ﬁnished.

cold forging on an iron anvil using an iron hammer.
After that, scraping is carried out.

For the manufacturing of a spoon about 17cm
long, ﬁrstly high-tin bronze (ratio of tin is unknown)

A scraping lathe is turned in the same manner

is poured to a deep hollow in an oiled stone mold.

as the hand lathe in India. One end of a rope which

When it is cast the bowl of the spoon is not ﬂat. Af-

is tied to a spindle shaft is bound to a foot pedal

ter eight seconds, when it is still very hot, the ﬁrst

and the other end is bound to the end of a bamboo

forging is carried out on an iron anvil (a column

stick. Stepping on the pedal by a left foot makes theembedded in a ground with its top emerging above

lathe turn in one direction and loosening the pedal

the ground to 6-10cm and measuring about 13cm inmakes it turn in a reverse direction because thediameter. Its working face is not ﬂat but is slightly

rope is pulled by the bamboo stick which functions

convex) for 20 seconds using an iron hammer. At

as a spring. The bamboo is repeatedly bent like afirst its handle is vertically flattened in order toﬁshing rod. By putting a bronze bowl on the turning

make it easy to hold with tongs and then the bowl

shaft with wax, it is scraped with a steel scraper.

is spread. By heating with charcoal, further forging
makes the handle horizontally ﬂat again. Forging is

,QGRQHVLD

conducted for a pile of six spoons at once. By forg-

A manufacturing technology of high-tin bronze

ing them together the spoons are not cooled very

tools in Indonesia is introduced here, referring toquickly and it is possible to forge them for a longer

the video footage documented by Masatoyo Miyoshi

time. This is also suitable for forging them to theagain.
㻝㻟㻝‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb/1//.-/.-1//.833

³$VLDQ+LJK7LQ%URQ]HV3URGXFWLRQ7HFKQRORJ\DQG5HJLRQDO&KDUDFWHULVWLFV´

The manufacturing process of large gongs (inpart of the disc has been kept thick by not ham-a shape of a shallow bowl placed upside down andmering it during the first half of the work. (8) By

have a hemispherical protrusion called “navel” intuning the disc in the hole, the base of its edge isthe center) is as follows. (1) A disc made of high-tin

hammered outwards until the diameter of the gong

bronze (ratio of tin is unknown) measuring aboutbecomes a desired dimension. Now the disc gong

40cm in diameter and 2cm in thickness is cast in ais placed slightly obliquely on a vertical face of anmold which has a circular hollow. After heating, theiron anvil and hammered with a wooden hammer

disc is placed vertically and its side is hammeredfrom the inside in order to shape its side to the one

with an iron hammer. (2) The disc is placed on a

inclining inward towards a rim. It becomes a large

charcoal furnace to which air is sent by an electricgong measuring 70cm or more in diameter. (9) The

blower and is turned in one direction to another us-

gong is heated in a furnace by turning it over sev-

ing two iron sticks. (3) The disc is placed on an ironeral times. When it becomes red, it is placed on its

anvil embedded in the ground (its working face isback and an iron ring is put to its edge (to prevent

ﬂat and about 30cm by 10cm) and hot forging is car-deformation at quenching?). Then it is carried fromried out by four standing workers. The angle of thethe furnace to a water tank by two persons using

disc to the iron anvil is determined by the height

tongs, and after four seconds, it is quenched forof a clay mound. The clay mound is placed at thehardening. Another person pushes it with a stick toleft side of a turner, and hammering workers locate

sink it from the back. (10) After hardening, it is coldthemselves at the opposite side or the right side offorged to form. The both faces are hammered, be-

the turner. Hammering begins when the surface is

ing held with a wooden stick or being set on an ironbrightly red (pinkish) and ends when red color fades

anvil in order to decrease the vibrations (Photo 6).

out on its surface and faintly remains in its core. (4)Setting the gong on an iron stand, the inside of its

The ﬁrst hammering is 108 times within 45 seconds

side is hammered, too. To ﬁnd a place to strike forand 139 times in 54 seconds. The part which istuning its sound, a ﬁst-sized clay lump is put on theabout 10cm inside of the edge is hammered a half

both faces of the gong being struck, or the diﬀerenc-round, and then the outer part is hammered a half

es of its vibration is examined by faintly touching its

round to spread the disc outward. After hammering

surface. Then, it is ﬁnished (Photo 7).

a half round, the direction of hammering is reversed
and the hammering does not go beyond the half of-DSDQ

the disc. After ﬁnishing this half, the other half isThree examples, for which workshops were

hammered in the same way. The hammering paceinvestigated or the technology is known from pub-decreases to about 70 times within 30 seconds be-lished reports, are reported here. Other workshops

cause the disc becomes thin and gets cooled moreof high-tin bronze tools in Japan cannot be recog-

quickly. The position at which previous hammering

nized so far.

stopped is marked by a white line drawn by a chalk

The investigation of Koide Cymbals Factoryor something and the next hammering starts fromin Hirano, Osaka, is reported below. This factory

this line. The central part of the disc, about 20cm

manufactures cymbals made of high-tin bronze

in diameter, is not hammered and its outer part isconsisting of 20% tin and 80% copper for a dram

only hammered to spread the disc. (5) While being

set used for modern music. Brass cymbals are usu-

forged with an iron hammer, the disc is also ham-ally used for practice and this factory manufactures

mered with wooden hammers by two workers. This

only high-tin bronze cymbals. Toshio Koike, theis not to spread the disc but to shape it (Photo 4). (6)representative director, began the manufacture of

In the second half of the work, forging is repeatedcymbals by learning it on his own around 1998 andfrom the center to the edge to spread the disc, andit continues until now. High-tin bronze are imported

the edge is bent and raised (Photo 5). (7) Placing thefrom Turkey. After heating a thin disc in a furnacedisc on a hole, which is about 18cm in diameter andand hardening it (Photo 8), it is processed by cold

located beside the embedded iron anvil, a “navel” isspinning. In this process in a cold state, the control

protruded at the center of the disc by beating withof temperature for hardening is important and ade-an iron hammer. To produce this navel the central

quate heating is needed. After spinning, its sound is㻝㻟㻞‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb/10/.-/.-1//.833

+DUXKLVD0LIXQH

tuned by cold forging. Percussion instruments madetured high-tin bronze tools. The gongs produced byof high-tin bronze have complex characteristics as a

Iraku Uozumi have the shape of a circular shallow

musical instrument. For example, the sound of cym-

bowl placed upside down, with a protrusion called abals becomes muﬄed for a while after spinning or“navel” in its center.

cold forging and the sound becomes poorer after its
use for several years. To make the sound of cymbals

6XPPDU\

better it is important to shape an extremely thin

In the manufacturing method of high-tin bronze

large disc, with less than 1mm thick, to a regulartools by casting, the products are formed by hot

shape. Sometimes it gets broken by hard percussion

forging and then further shaped by cold forging

when playing music. Cymbals are manufactured

after it is hardened. Cold forging of music instru-

taking care of both sound quality and strength.

ments after the hardening is carried out in order

The investigation of a Rinʼyo Workshop Ltd. into tune their sound. The basic process is generally

Minami, Kyoto is reported as follows. This workshop

identical between India, Myanmar and Indonesia,

manufactures Orin, one of singing bowls for Bud-although the way in which they are hammered anddhist altar ﬁttings. According to Katsuaki Shirai, a

the angles at which they are quenched in water forworkshop owner, his genealogy can be traced backhardening are different. Photographs displayed into the foundation of the workshop in 1843. The

the Brass Ware Museum in Daegu, South Korea,

products of this workshop are percussion instru-

demonstrate that gongs were manufactured in Southments, such as Orin and singing bowls used as a

Korea until recently in a similar manner to themusical accompaniment at Yamaboko parade ofbowls and spoons manufactured in India and Myan-the Gion festival. High-tin bronze consisting of 20%

mar, namely hot forging of a pile of gongs. This fact

or more tin and 70% or more copper is cast to thetell us that an extremely similar method of hot forg-

shape of Orin (bowl-shaped) by a traditional Mane-ing and hardening was employed in India, Myanmar

gata casting method (casting in a baked mold which

and South Korea, although the manufacture tech-is made of burnt sand and clay). After heating, it isnology in the continent of China must be compared

quenched for hardening and scraped with a lathe.

with them in further studies.

After polished, decorations are sometimes incisedSome copper bowls in the Goryeo and the Jo-

on its surface with a graver. Finally, it is heatedseon periods in South Korea are made of high-tin

again, and gradually cooled and ﬁnished. This heat-bronze including 20-21% tin. Metallographic obser-

ing process is quite important because it inﬂuences

vations suggest that some of them were made by hot

the quality of its sound. An Orin produced at thisforging and hardening㻢㻕. They are thin, about 0.3mm

workshop makes a sound with a slightly high andthick. High-tin bronze bowls at the workshop inlong tone due to this heating process (Photo 9).

India have the same thickness, and the manufac-

Iraku Uozumi studied the manufacture technol-ture methods of the both are possibly identical.

ogy of gongs around 1937 as he worked in a factory

Metallographic observations also show that, amongfor Buddhist altar ﬁttings in Osaka. He came backcopper bowls containing 20% tin in the Goryeo pe-

to Kanazawa to begin the manufacture of gongs byriod, some were manufactured by hardening casthimself. High-tin bronze consisting of 20.6% tin andbronze 㻢㻕. They have a stand and thus are diﬃcult to79.4% copper (the ratio of tin to copper is 26 to 100)

make by forging.

is cast to the shape of a gong by a lost-wax casting

The heat treatment of Orin in modern Japanmethod in which plates of wax is put inside a clay

is characteristics and different from the high-tin

mold that is made by turning a gauge. After polish-

bronze tools produced in other regions because it ising, hardening and cold forging are carried out. Af-

heated and slowly cooled before ﬁnishing. The time

ter that, it is heated again until it turns to dark red

and place in which this technology was originallyand is gradually cooled to finish 㻡㻕. It is formed bydeveloped is still unknown. In any cases, heating

casting, then hardened, heated and cooled slowly.

and slow cooling make the products more fragile.

This method is diﬀerent from that of forged gongs

So this process is probably applied for Orin, which

manufactured in other regions. After the death ofis always rung gently and is expected to make better

Iraku Uozumi in 1964, his successor has manufac-

sound. Gongs produced by Uozumi might have been㻝㻟㻟‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb/11/.-/.-1//.833

³$VLDQ+LJK7LQ%URQ]HV3URGXFWLRQ7HFKQRORJ\DQG5HJLRQDO&KDUDFWHULVWLFV´

produced by borrowing the manufacture techniquefor China. In future Chinese scholars will investigate

of Orin made of high-tin bronze because there are

and provide the information on the modern technol-

some similarities in their production. The gongs

ogy of high-tin bronze tools in China. Furthermore,

by Uozumi which were used in a tea room is to be

as the investigation of workshops for high-tin bronze

struck more strongly than the Orin made of high-tin

tools in the regions west of India develops, the in-bronze, while it is struck more gently than the gongs

formation on the modern manufacturing technolo-

in South Asia and South Korea. It is thus supposed

gies of high-tin bronze tools in the whole Asia willthat the ratio of tin in the Uozumiʼs gongs is lower

be collected. Some elements of the current technol-

than that in Orin in order not to get broken easily.

ogy employed in each region might have been dif-

It has been explained that the gong displayed

fused in modern times, and the origin and the routein the Gallery of Horyuji Treasures, Tokyo Nationalof diﬀusion of ancient technology must be examined

Museum, 35.0cm in diameter, 5.4cm in height andcarefully from an archaeological viewpoint. The

4mm in thickness, from the Kamakura period㻣㻕, isinvestigations of the modern workshops for high-tin

similar to the gong in South Korea because it lacks

bronze tools containing more than 20% copper en-a hemispherical protrusion (“navel”) in its center.

ables us to study a history of manufacture technol-

However, the center of the gong in Tokyo Nationalogy of high-tin bronze tools since the ancient times

Museum is slightly depressed while the gong ofin a more practical way. Therefore, I believe that theSouth Korea has an almost ﬂat surface (a face to be

primary purpose of this paper was accomplished.

struck). Hammering traces on its whole surface arecoarse and leave sharp and deep hammering marks$FNQRZOHGJPHQWV

aligned in concentric circles. If this is made of high-To complete this paper, I would like to expresstin bronze, such deep traces of hammering are like-my gratitude to those who were working at surveyed

ly to have been produced by hot forging. However,workshops for high-tin bronze tools in India andit was hammered on its front face using an ironSouth Korea and to the following persons for theirhammer, by setting its reverse face on an iron anvil

supports and advices.

and this is diﬀerent from the gongs in modern South

Eun-Seok Lee, Srinivasa Ranganathan, R. M.

Korea, Myanmar or Indonesia, for which a reverse

Pillai, Sharada Srinivasan, Vimal Kumar, Masatoyo

face is hammered through hot forging. The context

Miyoshi, Toshio Koide, Katsuaki Shirai, Yasuji Shi-of its production will become clear through further

mizu, Takekazu Nagae, Kimiko Shimazoe, Saho Shi-

studies of the history of the gong manufacturing

batatechnology in East Asia.
The gong recently purchased by Fuminori Su-

1RWHV

gaya in central Vietnam is made of brass consisting1) The copper bowl recovered from Gunma Prefectureof 32% zinc and 68% copper, measuring 31cm in

was reconstructed by Mr. Ninʼichi Wada, the turnerdiameter, 4cm in height at its edge and 0.8-1.2mm

living in Takaoka, Toyama.

in thickness (its form is similar to gongs in Myan-

2) Takekazu Nagae and Haruhisa Mifune (eds.), Tech-mar and Indonesia, where it has a hemisphericalnologies of Heat treatment and manufacturing in

protrusion or a “navel” in the center and is particu-

Korean Peninsula. Report of Researcher Exchanges

larly similar to those of Indonesia because it has a

Program of JSPS in 2009, (ISBN978-4-9905066-0-

concave band running in circle around a flat face5), Faculty of Art and Design, University of Toyama,㻠㻕outside the navel). It has hammering traces on its

2010.

whole surface and was probably made by cold forg-3) Sharada Srinivasan and Ian Glover, Skilled mir-ing. The concave band was hammered out from its

ror craft of intermetallic delta high-tin bronze

front face. Its detail, for example whether or not the(Cu 31Sn 8 ,32.6% tin) from Aranmula, Kerala. In:

technology of high-tin bronze gongs was applied toHeat Treatment and Casting Techniques of Asian

produce this brass gong, is yet to be known.

High-Tin Bronze Wares. Faculty of Art and Design,This paper introduced the modern technology

University of Toyama, pp.3-8, 2008.

used at the workshops of high-tin bronze tools in4) The result of the X-ray ﬂuorescence analysis on themain regions of Asia from India to the east, except

polished surface of the product by Dr. Takekazu㻝㻟㻠‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb/12/.-/.-1//.833

+DUXKLVD0LIXQH

Nagae (University of Toyama).

cesses. (Photo by Mr. Katsuaki Shirai)

5) Hiromichi Kimura, Iraku Uozumi: the manufacturing
process of the gong. Shodo Sasaki, In: Kiyoshi Unʼ
no and Iraku Uozumi. Living National Treasures
Series 28. Kodansha, 1979.
6) Takekazu Nagae and Sang-Yong Lee, Metallography ofhigh-tin bronze tools in Goryeo and Joseon periods.
In: Technologies of Heat treatment and manufacturing in Korean Peninsula. Report of Researcher
Exchanges Program of JSPS in 2009, (ISBN978-49905066-0-5), Faculty of Art and Design, University of Toyama, pp. 81-93, 194-196, 2010.
7) Treasures Dedicated to Horyuji. Tokyo National Museum, 1975.
Photo 1. Hot forging of the gong in Myanmar. The carination of the bent side is forged from the insideusing a wooden hammer. (From the video footage
documented by Mr. Masatoyo Miyoshi)
Photo 2. Hardening of the gong in Myanmar. Heateddram is quenched by dipping it from the back intoa water tank for hardening. (From the video footage
documented by Mr. Masatoyo Miyoshi)
Photo 3. Cold forging of the gong in Myanmar. Afterhardening, it is hammered as held with a wooden
stick. (From the video footage documented by Mr.
Masatoyo Miyoshi)
Photo 4. Hot forging of the gong in Indonesia. Whileforging with an iron hammer, it is formed by beating with an wooden hammer. (From the video footage documented by Mr. Masatoyo Miyoshi)
Photo 5. Hot forging of the gong in Indonesia. The side
is high, and the rim is strongly inclined. (From thevideo footage documented by Mr. Masatoyo Miyoshi)
Photo 6. Cold forging of the gong in Indonesia. Afterhardening, it is beaten with an iron hammer toform, as held with a wooden stick. (From the video
footage documented by Mr. Masatoyo Miyoshi)
Photo 7. The ﬁnished gongs in Indonesia. The gongs arranged at the entrance of the workshop. (From thevideo footage documented by Mr. Masatoyo Miyoshi)
Photo 8. Hardening in Koide Cymbals Factory. A thin
disc of high-tin bronze measuring about 1mm thickis hardened and cold-forged.
Photo 9. Orin and a call bell of Rinʼyo Workshop. The
both are made of high-tin bronze containing 20%
or more tin, through heating and slow cooling pro㻝㻟㻡‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb/13/.-/.-1//.833㻝㻟㻢‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb/14/.-/.-1//.833

the Horyuji temple indicate around 20 % Sn through

2ULJLQDQGGLIIXVLRQRIELQDU\KLJKWLQEURQ]HZDUHVLQWURGXFWLRQRIVDKDULLQWR-DSDQ

nondestructive testing (成瀬 2002; 村上 2005). As
has been reported by a recent paper (庄田 et al.
2009), modern Korean yugi wares also demonstrate<DVXML6KLPL]X

similar proportions, i.e., c. 78 % Cu and c. 22%$UFKDHRORJLFDO,QVWLWXWHRI.DVKLKDUD1DUD3UHIHFWXUH

Sn. Metallurgically, binary high-tin bronze wares-DSDQ

contain more than 10% Sn in a broad sense andmore than 16% Sn in a narrow sense. In addition,
binary high-tin bronze wares are further divided,,QWURGXFWLRQ
Treasures of the Shosoin and the Horyuji temple

into ʻsmallʼ (10% to 16% Sn), ʻmediumʼ (16% to 25%

include many high-tin bronze vessels called sahari .

Sn), and ʻlargeʼ (more than 25% Sn), based on the

The name of sahari itself introduced into Japanproportions of Sn contents (長柄 2008). In general,since the Early Modern period, while hakudo wasʻmediumʼ high-tin bronze wares are applied thermal

used as the name of high-tin bronze wares in antiq-

treatment processes for the purpose of improve-uity (成瀬 2002). The wares were also named kyodo

ment of strength. For this reason, ʻmediumʼ high-tin

in China, employed to make musical instruments

bronze wares have been termed as ʻthermally pro-like dora s or gongs. In principal, sahari consists ofcessedʼ high-tin bronze wares ( 長柄 2010). The pro-lead-free alloys, characterized by two main compo-

portion of 10% to 16% Sn of ʻthermally processedʼ

nents of copper (Cu) and tin (Sn). These binary high-high-tin bronze wares is also an appropriate range

tin bronze wares were produced through forging or

in order to perform thermal treatment processes. On

casting. In addition, thermal treatment techniquethe other hand, over 25% Sn contents in the alloys

as a hardening process was often applied to the

disturb the thermal processes for the purpose of im-production. In general, bronze wares in East Asian

provement of strength, since the processes eliminate

regions, represented by bronze mirrors in ancientthe α phase in the matrix. For this reason, strength

China, consist of leaded high-tin alloys, althoughof ʻlargeʼ high-tin bronze wares might be insuﬃcient

small-scale, but earlier use of lead-free high-tin

to perform thermal treatment. However, ʻthermallybronze wares was also identiﬁed in the regions. On

processedʼ high-tin bronze wares in this paper com-the other hand, the appearance of binary high-tin

prise ʻlargeʼ and ʻmiddleʼ high-tin bronze wares forbronze vessels, which comparable to sahari vessels

the convenience of the study.

in the collection of the Shosoin, in the East Asian

Second, presence or absence of lead (Pb) in theregions has apparently conﬁrmed at relatively later

alloys is pushed forward. Binary high-tin bronze

stages of use of the alloys, suggesting establishedwares are principally lead-free alloys, but the wares

binary high-tin bronze technology was introduced

represented by bronze mirrors in East Asian regions

into the East Asian regions including Japan fromcontain around 5 % Pb in general. Aggregated Pb

some other places ( 清水 2009).

components in the alloys often develop cracks be-

Based on components of alloys, fabrication tech-cause of impacts of forging (Craddock et al. 1988),

niques (forging/casting), and thermal treatment pro-which is the major fabrication technique of binary

cesses, this paper deals with dates and distributions

high-tin bronze wares. Possible provenances of leadof binary high-tin bronze artifacts recovered fromin the alloys include intentional admixture, con-various regions of Asia, in an attempt to investigate

taminant from ores, and contaminant from re-usedorigin and diﬀusion of binary high-tin bronze wares.

bronze wares. For this reason, this paper tentatively
deﬁnes less than 1% Pb contents as an attribute ofbinary high-tin bronze wares.

,, 'HILQLWLRQ DQG FODVVLILFDWLRQ RI ELQDU\ KLJKWLQ

Third, thermal treatment is a signiﬁcant element

EURQ]HZDUHVof binary high-tin bronze wares. Modern Korean'HÀQLWLRQRIELQDU\KLJKWLQEURQ]HZDUHVFirst, binary high-tin bronze wares are deﬁned(i.e., yugi ) and Indian high-tin bronze productions

as high-tin alloys called sahari , kyodo , or hakudo

involve thermal treatment techniques for polish-

in East Asian historical contexts. For example, someing at the ﬁnal stage of the productions ( 長柄 et al.

sahari artifacts in the collections of the Shosoin and2009). In principal, the thermal processes are re㻝㻟㻣‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb/15/.-/.-1//.833

³$VLDQ+LJK7LQ%URQ]HV3URGXFWLRQ7HFKQRORJ\DQG5HJLRQDO&KDUDFWHULVWLFV´system (Table 1).
quired to improve strength of the bronze wares atthe points of polishing and practical use, although,,,'DWHVDQGGLVWULEXWLRQVRIELQDU\KLJKWLQEURQ]H

some high-tin bronze wares with around 22% Sn

ZDUHVLQ$VLD )LJVDQG

have been made without the thermal processes.

The following sections illustrate an overview ofLast, fabrication techniques of forging and cast-binary high-tin bronze wares in various regions ining should be considered. In East Asia, casting wasAsia. Attentions will particularly be paid to bronze

the major technique of bronze fabrications includ-

vessels, since the vessels from the regions possibly

ing high-tin bronze wares in general. On the othercontain common characteristics. Because a previous

hand, in the ancient Near and Middle East, purepaper by the author (清水 2009) has also surveyed

copper or high-copper alloys were often fabricatedvarious high-tin bronze artifacts from the regions,through forging. The major fabrication techniqueonly recent information will be reviewed in the fol-of high-tin bronze wares was also hot forging inlowings.

general, although minor adjustments after thermal-DSDQ

treatment and tuning of percussion instruments

High-tin bronze wares ﬁrst appeared as leaded

represented by dora s were performed through cold

alloys in Japan in the Yayoi Period. Those bronze

forging. Some binary high-tin bronze wares wereartifacts were apparently imported from the Korean

fabricated through casting. Nevertheless, principal

Peninsula. In the Late Yayoi period, high-tin leaded

fabrication technique of the lead-free high-tin alloys

bronze mirrors comparable with Han-style mir-

was hot forging, since absence of lead is closely rel-rors in China were locally produced in Japan. The

evant to forging technique.

proportions of Sn contents of the local mirrors cor-

&ODVVLÀFDWLRQFULWHULDIRUELQDU\KLJKWLQEURQ]HZDUHV

respond to the range of ʻmediumʼ high-tin bronze
wares (久野 1989).

Based on above-mentioned elements of binary
high-tin bronze wares, classiﬁcation criteria of the

Possible candidates of the earliest binary high-artifacts are established. First, S(a) is defined astin bronze wares appeared in the Late Kofun periodbronze wares with more than 16% Sn content, while(early 6th century AD) in Japan. The bronze wares

S(b) is under 16% Sn content. The minimum Sn con-are mainly composed of bronze vessels like bronze

tent of S(b) corresponds to the range of ʻsmallʼ high-bowls. 113 bronze bowls have thus far been docu-

tin bronze wares. Second, P(a) is deﬁned as bronze

mented (毛利光 1991), but few destructive analyses

wares with under 1% Pb content, while P(b) is moreof the bowls have been conducted. For this reason,

than 1% Pb content. Third, H(a) is deﬁned as bronze

the proportions of Sn contents of the bronze bowls

wares with thermal treatment like quenching, while

have not yet been clearly confirmed. Because no

H(b) has no thermal treatment. Last, F(a) represents

metallographic examinations of the bowls have also

forging, while C(b) represents casting. Attributes

been conducted, fabrication techniques (forging

represented by (a) in the criteria indicate charac-or casting) of the bowls remain to be attested. So

teristics of binary high-tin bronze wares. For thisfar, only morphological analyses or observations ofreason, bronze wares composed of S(a)+P(a) +H(a)hammering traces with naked eyes show the fabri-+F(a) corresponds to typical binary high-tin bronze

cation techniques of the bronze bowls. As a result,wares. On the other hand, bronze wares composed

typical binary high-tin bronze wares (Type A1) haveof S(b) ＋ P(b) ＋ H(b) ＋ C(b) contain no attributes of

not yet been attested in the Kofun period.
Further examination of chemical composi-

typical binary high-tin bronze wares.
In the classiﬁcation system, two attributes of Sn

tions of the bowls has certainly been required,

proportions and fabrication techniques are empha-

but, recently, some data of the compositions has

sized. As a result, S(a)+F(a), S(a)+C(b), S(b)+F(a) andbeen published. For example, a sample from theS(b)+C(b) represent Type A, Type B, Type CA, andZaruuchi Ouketsu site in Fukushima prefecture

Type CB respectively. Based on the rest two attri-

contains 70% Cu, 25% Sn, and 5% Pb. Based on

butes of presence or absence of thermal treatment

morphological observation, casting technique wasand Pb proportions, these types are further subdi-

apparently employed for fabrication of the sample

vided. In theory, sixteen types (from A1 to CB4) of(押本 2002), assigned to Type B2 or Type B4 of thebinary high-tin bronze wares are established in theclassiﬁcation system deﬁned above. A bronze bowl㻝㻟㻤‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb/16/.-/.-1//.833

<DVXML6KLPL]X

from the Tonoda Kofun site in Okayama prefecturefrom the Shosoin show clear traces of forging tech-contains 70% Cu, 17% Sn, and 13% Pb ( 持田 et al.

nique. For this reason, it is most probable that hot2010). Because the high proportion of Pb generally

forging and thermal treatment processes were ap-

disturbs forging technique, the bowl was probably

plied to the spoons, although thermal treatments

fabricated through casting, assigned to Type B4. A

were not clearly conﬁrmed. As a result, the spoons

similar bronze bowl from the Kojin Nishi Kofun site

are assigned to Type A1 or Type A3. Because suchin Okayama prefecture contains 83% Cu, 1% Sn,

shape of artifacts as the spoons are required ther-and 16% Pb ( 持田 et al. 2010). Because of the large

mal treatment processes for practical uses, A1 is the

proportion of Pb in the contents, casting techniquemost probable type of the bronze spoons. Other bi-

without thermal treatments was possibly employednary high-tin bronze wares like bronze bowls with-for fabrication of the bowl. Although bronze bowls

out lead are possibly assigned to Type B1 or Typeare a typical characteristic of binary high-tin bronze

B3.

wares, the bowl from the Kojin Nishi Kofun site con-

In summary, the earliest bronze vessels thattains no attributes of binary high-tin bronze wares.

were closely associated with binary high-tin bronze

On the other hand, sahari bronze wares fromwares in Japan appeared in the Late Kofun period

the collection of the Shosoin, which predominantly(early 6th century AD), although production of high-consist of bronze wares in the Nara period, include

tin leaded bronze wares have been conducted in thebinary high-tin bronze wares, based on the results

Yayoi period. Provenances of bronze bowls in theof nondestructive analyses. Unfortunately, destruc-

Kofun period have not yet been confirmed except

tive analyses of the well-preserved artifacts haveparticular types of vessel shapes, but locally pro-not been performed because of the heritage charac-

duced bowls and imported bowls from the Korean

ter of the collection. The results of nondestructive

Peninsula apparently exited, based on analyses ofanalyses have been published. For example, South

lead isotope ratios (馬淵馬淵 1994). It is not clear wheth-

Section 46 Sahari Plates No. 59 (10 pieces) contains

er hot forging technique or lead-free bronze bowls

c. 80% Cu and c. 20% Sn with small amounts of Fe,

existed, because only small part of the samples has

Ni, and Ag (木村 et al. 1989).

been analyzed so far. It seems that bronze vessels

Sahari wares from the collection of the Horyuji

in the Asuka and Nara periods (7th to 8th century

temple also contain binary high-tin bronze wares inAD) also consist of local and imported artifacts fromthe Asuka and later periods. Because of the same

Silla in the Korean Peninsula, since large number ofreason as the Shosoin case, analyses of the samples

archaeological ﬁnds and stored collections like thehave been based on nondestructive ways. The re-

Shosoin bronze wares have been discovered. Con-

sults showed that samples from the sixth to the sev-

trast to the Kofun period, bronze bowls and spoons

enth century AD indicate around 20% Sn contents.

in the periods certainly contain lead-free bronze

On the other hand, samples from the eighth century

wares. In addition, it is worth reminding that the

AD contained decreased Sn with some Pb contents.

bronze spoons from the Shosoin were possibly fabri-

In the Middle Ages, some samples showed aroundcated through hot forging technique, although prov-

10% Pb contents ( 村上 2005).

enances of the spoons have not yet been conﬁrmed.

No metallographic data of sahari bronze wares

Developments of binary high-tin bronze musicalin the collections of the Shosoin and the Horyuji

instruments in Japan have been poorly understood.

was obtained, but the collections certainly in-

Introduction of the instruments into Japan would

clude forged artifacts like bronze spoons from thehave been later than binary high-tin bronze vessels,

Shosoin, based on morphological observations. For

since no dora s (or gongs) and dobatsu s (or cymbals)

example, South Section 45 Bronze Spoons No. 6 (20included in the ancient collection of the Shosoin

pieces) contains c. 80% Cu and c. 20% Sn in gen-and the Horyuji temple. A dora with the inscription

eral. Among those spoons, 12 pieces had no Pb con-of ʻKencho 8ʼ (1256 AD) probably imported from thetents, while 8 pieces contained very small amount

Korean Peninsula and a contemporary dobatsu haveof Pb ( 木村 et al. 1992). Compared with a cast frombeen stored at the Hyakusaiji temple, Higashi-Omi,

the Bunhwangsa temple, Gyeongju, North Gyeong-

Shiga prefecture (岡本 1995). East Asian style dora ssang (국립경주문화재연구소 2006), the bronze spoons

with a protuberance on the center were often used㻝㻟㻥‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb/17/.-/.-1//.833

³$VLDQ+LJK7LQ%URQ]HV3URGXFWLRQ7HFKQRORJ\DQG5HJLRQDO&KDUDFWHULVWLFV´

as an instrument of the Japanese tea ceremony. For

ing have been conﬁrmed. The stone cast of bronze

this reason, the dora s might be employed in the

spoon in the Uniﬁed Silla Kingdom period was ex-

Azuchi-Momoyama period or later, when the tea

cavated from the Bunhwangsa temple in Gyeongju,

ceremony ﬂourished ( 岡本1995) .

but the smooth-shaped bronze spoons suggest that

.RUHD

the spoons were forged after casting. Most probably,

105 bronze artifacts from the Early Iron Age

the bronze objects consist of binary high-tin bronze(3rd to 1st century BC) until 18th century AD in Ko-

wares, although proportions of the contents haverea were analyzed (Park et al. 2007). Referring the

not yet been clearly conﬁrmed (국립경주문화재연구소

work, this section summarizes the current status of2006).
In the Goryeo period (10th to 14th century AD),the study in the Korean Peninsula.

both of bronze vessels and spoons are composed ofAnalyzed bronze objects in the Early Iron Age

Type A1 binary high-tin bronze wares.

consist of weapons, tools and mirrors. All of thesamples were fabricated through casting, and noBronze vessels and spoons in the Joseon pe-

quenching methods were observed. A cast bronze

riod (14th to 18th century AD) principally consist

mirror from the Wonboongni site (2nd to 1st cen-of Type A1 binary high-tin bronze wares fabricatedtury BC) in South Chungcheong in the Early Iron

through forging and quenching. Among the bronze

Age contains 32% Sn with Pb. The site also pro-vessels, a cast high-tin bronze bowl contains 23%

duced a dagger with 17% Sn. A spearhead from theSn, 4% Pb, and 1% As, assigned to Type B4.
In summary, Type A1 binary high-tin bronze

Tanbangdon site at Daejeon (3rd to 2nd century BC)

wares that consist of bronze spoons appeared in thecontains 22% Sn and 9% Pb.
Samples analyzed by Park and others from the

Unified Silla Kingdom period, while bronze bowls

Korean Three Kingdoms period (4th to 7th century

were fabricated as Type B1. Subsequently, bronzeAD) consist of four cast and a forged bronze objects.

vessels and spoons in the Goryeo period were com-

In the Korean Peninsula, a bronze bowl was attested

posed of Type A1 binary high-tin bronze wares. In

at a tomb in the Lelang commandery of the Eastern

the Joseon period, Type A1 binary high-tin bronze

Han period. Subsequently, a considerable number

wares was the main component, but a Type B4of bronze bowls were excavated from tombs in thebronze ware was also attested. The fabrication tech-

Korean Three Kingdoms period, such as Geumgw-

nique of Type B4 is distinctive from the typical bi-

anchong, Cheonmachong, and the Hwangnam Greatnary high-tin bronze technical tradition.

Tomb in Gyeongju, and the tomb of King Muryeong

In modern Korea, Type A1 binar y high-tin

in Gongju. Anapchi in the Uniﬁed Silla Kingdom pe-bronze musical instruments with 22% Sn represent-

riod also produced bronze bowls ( 朝鮮総督府 1924;

ed by dora (or jing in Korean) are commonly made.

文化財 管理 局 1973; 1974; 1985; 1986). Geumgwan-

However, it seems that the production have started

chong, Cheonmachong, and the Hwangnam Greatno earlier than the 10th century AD. No archaeo-

Tomb contain forged bronze vessels, although there

logical evidence of the dora production has attested

is no available data of proportions of the contents

in the Unified Silla Kingdom period. Considering( 毛利光 1978; 이 2000). The Hwangnam Great Tomb

the dora at the Hyakusaiji temple, Shiga prefecture

produced both of cast and forged copper vessels.

in Japan, possibly imported from the Korean Pen-

Forged vessel consist of more or less pure copper,

insula, the dora production in Korea might have

while cast vessels contains 15% Sn and no quench-

started in the Goryeo period ( 岡本 1995).

ing are performed, classiﬁed the sample into Type&KLQD

CB3 or Type CB4.

A high-tin bronze ware sample with more thanIn the Uniﬁed Silla Kingdom period (7th to 10th

23% Sn has been reported in the Erlitou period (19thcentury AD), lead-free or binary high-tin bronze

to 16th century BC) in China (曲 et al. 1999). Several

wares appeared. The quenched bronze object con-samples from the second millennium BC sites havetains 24% Sn. However, only Sn contents of castalso been analyzed. Among them, considerable databronze artifacts have been indicated. Those are

was obtained from earrings from the Zhukaigou

classiﬁed into Type B1. In addition, Type A1 bronze(around 17th century BC) and Dadianzi (21st to 16th

spoons fabricated through forging with quench-

century BC) sites in Inner Mongolia (李 et al. 2000;㻝㻠㻜‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb/2.

/.-/.-1//.833

<DVXML6KLPL]X

李 et al. 2003). An earring from Zhukaigou contains

wares. However, the origins and developments of

81.3% Cu and 17% Sn, fabricated through hot forg-

the instruments have been poorly understood be-ing. The sample is classiﬁed into Type A1 or Typecause of limited information currently available.

A3. Two earrings from Dadianzi were analyzed.

,QGLD

One hot forged sample contains 81.8% Cu, 15.1%

In India, considerable amount of binary high-tin

Sn, and 3.1% Pb, assigned to Type CA2 or Typebronze wares have been discovered. For example,

CA4. The other cast sample contains 80.8% Cu andthe Taxila site (3rd century BC to 1st century AD)

18.7% Sn, classiﬁed into Type B1 or Type B3. Since

produced binary high-tin bronze wares with 21% to

the second millennium BC, high-tin bronze wares

25% Sn. Because no metallographic data was ob-

have been continually attested in China regardlesstained, thermal treatment or fabrication techniquepresence or absence of lead. However, the earliest

have not yet been conﬁrmed (Marshall 1951).

binary high-tin bronze boat appeared at the Dou-

The Nilgiri (middle to late 1st millennium BC)

wangmiao site in Nanyang, Henan in the Han pe-

and the Adichanallur (early to middle 1st millen-

riod (何 et al. 2010). The sample contains 79.0% Cu

nium BC) sites in Tamil Nadu of south India also

and 18.73% Sn, fabricated through hot forging andproduced Type A1 binary high-tin bronze vessels,

thermal treatment. As a result, the bronze vessel iscontaining around 22% Sn (Ghosh 1990; Srinivasan

classiﬁed into Type A1. High-tin bronze wares have

et al. 1995). Recently, a bronze bowl from the mega-

already attested in the Shan period (郝 et al. 2001)

lithic site of Mahurjhari (c. 800 BC) in Maharashtra

and the Erligang period (孫 1998), but both samples

was analyzed. 16 % Sn content of the bowl is mod-were leaded. For this reason, the archaeologicalest, but it contains typical characters of Type A1

discovery at Douwangmiao suggests that technologi-

binary high-tin bronze wares (長柄 et al. 2010).

cal knowledge of binary high-tin bronze wares were

Mohenjo-daro, a site of the Indus Valley Civiliza-

introduced into China no later than the Han period.

tion (around 2000 BC), have already attested binary

Type A1 binary high-tin bronze musical instru-

high-tin bronze wares with 22.6% Sn and 0.86 % Pb

ments have been confirmed since the Northern(Mackay 1938; Srinivasan 1997). Further investiga-

Song period (960-1127 AD), including percussion in-tions of the ﬁnds should provide new insights for the

struments like gongs or cymbals (何 et al. 2009). The

history of binary high-tin bronze wares.

collection of the Horyuji temple contains a gong of&HQWUDO$VLDDQGWKH0LGGOH(DVW

the Southern and Northern Dynasties period (439-The westernmost archaeological site that pro-

589 AD) ( 香取 1984). Descriptions in the ʻOld Book

duced a binary high-tin bronze vessel is Noruzma-of Tangʼ (945 AD) suggest techniques of binary high-hale Tomb A2 (1st century AD), situated in the Dai-tin bronze musical instruments were introduced intolaman basin, south of the Caspian Sea (江上 et al.

China from some other places ( 清水 2009).

1966). The sample contains 21.38% Sn and c. 1% Pb

6RXWKHDVW$VLD

with obvious hammering traces. Because presence

High-tin bronze wares have been found inor absence of thermal treatment has not been con-Southeast Asia, especially in Thailand. Ban don

ﬁrmed, the bowl is classiﬁed into Type A2 or Type

Taphet (4th century BC to 1st century AD) pro-

A4. It seems that binary high-tin bronze bowls withduced 163 bronze vessels (Bellina et al. 2004).

simple hemispherical wall have been attested in the

Four samples analyzed by Rajpitak (Rajpitak et al.

Early Islamic period in Iran. According to (Allan

1979; Srinivasan et al. 1995) contain 20% to 23%1979), the simple shape of the bowls is closely asso-

Sn without lead. In addition, thermal treatment was

ciated with hot forging.

performed for the samples, assigned them to TypeIn Central Asia, no binary high-tin bronze ves-

A1 or Type B1. Pimai (c. 500 AD) (Smith 1973) andsels have thus far been attested. However, thick

Ban Chaing (late 1st millennium BC) (Wheeler et al.

bronze mirrors with handle have been reported1976) also produced high-tin bronze wares.

in the region (Ravich 1996). The shape of the mir-Subsequently, production of binary high-tin

rors is a common characteristic of binary high-tin

bronze percussion instruments represented by gongs

bronze wares. Analyzed twenty samples containﬂourished in Southeast Asia (Goodway et al. 1987).

more than 20% Sn except one sample. They are also

They are including Type A1 binary high-tin bronze

including Type A1 binary high-tin bronze wares.
㻝㻠㻝‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb/2//.-/.-1//.833

³$VLDQ+LJK7LQ%URQ]HV3URGXFWLRQ7HFKQRORJ\DQG5HJLRQDO&KDUDFWHULVWLFV´The dates range from the sixth century BC to theBC. Bronze bowls from Nilgiri and Adichanallur isthird century AD, but most of the samples date backincluded in Type A1. In addition, they contain someto BC (Fig. 4).

22% Sn. Figure 3 (濱住 1972) shows relationshipA cymbal was uncovered from Noruzmahale

between appropriate Sn proportions and heating

Tomb A 2, associated with the binar y high-tin

temperatures for forging. Top right on the ﬁgure isbronze bowl described above. No analysis of ele-

an appropriate range of high temperature hot forg-

ments of the instrument has been conducted.

ing. Bottom left is a range of forging. Shaded area isan inappropriate range for forging. The ﬁgure indi-,92ULJLQDQGGLIIXVLRQRIELQDU\KLJKWLQEURQ]HZDUHV)LJ

cates that c. 22% Sn proportion correspond to wide

Binary high-tin bronze wares are characterized

to perform hot forging. The wide range of tempera-

by over 16% Sn, lead-free, and hot forging. It ap-

tures enables us to forge bronze wares for relatively

pears that the high-tin alloys are closely associatedlong time after extraction from kiln. For this reason,with bronze vessels and percussion instruments.

Type A1 binary high-tin bronze wares including

In addition, Type A1 binary high-tin bronze waresc. 22% Sn is an accomplished form of the produc-

were also confirmed in the collection of earringstion, suggesting typical binary high-tin bronze warefrom Zhukaigou in Inner Mongolia. Obtained infor-production was established in India or surrounding

mation on binary high-tin bronze wares was limitedareas in the early ﬁrst millennium BC ( 清水 2009).

range of temperatures (530-660 C), which allow us

as has been descried above. However, data current-

Although binary high-tin bronze wares were dis-ly available suggests the origin and possible routes

covered in the Dailaman basin, south of the Caspianof diﬀusion of the alloys.

Sea, no technological traditions of high-tin bronze

A candidate of the earliest binar y high-tin

vessels occurred in regions located west of India. In

bronze wares is a series of earrings from Zhukaigou

the western regions, relatively low-tin bronze vessels

and Dadianzi in China. A sample (No. 2699-2)

were made through forging. Nearchus, an officer

from Zhukaigou belongs to Type A1 binary high-of Alexander the Great, described Indian high-tin

tin bronze wares, but the other contemporary four

bronze wares with admiration (after Straboʼs Geo-samples contain only 8.3-12.5 % Sn ( 李 et al. 2000).

graphica ), suggesting high-tin bronze vessels have

The results suggest production of high-tin bronze

not produced in the regions. A possible reason thatwares have not yet been established in the period.

binary high-tin bronze vessels flourished in India

In addition, earrings (M453: 2) from Dadianzi,

might be inﬂuences from Central Asia, since ancientwhich contemporary with the Lower Xiajiadian cul-

tin mines have been discovered in Uzbekistan andture, consist of Type CA2 and Type CA4, while ﬁn-

Tajikistan, represented by the site of Karnab (2ndger rings from the site contains Type B1 and Typemillennium BC) (Cierny et al. 2003). On the otherB3 ( 李 et al. 2003). Again, two techniques of casting

hand, only a small number of tin mines have been

and forging for the production of the high-tin alloys

found in India.

have concurrently occurred. The archaeologicalIn terms of traditions of high-tin bronze alloys

evidence suggests that technology of binary high-in Central Asia, a series of hot forged mirrors withtin bronze wares have not fully developed at Dadi-

handle from the regions should be considered (Fig.

anzi. Furthermore, few bronze vessels that closely

4). Casting might be a sufficient technique for the

associated with binary high-tin bronze wares weremirrors, but the fact that the mirrors were fabri-occurred in China. The earliest example of Type A1cated through forging suggests the regions containbinary high-tin bronze vessel is the bronze boat atsecure traditions of hot forging. Furthermore, dis-

Douwangmiao in Nanyang in the Han period. The

covered ancient tin mines including Karnab are

temporal gap between Zhukaigou or Dadianzi andlocated at the central part of spread of those mir-

Douwangmiao indicates that particular technologi-

rors. Dates of the mirrors have thus far been latercal tradition developed in those two diﬀerent peri-than bronze vessels from India. Yet Type A1 bronze

ods.

mirrors with handle dated to the sixth century BC

On the other hand, Indian binar y high-tin

implies that Central Asia was a candidate of thebronze wares appeared in the early ﬁrst millennium

origins of binary high-tin bronze wares. Further㻝㻠㻞‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb/20/.-/.-1//.833

<DVXML6KLPL]X

detailed surveys of various bronze wares in Central

bowls before the ﬁfth century AD were conducted.

Asia are certainly required, since not only the mir-Since the Unified Silla Kingdom period, however,rors but also other types of bronze wares might beType A1 binary high-tin bronze vessels have been

produced there. However, if binary high-tin bronze

identified through the Goryeo and Joseon periods

wares appeared not earlier than the early ﬁrst mil-in Korea. Some of the vessels contain c. 22% Sn,

lennium BC in Central Asia, it is most probable thatwhich is relevant to hot forging. In addition, saharitechnology of binary high-tin bronze wares was

vessels possibly from Silla in the collection of theestablished in India and surroundings. In this case,

Shosoin suggest both techniques of casting had forg-

technological traditions of forged bronze vessels

ing were performed in Korea.

in the west of India and high-tin bronze alloys in

The earliest bronze bowls in Japan appeared

Central Asia might be blended in the north of India,

in the Late Kofun period (6th to 7th century AD).

where binary high-tin bronze wares would be es-

However, provenances of the bowls and later col-tablished. Introduction of horseback riding in India

lections in the Shosoin and the Horyuji temple have

may support this hypothesis. The megalithic site of

not yet been conﬁrmed. Studies of sahari vessels in

Mahurjhari produced the earliest Type A1 binary

the collection of the Shosoin suggest that the col-high-tin bronze bowl as mentioned above. The site

lection contains both of Silla and local bronze ves-

has also attested early (i.e. early 1st millennium BC)

sels. Analyses of lead isotope ratios of the samples

horse harnesses (Deo 1973). The co-appearance ofalso support the result (馬淵 1994). Unfortunately,

two diﬀerent bronze objects at the site in the samemorphological analyses have not allowed us to dis-period suggests that introduction of binary high-tin

tinguish Korean and Japanese bronze vessels. So

bronze wares into India might be closely associatedfar, lead-free binary high-tin bronze vessels havewith early horse riders in Central Asia.

not conﬁrmed in the Kofun period. Hot forging andSubsequently, binary high-tin bronze wares

thermal treatment techniques remain unclear, sincewould be introduced into East Asia. The bronze boat

no metallographic examinations of the samples

uncovered at Douwangmiao in Nanyang suggests

have been conducted. From morphological view-that the bronze technology possibly came not later

points, hot forged samples have not been conﬁrmed,

than the Han period from India. It is also possible

but there are cast samples, including water bottles,

that the bronze technology was locally developed inbowls with stand, and lids with hoju (sacred jewel)

China. However, no Type A1 binary high-tin bronze

shaped knob. The objects often contain lead, sug-bowls have been discovered in China before thegesting no forged samples are included. For thisperiod, suggesting the bronze technology was ex-reason, bronze bowls from the Kofun period would

otic. Introduction of Buddhism in China in the Han

consist of cast samples in principal. Morphologi-

period might be associated with the spread of thecally, only bronze spoons were fabricated throughbronze technology, since high-tin bronze wares were

forging in the sahari collections of the Shosoin

often used as Buddhist objects in China. Successive

and the Horyuji temple of the Nara period. Thosedevelopments of binary high-tin bronze vessels inexamples may indicate that casting was the major

China remain uncertain, since few chemical analy-

fabrication technique of binary high-tin bronze

ses of the vessels were carried out. For example, awares in Japan, and that forging technique was notbronze vessel from Rentaishan Tomb 1 in Nanjing

introduced into Japan. Further chemical analyses ofin the Eastern Jin period is apparently parallel tosamples are required in order to answer the ques-sahari vessels from a morphological viewpoint, buttions. It is, however, signiﬁcant that a series of lead-no chemical analysis have been conducted (橋詰free bronze wares with c. 22% Sn content, which is1999). It seems also that some bronze vessels froma typical proportion of hot forged binary high-tin

the tomb of Feng Sufu (early 5th century AD) in thebronze wares, discovered in Japan. Nevertheless,

Northern Yan period include binary high-tin bronze

those bronze wares were fabricated through casting,wares (Han 2009).

suggesting the exotic tradition of binary high-tin
bronze wares was partly introduced into Japanese

Diﬀusion of binary high-tin bronze wares frombronze technology.

China into the Korean Peninsula also remains un-

Diﬀusion of the binary high-tin bronze technol-

certain, since few chemical analyses of bronze㻝㻠㻟‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb/21/.-/.-1//.833

³$VLDQ+LJK7LQ%URQ]HV3URGXFWLRQ7HFKQRORJ\DQG5HJLRQDO&KDUDFWHULVWLFV´

ogy from India into Southeast Asia also remains
uncertain, since binary high-tin bronze vessels inSoutheast Asia might be imported from India. For
example, bronze vessels from Ban don Taphet include bowls with projected base that resemble to
Indian bronze vessels. However, there are many tin
mines in Southeast Asia, suggesting binary high-tin
bronze wares were locally produced since the fourth
century BC.
Lastly, this paper brieﬂy summarizes percussion
instruments (e.g. dora ) associated with binary hightin bronze wares. Binary high-tin bronze cymbals
have been produced in modern India, but the origins of the instrument remain unclear. Concerning
bronze vessels, India and Southeast Asia have close
connection as has seen at Ban don Taphet, but information for cymbals in the two areas is insuﬃcient
to indicate there relationship. Because so-called

dora s ﬂourished in Southeast Asia, the instruments
might have developed indigenously. Modern Southeast Asian dora s often consist of Type A1 Binary
high-tin bronze wares with c. 22% Sn (Goodway etal. 1987). Binary high-tin bronze percussion instruments in China have been attested since the Northern Song period, based on chemical analysis. In the
Korean Peninsula, no dora s were conﬁrmed in the
Uniﬁed Silla Kingdom period. Dates of dora s in thecollection of the Shosoin and Horyuji temple arelater than the Nara period, suggesting binary hightin bronze vessels and percussion instruments wereintroduced into Japan in deferent periods. In Japan,

dobatsu s or cymbals used as a Buddhist object, dora s with ﬂat drumhead and dora s with a protuberance on the center used as an instrument of the Japanese tea ceremony might come through different
routes from the origins. For example, it is assumed
that dora s with a protuberance on the center camefrom Southeast Asia to East Asia, and that dobatsu sand dora s with flat drumhead spread through thesame route as Buddhist objects. In order to conﬁrm
the assumptions, further investigations are required.

$FNQRZOHGJHPHQWVI am very grateful to many researchers that provided invaluable comments and suggestions for the
manuscript, especially A. Konasugawa, H. Kuma, H.
Mifune, D. Mochida, K. Nagae, T. Niwa, H. Sawada,
A. Uesugi, and T. Uno.

㻝㻠㻠‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb/22/.-/.-1//.833

diﬃcult to measure time. However, it is not easy to

7KHPDQXIDFWXUHSURFHVVDQGKHDWWUHDWPHQWRIKLJKWLQEURQ]HLQPRGHUQ,QGLDDQG6RXWK.RUHDDUHSRUWRQWKHWHPSHUDWXUHFRQWUROOHG
LQKRWZRUNLQJDQGKHDWWUHDWPHQW

measure the temperature precisely. Moreover, inorder to measure high temperature such as 600800 ℃ , the advanced technology such as a sensor
technology is needed. To hand over the know-how
of heat processing technology from some craftsmen
to its successors, it is important to teach appropri-

7DNHND]X1DJDH 8QLYHUVLW\RI7R\DPD

ate temperature of both hot-working and quenching.
However, it was probably impossible in ancient time

,QWURGXFWLRQ
Bronze is an alloy of copper (Cu) and tin (Sn).

to write an instruction manual, which, for example,

By adding tin a melting point of copper as a mothermentions that “heat a bowl to 520℃ or higher…”. It

metal (Cu) decrease and at the same time its physi-

is likely that ancient craftsmen judged the tempera-

cal property is improved. A history of bronze alloy

ture for heat treatment and hardening by looking at

goes back to the age before the Christ and it has

the colors of heated copper and did not really know

been used since the ancient times. When more

its precise temperature to be taught to their appren-than 10% Sn is included it becomes hard to be cold-

tices. Even in the modern times, where sensor tech-worked and is generally called high-tin bronze.

nology has been developed and various methods toBronze including about 16-25% Sn is fragile at roommeasure temperature are available, the temperaturetemperature but becomes hard and tough by speciﬁc

has not been measured with these instruments atheat treatment, such as solution heat treatment andtraditional workshops of high-tin bronze tools. On

quenching. Bronze including more than 25% tin is

the other hand, as traditional technology has re-diﬃcult to carry out quenching and is so fragile that

cently been declining, collecting the data about theits usage is limited to some sort of objects such astemperature employed for hot-working and quench-

mirrors. Even if quenching is successful its brittle-

ing and handing them down to next generations is

ness does not improve very well because α phasereally important. However, no references are cur-disappears in its metal structure. This paper focuses

rently available for the scientific data concerningon high-tin bronze including 16-25% tin (hereaf-

the temperature for hot-working and quenching in

ter “heat-treatable high-tin bronze” in this paper),the production of heat-treatable high-tin bronze.

of which is metal structure and physical property

We have started the survey of Korean bronzechanged drastically through heat treatment. The

wares in South Korea in 2007, aiming to investi-

heat-treatable high-tin bronze is very diﬃcult to pro-gate ancient manufacturing technology of high-tin

cess by cold-working. So it is processed to the shapebronze wares in detail by comparing the microstruc-of bowls or gongs by the method so-called hot-work-tures of the modern and ancient high-tin bronze

ings at certain temperature.

wares. It is very important that a working process,

The following techniques are required for thetemperature for heat treatment, and metal struc-manufacturing of high-tin bronze products. Firstly,

ture of bronze ware are made clear. Temperaturein order to ﬁx the ratio of each metal in alloy, theat casting and heat treatment as well as processing

ingot of copper and tin must be weighed precisely.

technology were investigated at six workshops in

To make vessels a regular shape their size must be

Bonghwa and Gimcheon in February 2008, and inmeasured as they are worked. Furthermore, heat-

Gimcheon, Geochang and Boseong in August 2008.

treatable high-tin bronze requires for forging andAlso, workshops in south India were surveyed inquenching after the solution heat treatment which is

February and September 2009. By using a thermo-

carried out at appropriate temperature during cer-

couple the temperature can be measured most ac-

tain length of time. This requires for technique tocurately. However, when the manufacturing work is

precisely control the temperature and time. That issuspended by our survey or its eﬃciency decreases

to say, in order to make excellent bronze products,

by our interruption, it is doubtful that whether thethe keys are the technologies to measure the length,

temperature is appropriately being measured or not.

weight, time and temperature. It might seem to beThus, we decided to employ an infrared thermom-

easy to measure the length and weigh and not so

eter which allows us to measure the temperature㻝㻠㻡‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb/23/.-/.-1//.833

³$VLDQ+LJK7LQ%URQ]HV3URGXFWLRQ7HFKQRORJ\DQG5HJLRQDO&KDUDFWHULVWLFV´

without contacting the objects. This paper mainly

as shown in Fig. 1, a thermal analyzing test (DSC)

reports hot forging and solution heat treatment for

was carried out. Fig. 2 shows the results, in which

quenching. The temperature distribution and theendothermic peaks A to D were observed. A (524℃ )range of temperature of the products during hot-is an endothermic peak of the transformation fromworking, and the solution treatment temperatureț phase to Ț phase. B (580Υ ) indicates the trans-

for quenching are discussed.

formation from Ț phase to ș phase. And C (802Υ )indicates that a part of solid phases has transformed

+HDWWUHDWDEOHKLJKWLQEURQ]H

to liquid phases. The ratio of the liquid phase at this7HPSHUDWXUHDQGSKDVHWUDQVLWLRQRIKHDWWUHDWDEOHKLJK

moment is calculated to 70% by the lever low whichis referred to in the diagram of Fig. 1. The amount

WLQEURQ]H

Fig. 1 shows Cu-Sn binary alloy phase dia-of liquid phases increases as the temperaturegram . It demonstrates composed phases whenraises, and it is completely turns to liquid phases

bronze alloy with a certain composition is heatedat D (875 ℃ ). All the transformation points in Fig.

at a certain temperature for a certain time until it

1 were veriﬁed by the thermal analyzing test. It is

becomes equilibrium. When Sn is added to Cu, Cu

said from the results of Izod impact strength test 㻞㻕㻌

is replaced by Sn. A Cu atoms form a crystal of athat the most suitable temperature for hot working

face centered cubic (FCC) structure. FCC structure

is approximately 530-650℃ . The results of thermal

has many slip systems and shows high malleability

analysis also suggest that it needs to be worked atdue to its highly symmetric structure. Even if Cu is

the temperature between 524℃ and 800℃ . Further,

replaced by Sn, FCC structure is kept to a certain

in order to strengthen toughness of high-tin bronze

amount. It is called Ș solid solution. Sn can be sol-

products at normal temperature, quenching is nec-

uble to Ș solid solution up to 16% in maximum, andessary in order to remove ț phase. It is thus heatedit keeps the state by rapid cooling even at normal

to 586-800℃ and then rapidly cooled. We investi-

temperature. It is called super saturated solid solu-

gated the temperature conditions in hot working andtion. It naturally has high malleability because FCC

solution heat treatment for quenching at workshops

structure remains. However, when heat-treatableof high-tin bronze wares at various workshops in In-

high-tin bronze is molten and cooled, an extremely

dia and South Korea.

fragile intermetallic compound phase called 7KH KLVWRU\ RI WKH WUHDWPHQW RI KLJKWLQ EURQ]HDQGLWV㻝㻕ț

phase appears besides Ș phase. Delta(ț) phase has

JHQHUDOPHWDOVWUXFWXUH

complex structure and is fragile like glass. When

Microstructure of bronze alloy varies depend-

being shaped into objects, this fragile phase causes

ing on its composition or methods of working. Thata breakage of a whole object. Therefore, removal ofis to say, the analysis of its metal structure can tellț phase is important for high-tin bronze working

us its manufacturing process and whether it was

and for durability of its products. For heat-treatable

heat treated or not. Prefatory Photos 33-36 show

high-tin bronze,ț phases disappear and a partthe metal structure of Cu-22Sn alloy manufacturedof them turns to Ț phase by heating at more thanin APPUNIʼs workshop in Palakkad, Kerala, India.

520 Υ , as shown in Fig, 1. Furthermore, Ț phase

Photo 33 shows the microstructure of a cast ex-

turns to ș phase by heating at more than 586 Υ .

ample. Alpha phase dendrites, which have grown

Beta( ș ) phase is body centered cubic (BCC) andin the process of solidiﬁcation, and Ș+ț eutectoid

super saturated solid solution, which has high mal-are observed. By hot-forging, dendrites are divided

leability. Gamma(Ț) phase is an intermetallic com-

into recrystallized structures in which isometric Șpound based on BCC. It is softer and more plastic

phase is distributed uniformly, as shown in Photo

than ț phase, although less suitable to work than

34. In both cases they are too brittle for cold-forging

Ș phase .

due to ț phase. Photo 35 shows a structure, which㻞㻕

By the way, most of the heat-treatable high-was heated, after hot-forging, at more than 586 Υ

tin bronze products, such as Korean bronze wares

in order to transform ț phase to ș phase and thenand bowls and gongs in India, include 22% of Sn inquenched into water to prevent re-precipitation of

their composition (hereafter Cu-22Sn). To examine

ț phase. Isometric

the transformation temperature of Cu-22Sn alloy,andȘ phase with annealing twinș ʼ martensite structure are observed. Photo㻝㻠㻢‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb/24/.-/.-1//.833

7DNHND]X1DJDH

36 shows a similar structure to Photo 35, but many

facture bowls and gongs by hot-forging of heat-treat-lines looking like polishing scraches appear inȘable high-tin bronze in a traditional way. The survey

phase and ș phase. These are called slip-lines andresults of the temperature measurement during theindicates cold-forging. The presence of slip-lines

hot-working and the heat treatment for quenchingdemonstrates that the structure of quenched metals

are described below.

is as malleable as normal metals.

 (7$3381, .$/$',3$5$0%,/&+(58.8'$1*$
'83$/$..$'',67.(5$/$,1',$ 

Bowls, spoons, disc gongs, and cymbals are7HPSHUDWXUHPHDVXUHPHQW
A n I n f r a r e d t h e r m o m e t e r ( N E C S a n ʼe imanufactured in E.T. APPUNIʼs workshop. Tem-

TH9100MR: hereafter “thermo tracer”) was em-

perature of hot-workings was measured here during

ployed. This is the device which converts infrared

the manufacture of bowls by the workshop ownerradiations emitted from a target object to electricand his three relatives. Firstly, molten Cu-22Sn issignals and displays them as a color thermo image.

poured into a hollow in sand mold to make a disc, aRadiation of infrared rays varies depending on ma-

blank which is forged to a bowl (Prefatory Photo 3).

terials, so it is needed to select a suitable emissivity

We tried to measure the temperature while it is be-according to the objects or the condition of theiring poured but it was diﬃcult to measure it precisely

surface. It is thought that the measurement is dif-because the surface of the molten bronze is imme-

ﬁcult especially for metallic materials because theirdiately covered with an oxide layer. Although theradiations vary extremely according to the states ofradiation of molten Cu is ε=0.13-0.16, we used thetheir surface and their temperature. In the previous

radiation of an oxidized layer, ε=0.77, because thereports , we measured the black surfaces of objects

raw surface of Cu was hardly exposed. The temper-

which was oxidized by repeated heat workings suchature was approximately 1170 ℃ . Although its ac-

as forging, using the radiation for black copper ox-

curacy is still in question, the data of molten metal

ide, i.e. ε=0.88, by referring to a table of radiations

is given here just for reference. Cast discs are forgedgiven in the operating manual of the device . How-in order to form gongs, cymbals or bowls. At ﬁrst, aever, it seems to have been inaccurate for the evalu-

gong was formed. Temperature was measured ﬁfteen

ations of temperature in hot-workings and quench-times during its process. The highest temperature

ing, which are estimated to be about 600-700 ℃ ,was 764 ℃ and the lowest 600 ℃ with the average

because the value of radiations given in the table isof 685℃ . The edge of the disc gong was fractured.

for the case of 100℃ . Therefore, we looked up the

In the afternoon, cymbals were manufactured andrelevant literature and identiﬁed that the radiation

eleven data was obtained. The temperature of hot-of oxidized copper at 538℃ is ε=0.77 . Using thisworking of the cymbals were 753 ℃ in maximum,

value of radiation we re-evaluated the data of the

575℃ in minimum and 687℃ on average. This pro-measurement of temperature, including the data

cess was carried out at relatively high temperaturepreviously reported. To measure temperature using

and, as in the case of the gong, a fracture occurreda thermo tracer, one is advised to consider the noise

while forming a central dent.

㻟㻕

4)

5)

(incident infrared rays from objects other than the

The next day, bowls were produced. Bowls weretarget) and thus bronze products heated in a furnace

formed by forging a pile of a few plates. As its pro-are diﬃcult to measure with this instrument. Thus,

cess progresses, more plates were added to one pile.

before we move to the discussion below, it is neces-

Prefatory Photo 37 is a thermo image of a pile of sixsary to acknowledge that the data shown in Prefa-plates being forged and Prefatory Photo 38 is its vis-

tory Photos 41, 55, 56 and 59 were collected underible image. These images were taken at the begin-such conditions.

ning of forging process which started when APPUNI
judged that the bowls placed on a furnace had beenheated to relevant temperature. The temperature on 7KH UHVXOWV WKH WHPSHUDWXUHV RI KRWZRUNLQJ DQGKHDWWUHDWPHQW

average was 740℃ . Prefatory Photo 39 of a thermo
image was taken while the forging was suspended,QGLD

Six workshops in Kerala were surveyed in Feb-

once, immediately before it was reheated. As seen

ruary and September 2009. Two workshops manu-

in a visible image of Prefatory Photo 40, it was㻝㻠㻣‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb/25/.-/.-1//.833

³$VLDQ+LJK7LQ%URQ]HV3URGXFWLRQ7HFKQRORJ\DQG5HJLRQDO&KDUDFWHULVWLFV´

suspended when reddish color still remained. The

of a gong at this workshop. The results were 725Υ

temperatures on average was 630℃ at this moment.

in maximum, 546Υ in minimum and 646Υ on av-

In total, forty data was obtained during the processerage. It shows that the gong was formed within aof bowl manufacture, and they were 780℃ in maxi-

considerably lower range of temperature when com-mum, 556℃ in minimum and 680℃ on average. A

pared with APPUNIʼs workshop. It is known that thepart of Cu-22Sn alloy transforms to liquid phase at

most suitable temperature for hot working of Cu-

800℃ . So these temperatures can be considered to

22Sn alloy is 530-650Υ . Although the results show

be very high. The average temperature in hot forg-

the temperature slightly higher than it, no fracture

ing of bowls was almost the same as or only slightly

was observed in the manufacture of the gong.

lower than that for gongs and cymbals, for which

The gong is also quenched to improve its brittle-

fracture occurred. Nevertheless, bowls were notness at normal room temperature. Prefatory Photofractured.

47 is a thermo image of the gong immediately be-

Bowls shaped by hot forging are easy to breakfore quenching. With our thermo tracer there isbecause their metal structure contains an extremely

a little time lag in recording a thermo image andfragile intermetallic compound,δ phase. To ex-

a visible image (a visible image is recorded later).

clude δ phase and to strengthen them, quenching

Prefatory Photo 48 is a visible image saved at thewas carried out. Prefatory Photo 41 is a thermo im-same moment as Prefatory Photo 47. However, theage during heating for quenching. The temperaturethermo image of 47 was recoded while the gong isof the bowl was 730℃ on average. This temperature

being carried from a furnace to a water tank while

is within the range that δ phase completely trans-

48 was recorded when the gong was just quenchedforms to β phase. However, the actual temperature

in water. That is to say, the data in 47 demonstrates

might be slightly lower because it might have re-the temperature just before dipping the gong into

ceived the signals, as a noise, from the furnace onwater. At this moment, the temperature of the gongwhich the bowls being measured were placed. Even

was 725 Υ on average, which was almost equal toso, the heating temperature required for hardening

the case at APPUNIʼs workshop.

is more than 586 ℃ and the hardening must have6RXWK.RUHD

been carried out without any problems because the

In Sout h Korea, t he manufact ure of hig h-margin of error in this measurement would not be

tin bronze tools made of Cu-22Sn, called Koreanso large.

bronze ware, “Yugi”, is still in action today. In total,  . 5 68.8 $/$ )25*( .23$5$03$7+8 .$

six workshops of yugi were surveyed in Februaryand August 2008. This chapter discusses the results'$9$/22575,6685',67.(5$/$,1',$

SUKUʼs workshop (ALA FORGE) mainly manu-of the survey which investigated the temperature

factures gongs and cymbals. He is a distant relativeof heat treatment for quenching at two workshopsof APPUNI. Four brothers including him were work-for cast yugi in Bonghwa, the temperatures for hot-ing here together.

working and quenching of forged yugi in Gimcheon,

Firstly, a disc was cast as in the case of AP-

the temperature for hot press working in modern

PUNIʼs workshop. Then it was shaped by hot forg-yugi factory in Geochang, and the temperature foring. The temperatures during hot-working to form a

hot-working of Ban-Bangjja yugi by Gung Gurum

gong were measured and the results are as follows.

technique.

Prefatory Photo 43 is a thermo image of a disc at *R7DH-X %RQJKZDthe beginning of forging (and Prefatory Photo 44 is

The origin of yugi in Bonghwa can be traced

its visible image). The temperature of the disc wasback to 500 years ago 㻢㻕. Go Tae Juʼs workshop have632Υ on average. Prefatory Photo 45, a thermo im-

manufactured yugi for 100 years, and now produces

age, was taken when forging was suspended once,

bowls, chopsticks, spoons, kettles, incense burners

immediately before it was re-heated. The tempera-

and other various products by casting. The tempera-ture was 546

ture of molten metal in a casting process was about

Υ on average. Reddish color of thedisc had already disappeared at this moment, as

1160 ℃ . Because cast products composed ofseen in the visible image (Prefatory Photo 46). Mea-

phase and α+δ eutectoid are hard and brittle, heat

surement was taken ﬁfteen times during hot-working

treatment for quenching is performed. The heatingα㻝㻠㻤‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb/26/.-/.-1//.833

7DNHND]X1DJDH

temperature for quenching was about 670 ℃ . The

the gong is heat-treated for quenching. The hard-

temperature of the products was easily observed be-ening temperature was 736 ℃ . Prefatory Photo 53

cause it was dim in the workshop. The temperature

is a thermo image of the gong immediately beforeof heat treatment carried out at this workshop might

quenching, and Prefatory Photo 54 is a visible im-

be lower than that for the manufacture of bowls in

age immediately after quenching. While the forging

India. From a viewpoint of the transformation oftemperature was low, the heating temperature formetal structure,

quenching was relatively high. It is almost equal toδ phase disappears without any

problems in either case.

those at two workshops in India and is higher than .LP6XQ,FN %RQJKZD

two workshops in Bonghwa. Probably, such a large
gong has to be heated at high enough temperature

Kim Sun Ickʼs workshop was founded 200 years

in order to heat its whole part uniformly.

ago. Bowls, chopsticks, spoons and other various
products are manufactured here, as well as Go Tae

Kim Il Oungʼs workshop also manufacturesJuʼs workshop. The heating temperature for quench-bowls formed by a spinning machine. Spinninging was 645℃ .

is normally applied to soft metals in a cold state.

 .LP,O2XQJ *LPFKHRQ

For high-tin bronze it must be carried out in a hot

Kim In Oung in Gimcheon has been designatedstate in order to prevent its fracture and thus it wasto the intangible cultural property in Gyeongsang-heated with a burner during a hot-spinning pro-buk-do No. 9. His workshop manufactures Bangjja

cess. Although a normal sensor cannot detect theyugi and cast yugi. Bangjja yugi are relatively large

temperature of a plate spinning so fast, it is easy to

products, such as gongs, made by hot-forging. The

measure it using a thermo tracer. Prefatory Photo 55

survey results represented below are the tempera-

is a thermo image at the beginning of spin-shapingtures of hot-forging and quenching in a traditionaland Prefatory Photo 57 was taken at further devel-

manufacture process of Bangjja yugi and the tem-

oped stage of spin-shaping. During the spinning,peratures in a hot-forming process of bowls by atemperatures were measured forty-one times. The

modern method such as spinning.

results were 730℃ in maximum, 589℃ in minimumFirstly, Prefatory Photo 49 is a thermo image ofand 647 ℃ on average. After spin-shaped, several

the edge of a gong being forged through a Bangjja

bowls were together put into a furnace. And after

process. Not a whole gong was heated but the parts

heating, they were quenched into water one by one.

to be formed were only heated. This is because thePrefatory Photo 59 is a thermo image of the furnacegong is very large. Therefore, the temperature ofat this moment. For this image the radiation of a red

the part being worked was 690℃ on average while

brick ε =0.93) was used instead of that of copper

the edge on the other side was about 420℃ . Then,bowls. However, because this radiation ( ε =0.93)

the inside of the gong was forged by two persons.

is to be used at normal temperature while the data

Prefatory Photo 51 is a thermo image at this mo-taken here is 740℃ , this value should be reconsid-

ment. Although a little diﬀerence was present in its

ered with a more appropriate radiation in further

temperature it was almost even and the average wasstudy. This image demonstrates that temperatures

660 ℃ . Temperatures were measured twelve timesof these bowls vary depending on their positions induring hot-workings of the gong. The results were

the furnace. The diﬀerence between the highest and

713 ℃ in maximum, 566 ℃ in minimum and 657 ℃

lowest was about 100 ℃ . The workers changed theon average. This demonstrates that the work con-positions of these bowls as they inspect the inside

tinued even at considerably low temperature, whenof the furnace and quenched them one by one in aconsidering that Cu-22Sn alloy suddenly becomeslarge vessel ﬁlled with water from the bowl whichfragile at less than 550℃ . The working room where

was heated to the relevant temperature.

the gongs are formed has no window and thus quite /HH6XQ6XO *HRFKDQJ

dim. Even slightly reddish color of the gong canThis is a mass production factory using a press

easily be distinguished there, so it seems likely thatmachine. A cast plate was spread with a roller andthe hot-working can be continued right until thepress-punched. Then it was formed into a bowltemperature of the gong decreases to the risky point

shape by spinning or by other methods. These pro-where fracture could occur. After being shaped,

cesses were carried out in a hot state. Finally, the㻝㻠㻥‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb/27/.-/.-1//.833

³$VLDQ+LJK7LQ%URQ]HV3URGXFWLRQ7HFKQRORJ\DQG5HJLRQDO&KDUDFWHULVWLFV´

quenching.

bowl was heated in a furnace, and its rim was narrowed by a press machine. Prefatory Photo 61 is a

The temperatures in hot-working by Gung Gu-

thermo image when the rim was being narrowed

rum technique were surveyed. Prefatory Photo 63

using a press machine. In this process, temperature

is a thermo image in a process of Gung Gurum

was measured ten times and the results were 672℃

technique. The temperatures were measured in thein maximum, 626℃ in minimum and 653℃ on aver-same way every 0.5 seconds from the beginning ofage. A press-worked bowl was directly and immedi-

the work, and the results were plotted in Fig. 6. This

ately quenched in water. Therefore, the temperature

work was carried out within 16 seconds while theof quenching is estimated at about 650℃ or slightly

temperature of the vessel was between 700 ℃ and

less.

580 ℃ . Although quenching was also carried out +DQ6DQJ&KXQ %RVHRQJ

afterward, the data was not able to be obtained because the timing of data recoding did not much the

Korean bronze ware can be separated to casttiming of a quenching process.

yugi and forged yugi, the latter can be divided into
so-called Bangjja and Ban-Bangjja. Bangjja yugi ismade by the method in which a plate cast in a hol-6XPPDU\

low is hammered to shape. On the other hand, Ban-In India and South Korea, the temperatures of

Bangjja is made by the method in which a plate castheat-treatable high-tin bronze were measured dur-in a sand mold is forged to shape and this method

ing hot-working and quenching processes. In thisincludes a unique process, so-called Gung Gurum

research the scientific data were accumulated fortechnique, to narrow the rim 3). Han Sang chun is a

the forging technologies which have been obtained

successor of Ban-Bangjja yugi production.

by craftsmen through their intuitions and long experiences and have been succeeded from one genera-

Fig. 3 shows changes in form through the pro-tion to another. Table 1 summarizes its results.

duction of Ban-Bangjja yugi. P1 is a cast plate fromwhich the production starts. This form changed to

In India, the temperatures were relatively highP2, P3 and P4 as it is hammered on a mortar within both forging processes and heat treatment fora hollow depression. A photo of its section demon-

quenching because they worked in semi-outdoor

strates that the thickness of the plate became thin-workshops during bright daytime. Possibly because

ner and thinner. By narrowing the rim by Gungof this, fractures occasionally occurred at a work-

Gurum technique and then quenching, P4 changed

shop which does not operate regularly. For Korean

to P5. The metal structure in Fig. 4 shows thatbronze ware, both the central and local govern-

P1 was composed of a dendritic Ș phase and α+ments provide a support, for example the designa-

δ eutectoid phase. In the metal structure showntion of intangible cultural properties, in order toin P2, which is after forging P1, theȘ phase haspromote the successors of traditional technology.

turned isometric and forming of annealing twin

The workshop is deliberately made dim in order towas observed. P5 is a sample after quenching. The

judge the temperature of products more precisely

metal structure was composed of Ș phase and ș ʼby their color and the work was performed near themartensite phase, whileț phase disappeared. Moretemperature most suitable for Cu-22Sn alloy.

detailed metal structures of P1 and P5 are explained

In further studies, we would like to continue

as follows. Fig. 5 is X-ray images of them. Top leftsurveying the temperatures used during hot-working

is the distribution of Cu, top right is the distribution

and heat treatment of high-tin bronze tools in otherof Sn, and CP (bottom left) is an composite image.

regions of Asia and, based on it, to investigate de-

The X-ray images of P1 demonstrate that Cu and Sn

tails of ancient high-tin bronze technologies in vari-

are sparsely present sinceȘ phase andț phase are

ous regions.

minutely mixed in eutectoid structure. Nevertheless, microsegregation in the Ș phase was not ob-$FNQRZOHGJPHQWV

served. In the structure image (CP) of P5, Ș phase

I would like to express my gratitude to thoseand șʼ martensite with many small lines were seen.

who were working at the surveyed workshops of

The distribution of elements in a martensite parthigh-tin bronze tools in India and South Korea andis homogenous due to a solution treatment before

also to the following persons for their supports and㻝㻡㻜‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb/3.

/.-/.-1//.833

7DNHND]X1DJDH

advices.
Eun-Seok Lee, Sang-Yong Lee, Kwon Ju Han,
Srinivasa Ranganathan, R.M. Pillai, Sharada Srinivasan, Vimal Kumar. V.A., Haruhisa Mifune, Yasuji
Shimizu, Shinʼya Shoda, Yosuke Muramatsu
The part of the research in this paper is supported by Grants-in-Aid for Scientiﬁc Research (Nos.
21300328 and 19300299).

5HIHUHQFHV
1) N.Saunders and A.P.Miodownik in T.B.Massalski (ed.),
Binary Alloy Phase Diagrams. ASM. pp. 1481-1483,
1990.
2) Matsujiro Hamazumi, Non-ferrous Metals and Alloys.
Uchida-Rokakuho, pp. 63-73, 1972.
3) Takekazu Nagae and Haruhisa Mifune (eds.), Technologies of Heat treatment and manufacturing in
Korean Peninsula. Report of Researcher Exchanges
Program of JSPS in 2009, (ISBN978-4-9905066-05), Faculty of Art and Design, University of Toyama,
2010.
4) MikaelʼA Bramson, Infrared Radiation. in A Handbook for Application. pp535-536
5) IR Thermometers & Emissivity Tables, http://www.
bacto.com.au/downloads/IR%20&%20Emissivity.
pdf (access 2010-08-20)
6) Kim Hajung, On the Arts Titled “WAVE” series. pp.
68-95, 2006.

㻝㻡㻝‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb/3//.-/.-1//.833㻝㻡㻞‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb/30/.-/.-1//.833

As just mentioned, the outline of developments'HYHORSPHQWVRI+LJKWLQEURQ]HLQWKH3UH4LQ3HULRGLQ&KLQD

of high-tin bronze in China has been already clarified to some degree by the previous studies. However, amounts of high-tin bronze artifacts were

7DNDIXPL1LZD

analyzed after these studies. Moreover, it is also

1DUD1DWLRQDO5HVHDUFK,QVWLWXWHIRU&XOWXUDO3URSHUWLHV

necessary to study regional diﬀerences in developments of high-tin bronze, which has not been studied yet. This paper will deal with Pre-Qin bronze

,QWURGXFWLRQIn the study on Chinese bronze production, theartifacts and collect results of composition analyses

composition of bronze and casting technology haveon excavated bronze artifacts. The aim of this paper

been intensively studied. Su argued that casting

is to reexamine developments of high-tin bronze.

and alloying are two key-processes in the bronze

It is generally agreed that the percentage of tin inproduction and the former is the process to shapebronze is deeply related to heat treatment tech-

the artifact while the latter is the process to mix raw

niques (Katori 1985: p. 87; Nishimura 2000; Nagae

materials and related to the function of the artifact2008)1. Therefore developments of heat treatment(Su et al. 1995: p. 185). In fact, the composition

techniques will also be reviewed here as far as theof bronze reflects the raw materials and is deeply

author understands by reference to the reports ofrelated to the function of the bronze artifact. In

the analyses2.

China, fragments of bronze artifacts are frequently

In the previous studies, the high-tin bronze wasanalyzed, which promotes arguments on the compo-

defined as the bronze containing more than 10%

sition of bronze.

tin (Su et al 1995; Nagae 2008). Su pointed that theThis paper will discuss high-tin bronze. As

percentage of lead is also an important factor andfor high-tin bronze, various studies have been un-

divided bronze artifacts into several types (Figure

dertaken in particular by natural scientists. For

1, Su et al. 1995). According to him, high-tin bronze

example, Li Minsheng pointed that lead tin bronze

can be divided into three types as below.

and lead bronze increased in number during the

II H: High-tin bronze containing less than 2%

Shang Period. He also suggested that during thelead. This can be called the “binary alloy of copper

Yinxu Period elite tombs such as the tomb of Fu

and tin”.

Hao predominantly yield tin bronze artifacts while

IV S: High-tin bronze containing 2% to 10%

normal tombs mostly yield lead artifacts and lead-

lead. This bronze can be called “high-tin leadbronze artifacts. According to him, tin-bronze andbronze”

lead-bronze were diﬀerently used between diﬀerent

IV B: High tin bronze containing more than 10%

social classes (Li 1984). Su Rong-yu also pointed thelead. This bronze can be called “high-tin high-lead

shift from low-tin bronze to high-tin bronze throughbronze”.

periods. According to him, during the Yinxu Period,

This paper adopts his division but also focuseshigh-tin bronze consisting of copper and tin or con-on the percentage of tin in bronze artifacts. The

sisting of copper, tin and lead became predominantaccuracy of the original data of the composition

among metal alloys. After the Western Zhou Period,

analyses were not checked by the author. This pa-

the ternary alloy of copper, tin and lead became

per intends to reveal general outline of historicalpredominant (Su et al. 1995). Hua Jueming divided

developments of high-tin bronze.

developments of bronze vessels into three phases.
In the first phase (until the Erlitou Period), pure)URPWKH1HROLWKLFWRWKH(UOLWRX3HULRG

copper and bronze containing small amount of lead

Bronze artifacts from the Neolithic to the Erlitou

and tin were used for production of bronze vessels.

Period are regarded as the earliest bronze artifacts

In the second phase (until the Erligang Period), low-in China. So far over 500 bronze artifacts dated totin bronze and lead bronze were used. In the third

these periods were discovered (Bai 2002). Several

phase (after the Yinxu Period), high-tin bronze wascomposition analyses have been done on Neolithic

predominantly used for the production of bronze

Bronze artifacts. For example, a Majiayao bronze

vessels (Hua 1999).

sword excavated from the site of Linjia, Dongxiang㻝㻡㻟‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb/31/.-/.-1//.833

³$VLDQ+LJK7LQ%URQ]HV3URGXFWLRQ7HFKQRORJ\DQG5HJLRQDO&KDUDFWHULVWLFV´

in the Gansu province contains 6 to 10% tin (Sun etvated from a pit discovered in Nanshunchengjie,al. 1997). Other Neolithic tin bronze artifacts were

Zhengzhou Shangcheng include high-tin bronze

also discovered in particular in Northwestern Chi-vessels such as Gui (cup) (13% tin, IV S) and Fang-na. However, no high-tin bronze artifacts containing

ding (sacriﬁcial vessel) (17.8% tin, IV B) (Sun 1999).

more than 10% tin were excavated from any Neo-

Other high-tin bronze artifacts such as Ding (sacri-lithic sites. Han Rubin suggests that in the Neolithic

ﬁcial vessel) (13.4% tin, II H), Pan (dish) (10.9% tin,

Period raw materials for tin-bronze were probably

II H) and Jia (cauldron) (10.7% tin, IV S) were exca-

obtained from paragenetic deposits of copper andvated in Zhengzhou (Henansheng Wenwuyanjiusuo

tin (Beijing Gangtiexueyuan Yejinshizu 1981).

et al. 1983, He 1997). According to Tian Changhu,

In the Erlitou Period, high-tin bronze artifacts

a bronze Jia (cauldron) excavated from Changzhi

ﬁrst appeared in China. For example, several high-in the Shanxi province were probably processedtin bronze artifacts including a ring headed sword

by annealing (Tian 1985). A Jue (cup) (14.995%(Phase3, 15.4% tin, II H), He (wine vessel) (Phase4,

tin, IV S), Ding (sacriﬁcial vessel) (11.542% tin, IV

13.9% tin, IV B), ﬁsh hook (Phase4, 23.09% tin, IV

B), Jia (cauldron) (15.576%, IVS ) excavated fromB), arrowhead (Phase4, 10.41% tin, IV S), chisel

Yuanqu Shangcheng in the Shanxi province were(Phase4, 14.15%, IVB), and bar (Unknown phase,

also high-tin bronze (Yao 1996). In the Chang Jiang

17.04% tin, II H) were excavated from the site ofregion, bronze vessels excavated from the site ofErlitou, Yanshi in the Henan province in the middle

Panlongcheng, Huangpo in the Hubei province were

Huang He region (Li 1984; Qu et al. 1999; Hay-

intensively analyzed by Hao Xin. Most of the vessels

akawa et al 1999). An awl excavated from the sitewere high-tin bronze (IV B) and contain more leadof Yinjiachen, Sishui in the Shandong province inthan bronze artifacts discovered in Zhengzhou (Fig-the lower Huang He region is also made of high-ures 2 and 3) (Hao et al. 2001). However, He Tang-tin bronze and contains 15.12% tin (IV S) (Beijing

kun also analyzed other bronze artifacts excavatedKejidaxue Yejinshi Yanjiushi 1990). The site of Zhu-

from Panlongcheng and suggests that the artifacts

kaigou in inner Mongolia yielded bronze artifacts,

contain less lead and tin than those analyzed bywhich can be dated to the lower Xiajiadian Period

Hao (He 2001). Hao Xin also pointed that some of

to Shang Period. The lower Xiajiandian bronze

the bronze were processed by hot-forging after cast-artifacts contain several high-tin bronze artifacts

ing (Hao et al. 2001). As for the northern region, thesuch as a needle (10.6% tin, IV S) and two earringssite of Zhukaigou in inner Mongolia yielded a total(12.5% tin, IV S and 17% tin, II H). In addition,of 12 high-tin bronze including a shaved knife (35.9%

some of the artifacts were probably treated by an-tin, II H) , three vessels (IV B), six weapons/tools (IVnealing and cold-work (Li et al. 2003) . According

S: 5 pieces, II H: 1 piece), a fragment of circle standto Sun Shuyun, 3 tin bronze artifacts, which were

(II H）and earring (II H）(Li and Han 2000). The site

excavated from the Siba site of Ganguya, Jiuquan inof Zhangying, Changping in Beijing also yielded two

the Gansu province contain over 10% tin (Sun et al.

high-tin bronze including an arrowhead (17% tin, II1997). It is also reported that a lower Xiajiadian ear-H) and sword (26% tin, II H) (Cui et al. 2007).

3

ring excavated from the site of of Xiaoguanzhuang,

In the Yinxu Period, high-tin bronze artifacts

Tangshan in the Hebei province contains over 10%

became more predominant (Su et al. 1995; Huatin (Beijing Gangtiexueyuan Yejinshizu 1981). It is1999). Some scholars suggest that the use of high-also worth noting that a lead bronze sword contain-

tin bronze artifacts clearly reflect the social hier-ing 32% lead, which was excavated from the site ofarchy (Li 1984). In fact, the tomb of Fu Hao, who

Yinjiacheng, Sishui in the Shandong province, were

was probably a queen, yielded amounts of high-probably processed by hot-forging. A Qijia copper

tin bronze artifacts. 112 artifacts excavated fromawl was also said to be processed by hot-forging

her tomb were analyzed. Of 112, 110 artifacts were

(Beijing Kejidaxue Yejinshi Yanjiushi 1990).

high-tin bronze artifacts. In addition, the samples
did not contain any high-tin high-lead bronze (IV B)
containing more than 10% lead (Figure 4) (Zhongguo

6KDQJ3HULRG
As for the Erligang Period, bronze artifacts were

Shehuikexueyuan Kaoguyanjiusuo Shiyanshi 1982;

analyzed throughout China. Bronze artifacts exca-

Zhengzhougongxueyuan et al. 1982). Excavations in㻝㻡㻠‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb/32/.-/.-1//.833

7DNDIXPL 1LZD

the west area of Xiaotun in Yinxu revealed that inaxe (12.3% tin, IIH) and a plate (10.2% tin, IV S) (Jinthe early period most bronze vessels were made of

et al. 1999).

high-tin bronze while weapons were mostly madeof lead bronze. It is also clariﬁed that in the late pe- =KRX 3HULRG :HVWHUQ =KRX 6SULQJ DQG$XWXPQ

riod lead was used for production of bronze vessels:DUULQJ6WDWH3HULRGVand tin was used for production of weapons (Figure +XDEHL5HJLRQ

5) (Li et al. 1984). Zhao Chunyan recently analyzed

162 bronze artifacts excavated from the cem-

approximately 200 bronze artifacts excavated frometery of Yu clan (Zhifangtou, Zhuyuangou and Ru-

the site of Yinxu. According to her, the use of tin forjiazhuang), Baoji in the Shaanxi province were ana-

production of bronze vessels gradually decreased.

lyzed. Of 162, 82 are high-tin bronze artifacts (22%In contrast, tin was replaced by lead for produc-

tin at maximum, II H: 21 pieces, IV S: 34 pieces, IVtion of bronze weapons by Phase3 although the use

B: 27 pieces). They are mostly made of ternary alloyof lead for production of weapons decreased againof copper, tin and lead. The single α phase identi-

in Phase4 (Zhao 2004) . As for heat-treatments,

ﬁed in the microstructure of a head mask for horse

Junko Uchida studied Yinxu bronze artifacts stored(9.97% tin, excavated from No. 7 tomb of Zhuyu-

4at Zhongyangyanjiuyuan Lishiyuyanyanjiusuo andangou) and He vessel having bird shaped handle

revealed that a dagger-axe show homogenous micro(The composition is not reported. It is excavatedstructure. She suggests that the structure is prob-from No.2 tomb of Rujiazhuang) suggests that theseably caused by tempering (Uchida et al. 2009).

artifacts were processed by annealing. No. 9 tomb

5

Bronze artifacts excavated from the tomb ofof Zhuyuangou, which is dated to the middle West-

Jing jie, Lingshi in the Shanxi province containern Zhou Period, yielded tin Ding (sacrificial ves-

more copper than those excavated from the site ofsel) (90.69% tin) and tin Fu (dish) (87.13% tin). No.2

Yinxu and the percentage of copper is usually overtomb of Rujiazhunag also yielded tin fish shaped

90%. The tomb yields only one high-tin bronze ar-plate (98.95% tin) (Su et al. 1988, Su et al. 1995)7. It

tifact, Zun (sacriﬁcial vessel), which contains 13.2%

is also worth noting that the cemeteries discoveredtin (IV S). According to Chen, this vessel does notin the villages of Qucun and Tianma in the Shanxi

show any traces left by heat treatments but otherprovince, which are dated to Western Zhou Period

artifacts were heat-treated. In addition, some of theto the Early Spring and Autumn Period, yielded

artifacts show clear segregation by casting (Chen etamounts of tin artifacts (Beijingdaxue Kaoguxuexi

al. 2006). Two high-tin bronze Bu (small jars) (18.7%

Shangzhouzu et al. 2000). Han Rubin analyzed atin, IV S and 15.85% tin, IV S) were excavated frombronze dagger-axe excavated from No. 152 tomb of

the site of Nianzipo, Changwu in the Shaanxi prov-

Zhangjiapo, which is dated to the middle Westernince (Mei et al. 2007).

Zhou Period and concluded that the composition of

In the Chang Jiang region, 20 bronze artifacts

the cutting part of the dagger axe contain 22.5 %excavated from the tomb of Dayangzhou, Xingan intin and the dagger axe was processed by annealing

the Jianxi province, were analyzed. Of 20 samples,and cold work (Han 1995). 10 Early Western Zhou

10 were made of high-tin bronze, which contain ﬁvebronze artifacts excavated from the cemetery ofvessels (18.44% tin at maximum, IV S: 4 pieces, II

Liulihe, Beijing were analyzed. Of 10, 8 were madeH: 1 piece), and five weapons/tools (34.03% tin atof high-tin bronze (15.983% tin at maximum, II H:

maximum, IV S: 2 pieces, II H: 3 pieces) (Fan et al.

6 pieces, IV S: 2 pieces). The percentage of lead1997). Su Rong-yu identiﬁed the single δ phase inin these artifacts is low and less than 10%. Traces

the micro structure of trim knife and engrave knife

left by hammering were identiﬁed on a dagger axe

and suggested that these bronze artifacts were pro-(He 1988). 30 bronze artifacts excavated from thecessed by quenching (Fig. 6) (Su et al. 1997) . 13

cemetery of Guo clan, Sanmenxia in the Henanbronze artifacts excavated from the site of Sanxing-

Province, which is dated to the late Western Zhou

dui, Guanghan in the Sichuan province were ana-

Period, were analyzed. Of 30, 23 were high-tin

lyzed. Of 13, 7 were made of high-tin bronze. They

bronze (25.2% tin at maximum , II H: 2 pieces, IV S:

include 5 vessels (18.6% tin at maximum, IV B: 2

12 pieces and IV B: 9 pieces) 8. The microstructure

pieces, IV S: 2 pieces and II H: One piece), a dagger-of one Fanghu (jar) (14.5% tin, IV S), Fangyan (tall6㻝㻡㻡‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb/33/.-/.-1//.833

³$VLDQ+LJK7LQ%URQ]HV3URGXFWLRQ7HFKQRORJ\DQG5HJLRQDO&KDUDFWHULVWLFV´vase) (8.2% tin), two Ding (sacriﬁcial vessel) (11.4%

analyzed, which revealed that the “Wu” type bronzetin, IV S and 11.2% tin, IV B), one Gui (dish) (12.4%

contain amount of tin and lead. Zeng Bin analyzed

tin, IV B) and one Pan (dish) (4.7% tin) suggest that

80 samples. Of 80 samples, 63 were high-tin bronze

they were heated after casting (Li et al. 1999).

(40.14% tin at maximum, II H: 9 pieces, IV S: 36

33 bronze artifacts excavated from No.251 tombpieces, IV B: 18 pieces). These artifacts also containin Jinshengcun, Taiyuan in the Shanxi provinceamount of lead. His analyses showed that the per-were analyzed. They are dated to the late Spring

centage of lead decreased and that of tin increased

and Autumn Period and mostly high-tin bronze (IIthrough periods9 (Zeng et al. 1990). It is reported

H: 2pieces, IV S: 23 pieces, IVB: 8 pieces). These

that a middle Western Zhou sword with 23 % tin ex-

samples were analyzed by the atomic absorption

cavated from Gaochun, Jiangsu and late Spring andspectrometry and energy dispersive X-ray spec-

Autumn dagger-axe with 23% tin excavated fromtrometry. The former shows higher percentage of

Dantu were processed by quenching. Annealing onlead than the latter (Sun 1996). 30 bronze artifacts

weapons was also reported (Xiao et al. 2004; Jia et

excavated from the tomb of Chengcun, Linyi in theal. 2004). As for the Warring State Period, all of the

Shanxi province were analyzed. They are dated toanalyzed samples, which were excavated from thethe middle and late Chunqui Period. The 30 sam-tomb of Gaozhunag, Huaiyin, were made of high-tin

ples include 19 high-tin bronze artifacts (19.95% tinbronze (Sun et al. 2009).

at maximum, II H: 3 pieces, IV S: 2 pieces, IV B:

As for the middle Chang Jiang region, Spring

14 pieces) (Li 2003). 59 bronze excavated from theand Autumn bronze artifacts excavated from thecemetery of Fenshuiling, Changzhi in the Shanxi

tombs of Xiasi, Xichuan in the Henan province andprovince were analyzed, of which 54 were high-tombs of Zhaojiahu, Yichang, in the Hubei province

tin bronze (19.95% tin at maximum, II H: 7 pieces,contain 5 to 15 % lead and tin (Li et al. 1991; Sun

IV S: 26 pieces, IV B: 22 pieces). The cemetery1992). Most of the bronze artifacts excavated fromis dated to the middle Spring and Autumn Period

No. 1 tomb (early Warring State Period), No2. Tomb

to Warring State Period. In addition, a variety of(middle Zhanguo period) in Leigudun, Suizhou inbronze artifacts such as vessels, music instruments

the Hubei province and the tomb of Baoshan (theand weapons were probably treated with anneal-late middle Warring State Period), Jingmen in theing (Han et al. 2010). 63 bronze artifacts excavatedHubei province are type IV S of high-tin bronze.

from a ritual pit in Xinzheng in the Henan prov-

They include Gui (cup) containing 41.2% tin. In

ince, which are dated to the middle and late Spring

particular, it is reported that the bronze excavatedand Autumn Period, were analyzed. Of 63, 12 werefrom the tomb of Baoshan were processed by ham-made of high-tin bronze (12.7% tin at maximum, II

mering and annealing (Jia 1989; Huang et al. 2008;

H: 1 piece, IV S: 7 pieces, IVB: 4 pieces) (Huang et

He 1991). Bronze artifacts excavated from the tombs

al. 2006). 18 Warring State Period bronze artifactsof Zuozhong, Jingmen in the Hubei province wereexcavated from the cemetery of Houchuan, Shanx-

mostly made of high-tin bronze and occupied by IV

ian in the Henan Province were analyzed, of which

B and IV S types. It is also reported that they were

4 were high-tin bronze (14.86% tin at maximum,

heat-treated and traces left by hot forging can be

II H: 1 piece, IV S: 2 pieces, IV B: 1 piece) (Zhong-observed. They include shaved knife containing

guo Shehuikexueyuan Kaoguyanjiusuo Shiyanshi

27.47% tin (Luo et al. 2006)10.

1994). 9 Late Spring and Autumn bronze artifacts

It is also noteworthy that No. 8 tomb of Zhao-

excavated from the tomb of Fenghuangling, Lin-yi

jiapang, Yichang in the Hubei province, which isin the Shandong Province were analyzed. All of thedated to Spring and Autumn Period, yielded a tin

samples were high-tin bronze and contain little lead

Gu (cup) (Sun 1992) and the tomb of Geling, Xincai(Shandonsheng Yanshitielu Wenwukaogugongzuodui

in the Henan province, which is dated to Warring1988).

State Period, yielded 80 tin artifacts such as combs

 +XD]KRQJ5HJLRQ(Henansheng Wenwukaoguyanjiusuo 2003).

In the lower Chang Jiang region, a number of “” 7KH+XDQDQ5HJLRQWu” type bronze artifacts, which are dated to West-

8 bronze artifacts including arrowhead, axe,

ern Zhou and Spring and Autumn Periods, has been

dagger axe and bell, which were excavated from㻝㻡㻢‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb/34/.-/.-1//.833

7DNDIXPL 1LZD

the cemetery of Henglingshan, Boluo in the Guang-

Yinxu. In addition, it is suggested that some bronze

dong province were analyzed. They are dated to theartifacts excavated from the sites of Yinxu and Day-

Western Zhou and Spring and Autumn Periods. Of

ongzhou, Xingan were probably quenched. After

8 samples, 6 were made of high-tin bronze artifacts

the Western Zhou Period, high-tin bronze were used

(11.4 〜 20.3% tin, II H; 2 artifacts, IV S; 3 artifacts,

all over China but the composition of the alloy var-

IV B; 2 artifacts). It was also reported that the mi-ied between sites and between regions. In Huabei,

crostructure of suspension of the bell show the in-bronze artifacts produced in the Shanxi provinceverse segregation (Sun 2005). Warring State high-tin

after Spring and Autumn Period contain amount ofbronze artifacts were also discovered from archaeo-

tin while the artifacts produced in the Henan re-logical sites and studies on the microstructure ongion contain amount of lead. In Huazhong, bronze

the artifacts reveled that bronze were processed byartifacts excavated in the lower Chang Jiang region

annealing (axe and Ding ) and quenching (tearing

contain amount of tin and lead while in the middle

knife excavated from Luoding in the Guangdong

Chang Jiang region, the percentage of tin and leadprovince (19.5% tin, II H)). The cemetery of Wan-in the bronze varies to a degree between tombs al-jiaba, Chuxiong in the Yunnan province yielded tin

though high-tin bronze were generally predominant.
As for the heat-treatment techniques, this paper

ornaments (Qiu et al. 1983).

just follows the opinions of other authors. But it is 2WKHU5HJLRQV

7 bronze artifacts excavated from the Siwa

necessary to reexamine the terminology and identi-

cemetery of Xujianian, Zhuanglang in the Gansu

ﬁcation methods of heat-treatment techniques. The

province were also analyzed. Of 7, only one arrow-composition analysis also has some methodologicalhead was made of high-tin bronze (14.4% tin, IV S)

problems. For example, the same samples were an-(Zhao 2006). As for northeastern China, the results

alyzed by diﬀerent authors (e.g. Panlongcheng andof analyses on 64 bronze artifacts discovered in theNo. 251 tomb of Jinshengcun) and these authors

Liaoxi area were reported in the paper by Zhang

reached diﬀerent results.

Riqing. Although the details are not clear due to the

It is also likely that tin was variously used. Tinlack of reference, he suggests that tin lead bronze

was probably used in order to joint metal parts andincluding high-tin bronze were predominantly used

to coat the surface of the metal (Su et al. 1995: p.322;(Zhang et al. 1982).

He 1988, 1991; Ma et al. 2007). Further studies arenecessary to clarify the tin technology and reveal
its historical developments during the Pre and Post

&RQFOXVLRQV

Qin Periods.

On the basis of the above reviews, this section
will discuss the developments of high-tin bronze
and heat treatment techniques during the Pre-Qin

1RWHV

Period.

1. Nishimura reviewed heat treatments techniques

It was in the middle and lower Huang He regions

chronologically by reference to recent composition

and Great Wall region that high-tin bronze artifacts,

analyses undertaken in China. He suggested thatwhich contains more than 10 % tin, appeared forforging and annealing (Tuihuo ) appeared earlier

the first time in the Erlitou Period. Although thethan quenching (Cuihuo ) and tempering (Huihuo ).

composition of these high-tin bronze artifacts varies

This paper also follows his terminology.

to a degree, some of the artifacts were already heat-

2. Although Su Rongyu argued that Pre-Qin bronze ar-treated by simple techniques. In the Shang Period,

tifacts were mostly produced by casting and rarely

the binary alloy of copper and tin (Type II H) andheat-treated, he also accepted that the techniques

ternary alloy of copper, tin and lead (Type IV S andof annealing and quenching already existed in Pre-

Type IV H) were commonly used throughout China.

Qin Period (Su 1995: p. 279).

It is likely that the heat treatment techniques such

3. It is reported that an awl excavated from the site ofas annealing and hot-forging spread across China

Zhangying, Changping in Beijing, which is dated toin the Erligang Period with the casting technol-

the lower Xiajiadian Period, also contains 24.54%

ogy. It is also likely that the use of high-tin bronze

tin. However this is probably caused by surface ero-artifacts reﬂected the social hierarchy at the site ofsion (Cui et al. 2007).
㻝㻡㻣‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb/35/.-/.-1//.833

³$VLDQ+LJK7LQ%URQ]HV3URGXFWLRQ7HFKQRORJ\DQG5HJLRQDO&KDUDFWHULVWLFV´

4. The composition analyses on bronze artifacts exca-

Microstructure of trim knife XDM383 50

vated from No. 160 tomb of Guojiazhuang, which

Microstructure of trim knife XDM383 500

is dated to Phase 3 of Yinxu Period, revealed thatTrim knife XDM383 and same styled trim knife

most of the vessels were made of high-tin bronze (IVResults of X-ray spectrometryS) while most of the weapons were made of highlead bronze (Zhongguo Shehuikexueyuan Kaoguxu-

引用文献 References

eyanjiusuo 1998).

【日文】Japanese

5. Unlike Nishimura (2000), Uchida translated Cuihuo

Junko Uchida・Yoshiyuki Iidzuka 内 田 純 子・ 飯 塚 義 之

as tempering.

2009「 中 国 殷 墟 の 青 銅 器 の 化 学 成 分 分 析 (Chemi-

6. It is reported in another paper that this engrave knife

cal Analyses on Bronze Artifacts Excavated fromcontains 28.6% tin (Gu et al. 2004).

Yinxu, China)」『 アジ ア鋳 造 技 術史学 会 研 究 発 表 概

7. As for the Shang Period, it is reported that 6 tin dag-

要集 (Proceedings of the Society for the History of

ger axes and tin ingots were excavated from the

Asian Casting Technology) 』第 3 号

site of Yinxu (Qiu et al. 1983). However, no formal

Kazuo Katori 鹿 取一男 1985『工 芸 家のための 金 属ノート

reports have been published yet.

(Notes on Metal for Craftmen)』アグネ技術センター

8. Among analyzed samples, welding material was ex-(Agne Gijutsu Center)

cluded.

Kiichi Nagae 長柄毅一 2008「補論 高錫青銅の錫比率 (The

9. According to Zeng, the proportion of lead and tin was

Proportion of Tin in High-tin Bronze Artifacts)」

diﬀerent between styles such as Zhongyuan style,『Heat Treatment and Casting Techniques of Asian

Fangzhongyuan style, Wu style and Chu style.

High-Tin Bronze Wares』富山大学芸術文化学部 (Fac-

10. He Tangkun argued that a Late Spring and Autumn

ulty of Art and Design, the University of Toyama)bronze sword excavated from Yangjiashan, Chang-

Toshinori Nishimura 西村俊範 2000「錫青銅の熱処理につ

sha and Zganguo mirrors and sword were pro-

いて (A Study on Heat Treatments on Tin Bronze) 」

cessed by quenching and tempering (He 1993).

『史林 (Shirin)』第 83 巻第 5 号
Yasuhiro Hayakawa・Yoshimitsu Hirao・Jin Zhengyao・

Figure 1: Division of the tin lead bronze by Su Rong-

Zheng Guang 早川泰弘・平尾良光・金正耀・鄭光 1999

yu(Quoted from Su 1995: p. 186)

「ICP-AES/MS による中国二里頭遺跡出土青銅器の多元

Figure 2: Histogram of the composition of bronze arti-

素分析 (Multi Elements Analysis on Bronze Artifacts

facts excavated from the site of Panlongcheng in

Excavated from the Site of Erlitou, China Using ICP-

the Hubei province (Hao et al. 2001)

AES/MS)」『保存科学 (Hozon Kagaku)』第 38 号

サンプル数 : The number of samples【中文】Chinese

容器 : Vessels

Bai Yunxiang 白雲 翔 2002「Zhongguo Zaoqi Tongqi De

工具和兵器：Tools ／ Weapons

Kaogu Faxian Yu Yanjiu 中国早期銅器的考古発現与Figure 3: Histogram of the composition of bronze

研究 (The Discovery and Study on the Early Bronze

artifacts excavated from the site of Zhengzhou

Artifacts in China)」『21 Shiji Zhongguo Kaoguxue

Shangcheng (Hao et al. 2001)

Yu Shijie Kaoguxue 21 世紀中国考古学与世界考古学

Figure 4: Histogram of the composition of bronze arti-(Chinese Archaeology and World Archaeology infacts excavated from the tomb of Fu Hao in the site

the 21st century)』Zhonguo Shehuikexue Chuban-

of Yinxu (Hao et al. 2001)

she 中国社会科学出版社

Figure 5 : Histogram of the compositionof bronze arti-

Beijing Daxue Kaoguxuexi Shangzhouzu・Shanxisheng

facts excavated from the west area of Xiaotun in

Kaogu Yanjiusuo 北京大学考古学系商周組・山西省考Yinxu (Hao et al. 2001)

古 研 究 所 2000『Tianma-Qucun (1980~1989) 天 馬

サンプル数 : The number of samples‐ 曲 村（1980 〜 1989）(Excavations in Tianma and容器 : Vessels

Qucun from 1980 to 1989)』Kexue Chubanshe 科学

兵器和工具 : Weapons/Tools

出版社

残片 : Fragments

Beijing Gangtiexueyuan Yejinshizu 北京鋼鉄学院冶金史組

工具和其他器物 : Tools/Other artifacts

1981「Zhongguo Zaoqi Tongqi De Chubu Yanjiu 中Figure 6: Analyses on a trim knife excavated from in

国早期銅器的初歩研究 (A Preliminary Study on the

Dayangzhou, Xinkan in the Jiangxi province

Early Bronze Artifacts in China)」『Kaogu Xuebao㻝㻡㻤‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb/36/.-/.-1//.833

7DNDIXPL 1LZD

考古学報』1981 年第 3 期

出版社

Beijing Kejidaxue Yejinshi Yanjiushi 北京科技大学冶金史

Han Rubin 韓汝玢 1995「Zhangjiapo M152 Chutu Xizhou

研 究 室 1990「Shangdong Sishui Yinjiacheng Yizhi

Ge De Jianding 張 家 坡 M152 出 土 西 周戈 的 鑑 定 (AChutu Yueshi Wenhua Tongqi Jianding Baogao 山東

Study on West Zhuo Dagger-axes Excavated from泗水尹家城遺址出土岳石文化銅器鑑定報告 (A Report

M152, Zhnagjiapo)」『Kaogu 考古』1995 年第 7 期

on Yueshi Bronze Artifacts Excavated from the Site

Hao Xin・Sun Shuyun 郝欣・孫淑雲 2001「Panlongchengof Yinjiacheng, Sishui in the Shandong Province)」

Shangdai Qingtongqi De Jianyan Yu Chubu Yanjiu

Shandong Daxue Lishixi Kaogu Zhuanye Jiaoyanshi

盤龍城商代青銅器的検験与初歩研究 (An Experimen-

山東大学歴 史 系 考古専 業 教研室『Sishui Yinjiacheng

tally and Preliminary Study on Shang Bronze Ar-泗水尹家城 (Excavations at the Site of Yinjiacheng, Si-tifacts Excavated from the Site of Panlongcheng)」shui)』Wenwu Chubanshe 文物出版社

Hubeisheng Wenwu Kaogu Yanjiusuo 湖北省文物考Chen Kunlong・Mei Jianjun 陳坤龍・梅建軍 2006「Shanxi

古 研 究 所『Panlongcheng 1963~1994 Nian Kaogu-

Linshixian Jingjiecun Shangmu Chutu Tongqi De

fajue Baogao 盤 龍 城 -1963 〜 1994 年 考 古 発 掘 報 告Kexue Fenxi 山西霊石県旌介村商墓出土 銅器的科学(Excavations at the Site of Panlongcheng from 1963

分 析 (Scientiﬁc Analysis on Bronze Artifacts exca-

to 1994)』Wenwu Chubanshe 文物出版社

vated from Shang tombs in the village of Jingjie,Henansheng Wenwu Kaogu Yanjiusuo 河南省文物考古研

Linshixian in the Shanxi Province)」Hai Jinle・Han

究所 2003『Xincai Geling Chumu 新蔡葛陵楚墓 (Ex-Binghua 海 金 楽・韓 炳 華『Lingshi Jingjie Shangmu

cavations of the Chu Tomb Discover ed in Geling,

霊 石 旌 介 商 墓 (Shang Tombs Discovered in Jingjie,

Xincai)』大象出版社 Daxiang Chubanshe

Lingshi)』Kexue Chubanshe 科学出版社

Henansheng Wenwu Kaogu Yanjiusuo・Zhengzhoushi

Cui Jianfeng・Yu Jincheng・Guo Jingning・Wu Xiaohong

B o w u g u a n 河 南 省 文 物 研 究 所・ 鄭 州 市 博 物 館

崔剣鋒・郁金城・郭京寧・呉小紅 2007「Beijing Chang-

1983 ｢Zhengzhou Xinfaxian Shangdai Jiaocang

ping Zhangying Yizhi Chutu Qingtongqi De Chubu

Qingtongqi 鄭 州新発 現商代窖 蔵青 銅器 (Newly Dis-

Kexue Fenxi 北京昌平張営遺址出土青銅器的初歩科学

covered Bronze Cache in Zhengzhou)｣『Wenwu 文物』

分析 (Preliminary Analyses on Bronze Artifacts Ex-

1983 年第 3 期

cavated from the site of Zhangying, Changping in

He Tangkun 何 堂 坤 1988「Jijian Liulihe Xi Zhou Zaoqi

Beijing)」『Changping Zhangying 昌平張営 (Excava-

Qingtongqi De Kexue Fenxi 几件 瑠 璃 河 西 周 早 期 青tions at the Site of Zhangying, Changping』Wenwu

銅 器 的 科 学 分 析 (Scientiﬁc Analysis on Early West

Chubanshe 文物出版社

Zhou Bronze Artifacts Excavated from Liulihe)」

Fan Xiangxi・Su Rongyu 樊祥熹・蘇栄誉 1997「Xingan『Wenwu 文物』1988 年第 3 期

Shangdai Damu Qingtongqi Hejin Fenxi 新 干 商 代

He Tangkun 何堂坤 1991「Baoshan Chumu Jinshuqi

大 墓青 銅 器 合 金 分析 (An Analysis on Bronze Alloy

Chubu Kaocha 包山楚墓金属器初歩考察 (A Prelimi-

Excavated from the Shang Large Tomb Discoverednary Study on Metal Artifacts Excavated from thein Xingan)」Jiangxisheng Bowuguan・Jiangxisheng

Chu Tomb in Baoshan)」Hubeisheng Jingsha Tielu

Wenwu Kaogu Yanjiusuo・Xinganxian Baowuguan

Kaogudui 湖 北 省 荊 沙 鉄 路 考古 隊『Baoshan Chumu

江西省博物館・江西省文物考古研究所・新干県博物館

包 山 楚 墓 (Excavations of Chu Tomb Discovered in『Xingan Shangdai Damu 新干商代大墓 (Excavations

Baoshan)』Wenwu Chubanshe 文物出版社

of the Shang Large Tomb Discovered in Xingan)』

He Tangkun 何堂坤 1993「Kewen Tongqi Kexue Fenxi 刻

Wenwu Chubanshe 文物出版社

紋銅器科学分析 (Scientiﬁc Analysis on Bronze Arti-

Han Binghua・Cui Jianfeng 韓炳華・崔剣鋒 2010「Changzhi

facts with Incised Decoration)」『Kaogu 考古』1993

Fenshuiling Chutu Qingtongqi De Kexuefenxi 長 治

年第 5 期

分水嶺出土青銅器的科学分析 (A Scientiﬁc Analysis on

He Tangkun 何堂坤 1997「Xianqin Qingtong Hejin Ji-

Bronze Artifacts Excavated from the Site of Fens-

shu De Chubu Tantao 先秦青銅合金技術的初歩探討

huiling, Changzhi)」Shanxisheng Kaogu Yanjiusuo・(A Preliminary Study on Pre-Qin Bronze Alloying

Shanxi Bowuyuan・Changzhishi Bowuguan

Technology)」『Zirankexueshi Yanjiu 自然科学史研究』

山 西1997 年第 3 期

省考古研究所・山西博物院・長治市博物館『Changzhi
Fenshuiling Dong Zhou Mudi 長 治 分 水 嶺 東 周 墓 地

He Tangkun 何堂坤 2001「Panlongcheng Qingtongqi(Excavations at the East Zhou Cemetery Discovered

Hejin Chengfen Fenxi 盤 龍 城 青 銅 器 合 金 成 分 分 析

in Fenshuiling, Changzhi)』Wenwu Chubanshe 文物(Composition Analysis on Bronze Alloys Excavated㻝㻡㻥‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb/37/.-/.-1//.833

³$VLDQ+LJK7LQ%URQ]HV3URGXFWLRQ7HFKQRORJ\DQG5HJLRQDO&KDUDFWHULVWLFV´from Panlongcheng)」Hubei sheng Wenwu Kaogu

比値研究 (Composition Analysis and Lead Isotope

Yanjiusuo 湖 北 省 文 物 考 古 研 究 所『Panlongcheng

Analysis on Bronze Artifacts Excavated from a Rit-

1963~1994 Nian Kaogu Fajue Baogao 盤 龍 城 -1963

ual Pit Discovered at the Site of Sanxingdui, Guang-〜 1994 年 考 古 発 掘 報 告 (Excavations at the Site ofhan) 」Sichuansheng Wenwu Kaogu Yanjiusuo 四川

Panlongcheng from 1963 to 1994)』Wenwu Chuban-

省文物考古研究所『Sanxingdui Jishikeng 三星堆祭祀

she 文物出版社

坑 (Ritual Pit Discovered at the Site of Sanxingdui) 』

Hua Jueming 華覚明 1999『Zhongguo Gudai Jinshu

Wenwu Chubanshe 文物出版社

Jishu-Tong He Tie Zao Jiu De Wenming 中国古代金Li Lianqi 李連琪 2003「Linyichengcun Mudi Chutu

属技術 - 銅和鉄造就的文明 (Metal Technology in the

Tongqi Chengfenfenxi Baogao 臨 猗 程村墓 地出土 銅Ancient China) 』Daxiang Chubanshe 大象出版社

器 成 份 分 析 報 告 (Composition Analysis on Bronze

Huang Xiaojuan・Li Xiuhui 黄暁娟・李秀輝 2006「Zheng-

Artifacts Excavated from the Cemetery Discovered

guo Jisi Yizhi Qingtongqi De Fenxi Jianding Baogao

in the Village of Linyichengcun) 」Zhongguo She-

鄭 国 祭 祀 遺 址 青 銅 器 的 分 析 鑑 定 報 告 (Analysis onhuikexueyuan Kaogu Yanjiusuo 中国社会科学院考古Bronze Artifacts Excavated from the Ritual Site in研究所『Linyichengcun Mudi 臨猗程村墓地 (Excava-

Zhengguo)」Henansheng Wenwu Kaogu Yanjiusuo

tions of the Cemetery Discovered in the Village of

河南省文物考古研究所『Xinzheng Zhengguo Jisikeng

Linyichengcun)』Zhongguo Dabaike Quanshu Chu-

新鄭鄭国祭祀坑 (Ritual Pit Discovered in Zhengguo,

banshe 中国大百科全書出版社

Xinzheng)』Daxiang Chubanshe 大象出版社

Li Minsheng 李 敏 生 1984「Xianqin Yong Qian De Lishi

Huang Wei・Chen Jianli 黄維・陳建立 2008「Suizhou

Gaikuang 先秦用鉛 的歴 史概況 (The Use of Lead in

Leigudun Erhaomu Chutu Qingtongqi De Jinxiang

the Pre-Qin Period)」『Wenwu 文物』1984 年第 10 期

Shiyan Yanjiu 随州擂鼓墩二号墓出土青銅器的金相実験

Li Mingsheng・Huang Suying・Li Lianqi 李敏生・黄素研究 (Experimentally Metal Phase Study on Bronze

英・李連琪 1984「Yinxu Jinshuqiwu Chengfen De

Artifacts Excavated from No.2 Tomb at the Site ofCeding Baogao (2) ‒Yinxu Xiqu Tongqi He Qianqi

Leigudun, Suizhou)」Suizhoushi Bowuguan 随州市博Ceding 殷 墟 金 属 器 物成分的測定報告（二）−殷墟西

物館『Suizhou Leigudun Erhaomu 随州擂鼓墩二号墓

区銅器和鉛器測定 (Composition Analysis on Metal(Excavations of No.2 Tomb at the Site of Leigudun,

Artifacts Excavated from Yinxu (2); Composition

Suizhou)』Wenwu Chubanshe 文物出版社

Analysis on Bronze and Lead Artifacts Excavated in

Jia Ying・Su Rongyu・Lin Liugen 賈 瑩・蘇 栄 誉・林 留 根

the West Area of Yinxu) 」『Kaoguxue Jikan 考古学

2004「Wuguo Qingtongqi De Jinxiangxue Kaocha

集刊』第 4 集

呉国青銅兵器的金相学考察 (Metal Phase Analysis on

Li Xiuhui・Han Rubin 李 秀 輝・韓 汝 玢 2000「Zhukaigou

Wu-type Bronze Artifacts)」Xiao Menlong・Liu Wei

Yizhi Chutu Tongqi De Jinxiangxue Yanjiu 朱開溝

肖夢龍・劉偉『Wuguo Qingtongqi Zonghe Yanjiu 呉

遺址出土銅器的金相学研究 (Metal Phase Analyses

国 青 銅 器 総 合 研 究 (Comprehensive Studies on Wu-

on Bronze Artifacts Excavated from the Site oftype Bronze Artifacts)』Wenwu Chubanshe 文物出版

Zhukaigou)」Neimenggu Zizhiqu Wenwu Kaogu

社

Yanjiusuo・Erduosi Bowuguan 内蒙古自治区文物考古

Jia Yunfu 賈雲福 1989「Zenghou Yimu Bufen Qingtongqi

研究所・鄂尓多斯博物館『Zhukaigou-Qingtongshidai

Ji Jinshutanhuang De Huaxue Chengfen Jiance 曾Zaoqi Yizhi Fajue Baogao 朱開溝‐青銅時代早期遺址

侯乙墓部分 青 銅器及金属弾簧的化学成分検 測 (Com-

発掘報告 (Excavations at the Early Bronze Age Site

position Analyses on Bronze Artifacts and Metalof Zhukaigou)』Wenwu Chubanshe 文物出版社

Spring Excavated from the Tomb of Yi, a King of

Li Xiuhui・Han Runbin・Sun Jianguo・Wang Bin 李秀Zeng)」Hubeisheng Bowuguan 湖北省博物館『Zeng-

輝・ 韓 汝 玢・ 孫 建 国・王 斌 1999「Guoguomu Chutu

hou Yimu 曾侯乙墓 (Excavations of the tomb of Yi, a

Qingtongqi Caizhi Fenxi 虢 国 墓 出 土 青 銅 器 材 質 分King of Zeng) 』Wenwu Chubanche 文物出版社

析 (Composition Analysis on Bronze Artifacts Ex-

Jin Zhenyao・Hisao Mabuchi・Tom Chase・Chen Dean・

cavated from the Guo Clan tomb)」Henansheng

Karoku Miwa・Yoshimitsu Hirao・Zhao Dianzeng 金Wenwu Kaogu Yanjiushuo・Sanmenxiashi Wenwu

正耀・馬渕久夫・Tom Chase・陳徳安・三輪嘉六・平尾良光・

Kaogu Gongzuodui 河南省文物考古研究所・三門峡市

趙 殿 増 1999「Guanghan Sanxingdui Jisikeng Qing-

文物工作隊『Sanmenxia Guoguomu Diyiquan 三門峡

tongqi De Huaxuezucheng He Qian Tongweisubizhi

虢国墓（第一巻）(Excavations of the Gu Clan Tomb,

Yanjiu 広漢三星堆祭祀坑青銅器的化学組成和鉛同位素

Sanmenxia: Volume1)』Wenwu Chubanshe 文物出版㻝㻢㻜‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb/4.

/.-/.-1//.833

7DNDIXPL 1LZD

Yizhi Chutu Tongqi X Shexian Yingguang Fenxi 二社
Li Zhongda・Wang Suying・Hua Jueming・Zhang Hongli

里 頭 遺 址 出 土 銅 器 X 射 線 蛍 光 分 析 (X-ray Fluores-

李仲達・王素英・華覚明・張宏礼 1991「Xichuan Xiasi

cence Analysis on Bronze Artifacts Excavated from

Chunqiu Chumu Qingtongqi Shiyang Fenxi Baogao

the Site of Erlitou)」Zhongguo Shehuikexueyuan

淅川下寺 春 秋 楚 墓青 銅 器 試 様 分析 報 告 (A Study on

Kaogu Yanjiusuo 中国社会科学院考古研究所『Yanshi

Bronze Artifacts Excavated from Spring and Au-

Erlitou 1959~1978 Nian Kaogu Fajue Baogao 偃師

tumn Period Chu Tomb in Xiasi Xichuan) 」Henan-

二里頭 1959 〜 1978 年 考 古 発 掘 報 告 (Excavations

sheng Wenwu Yanjiusuo 河南省文物研究所『Xichuan

at Erlitou, Yanshi from 1959 to 1978)』Zhongguo

Xiasi Chunqiu Chumu 淅川下寺春秋楚墓 (Excavations

Dabaike Quanshu Chubanshe 中国大百科全書出版社

of Spring and Autumn Period Chu Tomb in Xiasi,

Shandongsheng Yanshi Tielu Wenwu Kaogu Gongzuodui
山 東 省 ‫ ܪ‬石 鉄 路 文 物 考 古 工 作 隊 1988『Linyi Feng-

Xichuan)』Wenwu Chubanshe 文物出版社
Luo Wugan・Qin Ying・Huang Fengchun・Gong Ming・

huangling Donzhoumu 臨 沂鳳 凰嶺 東 周 墓 (Excava-

Wang Changsui 羅 武干・秦 潁・黄 鳳 春・龔 明・王 昌

tions of the Eastern Zhou Tomb in Fenghuangling,燧 2006「Zuozhong Chumu Chutu Jinshuqi Yanjiu

Linyi)』Qilu Shushe 斉魯書社

左 冢 楚 墓 出 土 金 属 器 研 究 (A Study on Metal Arti-

Su Ronyu・Hu Zhisheng・Lu Liancheng・Chen Yuyun・facts Excavated from the Chu tomb in Zuozhong)」

Chen Yiwei 蘇栄誉・胡智生・盧連成・陳玉雲・陳依慰

Hubeisheng Wenwu Kaogu Yanjiusuo・Jingmenshi

1988「Yuguo Mudi Qingtongqi Zhuzao Gongyi He

Bowuguan・Xiangjing Gaosugonglu Kaogudui 湖 北

Jinshu Qiwu Jiance

国墓地青銅器鋳造工芸考察和金

省文物考古研究所・荊門市博物館・襄荊高速公路考古隊

属器物検測」Lu Liancheng・Hu Zhisheng 盧連成・胡『Jingmen Zuozhong Chumu 荊門左冢楚墓 (Cu Tomb

智生『Baoji Yuguo Mudi 宝 鶏

discovered in Zuozhong, Jingmen)』Wenwu Chu-of the Cemetery of Yu Clan, Baoji)』Wenwu Chu-banshe 文物出版社

banshe 文物出版社

国 墓 地 (Excavations

Ma Qinglin・Da Wei・Si Kete 馬清林・大衛・斯科特 2007

Su Rongyu・Hua Jueming・Li Kemin・Lu Benshan 蘇栄誉・

「Chunqiu Zhanguo Shiqi Duxi Qingtong Bandai

華 覚 明・ 李 克 敏・盧 本 珊 1995『Zhongguo Shanggu

Duxijishu Yanjiu 春秋戦国時期鍍錫青銅板帯鍍錫技術

Jinshu Jishu 中国上古金属技術 (Metal Technology of

研究 (A Study on Tin-plating Technology of Spring

the Ancient China』Shandong Keji Chubanshe 山東

and Autumn, Warring State Tin-plated Bronze

科技出版社

Plaques)」『Wenwu Keji Yanjiu 文物科技研究』第 5 輯

Su Rongyu・Hua Jueming・Peng Shifan・Zhan Kaixun・

Mei Jianjun・Han Rubin 梅建軍・韓汝玢 2007「Nianzipo

Liu Lin・Jia Ying 蘇栄誉・華覚明・彭適凡・詹開遜・劉林・Xianzhou Wenhua Tongqi De Jinxiang Jianyan He

賈瑩 1997「Xingan Shangdai Damu Qingtongqi Zhu-

Dingliang Fenxi Baogao-Ding Yu Bu De Jianyan

zao Gongyun Yanjiu 新干商代大墓青銅器鋳造工芸研Fenxi 碾子坡 先 周文化 銅器的金相検 験 和定 量分析 報

究 (A Study on the Casting Technology of Bronze

告‐ 鼎 与 瓿 的 検 験 分 析 (Metal Phase Analysis andArtifacts Excavated from the Shang Large Tomb in

Quantitative Analysis on Pre-Zhou Bronze Artifacts

Xingan) 」Jiangxisheng Bowuguan・Jiangxisheng

Excavated from the Site of Nianzipo: Analysis of

Wenwu Kaogu Yanjiusuo・Xinganxian Bowuguan

Ding and Bu)」Zhongguo Shehuikeixueyuan Kaugu

江西省博物館・江西省文物考古研究所・新干県博物館

Yanjiusuo 中国社会科学院考古研究所『Nanbinzhou・『Xingan Shangdai Damu 新干商代大墓 (Large Shang

Nianzipo 南 邠 州・ 碾 子 坡 (Excavations of Nanbin-

Tomb Discovered in Xingan) 』Wenwu Chubanshe

zhou and Nianzipo) 』Shijie Tushu Chuban Gongsi

文物出版社
Sun Shuyun 孫淑雲 1992「Dangyang Zhaojiahu Chumu

Beijing Gongsi 世界図書出版公司北京公司
Qiu Xuanchong・Huang Derong 邱 宣 充・ 黄 徳 栄 1983

Jinshuqi De Jianding 当 陽 趙 家 湖 楚 墓 金 属 器 的 鑑「Chuxiong Wanjiaju Chutu Xiqi De Chubu Yanjiu −定 (A Study on Metal Artifacts Excavated from the

Jiantan Yunnan Gudai Yejin De Yixie Wenti 楚雄万

Chu Tomb in Zhaojiahu, Dangyang)」Hubeisheng家埧出土錫器的初歩研究−兼談雲南古代冶金的一些問

Yichang Diqu Bowuguan・Beijing Daxue Kaoguxi

題 (A Preliminary Study on Tin Artifacts Excavated

湖北省 宜昌地区博 物館・北 京大学 考古系『Dangyang

from the Site of Wanjiaju Chuxiong: Some Problems

Zhaojiahu Chumu 当 陽 趙 家 湖 楚 墓 (Excavations ofon Ancient Metallurgy in Yunnan)」『Wenwu 文物』

the Chu Tomb in Zhaojiahu, Dangyang』Wenwu
Chubanshe 文物出版社

1983 年第 8 期

Sun Shuyun 孫 淑 雲 1996「Taiyuan Jinguo Zhaoqingmu

Qu Changzhi・Zhang Riqing 曲長芝・張日清 1999「Erlitou㻝㻢㻝‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb/4//.-/.-1//.833

³$VLDQ+LJK7LQ%URQ]HV3URGXFWLRQ7HFKQRORJ\DQG5HJLRQDO&KDUDFWHULVWLFV´

Qingtongqi De Fenxi Jianding 太原晋国趙卿墓青銅器

Chengjiu 従現代実験剖析中国古代青銅鋳造的科学成就

的分析鑑定 (A Study on Bronze Artifacts Excavated（Scientific Results of Experimental Studies on thefrom the tomb of Zhao, a Lord in Jing in Taiyuan) 」

Ancient Chinese Bronze Casting）」『Kejishi Wenji 科

Shanxisheng Kaogu Yanjiusuo・Taiyuanshi Wenwu

技史文集』13

Guanliweiyuanhui 山西省考古研究 所・太原市文物 管Tian Changhu 田長滸 1988『Zhongguo Gudai Jinshu Ji-

理委員会『Taiyuan Jinguo Zhaoqingmu 太原晋国趙卿

shushi 中国古代金属技術史 (History of the Ancient

墓 (Excavations of the Tomb of Lord Zhao in Jing in

Chinese Metal Technology)』Sichuan Kexue Jishu

Taiyuan)』Wenwu Chubanshe 文物出版社

Chubanshe 四川科学技術出版社

Sun Shuyun 孫淑雲 1999「Zhengzhou Nanshun Chengjie

Xiao Menglong・Hua Jueming・Su Rongyu・Jia Ying 肖夢龍・Shangdai Jiaozang Qingtongqi JinxiangFenxi Ji

華 覚 明・蘇 栄 誉・賈 瑩 2004「Wugan ZhiJian Yanjiu

Chengfen Fenxi Ceshi Baogao 鄭 州南順城 街商代窖呉干之剣研究 (A Study on the Wugan Sword)」Xiao

蔵青銅器金相分析及成分分析測試報告 (Metal Texture

Menglong・Liu Wei 肖夢龍・劉偉『Wuguo Qingtongqi

Analysis and Composition Analysis on Bronze Ar-

Zonghe Yanjiu 呉国青銅器総合研究 (Comprehensive

tifacts Excavated from a Shang Cache in Nanshun,Studies on Wu-type Bronze Artifacts)』Wenwu Chu-

Zhengzhou)」Henansheng Wenwu Kaogu Yanjiusuo・

banshe 文物出版社

Zhengzhoushi Wenwu Kaogu Yanjiusuo 河 南 省 文

Xu Hengbin・Huang Weixin・Wang Xiulian・Hua Juem-物 考 古研 究 所・鄭 州 市 文 物 考 古研 究 所『Zhengzhou

ing 徐恒彬・黄渭馨・王秀蘭・華覚明 1986「Guangdong-Shangdai Tongqi Jiaozang 鄭州商代銅器窖蔵 (Shangsheng Chutu Qingtongqi Yezhu Jishu De Yanjiu 広東

Bronze Cache Discovered in Zhengzhou)』Kexue

省出土青銅器冶鋳技術的研究 (A Study on the Metal-

Chubanshe 科学出版社

lurgical Technology of Bronze Artifacts ExcavatedSun Shuyun 孫淑雲 2005「Henglingshan Mudi Chutu Defrom Guangdong)」『中国冶鋳史論集 (Essays on the

8 Jian Qingtongqi Chengfen He JianxiangZuzhi 横嶺

History of Metallurgy in China) 』Wenwu Chuban-

山墓地出土的 8 件青銅器成分和金相組織 (Compositionshe 文物出版社

and Metal Texture of Eight Bronze Artifacts Exca-

Y a o Q i n g f a n g 姚 青 芳 1 9 9 6「 S h a n x i Y u a n q uvated from the Cemetery of Henglingshan)」Guang-

Gushangcheng Yizhi Qingtongqi De Yanjiu 山 西 垣

dongsheng Wenwu Kaogu Yuanjiusuo 広東省文物考

曲古商城遺址青銅器的研究 (A Study on Bronze Ar-

古 研 究 所『Boluo Henglingshan：Shang Zhou Shiqi

tifacts Excavated from the Shang Fortified Town

Mudi 2000 Nian Fajue Baoguo 博羅横嶺山：商周時期

of Yuanqu, Shanxi)」Zhongguo Lishi Bowuguan・

墓地 2000 年発掘報告 (Excavations of the Shang andShanxisheng Kaogu Yanjiusuo・Yuanquxian Bowu-

Zhou Cemetery of Henglingshan, Boluo in 2000)』

guan 中国歴 史博 物 館・山西省考古研 究 所・垣曲県博

Kexue Chubanshe 科学出版社

物 館『Yuanqu Shangcheng ( 一 ) 1985-1986 Niandu

Sun Shuyun・Han Rubin 孫淑雲・韓汝玢 1997「Gansu

Kancha Baogao 垣曲商城（一）1985-1986 年度勘察報

Zaoqi Tongqi De Faxian Yu Yelian Zhizao Jishu De

告 (Report of Surveys at the Shang Fortiﬁed Town

Yanjiu 甘 粛早 期銅器的発 現与 冶 煉、制造技術的研 究

of Yuanqu in 1985 and 1986)』 科 学 出 版 社 Kexue(A Study on Metallurgy and Production Technol-

ChubansheZeng Bin・Xia Feng・Xian Menglong・Shang Zhitan 曽

ogy of Early Bronze Artifacts Discovered in Gansu)」

彬・夏 鋒・肖夢 龍・商 志香覃1990「Sunan Diqu Gudai『Wenwu 文物』1997 年第 7 期
Sun Shuyun・Wang Jinchao・Tian Jianhua・Liu Jian-

Qingtongqi Hejin Chengfen De Ceding 蘇南地区古代

hua 孫淑雲・王金潮・田建花・劉建華 2009「Huaiyin

青銅器合金成分的測定 (Composition Analysis on the

Gaozhuang Zhanguomu Chutu Tongqi De Fenxi

Ancient Bronze Excavated in the Area of Sunan)」

Yanjiu 淮陰高庄戦国墓出土銅器的分析研究 (Analysis『Wenwu 文物』1990 年第 9 期

on Bronze Artifacts Excavated from Warring State

Zhang Riqing・Qu Changzhi 張日清・曲長芝 1982
「Tongweisu

Tomb Discovered in Gaozhuang, Huaiyin)」Huaian-

X-shexian Yingguanfa Dui Xizhen Wenwu De Wu-

shi Bowuguan 淮安市博物館『Huaiyin Gaozhuang

sun Fenxi 同位素 X 射線蛍光法対稀珍文物的無損分析

Zhanguomu 淮陰高庄戦国墓 (Excavations at the(Non Destructive Analysis Using X-ray Fluorescence

Warring State Tomb of Gaozhuang, Huaiyin)』Wen-on Precious Old Artifacts)」『Kaoguxue Jikan 考古学

wu Chubanshe 文物出版社

集刊』第 2 集

Tian Changhu 田長滸 1985「Cong Xiandai Shiyan Pouxi

Zhao Chunyan 趙春燕 2004「Anyang Yinxu Chutu Qing-

Zhongg uo Gudai Qingtong Zhuzao De Kex ue

tongqi De Huaxue Chengfen Fenxi Yu Yanjiu 安陽殷㻝㻢㻞‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb/40/.-/.-1//.833

7DNDIXPL 1LZD

墟出土青銅器的化学成分分析与研究 (Chemical Com-

Fu Hao)」『考古 (Kaogu) 』1982 年第 5 期

position Analysis on Bronze Artifacts Excavatedfrom the Site of Yinxu, Anyang)」『Kaoguxue Jikan
考古学集刊』第 15 集
Zhao Chunyan 趙春燕 2006「Gansu Zhuanglang Xujianian Siwa Wenhua Muzang Chutu Tongqi Huaxue
Zucheng Fenxi Yu Yanjiu 甘粛庄浪徐家碾寺洼文化墓
葬出土銅器化学組成分析与研究 (Chemical Composition Analysis on Bronze Artifacts Excavated fromthe Siwa Tomb of Xujianian, Zhuanglang, Gansu)」
Zhongguo Shehuikexueyuan Kaogu Yanjiusuo

中

国 社 会 科 学 院 考 古 研 究 所『Xujianian Siwa Wenhua
Muzang-1980 Nian Gansu Zhuanglang Xujianian
Kaogu Fajue Baogao 徐 家 碾 寺 洼 文化 墓 葬‐1980 年
甘 粛 庄 浪 徐 家 碾 考 古 発 掘 報 告 (The Siwa Tomb in
Xujianian-Archaeological Excavations at Xujianian,Zhuanglang, Gansu in 1980)』Wenwu Chubanshe 文
物出版社
Zhongguo Shehuikexueyuan Kaogu Yanjiusuo 中国社会科
学 院 考 古研 究 所 1998『Anyang Yinxu Guojiazhuang
Shangdai Muzang 安陽殷墟郭家荘商代墓葬 ( T he
Shang Cemetery at Guojiazhuang, Yinxu, Anyang)』
Zhongguo Baike Quanshu Chubanshe 中国百科全書
出版社
Zhongguo Shehuikexueyuan Kaogu Yanjiusuo Shiyanshi 中国 社 会 科 学 院 考 古研 究 所 実 験 室 1982「Yinxu
Jinshuqiwu Chengfen De Ceding Baogao (1)- Fu
Hao Mu Tongqi Ceding 殷墟金属器物成分的測定報
告（一）−婦好墓銅器測定 (Composition Analysis on
Metal Artifacts Excavated from Yinu(1): A Study on
Bronze Artifacts Excavated from the Tomb of Fu
Hao)」『 Kaoguxue Jikan 考古学集刊』第 2 集
Zhongguo Shehuikexueyuan Kaogu Yanjiusuo Shiyanshi
中 国 社 会 科 学 院 考 古 研 究 所 実 験 室 1994「Shanxian
Dongzhoumu Bufen Dongqi De Chengfen Fenxi
陝 県 東 周 墓 出 土 部 分 銅 器 的 成 分 分 析 (Composition
Analysis on Bronze Artifacts Excavated from Eastern Zhou Tombs in Shanxian)」Zhongguo Shehuilexueyuan Kaogu Yanjiusuo 中国社会科学院考古研究所『Shanxian Dongzhou Qin Hanmu 陝県東周秦漢墓(Eastern Zhou, Qin and Han Tombs in Shanxian)』』
Kexu Chubanshe 科学出版社
Zhengzhou Gongxueyuan・Zhongguo Kexueyuan Zirankexueshiyanjiusuo 鄭 州工学 院・中国 科 学 院自然科学史研究所 1982「Fuhaomu Qingtongqi Ji Tonggu
Fuzhijian De Huaxuechengfen He Jinxiang Zushi 婦好墓青銅器及銅觚複製件的化学成分和金相組織 (Chemical Composition and Metal Texture of Bronze Artifacts and Copper Gu Excavated from the Tomb of㻝㻢㻟‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb/41/.-/.-1//.833㻝㻢㻠‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb/42/.-/.-1//.833

riod.

0LFURFKHPLFDO$QDO\VLVRQ+LJK7LQ
%URQ]H+HOPHWV([FDYDWHG
IURPD5R\DO7RPERI<LQ[X

The tomb of HPKM1004 was one of the large
tombs discovered in the Xibeigang area. The mainchamber is approximately 16m by 18m, 12m in
depth. The lengths of sloped corridors are approxi--XQNR8FKLGD

mately 16m, 30m, 15m and 15m from North, South,,QVWLWXWHRI+LVWRU\DQG3KLORORJ\$FDGHPLD6LQLFD

East and West, respectively. Artifacts excavated<RVKL\XNL,L]XND

from this tomb suggest that this tomb should be cor-

,QVWLWXWHRI(DUWK6FLHQFHV$FDGHPLD6LQLFD

responded to the Yinxu Phase 2 and Phase 3 (Liangand Gao 1970). This tomb yielded Ding with an ox
pattern, Ding with a deer motif. At least more than>$EVWUDFW@

A series of micro-chemical analysis was carried

100 bronze helmets (Fig. 1) and over 700 dagger-ax-

out on high-tin bronze helmets excavated from aes and spearheads were discovered from this tomb,

Royal Tomb HPKM-1004 in the Yinxu. Two kinds ofmany of the bronze helmets were fragmentary andmetallurgical textures, such as dendrite and homo-

unreconstructable though.

geneous phase without phase boundary, observed
which suggest a quenching technique and then fol-

+HOPHWV([FDYDWHGIURPWKH7RPERI+3.0

lowed by heat treatment process, probably temper-

The helmets from the HPK M1004 are ver ying. Chemical analysis revealed that most of hel-unique and characterized by the following reasons;mets were made of high-tin bronze and surrounded(1) No helmets were discovered in the other sites

by tin-gilding layer. Result suggests that Yinxuʼ

in Yinxu. Except the HPKM1004, only one helmets craftsmen purposely used diﬀerent proportion of

was discovered in the Yinxu Period sites from Tai-copper and tin to produce bronze objects according

yangzhou, Jiangxi Province in China.

as function.

(2) A tube is attached to the top of the helmet.
The helmets from the HPKM1004 are very similar>.H\ZRUGV@

to those used in Central Asia, and Middle East in

Yinxu, Bronze, Chemical composition, High-Tin,form which feathers were inserted into the tube.

Gilding(3) Some of the helmets are decorated with a

Taotie pattern on the front face. Others are deco-,QWURGXFWLRQ
Due to ﬁnd the site of Oracle bones and tortoise

rated with the whirl pattern on the side face. These

carapaces with ancient inscriptions, the Institute ofpatterns were traditionally used in the Yinxu Period.

History and Philology, Academia Sinica launched a(4) They are well-preserved and show blackishseries of excavations in 1928 in the modern village

or silver surfaces rather than oxidized greenish inof Xiaotun in the suburban of Anyang in the Henancolor.

Province. The excavations revealed large-scaled

The (1) and (2) suggest that this type of hel-remains of Palaces and tombs. In 1934, the excava-

met was introduced from northern warriors in thetion work also started in the area of Xibeigang on

northern China with other objects such as chariot

the north bank of the Huang River because the area

ornaments. On the other hand, the (3) suggests

was seriously robbed repeatedly. As a result, 10

that these helmets were produced in the Yinxu. In

large tombs and one large unﬁnished tomb were dis-

terms of making technique, the (4) indicates that thecovered in this area. These tombs are cross-shaped.

helmets are probably covered by a tin layer (Zhou

Each tomb consists of a rectangular main chamber

1957; Ma et al. 1999).

at the depth of 10m and sloped corridors running

Artifacts from the palace and royal tombs arefrom the main chamber towards four directions.

now stored at the Institute of History and Philology,

Most of the tombs were looted and burial artifacts

Academia Sinica (Taipei). These artifacts are very

were mostly robbed. Although only fragments of theimportant for understanding the casting technology

artifacts were discovered, their richness of artifacts

in the Ancient China. In the 1970s, the ﬁrst metal-

and the large scale of the tombs strongly suggest

lurgical investigation has been carried out on thethat these tombs were royal tombs in the Shang Pe-

helmets from the HPKM1004 (Wan 1970). However,㻝㻢㻡‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb/43/.-/.-1//.833

³$VLDQ+LJK7LQ%URQ]HV3URGXFWLRQ7HFKQRORJ\DQG5HJLRQDO&KDUDFWHULVWLFV´

the analysis method was not established well atbronze during the cutting process, rotation speed ofthat time and the helmets were not fully studied by

the diamond saw was operated in 100 r.p.m. withthe recent days. New series of metallurgical study

the distilled water for cooling. Cleaned samples bylaunched with techniques of scanning electron mi-ethanol were mounted in a cold-mounting (roomcroscope and X-ray analysis on fragments of bronze

temperature cured for eight hours) epoxy resin withartifacts. A preliminary analyses on the helmets

1-inch diameter mold and exposed surfaces wereindicated that the surface of the helmet is covered

well polished with Alumina paste.

with a thin tin layer, which is pointed out already  6XUIDFH REVHUYDWLRQ DQG FKHPLFDO DQDO\VLV E\ 6FDQQLQJ

(Fig. 2). Then 27 pieces from the helmets were se-(OHFWURQ0LFURVFRSH 6(0 ZLWKDQHQHUJ\GLVSHUVLYH;UD\lected for further detail investigation. This paper

VSHFWURPHWHU ('6 reports results from a series of investigation on theMicro-metallurgical texture of each polishedhelmets from the HPKM1004 and discuss possible

sample was initially observed by an optical micro-

techniques of high-tin bronze in the Yinxu.

scope with the reflection light. Then, a scanningelectron microscope (SEM: JEOL JSM-6360LV) was6WXGLHV+HOPHWVIURP+3.0

used to observe micro-scale texture. Back-scattered +HOPHW7\SHVelectron image, which represents mean atomic

The helmets from the HPKM1004 have various

abundance by contrast in back and white image,size, shapes, and styles of design but can be divided

from the surface of the polished section. Analysis

into 6 types in terms of decoration; helmets withof the micro-metallurgical phases and their elemen-3-different motifs (Taotie ) of ox, sheep, and tiger,

tal abundances and mean chemical composition

helmet with whirl pattern, helmets with Eyes pat-of bronze were measured by an energy dispersive

tern, and without decoration (Fig. 1). These contexts

spectrometer (EDS: Oxford Instruments Ltd., INCA-

may suggest that these six types of the helmets were300) which equipped with SEM, used under the

produced in diﬀerent factories. Thus it is expectedbeam conditions of 15 kilo Volt (kV), and 180 picodiﬀerence of chemical composition and metallurgi-

Ampere (pA) for the acceleration voltage, respec-

cal texture in bronze.

tively. Analyzed points were selected with the back- 3DUWVRIWKH+HOPHW

scattered electron images to avoid damaged andweathered areas.

A drawing of a representative helmet is shownin Fig.3-1. The width and height of the helmets are

Mean chemical compositions were determinedca. 20cm and 26cm, respectively, and have a tube

in 10-areas of 120μm x 90μm (1,000 times in theon the top. Including the tube, the helmet was castmagniﬁcation of SEM image for each 100 seconds,

together in the same casting mold. The samples

quantitatively. It is aiming to understand whole

were carefully selected from different parts of thechemical value of bronze which suggests an initialhelmet to try to investigate any diﬀerence in metal-

mixture ratio of Cu (copper), Sn (tin), Pb (lead) in

lurgical texture and chemical composition.

molten bronze. The quantitative data were normalized as metal compositions, using the X-ray intensities of pure metal standards, Cu, Sn, Pb and some$QDO\WLFDOSURFHGXUH
An electron microscopic technique is used forothers (PbS, Fe-Ni-Co standard alloy [NBS868], andstudy of micro-metallurgical phases and their chem-

so on). Analytical results from the 1200μm x 900μ

ical analyses. All analytical procedure is carried out

m area were compared with synthetic bronzes with-at the Laboratory of Electron Probe Micro-Analyses

in 1% by weight, which chemical-known bronzes(EPMA Lab) in Institute of Earth Sciences, Academia(Cu +Sn) and lead containing bronze (Cu + Sn + Pb)

Sinica.

alloys, and confirmed EDS results were reliable to 6DPSOHSUHSDUDWLRQ

discussion.

To observe a section of bronze objects through  0DSSLQJ DQG SKDVH DQDO\VLV RI EURQ]H PHWDO SKDVHV E\

the surface to the interior, the selected samples:DYHOHQJWK'LVSHUVLYH6SHFWURPHWHUV :'6 ZLWK(OHFWURQ

were sliced oﬀ in a small piece (less than few cm in

3UREH0LFUR$QDO\]HU (30$ size with few mm in thickness) by a micro-diamond

The WDS has an advantage in comparison tosaw. To avoid damage the original texture of thethe EDS because of their X-ray resolution. For ex㻝㻢㻢‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb/44/.-/.-1//.833

-XQNR8FKLGD・<RVKL\XNL,L]XND

amples, the EDS spectrum is not discriminate whenand selenium (Se). These elements were identified

the peaks of lead (Pb-M α ) and sulfur (S-K α ), or

as shared shape between the phase boundaries ofoxygen (O-Kα) and tin (Sn-Kα) because their peaks

bronze. Their sizes are several to 20 μm in diam-

are interference each other, whereas the WDS per-eter.

forms their identiﬁcation clearly. Thus the WDS is 6XUIDFH7LQOD\HUVappropriate to study phase diﬀerence among metal,

Figs. 3-3, 3-6 and 3-7 show the BEI of sample ofoxide and sulfide. To confirm the phases, qualita-

No. 0921. This part was selected from the nose oftive analysis and elemental distribution mapping

the Taotie pattern of the helmet. The nose part isanalyses were made by JEOL hyperprobe EPMA

concave in shape and casting mold is still remained

JXA-8500F with 25kV, 15nA, and focused beam foron the ventral surface of the sample (Fig. 3-3).

the acceleration voltage, beam current and beamThis sample shows darker layer with a thickness

size, respectively. The mapping is able to observeof 10μm to 20μm on the surface (Fig. 3-6). Fig. 5

chemical heterogeneity in entire bronze, individualshows BEI of the samples of R45803 and R45808

phases, and impurity (or trace elements).

which are cross-sections of tubes of helmets. The
images clearly show that there are dark surface layers on both of inner and outer surfaces of the tubes.

 7KH PHWDOOXUJLFDO 7H[WXUH DQG WKHLU &KHPLFDOThe thickness of the layers ranges from 10 μ m to

&RPSRVLWLRQV

100μm.

 %URQ]HLQWHULRU

Representative back-scattered electron images

Fig. 2 shows typical example of layered surface(BEI) are shown from Figs. 3 to 5. Figs. 3 and 4

from sample No. 0701. Fig. 2 (bottom) shows ele-show the sections of ornamental parts of helmets

mental distributions of Cu and Sn with BEI. The BEI

and Fig. 5 shows the section of a tube on a helmet.

and Sn mapping clearly indicate a tin (Sn)-rich thin

The bronzes sized 2mm to 4mm in thickness inlayer surrounds the dendrite bronze and its thick-all samples. Main bodies (interior of bronze) of theness is at least 100 µm. The maps also indicate thatsamples are mostly well preserved and not aﬀected

the Sn-rich layer near the surface does not containby corrosion or oxidation from the surface. It seems

Cu.

that the main body has not been altered since the 2WKHUKLJKWLQSKDVHV

casting. The bronze textures classify in two types,

Other samples show that tin-rich phases pen-such as (1) dendritic texture and (2) homogenizedetrate into the main body from the surface with the(non-textured) interior as well as chemistry. Figs.

dendritic structure. Fig. 6 shows an example from

3-2 and 3-4 are images of the sample of No. 0910

the sample of No. 0919. This sample has a complex

and typical dendrite are observed (Fig. 3-4), which

texture with tin-rich phases. So that each phaserepresent theα phase (darker in contrast in thewas examines by spot analyses of EDS. Fig. 6 (right)

BEI) and the α + δ phases (brighter in contrast

shows analysis spots and their Cu/[Cu+Sn］
ratios and

BEI: Cu31Sn8) of bronze. The dendrite indicates

the tin-rich phases in the sample consist of darker

quenching process during casting. In samples ofphases (P1 and P3) which is close to that of the εNo.0906 and No. 0903 (Fig.4), on the other hand,phase of Cu-Sn alloy (Cu6Sn5 :Cu/[Cu+Sn]=0.545)

the dendrite is not observed and the whole texture

and phases (P2) which is close to that of η phaseis homogenized which is characterized a process of(Cu3Sn: Cu/[Cu+Sn]=0.75).

heat treatments (perhaps tempering) after casting.
Table 1 shows the mean value of chemical com-

7HFKQLTXHVRI%URQ]H&DVWLQJDQG7LQJLOGLQJ

position from the main bodies of studied 27 samples

 +LJK7LQ%URQ]HLQWKH0DLQ%RGLHVRIWKH+HOPHWV(Table 1). The Cu/[Cu+Sn］ratio (by weight) ranges

The Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy

between 0.78 and 0.86 and the concentration of tinof Social Sciences reported chemical composition ofranges between 14 and 22 wt% (weight percent). In

the Yinxu Bronzes by the X-ray ﬂuorescence analy-

lead, 15 samples contain less than 1wt% and 6 sam-sis. The results showed that many of bronze ves-

ples contain from 1 to 3wt%. The maximum con-sels were made of high-tin Bronze and contain up

centration of lead is 5.8wt%. Samples also containto 5wt% lead (Zhao 2005). In the current study onother elements such as iron (Fe), sulfur (S), silver (Ag)Academia Sinica collection, most of vessels contain㻝㻢㻣‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb/45/.-/.-1//.833

³$VLDQ+LJK7LQ%URQ]HV3URGXFWLRQ7HFKQRORJ\DQG5HJLRQDO&KDUDFWHULVWLFV´

more than 15wt% and 2wt% of tin (at max. 23wt%)

these samples, the tin-rich phases might be formed

and lead (at max. 7wt%), respectively, of studies 50

by reaction of corrosion.

bronze artifacts (Uchida & Iizuka in press), whereas

Some other investigations suggest that even in

the rest are type of arms and made of lower-tin

the case of the bronze artifact with low concentra-

bronze. In this study on helmets, 19 samples of 27

tion of tin near the surface, copper can be segre-

helmets (nearly 70%) show over 15 wt% tin (with 8

gated and tin-rich phases appears as a result ofsamples contain more than 17wt% tin) but less leadcorrosion (Xiao et al. 20004). However Ma Qinglinthat 15 samples contain less than 1wt% Pb.

investigated that ε and η phases (see Fig. 6) are
not able to observe in the pseudo tin-rich phases

The lead is ﬂux and lowers melting temperaturecaused by corrosion (Ma et. al. 2000).

and viscosity of bronze during casting. It is wellknown, however, that the high-Pb bronze is brittle

In this study, some samples show that tin-richthan lead-free bronze. To add tin affect to lower

phases penetrate into the main body keeping themelting temperature of bronze as well, but it makes

dendritic structures. However, the samples havebronze harder. Bronze vessels are usually complex-

highly concentrated oxidized tin phases similar toshaped and have decorated surface. Thus the low

ε and η phases, and pure copper grains were notviscosity of the melt is required for casting into theobserved. Furthermore, except the helmets, the sur-vesselsʼ mold, which is ﬁne complex carved pottery.

face tin-rich layer was not observed from the bronze

In addition, vessels do not need to be hard for theirartifacts in the Yinxu. These facts strongly suggest

purpose of usage. In contrast, helmets might be re-that the helmets from the HPKM1004 were artifi-

quired hardness because it is arms. Therefore, tin

cially gilded by tin.

was intentionally added, but less lead, for the hel-

A common method of tin-gilding is to soak

mets. Although some of the samples include small

bronze into melted tin. It is noteworthy that the in-amounts of lead, this might have been caused byside of the tube of the helmet is also covered withconventional method of craftsmen in the Yinxu.

a tin-rich layer. Observation of cracks on the hel-Excluding the helmets and the vessels, the high-mets (these cracks might be created during casting)tin Bronze is observed in chariot belongings. A bow-

also revealed that both of the ventral and dorsal

shaped implement (R6919) from the HPKM-1003

surfaces of the helmet were covered with a tin-(Yinxu Phase-3) shows that the Cu/[Cu+Sn] ratiosrich layer. These facts suggest that the tin-gilding

and concentrations of tin are 0.818, and 17.1 wt%,

was undertaken exactly after the casting. As for theas mean values, respectively (Uchida & Iizuka, insample No. 0921 (Fig.3-7), fragments of the castingpress). And another bow-shaped implement from amold (silicate minerals) are still remained on the

chariot pit (Yinxu Phase-4) is also made of high-tin

inner wall of the bronze piece and a tin layer was(18 wt% Sn). (Zhao 2005). It is widely believed thatobserved between the mold and bronze. It seems

the chariot cultures were derived from northernthat melted tin penetrated into this boundary layer

warriors in China. Thus, high-tin bronze technology

during gilding process. Some studies undertook

might be innovated from the diﬀerent culture suchsome experiments and reported that the ε and η

as the northern warriors.

phases were created in the tin-layer and thin tin 7LQULFK/D\HURQWKH6XUIDFH

layer containing small amounts of copper was cre-

Lian Haibing analyzed a bronze sword with aated on the surface when this method was used (Matin-rich layer on its surface which made during theet al. 2000). Consequently it is concluded that the

Warring State Period (BC 5th century) (Lian 2000).

helmets from the HPKM1004 might be processed byAccording to her investigation, if the causative agent

tin gilding after casting.

for corrosion penetrates into the main body beyond +HDWLQJ7UHDWPHQWVDIWHU7LQJLOGLQJ

the tin-rich layer on the surface, the corrosion

The homogeneous texture of main body of somephases are created in the main body without altera-of the helmets suggests that they were heat treatedtion of the dendritic texture in the main body. At

after casting. The texture also shows that the tin-

the same time, pure copper is segregated as a result

gilding layers were also heat-treated and becameof chemical reaction. A few of samples in this study

unclear of the dendrite as well as texture of main

also show such pure copper phase (Fig. 7). As forbody (Fig.4). This suggests the heat treatments (per㻝㻢㻤‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb/46/.-/.-1//.833

-XQNR8FKLGD・<RVKL\XNL,L]XND

haps tempering) were probably undertaken after thefrom the HPKM1004 are made of high-tin Bronze.

tin-gilding.

The helmets were also applied with new technique

Unlike the high-tin Bronze artifacts producedof the tin-gilding which probably introduced fromafter the 5th century, which were repeatedly pro-the northern warriors in the northern China. The

cessed with heating and forging, the samples didhelmets are important objects to understand thenot show any evidence of hot-forging. It is likely thatearly stage of the spread of high-tin Bronze technol-

the technique of forging were not established yet inogy over Asia.

the Yinxu Period.

5HIHUHQFHV
Shimizu Yasuji 清水康二 2009「アジアにおける二元系高錫

&RQFOXGLQJUHPDUNV
The helmets are very unique objects because of

青 銅 容 器 の 展 開 (The Developments of the Binary

their tube on the top and slightly tall in shape. And

High-Tin Bronze in Asia)」『 韓 半島 の高 錫 青 銅 器 のthe helmets are only yielded from the HPKM1004

熱 処 理 技 術・ 製 作 技 術 研 究 (A Study on the Heatin the Yinxu. Since their form is similar to helmets

Treatments and Production Technology of High-Tin

which used in Central Asia, and Middle East, it isBronze in the Korean Peninsula)』very likely that this type of helmet was introduced

Zhou Wei 周 緯 1957『Zhongguo Bingqi Sigao 中国兵器

into China probably by northern warriors together

史稿 (A Study on Chinese Weapons)』Beijing 北 京、

with chariots ornament and arms in the Yinxu Pe-

Sanlian Shudian 三聯書店

riod. The main bodies of the helmets contain highly

Xiao Menlong, Hua Jueming, Su Ronyu, Gu Ying 肖夢

amounts of tin. It is distinguished that the average

龍 , 華 覚 明 , 蘇 栄 誉 , 賈 瑩 2004 「Wuyu Zhi Jianof Cu/[Cu+Sn］ratio of the helmets is 0.838, and the

Yanjiu 呉于之剣研 究 (A Study on Wu-type Swords)」

concentration of tin in helmets is quite high that 8

肖夢龍 , 劉偉主 編 (Xiao Menlong and Liu Wei et. al)

samples contain more than 17wt% in Sn/[Cu+Sn]『Wuguo Qingtongqi Zonghe Yanjiu 呉国青 銅器 総合

ratios. The bronze vessels in the Yinxu were also of-

研 究 (Comprehensive Studies on Wu-type Bronze

ten made of high-tin bronze, the other artifacts are

Artifacts)』、Beijing 北京、Kexue Chubanshe 科学出版

not made of such high-tin though. Since most of the社

helmets from the HPKM1004 were made of high-Zhao Chunyan 趙春燕 2005「Anyang
Anyang Yinxu Chutu Qing-tin bronze, it seems that the craftsmen of Bronze

tongqi De Huaxue Chengfen Fenxi Yu Yanjiu 安陽殷

in the Yinxu have already understood the physical墟出土青銅器的化学成分分析与研究 (Chemical Com-

properties of bronze and adjusted the proportion of

position Analysis on Bronze Artifacts Excavatedcopper and tin according as function. Excluding thefrom the Site of Yinxu, Anyang) Zhongguo Shehui-

Helmets, no bronze artifacts from the Yinxu were

kexueyuan Kaogu Yanjiusuo Kaogu Heji Zhongxin

finished with the tin-gilding. Thus it is suggested

中国社会科学院考古研究所考古科技中心編 (Edited bythat the gilding technique were probably introduced

Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, the Institutefrom the out of the Yinxu.

of Archaeology, Archaeological Science Division,

The high-tin bronze were already used for theArchaeological Science)『Keji Kaogu 科技考古』第 1

bronze vessels in the Yinxu Phase 1 of the Late輯

Shang Period. It suggests that the technology of

Ma Qinglin, Su Bomin, Hu Zhide, Li Zuixiong 馬清林 , 蘇

high-tin bronze has already been in the Yinxu be-

伯 民 , 胡 之 徳 , 李 最 雄 1999「Zhongguo Gudai Duxi

fore the helmets. The helmets vary in pattern and

Qingtongqi 中国古代 鍍 錫青 銅 器 (Tin-plated Bronze

shape and are also decorated with a Taotie andArtifacts in Ancient China)」（ 一）『Gugong Wenwu

whirl pattern, which are characteristic patterns inYuekan 故宮文物月刊』第十七巻第六期、No.198

the Yinxu. These indicate that the high-tin bronze

Ma Qinglin, Su Bomin, Hu Zhide, Li Zuixiong 馬清林 , 蘇helmets were produced by local craftsmen in the

伯 民 , 胡 之 徳 , 李 最 雄 2000「Zhongguo Gudai Duxi

Yinxu. And they also applied new technology of tin-

Qingtongqi 中国古代 鍍 錫青 銅 器 (Tin-plated Bronze

gilding for the helmets.

Artifacts in Ancient China)」（ 二）『Gugong Wenwu

The high-tin Bronze is unique objects in Asia. In

Yuekan 故宮文物月刊』第 18 巻第三期、No.207

China, the high-tin Bronze was ﬁrstly produced in

Wan Jia-bao 萬家保 1970『Yin Shang Qingtongkui dethe Late Shang Period (Shimizu 2009). The helmets

Jingxiangxue Yanjiu 殷 商 青 銅 盔 的 金 相 学 研 究 (A㻝㻢㻥‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb/47/.-/.-1//.833

³$VLDQ+LJK7LQ%URQ]HV3URGXFWLRQ7HFKQRORJ\DQG5HJLRQDO&KDUDFWHULVWLFV´

Metal Texture Analysis on Yin/Shang Helmets)』（Zhongyang Yanjiuyuan Lishiyuyuan Yanjiusuo
Zhuankan 60 中央研究院歴史語言研究所専刊之六十
Bulletin of Institute of History and Philology, Academia Sinica 60）
Liang Siyong, Gao Quxun 梁思永 , 高去尋 1970
『Houjiazhu
Diwuben 1004 Hao Damu 侯家荘第五本 1004 号大墓(Excavations of the Large Tomb of No. 1004 at the
Site of Houjiazhuang )』Zhongguo Kaogu Baogaoji 3
中国考古 報告集之三 (Chinese Archaelogical Report3)、Taipei 台北、Zhongyang yanjiuyuan Lishiyuyuan
Yanjiusuo 中 央 研 究 院 歴 史 語 言 研 究 所 (Institute ofHistory and Phillogy, Academia Sinica)
Lian Haiping 廉海萍 2000「Fuxi
Fuxi Biaomian Chuli Dui Gudai Qingtonqi Fushi Guo Cheng De Yingxiang 富錫
表面処理 対古代青 銅器腐蝕過程的影 響 (Inﬂuence of
Tin-plating on the Process of Corrosion of AncientBronze Artifacts」『Shanghai Bowuguan Jikan 上 海
博物館集刊』8 )Uchida Junko, Iizuka Yoshiyuki (in press)「 中 央 研 究 院
収 蔵 殷 墟 青 銅 器 的 冶 金 学 研 究 Metallurgical Studyof Yinxu Bronzes in the collection of Academia
Sinica」『Jinian Yinxu Fajue Bashi Nian Lunwenji 紀念 殷 墟 発 掘 八十 週年 論 文 集 (Memorial Publicationon the 80 year anniversary of Excavations at the
Site of Yinxu)』、Taipei 台北、Zhongyang Yanjiuyuan
Lishiyuyuan Yanjiusuo 中 央 研 究 院 歴 史 語 言 研 究 所(Institute of History and Phillogy, Academia Sinica)㻝㻣㻜‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb/5.

/.-/.-1//.833

After the 6th century, towards the period of Sil-

+LJK7LQ%URQ]HVLQWKH.RUHDQ3HQLQVXODEHIRUH8QLÀHG6LOOD

la, the number of bronze artifacts in tombs sharply
declined, while the daily bronze tools appeared(XQ6HRN/HH

in settlements. The 8th and 9th centuries saw the（*D\D1DWLRQDO5HVHDUFK,QVWLWXWHRI&XOWXUDO+HULWDJH）

large-scale production and the trade of bronze
wares. In particular, 聖徳大王神種 in the 8th century
shows remarkably high skills that mark the apex of

%HJLQQLQJRIEURQ]HDQGLWVGHYHORSPHQW

the bronze casting technology.

The emergence of bronze in the Korean Peninsula has been commonly dated around the 5th- 4th

The interaction with China added a great variety

century BC, but more detailed research is necessary

to the ancient casting technology and its archaeo-

because of the possibility of earlier dates for the

logical evidence, as indicated by the various bronze

oldest bronze according to the renewed chronol-

artifacts in the tombs after the 5th century. How-ogy of the Yayoi period, which is now dated earlier.

ever, we have too few samples of high-tin bronze,

The oldest bronze artifacts were related to those incharacterized by the high inclusion of tin, to makethe Liaoning region, such as Liaoning bronze dag-detailed descriptions and comparisons. The futuregers and the bronze mirrors with rough geometic

research should enable us to distinguish between

patterns. When a great number of narrow bronze

imported and local products and to clarify the tech-swords were manufactured in the Korean Penin-

nological development of bronze artifacts.

sula, bronze artifacts became more varied, and thebronze production technology was developed fur-5HFHQWUHVHDUFKRQKLJKWLQEURQ]H

ther, leading to the emergence of the bronze mirrors

Research on the bronze production technology

with multiple string attachment loops, decorated

in Korea has been increasing under great interests

with ﬁnely ridged line patterns.

from researchers since 2000. The studies on the

During the ﬁrst half of the Three Kingdoms pe-

production technology and the composition analysis

riod (1st to 3rd century AD), the large-scale produc-

have been developed as a result of the comprehen-tion of iron tools was common, while the evidence

sive research on the bronze mirrors with multiple

for the use of bronze tools rapidly declined. Bronze

string attachment loops, decorated with ﬁnely ridged

artifacts in grave goods were replaced with ironline patterns (崇実大，2009). More recently, theones. The production of bronze was small-scale, andanalysis of the micro-structure of the bronze mir-the bronze artifacts appeared as daggers, imitativerors from 忠南論山市院北里 suggests that the mirrors

mirrors, harnesses, belt hooks, or bronze pot whichcontain ca. 30% of tin and a small amount of lead.

may not have been used as daily tools. This may in-

The high inclusion of tin was probably intended to

dicate that bronze was mainly used as ritual, burial

facilitate the ﬁne decoration and the adjustment ofgoods, which represent high social status. The ex-color ( 兪在恩・趙詳紀・朴長植，2010，銅陵青銅器文明

cavations of the graves in the Lelang Commandery

シンポジウム，中国科学技術大学，日本文化財学会第27yielded various bronze artifacts, but their number is

回大会，2010).

small in the South central part of the Korean Penin-

The analysis of lead isotope ratios was conduct-sula. Bronze belt hooks and harnesses, recovered in

ed by two institutes under the project of “Composi-

the wooden chamber tombs of the 2nd to 3rd cen-tion analyses of the bronze artifacts of the Threetury AD, need to be systematically examined.

Kingdoms period, using lead isotopes” ( 国立中央博物In the 5th century, a large number of various

館・日本歴史民俗博物館，2009). This study aimed atbronze artifacts were buried in the tombs in thethe compositional identiﬁcation of bronze artifacts.

Goguryeo and Silla regions. Notably, the tombs in

It allows us to examine whether multiple bronze

Silla yielded bronze pot, bronze pot with handle,

fragments belong to a single piece. However, weand bronze bowl with cover with many types, which

need further studies and comparative specimens tosuggest the interaction with Goguryeo. The exca-

obtain more information.

vations of the tombs in the Gaya region recovered

The ongoing project “The production technology

bronze and gilt bronze wares, which may have beenof high-tin bronze” has been investigating the earli-trade goods or gifts from the higher social status.

est evidence for the forging technology. The study㻝㻣㻝‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb/5//.-/.-1//.833

³$VLDQ+LJK7LQ%URQ]HV3URGXFWLRQ7HFKQRORJ\DQG5HJLRQDO&KDUDFWHULVWLFV´by 清水康二 (2009) on the earliest date for the Yugi

ﬂower with eight leaves in the handle of the bronze(binary high-tin bronze) in Korea still needs more

bowl with cover from Silla represent the Buddhist

evidence. I would suggest the analysis of the high-decoration. They are observable in the artifacts oftin bronze samples of the 5th-9th century.

the 5th century and should have been imported mo-

Recently, 李在城 ( 2010.6) complied the analyti-

tifs. This requires us to examine whether the bronze

cal results of 160 high-tin bronzes (Bancha Yugi)

artifacts from the Silla tombs in the 5th century

and suggested that rivets of Cu­Ag alloy were usedwere produced in Silla or imported from Goguryeo

at an attachment between the body and the stand ofor China. This question can be eﬀectively answeredbronze bowls in the Goryeo period. The compara-by the accumulation of composition analyses, whichtive study of bronze spoons with experiments indi-should be led by the National Museum of Korea

cates that the bronze production with a hammering

where the relevant samples are stored. In addition

technique has existed since the Goryeo period (918-to bronze, the analyses of organic materials in lac-1392) to the present. In addition, the study clariﬁed

quer artifacts can help us clarify the ancient trades,that the use of salt water during the hardening pro-but such studies are still in the initial stage (岡田文男・

cess had a role to facilitate the removal of oxidized

李恩碩・林志暎 2009).㻝㻕

surface.

Remarkably, a single bronze mirror, prob-

The following describes the bronze wares fromably made in the late 3rd century, was recovered

the southern Korean Peninsula to overview the de-at Hwangnamdaechong(皇南大塚)southern tomb,velopment of bronze technology and the analyses ofwhich also yielded gold and silver wares and bronze

artifacts.

wares. We have a very few examples of bronze
mirrors buried in the Silla tombs. We also havelittle evidence for the production of TLV imita-

%URQ]HZDUHVRIWKH7KUHH.LQJGRPVSHULRGLQWKH
VRXWKHUQ.RUHDQ3HQLQVXOD

tive mirrors during the 5th century in the Korean %URQ]HZDUHVLQWKH6LOODUHJLRQ

Peninsula. This suggests that the bronze mirror of

A large number of bronze wares have been re-

Hwangnamdaechong(皇南大塚) was imported fromcovered in the Silla and Gaya tombs. Bronze pot

the northern area or Japan 㻞㻕. The interaction withfrom the wooden chambered tombs in the 3rd cen-

the northern china brought various metal and glass

tury includes those from Ulsan Hade sites, Kimhae

wares, while cone shells from Okinawa and artifacts

Yangdong, and Daesungdong sites. These pieces

of white birch bark were imported into the Silla re-must have been imported from China or the north-gion. Despite the hostile relationship between theern area although researchers have various ideas on

Silla and Wa, there were exchanges of messengers

trades.

and hostages, which should have included some

Recently, Hyun-hee Kim (2009) conducted a ty-

trade items. Whether the mirror came from China

pological analysis of 79 bronze bows from the Sillaor Wa (or from China through Wa) can be eﬀectively

tombs in the Gyeongju area to examine the customs

examined by the composition analysis in compari-of burial goods.

son with Japanese bronze mirrors.

Hyun-hee Kim subdivided bronze pots into %URQ]HZDUHVLQWKH*D\DUHJLRQ

two types with and without a lid. Bronze pots withSince the Proto-Three Kingdom period (1st tohandle were divided into a jar type and a disc type.

3rd century), Six Gaya in the Gyeongsangnam-do

Bronze iron were classified into short and longarea formed a close relationship with Silla. This re-types. Bronze bowl with cover were divided on thesulted in the occasional recovery of exotic items inbasis of the various shapes of handles, such as loop,

the tombs after the 4th century. Such examples in-sphere, shape with lotus flower, bird, and cross.

clude the glass cup from Okjeun( 玉田 ) tomb, which

Moreover, the observation of a textile attached to

may have been imported from Silla. Notably, somebronze artifacts allowed him to suggest that bronze

researchers suggest that bronze plate and bowls

tools were wrapped with a textile, which may havewere imported from Southern Court (権五栄 2010).

signified the possession of bronze tools as burial

It is unclear whether this bronze ware was modiﬁed

goods.

in Baekje or directly imported from Southern Court,

The shapes with lotus ﬂower and the shape of abut the inﬂuence from the latter area is proposed.
㻝㻣㻞‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb/50/.-/.-1//.833

(XQ6HRN/HH

However, we still do not know the exact relationshiphigh-tin bronzes among researchers, and the estab-with Southern Court. It is signiﬁcant that the bronze

lishment of the chronology has been hindered due

artifacts from the Silla tombs were derived from theto the recovery of relevant finds from settlements

northern areas, while those of Gaya were originatedinstead of tombs.
The initial analysis on the bronze wares fromin Southern Court.
The bronze wares in Gaya has round bases with

the Silla period was done by Professor 崔炷 (1983).

inverting rims, which contrast to flat bases with

The examination of ﬁve pieces of plates and bowls

everting or straight rims of the Silla bronze wares.

from Anapji Pond suggests that the pieces that were

The pieces from Goryeong Jisandong tomb No.44,

casted and hardened were high-tin bronze with

Jinju Sujeongbong tomb No. 2, and Uiryeong Kyo-

23.2% and 22.5% of tin inclusion, while those that

ungsanri tomb No. 2 can signify the relationshipwere casted and annealed included 15.2%-17.5%

with Baekje rather than the direct relationship withof tin. The bronze wares from the Silla 王京 region

Southern Court.

and Bunhwangsa temple site(芬皇寺, 7th-9th cen- %URQ]HZDUHVLQWKH%DHNMHUHJLRQ

tury AD) include the casted and hardened products

The typical bronze wares from the Baekje re-with 19.2%, 21.5%, 20.3%, and 21.9% of tin, whilegion include pots with handle from Pungnab Earth-

the casted and annealed products contained 14.6%

en Wall and bronze wares from Tomb of Muryeongof tin. 朴長植 (2004) analyzed two pieces of bronze

in Gongju. Another example from Mireuksaji temple

wares from Icheun Sulbong Mountain fortress( 利川

site( 弥勒寺址 ) was analyzed in the early 1990s.

雪峰山城 ) in Gyeonggi-do (from the Three Kingdoms
to the Silla period), suggesting that they were forged鄭光龍 (1992) analyzed two pieces of large

and hardened with 22.3% of tin.

bowls, a round-based jar, and four pieces of plates,suggesting that these artifacts were high-tin prod-

Gaya National Research Institute of Culturalucts that were casted and cooled slowly. The prod-

Heritage ( 国立加耶文化財研究所 )has been investigat-

ucts include 18.6%, 21.1%, 19.8%, and 20.3% of tin

ing the iron and bronze wares from Haman Sung-and 0.38%, 0.12%, 0.45% of lead.

san Fortress (from the mid 6th to the 9th century).

The bronze wares from Tomb of Mur yeong

Signiﬁcant results should be obtained by analyzing

include one jar, three plates, three bowls, and ﬁve-the composition and production technology of thecup which appear to show the types identified inbronze wares of the 8-9th century.

those from the 大伽耶 region . Among those, a jar

Among them, 14 fragments, including rims, bas-contained one bronze spoon and reportedly showses, and plates, are under analyses, and we obtained

hammered traces after casting. The wall and theinteresting results for two base fragments of bowls,

rim of the jar are inverting with a round base, re-

one rim fragment, and one plate, which were recov-

sembling those from the Gaya tombs. The bowls

ered in the layer of the 8-9th century㻠㻕.

㻟㻕show two types, and two pieces with everting rims

The analyzed four pieces are composed of pure,

have stands that suggest a link to Silla. The plates

smelt copper and tin. They were found to have been

are low with ﬂat bases, as exempliﬁed by those fromhardened. Despite the absence of hammering, they

池山洞 in Goryeo.

were probably manufactured with a technique pre-If the bronze wares of Tomb of Muryeong (ADcursory of the Bancha (Yugi) technology or with an

525 and 529) were imported from Southern Court,

initial Bancha technology.

instead of the products in Baekje, the morphologi-

In addition, a soapstone cast for bronze spoons

cally similar ﬁnds from Gaya should be roughly con-

was excavated around 芬皇寺 in Gyeongju. This ﬁnd

temporaneous and also imported items.

should allow us to examine whether bronze in the %URQ]HZDUHVLQWKH6LOODSHULRG

Silla period was made by casting with subsequent
hardening and hammering.

The above provided an overview of bronze
wares from Baekje, Silla, and Gaya around the 5th
century. From the mid 6th century to the Silla pe-6XPPDU\

riod (AD 676-935), we know various bronze wares,

The above provided an overview of the bronze

but their scientiﬁc study, such as composition analy-

artifacts recovered in the southern Korean Penin-

sis, was not common. There was little interest insula and described some studies. The results of the㻝㻣㻟‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb/51/.-/.-1//.833

³$VLDQ+LJK7LQ%URQ]HV3URGXFWLRQ7HFKQRORJ\DQG5HJLRQDO&KDUDFWHULVWLFV´

analyses to date indicate that the bronze productionᗹ昡希，2009，「三国時代の青銅容器について」『三国時代

before the Silla period (AD 676-935) did not employ

青銅遺物鉛同位体元素を利用した産地推定研究』，国立中

a hardening technique with hammering. However,

央博物館・日本歴史民俗博物館発表資料

the bronze artifacts from the Silla period suggest

権五栄，
2010，
「葬制と墓制を通してみた加耶と中国南朝」『慶that the production of high-tin bronze (Yugi) had

南の加耶古墳と東アジア』第 2 回韓・中・日国際学術大会，

started during this period at the latest. The recent

慶南発展研究員歴史文化センター

rapid increase in the study of high-tin bronzes in

朴長植，2004，「古代韓国の青銅器技術体系」『熱処理工学

Korea has prompted their analyses and the studies

会誌』第 17 巻第 3 号，韓国熱処理工学会

on the technological development. The future prog-

李在城，2010.6，「韓国伝統バンチャ鍮器の金属学的特性とress of the comprehensive and multi-disciplinary

再現実験」，弘益大学校新素材工学科博士学位論文

research should shed more light on the high-tin

李漢祥，1994，「武寧王陵出土品追報（2）」『考古学誌』第bronzes in the ancient Korean Peninsula.

6輯National Museum of Japanese History, 2002,『TheI am grateful to the following individuals forInteraction between Wa and Gaya in Acient Eastern

their kind supports. Some provided me with rel-Asia』, The 5th Rekihaku International Symposium.

evant literatures.

兪在恩・趙詳紀・朴長植，2010，「Study on the manufacture

金昡希，朴長植，朴種益，朴允禎，兪在恩，李在城（敬technology of bronze artifacts about B.C. 2~1 in Korea」，

称略）

銅陵青銅器文明シンポジウム，中国科学技術大学
鄭永東・朴長植，2005，「慶州芬皇寺址出土青銅器に現れた

1）The results of the analysis of the lacquer wares from

技術変遷に関する研究」『大韓金属・材料学会誌』第 43

慶 州皇南大 塚 suggest that the they were buried as

巻第 1 号

grave goods after use. The lacquer wares may have

崔炷・キムスチョル，1983，「統一新羅時代の容器に対するbeen imported from China or produced in Korean

金属学的考察」『美術資料』第 32 号，国立中央博物館

Peninsula with a high production skill invented in
the period of Han Dynasty in China. The lacquer

7DEOH  7\SRORJLFDO FODVVLILFDWLRQ RI EURQ]H ZDUHV IURPware was found to have been placed in the bronze

WKH*\HRQJMXDUHD ᗹ昡希

steamer. If the high quality lacquer wares were imported from China, the most of the bronze wares
from the Silla tombs in the 5th century should also
have been imports. According to the inscription( 乙卯年國岡上廣開土地好太王壺ᴙ十 ) on the bronze
bowl with cover from Houchong tomb, this productin Goguryeo was imported to Silla. This in turnsuggests that the bronze wares of the same period
must have been imported from Goguryeo.
2）One probable idea is that they were imported from
Wa or the Southern and Northern Dynasties (seethe paper by 高久健二 and 上野祥史 ).
National Museum of Japanese History, 2002,『 TheInteraction between Wa and Gaya in Acient Eastern
Asia』, The 5th Rekihaku International Symposium.
3）李 漢祥，1994，「武 寧王陵出土品追報（2）」『考古学 誌』
第6輯4）The analysis is conducted by Professor 朴 長 植 . The
results to be published in an academic journal are
brieﬂy summarized here.

5HIHUHQFHV
崇実大学校基督教博物館，2009，『多鈕細文鏡総合研究』㻝㻣㻠‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb/52/.-/.-1//.833

used in order to avoid confusion.

+LJKWLQEURQ]HDUWHIDFWVUHFRYHUHGIURP
WKHWXPXOLLQ*\HRQJQDPLQWKH*RU\HRDQG-RVHRQSHULRGV %URQ]HVSRRQV

The terminology for the bronze spoons has already been suggested by Bae Yong-Dong et al.㻡㻕 andalso by ourselves.

<RQJ0LQ6LQDQG6DQJ<RQJ/HH㻝㻕7\SRORJ\DQGW\SRORJLFDOWUDQVIRUPDWLRQVRIWKHEURQ]HDU

Foundation of East Asia Cultural Properties Institute

WHIDFWV %URQ]HERZOV

Sixty-three bronze bowls in Gyeongnam were

,,QWRURGXFWLRQIn South Korea, bowls and spoons are typicalexamined according to the classificatory criteria

among high-tin bronze artefacts recovered fromshown in Table 1. They belong to the Goryeo (18the tumuli in the Goryeo and Joseon periods. Up tospecimens) and the Joseon (45 specimens) periods.

now these artefacts have not suﬃciently been stud-

For the typological classiﬁcation, their form and theied in spite of the fact that they are the tools which

presence/absence of a lid were excluded from thedirectly reﬂect past dietary practices. In fact, the ar-classiﬁcatory criteria because they are not likely tochaeological studies of high-tin bronze spoons havebe adequate criteria for the classiﬁcation. The ﬁrst

progressed very slowly㻞㻕 and those of bronze bowls

priority must be given to the typological attributes

began only recently . Most references to them arewhich may demonstrate chronological changes.

limited to the brief descriptions in excavation re-

The result of the examination shows chronologicalports. At the present, study of their manufacturingchanges in the height of the stands 㻢㻕, the proﬁle ofmethod, analysis of their chemical composition andthe rims and the method by which the stands were

ethnographical study are main issues of these high-attached. The chronological changes of the bronze

tin bronze artefacts and archaeological studies suchbowls according to this typological classification

as the analysis of typological sequences of the arti-

can be understood as follows.

facts are still at a primary stage.

 +HLJKWRIVWDQGV㻟㻕This paper will discuss the typological features

Table 2 demonstrates the average height of theof the bronze bowls and spoons as well as theirbronze bowls and of their stands in the Goryeo andchronological changes. These artefacts are suitable

the Joseon periods. In the Goryeo period the aver-for archaeological analysis of typological attributes

age height of the stands is 1.12cm and that of the

because of their abundances and well-preserved

whole bowls is 8.76cm. The height of the stands

condition among various types of high-tin bronze

does not exceed 1.5cm and neither does the wholeartefacts recovered from the tumuli in Gyeongnam

bowl exceed 10cm. On the other hand, in the Jo-

in the Goryeo and Joseon periods .

seon period, they are 2.21cm for the stands and㻠㻕

10.46cm for the whole bowls. This suggests that,,7HUPLQRORJ\DQGW\SRORJ\RIEURQ]HDUWHIDFWV

both the height of the bowls and that of their stand7HUPLQRORJ\RIEURQ]HERZOVDQGVSRRQV

became higher through the transition from theGoryeo to the Joseon.

It is confusing that the terminology of high-tin
bronze artefacts is not standardized between diﬀer-

 3URÀOHRIULPV

ent excavation reports and articles. Thus, the terms

Table 3 shows the number of bronze bowls

used to describe bronze bowls and spoons must bewith each type of a rim proﬁle. Except for one bowl

deﬁned in this paper as below.

which lacks a rim due to breakage, all 63 bowls

 %URQ]HERZOV

were examined. A ﬂared rim is a dominant type inBronze bowls are usually divided into lidded

the Goryeo period, accounting for 67% (12 speci-

bowls and lidless bowls (or lidded bowls with amens), followed by an incurved rim, 28% (15 speci-

stand and lidless bowls with a stand) dependingmens), and then a vertical rim, 5% (1 specimen).

on the presence or absence of a lid. “Bronze bowl”

On the other hand, in the Josen period an incurved

mentioned in this paper includes all of them. To

rim accounts for 57% (27 specimens), a flared rim

mention each part of the bowls the terminology usu-

25% (11 specimens) and a vertical rim 18% (8 speci-

ally used for porcelain, as shown in Figure 1, can bemens). This demonstrates that through the transi㻝㻣㻡‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb/53/.-/.-1//.833

³$VLDQ+LJK7LQ%URQ]HV3URGXFWLRQ7HFKQRORJ\DQG5HJLRQDO&KDUDFWHULVWLFV´tion from the Goryeo to the Joseon the number of ashape the stand.

ﬂared rim decreased while that of an incurved rim

 %URQ]HVSRRQV㻣㻕and of a vertical rim increased. It is known that aFirst typological priority given to the bronze

vertical rim appears in the late Goryeo period andspoons is curvature of their handles and the shapeis regarded as an indicator for the transition to Jo-

of the end of the handle because it is believed thatseon period (Goryeo grave num. 9 of Deokcheon-

both features well reﬂect chronological diﬀerences.

Dong in Busan). These chronological changes must

The former can be classiﬁed by the degree of curva-

be related to the use of the bowls with a lid. It is

ture and the latter can roughly be divided into four

supposed that the increase of incurved and vertical

types: swallow-tailed, semicircular, lotus and spatu-

rims is due to the functional demand that the bowls

lar. In the Joseoun period, the periodical changes

need to sustain their lid. The bronze bowls withcan be observed in the swallow-tailed and the semi-a lid became more popular through the transition

circular types. On the other hand, the lotus and thefrom the Goryeo to the Joseon and this is probably

spatular ones demonstrate neither obvious varia-

related to the change in the dietary practice at thattions nor chronological changes in their forms andtime. It is clear that these varieties of vessel shapes

thus are excluded from the discussion in this paper.

mean transformations reflecting the periodical as-

Except for the bronze spoons of which the end

pects.

of the handles are missing, the total of 160 speci- 7KHPHWKRGWRDWWDFKWKHVWDQGV

mens recovered from the above mentioned sites

Table 4 demonstrates the number of bowls towere examined. According to the degree of the cur-which a stand was attached by each method in thevature of their handles they can be classified into

Goryeo and the Joseon periods. In the Goryeo pe-type I to IV. To measure the degree of curvature theriod the bowls without a stand account for 28% (5spoons were placed on a ﬂat table with their both

specimens) and the bowls with a stand which wasends attached on the table and the height of theseparately cast and later attached to the body ac-

spoons were measured.

count for 78% (13 specimens). The bowls of which 7KHFKDQJHVLQWKHGHJUHHRIFXUYDWXUHDQGWKHUDWLRRIWKH

the body and the stand were cast together are not

OHQJWKRIERZOVWRWKHZKROHOHQJWKRIWKHVSRRQV

involved. In contrast, in the Joseon period the bowls

Table 7 shows the degree of curvature and thewithout a stand account for 31% (14 specimens),

ratio of the length of bowls to the whole length of

the bowls with a stand that was attached later ac-

the spoons by period in the Goryeo and Joseon. It

count for 33% (15 specimens) and the bowls withdemonstrates that the degree of curvature is morea stand that was cast together with the body arethan 2.2cm and the ratio of the length of bowls to

36% (16 specimens). The number of the bowls withthe whole length is more than 1 to 3 in the Goryeo

a separately cast stand decrease in the Joseon andperiod (Type I). The curvature is large and theall three types were equally found. This fact can bebowls are small in general. On the other hand, ininterpreted as the development of casting technol-

the Joseon period (Types II to IV) the degree of cur-ogy in the Joseon period and it is necessary in thevature is less than 2cm and the ratio of the length isfuture study to investigate the manufacturing places

less than 1 to 2.9. The curvature is smaller and theof these bronze bowls and their typological features

proportion of the bowls is larger than those in theseen in their acceptance and supply.

Goryeo period.
Average measurement of these two features in- 7UDQVIRUPDWLRQRIEURQ]HERZOVLQWKH*RU\HRDQGWKH-R

dicates that the both the degree of curvature and

VHRQSHULRGV

To summarize, the bowls without a stand andthe ratio of the length of bowls to the whole length

the bowls with a separately cast stand are dominantdecreased through time from the Type I (12th to 14th

in the Goryeo period while these two types andcenturies) to the Type IV (18th century), although

the bowls with a stand cast with a body are equally

the both increased slightly in the Type IV (Table 8).

present in the Joseon period (Table 5). Thus, most

 &RPSDULVRQRIWKHRWKHUGLPHQVLRQVRIWKHEURQ]HVSRRQV

distinctive attributes that reflect the chronological

LQWKH*RU\HRDQGWKH-RVHRQSHULRGV

differences are the height of the bowls and of the

The results of the examination are summarized

stands, the proﬁles of the rim, and the technique toin Table 9. They can be interpreted as follows.
㻝㻣㻢‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb/54/.-/.-1//.833

<RQJ0LQ6LQ・6DQJ<RQJ/HH

Firstly, for the depth of the bowls, the average

Changwon is remarkably small and different fromis 0.41cm in the Goryeo period. On the other hand,

other spoons mentioned above in spite of the fact

it is 0.61cm in the Joseon period, increasing 0.2cm.

that they were recovered with the bronze bowls andIt means the increment of the volume of the bowl

celadon plates dated to the late 14th century. Theirby 50%, which is quite a large diﬀerence since thisproﬁles are “ ”-shaped or slightly curving and canmake it possible to scoop much more food with abe regarded as a transitional type from the Goryeo

deeper spoon.

to the Joseon.

Secondly, for the length of the bowls, the aver-In the Joseon period, the bronze artefacts were

age is 7.5cm in the Goryeo period. On the otherburied with Buncheong ware and white porcelain

hand, it is 9.55cm in the Joseon period, extending

dated to the 15th to 18th centuries. The ﬁrst chrono-

about 2cm. It increases by 27% and would also re-logical change can be seen in the transition fromﬂect the increment of the volume of a bowl.

the Goryeo to the Joseon in the forms and the

Additionally, for the whole length of the spoons,typological attributes of the bronze bowls which

the average is 24.58cm in the Goryeo period. On

show wide variations. The stands are at least 1.5cm

the other hand, it is 25.8cm in the Joseon period,

higher than those in the Goryeo period, an inclined,

extending about 1cm. This change must be caused

ﬂare and vertical rims are equally present and theas the bowl of the spoons became larger.

bowls with a stand which were cast together with

To summarize, the dimension of the spoons,the body newly appears. The typology of the bronze

such as the depth and the length of the bowls andspoons radically changed from one period to an-their whole length, as well as the curvature of theirother, showing distinctive differences. The mosthandle, are major typological attributes which re-remarkable change is seen in the decrease in the

ﬂect the chronological diﬀerences.

degree of curvature of their handle and the increasein the dimension of the bowls. In addition, the endof the handles became simple without any decora-,,,&KURQRORJ\RIWKHKLJKWLQEURQ]HDUWHIDFWV㻤㻕The high-tin bronze artefacts buried as a funeraltions. It seems to show simpliﬁcation of the bronze

goods together with the celadon dated to the 12thspoons when compared with those in the Goryeo

to 14th centuries are regarded as the product in the

period. The form of the end of their handle becomes

Goryeo period. Among them the bronze bowls havesuitable for their utilitarian use. A semicircular forma stand that do not exceed 1.5cm in height and haveincreases while a swallow-tailed shape decreases

an incurved or a ﬂared rim. In the transitional pe-

and diminishes completely in the 16th century.

riod from the Goryeo to the Joseon in the 14th century, a transitional type of bronze bowls that have a,9&RQFOXVLRQ

vertical rim appeared. All the bowls recovered fromAs discussed above, this paper has examined

this period have a separately cast stand and thisthe changing aspects and the chronology of thesuggests that the stand and body of the bowls werebronze artefacts recovered from the tumuli innever cast together in the Goryeo period.

Gyeongnam through the Goryeo and the Joseon

Many bronze spoons share common character-

periods. The bronze artefacts in the Goryeo period

istics in the Goreyo period. For example, the bronze

were recovered with celadon which is dated to thespoons recovered from the graves nos. 2 and 4

12th to 14th centuries. For the bronze bowls, theirof the Deokcheon-Dong ruins in Gupo, which arestand does not exceed 1.5 cm in height and theirdated to the 12

centuries, and those fromrim is either incurved or ﬂared. A vertical rim ap-

the graves nos. 1 and 2 of Gwisan-Dong in Chang-

pears as a transitional type in the transition fromwon, which are dated to the middle-to-late 14th cen-

the Goryeo to the Joseon in the 14th century. The

tury, show less typological variations, all having astand and the body of the bowls were always castdistinctive “”- shaped proﬁle, a handle which isseparately and then connected to each other. Bowls

decorated with bamboo comb patterns towards its

with a stand cast together with their body seem toend, and a swallow-tailed handle end. On the otherbe absent in the Goryeo period. While there werehand, the degree of curvature of the bronze spoonsvery few variations among the bronze spoons inrecovered from the grave no. 3 of Gwisan-Dong in

the Goryeo period, radical changes occurred in the

th

to 14

th

㻝㻣㻣

‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb/55/.-/.-1//.833

³$VLDQ+LJK7LQ%URQ]HV3URGXFWLRQ7HFKQRORJ\DQG5HJLRQDO&KDUDFWHULVWLFV´

Joseon period, Especially, the decrease of curvature

Joseon Dynasty Burial in Jangpyung, Geojae. 2007.

of the handles and the enlargement of the bowls are(The excavation report of cultural relics in the sec-

remarkable changes. Also the end of the handles

tion of new bypass road to be substituted from na-

was sometimes decorated to new types of forms.

tional road in Geoje)

It is supposed that these changes were mainly due̲ Cultural site in Deokpo and Yigok, Geojae.

to the changes in dietary activities caused by the2008. (The excavation report of cultural relics inreligious beliefs and the development of agriculture

the section of new bypass road to be substituted

in the transitional period from the Goryeo to the Jo-

from national road in Geoje)

seon. This study, by using the chronology of porce-

̲ Joseon Dynasty Burials Gwuisan-dong,lain recovered with bronze artifacts, focused on the

Changwon. 2008. (Historic site in access roadobservation of periodical changes in the typologicalsection of Machang Grand Bridge at Changwon

attributes of bronze artefacts and the establishment

Gwisan-Dong Joseon Bunmyo (grave mound) atof their chronology in the Goryeo and the Joseon

Changwon)

periods, which had not been sufficiently known.

̲ C omplex Cult u ral Site in Gaeu m,

Based on this, further studies which involve scien-

Changwon (Second). 2009. (The excavation report

tiﬁc analyses, such as metallographic observationsof cultural relics in the site formation project area

and the study of traditional manufacturing tech-of Gaeumjeong-Dong in Changwon)nique of bronze artifacts, will progress the study of̲ Ju k gok-r i H i stor ic Site at Gi m hae I I

high-tin bronze artefacts in South Korea.

(First and Second). 2010. (Historic site in Gimhae
Gyeongjeon line -Busan new port railroad construction section/ Jukgok-Ri historic site at Gimhae)

1RWHV

5) The detailed terminology proposed by Bae Yong-

1) Chairman and Researcher, Foundation of East Asia

Dong et al. is as follows. Large flat part to scoop

Cultural Properties Institute.

food is termed “bowl ( 술 입 )”, a handling part is2) For example, the following references are present.
Nanyong Lee, II-3. Type of Spoon and Chopstick. In:

termed “handle ( 술자루 )”, an end of bowl is termed

Study of Korean Metalcrafts. Iljisa, 1992, pp. 97-“edge ( 술날 )” and a part between the edge and the143.

handle is termed “neck ( 술목 )”.

Yongdong Bae, Character and Signiﬁcance of Korean

6) Jagyeong Gu, A Study on bronze ware excavated

Spoon and Chopstick in Culinary Tradition. Mun-in the burials at Yongnam Province between last

hwajae 29, Relics Bureau, 1996.

Goryeo and early Joseon Dynasty. MA Thesis submitted to Dong-A University, 2010, p. 34.

Euido Jeong, Study on Korean Ancient Spoon and

For the height of the stands, two types were identi-

Chopstick -Goryeo Dynasty. Seokdangnonchong 38,

ﬁed depending on their forms. Nevertheless, their

Seokdang Institute of Dong-A University, 2007.
Sang-Yong Lee, Study on Bronze-spoon Excavated inchronological variations were not considered.

burials of Gyeongnam Province between Goryeo

7) The examinations of the bronze spoons have alreadybeen published in the following paper.

and Joseon Dynasty. In: Research of Technology
Producing Korean High-tin Bronze Ware. 2009.

Sang-Yong Lee, A Study on Bronze-spoon Excavated

3) Jagyeong Gu, Study on bronzeware excavated inin the Burials of Gyeongnam Province between

burials at Yongnam Province between last Gorye

Goryeoo and Joseon Dynasty.. In: Research of Tech-and early Joseon Dynasty. MA Thesis submitted tonology Producing Korean High-tin Bronze Ware.
2009.

Dong-A University, 2010.

8) The chronologies of celadon in Goryeo period, and4) Museum of Dong-A University, Burials in Deoksan-Ri,

Buncheong ware and white porcelain in Joseon pe-

Gimhae. 1995.

riod are based on the following references.

The Gyeongnam Institute of Cultural Properties,

Jongmin Lee, New Trend of Goryeo Inlaid Celadon

Mucheon Site in Jinju -Burials between Goryeo andat Late 14C ‒Focusing on Tablewares, MISUL-

Joseon Dynasty (1・2). 2004.

SAYEONʼGU: Korean Journal of Art History 201,

Museum of Dong-A University, Cultural Site in Deok-

1994.

cheon, Gupo. 2006.
Foundation of East-Asia Cultural Properties Institute,̲ Study on Early Celadon in Korea. Ph.D㻝㻣㻤‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb/56/.-/.-1//.833

<RQJ0LQ6LQ・6DQJ<RQJ/HH

dissertation submitted to Hongik University, 2002.

of Gaeumjeong, Goryeo grave no. 9 of Deokcheon-

Namwon Jang, Study on Celadon at Middle Goryeo

Dong, Goryeo grave no. 3 of Gwisan-Dong, Joseon

Dynasty. Ph.D dissertation submitted to Ewha

grave no. 64 of Gaeumjeong, Joseon grave no.

Womans University, 2003.

67 of Gaeumjeong, Joseon grave no. 3 of Gaeum-

Seonggu Han, Change of Celadon Type at Late Goryeo

jeong, Joseon grave no. 41 of Gaeumjeong, Joseon

Dynasty. MISULSAYEONʼGU: Korean Journal ofgrave no. 70 of Gaeumjeong, Joseon grave no. 2 of

Art History 232, 2001.

Gaeumjeong, Joseon grave no. 30 of Gwisan-Dong,
Joseon grave no. 51 of Gaeumjeong, Joseon grave

Gyeongsuk Gang, Study on Buncheong ware. Iljisa,

no. 37 of Gwisan-Dong, Joseon grave no. 79 of1986.
̲ Study on Korean Histor y of Ceramics.

Gaeumjeong, Joseon grave no. 41 of Gaeumjeong,2004.

grave no. 12 of Jangpyeong, Joseon grave no. 64 of

Ryangmo Jeong, Ceramics in Western Gyeongnam at

Gwisan-Dong, Goryeo grave no. 24 of Deokcheon-

Joseon Dynasty. In: Changes of Local Ceramics at

Dong, Joseon grave no. 3 of Gwisan-Dong, Joseon

Joseon Dynasty -Jinju National Museum. 2004.

grave no. 13 of Gaeumjeong, Joseon grave no. 38 of

Taehyun Gwak, Study on ceramics excavated in buri-

Gaeumjeong, Joseon grave no. 91 of Jukgok-Ri, Jo-

als Gwuisan-Dong site, Changwon. In: Joseon

seon grave no. 70 of Gaeumjeong, no. 74 of Gangok

dynasty burials in Gwuisan-Dong, Changwon.

in Geoje, Joseon grave no. 6 of Gwisan-Dong, Jo-

Foundation of East-Asia Cultural Properties
operties Insti-

seon grave no. 65 of Gaeumjeong, Joseon grave no.

tute, 2008.

69 of Gaeumjeong, Joseon grave no. 79 of Gaeum-̲ Study on ceramics excavated in burials be-jeong, no. 17 of Gangok in Geoje (from the top left)

tween Goryeo and Joseon Dynasty in GaeumjeongDong, Changwon. In: Complex Cultural Site in Ga,

Table 1. Classificatory criteria for the typology of the

Changwon (Second). Foundation of East-Asia Cul-

bronze bowls. Classiﬁcatory criterion, type, notes,

tural Properties Institute, 2009.

provenance, height of stand, I, <1.5cm, Goryeo

̲ Study on white and porcelains and celadon

grave nos. 3 and 5 of Gwisan-Dong in Chang-

excavated in burials between Goryeo and Joseon

won, no. 3 of Muchon in Jinju -mound 1, Goryeo

Dynasty Jukgok-Ri Jilgok-Ri historic site at Gimhae.

grave no. 8 of Deokcheon-Dong in Busan, Goryeo

In: Jukgok-Ri Historic Site at Gimhae II (First, andgrave nos. 2, 4 and 38 of Jukgok-Ri in Gimhae, II,

Second). Foundation of East-Asia Cultural Proper->/=1.5cm, grave nos. 74 and 82 of Gaeumjeong inties Institute, 2010.

Changwon, grave no. 36 of Gwisan-Dong in Changwon, no. 156 of Muchon in Jinju -mound 1, andFigure 1. Names of each part of a bronze bowl. Lid, rim,

nos. 95, 98, 153 and 159 of mound 3, nos. 2 andrim, bowl, base and stand (from the top).

17 of Gangok in Geoje, nos. 2 and 5 of Jangpyeong

Figure 2. Names of each part of a bronze spoon. Bowl,

in Geoje, proﬁle of rim, A, inclined, Goryeo grave

handle, end of handle, edge, and neck of bowl (fromnos. 4 and 5 of Gwisan-Dong in Changwon, Goryeo

the top left).

grave nos. 4 and 5 Jukgok-Ri in Gimhae, grave nos.

Figure 3. Table showing the chronology of the bronze

41 and 69 of Gaeumjeong in Changwon, nos. 85,

artefacts. Period, date, bronze bowl, bronze spoon,

95 and 98 of Muchon in Jinju -mound 3 and thecontemporary artefacts, Goryeo, 12, Goryeo graveother numerous sites, B, flared, Goryeo grave no.

no. 33 of Jukgok-ri, Goryeo grave no.4-2 of Deok-

5 of Gaeumjeong in Changwon, Goryeo grave nos.

cheon-Dong, Goryeo grave no. 4 of Deokcheon-

3 and 67 of Gwisan-Dong in Changwon, grave nos.

Dong, Goryeo grave no. 33 of Jukgok-Ri, 13, grave38, 39 and 40 of Jukgok-ri in Gimhae, grave no. 18

no. 33 of Jukgok-Ri, Goryeo grave no. 5 of Gaeum-of Deokcheon-Dong in Busan, no.114 of Muchon

jeong, Goryeo grave no. 1 of Deokcheon-Dong,in Jinju -mound 1, and 64 and 159 -mound 3, C,

Goryeo grave no. 4 of Jukgok-Ri, Goryeo grave no.

vertical, Goryeo grave nos. 8, 13 and 45 of Deok-

2 of Deokcheon-Dong, Goryeo grave no. 1 of De-

cheon-Dong in Busan, grave nos. 41, 79 and 82 ofokcheon-Dong, Goryeo grave no. 9 of Deokcheon-

Gaeumjeong in Changwon, no. 86 of Gwisan-Dong

Dong, Goryeo grave no. 2 of Gaeumjeong, Goryeo

in Changwon, no. 8 of Jangpyeong in Geoje, manu-

grave no. 2 of Gwisan-Dong, Goryeo grave no. 2

facturing method of stand, 1, connected later, nos.
㻝㻣㻥‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb/57/.-/.-1//.833

³$VLDQ+LJK7LQ%URQ]HV3URGXFWLRQ7HFKQRORJ\DQG5HJLRQDO&KDUDFWHULVWLFV´51, 67 and 69 of Gaeumjeong in Changwon, Goryeoof Muchon in Jinju -mound 2 ෹153 -mound 3, Jo-grave nos. 3, 5, 82, 85, 86 and 91 of Gwisan-Dongseon grave nos. 3 and 51 of Gaeumjeong in Chang-in Changwon, no. 3 of Muchon in Jinju -mound 1,

won, grave no. 30 of Gwisan-Dong in Changwon,

and 95 and 98 -mound 3, Goryeo grave no. 8 ofIII-1, >/=1.2cm and <1.8cm, middle of end of handle

Deokcheon-Dong in Busan, Goryeo grave nos. 2,

is opened in Y shape and the end is angler, no.46

4 and 38 of Jukgok-ri in Gimhae and the other nu-

of Muchon in Jinju -mound 1, grave nos. 41, 78 andmerous sites, 2, casted at once, nos. 41, 74 and 78

80 of Gaeumjeong in Changwon, III-2, middle ofof Gaeumjeong in Changwon, nos. 82, 85, 86 andend of handle is opened in V shape and the end is

91 of Gwisan-Dong in Changwon, nos. 13 and 18 ofpointed, grave nos. 5 and 15 of Sinjun-ri in Gosung,Deokcheon-Dong in Busan, no. 114 of Muchon in

grave nos. 97, 100 and 253 Deoksan-Ri in Gimhae,

Jinju -mound 1, and 64, 159 -mound 3, nos. 2 and 8

no. 63 of Muchon in Jinju -mound 2, grave nos. 4,

of Jangpyeong in Geoje (from the top left)

66, 68 and 86 of Gwisan-Dong in Changwon, III-3,

Table 2. Average heights of the bronze bowls and of

middle of end of handle is opened in U shape andtheir stands. Average heights of the bronze bowls

the end is angler, grave nos. 6 and 12 of Sinjun-Ri

and of their stands., Goryeo, height of the whole

in Gosung, grave no. 12 of Jangpyeong in Geoje,bowl, height of the stand, Joseon, height of thegrave nos. 1, 61 and 82 Deoksan-Ri in Gimhae, III-

whole bowl, height of the stand, unit (from the top).

4, flatly widened handle from the middle, grave

Table 3. The number of bronze bowls which have diﬀer-

nos. 2, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 9 of Jangpyeong in Geoje,

ent rim proﬁles. The number of bronze bowls whichgrave no. 19 of Sinjun-Ri in Gosung, grave nos. 1, 4,

have diﬀerent rim proﬁles., Goryeo (18 specimens),

7, 19 and 27 of Deoksan-Ri in Gimhae, grave b nos.

inclined (5 specimens), ﬂared (12 specimens), verti-

4, 20 and 24 of Deokcheon-Dong ruins in Gupo, re-cal (1 specimen), Joseon (44 specimens), inclined (25covered from the other numerous sites, IV, <1.2cm,

specimens), ﬂared (11 specimens), vertical (8 speci-

straight handle to the end, nos. 2 and 17 of Gangokmen) (from the left top).

in Geoje, grave nos. 6, 7, 8 and 113 of Gwisan-Dong

Table 4. The number of bronze bowls of which the standin Changwon

was made by diﬀerent methods in the Goryeo andTable 7. Distributions of the degree of curvature and theJoseon periods. The number of bronze bowls ofratio of the length of bowl to the whole length ofwhich the stand was made by different methods,

bronze spoons. The degree of curvature (unit: cm),

Goryeo (19 specimens), none (5 specimens), at-ratio of the length of bowl to the whole length” (fromtached later (13 specimens), casted together (0 spec-

the top left)imen), Joseon (45 specimens), none (14 specimens),

Table 8.The averages in the degree of curvature and theattached later (15 specimens), casted together (16ratio of the length of bowl to the whole length by

specimens) (from the top left).

type. The ratio of the length of bowl to the whole

Table 5. Transformations of bronze bowl in the Goryeo

length, the degree of curvature (unit: cm) (from theand Joseon periods. Period, height of stand, low,

top).

high, method of attachment of stand, attached later,

Table 9. Distributions of the dimensions of the bronze

casted together, proﬁle of rim, inclined, ﬂared, ver-spoons. Unit: cm, Goryeo, Joseon, depth of bowl,

tical, Goryeo, Joseon (from the top left).

length of bowl, whole length

Table 6. Typological classifications of bronze spoon.
Type, sharpness of curve of handle, form of endof handle, form of bronze spoon, provenance, Ⅰ、>/=2.2cm, middle of end of handle is opened in V
shape and the end is pointed, grave b nos. 1, 2, 4,
5, 6 and 8 of Deokcheon-Dong ruins in Gupo, no. 3
of Muchon in Jinju -mound 1, Goryeo grave nos. 1
and 3 of Gwisan-Dong in Changwon, Goryeo gravenos. 1, 2, 4 and 5 of Gaeumjeong in Changwon, II,=/> 1.8cm and <2.2cm, middle of end of handle isopened in Y shape and the end is pointed, num.57
㻝㻤㻜‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb/6.

/.-/.-1//.833

ing. Lead isotope ratios are used for the provenance

7KH&KDUDFWHULVWLFVDQG&KDQJHVRI&RPSRVLWLRQE\WKH3HULRGVRQ
+LJK7LQ%URQ]HLQ$QFLHQW.RUHD

assessment of lead 㻟㻕.
These physical and chemical approaches tobronze artefacts from ancient Korea are currently
developing. Yet small amount of the samples were*\X+R.LP

merely analyzed, since collaboration between natu-&ROOHJHRI1DWXUDO6FLHQFH.RQJMX1DWLRQDO8QLYHUVLW\

ral sciences and archaeology have thus far been

-RR<RXQJ$Q

insuﬃcient. Thus, this paper compares archaeologi-（1DWLRQDO0XVHXPRI.RUHD

cal characteristics of ancient Korean bronze mirrors
with published physico-chemical data by different
periods.

,,QWURGXFWLRQ
Bronze wares in ancient Korea ﬁrst appeared in
the end of the Neolithic period (1000-700 BC). So,,$UFKDHRORJLFDOFKDUDFWHULVWLFVRIEURQ]HPLUURUVLQ

far, the earliest evidence of bronze wares have been

DQFLHQW.RUHD

discovered from pyramids in Egypt around 3700

Bronze mirrors uncovered from Korea andBC. The technology of bronze wares of the Near

northeastern Asian regions have no patterns on the

East spread into the Mediterranean area, reaching

mirror surfaces. Some mirrors with concave andEurope by around 3500 BC and Siberia by aroundconvex reflecting surfaces have been attested, but

1500-700 BC .

mirrors with flat surfaces are common. The back㻝㻕

Copper or major raw materials of bronze wares

surfaces include geometric incised patterns like

was one of the earliest metals, since the natural

coarse hatched or saw-toothed lines and concentric

resources were refined with relatively little effort.

circles. The back surfaces also include two or three

Copper expresses reddish gloss on the surface. Mal-

knobs. For this reason, these mirrors are calledleable and ductile characteristics of the metal allowʻmirrors with multiple knobsʼ, although two knobs

us to work easily, but the strength of ﬁnished prod-

were most common in the Bronze Age Korea㻝㻝㻕. In

ucts is often insufficient. For this reason, copper

general, the mirrors consist of circular and squareis alloyed in order to enhance the strength. Alloys

shape in plan. Based on usage, the mirrors areof copper and tin, and copper and zinc are calledgrouped into bronze mirrors, mirrors with handle,

bronze and brass respectively. Furthermore, leaded

and mirrors with eyes. Circular or square bronze

bronze and brass are called lead bronze and leadmirrors contain knobs on the center of the buckbrass respectively. Bronze wares including larger

surface. Putting cord through the knobs, the bronze

proportions of tin are named high-tin bronze wares.

mirrors are taken by hands or caught on mirror

Larger proportions of tin in the alloys enhance theracks. Mirrors with handle are used to reflect notstrength and produce silver grey colour on the sur-

only front face but also back shot, using two mir-faces. High-tin bronze wares in Korea are represent-

rors. Mirrors with eyes are hung or suspended, us-

ed by bronze mirrors. The bronze mirrors, as welling the eyes 㻢㻕.

as bronze daggers, are major indexes of periodiza-

%URQ]H$JH 6), 15)tion in Korean archaeology. Ancient casting tech-

Korean Bronze Age is generally divided into ear-niques of bronze mirrors can be examined throughlier and later phases. The ninth to seventh century

proportions of major chemical components and ob-

BC is represented by violin-shaped bronze daggers

servations of metallographic structures. Proportions

and bronze mirrors with multiple knobs and coarseof copper, tin and lead, change characteristics of thelinear patterns. Bronze mirrors with zigzag or light-

metal. In addition, diﬀerent cooling rates and heatning patterns appeared during the sixth century BC.

treatment processes form various metal structures

Cast bronze mirrors established and ﬂourished dur-even in the case of same chemical components. Mi-

ing the later phase. In the period, bronze mirrors

nor components of the alloys are often impurities,

with more than two knobs have been discovered.

but quantitative analysis of the substances reveals

Bronze mirrors with simple geometric linear pat-the degree of selection of raw materials, allowing us

terns like zigzag were produced at the beginning of

to assess intentional admixtures at the time of cast-

the Bronze Age. Yet the bronze mirrors were gradu㻝㻤㻝‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb/6//.-/.-1//.833

³$VLDQ+LJK7LQ%URQ]HV3URGXFWLRQ7HFKQRORJ\DQG5HJLRQDO&KDUDFWHULVWLFV´

ally replaced by bronze mirrors with ﬁne linear pat-the Mireuksa Temple in Iksan show characteristics

terns that consist of complex triangular and circularof typical Tang-style bronze mirrors.

patterns. Finally, bronze mirrors with semi-circular

*RU\HRSHULRG 㻢㻕㻘㻌㻝㻡㻕rim cross section developed. In addtion, linear pat-Abundunt bronze mirrors have been discoverd

terns were organized into inner, middle and outer

during the Goryeo period. Several deﬁnitions of thesections.

Goryeo-style bronze mirrors have been proposed. In

(DUO\,URQ$JHDQG3URWR7KUHH.LQJGRPVSHULRG

general, the bronze mirrors of Goryeo are divided

㻢㻕㻘㻌㻝㻡㻕

The Early Iron Age in Korea started around theinto mirrors with local designs, techniques, and ma-late third century BC or the early second century

terials of Goryeo, and imitations of Chinese bronze

BC. Subsequently, iron production became common

mirrors.

during the late first century BC. Since the period,

A bronze mirror with the raised inscription of “高many Han-style bronze mirrors were introduced

麗国造 ” (the oﬃcial of Goryeo) is a representative ofthrough Lelang commandery into Korea. In addi-

the bronze mirrors in Goryo. The mirror was obvi-

tion, imitations of the Chinese bronze mirrors ap-

ously fablicated in Goryoe, since no othre bronze

peared in the south of the Korean peninsula. The

mirrors in the period contain inscriptions of coun-Han-style bronze mirrors contain only one knob

try names except Goryoe. Bronze mirrors without

unlike bronze mirrors with coarse and fine linear

patterns in Korea often contain raised inscriptions

patterns in the Korean Bronze Age.

of region names, suggesting the mirrors without

In the Proto Three Kingdoms period (c. 0 to c.

patterns were typical bronze mirrors of Goryeo.

300 AD), the states were systematically formed in

Possible bronze mirrors of Goryeo also include mir-

Korea. Iron production rapidly developed during theror with the inscription of “ 煌丕昌天 ” (great and re-period in order to make agricultural tools. The Han-

splendent is the heaven) or with images of dragons,

style and local bronze mirrors increased in number.

trees and a palace. Limited number of mirrors with

7KUHH.LQJGRPVDQG8QLÀHG6LOODSHULRGV 㻢㻕㻘㻌㻥㻕㻘㻌㻝㻡㻕the inscription of “ 煌丕昌天 ” have uncovered from

Since the end of the Korean Three Kingdoms

China, but the mirrors have been well attested inperiod, bronze mirrors have often been discovered

Korea. In the case of bronze mirrors with images offrom architectural features like temples, althoughdragons, trees and a palace, depth of raised patterns

mirrors were generally uncovered from tombs inof the Korean mirrors is lower than the Chinese

previous periods. In the Silla region, bronze mir-mirrors. In addition, images of the Korean mirrors

rors have not been attested during the third toare often reversed. On the other hand, the Chinese

fourth century AD or later, but limited number ofmirrors have no images of dragons.

small mirrors has appeared during the end of theﬁfth century AD to the sixth century AD. Until the,,,3K\VLFRFKHPLFDOFKDUDFWHULVWLFVRIEURQ]HPLUURUV

middle sixth century AD, exotic mirrors were buried

LQ.RUHD

in elite tombs, while local mirrors were buried in

&KHPLFDOFRPSRVLWLRQV

tombs of relatively lower classes. The exotic mirrors

Table 2 shows published chemical compositions

were imported from Goguryeo until the middle ﬁfth

of bronze mirrors by periods. The average values

century AD. Later, Japanese bronze mirrors wereof the main components of bronze mirrors of theimported. Bronze mirrors as burial goods markedly

Bronze Age/the Early Iron Age, the Proto Threedecreased since the middle sixth century AD, while

Kingdoms period/the Three Kingdoms period, themirrors have often been uncovered from temples. In

Uniﬁed Silla period, and the Goryeo period indicate

the Baekje region, bronze mirrors were discovered

67.6% Cu, 26.7% Sn, and 5.4% Pb; 67.4% Cu, 28.0%

from the tomb of King Muryeong. The Mireuksa

Sn, and 4.6% Pb; 68.1% Cu, 26.8% Sn, and 4.7% Pb;

Temple in Iksan also produced bronze mirrors.

and 68.4% Cu, 18.9% Sn, and 10.1% Pb respectively.

Since the seventh century AD in the Unified

Sn contents increased in the Proto Three Kingdoms/

Silla period, bronze mirrors were used as Sarira

the Three Kingdoms periods, but the contents de-reliquaries. A decoration technique of imbedding ofcreased in the Unified Silla period. Nevertheless,shapes cut out from gold or silver sheets appeared

Sn contents in those periods show high propor-

since the period. Fragments of bronze mirrors fromtions in general. On the other hand, Sn contents in㻝㻤㻞‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb/60/.-/.-1//.833

*\X+R.LP・-RR<RXQJ$Q

the Goryeo period drastically decreased, while Pb(national treasure of Korea No. 141) and a bronze

contents increased. In general, high proportion of

mirror with multiple knobs and ﬁne linear patterns

tin improves strength of the alloys. However, overfrom Hyoja-dong in Jeonju in the Early Iron Age,

22% Sn contents reduce tensile strength of the al-

and bronze mirror fragments from the Mireuksa

loy . High proportion of tin also prevents impact

Temple in Iksan in the Three Kingdoms and Uniﬁed

resistance of bronze wares. Moreover, number of tin

Silla periods.

mines and amount of the deposits were quite limited %URQ]HPLUURUZLWKPXOWLSOHNQREVDQGÀQHOLQHDUSDWWHUQV

in Korea . On the other hand, low proportion of tin

QDWLRQDOWUHDVXUHRI.RUHD1R LQWKH(DUO\,URQ$JH㻝㻞㻕㻠㻕㻣㻕

reduces reﬂectance of mirrors. Thus, in order to en-

The background mostly consists of the δ phase.

hance degrees of whiteness of mirror surfaces, tin

The α-δ eutectoid are formed between cracks ofamalgams were used or the surfaces are soaked inthe δ phase. Larger and smaller grains correspondmolten metals like gold and tin. In this way, mirrors

to pinholes and lead respectively. Grey grains repre-

with high reflectance and impact resistance weresent Cu 2 S. Corrosive substances in the pinholes lo-

apparently produced . When these techniques werecated at the lower part contain re-deposited copper.

introduced into Korea? This question is still open %URQ]HPLUURUZLWKPXOWLSOHNQREVDQGÀQHOLQHDUSDWWHUQV㻝㻟㻕

to discuss, but the techniques have been frequently

IURP+\RMDGRQJLQ-HRQMXLQWKH(DUO\,URQ$JH㻝㻠㻕

attested in later periods. Investigations of the ques-

The microstructure of the cast bronze mirror

tions are currently on-going.

consists of the δ grains and the dendrites of the αFigure 1 shows distribution of Cu, Sn and Pb-δ eutectoid. Bronze mirrors generally contain c.

contents of bronze mirrors by periods in a ternary

22% Sn, but the mirror include 30.4% Sn. Perhaps

diagram. During the Bronze Age and the Early Iron

for this reason, the δ phase was predominantly

Age, a regular pattern, which Pb contents are stabi-

formed compared to the α phase. Small black

lized and Cu and Sn contents are inversely related,grains represent lead, spreading whole of the ma-

are conﬁrmed. However, chemical compositions oftrix.

bronze mirrors become diversiﬁed in later periods.

 %URQ]HPLUURUIUDJPHQWVIURPWKH0LUHXNVD7HPSOHLQ,N

In order to indicate the transition clearly, Figure 2

VDQLQWKH7KUHH.LQJGRPVDQG8QLÀHG6LOODSHULRGV 8)

shows proportions of Cu and Sn contents. In gener-a) The copperish part represents the α phase.

al, Cu and Sn contents are inversely related from the

The whitish part between cracks of the α phase

Bronze Age to the Three Kingdoms period, forming

corresponds to the α-δ eutectoid. Examinations ofa same line. Yet the points are dispersed during thethe microstructure demonstrate that no evidence ofUnified Silla period and the Goryeo period, sug-

forging and thermal treatments other than casting is

gesiting diversiﬁed techniques of the brozne mirror

observed.

production in Korea.

b) The microstructure of the sample has a resemblance to Sample 1 described above. Bright yel-0HWDOORJUDSKLFVWUXFWXUHVDifferent fabrication processes of bronze mir-low grains represent the α phase. The whitish partrors yield particular metallographic structures. In

between cracks of the α phase corresponds to theaddition, diﬀerent raw materials and additives yieldα-δ eutectoid. However, Widmanstätten patterns

particular inclusions in the matrices. Thus, metal-

are formed in the part adjoining the surface of thelographic observations allow us to collect various

mirror. This result suggests that cooling rate on theinformation related to making processes of bronze

exterior part is more rapid than the interior part.

mirrors.

No evidence of fabrication and thermal treatments
other than Widmanstätten patterns is observed.

Containing over c. 14wt% tin, bronze wares express bright silver colour on the surface and acquirec) Yellow grains represent the α phase. The

strength. However, over c. 16wt% tin reduces thedendrites correspond to the martensite structures

strength. Over c. 14wt% tin create two phases, while(dark parts represent the γ phase). Bright aciculas

over c. 25wt% tin create three phases .

consist of the β phase. These results suggest that㻞㻕

Bronze mirrors conducted both of chemical

the temperatures of the sample preceding quench-and metallographic examinations include a bronze

ing reached the β range. Contrast to other two mir-mirror with multiple knobs and ﬁne linear patterns

ror fragments, evidence of intentional quenching㻝㻤㻟‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb/61/.-/.-1//.833

³$VLDQ+LJK7LQ%URQ]HV3URGXFWLRQ7HFKQRORJ\DQG5HJLRQDO&KDUDFWHULVWLFV´

was observed.

some limitations of procurements of tin might re-

/HDGLVRWRSHDQDO\VLV

duce the contents in the alloys. In order to supple-

Bronze wares mostly consist of copper and tin,ment this, tin amalgams were used or the surfaces

but lead is also mixed into the alloys if required.

were soaked in molten metals like gold and tin. Per-The reasons to mix lead include improvements ofhaps in this way, degrees of whiteness and reflec-

ﬂuidity and workability at the time of casting and antance ratios of the mirrors were enhanced, retaining

alternative material of tin, which might often be ex-

impact resistance. Proportions of the main compo-

pensive and unavailable. Based on these technologi-

nents of copper, tin, and lead were stabilized in thecal and economic backgrounds, adequate amounts

earlier periods, but the proportions became diversi-of lead were mixed into bronze wares. Temporalfied in the later periods, suggesting technologicaland spatial information of provenances of raw ma-

transitions occurred in various ways.

terials reveals various aspects of past human activi-

Second, observations of metallographic struc-ties. Provenances of lead can be identiﬁed throughtures demonstrated that the δ phase was predomi-

analysis of lead isotope ratios 㻡㻕.

nantly formed instead of the α phase in the Early

Analyses of lead isotope ratios of eight Korean

Iron Age samples, i.e., bronze mirrors with multiple

bronze mirrors have thus far been conducted. They

knobs and ﬁne linear patterns of the national trea-

are including a sample of the Bronze Age, fivesure of Korea No. 141, and from Hyoja-dong in Jeon-

samples of the Early Iron Age, a sample of the Proto

ju in the Early Iron Age. Re-deposited copper has

Three Kingdoms period, and a sample of the Threealso occurred. The phenomena suggest the bronze

Kingdoms period, concentrating on the Early Iron

mirrors included high-tin contents. A fragment of aAge. The results currently available may be insuﬃ-

bronze mirror of the Three Kingdoms period (Sample

cient in terms of quantity and typological attentions

3) contained the martensite structures, suggesting

to the mirrors. Nevertheless, the information pro-that intentional quenching were performed. Al-vides us some insights into attributes of the mirrors.

though results of metallographic analyses of Korean

Table 3 and Figure 3 summarize the results. Except

bronze mirrors have been limited, over 30% Sn con-the bronze mirror fragments from the Mireuksa

tents in the Early Iron Age and presence of quench-

Temple in Iksan in the Three Kingdoms period,

ing technique in the Three Kingdoms period were

three groups were formed along the same line. No

conﬁrmed.

temporal variability was observed from the results,

Last, lead isotope analysis demonstrated diﬀer-

but there is a contrast between bronze mirrors withent ranges between bronze mirrors with multiple

multiple knobs and ﬁne linear patterns ( ▲ ) and imi-

knobs and ﬁne linear patterns, and imitative bronze

tative mirrors ( ● ). Although no morphological in-

mirrors.

formation for the fragments of the Three Kingdoms

Apart from bronze mirrors, high-tin bronze

period was obtained, the samples belong to thewares include various types of artefacts. Phisico-range of Korean mirrors, suggesting that they con-chemical data of the wares currently available issist of parts of bronze mirrors with multiple knobs

insuﬃcient, but further diverse investigations should

and ﬁne linear patterns.

reveal diachronic developments of high-tin bronze
ware technologies in Korea in detail.

,96XPPDU\DQGGLVFXVVLRQIn this paper, we explored characteristics ofTable 1: Diachronic developments of bronze mirrors

bronze mirrors excavated from Korean archaeologi-

with multiple knobs㻝㻝㻕

cal sites, focusing on the results of physico-chemical(From top left) Periods, Absolute dates, Developments ofanalysis of the mirrors.

bronze mirrors, Early Violin-shaped Bronze Dagger

First, temporal changes of chemical composi-

period, 800-600 BC, Bronze mirrors with coarse

tions were observed. In the later periods, tin con-linear patterns, Late Violin-shaped Bronze Dagger

tents of the mirrors tended to decrease, while lead

period, 600-400 BC, Initial Slender Bronze Dagger

contents increased. In the earlier periods, high-tin

period, 400-300 BC, Bronze mirrors with coarse

contents enhanced reﬂectance ratios of the surfaces

and ﬁne linear patterns, Early Slender Bronze Dag-of the mirrors, expressing silver grey colour. Later,

ger period, 300-200 BC, Middle Slender Bronze㻝㻤㻠‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb/62/.-/.-1//.833

*\X+R.LP・-RR<RXQJ$Q

tional Museum (2007)

Dagger period, 200-100 BC, Bronze mirrors withfine linear patterns, Late Slender Bronze Dagger

10. Baekje, Mireuksa Temple, -, 67.4, 25.8, 4.9, -, 0.25,

period, 100-50 BC, Final Slender Bronze Dagger

0.05, 0.14, 0.02, -, -, -, -, ICP, Metallurgical studies

period, 50 BC-50 AD, Han-style bronze mirrors,of bronze artefacts from the Mireuksa Temple (1992)

Transformed Bronze Dagger period, 50 AD-100 BC.

11. Baekje-Uniﬁed Silla Mireuksa Temple (Mireuksa 3),
Fragment of bronze mirror, 75.3, 21.6, 0.5, 0.02,

㻤㻕㻘㻌㻝㻟㻕㻘㻌㻝㻡㻕

0.41, 0.15, 0.50, -, -, 0.05, 0.58, -, ICP, Metallurgical(1) Bronze Age and Early Iron Age: (from top left) No.,and provenance studies of bronze mirrors from theTable 2: Chemical compositions of bronze mirrors

Period, Provenance (Artefact register No.), Artefact,

Mireuksa Temple in Iksan (2007)

Cu, Sn, Pb, Zn, Fe, Ni, Sb, As, Bi, Co, Ag, Analyzed

12, Three Kingdoms or Uniﬁed Silla, Seolbong Mountainarea, Analytical method, Reference

Fortress in Icheon, -, c. 76.2, 23.8, -, -, -, -, -, -, -, -,1. Bronze/Early Iron, Ryongsan-ri of Shinchon, Bronze-, -, EDS, Technological systems of bronze artefacts

mirror with ﬁne linear patterns, 79.7, 16.0, 4.0, -,from the Seolbong Mountain Fortress in Icheon

0.04, 0.04, 0.15, -, 0.08, -, -, -, -, History of metal-(2004)

lurgy in Korea (3) (2000)(3) Uniﬁed Silla period:

2. Early Iron (national treasure of Korea No. 141),

13. Uniﬁed Silla, Mireuksa Temple (Mireuksa 1), Frag-

Bronze mirror with multiple knobs and ﬁne linear

ment of bronze mirror, 66.8, 22.9, 6.3, 0.01, 0.55,

patterns, 61.7, 32.3, 5.5, 0.16, 0.07, 0.16, -, -, -,0.15, 0.63, -, -, 0.08, 0.31, -, ICP, Metallurgical andtrace, 0.23, Rim, XRF, Study of bronze mirror withprovenance studies of bronze mirrors from themultiple knobs and fine linear patterns (National

Mireuksa Temple in Iksan (2007)

treasure of Korea No. 141) (2009)

14. Uniﬁed Silla, Mireuksa Temple (Mireuksa 2), Frag-

3. Early Iron, Baegam-ri of Hwasun, Bronze mirror withment of bronze mirror, 69.1, 24.9, 5.5, 0.01, 0.18,

ﬁne linear patterns, 65.1，28.4，6.3，0.05，0.01，0.16，

0.13, 0.13, 0.29, -, 0.05, 0.06, -, ICP, Metallurgical-, -, -, -, 0.04, -, -, -and provenance studies of bronze mirrors from the

4. Early Iron, Daegok-ri of Hwasun, Bronze mirror with

Mireuksa Temple in Iksan (2007)

ﬁne linear patterns, 65.8, 28.6, 5.4, 0.05, 0.03, 0.16,

15. Un i f ied Silla, Dongsa n l i of Cheonbug-myeon-, -, -, -, 0.23, -, -, -(Gyeong ju 2499­1), Fragment of bronze mirror,

5. Early Iron, Daegok-ri of Hwasun, Bronze mirror with

72.1, 25.6, 2.2, -, 0.10, -, -, -, -, -, -, Cross section,

ﬁne linear patterns, 65.3, 28.8, 5.7, 0.04, 0.03, 0.14,

XRF, Bronze mirror collection of the Gyeongju Na--, -, -, -, 0.16, -, -, -tional Museum (2007)

6. Early Iron, Hyoja-dong in Jeonju, Bronze mirror with

16. Un i f ied Silla, Dongsa n l i of Cheonbug-myeon

multiple knobs and ﬁne linear patterns, 64.0, 30.4,(Gyeong ju 2499­2), Fragment of bronze mirror,

4.7, 0.02, 0.06, 0.06, -, 0.23, -, -, 0.40, -, -, 0.40,

65.0, 28.2, 6.6, -, 0.23, -, -, -, -, -, -, Cross section,-, ICP, Chemical analysis of a bronze mirror with

XRF, Bronze mirror collection of the Gyeongju Na-

multiple knobs and ﬁne linear patterns from Hyoja-

tional Museum (2007)

dong in Jeonju, Jeollabuk-do (2006)

17. Unified Silla, Anapji in Gyeong ju, (Anap 1031),

7. Early Iron, Wonboongni in Nonsan, Bronze mirror,
71.4, 22.6, 5.9,

Bronze mirror, 51.4, 42.9, 2.8, -, 3.10, -, -, -, -, -, -,0.02, 0.41, 0.86, 0.27, -, -, 0.05,

Cross section, XRF, Bronze mirror collection of the-, ICP, Chemical analysis of Bronze wares from pit

Gyeongju National Museum (2007)

burials of Wonboongni in Nonsan (2003)

18. Uniﬁed Silla, Bunhwangsa temple in Gyeongju, -, c.

(2) Proto Three Kingdoms and Three Kingdoms periods

73.0, c. 27.0, -, -, -, -, -, -, -, -, -, -, EDS, Technologi-

8. Proto Three Kingdoms, Jisan-dong in Daegu (Gukeun

cal transitions of bronze wares from the Bunhwang-8), Bronze mirror, 67.7, 24.2, 7.8, -, 0.16, -, -, -, -, -, -,sa temple in Gyeongj (2005)

Cross section, XRF, Bronze mirror collection of the

19. Uniﬁed Silla, Bunhwangsa temple in Gyeongju, -, c.

Gyeongju National Museum (2007)

74.0, c. 24.0, -, -, -, -, -, -, -, -, -, -, EDS, Technologi-

9. Si l la, Sout h Mou nd of Hwa ng na m Daecheong

cal transitions of bronze wares from the Bunhwang-(Hwangnam 3340), Bronze mirror with inscriptions,sa temple in Gyeongj (2005)

50.4, 44.7, 5.0, -, 0.03, -, -, -, -, -, -, -, Cross section,

20. Uniﬁed Silla, Bunhwangsa temple in Gyeongju, -, c.

XRF, Bronze mirror collection of the Gyeongju Na-

73.0, c. 19.0, -, -, -, -, -, -, -, -, -, -, EDS, Technologi㻝㻤㻡‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb/63/.-/.-1//.833

³$VLDQ+LJK7LQ%URQ]HV3URGXFWLRQ7HFKQRORJ\DQG5HJLRQDO&KDUDFWHULVWLFV´

cal transitions of bronze wares from the Bunhwang-

16.006, 39.697, 0.7883, 1.9552

sa temple in Gyeongj (2005)(4) Goryeo period:

Fig. 1: Distribution of Cu, Sn and Pb in a ternar y

21. Goryeo, Main Building 2579, Bronze mirror with thediagram. +: Bronze/Early Iron;◆ : Proto Three

inscription of 高麗国造 , 68.9, 16.5, 11.4, 0.28, 0.03,

Kingdoms/Three Kingdoms; ● : Uniﬁed Silla; ▲ :0.27, 0.56, -, -, -, 1<, Matrix, XRF, Goryeo bronze

Goryeomirrors: reflecting culture and life of the Goryeo

Fig. 2: Distribution of chemical compositions of bronze

people (2010)

mirrors (Bronze/Early Iron, Proto Three Kingdoms/

22. Goryeo, Deoksu 89, Bronze mirror with the inscrip-

Three Kingdoms, Uniﬁed Silla, and Goryeo)tion of 高麗国造 , 71.3, 14.1, 13.9, 0.18, 0.04, 0.12,

Fig. 3: Lead isotope ratios of bronze mirrors of diﬀrent

0.41, -, -, -, <1, Matrix, XRF, Goryeo bronze mirrors:

periods (Bronze/Early Iron, Proto Three Kingdoms/

reflecting culture and life of the Goryeo people

Three Kingdoms, Uniﬁed Silla, and Goryeo)(2010)
23. Goryeo, Shinsoo 1358­41, Bronze mirror with theinscription of 煌丕昌天 , 71.4, 13.5, 14.3, 0.29, 0.03,
0.25, 0.32, -, -, -, 1<, Matrix, XRF, Goryeo bronze
mirrors: reflecting culture and life of the Goryeo
people (2010)
24. Goryeo, Deoksu 4927, Bronze mirror with the inscription of 煌丕昌天 , 68.0, 31.3, 0.6, -, 0.03, 0.15, -,-, -, -, 1<, Matrix, XRF, Goryeo bronze mirrors: reﬂecting culture and life of the Goryeo people (2010)
Table 3: Lead isotope ratios of bronze mirrors㻝㻜㻕
(From top left), No., Period, Site, Artefact, 206/204,
207/204, 208/204, 207/206, 208/206,
1. Bronze, Sudong site in Yeonggwang, imitative bronze
mirror, 18.565, 15.695, 39.218, 0.8454, 2.1154
2, Early Iron, Nonsan, Bronze mirror with multiple
knobs and fine linear patterns, 18.463, 15.664,
38.749, 0.8484, 2.0988
3. Early Iron, Wonboongni in Nonsan, Bronze mirror,
17.959, 15.635, 38.710, 0.8706, 2.1555,
4. Early Iron, -, National treasure of Korea No.141: specimen No. 18 of bronze mirror with multiple knobs
and fine linear patterns (metal), 19.572, 15.887,
40.205, 0.8117, 2.0541,
5. Early Iron, -, national treasure of Korea No.141: specimen No. 5 of bronze mirror with multiple knobs
and fine linear patterns (metal), 19.507, 15.845,
40.369, 0.8122, 2.0672,
6. Early Iron, Hyoja-dong in Jeonju, Bronze mirror withmultiple knobs and fine linear patterns, 18.672,
15.963, 40.051, 0.841, 2.111,
7. Proto Three Kingdom, Yangdongri tumuli in Gimhae
No. 427, imitative bronze mirror, 17.736, 15.539,
38.382, 0.8761, 2.1640,
8. Three Kingdom, Northern area of the Mireuksa
Temple in Iksan, Bronze mirror fragment, 20.303,㻝㻤㻢‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb/64/.-/.-1//.833

cuss the ancient Chinese high-tin bronze production$6WXG\RQ5HÀQLQJDQG3URGXFWLRQRI
WKH$QFLHQW&KLQHVH+LJK7LQ%URQ]Hin particular focusing on reﬁning, casting, mechanical processing and heat treatments.

5H¿QLQJRI+LJKWLQ%URQ]HLQWKH$QFLHQW&KLQD

7DQJNXQ+H

As early as Shang (1600 to 1046 BC) and Zhou

,QVWLWXWHIRUWKH+LVWRU\RI1DWXUDO6FLHQFH&KLQHVH
$FDGHP\RI6FLHQFHV(1046 to 256 BC) Periods, the bronze technology

3HLTLRQ:DQJ

were highly developed in China. In these periods,*UDGXDWH8QLYHUVLW\RIWKH&KLQHVH$FDGHP\RI6FLHQFHVamounts of bronze artifacts were produced. These
bronze artifacts are large and vivid and have precise

Abstract: The high-tin bronze metallurgy highly

ornamentations. Their surface is smooth and beau-developed in the ancient China. As for the metal

tiful. In addition, the composition of theses bronze

reﬁning, a reﬁning method using potassium nitrateartifacts is also appropriate. These bronze artifacts

and bone marrow was discovered in the Ming Peri-suggest the developments of reﬁning methods.

od. This method was used for production of bronze

In China, the refining has been regarded as

mirrors. As for the casting, metal smiths in Pre-an important process in the bronze production. A

Qing Period already noticed that voids in the metal

number of ancient texts from the Pre-Qin Period

texture affects the reflectivity of mirrors. In later

through the Han and Wei Periods to the Ming Pe-

periods, this problem was resolved by changing theriod described the refining. The developments ofthickness of mirrors and size of mirror knobs. As

bronze reﬁning in the ancient China can be divided

for heat treatments, some Spring and Autumn Pe-

into three stages. (1) The refining method calledriods casted bronze products such as mirrors and

Xiaolianzhijingbufujian (⍜✝П㊒ϡᕽ⏯); This meth-swords were quenched. The quenching increased

od was popular in the Pre-Qin Period. (2) The reﬁn-the strength of the high tin bronze and decreased

ing method called Bailian (ⱒ䤀); This method wasits brittleness to a degree. As for forging, a newused in the Han, Wei and Liuchao Periods. (3) The

forming technique consisting of forging and quench-refining method using potassium nitrate and bone

ing was introduced in China by the Han Period atmarrow; This method became popular in the Ming

the latest. This greatly advanced the workability of

Period. Ancient texts and inscriptions on the bronze

the high-tin bronze. All of these show the high levelartifacts suggest that the ﬁrst two methods were ap-of the bronze production technology in the ancientplied not only to high-tin bronze but also to bonze

China.

while the last method was mainly applied to thehigh-tin bronze.

Key-Words: High-tin bronze, refining, casting,forging, quenching,

7KHUHÀQLQJPHWKRGRI;LDROLDQ]KLMLQJEXIXMLDQThe text of Kaogongji, Zhouli says, “⇣⚎䞣ˈIn the ancient China, high-tin bronze artifactsᬍ✢䞥䣿ࠛϡ㗫ˈϡ㗫✊ᕠ⃞Пˈ⃞П✊ᕠުПˈުП✊ᕠappeared for the ﬁrst time in the Xia Period (2070䞣Пˈ䞣Пҹ⚎儈 ”. This text also says, “޵䨘䞥П⢔ˈ䞥BC to 16th century BC). From the Xia Period to㟛䣿咥▕П⇷チˈ咗ⱑ⃵Пˈ咗ⱑП⇷チˈ䴥ⱑ⃵Пˈ䴥ⱑП

the Song Period (960 to 1279 AD), high-tin bronze⇷チˈ䴥⇷⃵Пˈ✊ᕠৃ䨘г”. The former argues thatwas used as the raw material for ornaments, tools,

refining of copper and tin was necessary in orderweapons, musical instruments, mirrors and vessels.

to cast measuring containers. It also introduced a

These high-tin bronze artifacts can be divided into

series of stages to examine and improve the quality

two types; casted artifacts and forged artifacts al-of the metal. Explanatory notes on “ϡ㗫” written

though the former was predominant. Some of themby Zhengxuan in the Late Han Period says, “⍜✝

were heat-treated by annealing, quenching andП㊒ϡᕽ⏯г”. The third volume of Mengxii Bitan

tempering. In addition, some of the casted artifacts

written by Shenkuo in the Sung Period says,“ⱒ✝ϡwere processed by the lathe. These suggest that the

㗫”. The notes by Zhengxuan and text by Shenkuo

ancient Chinese high tin bronze artifacts clearly

are basically the same in the meaning although thereaches a high level in reﬁning, casting, mechanicalformer explains the reﬁning method of copper andprocessing and heat treatments. This paper will dis-the latter explains refining method of steel. The䐟㻝㻤㻣‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb/65/.-/.-1//.833

³$VLDQ+LJK7LQ%URQ]HV3URGXFWLRQ7HFKQRORJ\DQG5HJLRQDO&KDUDFWHULVWLFV´ⱒ␙䴦䡙 ” and “‫ܗ‬ᒋ‫ܗ‬ᑈⱒ␙ℷ䡙 ”.

second sentences of Kaogongji, Zhouli explain thecondition of the ﬂames in several stages during re-

The details of the Bailian method remain aﬁning. Explanatory notes on these sentences written

mystery. However this method was probably a kindby Zhengxuan says, “ ⍜ ␙ 䞥 䣿 ㊒ ㉫ П‫” ׭‬. The textof the multiple reﬁning. In the case of the modernof Kaogongji is the textbook on crafts technology

casting, tin and copper are reﬁned by the electro-in Spring and Autumn and Warring State Period

lytic refining to remove impurities before casting.

(1). The text contains a wide knowledge of metal

In reﬁning, to adjust the temperature and composi-

refining and introduces technological standards.

tion and to control the content of oxygen are theExplanatory notes by Zhengxuan imply that themost important. In the ancient China, copper oresmeasuring containers contained the same amounts

and tin ores were smelted by the method calledof tin as Zhong (bells) and Ding (sacriﬁcial vessels)“Huofa Zhilian”. The copper and tin smelted by thisand that the measuring containers probably con-method contained a certain amount of impurities.

tained 14.29% tin. This high percentage of tin is

Therefore the reﬁning was regarded as an importantvery close to that of high-tin bronze. The refining

process to remove impurities in the ancient China.

method called Xiaolianzhijingbufujian was probably

The term, Bailian can be translated as a hundreda kind of multiple reﬁning and metal was reﬁned byrepeats of reﬁning. But the word does not mean that

repeats of the same process.

metal smiths indeed refined materials a hundred 7KHUHÀQLQJPHWKRGFDOOHG%DLOLDQ

times. The second volume of Guoshibu written by Li

In China, the multiple reﬁning method with the

Zhao says, “ ᦮Ꮂᮻ䉶∳ᖗ䦵 Ѩ᳜Ѩ᮹᦮ᄤ∳ᖗ᠔䨘г 

Chinese character of “✝ (Lian) ” appeared in the៪㿔⛵᳝ⱒ✝㗙ࡳ㟇݁ϗक✝ࠛᯧ⸈䲷៤ ”. These sen-late Early Han Period. This method became com-tences are acceptable. The aim of multiple reﬁning

monly used in the Late Han and Liuchao Periods

is to remove impurities and dozens of reﬁning are

and continuously used after the Tang Period. Sev-

not necessarily required. Through multiple reﬁning,eral types of this method such as “ϝ✝ (Sanlian)”,materials also absorb the oxygen. The more refin-“Ѩ✝ (Wulian)”, “क✝ (Shilian)”, “ϝक✝ (Sanshilian)”

ing smiths undertake, the more oxygen the materialand “ 百 煉 (Bailian)” are described in ancient texts.

absorbs. In particular, the material absorbs amounts

This method was used for production of bronzeof oxygen when the material is reﬁned at a relatively

Ding, jars and mirrors. According to the text of Liu-

high temperature. Too many repeats of refining

zai, Kaogonzi, the mirrors were made of high-tin

cause overheated conditions on the material. The

bronze while Ding also contained amounts of tin.

phrase of “ᯧ⸈䲷៤ ” clearly points this condition, in
which the grain boundary oxidation occurs.

The sentences of “ ࠡ⓶䱑᳨‫ܗ‬ᑈ (24 BC), Ϟᵫक␙䡙哢” in the first volume of Hanjinwenlu written  7KH UHILQLQJ PHWKRG XVLQJ SRWDVVLXP QLWUDWH DQG ERQH

by Rong Geng is the oldest record of this multiple

PDUURZ

reﬁning method in China. The volume also says, “∌The text of Kuaixuetangmanlu written by FengྟѠᑈ  %& ˈक␙䡙哢 ” and “∌ྟϝᑈ %& ᑈ ˈ

Mengzhen in the Ming Period says, “޵䨘䦵ˈ✝䡙᳔䲷ˈक␙䡙哢 ”. The text of Fengcuang Xiaodu, which was‫ܜ‬ᇚ䡙✐㋙ᠧ⹢៤ሥˈ฽䝟᧫ˈ㥌㮎ᢠˈ䡙ඟഄЁˊकϗ

written in 1121, says that one jar with the inscrip-᮹পߎˈܹ♝Ё࣪⏙ˈ↢ϔϵᡩ⺕⷇᳿ϔ䢁ˈ⃵ϟ☿⸱ϔ䢁ˈtion of “ ࠡ⓶ ㎽੠‫ܗ‬ᑈ  %& ˈ ᅬ䗴 ϝक 䤀 䡙咘ห໎ ”⃵ᡩ㕞偼傘ϔ䢁ˊᇚ䡙‫ڒ‬໾␪≭Ϟˈ߹≭ϡ⫼ˊབࠡ⊩݁ϗ⃵ˈ

was accidentally discovered. Some Late Han castedᛜ໮ᛜ཭ˊᕙ䡙Ὁ⏙ˈࡴỔ䣿ˊ↢㋙䡙ϔ᭸ࡴ䣿Ѩϵˈⱑ䡙ϔbronze artifacts also have inscriptions with “ⱒ✝”.

᭸ࡴ݁ϵѨ䢁ˈ᠔⫼∈ˈṙ∈ঞ᦮ᄤ∳∈⚎Շˈⱑ䡙✝⌘ϔ᭸

A bronze mirror decorated with sacred animals andাᕫ݁ϵˈ㋙䡙ᕫकϵˈⱑ䡙⚎㊒ ” 㻔㻞㻕.

deities also has the inscription of “ ᓎᅝϗᑈ $'Both of “ ⺕⷇ (magnetite)” and “☿⸱ (potassiumб᳜ᓓ݁᮹԰ᯢコˈⱒ␙䴦䡙 ”. Liuchao mirrors often

nitrate) ” were oxidizing solvents. These solvents

have inscriptions implying the multiple refining

can remove airs (hydrogen) from the metallic so-

method. For example, Liuchao mirrors decorated

lution. “㕞偼傘 (bone marrow of sheep)” contains

with sacred animals and deities have inscriptions

phosphorous and can be used as deoxidant. “ Ổ䣿 ”such as “ 咘߱ϝᑈѨ᷀ ”, “ 咘‫ܗ‬ᑈⱒ␙ᯢ䦵 ”, “䌸⚣‫ܗ‬ᑈare zinc and can be used as protective solvents. Theⱒ␙ℷ䡙 ”, “ 咘啡‫ܗ‬ᑈ䱇᏿Ϫ䗴ϝ␙ᯢ䦵 ”, “ 㽓ᰟ໾ᒋ‫ܗ‬ᑈfourth volume of Jingjinglingchi written by Zheng
Fuguang in the Qing Period says, “‫؁‬䠯ेⱑ䠯ˈজৡ㻝㻤㻤‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb/66/.-/.-1//.833

7DQJNXQ+H・3HLTLRQ:DQJ

Ổ䣿 ”. The word of “ Ổ䣿 ” became a common term

For example, reﬁning was necessary and important

without ambiguous meanings after the Yuan Period.

for the production of mirrors while reﬁning was not

The process of this refining method will be ex-necessarily important for the production of otherplained here. First magnetite and potassium nitrateobjects.

were put into copper solution in order to remove theoxygen. Second bone marrows of sheep were also

&DVWLQJRI+LJKWLQ%URQ]Hput into this in order to remove the oxygen. Then

Currently bronze swords excavated from Ma-

zinc was put into the solution in order to reducejayao sites are the oldest casted bronze in China.

the oxidation of tin. Last tin was added again (3).

They are dated to 3280 BC-2740BC. The oldest

This method is very sophisticated and basically thecasted high-tin bronze artifacts are dated to the Xia

same as modern methods in principle. In fact, some

Period and the early Shang Period. They were exca-

modern copper workshops reﬁne materials using thevated from Huoshaogou sites㻔㻠㻕, Yueshi sites㻔㻡㻕, Erlitou

similar method and process. The sentences of “ྟsites 㻔㻢㻕㻔㻣㻕, Zhukaigou sites 㻔㻤㻕, lower Ziajiadian Chifenࠡ⊩݁ˈϗ⃵ ” point two stages to remove the air andDadianzi site 㻔㻥㻕 (Table1).

oxygen. The sentences suggest that these stages toSome of the earliest high-tin bronze were prob-

remove the air and oxygen were repeated several

ably obtained from paragenetic deposits of copper

times. It is likely that the stage of “ ฽䝟᧫ˈ㥌㮎ᢠˈand tin. From the Xia to Tang and Song Periods,䡙ඟഄЁ” caused the increase of oxygen in the solu-

the high tin bronze was used as the raw materialtion. As for the number of reﬁning, the text says, “ᛜfor ornaments (nose rings 㻔㻠㻕 , earrings 㻔㻤㻕㻔㻥㻕 , rings 㻔㻥㻕㻌໮ᛜ཭ ”. However this sentence is not reliable.

and standards 㻔㻥㻕), tools (farming tools and handi-This text explained methods applied to the alloycraft tools; hook 㻔㻣㻕, knife 㻔㻢㻕㻔㻤㻕, shaving knife 㻔㻝㻜㻕, drill,for production of bronze mirrors. As for the propor-

needle 㻔㻝㻠㻕, sickle㻔㻝㻤㻕, tearing knife㻔㻝㻥㻕, scraper㻔㻞㻞㻕, axe㻔㻞㻡㻕㻌tion of copper and tin, the text says, “ ↢㋙䡙ϔ᭸ࡴ䣿

and chisel 㻔㻞㻢㻕), vessels (Jue (cup) 㻔㻤㻕, Jia (cauldron),Ѩ ϵ ”. It means that bronze mirrors contain 23.8%

Gu (tall cup), Zun (sacrificial vessel) 㻔㻝㻝㻕 and Ding),

tin. This is very suggestive for understanding theweapons (pike 㻔㻠㻕, dagger-axe 㻔㻤㻕㻔㻝㻣㻕), arrowheads and

Xiaolianzhijingbufujian method in the Pre-Qin Peri-swords), musical instruments (zhong (bell)㻌㻔㻝㻢㻕㻌㻔㻞㻢㻕, dui-

od, and Bailian method in the Han and Wei Periods.

yu (drum) 㻔㻝㻤㻕, Ling (bell)㻔㻝㻤㻕㻌㻔㻞㻢㻕) and mirrors㻌㻔㻞㻣㻕 (Table1).

All of the three methods, Xiaolianzhijingbufujian

This strongly suggests that high-tin bronze wasmethod, Bailian method and method using potassi-

widely used in the daily life. A number of Chinese

um nitrate and bone marrow, were probably a kindand international scholars have studied the bronze

of multiple refining method. These three methods

casting technology in the ancient China. The high-represent three stages of the developments of bronze

tin bronze has also been intensively studied by thereﬁning in China. There are diﬀerences to a degreescholars. This paper will not review the past studies

between these three methods. (1) The methods were

here. The key topic of this paper is that ancient Chi-diﬀerent in the details of the process and they werenese metal smiths noticed that voids in the metal

used in diﬀerent periods. For example, the solution

texture affects the reflectivity of mirrors and thattechnique of zinc ﬁrst developed in the Ming Period.

they developed some skills to resolve this problem.

Therefore the technique of adding zinc was not used

Ancient mirrors suggest that there were regularin the Pre-Ming Period. (2) The composition of alloychanges in the size and thickness of mirrors, size ofis diﬀerent between the three methods. The details

knobs, and the height of ornamentations from theof the process were also diﬀerent. The composition

Warring State Period through the Han Period to theof alloy effects the solution temperature and cast-

Tang Period. It is generally argued that these chang-ing. For example, if bronze containing amounts ofes can be explained by social trends and aesthetic

tin is used for production of mirrors, to reduce thereasons. When I published the book of “Zhongguo

content of oxygen in the solution is necessary in

Gudai Tongjing De Jishu Yanjiu (A Technologicalorder to prevent oxidation of tin. This problem canStudy on Ancient Chinese Mirrors)”, I agreed withbe solved by adding zinc. Adding zinc also can stop

this idea. But I changed my idea and have a dif-the decrease of tin during ﬁring. (3) These methods

ferent idea now. There is probably another reason

were used for production of diﬀerent type of objects.

for these changes. This reason is probably related㻝㻤㻥‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb/67/.-/.-1//.833

³$VLDQ+LJK7LQ%URQ]HV3URGXFWLRQ7HFKQRORJ\DQG5HJLRQDO&KDUDFWHULVWLFV´

to voids in the metal texture, which appear duringfrom Ezhou) ranges between 2.9 mm and 4mm in

the solidiﬁcation shrinkage of the metal. This paper

thickness and their average thickness is 3.15mm 㻔㻞㻤㻕.

will argue the chronological changes of the size ofAs for the knob of the mirror, the knob of War-several parts of the bronze mirror. Samples werering State Period mirror is relatively small andrandomly chosen and mirrors from diﬀerent periods

short. The three string shaped knob is common in

were measured by the author. The samples include

the Warring State Period. The average size of knobs

the mirrors excavated from the Hubei, Hunan, An-of Warring State Period mirrors is 5m in length,

hui and Shaanxi provinces. I undertook the chemi-

4mm in width and 7mm in height. In the Early Han

cal composition analyses on most of the samples by

Period, the knob became larger in size. In this pe-myself㻌 㻔㻞㻤㻕. The results of the measurements are as

riod, the nipple shaped knob was popular. Their av-

follows.

erage size is 12mm in diameter and 7mm in height.

As for the size of mirrors, the mirrors in the

Since knobs of Late Han and Liuchao mirrors are

Warring State Period are relatively small. After thegenerally large and ﬂat, they are called “large and

Early Han Period, mirrors became bigger in size

flat circular knobs”. Their average size is 30mm

gradually. In the Late Han and Liuchao Periods, thein diameter and 10mm in height. The author also

size of mirrors became much larger than those inmeasure one large and flat circular mirror (mirror

the preceding periods. In the Tang Period, mirrors

decorated with eight phoenixes㻌 㻔㻟㻞㻕㻌 excavated frombecame slightly smaller again. The author measures

Ezhou). The size of the knob is 40.6mm in diameter

three Warring State Period mirrors (including theand 5.0mm in height while the diameter of the mir-mirror with the decoration of mountains (No.1),

ror is 139mm. In the Tang Period, the knob also

which was excavated from Ezhou). Their diameter

became slightly smaller. The author measured four

ranges between 94 and 144mm and the average ofTang mirrors. Their size was 16mm (diameter) 5mm

the diameter is 116mm. The author also measured(height), 21mm 8mm, 20.5mm 6.6mm and 25mm

three Ealy Han mirrors (including a Xin Period

10mm㻌㻔㻞㻤㻕.

mirror (No.11) decorated with four deities, which

As for the height of ornamentations of mirrors,

is excavated from Ezhou). The average of their di-

ornamentations of Warring State Period mirrors areameter is 128.7mm and they range between 98 andrelatively precise and low in height. The ornamenta-

128.7mm in diameter. 7 Late Han and Liu Chao mir-tion varies in Warring State Period. The ornamen-rors (including a mirror decorated with deities andtations include spiral motifs, triangle and circularsacred animals (1-116), excavated from Ezhou) rang-

motifs, flower-shaped motifs, T-shaped motifs andes between 103mm and 201mm and the average ofsnake shaped motifs. After the Early Han Period,

their diameter is 161mm. 6 Tang mirrors (including

the ornamentations became higher and protruding.

a mirror with the decoration of ﬂowers (2:3392), ex-

The common mirrors in Early Han Period were Ri-

cavated Anhui) ranges between 106 and 188mm inguang mirrors and Zhaoming mirrors. Ornamenta-

diameter and their average diameter is 155mm㻌㻔㻞㻤㻕.

tions of Late Han and Liuchao mirrors are mostly

As for the thickness of mirrors, Warring State

protruding. In particular, the motif of sacred ani-

Period mirrors were relatively thin and mirrors be-mals was preferred in these periods. Ornamenta-

came thicker in the Han and Liuchao Periods.The

tions of mirrors became less protruding in the Tangauthor measured 6 Warring State Period mirrors

Period again.

(including a mirror (C1) excavated from Changsha).

These samples of the mirrors were randomly

The thickness of these mirrors ranges between 0.8

chosen. However, these samples probably reflectand 1.2mm and the average thickness is 1.16mm. 5

real changes of mirrors although there are some ex-

Early Han mirrors (including a mirror with nipples

ceptional mirrors.

(W8), excavated from Anhui) ranges between 1.28

The changes cannot be fully explained by so-

and 2.8mm in thickness and their average thickness

cial trends or aesthetic reasons. In particular, theis 2mm. 6 Late Han and Liuchao mirrors ranges

following questions are very difficult to answer.

between 1 and 2mm in thickness and the average(1) Why are mirrors so small and thin in the Pre-

thickness of these mirrors is 1.517mm. 6 Tang mir-Qin Period although ritual vessels in the period arerors (including a Bagua style mirror (E33) excavatedthick? (2) Why are string holes not located in the㻝㻥㻜‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb/7.

/.-/.-1//.833

7DQJNXQ+H・3HLTLRQ:DQJ

center of the knobs although these mirrors are care-number of micro-pits were created in Warring State

fully produced after the Late Han and Liuchao Pe-

Period mirror. In addition, they were rarely createdriods? These questions are very diﬃcult to explain

near the dorsal surface of the mirror. The knob ofby social trends or aesthetic reasons. Research on

the Warring State Period mirror is also relatively

modern crafts of casted bronze suggests that thesesmall. As for the knob, the knob was solidiﬁed verychanges can be explained by technical reasons.

slowly. Therefore there were no micro metal liquid

Theses changes probably occurred because metal

structures between the dendritic structures. Voidssmiths aimed to improve the reﬂectivity of mirrors,

were rarely created in the metal texture of the knob.

which is aﬀected by voids in the metal texture.

These are advantages of Warring State Period mir-

The voids in the metal texture are caused byrors. However, they also had week points. The mir-micro-shrinkage in a process of the casting. Whenrors were fragile and easily abraded. Therefore thethe metal shrinks by cooling, α phase dendritic

mirror could be used only in a short term. From thestructures appear simultaneously, grow rapidly and

Early Han Period to the Tang Period, bronze mir-spread out in the cross-hatched pattern. Micro metalrors became bigger and thicker in size. The knob

liquid structures between the dendritic structures

also became bigger. In the case of such mirrors, theare separated from the dendritic structures whencore of the mirror was the hottest area during thethe dendritic structures are solidified and shrunk.

casting. The area near the surface did not reach a

Then the micro metal liquid structures cause scat-high temperature like the core of the mirror, which

tered voids in the metal texture during the solidi-

reduced the aﬀects of voids on the reﬂectivity of the

fication shrinkage. The voids in the metal texture

mirror. In the Liuchao Period, the ornamentation ofaﬀect the casted bronze artifacts in two aspects. (1)the mirror became larger and the string hole is not

The voids in the metal texture weaken the strength

centered in the knob. These also could reduce theof casted bronze. However, given the ancient pro-aﬀects of the voids.

duction technology, this problem was not so serious

Ancient metal smiths controlled the location of

although bronze with voids were slightly unfavor-

voids by changing the size of mirrors, the size ofable as weapons and craft tools. (2) The voids in theknobs, the size of ornamentations and position of

metal texture also aﬀect the reﬂectivity of mirrors.

string holes. The smiths probably developed theseIf voids are created in the core of the mirror and on

skills over years. Voids appear in the both of the low

the ventral surface, the problem is not so serious.

tin bronze and high tin bronze. However the skill of

However, if the voids are created near the dorsal

controlling the location of voids was probably de-surface of the mirror, the problem is very serious.

veloped for the casting of high-tin bronze artifacts

In this case, voids are exposed as amounts of micro

because (1) this skill was mostly used for the castingpits when the dorsal surface is polished. The micro-of high-tin bronze artifacts and rarely used for thepits are grayish black in colour.

production of other bronze artifacts and (2) under

The creation of voids and its number in thethe same conditions, voids are more commonly cre-metal texture are decided by the conditions during

ated and larger in size in the high-tin bronze than

the solidification shrinkage of the metal. There isin other bronze artifacts.

no way to stop the creation of voids. However, theThere is no way to stop the creation of voids inlocation of the voids can be controlled. Changes

the metal texture. From the Han to Tang Periods,of mirrors through periods can be explained by

the bronze mirror became thicker and the ornamen-

considering the voids in the metal texture. Warring

tation of the mirror also became larger. However,State Period bronze mirrors are relatively small andas a result, the mirror became too heavy to handle.

thin. It means that relatively small amount of metal

After Wudai and north Song Periods, bronze mir-

was used for the production of Warring State Periodrors contained relatively large amounts of lead andmirror. Therefore mirrors could be rapidly cooled,became lighter. These changes are also related to

shrunk and solidified. In this case, the number of

the aﬀects of voids in the metal texture on the re-micro metal liquid structures between dendritic

ﬂectivity of mirrors.

structures was small and the amount of each microliquid structure was also small. As a result, a small㻝㻥㻝‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb/7//.-/.-1//.833

³$VLDQ+LJK7LQ%URQ]HV3URGXFWLRQ7HFKQRORJ\DQG5HJLRQDO&KDUDFWHULVWLFV´ture and the temperature was kept for a long time
. Figures 1-2, 1-3, 1-4 show the metal texture of)RUJLQJRI+LJKWLQ%URQ]H$UWLIDFWVDQG/DWKH㻔㻞㻥㻕 )RUJLQJRIKLJKWLQEURQ]HDUWLIDFWV

the cymbal of DH: 2, drum of DH:5 and drum of

Excavated artifacts suggest that most of the

DH: 4 excavated from Xuzhou. The ﬁrst two objects

bronze artifacts in the Shang Period were casted

were processed by hot-forging and quenching. The

bronze artifacts. In the Shang Period, forged bronze

cross hatched needle shaped structures were theartifacts were rare. In particular, forged high-tin

quenched structures and light coloured bar shaped

bronze artifacts were much rarer in this period. It isagglomerates are α phase copper. Both of the ob-

generally known that tin-bronze with less 30% tin

jects suggest that they were quenched at a highis easily heat-treated. However, tin-bronze contain-

temperature (586〜798℃). The cymbal of DH：2

ing large amount of tin is very diﬃcult to heat-treat.

were probably heated at a relatively high tempera-

Currently the oldest forged high-tin bronze artifact

ture and the temperature was kept for a long time.

are dated to the late Xia and early Shang Periods

As a result, crystal grain boundaries are well de-and contain Zhukaigou earrings

and lower Xiajia-

veloped. The drum of DH：4 was processed by hot-dian Chifeng Dadianzi earrings . The forged high-forging and annealing. The texture are occupied bytin bronze artifacts from the Xia/Shang Periods toα phases. Patchy grayish white agglomerates were

Ming/Qing Periods can be divided into five types;

heat treated（α＋δ）
α＋δ）
＋δ）
δ）
）eutectic alloy. Light grayish elon-

ornaments (earrings excavated from Zhukaigou

gated objects are impurities. This suggests that theand Chifengdadianzi), tools (bronze drill excavated

hot forging was undertaken at a relatively high tem-from Jianchuan, Yunnan 㻔㻝㻠㻕), protective guards (ar-perature or the object was processed by annealing

mor excavated from Yangfutou, Kunming ), vessels

at a low temperature after hot-forging㻌㻔㻟㻝㻕. The cross(boat-shaped vessels excavated from Nanyan㻔㻞㻥㻕) andhatched needle structures and cross-hatched bar

musical instruments (Song bronze drums, cymbals

shaped agglomerates and circular objects, which

excavated from Xueshansi, Xuzhou㻌 㻔㻟㻜㻕 and cymbals

are caused by quenching and tempering, are not ob-

excavated from Jiangxi

served.

㻌㻔㻤㻕

㻌㻔㻥㻕

㻔㻞㻝㻕

) (Table 1). The ornaments,

㻔㻟㻝㻕

tools and protective guards are generally small and

The tenth volume of Tiangongkaiwu written bylarge sized ornaments, craft tools and protective

Song Yingxing in the Ming Period described theguards were not produced. In contrast, the vessels

process of production of bronze cymbals. Even now,and musical instruments are relatively large, which

the similar techniques still exist over China such asshow the high-level of ancient Chinese bronze forg-

Beijing 㻔㻞㻤㻕 and Guangxi㻌㻔㻟㻞㻕.

ing technology. Table 1 shows the composition of /DWKH

these forged high-tin bronze artifacts. The oldest

The lathe and grinder was ﬁrst introduced into

forged high-tin bronze artifacts contain lead. For

the production of high-tin bronze artifacts in theexample, the earring of M453:2 excavated from Da-

Han Period. The high-tin bronze artifacts processed

dianzi contains 3.1% lead. The composition changed

by lathe can be divided into three types; (1) mirrors,

through the late Shang, Spring and Autumn and(2) Vessels (e.g. boat shaped vessels), and (3) musical

Warring State Periods. After these periods, theinstruments (drums and cymbals). In addition, coins

forged high-tin bronze artifacts contained no lead orwere also processed by the lathe.

little lead. This strongly suggests that ancient metal

The mirrors of Ꮟ㏕䦵 produced in the Hansmiths already understood the nature of lead andPeriod were mostly processed with the lathe andbronze.

grinder. For example, the mirrors of Ꮟ㨝㋟䦵 E1

Figure 1 shows the metal texture of Early Han

and Early Han mirror (C3) with four nipples andboat-shaped vessel of YN1 excavated from Nanyang.

snake shaped motifs, excavated from Changsha

The needle shaped structures in the texture are β

have clear traces left by the lathe and grinder. Bothphases processed by quenching. Light coloured ag-

surfaces of these mirrors gleam black. The mirrors

glomerates are α phase copper. This vessel waswere entirely covered by these traces㻌㻔㻞㻣㻕.

heat-treated by hot-forging and crystal grain bound-The boat shaped vessel of YN1, excavated fromaries are well developed. This is probably because

Nanyang is a typical high-tin bronze vessel pro-the vessel was heated at a relatively high tempera-

cessed by the lathe. Since most parts of this vessel㻝㻥㻞‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb/70/.-/.-1//.833

7DQJNXQ+H・3HLTLRQ:DQJ

are lost, it is diﬃcult to reconstruct this vessel. Reg-4XHQFKLQJRI+LJKWLQ%URQ]H$UWLIDFWV

ular traces left by the lathe and grinder are visible

There are several diﬀerent opinions on the ori-on both surfaces of the vessel. In particular, traces

gins of quenching technique in the ancient China.

on the outer surface are regular (Colored Plate1-1,

One report suggests that bronze shaving knife of2). The convex outer face and concave inner face

TQ-01 excavated in Yuanqu, Shanxi Province, whichof this vessel undoubtedly made the process by theis dated to the early Shang Period, is quenched㻌㻔㻝㻜㻕.

lathe more diﬃcult

However, regrettably the ﬁgure of this knife in the

㻌㻔㻞㻥㻕

.

Drums and cymbals excavated from Xueshansi,

report is too small to judge. Another report suggest

Xuzhou were typical musical instruments processedthat a part of the bronze sword of 3:1253, excavatedby the lathe. The author analyzed a set of the Songin Gaochun, Jiangsusheng, which is dated to mid-musical instruments, which were excavated from-dle-late Zhou Period, is quenched although there

Tongshan, Xuzhou in 1984. A total of four cymbals

are objections to this idea 㻔㻝㻡㻕㻌㻔㻝㻣㻕.

were excavated. They are well preserved. Traces left

Current evidence suggests that as late as the lateby hammering can be observed on the ventral sur-Spring and Autumn Period the quenching techniqueface and traces left by lathe can be clearly observed

was introduced in China. For example, the dagger-on the front face. Two cymbals measure 27.2 andaxe of 3:664 excavated in Dantu, Jiangsu Province,

27.5 cm in diameter (Figure1-6). The drum of DH: 4

which is dated to the late Spring and Autumn Pe-

is circular shaped and its part is lost. The diameter

riod, was undoubtedly quenched (Figure 2-1)㻌 㻔㻝㻣㻕. In

of the rim is 21 cm. The drum measures 20 cm in

Warring State Period, this technique highly devel-

diameter. It surfaces is ﬁlled with traces by the lathe

oped and rapidly spread. From the Pre-Qin Period(Colored Plate1-3). The drum of DH: 5 is deep bowl

to Ming/Qing Periods, four types of bronze objects,

shaped and the rim measures 31 cm. It has a height

weapons, mirrors, vessels and musical instrumentsof 19.3cm. Traces left by the lathe can be seen on

were processed by quenching. In particular, mir-the inner surface near the rim. The traces are veryrors were commonly quenched. From Warring State

clear and regularly spaced

Period to Wudai Period, over 80% of mirrors were㻔㻟㻜㻕㻌㻔㻟㻝㻕.

quenched and most of them show tempered texture

The above mentioned mirrors are casted bronzes and the boat shaped vessel and drums and cym-

㻔㻞㻣㻕

.

bals are forged bronze artifacts. The boat-shaped

The weapons showing quenched texture in-vessel, drums and cymbals have distinctive traces

cludes late Spring and Autumn Period dagger-axe

by the lathe. This author believes that the traces

excavated from Dantu, Jiangsu Province (3:664)

were left not by casting but by turning machine, one ⅟ៜ (fragment of dagger-axe) 㻔㻝㻣㻕, early War-tools such as lathe and grinder. Primitive turning

ring State Period tearing knife of GL44 excavatedmachine tools were ﬁrst appeared in the Liangzhu

from Luoding, Guangdong province 㻌 㻔㻝㻥㻕 , Warring

Period at latest. Some scholars suggest that they

State Period sword of J20 excavated from Jiangling

were used to work precious stones in Liangzhu Pe-(excavated from M131, Yutaishan)㻔㻞㻟㻕, Warring State

riod and the technique spread into other regions

Period bronze sword of LY1 excavated from Linyi,

soon after. The famous Tang silver vessel excavated

Shandong province㻌㻔㻞㻠㻕, Warring State Period bronze

from the village of Hejia show distinctive traces byscraper excavated from Emei, Sichuan province 㻔㻞㻞㻕the lathe. Even the start points and end points ofand late Warring State Period/Qin/Han period

work episodes can be observed. Song musicalbronze sword of MM 22: 6 excavated from Ful-

instruments such as drums and cymbals contains

ing, Xiaotianxi (Table1)㻌 㻔㻟㻠㻕 . Figure 2-2 and Figure

relatively large amount of tin and suggests a wide

2-3 show the metal texture of Warring State Period

range of variations in types of large bronze artifacts

sword of J20 excavated from Jiangling (excavatedand technological developments. Traces left on thefrom M131, Yutaishan) and Warring State Period

surfaces and inner walls of the objects suggest thebronze scraper of S22 excavated from Emei, Sichuan

lathe technique reaches a quite high level. Further

province respectively.

㻌 㻔㻟㻟㻕

studies, in particular on machine tools, are still nec-

The quenching technique was first applied toessary.

production of mirrors by Warring State Period at latest and continuously used until Song Period㻌㻔㻟㻡㻕. The㻝㻥㻟‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb/71/.-/.-1//.833

³$VLDQ+LJK7LQ%URQ]HV3URGXFWLRQ7HFKQRORJ\DQG5HJLRQDO&KDUDFWHULVWLFV´

samples suggest that the quenching was probably

no lead or only little lead. This strongly suggests

undertaken in α＋β two phase region and α＋γthat the metal smiths already knew that lead in tin-

two phase region. Figures 2-4, 2-5 and 2-6 shows

bronze affects its workability. As late as the Han

the metal texture of Warring State Period mirror of

Period, large and complex shaped vessels such as

J10 excavated from Jiangling, Late Han mirror exca-boat shaped vessels became to be produced by forg-

vated from Beijing and Tang mirror decorated withing. In the Song Period, musical instruments such

lotus of Sh3 excavated from the Shaanxi Province

as drums and cymbals were produced by forging.

respectively. The first two mirrors was quenched

In addition, the forging and quenching were com-

at a high temperature (586~798℃). β phases werebined to produce high-tin bronze artifacts in thechanged into blue grey or brown needle shaped

Han Period, which greatly improved the workability

structures, bamboo-leaf shaped structures and cir-of the high-tin bronze artifacts. As for quenching,cular structures by quenching and tempering. The

the technique of the quenching ﬁrst appeared in thepatches and cotton-like structures among the above

late Spring and Autumn Period. They were used for

mentioned structures are α ＋ δ phases caused by

the production of weapons such as dagger axes andtempering. The last mirror was quenched at a tem-swords and mirrors. In the Han and Song Periods,

perature between 520 and 586℃ . Its metal texture

this technique was adopted for production of ves-

show white cross-hatched bar shaped structures.

sels and musical instruments. As for mechanical

These structures were α phases caused by quench-

processing, high-tin bronze artifacts such as Han

ing. Gaps between these structures are filled withbronze mirrors and boat shaped vessels and Songgray agglomerates and cotton-like structures. These

drums and cymbals were processed by the lathe

are γ phases processed by quenching and temper-and grinder. Studies on the Chinese high-tin bronze

ing.

production are very suggestive for understanding
the reasons for the developments of the ancient Chi-

The Han boat-shaped vessel from Nanyan

nese civilization.

and cymbals and drums excavated from Xuzhou
are typical quenched bronze artifacts (Figs. 1-1, 2,
3). Tin-bronze was probably quenched in order to(QGQRWHV

strengthen the bronze and improve workability.

Figure 1
The metal texture of the Han boat shaped vessel of YN1
excavated from Nanyang ( 250)

&RQFOXVLRQVIn the ancient China, the high-tin bronze tech-

2．
．The metal texture of the Song cymbal of Dh:2 exca-

nology ﬁrst appeared in the Xia Period and highly

vated from Xuzhou ( 250)

developed in the late Shang Period. It reached a

The metal texture of the Song drum of Dh:5 excavatedmature level in Spring and Autumn and Warringfrom Xuzhou ( 500)

State Periods. This paper discussed refining, cast-

The metal texture of the Song drum of DH:4 excavateding, forging, quenching and mechanical processing

from Xuzhou ( 500)of the ancient Chinese high-tin bronze technology.

Traces left by the lathe on the ventral surface of the ear-

As for reﬁning, the Xiaolianzhijingbufujian method

ly Han 㨝㋟䦵 mirror of E1 excavated from Ezhou.

was used in the Pre-Qin Period and Bailian method

6. Traces left by the lathe on the dorsal surface of theappeared in the Han and Wei Periods. The method

Song cymbal of DH: 2 excavated from Xuzhou.

using of potassium nitrate and bone marrow devel-（1; Note 29, 2, 3, 4; Note 31, 5: Note 28,6; Note30）

oped in particular for production of mirrors in the
Ming Period. As for casting, metal smiths in the

Figure 2

Warring State Period already noticed that voids in

1. The metal texture of late Spring and Autumn Period

the metal texture aﬀects the reﬂectivity of the mir-bronze dagger axe excavated from Dantu ( 200).

ror. From the Han to Tang Periods, this problem

2. The metal texture of Warring State Period sword ex-

was solved by changing the thickness of mirrors. As

cavated from Jiangling ( 300)

for forging, high tin-bronze forged artifacts made3. The metal texture of Warring State Period bronze

after the Late Shang Period, (by Spring and Autumn

scraper excavated from Emei ( 320)

and Warring State Periods at the latest), contain

4. The metal texture of a fragment of Warring State mir㻝㻥㻠‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb/72/.-/.-1//.833

7DQJNXQ+H・3HLTLRQ:DQJ

7DEOH $QFLHQW&KLQHVH+LJKWLQ%URQ]H$UWLIDFWV㻝㻥㻡‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb/73/.-/.-1//.833

³$VLDQ+LJK7LQ%URQ]HV3URGXFWLRQ7HFKQRORJ\DQG5HJLRQDO&KDUDFWHULVWLFV´

ror of J10 excavated from Jiangling ( 320)

1RWHV

5. The metal texture of Late Han 䗷ᄸ᭛ mirror of B2 ex-① The term of “high-tin bronze”is not still clearly de-cavated from Beijing ( 320)

fined. Its definition varies between scholars. In

6. The metal texture of Tang mirror with ornamentation

the 1980s and 1990s when I studied ancient Chi-of lotus, Sh3 excavated from Fengxiang ( 320)

nese bronze mirrors, I defined “high-tin bronze”（1; Note 17, 2; Note 23, 3; Note 22, 4, 5, 6: Notes 27 andas copper-tin alloy containing more than 15% tin,28）

whose metal texture and metal quality was changed

Colored Plate 1

by quenching. This paper also adopts this defini-Traces left by the lathe on the outer surface of Han boattion. At that time I thought that the following threeshaped vessel of YN1 excavated from Nanyang

points were important. (1) The percentage of tin

Traces left by the lathe on the inner surface of Han boat(15%) must be close to the critical point of β phaseshaped vessel of YN1 excavated from Nanyang

precipitation (Tin 13.5%) on the equilibrium phase

Traces left bu the lathe on the surface of the Song drum

diagram. Otherwise this deﬁnition is theoreticallyof Dh:4

meaningless. (2) The percentage of tin (15%) must

Traces left by the lathe on the inner face near the rim ofbe slightly higher, close to or slightly lower than thethe Song drum of Dh: 5

critical point of β phase precipitation (Tin 13.5%)（1, 2; Note 29. 3, 4: Provided by Dr. Li Yinde）

on the equilibrium phase diagram. Otherwise theβ phase content in the metal decreases and thequenching can change the metal texture and metal㻝㻥㻢‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb/74/.-/.-1//.833

7DQJNXQ+H・3HLTLRQ:DQJ

quality to a lesser degree. (3) Modern bronze arti- ̚  ᑈ 㗗সⱎ ᥬ ฅ ਞ (Excavations at Erlitou,facts containing more than 10% tin are also some-Yanshi from 1959 to 1978)』Zhongguo Dabaiketimes called as high-tin bronze for the convenience

Quanshu Chubanshe Ё೑໻ⱒ⾥ܼ᳌ߎ⠜⼒of recording.

(8) Li Xiuhui・Han Rubin ᴢ⾔䓱・䶧∱⥶ 2000「Zhukaigou
Yizhi Chutu Tongqi De Jinxiangxue Yanjiu ᴅ 䭟 ⑱(1) He Tangkun 何堂坤 1994「Kaogongji Tiyao 㗗Ꮉ㿬ᦤ㽕䙎 ഔ ߎ ೳ 䡙 ఼ ⱘ 䞥 Ⳍ ᄺ ⷨ お (Metal Phase Analyses(Outline of the Text of Kaogongji」」『Zhongguo
Zhongguo Kex-

on Bronze Artifacts Excavated from the Site ofuejishu Dianji Tonghui・Jishuquan Ё೑⾥ᄺᡔ㸧‫݌‬㈡

Zhukaigou)」Neimenggu Zizhiqu Wenwu Kaogu䗮 ः・ᡔ 㸧 Ꮟ (Books on the Scientiﬁc Technogy in

Yanjiusuo・Erduosi Bowuguan ‫ݙ‬㩭স㞾⊏ऎ᭛⠽㗗স

China』（一）Henan Jianyu Chubanshe ⊇फᬭ㚆ߎ⠜⼒、

ⷨお᠔・䛖ᇧ໮ᮃम⠽仼『Zhukaigou-Qingtongshidai

Zhengzhou 䜁ᎲZaoqi Yizhi Fajue Baogao ᴅ䭟⑱ϋ䴦䡙ᰖҷᮽᳳ䙎ഔⱎ(2)『Kuaixuetang Manlu ᖿ䲾ූ⓿䤆ǎϔᏏ、Qing ⏙ Ping-ᥬฅਞ (Excavations at the Early Bronze Age Site ofhulu ᑇ␪䱌⇣ࠏ、Qijinzhai Conhshuben ༛ᰟ唟শ᳌ᴀ

Zhukaigou)』Wenwu Chubanshe ᭛⠽ߎ⠜⼒(3) He Tangk un ԩූസ1983「Guany u Woguo Gudai(9) Li Yanxiang・Jia Haixin・Zhu Yanpong ᴢ ᓊ ⼹・䊜 ⍋Tongjing Zhuzao Jishu Jige Wneti 䭶Ѣ៥೑সҷ䡙䦵

ᮄ・ᴅᓊᑇ2003「Dadianzi Mudi ChutuTongqi Chubu䣇䗴ᡔ㸧ᑒ‫ן‬ଣ丠 (Several Problems on the Ancient

Yanjiu ໻⬌ᄤ๧ഄߎೳ 䡙఼ ߱ℽ ⷨお (A Preliminary

Chinese Bronze Mirror Casting Technology)」『ZiranStudy on the Bronze Artifacts Excavated from theKexueshi Yanjiu 㞾✊⾥ᄺ৆ⷨお』1983 年第 4 期

Cemetery of Ddianzi」『Wenwu ᭛⠽ǎ ᑈ㄀  ᳳ(4) Beijing Keji Daxue Yejin Yu Cailiaoshi Yanjiusuo・(10) Cui Jianfeng・Wu Xiaohong・Tong Weihua・Zhang

Gansusheng Wenwu Kaogu Yanjiusuo ࣫ Ҁ ⾥ ᡔ ໻Sulin የ ࠷ 䢦・ਝ ᇣ ㋙・Գ ‫؝‬㧃・ᔉ ㋴ ⨇ 2009「Shanxiᄺ‫ފ‬䞥Ϣᴤ᭭৆ⷨお ᠔・⫬㉯ⳕ᭛⠽㗗সⷨお ᠔ 2003

Yuanqu Shangcheng Chutu Bufen Tongqi De Kuxue「Huoshaogou Siba WenhuaTongqi Chengfen Fenxi

Yanjiu ቅ㽓൷᳆ଚජߎೳ䚼ߚ䡙఼ⱘ⾥ᄺⷨお（AA Sci-Ji Zhizuojishu De Yanjiu ☿✐⑱ಯຽ᭛࣪䡙఼៤ߚߚᵤ

entific Study on Fragments of Bronze Artifacts

ঞࠊ԰ᡔ㸧ⱘⷨお (Composition Analysis and Tech-

Excavated from the Site of Yuanqu Shangcheng,

nological Study on Siba Bronze Artifacts ExcavatedShanxi）」『Kagu Yu wenwu 㗗সϢ᭛⠽ǎ ᑈ㄀  ᳳfrom the Site of Huoshaogou」『Wenwu ᭛⠽ǎ ᑈ(11) Hao Xin・Sun Shuyun 䚱⃷・ᄿ⎥䳆 2001「Panlongcheng
Shangdai Qingtongqi De Jianyan Yu Chubu Yanjiu

㄀ᳳ(5) Sun Shuyun ᄿ⎥䳆 1994「Shandong
Shandong Sishuixian Yinji-Ⲹ啡ජଚҷ䴦䡙఼ⱘỰ俧Ϣ߱ℽⷨお (An Experimental-

acheng Yizhi Chutu Yueshi WenhuaTongqi Jianding

ly and Preliminary Study on Shang Bronze Artifacts

Baogao ቅᵅ⊫∈Ⳡልᆊජ䙎ഔߎೳኇ⷇᭛࣪䡙఼䨥ᅮฅ

Excavated from the Site of Panlongcheng)」」Hubeish-ਞ (A Study on Yueshi Bronze Artifacts Excavatedeng Wenwu Kaogu Yanjiusuo ␪࣫ⳕ᭛⠽㗗সⷨお᠔from the Site of Yinjiacheng, Sishui in the Shan-『Panlongcheng 1963~1994 Nian Kaogufajue Baogao

dong Province)」『Zhongguo Yejinshi Luwenji Ё೑‫ފ‬Ⲹ啡ජ  ̚  ᑈ 㗗সⱎᥬ ฅਞ (Excavations at䞥৆䂪᭛䲚 (Essays on the History of Chinese Metal-

the Site of Panlongcheng from 1963 to 1994)』』Wen-

lurgy』（二）、『Beijing Keji Daxue Xuebao ࣫Ҁ⾥ᡔ໻

wu Chubanshe 文⠽ߎ⠜⼒ᄺᄺฅ』Zengkan ๫ߞ(12) Sun Shuyun ᄿ⎥䳆 1999「Zhengzhou Nanshun(6) Jin Zhengyao 䞥ℷ㗔 2000「Erlitou
Erlitou Qingtongqi De Zi-

Chengjie Shangdai Jiaozang Qingtongqi Jinxiang-ran Kexue Yanjiu Yu Xia Wenming Tansuo Ѡ䞠丁䴦

Fenxi Ji Chengfen Fenxi Ceshi Baogao 䜁Ꮂफ䷚ ජ䡙఼ⱘ㞾✊⾥ᄺⷨおϢ໣᭛ᯢ᥶㋶ (Scientiﬁc Study on㸫ଚҷな㬉䴦䡙఼䞥Ⳍߚᵤঞ៤ߚߚᵤ␀䀺ฅਞ (Metal

Bronze Artifacts Excavated from the Site of Erlitou

Texture Analysis and Composition Analysis on

and Quest for the Xia Civilization)」『Wenwu ᭛ ⠽ǎ

Bronze Artifacts Excavated from a Shang Cache in ᑈ㄀  ᳳNanshun, Zhengzhou)」Henansheng Wenwu Kaogu(7) Qu Changzhi・Zhang Riqing ᳆䭋㡱・ᔉ᮹⏙ 1999「Erlitou

Yanjiusuo・Zhengzhoushi Wenwu Kaogu Yanjiusuo

Yizhi Chutu Tongqi X Shexian Yingguang Fenxi Ѡ⊇फⳕ᭛⠽㗗সⷨお᠔・䜁ᎲᏖ᭛⠽㗗সⷨお᠔『ZhengZheng-䞠丁䙎ഔߎೳ䡙఼ ; ᇘ㎮㲡‫ߚܝ‬ᵤ (X-ray Fluorescencezhou Shangdai Tongqi Jiaozang 䜁 Ꮂ ଚ ҷ 䡙 ఼ な 㬉

Analysis on Bronze Artifacts Excavated from the(Shang Bronze Cache Discovered in Zhengzhou)』Site of Erlitou)」Zhongguo Shehuikexueyuan Kaogu

Kexue Chubanshe ⾥ᄺߎ⠜⼒

Yanjiusuo Ё೑⼒Ӯ⾥ᄺ䰶㗗সⷨお᠔『Yanshi Erlitou(13) Cui Jianfeng・・Yu Jincheng・Guo
・Guo
Guo Jingning・Wu
・Wu
Wu Xiao-

1959~1978 Nian Kaogu Fajue Baogao ‫ ؗ‬᏿ Ѡ 䞠 丁hong የ ࠷ 䢦・䚕䞥 ජ・䛁 Ҁᆻ・ਝ ᇣ㋙ 2007「Beijing㻝㻥㻣‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb/75/.-/.-1//.833

³$VLDQ+LJK7LQ%URQ]HV3URGXFWLRQ7HFKQRORJ\DQG5HJLRQDO&KDUDFWHULVWLFV´

Changping Zhangying Yizhi Chutu Qingtongqi De఼ ‫ފ‬䣇ᡔ㸧ⱘⷨお (A Study on Casting Technology

Chubu Kexue Fenxi ࣫Ҁᯠᑇᔉஊ䙎ഔߎೳ䴦䡙఼ⱘ߱of Bronze Artifacts Discovered in the Guangdongℽ ⾥ ᄺߚᵤ (Preliminary Analyses on Bronze Arti-

Province)」『Kejishi Wenji ⾥ ᡔ ৆ ᭛ 䲚 ǎ ㄀  䔃、

facts Excavated from the site of Zhangying, Chang-

Shanghai Kexue Jishu Chubanshe Ϟ⍋⾥ᄺᡔ㸧ߎ⠜ping in Beijing)」『Changping Zhangying ᯠᑇᔉஊ

⼒(Excavations at the Site of Zhangying, Changping』(20) He Tangkun ԩූസ 1991「Baoshan Chumu Jinshuqi

Wenwu Chubanshe ᭛⠽ߎ⠜⼒

Chubu Kaocha ࣙቅἮ๧䞥ሲ఼߱ℽ㗗ᆳ (A Prelimi-(14) Li Xiaocen・Han Rubin ᴢ᱕ብ・䶧∱⥶ 2006「Yunnannary Study on Metal Artifacts Excavated from the

Jianchuanxian Haimenkou Yizhi Chutu Tongqi De

Chu Tomb in Baoshan)」Hubeisheng Jingsha Tielu

Jishu Fenxi Ji Qi Niandai 䳆फ࠷ᎱⳠ⍋䭔ষ䙎ഔߎೳ

Kaogudui ␪ ࣫ ⳕ 㤞 ≭ 䠘 䏃㗗স 䱞『Baoshan Chumu䡙఼ⱘᡔ㸧ߚᵤঞ݊ᑈҷ (Dating and Technological

包 山 楚 墓 (Excavations of Chu Tomb Discovered inStudy on the Bronze Artifacts Excavated from the

Baoshan)』Wenwu Chubanshe᭛⠽ߎ⠜⼒

Site of Haimenkou, Jianchuan, Yunnan」『Kaogu 㗗সǎ(21) Li Xiaocen・Han Rubin・Yang Fan ᴢ᱕ብ・䶧∱⥶・἞Ꮪ 2005「Kunming Yangfutou Chutu Jinshuqi De ᑈ㄀  ᳳ(15) Xiao Menglong・Hua Jueming・Su Rongyu・Jia Ying

Chubu Yanjiu ᯚᯢ㕞⫿丁ߎೳ䞥ሲ఼ⱘ߱ℽⷨお (A Pre-㙪໶ 啡・㧃㽮ᯢ・㯛 ᷘ 䁝・䊜⨽ 2004「Wugan ZhiJian

liminary Study on Metal Artifacts Excavated from

Yanjiu 呉干之剣研究 (A Study on the Wugan Sword)」

Yangfutou, Kunming)」」Yunnansheng Wenwu Ka-

Xiao Menglong・Liu Wei 㙪໶啡・࡝‫『؝‬Wuguo
Wuguo Qin-

ogu Yanjiusuo・Kunmingshi Bowuguan・Guanduqugtongqi Zonghe Yanjiu ਝ ೑ 䴦 䡙 ఼ ㎣ ড় ⷨ お (Com-

Bowuguan 䳆फⳕ᭛⠽㗗সⷨお᠔・ᯚᯢᏖम⠽仼・ᅬ⏵ऎprehensive Studies on Wu-type Bronze Artifacts)』

म⠽仼『Kunming Yanfutou Mudi ᯚᯢ㕞⫿丁๧ഄ (Ex-Wenwu Chubanshe ᭛⠽ߎ⠜⼒

cavations of the Cemetery in Yangfutou, Kunming)』(16)Li Minsheng 李敏生 1991「Zechuan Xiasi Chunqiu

Kexu Chubanshe 科学出版社 Beijing 北京

Chumu Bufen JinshuChengfen Ceding ⌭Ꮁϟᇎ᯹(22) Emei Diqu Wenwu Guanlisuo・Ziran
・ZiranZiran Kexueshi Yan-

⾟Ἦ๧䚼ߚ䞥ሲ៤ߚ␀ᅮ (Composition Analysis on

jiusuo ኼⳝഄऎ᭛⠽ㅵ⧚᠔・㞾✊⾥ᄺ৆ⷨお᠔「Sichuan

Fragments of Metal Excavated from Spring andEmei Zhanguo Qingtongqi De Huaxue Fenxi ಯᎱኼ

Autumn Period Chu tomb in Xiasi, Zechuan)」」Hen-ⳝ៺೑䴦䡙఼ⱘ࣪ᄺߚᵤ (Chemical Analysis on War-nansheng Wenwu Yanjiusuo・Henansheng・Henansheng
Henansheng Dianji-

ring State Period Bronze Artifacts Excavated fromangkuqu Kaogu Fajuedui・Zhecuanxian Bowuguan

Emei, Sichuan)」『Kaogu 㗗সǎ ᑈ㄀  ᳳ⊇फⳕ᭛⠽ⷨお᠔・⊇फⳕЍ∳ᑿऎ㗗সⱎᥬ䱞・⌭ᎱⳠम(23) He Tangkun・Chen Yuejun ԩූസ・䱇䑡䟲 1999「JianJian-⠽仼『Zhechuan Xiasi Chunqiu Chumu ⌭Ꮁϟᇎ᯹⾟gling Zhangguo Qingtongqi KexueFenxi ∳䱉៺೑䴦Ἦ๧ (Excavation of the Spring and Autumn Period䡙఼⾥ᄺߚᵤ (A Scientiﬁc Analysis on Warring State

Chu Tomb in Xiasi, Zechuan』Wenwu Chubanshe

Period Bronze Artifacts Excavated from Jiangling)」᭛⠽ߎ⠜⼒ Beijing ࣫Ҁ『Ziran Kexueshi Yanjiu 㞾✊⾥ᄺ৆ⷨおǎ ᑈ㄀  ᳳ(17) Jia Ying・Su Rongyu・Lin Liugen 䊜⨽・㯛ᷘ䁝・ᵫ⬭ḍ(24) In press

2004「Wuguo Qingtongqi De Jinxiangxue Kaocha(25) Tian Changhu ⬄䭋Ⓦ 1985「Cong Xiandai Shiyanਝ೑䴦䡙఼݉ⱘ䞥Ⳍᄺ㗗ᆳ (Metal Phase Analysis on

Pouxi Zhongguo Gudai Qingtong Zhuzao De Kexue

Wu-type Bronze Artifacts)」Xiao Menlong・Liu Wei

Chengjiu ᕧ⧒ҷᅳ俧ࠪᵤЁ೑সҷ䴦䡙䣇䗴ⱘ⾥ᄺ៤ህ㙪໶啡・࡝‫『؝‬Wuguo Qingtongqi Zonghe Yanjiu 呉೑（Scientific Results of Experimental Studies on the䴦䡙఼㎣ড়ⷨお (Comprehensive Studies on Wu-type

Ancient Chinese Bronze Casting）」『Kejishi Wenji ⾥

Bronze Artifacts)』Wenwu Chubanshe ᭛⠽ߎ⠜⼒ᡔ৆᭛䲚ǎ13(18) Zeng Bin・Xia Feng・Xian Menglong・Shang Zhitan(2 6) S hu - C hu a n L i a n g a nd K a n - Na n C h a n g ,T he᳑ᕀ・໣䢦・㙪໶啡・ଚᖫ佭㽗 1990「Sunan Diqu Gudai

Chemical Compsition of

Qingtongqi Hejin Chengfen De Ceding 㯛फഄऎসҷ

Bronzes,Chinese chemical Society,Peking,1950

䴦䡙఼ড়䞥៤ߚⱘ␀ᅮ (Composition Analysis on the(27) He Tangkun ԩූസ 1999『Zhongguo Gudai Tongjing

Ancient Bronze Excavated in the Area of Sunan)」

De Jishu Yanjiu Ё೑সҷ䡙䦵ⱘᡔ㸧ⷨお $ 7HFKQR

『Wenwu ᭛⠽ǎ ᑈ㄀  ᳳ

ORJLFDO 6WXG\ RQ WKH $QFLHQW &KLQese Bronze Mir-some

Early Chinese(19) Xu Hengbin 徐恒彬 1985「Guangdongsheng Chuturors)』
Zijin Cheng Chubanshe 紫禁城出版社 Beijing 北

Qingtongqi Yezhu Jishu De Yanjiu ᑗ ᵅ ⳕ ߎ ೳ 䴦 䡙

京 . As for the lathe process on the surface of themirror, please refer to p. 179. As for the quenched㻝㻥㻤‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb/76/.-/.-1//.833

7DQJNXQ+H・3HLTLRQ:DQJ

mirrors, please refer to p.171.

Bowuguan Suozang Raozhou Jing Ji Qi Kexue Fenxi(28) He Tangkun ԩූസ 2009『Zhongguo Gudai Jinshu∳㽓म⠽仼᠔㬉伦Ꮂ䦵ঞ݊⾥ᄺߚᵤ (Scientiﬁc Analysis

Yelian HE Jiagong Gongcheng Jishushi Ё೑সҷ䞥ሲ

on Raozhou Mirrors Store in the Jiangxi Museum)」‫✝ފ‬੠ࡴᎹᎹ⿟ᡔ㸧৆ (Technological History of Met-

『Wenwu ᭛⠽ǎ ᑈ㄀  ᳳ

al Reﬁning and Production in the Ancient China)』
Shanxi Chinbanjituan ቅ㽓ߎ ⠜ 䲚 ಷ・Shanxi Jiaoyu
Chubanshe ቅ㽓ᬭ㚆ߎ⠜⼒ Taiyuan ໾ॳ(1）As for the size of bronze mirrors, please refer to pp.
454 to 455 and Table 5-4-1.
(2）As for the modern crafts of drums in Beijing, pleaserefer to p. 714.
(3) As for the alloy technology, please refer to pp. 60 to
78 and p. 113.
(4) As for the traces left by the lathe on the dorsal surface of early Early Han mirror excavated from
Ezhou, please see Figure 4-6-2.
(29) He Tangkun ԩූസ 2010「Nanyang
Nanyang Kandai Tongzhou Kexue Fenxi फ䱑⓶ҷ䡙㟳⾥ᄺߚᵤ (A Scientiﬁc
Analysis on Han Boat Shaped Vessels Excavatedfrom Nanyang))」『Zhongyuan Wenwu Ёॳ᭛⠽ǎᑈ(30) Li Yinde ᴢ䡔ᖇ 1990「Xuzhou Xueshansi Song
Jiaozang Jinian Wenwu ᕤᎲ䲾ቅᇎ ᅟ な 㬉 ㋔ ᑈ ᭛ ⠽(Artifacts Excavated from a Song Cache Discoveredin Xueshansi, Xuzhou」『Wenwu ᭛⠽ǎ ᑈ㄀  ᳳFigures1-3, 4 were kindly provided by Dr. Li.
(31) He Tankun・Li Yinde・Li Hengxian ԩූസ・ᴢ䡔ᖇ・ᴢᘦ䊶 2009「Songdai Luoboqing De Kuxue Fenxi ᅟҷ䩐䠌⻀ⱘ⾥ᄺߚᵤ (Chemical Analysis on Song Drums
and Cymbals」『Kaogu 㗗সǎ ᑈ㄀  ᳳ(32) Sun Shuyun ᄿ ⎥䳆 1991「Zhongguo Yuntong Xiang
Tongqi De Zhizuo Gongyun Ё೑ӱ㍅䷓䡙఼ⱘࠊ԰Ꮉ
㢌 (Traditional Production of Chinese Bronze Musical Instruments)」『Zhongguo Kejisji Shiliao Ё೑⾥ᡔ৆᭭ǎ ᑈ㄀  ᳳ(33)Shaanxisheng Bowuguan・Wenguanhui・Wenguanhui
Wenguanhui Geming Weiyuanhui Xiezuozu 䰱㽓ⳕम⠽仼ǃ᭛ㅵӮ䴽ੑྨવӮ‫ ݭ‬԰ ㌘ 1972「Xian Nanjiao Hejiacun Faxian Tandai
Jiaozang Wenwu 㽓ᅝफ䚞ԩᆊᴥⱎ⧒૤ҷな㬉᭛⠽ (Artifacts Deposited in a Tang Cache Discovered in the
Village of Hejia in the Southern Outskirts of Xian)」『Wenwu ᭛⠽ǎ ᑈ㄀  ᳳ(34) Yao Zhihui ྮ ᱎ䓱 2005「Xiajiang
Xiajiang Diqu Bufen Qingtongqi Chengfen Yu Jinxiang Yanjiu ኵ ∳ ഄ ऎ䚼ߚ䴦䡙఼៤ߚϢ䞥Ⳍⷨお (A Composition Analysis andMetal Texture Analysis on Fragments of Bronze
Artifacts Excavated in Xiajiang)」『Ziran Kexueshi
Yanjiu 㞾✊⾥ᄺ৆ⷨおǎ ᑈ㄀  ᳳ(35) He Tangkun・Li Hengxian ԩූസ・ᴢᘦ䊶 1993「Jiangxi㻝㻥㻥‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb/77/.-/.-1//.833㻞㻜㻜‫޲ژ‬ऌସ,glbb0..

/.-/.-1//.833

Indian High Tin Bronzes: A continuing tradition from ancient to modern times
Srinivasa Ranganathan
Sharada Srinivasan(National Institute of Advanced Studies, Bangalore, India)
Ian Glover(University College London , London, UK)ers the melting point and improves castability. This

Abstract
The elemental addition of arsenic or tin to pureis ideally suited for making statues and icons. The

metallic copper led to a revolution in the range ofb phase is an intermetallic with a body centeredmaterials accessible to civilization and heralded

structure and is stable at high temperatures. It is

the Bronze Age. A small addition of tin leading totermed a Hume-Rothery phase It has an ordered ar-

low-tin bronzes brought beneficial attributes of low

rangement of copper and tin atoms. It is ductile andmelting temperatures, The resultant ease of casting

can be worked. Thus alloying leads to new interme-

led to the lost-wax process. A higher amount of tin

tallics. Beta bronze is arguably the first intermetallic

led to two classes of high-tin bronzes, namely beta

to be used by humankind. However slow coolingand delta tin bronzes. At first they posed problems

will lead to an eutectoid decomposition and result inof brittleness. This challenge was successfully met bybrittleness. Rapid quenching from high temperaturedevising suitable thermo-mechanical treatments by

results in a martensitic phase with retained strength

heuristic methods and experimentation. It is over theand ductility. This martensite structure depends onlast century that the scientific underpinnings of these

the composition. Their atomic arrangements are yetprocesses are understood. This forms one theme of

to be determined with the accuracy required. Sheer

this paper. A second theme is the wide geographic

empirical experience led the ancient craftsmen to

spread and historical span of high-tin bronzes indevising suitable thermo-mechanical treatment.

India. There is growing evidence that the IndianThis composition –15 to 25 % Sn- also leads to al-compositions and processes spread across to theloys for making bells due to the sonorous quality.

nations in Southeast Asia. Finally the continuity of

Such alloys are called Bell Metal. Additional tin

the tradition in modern India will be touched upon.

leads to Speculum Metal used for making reflectors and mirrors. Even more astounding is the useof the d phase. This is again an intermetallic with

1. Physical Metallurgy of Bronzes
The mastery of bronze in antiquity is a remark-about 33% Sn. It has a very complex structure withable chapter in human history. The phase diagram

416 atoms and is classified as a structurally complexof Cu-Sn system was first established by Heycock

intermetallic. Its electronic state as Hume-Rotheryand Neville in 1903. It was the second phase dia-phase is responsible for its optical property. It has agram of importance to be determined in metallurgy

high reflectivity but alas is brittle. By casting narrowand followed that of Fe-C system by Roberts-Austencompositions in thin blocks an ingenious way wasearlier in 1898. The Gibbs phase rule that governs

found to make the bronze mirrors. The structure ofphase equilibria was just beginning to be under-

the phase is that of gamma brass and contains ico-stood. It is an accomplishment that the first determi-

sahedral clusters. The icosahedron is the most sym-

nations were substantially correct. Figure 1 shows

metric of all objects.

a modern version of this classic diagram. It will be

Though the beta phase occurs in a range ofseen that the diagram features several phases desig-

composition, it is believed that one unique compo-

nated by the Greek letters a, b,c and d (Fig 2). The asition correlated to the peritectic is the most suit-phase is a solid solution of Sn in Cu with a face cen-able one. Cu-22% Sn is often used for bronze bells,

tered cubic arrangements as is copper. The addition

gongs, cymbals, utensils. India, Thailand, Korea,of tin enhances strength. It has a pleasing golden

Central Asia are known for forging and quenching

colour as well. It is seen that the addition of Sn low-in processing these alloys. Fig 3 shows the different
201

高錫青銅.indd 201

10/10/31 10:57

“ Asian High-Tin Bronzes - Production Technology and Regional Characteristics ”

Fig.1. Equilibrium Phase Diagram of the Copper-Tin system under usual casting conditions.

Fig.2. Crystaline phases in bronzes.

202

高錫青銅.indd 202

10/10/31 10:57

Srinivasa Ranganathan・Sharada Srinivasan・Ian Glover

see any influence across space and time.

stages involved in making the Kadavaloor Utensils
known in the Indian language Malyalam as Ottu

In the village of Aranmula, Kerala, an extraor-

Kinnam. The same procedures were also followed

dinary metal mirror is traditionally made of delta

for Chengala Gongs for Kathakali, the celebrated

high-tin bronze, of composition 32.6% tin. This isdance form of Kerala.. Figure 4 shows wrought ham-an ideal alloy to polish into a mirror due to the sil-mering of heated ingot of high-tin beta bronze (23%very colour and high hardness. The presence of thistin) in consecutive cycles in Palakkad, Kerala bydelta phase is optimized, and its high brittlenesshammering of red hot ingot in temperature range ofoffset by a clever casting and polishing process.

formation of plastic beta phase (650-750 ℃). Figure

The unique feature of the bronze mirror is a front

5 shows a modern high-tin beta bronze vessel fromsurface reflection, so the secondary reflections andPayangadi (22.5% tin). A flat ingot of about 15 cm

aberrations typical of back surface mirrors are notdiameter was forged out into a large concave bowl

present.

of about 30 cm diameter. Figure 6 shows the micro-

The entire Aranmula mirror manufacturing

structure of alpha plus beta martensite structure ofprocess seems to be geared at optimising the pres-hot forged and quenched beta bronze,at around 650

ence of the delta phase, which the copper-tin phasedegrees. The annealing twins in the islands of alphadiagram indicates forms only within a narrow

phase indicate a high degree of hot forging.

composition range of bronze of 32-34% tin at non-

When the amount of tin is increased further, theequilibrium room temperatures. This silvery alloy

delta phase appears. This is an excellent alloy forshatters quite easily with something akin to brittle

making metallic mirrors . India. China, Korea andfracture in glass as observed by the authors with aJapan have long traditions in this alloy. It will bethin cast blank. However, in the Aranmula mirror

useful to make a comparison of the four nations toprocess this brittleness is offset not by adding lead

Fig.3. Kadavaloor Utensils (Ottu Kinnam) and Chengala Gongs for Kathakali (Courtest R M Pillai).
203

高錫青銅.indd 203

10/10/31 10:57

“ Asian High-Tin Bronzes - Production Technology and Regional Characteristics ”

Fig.4. Wrought hammering of heated ingot of high-tin beta bronze (23% tin) in consecutive cycles in Palakkad, Kerala byhammering of red hot ingot in temperature range of formation of plastic beta phase (650-750) (Sharada Srinivasan).
Glover in 1992.

but by casting a very thin blank, no more than 3
mm thick, which would thus cool more evenly with

Investigations undertaken at the Institute of Ar-

less heterogeneities than a thick specimen. Thenchaeology by Srinivasan in collaboration with Nigel

this thin blank is reinforced by mounting it with

Seeley and Ian Glover established the vessels toresin on a wooden mount with a rear handle for the

be of high tin beta bronze and the mirrors to be ofpolishing process. A finished/polished mirror blankunleaded ‘delta’ bronze ie 33% tin-bronze. Further-from Aranamula consisted of 32.5% tin, approximat-

more, metallurgical investigations of bronze vessels

ing the composition of the pure delta compound ofsampled by Srinivasan from Government Museum,

32.6% tin (Cu31Sn8).

Figure 7 shows the cast oval

Chennai uncovered from the Iron Age burials of(3 mm thick) blank of silvery delta high-tin bronze

Adichanallur and megalithic Nilgiri cairns (Srini-

mounted with heated resin onto a wooden mount,vasan, 1994, 1998) and the Gandharan Graves ob-

to be polished to get the mirror effect(Sharada

tained by Glover (Srinivasan and Glover 1995, 1997)

Srinivasn and Ian Glover 2007). Figure 8 shows theshowed evidence of some of the earliest known well

steps involved in manufacturing the mirrors. Fig 8 adeveloped usage of high-tin bronzes from megalithic

shows crucible-cum-mould being sealed with cloth

contexts in peninsular and southern India (c. 1000-

dipped in silt and straw/cotton wick Fig 8 b displays

500 BC).
C ompa r isons bet ween t he hot forged a nd

Inverted crucible-cum-mould, with the red hot

quenched high-tin bronzes from the Iron Age andmouth being packed with mud.

megalithic sites in Tamil Nadu (Adichannallur andNilgiris) and also observed in Palakkad indicated

2. High Tin Bronzes of India
P rev iou sly t he wel l docu mented f i nd s ofa high degree of hot forging and shaping before

quenched and lightly forged high-tin bronze had

quenching in the micro-structures of the alpha plus
204

高錫青銅.indd 204

10/10/31 10:57

Srinivasa Ranganathan・Sharada Srinivasan・Ian Glover

Fig.5. Modern high-tin beta bronze vessel from Payangadi (22.5%).

A flat ingot of about 15cm diameter was forged out into a large concave bowl of about 30cm diameter(Sharada Srinivasan).

Fig.6. Alpha plus beta martensite structure of hot forged and quenched beta bronze,at around 650 degrees. The annealing twins in the islands of alpha phase indicate
a high degree of hot forging (Sharada Srinivasan).
come from tin-rich southeast Asia eg. Ban Don Ta

identified a rare continuing tradition of wrought

Phet (c. 4th century BC) (Rajpitak and Seeley 1979).

and high-tin beta bronze vessel, in the village of-Despite the analyses reported over a 100 years ago

Payangadi in Kerala (first reported in Archaeomet-

in Breeks (1873) of a few vessels from the Nilgiri

allurgy of India conference 1991); this activity hascairns (associated with the south Indian megalithic)

sadly ceased in this village. In 1998 Srinivasan andbeing of 20-25% tin-bronze, it was believed that

Ian Glover visited Kerala and observed a workshops

these artefacts were imported (Leshnik 1974) andeach for making wrought and high-tin beta bronze

the possibilities of there being an local continuing

vessels and cymbals. The broader usage of unleaded

tradition had not been considered due to the rela-high-tin bronze in Kerala was also established fromtive scarcity of tin in India.

observations of the making of mirrors by craftsmen
from Aranmula by Srinivasan in 1991 and by Ian

In 1991, quite by chance, Sharada Srinivasan
205

高錫青銅.indd 205

10/10/31 10:57

“ Asian High-Tin Bronzes - Production Technology and Regional Characteristics ”

Fig.7. Cast oval (3mm thick) blank of silvery delta high-tin bronze mounted with heatedresin onto a wooden mount, to be polished to get the mirror effect. (Sharada Srinivasan
and Ian Glover Current Science, 93, 5 (2007))

Fig.8. a: Crucible-cum-mould being sealed with cloth dipped in silt and straw/cotton wick. b: Inverted crucible-cum-mould, withthe red hot mouth being packed with mud. (Sharada Srinivasan)beta bronze (with pronounced annealing twins on

to a small number of copper alloy containers withwell rounded alpha islands and very elongated beta

similar compositions and forms in southern India

needles) whereas in the case of the structures of– from the Nilgiri Hills; from Adichanallur; frommany high-tin beta vessels studied from Ban Don

Coimbatore in the Peninsula and from Taxila in Pa-

Ta Phet by Warangkhana Rajpitak (Unpublished Ph

kistan. Few of these are accurately dated although

D thesis, Institute of Archaeology, London) the de-the ones from the Bhir Mound at Taxila are roughly

gree of forging seemed to be a bit less and sometime

contemporary with those from BDTP and KSK. Only

these are only quenched with prominent as-cast

the one bowl from Coimbatore was analyzed bydendritic structure in the alpha phase. A few of theParamasivan (1941). It contained 23.6% Sn and was

Nilgiri and Adichanallur vessels have rims of 0.2-0.8

said to be typical of other vessels from the Nilgiris

mm indicating extremely finely wrought work.

(Breeks 1873) and Adichanallur (Rea 1915)1.

Rajpitak and Seeley (1979) have already pointed

However, since the early 1990s metallurgical206

高錫青銅.indd 206

10/10/31 10:57

Srinivasa Ranganathan・Sharada Srinivasan・Ian Glover

Fig.9. “Rim fragment of an incised decorated high-tin bronze bowl from Khao Jamook, western Thailand(Drawing by A. Bennett).

and ethno-archaeological studies made by Indianrecovered from the tin-gravels of western Malaysia

scholars (Pillai et al. 1994; Srinivasan 2010) on(Batchelor 1978); in Thailand at Ongbah cave on

South Asian bronzes have documented the exist-

the Kwae Yai River (Sørensen 1973: fig. 22), at Pak

ence of high-tin bronzes from a range of contexts

Beung, Ratchaburi Province (Bennett and Gloverfrom prehistoric to the present day. These include

1992); at Ban Pong Manao in Lopburi Province (Na-objects excavated from Indian Megalithic and Iron

tapintu pers. comm.); at KSK in Chumphon Province

Age contexts, some going back into the first millen-(Murillo-Barosso et al 2010). Similar vessels havenium BCE. More recently Datta et al. (2007) havealso been found at Prohear in eastern Cambodia

published details of a furnace for the manufacture(Reinecke et al. 2009); Dong Son inhumations andof high-tin bronze at Tilpi in western Bengal. These,

Han period brick tombs in northern Vietnam andtogether with studies revealing continuing traditions

from Tien Lanh, a late Sa Huynh burial in Centralof making high-tin bronzes, especially in Kerala ofVietnam (Bui Chi Hoang. 2008). Vessels decorated

wrought and quenched high-tin bronze vessels andwith very similar complex designs have so far only

cymbals, suggest the regular use of unleaded bronze

been found at BDTP, KJ and KSK. Fig 9 shows a rim

from very early stages of Indian prehistory (Srini-fragment of an incised decorated high-tin bronze

vasan 2010).

bowl from Khao Jamook, western Thailand.

Mirrors had both aesthetic value and magico-

Although there are similarities between the re-religious significance in parts of Asia, as in China

cent working processes and that which Rajpitak andand India. Bronze mirrors with figurines on han-Seeley (1979) inferred from their examination of thedles are known from ancient Egypt. Flat, circular

high-tin containers from BDTP, there are also signif-tanged mirrors were found from Harappan contexts

icant differences. First, the ingots for bowl making

northwest of the Indian subcontinent at Quetta andin present-day Kerala are cast in open moulds, notHarappa in Pakistan (ca. 2000 BC) and Dholavira

by lost-wax casting in investment moulds, and thein Gujarat, India. These would probably have been

Kerala craftsmen do not so extensively grind down

made of bronze of low tin content (i.e. <10% tin).

and polish the inner and outer surfaces to leavethem smooth. However, the evidence of hot working is clear to see in the finished product. And the3. Thailand and Southeast Asia Connections
High-tin bronzes were especially well document-complex decoration cut into the outer surfaces withed from Thailand from the site of Ban Don Ta Pheta grinding wheel in Thailand has not been reported

and Khao Jamook, circa 4th century BCE throughin India except perhaps on the unique vase fromresearch of W. Rajpitak, N.Seeley, I. Glover and A.

Kundla in the Kulu Valley, north India which is re-Bennett. .Within Southeast Asia, bronze vessels

ported to be of a ternary, not a high-tin alloy 2 .

with this composition and similar forms have been

At present it still cannot be demonstrated for
207

高錫青銅.indd 207

10/10/31 10:57

“ Asian High-Tin Bronzes - Production Technology and Regional Characteristics ”

certain whether this distinctive alloy was developed

Mishra, Dr R M Pillai, Dr Pranab Chattopadhyay

independently in Thailand where tin and copper

and the Government Museum, Chennai, for theirsources are abundant, or was introduced from Southkind support in these research endeavours. It is

Asia in the mid first millennium BCE, but far morealso a pleasure to acknowledge collaboration withhigh-tin bronzes have been found and identified inour colleagues from Japan,, Prof H Mifune, Prof T.

Thailand and elsewhere in Southeast Asia than in

Nagae and Prof Y Shimizu. Support for the Heritage

South Asia.

Science Programme from Prof V S Ramamurthy,
National Institute of Advances Studies, Bangalore is
specially thanked. In some sections the text f follows

4. Continuity and contemporary bronze Manufactories

the trend of ideas in earlier papers by the authors.

A remarkable feature of the Indian tradition ofhigh-tin bronzes is the continuity from Iron Agesites and meglithic contexts of southern India.

References

These include Nilgiri megaliths and cairns, theNote: The references contain several aditions to thoseAdichanallur Iron Age burials and the Megalithic

cited in the text to aid further study.

excavation of Mahurjhari of the earlier part of theBennett,A. amd Glover, I.C., 1992, Decorated high-tin

first millennium BCE. Ethnoarchaeological studies

bronzes from Thailand’s prehistory, on Glover,by Srinivasan and Glover in the early 1990s clearlyI.C.(ed) Southeast Asian Archaeology, pp 187-208,

established the continuity of the traditions in mod-Hull: Centre for Southeast Asian Studies, Hull.

ern day Kerala. Craddock and Hook (2007) have

Breeks, J. W., 1873, An account of the primitive tribes

given further testimony to the continuity of theseand monuments of the Nilgiris, London: India Mu-

traditions. This is comparable to the 1000 year old

seum.

tradition of lost wax casting of low-tin bronzes in

Craddock ,P. and Hook, D. 2007, The bronzes of theSwamimalai in Tamilnadu. Additional studies show

south of India : a continuing tradition ?,in Douglas,

the survival of the bronze craft in eastern and west-J., Jett, P. and Winter, J.(eds) Scientific research on

ern India.

the sculpuiral arts of Asia, pp 75-90, London: Ar-

The present collaboration of the authors withchetype publications.

H Mifune, T Nagae and Y Shimizu brings modern

Chattopadhyay, P.and Singh, A.K., 2001-2002 In Searchtools to bear on the processing routes adopted byof High Tin Bronze in Eastern India ), Puratattva,

the Kerala artisans

32 , 101- 105 and 227 – 228 , 2001-2002.
Datta, P. Chattopadhyay, P. and Ray, A. 2007, New evidence for high-tin bronze in ancient Bengal, SAS

5. Summary
Indian bronze craftsmen have shown sufficient

Bulletin, Summer 2007: 13.

ingenuity in devising thermo mechanical treat-

Goodway, M. and Conklin, H.C. 1987, Quenched high-ments so that high-tin beta bronzes can be madetin bronze from the Phillipines, Archaeomaterials,

into utilitarian objects. Similarly in dealing with the2(1) :1-27.

brittle delta-bronze for making mirrors they devised

Muhly,J.D.1985.‘Sources of tin and the beginning ofstrategems in casting and polishing. This master ybronze metallurgy’,American Journal of Archaeol-

becomes all the more admirable, as a continuity inogy 89: 27591.

these processes can be seen spanning the past two

MurilloBarosso, M., Pryce,T. O.,Bellina, B., Martinón-

millennia in different regions of India. It is also be-

Torres, M.2010.‘Khao Sam Kaeoan archaeometal-

coming evident that these technologies diffused tolurgical crossroads for trans asiatic technologicalSoutheast Asia and in particular to Thailand by reli-traditions’, Journal of Archaeological Science 37

gious and trade exchanges. Modern analytical tech-(online early).

niques such as lead and tin isotope studies promise

Nicolas,A. 2009.‘Gongs, bells and cymbals:The archaeo-

to provide further evidence to thee inferences.

logical record in maritime Asia from the ninth tothe seventeenth centuries’, Yearbook for Traditional
Music 41: 6293.

Acknowledgments
The authors would like to acknowledge Dr Nigel

Paramasivan, S. 1941. ‘Investigations on ancient Indian

Seeley, Dr Anna Bennett, Dr Tom Chase, Prof V.N.

metallurgy; a prehistoric bronze bowl’, Proceedings
208

高錫青銅.indd 208

10/10/31 10:57

Srinivasa Ranganathan・Sharada Srinivasan・Ian Gloverof the Indian Academy of Sciences,Sec.A 13(2): 87-

Asian archaeology 1993, pp. 695705.Annales Aca-

90.

daemia Scientiarum Fennicae, Series B,Vol. 271.

Park, J. S., Park, C.W. and Lee, K. J. 2009. ‘Implica-

Helsinki: SuomalainenTiedeakatemia.

tions of peritectic composition in historical hightin

Srinivasan, S. 1997. Present and past of southern Indianbronze metallurgy’, Materials Characterisation 60:

crafts for making mirrors, lamps, bells, vessels,

126875.

cymbals and gongs: links with prehistoric high tin

Pigott,V. C., Natapintu, S. and Theetiparivatra. 1992.

bronzes from Mohenjodaro, Taxila, South Indian‘The Thailand Archaeometallurgy Project 1985 5:

megaliths and later finds. Journal of the Society for

research in the development of prehistoric metal

South Asian Studies 13. 209-25.

use in Northeast Thailand’, in Glover, I., Suchitta,

Srinivasan,S.1998b.‘The use of tin and bronze in pre-P. andVillers, J. (eds.), Early metallurgy, trade andhistoric South Indian metallurgy’, Journal of Metals

urban centres in Thailand and Southeast Asia, pp.

50(7):447, 49.

4762. Bangkok:White Lotus Co. Ltd.

Srinivasan, S. 2008.‘Mirrors: metal mirrors from India’,

Pillai, S.G.K., Damodaran, A.D.,2006, Shaping of bronze

in Selin H. (ed.), Encyclopedia of the history ofin ancient India - Some case studies from south In-

science, technology and medicine in nonWestern

dia , Transactions of the Indian Institute of Metals,

cultures,Vol. 2, pp. 16991704. Berlin: SpringerVer-

59 (6), pp. 847-864.

lag.

Pillai, S.G.K., Pillai, R.M., Damodaran, A.D., 1992. An-

Sr inivasan, S. and Glover, I. 1995. ‘Wrought andcient metal-mirror making in South India analyzing

quenched, and cast high tin bronzes from Kerala

a mysterious alloy, JOM 44 (3), pp. 38-40.

state, southern India’. Part I. ‘Contemporary manu-

Pillai, R.M., Pillai, S.G.K., Damodaran, A.D.,2002. The

facture’. Part II.‘Scientific investigations’. Part III.

lost-wax casting of icons, utensils, bells, and other‘Historical dimension’, Journal of Historical Metal-

items in South India, JOM 54 (10), pp. 12-16.

lurgy 29(2): 6975.

Pillai, R.M., Pillai, S.G.K.and Damodaran, A.D. 2006

Srinivasan, S. and Glover, I. 1997. ‘Archaeometallur-

Shaping of bronze in ancient India-Some Csse Stud-

gical implications of new findings of traditional

ies from South India, Transactions of the Indiancrafts of making high tin ‘delta’ bronze mirrors

Institute of Metals, 59.

and ‘beta’ bronze vessels in Kerala state of South

Rajpitak,W. and Seeley, N. 1979. ‘The bronze bowls of

India’,inVandivar, P., Druzik, J., Merkel, J. and

Ban Don Ta Phet,Thailand.An enigma of prehistoric

Stewart, J. (eds,), Materials issues in art and ar-

metallurgy’, World Archaeology 11 (1): 2631.

chaeologyV, Materials Research Society Symposium

Rajpitak,W. 1983. The development of copper alloy met-

Proceedings 462, pp. 81105.Warrendale: Materials

allurgy in Thailand in the preBuddhist period with

Research Society.

special reference to hightin bronzes. Unpublished

Srinivasan, S. and Glover, I. 1998. ‘Hightin bronze mir-

PhD thesis, Institute of Archaeology, University

rors of Kerala, South India’, IAMS Newsletter 20:

College London.

157.

Ranganathan, S and Baldev Raj (2006). Nonferrous ma-

Srinivasan S. and Glover, I. 2007. ‘Skilled mirror craft ofterials heritage of India, Special Issue: Transactions

intermetallic delta hightin bronze (Cu31Sn8, 32.6%

of yje Indian Institute of Metals.

tin) from Aranmula, Kerala’, Current Science 93 (1):Ray, H. P. 1996.‘Maritime archaeology of the Indian

3540.

Ocean – an overview’, in Ray, H. P. and Salles, J F.

Srinivasan, S. and Ranganathan, S. ‘2006 Non-ferrous(eds.), Tradition and archaeology – early maritime

metals heritage of mankind’. Special Issue of Trans-

contacts in the Indian Ocean, pp. 110. New Delhi:

actions of Indian Institute of Metals, Vol. 59, No. 6,

Manohar.

pp. 829-846.

Rea, A.1915 Catalogue of the Pre historic Antiquities
from Adichanallur and Perumbair, Madras: Govern-(Endnotes)

ment Press.

1

Leshnik (1974: 156) gives the composition of someSrinivasan, S. 1994.‘Hightin bronze bowl making fromSouth Indian bronze bowls as: Adichanallur - Cu

Kerala, South India and its archaeological implica-

75%, Sn 23%, Pb 0.2%, Fe 0.4%.; Maula Ali - Cutions’ in Parpola,A.and Koskikallio,P. (eds.), South

79%, Sn 21%. Rajpitak and Seeley (1979: 29) refer
209

高錫青銅.indd 209

10/10/31 10:57

“ Asian High-Tin Bronzes - Production Technology and Regional Characteristics ”

to the analysis of a bowl from Coimbatore which
had a tin content of 23.58%.
2

The Kundla vase was found in the 19th century ina ruined Buddhist temple and is in the British Museum has not been exhaustively studied and only asuperficial examination of the surface indicated a
ternary composition (M. Hughes letter of 3rd February 1986 in British Museum records, courtesy M.
Willis).

210

高錫青銅.indd 210

10/10/31 10:57

は経験により、適切な熱力学処理を考案した。この構成

インドの高錫青銅器：古代から現代に続く伝統（ 15-20％の錫）は音響上の性質により、鐘の製作のための合金にもなった。そのような合金は鐘銅（ベルメタル）Ｓ．ランガナサンと呼ばれる。さらに錫を加えると、反射鏡などの製作にシャラダ・スリニヴァサン

使われるスペキュラム合金に至る。さらに驚くべきは d（国立高等研究所、バンガロール、インド）相の使用である。これもまた金属間化合物で、33％の錫が混じる。416 の原子による非常に複雑な構造を有し、イアン・グローバー

構造上複雑な金属化合物に分類される。Hume-Rothery（ロンドン大学（ UCL）、ロンドン、イギリス）

相としての電子状態が、その光学特性を生み出している。
要旨

それは高い反射性を持つが、残念なことにもろい。特定

純粋な銅にヒ素あるいは錫を混ぜることによって、の構成の青銅を薄く鋳造することによって、青銅鏡が巧

人々が利用できる金属の幅が革命的に広がり、青銅器時みに製作された。この相の構造はγ真鍮と同じであり、代の幕開けとなった。少量の錫の追加は低錫青銅を生成

二十面体クラスターを含む。二十面体は最も均整のとれするが、融点を低める効果をもたらした。それは鋳造をた物体である。

容易にし、やがてロストワックス法が生じた。多量の錫

β相は様々な構成で生じるが、包晶に関連する構成がは 2 種類の高錫青銅を生み出した。それはβとδ高錫青最適と考えられている。銅と錫 22％が頻繁に青銅の鐘銅である。当初は脆弱性の問題があった。しかし、試行

や鼓、シンバル、器具に使用される。これらの合金の加錯誤により適切な熱工学的処理が考案され、この問題は工における鍛造と焼き入れで有名なのが、インドとタイ、解決された。この工程の科学的根拠が理解されたのは前

韓国、中央アジアである。図 3 は、Kadavaloor 器具（イ世紀である。これが本稿の第 1 テーマである。2 つ目は、ンド語の Malyalam で Ottu Kinnam と呼ばれる）の製作

インドにおける高錫青銅の広範な時空的分布についてで工程を示す。同じ工程が、Kerala 州の有名な舞踏であるある。インドの高錫青銅の構成と工程が東南アジア諸国

Kathakali に用いられる Chengala 鼓の製作でも用いられにもみられるという証拠が増加している。最後に、現代た。図4は、Kerala州のPalakkadにおいて、
高錫β青銅
（錫

インドに続く高錫青銅の伝統についてふれる。

23％）の熱したインゴット（ 650-750 度の可鍛β相）を連続的に鍛造している様子を示す。図 5 は、Payangadi の

１．青銅の物理冶金学

現代の高錫β青銅容器（錫 22.5％）である。直径約 15cm

古代の青銅技術の発達は人類史における画期である。

の平らなインゴットから、直径約 30cm の大きな凹型の銅と錫の相図は Heycock と Neville によって 1903 年に容器が鍛造によって作られた。図 6 は、約 650 度に熱し初めて提出された。冶金学において重要なのは 2 つ目のて鍛造され急冷されたβ青銅のαプラスβマルテンサイ

相図であり、それは 1898 年の Roberts-Austen による鉄ト構造の微細構造を示す。α相における焼きなまし双晶と炭素の相図に続いた。相平衡を司るギブスの相律がが、高温の鍛造を示す。

理解され始めた頃であった。素晴らしいことに、最初の錫の量がさらに増すと、δ相が現れる。これは鏡の製

同定はおよそ正しかった。図 1 はこの古典的相図の現代作に最適な合金である。インドと中国、韓国、日本には版である。相図にはギリシャ文字の a と b、c、d で表さこの合金の長い伝統がある。時空的な影響があったかどれる相が示されている（図 2）。a 相は、錫と銅の固溶体

うか、4 カ国のあいだで比較するのは有益であろう。

で、銅と同じ面心立方格子構造を有する。錫を足すこと

Kerala 州の Aranmula 村では、32.6％の錫を含むδ高によって強度が増し、魅力的な金色も呈する。錫の混錫青銅から素晴らしい鏡が伝統的に製作されている。こ入によって融点が下がり、鋳造がより容易になる。これの合金は研磨れて鏡になるが、銀色と高い強度のためには偶像などの製作に適している。b 相は体心立方格子構

理想的である。このδ相は最適化されており、巧妙な鋳造の金属間化合物であり、高温でも安定している。それ

造と研磨法により脆弱性が補われている。青銅鏡の特色

は Hume-Rothery 相と呼ばれ、銅と錫の原子が規則配列

は表面反射である。よって、背面鏡に典型的な背面反射されている。それは可鍛性を有し、加工可能である。こや収差は伴わない。

うして合金が新たな金属間化合物に至る。ほぼ間違いな

Aranmula 村の鏡の製作工程は、δ相の存在を最適化

く、b 青銅は人類によって最初に使用された金属化合物

するように調整されているようである。銅と錫の相図にである。しかし、緩やかな冷却は共析分解に至り、結果

よると、非平衡の室温において錫 32-34% の青銅の狭いとして青銅は脆弱になる。高温からの急冷により、硬さ

構成幅の中に納まる。この銀色の合金は、著者が薄い鋳と可鍛性を有するマルテンサイト相になる。このマルテ造品に見たように、ガラスのぜい性破壊と同じように簡ンサイト構造は青銅の構成に依る。その原子配列につい単に割れる。しかし、Aranmula の鏡製作工程では、こてはこれから正確に同定される必要がある。古代の工人の脆弱性は鉛を混ぜることではなく、3mm という非常211

高錫青銅.indd 211

10/10/31 10:57

“ Asian High-Tin Bronzes - Production Technology and Regional Characteristics ”に薄い鋳造品をつくることで補われる。薄い鋳造品は均造と成形がされている。それは、αプラスβ青銅の微細一に冷却し、異質性が減少する。そして、この薄い鋳造構造（円形のα領域上の焼なまし双晶と針のように細長品は、取手付きの木製台に樹脂で取り付けられ、研磨いβ領域）に示される。しかし、Warangkhana Rajpitak

される。こうして完成した Aranamula の鏡は錫 32.5%（ロンドン大学考古学研究所の博士論文）が研究した Ban

を含み、32.6% の錫を含む純粋なδ化合物（ Cu31Sn8）

Don Ta Phet 出土の高錫β青銅容器の構造の場合、鍛造に近い。図 7 は、銀色のδ高錫青銅の楕円形の鋳造品の度合いはやや低く、しばしばα相の顕著な鋳造（ as-（厚さ 3mm）で、木製台の上に熱した樹脂で取り付けらcast）樹状構造と共に焼き入れされるのみである。Nilgiri

れ、鏡として反射するように研磨されるところであると Adichanallur の容器の幾つかは、口縁が 0.2-0.8mm（ Sharada Srinivasn and Ian Glover 2007）。図 8 は、鏡の厚さであり、非常に精巧な鍛造である。

を製作する工程を示す。図 8a は、るつぼ付きの鋳型

Rajpitak と Seeley（ 1979）は、同様な構成と形態の銅（ crucible-cum-mould）
で、シルトに浸した布と藁か綿の合金製容器が南アジアにおいて少数存在することを既に芯でふさがれている。図 8b は、逆さにされたるつぼ付

指摘している。具体的には、Nilgiri Hills、Adichanallur、きの鋳型（ crucible-cum-mould）
で、赤く熱せられた口が半 島 の Coimbatore、 パ キ ス タ ン の Taxila で あ る。 こ

泥で覆われている。

れらのほとんどは正確に年代が与えられていないが、TaxilaのBhir MoundはBDTP やKSKと大体同時期である。

２．インドの高錫青銅器

Coimbatore 出土の容器 1 点のみが Paramasivan（ 1941）

以前は、焼き入れされ軽く鍛造された高錫青銅器は、に よ っ て 分 析 さ れ た。 そ れ は、23.6 ％ の 錫 を 含 み、錫が豊富な東南アジアからよく報告されていた（例えば

Nilgiris （ Breeks 1873）や Adichanallur（ Rea 1915）のBan Don Ta Phet、紀元前 4 世紀）（ Rajpitak and Seeley

容器も同様であると報告された 1。

1979）。Breeks（ 1873）が 100 年以上前に報告した分

しかし、1990 年代初頭からインド人研究者によって析では、南インドの巨石文化に伴う Nilgiri 積石塚 から

南アジアの青銅器に対して行われた金属学的・民族考

出土した容器は 20-25% の錫と銅であったにも関わら古学的研究の結果（ Pillai et al. 1994; Srinivasan 2010）、

ず、インドに錫が比較的少ないという理由から、それら先史時代から現代にかけて存在した高錫青銅器が記録さは在地の伝統ではなく輸入品だと考えられた（ Leshnik

れた。これには、紀元前 1 千年紀にさかのぼるインドの

1974）
。

巨石文化や鉄器時代のコンテクストから発掘された遺物

1991 年に偶然にも Sharada Srinivasan は、Kerala 州が含まれる。より最近では、西ベンガルの Tilpi におけの Payangadi 村において鍛造の高錫β青銅容器の製作伝る高錫青銅製作用の溶鉱炉について Datta et al.（ 2007）

統が続く貴重な例を発見した（それは初め、冶金考古学が詳細を報告した。これらは、Kerala 州における鍛造・のインド大会で 1991 年に報告された）。しかし、その焼き入れの高錫青銅容器とシンバルの製作伝統に関する伝統は残念にも消滅した。1998 年に Srinivasan と Ian

研究とともに、インドの先史時代の初期から無鉛青銅がGlover は、Kerala 州を訪問し、鍛造の高錫β青銅容器と規則的に利用されていたことを示す（ Srinivasan 2010）。

シンバルを製作する工房を調査した。Aranmula 村の工

鏡は、中国やインドなどアジアの一部において美的・

人による鏡の製作の観察から、Kerala 州の無鉛高錫青銅

呪術的重要性を有した。取手に偶像の付いた青銅鏡は古の広範な使用が確認されたのは、1991 年の Srinivasan

代エジプトから知られる。円盤状で柄のついた鏡はインと 1992 年の Ian Glover による。

ド亜大陸北西部のハラッパー文化のコンテクストにおい考古学研究所において Srinivasan と Nigel Seeley、Ianて、パキスタンの Quetta や Harappa（紀元前約 2000 年）、

Glover が行った分析によって、その容器は高錫β青銅でインド Gujarat 州の Dholavira から発見された。これらあり、鏡は無鉛のδ青銅（つまり錫 33% と銅）であるこはおそらく、少量の錫（つまり 10% 以下）を含む青銅製とが分かった。さらに、Srinivasan が Chennai の博物館である。

から採取した青銅容器は、Adichanallur の鉄器時代墳墓
３．タイと東南アジアとの関係と巨石文化の Nilgiri 積石塚（ Srinivasan, 1994, 1998）出土、および Gandharan 墓から Glover によって得られた高錫青銅器は、タイで特に詳しく記録されており、そものであるが（ Srinivasan and Glover 1995, 1997）、それ は W. Rajpitak や N.Seeley、I. Glover、A. Bennett にの金属学的分析の結果、半島と南インドの巨石文化（紀よって調査された紀元前約 4 世紀の Ban Don Ta Phet

元前約 1000-500 年）において最も古く発達した高錫青や Khao Jamook 遺 跡 出 土 で あ る。 東 南 ア ジ ア に お い

銅であることが分かった。

て、この構成で類似した形態の青銅容器が発見される鉄器時代とTamil Naduの巨石文化遺跡（Adichannallurのは、西マレーシアの錫礫層（ tin-gravels）（ Batchelorと Nilgiris）出土、それに Palakkad で見られる鍛造・焼1978）やタイの Kwae Yai 川の Ongbah 洞窟（ Sørensen

き入れの高錫青銅器を比べると、焼き入れの前に加熱鍛

1973: fig. 22）、Ratchaburi 地方の Pak Beung（ Bennett
212

高錫青銅.indd 212

10/10/31 10:57

Srinivasa Ranganathan・Sharada Srinivasan・Ian Glover

and Glover 1992）、Lopburi 地 方 の Ban Pong Manao

もろいδ青銅から鏡を製作するために、特別な鋳造と研（ Natapintu pers. comm.）、 そ し て Chumphon 州 の KSK磨を考案した。この技術は称賛に値する。というのも、である（ Murillo-Barosso et al 2010）。類似した容器がインドの各地において過去 2000 年間これらの工程が継発見されているのは、
東カンボジアの Prohear（Reinecke

続したからである。これらの技術は、宗教や交易活動に

et al. 2009）、北ベトナムの Dong Son 文化の墓や漢時よって東南アジア、特にタイに伝播した。鉛や錫の同位

代の煉瓦墓、そして中央ベトナムの後期 Sa Huynh の墓体分析などの現代の分析を行えば、さらなる証拠が得らである Tien Lanh である（ Bui Chi Hoang. 2008）。同様れるであろう。

に複雑なデザインで装飾された容器が BDTP や KJ、KSK
謝辞

からもこれまで発見されている。図 9 は、タイ西部のD r N i g e l S e e l e y 、 D r A n n a B e n n e t t 、 D r To m

Khao Jamook 出土の刻文付き高錫青銅容器の口縁部破Chase、Prof V.N. Mishra、Dr R M Pillai、Dr Pranab

片である。
現 代 の 製 作 工 程 は、Rajpitak と Seeley（ 1979） がChattopadhyay そしてチェンナイの博物館から本研究にBDTP の高錫青銅容器の分析から推測した工程と類似し

対しご厚情を賜りましたことを感謝申し上げます。三ている点もあるが、重要な違いもある。まず、現代の船教授と長柄教授、清水教授との共同研究にも謝意をKerala 州における容器製作用インゴットは開放鋳型によ表します。また、バンガロール国立高等研究所の V S

る鋳造であり、インベストメント鋳型によるロストワッ

Ramamurthy 教 授 の Heritage Science Programme か ら

クス法ではない。また、Kerala 州の工人は内外の表面を有りがたいご援助を賜りました。本文は部分的に、著者それほど丹念に研磨してなめらかな表面をつくらない。

らの先行論文のアイディアに沿っています。

しかし、加熱加工は完成品に見る限り明らかである。そして、タイにおける回転砥石を用いた外壁への複雑な刻

引用文献（本文の引用以外の参考文献も含む）

文はインドでは報告されていない。例外は、北インド

Bennett,A. amd Glover, I.C., 1992, Decorated high-tin

Kulu 渓谷の Kundla 出土の特殊な容器である。それは高bronzes from Thailand’s prehistory, on Glover, I.C.(ed)

錫合金ではなく、三元化合物であると報告されている 。

Southeast Asian Archaeology, pp 187-208, Hull: Centre2

現在のところ、この特別な合金が、錫と銅の産地が豊for Southeast Asian Studies, Hull.

富なタイで独自に発達したのか、それとも紀元前 1 千年

Breeks, J.W., 1873, An account of the primitive tribes and紀の中頃に南アジアから伝播したのか確実には分からな

monuments of the Nilgiris, London: India Museum.

い。しかし、南アジアよりも圧倒的に多くの高錫青銅がCraddock ,P. and Hook, D. 2007, The bronzes of the south

タイや東南アジアの各地で発見されている。

of India : a continuing tradition ?,in Douglas, J., Jett, P.
and Winter, J.(eds) Scientific research on the sculpuiral

４．現代の青銅器工房への継続

arts of Asia, pp 75-90, London: Archetype publications.

高錫青銅器のインドにおける伝統について特筆すべ

Chattopadhyay, P.and Singh, A.K., 2001-2002 In Search of

きは、南インドの鉄器時代や巨石文化のコンテクス

High Tin Bronze in Eastern India ), Puratattva, 32 , 101-

トからの継続である。これに含まれるのは、Nilgiri 積

105 and 227 – 228 , 2001-2002.

石塚や鉄器時代の Adichanallur 墓、紀元前 1 千年紀初Datta, P. Chattopadhyay, P. and Ray, A. 2007, New

頭の Mahurjhari の巨石文化の発掘である。1990 年代

evidence for high-tin bronze in ancient Bengal, SAS

初 頭 の Srinivasan と Glover に よ る 民 族 考 古 学 的 研 究

Bulletin, Summer 2007: 13.

は、現代 Kerala 州における伝統の継続を明らかにした。

Goodway, M. and Conklin, H.C. 1987, Quenched high-tin

Craddock と Hook（ 2007）によって、この伝統の継続に

bronze from the Phillipines, Archaeomaterials, 2(1) :1-

関する証拠がさらに提出された。これは、Tamilnadu 州

27.

の Swamimalai における低錫青銅のロストワックス法のMuhly,J.D.1985.‘Sources of tin and the beginning of1000 年におよぶ伝統と比較しうる。東西インドにおいbronze metallurgy’,American Journal of Archaeologyて青銅技術が継続していることが、さらなる研究で示さ

89: 27591.

れている。三船氏や長柄氏、清水氏と著者の共同研究は、MurilloBarosso, M., Pryce,T. O.,Bellina, B., MartinónTorres,

Kerala 州の工人が採用した製作工程に関する現代の道具

M.2010.‘Khao Sam Kaeo an archaeometallurgicalを扱っている。

crossroads for trans asiatic technological traditions’,
Journal of Archaeological Science 37 (online early).

５．まとめ

Nicolas,A. 2009.‘Gongs, bells and cymbals:The

インドの高錫青銅工人は巧みに熱力学的処理を行い、

archaeological record in maritime Asia from the ninth

高錫β青銅から道具を製作することができた。同様に、

to the seventeenth centuries’, Yearbook for Traditional
213

高錫青銅.indd 213

10/10/31 10:57

“ Asian High-Tin Bronzes - Production Technology and Regional Characteristics ”

Music 41: 6293.

archaeology 1993, pp. 695 705.Annales Acadaemia

Paramasivan, S. 1941. ‘Investigations on ancient Indian

Scientiarum Fennicae, Series B,Vol. 271. Helsinki:

metallurgy; a prehistoric bronze bowl’, Proceedings ofSuomalainenTiedeakatemia.

the Indian Academy of Sciences,Sec.A 13(2): 8790.

Srinivasan, S. 1997. Present and past of southern IndianPark, J. S., Park, C.W. and Lee, K. J. 2009. ‘Implications

crafts for making mirrors, lamps, bells, vessels, cymbals

of peritectic composition in historical hightin bronze

and gongs: links with prehistoric high tin bronzes frommetallurgy’, Materials Characterisation 60: 126875.

Mohenjodaro, Taxila, South Indian megaliths and later

Pigott,V. C., Natapintu, S. and Theetiparivatra. 1992.‘Thefinds. Journal of the Society for South Asian Studies 13.

Thailand Archaeometallurgy Project 19855: research in

209-25.

the development of prehistoric metal use in Northeast

Srinivasan,S.1998b.‘ The use of tin and bronze in

Thailand’, in Glover, I., Suchitta, P. andVillers, J. (eds.),

prehistoric South Indian metallurgy’, Journal of Metals

Early metallurgy, trade and urban centres in Thailand

50(7):447, 49.

and Southeast Asia, pp. 4762. Bangkok:White Lotus Co.

Srinivasan, S. 2008.‘Mirrors: metal mirrors from India’,Ltd.

in Selin H. (ed.), Encyclopedia of the history of science,

Pillai, S.G.K., Damodaran, A.D.,2006, Shaping of bronze

technology and medicine in nonWestern cultures,Vol. 2,

in ancient India - Some case studies from south India ,pp. 16991704. Berlin: SpringerVerlag.

Transactions of the Indian Institute of Metals, 59 (6),Srinivasan, S. and Glover, I. 1995. ‘ Wrought andpp. 847-864

quenched, and cast high tin bronzes from Kerala state,

Pillai, S.G.K., Pillai, R.M., Damodaran, A.D., 1992. Ancientsouthern India’. Part I. ‘Contemporary manufacture’.

metal-mirror making in South India analyzing aPart II.‘Scientific investigations’. Part III.‘Historicalmysterious alloy, JOM 44 (3), pp. 38-40.

dimension’, Journal of Historical Metallurgy 29(2): 69-

Pillai, R.M., Pillai, S.G.K., Damodaran, A.D.,2002. The lost-75.

wax casting of icons, utensils, bells, and other items in

Srinivasan, S. and Glover, I. 1997. ‘ArchaeometallurgicalSouth India, JOM 54 (10), pp. 12-16

implications of new findings of traditional crafts of

Pillai, R.M., Pillai, S.G.K.and Damodaran, A.D. 2006

making hightin ‘delta’ bronze mirrors and ‘beta’ bronze

Shaping of bronze in ancient India-Some Csse Studies

vessels in Kerala state of South India’,inVandivar, P.,from South India, Transactions of the Indian Institute ofDruzik, J., Merkel, J. and Stewart, J. (eds,), Materials

Metals, 59

issues in art and archaeologyV, Materials Research

Rajpitak,W. and Seeley, N. 1979. ‘The bronze bowls ofSociety Symposium Proceedings 462, pp. 81 105.

Ban Don Ta Phet,Thailand.An enigma of prehistoric

Warrendale: Materials Research Society.

metallurgy’, World Archaeology 11 (1): 2631.

Srinivasan, S. and Glover, I. 1998. ‘Hightin bronze mirrors

Rajpitak,W. 1983. The development of copper alloyof Kerala, South India’, IAMS Newsletter 20: 157.

metallurgy in Thailand in the preBuddhist period with

Srinivasan S. and Glover, I. 2007. ‘Skilled mirror craft ofspecial reference to hightin bronzes. Unpublished PhD

intermetallic delta hightin bronze (Cu31Sn8, 32.6% tin)thesis, Institute of Archaeology, University College

from Aranmula, Kerala’, Current Science 93 (1): 3540.

London.

Srinivasan, S. and Ranganathan, S. ‘2006 Non-ferrous

Ranganathan, S and Baldev Raj (2006). Nonferrous

metals heritage of mankind’. Special Issue ofmaterials heritage of India, Special Issue: Transactions

Transactions of Indian Institute of Metals, Vol. 59, No. 6,of yje Indian Institute of Metals

pp. 829-846

Ray, H. P. 1996.‘Maritime archaeology of the Indian
Ocean – an overview’, in Ray, H. P. and Salles, JF. (eds.),

図版キャプション

Tradition and archaeology – early maritime contacts in

図 1：通常の鋳造条件下における銅と錫の平衡相図

the Indian Ocean, pp. 110. New Delhi: Manohar.

図 2：青銅の結晶相

Rea, A.1915 Catalogue of the Prehistoric Antiquities from

図 3：Kadavaloor 器具（Ottu Kinnam）と Kathakali に用

Adichanallur and Perumbair, Madras: Government

いられる Chengala 鼓（R. M. Pillai より）

Press.

図 4：Kerala 州 の Palakkad に お い て、 高 錫 β 青 銅（ 錫

Srinivasan, S. 1994.‘High tin bronze bowl making from

23％）の熱したインゴット（650-750 度の可鍛β相）を連Kerala, South India and its archaeological implications’

続的に鍛造している様子

in Parpola,A.and Koskikallio,P. (eds.), South Asian

図 5：Payangadi の現代の高錫β青銅容器（錫 22.5％）。直214

高錫青銅.indd 214

10/10/31 10:57

Srinivasa Ranganathan・Sharada Srinivasan・Ian Glover

径約 15cm の平らなインゴットから、直径約 30cm の大きな凹型の容器が鍛造によって作られた。
図 6：約 650 度に熱して鍛造され急冷されたβ青銅のαプラ
スβマルテンサイト構造の微細構造を示す。α相における焼きなまし双晶が、高温の鍛造を示す。
図 7：銀色のδ高錫青銅の楕円形の鋳造品（厚さ 3mm）。木製台の上に熱した樹脂で取り付けられ、鏡として反射する
ように研磨されるところである（SharadaSrinivasn and
Ian Glover 2007, Current Science, 93, 5）
図 8a：るつぼ付きの鋳型（crucible-cum-mould）。シルトに浸した布と藁か綿の芯でふさがれている。
図 8b： 逆 さ に さ れ た る つ ぼ 付 き の 鋳 型（crucible-cummould）。赤く熱せられた口が泥で覆われている。
図 9：タイ西部の Khao Jamook 出土の刻文付き高錫青銅容器の口縁部破片（A. Bennett による図）(Endnotes)

1

Leshnik（1974: 156）が示した南インドの青銅容器の構成は次の通り。Adichanallur － Cu 75%、Sn 23%、
Pb 0.2%、Fe 0.4%。Maula Ali － Cu 79%、Sn 21%。
Coimbatore の容器の分析結果を引用した Rajpitak とSeeley（1979: 29）によると、錫は 23.58%。

2

Kundla の容器は 19 世紀に廃寺から発見され、大英博物館に所蔵されている。表面観察のみによって、三元化合物だといわれている（大英博物館記録 1986 年 2 月 3日の M. Hughes の手紙。M. Willis のご教示による）。

215

高錫青銅.indd 215

10/10/31 10:57