Saka et al. BMC Chemistry(2024) 18:123
https://doi.org/10.1186/s13065-024-01229-9

BMC Chemistry

RESEARCH

Open Access

Biosynthesis of TiO2 nano particles by using
Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) leaf extracts
and its application for crystal dye degradation
under sunlight
Abel Saka1, Leta Tesfaye Jule1,2,3, Bayissa Badassa3, Lamessa Gudata1, N. Nagaprasad4, R. Shanmugam5,
L. Priyanka Dwarampudi6, Venkatesh Seenivasan7 and Krishnaraj Ramaswamy2,3,8*Abstract
Titanium dioxide (TiO2) nanoparticles were prepared through Rosmarinus-officinalis leaf extracts at 90 and 200°C. In
this research, the degradations of methylene blues by using TiO2 nanoparticles Sun light radiations were studied.
The synthesized materials were characterized using XRDs, UV-Vis, PL, SEM, TEM, EDS and XPS. The results displayedthat bio-synthesis temperatures intrude the shapes and sizes of TiO2 nanoparticles. For TiO2-90, micrographs show
separable crystalline with irregular morphologies and agglomerate cubic particles. For the other TiO2-200 sample,
SEM and TEM micro-imaging shows crumbly agglomerated cubic structures. The XRD shows that the intense peaks
observed at angles of 25.37°, 37.19°, 47.81° and 53.89° confirming a highly crystalline oriented as (004), (200), and(105) planes respectively. The optical properties of TiO2 nanoparticles synthesized were conveyed by PL and UV-Vis.
The energy band gap calculated was 3.0 eV for both samples; that indicates heating temperature didn’t influence
the band gap of the samples. The elemental composition Ti and O2 is shown by EDS and XPS. Photo-catalytic
experiments discovered that TiO2-90 nanoparticles were well-organized in photo-degradations of MB, likened to
TiO2-200. The great activities of TiO2-90 were because of better physicochemical characteristics associated with
TiO2-200 effectively degrading MB under photo-light. Photo-degradations of dye under sunlight as plentifully
obtainable energy sources by TiO2, synthesized by simpler techniques, can be hopeful to grow an eco-friendly andeconomical process.
Keywords TiO2, NPs, Leaf extracts, Rosmarinus officinalis, Photo-degradation, Nanoparticles*Correspondence:
Krishnaraj Ramaswamy
prof.dr.krishnaraj@dadu.edu.et1
Department of Physics, College of Natural and Computational Science,
Dambi Dollo University, Dambi Dollo, Ethiopia
2
Centre for Excellence-Indigenous Knowledge, Innovative Technology
Transfer and Entrepreneurship, Dambi Dollo University, Dambi Dollo,
Ethiopia3
Ministry of innovation and technology, Dambi Dollo, Ethiopia
4
Department of Mechanical Engineering, ULTRA College of Engineeringand Technology, Madurai 625 104, Tamil Nadu, India

5

Department of Pharmacognosy, TIFAC, CORE-HD, JSS College of
Pharmacy, JSS Academy of Higher Education & Research, Ooty, Nilgiris,
Tamil Nadu, India
6
Department of Pharmacognosy, JSS College of Pharmacy, JSS Academyof Higher Education & Research, Ooty, Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu, India
7
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sri Eshwar College ofEngineering, Coimbatore, India
8
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Dambi Dollo University, Dambi
Dollo, Ethiopia© The Author(s) 2024. Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use,sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) andthe source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in thisarticle are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not includedin the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you willneed to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. The
Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available
in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

Saka et al. BMC Chemistry(2024) 18:123

Introduction
Nanomaterial is manufactured its way into all features ofsurvives; this material is actually progressively utilized in
medicinal and therapeutic applications, cosmetic as wellas personal products, energy storages and efficiencies,
water treatments, air filtrations, ecological remediation,
chemicals as well as biological sensor, military defense
as well as explosive [1, 2] and in uncountable consumers
yields and material. For occasion, in the areas of foods,
nanomaterials can be utilized to deliver new palates andflavors; useful food; hygienic foods dispensation andwrapping; intelligence, light-weight, and strong packing;lengthy shelf lives; and concentrated agro-chemicals, colors, flavors, and preservative [3–5]. The explanations forusing nanomaterials vary, rendering applications. Somesolicitations can benefit from an increase in superficial
areas per unit masses, which offers better functionalities[6]. Other utilizations can profit from the attainment ofbetter controls of materials characteristics, developed
dispersal and steady formulation, or condensed uses ofchemical materials [7–9]. All over again, it exploits the
improved acceptance of nutrients and supplements orenlarged chemicals and bio-chemicals activities [10].
According to [11–13], Nano metals and Nano polymers
have been established to “developed stages”, in a sense
great engineering outputs. Nanotubes, Nanofibers, andfullerenes continue to increase in output. At moments,
progressive, purposeful material is at an “immature”
stage with low engineering outputs or at an initial stage,i.e., lately put on the markets or being last verified (forbeleaguered medication distribution system) [14].
The subtraction of biological pollutants from wastewater, as well as specifically those ensuing from colors,
leftovers the main concern for numerous countries. Dye
is a carbon-based compound utilized in numerous industries, like textile, papers, plastic, leather plastic, food,printing as well as pharmaceutical, electroplate, and agricultures [15–17]. It must be renowned that this industry
uses a significant quantity of water, and accordingly, theirwaste-water comprising dye in important quantity is discharged into usual water. Furthermore, these dyes stop
penetrating Sun light into waters, reduce photo-synthetic
activities and hence cause disturbances of marine equilibriums [18]. It must be stated that deprived of appropriate treatment, this dye can remains in natural waters
for an extended time [19]. These are why numerous
physical techniques such as adsorptions [20–23], coagulations [24], bio-degradations [25], and several chemical
techniques such as chlorination, zonation, etc. [26] havebeen utilized to decrease the special ecological effects ofdye. Nevertheless, physicals, as well as biosynthesis, don’t
eliminate contaminants; they only alter them to alternative phases. In the case of chemical techniques, they
have the disadvantage of by means of sturdy oxidants like

Page 2 of 11

chlorines and ozone, which are themselves contaminants.
The further most appropriate ways to eliminate thesewastes are their degradation by photo-catalysis. In fact,
the dye can be corrupted in the existence of photo-catalysts when exposed to observable lights because of theirabsorptions of invisible regions.
In previous periods, specific attention has beenabsorbed to mixed photo-degradations by metallic oxide
due to their widespread utility in biological synthesis as
well as their ecological application [27, 28]. Amongst
the various metallic oxides used, it has been conveyedthat Titania (TiO2) and zinc oxide (ZnO) is the furthermost stable in chemical reactions and are nontoxic [29,30]. These are what explain their solicitations in various
areas [31, 32]. Titania (TiO2) has been extensively investigated as a photo-catalyst and originated from having very
respectable photo-catalytic activities, and its applications through solar energies are powerfully restricted by
its wider forbidden energy band gap (3.2 eV) and its low
quantum efficiencies [33]. So, it is mandatory to use biological methods to produce TiO2 nanoparticles.
Additionally, TiO2 shows not only antifouling as wellas anti-bacterial characteristics but also virtuous photocatalytic activities [34]. Due to its many welfares, such as
great photo-catalytic ability, high oxidizing power, low
toxicity and biocompatibility, excellent chemical stability,and ease of accessibility, TiO2 is one of the best materials for photo-catalytic processes [35–37]. In this study,
the Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis L.) is an evergreen
perennial culinary herb belonging to the family Lamiaceae and is popularly available and used as a spice andmedicine. The herb is traditionally used to treat memory-related disorders, hypertension, headache, insomnia, and diseases related to the respiratory system. The
essential oil from its leaves is used as a natural antimicrobial, pesticide, and insect repellent [36]. The therapeutic
properties of rosemary have been attributed to its phytochemical constituents, such as phenolic acids, flavonoids,
and terpenoids. These bioactive compounds act as reducing, capping, and stabilizing agents during nanoparticle
formations [37].
In this research, the degradations of dye that are crystalline violets (CV) under Sunlight irradiations by using
biosynthesized TiO2 nanoparticles from Rosemary leaf
extracts at 90°C and 200°C were studied.

Materials and methods
The healthier Rosmarinus leaves were gathered from
Dambi Dollo University, Oromia region, Ethiopia. Titanium Iso prop oxide is used as a titanium precursor andsodium-hydroxide acts as pH adjuster, methylenes blues(MB), and crystals violets from BHDs were all compounds utilized and deprived of extra purifications. The
plant we used in this report was cultivated in the local

Saka et al. BMC Chemistry(2024) 18:123

Fig. 1 Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) plants were originally taken from
Dambi Dollo University, Ethiopia

area of Dambi Dollo Town, Oromia, Ethiopia. A voucher
specimen of the plant (Rosmarinus officinalis L.) was
confirmed and deposited at Dambi Dollo University,
Ethiopia. This study complies with relevant international,
national, institutional, and legislative guidelines. The
authors took the formal identification of the plant material used in this study.
Preparations of Leaf extracts

The gathered aqueous and healthier leaves of Rosmarinus officinalis L. was splashed in double-distilled waters,
tracker dehydrated for 3 to 4 week, and then groundedutilizing blender grinders. For the preparations of fresh
leaf extracts (FLE) solution, 20 g of precipitate was liquefied in 150 mL of distilled water and heated at 75oC for
20 min to murder the pathogen in FLE solutions. Thenafter refrigeration, FLE solutions were cleaned throughfilter papers and kept at 4oC for supplementary use.
Biological synthesization of TiO2 nanoparticles throughRosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) leaf’s extracts

Titania (TiO2) nanoparticles were prepared by mixing
Titanium Iso prop oxide with fresh leaf extracts solutions (FLE). The authors have prepared two samples; thePage 3 of 11

first sample was synthesized by mixing 20 ml of 2 M of
sodium hydroxide (NaOH) to a solution established of
10 g Titanium Isopropoxide in 25 ml of the leaf extracts
confined in a bottle and Titanium Isopropoxide dissolved
in deionized water forming Titanium ion and the solution
was colorless. While leaf extracts were added to the solution, a whitish precipitate color formed to confirm thereduction of ions to the nanoparticle. The bioactive active
compound available in the leaf extract reduces this ion
to form Titanium hydroxide. The bottle comprising theresultant mixtures was closed and heated at 90 °C with astirring time of 120 min. The catalysts hence synthesized
were indicated TiO2-90. The second was in similar ways,
but in its place of being heated in the bottle, it was transported to a Teflon wrinkled steel autoclave and heated at
200 °C for 120 min. At 200 °C the color of the solutionchanged automatically and the precipitate formed. The
catalysts hence organized were indicated TiO2-200. In
both circumstances, the gained snowy precipitates werealienated and washed many ways with solutions of double distilled water: ethanols (4:1). Then the samples were
kept in an oven at 90 °C and calcinated in a furnace at
450 °C for 4 h, powder form of TiO2 Nanoparticles. As
shown in Fig. 1 original plant and Fig. 2 illustrate theflow chart of the preparation of TiO2 Nanoparticles from
Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) leaf extracts.
.
Photo-catalytic tests

A 20 mg of photo-catalyst and 15 ml of 15 ppm of dyes
were deferred in bottles, and the mixtures were stirred in
the dark to assess adsorption-desorption equilibriums.
The photo-degradation was conducted under sunlighton a strong day in April with a temperature of 39 °C. The
resultant suspensions were centrifuged at 2500 rpm for
10 min before calculating the absorbances through a UVVis spectrophotometer. The photo degradation rates ofFig. 2 Illustrations of TiO2-Nanoprtacles synthesis by Rosmarinus officinalis leaf extracts

Saka et al. BMC Chemistry(2024) 18:123

Page 4 of 11

Fig. 3 Characterization techniques and their roles

Results and discussion
Structural characterization of TiO2 nanoparticles

Fig. 4 An X-Ray diffractions pattern of TiO2 nanoparticles from Rosmarinus officinalis leaves extracts at temperatures of TiO2 at 90° and 200°

methylenes blues (MB) were measured by formulae (1)[38]:
Degradations % = A0 (control) − At/A0 (control) (1)where A0(control) is a preliminary absorbance of MB; At
is the absorbances of solutions after Sunlight irradiations
at time (t).
Characterization techniques

X-Ray Diffraction (XRDs) calibrations were conducted,
engaging an Ultimo-IV, X-ray-Rigaku diffractometer
through Cu-Kα radiations. UV-Vis and Photoluminescence (PL) spectral characterizations were attained byrevenues of double beams UV-Vis spectro-photometer(Philips-8800) and Photoluminescence spectroscopy,
respectively. Catalysts Superficial morphologies werestudied through scanning electron microscopy (SEM).
Figure 3 displays the characterization techniques andtheir role in the analysis of materials.

In Fig. 4. Displayed XRD configurations gained from theTiO2 nanoparticles. The perceived peaks were indexedwith a cubic phase configuration as confirmed over a
standard (JCPDS N0. 05 01-071-1167), and they are characterized by consistent plane indices in continues. The
intense peaks display that constituents have reputable
crystalline natures. The synthesized sample is cubic crystals with peak positions 25.37°, 37.19°, 47.81° and 53.89°
corresponding (004), (200), and (105) planes respectively.
which strengths are mostly liable to preparation time.
Additionally, the nonappearance of extra peaks compatible with metallic groups and impurities tells the honorable quality of nanoparticles. Average crystallite sizes
calculated for TiO2-90 and TiO2-200 were 49.11 nm and41.79 nm respectively by Debye Scherer’s formula [3, 39,
40].

D =

Kλ
(2)
βCosθ

Where K is the number around (0.94), λ is the wavelength (0.15418 nm), & β is the full width at halfsupreme of a well-definite deflection peak The crystallite
sizes entitled nanocrystalline nanoparticles As displayedin Fig. 4, the XRD shows that the synthesized sample iscubic crystals with peak positions 25.37°, 37.19°, 47.81°
and 53.89° corresponding (004), (200) and (105) planes
respectively. The obtained output shows well-intentioned
agreement with previously published works [41–43]. At
high temperatures, intense peaks were observed from the
XRD graph. Using low temperatures to reduce the rate of
the electron-hole recombination processes, trapped electrons, and conduction band electrons exhibit lifetimes.
An impression behind times is all nearly protections electrons and holes stable in small areas [44, 45].

Saka et al. BMC Chemistry(2024) 18:123

Page 5 of 11

TiO2 nanoparticles are bio-synthesized, and the nucleation ratios are calculated to be the biggest growth rates
due to the plentiful numbers of nucleation centers thatdepart on the surfaces of the substrate. This can clarify
why the TiO2 nanoparticles are compressed with a slightsize of crystals [46]. Table 1(a) and (b) show the constraints deliberated through Scherer’s equations and
XRD data. At high temperatures, higher intense peaks
and smaller crystalline sizes were observed from XRD
graphs of TiO-200. This shows the preheating of the solutions of nanoparticle formation and structural properties.
This reveals the important influences of temperatures on
the characteristics of Nanoparticles prepared throughbiological procedures [47–50].
From XRD data, the crystal parameters were determined and discussed in Table 1.

temperature of 90°C, the TiO2 particles exhibited irregular morphology due to the agglomeration of primary particles consisting of either some single particles or clustersof particles. The average size and size distribution of
nanoparticles were determined from TEM images using
Image tool software, considering at least 100 particles foreach sample. The average particle size is about 30 nm and45 nm at heating temperatures of 90 and 200°C, respectively. These results indicate that the attained particle size
increased as temperature increased due to the fact that,as the temperature rose, many adjacent particles tended
to fuse together to form larger particle sizes by melting
their surfaces. The energy-dispersive x-ray spectroscopy
is shown in Fig. 7. Confirming the presence of Ti and O
with percentage compositions [52].

Morphological characterizations

UV-visible spectroscopies were conducted to approve
the formations of the nanoparticles of TiO2 as well as toassess the energy band gap (Eg). The energy band gap of
the prepared Nanoparticles was assessed through the
Tauc-equation:

As shown in Fig. 5, Scanning electron microscopy reveals
morphologies of TiO2-90 and TiO2-200 bio-synthesizedat 90 °C and 200 °C, respectively. For TiO2-90, micrographs show separable crystalline with irregular morphologies and agglomerate cubic-shaped particles. For
the other TiO2-200 sample, Scanning electron microscopy micro-imaging shows many crumbly agglomerated
cubic shapes. As observed for two samples, TiO2-90 andTiO2-200, the agglomerate particle showed cracks, which
may be caused by the discharge of unstable materials during the heating process. At high heating temperatures,
more uniform morphology is observed; this shows theinfluence of temperature in the formation of nanoparticles. This result agreed with the previously reported [51].
TEM analysis was used to determine the morphology, particle size, and particle size distribution of the
TiO2 nanoparticles, as shown in Figs. 5 and 6. The TiO2
samples prepared by the green method at a higher temperature exhibited uniform morphology with adequate particle size distribution. However, at a lower
Table 1 (a) Constraints of crystals deliberated using XRDs data
for TiO2-90 and (b) TiO2-200
2Thetta(Degree)(a)
25.37099
37.19868
47.81947
53.89554(b)
25.37099
37.19868
47.81947
53.89554

FWHM(Radian)

Crystalline
size (nm)From XRD

Crystalline size(nm)
From TEM

0.19570.130230.169390.12605

39.60332
57.81598
42.87473
56.18166

30
40
50
60

0.29570.13023
0.269390.12605

26.21025
57.81598
26.95924
56.18166

30
40
50
60

UV-Visible analyzes(αhv) 1/2 = A (hv - Eg) (3)Whereas terms h, ν, α, as well as Eg, denote Planck’s constants, frequencies of wavelength, absorptions coefficients, as well as band-gap energies, respectively. Stands
for a proportionate constant, as well as n, which signifies
the kind of electron transitions (for direct allowed transition, n = 1/2). As could be perceived from the (αhv)2 vs.
energies plot, Fig. 8 shows the Uv-Vis spectrums of thetwo samples. TiO2-90 and TiO2-200 have a band gapof both 3 eV. This energy band-gap is in an array of thestated value of TiO2 nanoparticles [51]. The energy band
gap of the TiO2-90 sample is somewhat more advanced
than that of TiO2-200. This might be because of the variance in the sizes of their nanoparticles. The variations inenergy band-gap can be because of structural parameters
and the sizes of grain. In evidence, a sturdy association
between absorption peaks and crystalline sizes has been
perceived [52]. Thus, this outcome designates that the
crystalline sizes of TiO2-90 are lesser than those of TiO2200, which is nicely agrees with those of XRD analysis.
Photoluminescence (PL) spectral analysis

The optical characteristics of deposited nanoparticles
are also investigated by using photo-luminescence.
Photo-luminescence spectra of biosynthesized materials were recorded at temperatures 90°C in the ranges ofwavelength between 350 nm and 650 nm, as illustrated
in Fig. 9. The excitation wavelength lied between 328
and 231.04 nm56. The general photoluminescence intensity increases as the temperature vvaries90 to 200°C. The

Saka et al. BMC Chemistry(2024) 18:123

Page 6 of 11

Fig. 5 Scanning electron microscope (SEM) micrograph images of TiO2 Nanoparticles biosynthesized from Rosemary leaf extracts at 90 and 200°C andparticle size distribution

maximum photoluminescence strength at a temperatureof 90°C is mostly caused by self-trapped excitons recombination, produced from oxygen vacancies as well as particle sizes which is known as defects center [53, 54]. The
photoluminescence intensities decreased progressively
with the temperature of 200°C. The behavior of increase
and decrement behavior is caused by the lonely phase ofanatase. Figure 9 shows new radioactive transitions an
occurrence, which leads to a new PL peak at the anatase
phase caused by an increment of temperatures [55].
X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS)

XPS is a significant technique for the study of theelectronic structures of condensed matters and isfurthermore an extensively used method for measureable surface analysis. To study the chemical changes
that occur during different heating temperature of TiO2
nanoparticles, XPS measurements were carried out for
TiO2-90 and TiO2-200 nanoparticles the survey scan
spectrums are shown in Fig. 10. The XPS of O and Ti
classes on the surfaces of TiO2 nanoparticles (Fig. 10(A)and (B) shows that the O 1s spectrums existed threepeaks with binding-energies at 530 eV (lattice oxygen
atom, Ti-O), 532.1 eV (terminal-hydroxyl, Ti-OH), and533.6 eV (surfaces adsorbed H2O). Figure 10(B) shows the
XPS spectrums of the Ti -2p doublet regions. The peaksof Ti-2p3/2 found at 458.19 eV and Ti-2p1/2 found at
464.12 eV were allotted to Ti4+ in TiO2. Additionally, theSaka et al. BMC Chemistry(2024) 18:123

Page 7 of 11

Fig. 6 TEM images of green synthesized TiO2 nanoparticles at temperatures 90°C and 200°C

Fig. 7 EDS analysis of green synthesized TiO2 nanoparticle

peaks observed at 457 eV of Ti-2p3/2 as well as 462.2 eVof Ti-2p1/2 indicate the existence of Ti3+. About 8.7%
Ti3+ and 90.3% Ti4+ were deliberated from the Ti-2p XPS
spectrums (Table 2). The absorption of VOs was deliberated as 2.9% based on the assumptions that one-oxygen
vacancy is produced with two Ti3+. The data are reliablewith an earlier report that revealed that the presence ofTi3+ in TiO2 was convoyed by the formations of VO forpreserving the electro-static balances [56].
Photo-catalytic activities

The photo-catalytic activity of the bio-prepared TiO2
nanoparticles was assessed through the photo-degradation of methylene blues (MB) under sun light irradiations. Previous to illuminations, 20 mg photo-catalysts
were mixed with the dyes of aqueous solutions (15 mL,
15 ppm). The solutions were stirred in darkness for

25 min to accomplish absorption-desorption equilibriums; then, photo-catalytic reactions began. The photocatalyst is then visible to the Sunlight for an anticipatedtime at 45oC. Figure 11 displays UV–visible absorption
spectra of MB absorbances with reverence to times for
TiO2-90 and TiO2-200.
The solutions of the Methylene blue molecule show
two crests, one at 664 similarly at 615 nm, which corresponded correspondingly to monomer and dimer [57].
On irradiations, the peaks at 664 nm have increasingly
blue shifts to smaller wavelengths (Fig. 11) due to hypochromic effects [58, 59]. In the existence of TiO2-90, theabsorbances of MB reduced sharply afterward 35 min.
Originally the absorption peaks at 664 nm were abundant and superior to the absorption peaks at 615 nm,
which provides great alteration between their intensity.
After 35 min, these differences are weakened, hence

Saka et al. BMC Chemistry(2024) 18:123

Page 8 of 11

Table 2 Quantitative analysis of oxygen and Ti chemical species
O chemical species
Ti Chemical species

Fig. 8 Absorbance and energy gap of TiO2-90 and TiO2-200 nanoparticles
biosynthesized from Rosmarinus officinalis leaf extracts at 90 and 200°C

Fig. 9 Photoluminescence spectra of biosynthesized TiO2 nanoparticles
from Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) leaf extracts

Fig. 10 XPS spectra survey of Ti 2p and O 1s peaks of anatase TiO2

Ti-O
45.99%
Ti4+
90.3%

Ti-OH
34.8
Ti3+
8.7%

Water molecule(ads)19.21% of Vo
2.9%

representing that the amount of degradations of monomer is much more sophisticated than that of the dimer[60, 61]. Additionally, the decreases in the intensity of thetwo crests and a small shift in the direction of the bluesof the groups positioned at 664 nm were also perceived.
These are instigated by N-de-methylated degradations
concomitants with the degradations of phenothiazines[62, 63].
The influences of irradiation time’s discolorationsof CVs (Fig. 11) were surveyed properties of a peak at
590 nm, analogous to conjugate tri-phenyl-methane
chromospheres. The decreases in absorbances in 590 nm
with irradiations are because of the degradations of
the chromosphere accountable for the properties of
the Colour of CVs. The hypo-chromic shift of peaks at
590 nm of chromosphere at about 575 nm designates
N-di-methylation reactions foremost to NO3− ions
[64, 65]. A comparison of the performance of the TiO2
nanoparticles photocatalysts of the current work withanother recent work is presented. The outcome clearly
reveals that the TiO2 nanoparticles of the current study
exhibit dominance in terms of degradation time and efficiencies. In fact, the photo-catalyst degrades almost 100%of MB in a shorter period of time than the TiO2 nanoparticles prepared by using different plant leaf extracts [66,67].
TiO2 nanoparticles prepared by using different plantleaf extracts [66, 67, 68].

Saka et al. BMC Chemistry(2024) 18:123

Page 9 of 11

Fig. 11 UV–Visible absorptions spectral of degradations of MB with CV by TiO2-90 and TiO2-200 under Sun light radiations. Reaction condition: Dye concentrations of 20 mg of photo-catalyst and 15 ml of 15 ppm of dye

Conclusion
In this research, the degradations of MB as well as crystal
violet (CV) dye by using TiO2 Nanoparticles under Sunlight irradiations were studied. Titania (TiO2) Nanoparticles were bio-synthesized through Rosmarinus-officinalis
leaf extracts at 90 °C (TiO2-90) and 200 ? (TiO2-200). The
synthesized materials were characterized using XRD, UVVis, PL, SEM, TEM, EDS, and XPS results displayed thatbio-synthesis temperatures disturb the shapes and sizesof TiO2 nanoparticles. At inferior temperatures, hints
to the production of slighter, cubic-shaped, and lessagglomerate crystalline. Photo-catalytic experiments discovered that TiO2-90 nanoparticles were well-organizedin photo-degradations of MB as well as CV dye likened
to TiO2-200. The great activities of TiO2-90 were becauseof better Physicochemical characteristics associated with
TiO2-200. TiO2-90 was synthesized by a cheaper and easier process associated with TiO2-200, which was synthesized by usual techniques through auto-clave and great

temperatures, effectively degrading MB as well as CV
dye under photo-light. Photo-degradations of dye under
Sunlight as plentifully obtainable energy sources by TiO2,
synthesized by simpler techniques, can be subjugated todevelop an eco-friendly and economical process.
Acknowledgements
Not Applicable.
Author contributions
Conceptualization, A, S, LT. J, B. B, L. G, N. N, S. R, PD. L, V. S and K .R.; Data
curation, A, S, LT. J, B. B, L. G, N. N, S. R, PD. L, V. S and K .R.; Analysis andValidation, A, S, LT. J, B. B, L. G, N. N, S. R, PD. L, V. S and K .R.; Formal analysis, A,
S, LT. J, B. B, L. G, N. N, S. R, PD. L, V. S and K .R; Investigation, A, S, LT. J, B. B, L. G,
N. N, S. R, PD. L, V. S and K .R.; Methodology, A, S, LT. J, B. B, L. G, N. N, S. R, PD. L,
V. S and K .R.; Project administration, K.R and LT. J. Resources, A, S, LT. J, B. B, L.
G, N. N, S. R, PD. L, V. S and K .R.; Software, A, S, LT. J, B. B, L. G, N. N, S. R, PD. L,
V. S and K .R., Supervision, K. R. and L.T. J; Validation, A, S, LT. J, B. B, L. G, N. N, S.
R, PD. L, V. S and K .R.; Visualization, A, S, LT. J, B. B, L. G, N. N, S. R, PD. L, V. S andK .R.; Writing—original draft, A, S, LT. J, B. B, L. G, N. N, S. R, PD. L, V. S and K .R.,
Data Visualization, Editing and Rewriting, A, S, LT. J, B. B, L. G, N. N, S. R, PD. L, V.
S and K .R.

Saka et al. BMC Chemistry(2024) 18:123

Page 10 of 11

Funding
Not applicable.
Data availability
The datasets generated and/or analyzed during the current study are notpublicly available; however, they are available from the corresponding author
upon reasonable request.

Declarations

13.

14.
15.

Ethics approval and consent to participate
Not applicable.
Consent for publication
Not applicable.
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Received: 29 November 2022 / Accepted: 21 June 2024

16.
17.

18.

19.
References
1. Shimelisa B, Sakab A, Juleb LT, Bekeleb B, Redid M, Ne N, Esakkirajf ES, Staling
B, Ramaswamyc K. Preparation of hydrated lime quality for water treatment:
to reduce silica concentration from hydrated lime up to standard specification. In Presented at the Virtual International Conference on New Strategies
in Water Treatment and Desalination (WTD-2021), vol. 21, p. 23. 2021.
2. Silva-Osuna ER, Vilchis-Nestor AR, Villarreal-Sanchez RC, Castro-Beltran A,
Luque PA. Study of the optical properties of TiO2 semi-conductor nanoparticles synthesized using Salvia Rosmarinus and its effect on photo-catalytic
activity. Opt Mat. 2022;124:112039.
3. Saka A, Jule LT, Soressa S, Gudata L, Nagaprasad N, Seenivasan V, Ramaswamy
K. Biological approach synthesis and characterization of iron sulfide (FeS) thinfilms from banana peel extract for contamination of environmental remediation. Sci Rep. 2022;12(1):1–8.
4. Al-Garni T, Abduh NA, Al-Kahtani A, Aouissi A. Synthesis of ZnO Nanoparticles
by using Rosmarinus officinalis Extract and their Application for Methylene
bleu and Crystal violet Dyes Degradation under Sunlight irradiation (2021).
5. Abel S, Tesfaye JL, Gudata L, Lamessa F, Shanmugam R, Dwarampudi LP,
Nagaprasad N, Krishnaraj R. 2022. Investigating the Influence of Bath Temperature on the Chemical Bath Deposition of Nanosynthesized Lead Selenide
Thin Films for Photovoltaic Application. Journal of Nanomaterials, 2022.
6. Hojjati-Najafabadi A, Davar F, Enteshari Z, Hosseini-Koupaei M. Antibacterial and photo-catalytic behaviour of green synthesis of Zn0.
95Ag0. 05O nanoparticles using herbal medicine extract. Ceram Int.
2021;47(22):31617–24.
7. Nazari A, Davodi-Roknabadi A, Matin-Moghadam A, Dehghani-Zahedani M.
Mothproofing Protection of Wool Fabric Against A. Verbasci using Eucalyptus
camaldulensis, Rosmarinus officinalis, and Pinus brutia extracts throughPentagonal Design. Fib Poly. 2022;23(1):136–47.
8. Saka A, Jule LT, Gudata L, Seeivasan V, Nagaprasad N, Ramaswamy K. 2022.
Preparation of environmentally friendly method of zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles from osmium gratissimum (Damaakasee) plant leaf extracts and its
anti-bacterial activities.
9. Mirsadeghi S, Zandavar H, Rajabi HR, Sajadiasl F, Ganjali MR, Pourmortazavi
SM. Superior degradation of organic pollutants and H2O2 generation ability
on environmentally-sound constructed Fe3O4-Cu nanocomposite. J Mat Res
Technol. 2021;14:808–21.
10. Karimifar P, Saei-Dehkordi SS, Izadi Z, Antibacterial. Antioxidative and sensory
properties of Ziziphora clinopodioides–Rosmarinus officinalis essential oil
nanoencapsulated using sodium alginate in raw lamb burger patties. Food
Biosci. 2022;47:101698.
11. Noukelag SK, Razanamahandry LC, Ntwampe SK, Arendse CJ, Maaza M.
Industrial dye removal using bio-synthesized Ag-doped ZnO nanoparticles.
Env Nanotech Monit Manag. 2021;16:100463.
12. Abza T, Saka A, Tesfaye JL, Gudata L, Nagaprasad N, Krishnaraj R. 2022.
Synthesis and Characterization of Iron Doped Titanium Dioxide (Fe: TiO2)

20.

21.
22.
23.
24.

25.
26.
27.
28.

29.

30.
31.

Nanoprecipitate at Different pH Values for Applications of Self-Cleaning
Materials. Advances in Materials Science and Engineering, 2022.
Eldefrawy BM, Said SM, Abdelraheem A. Comparative studies of nanoparticles and ethanol extract of rosemary plant on some biochemical aspects of
the American cockroach Periplaneta americana (L.)(Dictyoptera: Blattidae).
Egy J Crop Prot (2022).
Elsayed AA, Ahmed EG, Taha ZK, Farag HM, Hussein MS, AbouAitah K.
Hydroxyapatite nanoparticles as novel nano-fertilizer for production ofrosemary plants. Scient Horticul. 2022;295:110851.
Olfati A, Kahrizi D, Balaky STJ, Sharifi R, Tahir MB, Darvishi E. Green synthesis of
nanoparticles using Calendula officinalis extract from silver sulfate and theiranti-bacterial effects on Pectobacterium Caratovorum. Inorg Chem Com.
2021;125:108439.
Saka A, Enkosa E, Jule LT, Nagaprasad N, Subramanian K, Ramaswamy K.
Biofuel production from mango (Mangifera indica) seed extracts throughzinc oxide nanoparticle. Biomass Conversion and Biorefinery; 2022. pp. 1–11.
Jeevanandam J, Kiew SF, Boakye-Ansah S, Lau SY, Barhoum A, Danquah
MK, Rodrigues J. Green approaches for the synthesis of metal and metaloxide nanoparticles using microbial and plant extracts. Nanosscale.
2022;14(7):2534–71.
Saka A, Shifera Y, Jule LT, d Badassa B, Nagaprasad N, Shanmugam R, Dwarampudi P, Seenivasan L, V. and, Ramaswamy K. Biosynthesis of TiO2 nanoparticles by Caricaceae (papaya) shell extracts for antifungal application. Sci Rep.
2022;12(1):1–10.
Sayadi M, Mojaddar Langroodi A, Amiri S, Radi M. Effect of nanocomposite
alginate-based film incorporated with cumin essential oil and TiO2 nanoparticles on chemical, microbial, and sensory properties of fresh meat/beef.
Food Sci Nut. 2022;10(5):1401–13.
Abel S, Tesfaye J, Gudata L, Nagaprasad N, Subramanian K, Mani M, Shanmugam R, Dwarampudi LP, Roy A, Stalin B, Krishnaraj R. Biobutanol preparation
through sugar-rich biomass by Clostridium saccharoperbutylacetonicum
conversion using ZnO nanoparticle catalyst. Biomass Conversion and Biorefinery; 2022. pp. 1–11.
Pathania D, Sharma M, Kumar S, Thakur P, Torino E, Janas D, Thakur S. Essential
oil derived biosynthesis of metallic nanoparticles: implementations above
essence. Sus Mat Technol. 2021;30:00352.
Bognár S, Putnik P. Šojić Merkulov, D. sustainable green nanotechnologies forinnovative purifications of water: synthesis of the nanoparticles from renewable sources. Nanomat. 2022;12(2):263.
Chakrabartty I. Plant-based nanoparticles and their applications. In diverse
applications of Nanotechnology in the Biological sciences. pp. Apple Acad Press
327–40 (2022).
Bukhari A, Ijaz I, Gilani E, Nazir A, Zain H, Saeed R, Alarfaji SS, Hussain S, Aftab
R, Naseer Y. Green synthesis of metal and metal oxide nanoparticles using different plants’ parts for antimicrobial activity and anticancer activity: a review
article. Coat. 2021;11(11):1374.
Kumari S, Khanna RR, Nazir F, Albaqami M, Chhillar H, Wahid I, Khan MIR. Biosynthesized nanoparticles in developing plant abiotic stress resilience: a New
Boon for Sustainable Approach. Int J Mol Sci. 2022;23(8):4452.
Mohammadzadeh V, Barani M, Amiri MS, Yazdi MET, Hassanisaadi M, Rahdar
A, Varma RS. Applications of plant-based nanoparticles in nanomedicine: areview. Sus Chem Pharm. 2022;25:100606.
Aga MB, Dar AH, Nayik GA, Panesar PS, Allai F, Khan SA, Shams R, Kennedy JF,
Altaf A. Recent insights into carrageenan-based bio-nanocomposite polymers in food applications: a review. Int J Bio Macromol. 2021;192:197–209.
Quevedo-Robles RV, Vilchis-Nestor AR, Luque PA. Study of optical andmorphological properties of nanoparticles semi-conductors of zinc oxide
synthesized using Mimosa tenuiflora extract for photo-degradation of methyl
orange. Opt Mat. 2022;128:112450.
Saka A, Tesfaye JL, Gudata L, Shanmugam R, Dwarampudi LP, Nagaprasad N,
Krishnaraj R, Rajeshkumar S. Synthesis, characterization, and anti-bacterial
activity of ZnO nanoparticles from fresh leaf extracts of Apocynaceae, Carissa
Spinarum L.(Hagamsa). J Nanomat. 2022.
Thakare Y, Kore S, Sharma I, Shah M. A comprehensive review on sustainablegreener nanoparticles for efficient dye degradation. Env Sci Pol Res. 1–22
(2022).
Vieira IRS, de Carvalho APAD, Conte-Junior CA. Recent advances in biobased
and biodegradable polymer nanocomposites, nanoparticles, and natural
antioxidants for anti-bacterial and antioxidant food packaging applications.
Compre Rev Food Sci Food Saf (2022).

Saka et al. BMC Chemistry(2024) 18:123

32. Vinodhini S, Vithiya BSM, Prasad TAA. Green synthesis of palladium nanoparticles using aqueous plant extracts and its biomedical applications. J King
Saud Univ Sci. 2022;34(4):102017.
33. Abdallah Y, Hussien M, Omar MO, Elashmony R, Alkhalifah DHM, Hozzein WN.
Mung Bean (Vigna radiata) treated with Magnesium nanoparticles and its
impact on Soilborne Fusarium solani and Fusarium oxysporum in Clay Soil.
Plants. 2022;11(11):1514.
34. Krishnasamy R, Obbineni JM. Methods for Green synthesis of metallic
nanoparticles using plant extracts and their biological Applications-A review.
J Biomat Bio Eng. 2022;56:75–151.
35. Yitagesu GB, Leku DT, Workneh GA. 2023. Green Synthesis of TiO2 Using
Impatiens rothii Hook. f. Leaf Extract for Efficient Removal of Methylene Blue
Dye. ACS omega.
36. Hashemi Z, Mizwari ZM, Mohammadi-Aghdam S, Mortazavi-Derazkola S,
Ebrahimzadeh MA. Sustainable green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using
Sambucus ebulus phenolic extract (AgNPs@ SEE): optimization and assessment of photo-catalytic degradation of methyl orange and their in vitro
anti-bacterial and anticancer activity. Arab J Chem. 2022;15(1):103525.
37. Abdelsattar AS, Farouk WM, Gouda SM, Safwat A, Hakim TA, El-Shibiny A. Utilization of Ocimum basilicum extracts for zinc oxide nanoparticles synthesis
and their anti-bacterial activity after a novel combination with phage. Mat
Let. 2022;309:131344.
38. Guerra RO, Neto JRDC, Martins TDA, Farnesi de-Assunção TS, Rodrigues JuniorV, de Oliveira F, Almeida Silva CJ, A.C., da Silva MV. 2022. Metallic Nanoparticles: A New Frontier in the Fight Against Leishmaniasis. Cur. Med. Chem(2022).
39. Anand U, Carpena M, Kowalska-Góralska M, Garcia-Perez P, Sunita K, Bontempi E, Dey A, Prieto MA, Proćków J, Simal-Gandara J. Safer plant-based
nanoparticles for combating antibiotic resistance in bacteria: a comprehensive review on its potential applications, recent advances, and future
perspective. Sci Total Env.153472 (2022).
40. Srivastava S, Bhargava A. Biological synthesis of nanoparticles: Dicotyledons.
Green nanoparticles: the future of Nanobiotechnology. Singapore: Springer;
2022. pp. 231–60.
41. Goswami R, Kamal B, Mishra A. Role of Metal Nanomaterials in Bioremediation of Pesticides. In Pesticides Bioremediation, Springer, Cham 281–309 (2022).
42. Rani N, Saini K. February. Biogenic Metal and Metal Oxides Nanoparticles as
Anticancer Agent: A Review. In IOP Conference Series: Mat. Sci. Eng. 1225 (1)012043 (2022).
43. Kumar A, Choudhary A, Kaur H, Guha S, Mehta S, Husen A. Potential applications of engineered nanoparticles in plant disease management: a critical
update. Chemosph. 2022;295:133798.
44. Berger T, Sterrer M, Diwald O, Knözinger E, Panayotov D, Thompson TL, Yates
JT. Light-induced charge separation in anatase TiO2 particles. J Phys Chem B.
2005;109(13):6061–8.
45. Lin J, Gulbagca F, Aygun A, Tiri RNE, Xia C, Van Le Q, Gur T, Sen F, Vasseghian
Y. Phyto-mediated synthesis of nanoparticles and their applications onhydrogen generation on NaBH4, biological activities and photo-degradation
on azo dyes: development of machine learning model. Food Chem Toxicol.
2022;163:112972.
46. Abel S, Tesfaye JL, Shanmugam R, Dwarampudi LP, Lamessa G, Nagaprasad
N, Benti M, Krishnaraj R. Green synthesis and characterizations of zinc oxide(ZnO) nanoparticles using aqueous leaf extracts of coffee (Coffea arabica)
and its application in environmental toxicity reduction. J Nanomat (2021).
47. Benisha R, Amalanathan M, Aravind M, Mary MSM, Ahmad A, Tabassum S,
Al-Qahtani WH, Ahmad I. Catharanthus roseus leaf extract mediated Ag-MgO
nanocatalyst for photo-catalytic degradation of Congo red dye and theiranti-bacterial activity. J Mole Struct. 2022;1262:133005.
48. Kevenk TO, Aras Z. Decontamination Effect of Zinc Oxide nanoparticles,
Rosmarinic Acid and Anatolian Propolis on Foodborne Bacteria. Turkish J Agr
Food Sci Technol. 2022;10(2):313–8.
49. Saka A, Tesfaye JL, Gudata L, Karthi S, Nagaprasad N, Bhagat SK, Yaqub M,
Ramaswamy K. 2022. Polymeric Droplets on SiO2 Nanoparticles throughWastewater Treatment of Carbon-Based Contaminants in Photocatalytic
Degradation. Journal of Nanomaterials, 2022.
50. Al-Zahrani SA, Bhat RS, Al-Onazi MA, Alwhibi MS, Soliman DA, Aljebrin NA, AlSuhaibani LS, Al Daihan S. Anticancer potential of biogenic silver nanoparticles using the stem extract of Commiphora gileadensis against human coloncancer cells. Green Proces Syn. 2022;11(1):435–44.

Page 11 of 11

51. Kim MG, Kang JM, Lee JE, Kim KS, Kim KH, Cho M, Lee SG. Effects of calcination temperature on the phase composition, photocatalytic degradation, andvirucidal activities of TiO2 nanoparticles. ACS Omega. 2021;6(16):10668–78.
52. Abel S, Jule LT, Gudata L, Nagaraj N, Shanmugam R, Dwarampudi LP, Stalin B,
Ramaswamy K. Preparation and characterization analysis of biofuel derived
through seed extracts of Ricinus communis (castor oil plant). Sci Rep.
2022;12(1):1–11.
53. Gul N, Ata S, Bibi I, Azam M, Shahid A, Alwadai N, Masood N, Iqbal M. Sizecontrolled synthesis of silver nanoparticles: a comparison of modified Turkevich and BRUST methods. Z fÃ¼r Phys Chem (2022).
54. Abdullah SA, Sahdan MZ, Nafarizal N, Saim H, Bakri AS, Cik Rohaida CH,
Adriyanto F, Sari Y. 2018, April. Photoluminescence study of trap-state defecton TiO2thin films at different substrate temperature via RF magnetron
sputtering. In Journal of Physics: Conference Series (Vol. 995, p. 012067). IOP
Publishing.
55. Napagoda M, Madhushanthi P, Wanigasekara D, Witharana S. Plant-based
nanomaterials and their antimicrobial activity. Eco-friendly Biobased products used in Microbial diseases. CRC; 2022. pp. 155–79.
56. Wang B, Li X, Liang S, Chu R, Zhang D, Chen H, Wang M, Zhou S, Chen W,
Cao X, Feng W. Adsorption and oxidation of SO 2 on the surface of TiO 2nanoparticles: the role of terminal hydroxyl and oxygen vacancy–Ti 3 + states.
Phys Chem Chem Phys. 2020;22(18):9943–53.
57. Rizwana H, Bokahri NA, Alfarhan A, Aldehaish HA, Alsaggabi NS. Biosynthesis
and characterization of silver nanoparticles prepared using seeds of Sisymbrium irio and evaluation of their antifungal and cytotoxic activities. Green
Proces Syn. 2022;11(1):478–91.
58. Shabahang Z, Nouri L, Nafchi AM. Composite Film based on whey protein
Isolate/Pectin/CuO Nanoparticles/Betanin pigments; investigation of Physicochemical Properties. J Poly Env 1–14 (2022).
59. Zare MH, Mehrabani-Zeinabad A. Photocatalytic activity of ZrO2/TiO2/
Fe3O4 ternary nanocomposite for the degradation of naproxen: characterization and optimization using response surface methodology. Sci Rep.
2022;12(1):1–24.
60. Saka A, Gudata L, Jule LT, Seeivasan V, Ramaswamy K. Synthesis of nano-sizedlead sulfide thin films from Avocado (Glycosmis Cochinchinensis) Leaf
extracts to empower pollution remediation. Sci Rep. 2022;12(1):1–9.
61. Razavi R, Amiri M, Salavati-Niasari M. Eco-friendly synthesis by Rosemary
extract and characterization of Fe3O4@ SiO2 magnetic nanocomposite as apotential adsorbent for enhanced arsenic removal from aqueous solution:
isotherm and kinetic studies. Bio Conver Bioref 1–15 (2022).
62. Vrinceanu N, Bucur S, Rimbu CM, Neculai-Valeanu S, Ferrandiz Bou S, Suchea
MP. Nanoparticle/biopolymer-based coatings for functionalization of textiles:
recent developments (a minireview). Text Res J 00405175211070613 (2022).
63. Acharya D, Satapathy S, Dixit PK, Mishra G, Mohanty P, Das J, Dave S. Biological nanomaterials for toxicity of Bacteria. Nanomaterials in the Battle Against
Pathogens and Disease vectors. CRC; 2022. pp. 187–204.
64. Hiba H, Thoppil JE. Medicinal herbs as a panacea for biogenic silver nanoparticles. Bul Nat Res Cent. 2022;46(1):1–15.
65. Karthik C, Punnaivalavan KA, Prabha SP, Caroline DG. Multifarious global flora
fabricated phytosynthesis of silver nanoparticles: a green nanoweapon for
antiviral approach including SARS-CoV-2. Int Nano Let. 1–32 (2022).
66. Ndaba B, Roopnarain A, Haripriya RAMA, Maaza M. Biosynthesized metallic
nanoparticles as fertilizers: an emerging precision agriculture strategy. J Integ
Agrcul. 2022;21(5):1225–42.
67. Bodea IM, Cătunescu GM, Pop CR, Fiț NI, David AP, Dudescu MC, Stănilă
A, Rotar AM, Beteg FI. Antimicrobial Properties of Bacterial Cellulose Films
Enriched with bioactive herbal extracts obtained by microwave-assisted
extraction. Polym. 2022;14(7):1435.
68. Baskaran A, Manikandan N, Jule L, Nagaprasad N, Saka A, Badassa B, Ramaswamy K, Seenivasan V. Influence of capillary tube length on the performance of domestic refrigerator with eco-friendly refrigerant R152a. Sci Rep.
2022;12(1):1–12.

Publisher’s NoteSpringer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims inpublished maps and institutional affiliations.