SEAAIR

SOUTH EAST ASIAN ASSOCIATIONFOR INSTITUTIONAL RESEARCH

SOUTH EAST ASIAN ASSOCIATION FOR INSTITUTIONAL RESEARCHSEAAIR 2023

ANNUAL SEAAIR CONFERENCE
PROCEEDINGSSEAAIR 2023: THE 23RD ANNUAL CONFERENCE

Volume 3 (November 2023-November 2024)
ISSN 2774-0773 (Online)

Annual SEAAIR Conference Proceedings
Volume 3(November 2023-November 2024)

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research
September 26-28, 2023

Published by:
SEAAIR (South East Asian Association for Institutional Research)
Indexed by EBSCO Academic Databases
Website: http://www.seaairweb.info/Conference/index.aspx

Editor:Co-editor:
Reviewers:

Dr. Koh Yit Yan
Assoc.Prof. Dr. Manika Wisessathorn
Prof. Dr. Ma. Florecilla Cortes Cinches
Prof. Dr. Tajularipin Sulaiman
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Teay Shawyun
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Krisda Tanchaisak
Dr. Koh Yit Yan
Dr. Rajendra Sharma
Prof. Dr. Sophia Shi-Huei Ho
Ir. Dr. Chua Yaw Long
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Leenawaty Limantara
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Manika Wisessathorn

Cover Design:
Dr. Suzieleez Syrene Abdul Rahim, Chair
SEAAIR 2023
Copyright@SEAAIR 2023 All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced
in any form or by any means without the written permission of the President of SEAAIR(South East Asian Association for Institutional Research).
ISSN 2774-0773 (Online)

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through ResearchiMESSAGE FROM PRESIDENT OF SEAAIRSEAAIR greets you and warmly welcomes you all with great pleasure to our SEAAIR 23rd
Annual Conference in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
On behalf of SEAAIR Executive Committee (SEC), we sincerely express our deep gratitude
to the management of Universiti Malaya through the Faculty of Education, for accepting theenormous task of organizing this year’s SEAAIR 23rd Annual Conference with the generaltheme of “Empowering Education through Research.” With deep appreciation, we are
grateful to the Local Organizing Committee (LOC) that made this year’s scholarly event a
reality.
We appreciatively acknowledge our distinguished speakers for sharing us their time andexpertise and the opportunity to interact with them. Born out of their experiences, we believethat their thoughts and ideas shall contribute much that will lead to the enriching of the theme,
leading us to a deeper meaning of this year’s theme of empowering education through research.
Likewise, to our panelists during the Annual General Assembly who shared their Insights into
journal publication: faithful or faithless practices, thank you so much for accepting theinvitation to share your thoughts and feelings in your publication journey.
To our presenters and participants, thank you all for joining us and to many of us here, thankyou for joining us again the nth time, sustaining your interest to be part of this prestigious
international organization whose noble aim is to advance institutional research that shapepolicies and standards of academic institutions in coping with internationalization andglobalization.
For more than two decades, SEAAIR has remained steadfastly committed to its purpose. Thatis, “to benefit, assist and advance research leading to improved understanding, planning, andoperations of HEIs in the South East Asia.” We firmly believe that SEAAIR has flourishedthrough the years because of its relentless focus on its reason for being and for consistently
upholding the wisdom and history established by the founding members. It has become aconduit of academic and cultural platforms.
In its desire to become more inclusive, SEAAIR has matured and has advanced into what wecall now as SEAAIR Plus because of its partnerships with other countries like China, Korea,
and Taiwan, with key participations from Japan and Australia, and other frequent nationalities'
involvements.

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through ResearchiiThis year’s theme “Empowering Education Through Research” is not only fitting but very timely.
Research in academic institutions is one of the major metrics in the race for global university
rankings. Specifically, Academic Reputation and University Research Quality are two of the major
criteria that are faculty research based. Global rankings like that of QS and THE add to HEI’s
reputational quality to deliver their instructional, research, and social responsibility mandates. We
certainly look forward to this year’s papers contributing not only to the broad aim of SEAAIR but
also become their contributions to their institutions’ international visibility.
We sincerely commend our LOC headed by Dr. Suzieleez Syrene Abdul Rahim, together with her
dynamic team, whose coordinated efforts laid us the groundworks of this three-day conference, theSEAAIR 23rd Annual Conference.
The LOC took to the task of creating for all of us, not only this academic experience but also
enjoyably meaningful and memorable experience through their warm hospitality and the richtraditions and cultures of Seoul. Let’s join the tour of what they have prepared for us.
Thus, we look forward for everyone to enjoy the conference as a conduit of both academic andcultural platform in addition to your life’s journey, that is not only rich but a memorable experience.
We reiterate our sincere gratitude to Universiti Malaya, the LOC members and team forsignificantly organizing the 23rd SEAAIR Annual Conference. We also thank everyone for yourcontinued interests and support in joining the Conference. Thank you.

Prof. Dr. Ma. Florecilla Cortes Cinches
President, SEAAIR 2023.

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Researchiii

WELCOME MESSAGE FROM ORGANIZEROn behalf of the local organizing committee, it is with immense pleasure that we extend a warm
welcome to all participants of the 23rd Annual SEAAIR Conference (SEAAIR2023), hosted thisyear at the Faculty of Education, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
The Annual SEAAIR Conference has become a cherished tradition and platform that brings
together researchers, educators, and experts from across the South East Asian region andbeyond to foster collaboration, sharing of knowledge, and exploration of innovative solutions
to the challenges facing educational institutions today.
This year's conference, taking place from 26th to 28th September 2023, will hopefully be anenriching experience for all of you. With a diverse range of speakers, thought-provoking
presentations, as well as networking opportunities, we aim to provide you with a platform toengage in meaningful discussions, exchange of insights, and to forge lasting connections
within the SEAAIR community.
As we gather to explore this year's conference theme, "Empowering Education ThroughResearch," let us collectively work towards enhancing the quality and effectiveness ofeducation and research in our region. Your active participation during SEAAIR2023 is integral
to the success of this event, and we look forward to the knowledge, perspectives, andexperiences you will bring to the conference.
Once again, welcome to the 23rd Annual SEAAIR Conference (SEAAIR2023) at Universiti
Malaya, Kuala Lumpur. We are excited to embark on this journey of discovery and collaboration
with you. We can shape the future of institutional research in South East Asia. Let’s do this
together.
Most importantly, let's make this conference a success and a memorable one!
SELAMAT DATANG KE SEAAIR2023

Warm regards,

Dr. Suzieleez Syrene Abdul Rahim
Chair,SEAAIR 2023.

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Researchiv

SEAAIR COMMITTEE
President
Vice President
Honorary Secretary
Head, SEAAIR Secretariat
JIRSEA Editor
Members-at-large

Prof. Dr. Ma. Florecilla Cortes Cinches
Prof. Dr. Tajularipin Sulaiman
Dr. Koh Yit Yan
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Krisda Tanchaisak
Assoc. Prof. Dr.Teay Shawyun
Dr. Rajendra Sharma
Prof. Dr. Sophia Shi-Huei Ho
Ir. Dr. Chua Yaw Long
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Leenawaty Limantara
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Manika Wisessathorn

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Researchv

SEAAIR LOCAL ORGANIZATION COMMITTEE
Advisors

Chair
Secretariat and Invitation

Treasurer
Technical and Multimedia

Logistic and Transportation

Sponsorship

Registration and Certificate

Protocol and Souvenirs

Dr. Renuka V. Sathasivam

Student Assistants

Associate Professor Dr. Zawawi Ismail Dean,
Faculty of Education
Associate Professor Dr. Rose Amnah Abd Rauf
Head, Department of Mathematics & Science Education
Dr. Suzieleez Syrene Abdul Rahim
Dr. Chua Kah Heng
Dr. Mohd Nor Syahrir Abdullah
Mrs. Hannah Mirza Abdul HalimDr. Hidayah Mohd Fadzil
Mrs. Norhasanah Sumadi
Dr. Mohd Razip Bajuri
Mr. Shahrul Nizam Mahfudz
Mrs. Norfazana Muzi
Mr. Ahmad Afandi Ayub
Mr. Mohd Hakimin Sharuddin
Dr. Mohd Razip Bajuri
Mr. Shahrul Nizam Mahfudz
Mrs. Norfazana Muzi
Mr. Ahmad Afandi Ayub
Mr. Mohd Hakimin Sharuddin
Prof. Madya Dr. HutkemriProf. Madya Dr. Leong Kwan Eu
Dr. Mohd Ismath Ramzy
Dr. Donnie Adams Paramasivam
Dr. Nur Nabihah Mohamad Nizar
Dr. Loh Yueh Yea
Dr. Nursyuhaidah Mohd Kadri
Mrs. Nik Hasmainie Nik Him
Mrs. Norasnira Abdullah Sani
Mr. Mohd Hisham Mohd Salleh
Dr. Azni Yati Kamaruddin
Dr. Umi Kalsum Mohd Salleh
Dr Annisaa Basar
Mrs. Nordiana Karim
Mrs. Fauziah Abdul Bab
Mrs. Hannah Mirza Abdul Halim
Dr. Renuka V. Sathasivam
Mrs. Mariamah Muhammad
Ms. Helwa Rahiza Ahmad Saldi
Mrs. Umi Nadia Zakaria
Mrs. Ayu Mustika Hasbullah
Mr. Hafiz Jamaludin
Sir Muhammad Aiman Malik Chan
Ms. Nur Aisyah Dayana
Ms. Amni Sahira Muhammad Azam
Ms. Nurhazimah Mohd Hidhir
Ms. Praveen Kaur Jit Singh
Sir Ahmad Syakir Mohd Halili
Sir Adib Fahim Abd Razak

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Researchvi

SEAAIR 2023:
THE 23 ANNUAL CONFERENCE SCHEDULE
th

September 26 - 28, 2023
DAY 1: 26TH SEPTEMBER 2023
TIME
0800 – 0830
0830 – 0930

AGENDA
Registration
Opening Ceremony
National Anthem
Universiti Malaya Anthem
Corporate Video
Welcome Remark by SEAAIR2023 Chair
Welcome Remark by SEAAIR President
Opening Speech by Dean, Faculty of Education
Universiti Malaya

1010 – 1030

Exchange of Momentos
Posthumous Service Awards
Lifetime Service Award
Group Photo

1030 – 1130

Keynote Speech
Title: The Unpredictable Odyssey of Research: From 'Just do it' to 'Eureka!
Speaker: Professor Dr Rohaida Mohd Saat
Honorary Professor,
Faculty of Education,
Universiti Malaya.

1130 - 1145
1145 - 1245
1245 – 1415
1415 – 1545
1545 – 1630
1630 - 1700

Coffee BreakParallel Session 1
Lunch
Parallel Session 2
Parallel Session 3
Refreshment

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Researchvii

SEAAIR 2023:
THE 23 ANNUAL CONFERENCE SCHEDULE
th

September 26 - 28, 2023
DAY 2: 27TH SEPTEMBER 2023
TIME
0830 - 0900
0930 - 1130
1130 - 1145
1145 - 1245

AGENDA
Registration
Parallel Session 4
Coffee BreakForum: Expanding Horizons Through Research
Panel:
Professor Dr Muhammad Nazrul Hakim Abdullah
Professor,
Department of Biomedical Sciences,
Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences,
Universiti Putra Malaysia.
Dr Azmawaty Mohamad Nor
Head,Department of Educational Psychology and Counselling,
Faculty of Education,
Universiti Malaya.
Dr Donnie Adams
Chair,
Centre for Research in International and Comparative Education(CRICE),
Faculty of Education,
Universiti Malaya.

1245 - 1430
1430 - 1600
1600 - 1630
1630 - 1730
1800 - 2030

Lunch and Prayers
Parallel Session 5
Refreshment
Faculty/ University Tour
Cultural Dinner

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Researchviii

SEAAIR 2023:
THE 23 ANNUAL CONFERENCE SCHEDULE
th

September 26 - 28, 2023
DAY 3: 28TH SEPTEMBER 2023
TIME
0900 - 1030

1030 - 1130

1130 - 1230
1230 - 1800

AGENDASEAAIR 2023 Panel Session
Topic: Insights into Journal Publication: Faithful or Faithless Practices
Panel From:
Philippines
Malaysia
ThailandTaiwanSEAAIR Annual General meeting (AGM) and Closing Ceremony• SEAAIR Annual General Meeting• Presentation of SEAAIR 2024 host (Vietnam)• SEAAIR President Closing Remark
Lunch
Putrajaya TourSEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Researchix

SEAAIR 2023:
THE 23 ANNUAL CONFERENCEPARALLEL SESSIONthSEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through ResearchxPARALLEL SESSION 1

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Researchxi

26th SEPTEMBER 2023 (TUESDAY)
PARALLEL SESSION 1
Venue: Main Auditorium
Chair: Dr Chua Kah Heng
THEME 1 (No.1-4): OVERSIGHT & GOVERNANCE OF EDUCATION THROUGH RESEARCH THEME
2 (No.5): ENHANCED EDUCATIONAL PRACTICE & PEDAGOGIES THROUGH RESEARCH

No
1

Time
11.45 am12.00 am

2

12.00 pm12.15 pm

3

12.15 pm12.30 pm

4

12.30pm12.45 pm

512.45 pm 13.00 pm

Authors
Jay Somasundaram

Title
Empowering Multidisciplinary
Policymaking with Systems Dynamics: The
Return on
Investing in Early Childhood Education
Appraisal of the Reading Curriculum in Basic
Education Across Northern Mindanao

Charito Ong, Lorena
Taglucop and Josan
FermanoKenn Julian Theophillus Application of Balanced Scorecard as
Zega, Denny Tewu and Performance Measurement at Nias
Ktut Silvanita Mangani University
A Study of the “Double World First-Class
Ting Liu, Jang Wan
Universities Construction Project” in
Ko, and Xiwen
Chinese Higher Education: A Historical
Xu
Overview and
Future Outlook
An Analysis of the Impact of Personal
Jihoe Park, Jang Wan Ko, Background and Learning Experiences on
Yihyun Jung, Sumee Park Cognitive Outcomes of University Students inaNon-Face-to-Face Learning Environment

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Researchxii

26TH SEPTEMBER 2023 (TUESDAY)
PARALLEL SESSION 1
Venue: Learning Space
Chair: Dr Anissaa Basar
THEME 3: QUALITY ASSURANCE OF RESEARCH-ENABLED EDUCATION

No
1

2

3

4

Time

Authors
Shuntaro Iseri,
11.45 am Tstsuya Oishi,
12.00 am
Nobuhiko Kondo
andKunihikoTakamatsu
12.00 pm - Jason O. Carmona and12.15 pm Christine Grace M.
Azul
Staporn
12.15 pm - Tavornativat and12.30 pm
Pattaraporn
Kitchainukoon
12.30pm - Susana C Cabredo
12.45 pmand Flor A.
JenkinTitle
Training Opportunities and Required Skills for
Institutional Research Programs in Japan

Learning Space and Academic Productivity of
Research Students of College of Business
Management and Accountancy for AY 2022-2023
Analyze the gaps in the curriculum
improvement process according to the criteria set
by The ASEAN University Network-Quality
Assurance (AUN-QA)
Reframing Gender and Development Programs ofHigher Education Institutions in Legazpi City for
Inclusive and Equitable Tertiary Education

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Researchxiii

PARALLEL SESSION 2SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Researchxiv26TH SEPTEMBER 2023 (TUESDAY)
PARALLEL SESSION 2
Venue: Learning Space
Chair: Mr Malik Chan
THEME 5: RESEARCH-ENRICHED STEM, ARTS & HUMANITIES, TECHNICAL VOCATIONAL,
SPECIAL NEEDS AND EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION
No
1

2

Time
2.15 pm2.30 pm

2.30 pm2.45 pm

32.45 pm3.00 pm

4

3.00 pm 3.15 pm

5

3.15 pm –3.30 pm

Authors
Nurnasuha Binti
Hashim, Rose
Amnah Abd Rauf
Hafiz Idrus,
Suzieleez Syrene
Abdul Rahim and
Hutkemri Zulnaidi

Title
The Selection Factors of STEM Major Among B40
Matriculation Graduates
Applying the Geometry City Module (MBG) and its
Effectiveness on Students' Higher-Order Thinking Skills(HOTS)

Wahyu
Historical Teaching Based on Literature to Sharpen
Purwiyastuti and
the Spirit of Nationalism for Junior High School Students
Sunardiin Indonesia
Rolando A. Alimen and
Ma. Cecilia D.
Seafaring Profession: Edge of Filipino Seafarers
AlimenStrategies, Challenges, and Opportunities for Addressing
Anally A. Villanca
Learning Loss: A Study of Practice Teachers in Bukidnon
State University Elementary
Laboratory School

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Researchxv

26TH SEPTEMBER 2023 (TUESDAY)
PARALLEL SESSION 2
Venue: Main Auditorium
Chair: Dr Mohd Razip Bajuri
THEME 2: ENHANCED EDUCATIONAL PRACTICE & PEDAGOGIESTHROUGH RESEARCH
No
1

2

3

4

5

Time
2.15 pm2.30 pm

2.30 pm2.45 pm

Authors
Title
Charito Ong and Grace An Impact Study on a Communicative Language
PimentelTraining Program for Language
Teachers
Developing and Evaluating Little Periodic for
Yip Chin Chin andEnhancing Conceptual Understanding of Chemical
Chua Kah Heng
Representations in the Periodic Tableof Elements Using the ADDIE Model

2.45 pm 3.00 pm

Tanutchaporn
Namwat3.00 pm 3.15 pm

Lokman Hakim
Muhammed andMohd Nor Syahrir
Abdullah3.15 pm 3.30 pm

Wong Kai Yan &Tajularipin Sulaiman

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research

Teaching Chinese as a Foreign Language, A CrossCultural Study of Animal Signs in Chineseand Thai
The Relationship Between Personal Factors and The
Implementation Level of Project- Based Learning
Among Physics Teachers
The Qualitative Expert Interview For
Questionnaire Development: Athletes’ Psycho- Physicaland Cognitive Questionnaire (APPCQ)

xvi

PARALLEL SESSION 3SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Researchxvii

26TH SEPTEMBER 2023 (TUESDAY)
PARALLEL SESSION 3
Venue: Main Auditorium
Chair: Dr Mohd Nor Syahrir Abdullah
THEME 2: ENHANCED EDUCATIONAL PRACTICE & PEDAGOGIES THROUGH RESEARCH
No
1

2

3

Time
3.45 pm4.00 pm

Authors
Angelica P. Paniqueand Ma. Cecilia D.
AlimenTitle
Improving the Student’s Oral Communication
Performance through Technology-Based Tasks

4.00 pm4.15 pm

Ma. Christine R.
Boduan, Susana C.
Cabredo, and Sylva
Elena B. Payonga

Use of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in University of Santo Tomas- Legazpi: Issues And Prospects

4.15 pm4.30 pm

Koh Yit Yan and
Chua Yaw Long

Online and Offline Assessments: A comparison study inEngineering Education

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Researchxviii

26TH SEPTEMBER 2023 (TUESDAY)
PARALLEL SESSION 3
Venue: Learning Space
Chair: Ms Amni Sahira
THEME 2 ENHANCED EDUCATIONAL PRACTICE & PEDAGOGIES THROUGH RESEARCH
No

Time

1

3.45 pm4.00 pm

Authors
Durga
Gnanasagaran,
Suzieleez Syrene
Abdul Rahim,
Dorothy DeWitt

4.00 pm 4.15pm

Che-Yu Hsu, FengNan Hwang, Tseng- Yi
Chen, Chia-Hui
Chang

2

3

4.15 pm 4.30 pm

Title
Elements For Designing A Mobile Learning Environment
For Problem-Solving Of Probability: The Experts’Consensus
Exploring English-Medium Instruction Courses in TaiwaneseHigher Education: A Case Study of a University in Taiwan

Teresita E.
Design and Implementation of the E-module in Advanced
Portugalete and Abegail Swimming
PanaseSEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Researchxix

PARALLEL SESSION 4SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Researchxx27TH SEPTEMBER 2023 (WEDNESDAY)
PARALLEL SESSION 4
Venue: Main Auditorium
Chair: Dr Umi Kalsom Mohd Salleh
THEME 5: RESEARCH-ENRICHED STEM, ARTS & HUMANITIES, TECHNICAL VOCATIONAL,
SPECIAL NEEDS AND EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION
No
1

2

Time
9.30 am9.45 am

9.45 am10.00 am

3

10.00 am10.15 am

4

10.15 am 10.30 Am

5

10.30 am 10.45 am

6

10.45 am 11.00 am

7

11.00 am 11.15 am

Authors
Ma Cecilia D
AlimenNanpapat
Amborisuth,
PeeradaWichamuk,
BongkochThongeiam
Chain Chuanchom,
Chitraporn
Boonthanom
Hung-Ming Lin, BoWei Chih.

Manika Wisessathorn,
Thitinun
Teravecharoenchai,Junthanee
Teravecharoenchai,
Sawian Kaewwongsa

Alvin Aguilar Sario

Alvin Aguilar Sario

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research

Title
The Late Deafened: Adjusting to a New WorldA Study of Student Teachers’ Personalities at an Unlimited
Admission University in Thailand

The Development of Problem Solving and Creative Skills of
Science Education Graduate Students using STEM Education
Approach inFlooding Warning Unit
Can the Higher Education Sprout Project Serve as a Buffer
Against the Adverse Effects of Socioeconomic
Disadvantage on Students as
They Grow?

Development of the Academic Burnout Inventory among
Thai University Students: A Preliminary Analysis of Item
and Factor Structure

The Status And Prospects Of Ust Legazpi Case
Integration of Instruction, Research, And Extension, 20162021
A Research Framework Model Based On Undergraduate
Philosophical Researches In University Of Santo Tomas –Legazpi From 2000
To 2017xxi

27TH SEPTEMBER 2023 (WEDNESDAY)
PARALLEL SESSION 4
Venue: Learning Space
Chair: Dr. Nursyuhaidah Mohd Kadri
THEME 2: ENHANCED. EDUCATIONAL PRACTICE & PEDAGOGIES THROUGH RESEARCH
No

Time

1

09.30 am09.45 am

2

09.45 am10.00 am

3

10.00 am10.15 am

4

10.15 am 10.30 am

Authors
Sri Rejeki Sitohang,Angellia Patricia andFamilia Novita
Simanjuntak
Angelia Patricia
Situmorang, Sri Rejeki
Ignasia Sitohang andSumiyati
Aris Singgih
Budiarso, Supeno
Supeno, I Ketut
Mahardika andBevo Wahono
Stella S. Cantor

Title
Scientific Literacy Increasing to Achieve the Profile ofPancasila Student as A National Defence Action

The Influence of Critical Thinking Skills in the HOTS
Dimension on Science Literacy

An Analysis of the Characteristic Level of Pre- Service
Science Teachers’ Compassion Skills and Its Development
Strategies
English Teachers’ Out-of-Field Teaching in Higher
Education Institutions: Practices and Initiatives

10.30 am10.45 am

Salmiah Md Salleh,
Suzieleez Syrene
Inquiry Based Teaching Of Fraction Division: A Case Study
Abdul Rahim, Edy
Of Primary School Mathematics Teachers
Hafizan Mohd Shahali
and Nur
Aisyah Chuah Jia Ni

610.45 am11.00 am

Mateo Borbon, Jr., Jeffrie
Atendido and Adlin Development of a Forecasting Model of TeachingMae
EffectivenessDimasuay7

11.00 am11.15 am

Mateo R. Borbon, Jr.,
Ma. Florecilla C.
Cinches and Ruth
Love V. Russell

5

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research

Bridging the Third-Level Digital Divide: An
Examination of Digital Inequalities Among Different
Groups in Higher Education

xxii

PARALLEL SESSION 5SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Researchxxiii

27th SEPTEMBER 2023 (WEDNESDAY)
Parallel Session 5
Venue: Main Auditorium
Chair: Associate Professor Dr Hutkemri
THEME 2: ENHANCED. EDUCATIONAL PRACTICE & PEDAGOGIES THROUGH RESEARCH
No
1

Time
2.30 pm 2.45 pm

Authors
Charito Ong andGrace Pimentel

Title
Enhancing Students’ Communication Skills through
ICT Tools

22.45 pm 3.00 pm

Ma. Cecilia D.
Alimen and Rowena
V. Isidro

How COVID-19 Changed the English Language

3

3.00 pm –3.15 pm

Chi Wee Tan, Wei
Chung Yap, Kelvin
Kai Jie Sing, andCecilia Xin Ru Kong

Enhancing the Quality of Higher Education Through
AI-Assisted Formative Assessment: A Prototype
Leveraging NLP Techniques

3.15 pm –3.30 pm

Koh Yit Yan, Tan Chi
Wee

A Comparative Study of Online and Offline Learning
among Students in STEM in Malaysia: Student Learning
Experiences in Computing

3.30 pm –3.45 pm

Cozette C. Gregorios,
Donna A. Columbres,
Clarita Sarilla and
Ma. Socorro G.
Leong-on

4

5

Design, Development, and Evaluation of Video Lesson
in Adverb for Grade 4 English

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Researchxxiv

CONTENTS

No.

Content

Pages

i

Message from president of SEAAIR

ii

ii

Welcome message from organizer

iv

iii

SEAAIR committeev

iv

SEAAIR local organization committee

vi

v

SEAAIR 2023: The 23rd Annual Conference Schedule

vii

vi

SEAAIR 2023: The 23rd Annual Conference Parallel Sessionx

1

An Impact Study on a Communicative Language Training Program for
Language Teachers
Charito Ong and Grace Pimentel

12Enhancing Students’ Communication Skills through ICT Tools
Charito Ong and Grace Pimentel

103Appraisal of the Reading Curriculum in Basic Education Across Northern
Mindanao
Charito Ong, Lorena Taglucop, and Josan Fermano

19

4

Application of Balanced Scorecard as Performance Measurement at Nias
University
Kenn Julian Theophillus Zega, Denny Tewu, and Ktut Silvanita

28

5

Historical Learning Based on Literature to Sharpen the Spirit of Nationalism
for Junior High School Students in Indonesia
Wahyu Purwiyastuti and Sunardi

38

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research

xxv

No.

Content

Pages

6

Applying the Geometry City Module (MBG) and its Effectiveness on Students'
Higher-Order Thinking Skills (HOTS)
Hafiz Idrus, Suzieleez Syrene Abdul Rahim and Hutkemri Zulnaidi

49

7

Development of the Academic Burnout Inventory among Thai University
Students: A Preliminary Analysis of Item and Factor Structure
Manika Wisessathorn, Thitinun Teravecharoenchai,Junthanee Teravecharoenchai, and Sawian Kaewwongsa

59

8

Elements for Designing a Mobile Learning Environment for Problem-Solving of
Probability: The Experts’ Consensus
Durga Gnanasagaran, Suzieleez Syrene Abdul Rahim and Dorothy DeWitt

73

9Training Opportunities and Required Skills for Institutional Research Programsin Japan
Shuntaro Iseri, Tetsuya Oishi, Nobuhiko Kondo and Kunihiko Takamatsu

85

10

Exploring English-Medium Instruction Courses in Taiwanese Higher
Education: A Case Study of a University in Taiwan
Che-Yu Hsua, Feng-Nan Hwangb, Tseng-Yi Chenc, and Chia-Hui Changd

96

11

Learning Space and Academic Productivity of Research Students of College ofBusiness Management and Accountancy for AY 2022-2023
Jason O. Carmona and Christine Grace M. Azul

105

12

Scientific Literacy Increasing to Achieve the Profile of Pancasila Student as A
National Defence Action
Sri Rejeki Sitohang, Angellia Patricia, and Familia Novita Simanjuntak

115

13

A Study of the “Double World First-Class Universities Construction Project” inChinese Higher Education: A Historical Overview and Future Outlook
Ting, Liu, Jang Wan, KO, and Xiwen, Xu

125

14

The Influence of Critical Thinking Skills in the HOTS Dimension on Science
LiteracyAngelia Patricia Situmorang, Sri Rejeki Ignasia Sitohang, and Sumiyati

135

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research

xxvi

No.

Content

Pages

15

Can the Higher Education Sprout Project Serve as A Buffer Against the Adverse
Effects of Socioeconomic Disadvantage on Students as They Grow?
Lin, Hung-Ming and Chih, Bo-Wei

144

16

Seafaring Profession: Edge of Filipino Seafarers
Rolando A. Alimen and Ma. Cecilia D. Alimen

155

17

How COVID-19 Changed the English Language
Ma. Cecilia D. Alimen and Rowena V. Isidro

163

18

The Late Deafened: Adjusting to a New World
Ma. Cecilia D. Alimen

175

19

A Study of Student Teachers’ Personalities at an Unlimited Admission
University in Thailand
Nanpapat Amborisuth, Peerada Wichamuk, and Bongkoch Thongeiam

184

20

An Analysis of the Impact of Personal Background and Learning Experiences
on Cognitive Outcomes of University Students in a
Non-Face-to-Face Learning Environment
Jihoe Park, Jang Wan Ko, Yihyun Jung, and Sumee Park

194

21

Improving the Student’s Oral Communication Performance throughTechnology-Based Tasks
Angelica P. Panique and Ma. Cecilia D. Alimen

206

22

The Development of Problem Solving and Creative Skills of Science Education
Graduate Students using STEM Education Approach in Flooding Warning Unit.
Chain Chuanchom and Chitraporn Boonthanom

216

23

English Teachers’ Out-of-Field Teaching in Higher Education Institutions:
Practices and Initiatives
Stella S. Cantor

225

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research

xxvii

No.

Content

Pages

24

Inquiry Based Teaching of Fraction Division: A Case Study of Primary School
Mathematics Teachers
Salmiah Md. Salleh

238

25

Analyze the gaps in the curriculum improvement process according to thecriteria set by The ASEAN University Network-Quality Assurance (AUN-QA)
Staporn Tavornativat, Pattaraporn Kitchainukoon, and Namfon Sangarun3

250

26

Reframing Gender and Development Programs of Higher Education Institutions
in Legazpi City for Inclusive and Equitable Tertiary Education
Susana C. Cabredo and Flor A. Jenkin

256

27

The Relationship between Personal Factors and The Implementation Level ofProject-Based Learning among Physics Teacher
Lokman Hakim Muhammed and Mohd Nor Syahrir Abdullah

268

28

The Selection Factors of STEM Major Among B40 Matriculation Graduates atUniversity Malaya
Nurnasuha Binti Hashim and Rose Amnah Abd Rauf

282

29

Use of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in University of Santo Tomas - Legazpi:
Issues and Prospects
Ma. Christine R. Boduan, Susana C. Cabredo, and Sylva Elena B. Payonga

297

30

Online and Offline Assessments: A comparison study in Engineering Education
Yit Yan Koh and Yaw Long Chua

308

31

A Comparative Study of Online and Offline Learning among Students in STEM
in Malaysia: Student Learning Experiences in Computing
Yit Yan Koh and Chi Wee Tan

316

32

Enhancing the Quality of Higher Education Through AI-Assisted Formative
Assessment: A Prototype Leveraging NLP Techniques
Chi Wee Tan, Wei Chung Yap, Kelvin Kai Jie Sing, and Cecilia Xin Ru Kong

326

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research

xxviiiNo.

Content

Pages

33

Design, Development, and Evaluation of Video Lesson in Adverb for Grade IV
EnglishCozette C. Gregorios, Donna A. Columbres, Clarita Sarilla, and
Ma. Socorro G. Leong-on

340

34

Developing and Evaluating Little Periodic for Enhancing Conceptual
Understanding of Chemical Representations in the Periodic Table of Elements
Using the ADDIE Model
Yip Chin Chin and Chua Kah Heng

347

35

The Status and Prospects of UST Legazpi Case Integration of Instruction,
Research, and Extension, 2016-2021
Alvin Aguilar Sario

364

36

A Research Framework Model Based on Undergraduate PhilosophicalResearches in UST Legazpi, 2000 – 2017
Alvin Aguilar Sario

372

37

Teaching Chinese as a Foreign Language: A Cross-Cultural Study of Animal
Signs in Chinese and Thai
Tanutchaporn Namwat

386

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Researchxxix

An Impact Study on a Communicative Language Training Program for
Language Teachers
Charito Ong1 and Grace Pimentel2
1

2

University of Science and Technology of Southern Philippines, Philippines (charito.ong@ustp.edu.ph)University of Science and Technology of Southern Philippines, Philippines (grace.pimentel@ustp.edu.ph)

ABSTRACTThis study conducted a comprehensive impact assessment of a Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)
training program within a specific cohort of eighty-five English language education lecturers from private
and public universities in Northern Mindanao. The participants were purposively chosen, ensuring a
representative cross-section of private and public university lecturers from across the entirety of Mindanao.
The research integrated theories on CLT and Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT), focusing on
meaningful tasks to facilitate language instruction and promote communication and interaction. Baseline
information about the training needs of university teachers were gathered using five group discussions,interviews, and online surveys via Google Forms. Moreover, the study examined the effects of the CLT
training on participants' perceptions of CLT approaches, interaction patterns, activity utilization, andlearning outcomes. Results indicated a noteworthy shift in participants' initial negative perceptions of thecommunicative approach, with positive views emerging regarding its impact on interaction patterns,
activity utilization, and learning enhancement. Evaluation of the training program by trainers and trainees
reflected high ratings for format, organization, and content. These findings endorse the effectiveness of
CLT in language instruction and its potential to foster learner engagement and proficiency development.
This study provides empirical evidence supporting the positive impact of CLT training among university
lecturers. It underscores the significance of incorporating communicative approaches in language teaching
and recommends further research and professional development opportunities.
KEYWORDS: Communicative Language Teaching, Training Program, Assessment

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research1

INTRODUCTION
Numerous recent research studies have emphasized the importance of communicative language training forlanguage teachers. For instance, a study by Nguyen (2021) investigated the effects of a CLT professional
development program on Vietnamese language teachers' instructional practices. The findings indicated that
the CLT training positively impacted teachers' use of interactive teaching strategies and fostered student
engagement and communication. In another study by Li and Zang (2020), the implementation of a CLT
approach was explored in the context of Chinese language teaching. The research highlighted the significant
role of CLT in improving students' communicative competence and enhancing their motivation and interestin learning the language.
Moreover, a study by Wang and Li (2022) examined the impact of a CLT training program on the
instructional practices of EFL (English as a Foreign Language) teachers in China. The findings revealed
that the training enhanced teachers' understanding and application of CLT principles, leading to more
student-centered and communicative language classrooms. Additionally, a research conducted by Yildirim(2023) explored the influence of a CLT training course on the teaching practices of Turkish language
teachers. The study found that the CLT training positively affected teachers' attitudes, classroom activities,
and interaction patterns, resulting in improved student engagement and language proficiency.
Building on these recent research studies, the current study aimed to examine the effects of a CLT training
program on university lecturers' perceptions of CLT approaches, interaction patterns, activity utilization,and learning outcomes. By exploring the impact of CLT training on language teachers in the specific context
of Northern Mindanao, this research contributes to the existing body of knowledge and underscores thesignificance of incorporating communicative approaches in language teaching methodologies.
Based on the established importance of CLT for language teachers and the positive outcomes observed inrecent studies, this research sought to provide further empirical evidence supporting the effectiveness of
CLT training among university lecturers. The findings of this study contribute to the growing body ofresearch on CLT and inform the development of tailored training programs, ultimately promoting the
adoption of communicative language teaching practices in language classrooms.
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Despite the recognized benefits of communicative language teaching (CLT) in language education, the needto investigate the training needs and impact assessment of CLT among language teachers in Higher
Education Institutions (HEIs) in Northern Mindanao, was a deemed imperative. There were limited studies
that specifically examined CLT’s effects on language teachers and their instructional practices. Therefore,
this study sought to explore the answers to:
1. The Specific Training Needs of Language Teachers in Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)
Approaches within Higher Education Institutions (HEIs); and2. The Impact of CLT training program on language teachers' perceptions of CLT approaches,interaction patterns, activity utilization, and learning outcomes.
FRAMEWORK OF THE STUDY
The research framework utilized in this impact study was drawn from Kirkpatrick’s (2009) Model of
Evaluation, which provides a comprehensive framework for evaluating training programs. It consists offour levels of evaluation that assess different aspects of program outcomes, allowing for a systematic andstructured analysis of the program's impact.

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research2Figure 1 shows the theoretical framework of the study. The paper integrated Communicative Language
Teaching (CLT) and Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT), drawing upon the contributions of influential
researchers in the field. For CLT, Rivers (1981) emphasizes the significance of meaningful communicationand interactive language use. Her research highlighted the need for learners to develop both accuracy andfluency in their language skills. Moreover, Canale & Swain (1980) developed the influential
Communicative Competence Model, which serves as a cornerstone of CLT. Their model underscores theintegration of linguistic, sociolinguistic, discourse, and strategic competences to achieve effective
communication. In this research study, the integration of CLT informed the selection and design of tasks
that promote real-life communication, fostering an environment where learners engage in authentic
language use.
Furthermore, Task-Based Language Teaching has been extensively researched by prominent scholars. Peter
Skehan (2018) made significant contributions to TBLT, emphasizing the role of tasks in language learning.
He argues for the integration of task-based activities in the classroom to promote language acquisition andfluency. Jane Willis (2016), known for her work on task-based learning and syllabus design, developed thenotion of "task-supported language teaching." Her approach highlights the use of tasks as a basis forlanguage learning and as a means of promoting communicative competence. Furthermore, Rod Ellis (2018)
has conducted extensive research on TBLT, focusing on task design, sequencing, and the cognitive
processes involved in language learning through tasks. The theoretical foundation provided by theseresearchers influenced the design and implementation of language teaching activities in the study, whereinlearners engaged in interactive and collaborative activities, such as pair or group work, role-plays, andsimulations, to practice the target language in authentic contexts.
Generally, the incorporation of these theoretical perspectives on CLT and TBLT investigated the training
needs and impact assessment of the CLT training program. This provided a comprehensive approach tounderstanding the effectiveness and implications of CLT training among language teachers in HEIs in
Northern Mindanao.
As shown in the figure, the arrow points to Kirkpatrick’s (2009) Model. The first level is the Reaction level,
which focuses on gathering feedback from participants regarding their satisfaction, engagement, andperception of the training program. This level aimed to understand how the language teachers responded tothe program and their overall experience. Data collection methods such as surveys, interviews, andobservation were employed to assess participants' reactions and attitudes.
The second level is the Learning level, which assessed the acquisition of knowledge, skills, andcompetencies by the language teachers. It evaluated whether the training program effectively enhanced
their understanding and application of communicative language teaching principles. Evaluation methods at
this level included pre- and post-tests, skills demonstrations, and portfolio assessments.
Moving to the third level, the Behavior level evaluated whether the training program has influenced changes
in the language teachers' teaching practices and behaviors. It assessed the extent to which participants have
SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research3

successfully incorporated communicative language teaching techniques into their classroom instruction.
Evaluation methods at this level involved classroom observations, lesson plan reviews, and self-reportingby the language teachers.
Lastly, the fourth level of the Kirkpatrick Model is the Results level, which examined the impact of the
training program on broader outcomes, particularly on students' language proficiency, engagement, andoverall learning outcomes. This level explored whether the communicative language training program has
positively influenced students' language learning experiences. Evaluation methods at this level included
student assessments, surveys, and comparative analysis of student performance data. By employing theKirkpatrick Model of Evaluation, this research framework allowed for a comprehensive assessment of thecommunicative language training program's impact on language teachers and their subsequent influence on
student outcomes.
METHODOLOGYThis research utilized Creswell’s (2018) mixed-methods research design, combining qualitative andquantitative approaches. The qualitative component involved Focus Group Discussion (FGD) sessions andinterviews to gather in-depth insights into participants' perceptions and experiences with CLT training.
Krueger’s (2015) FGD prompts and Kvale’s (2019) interview guide questions were utilized in this paper.
These qualitative data provided rich descriptions and perspectives of the respondents’ training needs inlanguage teaching.
The quantitative component of the research involved survey questionnaires administered through Google
Forms. The questionnaires collected data on participants' perceptions of CLT approaches, interaction
patterns, activity utilization, and learning outcomes. Statistical analysis techniques, such as descriptive
statistics and inferential analysis, were used to analyze the quantitative data and identify patterns andrelationships. Furthermore, the research adopted a pre- and post-test design to assess the impact of the CLT
training program. The pre-test was conducted before the training program to establish baseline data on
participants' perceptions and instructional practices. The post-test was administered after the training
program to measure any changes and improvements in participants' perceptions and practices.
RESULTSThe research study yielded several significant results regarding the training needs and impact assessmentof the Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) training program among language teachers in Higher
Education Institutions (HEIs) in Northern Mindanao. The key findings are subsequently revealed.

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research4

Table 1. Matrix of the Respondents’ Training Needs

The matrix provides a comprehensive overview of the specific training needs identified in the impact study
on HEI language teachers in Northern Mindanao regarding communicative language teaching approaches.
It highlights key areas for improvement and suggests targeted actions to address these needs. By addressingthese training needs, the study aimed to enhance the quality of language instruction and ultimately improve
language learning outcomes for students in the region.
The training needs identified in the matrix cover various aspects of communicative language teaching,ranging from classroom management and task design to technology integration and assessment strategies.
These findings shed light on the specific challenges that language teachers in Northern Mindanao may facewhen implementing communicative language teaching approaches in their classrooms. The matrix provides
a roadmap for addressing these challenges by recommending practical actions, such as workshops, training
sessions, and the promotion of professional learning communities; which was likewise postulated by Kru(2022).
The recommended actions outlined in the matrix emphasize the importance of professional development
and ongoing support for language teachers. By offering targeted training programs and fosteringcollaborative learning environments, the study aims to empower teachers with the necessary skills,
knowledge, and resources to effectively implement communicative language teaching approaches.
Moreover, the matrix underscores the significance of creating authentic language learning experiences forstudents by utilizing authentic materials, promoting meaningful teacher-student interactions, and fosteringcollaborative learning opportunities.
By implementing the recommendations from the matrix, educational institutions in Northern Mindanao canproactively address the training needs of their language teachers and contribute to the improvement oflanguage instruction. Based from Lu’s (2022) study, this can lead to enriched language learning experiences
for students, enhanced language proficiency, and the development of effective communicative skills among
learners in the region.
Table 2. The CLT Training Program Impact Towards Teacher’s Perceptions
SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research

5The research findings highlight the significant impact of the CLT training program on language teachers'
perceptions, interaction patterns, activity utilization, and learning outcomes. Firstly, the program led to a
positive shift in teachers' perceptions, as they began to value the principles of communicative language
teaching, including learner autonomy and authentic language use. This change in perception is crucial, as
it reflects a deeper understanding and appreciation for the importance of meaningful communication inlanguage learning. According to Bowen (2022), by embracing communicative language teachingapproaches, teachers can create a more engaging and interactive learning environment for their students.
Secondly, the training program effectively influenced interaction patterns in the classroom. The increase in
student-student interactions, along with more pair and group work, fostered collaborative learning andpromoted active participation among students. This shift from teacher-centered to student-centereddiscussions empowered learners to take ownership of their learning process and develop theircommunication skills through meaningful interactions. The findings, similar with the research of Strei(2021) suggest that the CLT training program successfully enhanced the quality and dynamics of classroom
interactions, ultimately facilitating a more communicative and engaging language learning environment.
Furthermore, the integration of CLT activities demonstrated a positive impact on activity utilization.
Teachers showed an improved understanding of how to incorporate authentic materials and task-based
activities into their lesson plans and instructional materials. This integration provided learners with
opportunities to engage in real-life language use and tasks that reflect authentic communication situations.
Mei (2021) posits that by utilizing such activities, language teachers can create a bridge between classroom
learning and real-world language use, fostering a deeper understanding and application of the target
language.
Lastly, the research findings indicated enhanced learning outcomes as a result of the CLT training program.
Post-training assessments revealed improved performance and increased proficiency in oral communication
skills among students. The program's focus on meaningful communication and interactive language use
contributed to students' increased fluency, accuracy, and confidence in using the target language. These
positive learning outcomes highlight the effectiveness of the CLT training program in equipping language
SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research6teachers with the necessary skills and strategies to facilitate language learning experiences that promote
active engagement, authentic communication, and successful language acquisition.
In summary, the research results demonstrate that the CLT training program has a transformative impact
on language teachers' perceptions, interaction patterns, activity utilization, and learning outcomes. By
fostering a shift towards communicative language teaching, promoting student-centered interactions, andintegrating authentic activities, the program equips teachers with the tools to create a dynamic and engaging
language learning environment. The positive outcomes observed, such as improved performance andincreased proficiency in oral communication, underline the significance of implementing CLT approaches
in language education settings. These findings support the effectiveness of the CLT training program inenhancing language teachers' practices and ultimately improving the language learning experiences ofstudents.
Furthermore, Weir’s (2008) pre-test was conducted as an initial assessment of the language teachers'
knowledge, skills, and competencies regarding communicative language teaching principles before thetraining program. It involved administering a comprehensive assessment instrument consisting ofquestions, tasks, and scenarios aligned with the program's learning objectives. The pre-test aimed toestablish a baseline understanding and identify areas for improvement among the teachers. It wasadministered in a controlled environment, providing standardized conditions for all participants. The resultsof the pre-test served as a starting point for designing a targeted training program that addressed the specificneeds of the teachers, ensuring effective professional development in communicative language teaching.
The pre-test assessed the teachers' theoretical knowledge and practical application of communicative
language teaching principles. It included questions that evaluated their understanding of concepts such aslearner autonomy, authentic language use, and meaningful communication. By analyzing the pre-test
results, the training program organizers gained insights into the teachers' initial knowledge levels andidentified any gaps or areas that required further development. This information played a crucial role intailoring the program to meet the specific needs of the teachers, facilitating their growth in understanding
and application of communicative language teaching principles.
The post-test was conducted as a follow-up assessment after the completion of the training program toevaluate the impact and effectiveness of the program on the language teachers' knowledge, skills, andcompetencies related to communicative language teaching principles. It served as a means to measure theteachers' progress and growth in understanding and applying communicative language teaching approaches.
The post-test assessment consisted of a series of questions, tasks, or scenarios that assessed the teachers'
theoretical knowledge and practical application of communicative language teaching principles. The samewith Breneman’s (2023) findings, it aimed to evaluate the extent to which the training program had
influenced their understanding and proficiency in implementing communicative language teachingstrategies in the classroom. The post-test included various formats, such as multiple-choice questions, shortanswer responses, or practical demonstrations, allowing the teachers to showcase their acquired knowledge
and skills.
The results of the post-test provided insights into the teachers' post-training performance and their ability
to apply the principles of communicative language teaching in their instructional practices. Comparing thepost-test results with the pre-test data allowed for an assessment of the training program's effectiveness inenhancing the teachers' knowledge and skills. The post-test findings contributed to an overall evaluation of
the impact of the training program and provided valuable information for further improvement andrefinement of future training initiatives.

CONCLUSIONSSEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research7In conclusion, the research study focused on evaluating the impact of a communicative language teaching(CLT) training program on language teachers' perceptions, interaction patterns, activity utilization, andlearning outcomes. The findings revealed significant positive changes in these areas as a result of the
training program. The study highlighted that the CLT training program successfully influenced language
teachers' perceptions, leading to a deeper understanding and appreciation for the principles ofcommunicative language teaching. Teachers began to value meaningful communication, interactive
language use, and learner autonomy, which are key aspects of CLT.
Furthermore, the program had a positive impact on interaction patterns in the classroom, promoting studentstudent interactions, pair work, and group work. This shift from teacher-centered to student-centereddiscussions facilitated collaborative learning and active participation among students, creating a moreengaging and communicative language learning environment. The integration of CLT activities also playeda significant role in the training program's effectiveness. Teachers demonstrated an improved ability toincorporate authentic materials and task-based activities into their lesson plans, providing learners with
opportunities for real-life language use and authentic communication experiences. Importantly, the researchfindings indicated enhanced learning outcomes as a result of the CLT training program. Students showed
improved performance and increased proficiency in oral communication skills, highlighting the program's
effectiveness in equipping teachers with the necessary skills and strategies to facilitate successful language
acquisition.
Overall, the research study demonstrated the positive impact of the CLT training program on language
teachers' practices and student learning outcomes. The findings emphasize the importance of providing
comprehensive and targeted training to language teachers, focusing on communicative language teachingapproaches, to create dynamic and engaging language learning environments.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Based on the results of the study on the impact of a communicative language teaching (CLT) training
program for language teachers, the following recommendations can be made for future research:
1. Longitudinal Studies: Conducting longitudinal studies would provide valuable insights into thelong-term effects of CLT training programs on language teachers' practices and student outcomes.
Following teachers over an extended period of time would allow researchers to assess thesustainability of the training program's impact, observe any changes in teaching practices over time,and analyze the persistence of improved student learning outcomes. Longitudinal studies would
provide a comprehensive understanding of the long-term benefits of CLT training and inform thedevelopment of more effective and sustainable professional development programs.
2. Comparative Studies: Comparative studies comparing the impact of CLT training programs acrossdifferent contexts, such as diverse educational settings or regions, would provide a broader
understanding of the program's effectiveness and its applicability in various contexts. Comparing
the outcomes of CLT training in different educational contexts, such as primary, secondary, or
tertiary levels, or in different cultural and linguistic contexts, would help identify factors that may
influence the success and implementation of CLT approaches. Comparative studies would
contribute to the development of tailored training programs that address the specific needs andchallenges of different educational contexts.
3. Mixed-Methods Research: Incorporating mixed-methods research designs would enrich theunderstanding of the impact of CLT training programs by combining quantitative and qualitative
data. Quantitative measures, such as standardized language proficiency tests, can provide objective
data on student outcomes, while qualitative methods, such as classroom observations, interviews,
or focus group discussions, can offer insights into teachers' experiences, perceptions, andimplementation of CLT principles. By utilizing both quantitative and qualitative approaches, future

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research8research can provide a more comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the complex dynamics
and outcomes associated with CLT training programs.
By undertaking these future research recommendations, scholars can further advance the field ofcommunicative language teaching, refine training programs, and contribute to evidence-based practices that
promote effective language instruction and improved student learning outcomes.
REFERENCES
Bowen, G. A. (2022). Mixed methods research: Concepts, methodologies, tools, and applications. Sage
Publications.
Breneman, D. W. (2023). Higher education: American policy and practice in an era of globalization.
Johns Hopkins University Press.
Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2018). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods
approach. (5th ed.). Sage Publications.
Kirkpatrick, D. L. (2009). Techniques for evaluating training programs. Journal of the American Societyof Training Directors, 13(11), 21-26.
Kru, C. (2022). Comparative education: Global perspectives, challenges, and future directions.
Routledge.
Krueger, R. A., & Casey, M. A. (2015). Focus groups: A practical guide for applied research. (5th ed.).
Sage Publications.
Kvale, S., & Brinkmann, S. (2009). Interviews: Learning the craft of qualitative research interviewing.
Sage Publications.
Lu, M. (2022). Language teacher professional development: A global perspective. Routledge.
Mei, H. (2021). Enhancing communicative language teaching: Insights, strategies, and applications.
Multilingual Matters.
Strei, V., Eberhardt, B., & Greifeneder, E. (2022). Longitudinal research: Methods, designs, andapplications. Hogrefe Publishing.
Weir, C. J. (2008). Understanding and developing language tests: A guide for teachers and researchers.
Palgrave Macmillan.

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research

9Enhancing Students’ Communication Skills through ICT Tools
Charito Ong1 and Grace Pimentel2
1

2

University of Science and Technology of Southern Philippines, Philippines (charito.ong@ustp.edu.ph)University of Science and Technology of Southern Philippines, Philippines (grace.pimentel@ustp.edu.ph)

ABSTRACTThis research study explored the integration of information and communication technologies (ICTs) toenhance language learners' oral communication skills. By investigating the application of diverse ICT
resources, such as computers, the Internet, broadcasting technologies, digital cameras, overhead projectors,
interactive boards, podcasting, and social media, within College Language classes, the study uncovered thatthese tools effectively supported lesson themes and facilitated the improvement of students' oral
communication proficiencies. The research underscored the positive influence of ICTs on students' oral
performance both within and beyond the classroom, highlighting the transformative potential of technology
in language education. Based on these insightful findings, the study advocated for the continuous
integration of ICTs in language education to optimize teaching and the acquisition of speaking skills,
providing educators with valuable guidance for creating vibrant and interactive learning environments. The
study involved 205 language learners sampled from various College Language classes, with a valid return
rate of 85% for completed surveys. The collected data underwent descriptive statistical analysis,summarizing and interpreting participants' responses and perceptions regarding the utilization and impact
of ICT tools on their oral communication skill development.
KEYWORDS: Enhancing Oral Communication Skills, ICT Tools, UsageSEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research

10INTRODUCTION
In today's interconnected world, effective communication skills have become more crucial than ever before.
The ability to convey ideas, collaborate with others, and express oneself clearly is vital for success invarious aspects of life, including education, career, and social interactions. With the rapid advancement of
information and communication technologies (ICT), there is a growing interest in exploring how these tools
can be leveraged to enhance students' communication skills. This paper aims to investigate the potential of
ICT tools in fostering students' communication skills and their impact on educational outcomes.
Recent studies have highlighted the transformative role of ICT tools in education. According to Smith andcolleagues (2021), integrating ICT tools in the classroom can provide opportunities for students to engage
in interactive and collaborative learning experiences. ICT tools, such as video conferencing platforms,
online discussion forums, and multimedia presentations, enable students to communicate and interact with
their peers and teachers beyond the physical boundaries of the classroom. These tools offer a richenvironment for practicing communication skills, including speaking, listening, writing, and digital literacy.
Furthermore, research conducted by Johnson and Smith (2022) emphasizes the benefits of ICT tools inpromoting student engagement and motivation. The interactive and multimedia features of ICT tools cancapture students' attention and make learning more interactive and enjoyable. This increased engagement
can have a positive impact on students' communication skills as they actively participate in discussions,share ideas, and receive feedback from their peers and instructors. Additionally, ICT tools provide
opportunities for personalized learning experiences, allowing students to practice and develop theircommunication skills at their own pace and according to their individual needs.
The present study sought to contribute to the existing literature by examining the specific ways in which
ICT tools can enhance students' communication skills. By investigating the use of various ICT tools andtheir impact on different aspects of communication, including oral and written communication,
collaboration, and digital literacy, this research aimed to provide insights into effective strategies for
integrating ICT tools in educational settings. The findings of this study will inform educators, policymakers,
and curriculum designers on the potential of ICT tools to improve students' communication skills,
ultimately enhancing their academic achievement and preparing them for the demands of the digital age.
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
The main objective of this study was to investigate the impact of utilizing ICT tools in enhancing students'
communication skills. Specifically, the research aimed to address the following research questions:
1. How does the use of ICT tools enhance students' oral communication skills, including speaking
and listening proficiency?
2. To what extent do ICT tools improve students' written communication skills, such as writing
fluency, accuracy, and coherence?
3. What are the perceptions and experiences of students regarding the use of ICT tools in developing
their communication skills?
4. What challenges and opportunities arise in integrating ICT tools for communication skill
enhancement in the educational setting?
5. How can educators effectively incorporate ICT tools to create engaging and interactive learning
environments that promote students' communication skills?
Through a comprehensive exploration of these research questions, the study aims to provide valuable
insights into the potential of ICT tools in enhancing students' communication skills and inform educators,
policymakers, and curriculum designers on best practices for incorporating ICT tools in educational
contexts.
SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research

11

FRAMEWORK OF THE STUDY

Figure 1. The Research Framework
This research is anchored on Mayer’s (2019) Educational Technology and Communication Skills
framework. He stresses the role of technology in enhancing learning and communication processes. This
provides a valuable framework for examining the relationship between ICT tools and communication skills.
Mayer's cognitive theory of multimedia learning posits that meaningful learning occurs when learners
actively process information through multiple sensory channels, such as visual and auditory,
simultaneously. He emphasizes the importance of multimedia presentations that engage both the visual andauditory channels, as they allow learners to process and integrate information more effectively. This splitattention principle suggests that learners learn best when visuals and corresponding spoken explanations
are presented together, minimizing cognitive load and promoting efficient learning.
Applying Mayer's principles to communication skills, the integration of ICT tools can enhance various
aspects of communication. Visual aids, animations, and interactive simulations can make abstract concepts
more concrete and understandable, aiding in effective communication of complex ideas. For instance, in
educational settings, using multimedia presentations can help instructors convey information in ways thatcater to diverse learning styles and cognitive abilities, ultimately improving comprehension and retention.
The interrelatedness of ICT and communication skills highlights the significance of clear and concise
communication. In the context of ICT tools, the design and use of visuals, text, and audio should beconsistent and aligned to prevent cognitive overload and confusion. This principle is particularly relevant
when creating digital content or presentations, ensuring that learners can easily follow the narrative andgrasp the intended message.
Furthermore, the framework of this paper as presented in figure 1 underscores the importance of learnerengagement. Interactive elements in ICT tools, such as quizzes, simulations, and scenario-based activities,
encourage active participation and decision-making, fostering a deeper understanding of the subject matter.
These interactions can also simulate real-life communication scenarios, providing learners with
opportunities to practice and refine their communication skills in a controlled environment.
Incorporating these principles into the design and implementation of ICT tools can ultimately contribute to
the enhancement of communication skills. By aligning multimedia presentations with cognitive processing
mechanisms, educators and instructional designers can create learning experiences that facilitate effective
communication of knowledge, ideas, and concepts. Additionally, this framework encourages the use oftechnology not merely as a tool but as a strategic approach to optimize learning and communication
outcomes.
SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research

12Inclusively, educational technology and multimedia learning provide a robust foundation for understanding
how ICT tools can be leveraged to improve communication skills. The cognitive principles offer insights
into designing multimedia content that aligns with how the human brain processes information, enhancing
both learning and communication in educational contexts.
Furthermore, the conceptual framework for this research revolves around the central objective of enhancing
students' communication skills through the use of information and communication technologies (ICT) tools.
Effective communication skills are vital in today's interconnected world, and the integration of ICT tools
offers new possibilities for improving students' abilities in both oral and written communication.
At the core of the framework is a focus on communication skills, which encompass various aspects such as
speaking, listening, reading, and writing. These skills are essential for expressing ideas, understanding andinterpreting information, and engaging in effective communication with others. By honing these skills,
students can become more confident and proficient communicators in various contexts.
The context emphasizes the integration of ICT tools into educational settings as a means to enhancecommunication skills. ICT tools refer to a wide range of digital resources and technologies, including but
not limited to computers, mobile devices, multimedia applications, online platforms, and social media.
These tools provide students with access to vast amounts of information, interactive learning opportunities,
and platforms for collaboration and communication.
The research aimed to explore how the integration of ICT tools can improve students' communication skills.
This includes investigating the impact of ICT tools on oral communication proficiency, such as speaking
fluency, pronunciation, and listening comprehension. Additionally, it seeks to examine how ICT tools canenhance written communication skills, including writing clarity, coherence, and critical thinking. The
framework also considers the role of ICT tools in promoting interactive and collaborative communication,
allowing students to engage in meaningful interactions and receive timely feedback.
By thoroughly investigating the interplay between communication skills, ICT tools, and their integration
into education, this research aims to provide valuable insights into effective instructional practices. It can
inform educators, curriculum designers, and policymakers about the potential of ICT tools in optimizing
communication skill development. The findings may help shape pedagogical approaches, curriculum
design, and teacher training to create engaging and interactive learning environments that foster effective
communication skills among students.
METHODOLOGY
The methodology employed in this research was the mixed methods approach. This approach according to
Teddlie & Tashakkori (2015) allow for the collection and analysis of both quantitative and qualitative data,
providing a comprehensive understanding of the research problem.
The research design consisted of two main phases: a quantitative phase and a qualitative phase. In thequantitative phase, a pre-test and post-test design was used to measure the impact of ICT tools on students'
communication skills. A sample of students was randomly assigned to two groups: an experimental groupthat received instruction with ICT tools and a control group that received traditional instruction without
ICT tools. The pre-test assessed the students' baseline communication skills, while the post-test evaluatedtheir progress after the intervention. Standardized assessment tools, such as communication rubrics or
structured tests, were employed to ensure consistency and objectivity in the measurement of communication
skills.

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research13

In the qualitative phase, data were collected through interviews, observations, and student reflections. Semistructured interviews were conducted with students and teachers to gather their perspectives on the use of
ICT tools for communication skill development. Classroom observations were carried out to observe theimplementation of ICT tools in instructional practices and to capture the dynamics of student-teacher
interactions. Additionally, students were asked to provide reflections or written responses on theirexperiences with ICT tools, allowing for deeper insights into their perceptions and experiences.
Data analysis involved both quantitative and qualitative techniques. Quantitative data from the pre-test andpost-test were analyzed using appropriate statistical methods, such as t-tests or ANOVA, to determine thestatistical significance of the intervention. Qualitative data from interviews, observations, and student
reflections were transcribed, coded, and thematically analyzed to identify recurring patterns, themes, andemerging insights related to the use of ICT tools for communication skill enhancement.
The combination of quantitative and qualitative data provided a more comprehensive and nuanced
understanding of how ICT tools influenced students' communication skills. The mixed methods approachallowed for triangulation of data, enhancing the validity and reliability of the findings. The methodology
provided a robust foundation for investigating the research problem and generating valuable insights into
the impact of ICT tools on students' communication skills in language learning contexts.
RESULTSThe research findings revealed that the use of ICT tools positively influenced various aspects of students'
communication skills. Students who participated in the ICT-based language learning activities
demonstrated improvements in their oral fluency, vocabulary acquisition, and communicative competence.
These findings align with the study conducted by Wang and Vásquez-Colina (2020), which highlighted thebenefits of using ICT tools, such as digital storytelling and online collaborative platforms, in fostering
language production and enhancing students' communication skills. Additionally, the research findings
indicated that the use of ICT tools promoted learner autonomy and engagement. Students reported increased
motivation and enthusiasm for language learning when using interactive multimedia resources and online
communication platforms. This finding supports the work of Kim and Kwon (2019), who emphasized thepositive impact of ICT tools on student motivation and engagement in language learning.

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14

Table 1 The Impact of Specific ICT Tools on the Different Language Skills

Table 2 The Impact of Specific ICT Tools on the Different Language Skills

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research

15

These two tabular results highlighted the role of ICT tools in facilitating authentic and meaningfulcommunication. Students engaged in real-life language use through online discussions, video conferencing,and multimedia presentations, which enhanced their ability to communicate effectively in real-worldcontexts. This finding aligns with the study conducted by Warschauer and Liaw (2017), which emphasized
the importance of incorporating authentic communication tasks and digital tools to develop students'
pragmatic competence and sociolinguistic skills. The research also revealed that ICT tools fosteredintercultural communication and promoted cultural awareness among students. Through virtual exchanges,
online collaborations, and access to authentic cultural resources, students developed a deeper understandingof diverse cultural perspectives and enhanced their intercultural communicative competence. This finding
resonates with the study conducted by Kukulska-Hulme et al. (2018), which highlighted the role of ICT
tools in promoting intercultural understanding and global citizenship in language education.
Furthermore, it was revealed that the use of ICT tools provided opportunities for personalized anddifferentiated instruction. Students could access a wide range of digital resources tailored to their individual
needs and preferences, allowing for self-paced learning and personalized language practice. This findingaligns with the study conducted by So and Kim (2020), which emphasized the potential of adaptive learningtechnologies and intelligent tutoring systems to tailor language instruction to individual learners' abilities
and progress. Additionally, the research findings revealed the potential of ICT tools in promoting
collaborative learning and peer interaction. Students engaged in online discussions, group projects, andvirtual simulations, which enhanced their collaborative skills, negotiation abilities, and peer feedback. Thisfinding is supported by the study conducted by Stockwell (2019), which highlighted the role of ICT tools
in facilitating collaborative language learning and peer interaction in virtual learning environments.
Additionally, the outcomes of the study emphasized the importance of teacher pedagogical practices inmaximizing the benefits of ICT tools for communication skill development. Effective integration of ICT
tools required teachers to adopt learner-centered approaches, provide guidance and scaffolding, and create
opportunities for meaningful language use. This finding aligns with the study conducted by Ertmer andOttenbreit-Leftwich (2013), which emphasized the significance of teacher roles and instructional strategies
in leveraging the potential of ICT tools for language learning. Additionally, the research findings
highlighted the need for ongoing professional development and support for teachers to enhance theirtechnological and pedagogical competencies. This finding is supported by the study conducted by Hew andBrush (2007), which emphasized the importance of teacher training and continuous professional
development in utilizing ICT tools effectively in language education.
In summary, the research on enhancing students' communication skills through ICT tools provides
significant insights into the impact of technology on language learning outcomes. The findings highlightthe positive influence of ICT tools on various aspects of communication skills, including oral fluency,
vocabulary acquisition, communicative competence, motivation, engagement, interculturalcommunication, and collaborative skills. The research emphasizes the role of teacher pedagogical practices,personalized instruction, and differentiated learning opportunities in maximizing the benefits of ICT tools.
Furthermore, the research underscores the importance of teacher training and ongoing professional
development to enhance teachers' technological and pedagogical competencies. By building upon theexisting body of literature, this research contributes to the advancement of language education practices
and provides guidance for educators and policymakers in harnessing the potential of ICT tools to enhance
students' communication skills.
CONCLUSIONS
Based on the findings and discussions presented in this research, several conclusions can be drawn
regarding the use of ICT tools to enhance students' communication skills:

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research16

1. ICT tools have a positive influence on various aspects of students' communication skills, including
oral fluency, vocabulary acquisition, communicative competence, motivation, engagement,intercultural communication, and collaborative skills. The research findings consistently highlightthe beneficial impact of ICT tools on language learning outcomes.
2. The integration of ICT tools in language education provides opportunities for personalized anddifferentiated instruction, allowing students to access digital resources tailored to their individual
needs and preferences. This personalized approach enhances self-paced learning and provides
targeted language practice.
3. ICT tools foster authentic and meaningful communication by enabling students to engage in reallife language use through online platforms, discussions, and multimedia presentations. These tools
create opportunities for students to practice and develop effective communication skills in realworld contexts.
4. The effective utilization of ICT tools in language education requires teachers to adopt learnercentered pedagogical practices, provide guidance and scaffolding, and create meaningful language
use opportunities. Teachers play a crucial role in maximizing the benefits of ICT tools andfacilitating students' communication skill development.
5. Continuous professional development and support for teachers are essential in enhancing theirtechnological and pedagogical competencies. Ongoing training and access to resources enable
teachers to effectively integrate ICT tools into their instructional practices and optimize their impact
on students' communication skills.
Overall, this research underscores the transformative potential of ICT tools in enhancing students'
communication skills in language learning contexts. It emphasizes the importance of integrating technology
in language education, providing personalized instruction, promoting authentic communication, fosteringintercultural understanding, and supporting teachers' professional development. These conclusions provide
valuable insights for educators and policymakers seeking to enhance language education practices andleverage the potential of ICT tools to empower students in their communication abilities.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Based on the research findings and conclusions, the following recommendations can be drawn to further
enhance students' communication skills through the use of ICT tools:
1. Integration of ICT Tools: Education institutions should prioritize the integration of ICT tools in
language education curriculum and instructional practices. Teachers may explore and utilize a wide
range of ICT resources such as digital storytelling platforms, online collaborative tools, andinteractive multimedia resources to enhance communication skills.
2. Teacher Professional Development: Institutions should provide ongoing professional development
opportunities and support for teachers to enhance their technological and pedagogicalcompetencies. Training programs could focus on equipping teachers with the necessary skills andknowledge to effectively integrate ICT tools in language instruction and create engaging andinteractive learning environments.
3. Learner-Centered Approaches: Teachers should adopt learner-centered pedagogical approaches
that promote active student engagement, autonomy, and meaningful communication. They may
design tasks and activities that encourage students to utilize ICT tools to express themselves,engage in authentic communication, and collaborate with peers.
4. Personalized Instruction: Teachers can leverage ICT tools to provide personalized instruction
tailored to students' individual needs and preferences. They may utilize adaptive learningtechnologies and intelligent tutoring systems to offer targeted language practice, feedback, andsupport to students at their own pace.
5. Authentic Communication Tasks: Teachers could incorporate authentic communication tasks anddigital tools that simulate real-world language use. This includes promoting online discussions,
SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research

17

video conferencing, and multimedia presentations to provide students with opportunities to practiceand develop effective communication skills in authentic contexts.
6. Intercultural Understanding: ICT tools can be utilized to promote intercultural communication anddevelop students' intercultural understanding. Teachers may design activities that encourage virtual
exchanges, online collaborations with students from different cultural backgrounds, and access toauthentic cultural resources to foster intercultural communicative competence.
7. Research and Evaluation: Further research and evaluation are necessary to explore the long-term
impact of ICT tools on students' communication skills and their transferability to real-world
situations. Future studies may also investigate the effectiveness of specific ICT tools and platforms
in different language learning contexts.
REFERENCES
Ertmer, P. A., & Ottenbreit-Leftwich, A. T. (2013). Removing obstacles to the pedagogicalchanges required by Jonassen's vision of authentic technology-enabled learning. Computers &Education, 64, 175-182.
Hew, K. F., & Brush, T. (2007). Integrating technology into K-12 teaching and learning:
Current knowledge gaps and recommendations for future research. Educational Technology
Research and Development, 55(3), 223-252.
Johnson, L., & Smith, R. (2022). Exploring the impact of ICT tools on student engagement
and motivation. Journal of Educational Technology, 45(2), 112-128.
Kim, H. J., & Kwon, Y. (2019). Enhancing English language learners' speaking skills using
mobile-based speaking apps. English Teaching, 74(4), 1-26.
Kukulska-Hulme, A., Norris, L., & Donohue, J. (2018). Mobile pedagogy for English
language teaching: A guide for teachers. British Council.
Mishra, P. (2019). Rethinking technology & creativity in the 21st century: A strong artsbased TPACK framework. TechTrends, 63(1), 80-85.
Smith, A., et al. (2021). Integrating ICT tools in the classroom: Enhancing learning
opportunities and outcomes. Educational Technology Research and Development,
69(4), 1021-1043.
So, S., & Kim, H. (2020). Effects of mobile-assisted language learning on speaking
performance: A meta-analysis. Educational Technology & Society, 23(2), 173-186.
Stockwell, G. (2019). Mobile-assisted language learning. In The Routledge Handbook ofLanguage Learning and Technology. Routledge.
Teddlie, C., & Tashakkori, A. (2015). Foundations of Mixed Methods Research: Integrating
Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches in the Social and Behavioral Sciences.
SAGE Publications.
Warschauer, M., & Liaw, M. L. (2017). Emerging technologies in language learning.
Language Teaching, 50(3), 331-353.

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18

Appraisal of the Reading Curriculum in Basic Education
Across Northern Mindanao
Charito Ong1, Lorena Taglucop2, and Josan Fermano3
1

University of Science and Technology of Southern Philippines, Philippines (charito.ong@ustp.edu.ph)University of Science and Technology of Southern Philippines, Philippines (lorena.taglucop@ustp.edu.ph)3
University of Science and Technology of Southern Philippines, Philippines (josan.fermano@ustp.edu.ph)2

ABSTRACTThis study embarked on a comprehensive exploration to assess the reading competencies within the context
of basic education among high school students. The research encompassed the meticulous selection ofparticipants from elementary and high schools in the Divisions of Northern Mindanao, with a primaryobjective of discerning the diverse levels of reading proficiency. It also delved into the multifaceted realmof reading instruction and assessment strategies employed by educators before and during the COVID-19
pandemic, alongside a meticulous examination of the constructive alignment inherent within the reading
curriculum. Employing a Qualitative Research Design, integrating Qualitative Document Analysis (QDA),
Focused Group Discussion (FGD), and Constructive Alignment (CA) methodologies, the study unearthed
noteworthy insights. These insights underscored the critical need for learners to cultivate the skill of
deriving contextual inferences in reading. A significant proportion of students were positioned within thefrustration level, some even demonstrating signs of reading withdrawal, while others were classified as nonreaders. Comparing reading instruction strategies before the pandemic and during the 'new normal' revealed
an interesting paradigm shift: from extensive and varied teacher-directed approaches to more limited selfpaced independent reading tactics. Furthermore, a discernible discrepancy emerged between the
curriculum's design, assessed outcomes, and actual classroom implementation, emphasizing the need forenhanced monitoring and evaluation of assessment tools and pedagogical activities in alignment with the
K to 12 curriculum guides. Addressing these recommendations would empower educators to refine reading
pedagogy and provide the essential support for students to enhance their reading skills within the frameworkof basic education.
KEYWORDS: Reading curriculum, Constructive alignment, Assessment

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INTRODUCTION
The significance of reading across academic and personal realms was acknowledged within the Philippine
educational system. The imperative of a literate population for the country's social and economic
advancement was recognized within the global context. Thus, a concerted effort was made to enhance
students' reading comprehension skills for the betterment of the quality of life for Filipinos. This perspective
was echoed by Ness (2019), who emphasized the crucial role of reading comprehension instruction,
especially in relation to informational texts encountered across different content area classes.
Reading education held a pivotal position within Philippine schools, particularly within the public education
sector overseen by the Department of Education. Various reading initiatives were implemented acrosseducational levels to ensure universal literacy among Filipino children. Teachers were encouraged to
employ contextually relevant reading interventions, commencing as early as K2. Despite these endeavors,
the reading competence and literacy rates among students continued to decline, as evidenced by assessments
such as the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA, 2018). These findings underscored thevulnerability of Filipino learners in other subject domains due to their subpar reading literacy.
Consequently, the juncture warranted a comprehensive evaluation of the reading curriculum to scrutinize
the alignment among the written, implemented, and assessed curricula. This study concurrently sought toappraise the designated reading comprehension skills prescribed by the K to 12 curricula and gauge
students' reading proficiency levels within the realm of basic education, as gauged through readingassessment outcomes.
Moreover, this research accentuated the pivotal role of reading comprehension, marking the culmination of
the process of meaning construction. Successful comprehension ensued when readers employed cognitiveand metacognitive reading strategies, leveraging linguistic and contextual knowledge to engage with textual
material. A study by Duke et al. (2021) showcased the affirmative impact of comprehension strategy
instruction on reading proficiency. Similarly, Dew et al. (2021) established that fortified reading strategies
significantly contributed to the advancement of text comprehension. Recognizing the pivotal nature of
reading instruction in nurturing reading comprehension skills, this study aimed to pinpoint target reading
proficiencies across diverse educational tiers in basic education and ascertain students' reading aptitudes
via assessment results. Furthermore, the study aimed to uncover the methodologies of reading instructionand evaluation utilized by educators both prior to and amid the COVID-19 pandemic.
By addressing these research aims, this study aimed to enrich reading instruction and curriculum
development within the Philippine education framework, with the overarching objective of heightening
students' reading comprehension competencies and fostering heightened literacy rates.
FRAMEWORK OF THE STUDY
The theoretical framework for this research on the assessment of the basic education reading curriculum inNorthern Mindanao draws upon Constructivist Learning Theory and the Backward Design Model.
Constructivist Learning Theory posits that learners actively construct knowledge and meaning through theirinteractions with the environment and the texts they engage with (Piaget, 1973; Vygotsky, 1978). According
to Piaget, learners actively assimilate new information into their existing mental structures, while Vygotskyemphasizes the social and cultural aspects of learning, highlighting the role of language and social
interaction in knowledge construction. In the context of reading comprehension, this theory highlights theimportance of learners' active engagement with texts, critical thinking, and the application of metacognitive
strategies (Dole et al., 2016). By understanding how students construct meaning, educators can design
instructional strategies that promote deep understanding, critical analysis, and interpretation of texts (Vaccaet al., 2017). This theory will guide the research in examining how the reading curriculum and instructional
SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research20practices in Northern Mindanao facilitate the construction of meaning and the development of students'
reading comprehension skills.
The Backward Design Model, developed by Wiggins and McTighe (2005), provides a systematic approach
to curriculum development, instruction, and assessment. It emphasizes the alignment between the intended
learning outcomes, the instructional strategies employed, and the methods of assessment used to measure
students' achievement of those outcomes. In the context of this research, the Backward Design Model willserve as a guide to assess the alignment between the written curriculum, the instructional practices, and theassessment methods in Northern Mindanao. By examining the coherence and alignment between these three
key components, the study aims to identify areas of strengths and weaknesses in the reading curriculum andmake recommendations for improvement. This model has been widely used in educational settings topromote effective curriculum design and instructional practices (Wiggins, 2007).
The combination of Constructivist Learning Theory and the Backward Design Model provides acomprehensive framework for understanding and evaluating the reading curriculum in Northern Mindanao.
This framework acknowledges the active role of students in constructing meaning and the importance ofaligning the curriculum, instruction, and assessment practices to achieve desired learning outcomes. By
applying these theoretical perspectives, the research aims to shed light on the effectiveness of the reading
curriculum and provide recommendations for enhancing instructional practices and assessment methods tofoster the development of students' reading comprehension skills.
This research holds vital implications for higher education institutions as they prepare students for advanced
academic pursuits. By acknowledging the identified misalignments and challenges within the reading
curriculum, higher education institutions can better anticipate the reading proficiency levels of incoming
students. This awareness can guide the development of tailored reading programs and interventions aimed
at addressing specific deficiencies in foundational reading skills.
The emphasis on critical reading competencies and metacognitive reading skills carries relevance beyond
basic education, extending to higher education environments where complex textual analysis and criticalthinking are essential. Higher education institutions can integrate targeted interventions and coursework tofurther cultivate these skills, ensuring students' preparedness for advanced academic demands.
METHODOLOGY
The methodology employed in this study is detailed as follows.
This research embraced a mixed methods approach, blending qualitative document analysis, focused group
discussions (FGDs), and constructive alignment (CA) with basic statistical analysis. By combining thesemethods, a comprehensive examination of the research question was facilitated, enabling the triangulationof data from diverse sources.
Data collection involved employing a set of carefully prepared prompts for focus group discussions. These
prompts acted as guides during the FGDs, engaging elementary and high school teachers as well as reading
coordinators from the Department of Education Region X. Simultaneously, the research conducted aqualitative document analysis of curriculum guides, modules, and textbooks. A constructive alignment
checklist was employed to gauge the alignment between intended, implemented, and assessed curriculum
components. The validation of results obtained from the Philippine Informal Reading Inventory (PHILIRI)
and Early Grade Reading Assessment (EGRA) occurred through FGDs and qualitative documentary
analysis.
The study's participants were randomly selected from elementary and high school teachers, along withreading coordinators representing the Department of Education Region X. This sampling included theDivisions of Cagayan De Oro, El Salvador, Misamis Oriental, and Gingoog. Given the ongoing pandemic,
SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research21interactions with respondents were established through diverse communication avenues, encompassing
Google Meet, text messages, phone calls, and electronic mails.
Ahead of data collection, a formal request for study permission was sent via email to the Department of
Education Superintendent through the Curriculum and Learning Management Division. Following
approval, data was collected from teacher-respondents via focused group discussions that centered onreading instruction strategies and assessment practices. Additionally, relevant materials such as the
Curriculum Guide, PHILIRI and EGRA test outcomes, Daily Lesson Guide, and Learner's Guide were
procured. The constructive alignment checklist, initially formulated by Ghaith (2018) for Reading
Comprehension Instruction, was customized and utilized to evaluate the alignment between instructional
approaches and the intended curriculum. Ethical considerations, including informed consent andconfidentiality maintenance, were observed during the data gathering process.
Employing a mixed methods approach facilitated an exhaustive exploration of the research question,
capturing both qualitative insights and quantitative data. This amalgamation offered a deeper
comprehension of matters associated with reading instruction and curriculum coherence.
RESULTSThe results of the study are subsequently presented.
Table 1. Reading Competencies of the Respondents
Category
Searching for and selecting relevant text
Acquiring a representation of the literal meaning of a text
Inferring implicit ideas, themes, or viewpoints
Evaluating a text
Analyzing the structure and organization of a text
Interpreting text and applying it to new contexts
Recognizing the social and cultural features of a text
Distinguishing between main ideas and supporting details
Recognizing literary devices and figurative language
Reflecting on and evaluating one's own reading
Understanding the role of context in meaning-making
Recognizing textual coherence and cohesion

Frequency
High
High
Moderate
Moderate
Low
Moderate
Low
High
Moderate
Low
High
Moderate

Table 1 provides an overview of the reading competencies of the respondents categorized across twelve
distinct areas. "Searching for and selecting relevant text" emerges as the most frequently noted competency,emphasizing the significance of students' capability to navigate and comprehend a diverse array of readingmaterials. The second-ranking category, "Acquiring a representation of the literal meaning of a text,"
underscores the pivotal role of vocabulary knowledge in reading comprehension. This finding resonateswith Baumann's (2014) insights and is further corroborated by research conducted by Toquero (2020) andHennessey (2021). The outcomes of this study suggest a robust interconnection between vocabulary
mastery and comprehension, with vocabulary knowledge playing a direct role in text comprehension.
Notably, the analysis indicates a relatively limited emphasis on emergent literacy within the curricula,particularly evident in grades 7, 8, and 10. This observation underscores the necessity for intensified focus
on nurturing learners' capacity to predict reading events and establish predictable routines.

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22

Table 2. Reading Proficiency Across Grade Levels
Grade Level
Grade 9Grade 10
Grade 11
Grade 12

Proportion ofInstructional Readers
HigherHigherHigherHigher

Proportion of
Independent Readers
Lower
Lower
Lower
Lower

Proportion of NonReaders
Low
Low
Considerable
Considerable

Table 2 presents an overview of the reading proficiency outcomes across four high school grade levels in
the region. The data signifies a notable presence of instructional readers in comparison to independent
readers, suggesting the requirement for enhanced emphasis on fostering independent reading habits.
Although the disparity is not substantial, it prompts the need for further enhancement of reading instruction
across all grade levels. Additionally, a substantial proportion of students in grades 11 and 12 were identified
as non-readers, grappling with fundamental skills such as letter-sound recognition and decoding. Thisemphasizes the necessity for the Department of Education to critically evaluate the efficacy of its "Every
Filipino Child a Reader" program and implement systematic monitoring to ensure the effectiveness of its
initiatives and endeavors.
Moreover, the data reveals that the relatively larger proportion of instructional readers compared toindependent readers across multiple grade levels might be attributed to diverse factors. Anderson et al.'s(2018) research suggests that limited exposure to diverse reading materials and inadequate opportunities
for independent reading practice could hinder students' transition from instructional to independent reading.
This underscores the significance of educators and policymakers prioritizing the cultivation of independent
reading practices and furnishing students with a rich array of reading materials to stimulate their reading
autonomy and fluency. Implementing strategies like sustained silent reading periods, classroom libraries,
and nurturing a culture of reading can contribute to bridging the gap between instructional and independent
readers (Krashen, 2011).
Furthermore, the substantial number of non-readers in the elementary grades raises apprehensions about
the efficacy of the "Every Filipino Child a Reader" program enacted by the Department of Education. Thisfinding aligns with Sison's (2020) study, which underscored the necessity for targeted interventions andearly literacy support to tackle the challenges encountered by non-readers. Regular monitoring andevaluation of the program's execution, coupled with rigorous assessment of students' reading proficiencies,
can offer invaluable insights into the efficiency of existing strategies and aid in identifying avenues forenhancement. Collaborative efforts among teachers, parents, and the community are pivotal in executing
evidence-based reading interventions and furnishing tailored assistance to non-readers (Lipka et al., 2019).
In summary, the data analysis unveils a higher proportion of instructional readers in comparison to
independent readers across multiple high school grade levels, signifying the demand for amplified focus on
independent reading practices. Furthermore, the substantial number of non-readers among elementary
grades accentuates the importance of reevaluating the efficacy of the "Every Filipino Child a Reader"program and instituting continuous monitoring and targeted interventions. By addressing these concerns
and implementing strategies grounded in evidence, policymakers and educators can endeavor to elevate
literacy levels and cultivate a culture of reading among Filipino students, securing their scholastic
accomplishments and lifelong learning journey.

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Table 3. Shift in Reading Instruction Approaches and Assessment Methods Due to the COVID-19
Pandemic
Pre-COVID-19 Approaches
Diverse and extensive approaches
Varied methods
Teacher-directed practices
Emphasis on class and group dynamics

Shift During COVID-19 Pandemic
Limited approaches
Focus on self-paced independent reading
Utilization of printed modules and limited digital
resources
Adapted assessment methods
Alternative performance-based assessments
Exploration of mobile and video-based assessment

Table 3 provides a clear comparison of the changes in reading instruction approaches and assessment
methods that occurred due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Prior to the pandemic, reading instruction involved
diverse and extensive approaches, encompassing various methods and primarily directed by teachers. The
emphasis was on class and group dynamics. However, the pandemic led to a shift in these approaches. The
focus shifted towards self-paced independent reading, often using printed modules and a restricted range ofdigital resources. Alongside, there was an adaptation in assessment methods, incorporating alternative
performance-based assessments and exploring novel methods like mobile and video-based assessment. This
adaptation aimed to cater to students engaged in remote learning settings.
The change in reading instruction and assessment methods during the pandemic underscores the challenges
posed by remote learning. Chen et al.'s (2021) study emphasized the rapid transition to online teaching,
resulting in modifications in instructional strategies and the integration of technology for delivering readingmaterials and evaluating students' reading abilities. This shift highlights the need for educators to explore
innovative strategies to ensure effective reading instruction and assessment in the context of online learning.
The findings suggest that combining synchronous and asynchronous strategies and incorporating digital
resources can enhance student engagement and facilitate meaningful reading experiences in remote learning
environments.

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research24

Table 4. Alignment Assessment of Reading Curriculum Components

The findings from the assessment of the curriculum underscore a significant lack of alignment among thewritten, assessed, and executed curriculum within the realm of reading. Evidently, specific learning
objectives outlined in the K-12 curriculum guide were insufficiently addressed and evaluated by educators.
This misalignment distinctly contravenes the tenets of the Curriculum, Content, and Assessment (CCA)
model, as articulated by Capin et al. (2021), which emphasizes the pivotal necessity for seamless integration
across these three crucial components.
Moreover, upon scrutinizing the assessments, it became apparent that not all the prescribed reading
proficiencies delineated in the written curriculum guide were effectively gauged. Further inconsistencies
came to light in the instructional methods and learning activities executed within the enacted curriculum,
deviating from the specific reading competencies under evaluation. These revelations accentuate theparamount importance of fostering harmonious alignment between the envisaged curriculum, the executed
curriculum, and the assessed curriculum, all working in tandem to cultivate proficient teaching and learning
outcomes in the domain of reading.
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The incorporation of alternative performance-based assessment methods, as recommended by this study,
can foster a culture of comprehensive evaluation in higher education. By adopting these practices,institutions can move beyond conventional testing approaches and assess students' holistic understanding
and application of reading skills. This shift aligns with the overarching goals of higher education – to nurture
well-rounded learners capable of analytical thinking and effective communication.
In essence, the insights provided by this research offer higher education institutions a foundation for
informed decision-making, curriculum development, and instructional planning. By proactively addressing
the identified reading proficiency challenges, institutions can contribute to the overall academic readiness
SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research

25and success of their students in both foundational and advanced educational settings.
The enhancement of critical reading competencies and metacognitive reading skills is imperative across all
grade levels, necessitating diversified reading activities that effectively engage learners and cultivate
sustained focus. This should be prioritized to fortify students' foundational reading abilities.
The assessment of the "Every Filipino Child a Reader" program underscores the urgency for its
reevaluation. The prevalence of frustration-level readers among respondents signifies a substantial hurdlein achieving reading proficiency. Moreover, the notable presence of non-readers accentuates the immediateneed for targeted interventions to address reading challenges and provide tailored support.
Misalignments within the delivered curriculum are evident, particularly regarding prescribed reading
activities and the comprehensive assessment of specified reading competencies. To bridge these gaps, it isrecommended to devise structured and adaptable home-based reading activities and methodologies. Thisapproach will ensure the acquisition of essential reading skills suited for the new normal learning landscape.
Augmenting traditional multiple-choice assessments with alternative performance-based evaluation
methods is advised. This inclusive approach will offer a more comprehensive measurement of students'
reading proficiencies. Additionally, DepEd Region X should reinforce its oversight of assessment tools andinstructional practices in reading to harmonize the learning objectives, pedagogical approaches, andassessment strategies as outlined in the K to 12 curriculum guides. Collectively, these recommendations
are geared toward refining the synergy between curriculum, instruction, and assessment within the realmof reading. The ultimate aim is to elevate students' reading prowess and foster tangible learningachievements.
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The report of the commission on reading. Center for the Study of Reading.
Baumann, J. F. (2014). Vocabulary and reading comprehension: The nexus of meaning. In Handbook of
research on reading comprehension. Routledge.
Biggs, W. (2018). A Curriculum Alignment Analysis for Elementary Students. Language Education in
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Education and Culture Review, 1(1), 87-96.
Capin, P., Stevens, E. A., Stewart, A. A., Swanson, E., & Vaughn, S. (2021). Examining vocabulary,reading comprehension, and content knowledge instruction during fourth-grade social studies
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Integrative Review.
Dole, J. A., Duffy, G. G., Roehler, L. R., & Pearson, P. D. (2016). Reading comprehension: From
research to practice. Guilford Publications.
Duke, N. K., Ward, A. E., & Pearson, P. D. (2021). The Science of Reading Comprehension Instruction.
The Reading Teacher, 74(6), 663-672.
Ghaith, G. M. (2018). Reading comprehension instructional framework. TESL Reporter, 50(2), 1-17.
Retrieved fromhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/322420879_Reading_Comprehension_InstructionalFra
meworkHennessy, N. L. (2021). The Reading Comprehension Blueprint: Helping Students Make Meaning from
Text. Brookes Publishing Company.
Krashen, S. D. (2011). Free voluntary reading: new research, applications, and controversies. Libraries
Unlimited.
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Lipka, O., Leseman, P. P. M., Breit-Smith, A., & McLeod, A. (2019). Home literacy environments andhome language practices of bilingual immigrant families: Predictors of emergent literacy andlanguage learning in early childhood. Review of Educational Research, 89(3), 348-385.
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Sison, M. J. L. (2020). Factors affecting the reading skills of Grade 2 non-readers in a selected publicschool in Nueva Vizcaya. Asia Pacific Journal of Multidisciplinary Research, 8(2), 121-127.
Solari, E. J., Grimm, R. P., & Henry, A. R. (2021). An Exploration of the Heterogeneous Nature of
Reading Comprehension Development in First Grade: The Impact of Word and Meaning Skills.
Journal of Learning Disabilities, 00222194211036203.
Toquero, C. M. (2020). Challenges and Opportunities for Higher Education amid the COVID-19
Pandemic: The Philippine Context. Pedagogical Research, 5(4).
Vacca, R. T., Vacca, J. L., & Mraz, M. (2017). Content area reading: Literacy and learning across thecurriculum. Pearson.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Harvard
University Press.
Wiggins, G. P. (2007). Understanding by design. ASCD.
Wiggins, G. P., & McTighe, J. (2005). Understanding by design (2nd ed.). ASCD.

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research27

Application of Balanced Scorecard as Performance Measurement at Nias University
Kenn Julian Theophillus Zega1, Dr. M.L. Denny Tewu., S.E.2, M.M., Dr. Ir. Ktut Silvanita, MA.3
1Christian University of Indonesia, Indonesia (kennzega1805@gmail.com)
2
Christian University of Indonesia, Indonesia (denny.tewu@uki.ac.id)
3
Christian University of Indonesia, Indonesia (ktut.silvanita@uki.ac.id)

ABSTRACT
To improve quality human resources, universities need to have performance measurements that can be usedas guidelines in carrying out university activities. These measurements can be used to assess the success of
the University. Universities need a tool that can be used to measure financial and non-financial performanceusing the balanced scorecard through four perspectives namely financial perspective, customer perspective,
internal process perspective, and learning and development process perspective. With the existence of theperformance measurement tools Balanced Scorecard, it is hoped that the university can measure its
performance well, and produce strategic plans that are comprehensive, coherent, balanced, and measurable.
In knowing these four aspects using qualitative methods consisting of interviews, observation, anddocumentation. The existence of continuity between leaders and lecturers and students makes the vision,
mission, and strategy work well. Communication is an important role in progress. from the four perspectives
that are interrelated with quality improvement objectives, good service, transparent finance, an innovationthat continues to grow, fulfillment of student rights and satisfaction, providing work motivation, improving
HR skills with training and character building, and using an integrated and easy system applied. The
implication is how the leadership's desire can turn bad management into good and transparent management
so that university governance can be implemented. BSC as a management system used can include financial
and non-financial matters consisting of finances, customers, internal processes, and learning and growthfrom leaders, students, and lecturers.
KEYWORDS: Balanced Scorecard, Performance, Quality, Strategy, University.

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28

INTRODUCTION
The improvement and productivity of human resources, which are expected to be competitive, innovative,
and productive, can make Indonesia a country that is ready to face demographic bonuses and technologicaldisruption. President Joko Widodo's administration has encouraged reform in the education sector andprepared a budget for the education of Rp. 608.3 Trillion in the 2023 State Budget Bill speech.
This large budget allocation is expected to be able to improve the quality of human resources which isemphasized on five things, namely increasing access to education at all levels, improving the quality of
infrastructure for educational activities, especially in the 3T areas, namely outermost, disadvantaged andforemost, strengthening connections and compatibility with the labor market, equalizing the quality ofeducation, and improving the quality of Early Childhood Education services.
In addition, President Joko Widodo's administration is committed to strengthening investment in the
education sector, by supporting the expansion of scholarship programs, promoting culture, strengthening
world universities, and developing research and innovation. That way, the commitment of 20% of the statebudget for education is maintained and has been regulated in Law Number 20 of 2003 Article 49 paragraph
1 concerning the allocation of education funds. The seriousness of the current government in education
reform and realizing the ideals of competitive human resources can provide benefits to the community andbecome a success during President Joko Widodo's two-term administration.
To improve quality human resources, universities need to have performance measurements that can serve
as guidelines for carrying out university activities. These measurements can be used to assess the successof the University. So far, performance measurement has only been seen from a financial perspective.
Meanwhile, a non-financial perspective also measures the success of the University's performance.
The existence of this balance makes the University's performance successful and run well. In this regard,
the University needs a tool that can be used to measure financial and non-financial performance using four
perspectives, namely financial perspective, customer perspective, internal process perspective, and learningand development perspective. The tool that can be used to measure these four perspectives is the balanced
scorecard method. A balanced scorecard is a tool used to measure performance from four perspectives bothfinancially and non-financially.
In improving the quality of higher education, Nias University (UNIAS) has several aspects and guidelines
so that the university can run well, namely:
1. Vision, mission, goals, and strategy
Nias University has a concise, short, and clear vision. The vision provides what the university wants
to achieve. To realize its vision, the university's mission states what it intends to do in concreteterms. Nias University also has clear, specific, and relevant objectives and strategies for its visionand mission.
2. Academic Executive
This standard is a factor of excellence in the quality of human resources and ensures the quality of
study program organizers, through academic programs that are in line with the vision, mission,
goals, and strategies.
With the balanced scorecard performance measurement tool, it is expected that the university can measure
its performance well, producing a comprehensive, coherent, balanced, and measurable strategic plan.

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29

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Based on the background that has been described, the problems that will be discussed in this study are as
follows:
How is the application of the balanced scorecard as performance measurement in the four perspectives offinance, customers, internal processes, learning, and development at Nias University to improve quality
human resources?
FRAMEWORK OF THE STUDY
The application of the Balanced Scorecard to measure performance at Nias University can be seen in thefollowing figure:
Financial
Perspectives

Internal
Process
Perspectives

Customer
Perspectives
BALANCEDSCORECARD
Performance Measurement

Lerning and
GrowthPerspectives

Figure 1: Framework of the study.
METHODOLOGY
A. Type of ResearchThis research on "APPLICATION OF BALANCED SCORECARD AS PERFORMANCEMEASUREMENT AT NIAS UNIVERSITY" uses qualitative research methods. Qualitative research isresearch that is oriented toward natural phenomena or symptoms. Qualitative research is a research
procedure that produces descriptive data in the form of written or spoken words from people and observablebehavior. Data validity in qualitative research is the degree of accuracy between the data that occurs on theobject of research with the power that researchers can report. Data in qualitative research is considered
reliable if the researcher is in the field conditions in accordance with the reality that occurs. Qualitative
research is subjective and reflective because the researcher acts as an instrument. The level of reliability inthe qualitative approach is individual or not the same between researchers with one another, because eachresearch relies on the researcher himself. In qualitative research no standard instrument is used but the
researcher acts as an instrument. Data collected verbally is enriched and deepened by the results ofobservations, listening, perceptions, meaning / appreciation of researchers. However, even though theresearcher involves subjectivity, he must be disciplined and honest with himself because qualitative
research must have objectivity as well. Objectivity here means that the data found is analyzed carefully andthoroughly, arranged, categorized systematically, and interpreted based on the experience, frame of mind,
perception of the researcher without prejudice and certain tendencies.
B. Object of Research
The object of research is the thing that is the focus of research. In this research, the focus of research is thebalanced scorecard in the four perspectives to measure performance at Nias University.

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30

BALANCED SCORECARD AS PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENTFOR UNIVERSITY OF NIAS

VISION, MISSION, GOALS, AND STRATEGIESFinancial
Perspectives

Customer
Perspectives

Internal Process
Perspectives-Good and transparent
organization finances-Seeking funds fromthe government orother assistance-Student satisfaction-Fulfillment ofstudent rights-Process review-Good service-Continuous
innovation

Learning and Growth
Perspectives-Provision of training
and character building
Use of a wellorganized system-Work motivation as
encouragement

Figure 2: Object of research in the balanced scorecard.
The chart explains that the application of the balanced scorecard as a performance measurement of Nias
University can be seen from the university's vision, university mission, university goals, and university
strategies which are divided into financial and non-financial perspectives which are divided into four
perspectives, namely financial perspectives, stakeholder perspectives, internal process perspectives, andlearning and development perspectives.
From the financial perspective, it can be seen that finance is an important role in managing a university
which must be managed properly and transparently so that the university has a strategy for what it wants tobuild in the future. Likewise, in terms of seeking funds from the government and other grant funds throughthe network that is owned, the university can improve its human resources and good infrastructure.
From the customer’s perspective, students are also one of the important things in the development of auniversity. Students who excel and are competent are the pride of the university itself. So, the university
must also fulfill the rights of students and the satisfaction of the students themselves both when they become
students and after graduating later.
From an internal perspective, the process is also important for the university. How the university wants toevaluate the results of its performance by looking at the processes that have been carried out so far so that
there is an increase in good service and the university continues to transform to become better by making
continuous innovations.
From the perspective of learning and development, universities need to improve the human resources oflecturers and employees by providing training and character building, using a good system, and being given
motivation or awards as encouragement for lecturers and employees to work.
C. Place and Time of Research
1. Place of ResearchThis research was conducted at Nias University. Address: Jalan Yos Sudarso Ujung No.118/E-S, Ombolata
Ulu, Kecamatan Gunungsitoli, Gunungsitoli City, North Sumatra 22812. Email: admin@unias.ac.id.
SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research31

2. Research Time
This research was conducted from November to December 2022.
D. Social situation
The social situation in this research is the leadership of Nias University, lecturers, and also students of Nias
University,
E. Data collection
This method is done in three ways, namely: The first step is the interview method by conducting face-toface and direct questions and answers between researchers and sources. The second step is observation bylooking at the surrounding situation. And the third step is the document study method, documents regarding
university statutes, academic guidelines, and several documents and documentation that are needed.
RESULTSThe balanced scorecard is how management can evaluate its performance not only on the financial part, butthere are other things such as customers, internal processes, and learning and growth which are nonfinancial aspects that are sometimes not considered. implementing this, the driving force in implementingbalanced scorecard at Nias University is due to the willingness of the leadership to improve as a whole. So
that researchers welcome this good thing. After conducting research at Nias University from November 21,
2022, to December 30, 2022. There is some data that researchers get with the interview, observation, anddocumentation methods which will be explained below:
Interviews were conducted with 8 resource persons to obtain information about the four perspectives in thebalanced scorecard. The Resource Persons consisted of three students in each faculty for the customer
perspective, three lecturers in each faculty for the learning and development perspective, one Faculty
Leader for the internal process perspective, and one University Leader for the financial perspective.
The interviews were conducted to answer the research question, namely how is the implementation of abalanced scorecard method performance measurement in the four perspectives of finance, internal process
customers, learning, and development at Nias University? and then describe the findings.
When viewed from the interview above, the balanced scorecard which consists of four perspectives can bemade in the strategic map as below:
Table 1: BSC STRATEGY MAP
BSC STRATEGY MAP
FINANCIAL
Expanding revenue opportunities, Use of Revenue, Strategy to
PERSPECTIVE
increase the number of incoming students,
CUSTOMER
Student satisfaction, employment opportunities, student rights,
PERSPECTIVE
participation in activities,
INTERNAL
Teaching excellence, learning excellence, updated curriculum,
PROCESS
good service, increased accreditation.
PERSPECTIVELEARNING AND
Training, asset development, attendance, communication,
GROWTHemployee appreciation, motivation, and reference materials.
PERSPECTIVE
Provision of further education scholarships. cooperation withvarious parties.

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32

Financial Perspective
Finance at Nias University shows a positive trend in its development, along with the large number of newstudents who enrolled when the first enrollment opened with the university designation. On the other hand,in financial arrangements that use an organized system that can be monitored through bank statements,
transparency is immediately applied from the start so that the university can run well and with integrity.
The most income is still from the payment of student tuition fees which shows good results, especially inthe number of new students who enter. Grant funding from both the government and other sources is still
limited. For example, the Nias Regency Government has only provided grants in the form of scholarships
to residents with Nias Regency ID cards. There is no grant from an institution to improve the university.
There is also a lot to be done in terms of expenditure because the university has just been established.
Starting from the construction of new buildings, adding facilities and infrastructure, operational costs,
scholarships for outstanding students, and providing training to lecturers and employees. Even like that, theuniversity still sees its financial balance.
Customer Perspective
Customers, in this case, students who use services and facilities from the university, feel that since theformation of UNIAS, they are quite happy because there is a real form of implementation such as theconstruction of new buildings, and the addition of ac units and projectors. The services provided have also
become better and more responsive to students. So that what you want to take care of such as administration,
finance, complaints, and suggestions can be responded to properly.
In terms of teaching, they have also used technology such as presentations using laptops, and active
discussions between lecturers and students. According to students, there is still no forum provided by theuniversity in providing job connections after graduation. Regarding tuition fees, most students at UNIAS
come from the region and are economically disadvantaged. The high tuition fees make payments sometimes
late, which burdens students because they have to live in boarding houses and the cost of living is highcompared to the area so parents' income cannot cover this. Even so, there is a scholarship program provided
for the faculty of science and technology only.
The disadvantage felt by students is the lack of socialization of policies and rules to students so there is amisunderstanding of information. In this transition period, there are still many perceived shortcomings suchas a lack of parking lots, some classrooms that lack air conditioning and are too crowded, and small andless clean bathrooms. For sports facilities, spirituality and student organizations still do not exist. The
existing activities are dance studios, UNIAS Voice, seminars, English lessons, computer lessons, andstudent organizations activities.
Internal Process Perspective
Leaders in the University have a way to take care of their internal, teaching, and learning excellence,lecturers must first plan the syllabus and Semester Learning Plan in lectures which are conducted 16 times
including midterm exam and end semester exam. Lectures use laptops for assignments and presentations,and there are even teaching and assignments made in YouTube videos. In terms of innovation, lecturers
direct students to make crafts both in the form of handicrafts and food that have an impact on society andsell them so that they are included in the entrepreneurship course. Lecturers also conduct industrial visits
in factories to see firsthand the process of making products. The academic innovation carried out is thedesign of Merdeka Belajar Kampus Medeka (MBKM) for the new curriculum because until now it is stillusing the Kerangka Kualifikasi Nasional Indonesia (KKNI) curriculum in which student practice isincluded, internships within 3 months, where in their activities students look for companies to be occupied
and then the university gives internship request letters to companies both local, state-owned enterprise,accounting service offices. Furthermore, the increase of Associate's degree of accounting to bachelor of
accounting is being attempted.
SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research33

In terms of services provided, it is also done well and according to responsibility. Services are also open instudy programs, faculties, and universities. Students are directed to choose courses using an online system
and are integrated including grades and attendance. The real thing that is done if there is unsatisfactory
service is evaluated by calling and reprimanding so that the service can be done better. Unfortunately,
training for employees has not been carried out so that a lack of broad insight.
The university's assessment of its lecturers to assess their performance is seen from the attendance list, andemployee work objectives assessment once a year, lecturers also make minutes of lecture meetings so thatthe university knows what lecturers do in the lecture.
In reviewing the process, some policies are decided quickly because they are still in transition. Some rules,
regulations, development master plan, and strategic plan, guidelines for making scientific papers have been
made well.
The form of obstacles experienced in this internal process is still the existence of lecturers who cannot
master technology. Some cannot use laptops, while the university wants to teach in the form ofpresentations. Furthermore, some students do not have laptops due to weak family economics, whichhampers the teaching and learning process, assignments, and presentations carried out. Another thing thatmust be improved is the problem of network and electricity because it is located on the islands, the network
is sometimes unstable and also sometimes the lights go out. The university's solution to these blackouts to
procure generators as a form of good service, while the internet network must be resolved immediately withthe addition of a strong wifi network.
The formation of the university is also an internal advantage in the process because the greater theopportunity to be able to get the number of new students who register, the cooperation with several parties
such as state-owned enterprise, North Sumatera Bank (Bank Sumut), State Treasury Service Office(KPPN), and cooperation with National Bank of Indonesia (BNI) in terms of student cards combined with
atm cards so that they can make transactions and be used in library access. That is how internal universities
improve their services, evaluate processes, and continuous innovation.
Learning and Development Perspective
Communication between lecturers and lecturers, lecturers and study program leaders, lecturers and facultyleaders, and lecturers and university leaders run well and intensely, there is no rigidity in conveying mattersrelated to the university such as discussion of materials and activities that can be conveyed through lecturer
groups and input for university development. The existence of differences of opinion is a natural thing in
the process which increases the thinking and learning of fellow lecturers. Problems that occur are
immediately handled first by the new study program leader to the faculty leader, if it is still not finished,
then to the university leader. In their activities, lecturers also have lessons on how to minimize failure in
lectures, namely obeying existing regulations, evaluating themselves to correct mistakes made previously,
preparing teaching materials according to Semester Learning Plan, providing motivation to students,
holding lectures 16 times a semester, giving student assignments, and keeping a journal. There is still no
training aimed at each individual, only training such as general seminars and workshops for thedevelopment of learning methods and human resources.
In terms of attendance, it also affects the performance of lecturers. Lecturers who are not present duringlectures mean that there is no responsibility for their work. Attendance has also been implemented online
so that it can be seen immediately. To motivate lecturers in the form of awards is still not applied because
it is still in the transition period but in the future planning will be done so that lecturers will be moreenthusiastic in doing their work because lecturers and employees are university assets. For learning is also
still lacking with the lack of reference books in the library, internet network access is not good, and parking
is still not organized. Hopefully, everything can be resolved and realized so that campus accreditation

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34

increases. Infrastructure facilities are also in improving the skills of lecturers such as laboratories, sports
facilities are also expected to be held soon.
Nias University also cooperates with Universitas Sumatera Utara and Universitas Negeri Medan inproviding scholarships for lecturers in improving their quality with doctoral programs. Nias University also
conducts MoUs with outside parties and several public and private universities in realizing the tridarma of
higher education which is useful for improving the quality of Nias University. From the results of theinterviews conducted, it can be made in the form of a scorecard:
Table 2: Nias University Scorecard
Objective

Goals

Indicators

Financial
Perspective

Increasing Income

University Welfare

Financial
Statements

Customer
Perspective

Increase in thenumber of
students

Qualified Students

Student
Satisfaction andRightsInternal
Process
Perspective

Service
Improvement andAccreditation,
Strategy Planning,
Guidelines, Rules,
and Regulations

Learning Excellence,
curriculum,
innovation, andeffectiveness.

Cooperation,
Hospitality,
Accreditation.

Human resource
Learning
Improvement andand Growth
Facility
Perspective
Development

Development of
Study Programs,
Faculties, andUniversities, Use of
systems andtechnology, Trainingof human resources,
and providing
motivation.

Training,Awards, andConstruction of
Facilities andInfrastructure.

Initiative
University promotion,seeking grantassistance, andappropriate use offunds
Good service andteaching, Provision of
employment
opportunities,
Provision of campus
activities
ATM-based student
cards, Use of the new
curriculum, andcreating future
strategies with
development masterplan and strategicplan. employee work
objectives assessment.
Construction of a newbuilding, Addition ofac and projector
facilities, Provision ofDoctoral Program
Scholarships,
Awarding.

The table is divided into four different perspectives with given objectives, goals, indicators, and initiatives.
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
From the results of the research conducted, Nias University can utilize it as one of the ways how thebalanced scorecard at the university can be applied with the aim of evaluating performance. It can also be
an input for the university for proposed improvements from various aspects to improve the quality of theuniversity itself. And the results of this study can be used as a reference for similar research in the future.
SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research

35Especially in the application of the balanced scorecard for performance measurement at the university.
Measurement of university performance using the balanced scorecard method in this study was carried out
on ten aspects, namely: aspects of good and transparent organizational finance, aspects of seeking funds
from the government or other assistance, aspects of student satisfaction, aspects of fulfilling student rights,
aspects of process review, aspects of good service, aspects of continuous innovation, aspects of training
and character building, aspects of using a good system, and aspects of work motivation as encouragement.
Of these ten aspects, some have been running well, some are in the planning process and some have notbeen held at all.
The existence of continuity between leaders with lecturers and students makes the vision, mission, andstrategy can be done well. Communication is an important role in progress. of the four existing perspectives
are interrelated to improve quality, good service, transparent finance, growing innovation, fulfilling student
rights and satisfaction, providing work motivation, increasing HR skills with training and characterbuilding, and using an integrated and easy-to-implement system.
Based on what the researcher felt in this study was due to the new formation of the college which at thetime of the study had only been operating for 9 months, of course, there were still not many activities andthere were still many experiments being carried out so that nothing was routinely done. Furthermore, theresearch time is short so it does not cover the entire college.
This research implies that the leadership's desire can change bad management into good and transparent
management so that higher education governance can be implemented. BSC as a management system used
can cover financial and non-financial matters consisting of finance, customers, internal processes, andlearning and growth from leaders, students, and lecturers.
The recommendations given to the Nias University and other universities are:
1. Needs to accelerate the use of systems and technology from all existing activities because it canmake it easier to monitor and evaluate results directly.
2. Needs to plan a campus area that is close together so that distance, communication, activities, andmanagement can be done quickly.
3. Immediately applies the balanced scorecard as a method in the management system andperformance measurement at the university.
4. Immediately cooperates with various parties to obtain sufficient funds for development,
construction, research, innovation, and scholarships to accelerate the quality of students, lecturers,
and employee services within the university.
RESEARCH LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE STUDY
The limitations of my research are as follows:
1. At the time of conducting the research, the university of Nias had not yet reached the age of one
year so it was still in the adjustment stage in the implementation and completeness of teaching
2. The resource persons were determined from representatives of the rectorate consisting of students
from each faculty who are also administrators of student organizations, then lecturers from eachfaculty, faculty leaders, and representatives of the rectorate itself.
Future research after the normal running of the university in the next few years can be improved by looking
at the performance every year, whether the balanced scorecard has been applied.
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assurance practices. Quality Assurance in Education.
Robert S. Kaplan dan David P. Norton. (2000). Balance Scorecard: Menerapkan Strategi Menjadi Aksi,
Jakarta: Erlangga.
Sugiyono, (2008). Metode Penelitian Kuantitatif, Kualitatif dan R&D, Bandung: Alfabeta.
Surya Dharma. (2013). Manajemen Kinerja: Falsafah Teori dan Penerapannya, Yogyakarta: Pustaka
Pelajar.
Wibowo. (2007). Manajemen Kinerja. Jakarta : PT. Raja Grafindo Persada.

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Historical Learning Based on Literature to Sharpen the Spirit of Nationalism
for Junior High School Students in Indonesia
Wahyu Purwiyastuti1 and Sunardi2
1

Satya Wacana Christian University, Indonesia (wahyu.purwiyastuti@uksw.edu.)
2
Satya Wacana Christian University, Indonesia (sunardi.sunardi@uksw.edu)

ABSTRACT
Roman Buiten het Gareel which was written and published in 1930 is the story about struggling of
Suwarsih, Sudarmo and their friends. The dynamics of life framed in everyday life are represented throughworks on nationalistic education themes. A few years later (1975) the novel was translated by Suwarsih
into Indonesian with the title Manusia Bebas. Why does literature-based social studies learning important
to sharpen the spirit of nationalism and relevant to measure the knowledge and practice of nationalism. The
research used a historical method and also kognitif historical excurtion as methodology. Document such as
pictures of student’s imajination are used to objectify the research. Historical novels are relevant for social
studies in Indonesia because it bring more cognitive imajination from another state oriented perspective.
This kind of learning pattern reduces of the historical learning style by rote memorization. The philosophyof history methodology is argued to be the needs of students when the logic of historical events is based onliterary works.
KEYWORDS: historical learning, Indonesian nationalism, historical novel

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research

38

INTRODUCTION
Since Indonesia independence, education system has been constructed in various scenarious. 1975 was animportant period for education system in Indonesia. The curriculum center institution of Indonesian
Republic produced a new document that was endorsed at that time for Junior High School. Innovative
thinking began to be developed through 1975 curriculum. A significant change that occurred in curriculum
was the implementation of a broad-fields organization that combined subjects. Earth science, economics,
and history are united into the field of Social Sciences abbreviated as IPS, stand for Ilmu Pengetahuan
Sosial.(Hasan, Kurikulum SMP dari Masa Hindia Belanda hingga kini, 2020; Martono, 1987) Said Hamid
Hasan explained in his book that social science is the study of a group behavior of human beings.(Calhoun,1971 in Hasan, 1996) History is argued as a field of science that is identical to events and historiographic
narratives.
In 2023, Indonesia is implementing learning using the Merdeka Curriculum. Merdeka curriculum is aconcept of a feature is differentiated learning. Class activities are designed to be interesting and adapting to
the talents of students' interests. The differentiated model in social studies learning is idealized as a solution
to students' habit of memorizing historical material.
Teacher has been managed the class in a way for student to study independently or in a group. In 2022,
social studies teachers at Satya Wacana Laboratory accepted collaboration with a researcher team from theHistory Education department in Satya Wacana Christian University. One of the research activities was toobserve how students understand national history material. The problem that arises is that teachers andstudents have not utilized learning resources in the form of literary works (historical novels) to enrich thenationalistic imagination. The title of historical novel is Manusia Bebas. This novel is a translation of roman
Buiten het Gareel which was written and published in 1930. A few years later (1975) the novel wastranslated by Suwarsih into Indonesian with the title Manusia Bebas. Term of Manusia Bebas could be
define as a human being independently of thought, speaking, argueing, doing, etc. Indonesian people used
to had opinion that Bebas or freedom similar with a respons of free from kolonialization. This novel waspresented the story about struggling of Suwarsih, Sudarmo and their friends. They were teachers who did
devote all of their life for Indonesian education. The dynamics of life framed in everyday life are represented
through works on nationalistic education themes.
Why does literature-based social-historical studies important to sharpen the spirit of nationalism among
junior high school students? The answer to this question is obtained by identifying the learning process ofjunior high school students in Salatiga city and what students understand about nationalism. Why does
Manusia Bebas relevant to measure the knowledge and practice of nationalism?
The research method used to this study is the historical method.(Kartodirdjo, 1992) The researchmethodology was using the concept of historical excursion by Nugroho Notosusanto. Data were obtained
from six students of Satya Wacana Christian Laboratory Junior High School grades VII and VIII who wereselected as research subjects. In October 2022, six students of SMP Laboratorium Satya Wacana wererecruited as young excursion cadres. At that time, students were asked to imagine Indonesia and then pour
their imagination into sheets of paper in the form of picture symbols and narratives. Students performed thetask without receiving instructions from the research team. This activity was deliberate so that there was no
ideological intimidation from the researcher's side. The assumption is that students have had recordings ofhistorical events obtained from various parties before. Contributors who feed the imagination can beobtained from the family environment, teachers, or relational at school. The activity of scratching
imagination into paper media is carried out to measure the spirit of Indonesian nationalism.(Purwiyastuti,2023) Kuntowijoyo describes that the knowledge system is a part of culture that can be associated withsymbols and social systems in the sociology of knowledge approach.(Kuntowijoyo, 1994).

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research39After the first activity, students were asked to do the second stage to read a literary work (Manusia Bebas).
This literacy method is carried out to gain inspirational knowledge from the role of characters in the novel.
The setting and characterization of Suwarsih Djojopuspito's novel are assumed to spark students'
imagination. At this stage, the researcher practiced the participant observation method (Mertler, 2011). Thisis important to sharpen the identification of literacy practices. The researcher observed the subject, but also
participated with the students. The role of the researcher in the observation arena is equal and active. Thisis important so that the researcher can learn directly how students' participation acts, observe patterns of
behavior, participate in discovering unexpected events in the group, and motivate students to actively
participate in expressing their arguments.(Daryanto, 2011)
The conceptual framework used to analyze students imagination uses the thoughts of Indonesian historian,
Nugroho Notosusanto. He was an Indonesian minister of education and cultural who died in 1985. Nugroho
Notosusanto had also argued as a New Order keyperson. In 1975, Nugroho Notosusanto had been placed
the concept of historical excursions as an important element that junior high school students in Indonesia
should undertake. The concept and its philosophical basis are illustrated below:
Etymology: excurtion

Historical
Excurtion

Epistemology: visiting historical objects around the place of residence in a short period oftime, maximum of 24 hours, conducting observation activities, imagining and finding
inspiration, interpretation, as capital to create a lively historical story.
Aksiology: to discover events, the content of ethical values, aesthetics, also produces
historiography

Figur 1: Philosophical Basis of the Historical Excursion Concept
Sources: Notosusanto, 1985 dan Purwiyastuti, 2022
Excursion studies as argued by Nugroho Notosusanto in the past were constructed according to the zeitgeist.
In today's digital era, excursions need to be adaptive. So, researchers practiced the excursion concept at
Satya Wacana Laboratory Junior High School with a cognitive-imaginative approach. Students do not visit
the historical object area directly, but their imagination moves into the setting of the novel Manusia Bebas.
The practice of imagination analyzed through the social studies-history learning process is inspired by ascientific article by Sydney C. Li (Li, 2015). In that article, Sydney presents the idea of novel-based history
teaching. The author explores the use of new historicism to enrich social studies, strengthen
multiculturalism in secondary schools and strengthen interdisciplinarity. Sydney also analyzes textbooks toillustrate the lack of multiculturalism in history or social studies education in high schools in the UnitedStates. After reviewing the article, the assumption emerged that history teaching should ideally be used toshape the human person. It is important to do so that history subjects are not only memorized or called
memorie-vak. (Ali, 1963) The state has an interest in positioning history teaching as a medium to strengthen
the spirit of nationalism or nationality. Social studies textbooks are one of the infrastructures to placenationalistic interests in Indonesia.(Mukminam, 2017)
Historical Learning and Imajination of Indonesia
Satya Wacana Junior High School is a laboratory for the development of education and an internship site
for students of the Faculty of Teacher Training and Education. Satya Wacana Laboratory Junior HighSchool was established on July 15, 1985 in Salatiga.(Paaneah, 2020) The students come from various ethnic
groups in Indonesia. Social studies learning at Satya Wacana Laboratory Junior High School is conducted
for 160 minutes a week. Teachers deliver material with a variety of learning media that are argued toincrease student focus and attention. National history is given to grade VIII students with the theme of
SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research40changes in Indonesian society during the colonial period and the growth of the national spirit.(Mukminam,2017) In this material, nationalism is argued as the spirit of resistance to colonialism and imperialism.

Students need to have historical awareness and try to draw lessons from past experiences. History ofIndonesian nation is a source of knowledge to find the strength, to face challenges, and overcome
obstacles.(Hardi, 1988) Teachers are responsible for teaching nationalism as a form of popular resistancein certain areas so that heroic figures emerge, such as Teuku Umar, Cut Nyak Dien, Cut Meutia,
Sisingamangaraja, and so on.(Mukminam, 2017) Nationalism concept that students understanding is
identical to ceremonies, respecting the flag, the obligation to sing the national anthem, and respect forheroes. Nationalism is also learned through outbursts of major events such as the Sumpah Pemuda,
Indonesian independence commemoration ceremonies, or national anthems. In fact, social fact shows thatnationalism is the spirit of the Indonesian nation that can be found in daily activities.
In 2022, Satya Wacana researchers designed an activity for Junior High School students. They were asked
to define nationalism. At that time, researchers did not provide historical material and gave students the
freedom to express their ideas. On average, students still understand nationalism as an action with a stateoriented perspective. They presented conceptions derived from historical materials obtained from theirsocial studies teacher. Samuel and Lita stated that they also understand nationalism in cultural arts
subjects.(Lita, 2023)
Students argued that nationalism is a sense of love for the country, willing to sacrifice, togetherness as acountry and not oriented towards regionalism, pride in the country. A sense of pride in the country needs
to be realized by protecting it from various challenges. Nationalism can also be interpreted as a way of life
to maintain the unity of the whole community. Students recounted the practice of nationalism in theirschool. For example, children learn with a serious attitude when attending lessons on the history of thenation's struggle. Students also respect the heroes, sing a song Indonesia Raya, every two weeks students
follow the ceremonial procession. In their school, teachers make it a habit for students to sing local andnational songs. "When I sing Halo-halo Bandung, I remember how Indonesian heroes fought against theinvaders," Asha said.(Asha, 2023) Student’s opinion based on their stated oriented nationalism is represent
in figure 2.
Figure 2 is a realization of junior high school students' thoughts on the conception of nationality or
Indonesianness. At this stage students firmly reflected nationalism in many symbols from the stated oriented
path. From pictures below, we can pay attention to how students were imajined nationalism. A flag,Indonesian archipelago, Bhinneka Tunggal Ika or unity in diversity, traditional houses, religious
architectural symbols, and even narratives of heroic spirit are very clearly described from reading textbooks.
The results of this thinking become a reference for the next stage when researchers were explored literarybased nationalism. Almost all of student had thought that nationalism terminology relate with officiallysymbols. Student said that they were not focus on daily activity symbolic to define nationalism.

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41

Lita drew on the imagination that nationalism Ernest focus on Bhinneka Tunggal Ika, but alsosimilar with nation. She chosed placed of made a similar terminology with Lita. He used
to five religious words to imajined national
worship to reflected Indonesia
unity in diversity.
Figure 2: Primary document recorded base on students imagination.

Samuel chose a flas as a nationalism symbol. Asha also used to flag symbol for imajining
Indonesia.
He said that this material was obtained
from historical pictorial symbol in textbook. A normative and officially symbol but
Asha tried to wrote a nationalistic narration.
Figure 3: These are students thought from state oriented nationalism perspective

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research

42This picture presented a slightly different imajination from Rescue.
She had another argued to defining nationalism by a specific naturalgarden.
Figure 4: Nationalism from another perspective based on institutional textbook
Six months later, in May 2023, the second phase of the activity was conducted at the school. The researcher
distributed the historical novel Manusia Bebas to five students, because one student named Johan could notattended the class. Each student received a book to read. They were free to choose the theme of a particular
chapter according to their interests. The researcher gave three hours of class time for the students to read,understand, and then discuss the contents of the novel. The researcher applied participatory observation sothat during the discussion the flow of ideas was guided in order to achieve the targeted goals. The activityof reading the Manusia Bebas novel was proven to provide different views on the cognitive of junior highschool students. (Figure 5)

Figure 5: Students tried to understand the story
and have been expressed by draw their nationalistic imagination

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43

Students acknowledge that after reading the literary work there are new insights into the practice ofnationalism from the non-state-oriented side. The behavior of the main character in the novel is very
relevant to the students' need to understand nationalism from daily practice. While discussing later, students
explored examples of nationalism practices found through social studies (especially in historical teaching)history lessons. The indicator of the success of the practice of nationalism, according to students, lies in theteaching method. The way teachers teach determines the emergence of national awareness for students.
Rescue argued that students also play a strategic role in responding to the historical material delivered by
the teacher. This is important so that the output of nationalism is useful for sharpening the spirit ofnationalism. (Rescue, 2023)
At school, students build relationships with friends from different ethnic groups. They claim not to beconstrained in terms of culture. Students respect each other. If friends succeed in winning academic
competitions, students do not act jealous. Samuel stated that he was actually proud if his friend succeededin the competition, especially since the success was a promotion to make Satya Wacana Junior High School
more famous. Ernest argues that this attitude is a form of nationalism because a person respects his nation.
In the school environment, Ernest studies science seriously.(Ernest, 2023) This is done as a nationalistic
attitude towards the Indonesian nation and state. Lita argues that nationalism is also learned through culturalarts. At her school, students in the eighth grade have the opportunity to practice traditional Javanese dance
and music. These activities are related to the subject matter, especially social studies history. The practiceof art is important so that students do not just learn theory, but directly experience the cultural symbols ofIndonesian society.(Lita, 2023)
Lita

ErnestFigure 6: Lita and Ernest had been capturing their imagination
after reading a historical novel Manusia Bebas
Rescue had another opinion to discovered the characteristics of nationalism through a group activities. He
realized that the practice of nationalism was not easy to implement. She admitted found a little depressed
when read novel Manusia Bebas. She also got a difficulties to share her nationalistic imajination by paper
based. This picture below showing us how Rescue finally succed to blow up her nationalistic argumentation.

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44

Figure 7: Rescue had drew a school building and flag. Both are symbols of a place where Sudarmo
worked as a director. The school building look likes majestic but in fact they lack funds and even get into
debt to buy books for the students. Sudarmo never gave up and his wife, Sulastri, did too. Rescue argues
that education is very important to sharpen the spirit of nationalism. Teachers are important agents inlearning nationalism.
Rescue interpreted that self-awareness is an important element in the practice of nationalism. She had herstatement after imajining how Sudarmo and Sulastri did. So, unity is the key to socializing among
students. Group work is faced with the problem of differences of opinion but Rescue has a deliberative
solution. When students encounter problems, they are able to find a way out. In such cases, the role of amediator is important in order to lead their friends to create unity of ideas.
What about Samuel and Asha. The following picture is the result after they did imaginated nationalisme:
SamuelAsha

Figure 8: Samuel an Asha had a different nationalistic perspective. But, they argued that novel verysignificant for constructing historical imajination. After they read Manusia Bebas at chapter 1 and 2,
students could been sharpening their experiences additional knowledge.
IS HISTORICAL NOVELS SHARPEN THE SPIRIT OF NATIONALISM?
The activity of reading the novel Manusia Bebas has sparked the open-mindedness of junior high school
students in Salatiga city. The narrative in the introduction of the book by Suwarsih Djojopuspito became amedium for cognitive-imaginative excursions. One of the main topics of interest to junior high school
students is the story of the struggle of Suwarsih, Sudarmo and their friends when they stirred up thenationalistic spirit. The dynamics of life in the frame of everyday life are represented in an educational
perspective. Suwarsih Djojopuspito's work was first published in 1930 under the title Buiten het Gareel.
Later, in 1975, Suwarsih translated her novel into Indonesian. After the title was changed to Manusia Bebas,
the literary work could be read by people in Indonesia as a historical, nationalistic romance in accordance
SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research45

with the spirit of the times. expressed her excitement over the planned translation of her work, originallytitled Buiten het Gareel.
Cleaning the school building, creating a "feel good" atmosphere, creating a friendly impression by tellingstories to each other on the school terrace are concrete examples of the life experiences of Sudarmo andSulastri, the main characters in the novel Manusia Bebas. Such positive attitudes, behaviors and beliefs areconceptualized by Marcel Theodorus Aloysius (2001) as nationalistic attitude. Marcel adopted the concept
of attitudes from the writings of I. Ajzen and Fisbein (1975 & 1980). The school and its environment are
imagined in the context of the country. There, Sudarmo, Sulastri, Rustrini, Jusuf, and their friends have thefreedom to design and generate collective spirit within the scope of their unique locality.(Djojopuspito,
2000, second edition)"Di sekolah itu pula, Sudarmo dan kawan-kawan memperbincangkan usahanya untuk
membangkitkan otoaktivitas rakyat agar dapat tumbuh menjadi gerakan rakyat yangprinsipil".(Djojopuspito, 2000, second edition)
For Suwarsih, producing literary works was not just disseminating her thoughts in a narrow sphere; on thecontrary, the essence of language, which at that time was a political discourse, could be interpreted as
ammunition for her national struggle. When in 1975 Suwarsih received news from G. Termorshuizen that
her book Buiten het Gareel would be translated into Indonesian, she was overjoyed. It was a symbolicgesture that should be read as an expression of openness, freedom, independence, and perhaps even idealismthat ignited the nationalistic spirit of novel readers in the Dutch East Indies.(Djojopuspito, 2000, second
edition)
Manusia Bebas is presented in a very straightforward, simple language style, set in a location that is easily
accessible, even in the terms of E. Du Perron, Suwarsih's style of speech is trivial and cethek (ini Javanese:shallow). When examined, at page 292 the work contains several notes, as if separated into thematic pointsof the narrative, including: the choice of diction and simple grammar, the target audience of the novel iscorrelated with the language of instruction used, the political agenda is implicitly the context of the national
struggle even though it is local in scope. The domestic life of the Sulastri-Sudarmo couple in a particular
city influences the nationalistic narrative it constructs.(Djojopuspito, Manusia Bebas, 2000, second edition)
The teacher is a symbol of an intellectual figure in education, but in this novel Sudarmo packs a multi-rolecharacter. Sudarmo's teachers also have competence as writers, political actors, motivators, school
engineers, and even statesmen. Sudarmo and Sulastri can be categorized as nationalists. Their sincerity wasoften unstoppable, especially when interacting with school affairs. Sudarmo's attitude is very different fromhis colleague. In chapter seven of Manusia Bebas, it is described that after returning from school, Sudarmo's
friends abandoned their memories of school. Sudarmo, on the other hand, clung to the responsibility of his
work or teaching profession until he returned home, even affecting the comfort of his night's rest. Sudarmo
has feelings and empathy to find a way out because the school's income has declined. Teachers in the school
where Sudarmo worked had to be willing to make sacrifices when there were not enough learning tools, toact when parents could not afford to buy school equipment, and many other issues.
Sartono Kartodirdjo recommended that the daily lives of nationalists (such as Sudarmo) should be the focus
of exploring the movement. Not only the reality of the nationalists' lives at the macro level, but the micro
activities must still be observed. The aim is to examine the dilemmas and romantics of their lives, especiallyin the context of the subsistence of Indonesian national actors. The spirit that lives in nationalist instincts
and intuition is the prospective direction of the current generation in responding to the stretching of thespirit of the times.(Kartodirdjo, 2001)
In Indonesian Historiography, Sartono Kartodirdjo describes the fragmentation of Sulastri and Sudarmo's
SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research46

activities, starting from the dynamics of running married life to the pragmatic ideological behavior ofnationalism. The romance of Sulastri and Sudarmo's life reminds readers of the concept of nationalism
initiated by Eric J. Hobsbawm and Ernest Gellner. Eric stated that he agreed with Gellner in interpretingthe concept of nationalism. Hobsbawm states that:“In short, for the purpose of analysis nationalism comes before nations. Nations do not make states
and nationalism but other way round”.(Hobsbawm, 1990)
The term nationalism is dynamic enough to be explored. Benedict Anderson argues that the term
nationalism in scientific terms is difficult to explain unless the practice is real. Ben mentions thatnationalism is a special kind of cultural artifact (parallel to archaeological objects). So it needs to be
explained why it "exists" in history. So after referring to Aira's thoughts, Ben concluded that nationalism isa spontaneous distillation of the intersection of various historical forces. Analogously, once created, theartifacts of nationalism become modular, able to be embedded, with varying degrees of self-awareness, intoa wide range of social expanses, to fuse and dissolve with a wide range of political and ideological systems.
Ben explains why these cultural artifacts evoke such deep attachments.
In the perspective of Sulastri and Sudarmo, the concept of nationalism is pragmatic rather than theoretical.
Both characters do not conceptualize it structurally in an imaginative political space, but in a pragmatic
realm. Sartono Kartodirdjo, when re-narrating the substance and academic essence of the novel Buiten het
Gareel, suggests the relevance and consistency of the concept of pragmatic nationalism played by Sulastri
and Sudarmo with the situation of society today. Sartono argues that the behavior of the two charactersshows the ideal nationalist life practiced during the Dutch colonial period. The idealism is realized throughthe struggle against power, finding solutions to systems and institutions. Sulastri and Sudarmo are portraitsof the success of the Indonesian spirit and symbols of the power of national understanding. Sudarmo andSulastri's speech acts, mindset, and life decisions were clearly not born in the context of their subjectivity
or egoism. They have tied their intellectual network with the wider community. Sudarmo's attitude ofconsidering intellectual recommendations from Sulastri's brother in law, establishing a local mass media(newspaper), and being involved in the party are examples of pragmatic actions in the context of his
nationality.
Suwarsih's efforts to narrate the character and nationalistic spirit of the Free Man characters were highly
appreciated by Satya Wacana Laboratory Junior High School students. One of the important elements of
the novel is how the author struggles to raise the theme of local genius. Sundanese at that time was used as
the language of instruction. But eventually, the novel was published in Dutch and reached an international
audience. In the context of that time, Suwarsih became the main character who passionately fanned thespirit of nationalism. She managed to reach the peak of idealism with an attitude of unlimited struggle. The
historical events portrayed by Suwarsih and Sudarmo were said to be inspiring. Junior high school students
claimed to have gained insight into the meaning of Indonesia from their daily lives. The story of Manusia
Bebas is considered to have an important point of study to be considered, namely language as a unifying
medium for the nation. A student named Asha argued that she chose the symbol of a broomstick to reflect
language as a very strategic unifying medium. The image of a broomstick in figure 3 is also equipped witha rope. Asha stated that the unifying tool is a strategic element needed to sharpen the nation's nationalism.
(Asha, 2023)
CONCLUSION DAN RECOMMENDATION
Nationalism needs to be practiced in schools. Media such as novels, paintings, songs, comics, and others
are very relevant to sharpen the spirit of Indonesian nationalism. It needs the right methods and procedures
when practicing it. An alternative solution that teachers can work on with students is to introduce a research
culture through social studies-history lessons. History is positioned as a medium to hone the ability of logic
SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research

47

and philosophy of knowledge. Suwarsih and Soedarmo's attitude of positioning language as a medium forunifying the nation needs to be referred to in re-conceptualizing Indonesian nationalism.
REFERENCES
Aloysius, M. T. (2001). Nationalistic Attitudes and Ethic Exclusionism in a Comparative. Nederland:
M.T.A. Coenders.
Asha, personal communication, Mei 16, 2023.
Calhoun, D. (1971). Social science in an age of change. New York: Harper and Row.
Daryanto, C. A. (2011). Action Research, Mengembangkan Sekolah dan Memberdayakan Guru.
Yogyakarta: Pustaka Pelajar.
Djojopuspito, S. (2000, second edition). Manusia Bebas. Jakarta: Djambatan.
Ernest, personal communication, Mei 16, 2023.
Hasan, S. H. (1996). Pendidikan Ilmu-ilmu Sosial (Buku satu). Bandung: Institut Keguruan dan Ilmu
Pendidikan.
Hasan, S. H. (2020). Kurikulum SMP dari Masa Hindia Belanda hingga kini. Bandung: UPI Press.
Hardi. (1988). Menarik Pelajaran dari Sejarah. Jakarta: Haji Masagung.
Hobsbawm, E. J. (1990). Nation and Nationalism since 1780. United Kingdom: Cambridge University
Press.
Li, S. C. (2015). Advancing Multicultural Education: New Historicisim in the High School English
Classroom. The High School Journal, Vol. 99, No. 1. University of North Carolina , 4-26.
Kartodirdjo, S. (2001). “Buiten het gareel, a piece of l’Histoire Mentalite”. Yogyakarta: Kanisius.
Kartodirdjo, S. (1992). Pendekatan Ilmu Sosial dalam Metodologi Sejarah. Jakarta: Gramedia.
Lita, personal communication, Mei 16, 2023.
Martono, H. (1987). Bidang Studi Ilmu Pengetahuan Sosial, sub bidang studi sejarah 3A. Surakarta: Tiga
Serangkai.
Mukminam, et. al. (2017). Ilmu Pengetahuan Sosial, Kelas VIII SMP/MTs (Buku Siswa). Jakarta:
Kementerian Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan.
Notosusanto, N. (1985). Sejarah Nasional Indonesia, part 2, 4th edition. Jakarta: Departemen Pendidikan
dan Kebudayaan Republik Indonesia.
Purwiyastuti, W. (2022). Konsep ekskursi: kandas tak berbekas? Media Komunikasi FPIPS, Vol. 21, No.
1, April. Bali: Undhiksa , 18-28.
Purwiyastuti, W. (2023). Produksi Narasi Nasionalisme Indonesia dalam Historiografi Orde Baru
(Dissertation). Yogyakarta: Gadjah Mada University Library.
Rescue, personal communication, Mei 16, 2023.

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research48

Applying the Geometry City Module (MBG) and its Effectiveness on
Students' Higher-Order Thinking Skills (HOTS)
Hafiz Idrus, Suzieleez Syrene Abdul Rahim and Hutkemri Zulnaidi
Department of Mathematics and Sciences Education,
Faculty of Education, Universiti Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia(idrus.hafiz89@gmail.com), (suzieleez@um.edu.my) & (hutkemri@um.edu.my)

ABSTRACT
It is important to have a module as a learning innovation that creates an engaging learning environment andincreases student enthusiasm in learning mathematics. Geometry instruction in elementary school,
particularly for three-dimensional material, necessitates instructional materials that facilitate concept
understanding. The study's objective is to evaluate the Geometry City Module's (MBG) effectiveness ingeometry measurement. The purpose of this study is to demonstrate that performance assessment improves
higher order thinking skills (HOTS) in learning activities through a quasi-experimental design that uses apretest posttest non equivalent group research methodology. This study included 72 students from a publicschool in Pahang, Malaysia, consisting in age from 11 among fifth grade. The study's instrument was the
five-item HOTS test on measurement and geometry, which was adapted from previous instruments. Preand post-test reliability were both 0.94. In order to analyse the data, a one-way analysis of covariance(ANCOVA) was performed after controlling for pretest scores (covariate), there was a significant difference
between the posttest scores of the two sample groups on the MBG. In addition, partial eta squared =.073
suggested a substantial and moderate association between the pretest and posttest scores on the MBG. In
conclusion, teaching and learning of geometry measurement topics through the module's integration issuperior to conventional instruction. The results of this study showed that this alternative teaching method
is effective at fostering and empowering students' higher order thinking skills in geometry measurement.
KEYWORDS: Geometry City Module, Higher Order Thinking Skills, Geometry Measurement

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research49

INTRODUCTION
Mathematics education plays a crucial role in adapting elementary students to problem-solving in their daily
lives. Mathematical instruction has a vital role in acclimating elementary school kids to problem-solving intheir daily lives (Chukwuyenum, 2013; Julie, 2017). Nonetheless, the mathematical principles taught inelementary education are frequently abstract (Malaty, 1994). In this situation, elementary pupils must havea strong conceptual grasp, including the ability to analyze, reason, and think, in order to solve difficulties.
In the interest of helping students in acquiring these skills, it is essential to include literacy activities into
the mathematical learning process. The effectiveness of literacy in mathematics education can have aneffect on the mathematical performance of elementary and secondary school pupils. The significance ofmathematical literacy in the context of problem-solving, namely that students are expected to be able tocreate, analyze, and solve mathematical issues in a variety of settings. In order to prepare primary pupils
for tackling challenges they encounter in daily activities, maths instruction is crucial.
The purpose of education in Malaysia is to cultivate individual potential via the provision of a generation
with the capacity for critical thought (Bahagian Perancangan dan Penyelidikan Dasar Pendidikan, 2012).
Educating a generation with critical thinking skills improves the quality of education (Ibrahim et al., 2019;
Wahyuni et al., 2022). The Malaysian Ministry of Education (KPM) continually reviews its curricula toensure that the implementation of the curriculum in schools equips students with the information, skills,
and values necessary to meet present and future problems. The redesigned and reformed Standard
Curriculum Primary School (KSSR) for Mathematics. The reorganization takes into mind the following
level's continued viability. As it provides mathematical knowledge and skills, the revision is suitable forstudents with a wide range of capacities and experiences. With the offered information and abilities,
individuals are able to explore knowledge, adapt, modify, and innovate in order to face and overcome futurechanges and obstacles (Education, 2012). The objective of KSSR for Mathematics Education is to develop
students' understanding of number concepts, computer principles, and clearly realistically attainable
mathematical concepts, as well as their ability to use mathematical knowledge and skills effectively andresponsibly in daily life.
PROBLEM STATEMENT
Studies conducted by Beal & Cohen (2012) and Sassons et al., (2018), found that conventional teachingpractices that are commonly used in classrooms provide students with a low level of thinking skills byteachers and do not lead to active learning. A teacher serves as an essential component in the introductionof new discipline concepts by providing professional explanations, motivating and defining new concepts,
and emphasizing the connections between the newly defined concepts and previously taught concepts(Dietrich & Evans, 2022).The application of high-level thinking skills among students will face problems
if the teacher lacks knowledge and teaching only depends on textbooks (Nur Hawa Hanis Abdullah &Ghazali Darusalam, 2018). This is due to teachers preparing students to face public examinations where thequestions are usually procedural (Zulnaidi & Zakaria, 2012). Meanwhile, Siraj et al., (2016) explained that
this situation is similar to the situation in the classrooms of schools in Malaysia. Teachers still emphasize
conventional approaches such as lecturing to provide information and teacher-centered (Othman, 2017).
This constraint continues until it interferes with the application of Higher Order Thinking Skills (HOTS) in
the classroom (Othman et al., 2017). However, studies on the implementation of high-level thinking havenot been taken intensively. Therefore, there is a need to develop a new instructional design to enable
students to think at a higher cognitive level.
This problem continues until they tend to memorize the steps of measuring the space of mathematicalproblem solving without understanding the concept (Cahyono et al., 2018; Mason, 1998). Pupils need
conceptual understanding that should be built through the visual senses and the operation of concretematerials (Andini et al., 2018; Sudihartinih & Wahyudin, 2020). This causes anxiety in mathematics
SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research

50subjects which will lead to low mathematics achievement (Syed Azman & Siti Mistima, 2017). Poor
conceptual knowledge in geometric space topics involving basic 3-Dimensional (3D) shapes is still low(Cahyono et al., 2018). Their difficulty is due to the proof of a formula that is difficult to understand (Van
Hiele-Geldof & van Hiele, 1984). Students need concrete manipulative tools because they cannot describe
basic 2D and 3D shapes in real life (Alex & Mammen, 2018; Mohd Norakmar Omar & Siti Noor Ismail,2021; Mugot, 2018)
In addition, students are weak in understanding the topic of Space especially in the skills of measuring
perimeter, area and volume of solids (Naidoo, 2018). The topic of geometry and spatial measurement offersa method to interpret and describe the physical environment and can be an important tool in solving
problems (Stiff, 2000). However, students are unable to arrange units to become spatial composites because
they cannot coordinate spatial information correctly physically (Fujita et al., 2017). This is due to thearrangement of their mental model being insufficient to accommodate all the arrangement units (Lowrie etal., 2021). Helping students to make accurate drawings is a key component of geometric construction
learning, teaching, and implementation (Tisdell & Olmedo, 2022). For the concept of wide measurement,
students cannot perform mental actions to divide 2-Dimensional space (2-D) into 2-D units and organize
areas with other 2-D units (Gunhan, 2014). Pupils do not understand the broad concept that does not havegaps or overlaps and have problems involving squares and triangles to cover the same area (McDonough etal., 2013). Furthermore, students do not develop the concept of volume for solids through sufficient andaccurate unit coordination for the process of forming the entire volume in order (Yuberta, 2018). As a result,the process of understanding the concept of area, perimeter and volume used in daily life becomes difficult
for students to understand and the objective criteria of T&L will not be met.
However, a challenge arises when the percentage of HOTS questions in public examination papers willcontinue to increase from time to time and is expected to increase by another 10% in 2021 as reported by
KPM (Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysai, 2019). Furthermore, according to the Malaysian Examinations
Board Report (2020) it has shown that student performance in the Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia (SPM) throughthe mathematics subject among students for the year 2019 has decreased compared to the previous year
(LPM, 2020). Referring to the circular letter issued by KPM dated 07 July 2021 (KPM.100-1/3/2 Vol. 3(84), the Ujian Pencapaian Sekolah Rendah (UPSR) has been abolished starting in 2021. However, if you
look at the performance of UPSR in 2019, as many as 74 367 (16.87%) students have still not reached theminimum mastery level which is in Grade E (Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia, 2019). Therefore, thisstudy focuses on the evaluation of the effectiveness of the Geometric City Module (MBG) in understanding
the concepts of perimeter, area and volume in the topic of shape and space effectively towards HOTS. MBG
can help teachers to deliver learning content standards without worrying about the use of a long time in thedevelopment of a learning module. MBG integrates social constructivist, cognitive theory and Anderson
and Krathwohl's taxonomic model.
OBJECTIVE
The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of a HOTS-based module on the performance offifth-grade students in mathematics. To accomplish this goal, two research objectives were developed:
1. Determining the level of higher order thinking skills (HOTS) of students exposed to MBG versus
conventional teaching techniques in the subject of Space.
2. Comparing the effectiveness of MBG with conventional instructional techniques towards higher
order thinking skills (HOTS) in the fifth grade in geometry measurement
METHODOLOGY
There are numerous experimental circumstances in education where researchers must use intact groups.
Field experiments, i.e. experiments conducted outside of a laboratory, are constructed of quasi-experiments
SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research

51

(Cohen et al., 2018). Using the current class of year five students, this study employed a quasi-experimental
research design, designating one group as the experimental group and the other as the control group.
Randomly allocating students to both groups will interfere with learning in the classroom (Sekaran, 2012).
This study is quantitative in nature. The pretest-posttest non equivalent group design is used in the research.
The research design model employed in this study is depicted in table 1.
Table 1. Quasi-Experimental Design : The Pre-Tests Post-Test Non Equivalent Group
GroupsIntervention (K-MBG)
Control (K-PK)

Pre
Test
O1
O1

Treatment

Post Test

X

O2
O2

The study involved 72 national school pupils from a district in the state of Pahang. The research was
conducted on a national school, with total demographics presented in table 2 below.
Table 2. Demographic Factor
GroupsIntervention (K-MBG)
Control (K-PK)

Frequencies
37
35Percentage
51.4
48.6

According to table 2, 37 (51.4%) students were in the intervention group (K-MBG) and 35 (48.6%) students
were in the control group (K-PK). The intervention group is known as K-MBG (Group that utilises MBG
intervention), whereas the control group is known as K-PK (Group that uses conventional teaching). Thisschool has an average academic performance (Band 3). The samples were chosen using a basic random
sampling strategy for picking the schools, two classes from school, and experimental groups from eachclass since it is simple and provides an accurate representative of a wider population. Two numbers
representing classes were taken from the school, and the numbered class was then chosen to defineintervention and control groups. Year five students are considered as practical and manageable within
financial and time limits because they do not participate in major public examinations.
DATA COLLECTION METHOD
The objective of this research was to look at the effect of using the MBG module strategy on student
performance. As a result, it was essential to use the current class of year 5 students, designating one as theexperimental group and the other as the control group. A pre-test was given to both groups to see if thevariance of the two groups is homogent. On the same topics, the experimental group used the MBG module
strategy, while the control group used the conventional approach. Following the administration of the MBG,
a post-test was given to the students to assess their performance at the end of three weeks. There were fivequestions on the geometry measurement involving perimeter, area and volume test.
The test questions have been developed to meet the requirements of the Kurikulum Standard Sekolah
Rendah (KSSR) towards HOTS. Eight professionals assessed the questions, including six senior lecturers
from the Institut Pendidikan Guru (IPG) and a mathematics excellent teacher. Following content evaluationby professional experts, they were modified and placed within the Malaysian context as intended. The
researcher then used the ANATES4 software to obtain the discriminating index and difficulty index values
for the higher order thinking skills test instrument (HOTS) as table 3 mentioned below.
Table 3. Discrimination Index (Disc.I) and Difficulty Index (Diff.I) for the HOTS test

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research

52

No.
Question

T

Disc.I(%)

Interpretation
Disc. I

Diff. I(%)

Interpretation
Diff.I

Correlation

1

29.00

72.50

Very Good

63.75

Moderate

0.942

2

12.68

82.50

Very Good

46.25

Moderate

0.920

3

6.73

57.50

Very Good

48.75

Moderate

0.838

4

12.43

72.50

Very Good

51.24

Moderate

0.933

5

12.99

75.00

Very Good

47.50

Moderate

0.924

Cronbach
Alpha

0.94

The discriminating index and difficulty index of the HOTS exam for the composite perimeter, area, andvolume are seen to be at a moderate level, as indicated in table 3. Hence, the difficulty level of each question
is appropriately balanced and satisfactory. The range of discrimination index values for the HOTS test is
between 72.50% and 82.50%. This observation indicates that the discrimination index for each item ishighly satisfactory. Subsequently, the difficulty index value associated with each item is situated at amoderate level. The difficulty index values for all items range from 46.25% to 63.75%. The HOTS test
questions are characterised by modest discriminating index values, rendering them appropriate andacceptable for utilisation.
DATA ANALYSIS
Data analysis is arranged into three stages: preliminary analysis, descriptive statistics, and inferential
analysis. As an early data analysis technique, descriptive statistics are being used. According to Pallant(2016), the descriptive phase of data analysis may begin once it was determined that there were no errors
in the given data set. The data in this study was described using mean, standard deviation, and frequency.
To describe the distribution of subjects according to treatment and control groups, descriptive statistics
were used. To address the study questions, however, inferential statistics such as ANCOVA will be used.
FINDINGS
Descriptive analysis was utilised to compare the levels before and after the application of MBG based on
Higher Order Thinking Skills (HOTS). The mean and standard deviation of pre-test and post-test HOTS
scores for both groups are provided in table 4.
Table 4. Mean and Standard Deviation Pre and Post Test for Both Group
GroupsIntervention (K-MBG)
Control (K-PK)

N
37
35

Mean
23.89123.942

Pre Test
Standard Deviation
14.18815.495Mean
74.10865.571

Post Test
Standard Deviation
10.8109.684

Based on table 4 above, the mean score and standard deviation of the HOTS pre-test and post-test are
shown. The pre-test mean score for the intervention group (K-MBG) was 23.891 with a standard deviationof 14.188, while the post-test mean score was 74.108 with a standard deviation of 10.810. The mean scoreof the control group (K-PK) is 23.942 with a standard deviation of 15.495, whereas the post test score is
65.571 with a standard deviation of 9.684. This clearly reveals that the K-MBG group surpasses the K-PK
group in terms of HOTS. The mean score is significantly different, and the score difference is Figure 1
shows the mean value difference between the pre-test and post-test for both groups.

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research

53Differences the Mean Value for Pre and Post Test
100
50

65.571474.1081

23.9429

23.8919

K-PK

K-MBG

0
Pre Test

Post Test

Figure 1. Differences the Mean Value for Pre and Post Test for K-MBG and K-PK
The findings in this section were determined by the specific study hypotheses. Following three weeks ofintervention, the post-test results were subjected to a one-way between group analysis of covariance(ANCOVA) to evaluate the effectiveness of the two different types of mathematics teaching methodologies.
In this study, the covariant was the pre-test scores. The descriptive data (means and standard deviations) of
the post-test scores of the HOTS-based module and conventional techniques are shown in Table 5 below.
Table 5. Mean and Standard Deviation Post Test
GroupsN

MeanIntervention (K-MBG)
Control (K-PK)

37
3574.10865.571

Standard
Deviation
10.810
9.684

Table 5 shows the mean and standard deviation mean post-test scores for both groups. In terms of post-testscores, the treatment group (M = 74.108, SD = 10.810) had higher mean values than the control group (M= 65.571, SD = 9.684).
Table 6. Levene's Test of Equality of Error Variances of Post-test Score
f
.173

df1
1

df2
70

Sig.
.679

Test the null hypothesis that the error variance of the dependant variable is equal across groups.
a. Design: Intercept + Pre Test HOTS + Group
Based on table 6, the results of Levene's Test of Equality of Error Variance are [F(1,70) =.679, (p >.05)],
indicating that the value of variance in each group of study respondents is not different (homogenous),
which is the assumption that all enablers the change equals the variance (equal variance) and does not
violate the assumption. The ANCOVA test procedures were met by the study data. After controlling formean Pre-Test scores, Table 6 below showed a significant difference in post-test performance test scores
between the treatment and control groups [F = 5.441, sig = .023 (p < .05)]. As a result, hypothesis is rejected.
Research demonstrated that students exposed to both approaches differed in their post-test performance atschool.
Table 7. Tests of Between-Subject Effects of Post-test Scores
SourceCorrected Model
Intercept

Type III Sum of
Squaresdf

Mean Square

F

Sig.

935.639a
89474.479

2
1

467.82089474.479

4.604
880.471.013.000

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through ResearchPartialETA
Squared
.118
.927
54

Source

Pre Test
Group
Error
Total
Corrected Total

Type III Sum of
Squaresdf

Mean Square

F

Sig.

384.278552.9637011.861
375172.000
7947.500

1
1
69
72
71

384.278552.963101.621

3.781
5.441

.056
.023

PartialETA
Squared.052.073

R Squared = .118 (Corrected at R Squared = .092)
Table 8 below shows the mean of post-HOTS test for both group. Based on the mean, the post-HOTS testof intervention group students (K-MBG) is greater than the post-HOTS test of control group students (KPK).
Table 8. Mean Post-HOTS Based on Group of Dependent Variables: Post-HOTS Test
95 % Confidence IntervalGroupsMean

Std. Error

Low Boundary

Higher Boundary

Intervention (K-MBG)

74.112a1.657

70.80677.418Control (K-PK)

68.567a1.704

65.16871.967DISCUSSION
The purpose of this research was to investigate the effectiveness of HOTS on primary school students'
mathematics performance. This study also assessed HOTS module (MBG) and conventional teaching
methodologies in teaching and learning year five mathematics. The findings revealed a significant
difference in higher order thinking skills in geometry measurement among school children. This study
strengthens the results of Ibrahim et al., (2019), who discovered a change in HOTS scores when utilising
the T&L module. This is consistent with the study's findings, which show that pupils exposed to MBG havea higher mean score between the pre-test and the post-test. MBG's method is consistent with the subject's
content. DSKP Mathematics was used to develop MBG. As a result, a HOTS-based module (MBG) can beused as one of the alternative learning methodologies for incorporating HOTS in mathematics. For example,
in high-level thinking at the application level, students successfully execute procedures using MBG activity
implementation. MBG has been outfitted with instructions and practises that are acceptable andstraightforward for the cognitive development level of primary school pupils. Students can utilise thetechnique to create a building based on the layout provided, and they can use the MBG strategy to assist
students in building a multiplication model through a conceptual grasp of space measurement.
Furthermore, students are successful in breaking down material or concepts into smaller components. Thisis the level of analysis in HOTS (Fauziah & Shaharuddin, 2020; Othman et al., 2017; Pratama & Retnawati,2018). Students can compare and contrast the three spatial measuring skills in geometry involving
perimeter, area, and volume. When they can break down the concept of space measurement into little
components, they can examine the features based on those skills (Andini et al., 2018; Cahyono et al., 2018;
Mason, 1998; Sudihartinih & Wahyudin, 2020). But, high-level thinking is not limited to numeracy skills;
it also includes how to apply mathematics in everyday life to solve an issue and how to explain it so thatthe student's mathematical thinking process can be observed (Pratama & Retnawati, 2018). Students should
be taught to build their understanding autonomously, according to Milinia & Amir (2022), through a seriesof exercises that might support them in building developed models and understanding the perimeter andarea of plane measurements. This issue is consistent with the module product, MBG, because it applies thecontext of the students' real life.
SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research

55

CONCLUSION
Based on the findings and discussions, it is possible to conclude that a MBG can be used as an alternate
learning strategy for incorporating HOTS into mathematical material. Given the importance of HOTS in
producing a generation capable of thinking, the findings of this study contribute to the body of knowledge
in assessing kids' HOTS in mathematics learning using empirical evidence. Despite the fact that the findings
for students who were exposed to MBG in both institutions were substantial, students should be given
adequate time to adapt to a new way to studying mathematics. In addition to teachers, the application of
HOTS in mathematics teaching necessitates familiarity with and a paradigm shift in order to fulfil national
education goals. Modifications must be implemented with prudence so that students have the chance andassistance they need to become proficient in mathematics at a young age.
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Development of the Academic Burnout Inventory among Thai University
Students: A Preliminary Analysis of Item and Factor Structure
Manika Wisessathorn, Dr.P.H.1*, Thitinun Teravecharoenchai, M.Ed.2,
Junthanee Teravecharoenchai, M.S.2, Sawian Kaewwongsa, M.Econ.3
1*

Assoc Prof, Faculty of Education, Ramkhamhaeng University, Thailand
wisessathorn@gmail.com, Corresponding author
2
Lecturer, Faculty Education, Ramkhamhaeng University, Thailand
3
Lecturer, Faculty of Economics, Ramkhamhaeng University, Thailand

ABSTRACT
Academic burnout is one of the issues that negatively affects academic performance and the psychologicalwellbeing of university students. Early detection is the most crucial screening strategy since it can minimize
and prevent more serious problems that could be caused by this condition. Thus, the study aimed to develop
the Academic Burnout Inventory-Thai Edition (ABI-T) with the intention of elevating the scale to a
standardized measurement. The preliminary process began with an analysis of the items and the factor
structure of the scale. A total of 293 Thai university students participated, and the adequacy of the sample
size was proven by KMO and Bartlett's test of sphericity. Linear regression analysis was used to analyze
the item analysis, and exploratory factor analysis (EFA) with the Promax rotation approach was used toevaluate the ABI-T factor structure. The result revealed that the ABI-T consisted of 31 items with a response
format of a 7-point Likert scale. Linear regression analysis demonstrated that all 31 items with highstandardized coefficients significantly predicted the summative score of academic burnouts; hence, all items
were retained for further factor structure analysis. Meanwhile, EFA found that the ABI-T was extracted asfour factors, accounting for 72.858% of total variation. The four factors were emotional instability,
decreased cognitive function, lack of motivation, and exhaustion. The ABI-T could benefit university
counseling units or educational psychologists by offering an alternative tool for early diagnosis of indicatorsof academic burnout and planning to mitigate its impact in the future.
KEYWORDS: Academic Burnout, Item Analysis, Factor Structure Analysis, Exploratory Factor Analysis(EFA), Thai University Students

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research59

INTRODUCTION
The term "burnout" was first introduced by Freudenberger in 1974 to describe the state of emotional
exhaustion, fatigue, and frustration that was experienced by volunteer employees in a care center as a resultof failing to perform their job responsibilities as expected (Freudenberger, 1974). Following that, theconcept of burnout was expanded upon. Maslach and Jackson (1981) generated the concept of amultidimensional model of burnout. They provided the operational definition of burnout as a psychologicalstate characterized by a three-component set of symptoms: (1) Emotional exhaustion refers to the sense ofbeing exhausted as a result of the efforts made at work. (2) Depersonalization or cynicism refers to a
pessimistic attitude toward the job at hand, manifested in negative or improper attitudes and behaviors
toward their work and relations with others. (3) Diminished individual accomplishment refers to a decreasein one's perception of work productivity and potential, as well as having low professional self-evaluationand self-efficacy (Maslach and Jackson, 1981; Edú-Valsania et al, 2022). According to the job demandsresources model by Demerouti et al (2001), burnout is commonly triggered by two types of work situations:job demands and expectations, and job resources. To date, the World Health Organization (WHO) has
included the burnout condition as an occupational problem in the 11th Revision of the International
Classification of Diseases (ICD-11) due to its negative impact on personal functioning and well-being,
including physical and mental health issues, interpersonal relationships, and professional productivity(World Health Organization, 2019).
Although burnout has traditionally been studied in professions, particularly among medical personnel, theconcept has also been applied in educational contexts because routine educational activities can berecognized as "work" (Salmela-Aro et al., 2008), and it is known as "Academic burnout." The term was
first proposed by Neumann et al (1990). According to their study, academic burnout is defined by several
characteristics that are similar to Maslach and Jackson's (1981) concept of burnout, namely: academic
fatigue - a sense of exhaustion caused by academic demands and requirements; academic apathy - a senseof pessimism and lack of interest in academic tasks; and academic inefficiency - inadequate personal
development in academic and educational matters (Neumann et al, 1990; Bikar et al, 2018).
To date, there are several burnout studies that extend beyond professions to university students and higher
education. In the systematic review study, the prevalence of burnout syndrome in university students wasestimated to be 55.4% for mental exhaustion, 31.6% for depersonalization, and 30.9% for academic efficacy(Rosales-Ricardo et al, 2021). Similar to the meta-analysis study with medical students, the prevalence wasestimated to be 40.8% for emotional exhaustion, 35.1% for depersonalization, and 27.4% for academic
efficacy (Frajerman et al, 2019). Academic burnout is a psychological condition caused by chronic stressor
exposure that can make students feel unable to complete their duties, lose interest in their studies, and feel
frustrated about their capacity to reach academic goals (Aguayo et al., 2019). A meta-analysis of 29 studies
involving over 100,000 students found that burnout had a significant negative relationship with academic
achievement (Madigan and Curran, 2021). Based on the student's motivation, academic burnout profiles
can be divided into four categories: distressed (completely burnout), laissez-faire (not actively participatingin their studies and not achieving), struggling (burnout but trying hard to achieve), and well-functioning(not burnout). Distressed and well-functioning groups were distinguished by attitude, internal motivation,and identified regulations. Internal and external regulation differentiated between groups that were laissezfaire and those that were struggling (Lee et al., 2020).
To measure academic burnout, research on student burnout often uses the Maslach Burnout InventoryStudent Survey (MBI-SS) to assess the severity of burnout symptoms: emotional exhaustion,
depersonalization, and academic efficacy. The scale has 15 items that are scored on a Likert-type scaleranging from 0 (never) to 6 (every day) (Schaufeli et al, 2002). Several studies have translated the MBI-SS
and assessed its psychometric qualities across various languages (Portoghese et al, 2018; Wickramasinghe
et al, 2018; Pérez-Mármol, and Brown, 2019; Pérez Fuentes et al, 2020; AlShahrani et al, 2022). Aside
SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research60

from the MBI-SS, at least two updated instruments are used to assess academic burnout among university
students: the Student Version of Burnout Assessment Tool (S-BAT) and the Oldenburg Burnout Inventory–
Student Survey (OLBI–S). The S-BAT has 23 items that assess the four core burnout symptoms (S-BATC, 23 items; includes feelings of exhaustion, mental distancing, cognitive impairment, and emotional
impairment) as well as two secondary burnout symptoms (S-BAT-S, 10 items; includes psychosomatic
complaints and psychological distress). Both components are scored on a five-point Likert scale, with 1
being "never" and 5 being "always" (Schaufeli et al, 2020; Popescu et al, 2023). The OLBI-SS, on the other
hand, consists of 16 items and is divided into two dimensions: (physical, affective, and cognitive)
exhaustion and disengagement, with a four-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 4
(strongly agree) (Reis et al, 2015)
In Thailand, there have been a few studies on academic burnout among Thai university students. The
majority of them employed the Maslach Burnout Inventory to assess the severity of burnout, and the
majority of the participants were medical students, pediatric residents, or family medicine residents(Puranitee, et al, 2019a; Puranitee, et al, 2019b; Charoentanyarak et al, 2020). Meanwhile, academic
burnout was shown to be rather prevalent among Thai medical students, particularly in terms of emotional
exhaustion and depersonalization (Taikerd et al, 2019; Charoentanyarak et al, 2020).
Thus, it is crucial to have a standardized screening tool for recognizing probable indications and symptomsof academic burnout in the Thai context. Screening is an essential aspect of prevention, with the intent to
identify people at high risk early enough to provide treatment and avoid or reduce symptoms and otherconsequences. The goal is early detection, lifestyle modification, or surveillance to reduce the risk or detect
it early enough to treat it most effectively. Although the screening tests are not diagnostic, they are designed
to identify those who are at high risk and should undergo additional testing to determine the presence ofsymptoms. Another advantage of screening tools is that they have the potential to improve intervention
cost-effectiveness (Iragorri and Spackman, 2018).
In light of these reasons, the purpose of this study was to develop the Academic Burnout Inventory-Thai
Edition (ABI-T) with the intention of elevating the scale to a standardized measurement. The preliminary
process began with an item and factor structure analysis so that the scale could be tested for its psychometricproperties in the following stage. The implementation of the ABI-T might benefit university counselingunits or educational psychologists by providing an alternate instrument for early detection of signs ofacademic burnout and planning to prevent its impact further on.
METHODS
Participants and data collection procedure:
The study employed a cross-sectional research design, with 293 Thai university students with bachelor's
degrees (101 males, 183 females, and 9 unidentified) participating from various universities around thecountry. The sample size, sampling method considerations, and data collection procedures were as follows:
Sample size consideration:
The consideration of sample size is vital for reaching the statistical requirement and for the
potentiality of generalizing the findings to the general population. According to factor analysis, the sample
size's adequacy is evaluated using KMO and Bartlett's sphericity test. The KMO being greater than .80 anda statistically significant result of Bartlett's test, demonstrating that the correlation matrix is not an identity
matrix, are the basis assumptions of the EFA. It implies that the sample size was sufficient to continue the
EFA. (Hair et al, 2019). For this study, the KMO was .965 and the Bartlett's test of sphericity demonstrated
the chi-square = 9148.682 (df = 465); p-value < .001, representing the adequacy of the sample size for EFA
analysis.

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research

61Sampling method consideration:
To recruit participants for the study, nonprobability sampling using the purposive sampling method
was employed. The inclusion criteria were established in order to select homogenous data in a manner thatwas objective, consistent, trustworthy, and uniform. As a result, the inclusion criteria for this study were as
follows: (1) participants were enrolled in a university degree program (any subject, major, or university);(2) they were above the age of 18; and (3) they were willing to complete an online questionnaire. Since theinclusion criteria were sufficient to recruit homogeneity in the data collection, no exclusion criteria wererequired.
Data collection procedure and research ethics:
Data was gathered via online questionnaires from January to March 2023, which took an averageof 10-15 minutes to complete. The collection procedure was carried out in accordance with research ethics.
The participants were informed about the aim of the study, the time required to complete the questionnaire,
and the importance of anonymity and confidentiality. Participants could able to cancel their involvement at
any time during the processing (if necessary) and would not be affected in any manner. Once the study wascompleted, all the information was discarded.
Following that, the demographic characteristics of the participants were summarized as shown in
Table 1. The majority of the participants were female. Most of them were in their first year of study at theFaculty of Education, with an average age of 23.29 (SD=5.58) years and a GPA of 2.81 (SD=0.53).
Table 1: The demographic characteristics of participants
Demographic characteristics

n (%)

Males
Females
Unidentified

101 (34.5%)
183 (62.5%)
9 (3.1%)23.29 (SD=5.58); min=18, max=49
2.81 (SD=0.53); min=1.52, max=4.00
92 (31.4%)
62 (21.2%)
35 (11.9%)30 (10.2%)
74 (25.3%)
210 (71.7%)
56 (19.1%)
12 (4.1%)
15 (5.1%)

GenderAge (year); Mean, SD
GPA; Mean, SD
Education years

Major

First-year
Second-year
Third-year
Fourth-year
Higher than fourth-year
Education
Engineering / Sciences
Business administration / Accounting
Others (e.g., public health, law,
geography, humanity)

Measurements:
The study employed two measurements: a demographic questionnaire and the Academic Burnout
Inventory-Thai Edition (ABI-T).
1) The demographic questionnaire inquired about the participant's gender, age, grade point average(GPA) which ranged from 0.00 (no points) to 4.00 (maximum points), education years, and major subject
matter.
2) The Academic Burnout Inventory-Thai Edition (ABI-T)
The ABI-T was a new self-report inventory that was designed to assess the extent of academic
burnout among university students. All of the items have been developed in Thai to be commonly used in
SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research

62the country. The procedure for ABI-T development followed the guidelines for developing the standardized
psychological test, as shown in Figure 1 (Morgado et al, 2017; Fenn, et al, 2020). However, this study
focused exclusively on the preliminary examination of the ABI-T, only steps 1 and 2 were performed.

STEP 1: ITEM DEVELOPMENT AND ITEM ANALYSIS
1.1 Draft item generation (by means of, for example, a review of the literature, existing
scales, expert judges, interviews, and focus groups)
1.2 Consideration of the scale’s format and length
1.3 Item analysis (a qualitative approach, a quantitative approach, or a mixed method)

STEP 2: FACTOR STRUCTURE ANALYSIS
2.1 Identification of variables (items)
2.2 Determination of the number of components (factors)
2.3 Extraction and rotation methods
2.4 Naming and defining the factor

STEP 3: PSYCHOMETRIC ANALYSIS
3.1 Validation (e.g., convergent validity, concurrent validity, discriminant validity,
predictive validity, criterion validity)
3.2 Reliability (e.g., internal consistency, test-retest reliability, item-total correlation,inter-item reliability)

STEP 4: INTERPRETATION AND CLASSIFICATION OF THE SCALE SCORES
Figure 1: The procedure for developing a standardized psychological test
NOTED: This study focused on the preliminary examination of the ABI-T; thus, only steps 1 (item development
and item analysis) and 2 (factor structure analysis) were performed.

Data analysis:
The following statistical methods were employed for data analysis: (1) the adequateness of the sample size
was tested using KMO and Bartlett's test of sphericity. (2) The item analysis was tested using linear
regression analysis to determine whether each item had the potential to predict the summative score ofacademic burnouts. Finally, the EFA was employed to test the ABI-T factor structure.
RESULTSThe findings were divided into two sections: (1) the item development and item analysis of the ABI-T,
and (2) the factor structure of the ABI-T as follows;

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63

PART 1: item development and item analysis of the ABI-T
According to the guidelines for developing a standardized psychological test, as indicated in Figure 1, thefindings on item development for the ABI-T were presented in terms of (1) the procedure for generating
the draft item, (2) the scale's format and length, and (3) the item analysis, as follows:
STEP 1: Procedure for generating the draft item
The ABI-T items were developed following a review of previous studies, theoretical concepts, andexisting burnout and academic burnout measurements. According to the literature, the ABI-T items wereconstructed using the multidimensional model of burnout (Maslach and Jackson, 1981; Edú-Valsania et al,2022) and the demand-resource model approach (Demerouti et al, 2001; Jagodics and Szabó, 2022).
Existing scale suggestions were also taken into account, including the Maslach Burnout Inventory-Student
Survey (MBI-SS) (Schaufeli et al, 2002), the Student Version of Burnout Assessment Tool (S-BAT)(Schaufeli et al, 2020; Popescu et al, 2023), and the Oldenburg Burnout Inventory-Student Survey (OLBIS) (Reis et al, 2015). Finally, after synthesizing all of the material, the ABI-T has reached 31 draft items at
this stage.
STEP 2: The scale's format and length
The ABI-T was designed as a self-report assessment using a forced-choice response format with a
7-point Likert scale. This format requires respondents to express their level of agreement or frequency ofoccurrence by selecting one of seven numbers ranging from 0 to 6 (where 0 represents strongly disagreed
and 6 represents strongly agreed), with the midpoint (3) being a neutral view. A seven-point Likert scale
provides a more accurate measure of a participant’s true evaluation and is more appropriate forelectronically-distributed and otherwise unsupervised surveys (Finstad, 2010). Because of these
considerations, the ABI-T response structure applied a 7-point Likert scale. Meanwhile, the ABI-T requiredaround 8-10 minutes to complete, which was not excessive until attention was lost.
STEP 3: Item analysis
The item on the ABI-T has been examined through both quantitative and qualitative methods. The
qualitative method examined the wording, typing, and order of the ABI-T items. The items were adjusted
to be more suitable for the target population by removing double-barreled items, biased wording,ambiguous wording with broad or abstract meaning, and items requiring effort and recall memory (Fenn etal, 2020).
Following that, the quantitative technique was employed to determine whether each of the ABI-T
item had the potential to predict the summative score of academic burnouts using linear regression analysis.
The regression results demonstrated that all of the ABI-T items were able to significantly predict thesummative score of academic burnouts (p-value < .001), with standardized coefficients (β) ranging from.603 (item 4) to .843 (item 26). In a regression model, the variance in the summative score of academic
burnouts explained by each of the ABI-T items varied from 36.4% (item 4) to 71% (item 26), indicating amoderate to fairly high prediction. As a result, all 31 items were retained for further evaluation of theirfactor structures as shown in Table 2.
Table 2: the item analysis using linear regression

Model

Item 1
Item 2(Constant)Burnout_1(Constant)

Unstandardized CoefficientsB
13.21519.727
16.544

Std. Error
2.391
.858
2.453

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through ResearchStandardized
Coefficientst

p-value

5.527
22.9896.744< .001< .001< .001R Square Change

Beta
.803

.645
.604

64

ModelItem 3Item 4Item 5Item 6Item 7Item 8Item 9Item 10Item 11
Item 12Item 13
Item 14
Item 15
Item 16
Item 17
Item 18
Item 19
Item 20
Item 21
Item 22
Item 23
Item 24
Item 25
Item 26
Item 27
Item 28
Item 29
Item 30

Burnout_2(Constant)Burnout_3(Constant)Burnout_4(Constant)Burnout_5(Constant)Burnout_6(Constant)Burnout_7(Constant)Burnout_8(Constant)Burnout_9(Constant)Burnout_10(Constant)Burnout_11(Constant)Burnout_12(Constant)Burnout_13(Constant)Burnout_14(Constant)Burnout_15(Constant)Burnout_16(Constant)Burnout_17(Constant)Burnout_18(Constant)Burnout_19(Constant)Burnout_20(Constant)Burnout_21(Constant)Burnout_22(Constant)Burnout_23(Constant)Burnout_24(Constant)Burnout_25(Constant)Burnout_26(Constant)Burnout_27(Constant)Burnout_28(Constant)Burnout_29(Constant)Burnout_30

Unstandardized CoefficientsB
18.94919.88318.25514.42314.38419.67518.02224.21016.38425.75913.54622.48318.70831.15318.71732.24416.47129.024
21.63627.33618.62614.07417.17918.13519.89918.83820.55019.19918.56330.811
20.02217.73619.09419.90319.71516.52819.17320.56920.44322.10918.23126.09020.81818.02818.79425.78418.26524.52519.52328.20417.10927.65717.84127.17017.55130.96421.807

Std. Error
.899
2.341
.870
3.815
1.115
2.436
.898
2.482
.915
2.936
.978
2.038
.791
2.091
.966
2.316
1.005
2.003
1.010
2.455
1.098
2.663
.860
2.165
.838
1.946
.773
2.318
.863
2.031
.986
2.128
.783
2.096
.824
2.155
.781
1.975
.805
2.142
.813
1.853
.835
2.266
.834
2.094
.848
1.790
.732
2.026
.798
2.126
.876
2.038
.808
1.806
.924

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through ResearchStandardized
Coefficients
Beta
.777
.776
.603
.762
.724
.630
.811
.751
.693
.782
.705
.760
.812
.842
.783
.766
.820
.814
.821
.830
.796
.825
.797
.784
.843
.783
.767
.786
.810

t

p-value

21.0708.492
20.972
3.781
12.9048.077
20.0659.755
17.9088.773
13.847
11.03023.65914.89519.37313.92516.39214.49421.42411.13616.9675.285
19.9768.376
23.7529.679
26.5808.283
21.49815.17020.2968.333
24.3979.496
23.9397.671
24.54410.41525.39310.32322.43214.08324.9297.955
22.54712.31521.54513.70126.68613.92121.44313.00820.36613.33421.71417.14923.603< .001< .001< .001< .001< .001< .001< .001< .001< .001< .001< .001< .001< .001< .001< .001< .001< .001< .001< .001< .001< .001< .001< .001< .001< .001< .001< .001< .001< .001< .001< .001< .001< .001< .001< .001< .001< .001< .001< .001< .001< .001< .001< .001< .001< .001< .001< .001< .001< .001< .001< .001< .001< .001< .001< .001< .001< .001R Square Change

.602
.364
.580
.524
.397
.658
.563
.480
.612
.497
.578
.660
.708
.614
.586
.672
.663
.674
.689
.634
.681
.636
.615
.710
.612
.588
.618
.657

65

ModelItem 31(Constant)Burnout_31

Unstandardized CoefficientsB
33.10017.641

Std. Error
2.265
1.064

Standardized
Coefficientst

p-value

R Square Change

14.614
16.575< .001< .001

.486

Beta
.697

PART 2: Factor structure of the ABI-T
The ABI-T factor structure was evaluated using the EFA analysis. The following were the processes
involved in performing EFA: identification of variables (items), determination of the number of factors,
extraction and rotation methods, and, finally, naming and defining the factor.
STEP 4: Identification of variables (items)
In the EFA analysis, the variables (items) were identified using the communality value. The
communality is the proportion of each variable's variance that can be explained by the factors. If thecommunality is low (less than .40), the variable may have nothing in common with the other variables andis most likely to be deleted (Hair et al., 2019). In this study, all 31 ABI-T items demonstrated communality
ranging from .584 (item 12) to.851 (item 26); hence, all 31 items were retained for further analysis.
STEP 5: Determination of the number of components (factors)
The majority of the methods for determining the number of components (factors) in an EFA
analysis rely on eigenvalues (more than 1), the scree plot, and the percentage of total variance explained(60 percent or greater) (Hair et al, 2019). In this study, the 31-item ABI-T was extracted into four factors
based on eigenvalues greater than one and the scree plot (as shown in Figure 2), accounting for 72.858
percent of the total variance (60.046 percent in the first factor, 5.265 percent in the second factor, 3.953
percent in the third factor, and 3.595 percent in the fourth factor).

Figure 2: the scree plot of the ABI-T (31 items)

STEP 6: Extraction and rotation methods
Principal component analysis (PCA) was employed in this study to extract the ABI-T factors. The
PCA is a dimensionality reduction method aimed at reducing the number of observable variables to asmaller number of core components when variables are normally highly correlated. According to the PCA
findings, all 31 items of the ABI-T were extracted into four components. Nevertheless, certain items' factor
loading was distributed across multiple components, resulting in cross-factor loadings. Oblique rotation
with Promax and Kaiser normalization methods were used to overcome these issues.
However, there were still cross-factor loadings for items No. 5 (I'm not enthusiastic about studying)and No. 24 (I get upset when things don't go as planned), thus the decision was taken based on the theoreticalconcept along with the factor loading that was the highest. Item No. 5 had the highest factor loadings in
SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research

66Factor 2 (Decreased cognitive function); hence, it was assigned to Factor 2. For item No. 24, despite thefact that the highest factor loadings are located in Factor 2, but it should be loaded in Factor 1 (Emotional
instability) according to the theoretical concept. As a result, Item No. 24 was agreed to be loaded on Factor
1. The results of ABI-T factor extraction and rotation are shown in Table 3.
Table 3: Factor loadings of the ABI-T (31 items)
FACTORITEMS

F1: Emotional
instability

Item 27
Item 25
Item 29
Item 26
Item 28
Item 23
Item 30
Item 31
Item 22
Item 13
Item 14
Item 16
Item 18
Item 15
Item 17
Item 20
Item 19
Item 12Item 24
Item 21
Item 5Item 9Item 7Item 10Item 8Item 11
Item 6Item 4Item 2Item 3Item 1

.939
.929
.899
.882
.848
.673
.667
.651
.490

Eigenvalue% of variance explained% of cumulative variance explainedInternal consistency (Cronbach’s α)

18.61460.046%60.046%.955.382

F2: Decreased
cognitive function

.876
.857
.853
.761
.758
.631
.562
.532
.507
.483
.470
.372

1.632
5.265%
65.311%.955

F3: Lack ofmotivation

F4:
Exhaustion

.365
.908
.744
.739
.737
.731
.523

.313

1.225
3.953%
69.264%
.906

.763
.518
.484
.476
1.114
3.595%
72.858%.880

Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis; Rotation Method: Promax with Kaiser Normalization.

STEP 7: Naming and defining the factor
In conclusion, the ABI-T had 31 items that were extracted into four factors:
1) Emotional instability is a negative emotion caused by academic burnout that emerges as
uncontrollable emotion, pressure, disappointment, and blunted emotion.
SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research

672) Decreased cognitive function is defined as a reduction in memory, concentration, focus,
and executive function as a result of academic burnout, which leads to poor academic performance, frequenterrors, or procrastination.
3) lack of motivation refers to a lack of inspiration in learning, a lack of determination, and aperception that the content you are studying does not suit your needs.
4) Exhaustion is defined as feeling fatigued, tired, having little or no energy, and requiring agreat deal of effort to study.
DISCUSSION
The ABI-T was a novel measurement aimed at detecting early signs of academic burnout among Thai
university students. A preliminary evaluation of item analysis and the scale's factor structure was proposed
during the developmental process. The findings indicated that the ABI-T items generated by the literaturesynthesis review yielded 31 items. Regression analysis revealed that all of the items were significant
predictors of the academic burnout composite score. Following that, the ABI-T factor structure was
extracted using the EFA method to be four core components, namely, emotional instability, decreased
cognitive function, lack of motivation, and exhaustion.
In comparison to the existing measurement, most studies adapted the Maslach Burnout Inventory-General
Survey (MBI-GS) to the academic context as the Maslach Burnout Inventory-Student Survey (MBI-SS),and the three-factor structure (exhaustion, cynicism, and professional efficacy) was partially verified in
student populations (Portoghese et al, 2018; Wickramasinghe et al, 2018; Pérez-Mármol, and Brown, 2019;
Puranitee et al, 2019a; Charoentanyarak et al, 2020; Pérez Fuentes et al, 2020; AlShahrani et al, 2022). One
crucial assumption was that employers and students had comparable experiences. In other words, it was
automatically assumed that the concept of burnout was the same for employees and students. However, no
actual data has yet to substantiate this premise. Thus, it is most effective when the measurement is designedwith the academic context in mind. and the ABI-T substantially filled this gap.
The core factors of the ABI-T were discussed in comparison to other current measures of academic burnout.
The factors of emotional instability (F1), lack of motivation (F3), and exhaustion (F4) shared similarities
in the ABI-T and current measurements of the Maslach Burnout Inventory-Student Survey (MBI-SS)(Schaufeli et al, 2002), the Student Version of the Burnout Assessment Tool (S-BAT) (Schaufeli et al, 2020;
Popescu et al, 2023), and the Oldenburg Burnout Inventory-Student Survey (OLBI-S) (Reis et al, 2015).
Meanwhile, the MBI-SS included a factor of cynicism additionally.
However, in order to detect signs of academic burnout among higher-education students, one of the mostimportant factors on the scale must be related to cognitive function (F2). Because cognitive function relates
to the ability to focus, concentrate, memorize, and perform executive functions (EF) such as cognitive
flexibility, self-regulation, self-control, and higher-cognitive organization. Such abilities are critical for
determining academic achievement in university students (Madigan and Curran, 2021; Rosales-Ricardo etal, 2021). As a result, it was crucial in developing the ABI-T scale to include cognitive function as one of
the core factors, which was consistent with the S-BAT scale (Schaufeli et al, 2020; Popescu et al, 2023).
In addition, there was a discussion about academic burnout among university students in the context ofhigher education in Thailand. According to Thailand's Ministry of Higher Education, Science, Research,and Innovation's educational policy (from 2021 to 2027), the emphasis has been on strengthening
manpower, particularly in the promotion of lifelong and multidisciplinary learning for all learners, andenhancing graduates' ability to meet labor market needs. As a result, Thailand is shifting toward outcomebased education and a skill-based learning approach (Ministry of Higher Education, Science, Research andInnovation, Thailand. 2022). The policy transformation requires university administrators, instructors, andstudents to raise their performance to match the new criteria. The educational system's high standards and
SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research

68expectations may result in an excessive academic burden and ongoing academic stress for university
students. Previous research on the prevalence of academic burnout among Thai university students foundit to be high; however, the majority of these studies were carried out with medical and health science
students (Puranitee, et al, 2019a; Puranitee, et al, 2019b; Taikerd et al, 2019; Charoentanyarak et al, 2020).
The ABI-T was developed in this study to fill these gaps by measuring signs of academic burnout in nonmedical university students. The findings differed from previous ones, which found that academic burnout
among non-medical university students was moderate (quartile 3; percentile 56), indicating that major
subjects should be considered as one of the covariate factors when determining academic burnout in highereducation students.
LIMITATIONS
The following limitations should be addressed: (1) The study focused on developing the ABI-T as a novel
measurement for detecting signs of academic burnout, but with less regard for the variables that contributeto these conditions. Previous studies found that the variables underlying academic burnout were highly
varied, including sociodemographic and psychological factors as well as those related to the university
context, such as academic pressure, work overload, a lack of appropriate feedback, and a lack of fairness(Aguayo et al, 2019; Shankland et al, 2019; Jagodics and Szabó, 2022). As a result, future research may
focus on internal and external aspects related to academic burnout in the context of that particular study.
(2) The methods used in developing the ABI-T found in this study were only the preliminary steps of item
analysis and factor structure analysis; however, future research should conduct a more in-depth analysis of
the scale's psychometric properties, such as construct validity, convergent validity, concurrent validity, testretest reliability, and intraclass reliability. Furthermore, methods for interpreting the ABI-T score should
be addressed, such as assessing the scale's sensitivity, specificity, and ROC curve, as well as developing
norms for university students, with the goal of upgrading the ABI-T to a standard psychological measure.
(3) Despite the fact that the ABI-T scale was designed for higher-education students, this study only
included undergraduates. Thus, the use of ABI-T by graduate students should be investigated further.
IMPLICATIONS
Although the ABI-T continues to be in its early stages of development, it is applicable for use at higher
education institutions. The university counseling units may employ the ABI-T for the reason that screening
enables early identification of students who are potentially at risk of experiencing academic burnout
problems and who may benefit from early intervention. Additionally, screening enables professionals to
anticipate how students will respond to common practices, allowing them to better tailor theirrecommendations to meet the needs of specific students.
The data obtained from the ABI-T is useful in providing recommendations for instructional management
strategies both within and outside of the classroom. For example (Salgado and Au-Yong-Oliveira, 2021):• reorganization of the pedagogy strategies, placing more focus on the practical part of learning;• reorganization of instructional strategies and development of alternative assessment techniques(that do not rely primarily on examinations or tests);• offer a variety of curriculum options so that students are able to pursue the subjects they truly
appreciate and are appropriate for their vocational pathways;• promote dynamic instruction to inspire and motivate students;• assign proper responsibilities that provide a balance between group and individual tasks and areappropriate for the subject material.
Additionally, the information from the ABI-T could be beneficial to university counseling units oruniversity departments that are in charge of the health and wellness of students and staff by implementing
SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research69

beneficial practices. For example (Salgado and Au-Yong-Oliveira, 2021):• extend the availability of seminars and workshops for the entire academic community whereparticipants are able to learn how to manage their time, pressure, anxiety, and stress, as well as
sessions on emotional resilience, emotional intelligence, and cognitive flexibility;• extend the delivery of counseling services, mental health education campaigns, and group andindividual orientation programs;• develop an extracurricular physical exercise activity to promote teamwork and individual effort tolessen stress and strengthen interpersonal relationships;• improve the physical environment of educational institutions to foster comfort, increase the numberof social spaces to encourage interaction, and improve the comfort of leisure locations.
CONCLUSIONS
A novel instrument of measurement called the Academic Burnout Inventory-Thai Edition (ABI-T) was
developed to detect early signs of academic burnout among Thai university students. During thedevelopment process, a preliminary evaluation of item analysis and the scale's factor structure wasproposed. A total of 31 items on a 7-point Likert scale with the following four key factors have been
retrieved from 293 Thai university students: namely, emotional instability, decreased cognitive function,lack of motivation, and exhaustion. The process for uplifting the standardization of the ABI-T was also
discussed.
The implications of the ABI-T for higher education institutions are suggested. The information from the
ABI-T is useful in recommending instructional management strategies. The ABI-T may also be useful touniversity counseling units or departments in charge of health and wellness as an alternate screening toolfor early identification and monitoring to lower the risk of severe illnesses and enable the best possible
therapy.
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Elements for Designing a Mobile Learning Environment for Problem-Solvingof Probability: The Experts’ Consensus
Durga Gnanasagaran1, Suzieleez Syrene Abdul Rahim2, and Dorothy DeWitt3
1

University of Malaya, Malaysia (durga.gnanasagaran@gmail.com)
2
University of Malaya, Malaysia (suzieleez@um.edu.my)3
University of Malaya, Malaysia (dorothy@um.edu.my)

ABSTRACT
It is important for students in the Malaysian Matriculation System who learn probability to develop
problem-solving skills as it could help in important roles encompassing various fields. This study aims toidentify the essential elements for designing a mobile learning environment that facilitates problem-solvingof probability based on the consensus of experts in the area. Fuzzy Delphi Method (FDM) was employed
to collect data from a panel of nineteen experts whose expertise ranged from Mathematics Education,
Matriculation Mathematics, Technology in Education and Instructional Technology. A semi-structured
interview was first conducted to come up with the elements and sub-elements required for the FDM
questionnaire instrument. The questionnaire was developed using a five-point linguistic scale. The
conditions to be fulfilled were that the threshold value (d) needed to be less than or equal to 0.2 andpercentage of expert consensus needed to be greater than or equal to 75%. For the defuzzification process
meanwhile, the fuzzy score (A) was required to be greater than or equal to the alpha-cut value of 0.5. The
results indicated the experts’ consensus on the elements objectives, contents, instructional strategies forstudents’ learning, platform and technology. These findings have significant implications for designing themobile learning environment for problem-solving of probability.
KEYWORDS: Probability; Problem-Solving; Fuzzy Delphi Method; Mobile Learning

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INTRODUCTION
Living in a data-driven world today, probability and statistics affect all aspects of life. Concepts such asdata, randomness, chance, probability and risk are the concepts in the mathematical realm of probability
and statistics that are encountered daily. In keeping up with the age of information, the internet, televisionand newspapers are widely used. People come face-to-face with a huge amount of data in the working worldand need to solve problems and make decisions in uncertain situations. Hence, it is safe to say that mostcountries include probability and statistics in their curriculum because their use in daily life, their roles inother fields of study and their contribution to the logical inquiry process are recognized (Koparan, 2022).
Knowledge in statistics is important to students as when they eventually go into the employment world, thepractice of working with the collection, presentation, analysis and use of data becomes applicable in making
decisions, solving problems and in designing products and processes (Montgomery and Runger, 2018). It
is noted that an increased emphasis has been accorded to the subject of probability in the curricular and thisis substantiated with the increasing number of studies on this subject (Koparan, 2019, 2022). However,probability is a top subject where the is a scarcity of comprehensive learning environments. Instructional
strategies are often limited to drilling exercises and the chalk and talk approach. For effective learning of
the subject, a suitable environment to develop statistical problem-solving skills is required with mobile
technology playing a central role in the learning environment.
Due to the myriad of issues pertaining to the learning of probability, namely that of students’ inadequate
abstract reasoning skills, their weakness in developing their reasoning ability and their usage of
inappropriate visualisation forms that causes attention diversion through the illustration of unimportant
information, students encounter difficulty in problem solving involving conditional probability (Abdul
Rahman & Ansari, 2016; Lukac & Gavala, 2019). The current pedagogy, deemed rather dated (Crompton& Traxler, 2018) employs a more teacher centred learning which also contributes to the existence of time
constraint in the delivery of the lessons (Aziz, 2005), hence further halting the development of students’probabilistic reasoning ability which is the essence of conditional probability. This indirectly hampers theirprogress in conditional probability problem solving. Therefore, it is important to have a learning
environment that incorporates the aspect of mobility as well as visualisation suited to the needs of students
to assist with their current difficulties in mastering conditional probability problem solving. There does notseem to be any mobile learning environment addressing problem solving in conditional probability andtherefore, the need to design one to address the issues faced by students is very much existent. The aspectof mobility of learners’ and mobility of devices in mobile learning is also pivotal in addressing the issue ofteacher centred learning and time constraint present in the delivery of lessons by enabling learning to happen
anytime and anywhere (Rahamat, 2019). The aspect of visualisation through tree diagrams and contingency
tables is vital to illustrate clearly and systematically the possibilities or cases that need to be analysed during
the process of problem solving (Lukac & Gavala, 2019). Hence by recognising the issues present in
students’ learning of conditional probability problem solving and the potentialities of mobile learning in
addressing the issues, a mobile learning environment integrating mobile technology is designed by taking
into consideration the opinion of experts in the areas.
Since the number of mobile phone users have been increasing, pre-university colleges in Malaysia, namely
the Malaysian Matriculation Colleges should embrace this technology of learning. As for students, learning
mathematics, namely that of conditional probability is not just to settle for the regurgitation of facts, butalso to build up their understanding of the concept. Since students need more platforms to practice andcommunicate in probability language, it would be apt to adopt a mobile learning environment for learning
independently or collaboratively with others. The integration of technology in teaching and learning acts asa means of assistance to students who face difficulties in grasping complex concepts. The mobile learning
environment designed with the experts will allow conditional probability to be learnt and taught in a more
active mode that incorporates a variety of media, namely written, visual and audio. Given the educational
climate of Malaysia, this idea will promote greater engagement with the content material and a deep
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74

approach to its learning (Norman & Ghazali, 2022).
Since there has been no research investigating the elements needed to design a mobile learning environment
at the moment, this study intends to provide insights on the suitable elements of the mobile learning
environment (MLE) for conditional probability problem-solving by taking into consideration the opinionof experts. Thus, this study will be investigating what the suitable elements are for designing a mobile
learning environment and will answer the following research question: what are the suitable elements ofthe mobile learning environment for conditional probability problem-solving according to experts?
METHODOLOGYWith the objective being to design a mobile learning environment (MLE) based on problem-solving of
Probability for pre-university level according to the opinions and views of the experts’ panel, the Fuzzy
Delphi Method (FDM) was employed for this purpose. The FDM is a variant of the traditional Delphi
Method that incorporates fuzzy logic principles. It is often used in decision-making and consensus-building
processes to handle uncertain and ambiguous information. The FDM was suitable for the objective of thisstudy because developing an MLE involved the handling of complex and ambiguous information involving
the objectives, contents, instructional strategies for students’ learning, platform and technology. FDM could
accommodate this complexity and ambiguity by allowing the experts to express their opinions using the
linguistic scale which was well suited for dealing with uncertain information. Besides that, the FDM wasuseful in achieving the objective of the study as it involved a group of experts who contributed their insights
and opinions. In the context of this study, experts from the field of Matriculation Mathematics, Mathematics
Education, Technology in Education and Instructional Technology provided valuable input and the FDM
helped to aggregate their diverse opinions and reach a consensus on the essential elements and sub-elements
for the mobile learning environment. The FDM also assisted in prioritising the sub-elements of therespective elements based on the experts’ collective judgements as certain sub-elements may be morecritical than others.
Participants
Experts who were selected for the study fulfilled the criteria of having more than five years of experiencein their field (Berliner, 2004; Akbari & Yazdanmehr, 2014), possessed the required expertise and weretrained in that particular field (Needham, 1990; Mullen, 2003; Powell, 2003). In order to determine thelearning environment’s design, a consensus among a panel of experts was obtained on the elements andsub-elements of objectives, content, instructional strategy for students’ learning and suitable platform or
technology. The panel of experts were made up of eight males and eleven females. Their expertise ranged
from that of Matriculation Mathematics, Mathematics Education, Mobile Learning, Instructional
Technology, Problem-solving and Technology in Education. In particular, there were five matriculationcollege lecturers, twelve university lecturers, one lecturer from the institute of teacher education and one
policymaker. This was to ensure that there was a balance of practitioners and academicians in the pool ofexperts. The eight experts who were interviewed for the development of the Fuzzy Delphi Instrument were
included in the experts’ pool that was involved in responding to the Fuzzy Delphi Questionnaire Instrument.
The experts possessed eleven years to twenty-eight years of experience in their respective fields ofexpertise.

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Table 1
Summary of Expert Panels’ Details
Number ofExperts
5

5

4

5Area of Expertise
Matriculation
Mathematics
Problem-solving
Mathematics
Education
Problem-solving
Technology in
Education
Mobile Learning
Instructional
Technology

Years of
Experience
13 – 17

Position
Senior Lecturer

HighestQualification
Master’s, PhD

11 – 26

Associate Professor
Senior Lecturer

PhD

13 – 28

Professor
Associate Professor
Senior Lecturer

PhD

11 – 19

Associate Professor
Senior Lecturer
Senior Assistant
Director

PhD

Round 1 of the FDM: Semi-structured interview
The first part of the data collection in the FDM employed the semi-structured interview involving eight
experts. The eight experts involved possessed relevant experience and expertise in the areas concerning
mathematics education, matriculation mathematics, technology in education and instructional technology.
These experts were deemed fit for their role as they were chosen due to their competence and knowledge
which helped improve the study’s validity. The thematic analysis done saw the emergence of the themes
objectives of the MLE, content that was going to be the focus of the MLE, instructional strategies forstudents’ learning and the suitable platform for the delivery of the MLE. Based on the elements and subelements that emerged from the opinions of experts, the Fuzzy Delphi Instrument in the form of aquestionnaire was developed. Six items were formed for the theme of objective, twelve items for content,
six items for instructional strategies for students’ learning and thirteen items for platform respectively.
Round 2 of the FDM: Distribution of Fuzzy Delphi instrument
Based on the suggestions of the experts’ panel during the interview process, the Fuzzy Delphi Instrument
was designed. Through the emergence of elements and their respective sub-elements from the interview
done in the first part, the instrument was administered to other experts to determine the agreement extent.
In order to ensure there was consistency between the interview findings and elements chosen, the eight
experts who were interviewed in Round 1 from the panel of nineteen experts were also included in thequestionnaire round.
DATA ANALYSIS
Data yielded via experts’ interview was analysed by means of the thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006).
Through this, data was put in categories in order to spot elements to be incorporated into the mobile learning
environment. Based on the categories suggested by the experts’ panel during the interview process, theFuzzy Delphi Instrument was designed. Through the emergence of themes from the interview done in thefirst part, the instrument was administered to other experts to determine the agreement extent. In order toensure there was consistency between the interview findings and elements chosen, the eight experts who
were interviewed in Round 1 were also included in the questionnaire round.
Data from the FDM instrument was analysed by using Microsoft Excel. The issue of fuzziness among
SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research76experts was addressed through a linguistic scale similar to that of a Likert scale with the provision of
additional fuzzy numbers. These considerations were given attention to in designing the Fuzzy Delphi
instrument whereby the level of importance was placed upon the identified elements; objectives of theMLE, content that was going to be the focus of the MLE, instructional strategies for students’ learning andthe suitable platform for the delivery of the MLE of the problem solving instruction related to the learningof conditional probability by using mobile learning. Only the elements deemed to be relatively important
were further considered for the study. The degree of importance, which ranged from ‘very unimportant’ to‘very important’ could be positive or negative (Kardaras et al., 2013). It was represented in a 5-point
linguistic scale with 1 = Unimportant, 2 = Little important, 3 = Moderately important, 4 = Important, 5 =Very important. This represents the 5-point linguistic scale for the agreement level. The steps involved in
FDM are as follows:
Step 1: Selecting the eligible panel of experts according to the criteria of 10-15 experts (Adler & Ziglio,
1996) or 10-50 experts (Jones & Twiss, 1978).
Step 2: Determining the linguistic scale according to the triangular fuzzy number in order to frame feedback.
Step 3: Calculating the mean of experts’ opinions for each dimension.
Step 4: Determining the distance between two fuzzy numbers to determine the threshold, d. If the value ofd is less than or equal to 0.2, therefore the experts have all reached a consensus. Otherwise, it requires around two.
Step 5: Determining the consensus of the group. The group consensus percentage needs to exceed 75%,
otherwise needing round two to be conducted.
Step 6: Identifying the Alpha-cut level for the selection of elements to develop the mobile learning
environment; literature mostly makes use of an Alpha-cut level of 0.05.
Step 7: Aggregating the Fuzzy Evaluation by adding up all the fuzzy numbers.
Step 8: Carrying out the Defuzzification process which is a conversion technique of the numbers into crisp
real numbers.
Step 9: Choosing the elements according to the defuzzification value to rank. The element with the highest
defuzzification value will be prioritised and ranked the highest.
FINDINGSThis section reports the FDM consensus from the nineteen experts. The aspects of which the consensus was
obtained for are objectives, contents, instructional strategies for students’ learning, platform and technology
to be used. The conditions to be fulfilled were that the threshold value (d) needed to be less than or equal
to 0.2 and percentage of expert consensus needed to be greater than or equal to 75%. For the defuzzification
process meanwhile, the fuzzy score (A) was required to be greater than or equal to the alpha-cut value of
0.5.

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Objective
Table 2Sub-elements of Objective
No. ItemThreshold
Value (d)Percentage
of Expert
Consensus
(%)

Fuzzy
Score
(A)

ExpertConsensus

Ranking

1.

0.194

89

0.704

Accepted

3

0.183

100

0.705

Accepted

2

0.162

95

0.716

Accepted

1

2.
3.

Solve conditional
probability problems.
Represent problems byby using diagrams.
Show the steps taken tosolve conditional
probability problems.

__________________________________________________________________________________
Under the element of Objective, Items 1, 2 and 3 obtained an experts consensus of greater than 75% eachand a d value below 0.2. Hence, these three items were accepted. Based on the defuzzification values of theaccepted items, Item 3 ranked the highest as it had the highest fuzzy score of 0.716 and this was followed
by Item 2 which ranked second with a fuzzy score of 0.705 and Item 1 which came in third with a fuzzyscore of 0.704 as can be seen on Table 2. This showed that most of the experts perceived “showing the steps
taken to solve conditional probability problems” as the most important objective of the MLE.
Content
Table 3Sub-elements of Content
No. ItemThreshold
Value (d)Percentage
of Expert
Consensus
(%)

Fuzzy
Score
(A)

ExpertConsensus

Ranking

1.

0.154

95

0.726

Accepted

1

0.186

89

0.695

Accepted

3

0.168

95

0.653

Accepted

4

0.149

100

0.716

Accepted

2

0.186

89

0.695

Accepted

3

2.
3.

4.
5.

Real-world contextual
problem scenarios
Step-by-step instructions on
how to solve the problems
Diagrams to assist withcarrying out steps to solve
the problems
Prior knowledge related tothe problem
Independent and dependent
eventsIn order to map out the relevant content areas to be included in the MLE, experts’ opinions regarding theitems under the Content element were acquired. The threshold value (d), experts consensus percentage,defuzzification value and ranking of each item contained under the banner of Content element with regard
to the consensus of the experts are as portrayed in Table 3. Most of the experts were in agreement that Item
1 that is “Real-world contextual problem scenarios” is the most important content as it ranked top with thehighest fuzzy score of 0.726. This was followed by Item 4 which was “Prior knowledge related to the
SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research78

problem” which had a fuzzy score of 0.716. Being jointly ranked third were Items 2 and 5 which were
“step-by-step instructions on how to solve the problems” and “independent and dependent events”
respectively. “Diagrams to assist with carrying out the steps to solve problems” came in fourth in ranking
among all the items which were accepted according to the percentage of the experts’ consensus.
Instructional Strategies for Students’ Learning
Table 4Sub-elements of Instructional Strategies for Students’ Learning
No. ItemThreshold
Percentage
Fuzzy Expert
Value (d)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Problem based learning
Co-operative learning
Collaborative learning
Inquiry based learningGame based learning

0.102
0.186
0.168
0.142
0.169

of Expert
Consensus
(%)
79
89
95
100
95

Score
(A)

Consensus

0.758
0.684
0.684
0.726
0.695

Accepted
Accepted
Accepted
Accepted
Accepted

Ranking14423The element Instructional Strategies for Students’ Learning contained items to plan the approaches in theMLE. The threshold value (d), expert consensus percentage, fuzzy score (A) and ranking of every accepted
item under this element gauged by taking into consideration the consensus of the experts is displayed inTable 4. Most of the experts were in agreement that the first item which was “problem based learning” wasthe most important one to be considered for inclusion in the MLE as it raked the highest fuzzy score (A) of
0.759.
Platform
Table 5Sub-elements of Platform
No. ItemThreshold
Value (d)

1.
2.
3.

Google Classroom
Websites
Education mobile
applications
4. Interactive learning
platforms
5. Youtube
6. Google Workspace for
Education

Fuzzy
Score
(A)

ExpertConsensus

Ranking

0.173
0.149
0.183

Percentage
of Expert
Consensus
(%)
95
100
89

0.684
0.684
0.674

Accepted
Accepted
Accepted

2
2
3

0.086

79

0.621

Accepted

5

0.097
0.162

79
95

0.632
0.716

Accepted
Accepted

4
1

The platform element contained items to plan the platform to deliver the MLE. The threshold value (d),expert consensus percentage, fuzzy score (A) and ranking of every accepted item under this element gauged
by taking into consideration the consensus of the experts is displayed in Table 5. Google Workspace for
Education came out as the top ranked item with a defuzzification value of 0.716 while the Google
Classroom and websites were ranked second with a defuzzification value of 0.684.

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research

79Technology
Table 6Sub-elements of Technology
No. ItemThreshold
Value (d)1.
2.

Mobile phones/
smartphones
Laptops

Fuzzy
Score
(A)

ExpertConsensus

Ranking

0.102

Percentage
of Expert
Consensus
(%)
79

0.758

Accepted

1

0.168

95

0.705

Accepted

2

The technology element contained items to decipher the suitable technology to facilitate the MLE. The
threshold value (d), expert consensus percentage, fuzzy score (A) and ranking of every accepted item under
this element gauged by taking into consideration the consensus of the experts are displayed in Table 5.
Mobile phones came out as the top ranked item with a defuzzification value of 0.758 while laptop was
ranked second with a defuzzification value of 0.705.
DISCUSSION
This section discusses the findings from the analysis of the Fuzzy Delphi Method carried out to identify theexperts’ consensus of the elements for the mobile learning environment for problem-solving of probability
at pre-university level. As stated in the findings earlier, the items under the respective elements wereprioritised according to their rankings. The experts’ consensus in this study depicted the priority listing of
the required elements for the MLE in terms of the objective, content, instructional strategy for students’learning, and suitable platform or technology for delivery. The sub-elements of the respective elements
showed acceptance by the experts. The findings were used as a guide in coming up with the elements todevelop a MLE for problem-solving of probability at pre-university level.
Under the aspect of objectives, in developing a MLE, it is important that the learning objectives chosen are
a reflection of the needs of students in order to make sure that students can then achieve what the MLE
intended to convey in the first place. The needs of the students were established through the needs analysis
done to identify their perceptions of their problem-solving skills and their ability to problem solve. The
experts agreed that problem-solving skills needed to be emphasised as the skills were essential indeveloping higher order thinking skills. The objectives accepted by the experts were that by the end of
making use of the MLE, students should be able to represent problems by using diagrams, show the steps
taken to solve conditional probability problems and solve conditional probability problems. These items
indicate that the strategy and process of problem-solving should be the focus of the MLE. This finding
resonates with (Al-Khateeb, 2018) who acknowledged that these objectives as being slaves to time
constraints and the traditional learning setup, hence much more reasonable to be accomplished in a mobile
learning setting. Following the evidences put forth by (Shchedrina et al., 2020), the accepted learning
objectives for the MLE were arranged according to their level of cognitive complexity.
In designing the content of the MLE, the experts agreed that real-world contextual problem scenarios, priorknowledge related to the problem, step-by-step instructions on how to solve the problem, independent anddependent events and diagrams to assist with carrying out the steps to solve the problems needed to be
included in the MLE. The content which received the highest expert consensus here was real-worldcontextual problem scenarios. With students often questioning the need to study mathematics and statistics(Schukajlow et al., 2017), this was understandable as there have been concerns for mathematics educators
related to the inadequacy and lack of relevance of traditional learning methods to engage students in
SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research

80

problem-solving (Kohen & Orenstein, 2021; Sierpinska, 1995; Wu & Adams, 2006). Exposing students toauthentic problems of conditional probability has the potential to improve their understanding of real-world
situations from a mathematical perspective (Hernandez-Martinez & Vos, 2018). Prior knowledge related tothe problem and the step-by-step instructions on how to solve the problem assisted by the usage of diagrams
also achieved agreement between the experts for inclusion in the MLE. This shows that focusing on themechanics of the problem solving coupled with emphasis on visual representation and underlying concepts
are central to making a difference in students’ ability to solve conditional probability problems (Chow &Van Haneghan, 2016; Even & Kvatinsky, 2010). In Brase (2007), he suggested that the evolution of humancapabilities to address probabilities was linked to affordances of previous learning so much so that in cases
where there was a lack of such affordances, problem solving was less intuitive. In addition to that,independent and dependent events of conditional probability also achieved the desired consensus of theexperts to be considered in the MLE. The high misconception rate of independent and dependent events
has been faulted on the lack of prominence they have been given in the curriculum resulting in them only
being covered if time permitted (Molnar, 2016). Therefore the inclusion of independent and dependent
events in the MLE creates an opportunity for its learning with the affordance of learning happening anytime
and anywhere in the MLE.
The outcome of the experts’ agreement when it came to instructional strategy for students’ learning ranked
problem based learning to be the top instructional strategy for the MLE. Problem based learning being a
student-centred method of learning is suitable for mobile learning as it controls and guides the activities
done by students in that learning environment (Binsaleh & Binsaleh, 2020; Othman et al., 2013; Yusof etal., 2016; Yusoff et al., 2021). The strategies of problem based learning plays an essential role in helping
students transfer their experience of analysing the learning activities critically to their day-to-day activities
in life especially when they need to solve problems (Chiang et al., 2009; Hawari & Noor, 2020).
For suitable platform for the mobile learning environment, Google Workspace for Education, Google
Classroom, websites, education mobile applications, Youtube and interactive learning platforms were
accepted for inclusion. Google Workspace for Education which has tools such as Google Classroom thatacts as a virtual classroom positively impacted students’ learning experience and the platform wasaccessible and easy to use on mobile devices (Gupta & Pathania, 2021). It has proven to be effective in
improving students’ access and attentiveness towards learning, and the knowledge and skills gained throughthe platform makes learning more efficient and enjoyable (Hussaini et al., 2020). Google Classroom is aplatform that is good for the landscape of learning today because through Google Classroom, students get
to collaborate and discuss in groups while working on their tasks (Ching, 2022). Google Classroom offers
several benefits for mobile learning environments such as flexibility, instantaneous deployment of material,
mobile-friendly interfaces, more storage space and a platform that is both secure and versatile (Bradley,
2021; Chatterjee et al., 2023; Kayali et al., 2016). Mobile friendly websites are becoming increasingly
popular for mobile learning environments given the increasing use of mobile devices for accessing online
content.
For suitable technology for the mobile learning environment, mobile phones and laptops were accepted forinclusion. Previous research findings have suggested that mobile phones were a suitable technology formobile learning environments, providing students with new learning opportunities that were not limited byplace and time as well as supporting different learning styles (Ahmad, 2018; Al Hosni, 2016; Bernacki etal., 2020). Laptops are among the devices commonly used for mobile learning (Majeed, 2014). Laptops are
suitable for mobile learning environments as they offer benefits of access to learning materials, self-directed
learning opportunities and tools for collaboration and engagement (Demir & Akpinar, 2018; Mouza, 2008).
Laptops are essential in a mobile learning environment for learning probability due to its capability ofgiving students the chance of supplemental thinking and enhancing problem-solving skills by enhancing
communication and collaboration (Mouza, 2008; Sung et al., 2016).

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research81CONCLUSION
This study intended to identify the required elements to design a mobile learning environment based on
problem-solving of probability. The findings of this study suggest that the elements objective, content,
instructional strategy for students’ learning, platform and technology are essential when wanting to comeup with a mobile learning environment for students’ learning of conditional probability. This can guide
Higher Education Institutions to come up with learning environments which are relevant to students’ needs
and endorsed by experts in the field. More research can be carried out with experts from other pre-university
institutions. The information gained from this study can be used as a concrete input to design a mobile
learning environment for problem-solving of probability for pre-university level.
This study will add to the existing body of knowledge with regard to experts’ consensus in determining
elements for designing learning environments for learners. By addressing relevant concerns about creating
and planning a mobile learning environment for students’ learning, it is clear that focus needs to be paid to
how these efforts are brought together and emphasised appropriately to ensure that the elements
incorporated are for the betterment of the present and future learning of the students.
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SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research84

Training Opportunities and Required Skills for Institutional Research
Programs in Japan
Shuntaro Iseri 1, Tetsuya Oishi2, Nobuhiko Kondo3 and Kunihiko Takamatsu4
1

Kanda University of International Studies (iseri-s@kanda.kuis.ac.jp)
2
Kyushu Institute of Technology (oishi@ltc.kyutech.ac.jp)
3Tokyo Metropolitan University (kondo@tmu.ac.jp)
4Tokyo Institute of Technology (ktakamatu@irds.titech.ac.jp)

ABSTRACT
While more and more universities in Japan are establishing Institutional Research (IR) offices, there is aneed to improve the skills of faculty and staff involved in IR and to provide training opportunities forthem. Therefore, this study examined two questions: [Q1] What human resource development programs
are currently being implemented in Japan, and [Q2] What knowledge and skills do IR personnel atuniversities nationwide consider necessary? In relation to [Q1], we summarized the actual status of shortterm training programs for IR human resource development held in Japan from FY 2010 to FY 2021, andfound an increasing trend in the number of short-term training programs since FY 2014 and fewer training
programs involving group work and exercises. Next, we conducted a questionnaire survey of IR
professionals across Japan regarding [Q2], and found that many of them said that knowledge and skills
corresponding to “contextual intelligence” and “issues intelligence” were necessary, and among thosecorresponding to “technical/analytical intelligence,” there were differences in their perception of thenecessity of these skills. In addition, when asked to self-evaluate their knowledge and skills, some
respondents gave lower self-evaluations than they did in terms of perceived need.
KEYWORDS: Institutional Research, Training Programs, Skills Development, Personnel Training in
Japan

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research85

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background and Issues
In recent years, Japanese universities have been rapidly establishing “Institutional Research” (IR) offices
and hiring the requisite IR personnel. According to a survey conducted by the Ministry of Education,
Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) on the “Status of Reform of Educational Content atUniversities” (from FY2011), “the number of universities with an office specializing in university-wideIR” increased from only 7% (56 universities) in FY2011 to 49% (381 universities) by FY2020. Similarly,
the “number of universities with full-time staff in offices specializing in IR” increased from 6% (44universities) in FY2011 to 36% (280 universities) in FY2020, and the “number of universities with fulltime faculty in offices specializing in IR” increased from 2% (16 universities) in FY2011 to 17% (133universities) in FY2020. Additionally, the “number of universities with a full -time faculty member incharge of IR” increased from 2% (16 universities) in FY 2011 to 17% (133 universities) in FY 2020.
This establishment of IR offices in Japan has progressed at such a rapid pace due to the policy advocating
the need for such offices and the influence of inducement policies linked to subsidies. The beginning of IR
in Japan can be traced back to 1991, when self-inspection and evaluation became obligatory as a result of
the generalization of the Standards for the Establishment of Universities (Nakao et al., 2021); however, it
has spread rapidly under the influence of policy documents and subsidy policies sin ce the late 2000s(Japan Association for Institutional Research (JAIR), 2022). The word IR clearly appeared for the firsttime in a policy document by the MEXT in 2008 (MEXT 2008, Kobayashi &Yamada, 2016), in reports in2012 and 2014, and in guidelines for teaching and learning management in 2020, which have all
repeatedly pointed out the importance of IR (JAIR, 2022). Regarding inducement policies in conjunction
with subsidies, various new institutional competitive subsidies have been introduced since the “University
Reform Action Plan” in 2012, and the establishment of IR and its efforts have been questioned in theselection criteria (JAIR, 2022). In addition, since FY2013, the ordinary expense subsidy system for private
universities has also set the establishment of IR offices, human resource development, and initiatives as
evaluation items; this has also been a major inducement for private universities to establish IR offices(JAIR, 2022).
While the establishment of IR offices and the assignment of personnel in charge have spread rapidly inJapan as described above, challenges in the management of IR offices and human resource development
have also been raised. Shimizu (2019), based on a que stionnaire survey of IR offices at Japanese
universities, identified issues, such as “lack of manpower and time,” “scattered data,” “worries about
aggregation, analysis methods, and reporting methods,” and “unclear objectives of analysis and IR
offices.” Simply put, as Funamori (2016) states, IR in Japan is still in a transitional stage, and both theoffices and the employment of human resources are still unstable. As these issues have gradually become
apparent, the importance of IR human resource development has been pointed out (e.g., Takata 2018). In
addition, Murasawa and Iseri et al. (2023), using data merging awareness variables from a questionnaire
survey of IR offices in Japan with objective variables from the institutions, found that even after
controlling for institutional attributes and years of IR office experience, an increase in the number ofoffices implementing IR human resource development measures led to more “unclear data collected,” and“unclear analysis.” Additionally, the results revealed that the offices had a lower awareness of issues, suchas “unclear data to be collected,” “unclear on the necessary analysis,” and “unclear on the positioning of
the organization within the university.” Given these qualitative references and the results of our analysis,
we believe that IR human resource development efforts are important for the smooth operation anddevelopment of IR offices. In addition, Lin et al. (2018), who surveyed the current IR status in Japan,
mentioned, “providing professional development and a career path for institutional researchers is essential
to build their capacity, such as providing stable positions for IR staff and training courses to enhance their
qualifications (p. 252).” Consequently, we have been engaged in research aimed at building the skill set
required for IR personnel and creating a curriculum for their development, as well as a standard textbook
SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research

86for use in training courses. This research activity is one of three that will be conducted as part of Grant-inAid for Scientific Research's “Establishment of an Academic Foundation for University IR, Human
Resource Development, and Related Technology.” To achieve this, we are first conducting a survey todetermine (Q1) what kind of human resource development programs are currently being implemented inJapan and (Q2) what kind of knowledge and skills IR personnel at universities nationwide consider
necessary.
1.2 The status of external IR human resource development opportunities in Japan
In relation to (Q1) above, Iseri, Oishi, et al. (2022) used archived data from “Asagao-ML,” a past mailinglist (ML) service for higher education professionals in Japan to determine the actual status of external
training opportunities for IR held in Japan from 2010 to FY2021. “Asagao-ML” is widely recognized by
Japanese higher education professionals and has often been used as a forum for disseminating informationon IR, making it possible to conduct a somewhat comprehensive survey of information on announcements
regarding IR training opportunities. From the archived data of more than 11,000 titles and texts of this ML
for FY 2003-2021, we extracted those that contained either the words “IR” or “Institutional” in the title ortext, and further narrowed down those that were truly related to IR. The result of this extraction was 314
short-term training courses related to training in IR between FY 2010 and FY 2021. A summary of theaggregate results based on this data is provided below. The results show an increasing trend in the numberof training sessions held in the first half of 2010, and the number has remained high, exceeding 40 sessions
since 2015 (Figure 1).
In addition, although universities are the main organizers of these training sessions, companies have also
been increasingly involved in holding these sessions since 2015, and in FY2015 and FY2021, more than
30% of the training sessions were either sponsored or co-sponsored by companies. These trends suggest
the influence of the introduction of institutional competitive grants and recurring subsidy programs thatmade IR one of the evaluation items after FY2012, and that there were several ICT companies andeducational businesses that saw these developments as a commercial opportunity. The survey also
revealed that the percentage of “participatory” training, in which participants engage in hands-on exercises
and group work, was low. The percentage of “participatory” training has remained at about 20-30% every
year since FY2015, with the majority of training sessions consisting only of listening to case studies andlectures. To clarify (Q2) above, we then conducted a questionnaire survey in FY2022 of IR personnel atuniversities throughout Japan. The results are discussed in detail in the subsequent sections of this paper.
2. METHODS
41

50
28
16
2

3

40

33

43
31

41
28

8

0
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021

Figure 1: The number of external training opportunities for IR held in JapanTo accomplish the aforementioned objectives, we conducted a questionnaire survey of IR professionals
across the country in FY2022. The outline of the questionnaire survey is as follows.
Objective: To clarify the awareness of IR as a subject of academic research, and the actual state ofknowledge and skills of personnel in charge of IR in Japan
Target: Faculty and staff belonging to national, public, and private universities in Japan, who areprimarily responsible for IR-related activities
SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research87Survey period: Late December 2022 - early February 2023
Collection method: A request letter was sent to a total of 806 Japanese universities (86 national
universities, 94 public universities, and 626 private universities), asking them to respond via Google Formon an individual basis, not on an office basis.
Valid responses: 282 (one respondent, who did not provide consent for the research, was excluded)
Questions: Respondent's position as an IR, respondent's field of expertise, final academic degree, years ofexperience in research activities, years of experience as an IR practitioner, effort rate for IR work, field ofactivity of IR office, past and future treatment of IR personnel, views on IR-oriented research, requests
and suggestions for promoting IR activities, knowledge and skills that are necessary (27 items in all), selfevaluation of knowledge and skills (27 items in total), and reasons for acquiring knowledge and skills.
Among the above questions, items related to the skill sets of IR personnel are shown in bold andunderlined. These items were formulated through the following process. First, we organized the past IR
questionnaire surveys in Japan according to whether they were conducted on offices or individuals. Then,the knowledge and skill items from the “Survey on the Knowledge and Skills of IR (Evaluation)
Professionals” (Shimada & Ohno 2022) and the “survey for the development of a brand-new curriculum
for the training of IR personnel” (Oishi 2021), which were conducted on individuals, were listed. The
items from these surveys were then broadly grouped or subdivided by the collaborators by comparing andcontrasting the three layers of “organizational intelligence” described by Terenzini (1993), resulting in the
27 items shown 3.4 and 3.5 later in this section. The 27 knowledge and skill items were classified into
four categories. Before making this classification, a confirmatory factor analysis with maximum likelihood
estimation and promax rotation was conducted using the responses for the necessity of knowledge andskills. As a result, five factors were extracted. We named them A = technical/analytical intelligence (1), B= technical/analytical intelligence (2), C = generic skills, D = contextual or issues intelligence, and E =other independent items. After this confirmation, A and B were merged in this paper and broadly classified
into four types of knowledge and skills. The confidence coefficient (Cronbach’s alpha), after the merge,
ranged from 0.75 to 0.90.
Although 282 valid responses were obtained, it is difficult to calculate the exact response rate because
there are no statistics that accurately indicate the population size of the number of IR professionals inJapan. However, based on the Full Time Equivalent (FTE) survey of IR officers for Japanese universities
by Shiraishi and Hashimoto (2018), the weighted average FTE value for all national, public, and private
universities in Japan is 0.85. Although the current FTE value may have increased considering thedifference in time periods and subsequent policy support for IR, we can infer from this figure that there isapproximately one IR person per university in Japan. And since the number of universities to which wesent the request letter is 806, the approximate population size is considered to be about 806. If the
population size is 806, the collection rate is estimated to be about 35% (282/806). In terms of the estimatedrecovery rate, the sample is not unrepresentative. However, this anonymous survey does not confirm theinstitutional affiliation of the respondents and there are no statistics available to show the true distributionof IR professionals in Japan. Therefore, it is difficult to estimate how representative the sample is of the
population in terms of respondents’ attributes. We plan to conduct a more detailed study in this regard.
The results, focusing on the basic attributes of the respondents, as well as their knowledge and skill needs
and self-assessment are presented in the paper.

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research883. RESULT AND DISCUSSION
3.1 Respondent’s Position
Regarding the respondents’ positions, 199 (70.6%) were IR practitioners, 56 (19.9%) were heads of the IR
department, 4 (1.4%) were in charge of IR administration and general affairs, 13 (4.6%) were handlingboth IR and non-IR tasks, and 10 (3.5%) were university staff, faculty, or executives (Figure 2).
IR practitioners
Heads of the IR department
In charge of IR administration and general affairs
Handling both IR and non-IR tasks
Other university staff, faculty or executives

199

Position
0%

10%

20%

30%

56
40%

50%

60%

70%

13 10

80%

90%

100%

Figure 2: The position of the respondents
3.2 Respondent’s last level of education
Concerning the respondents’ last level of education, 133 (47.2%) were bachelor’s degree holders, 61(21.7%) held master’s degrees, 76 (27%) held doctorates, and 12 (4.3%) were in other categories or
missing (Figure 3). Note that according to MEXT (2016), 75.9% of full-time university faculty members
have a master’s degree or higher as their final education, whereas according to the Nationwide Survey of
University Staff (2021), this percentage is 7.6% of the staff. The fact that about half of the respondents inthis sample had a master’s degree or higher as their final education suggests that the sample includes alarge number of responden’s who are involved in IR as highly educated staff or faculty members.
3.3 Respondent’s years of experience in IR practiceBachelor's degree

Master's degrees

Last level of education

133
0%

10%

20%

Doctor's degree

Other categories or missing

61
30%

40%

50%

60%

76
70%

80%

12
90%

100%

Figure 3: The respondents' last level of education
Over ten years
Between tree and five years
Less than a year
Years of experience

9
0%

56
10%

Between five and ten years
Between one and three years
Never been in charge of IR practice

55
20%

30%

90
40%

50%

60%

55
70%

80%

15 2
90%

100%

Figure 4: Years of experience as an IR practitioner
In terms of the respondents’ years of experience as an IR practitioner, 9 (3.2%) had over ten years, 56(19.9%) had between five and ten years, 55 (19.5%) had between three and five years, 90 (31.9%) had
between one and three years, 55 (19.5%) had less than a year, 15 (5.3%) had never been in charge of IR

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research89practice, and 2 (0.1%) were missing (Figure 4). Broadly speaking, about half of this sample had beenpracticing IR for three years or more, and about half had been practicing IR for less than three years.
3.4 Necessity for knowledge and skills in IR
As shown in Figure 6, there are 27 items of knowledge and skills, and they were classified as follows,referring to “Organizational Intelligence” by Terenzini (1993): from the top of Figure 6, “Higher
education” to “Other higher education institutions” were classified as “contextual intelligence” or “issues
intelligence,” and from “Related to data bases” to “ICT literacy” were classified as “Technical/analyticalintelligence.” Then, “Presentation skills” through “Interpersonal negotiation skills” were class ified as
generic skills, and “Ethics in handling data” and the following four items were classified as otherindependent items. A summary is presented below. Note that in the following tabulations, each item is
excluded from the list of items for which there was no response. The denominator (n) used to calculate thepercentages differed by response, but all ranged between 278 and 281.
First, 216(76.9%) answered “Necessary” for knowledge of “Higher Education” and 184(65.5%) for
knowledge of “Higher education policy.” Knowledge of “Teaching and research aspects of own
institution,” was answered by 222(79.0%), and Knowledge of “Organizational and managerial aspects of
their institution” was answered as “Necessary” by 199(70.8%) . These were all items that were answered
as necessary by a relatively large number of respondents. Although the figures are omitted, a comparisonof the above-mentioned response trends among respondents with less than 3 years of IR experience(n=140, excluding those with no IR practice) and those with 3 years or more of IR experience (n=120)
shows that respondents with 3 years or more of IR experience were more likely to answer “Necessary” for“Higher Education” and “Higher Education policy” than those with less than 3 years of IR experience.
The results show that the percentage of respondents who answered “Necessary” was about 10 percentage
points higher for the two items of “Higher Education” and “Higher Education policy” among those who
had been in charge of IR in Japan for at least three years.
Next, looking at the items corresponding to “technical/analytical intelligence,” “Related to databases” wasanswered by 169(60.1%), “Data analysis infrastructure” by 183(65.1%), and “Data aggregation anddescriptive Statistics” was answered by 195(69.9%), “Data visualization” by 199(70.8%), “Related tospreadsheets (Excel, spreadsheets, etc.)” by 208(74.3%), and “ICT literacy was answered as “Necessary”
by 191(68.0%). On the other hand, the percentage of “Necessary” for the other items related to“technical/analytical intelligence” was less than 50%.
Finally, General skills and other items are identified. Presentation skills” and “Interpersonal negotiation
skills” were all selected as “Necessary” by more than 50% of the respondents. Ethics in handling data”
was answered as “Necessary” by 222 (79.0%), while the other items were answered by less than 20%.
From these results, we discuss the structure of knowledge and skills required of IR professionals in Japanand the possible implications for human resource development programs. Some items under“technical/analytical intelligence” are highly required in Japan possibly because this intelligence ispositioned at the bottom of the essentials list for IR personnel in the U.S. However, the other items
included in this intelligence were not highly necessary, indicating that there is a hierarchy within thisintelligence. Therefore, it is possible to separate the essential from the optional items. Based on thisclassification, we can examine the subject structure of human resource development programs, taking into
account the learning stage. We found that the need for “contextual intelligence” and “issues intelligence”
was high in Japan. In addition, the need was higher for those with more years of experience, suggestingthat the management level in IR offices perceived this intelligence to be more necessary. This is consistent
with the fact that these two intelligences were originally considered to be higher on the list of“technical/analytical intelligence.” The percentage of respondents who believed that presentation andinterpersonal negotiation skills were necessary was about 10% higher for people with experience of three
SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research90

or more years. These results suggest the need for training opportunities to develop the knowledge andskills of management-level professionals in IR offices.
3.5 Self-assessment of knowledge and skills in IR
Next, we will review the self-assessment of the aforementioned knowledge and skills. Although the survey
questionnaire asks self-assessment on a 5-point scale from “5. I have mastered it fairly well” to “1. not atall,” However, this paper will focus on the ratio of the sum of “5. I have mastered it fairly well” and “4. I
have mastered it to some extent” ( = “Mastered it fairly well & to some extent”). Note that, as with theneed tally, the denominator of each percentage calculation excludes non-response.
First, 191(68.2%) responded that their knowledge of “Higher Education” and 160(57.1%) responded that
their knowledge of “Higher education policy” corresponds to “Mastered it fairly well & to some extent.”
197(70.4%) had knowledge of “Teaching and research aspects of their institution” and 166 (59.3%) had
knowledge of “Organizational and managerial aspects of their institution.” “Mastered it fairly well & tosome extent,” These were all above 50%, but the percentage of respondents who “Mastered it fairly well
& to some extent” was 8% point to 10% point lower than the percentage of those who answered“Necessary” about necessity.
Second, items corresponding to “technical/analytical intelligence” are identified. The percentages of“Mastered it fairly well & to some extent” were 124 (44.3%) for “Related to databases,” 121 (43.2%) for“Data analysis infrastructure,” 151 (53.9%) for “Data aggregation and descriptive statistics,” 154 (55.0%)
for “Data visualization,” “Related to spreadsheets (Excel, spreadsheets, etc.)” was selected by 208
respondents (74.3%), and “ICT literacy” by 167 respondents (59.6%). These “technical/analyticalintelligence” also had a smaller percentage of “Mastered it fairly well & to some extent” than those who
responded “Necessary” for necessity, with the exception of “Related to spreadsheets.”
Third, General skills are identified. “Presentation skills” was answered by 163(58.2%), “Documentation
skills” by 153(54.8%), “Ability to propose improvements” by 134(48.2%), and “Interpersonal negotiation
skills” was answered by 144 (51.4%), and the percentage of “Mastered it fairly well & to some extent”
was around 50% for all of them. These general-purpose skills did not differ significantly from thepercentage of respondents who answered “Necessary” about necessity.
Finally, Other items are identified. 166(59.3%) answered “Mastered it fairly well & to some extent” for“Ethics in handling data.” However, this percentage was about 20% point lower than the percentage of
those who responded “Necessary” about Necessity. This difference may be due in part to the fact thatsome universities do not have clear standards for the handling of data handled in IR work. In fact, 81.9%of the respondents answered “Very much so & Somewhat so” for another item asked in this survey, “I
would like to see the development of standard guidelines for the handling of personal information related
to research in the field of IR.” The inability to refer to clear standards may have led to low self-evaluation.
In addition to the considerations noted in each item, we discuss these results from the human resource
development perspective. Some knowledge/skills received less than 10% of positive responses comparedto the percentage of “necessary” responses. In future IR training, it would be important to consider theways to develop this knowledge and skills. Some of these skills could be developed through work
experience and other training programs. Therefore, it is crucial to consider how to streamline theknowledge and skills that should be emphasized during IR training.

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research91

Necessary
If possible, I would like them to master it.

Not necessary
I don't know
Contextual intelligence or

216
184
222
199

Higher education
Higher education policy

Teaching and research aspects of own institution
Organizational and managerial aspects of their…

109

Other higher education institutions

Technical/analyticalintelligence

169
183

Related to databases
Data analysis infrastructure90

ETL tools

195
199

Data aggregation and descriptive statistics
Data visualization

119

Inferential statistics (statistical tests, etc.)

63
103
123

Applied statistical methods (machine learning, causal…
Qualitative research
Survey design

208

Related to spreadsheets (Excel, spreadsheets, etc.)

114

Related to BI tools (Tableau, Power BI, etc.)

4473

Programming (R, Python, etc.)
Related to statistical software (SPSS, Stata, etc.)

191
153
166
154
158
222

ICT literacy

Generic skills

Presentation skills
Documentation skills
Ability to propose improvements
Interpersonal negotiation skills

Others independent

items

Ethics in handling data
Academic advising
Instructional design
Quantitative bibliography

56
44
23
0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Figure 5: Necessity for knowledge and skills in IR

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research92

Mastered it fairly well & some extent
Can't say either way
Not mastered it well
Not at allContextual intelligence orissues intelligence

191
160
197
166

Higher education

Higher education policy

Teaching and research aspects of own institution
Organizational and managerial aspects of their institution

82
124
121

Other higher education institutions

Technical/analyticalintelligence

Related to databases
Data analysis infrastructure
ETL tools

42
151
154

Data aggregation and descriptive statistics
Data visualization

97

Inferential statistics (statistical tests, etc.)
Applied statistical methods (machine learning, causal inference,…
Qualitative research
Survey design

47
81
77
208

Related to spreadsheets (Excel, spreadsheets, etc.)

93
59
75

Related to BI tools (Tableau, Power BI, etc.)
Programming (R, Python, etc.)

Related to statistical software (SPSS, Stata, etc.)

167
163
153
134
144
166

ICT literacy

Generic skills

Presentation skills
Documentation skills
Ability to propose improvements
Interpersonal negotiation skills

Others independent
items

Ethics in handling data

48
43
Quantitative bibliography 13
Academic advising

Instructional design

0%

50%

100%

Figure 6: Self-assessment of knowledge and skills in IR

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research93

4. SUMMARY AND ISSUES
There are three main findings from this analysis. First, there was a multi-layered nature to the knowledge
and skills that IR professionals consider necessary, beyond the three tiers identified by Terenzini (1993).
With regard to “technical/analytical intelligence,” there were indications of a d ifference between
necessary, foundational skills, such as data handling and visualization, and sufficient, developed skills,
such as applied statistical methods and qualitative research methods. Second, in Japan, many IR
professionals said that “contextual intelligence” and “issues intelligence” were necessary. This suggeststhat “contextual intelligence” and “issues intelligence,” as well as “ technical/analytical intelligence,” aremajor requirements for IR professionals in Japan. Third, compared to the necessity of these knowledge
and skills, the percentage of positive responses in the self-assessment tended to be small. From this pointof view, it seems necessary to consider how to develop these skills in the design of IR human resource
development opportunities in Japan in the future.
The following three points can be identified as future issues to be addressed in order to fulfill theobjectives set forth at the beginning of this paper. The first is to further organize and investigate IR humanresource development opportunities. The results of the survey on IR human resource development
opportunities in Japan, which focused on external training opportunities, were introduced at the beginningof this report, but human resource development opportunities do not stop there. In addition to in ternal
training, there are other training programs that should be included in the survey, such as the half -yearlytraining programs that began at two national universities in FY2019. Second, it would also be necessary toinvestigate the structure of overseas training programs and their actual operation. Third, based on adetailed analysis of the survey results, skill-set items and evaluation criteria should be examined. Theseissues will be the subject of future research.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This work was supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant Numbers 22H00077, 21K20271.
We thank Prof. Masao Mori of the Tokyo Institute of Technology, the principal investigator of the Grantin-Aid for Scientific Research. We also thank the following contributors. Prof. Takeshi Matsuda at Tokyo
Metropolitan University, Prof. Masaaki Ishii at Kanda University of International Studies, Prof. Shotaro
Imai and Prof. Sayaka Matsumoto and Dr. Tsunenori Inakura at Tokyo Institute of Technology, Prof.
Kyoko Anegawa at The University of Kitakyushu, and Prof. Toru Sugihara at Shukutoku University.
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Iseri, S., Oishi, T., Kondo, N., & Takamatsu, K. (2022). Actual Conditions of Training Opportunities on
IR in Japan ― From the Archived Data of Asagao ML ―. 11th Meeting Japanese Institutional
Research, 164–169. https://doi.org/10.50956/mjir.11.0_164_32
Japan Association for Institutional Research (Ed.). (2022). Standard Guide book of Institutional Researchin Universities. impress R&D.
Kobayashi, M., Yamada, R. (Eds.) (2016). University IR - Information Collection and Analysis for
Decision Support, Keio University Press Inc..
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(ed), Building Capacity in Institutional Research and Decision Support in Higher Education(1sted, pp.241-257). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-71162-1_15

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MEXT. (2008). Toward the Construction of Undergraduate Education (Summary of Discussions).
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MEXT. Status of Reform of Educational Content at Universities.
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Murasawa, M., Iseri, S., Matsumiya, S., Mikami, R., (2023, June 11). Current Status and Issues of IR in
Japan -Using Data from the National IR Survey [conference presentation]. 26th Conference ofJapanese Association of Higher Education Research, Chiba, Japan.
Nakao, R., Fan, Y., Murasawa., M., Nishitani, H., & Matsumiya, S. (2021). Rethinking the “Learning
Outcomes”: EBPM and Causal Reasoning as a Cue. University evaluation review, 20, 53–62.
Oishi, T. (2021). A questionnaire survey for the development of a brand-new curriculum for the trainingof IR personnel. 10th Meeting Japanese Institutional Research, 38–43.
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IR (Evaluation) Staff”. Journal of Institutional Research and University Evaluation, 15, 5–13.
Shimizu, T. (2019). Report on the results of the Nationwide Survey on IR. 8th Meeting JapaneseInstitutional Research, 20–25. https://doi.org/10.50956/mjir.8.0_20
Shiroishi, T., Hashimoto, T. (2018). Report on the Questionnaire Survey on the Actual Conditions of IR
in Universities -Basic Summary of the Questionnaire. Journal of Institutional Research andUniversity Evaluation, 9, 62–77.
Takata, E. (2018). Current Status and Problems of Institutional Research Talent in Japan -Focusing on
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Research in Higher Education, 34(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00991859

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research95

Exploring English-Medium Instruction Courses in Taiwanese Higher
Education: A Case Study of a University in Taiwan
Che-Yu Hsua*, Feng-Nan Hwangb*, Tseng-Yi Chenc*, Chia-Hui Changd*
aOffice of Institutional Research, National Central University, Taiwan(cyhebe0937709363@g.ncu.edu.tw)
bDepartment of Mathematics, National Central University, Taiwan(hwangf@math.ncu.edu.tw)
cDepartment of Computer Science & Information Engineering, National Central University, Taiwan(tychen@g.ncu.edu.tw)
dDepartment of Computer Science & Information Engineering, National Central University, Taiwan(chiahui@g.ncu.edu.tw)

ABSTRACTThis study investigated the impact of bilingual education on academic performance in Taiwan. Students'
grades were categorized into high achievers, average performers, and low achievers. The School ofManagement (SM) and the College of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science (CEECS) had thehighest proportion of high achievers. In contrast, the College of Engineering (CE) had more average
performers and low achievers. The language of instruction significantly affected students' grades in specificsubjects. The CE performed better in non-English-Medium Instruction (EMI) courses, while the SM
performed better in EMI courses. However, no significant difference was observed in grades for students
in the CEECS. Regarding students' entrance channels, only the Mechanical Engineering, Finance andEconomics, and Computer Science and Information Engineering departments showed significant
differences. Students admitted through the General Scholastic Ability Test performed better in thesedepartments than in other channels. To support talent development in Taiwan, there is a need to address
challenges in EMI education, such as teaching methods, grading criteria, and students' foundational
abilities. Additionally, providing additional support to low-achieving students in the CE and investigating
the instructional approach in different subjects is recommended. Attention should also be given to students
admitted overseas and other admissions to ensure their success in EMI courses.
KEYWORDS: English as a Medium of Instruction, Learning effectiveness, Quality Education

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research96

INTRODUCTION
Promoting higher education is crucial for a country's socioeconomic development, showcasing its industrial
focus and cultivating skills for international leadership (Wright et al., 2015). In today's globalized world,
Taiwan recognizes the importance of specialized disciplines, language proficiency, and global interaction
in higher education. To enhance its international role in technology development, Taiwan has set the goalof becoming a bilingual country by 2030, emphasizing English as a Medium of Instruction (EMI) in higher
education (Ministry of Education, 2021).
Bilingual education has been successfully implemented in various countries, such as Singapore and thePhilippines. In addition, English became an official language in Hong Kong due to colonial history (Lee,2015). These countries or regions prioritize bilingualism and maintain the mother tongue as an independent
subject. Other countries, including Canada, Germany, the United States, and Finland, have implemented
bilingual policies to bridge socioeconomic gaps and support marginalized languages (Seidlhofer, 2011;
Chen, 2022).
Taiwan's approach to bilingual education differs from other countries as it aims to accelerateinternationalization and prepare students for the global job market. Achieving this goal poses newchallenges for Taiwanese universities. The issues that have arisen include determining the proportion of
EMI in specialized subjects, balancing required and elective courses, and improving instructors'
communication skills and teaching abilities in English. The study on implementing bilingual courses inhigher education in Taiwan aims to assess students' academic performance and provide recommendations
to improve instructional approaches.
THE RESEARCH AIMS AND CRITICAL QUESTIONSThis study analyzes university students' learning outcomes majoring in engineering, management andelectrical engineering, and computer science in EMI courses, affected by students' backgrounds, such as
entrance channels and English proficiency. The study aims to discuss course arrangements and instructional
designs during the early development of EMI courses. The research questions are as follows:
RQ1. Is there any difference in the learning performance of students taught in EMI and non-EMI
courses?
RQ2. Are there differences in learning outcomes between EMI and non-EMI courses within the sameacademic year?
RQ3. Do students with different entrance channels exhibit variations in learning outcomes in EMI
courses?
LITERATURE REVIEWCurrent status and challenges of bilingual course instruction
Chang and Chang (2022) emphasize creating an English language environment and utilizing bilingual
immersion education to foster students' lifelong learning vision for the second language (Chiang, 2022). Lu(2021) suggests integrating language learning into the curriculum through content and language-integrated
learning (CLIL) and diverse activities (Yang, 2014). When assessing effectiveness, avoiding relying solely
on English-speaking ability for bonus points and establishing a friendly learning environment is essential.
Su and Tang (2010) recommend adopting a student-centered teaching design for professional, general
education, and language courses in universities, while subject courses in science and mathematics should
employ a instructor-centered design. Chow (2018) proposes promoting collaborative learning between local
and international students through cross-cultural issues, facilitating mutual learning and communication.
SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research

97

Furthermore, Chiang (2022) emphasizes the positive impact of stimulating students' intrinsic motivation inbilingual education. Joint courses with foreign universities can encourage interaction between local andinternational students, creating a cross-disciplinary and cross-cultural environment that reduces language
anxiety. Chung and Lao (2021) found that university students do not strongly prefer courses taught solely
in Chinese, with English supplementation, or entirely in English. Their survey of 22 classes revealed thatthe majority of the classes received grades above the departmental average. This indicates that students are
satisfied and enjoy the courses as long as appropriate course selection and teaching materials are provided.
Students initially perceive English-taught courses as more challenging, but they often experience a senseof accomplishment in their final grades. Bilingual instruction with lively or slightly less challenging
content, starting from a student-centered approach, is acceptable to students and allows them to achieve asense of bilingual accomplishment. However, it is essential to note that not all university courses are suitable
for EMI, particularly in STEM disciplines where basic professional knowledge may be challenging forstudents to understand and enhance their English proficiency (Yao, 2020).
However, bilingual teaching presents challenges and dilemmas for the instructors and schools at different
learning stages. Instructors may need help with their busy teaching load and lack of English proficiency
and practical bilingual teaching experience (Chen, Y.L, 2022), which can affect their confidence (Chang &Chang, 2022). Furthermore, creating a bilingual environment requires school support and a sharedunderstanding between administration and teaching staff to avoid conflicts that hinder course effectiveness.
Continuous professional development and teaching experience are crucial for improving the evaluation ofEnglish-taught courses (Chung & Lao, 2021). However, it is essential to consider not overburdening the
instructors when promoting professional development activities (Liu, 2022). For instance, developing
bilingual collaborative communities can provide a supportive environment for the instructors to shareresources and experiences.
Learning differences in multi-Channel admissions
With the aim of alleviating students’ burdens and promoting their development, diversified university
entrance channels have been established. Taiwan has two kinds of exams: the General Scholastic Ability
Test (GSAT) and the Advanced Subjects Test (AST), including three main entrance channels: the individual
application channel, the multi-star project, and the exam-based channel. The first two belong to GSAT,
while the last one is AST. These channels reflect variations in students’ backgrounds and learning
approaches (Cheng & Wang, 2021). Monitoring students’ learning performance after entrance is crucial forhigher education institutions. Researchers have compiled relevant studies as a reference for bilingual
education development.
In a study conducted at National Taiwan University, Hong (2004) found that students admitted through themulti-star project performed the best academically, followed by individual applicants, and then students
admitted through exam-based channels. Furthermore, a similar study conducted at National Tsing Hua
University by Chiu (2012) yielded consistent results. Wang and Huang (2010) also found similar findings
in a Taiwan Integrated Higher Education Database. Relatively, Yu (2005) observed that students admitted
through the exam-based channel at Chinese Culture University had better academic performance than thoseadmitted through the individual application channel. Overall, students admitted through the GSAT phasetended to have better academic performance due to their self-awareness and ability to choose fields of studyaligned with their interests and capabilities.
Furthermore, Chiang (2014) noted that at National Chiao Tung University, students admitted through theindividual application channel demonstrated better English proficiency, while those admitted through theexam-based channel had weaker English proficiency. However, no significant weaknesses were observedin students admitted through the multi-star project. In terms of background, students from urban areas
exhibited significantly better English proficiency than non-urban students. Additionally, females
SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research98outperformed males in English proficiency.
Comparing the performance of students from different entrance channels helps understanding differences
between backgrounds and learning styles (Hong, 2004; Yu, 2005; Wang & Huang, 2010; Chiu, 2012;
Chiang, 2014). According to the Ministry of Education’s plan to prioritize the individual application
channel as the main entrance channel for diversified university admissions, the number of students admitted
through individual applications is expected to increase gradually, accounting for approximately 60-70% ofadmissions. As a result, admission is expected to be more competitive for the individual application
channel. It may lead to fluctuations in enrollment quotas, which can impact students’ qualifications andacademic performance. Therefore, when developing bilingual instruction, it is crucial to analyze thecomposition of students from different universities and departments and consider their learning conditions
to avoid significant disparities in bilingual learning outcomes or issues such as low enrollment in language
courses.
METHODOLOGY
Participants
The study included a total of 1303 students from the College of Engineering (CE), School of Management(SM), and College of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science (CEECS), that had taken EMI courses
in Fall 2021 and Spring 2022. It is noted that all 1303 students were included in the study, called theexperiment group. A control group was also selected, consisting of 1279 students who took the same
courses in Fall 2020 and Spring 2021. The total number of EMI courses is 19, and we excluded the cases
because the courses in the control group were either taught in English or not offered during the academic
year. And the study design and process are as shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2: The experimental and control group’s research framework
The learning background of the experimental group and the basic information of the EMI course
In the EMI experimental group, 71.2% of the students are male, and 28.8% are female. Regarding entrance
channels, our analysis reveals that 61% of the students were admitted based on the GSAT, 28.4% wereadmitted based on the AST, and the remaining students gained admission through special talents or overseas
recruitment, among other channels. This distribution aligns with the current selection programs
implemented by the Ministry of Education for universities. It demonstrates a high enrollment rate andacademic continuity among second-year students at the case university, indicating the effectiveness ofenrollment and student suitability (Table 1).

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research99

Table 1: Entrance Channels of the Experimental Group
College
GSAT
AST
Others
CE
345
194
68
SM
194
101
43
CEECS
253
76
29
Total
792
371
140
Approximately 80% of students in the three colleges had high participation rates in freshman-level English
courses. In advanced English courses, participation rates varied: 42.5% (258) for the CE, 76% (257) for theSM, and 41.3% (148) for the CEECS. Regardless, students consistently achieved grades above 80,
indicating strong academic performance. There were no significant performance differences among
students from the three colleges. However, the SM had a higher proportion of continued enrollment inadvanced English courses than the other colleges, possibly due to scheduling and academic pressures
influencing course selection.
EMI courses are primarily offered in the sophomore stage, requiring students to have a solid foundation in
their respective fields. The case university predominantly employs lecture-based teaching methods, with
only a few elective courses incorporating teamwork. Students’ assessment is based mainly on exams andreports, emphasizing midterm and final exams for required courses and reports for elective courses. Final
grades for the CE cluster are around 75 points out of 100, while SM and CEECS students’ grades are around
80 points, which indicates that students’ learning performance remains satisfactory despite English
instruction.
Data analysis and limitation
In the data analysis section, descriptive statistics are used to analyze the distribution of grades in theexperimental group. Furthermore, independent samples t-tests are conducted to examine the differences indifferent languages of instruction. Subsequently, one-way ANOVA is employed to investigate thedifferences among students from different entrance channels, and post hoc comparisons are used to assessthe differences. Additionally, the study examines the differences between the individual application and themulti-star project admissions of GSAT.
This study only analyzed first-year students’ experiences with EMI courses at a specific university. In the
future, it is recommended to expand the research to include students from different years who have taken
EMI courses, conducted comparative studies, and delved deeper into understanding EMI course
performance and whether the instructors have made different designs and adjustments in EMI courses.
RESULTSIs there any difference in the learning performance of students taught in different languages in thesame course?
This study categorized semester grades into three groups: high achievers (80-100 points), average
performers (60-79 points), and low achievers (0-59 points) for both the experimental and control groups.
Analysis of these categories revealed that the SM and the CEECS had the highest proportion of highachievers, each accounting for over 60% of their respective groups. The CE had the highest percentage of
average performers, approximately 50%. However, the CE also had a greater number of low achievers
compared to the other colleges (Figure 2). Overall, the majority of students, regardless of the language of
instruction, successfully completed exams or reports and earned credits for the courses. The number ofstudents who failed the courses did not significantly increase due to EMI, except for the low-achieving
students in the CE, who may require additional support and guidance.
SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research

100Figure 2: The percentage of grades of experimental and control groups in EMI and non-EMI course
A further analysis focusing on individual subjects compared the experimental and control groups regarding
the language of instruction for the CE, SM, and CEECS colleges. Table 2 showed that out of the 19 subjects,
there were statistically significant differences in 5 subjects, while there were no significant differences in
14 subjects. The result indicates that the language of instruction does not affect the learning performancein most subjects. Among the five subjects with significant differences, only the EMI courses in Statics andMechanics of Materials had lower grades than the non-EMI courses. The remaining four subjects had higher
grades in the EMI courses compared to the non-EMI courses.
Table 2: Comparison the subjects of EMI and non-EMI Courses
subject (Department)

Language

SampleMeanSDt-valuep-valueElectrical Circuits andElectronics(Mechanical Engineering)
Statics & Mechanics ofMaterials(Mechanical Engineering)
Soil Mechanics A(Civil Engineering)
Financial Management(Finance)
Signals and System(Electrical Engineering)EMI
non-EMI

45
53

81.3
70.1

8.5
14.2

-4.83

0.001

EMI
non-EMI

109
102

64.4
72.5

16.7
12.2

4.07

0.001

EMI
non-EMIEMI
non-EMIEMI
non-EMI

33
33
40
45
148
137

72.5
93
88
84.1
87.5
84.2

13.6
6.8
9.5
6.3
9.9
11.7

-7.75

0.001

-2.23

0.03

2.58

0.01

In the year of taking EMI courses, is there any difference in students' learning performance in EMI
and non-EMI courses?
A dependent samples t-test compared semester grades between EMI and non-EMI courses for theexperimental group to assess the impact of EMI courses on students' learning burden. The results showeda significant difference in the grades of EMI and non-EMI courses for students in the CE (z-value = 4.44,
p < 0.05) and the SM (z-value = -4.72, p < 0.05). However, students in the CEECS did not exhibit asignificant difference in their grades between EMI and non-EMI courses (z-value = 1.18, p > 0.05). Posthoc comparisons revealed that students in the CE performed better in non-EMI courses, while students in
SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research101the SM performed better in EMI courses. Notably, the performance of students in the CEECS was
unaffected by the language of instruction. This variation in performance could be attributed to differencesin the proportion of required and elective courses in EMI arrangements, as the instructors often apply morelenient grading criteria for elective courses than required courses (Table 3).
Table 3: Comparison of EMI and non-EMI Grades in The Experimental Group
College
Language
SampleMean
SDZ
p-valueCE
non-EMI
607
78.03
10.4
4.44
<.05
EMI
76.27
12.9
Z
p
SM
non-EMI
338
80.76
13.6
-4.72
<.05
EMI
83
14.4
Z
p
CEECS
non-EMI
358
82.35
14.3
1.18
0.235
EMI
82.34
14.4
How does the student learning effectiveness of EMI courses compare across different entrance
channels?
We investigated whether the entrance channels influence students' performance from the 11 departments inthe three colleges in the EMI courses by using a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). The analysis
results are shown in Table 4. Among the entrance channels, only the Mechanical Engineering, Finance andEconomics, and Computer Science and Information Engineering departments showed statisticallysignificant differences. Post-hoc comparisons revealed that students admitted through GSAT performed
better than those admitted through AST and others in all three departments. However, no significant
differences were found between students admitted through the AST and others, which suggests that theperformance of most students in different departments in EMI courses is unaffected by their entrance
channels. However, students admitted through special admissions or overseas admissions in a few
departments may need to exert more effort to compensate for their relatively lower performance.
Table 4: Comparison of Entrance Channel of the Students
Department
Mechanical Engineering

FinanceElectrical Engineering andComputer Science

GSAT
AST
OthersGSAT
AST
OthersGSAT
AST
OthersSample
130
70
138
47
29
43
91
22
11

Mean
74.6
74.5
68.8
84.1
84
78.2
78.7
78.9
57.4

SD
12.2
12.9
14.3
8.2
5.9
11.3
1.6
2.1
10.4

f-value
7.76

5.87

8.1

p-value
0.001
Post hoc
1>2&3
0.004
Post hoc
1>2&3
0.001
Post hoc
1>2&3

On the other hand, the current admission mode for universities in Taiwan primarily relies on the GSAT for
student selection, which is also the case for the case study college. Therefore, this study divided students
into two categories: those admitted through individual application and those admitted through the multistar project. Independent samples t-tests were conducted to examine the performance of these two groupsof students in EMI courses. The results indicate that none of the three colleges showed significant
differences, which implies that students' performance in all three colleges, regardless of whether they wereadmitted through the individual application or the multi-star project, is consistent in EMI courses.
DISCUSSION
The language barrier does not significantly affect students' performance in EMI courses, and they canachieve good grades with genuine effort. Grading standards are similar between EMI and non-EMI courses,
SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research102

indicating that the language of instruction does not hinder students' proficiency in professional knowledge
and skills. To enhance the quality of the curriculum, the instructors should focus on improving their ability
to interpret professional knowledge in English, expanding course content, and participating in EMI Teacher
Training Programs. These measures will facilitate more in-depth and comprehensive academic learning
experiences for students.
The number of required and elective EMI courses varies across disciplines, potentially affecting students'
performance in both EMI and non-EMI courses. Grading standards may differ based on course requirements
rather than the language of instruction. Of the 38 EMI courses studied, 74% had consistent grading
standards for both EMI and non-EMI instruction. This result suggests that students' performance and stressin EMI courses are mainly determined by their understanding and application of the subject matter rather
than language proficiency. Instructors should consider students' learning load and concentration levels,
particularly in lecture-based courses. They can adjust their teaching methods using simple language
explanations and incorporating interactive learning activities to create a positive and supportive
environment, enhancing students' engagement and academic progress.
Regarding the impact of different entrance channels on students' performance in EMI courses, only 27% ofdepartments showed variations. Students admitted through special talent or overseas admissions performed
less than those admitted through individual applications and the multi-star project. However, no significant
differences were found between individual application students and those admitted through the multi-starproject. Individual application students often demonstrate self-directed solid learning skills and highmotivation. In contrast, multi-star project students emphasize long-term steady progress and consistently
perform across subjects. Both types of students are capable of handling the workload of EMI courses.
RECOMMENDATIONSThis study suggests that both required and elective courses can be conducted in an EMI format while
ensuring language and academic content delivery. The phase of taking EMI courses can be scheduled
between the second and fourth years of study. In the initial stage, the proportion of EMI and non-EMI
courses should be at most 50% per semester, while in the fourth year, it is possible to attempt 100% EMI
courses. However, it is advisable to provide partially English-based courses for first-year students who arestill adapting to university life.
In terms of teaching methods, the majority of courses currently still rely on a lecture-based approach. In
bilingual education, the instructors often forget the fundamental principle that students' absorption andcomprehension of fully English courses are of utmost importance (Lin, 2022). This oversight may lead to
students bearing higher learning risks, needing more interactive learning experiences, being disinterested
in the course, and needing help maintaining their focus. Additionally, language is embedded with culture,
and while local students may understand the direct translation of Chinese concepts into English by the
instructor, it may need to be clarified for overseas students. Therefore, the instructors should consider
students' backgrounds and proficiency levels when designing effective English language usage patterns thatalign with international standards. Furthermore, the instructors can continuously enhance their English
teaching skills by participating in English-medium courses offered by foreign universities or engaging inteaching exchanges during the summer or winter breaks.
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SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research

104Learning Space and Academic Productivity of Research Students of College ofBusiness Management and Accountancy for AY 2022-2023
Jason O. Carmona1,2 and Christine Grace M. Azul1,3
1

Office of Research, University of Santo Tomas-Legazpi (research@ust-legazpi.edu.ph)College of Business Management and Accountancy, University of Santo Tomas-Legazpi (cbma@ust-legazpi.edu.ph)3College of Arts, Sciences, and Education, University of Santo Tomas-Legazpi (case@ust-legazpi.edu.ph)2

ABSTRACTThe learning spaces available to our students are continuously evolving. During the pandemic, our own
homes served as alternatives to classrooms because of the virtual set-up of classes. Now that the world isslowly recovering, more cafes and co-working spaces are emerging that serve as alternative learning spaces.
This study aimed to identify the preferred learning spaces of College of Business Management andAccountancy (CBMA) research students and determine the effects of learning spaces on research students’productivity. The research approach is quantitative in nature through an adapted survey questionnaire thattackled physical and social characteristics of their preferred learning space. The average mean score wasused to treat the quantitative data using a 5-point Likert scale. The target participants of this study were 100
CBMA students who are currently taking up Research 2 courses. With a mean rating of 4.52, results showthat students prefer a classmate/friend’s house as a learning space outside the university. On the other hand,
the library is the preferred learning space within the university with a mean rating of 4.09. In terms ofphysical and social characteristics, a spacious area where they can quietly work individually is what they
definitely prefer in a learning space The research further shows that majority of the respondents agree thatlearning spaces influence their individual productivity and motivation to work on their research that
ultimately inspired them to finish their research.
KEYWORDS: Learning space, Academic productivity, Tertiary students

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research

105

INTRODUCTION
As we move in a fast-paced world, the learning spaces available to our students are also evolving. Within
the pandemic, our own homes even serve as a working space. We just make the arrangements to study in a
conducive environment (Borkala, 2021) whether at home, school a nd beyond the formal walls of
education. When it comes to academic performance and how it may be impacted by learning spaces, there
is a gap to be filled in the literature. This generation’s students have a different set of characteristics,
practice new study habits and consider other factors that affect their academic productivity compared tothe past generations (Upadhyaya & Vrinda, 2020).
Learning Space
Universities and schools are social spaces for open engagement of knowledge that enhance students’
enjoyment of learning (Mkonto, 2021). Now, as we thrive beyond the pandemic, new ways of learningwith the high usage of online platforms require changes in the learning space. Modern ICT facilities
support new ways of learning and give students the freedom to study anytime, anyhow, and anywhere(Beckers et al., 2016). It can be the student’s home which is bound up with the establishment of study
habits and routines (Card & Thomas, 2018). It can also be an extension of a school such as co-work spaces
and cafes. In a school in the US, an extension of the campus or co-working space that immerses students
in current workplace trends and harnesses the energy of innovation was explored to enhance the school
programs (Goldstein, 2018). Hence, the learning spaces are no longer containable inside the university
premises or formal places of instruction.
In a study by Peuker et al., (2022), the preferred study and learning spaces and their specific characteristics
were explored to meet the current needs of the students. This study clearly suggests that through time,
both pedagogical and technological changes must coincide to maximize the learning experiences ofstudents in their preferred learning spaces. Both the use of innovative pedagogies and design of newlearning spaces must continue to evolve to meet the dynamic needs of present and future learners(Oliveras-Ortiz et al., 2020). These changes in the physical environment are utilized for individual study
to maximize concentration and collaborative study to enhance communication (Beckers et al., 2016).
Students nowadays have varied preferences and consider notable characteristics in learning spaces.
Characteristics of Learning Space
Literature shows that students particularly look for physical and social dimensions in a learning space(Beckers et al., 2016). In terms of physical dimension, creating a perfect ambience to study such as a clean
and decluttered desk with sufficient lighting and ventilation can affect the learning power of students(Borkala, 2021). A cooler temperature with a little ambient noise and the presence of charging outlet in alearning space also affect the probability of better academic performance of students (Peuker et al., 2022).
Furthermore, arrangement in the physical space such as big windows and natural light have the power toimprove students’ learning beyond their abilities (Oliveras-Ortiz et al., 2020; Peuker et al., 2022).
When it comes to social dimension, in a study by Card and Thomas (2018), a shared house or dormitory
for students living far from their families, has potential as a space for peer learning. Having mutual
characteristics of living independently and studying at their own pace, the shared house serves as a study
hideaway for these students. Beyond the students’ homes, learning spaces outside the classroom and otheropen and flexible spaces in schools, make students not only feel more comfortable but also more excitedabout learning (Kennedy, 2020; Oliveras-Ortiz et al., 2020). Anywhere in campus can be transformed into
an informal learning space so in addition to formal places of learning like the library, comfortable andsocial spaces in schools such as pathways and gathering spots serve as a learning space (Yuan, 2019).
These numerous spaces of the school provide retreat to students to work on their own or in groups
SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research106

(Kennedy, 2020). As a whole, a school building that is open, inviting, noise-efficient, and secure promisesa better learning experience for students (Oliveras-Ortiz et al., 2020). Outside the school, a café is anotherinformal learning space. It serves as a break from traditional library, apartment, and/or dormitory where
there is less distraction. Another place beyond the campus is a co-working space which gives the students
a glimpse of the reality of future work after formal education is another learning space enjoyed by ourpresent learners (Goldstein, 2018). This space gives the students access to the real working world andprepare them when they leave school.
With the growing number of research on learning space, there is still a dearth of studies about its relation
to the academic productivity of students. Now more than ever, this should be explored in the midst of thevarious changes in education system in the recent decade.
Academic Productivity
It is critical for educators and schools to pay attention to the subtle yet impactful influence of learningspace on students’ academic productivity. Learning space affects the students’ willingness and desire toengage in learning (Oliveras-Ortiz et al., 2020). An effective learning space creates an environment thatmakes it more likely for learning to take place (Kennedy, 2020). According to Sleeter (2015), research
indicates that students are likely to perform better academically if learning spaces are s afe, inclusive,
collaborative, and recognize the prior learning and experiences of students (as cited in Mkonto, 2021).
The impetus for this study is the inquisitiveness of the researchers to determine the relation of learningspace to the academic productivity of students. The researchers who are also faculty members find theresults of this study to be highly beneficial to them as educators, to all the research students in the Collegeof Business Management and Accountancy (CBMA) and UST-Legazpi as a whole. Finishing research isalready a tough challenge for students yet with the presence of a preferred learning space, accomplishing
this gargantuan task will be achievable. In addition, the administration will be able to adjust the learningspaces available in the university to meet the needs of the students. Lastly, research work will be a moreenjoyable journey for the students as they work productively on their preferred learning spaces. Therefore,
the objectives of this study were to discuss the preferred learning spaces of CBMA research students andassess its effects on their academic productivity. Specifically, it aimed to:a. identify the preferred learning spaces of CBMA research students
b. determine the effects of learning spaces on research students’ productivity
METHODOLOGY
The research approach was quantitative in nature through a survey questionnaire. The use of average meanscore was used in treating the quantitative data using a 5-point Likert scale.
Research Participants
The target participants were 100 CBMA students as adapted from Peuker et al., (2022) study. They werecurrently taking up Research 2 course during the second semester of AY 2022-2023 so these students
needed increased productivity on writing their research.
Research Locale
The participants came from CBMA of UST-Legazpi. Given that it has the highest number of third- andfourth-year students among the four (4) colleges of the university, it is also expected to have the highest
number of research students.
SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research107Research Instrument
After a thorough review of the literature, the survey questionnaire was adapted from the study of Beckers
et al. (2016) and modified based on the scope of the current research. For the first part, the students wereasked to mark their opinion on a list of propositions, based on a five-point Likert scale from (1) absolutely
not preferred to (5) definitely preferred. This said portion of the questionnaire was divided into two (2)parts namely preferred learning space location and preferred characteristics of learning space in terms ofphysical and social dimensions. Likewise, on the next part, the participants were asked to value the effectof these learning spaces on their academic productivity from (1) fully disagree to (5) fully agree.
Data Gathering Procedure
The research team visited the classrooms to ask the students to volunteer in filling out the questionnaire at
the end of a lecture. The survey questionnaire was distributed in four (4) Research classes of CBMA withthe assistance of the Research teacher. The accomplishment, collection, and compilation of thequestionnaire took over a period of two (2) months.
Ethical Consideration
The participants were treated with respect and courtesy during the distribution of questionnaire. A short
introduction of the purpose of the study was also done during the classroom visit.
Data Analysis
The use of average mean score was used in treating the quantitative data.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The research instrument was distributed and answered by 100 respondents from the College of Business
Management and Accountancy (CBMA). Majority of the respondents (53%) were third year students who
were in the initial phases of their research. The remaining respondents were fourth year students who werein the final phases of writing their research papers. Of the 100 respondents, 34 of them were male while
66 were female. The respondents’ ages ranged from 19 to 25 years old, with majority of the respondents
coming from the age range of 21 to 22 years old. The summary of the demographics of the students ispresented in Table 1.
Table 1. Summary of Respondents’ Demographics
Sex
Male
FemaleFrequency
34
66

Age
19
20
21
22
23
24
25

Frequency
1
8
35
36
14
4
2

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research

108Year Level
3rd Year
4th Year

Frequency
53
47

The students were asked their preferred learning space while working on their research. The first fourlearning spaces presented are those located outside the university and are seen in Figure 1. The results
indicate that students are neutral in their preference of the home as a learning space with 34% of thestudents choosing this as their response although it can be noted that 31% of the student respondents
preferred learning spaces at home. Majority of the students (47%) are also neutral in selecting a friend’s orclassmate’s house as learning space while 34% definitely preferred this setup. The respondents are also
neutral in selecting public places such as a café in town as learning space with 29% selecting the said
indicator. Lastly, the neutral and preferred indicators both got 34% when it comes to their preference of aquiet public place, such as a co-work space as learning space while working on their research.
Learning space in a classmate/friend’s house received the highest mean rating of 4.52 that corresponds toan adjectival rating of “definitely preferred.” It can be inferred that this option got the highest mean rating
since most of these students are working on their research in pairs or groups, making them accomplish
more while working together, especially in their classmate’s house. The study of Card and Thomas (2018)
discussed that for students, their homes or accommodations still serve as an important learning space forthem and that shared accommodations with other people can even be a great avenue for peer learning.
Mean ratings of 3.82 and 3.72 were also recorded for the preference of quiet public spaces such as a coworking space and the home as learning spaces respectively, corresponding to an adjectival rating of“preferred.” It can be noted that public places such as a café in town as learning space received the lowest
mean rating of 3.16 corresponding to an adjectival rating of “neutral.”
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Absolutely Not
Preferred

Not Preferred

NeutralPreferred

Definitely
Preferred

Learning space at home.
Learning space in a classmate/friend's house.
Learning space in public places such as a café in town.
Learning Space in a quiet public place, such as a co-work space.

Figure 1. Student responses on preferred learning space outside the university
The respondents were also asked regarding their preferred learning space within the university. The resultsof this part of the research instrument are presented in Figure 2. The results show that 30% of the students
are neutral in their preference of using the classroom as learning space with 29% of the students still
SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research109prefer to work on their research inside the classroom. Majority of the students (42%) definitely prefer the
library as their learning space. It can be inferred that this is where most of the students prefer to work on
their research since this is where resources such as previous theses and research works from others arereadily available. The two other options, corridors/open spaces and canteen/café, are neutrally preferredby the respondents with 32% and 37% respectively.
With a mean rating of 4.09, the library is the most preferred learning space within the university, with themean rating corresponding to an adjectival rating of “preferred.” The classroom is the second preferredlearning space within the university with a mean rating of 3.66 that indicates that the respondents areneutral in selecting the classroom as a place where they can work on their research. Ultimately, the othertwo options, canteen/café and corridors/open spaces, both receive an adjectival rating of “not preferred,”with their mean ratings at 3.06 and 2.88 respectively. Studies show that the design of the traditionalclassroom from back during the Industrial Revolutionary Age may not be able to support the needs of thelearners of the future that is why there is already a need to create facilities in the university that can allow
students to collaborate and engage with each other without being too uptight as the current library set-up
that we are using today (Oliveras-Ortiz et al., 2020).
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Absolutely Not
Preferred

Not Preferred

Classroom

Library

NeutralPreferred

Corridors/Open Spaces

Definitely
Preferred

Canteen/Café

Figure 2. Student responses on preferred learning space within the university
The research instrument presented a list of physical and social characteristics that students preferred in alearning space. The respondents were asked to rate the characteristics from “absolutely not preferred” to“definitely preferred” on a 5-point Likert scale. The mean ratings of the physical characteristics oflearning spaces are presented in Figure 3. Among the ten physical characteristics, the most important for
the respondents was the spacious area of the learning space with a mean rating of 4.24 that corresponds toan adjectival rating of “definitely preferred.” Working on their research would require them space to write,
space to put other materials and references, and space to work with others. A spacious learning space
would be able to accommodate more people in the learning space and a spacious area to work on theirresearch would allow students to keep their workflow and increase productivity. It can be noted that thephysical characteristic with the second highest mean rating was the presence of charging outlets with amean rating of 4.23 that also corresponds to an adjectival rating of “definitely preferred.” The study of
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Peuker et al., (2022) identified the access to charging outlets as the most important characteristic thatstudents look for mainly because students nowadays heavily use their phones and laptops in accomplishing
their academic requirements.
Seven of the ten characteristics received an adjectival rating of “preferred.” Among these, the highest was
the presence of printing facilities with a mean rating of 4.18. The comfort of the furniture received a mean
rating of 4.1 and the cold and cozy temperature received a mean rating of 4.0. This shows that students
give importance to comfort in selecting the learning space where they can work on their researchrequirements. The remaining characteristics received mean ratings below 4.0 but are still preferred by the
respondents. The existence of natural light received a mean rating of 3.9, the presence of plants received amean rating 3.82, the decoration of the learning space received a mean rating of 3.75, and the presence of
big windows received a mean rating of 3.65. Aside from providing good lighting, the physicalcharacteristics that received mean ratings below 4.0 add to the overall aesthetics and design of the learningspace and not as much to its functional aspect. The physical characteristic that received the lowest mean
rating of 3.52 was the presence of background music. The respondents are generally neutral with the said
characteristic since there are students that prefer working in quiet environments over spaces with music in
the background.
4.5
4

3.9

4.0
3.65

4.23

4.1

3.82
3.52

4.18

4.24
3.75

3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0

Figure 3. Mean ratings of physical characteristics of learning spaces preferred by students
Other than the physical characteristics of learning space that the students prefer, the research instrument
also included social characteristics that the respondents rated on a five -point Likert scale. The mean
ratings of the social characteristics of learning spaces are presented in Figure 4. The social characteristics
that received an adjectival rating of “definitely preferred” are the quietness of working individually with amean rating of 4.36 and the active exchange of ideas with others with a mean rating of 4.30. The results ofthese social characteristics are supported by the choice of the respondents to use the home or the library aslearning spaces where students can either work quietly alone or work with others in a serene environment.
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The other three social characteristics received an adjectival rating of “preferred” with the privacy ofworking alone receiving a mean rating of 4.19, the collaborative work with others receiving a mean ratingof 4.01, and the vibrant social atmosphere receiving a mean rating of 3.96, the least among the five social
characteristics presented.
4.4

4.36
4.30

4.3
4.2

4.19

4.1
4.01
4

3.96

3.9
3.8
3.7
The privacy ofworking alone.

The quietness of
The active
The collaborative The vibrant social
workingexchange of ideas work with others.
atmosphere.
individually.
with others.

Figure 4. Mean ratings of social characteristics of learning spaces preferred by students
The final part of the research instrument presented the students with five statements about learning spaces.
The respondents were asked to indicate whether they fully agree or disagree with each statement using a
5-point Likert scale. The results are shown in Figure 5.

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100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Learning spaces
are important.

Learning spaces Learning spaces Learning spaces
influence myinfluence theincrease myindividual
outcome of
motivation to
productivity. collaboration withwork on our
my peers.
research.

I fully disagree

Disagree

NeutralAgree

Learning spaces
inspire me tofinish our
research.

I fully agree

Figure 5. Agreement or disagreement of students to statements about learning spaces

All five statements received mean ratings equivalent to the adjectival rating of “fully agree” based on theindicators in the 5-point Likert scale. The highest mean rating of 4.51 was given to the statement “learningspaces inspire me to finish our research.” This result shows that the characteristics of learning spaces
affect the productivity of the research students using them. The respondents also recognized theimportance of learning spaces as shown by the mean rating of 4.48 for the statement “learning spaces areimportant.” The statement “learning spaces influence my individual productivity” received a mean ratingof 4.44, further strengthening the result that learning spaces inspire the respondents to finish their research.
A mean rating of 4.41 was given to the statement “learning spaces increase my motivation to work on our
research” while a mean rating of 4.25 was given to the statement “learning spaces influence the outcomeof collaboration with my peers” further emphasizing the positive effects of learning spaces to the students’productivity. The study of Oliveras-Ortiz et al. (2020) emphasizes that a great design of a learning space
may allow academic success to grow and prosper.
CONCLUSION
The following conclusions are hereby derived:
1. CBMA research students definitely prefer a classmate/friend’s house as a learning space overother learning spaces outside the university with a mean rating of 4.52. When it comes to learning spaces
available inside the university, the library, with a mean rating of 4.09, is preferred by the students but not
as much as they prefer working on their research outside the university. In terms of the physicalcharacteristics that they look for in a learning space, a spacious area and the presence of charging outlets
are the top physical characteristics that the respondents prefer to see in a learning space while quietness ofworking individually and the active exchange of working with others are the top social characteristics thatthey prefer. The quietness of working individually can be achieved in the library while the active exchangeof working with others can be achieved in a classmate/friend’s house.
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2. In terms of the effects of learning spaces on research students’ productivity, all five statements
registered a rating higher than 4.20. The mean ratings of the statements are as follows: learning spaces areimportant (4.48), learning spaces influence my individual productivity (4.44), learning spaces influence
the outcome of collaboration with my peers (4.25), learning spaces increase my motivation to work on our
research (4.41), and learning spaces inspire me to finish my research (4.51). The mean ratings indicatethat learning spaces affect the academic productivity of research students.
RECOMMENDATIONAs the needs of learners continue to shift, educators cannot continue to design learning spaces that havebeen utilized for centuries (Oliveras-Ortiz et. al., 2020). There is a need to explore on preferred learningspaces of other group of students from various academic departments. Given that the different academic
programs have different needs for their course requirements, a university-wide study must be conducted toinclude respondents from all the program offerings of the university. The result of the future study will beable to determine a more inclusive learning space that can be a benchmark for future renovation ofexisting learning spaces such as the library with areas both for quiet study and collaboration with others or
as a guide in planning for the construction of a new learning space in the university. Further research canbe conducted to study not just the physical and social aspects of learning spaces, but its environmental andfinancial implications as well.
REFERENCES
Beckers, R., Van Der Voordt, T., & Dewulf, G. P. (2016). Learning space preferences of higher education
students. Building and Environment, 104, 243–252.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2016.05.013
Borkala, L. K. M. (2021, September 9). How to Increase Productivity?: Amazing Tips for Students.
CollegeMarker Blog. https://collegemarker.com/blogs/academic-productivity-the-need-of-themoment/
Card, P. D., & Thomas, H. (2018). Student housing as a learning space. Journal of Geography in Higher
Education, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1080/03098265.2018.1514489
Goldstein, J. (2018, season-01). Co-Working Spaces Create Unique Opportunities for Students. NAIS –National Association of Independent Schools. https://www.nais.org/magazine/independentschool/spring-2018/incubating-innovation/
Kennedy, M. (2020). 2020 Vision. Well into the 21st century, educational institutions are striving to
replace outmoded facilities with cutting-edge learning spaces. American School & University.
Mkonto, N. (2021). Understanding Safe and Inclusive Learning Spaces at a South African University. In
Creating Effective Teaching and Learning Spaces: Shaping Futures and Envisioning Unity inDiversity and Transformation. Vernon Press.
Oliveras-Ortiz, Y., Bouillion, D. E., & Asbury, L. (2020). Learning Spaces Matter: Student Engagement in
New Learning Environments. Journal of Education, 201(3), 174–182.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0022057420908062
Peuker, J. M., Dhaliwal, T., Le, K., & Tudor, C. (2022). Indoor Conditions in Higher Education: A Surveyof College Students on the California Central Coast. ASHRAE Transactions, 128(1), 22–30.
Sleeter, C. E. (2015). Deepening social justice teaching. Journal of Language and Literacy Education,
42(6), 512–535.
Upadhyaya, P., & Vrinda. (2020). Impact of technostress on academic productivity of university students.
Education and Information Technologies, 26(2), 1647–1664. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-02010319-9
Yuan, Y. (2019). Enhanced on-campus coffee shop interiors: Informal learning and design for themillennial students [Graduate Theses and Dissertations]. Iowa State University.

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Scientific Literacy Increasing to Achieve the Profile of Pancasila Student as A
National Defence Action
Sri Rejeki Sitohang1, Angellia Patricia2, Familia Novita Simanjuntak3*
1

Bintang Lima Tutoring, Jakarta (srirejekisitohang20@gmail.com)
Kalam Kudus Senior High School, Surabaya (situmorangangelia@gmail.com)
3
Chemistry Education Study Program, Faculty of Teacher Training and Education, Christian University ofIndonesia, Jakarta (familia.simanjuntak@uki.ac.id)2

ABSTRACTIn early 2022, Primary and Secondary Education in Indonesia implemented the Independent Curriculum.
The independent curriculum is a curriculum with extracurricular learning and a variety of content to
optimize the students' ability to explore concepts and strengthen their competences. Scientic literacy is oneof the skills that support the students in solving the problems that exist in their environment, as shown by
their ability to process, reason, and present the knowledge learned in everyday life. In the Independent
Curriculum, students focus on freedom to think creatively, have character, and perform a scientific literacy
skill in accordance with Pancasila values, which is called the Pancasila Student Prole. This research was
conducted with the aim of analyzing the increase in scientific literacy to achieve the goal of Pancasila
students as an Independent Curriculum Outcome. The population in this study was all tenth grade students
at Christian Kalam Kudus Surabaya High School, with a total sample of 30 students who were determinedthrough the saturated sample method. This research is a quantitative study, and the type of research isclassroom action research. The results of the study explain that there is an increase in scientific literacy
with a problem-based learning model (PBL) to achieve a Pancasila Student Prole with indicators of critical,
independent, and creative reasoning, where the resulting value of r (correlation) is 0.592 and the R-Squarevalue is 0.336, so that the resulting percentage is 33.6% with a df value of 1. So, it can be concluded thatthe problem-based learning model (PBL) can increase scientific literacy to meet the needs of Pancasila
students.
KEYWORDS: Independent Curriculum, Profile of Pancasila Student, Scientific Literacy

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INTRODUCTION
The rapid development and progress of Science and Technology (IPTEK), especially information
technology, have had many positive and negative impacts on the world of education, both formal andinformal. The rapid development of science and technology must be balanced with students' understandingof their interactions with this development. As a result of these developments in science and technology,
the world of education is aggressively developing 21st century life skills, especially scientific literacy skills
for students (Haerani, 2020). The curriculum is the "spirit" of education, which must be innovative,
dynamic, and always evaluated in accordance with the times and science and technology, especially thosethat meet the skill requirements needed by the public and graduates.
The curriculum plays a very strategic and crucial role in the implementation and success of education(Mariati, 2021). Curriculum development must also pay attention to educational needs that can provide
opportunities and experiences for students to realize their full potential for excellence (Suwandi, 2020).
Currently, the education curriculum in Indonesia is independent. The independent curriculum is thecurriculum that was changed by the Minister of Education and Culture from the 2013 curriculum. The
Merdeka Curriculum is a curriculum with a variety of internal learning contents whose contents are more
optimal so that students have sufficient time to deepen concepts and strengthen competence.

Table 1. History of Indonesian Curriculum
The aim of this curriculum is to improve human resources and the quality of education in Indonesia.
However, the training provided in this curriculum varies from basic education to higher education.
Therefore, the role of all layers is necessary for the success of these programs (Vhalery, 2022). An
independent curriculum is a curriculum that gives freedom to students to learn and explore their abilities
freely and understand the effective use of acquired knowledge in everyday life, so that understanding of
science is not only limited to theory but also in terms of its implementation (Irwan, 2020). The independent
curriculum emphasizes literacy skills in various concepts, especially the use of information and technology.
Everyone uses technology to search for and share fulfilling scientific information about understanding theuniverse, scientific issues, and current scientific developments, both for personal needs and scientificinnovation in the field of science (Syahputri dan Hikmah, 2019). This is done because the quality ofeducation, especially scientific literacy, in Indonesia is still low compared to other developing countries(Fu’adah, 2020). The quality of education is very low and directly proportional to the quality of humanresources (Sumarra, 2020). According to Pisa in Rizkita (2016), scientific literacy is the ability to use
scientific information, identify questions, and draw conclusions based on evidence to understand and makedecisions about nature and natural changes made by humans.
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Scientific literacy is a necessary skill for students (Mursalin, 2021). The need for students with scienceknowledge has encouraged developed countries to think about building science education for their students
from an early age. Scientific literacy is divided into 4 categories: science as a body of knowledge, science
as a basis for investigation, science as a basis for thinking, and the interaction of science, technology, andsociety (Nurmidah, 2018, Marisa dan Hamidah, 2020). This literacy is an important skill for students to use
to solve existing problems through collaborative scientific thinking (Sakdiah, 2023). It cannot be denied
that scientific literacy makes a major contribution to the development of science. In general, the scientific
literacy skills of students in Indonesia are still below average compared to other countries. PISA (Programfor International Student Assessment) announced that Indonesia is ranked 60 out of 65 with an averagescience score of 383 (the international standard score of 500) (Situmorang, 2016; Ummah, 2018).
Therefore, the action that needs to be taken by educators in schools is to carry out learning that contains
scientific literacy, supporting learning media so that students' scientific literacy skills are honed and can get
used to working on questions based on scientific literacy (Rohana, 2018; Warningsih, 2020).
The Ministry of Education and Culture in Vhalery 2022 said that educational transformation through an
independent learning policy is a step toward realizing superior Indonesian human resources with a Pancasila
student profile. According to the World Economic Forum (2016), students in the 21st century must have
16 skills. Broadly speaking, these 16 skills are divided into three parts, namely literacy, competence, andcharacter. In addition, students must be prepared to follow these changes to be able to react to changes insocio-culture, work life, the business world, and rapid technological developments. The Pancasila student
profile helps in realizing Indonesian students as lifelong learners who have global competence in line with
Pancasila values. By applying the Pancasila student profile, students should be able to take appropriate
actions to address existing problems, so that later it is hoped that students can participate actively and makea real contribution to the surrounding environment (Nahdiyah, 2022).
Through the Ministry of Education and Culture, the Indonesian government stipulates six dimensions of
the Pancasila Student Profile that must be developed in current students: (1) global diversity; (2) mutual
cooperation; (3) creativity; (4) reasoned criticism; (5) independence; and (6) faith, fear of God Almighty,
and noble character. The six dimensions of the Pancasila profile are used as intracurricular andextracurricular activities that will support competencies that are able to give birth to Pancasila students inthe future (Kemendikbud Ristek, 2021). When the six dimensions of the Pancasila student profile areapplied to students, it becomes a strategy to reduce negative incidents or students' deviant behavior at schoolor in society and becomes a student's contribution to defending the country. The form of defending thecountry is love for the motherland, awareness of the nation and state, belief in the power of Pancasila,
sacrifice for the nation and state, and the initial ability to defend the country (Rahayu, 2019). This study
aims to look at increasing scientific literacy to improve the profile of Pancasila students as an act ofdefending the country.
RESEARCH METHODSThe type of approach used in this study is quantitative approach and the type of research used is classroom
action research. This type of classroom action research is a form of research that is reflective in nature andinvolves taking certain actions in order to improve classroom learning practices in a more professionalmanner (Mahmud, 2008). This research consists of four stages: (1) the planning stage, (2) the
Implementation Stage, (3) the Observation Stage, and (4) the Reflection Stage. The implementation of thisresearch was carried out in two cycles, with two meetings in each cycle.
Before giving treatment, researchers always start learning by praying according to their respective religions.
This is done so that students are more prepared to accept learning. In the classroom action research stage,
before being given treatment, students were given a pretest instrument to measure their initial abilities.
After obtaining the pretest data as initial data, they were given treatment according to the stages of
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classroom action research. In the first meeting cycle, the researcher gave questions related to electrolyte
and non-electrolyte solutions to provoke students to think. Then the researcher asked students to findinformation related to electrolytes and non-electrolytes. After students search for definitions and examplesof electrolytes and non-electrolytes in the first meeting, the results obtained are that students are able toexplain the meaning of electrolyte and non-electrolyte solutions and are able to provide an explanation why
these solutions are called electrolyte and non-electrolyte solutions. This also fosters students' curiosity about
these electrolyte and non-electrolyte solutions, so that they are more active and independent and work
together to find information related to electrolyte and non-electrolyte solutions.
At the second meeting, at the reflection stage, the researcher gave directions and explanations to thestudents. Along with the emergence of student questions raised because of the emergence of curiosity whenlooking for information related to electrolyte and non-electrolyte solutions, at this second meeting, students
began to easily explain "what compounds can be called electrolyte and non-electrolyte solutions", and somestudents began to understand the difference between the symbols for solution and melt in the reaction
equation, although at first some students thought the two symbols were the same. This shows that students
have started to be literate and are able to provide examples of cases that are similar to the material provided.
In the second cycle of the first meeting, at this stage of reflection, the researcher gave a reading module tostudents to add scientific literacy. The researcher also answered the questions that arose after the students
read the module. At this meeting, students were able to explain that "acid, base, and salt solutions areelectrolyte solutions, while organic compounds such as sugar and urea are non-electrolyte solutions" in theliteracy sources they read. And in this meeting, students are also more active and creative in asking
questions. At the second meeting, students were even more creative in their learning, so that at the reflection
stage they were able to explain that electrolyte and non-electrolyte solutions can be found in various sectorsof life. At this second meeting, the researchers also conducted a review related to electrolyte and nonelectrolyte solutions as a whole. Before learning ends, the researcher also conducts a post-test as part of the
final research data.
This research was conducted at Sw Kalam Kudus Christian High School in Surabaya. The population inthis study were all students of class X-IPA at Sw Kalam Kudus Christian High School in the 2022/2023
academic year. Data collection was carried out using the saturated sample method, that is, the entire existing
population was sampled (Jati, 2017). The sample consisted of 30 students. The technique used in datacollection is the test instrument. The test instruments used include pretest instruments and posttest
instruments. The test instrument was prepared based on learning indicators for Electrolyte and NonElectrolyte Solutions.
Furthermore, the researcher conducted a normality test as a prerequisite analysis test, after obtaining thepretest and posttest data. The Normality Test is carried out to evaluate the distribution of data in a group ofdata or variables to see whether the distribution of data is normally distributed or not. The test used in thisstudy is the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test using the SPSS 26 program. To test the research hypothesis using asimple linear regression analysis technique (simple r-linear). In simple regression, the data used usually has
an interval or ratio scale. Data processing was done with SPSS (Statistical Product and Service Solution)version 26.00.
The simple linear regression formula is as follows:
Y=a+bX
Where:
Y = Dependent variable (value to be predicted)
X = Independent variable (independent variable)
a = Constant (value of Y if X=0)b = regression coefficient (positive or negative effect)
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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
There are four categories of scientific literacy in the instruments that researchers deploy. The four categories
are the science category, which is the body of knowledge; the science category as the basis of investigation;
the science category as the basis for thinking; and the correlation category of science, technology, andsociety. We can see in the first figure, namely the percentage of the first category, namely science as a bodyof knowledge. According to Abdulkarim in Hamidah 2020 the category of science as a branch of knowledge
in general must present a lot of scientific knowledge, facts, concepts, principles, laws and hypotheses. In
the picture, we can see that before being given the pretest results obtained, students who were able to answer
correctly were 28%. Meanwhile, after being given treatment, the results obtained increased to 72%.

Category 1
28%
72%PretestPosttest

Figure 1. Categories of Science as the stem of knowledge
So it can be said that in this category, students can answer questions correctly, and the results obtained arein line with the results of research from Irwan 2020. Therefore, we must know that student learning abilities
are strongly influenced by the extent to which students' cognitive functions can develop through the process
of educational touch (Fu’adah 2020).
According to Sumarra 2020, science as the basis for student investigations is still low; this is due to thelearning process at schools still using traditional methods. This is also supported by Marisa 2020 and
Haerani 2020, who say that students do not like traditional and classical learning. Figure 2 shows thatstudents answered the pretest results correctly by 31%. After being given the treatment, the posttest results
increased to 69%. The increase obtained in this study is the result of implementing learning that fits theneeds of students, and students' high scientific competence is in line with the results of Rohana's research(2018).
.

Category 2
31%
69%

PretestPosttest

Figure 2. Science categories as a basis for investigation.
Figure 3 shows science as a basis for thinking. According to Warningsih 2020, science as a basis for
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119thinking must show how students' creative activities are seen through the existence of thinking activities
that have been structured and motivated by their curiosity, imagination, attitudes, and beliefs. Science as abasis for thinking also describes the development of an idea related to emphasizing the empirical natureand objectivity of science (Ummah, 2018). In figure 3, the category of science as a basis for thinking has
the highest increase of the four categories of scientific literacy. This is shown from the results of thestudents' pretest (19%) and the posttest results (81%). The more often students learn about one topic, thebetter their ability to think about that topic, this is in line with the results of Egen's research in
Nurwulandari 2018.

Category 3
19%81%

PretestPosttest

Figure 3. Categories of science as a basis for thinking
Figure 4 shows the correlation between science, technology, and society; this category shows an overview
of the relationship or impact of science on society or the environment (Syahputri, 2019). In this category,
it is known that scientific literacy skills are not only limited to the ability to memorize but also apply sciencein everyday life and apply their knowledge in the environment (Hikmah, 2019). Figure 4 shows that theability of students in this category increased to 69%. This ability must be mastered by students to understandproblems related to the environment. The results obtained are supported by the results of Mursalin's 2021
research, which says that good correlations between science, technology, and society go hand in hand withgood environmental care attitudes.

Category 4
31%69%

PretestPosttest

Figure 4. Correlation categories of science, technology and society
Based on the diagram above, it can be seen that the value of scientific literacy in the four categories has
increased significantly and has different results. If seen from the results of the pretest, if it is averaged, thenthose who answered correctly are in the range of 20%, but after being given treatment, the value increases
automatically, and the range also increases to 80%. The most significant increase in scientific literacy
competency is in the third category, namely science as a basis for thinking.
In this normality test, the researcher used the Kolmogorov-Smirnov SPPS 26 test with the condition that if
Sign > 0.05, then the class is normally distributed. Whereas if Sign < 0.05, then the class is said to be notnormally distributed. The significance level of the normality test in this study is shown in Table 2. From
Table 1, it can be seen that the results of the normality test are normally distributed.

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Table 2. Normality Test Result
After the prerequisite analysis test was carried out in the form of a normality test, the researcher tested the
hypothesis using a simple regression analysis technique. This simple linear regression analysis is used todetermine the direction of the relationship between the independent variables and the dependent variable.
Does this variable have a positive or negative relationship? Simple regression analysis is also used to predictthe value of the dependent variable if the value of the independent variable increases or decreases.
Coefficientsa
Model

Unstandardized Coefficients

B
Std. Error(Constant)
24.1813.734
1NilaiLiterasi .760
.039
a. Dependent Variable: NilaiBerpikir

Standardized
Coefficients
Beta
.965

T

Sig.

6.476
19.588.000.000

Table 3. Constant Value
Based on Table 3, the value of a = constant number of unstandardized coefficients is 24,181. The constantvalue indicates that if the independent variable is assumed not to exist, then the value of the dependent
variable is 24,181. Thus, the value of students' critical thinking before or without scientific literacy is24,181. Value b = coefficient number of unstandardized coefficients of 0.760. The value of the regression
coefficient means that for every 1 point increase in scientific literacy, students' critical thinking skills will
increase by 0.760. Thus, the value of the regression coefficient is 0.760 (positive), indicating that scientific
literacy has a positive effect on students' critical thinking skills. Based on the results of this analysis, theregression equation.
Y = 24.181 + 0,760.
A measurement of the value of determination is carried out to determine the magnitude of the contributionof the independent variable (X) to the dependent variable (Y). Determining the value uses the results ofTable 3 of the SPSS 26 output with the title Model Summary.

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Table 4. Determinant Value
Based on Table 4 shows a determination value (R2) of 0.932. The determined value (R2) is then calculated
as a percentage, then KD = R2 x 100% ↔ 0.932 x 100% = 93.2%. Thus, scientific literacy affects students'
critical thinking skills by 93.2% and the rest (100% - 93.2% = 6.8%) is influenced by other factors inscientific literacy.
Range Value
22,5-33.5
33.5-44.5
44.5-55.5
55.5-67.5
67.5-78.5
78.5-89.5
89.5-100.5

Frequency
PretestPosttest
14
0
7
0
9
0
0
0
0
0
0
4
0
26

Table 5. Pretest and Posttest value frequency data
Based on Table 5, it shows that the majority of students' pretest answer scores are in the interval between
23-44, namely 21 people or 70%. While the other frequency distribution is between 45-55 intervals of 30%.
Based on Table 5, it shows that the majority of students' posttest answer scores are in the interval between
78-90, namely 4 people or 13%. While the other frequency distribution is between 91-100 and 87%. From
the frequency of the pretest and posttest data presented, it can be seen that before being given treatment,
the scores they got were in the range of 23–54. Whereas after being given treatment, student scores
increased and were in the range of 85–100. This proves that there was an increase after the researcher gave
the treatment.
From each student's response, the researcher saw that the more they searched for information and theliteracy sources they read supported, the higher the desire to ask and the higher the scientific literacy carriedout. This can be seen from the many sources that students read and the activeness of students during learningthat applies the six dimensions of Pancasila student profiles and learning that focuses on students according
to the independent curriculum. By applying the six dimensions of the Pancasila profile during learning, it
becomes one of the students' actions in defending the country. Defending the Country does not have to beshown by participating in criticism and taking up arms; students who study seriously and in accordancewith the six dimensions of the Pancasila profile can also carry out acts of defending the state during theireducation. During the post-test, it was easier for students to answer and understand questions because they
had often read and gotten a lot of information that they understood and had just learned, so what thesestudents did also increased their scientific literacy.
CONCLUSION
According to the conclusions obtained in this study based on the results of this analysis, it was found that
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122each category of scientific literacy experienced an increase based on the results of the pretest and posttest.
The simple linear regression equation obtained is Y = 24,181 + 0.760. The results of calculating the valueof the simple linear regression coefficient are around 0.760 (positive), indicating that scientific literacy has
a positive effect on students' critical thinking skills. The magnitude of the role of scientific literacy that
influences students' critical thinking skills is 93.2%, and the rest (100% - 93.2% = 6.8%) of students' criticalthinking skills is influenced by other factors outside of scientific literacy. During the learning process, theresearcher saw that the students applied the six dimensions of the Pancasila student profile. This is a formof state defense action that students can easily carry out at their current stage of adulthood. Defending thecountry doesn't have to be physical attacks, but as the next generation, students studying hard have madean effort to defend the country.
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A Study of the “Double World First-Class Universities Construction Project”
in Chinese Higher Education: A Historical Overview and Future Outlook
Ting, Liu1, Jang Wan, KO2, and Xiwen, Xu3
1

Institute of Educational Research, Sungkyunkwan University, Korea (liuting0113@skku.edu)
2
Department of Education, Sungkyunkwan University, Korea (jakosu@skku.edu)
3
Department of Education, Sungkyunkwan University, Korea (xuxiwen@g.skku.edu)

ABSTRACT
In order to transform China into a powerhouse of higher education and promote the internationalization ofChinese higher education, the Chinese government and the Ministry of Education implemented the firstround of the "Double World First-Class Universities Construction Project (Double First-Class)" in 2015.
The second round of the project also started in 2022. This study aims to review the goals, summarize theimplementation results, explore the issues and problems of the first round of "Double First-Class," and findimplications for the ongoing second and future third rounds of policy. The study used the literature review
analysis method to collect and analyze government policy documents, real-time data, and academic papers
published in China on the "Double First-Class." The results showed that the fundamental goal of the"Double First-Class" is to cultivate top universities and disciplines to make China a world power in higher
education. The detailed goals focus on constructing top teaching staff, cultivating outstanding researchtalents, and improving scientific research levels. Nonetheless, science and engineering are overemphasized,
while the arts and social sciences are ignored, and there have been controversial problems, such as thecorruption of professors. Based on our findings, we further provided the implications of developing asystematic education management and evaluation system, introducing senior professional scholars, andstrengthening the management system to improve China's higher education competitiveness during thesecond and future third rounds of the project.

KEYWORDS: Chinese higher education, Policy, World class universities, Double world firstclass universities construction project

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INTRODUCTION
The construction of world-class universities and world-class disciplines in China has become a hot topic in
the higher education sector, which is highly valued not only by the Ministry of Education but also by
provincial governments and relevant universities, as well as by teachers, students, and the whole society.
Therefore, to promote China as the powerhouse of higher education and achieve the historic leap fromquantitative to qualitative change, in October 2015, the Ministry of Education (MOE) issued the "General
Plan for Coordinated Promotion of the Construction of World First-Class Universities and World FirstClass Disciplines" for the whole country. Subsequently, in January 2017, MOE issued the "Implementation
Measures for Coordinated Promotion of the Construction of World First-Class Universities and World FirstClass Disciplines" and released the first batch of construction universities and disciplines (Ministry of
Education [MOE], 2015; 2017a; 2017b; 2019a; 2019b). In 2022, based on the results of the first round of
construction, the national government and the MOE summarized experiences and jointly proposed a
new/second round of "Double First-Class" construction in collaboration with the national "14th Five-YearPlan". The second batch of "Double First-Class" construction universities and disciplines was alsoannounced (MOE, 2021; 2022a; 2022b).
The "Double First-Class" construction project has attracted significant financial support from thegovernment and social enterprises. The initial funding budget for constructing world-class universities isnearly 100 billion yuan at the national level. There were 49 "world first-class universities" and 98 "world
first-class colleges" (such as China University of Petroleum, China University of Geosciences, China
University of Mining and Technology) (MOE, 2022). The universities have made great efforts and invested
many resources in improving scientific research, reforming the research system, building cross-disciplinary
platforms, building national key research bases and think tanks, and strengthening the construction ofindustry-academia-research platforms (MOE, 2018). On the other hand, the distribution of disciplines in
the first round of the "Double First-Class" construction project was unbalanced, overemphasizing scienceand engineering while ignoring humanities. Among the 330 construction disciplines in the 49 construction
universities, 253 are science and engineering majors, accounting for 77%; 77 are humanities majors,
accounting for about 23% (Ministry of Education Information Center, 2021). In addition, although thequantity of academic research has increased significantly, the quality of academic research needs to befurther strengthened.
Therefore, this study aims to conduct a literature review analysis based on official documents such as
government reports, national strategic plans and government policies, real-time information data from the
Ministry of Education, and academic journal articles related to China's "Double World First-Class
University" construction project. According to the analytical framework, we will closely review the goals
and the university types of China's first round of the "Double First-Class" construction project and identify
the implementation status quo and remaining issues. Finally, we hope to draw some implications for theongoing second and future third round of "Double First-Class" projects. The specific research questions of
this study were as follows:(1) What are the goals and university types of China's "Double World First-Class Universities Construction
Project"?
(2) What are the implementation status quo and remaining issues of the first round of the "Double FirstClass" projects, mainly focusing on the teacher faculty, talents cultivating, and scientific research
construction aspects?

LITERATURE REVIEWIn order to cultivate competitive and creative human resources against the rapidly changing economy andsociety in the 21st century, a vast amount of human resources and capital resources have been invested inhigher education. While there is no precise definition, many scholars have argued that "world-class
SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research126

universities" and "world-class departments" have basic commonalities across various concepts of "worldclass," including productive faculty, excellent students, flexible administration, plentiful funding, andinternational engagement (Allen, 2021; Wei & Ko, 2020; Xu, 2022). Advanced countries such as Europe
and the United States do not have specific criteria for 'world-class universities' and 'world-class disciplines,'
Ivy leagues such as Harvard, Oxford, and Stanford have been recognized as role models of world-classuniversities and world-class disciplines because they have a 100-year history and have nourished many
talented individuals in various domains (such as politics, culture, economics, and science and technology),
making a global impact (Huang, 2015; Li & Xue, 2022). In the case of China, the Chinese Ministry of
Education (2017a) identified "world-class universities" and "world-class disciplines" as having outstanding
research results, a high internationalization level, excellent teaching staff, rich research funds, orderly
school management and administration, excellent students, a complete range of disciplines, good
infrastructure, and creative output.
At the same time, there was a research fever on "world-class universities" and "world-class disciplines" inChina. From 1998 to 2023, the most popular keywords in the literature on world-class universities andworld-class departments were "first-class university," "world-class university," "double first-classuniversities," "first-class university construction," "talent cultivation," "department construction," "higher
education," "quality of education," and "Chinese characteristics" (Yu, Zhao, Wang, & Li, 2021). Many
studies have addressed the issue of world-class universities in China based on one or several case studiesof the "211" and "985" projects, China's first formalized world-class university construction projects (Liu,
Turner, & Jing, 2019; Qiu & Ou, 2016). In addition to domestic cases, there have been many comparative
studies with advanced education countries such as the United States, Germany, Japan, and Korea (Huang,
Wang, & Huang, 2020; Liu & Ko, 2020; Qiu & Ou, 2016; Yang, Chen, Liu, & Du, 2023). For example,
Qiu and Ou (2016) conducted a comparative study of the German "Plan of Excellence," the French "Planof Excellence for Universities," the Japanese "COE (Center Of Excellence Project) Plan," and the Korean"BK 21+ (Brain Korea) Project", and analyzed the background, content, and effects of the policies in eachcountry. However, a lack of research analyzes China's first round of the "Double World First-Class
University Construction Project" as a whole, from goals and implementation status to issues and problems(Huang, 2015; Wang, Chang, & Lin, 2022). Therefore, this study aims to draw an overall view of the firstround of the "Double First-Class" project and intends to offer the Chinese case of World-Class University
constructions as a piece of step-stones for future studies and other geographies.

RESEARCH METHOD
The literature review approach was employed in this study to fulfill the research objectives. The following
keywords were used as the search query for the literature: "world first-class university construction[双一流大学建设]," "world first-class disciplines construction[双一流学科建设]," "double first-classconstruction[双一流建设]," "double first-class projects[双一流项目]," "double first-class universities[双一流大学]," "first-class disciplines construction[一流学科建设]," and "first-class universities
construction[一流大学建设].” Furthermore, a total of 36 resources, including 9 official documents (from2015 to 2023), 5 real-time information data, and 22 academic papers (from 2020 to 2023) related to China's"Double World First-Class Universities Construction Project" that were published from the official
homepages of the Central Government of China and the Ministry of Education, Chinese Social Sciences
Citation Index (CSSCI) database were collected. Then, through the literature review of the collected
documents, we tried to understand the goals and implementation status of the first round of China's "Double
First-Class" project. Finally, based on the above results, this study aims to identify the issues of the first"Double First-Class" project and draw insights for the ongoing second and future third round of construction
projects. The research analysis framework of China's "Double World First-Class Universities Construction
Project" is shown in Figure 1.
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Figure 1. Research framework of the study.

RESULTSThe goals of China's "Double World First-class Universities Construction Project"
In October 2015, the Ministry of Education issued the Comprehensive Plan for the Construction of WorldFirst-Class Universities and World First-Class Disciplines, and made a new arrangement for the priority
construction of higher education, and included the priority construction projects such as the "211 Project,""985 Project," and "Excellent Academic Innovation Platform" in the construction of world-classuniversities and first-class departments. In September 2017, the "Notice on Promulgating the List of FirstClass Construction Universities and Disciplines" was announced. The first list of construction universities
and disciplines was published, including Peking University, Renmin University of China, Tsinghua
University, Nanjing University, Zhejiang University, with a total of 140 universities and 465 disciplines.
In 2022, the new "Double First-Class" construction list has added eight disciplines from 7 universities,
which are all provincial and local HEIs. It can be seen that after the first round of construction, only
promoting the construction of national comprehensive top colleges and universities is not enough to achieve
the goal of becoming a powerhouse of higher education, and more attention should be paid to thedevelopment of local colleges and universities (MOE, 2022a; 2022b). "Double First-Class" construction
project aims to promote high-level universities and colleges to enter or lead the ranks of the world higher
education, accelerate the modernization of the management system and governance capacity of higher
education, raise new levels of advanced talent training, scientific research, social services, and cultural
heritage, become a capacity for knowledge discovery and scientific and technological innovation, anddevelop excellent Chinese culture. Three steps of the fundamental goals and four specific aspects ofobjectives are shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Goals of "Double World First-Class Universities Construction Project"
The fundamental goal of China's "Double First-Class" project:
By 2020, some universities and departments should be at the forefront of the world's top universities
1
and the world's top departments.
By 2030, more universities and departments will be among the world's top, and the overall quality of2higher education will be significantly improved.
By the middle of the 21st century, the number and quality of first-class universities and first-class3
faculties will be at the forefront of the world, and a higher education powerhouse will be built.
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The specific objectives of China's "Double First-Class" project:- Accelerate the development and recruitment of top scientists.
1.
Teacher faculty- Focus on young teachers and innovation teams.
- Foster innovation teams across disciplines and areas.
- Cultivate creative, applied, and multidisciplinary talent.
2.
Innovative talents- Establish a clear evaluation system with a complete quality assurance
system.
- Focus on building national leading and international first-classdepartments and disciplines.
3.
Scientific research- Complement the scientific research system, develop cooperative
innovation, optimize resource allocation, and enhance technologicalinnovation capabilities.
- Strengthen research and propaganda on China's excellent traditional
4.
Culture spreadculture and socialist core values, and promote the construction of asocialist advanced culture by fulfilling the role of educators.

Furthermore, China's "Double First-Class" project aims to build "first-class universities and first-classdisciplines with Chinese characteristics" so that the Chinese universities must be scientifically classified
and rationally positioned to form their characteristics. Experts emphasized the need to actively promote andguide the classification and qualitative development of "Double First-Class" universities (Huang, Wang, &Huang, 2020; Wang, Gu, & Yuan, 2022). Accordingly, the universities of the "Double First-Class" project
were divided into four categories: research-oriented, major-oriented, applied-oriented, and skill-oriented,
according to the specific educational goals of each university, as shown in Table 2.
Table 2. University Types of "Double World First-Class Universities Construction Project"
Type

Researchoriented

Majororiented

Appliedoriented

Skilloriented

Contents- Comprehensive research HEIs
- Industry-specific research HEIs
- Regional research HEIs
- Characterized Regional Research
HEIs- Applied research HEIs
* (includes undergraduate, master's,and doctoral programs)-General Universities/Colleges-Specialized Universities/colleges* (includes undergraduate, masters,
and doctoral programs)-General Applied
Universities/colleges-Applied technology
universities/colleges* (includes undergraduate, master's,and doctoral programs)-Technical and vocational colleges* (includes undergraduate andgraduate programs)

Categorization

Vision Plan

- Teacher level(teacher quality)- Classroom quality(quality of instruction)- Academic quality(quality of scientific research)- Student level(quality of students)

World, National,
Regional, andIndustry First-Class
HEIs- Operational positioning(vision plan)- Operating characteristics(culture)

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research129Implementation Status of China's "Double World First-Class Universities Construction
Project"a. Basic Implementation Status: Since implementing China's "Building World Class Universities"
program, significant achievements have been made in the international rankings of selected construction
universities. In 2017, only four universities were ranked in the top 100 of the QS World University
Rankings, and in 2018 and beyond, they retained six. In particular, Zhejiang University jumped from 110thin 2017 to 45th in 2022 (QS, 2017; QS, 2022). From 2015 to 2022, two of China's most prominent
universities, Peking University and Tsinghua University, jumped from 48th and 49th, respectively, to a
joint 16th place in THE's World University Rankings. In 2022, THE's list included 97 universities in China,
ranking fourth after the United States, United Kingdom, and Japan (Times Higher Education, 2022).
Evaluation indicators such as teaching and learning, scientific research, faculty quality, and international
outlook are often used to calculate university rankings (Cui, Li, & Zhang, 2023; THE, 2022). Despite theseachievements, there is still a large gap between Chinese universities and the goal of being "world-class"(Qiu & Ou, 2016; Zhao & Hu, 2020). Another notable achievement was the increased internationalizationof "Double First-Class" universities. To meet the requirements of strengthening participation ininternational higher education research, many universities have accelerated the pace of internationalization.
For example, Tsinghua University has established nearly 600 English medium instruction (EMI) courses
and 28 graduate degree programs in English education, while Peking University offers 77 EMI courses in
24 departments to undergraduates. Statistics from the Chinese Ministry of Education show a steady increase
in international students studying in China, including those studying for masters and doctoral degrees. In
2019, 18,421 foreign teachers were working in Chinese universities, an increase of 2989 from 15,432 in
2014, and the number of foreign teachers with doctoral degrees continues to grow (Ministry of Education
Information Center, 2020; 2021). It indicates higher educational requirements for foreign teachers and an
improvement in the quality of international teachers. International cooperation and university exchanges
have also been strengthened in educational science and research.
b. Teacher Faculty Construction: First-class faculty recruitment emphasizes recruitment from off-campus
sources, while teacher training involves the development of existing teachers on campus. Whether it isrecruitment or training, it is a vital link and method of faculty building, with the end goal of restructuring
the faculty. In terms of faculty development programs, Peking University promotes the "Scholarly TalentPlan," Tsinghua University promotes the "Arborist talent program," and Zhejiang University promotes the"Hundred People Plan" (Guo & Duan, 2020). Universities also give preference to overseas talents and thosewith prestigious titles. Fudan University has recruited Nobel Prize winners, Zhejiang University has
recruited Turing Prize winners, and Peking University has recruited a professor from a famous first-classuniversity in the United States (Zhu & Liu, 2020). Although many achievements have been made inconstructing first-class teacher faculty, many issues remain. First, due to the lack of creativity of teachers,some universities still need to adjust their teaching programs promptly, and the design of professional
education needs to be in line with the times (Zhu & Liu, 2020). With the increasing competition in
universities, the problem of excessive pursuit of utilitarianism by university teachers has become more
serious, and the fierce competition in education has forced teachers and research scholars to engage inacademic corruption and lack of teaching management content (Guo & Duan, 2020). These phenomena not
only led to the loss of teachers' human resources but also led to the decline of the comprehensive teachingability of universities. In addition, an insufficient talent pool is also one of the critical problems faced bymodern university faculty construction (Li & Xue, 2022; Zhu & Huang, 2023).
c. Cultivate Talents Construction: In order to cultivate high-level talents, HEIs create high-quality
professional courses, reform teaching methods, and establish a competence training system. Professionalcourses are offered with more emphasis on practicality, application, and creativity, thus stimulating
students' learning motivation, improving the quality of teaching, and enhancing the overall quality of
SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research130teaching (Liu, Turner, & Jing, 2019). Professors and teachers continue to innovate teaching methods,
carefully design content consistent with practice, and create a relaxed and pleasant learning atmosphere(Ministry of Education Information Center, 2020; 2021). "Double First-Class" universities established athree-tier competence cultivation system of "foundation + practice + innovation," which requires eachdiscipline to build a good foundation, practice well, and be innovative (Yan & Du, 2022). However, there
are remaining issues in student cultivation in the current state of talent construction. First, the boundariesof the humanities and sciences must be clarified, which restricts students' critical thinking capabilities andis not conducive to promoting cross-disciplinary and complex talents (Li, 2023). Furthermore, teachers
must have a reasonable teacher-student ratio to prevent teachers from caring for all students simultaneously.
Sometimes a counselor needs to manage 100–200 students. Such administrative loopholes may cause
students' stress and psychological burden not to be helped and resolved promptly, causing some students to
ask for leave or even drop out of school (Wang, Lu, & Liang, 2023).
d. Scientific Research Construction: In 2020, the total number of SCI/SSCI papers published by Chinese
researchers exceeded 390,000, ranking second in the world. Among them, the total number of papers
published by Chinese universities in JCR Q1 journals exceeded 51,000, an increase of about 18% over 2019
(Ministry of Education Information Center, 2020). The analysis of the academic research performance ofthe first round of the "Double First-Class" project shows that the total number of articles has reached thelevel of world-class universities during the construction, indicating that the research scale of domestic
construction universities has a significant quantity of increase in scientific research (Cheng, Lu, & Li,2020). However, the analysis shows that the quality of the research papers is below the world average. The
overall research quality still needs to improve with the world's top universities (Liu, Luo, & Liu, 2023). At
the same time, it also indicates that the transformation of scientific research results needs to be improved.
A study on the patent conversion of domestic universities found that except for Tsinghua University, otheruniversities' international patent selection ability is generally poor, indicating a significant gap between
domestic scientific research construction in theoretical and experimental research (Jiang & Qin, 2022).

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONSThis study analyzed the goals and implementation status of China's first round of the "Double World FirstClass Universities Construction Project" through the literature research method, using official documentsfrom the government and the Ministry of Education, real-time information data, and academic papers to
identify issues that arose during the first round of construction and to draw implications. According to theresults, the fundamental construction goal of the first "Double First-Class" project is to build world-classuniversities and disciplines and make China a global higher education powerhouse. As for the detailed
goals, they mainly focused on building first-class teacher faculty, cultivating excellent talents, andimproving scientific research. Overall, the first round of construction has achieved good results in many
aspects. The world rankings of first-class universities and disciplines have risen significantly since 2015.
Both the central and local governments have injected more financial support into the "Double First-Class"project. Constructing a first-class teaching faculty has encouraged experienced and young professors to use
innovative and creative teaching methods from abroad and domestically. Universities have made great
efforts to cultivate excellent talents, from building infrastructure to reforming teaching methods anddeveloping creative teaching content.
However, while many achievements have been made, several issues and problems have yet to emerge.
There is a problem that the support for the academic fields is very unbalanced, and the construction HEIs
overemphasize science and technology and neglect the humanities domain. Due to the insufficiency ofprofessional teaching faculty members and over-competition, problems of poor research performance andcorruption have arisen in the spotlight. It has also been criticized that the quality of scientific research lags
behind the quantity. Therefore, the following implications are drawn to resolve these issues and problems
for the ongoing second and future third round of "Double First-Class" construction projects:
SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research1311. The construction of a first-class teacher faculty and the recruitment system of professional teaching
talents should be strengthened to create a new management environment for university teachers.
2. In constructing excellent and innovative talents, HEIs' teaching methods must be adjusted to adapt to
the information age, online learning, and other new teaching and learning situations. Learning is a joint
effort of teachers and students, and although students are the main subjects of learning, the role ofteachers in the teaching process cannot be ignored.
3. To strengthen cooperation in management, implementation, and evaluation so that the foundation andguarantee of the system are firmly established. From a national perspective, constructing first-classuniversities is a long-term, resource-intensive endeavor. High-quality management, adequate policy,
and financial support are essential for improving the academic quality of first-class universities.
There are limitations to this study, and further research should be pursued. For example, the literature
research method and policy analysis framework used in this study are practical and operational in analyzing
policies' purpose and implementation at a macro level. However, there are limitations in analyzing each of
the specific components, and future research could conduct more in-depth studies on the specific details ofpolicy implementation and the primary targets, such as using more substantive quantitative and qualitative
methods to conduct follow-up surveys and research on university teachers, leaders, students, and policy
decision-makers. In addition, unlike China, other countries and regions have different views on constructing
first-class universities and disciplines. We hope that our research on China's "Double First-Class"construction project will provide an example for other regions, and we also look forward to morecomparative studies in this field in the future.

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The Influence of Critical Thinking Skills in the HOTS Dimension on Science
LiteracyAngelia Patricia Situmorang1, Sri Rejeki Ignasia Sitohang2, Sumiyati3*
1

Chemistry Education Study Program, Faculty of Teacher Training and Education, Christian University ofIndonesia, Jakarta (1716150009@ms.uki.ac.id)
2
Chemistry Education Study Program, Faculty of Teacher Training and Education, Christian University ofIndonesia, Jakarta
3
Chemistry Education Study Program, Faculty of Teacher Training and Education, Christian University ofIndonesia, Jakarta (sumiyati@ms.uki.ac.id)

ABSTRACTIn improving the quality of education in Indonesia, the curriculum currently used is the Independent
Curriculum and the implementation of the National Assessment with 2 areas namely Literacy and
Numeracy to evaluate the entire learning process in Indonesia. The Independent Curriculum has six
dimensions that must be achieved. One of the dimensions is the HOTS Dimension. This study aims toanalyze the influence of critical thinking skills in the HOTS dimension on scientific literacy to achieve theProfile of Pancasila as one of the Independent Curriculum’s outcomes. The population of this study was
Grade 10 students of a Private Senior High School (SMA) Kalam Kudus Surabaya, East Java, with a total
sample from 30 students who were determined through the saturated sample method. The research result
explains that there is an influence of critical thinking on students' scientific literacy by using the Problem
Based Learning with the r-value (correlation) = 0.965. If we interpret the r-value 0.8 < r < 1 means that thecorrelation is at a very strong level, sig = 0.000; and the R-Square value is 0.932 so that the effect of criticalthinking in the HOTS dimension on students' scientific literacy is 93.2%. with a df value of 1, it means thatit reaches to 1, meaning that the influence of critical thinking skills in the HOTS dimension on scientific
literacy is at a strong level. So, it can be concluded that if the students’ ability to think critically in the
HOTS dimension then they are better to perform scientific literacy in achieving the Profile of Pancasila
Student as one of the Independent Curriculum’s outcomes .
KEYWORDS: Independent Curriculum, HOTS, Pancasila Student Profile

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INTRODUCTION
The Indonesian government is currently making various efforts to improve the quality of education inIndonesia. The effort goes from Human Resources, Curriculum, Learning Media, to Evaluation. The
development of the curriculum of the 2013 Curriculum is now a self-reliant curricula where this curriculum
has six student profiles, one of which is critical, it is in accordance with SK No. 044/H/KR/2023 decided
to impelementiate independent curriculums on educational units (kemendikbud, 2020)
The curriculum must be able to encourage students to learn continuously so that they are motivated to learn
for life, and finally, students must be trained to continue to think critically in solving surrounding problems
and material in the learning process (Murshid et al., 2023). In the process of learning chemistry subjects,
the problem that is currently often found is the difficulty of teachers transferring knowledge directly to
students due to the student's paradigm of "chemistry is an abstract science".
In the independent curriculum, there is a national evaluation called the Computer-Based National
Assessment, with the main component being the Minimum Competency Assessment (AKM). Based on the
results of the researchers' initial research at the Kalam Kudus Christian High School in Surabaya, the AKM
results for the literacy field showed that students showed a good level of reading literacy with a percentage
of 72.41%. However, in the initial research conducted by the researchers, it was found that students still
had difficulty understanding the context of chemistry questions.
Based on the opinion of Itsna et al. (2022), critical thinking is a process that actively involves students'
intellectuals, skills, evaluations, analyses, and syntheses so that it can be related based on Bloom's
taxonomy. Critical thinking is not only about higher-level thinking in cognitive terms but also how students
can analyze information so they can create new ideas. Chemistry has characteristics of critical thinking
because of the need to think critically when analyzing problems in the surrounding environment. In the
research of Itsna et al. (2022), critical thinking is a process that actively involves students' intellectuals,
skills, evaluations, analyses, and syntheses so that it can be related based on Bloom's taxonomy. Criticalthinking is not only about higher-level thinking in cognitive terms but also how students can analyze
information so they can create new ideas. Chemistry has characteristics of critical thinking because of theneed to think critically when analyzing problems in the surrounding environment. One of the factors that
can affect critical thinking skills in chemistry is scientific literacy skills. This is because science learning
directs students to be critical in problem solving (Chayana, 2017).
Based on the National Assessment Data Source by the Ministry of Research and Technology (2022),
literacy ability is the percentage of students based on their ability to understand, use, reflect on, and evaluatevarious types of informational and fictional texts. So the researchers saw that there was a discrepancy
between the results obtained and the existing goals. Where it should be is that if students have good literacy,
they can understand the context of the questions well too (Andriyani, 2023). Chemistry in general aims toenable students to master science as content, context, and processes in life (Rohmaya, 2023). This is in linewith the aim of the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) to promote scientific literacy.
The results of the PISA test in the field of science inform us that the scientific literacy scores of Indonesianstudents are still far below the average when compared to international average scores, meaning that thelevel of scientific literacy is in a low position (Rohmaya et al., 2022). Researchers see that the priority areas
for literacy are mathematical literacy and reading literacy. Science literacy should also be emphasized in
students. This is because, according to the OECD (2018 (in Yusuf, 2022), scientific literacy involves
students' knowledge and skills in identifying questions and acquiring new knowledge so that HOTS
dimensions and students' higher-order thinking skills in the Merdeka Curriculum can be achieved.

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research136According to Brookhart in the journal Susilowati and Sumaji (2021) the HOTS (High Order Thinking
Skills) dimension can be seen from transfer, critical thinking and problem solving, so that critical thinking
is closely related to the HOTS dimension. According to Wibawa and Agustina (2019) education currently
leads to the HOTS learning system where this dimension is a student's thinking process at a higher cognitive
level. But the HOTS Dimension also includes critical, logical, reflective, metacognitive, and creative
thinking. So that in bloom taxonomy students can reach up to lever C6 (Create). According to Norrizqa(2021) scientific literacy in a student can directly improve the student's higher-order thinking skills.
Students' high scientific literacy will also make a high contribution to students' critical thinking skills(Razzaq et al, 2021).
METHODSIn this research, the researcher used the classroom action research method. With the design of the one grouppretest - posttest design, this type of research is an attempt to be able to solve learning problems with direct
application in class (Kurniawan, 2023; 113). In this study there were four stages, namely, (1) Planning
Stage, (2) Implementation Stage, (3) Observation Stage, and (4) Reflection Stage (Hasan et al, 2023). The
implementation of this research was carried out in 2 cycles with 2 meetings in each cycle.
At the planning stage the researcher plans for the implementation of the learning activities that will be
carried out by the researcher. In this case the researcher prepares each research device to be used such as
the Learning Implementation Plan, Assessment Instrument, and learning media to be used. Next is theimplementation stage, at this stage the researcher carries out learning activities in accordance with what has
been planned at the planning stage. The researcher gave an initial test and then gave treatment to students
carrying out scientific literacy independently and looking for as much information as possible about
electrolyte solutions. After students carry out literacy activities to understand the concept of electrolyte
solution material, the researcher conducts a posttest on students.
Observation Stage, at this stage there are two sample activities that are observed, namely, student learning
activities and learning activities. Observations on the student learning process were observed by researchers
while observations of the learning process were observed by one of the teachers at the school. The resultsof this observation are used by researchers as material for reflection on improvements in subsequent
learning. The reflection stage is carried out by the researcher at the end of the cycle and is carried out
together with the results of the teacher's observations to evaluate the success of the activities carried out asa basis for designing the next cycle.
The independent variable of this study is the ability to think critically while the dependent variable isscientific literacy. The research was conducted at the senior high school level, namely SMA Kr. Kalam
Kudus Surabaya, Indonesia with a total sample of 30 students using a non-probability sampling technique.
The research was conducted for four months from January to April 2023 with H0: Critical thinking skills
have no effect on scientific literacy, and Ha: critical thinking skills have an effect on scientific literacy.
The data collection technique used in this study was the test method given at the pretest to find out students'
understanding of the material to be taught, then a posttest was carried out to find out students' understanding
after class action was carried out. The test instrument is given as many as 14 questions in the form ofmultiple choice. The data obtained was then carried out by classical assumption tests in the form of
normality tests and linearity tests as a condition of the simple r-linear regression analysis technique to see
the correlation of the dependent variable and independent variables in this study, then the research results
were described descriptively. In drawing conclusions from the hypothesis, the researcher tested the
hypothesis with the Paired Sample t-test and then conducted the R-Square test to see how much influence
critical thinking skills had on scientific literacy. Based on critical thinking skills, according to Facione(2022), there are several indicators, namely interpretation, analysis, inference, and explanation. The
SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research137

researchers processed the data quantitatively to see the percentage of achievement of critical thinking
indicators based on the theory of Facione and Ennis.
RESULTS OF THE STUDIES
Statistical tests were analyzed using descriptive statistics. This was done to find out the description ofvariable data such as the amount of data, average value, minimum value, maximum and standard deviation(Priyanto, 2023), while the recapitulation of the results of the analysis is according to table 1.
Table 1. Statistical Description
N

Minimum

Maximum

Mean

Std. Devition

Pretest

30

14

57

35.80

11.757

Posttest

30

86

100

96.73

4.402

Valid N (listwise)30

In the research before testing the hypothesis, the researcher tested the classical assumptions, namely thenormality test and the linearity test. The normality test was carried out using the Kolmogrov-Smirnov
method with the results in table 2 that the significant value is 0.082 > 0.05, it is stated that the sample isnormally distributed.
Table 2. Kolmogorov-Smirnov Normality Test
Pre
N
Normal Parameters
Most Extreme Differences

Mean
Std. Deviation
Absolute
Positive
Negative

Test Statistic
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)

30
49.83
8.546
.150
.150
-.137
.150
.082

The linearity test was carried out using a scatter plot graph to be able to see the direction of the positive andnegative linear relationship between the two variables. Based on the scatter plot graph in graph 1, it can beseen that the points in the data plot form a straight line pattern from the bottom left up to the top right.
Graph 1. Scatter plot graph

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research138

In determining the hypothesis, the researcher conducted the t test used to find out the regression model ofthe independent variable partially to the dependent variable so that it can make a hypothesis decision. Basedon table 3, the sig value of this study is 0.00 <0.05, so the null hypothesis of the study is rejected in thesense that students' critical thinking competence influences students' scientific literacy. There are several
criteria as a basis for decision making Ho is accepted if the p-value <0.05 then the null hypothesis isrejected, this means that the independent variable has a significant effect on the dependent variable.
Table 3. Result of Paired Samples T-test
Paired Differences
95% ConfidenceInterval Of the
Difference
Std.
Std. Error Lower
Deviation
Mean

Upper

Mean

t

df

Sig.(2-tailed)

Pair 1

Pre-Post-59.533

13.0672.386-64.413-54.654-24.955

29.000

Pair 2PretestPosttest-47.367

10.2571.873-51.197-43.537-25.294

29.000

Table 4. R-Square Table
Model

R

R SquareAdjusted R SquareStd. Error of theEstimate

1

.965

.932

.930

1.16294

Based on table 4, a simple linear regression R test was carried out to see what percentage of the influenceexerted by critical thinking skills in the HOTS dimension on student literacy was carried out by students.
The results of the study explain that there is an effect of critical thinking on students' scientific literacy byusing Problem-Based Learning with a value of r (correlation) = 0.965. If we interpret the value of r 0.8 < r< 1 it means that the correlation is at a very strong level, sig = 0.000; and the R-Square value is 0.932 sothat the effect of critical thinking on the HOTS dimension on students' scientific literacy is 93.2%. with a
df value of 1 means achieving 1, meaning that the influence of the HOTS dimension's critical thinking skills
on scientific literacy is at a strong level.
The assessment process to get scores from literacy and critical thinking uses distractor multiple choice
where in one question there are 5 choices with 1 correct answer and 4 distractor answers. in this case there
is a 1 in 4 chance of the student answering correctly. So questions with correct answers get a score of 0.20
and if answered incorrectly get a score of 0.80.
If seen based on the value processing of the pre-test and post-test questions given by the researcher, there
is a high increase in scores for each sample, there is no decrease in value and in accordance with Norrizqa's
theory (2021) that an increase in the value of scientific literacy in a student can directly improve one's
higher-order thinking skills. This is in accordance with the analysis between pretest and posttest values
which are associated with Facioni's critical thinking indicator criteria in research (Laili, 2022)

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research

139Graph 2. Percentage of Critical Thinking Indicator Results

Based on the graph above, the results of the percentage of posttest scores for each criterion indicator of
critical thinking have increased very high. Interpretation from 41.67% to 97.78%, Analysis from 40.67%
to 96.67% and inference increased from 43.33 to 100%. At the beginning of the pre-test students get
relatively low scores because they find it difficult to analyze the questions and understand what thequestions mean, when students do scientific literacy more often students will receive a lot of informationand often process this information with new sentences, this makes it easier for students to understand themeaning of sentences and also understand the meaning of the HOTS questions given by the teacher.
In fact, researchers see that student scores have increased very significantly, this is in line with the statementof Razak et al (2021) high student scientific literacy will also make a high contribution to students' criticalthinking skills. If students have a high level of critical thinking, the scientific literacy carried out by students
is also high, so that when solving HOTS-based questions, it is easier for students to solve these problems.
In table 3 which shows the scatter plot graph there is a positive relationship between the critical thinking
variable and the scientific literacy variable. The positive relationship in question is meaningful if students'
critical thinking skills increase, the scientific literacy that students apply also increases.
There are several indicators to analyze whether the level of students' critical thinking increases or not, thecriteria for critical thinking are presented in the table below:
Table 5. Critical thinking indicator table
Criteria

Indicator

F (Focus)

Students understand the problems given

R (Reason)

Students provide reasons based on facts/evidence that areappropriate at each step in making decisions or conclusions

I (InferenceStudents conclude correctlyStudents choose the right reason (R) to support the conclusions
made.

S (Situation)

Students use all the right information with the problem

C (Clarity)

Students use further explanations about what is meant in the
conclusions madeSEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research140

Students can explain the terms in the problem
Students provide examples of cases that are similar to the problem.
Sumber: Agustiani dkk., (2022), Jambura Journal of Mathematics Education, 3(2), 107-119.
Overall students have shown all the indicator criteria of critical thinking, focus (F) students understand the
problems that the teacher gives, reason (R) students can provide reasons based on evidence that are inaccordance with the sources of scientific literacy that students get, interference (I) students can provide
clear conclusions and giving appropriate reasons at the end of learning, situation (S) students confidently
use all the information students have read and explain to their classmates, clarity (C) students can give
examples or similar problems regarding electrolyte solutions.
These indicator criteria can be seen in the reflection stage at each meeting in cycle I and cycle II, in cycle I
the first meeting the responses given by students according to the criteria of reason (I) and focus (F) can
explain the definition of an electrolyte solution to explain how a solution can be called electrolyte solution.
Students realize that the more often they think about a question or are curious about a word that students
are reading for the first time such as the word "conduct electricity" in this situation the student is inaccordance with the situation criteria (S) so that students are increasingly looking for reading sources
regarding electrolyte solutions. The second meeting of the reflection stages of students began to easily
explain "what can be called an electrolyte solution" and some students began to understand the difference
between the symbols for solution and aquos in the reaction equation even though previously students
thought the two forms had the same characteristics so that students were in accordance with the clarity
criteria (C) provide examples of cases that are similar to the material provided.
In cycle II of the first meeting, at this reflection stage students explained that students continued to want toread about electrolyte solutions because students had a curiosity about the word "Acid solution is anelectrolyte solution" in the literacy sources that students read. At the second meeting, students were evenmore active in learning so that at the reflection stage they were able to explain that electrolyte solutions are
not only in the laboratory but also in everyday life.
From each student's response, the researcher saw that the more critical the literacy source was, the higher
the desire to answer each question, so that the scientific literacy that was carried out was also higher. Thiscan be seen from the number of sources that students read. In accordance with the independent curriculum
regarding student independence in learning, learning becomes centered on students. During the post test, it
was easier for students to answer and understand the questions because they had often read these sentences
when they were doing scientific literacy, and they even understood a lot of information that they had justlearned in Phase F.
CONCLUSION
From a series of research activities carried out, the researcher draws the conclusion that students' criticalthinking skills in the HOTS dimension have an influence because they have a sig value on the t-test p-valueof 0.00 <0.05 and the two variables have a directly proportional (positive) relationship as seen from scatterplot diagram in table 3. Students' critical thinking skills increase, so does the scientific literacy that students
apply in the sense that the more critically students respond to or find information, the more often students
will seek information. The influence of critical thinking in this study is very high, which is equal to 93.2%,
as seen from the R-square value of 0.932. Thus, it can be concluded that the HOTS Dimension CriticalThinking Skills have a significant influence on Scientific Literacy.
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Can the Higher Education Sprout Project
Serve as A Buffer Against the Adverse Effects of Socioeconomic Disadvantage
on Students as They Grow?
Lin, Hung-Ming1 and Chih, Bo-Wei2
1

Chang Gung University of Science and Technology, Taiwan(hmlin@mail.cgust.edu.tw)
2
Minghsin University of Science and Technology(bwei@must.edu.tw)

ABSTRACT
Given the interrelatedness of educational inequality with other forms of inequality and its impact on school
management, the Taiwanese Ministry of Education has taken steps to address this issue. In recent years, theMinistry has not only expanded financial assistance to economically disadvantaged students to facilitate
their education but also invested $27 million annually in the Higher Education Sprout Project since 2018,with the aim of addressing the overall learning process of such students in universities and colleges. It is
crucial to identify and improve the implementation of educational assistance programs and their interaction
with financial aid measures, as this is not only an important academic issue but also a primary basis foreducation policy decision-making and support system planning. Therefore, empirical data is needed toprovide evidence to support policy implementation and assess its overall effectiveness. This study examines
the impact of financial aid measures and the Higher Education Sprout Project on the dropout risk andlearning performance (including semester grades, class ranking, and department ranking) of economicallydisadvantaged students from different income levels. Data from a private technological university in
Taiwan from 2018 to 2022, as well as administrative data, were used in this study. The findings of thisstudy will provide evidence to support policy decisions and intervention strategies for supporting
economically disadvantaged students in higher education.
KEYWORDS: Economically disadvantaged students, Dropout risk, Learning performance, Higher
Education Sprout Project

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1. INTRODUCTION
Since 1994, with the expansion of higher education institutions in Taiwan, the accessibility of higher
education has indeed increased for economically disadvantaged students. However, although there has beena gradual fulfillment of the "quantity" aspect of equal opportunities in higher education, an examination of
the effectiveness of the "Scholarship Program for Underprivileged Students in Higher Education
Institutions" by the Ministry of Education in Taiwan reveals that from 2017 to 2021, the number ofscholarship recipients in private vocational colleges was approximately five to six times that of national
vocational colleges, three times that of private universities, and four times that of national universities(Ministry of Education, 2023a). This indicates that in Taiwan, despite expanding higher education
institutions in the 1990s and implementing admission measures such as special talent selection, disparities
between elite families and underprivileged families still persist.
Considering that educational inequality is often intertwined with other forms of inequality, such as theinequalities experienced by economically disadvantaged students in the learning process, which may affecttheir academic success and educational stability, and subsequently extend to their employment and social
participation upon entering the workforce (Donnelly, 1987; Sirin, 2005; Liu et al., 2020). In recent years,
the Ministry of Education in Taiwan has implemented reforms not only at the entrance stage through the
reduction of entrance examination fees and changes in admission channels but also after students'
enrollment. Measures such as tuition fee waivers and the expansion of the "Scholarship Program for
Underprivileged Students in Higher Education Institutions" since 2007 have been implemented to provide
financial assistance to students. Furthermore, since 2018, the "Enhancing the Public Nature of Higher
Education: Improving Financial Assistance Mechanisms and Facilitating Social Mobility" project (referred
to as the educational support program) has been carried out through the Higher Education Sprout Project.
It aims to assist economically disadvantaged students in balancing their academic studies and living
expenses through a guidance mechanism emphasizing learning over part-time work, ensuring
comprehensive support for their overall learning journey in higher education institutions (Ministry of
Education, 2023b).
It is worth noting that although several studies have discussed the scholarship policies of the Ministry of
Education for university students in the past, many of them focused on the historical development ofscholarship policies or proposed reform suggestions based on the integration of various sectors' commentson these policies. The question remains whether the educational support program has effectively reduced
the dropout risk for economically disadvantaged students. Has the implementation of assistance policies
resulted in improved academic performance for students? To date, there is no clear answer to thesequestions regarding the effectiveness of policy implementation.
Identifying the impact of policy measures on the dropout risk and academic performance of economicallydisadvantaged students is an important academic topic and a crucial basis for educational policy decisionmaking and support system planning and intervention. Therefore, empirical evidence is needed to provide
support and appropriately respond to the overall effectiveness of policy implementation. This study utilizes
data collected from a private technological university in northern Taiwan (referred to as the case university)
between 2018 and 2022, including scholarship data for economically disadvantaged students, academic
records for day students from 2016 to 2019, tuition fee waiver data, scholarship application data for the"Scholarship Program for Underprivileged Students in Higher Education Institutions," course grades data
for each semester, and dropout data. The study aims to investigate the impact of the educational support
program on the dropout risk and academic performance of economically disadvantaged students. The
specific research questions addressed in this study are as follows:

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145

(1)

What are the differences in the academic trajectories within the first four years of enrollment between
economically disadvantaged and general students? Can the educational support program effectively
reduce the dropout risk for economically disadvantaged students within the first four years ofenrollment?

(2)

Does the educational support program positively impact the academic performance of economicallydisadvantaged students?

2. REFERENCE REVIEW
2.1 The Importance of Enhancing Educational Equity
Economically disadvantaged students' academic achievement is highly scrutinized for several reasons.
From the perspective of educational equality, obtaining better education means having a greater advantage
in admission and economic achievements compared to others, directly influencing an individual's future
career development (Brighouse and Swift, 2006; Koski and Reich, 2007). Therefore, educational
achievement should stem from personal "talent" or "effort" and should not be influenced by social class orother factors (Swift, 2003). During students' educational journey, it is the state's significant responsibility
to ensure fairness in the "educational competition" (Brighouse and Swift, 2006), while schools must ensurethat all students have equal opportunities and resources to compete fairly in the labor market (Brighouseand Swift, 2008; 2009). This means that every student, regardless of factors such as race, gender, or social
class, should have access to equal educational opportunities and resources. On the other hand, students who
are disadvantaged in their educational journey due to their family's socioeconomic background, despite
having comparable "talent" and "effort," need compensatory measures to address their circumstances. Thesestudents can overcome their disadvantages and achieve educational equity by providing additional
educational resources.
From an economic perspective, education is considered the most effective means of intergenerational
mobility. Therefore, equal educational opportunities are indispensable in addressing social immobility
between the rich and the poor. Brand and Xie (2010) utilized two large-scale longitudinal studies, theNational Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY) conducted in 1979 and the Wisconsin Longitudinal Study(WLS) initiated in 1957, to examine the impact of college education on graduates' earnings. The authors
found that the effect of college education on earnings varies across different groups with distinct family or
ability backgrounds. The research results indicated that individuals with a lower inclination to complete
college education (e.g., those from disadvantaged socioeconomic backgrounds or with lower ability)
experience significantly higher returns on their earnings if they complete college. In other words, education
enables disadvantaged groups to achieve economic mobility. Subsequently, Bloome et al. (2018) conducteda similar analysis using the 1979 and 1997 NLSY data and obtained comparable findings. Their researchsuggested that the expansion of higher education coupled with increased returns on education allows
students from disadvantaged socioeconomic backgrounds to have the opportunity to improve their social
status, contributing to the limited expansion of intergenerational income elasticity in recent years.
Therefore, the authors proposed that governments should focus on "how many people have completed
college education" when formulating educational policies instead of focusing on "who has completed
college education" when formulating educational policies.
Fair education is closely related to a country's long-term resource development and competitivenessenhancement. Levin (1972) pointed out that national policies should focus on investing in educational
resources because insufficient education carries significant costs for a country and society. These costs
include reduced income, decreased tax revenue, increased social welfare expenditures, higher crime rates,
declining public health, reduced political participation, and reduced social mobility. Nobel laureate ineconomics, James Heckman, also emphasized that in the past, government policies often treated fairness
SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research146

and efficiency as opposing aspects, assuming that pursuing fairness would inevitably sacrifice efficiency.
However, in reality, fairness and efficiency can complement each other, as exemplified by promoting
policies for educational equity. Promoting educational equity in society is not only a measure of "fairjustice" or "social welfare," but also a policy that benefits the overall society and promotes national
economic development (Heckman, 2011).
The policy mentioned above recommendations are based on multiple longitudinal studies spanning several
decades, involving the subjects of policy interventions themselves and their offspring. These studies, which
are still ongoing, have attracted the attention of governments worldwide, leading to an increased emphasis
on investing in educational resources for economically disadvantaged students. According to statistics fromthe Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), among 43 educational systems
globally from 2008 to 2017, 20 education systems identified reducing disparities in student learningachievement as an important education policy goal, and 29 education systems prioritized addressing thegaps resulting from socio-economic status (OECD, 2018).
2.2 The negative factors that economically disadvantaged students face in their education
While education is considered a stepping stone to promoting equal opportunities or social mobility, a seriesof past literature has consistently pointed out that the process of economically disadvantaged students
successfully completing their education is not easy. This can be broadly categorized into three aspects
within the higher education environment: "access to education," "student life," and "financial hardship."Firstly, concerning access to education, over the past thirty years, as the expansion of higher education
institutions has become a global trend, discussions on educational equality have shifted from the verticaldifferences in educational opportunities between those who pursue higher education and those who do not(Mare, 1980) to exploring horizontal differences within the same educational stratum. Lucas (2001) pointed
out that the allocation process of higher education opportunities actually comprises two aspects: "quantity"and "quality." Through empirical analysis, Lucas introduced the theory of "Effectively Maintained
Inequality" (EMI).
Within the framework of the EMI theory, students not only decide whether to continue their education but
also choose different paths for their educational advancement. Therefore, even if the education system
expands to allow everyone to enter university, family background continues to significantly influenceeducational opportunities. Students from privileged social strata still have a greater chance of enteringschools with stronger screening mechanisms and better academic reputations. In contrast, students fromdisadvantaged social strata can only choose schools with weaker selection mechanisms and lower academic
reputations (Lucas, 2001). This result has been corroborated in subsequent studies (Ayalon and Shavit,
2004; Gerber and Cheung, 2008; Marginson, 2016; Duta and Iannelli, 2018; Kopycka, 2021). Furthermore,in a literature review study by Björklund and Salvanes (2011) on family background and children's
education, they concluded, "In every society where we have data, children's educational achievement is
positively correlated with their parents' level of education or other parental socio-economic statusindicators."
Given the consistent findings, the expansion of higher education institutions has not had a positive impact
on class inequality. Subsequently, the focus of scholars has shifted to the academic lives and financial
burdens of economically disadvantaged students.
Regarding academic life, the literature suggests that economically disadvantaged students often face higher
levels of stress due to receiving less support for skill development in their original families and having
lower parental expectations. This, in turn, affects their experiences in university, making them a higher-risk
group for dropping out. Several recent studies focusing on first-generation college students indicate that
SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research147these students often face academic unpreparedness, higher financial pressures, lack of family and peer
support, and difficulties related to cultural transition. This makes them more susceptible to mental healthissues and results in lower retention and graduation rates compared to non-first-generation college students(House et al., 2020; Schuyler et al., 2021).
Regarding financial difficulties, research shows that economically disadvantaged students often struggle
with high tuition fees or student loan pressures, which can lead to them discontinuing their education.
Alternatively, they may have to work long hours, which affects their study time, academic performance,
career choices, and future opportunities (Wu, 2009). Long-term tracking studies by Kim and Chatterjee(2019) and literature reviews by Bartholomae and Fox (2021) have further highlighted that student loan
debt has a negative impact on students' life satisfaction, mental health, and overall well-being.
3. DATA AND METHOD
3.1 DATAThe case study discussed in this research is located in northern Taiwan and primarily focuses on scienceand engineering disciplines. The university comprises a College of Management, Service Industries, andHumanities and Design. The university provides student scholarships and financial aid by the law to assist
and support economically disadvantaged students. Regarding student living expenses, the university
strengthens its financial aid measures through budget allocation, subsidies from the Ministry of Education,
and alumni donations, ensuring that students can study without financial worries and receive assistance tocomplete their education.
Regarding implementing comprehensive student support programs, the case study university adopts theconcept of "empowerment" proposed by Solomon (1976). It promotes various learning programs in thethree dimensions of "learning empowerment, career empowerment, and life empowerment." These
programs aim to establish a support and care system for economically disadvantaged students, cultivate
their professional and practical skills for future employment, and enhance their overall capabilities. Students
who participate in the comprehensive student support programs and complete the required tasks can receive
incentives through learning achievement checks, which contribute to "replacing part-time work withlearning."
The data collected for this study consists of two main parts. The first part includes de-identified basic
information of day-time department freshmen at the case study university from 2016 to 2019. It also
includes students' course grades for each semester from 2016 to 2021, dropout data, tuition fee waiver data,and scholarship application data for the "Higher Education Disadvantaged Students Scholarship Program."
The second part of the data is obtained from implementing the comprehensive student support program by
the Student Affairs Office at the case study university. It covers 2018 to 2021 and includes data on incentive
scholarships provided to economically disadvantaged students.
3.2 METHOD
The relevant research methods are described as follows: Firstly, this study employs survival analysis as theempirical research method to understand the effectiveness of the educational support program in ensuring
a secure learning environment for economically disadvantaged students. The study analyzes the academic
trajectories of economically disadvantaged students enrolled between 2016 and 2019 and compares themwith those of general students.
Survival analysis is a statistical method used to analyze the probability of a specific event occurring withina certain period for a group of individuals. In this study, the survival time refers to the duration of students'
enrollment, and the specific event of interest is "dropout." Dropout is determined based on the recorded
SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research148

date of withdrawal, and any dropout occurring before the completion of the fourth year of enrollment is
considered as an event. The duration from student enrollment to dropout is the survival period. The risk
rate at any given time represents the dropout probability, and the complementary measure is the survival
rate.
The Kaplan-Meier method, will be used to estimate and compare the cumulative survival functions ofstudent groups with varying enrollment durations. The Log-rank test will be conducted to examine whether
there are significant differences in the survival rates among different groups.
In order to gain a more detailed understanding of the dropout patterns within four years among students ofdifferent backgrounds, this study classifies economically disadvantaged students into three categories: 1)
high-frequency participants in the educational support program (referring to the top 20% of students who
participated in the program for a cumulative number of semesters within the same cohort), 2) low-frequency
participants in the educational support program, and 3) non-participants in the educational support program.
Additionally, to observe the differences in dropout patterns between economically disadvantaged students
and general students, this study includes general students in the analysis and categorizes them into twogroups: 1) students who have applied for student loans and 2) students who have not applied for student
loans. However, it is important to emphasize that this study cannot control for the influence of unobserved
factors on student dropout events since the Kaplan-Meier method is a non-parametric estimation approach.
Therefore, the classification in this study is based on observable student characteristics for preliminary
observations and does not imply direct causal relationships.
Secondly, when assessing the academic performance of economically disadvantaged students, it isimportant to consider that semester grades may be influenced by different grading criteria employed bydifferent instructors each semester, the academic college in which the student is enrolled, and the specificsubjects taken. Therefore, this study defines the dependent variable (𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑒𝑖𝑡 ) as the class rank of students'
semester grades. This allows us to observe the impact of the improved educational assistance program on
the academic performance of economically disadvantaged students.
The model specification for 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑒𝑖𝑡 is as follows:
𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑒𝑖𝑡 = 𝛽0 + 𝐷′𝑖𝑡 𝛽1 + 𝑋′𝑖 𝛾 + 𝑣𝑖𝑡 (𝑖 = 1, … 𝑛; 𝑡 = 1, … 𝑇)，(1)
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝐷𝑖𝑡 represents a binary variable indicating whether student i participated in the improved
educational assistance program in semester t. If 𝐷𝑖𝑡 equals 1, it means that student i participated in the
program during that semester, while a value of 0 indicates non-participation.
In equation (1), 𝑋𝑖 refers to the student's characteristics, such as family income level, gender, academic
college, and admission method. These variables capture the individual characteristics that may influence
academic performance. The term 𝑣𝑖 represents the error term in the regression model, accounting forunobserved factors and random variation.
4. RESULT
Figure 1 presents the results for students enrolled in the academic years 2016 to 2019. From the graph, it isevident that there are significant differences in the student survival curves among different categories, andthe results of the Log-rank test are all significant (p-value = 0.000). This indicates that students of different
types exhibit significant differences in their survival curves.
Overall, among the five student categories, three categories show similar survival curves: 1. General
students, 2. General students who have applied for student loans, and 3. Economically disadvantaged
students who did not participate in the educational support program. These three categories of students
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149

experience a significant drop in their survival curves in the third semester after enrollment, followed by aslight decline in the fourth to eighth semesters. When comparing the magnitude of the decline in the thirdsemester, it is observed that economically disadvantaged students who did not participate in the improved
study assistance program have the most significant decrease, indicating a notable increase in the likelihoodof dropout in the third semester. This suggests that without external resources and assistance, these students
may struggle to overcome the limitations imposed by their socioeconomic backgrounds or environments
and successfully obtain a degree.
In contrast, economically disadvantaged students who participate in educational support program exhibit acompletely different trend regarding dropout. Figure 1 shows that both high-frequency and low-frequency
participants in the program tend to experience their first wave of dropout later than students in the previous
four categories, and the magnitude of dropout is significantly lower. By the eighth semester, theparticipation in the improved study assistance program by economically disadvantaged students maintains
a retention rate of approximately 95%. Although the participation in the improved study assistance programor application for financial aid measures by economically disadvantaged students does not occur at thebaseline, this study considers these variables to some extent as proxy indicators of "student engagement."
In this regard, the results above indicate that financial aid measures and the improved study assistanceprogram may indeed provide protection and contribute to the academic success of economicallydisadvantaged students to a certain degree.
Furthermore, regarding the specific case of the school analyzed in this study, the results highlight a
subgroup of students’ worthy of attention, namely, general students who apply for financial aid loans. The
findings reveal that although the dropout rates for these students are similar to those of non-loan general
students in the first two semesters, their dropout rates increase in each subsequent semester as theobservation period extends. It is even noticeable that general students who apply for financial aid loans
exhibit survival curves similar to those of economically disadvantaged students who did not apply for orparticipate in any financial aid measures. This indicates that, in the context of educational and academic
achievement, attention should be given to factors beyond explicit social class aspects (such as low
socioeconomic status and lack of various family resources), as there may be latent or hidden factors or
student subgroups that require assistance from the school.
Figure 1 Student Survival Curves Among Different Categories

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research150

In addition to examining the students' educational trajectory, the academic performance of economicallydisadvantaged students during their enrollment period is also a significant aspect of interest. This study
measures the learning performance using the class rank of students' semester grades. It investigates theimpact of participating in the improved educational assistance program on the academic performance ofeconomically disadvantaged students.
The study presents the estimated values from the pooled regression using ordinary least squares (OLS) in
Table 1. In addition to the main variables of interest, which include whether students participated in the
improved educational assistance program during each semester, their family income level, and theinteraction term between program participation and family income level, the models also control for student
characteristics. These control variables include gender, admission method, college of enrollment, previous
educational stage graduation status, residential area, total credits earned by students each semester, and theyear of admission.
It is important to note that in the models, the dependent variable is the class rank of students' semester
grades. If the estimated coefficient is negative, it indicates an improvement in the students' ranking.
Conversely, if the estimated coefficient is positive, it suggests a decline in the students' ranking.
The results from Table 1 show that participation in the educational support program significantly negatively
affects students' class rankings. This means that compared to students who did not participate in the
program, students who participated improved their class rankings by approximately 5 positions.
Furthermore, based on the results in the table, among economically disadvantaged students with a baselineannual family income of less than 300,000 New Taiwan Dollars (approximately USD 9,740), students fromfamilies with incomes ranging from 300,000 to 400,000 New Taiwan Dollars (approximately $9,740 to$12,987), 500,000 to 600,000 New Taiwan Dollars (approximately $16,234 to $19,481), and 600,000 to
700,000 New Taiwan Dollars (approximately $19,481 to $22,728) had significantly higher class rankings,
with rankings increasing as family income rose. This indicates that even within the economicallydisadvantaged student population, students from relatively more advantaged socioeconomic backgrounds
may demonstrate better academic performance.
It is worth noting that when we further examine the interaction effects between students' participation in
the educational support program and their family income levels across different semesters, we find that allinteraction effects are insignificant. This suggests that after participating in the educational support
program, the achievement gap among different family income levels disappears. In other words, theassistance provided through the improvement of the educational support program has helped to mitigate theimpact of socioeconomic status on students' academic performance to some extent.
Table 1
Impact of Policy Assistance Measures on the Academic Performance of Economically Disadvantaged
StudentstP>|t|-4.833***

Std.
err.
1.928

-2.51

0.012

[95% conf.
interval]-8.612-1.053

Incomelevel1(300,000 to 400,000 NTD/year)-1.524*

0.792

-1.92

0.055

-3.0770.029

Incomelevel2(400,000 to 500,000 NTD/year)

0.830

1.035

0.8

0.423

-1.2002.859

Incomelevel3(500,000 to 600,000 NTD/year)-2.419**

1.010

-2.4

0.017

-4.399-0.440

Incomelevel4(600,000 to 700,000 NTD/year)-4.159***

1.138

-3.65

0

-6.391-1.928

CoefficientParticipants in the educational support program
Incomelevel (less than 300,000 NTD/year) reference group

Interaction(Participants*less than 300,000 NTD/year) reference group

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research151Interaction1(Participants*Incomelevel1)

2.232

Std.
err.
2.090

Interaction2(Participants*Incomelevel2)-0.524

2.737

-0.19

0.848

-5.890Interaction3(Participants*Incomelevel3)-1.302

2.764

-0.47

0.638

-6.721

4.117

Interaction4(Participants*Incomelevel4)

4.775

3.096

1.54

0.123

-1.29510.845

Coefficient

t

P>|t|

1.07

0.286

[95% conf.
interval]-1.8656.329
4.842

N=4,436
Note: The model has controlled for gender, admission method, college of enrollment, graduation status from theprevious educational stage, residential area, the academic year of enrollment, and total credits taken foreconomically disadvantaged students.
*p < .1 **p < .05 ***p < .01

5. CONCLUSION
This study attempts to assess the impact of the implementation of the improved educational assistanceprogram on the dropout risk and academic performance of economically disadvantaged students throughlongitudinal tracking of these students over multiple years. The study aims to identify the relationshipbetween participation in the improved educational assistance program and academic outcomes. The goal isto provide insights into the effectiveness of the program in appropriately addressing the comprehensive
policy initiatives. This paper has two main conclusions:
1.External resources assistance plays a protective role in economically disadvantaged students'
academic completion.
This study utilized the Cox proportional hazards model to investigate the impact of the improved
educational assistance program on the academic persistence of economically disadvantaged students. The
findings indicate that the improved educational assistance program significantly reduces the risk of dropout
among economically disadvantaged students. In other words, current policy assistance does indeed provide
a level of protection for economically disadvantaged students, helping them overcome the limitations posedby their family socioeconomic backgrounds or environments and successfully obtain their degrees throughexternal resource support.
2.Policy assistance measures help mitigate income disparities among economically disadvantaged
students' families.
The research results presented in this study show that even after distinguishing economically disadvantaged
students' family situations based on their household income, there are still instances where students from
relatively higher-income households exhibit better academic performance. However, the previously
mentioned scenarios are no longer significant in the presence of interaction terms between householdincome and policy assistance measures. This indicates that through policy assistance, there is indeed acontribution to mitigating the impact of income disparities on the academic performance of economicallydisadvantaged students.
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García, J. L., Heckman, J. J., & Ronda, V. (2021). The lasting effects of early childhood education on
promoting the skills and social mobility of disadvantaged african americans (No. w29057).
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Seafaring Profession: Edge of Filipino Seafarers
Engr. Rolando A. Alimen1, PhD & Prof. Ma. Cecilia D. Alimen, Ph.D.2
1

2

Research Coordinator, JBLFMU-Molo, Iloilo City (ralimen@yahoo.com)
Full Professor, University of San Agustin, Iloilo City, (mcalimen@usa.edu.ph)

ABSTRACTThe Philippines is an archipelagic country that depends significantly on its seafarers' toils, sacrifices, andcreativity. Filipino seafarers have become the country's pride and source of its wealth. Filipino seafarers
are the most preferred seamen because of their many virtues and professionalism that significantly
contributed to the Philippines and the global maritime industry. This qualitative phenomenological study
was conceived to determine the edge of Filipino seafarers among other nationalities on board. A
phenomenological inquiry is an inductive qualitative research method based on the philosophical premisethat researchers can obtain significant insight into the structure of how individuals interpret theirexperiences (Bliss, 2016). The results of this study will examine how Filipino seafarers are compared toother seafarers of the world and how they describe, perceive, and interpret their lived experiences while
onboard. Through this phenomenological study, the researchers will be able to categorize the lived
experiences of Filipino seafarers in terms of the different concepts, themes, and personal stories that will
be derived from their lived experiences. The researchers recruited the seafarers through referral and werequalified on specific criteria, the source of information, and whose narratives were gathered anddocumented to establish the study's objectives.
KEYWORDS: Edge, Seafarers, Qualitative Phenomenal Research

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INTRODUCTION OF THE STUDY
A total of 226,900 Filipino seafarers have been deployed last year according to data from the 2007 statisticsof the Philippine Overseas Employment Administration (POEA). In report for the Migrant Watch
newsletter in June, Fr. Bernardi said Filipino seafarers’ number to about 300,000 in international vessels
while an estimated 100,000 more are servicing domestic routes and deep-sea fishing industry. They havecontributed about US$2 to US$3 billion in remittances to the Philippine economy each year, Fr. Bernardi
said.
Senator Legarda (2010) supports this saying that “to ensure they comply with the international requirements
and maintain their edge over their foreign counterparts, the Filipino seafarers will be given access toaffordable and quality educational advancements and training courses to better improve them in their workand maintain such edge.”
Filipino seafarers are now perceived by many as among the best in the world, an international maritime
official said. Graham Young (2010), International Transport of Workers Federation (ITF) head of Maritime
Operations in London said the Filipino mariners, which accounts for 25 per cent (25%) of the entire
seafarers manning the merchant shipping fleet of the world, are being looked up because of theirprofessionalism and unparalleled commitment towards work. There is now high regard for Filipino seamen.
And with the strong supervision and support from Philippine government, Filipino sreafarers will continue
to demonstrate competence.
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
This study sought to answer the following questions:
1) Do Filipino seafarers have an edge over other nationalities?
2) What makes Filipino seafarers better than the other nationalities in terms of communication andwork ethic?
3) What is the Filipino seafarers’ attitude towards work?
4) What is the Filipino seafarers’ relationship with other seafarers on board?
5) What are the views/other observations they have in terms of other Filipino seafarers or seafaring as
their profession?
METHODOLOGY
The descriptive qualitative method of research was employed in this investigation. According to Good andScates (2000), descriptive research involves collecting of data in order to test hypothesis or answer
questions concerning the edge of Filipino seafarers against other nationalities.
Descriptive research according to Evans (2009) is concerned with the description of the existing distributionof variables, as opposed to theory building. Or, in plain language, descriptive studies focus on answering
the basic W questions: Who, what, when, where. The fifth W, "why" falls outside of the scope of descriptive
research, that by definition must not concern itself with the effect that one variable has on another.
Qualitative data is extremely varied in nature. It includes virtually any information that can be captured thatis not numerical in nature. In this investigation, in-depth interviews were utilized. This included individualinterviews (e.g., one-on-one). The data were recorded utilizing audio recording and written notes. In thisinterview, the researchers requested some individuals to interview the seafarers who are currently onvacation. The purpose of the interview is to probe the ideas of the interviewees about their edge as Ilonggo
seafarers as compared to other seafarers of other nationalities.

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Research Respondents
The respondents of this study were the ten (10) seafarers who were purposively chosen for this study. The
seafarers were currently on vacation and the researchers had a chance of interviewing them.
Ten (10) respondents were utilized as interviewees in this study. Seven (7) out of the ten (10) seafarers were
married and three (3) were single. Their children ranged between none-3 in terms of age. In terms of their
number of years on board, two of the respondents had spent more than 25 years. Four were between 5-8
years on board and the rest had 2 years experience. Table 1 contains the respondents’ distribution.
Research Instrument
The researchers prepared an interview schedule and started interviewing the seafarers.
Interview - Interviews are among the most challenging and rewarding forms of measurement. They requirea personal sensitivity and adaptability as well as the ability to stay within the bounds of the designed
protocol set by researchers. In this study, the researchers utilized the following questions during theinterview:1) Do you think that Filipino seafarers have an edge against other international seafarers, in terms ofcommunication? Work ethic? Attitude towards work? Relationship with other crew on board?
2) What are your views/other observations do you have in terms of other Filipino seafarers or seafaring
as your profession?
Table 1: Distribution of the Respondents
Responde
nt
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Civil Status
M
M
M
S
S
M
M
M
M
S

Number ofChildren
1
2
1
0
0
3
1
2
2
0

Number of Years on
Board
5
7
2
2
2
30
10
25
8
8

VesselInternational
International
International
International
International
International
International
International
International
International

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Edge of Filipino Seafarers with other Seafarers in terms of Communication
When the respondents were asked about their edge in terms of communication, fifty percent (50%) indicatedthat their edge is their fluency in the English language; 30 percent said that their being good communicators
is their edge; and 20 percent said that their spontaneity in communication has become their edge in termsof communication compared to other seafarers of other nationalities. Figure 1 has the data.

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Filipino Seafarers in terms ofCommunication
120
100
80
60

20

30

40
20

50

0
0
20

30

0

0

0

Do not take too much effort in communication
Good Communicators
Fluency of the English Language

Figure 1: Filipino Seafarers in terms of Communication
Filipino Seafarers in terms of Work Ethic
When the respondents were asked about their edge in terms of work ethic, fifty-five percent (55%) indicatedthat their edge in their work quality, “clean and concise in work”; 20 percent said that their love for work
is evident; 15 percent said that they are diligent and hardworking, and 10 percent said that their creativity
and intelligence has become their edge in terms of work ethic compared to other seafarers of othernationalities. Figure 2 has the data.

Ilonggo Seafarers in terms of Work Ethic
120
100

15
80 10
60

20

40
20
0

55
0

0

0

0

Diligent & Hardworking
Apply Creativity and Intelligence in their WorkLove of work is evident
Clean and Concise in Work

Figure 2: Ilonggo Seafarers in terms of Work Ethic

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Filipino Seafarers’ Attitude toward WorkWhen the respondents were asked about their edge in terms of attitude toward work, fifty five percent (55%)
indicated that their attitude towards work is edge in their work quality, “clean and concise in work”; 35
percent (35%) said that their love for work is evident; 15 percent (15%) said that they are diligent andhardworking, 10 and 10 percent said that their creativity and intelligence has become their edge in terms ofwork ethic compared to other seafarers of other nationalities. Figure 3 has the data.

Filipino Seafarers’ Attitude towards Work
120
100

80

10
10

60 35
40
20 45
0

0

0

0

Self-Reliant & Trustworthy

Love of the Work they are Doing

Responsible & Dependable

Focused in What They Do

0

Figure 3: Filipino Seafarers’ Attitude toward WorkThe Filipino seafarers’ attitude towards work is evident in the words of Captain Idemoto (2006) in, “New
Oasis in Manila for World’s Seafarers” stating that at least 35,000 Filipino marine officers are needed within
the next five to 10 years in the Japanese based seafaring industries based on the report of the Departmentof Labor and Employment (DOLE). In addition, it was stated that the deployment of Filipino seafarers is
growing at an annual rate of 10 percent, according to the DOLE. The department said foreign employers
usually prefer Filipino seafarers because of their ability to speak the English language well. Maritime
Industry Authority (Marina) regional director Glenn Cabañez said international shipping firms employ
Filipinos because of their competence, skills as well as their attitude toward work. Japanese ship owners
employ more than 20,000 Filipino seafarers onboard their vessels, seafarers who have made a significant
contribution to the development of Japan’s maritime industry.
Young (2010) says that there is now high regard for Filipino seamen. And with the strong supervision andsupport from (your) government, they will continue to demonstrate competence, professionalism and evenbravery as risks and hazards are so inherent in their jobs,’’ Young told the Bulletin.
Relationship with Other Crew Members
Relationship with other crew on board was perceived by the seafarers as one of their edges compared toother nationalities. When the respondents were asked about their relationship with other crew on board,
fifty five percent (45%) indicated that they are “a complete package,” 35 percent said that “they can get
easily along with others;” and 20 percent said that they are “loyal in friendship.”Figure 4 has the data.

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Filipino Seafarers’ Relationship with other
Crew

120
100
80

20

60 35
40
20 45
0

0

A Complete Package

0Easily Get Along With Others00

Loyal in Friendship

Figure 4: Filipino seafarers in terms of relationship with other Crew
One of the seafarers interviewed that their profession is a unique profession that has contributed not only
to world trade but has also become a process of making new friends in their interactions with their crew
members. Almost 90 percent of the world trade is sea-borne and that staying on board ties them at work forweeks and even months. Thus, developing better relationship with crew mates can offer a better way toeradicate boredom and homesickness.
Views/other Observations of Filipino Seafarers of Seafaring as your Profession
When the seafarers were asked about their views and observations about the seafaring profession, twothemes emerged: their love and passion for their work and their belief that seafaring can better their socioeconomic situation. Figure 5 contains the verbatim responses of the interviewees.

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Love &
Passion in
their Work

Better one's
socio-economic
Situation

Seafaring profession is aninspiration to people whose
dream is to become successful
in life and make their dreams
in reality.

A weapon towards
poverty
It is your way to become what
you are, and this is theprofession
you
willreallytreasure in the rest of your life.

Filipino seafarers, in general, aretruly respectful and loyal but
somehow not all. So in general, weare good compared to othernationalities
in
terms
of
communication processes.

A way to alleviate thecondition of the family

Filipino seafarers are the best seafarers in the world. Filipinos are
hard working, can easily relate to other people, and most of all,
Filipino seafarers are very good in communication skills. In
general, all I can say is Filipino seafarers are complete package for
seafaring life.

Figure 5: Views and other Observations of Filipino Seafarers of Seafaring as a Profession
CONCLUSION
1) The Ilonggo seafarers’ edge in terms of communication in terms of being communicators andspontaneity has been a remarkable mark of their better communicators as seafarers.
2) In terms of work ethic, their edge in their work quality were their cleanliness and conciseness inwork, love for work, diligence and hardwork, and their creativity and intelligence have become
their edge in terms of work ethic compared to other seafarers of other nationalities.
3) In terms of their relationship with other crew on board, their being “a complete package,” “ability
to get along well with others,” and “loyalty in friendship” were their edge compared to otherseafarers.
4) Two themes emerged about Ilonggo seafarers’ views of their profession. These two were their loveand passion for their work and their belief that seafaring can better their socio-economic situation.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Based on the findings advanced in this study, the following are recommended:
1) In view of the positive responses derived for the seafarers with regard to their attitude toward work,
the result of this study will be made available or will be presented to faculty members at JBLFMU
to enhance more the students and their choice of their profession.
2) Maritime English will be enhanced especially in the teaching inside the classroom to help students
develop a certain level of communicative proficiency to better equip them in their future work.
3) More studies on other factors and areas will be considered to further validate the results of thisinvestigation.
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REFERENCES
Dickson, A.F. (1996). Seafaring: A Chosen Profession. U.S.A.: Amazon.
JSU Maritime Journal (March, 2006). Good News for Filipino Seafarers. Vol 3 (2).
Philippine Information Agency. 13 April 2010. “Old Iloilo capitol now a national historical site". Retrieved
16 April 2010.
Population and Annual Growth Rates for Region, Provinces and Highly Urbanized Cities Based on
Censuses 1995, 2000 and 2007. 2007 Census. National Statistics Office. Retrieved 16 July 2011.
Young, G. (June 24, 2010). Pinoy Seafarers Among World’s Best Group. The Bulletin. International
Transport of Workers Federation (ITF).

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How COVID-19 Changed the English Language
Prof. Ma. Cecilia D. Alimen, Ph.D.1 and Rowena V. Isidro, PhD2
1

Full Professor, University of San Agustin, Iloilo City, (mcalimen@usa.edu.ph)Faculty, Iloilo Science and Technology University, Iloilo City (rowenaisidro3137@gmail.com)

2

ABSTRACT
Language experts have observed and documented many coronavirus-related linguistic shifts. COVID-19
provides humanity a glimpse into how language can quickly change in the emergence of unprecedentedsocial and economic disruption. The global COVID-19 has transformed language. Many of those were notpart of people’s previous vocabulary. Thus, this descriptive study addressed the following: 1) Identify the
linguistic additions regarding formation, their etymology, and description. 2) Establish the use of thesewords in the context of the pandemic. This paper intends to gather new words that evolved during the
pandemic. The method of collecting words was through secondary data as social media, newspapers,
television programs, radio, and other printed or non-printed materials to generate as much as possible
pandemic emerging terms. Results revealed that based on word formation, majority of the terms utilized
word stem, compounding, inflectional and blending, acronym, clipping, affixation, idiomatic, eponym, andnovel creation. When it comes to etymology, the most number of words were from the pandemic-related
usage or slang, US, UK, French, Latin origins, Gk and Middle English, and Australia. Based on etymology,
some of these words were already used in the past but were trending during the pandemic. Words in thecontext of the pandemic surfaced, and most of these words are nouns in terms of their usages. English
remains remarkably growing, as proven by linguistic inclusions and the power of social and digital media
to proliferate. With the pandemic, 78 new terms have evolved, and thousands more words were
contextualized by the pandemic.
KEYWORDS: English language, COVID-19, Linguistic shift, Secondary data

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research1631.0 INTRODUCTION
It has been almost three years since COVID-19 occurred, and until now, the whole world has been
“mesmerized” by it. Along with it came different words brought about by its impact. Language experts
have observed and documented many coronavirus-related linguistic shifts. It is indeed true that, along withthe pandemic, some words have been added to the English language.
COVID-19 also provides humanity a glimpse into how language can quickly change in the emergence of
unprecedented social and economic disruption.” Global COVID-19 has transformed our language, andmany of those were not part of our previous vocabulary. Alrahaili et al. (2022) assert that the COVID-19
pandemic has had an spectacular impact on the world and has contributed to the evolution of the language,
specifically in English.
This investigation focuses on the collection of terms and expressions that have evolved during the
pandemic. From Alrahaili et al.’s (2022) perspective, the COVID-19 lexicon is a set of terms used tocommunicate medical and health-related information at the onset. The data considered in this inquiry was
the meanings and extent of pandemic lexemes’ use throughout sampled English variations written andreported in the news, journals, social media, and other information and communication channels. With
regard to COVID-19, this study is grounded in several scholars’ frameworks (Aitchison, 2001; Liberman,
2020; Yule, 2006; Alrahaili et al., 2022) that explain why and how a language evolves and develops,
especially in times of crises. They add that difficult times like wars or social crises lead to vocabulary
innovation. The comprehensive search through the mentioned resources listed hundreds of pandemic words
of a high frequency of use on the pandemic lexemes drawn from different sources from January 2020 to
December 2022. The current investigation focused on more than a hundred words and their definitions usedprimarily by linguists, laypeople, and public health professionals.
The researcher believes these terms will have their significance not only during the time of the pandemic
but even after the pandemic. The terms and expressions that will be included in this study will significantly
impact everyone. They could be transferred from person to person as such phenomenon is unpredictable,
and knowledge of these words may facilitate further understanding of these new words and expressions.
COVID-19 also provides humanity a look into how language can quickly change in the event of
unprecedented social and economic disruption.” Global COVID-19 has transformed our language, andmany of those were not part of our previous vocabulary. Alrahaili et al. (2022) assert that the COVID-19
pandemic has had an phenomenal impact on the world and has contributed to the evolution of the language,
specifically in English.
2.0 THE PROBLEM
The COVID-19 pandemic has significantly impacted people’s experiences. It has been observed that severalof the terms developed during the pandemic may have been difficult for others to understand, especiallythose not in the health and medical professions. Therefore, this paper's primary intent is to compile theterms and expressions used in communication since the pandemic started. This investigation, therefore,
addressed the following questions:
1) What are the linguistic additions to the English language emerged during the pandemic in terms of word
formation, etymology, and descriptions?
2) What are the meanings associated with these linguistic additions?0 Methodology and Data Sources
This is a descriptive study. To develop the wordlist for pandemic-related neologisms for this investigation,
the researcher compiled COVID_19 inspired words from different information sources such as newspapers,
television news stories, social media, radio programs, journals, and even daily conversations. The data
SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research164collection may be online or face-to-face (observing protocols). The goal is to generate as much as possible
COVID-19 pandemic emerging terms. The words generated will be analyzed regarding their etymology,
definition, and linguistic use.
3.0 REVIEW OF LITERATURE
How words evolve: an overview
Christiansen (2022) points out the language phenomenon over time. He emphasizes that languages change
continually and in many ways. New words and phrases become visible while others fall into disuse. He
adds that words subtly, or less subtly, may shift their meanings or develop new meanings, while speechsounds and intonation change continually. With this, the most fundamental shift in language change is
gradual conventionalization: patterns of communication that are flexible initially, but over time, they
become increasingly stable, conventionalized, and, in many cases, obligatory. He said this tendency is aspontaneous order in action: starting from an initial jumble, increasingly specific patterns emerge over time.
In this same source, Christiansen describes that a word order gets established in charades and a sequenceof gestures that can come in any order. However, when language users use charades to convey who did towhom, some orders, perhaps by chance, become more prominent in these instances.
Take, for instance, a particular order (such as SVO) becomes established, it will tend to stick—after all, if
language users violate the expected order, then, other things being equal, they are likely to be
misunderstood. Furthermore, historically, languages seem to shift inexorably from so-called free word orderpatterns to increasingly strict word orders (Christiansen, 2022).
Another interesting new language is the word tweet. In the past, when people said tweet, it meant a soundproduced by birds. However, recently it has acquired a new level. It has been used as a s social platform
known as Twitter.
In 2014, Cook et al. published an article describing a system for automatically identifying new word senses.
These researchers compared the 1995 edition of the Concise Oxford English Dictionary with the 2005
edition and collected examples of novel senses by hand. They then analyzed random usages of each lemmain two English corpora, the British National Corpus (containing British English content from the late 20th
century). This brings people to the idea that the context of a word is to learn about its meaning. In mostcases, even if one does not know the meaning of a term, one can guess if this is used in context.
Language allows people to share their thoughts, ideas, emotions, and experiences with others. In theevolution of language from the National Geographic Collection, it is stipulated that over several years,
humans have developed various systems to assign specific meanings to sounds, forming words and systemsof grammar to create languages. Many languages developed written forms using symbols to record their
meaning visually. Some languages, like American Sign Language (ASL), are visual without vocalizations.
Although rules define languages, they are by no means static and evolve. In some situations, somelanguages are incredibly old and have changed very little over time, such as modern Icelandic, whichstrongly resembles its parent, Old Norse. Other languages evolve rapidly by incorporating elements of otherlanguages. Still, other languages die out due to political oppression or social assimilation, though manydying languages live on in the vocabularies and dialects of prominent languages worldwide.
The COVID-19 pandemic, which started in the last part of 2019, has paved the way for words to be formed.
These words have become innovations in the way people communicate. COVID-19’s appearance andspread have dramatically affected the societal norm, resulting in the new normal (Kupolati et al., 2021).
Events have resulted in introducing new terminology into the world’s languages. The Oxford English
SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research165Dictionary has begun documenting innovative and conventional words that have seen semantic extensions
during the pandemic. Mweri (2021) discussed coining new words through a word-formation process, suchas blending and acronym creating through old words requiring new meaning (semantic shift) or old words
gaining currency due to an emerging and trending situation. He mentioned the 21-word formation process
as an example of neologisms (new word formation). A study by Hamdan & Al-Salman (2021, in Alrahaili
et al. (2022) looked at the trending role of neologisms during the pandemic and found that the use ofneologisms in social media applications has acquired pace and zest. Their lists include email, username,Internet, save, copy, paste, delete, and other newly invented ICTs and social media terminology. Throughvarious word formation processes, words have evolved.
In the pandemic era, the process of coining new words has evolved. With the advent of technology and theInternet, communication has soared to greater heights. Everything has gone online, and people have gotten
used to vocabulary that used to be limited in use (e.g., quarantine and pandemic) or known to few(coronavirus, super-spreader, personal protective equipment [PPE], or working from home [WFH]). Selfisolation lockdown or social distancing (which should be better called physical distancing) is needed to getthrough these difficult times (Alrahaili et al. (2022).
Words are formed through the following:
The derivation is creating words by modifying a root without adding other roots. Often the effect is a change
in part of speech.
Affixation is the addition of one or more affixes to a root (prefixation or suffixation). This may be a typeof derivation.
Blending is the most common type of word formation. This happens when two words are merged, maybe
not on morpheme structure but sound structure (Kemmer, 2022).
Compounding forms a word out of two or more root morphemes. These words are often independent.
Clipping is an abbreviation of a word in which one part is ‘clipped’ off the rest, and the remaining word
becomes an essential part of how the whole word is meant.
Acronyms are formed by taking the initial letters of a word or phrase and making a word out of it.
According to Thorne (2020), the present epidemic has created over 1,000 new words, including
nonspecialized and technical vocabulary (cited in Roig–Marín, 2021). During the COVID-19 pandemic,
many unusual or noncirculating terms emerged in people's daily conversations. Distance learning, perhaps
one of the most common phrases for young people, has become the learning platform. WhatsApp groups,
Teams, and Zoom programs are the new tools for students.
The creation and spread of COVID-19-related terms have been rapid worldwide, in various disciplines, notonly in health but also in tourism, economics, trade, industry, transportation, and psychology, among others.
The abbreviations or acronyms for HIV (Human et al.), SARS (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome), and
MERS (Middle et al.), among others, are examples of lexical innovations linked with health pandemics. In
addition, the COVID-19 issue has caused people worldwide to express their fears about the same enemy
and, as a result, adopt the same language, uniting them against COVID-19. As a result of the healthemergency, there appears to have been a global rapprochement, as evidenced by the widespread use ofcoronavirus terminology (Alrahaili et al. (2022).

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1664.0 METHODOLOGY AND DATA SOURCES
This research mainly focuses on compiling words and expressions from various sources that emerged
during the COVID-19 pandemic to generate as much as possible pandemic emerging terms, specificallybetween December of 2021 to December of 2022. The method of collecting words was through secondary
data. The study collected data from different sources about language use in the realities of the COVID-19
pandemic. The list contains many English words and phrases used during the pandemic with theirequivalent meaning. These words and phrases were gathered from television news, radio programs, social
media, daily newspapers, journals, and everyday conversations.
5.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Linguistic Additions in terms of word formation, etymology, and description
Based on the terms and phrases generated for this purpose, there was a total of 78 words compiled.
However, only 53 randomly chosen words were included in this presentation. Table 1 reflects these
additions to the English Language.
In Table 1 are the terms collated with their word formation, etymology, and description. Based on word
formation, the majority of the terms compiled utilized word stem with 12 (21%), compounding 10 (19%),
followed by inflectional and blending, both with 9 (16%), acronym with 6 (11%), clipping with 4(7%),
affixation with 3 (5%) and idiomatic, eponym, and novel creation with 1 (2%) each. When it comes toetymology, the most number of words were from the pandemic-related usage or slang with 16 (29%),
followed by terms with US etymology with 12 (21%), UK with 8 (14%), French with 7 (12%), Latin origins
with 6 (11%), Gk and Middle English with 4 (7%), and Australia with 1 (2%). It has to be noted, however,that based on etymology. Some of these words were already used in the past but were put into trending use
during the pandemic. All the collated terms became significant at the time of the pandemic, for they are
either used having contributed to their original use or are given a new perspective during the COVID-19
pandemic. Table 1 reflects the data.
Table 1: Linguistic Additions in terms of formation, etymology, and description
Term/Phrases
airborne

Word- formation
compounding

Etymology
1640s, Gk aer

aerosol

compounding-clipping

Gk, 1919, aer, Latin ‘sol’
for solution

Asymptomatic
Blursdayaffixation
CompoundingGk, not/without 1930s
UK, US slang 2020

CDC

Acronym

CFR

Acronymfrom MCWA(Malaria
Control in War Areas) to
CDC
US. epidemiology

C-PAP

Acronym1980s by AustralianDoctor Colin Sullivan

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research

Description
air+bornedisease transmitted by free-floating
aerosols, being off the groundair+solution, gas or solid suspended
in the air
presenting no symptom/s
Blur+S+Day difficulty in determining
what day of the week it isCenters for Disease Control

Case Fatality Rate, people who diefrom a specified disease
Continuous positive airway pressure,device for treating sleep apnea
disorders.

167Term/Phrases
cohort study

Word- formation
Word Stem

Etymology
Fr, cohorte, 15th century

Contact Tracing

Inflectional

UK,1930s to track syphilis

Comorbidity

Inflectional

1970 La. co (together) +morbus (sickness)

Community
spreadcommunitytransmission

Inflectional/ Word
Stem
Inflectional

1903, UK

containmentzone

Inflectional
word stem

coronavirus

compounding

Coronials

Blending

COVID-19

Acronym

Covidiot

Blending

the term was originally ageopolitical strategic
foreign policy pursued by
USA during the Cold War
to prevent the spread ofcommunism
Latin ‘corona’ crown1968 June Almeida &David Tyrell to designate a
new family of viruses
Corona+Millenials
Dr Fitzgerald in
Berkeleyside, 4/2020
Eng, 2020 coronavirus
disease 2019Eng. 2020 Covid+idiot
2020, UK

Covidient

Blending

cytokine storm

word stem

Doom Scrolling

Compounding/
Affixationelbow bump

Word Stem

Facemask
Flatten the curve

1903, UK

Eng. 2020 Covid+obedientUK
Gk ‘cyto’ & ‘kino’
James Ferrara in 1993 in astudy graft vs host disease
syndrome, 1992 Time
traveller, UK
1970s phenomenon, MeanWorld Syndrome,
Doom+Scroll+Ing
US Uni of Florida, 2018

Description
a type of observational study that
follows a group of participants over a
period of timeto halt the spread of a disease that istransmitted person-to-person, in
which people who have come in close
proximity to.
existing simultaneously with andusually independently of anothermedical condition
the spread of a contagious disease
within a community
process of an infectious disease
spreading through a large group ofpeople where the cause may be
unknown
an area around which people are kept
inside and those outside are kept
outside, in order to prevent the spreadof an infectious pathogenic agent.

group of related RNA viruses thatcause diseases in mammals and birds.

a baby conceived or born during the
COVID-19 pandemic, especiallyduring a lockdown
originated at Wuhan City, China, Dec
2019, rapidly become widepread.
someone who behaves in a stupid
way risking the spread of the
COVID-19 virus.
opposite of covidiot, one who follos
public healthacute overproduction anduncontrolled release of proinflammatory markers, both COVID29locally and systemically.
is the act of spending an excessive
amount of time reading large
quantities of negative news online(Leskin, 2021)
a friendly greeting in which you
touch someone's elbow

Compounding

1980s basketball players
expressed camaraderie incourt, US Obama
Eng. 1530s, Fr. ‘masque’

Idiomatic

2007 CDC published paper

making the rate of change slower forsomething.

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Researcha mask or protective covering for theface or part of the face.

168Term/Phrases
Frontliner

Word- formation
Compounding

Etymology
1800s to soldiers fighting
on the frontline, Gk

Herd Immunity

Inflectional/
phrasal1923 Journal of Hygiene
by GS Wilson, US

Host cell

word stem

Latin ‘hospitem’ ‘hospes’
and ‘cella’

incubation
periodInfodemic

inflectional/
phrasalBlending

Iso
Kawasaki

Clipping
Eponyms

Latin incubare, incubatio,
17th century
David Rothkopf, foreign
policy expert on May 11,2023.
Information+Epidemic
Fr isole, mid 19th century
1967, Tomisaku Kawasaki

Lockdown

Compounding

19th century Old English‘loc’

Lockstalgia

Blending

UK, Citywire, 2020

MaskneBlending

New normal

word stem/phrasal

2020, Mask+Acne, USNews
1918 Henry A. Wise Woodposted in dilemma
2008, financial crisis,USN95 mask

word stem

1972, 3D face-piece
respirator for dusts

personal
protective
equipment(PPE)

Acronymequipment worn to minimize
exposure to hazards that cause serious
workplace injuries and illnesses.

Plateau

word stem/ Semantic
Shift

World War 1 to prevent
contamination fromchemical warfare.
Leonardo Da Vinci
invented respirator 16th
century
Fr. mid 18th century ‘plat’quaranteam

Blending

2020, La. quarantine

Rona

Clipping

short for coronavirus

a group of people who create a social
circle during the COVID-19
pandemic, prohibiting interaction
with others
Some people say Rona instead of

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research

Description
health care personnel, law
enforcement personnel in thequarantine checkpoints, those directly
attending to the public, vulnerable tobeing infected by highly
transmissible disease.
Form of indirect protection thatapplies only to contagious diseases, asufficient percentage of a population
immune to an infection.
A host cell is a living cell that serves
as a shelter and a food source to theforeign organism.
number of days between infection
and display of symptoms
too much information that includes
false or misleading information indigital and physical environments
during a disease outbreak.
remaining apart from others
an acute febrile illness of unknown
cause that primarily affects younger
than 5 years of age (CDC)
Securioty measure to prevent people
from leaving/entering a building in an
emergency event.
a feeling of nostalgia during the
lockdown period
acne and other rashes in the skin
attributed to mask wearing
emerging behavior, situations, andminimum public standards
institutionalized in common or
routine practices (IATF).
N95 mask filter was invented
by Taiwanese-American Peter
Tsai and his team, and received its
U.S. patent in 1995

The stage in training or skill
acquisition when progress occurs at avery slow or flat rate in comparison
with earlier phases.

169

Term/Phrases

Word- formation

Etymology

Self-quarantine

Compounding

shelter in placephrasalsocial distancing

inflectionalsmizing
spike protein

Blending
word stem

14th century to protect
coastal cities fromepidemics
Middle English ‘sheltron,’‘sheldtrume’
1963, Edward Hall,
anthropologist on
proxemics
Tyra Banks, 21st century
Middle English spīkr akinto spikesuperspreader

Blending

Superior+Spreader

Symptomatic

inflectional

Triageword stem

voluntaryisolation
WFH

inflectional

Fr. symtomatique, Gk
sumptōmatikós, Latin
symptōmaticus
Fr. trier separate out or
sort
Olf Fr, & La

Acronym1980s work done at home
Work from Home

Zoombombing

Compounding/
Affixation
slang
Blending

2020,
Zoom+Bomb+Affixation
2020 slang
2020 slang portmanteau

Zooze
Zumping

Description
corona. (Slang)
avoiding contact with othersa safe location indoors
Strategy to curb the spread of
COVID-19.
Smile with the eyes
A region at the “crown” of the spike
protein (etymology for the name“coronavirus”) as the receptor
binding domain with a critical role in
infecting host cells.
those who spew huge amounts ofvirus into the air.
Having the symptom of a disease

To break in three pieces, sorting ofpatients
not ordered self-isolation, avoiding
contact with people
work from home, making one’s
livable space into a workable spacetoo.
unwanted, disruptive instrusion while
video conferencing
Drinking with friends over zoom
Dumping someone over Zoom

According to Becker (2020), Texas Medical Centre has prepared a glossary of terminology to help people
understand the coronavirus pandemic. The difficulties and implications of COVID-19 have necessitated theinvention of new vocabulary to characterize the virus’s mutations and how various sectors will adapt torelated changes in life. Being familiar with these terms will help people understand communication
situations in the context of the pandemic.
Words in the context of the pandemic
Table 2 reflects the collated words and how these were utilized in the context of the pandemic. It is observedthat the predominant language of the pandemic is English (Lab, 2023). Moreover, it adds that major events
like natural disasters and wars have proven to have a significant impact on language. Along with this, the
COVID-19 pandemic has significantly impacted language and how people communicate. The words
lockdown and pandemic were crowned “Word of the Year 2020” after it was shown that they were the mosthighly searched for on the Cambridge Dictionary (Lab, 2023).
Along this line, the words generated are mainly related to the naming and describing the coronavirus. Table
2 reflects the words in the context of the pandemic, and most of these words are nouns along with theirusages in the context of the pandemic. These are airborne, aerosol, comorbidity, containment, co vidiot,
convenient, and Tuesday, among others. A few words are used as adjectives, such as asymptomatic,

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research170

symptomatic, superspreader, etc. Terms like flatten the curve, herd immunity, Tuesday, and new normal
also occupied the conversations. Most words were used as nouns in the context of COVID-19.
Table 2: Words in the context of the pandemic
Term/Phrases
airborne

Part of Speechnoun

Use in the Context of the Pandemic
Studies show that the COVID-19 pandemic has shown thatairborne transmission is a major mode of transmission for thisdisease, and is likely to be significant for many respiratory
infectious diseases.
“…aerosol and fomite transmission of SARS-CoV-2 isplausible, since the virus can remain viable and infectious inaerosols for hours and on surfaces up to days.”
asymptomatic transmission refers to transmission of the virus
from a person who did not develop disease symptoms.
The COVID-19 pandemic has created a blursday to people
who do not remember what day it is.
CDC is a US Federal government agency whose mission is toprotect public health by preventing and controlling diseases,
injury, and disability.
Case Fatality Rate is an index that shows the fatality of thedisease and includes only the ratio of deaths to patients
identified.
The CPAP therapy is an initial treatment for respiratory failure
in some people with COVID-19.
A retrospective cohort study of 238,000COVID-19
hospitalizations and deaths cohort study conducted in Brazil(Sobral et al., 2022).

aerosolnoun

Asymptomatic

adjective

Blursday

noun

CDC

noun

CFR

noun

CPAP

noun

cohort studynoun

Contact Tracing
Comorbidity

noun
noun

Community spread

noun

communitytransmission

nouncontact tracing

noun

Health authorities in all these places are working hard to findthe original source, or "patient zero," using what's called contact
tracing, or finding all the people the patients were in contact
with … . In a highly mobile world, that's increasingly difficult.
The Salt Lake Tribune

containment
containment zone

noun
noun

coronavirus
Coronials

noun
noun

COVID-19

noun

Covidiot
Covidientcytokine storm

noun
noun
noun

Containment can reduce the spread of COVID-19 .
Containment zones serve as strategies to prevent further spreadof the virus.
This is a family of related viruses.
Cohort of babies that were born during the pandemic arecoronials.
This is the disease caused by the new corona virus marked bysymptoms like fever, dry cough, and shortness of breath.
Tell the covidiots to stop what they are doing.
We are covidients during the time of the pandemic.
Cytokine storm is activated by COVID-19. This embraces aPeople with comorbidities such as hypertension or diabetes
mellitus are more likely to develop a more severe course andprogression of the disease
During community spread, the spread of an illness within aparticular location can probably happen.
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention on
Wednesday confirmed the first possible “community
transmission” of the coronavirus in the U.S.

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171

Term/Phrases

Part of Speech

Doom Scrollingverb

elbow bumpnoun

facemasknoun

Flatten the curve

verb phrase

Frontliner

noun

Herd Immunity

adjective phrase

Host cellnoun phrase

incubation period

nounphrase

Infodemic

noun

Iso

noun

Kawasakinoun

Lockdown

noun

Lockstalgia
MaskneNew normal
N95 mask

noun
noun
noun phrase
noun phrase

personal protective
equipment (PPE)
Plateaunoun

quaranteam

noun

Rona

noun

Self-quarantine

noun

shelter in placenoun phrasesocial distancing

noun

smizing
spike protein

noun
adjective phrase

superspreader

adjective

Symptomatic

adjective

Triagenoun

noun/adjective

Use in the Context of the Pandemic
variety of events that may ultimately result in multi organ
failure.
Doomscrolling is a kind of phenomenon of elevated negative
feeling after viewing pandemic-related content.
Instead of handshakes, elbow bumps are done to avoid the
spread of the disease.
A personal protective equipment to prevent the spread of thecorona virus.
To flatten the curve means control of the new cases of
COVID-19.
Frontliners are more prone to contact the disease that those
who are not.
Herd immunity was said to contain the spread of the COVID19
Findings of a particular study suggest that the coronavirus has
evolved to take advantage of the host cell.
The refers to the time it takes for someone with an infection toshow symptoms.
Too much information that are false and misleading is criticalto some people during the pandemic.
Iso (short for isolation) Staying at home may provoke
depression to some people.
A cohort study shows the incidence of Kawasaki diseaseduring the COVID-19 pandemic.
A lockdown may be beneficial to contain the spread of thedisease.
There are people who are in lockstalgia during the lockdown.
Acne that pops out dure to wearing of masks.
How COVID-19 transformed human life.
This is a kind og mask designed to achieve a kind of comfort
to some users.
Frontliners are encouraged to use PPEs to protect themselvesfrom any form of contamination.
Plateau is used to describe the epidemiological indicators suchas the COVID-19 pandemic.
The quaranteam is the group your friends or kids arequarantining with.
Slang for corona. Young people say “Miss Rona,” to mean
coronavirus.
Sometimes, this is called self-isolation. People self-quarantine
to curb the spread of infection.
This is an order for people to stay where they are and not leave
for their own protection.
May be termed as physical distancing, to slow down the spreadof an infection.
Smizing is common during the pandemic.
this is a glycoprotein that protrudes from the envelop of someviruses such as the coronavirus.
A highly contagious individual capable of transmitting acommunicable disease.
A person who exhibits signs of illness in COVID-19 for
instance, cough, fever or shortness of breath are symptoms.
The patients are sorted and allocated treatment in the time of the

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research172

Term/Phrases

Part of Speech

voluntary isolation

adjective phrase

WFH
Zoombombing
Zooze
Zumping

Noun
noun
noun
verb

Use in the Context of the Pandemic
pandemic.
The health officer requested the person to enter a confinement
center and the person gladly complied.
Employees work from home during the pandemic.
An unwanted, disruptive intrusion during a video conferencing.
Young people love drinking with their friends over zoom.
Many people were zumped during the COVID-19 pandemic.

6.0 CONCLUSION
The primary purpose of this study is to collate the words brought about by the pandemic. This collection
presented these linguistic contributions to the English language regarding word formation, etymology, anddescriptions (RQ1) and the meanings associated with these linguistic additions (RQ2). The selection ofthese words included some terms that existed long before this pandemic and have become more common
now and some medical terms that have become part of everyday speech.
This present study the impact of the pandemic as evidenced by the lexical innovations introduced into thelanguage (Gustilo et al., 2021). Because of the pandemic, new terms were formed. This corona lexiconreflects the political, medical, economic, and psychosocial realities of the war against the coronavirus.
People created this specialized discourse as a coping strategy to communicate effectively during thesetrying times (Gustilo et al., 2021).
English remains remarkably growing, as proven by the linguistic inclusions and the power of social anddigital media to proliferate. With the pandemic, 78 new terms have evolved, and thousands more words
contextualized by the pandemic.
7.0 STUDY’S LIMITATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE STUDYThis humble study is a little contribution to the existing body of knowledge. One of its limitations is theinability of the researchers to secure strategies such as seeking more experts to validate the collected
terminologies. The researchers, as a language expert and a social scientist respectively, took carefulconsideration in the selection of these terminologies only in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. Further
study may be conducted to establish the validity of the meaning and interpretations of these terms.

8.0 EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS
According to Becker (2020), a glossary of terminology helps people understand the coronavirus pandemic.
This means that the difficulties and implications of COVID-19 have necessitated the invention of new
vocabulary to characterize the virus’s mutations and how various sectors will adapt to related changes inlife. Words generated in this study will benefit students so they will be able to understand lectures and will
have added information to the ever-changing lexicon they need to learn during the pandemic and the restof the life-changing situations in the future. This paper will serve as additional baseline data forpolicymakers, curriculum designers, students, and teachers, teaching and learning, and understanding theseterms has become the language of every day.
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The Late Deafened: Adjusting to a New World
Prof. Ma. Cecilia D. Alimen, PhD1
1

Full Professor, University of San Agustin, Iloilo City, (mcalimen@usa.edu.ph)

ABSTRACTThe ability of the person ability to carry out daily activities is affected by their hearing abilities. To learn
how to accept and cope with hearing loss has become a herculean task that late-deafened people need tobattle daily. This qualitative study, specifically autoethnography, seeks to describe and systematicallyanalyze the personal experiences of the writer using Milner's (2007) framework. This paper also shares the
struggles and adjustments, specifically the late deafened's personal, social, emotional, and professional life.
This paper can offer insights into how people can understand the adjustments faced by deafened individuals
and how they can provide assistance, communication accommodation, and other services that may beneeded by those who are late-deafened.
KEYWORDS: autoethnography, late deafened, deafness, adjustments

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1.0 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
On August 22, 2022, I woke up unable to hear the birds twitting on my window. The weather was not goodthat day. Before that, I observed that I had slept soundly in the last few weeks, and I told my husband that
he was no longer snoring. That day, I realized I had started to become partially deaf. One by one, friends
kept telling me that I had not responded to them several times, which was validated by an audiological test
a few weeks later. I became socially, psychologically, and physically insecure. I stopped talking to people,
and my work as a tertiary teacher suddenly challenged me.
Being late deafened or deafened happens when one acquires a profound hearing loss. The problem is when
this occurs to one who does not know sign language, and without assistance from any device,communication becomes a problem. Because of this, those who have become deaf encounter problems andneed adjustments in their personal, social, and professional lives. Barlow et al. (2007) assert that becoming
deafened is a devastating experience for many people who experience severe psychological, social, andemployment consequences. Along with this, they no longer felt they belonged in the hearing world or the
prelingually deaf world. Thus, the onset of deafness left them in a twilight zone between worlds and robbed
them of their identity. This holds in my experience. Being late deafened, my psychosocial experiences
imply more need for support and commitment from family members and co-employees.
2.0 THE METHODThis paper used the qualitative research method, specifically autoethnography. This research method isderived from autobiography and ethnography. When a researcher does autoethnography, they use themethod of qualitative inquiry that unites autobiography (the telling of one’s life) and ethnography (studying
culture) in their utilization of their lived experiences as evidence with which to explore the cultural
phenomena (Harrison, 2022). Researchers in autoethnography become storytellers and narrators without
restrictions in expressing emotions, experiences, and day-to-day activities. It helps authors reveal their true
identities through reflections (Khair et al., 2022).
When writing an autobiography, an author retrospectively selects their past experiences. In most cases, theauthor does not live through these experiences solely to make them part of a published document; instead,such experiences are assembled using hindsight (Bruner, 1993; Denzin, 1989; Freeman, 2004; Ellis, 2011).
In writing, the author may also interview others or consult with texts like photographs, journals, andrecordings to help with recall (Delany, 2004; Didion, 2005; Goodall, 2006; Herrmann, 2005; Ellis, 2011).
Researchers also conduct ethnographic studies to study a particular culture’s relational practices, common
values and beliefs, and shared experiences to help cultural members and strangers better understand theculture (Maso, 2001; Ellis, 2011). Researchers do autoethnography when they do retrospection andselection of the ‘epiphanies’ through their personal experiences to illustrate aspects of cultural experience,
thereby making characteristics of a culture familiar to insiders and outsiders.
To support my reflection and investigation of the different adjustments I must make with being latedeafened, I employed Milner’s (2007) framework borrowed from Dull (2021). Since my inquiry focusedon different aspects of my identity of being late-deafened, including myself as a researcher, this framework
is appropriate, as Milner “rejects practices in which researchers detach themselves from the research
process, particularly when they reject their racialized and cultural positionality in the research process” (p.
388). He argues (Dull, 2021) that researchers need to reflect on their identity and positionality, especiallywhen engaging in research in communities where they are outsiders and when racial and cultural differences
impact power and privilege. Once they can identify them, researchers can address them to prevent themfrom negatively impacting the community. To support this, Milner (2007) segments his framework into
four parts, for which he provides sample guiding questions and suggestions for ways to focus those
SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research176reflections: 1) researching the self, 2) researching the self concerning others, 3) engaged reflection andrepresentation 4) and shifting from self to system.
I used Milner’s framework (2007) in this paper, courtesy of Dull (2021). I included it in the rationale forthe autoethnography and as a lens through which I created my research questions. I responded to each of
the guiding questions in the four components of the framework, providing as much detail as possible and,in some cases, expanding beyond those questions to address other connected issues I felt were relevant to
my developing positionality. Milner’s “researching the self in relation to others” and “engaged reflection
and representation” led to inputs into my developing positionality.
Table 1 reflects the process of the autoethnographic research.
Phase
Discovery

Resources & Action
Read and Reflect

Planning

Apply Milner’s
Framework

Researching

Reflect using Milner’s
Framework✓ researching theself✓ responding to theguide questions✓ engaging inreflection✓ shifting from self
to the system

AnalysisAnalyze data using
thematic analysis

ReportingDraft report of thefindings.
Reflect on the report

Guiding Questions
What can I learn fromthis phenomenon?
Why is it important toreflect on mypositionality?
What data will I
collect?
How will I analyze
the data?
What are the seen andunseen challenges
with regard to mypositionality?
What aspect of myidentity might affectmy research?
What can I do toadjust mypositionality on thecommunity?
How does the data
show?
Have I accounted formy subjectivity?
What are theappropriate venues toshare my findings?

Product/Result
Intent of theethnography

Research plan/outline

Data set (lived
experiences)

Thematic results

Report ofautoethnography

As an autoethnographer in this investigation, I find it appropriate to rely on this framework to address theintent that I have advanced. My engagement in this theory is novice but because I read it for several times,
the framework gave me an opportunity to examine and reflect my positionality through thisautoethnographic study. Since this study also focused on my own circumstances, my experience and as theresearcher, Milner’s framework provided the support in which this investigation can be positioned.
In this framework, I have the opportunity to evaluate myself in relation to how I deal with others becauseof my hearing loss. Then, I get to reflect to make sense of my interactions and collaborations with otherssuch as my family members and co-employees.

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research1773.0 THEORETICAL GROUNDING
The five stages of grief was introduced by Swiss-American psychiatrist Elisabeth Kübler-Ross in her 1969
book On Death and Dying inspired by her work with patients who are terminally ill. She stated that thoseexperiencing grief go through a series of five emotions: denial, anger, bargaining, depression, andacceptance.
In Denial, this is considered a temporary defense. The person may have a tendency to isolate themselves
avoiding others who may have accepted what is happening. For the late deafened, this is evident as in otherpersonal circumstances. Having experienced deafness for the first time, the transition from the pre-defeaned
stage to the deafened stage is difficult to accept. Thus, the tendency to deny it is a common situation.
In the Anger stage, the individual realizes that denial cannot continue and becomes irritated, frustrated
especially to people around them. For the late-deafened, this stage takes place considering that this stage of
deafness is a desperate stage in one’s life. Being angry about the situation, anger is projected as an escapeto acceptance.
Comes the Bargaining stage, in here the individual can avoid a cause of grief. Negotiation happens. For
instance, asking God for a second chance at life. In the context of late deafness, this stage is the feelingwhere the late deafened bargains with the absence of the sense of existing in the hearing world.
Depression is the fourth stage which happens when the individual despairs at the recognition or realizationof mortality. In late deafness, this is imminent because being isolated with oneself ushers sadness. There isa tendency for the late deafened to feel being left alone and withdrawing from the world of hearing. Having
lost one’s hearing is comparable to having lost a loved one.
Acceptance stage is where individuals embrace the inevitability of the tragic moment. This is a calm,
retrospective and stable condition of the individual’s emotions. Acceptance of being late deafened meansthat one is okay with the idea that they have lost a significant part of them. They have come to terms withthe hearing loss, just like losing a loved one, the late deafened experiences the new reality that has occurredin their lives. Figure 1 reflects the theoretical grounding of this paper.

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Figure 1. The Cycle of Grief
Source: https://www.psycom.net/stages-of-grief

4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
This section shares the struggles and adjustments specifically in the late deafened's personal, social,emotional, and professional life. This section also offers insights on how people can understand theadjustments faced by deafened individuals and how they will be able to provide assistance, communicationaccommodation, and other services that may be needed by those who are late deafened. Milner’s (2007)
framework is segmented into four parts: Personal Struggle/Adjustment, Social Struggle/ Adjustment,
Emotional Struggle/Adjustment, and Professional Struggle/Adjustment as reflected in the matrix below.
Personal
Struggle/Adjustment

SocialStruggle/Adjustment

Emotional
Struggle/Adjustment

Professional
Struggle/Adjustment•diminishing selfesteem•avoidance•denial•less motivation•struggling to be withothers•hiding from otherpeople•inability tocommunicate withfriends•change incommunication
patterns•learning othercommunication
strategies like lip
reading•diverting oneself towork relateddeliverables•openness tocolleagues•readiness to takecriticisms and“bullying” at certain
times•accommodating
communicationdifficulties

Figure 2. Themes reflective of Milner’s Framework (2007)

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Struggles and Adjustments
Being deaf is depressing. Learning to cope with deafness is difficult. In my experience, the first thing that
I need to do is to accept that I have severe hearing loss. Coping with this loss is a complex process. Every
aspect of life was affected. In my personal experience, almost every aspect of my being has been affected.
The first aspect was my diminishing self-esteem, eliminating my educational activities, avoiding people in
my employment, social life, leisure-time activities, and family relationships. Denial is in me. The
experience of deafness becomes something that occupies my whole being from the moment I wake up to
the time I close my eyes.
In 1969, Elizabeth Kubler-Ross introduced a grief model with five stages: denial, anger, bargaining,
depression, and acceptance. This model was developed to describe individuals' reactions to terminal
illnesses. However, it may be applied to loss of hearing, according to Larew (2019)—a person who becomesdeaf experiences all of these stages to some extent. I must say that it occurred to me. Denying that I havehearing loss is a reality. Sometimes saying that I am not paying attention because I am thinking of somethingelse. Hearing loss is easy to deny as a person can pretend to be distracted, blame outside noise, or blame
the speaker as reasons for not understanding.
As a deafened individual, I cannot help but be angry about why I developed such a disability. This stage
may not be experienced by some people undergoing this stage. However, it is a reasonably good bet that
deafened people have said prayers or considered making extreme promises if their hearing were returned(Larew, 2019). Undeniably, I have that feeling of depression attributed to hearing loss and now the feelingsof isolation and the inability to communicate as in the past. There is this feeling of confusion as to accept
it or deny it. Losing my hearing is more difficult to accept than losing a friend. Furthermore, now the ordeal
is real. To be or not to be is a question of being one with others or shutting oneself in a corner.
Personal Struggles/Adjustments
It was indeed a heartbreaking experience to have hearing loss. Major personal adjustments must have to beconsidered in almost all phases of my life. The partial loss of receptive communication has had a significant
impact on me. Imagine that I can no longer hear fully those usual things I used to hear, like my husband’ssnoring. Sometimes, listening to music can no longer be appreciated by me wherein. I used to listen to
beautiful music, especially when doing paperwork and a lot more. With the onset of deafness, the only
person I communicated with most effectively was myself.
In Larew (2019), it was highlighted that deafened adults initially view deafness as a temporary condition
that can be cured by medication or surgery. As observed, they may dream of waking up and being able tohear on the telephone and understand what people are saying to them. Since deafness is viewed as
temporary, people prefer to hide it rather than admit it. The individual may display more anger-related
emotions as it becomes evident that deafness is not temporary. In my case, some personal adjustments I had
to undergo were my diminishing self-esteem, avoidance of other people, denial of what I was going
through, and less motivation to work.
Larew (2019) supports this, stating that deafened adults realize there are numerous things they can no longer
do, and their self-esteem plummets, often leading to depression and guilt. Many questions are out there forme to address. Why? What have I done? Do I deserve this? Larew (2019) also adds that there is a tendency
for people to ask themselves many questions people after something traumatic occurs. This situation also
occurred to me.
Social Struggles/Adjustments
This is the second theme that I have generated from my reflective exercise. According to Larew (2019),
deafness is invisible and easy to hide from other people. It is common for people who recently have losttheir hearing not to inform their peers of the hearing loss. Nevertheless, this is different for me. I felt theSEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research

180imperative need to inform others of what I am going through. Among the adjustments I have hereis struggling to be with others. I feel like going away from the crowd all the time. Thus, I hide from otherpeople. I only report to school if I find the reason for doing so. I also experienced the inability tocommunicate with friends. Larew (2019) asserts that the inability to communicate with family and friends
results in isolation. When one cannot communicate effectively in social or employment settings as before,
it is not easy to feel comfortable in those environments.
This tendency has become a struggle for me. As a late-deafened adult, I struggle internally as I attempt toidentify social activities that are comfortable for me. Most of the time, I sulked at home. Listening tobeautiful music is no longer an activity that I sought to do. I now prefer sitting in the garden alone andreading rather than going out with friends.
Emotional Struggles/Adjustments
The third theme that made sense in my lived experiences as a late-deafened individual is my emotional
struggles or adjustments. If one thing is impacted all the more, it will be the family. Along with this theme,
I have three sub-themes: change in communication patterns, learning other communication strategies likelip reading, and diverting oneself to work-related deliverables. Larew (2019) observes that the onset of
deafness can affect not only the deafened individual but also parents, spouses, siblings, children, andsignificant others. This means having a deafened person in the family will disrupt the establishedcommunication patterns and routines. In this case, family relationships may be disrupted as communication
becomes more labor intensive. I am better off with texting or chatting. Thus, I have created a GC for thefamily. It facilitated communication in a more manageable manner. Despite having a background in sign
language, having to learn it at a later age makes it easier to administer. Studies show strategies like writing
notes, speaking slowly to facilitate lipreading, and learning sign language are needed to develop effective
communication among family members.
In this case, I also strategize to help my family communicate with me, although I can observe a little
difficulty on their part. Thus, I will remind them to give me a chat instead if they cannot come near me.
Communication has become difficult between me and my family. However, we are still deciding. Making
a little sacrifice and accommodation improves life for a late-deafened adult like me.

Professional Life Adjustments/Communication Options
The last theme is professional life adjustments or communication options that help me thrive in theworkplace. Openness to colleagues, readiness to take criticisms even up to the point of bullying,
and accommodating communication difficulties are some struggles that I have experienced. My ability todeliver my craft of lecturing as a resource speaker continues, but I have to grope with my hearing disability.
It is not easy when an open forum comes, and participants ask questions. My relief is enabling the closed
caption feature of Zoom. Communication was better when I started using hearing aids. But despite thehearing aids, there are times when I can feel that my ears are complete, and the sound bumps before I hearthem.
Larew (2019 states that when a person acquires profound hearing loss, a hearing aid is more likely to assist
with hearing environmental cues than understanding speech. Often, deafened adults seeking the "cure" will
experience frustration and anger when the hearing aid does not meet their expectations. With advanced
technology nowadays, other late-deafened individuals get cochlear implants as a "cure." However, studies
show that implants may or may not be effective. Although, experts say that lipreading or speechreading
may be regarded as a "cure." Deafened individuals believe the myth that "all deaf people can lipread" andbecome frustrated when they cannot develop this skill. In my case, I cannot also do lipreading, no matter
how hard I try.
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With this communication option, other deafened individuals resort to sign language. Deafened individuals
may be reluctant to develop this skill as it will make them "different." There is often limited opportunity
for deafened adults to learn and practice sign language as they need to learn from others who use it. The
ability to use sign language is to get exposure to it. This means that I can do sign language if I get tocommunicate with people who also use it whenever they communicate.
Understanding Deafness and Accommodations
Losing my hearing is stressful. It has made life moire difficult. Understanding deafness is a process that
requires varying amounts of time. In most cases, it takes an individual two to three years to integrate
deafness into their lifestyle (Larew, 2019). This does not mean the individual cannot function before thistime, but that understanding and accepting deafness is a long process.
5.0 CONCLUSION
The struggles and adjustments experienced in this autoethnographic study reflected the personal, psychosocial, emotional, and professional life struggles and adjustments experienced by the late deafened. Insights
on how people can offer an understanding of the adjustments faced by deafened individuals and how they
can provide assistance, communication accommodation, and other services that may be needed by those
who are late-deafened.
6.0 RECOMMENDATIONS
Based on the findings, the following recommendations were advanced:
1) There is a need for the ‘hearing’ people to be aware of the struggles faced by the late deafened. This
study will likewise show how such struggles in communication could be improved in favor of people
with partial or profound hearing impairment.
2) The government is encouraged to create programs and advocacies to support people who are deaf throughthe use of communication alternatives that individuals are more comfortable with and avoid imposing
the hearing world’s preferences.
3) There is a need for the government to create mandates where parents with children who are deaf timely
receive communication programs matching their children’s hearing impairment conditions.
4) That related institutions design communication programs for the hearing public to understand andprovide ways of communicating with individuals who are deaf for them to live generally in a ‘hearing’world.
5) Further studies on the late-deafened be conducted to identify communication strategies that work bestwith the late-deafened and those with profound deafness in particular.
7.0 STUDY’S LIMITATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE STUDY
The contribution of this study to the more extensive body of knowledge on the topic of late deafness ordeafness is dependent on future studies that may arise from it. Despite the simplicity of data obtained fromthis study, it has provided a foundation for the reality that late deafness exists and that awareness isparamount. One limitation of this study was its focus on this researcher’s lived experience alone. This
investigation was supposed to be a duoethnographic study, but my partner declined in the last hour.
In the context of the educational realm, this study has value because of the evolution of deafness. This
necessitates a more sensitive academic community considering the presence of deafness and how thegrowing deaf community can be accommodated in the teaching-learning process. The overall prevalenceof moderate or worse hearing loss in the Philippines is 15% (2,275 adults and children were studied). The
prevalence was 7.5% in children and 14.7% in adults between 18 and 65, and 49% in adults aged 65 years
or older (UST, 2011).

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REFERENCES
Barlow, J.H., Turner, A.P., Hammond, C.L., Gailey, L. Living with late deafness: insight from between
worlds. Int J Audiol. 2007 Aug;46(8):442-8. doi: 10.1080/14992020701355108. PMID:
17654086.
Denzin, N.K. & Lincoln, Y.S. (Eds.). (2011). The Sage handbook of qualitative research. Sage.
Dull, A. (2021). Informing without Conforming: Applying Two Frameworks to Enrich Autoethnography.
The Qualitative Report, 26(11), 3307-3317.
Ellis, C., Adams, T.E. and Bochner, A.P. (2011). Autoethnography: an overview. Historical Social
Research/Historische sozialforschung, 273-290.
Harrison, M., Faulkner, S.L., Khair, N., Simor, L.F.,net nal. (2022). What is autoethnography? How Can I
Learn More? Reflections on Method. 2 (4), 2022. Accessed fromhttps://theautoethnographer.com/what-is-autoethnography/ on May 23, 2023.
Holman JA, Drummond A, Hughes SE, Naylor G. Hearing impairment and daily-life fatigue: a qualitative
study. Int J Audiol. 2019 Jul;58(7):408-416. doi: 10.1080/14992027.2019.1597284. Epub 2019
Apr 28. PMID: 31032678; PMCID: PMC6567543.
Khair, N., Al-Twal, A., Mahadin, B. and Nabil, B. (2022). Willpower: Auto-ethnographic insights into
the challenges that women encounter in academia. British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies,
49(4), 526-536.
Kübler-Ross E (1969). On Death and Dying. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-04015-9.
Larew, S. J. (2019). Deafened Adults: Adjusting to a New World. JADARA, 27(4). Retrieved fromhttps://repository.wcsu.edu/jadara/vol27/iss4/9
Milner IV, H. R. (2007). Race, culture, and researcher positionality: Working through dangers AnnMarie
Dull 3317 seen, unseen, and unforeseen. Educational Researcher, 36(7), 388-400
Mutswanga, P. (2017). The hands with eyes and nose in the palm: As effective communication
alternatives for profoundly deaf people in Zimbabwe. Journal of Education and Practice. 8(9),103-114.
Sparkes, A.C. (2000). Autoethnography and narratives of self: Reflections on criteria in action. Sociology
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UST (2011). Nearly one in six in the Philippines has serious hearing problems. Accessed fromhttps://www.hear-it.org/nearly-one-six-philippines-has-serious-hearingproblems#:~:text=15%25%20of%20the%20population%20of,15%25%20according%20to%20a%2
0study on August 19, 2023.

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A Study of Student Teachers’ Personalities at an Unlimited Admission
University in Thailand
Nanpapat Amborisuth1, Peerada Wichamuk2, and Bongkoch Thongeiam3
1

Ramkhamhaeng University(nanpapat.a@rumail.ru.ac.th)Ramkhamhaeng University(peerada_w@rumail.ru.ac.th)3
Ramkhamhaeng University(bongkoch.t@rumail.ru.ac.th)2

ABSTRACTThe purposes of this research were 1) to study student teachers’ personalities at an open university in
Thailand and 2) to study a concordance between student teachers’ personalities and teacher personality.
The participants in this study were 403 students currently studying in the undergraduate program in the
final year 2022 at the Faculty of Education at the open university in Thailand. The participants were selected
through purposive sampling. The research instrument was Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI). The
research results found that the participants’ personality included 16 types: ESFJ, ISFJ, ISFJ, ESFP, ENFP,INFJ, INFP, ISTJ, ESTJ, ISTP, ESTP, ENTP, INTJ, ENTJ, and INTP. Moreover, the study on concordance
between student teachers’ personalities and teacher personality showed that most of the participants had ateacher personality.
KEYWORDS: Personality, The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, Teacher personality, Student teacher

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INTRODUCTION
In contemporary society, personal profile holds significant importance due to its desirability by educational
institutions, agencies, and organizations for admission or employment. It can be asserted that personal
profile is a crucial psychological component that influences success in learning and career choices.
Moreover, it is widely accepted and admired by individuals in general. Personal profile exhibits diverse
characteristics unique to each individual (Thiabrithi, 1996).
In the 21st century, as countries transition towards a knowledge-based economy and innovation, thedevelopment of individuals with global-level knowledge, abilities, competence, and competitivenessbecomes crucial. To accomplish this, an effective and high-quality education management system withclear plans and objectives at each educational level is essential. Among the key factors in achieving thesegoals, "teachers" play a significant role as they provide guidance, training, and create learning processes
that foster intellectual and emotional growth, enabling students to develop into knowledgeable, skilled, andcapable adults. Hence, it is imperative for competent and effective teachers to possess a comprehensive andappropriate personal profile. Consequently, it is desirable for universities that produce teachers (i.e., teacher
education institutes) to evaluate the personal profile of their education major students prior to graduation.
The evaluation of personal profile can take various forms, and one particularly relevant method that canassess and relate to the teaching profession is the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) personality
assessment.
The MBTI is a personality assessment tool developed based on Carl Jung's psychological types theory,
which categorizes personality types (Quenk, 2009). It provides descriptions that link personality traits tosuitable professions. By employing the MBTI assessment, the personal profile of final-year education major
students can be examined. This allows students to engage in self-reflection and self-improvement, while
instructors can analyze their strengths and areas for development, with the aim of nurturing their personal
profile as effective teachers in the future.
Therefore, the primary objective of this research is to explore the personal profile of education major
students who are nearing graduation, utilizing the MBTI as an appropriate tool. This assessment aligns withthe personal profile requirements for teachers in educational institutions and can serve as a screening
mechanism for individuals who will assume teaching roles in the future.
LITERATURE REVIEWThe Professional Profile of Teachers
Gordon (1963) states that a good professional profile of teachers encompasses four dimensions:
1. Power and Influence: This dimension includes behaviors characterized by self-confidence,
influential speech or commands, adaptability, decisiveness, and independent decision-making withreliability.
2. Responsibility: This dimension involves behaviors characterized by diligence,
perseverance, successful completion of assigned tasks, dedication to work that inspires trust, and genuine
accountability.
3. Emotional Stability: This dimension includes behaviors characterized by appropriate
emotions, emotional resilience, calmness, contentment, and the ability to work independently without
excessive anxiety.
4. Sociability: This dimension encompasses the ability to engage in meaningful conversations
and interesting interactions with others, demonstrating good social participation.

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Why Use the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) Personality Assessment?
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is a personality assessment tool developed based on Carl Jung’s
Psychological Types theory, which categorizes personality types (Quenk, 2009). The notable feature of the
MBTI assessment is its ability to study different aspects of an individual’s personality, divided into four
dimensions. These dimensions (See Figure 1) are as follows:

Mind: This aspect shows how we interact
with our surroundings;

EnergyIntroverted: The second aspect determines how we
see the world and process information;
ObservantI

Introverted individuals prefer solitaryactivities and get exhausted by social
interaction. They tend to be quitesensitive to external stimulation (e.g.
sound, sight or smell) in general.
Extraverted

S

Observant individuals are highly
practical, pragmatic and down-to-earth.
They tend to have strong habits andfocus on what is happening or has
already happened.
Intuitive

E

Extraverted individuals prefer group
activities and get energized by social
interaction. They tend to be moreenthusiastic and more easily excitedthan Introverts.
: This aspect determines how we makedecisions and cope with emotions;Thinking

N

Intuitive
individuals
arevery
imaginative, open-minded and curious.
They prefer novelty over stability andfocus on hidden meanings and future
possibilities.
: This aspect reflects our approach towork, planning and decision-making;JudgingNatureTactics

T

Thinking individuals focus on
objectivity and rationality, prioritizing
logic over emotions. They tend to hide
their feelings and see efficiency as
more important than cooperation.
Feeling

J

Judging individuals are decisive,
thorough and highly organized. They
value clarity, predictability and closure,
preferring structure and planning tospontaneity.
Prospecting

F

Feeling individuals are sensitive andemotionally expressive. They are more
empathic and less competitive thanThinking types, and focus on social
harmony and cooperation.

P

Prospecting individuals are very good at
improvising and spotting opportunities.
They tend to be flexible, relaxednonconformists who prefer keeping
their options open.

Figure 1: MBTI Personality Type Key
Furthermore, these dimensions of personal profile are blended together, resulting in a total of 16 personality
codes. These codes include ESTJ, ISFJ, ESFP, ISFP, ENTP, ENFJ, ENFP, INFP and INFJ with specificpersonal profile characteristics that are relevant to the teaching profession (Table 1).
Table 1: MTBI related to the Teaching Profession
MBTI Types
ESFJ

Personality
ESFJs are conscientious helpers,
sensitive to the needs of others andenergetically dedicated to their
responsibilities. They are highly
attunedtotheiremotional
environment and attentive to both the

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Suitable career characteristics
wedding planner, social worker, pediatrician,public health employee, kindergarten teacher,business consultant, nurse, human resourcesmanager, office manager, executive assistant,public relations specialist, medical employee,
human resources, office worker, social services,186

MBTI Types
ISFJ

ESFP

ISFP

ENTP

ENFJ

Personality
feelings of others and the perception
others have of them.
ISFJs are industrious caretakers, loyal
to traditions and organizations. They
are practical, compassionate, andcaring, and are motivated to provide
for others and protect them from theperils of life.
ESFPs are vivacious entertainers whocharm and engage those around them.
They are spontaneous, energetic, andfun-loving, and take pleasure in thethings around them: food, clothes,nature, animals, and especiallypeople.
ISFPs are gentle caretakers who livein the present moment and enjoy theirsurroundings with cheerful, low-key
enthusiasm. They are flexible andspontaneous, and like to go with theflow to enjoy what life has to offer.
ENTPs are inspired innovators,
motivated to find new solutions tointellectually challenging problems.
They are curious and clever, and seek
to comprehend the people, systems,
and principles that surround them.

ENFP

ENFJs are idealist organizers, driven
to implement their vision of what isbest for humanity. They often act as
catalysts for human growth because of
their ability to see potential in otherpeople and their charisma inpersuading others to their ideas.
ENFPs are people-centered creatorswith a focus on possibilities and acontagious enthusiasm for new ideas,
people and activities. Energetic,
warm, and passionate, ENFPs love tohelp other people explore theircreative potential.

INFP

INFPs

are

imaginative idealists,

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research

Suitable career characteristics
child care worker
homemaker, stay at home parent, office worker,
health care worker, personal assistant, school
teacher, administrative assistant, child care
worker, clerical employee, receptionist, libraryassistant, dietitian, health educator, librarian
public relations manager, school teacher, radio DJ,
customer service, EMT, hair stylist, event
coordinator, pediatric nurse, child care worker,
makeup artist, personal trainer, public relations,human resources, travel agent, massage therapist,
physical therapist, interior decorator
sports management, pediatrician, school teacher,carpenter, veterinary technician, singer, healtheducator, stay at home parent, hospitality worker,
pastor, athlete, physician assistant, photographer,health care worker, shop assistant, stylist, website
designer
dictator, computer consultant, international spy,
TV producer, philosopher, comedian, music
performer, it consultant, fighter pilot, politician,diplomat, entertainer, game designer, bar owner,
freelance writer, creative director, strategist, news
anchor, professional skateboarder, airline pilot,
comic book artist, college professor, private
detective, mechanical engineer, lecturer,ambassador, astronomer, research scientist, judge,
web developer, scholar, FBI agent, CIA agent,electrical engineer, assassin
casting directory, film critic, wedding planner,
work in the performing arts, teacher (art,preschool, elementary), actor, fashion designer,news anchor, fashion merchandiser, school
psychologist, broadcaster, stylist, interior designer,
event coordinator, restaurant owner, childcare
worker, hair stylist, film director, counselor, dancer
performer, actor, entertainer, songwriter, musician,filmmaker, comedian, radio broadcaster/DJ, some
job related to theater/drama, poet, music journalist,
work in fashion industry, singer, movie producer,
playwright, bartender, comic book author, work intelevision, dancer, artist, record store owner,model, freelance artist, teacher (art, drama,
music), writer, painter, massage therapist, costumedesigner, choreographer, make-up artist
poet, painter, freelance artist, musician, writer, art
187

MBTI Types

Personality
guided by their own core values andbeliefs. To a Healer, possibilities areparamount; the reality of the moment
is only of passing concern. They see
potential for a better future, andpursue truth and meaning with theirown flair.

INFJ

INFJs are creative nurturers with astrong sense of personal integrity anda drive to help others realize theirpotential. Creative and dedicated,
they have a talent for helping otherswith original solutions to theirpersonal challenges.

Suitable career characteristics
therapist, teacher (art, music, drama),
songwriter, art historian, library assistant,composer, work in the performing arts, art curator,
playwright, bookseller, cartoonist, video editor,
photographer, philosopher, record store owner,
digital artist, cinematographer, costume designer,
film producer, philosophy professor, librarian,music therapist, environmentalist, movie director,
activist, bookstore owner, filmmaker
psychotherapist, artist, art curator, bookstore
owner, freelance writer, poet, teacher (art, drama,
English), library assistant, professor of English,
painter, novelist, book editor, copywriter,
philosopher,environmentalist,
bookseller,
museum curator, opera singer, magazine editor,archivist, music therapist, screenwriter, film
director, creative director, librarian, social services
worker, art historian, sign language interpreter,
photo journalist, makeup artist, photo journalist,
homemaker

METHODOLOGYThis research study is a pilot study that utilizes a descriptive research framework to investigate the personal
profile data of students in their final semester. The aim is to utilize the collected data for the developmentof supplementary activities for teacher training and to enhance the students' personal profile in alignment
with their future teaching profession. The research procedures are detailed as follows:
Target Group:
The target group consists of 403 students enrolled in the Bachelor of Education program, majoring in
Teaching Profession, during their final semester. The students belong to the following academic disciplines:
B.Ed. (Early Childhood Education)
135
B.Ed. (Elementary Education)
56
B.Ed. (Thai)
83
B.Ed. (English Language)
5
B.Ed. (Chinese)
8
B.Ed. (Social Studies)
34
B.Ed. (Mathematics)
30
B.Ed. (Science)
31
B.Ed. (Art Education)
17
B.Ed. (Computer Education)
4
Research Instrument:
The research employed a measurement instrument based on the Myers-Briggs concept, studying theoreticaldefinitions, relevant literature, and research studies to guide the development of a personality profile
assessment based on the Myers-Briggs concept. The instrument was adapted fromhttps://www.16personalities.com/ and designed to have easily comprehensible questions without
unnecessary complexity. The instrument consists of 58 questions, with each question consisting of 7 options
to choose only one option from. It took approximately 12 minutes to complete. The developed personality
profile assessment based on the Myers-Briggs concept was reviewed by three experts to ensure content
SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research188validity, yielding an IOC value of 1.00. The assessment was then piloted with a similar group to the target
group and further refined for subsequent use.
Data Collection:
Data collection involved administering the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) questionnaire to students
in their final semester of the Faculty of Education at an Unlimited Admission University. The data werecollected after the students’ professional teaching practicum experience and registration for the teacher
training seminar.
Data Analysis:
Data analysis for the target group involved frequency and percentage calculations to classify personality
profile data based on the analysis of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI). The analysis was conductedin two steps:
1. The researcher analyzed the students’ personality profile data using frequency distribution andpercentages.
2. The researcher examined the alignment between the target group’s personality profile and theteacher’s personality profiles through a descriptive analysis.
RESULTS
Table 2: Personality profiles of students in their final semester encompassing four dimensions.
Four-dimension Personalities (N=403)
E-Extraversion
256
I-Introversion
147
T-Thinking
35
F-Feeling
368

S- Observant
N-Intuition
J-Judging
P-Perceiving

263
140
261
142

Based on the study of the characteristics of personality in four dimensions (Table 2), it was found thatamong the target group of students, their personality profiles can be described as follows:
1. In the first dimension, Extroversion, there were 256 individuals, indicating a greater inclination
towards an expressive (E) personality profile compared to Introversion (I) and an inward-focused
personality (I).
2. In the second dimension, Observant, there were 263 individuals, indicating a greater tendency
towards perceiving information through observe experiences (S) rather than relying on intuition (I).
3. In the third dimension, Feeling, there were 368 individuals, indicating a greater preference fordecision-making based on emotions and personal values (F) rather than relying on logical reasoning(T).
4. In the fourth dimension, Judgment, there were 261 individuals, indicating a greater inclination
towards structured and planned work approaches (J) rather than a more flexible and adaptableapproach (P).
Table 3: The number of students in each of the 16 personality types in a descending order
Personalities
ESFJ
ENFJ
ISFJ
ESFP
ISFP

Frequency (Persons)
123
47
44
41
33

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research

Percentage
30.52
11.66
10.92
10.17
8.19
189

Personalities
ENFP
INFJ
INFP
ISTJ
ISTP
ESTJ
INTJ
ESTP
ENTP
ENTJ
INTP
Total

Frequency (Persons)
29
27
24
8
5
5
4
4
4
3
2
403

Percentage
7.20
6.70
5.96
1.99
1.24
1.24
0.99
0.99
0.99
0.74
0.5
100

Based on the study of personality traits, it was found that among the target group of students, all 16 types
were represented (Table 3). The ESFJ type was the most prevalent, with a total of 123 individuals,
accounting for 30.52 percent. Following that, the ENFJ type ranked second with 47 individuals, comprising
11.66 percent. Finally, the least represented type was INTP, with only 2 individuals, accounting for 0.5
percent.
Table 4: The alignment between the personality profiles of student teachers in their final semester andthose of professional teachers
Personalities
ESFJ
ISFJ
ESFP
ISFP
ENTP
ENFJ
ENFP
INFP
INFJ
Total

Frequency (Person)
123
44
41
33
4
47
29
24
27
372

Percentage
33.00
11.82
11.00
9.64
1.07
12.63
7.79
6.45
7.25
100

From the study of the alignment between the personality profiles that are consistent with those of teachers,
as described in the relevant literature, it was found that there are 9 personality types that align with theaforementioned profession. These types are as follows:
The investigation of the alignment between the personality profiles of student teachers (N=403) enrolled intheir final semester and those of teachers revealed that there were 372 student teachers who exhibitedcompatible personality profiles, accounting for 92.30%. Additionally, it was observed that 31 student
teachers, representing 7.70%, had personality profiles that were not aligned with the profession.
Upon examining the personal profiles of teachers, it was found thaet students in the target group exhibitedcertain personality traits such as ESTJ, ISTJ, ESTP, ISTP, ENTJ, INTJ and INTP
For the targeted group of students who exhibited incongruent personality traits (n=31), the researchers
found that the personal profiles of these students are as follows:

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research190

1. ESTJ (n=5): ESTJs are hardworking traditionalists, eager to take charge in organizing projects
and people. Orderly, rule-abiding, and conscientious, ESTJs like to get things done, and tend
to go about projects in a systematic, methodical way.
2. ISTJ (n=8): ISTJs are responsible organizers who are driven to establish and maintain order
within systems and institutions. They possess a meticulous and methodical nature, both
externally and internally, and tend to have a structured approach to all their activities.
3. ESTP (n=4): ESTPs are energetic thrill-seekers who thrive when faced with challenges,
whether they are tangible or abstract. They bring a dynamic and lively energy to theirinteractions with others and the world around them.
4. ISTP (n=5): ISTPs are observant artisans with an understanding of mechanics and an interestin troubleshooting. They approach their environments with a flexible logic, looking forpractical solutions to the problems at hand.
5. ENTJ (n=3): ENTJs are strategic leaders, motivated to organize change. They are quick to see
inefficiency and conceptualize new solutions, and enjoy developing long-range plans toaccomplish their vision. They excel at logical reasoning and are usually articulate and quickwitted.
6. INTJ (n=4): INTJs are analytical problem-solvers, eager to improve systems and processes
with their innovative ideas. They have a talent for seeing possibilities for improvement,
whether at work, at home, or in themselves.
7. INTP (n=2): INTPs are philosophical innovators who are captivated by logical analysis,
systems, and design. They are deeply engrossed in theoretical concepts and tirelessly seek theunderlying principles that govern everything they encounter. Their quest is to comprehend the
intricate patterns that permeate life in all its complexity.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
From the research, there are 16 types of target groups, corresponding to 9 types of teacher professions,
including such occupations as kindergarten teachers, school teachers, lecturers, and teachers (art, preschool,elementary, drama, music, English).
Most of the student teachers had their personalities consistent with their professional personality. Due tothe fact that during the time that student’s study at the university, there are activities to enhance the teacher
There are 4 1 credits of courses related to the teaching profession according to the teacher production
structure set by the Professional Federation. Teacher competency for every curriculum with teacher
production proceeds in accordance with teacher production standards.
The prevailing inclination of student teachers towards the congruence between their self-image and theprofessional image of teachers stems from the concerted initiatives undertaken during their university
tenure, which encompass supplementary pedagogical activities tailored to cultivate the identity of teachers.
This is underscored by a curriculum that imparts pertinent subject matter related to the pedagogicalprofession, totaling up to 41 credits, in accordance with the teacher education framework delineated by theProfessional Standards Council (2021). The Council mandates the embodiment of pedagogicalcompetencies in all teacher education curricula, thereby enforcing compliance with the prescribed teacher
education standards, necessitating the integration of supplementary activities fostering teacher identity
throughout each academic year for students in the Faculty of Education at an unlimited admission university
in Thailand. This mandate seeks to fortify the embodiment of teacher attributes and inculcate robust civic
qualities, requiring no fewer than two annual extracurricular undertakings, as stipulated by the Faculty of
Education in the proclamation concerning the specification of the teacher identity-enhancing activity
framework for all Bachelor of Education programs. This proclamation, issued by the Faculty of Education
at this unlimited admission university on February 25, 2021, aligns congruently with the proposition by
Punthasueb et al. (2022), who presented a model of developmental activities aimed at augmenting theSEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research191attributes of students, endowing them with the distinctive qualities and professional persona befitting
educational practitioners. The proposed activities also emphasize the cultivation of students’ altruistic
disposition towards societal utility, exemplified through endeavors like initiatives in altruism andcommunity service, as well as the fostering of leadership awareness. These efforts further extend to projects
centered on moral and intellectual advancement, enhancement of the educator persona, training in social
participation, and engagement in national-level academic conferences.
The prevalence of ENFJ (n = 123) and ESFJ (n = 47) personalities among teaching professional students
was higher than that of other personalities. As an Early Childhood Education student, the total number ofstudents is 1 3 5 . It shows that Early Childhood Education can truly develop the personality of students ofthe branch to become early childhood teachers. There are activities that allow students to practice theteaching profession of Early Childhood Education during their studies in a systematic way, thus making thepersonality test of students consistent with the professional personality of the teacher and the occupation ofpreschool teacher (ENFJ) and kindergarten teacher (ESFJ).
Furthermore, the teacher education curriculum includes a direct one-year practicum experience in primarylevel educational settings, facilitating comprehensive practical training and the cultivation of the teacher
persona during the period of practical experience in authentic educational environments. The imperative toadvance both the teacher persona and the pedagogical competencies tailored to the specific academic
disciplines of the students cannot be understated. In this endeavor to augment and refine the professional
competencies of prospective teachers, the emphasis should be directed towards nurturing and fortifying thestudents at the Competent stage, wherein the development of their abilities remains paramount. In doing
so, they are capable of assimilating and interconnecting the acquired knowledge resulting from theirprocedural engagement to contexts that are pertinent.
REFERENCES
Baier, F., Decker, A. T., Voss, T., Kleickmann, T., Klusmann, U., & Kunter, M. (2019). What makes agood teacher? The relative importance of mathematics teachers’ cognitive ability, personality,
knowledge, beliefs, and motivation for instructional quality. British Journal of Educational
Psychology, 89(4), 767-786. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjep.12256
Daft, R., & Lane, P. (2002) .The leadership experience (2nd ed.). Orlando, Fla: Harcourt College
Publishers.
Gordon, L. V. (1963b). Harcourt, Brace, and World.
H. C. Adi, M. Zulvia, and A. F. Asyha. (2019) “Study on Teacher Competency and Education Linierity in
Improving Student Learning Achievement in Gunung Tiga 1 State Elementary Schools andNgarip Lampung 1 State Elementary Schools,” (in Bahasa), Al-Tadzkiyyah: Jurnal Pendidikan
Islam, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 245-255.
Kawgangwan, S. (2001). Personality type of Thai undergraduate student in 6 majors (law,computer Science, medicine, humanity, engineering and economic) from the Myers-Briggs Type
Indicator (MBTI). Department of Psychology, Faculty of Art, Thammasat University.
(Mimeographed).
Lian, B., Kristiawan, M., Ammelia, D., Primasari, G., Anggung, M., & Prasetyo, M. (2020). Teachers’
model in building students’ character. Journal of Critical Reviews, 7(14), 927-932.
Nahavandi, A. (2000).The art and science of leadership. (2nd ed.). Lipper Saddle River ,NJ: Prentice Hall.
Punthasueb, A., Intasingh, S., Nguenyuang, S., & Intanet, N. (2022). Teacher enhancement activities in
the 4.0 era. Humanities and Social Sciences Journal of Pibulsongkram Rajabhat University, 16(1),14-23. https://doi.org/10.14456/psruhss.2022.2
Quenk, N. L. (2009). Essentials of Myers-Briggs type indicator assessment. Wiley.
Thiabrithi, S. (1996). A study of personality, self-introductions of college students in Sirindhorn public
SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research192

health Khon Kaen province by using the MCTI personality test [in Thai] (Master’s thesis, Khon
Kaen University, Thailand).

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193

An Analysis of the Impact of Personal Background and Learning Experiences
on Cognitive Outcomes of University Students in a
Non-Face-to-Face Learning Environment
Jihoe Park1, Jang Wan Ko2, Yihyun Jung3, Sumee Park4
1

Sungkyunkwan University, South Korea (jihoe27@skku.edu)
Sungkyunkwan University, South Korea (jakosu@skku.edu)
3
Sungkyunkwan University, South Korea (applepie42@skku.edu)
4Konkuk University, South Korea (earth2000@konkuk.ac.kr)
2

ABSTRACTThe COVID-19 pandemic has forced higher education institutions to rapidly transition to contactless online
education, resulting in significant changes to traditional teaching methods and campus organization.
Despite these challenges, universities must prioritize students' educational experiences, changes, anddevelopment, as these are key factors in verifying their effectiveness and improving teaching and learning.
To this end, this study analyzed data from the National Assessment of Student Engagement in Learning(NASEL) to investigate the impact of personal background and learning experiences on the cognitive
outcomes of 2,177 university students in a non-face-to-face educational environment. The study found thatmajor, year, classroom behavior, challenging learning experiences, interaction with professors, andinteraction with campus community members had significant effects on knowledge acquisition, while
major, gender, active class participation, classroom behavior, thinking activities, challenging learning,interaction with students from different backgrounds, and interaction with campus community members
had significant effects on cognitive capacity. These results highlight the need for universities to identify
effective teaching and learning activities in a non-face-to-face education environment and implement
appropriate improvement plans.
KEYWORDS: Non-face-to-face learning environment, Cognitive outcomes, Learning experiences

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194

RESEARCH BACKGROUND
Previous studies on the effectiveness of higher education have shown that students' experiences of various
educational activities and active interactions with others have a significant effect on academic continuity
and learning outcomes (Astin, 1993; Pace, 1987; Tinto, 1990). In particular, quality interactions between
students and professors, cooperation with peers, and active learning attitudes of students are major learning
experience factors that affect higher education outcomes, including knowledge development and motivation
to participate in learning (Chickering & Gamson, 1987). However, due to the spread of COVID-19, most
university education has been converted to non-face-to-face distance education without sufficient
preparation, and the face-to-face learning experience has to be transformed in the context of non-face-toface distance education. Korean universities, professors, and students had to go through trial and error toadapt to a non-face-to-face educational environment, and many of the traditional face-to-face teaching andlearning activities could not be carried out (Kwon, 2020; Kim, 2020; Min, 2020; Bae, 2020).
These changes suggest that research on university students' learning experiences and outcomes, which havebeen mainly discussed in traditional face-to-face educational environments, should be analyzed in nonface-to-face educational contexts, as it is still important for universities to be concerned with students'
educational experiences, changes, and growth and development. This study aims to examine the factors that
affect students' cognitive learning outcomes in terms of personal background and learning experiences in
the context of Korean higher education, where non-face-to-face distance education has been promoted dueto the pandemic, and to obtain practical implications for improving teaching and learning.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
COVID-19 and non-face-to-face learning
With the advent of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2019, the global education landscape has undergone
unprecedented changes, not the least of which is the expansion of distance learning, which has forced
everyone in the university community to adapt to the utilization of online learning systems. The transition
from traditional face-to-face education to distance learning has been a disparate experience for both learners
and instructors, and the education system and instructors in particular have had to adapt to utilizing various
online platforms in a relatively short period of time to conduct "education in emergency" (Pokhrel &Chhetri, 2021). Adedoyin and Soykan (2020) argued that while it is important for online education to beplanned and developed based on relevant and appropriate theories and models, the transition to online
education in the wake of the pandemic may have omitted these steps or occurred gradually after the start ofonline education, which may have affected learning outcomes under this method. Similarly, the process of
converting previously face-to-face lectures to online classes had design difficulties and limitations due toredesigning the class structure, low preparation of instructors and learners for online classes, inadequacy of
existing teaching and learning methods, and limited support from the university(Do, 2020). In terms ofstudents’ social engagement in the university, the physical separation between professors and students led
to an overall decrease in interaction with other students and professor-student interaction (Bae et al., 2021).
On the other hand, non-face-to-face learning has also played a role in bringing out the best of university
education. Oliveira et al. (2021) found that professors can secure more time and communication channels
for student questions and comments, allowing students to receive better and faster feedback and engage inmore productive educational activities. In addition, due to the nature of non-face-to-face education
conducted through online platforms such as Zoom or LMS, it is free from the risk of exposure to infectious
diseases and limitation of time and place, and students can utilize online teaching tools for repetitive
learning or search and explore materials on their own (Park, 2020). Depending on the student, this has thebenefit of motivating them to study and increasing the likelihood of meaningful learning (Bae et al., 2021).

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195

Personal background and learning experiences of university students
College learning outcomes are affected by students' different experiences with the university, professors,and students. Previous research has demonstrated the effect of different factors regarding college students'
personal background and learning experiences on different types of learning outcomes they achieve. For
instance, such students' personal background factors include gender, race, socioeconomic background,learning motivation, academic preparation level before entering college, and college and major selection,family education background, and financial aid, (Kuh et al., 2006; Choi & Lee, 2009), and Kuh et al.(2006)
argued that such factors interact in a complex manner and bring out various learning outcomes. Anotherstudy stated among the individual-level variables of university students, students’ majors showed astatistically weak but significant difference in the ability to collect, analyze, and utilize information
corresponding to the cognitive capacity, and among the admission types, students who took the college
entrance exam showed higher perceptions of information collection, analysis, utilization, and alternative
suggestion and problem-solving ability (Park, 2020). By examining and understanding the effect of personal
background on students' learning outcomes, universities can provide educational programs and services forstudent success that may apply regardless of learning context students are faced with such as in a non-faceto-face learning environment.
Learning experiences refer to academic experiences within the curriculum and social experiences outside
the curriculum that are theoretically or empirically linked to university learning outcomes including
cognitive, emotional, and psychological growth (Astin, 1993; Choi & Lee, 2009). This can be divided into
two categories, student academic engagement and social engagement, and it is closely related to the amountof time students spend on learning and on-campus educational activities and how the university structures
its curriculum, education programs, and student support services to make efficient use of its resources (Kuhet al. 2006).
Student academic engagement, including active class participation and learning, and thinking activities
during the learning experience, is a major factor that affects university learning outcomes and has been
discussed in detail. Hong and Ryu (2020) categorized student academic engagement factors that affectlearning outcomes in face-to-face and non-face-to-face educational environments divided by COVID-19
into meaningful learning, self-directed learning, and collaborative learning, and presented research resultsthat meaningful learning, which involves active thinking and utilization of what is learned. This has thegreatest effect on learning outcomes such as communication skills, specific major competence, and corecompetence. Moreover, various studies have shown that cognitive performance increases when students are
given the opportunity to perform challenging tasks in class that develop critical thinking, apply what they
have learned, or engage in active or collaborative learning (Mayhew et al., 2016). While the types ofacademic engagement that affect learning outcomes in face-to-face and virtual learning environments vary,
one can learn which academic engagement factors to emphasize or complement in students and teaching
and learning in universities.
Another learning experience factor is students' social engagement in colleges, which includes interactions
with other students, club activities, and student-professor interactions. Pascarella and Terenzini (2005)
found that students' social engagement, such as participating in group studies and extracurricular activities,
extends the academic knowledge acquired in class by interacting with other students and provides
opportunities to encounter different values, interests, and cultures, resulting in cognitive outcomes such as
critical thinking and analytical skills. Moreover, student-professor interactions have been widely discussed
in relation to learning outcomes. It has been shown that these interactions that include discussion of topics
and collection of feedback directly or indirectly affect students' learning processes and academic
achievements such as cognitive performance and knowledge development (Kuh et al., 2006; Pascarella &Terenzini, 2005; Choi & Shin, 2010). It is worth noting the difference of the effect of such social
engagement on learning outcome in different learning settings as interaction between peers and professors
was relatively hindered during the pandemic.
SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research196

Cognitive outcome of university students (Knowledge acquisition, cognitive capacity)
Learning outcomes in university education are generally divided into cognitive and non-cognitive domains,and due to a growing awareness of underdevelopment of higher-order cognitive skills among university
students and to help the students develop the cognitive skills needed to deal with the diverse issues, domestic
and foreign universities have been conducting various studies to identify effective factors based on student
learning outcomes and develop the direction of university and teaching and learning accordingly (Mayhew
et al., 2016). Cognitive performance can be categorized into high order thinking skills, which include
knowledge in specific majors and liberal arts, logical and critical thinking skills, problem-solving skills,
analytical skills, and communication skills. Professors’ motivation in class, effective lectures that provide
sufficient learning materials, students' active participation in classes, cooperative learning, and interaction
with campus community members are positively associated with cognitive performance (Choi & Lee, 2009;
Seo, 2003).
Acquisition of knowledge in majors and liberal arts is considered one of important cognitive outcomes, andin particular, Ko et al. (2011) referred to knowledge acquisition as "knowledge growth" and stated that it isan increase in knowledge about specific majors, social issues, and liberal arts. Such knowledge is acquiredwith various on-campus learning experiences that students engage in, and studies have shown that in-classand out-of-class interactions with professors as well as students' active classroom participation and in-classactivities such as knowledge comprehension, application of knowledge, and problem solving, have apositive effect on the increase in major and liberal arts knowledge (Koh et al., 2011; Choi & Shin, 2010).
Cognitive capacity is another cognitive learning outcome that is recognized as crucial. Kuh et al (2006)
argued that the development of cognitive competence, which is the logical and critical reflection of anindividual's thinking activities through independent judgment, is one of the most important elements ofhigher education outcomes. The extent of cognitive development is determined by the quality of effort
students put in their individual learning experiences and their psychological and social engagement within
the university including active participation in intellectual and cultural activities, and creating a culture thatemphasizes learning in various settings at the university level has been shown to be beneficial to thedevelopment of general cognitive competence (Astin, 1984; Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991, Yu, 2014). Eachstudy utilized various factors for learning outcomes, and this study focused on knowledge acquisition andcognitive competence among cognitive outcomes as dependent variables to study the impact of learning
experiences on them in a non-face-to-face classroom environment during the COVID-19 crisis.
METHODS
Sampling and Data Collection
In conjunction with the National Assessment of Student Engagement in Learning (NASEL) survey, whichis conducted annually by the Korea Educational Development Institute (KEDI) to support policies toimprove the quality of education in South Korea's higher education system and at the university level. This
study uses a sample of a large private university in Seoul (A University) that participated in the 2021 survey.
The survey was conducted over a six-week period from June 14 to July 30, 2021, through an online systemprovided by the Korea Educational Development Institute, and 2,246 responses from A University wereused for the analysis, of which 2,177 were identified by college and department. In terms of respondents'characteristics, 863 (39.6%) were male and 1,314 (60.4%) were female, and 558 (25.6%) were first-year
students, 437 (20.1%) were second-years, 565 (26.0%) were third-years, 548 (25.2%) were fourth-years,
and 69 (3.2%) were graduate students. By major, 726 (33.3%) were engineering majors, followed by 615(28.2%) in social sciences, 304 (14.0%) in natural sciences, 259 (11.9%) in humanities, 157 (7.2%) in artsand physical education, 78 (3.6%) in education, and 38 (1.7%) in medicine.

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197

Measurement Tools
Dependent Variable
The main dependent variables in this study are knowledge acquisition and cognitive capacity, which are theoutcomes of student learning in universities. Knowledge acquisition refers to the knowledge and skills
necessary for the major and the world of work that students are expected to acquire through undergraduate
education and is measured by a single question. Cognitive capacity was measured by the mean of four items
including critical thinking, creativity/integration, problem solving, and liberal arts knowledge. (Cronbach's
α = .826). All items were measured on a 4-point Likert scale.
Independent Variables
Personal background factors included gender (male=0, female=1), major (engineering (reference group),
humanities, social sciences, education, natural sciences, arts and physical education, medicine), and year
(first year=1 to fifth year and above=5), and learning experience was divided into academic engagement
and social engagement variables. In the academic engagement variable group, active class participationrefers to participation in answering questions, asking questions, and participating in discussions (3 items,
Cronbach's α =.735), class behavior refers to falling asleep or being distracted in class (2 items (reverse
scored items), Cronbach's α =.857), cooperative learning experience refers to discussing class content withpeers, helping with test preparation (3 items, Cronbach's α =. 848), thinking activities includes connecting
concepts learned in other classes and doing critical reviews (3 items, Cronbach's α =.870), active learning
experiences includes exploring new ideas and seeking feedback (5 items, Cronbach's α =.840), andchallenging learning experiences includes applying class material to real-world situations, including diverse
perspectives, and understanding the opinions of others (13 items, Cronbach's α =.904). Social engagement
variables include interacting with students from diverse backgrounds (6 items, Cronbach's α =.860), being
involved in club activities (4 items, Cronbach's α =.703), participating in group study activities (3 items,
Cronbach's α =.847), interacting with professors (6 items, Cronbach's α =.874), and interacting with campus
community members (4 items, Cronbach's α =.838).
Analysis method
In this study, a hierarchical regression analysis was conducted to explore the factors affecting knowledge
acquisition and cognitive capacity of university students in a non-face-to-face educational environment interms of personal background and learning experience. In this study, learning experience was divided into
academic engagement and social engagement variables. Personal background variables, academic
engagement variables, and social engagement variables were entered into each regression model withknowledge acquisition and cognitive capacity as the dependent variables in a stepwise regression. In thisprocess, the Durbin-Watson statistic was checked to determine whether the residuals were independent, andthe closer the Durbin-Watson statistic is to 2, the more likely it is that the assumption of independence ofthe residuals is satisfied and there is no autocorrelation.
Model 1: constant, personal background variable
Model 2: constant, personal background variable, academic engagement variable
Model 3: constant, personal background variable, academic engagement variable, social engagement
variable
RESULTS
Descriptive statistics
Based on the data collected from 2,177 participants, the descriptive statistics of the variables in this study
are shown in Table 1.

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Table 1: Descriptive statistics
Variable

Mean

Gender

0.604

Standard
deviation
0.489

Year

2.602

Major

Skewness

KurtosisNotes-0.424-1.822

1.203

0.026

-1.216

3.433

1.666

0.350

-0.572male 0, female 1
Year 1-5 or higher (in the case of
department of medicine orothers)1=humanities, 2=social science,
3=engineering, 4=natural science,
5=medicine,
6=arts and physical education

Active class participation

2.236

0.806

0.243

-0.690Classroom behavior

2.781

0.813

-0.436-0.384

Cooperative learning

2.190

0.885

0.329

-0.841

Likert four-point scale
Likert four-point scale, reversed
score item
Likert four-point scale

Thinking activities

2.582

0.757

0.009

-0.466

Likert four-point scale

Active learning

2.467

0.724

0.132

-0.450Likert four-point scale

Challenging learning
Interaction with students
from different backgrounds
Club activities

2.615

0.596

-0.078-0.028Likert four-point scale

2.083

0.753

0.407

-0.463

Likert four-point scale

1.663

0.678

1.095

0.799

Likert four-point scaleGroup study activities

1.730

0.791

0.973

0.170

Likert four-point scaleStudent-faculty interaction
Student-campus community
member interaction
Knowledge acquisition

1.575

0.588

1.382

2.143

Likert four-point scale

1.989

0.803

0.310

-0.844

Likert four-point scale

2.720

0.878

-0.196-0.682

Likert four-point scale

Cognitive capacity

2.833

0.528

-0.2530.918

Likert four-point scale

Regression Analysis on knowledge acquisition
The hierarchical regression model with knowledge acquisition as the dependent variable was statisticallysignificant for all three models. The explanatory power of the regression model was low at 0.042 (R2) when
the personal background variable was included in Model 1, but the change in R 2 was 0.157 when theacademic engagement variable was included in Model 2, and the change in R2 was 0.012 when the social
engagement variable was included in Model 3. The independent variables in the final model were estimatedto explain approximately 21% of the variance in knowledge acquisition as a learning outcome.
Table 2: Summary of hierarchical regression analysis model on knowledge acquisition
Model

𝑅2

𝑅

Adjusted 𝑅 2

𝑅 2 change

F change

1

.206

0.042

0.039

0.042

12.011***

2

.446

0.199

0.194

0.157

70.458***SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research

199

3

.459

0.211

0.204

0.012

6.425***

Durbin-Watson = 2.049, **p<.01, ***p<.001
To summarize the results of the regression analysis with knowledge acquisition as the dependent variable,in the final Model 3, the perceived knowledge acquisition of humanities major was lower than that ofengineering major, while that of medicine and arts and physical education major was higher. In addition,higher year, positive class attitudes, and challenging learning experiences had a positive effect onknowledge acquisition, and interactions with professors as well as interactions with other members of thecampus community had a positive effect on learners' knowledge acquisition. On the other hand, when thelearning experience variables were introduced and personal background was controlled, the effects of major
and year variables on learners' knowledge acquisition were significant. The variable with the largest relative
impact on learners' knowledge acquisition was challenging learning experience (β=.231).
Table 3: Results of hierarchical regression analysis model on knowledge acquisition
Independent variable

Model 1b(constant)
2.388
Humanities-0.167
Social Sciences
0.049
Education
0.038
Natural Sciences
0.031
Medicine
0.380
Arts and physical
0.262
education
Gender
-0.005Year
0.119
Active class participation
Classroom behavior
Cooperative learning
Thinking activities
Active learning
Challenging learning
Interaction with students
from different
backgrounds
Club activities
Group study activities
Student-facultyinteraction
Student-campus
community member
interaction*p<.05. **p<.01, ***p<.001

Model 2βb

β-0.062
0.025
0.008
0.012
0.057**

0.706-0.2420.052-0.0160.010
0.297

0.077***-0.0030.163*****

Model 3bβ-0.0890.026-0.0030.004
0.044*

0.587-0.2500.047-0.016-0.0070.319-0.092***0.024-0.003-0.0030.048*

0.193

0.057**

0.172

0.051*

0.026
0.111
0.034
0.093
0.050
0.061
0.065
0.360

0.015
0.152***
0.032
0.086***
0.050*
0.053
0.054
0.244***

0.037
0.108
0.015
0.088
0.003
0.064
0.050
0.340

0.021
0.149***
0.014
0.081***
0.003
0.055
0.041
0.231***

0.049

0.042

-0.026-0.015-0.020-0.0130.127

0.085***

0.068

0.062****

Regression Analysis on cognitive capacity

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All three hierarchical regression models with cognitive capacity as the dependent variable were statisticallysignificant. The explanatory power of the regression model was very low at 0.017 (R2) when the personal
background variable was included in Model 1, but the R2 change increased to 0.251 when the academic
engagement variable was included in Model 2, and the R2 change increased to 0.031 when the social
engagement variable was included in Model 3. The independent variables included in the final model were
estimated to explain approximately 30% of the variance in learning outcomes.
Table 4: Summary of hierarchical regression analysis model on cognitive capacity
Model

𝑅

𝑅2

Adjusted 𝑅 2

𝑅 2 change

F change

1

.130

0.017

0.013

0.017

4.659***

2

.518

0.268

0.264

0.251

123.779***

3

.547

0.299

0.293

0.031

18.873***

Durbin-Watson = 2.003, ***p<.001
To summarize the results of the regression analysis with cognitive capacity as the dependent variable,
Model 3 shows that students in engineering major have higher perceived cognitive capacity than students
in medicine, arts and physical education majors have higher perceived cognitive capacity than engineeringmajors, and male students have higher perceived cognitive capacity than female students, and that activeclass participation, classroom behavior, thinking activities, challenging learning experiences, interaction
with students from different backgrounds, and interaction with campus community members have a positiveeffect on cognitive capacity. On the other hand, cooperative learning experiences were found to have anegative effect on students' perceived cognitive capacity. Meanwhile, when the learning experiencevariables were introduced and personal background was controlled, the effects of major and gendervariables on students' perceived cognitive capacity were significant. The variable with the largest relative
impact on students' perceived cognitive capacity was challenging learning experiences (β=.276).
Table 5: Results of hierarchical regression analysis model on cognitive capacity
Independent variable(constant)
Humanities
Social Sciences
Education
Natural sciences
Medicine
Arts and physicaleducation
GenderYear
Active class participation
Classroom behavior
Cooperative learning

Model 1
b
2.812
0.154
0.034
0.019
0.005
-0.155Model 2

0.094***
0.029
0.007
0.004
-0.038

b
1.572
0.073
0.019
-0.032-0.008-0.1880.179

0.088***-0.0760.011-0.070***
0.024

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Model 30.045*
0.016-0.011-0.005-0.047*

b
1.452
0.050
0.015
-0.027-0.025-0.1690.031
0.013-0.009-0.016-0.042*0.112

0.055**

0.112

0.055**-0.046
0.004
0.055
0.049
-0.003-0.043*0.009
0.084***
0.075***-0.006-0.049-0.0020.042
0.048-0.054-0.046*-0.006
0.064**
0.074***-0.090***201

Thinking activities
Active learning
Challenging learning
Interaction with students
from different
backgrounds
Club activities
Group study activities
Student-facultyinteraction
Student-campus
community member
interaction*p<.05. **p<.01, ***p<.001

0.082
0.029
0.278

0.118***
0.040
0.313***

0.083
0.024
0.245

0.119***
0.033
0.276***

0.081

0.116***

0.025
0.005

0.032
0.007

0.027

0.030

0.060

0.092***DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
This study aimed to explore the factors affecting college students' cognitive performance (knowledge
acquisition, cognitive capacity) in terms of personal background and learning experience in a non-face-toface educational environment due to the closure of higher education institutions in midst of the coronavirus
pandemic. The inevitable changes caused by the pandemic have forced universities to go through trial anderror to adapt to the non-face-to-face educational environment, and this study is significant in that it is still
important for universities to focus on students' educational experiences, changes, and growth anddevelopment in these circumstances.
According to the results of this study, the personal background variables affecting knowledge acquisition
were major and year, where students in engineering major had a higher level of knowledge acquisition thanhumanities major, and medicine majors and arts and physical education major had a higher level ofknowledge acquisition than engineering majors, and the higher the year, the higher the perceived level ofknowledge acquisition. In terms of learning experience, positive classroom behavior, active and challenging
learning experiences, interaction with professors, and interaction with classmates were found to have apositive effect on learners' knowledge acquisition. In terms of cognitive capacity, engineering majors
tended to have higher cognitive capacity than medical majors, arts majors tended to have higher cognitive
capacity than engineering majors, and male students tended to have higher cognitive capacity. In terms oflearning experience, active class participation, positive class behavior, thinking activities, challenging
learning experiences, interaction with students from different backgrounds, and interaction with campus
community members were found to have a static effect on learners' cognitive capacity. On the other hand,collaborative learning experiences in the classroom had a negative effect on cognitive capacity.
These results suggest that universities need to explore methods and strategies to support students'
educational experience, change, and growth and development as distance education has become a reality inhigher education. In particular, needs for institutional support can be found in terms of effect of majors andthe importance of learning experiences in a non-face-to-face context.
First, differences were found between majors in knowledge acquisition and cognitive performance, which
can be linked to differences in learning experiences provided by different curricula of majors. This suggeststhat it is necessary to improve the cognitive performance of students by improving the composition of thecurriculum in each major and the organization and operation of courses. However, this study did not analyze
the differences in cognitive performance due to curriculum differences between majors, so we suggest theneed for follow-up studies.
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Second, as challenging learning experiences have the greatest effect on college students' knowledge
acquisition and retention than other factors, this study suggests that instructors should provide challenging
tasks that foster critical thinking related to the content of the course and allow students to present theirresults in class. In the case of tasks or educational activities that are difficult to perform alone, instructors
should provide appropriate cooperative learning opportunities that are closely related to the content of thecourse, so that challenging learning experiences can be conducted in the context of cooperative learning.
However, it is worth noting that this study showed that cooperative learning has an adverse effect on
cognitive capacity, which is contrary to the result of some previous studies (Park, 2007; Yu, 2014; Lee,2013) that suggest that cooperative learning itself can foster communication, leadership, interpersonal
skills, critical thinking, creative thinking, and problem-solving skills. This needs to be considered in thecontext of non-face-to-face learning due to COVID-19, where it was difficult to fully bring out the benefitsof online learning without sufficient preparation (Jung et al., 2020; Hong & Ryu, 2020; Garris. & Fleck,2020), and it is possible that learners' collaborative self-efficacy may have lacked in this process, that
quality collaborative learning experiences may not have been available in class, or that free-riding problems
in the collaborative learning process may have led to different results from previous studies. However, as
cooperative learning itself has a net function of enhancing college students' cooperative self-efficacy andultimately increasing learning effectiveness (Park & Ko, 2016), it is necessary to explore new ways toenhance the effectiveness of academic-level cooperative learning experiences in a non-face-to-face context.
For example, when using non-face-to-face educational media such as Zoom, it is possible to utilize thebreakout room function to conduct group activities, and at the same time, use programs that can be accessedby a large number of people, such as Google Jamboard, to prevent free riding in the collaborative learning
process. In other words, various teaching and learning methods that increase the cognitive performance oflearners by expanding personal and collaborative challenging learning experiences in class need to be
explored in the non-face-to-face context.
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205Improving the Student’s Oral Communication Performance throughTechnology-Based Tasks
Angelica P. Panique1 and Ma. Cecilia D. Alimen2
1&2

University of San Agustin, Philippines (apanique@usa.edu.ph and mcalimen@usa.edu.ph)

ABSTRACTTechnology has served well its purpose to education and continues to spark creativity and authenticity evenin the oral language pedagogy. This study adopts the two-group pretest-posttest experimental design thataims to examine the effectiveness of technology-based tasks in improving the students’ oral communication
performance. The participants are two groups of 30 11th grade students in which three technology-based
speaking tasks were administered to the experimental group and three traditional speaking tasks were given
to the control group. The data needed for this investigation were gathered using two materials: the in-person
question and answer (Q & A) activity from the Intermediate Speaking Test of Exams Reform Teacher
Support Project (2005) and the Rubric for Assessing Oral Communication Skills (2016). To proceed thenwith the findings, mean, mean gain, Mann Whitney U Test, and Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test were
employed.
KEYWORDS: Technology-based tasks, Oral communication performance, Oral language pedagogy

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206

INTRODUCTION
A part of language learning is the acquisition of not only the writing skills but also the effective oral
production using the target language. Despite its importance as also one of the 21st century skills, thestudents’ oral communication was noted to have weaken especially in the secondary level. In an
investigation conducted at the Temple University in 2018-2019 academic year, 46.2% of the course
instructors rated their students “inconsistent” on their oral communication while the remaining lower
percentages were credited to the other proficiency levels (Sapia et. al., 2020). This coincides to the casestudy conducted locally by Pontillas (2020) where it was revealed that 29% of the samples taken in
Camarines Sur Polytechnic Colleges have “developing” level of oral proficiency, the highest percentage
among the other levels. Despite of these findings which can be alarming, only few studies have exploredthe use of technology-based tasks as a potential tool in developing the students’ oral communication skills
and most of them are qualitative in design and some even rely more on the students’ perception as a methodof investigation (Levy & Gertler, 2015; Elmiana, 2019; & Andiappan et al., 2022).
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
With the growing statistical reports on the poor oral communication performance of students especially inthe secondary level in the recent years, the few literature addressing it, and the lack of authentic
opportunities for speaking practice brought by some factors identified across studies such as the continuityof adopting the traditional teaching strategies (ex. memorized dialogues and drill-based tasks that are examstructured), the limited interaction time, the large class size, and the students’ anxiety (Meriem, 2013;
Russell & Curtis, 2013; Yang & Chen, 2007; & Zhang & Akiman, 2007), the researchers aim to test theeffectiveness of technology-based tasks in improving the students’ oral communication performance. This
study can address these gaps by suggesting some technology-based tasks that teachers may use to help
improve the students’ oral skills, and describing the merits and further potentials of technology as a creativeand relevant means to expose students to authentic communication situations especially during this time of
the Information Age. Consequently, teachers and other education stakeholders would be enlightened for
future considerations.
RESEARCH QUESTIONSThis study aims to examine the effectiveness of technology-based tasks in improving the oral
communication performance of the students. Specifically, it seeks to answer the following questions:
1) Is there a significant difference in the oral communication performance of the experimental groupprior to and after accomplishing the technology-based tasks?
2) Is there a significant difference in the oral communication performance of the control group prior
to and after accomplishing the traditional speaking tasks?
3) Is there a significant difference between the mean gain of the experimental group and the control
group?
4) Which area of the oral communication performance responds most to the completion of thetechnology-based tasks?
FRAMEWORK OF THE STUDY
Basically, the notions on the process acquiring the second language skills are credited to Krashen’s Theoryof Second Language Acquisition (SLA). He explained that acquiring a second language requires a naturaland meaningful interaction in the target language which happens with careful monitoring and correction,and that it must be done in a natural order in low anxiety situations (Schutz, 2019). This language learningtheory together with the other interconnected theories on student-centered approaches and active learning
such as Kolb’s (1984) experiential learning theory, Vygotsky’s (1980) sociocultural learning and social
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207constructivism, Dewey’s (1997) discovery learning, and Rogers’ (1969) humanistic education, paved theway on the demands to modify the learning experience including the environment, the way instructions aredelivered, and the instructional tasks. And along these is the revolutionary development of modern
technology and its potentials to satisfy those demands. According to Ouyang and Stanley (2014) in fact,
this influenced the idea and the implementation of educational technology in the later years that results tothe pioneering of the use of educational games, multimedia, and dynamic online interactions. Moreover, it
entails the incorporation of the multimedia elements like text, graphics, audios, and videos to the methodof instruction or task experience as a technique to actualize the so called “learning by doing” (Pavlicek &Nevrivova, 2007). With this, an important contribution to the use of educational technology was made when
Hughes (2000) was able to create the Replacement, Amplification, Transformation (RAT) framework, arecognized model for technology integration in the classroom (Read, 2022). In this study, technology isused for transformation since technology is integrated in the instructional tasks that also enables therecreation on the aspects of the instruction or learning in new and inventive ways.

Figure 1: Framework of the Study
METHODOLOGY
Participants
The participants of the study are the two groups of 30 11th grade students of the University of San Agustin
attending the Oral Communication class. Out of the many, two classes were selected as sample groups
through the lottery technique and by tossing a coin, one of the two classes picked was considered as Class
X (experimental group) and the other one was Class Z (control group). Students from the experimentalgroup performed a series technology-based speaking tasks, whereas, students from the control group did aseries of traditional speaking tasks. Participant selection of 30 students from each group was done throughconvenience sampling since only 30 students from each group were able to accomplish completely all thetasks in the entire experiment.
Table 1: Number of participants per group
Group
Class X (experimental)
Class Z (control)

N
30
30

Instruments and Data Analysis
The pretest and posttest used to assess the oral communication performance were in the form of an inperson question and answer (Q & A). There was a set of 20 general questions (ex. Which is your favorite
place at home and why; Could you tell me about the job you would like to have in the future?) preparedwhich was adapted from the Intermediate Speaking Test of Exams Reform Teacher Support Project (2005).
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208

The set of questions used in the pretest differed from the posttest but both sets were similarly structured
and were constructed for the intermediate level of difficulty. Then to assess their oral communication
performance through their answers on the question picked for each test, the Rubric for Assessing Oral
Communication Skills (2016) was used. The researcher saw it as an appropriate tool for scoring due to its
standardization and validity— the inclusion of the subskills or areas on oral communication that learners
must actualize or achieve and the specificity of the performance descriptors for each level of achievementwith zero being the lowest and three being the highest for each of the three criteria (subskills or area). To
ensure objective and reliable scoring, two raters with at least four years in teaching Oral Communication
were requested to evaluate all speaking performances.
Class X as the experimental group were assigned to perform technology-based speaking activities (vlog,
video podcast, and talk show) throughout the quarter as a strategy to help improve their oral communication
performance. Before doing each of the technology-based tasks, however, participants were given an
orientation by the teacher on how to come up with the particular output. The definition, characteristicfeatures/elements, formats, roles, suggested editing tools, etc. were included. The tasks also allowed themto demonstrate their creativity and talent in digital design and their learnings from “Media & Information
Literacy” and “Empowerment Technologies” subjects as they manipulated tools for recording andintegrated original or stock images, animations, music, and footages to the raw clips. Class Z as the control
group were given the traditional speaking tasks (drills on exchanging dialogues, memorized speech, andcharacter impersonation). Each task completed by both groups was evaluated using rubrics to monitor
student progress. A feedback session was conducted from time-to-time to communicate the strengths andweaknesses demonstrated on the specific task and provide suggestions for improvement.
The scores gathered in the pretest and posttest of the experimental group and the control group wereconsidered as the data that were analyzed using the following statistical treatments:
Mean. This determines the average scores in the pretest and posttest of the experimental group and control
group for description of score results.
Mean gain. This identifies how much mean score is gained by the group in the posttest compare to thepretest.
Mann Whitney U Test. This is a non-parametric test to determine if there is a significant difference on thetwo independent samples and if they are equal or not.
Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test. This non-parametric test compares the difference between two samples which
are correlated or dependent.
RESULTS
Table 2: Difference in the oral communication performance of the experimental group prior to and after
accomplishing the technology-based tasks
N
PostAveE
PreAveEx- Negative0a
Ranks
Positive Ranks 30b
Ties
0c
Total
30

Mean RankZ

p-value

Interpretation.00-4.814.000

Significant

15.50

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Table 2 shows that there is significant difference in the oral communication performance of theexperimental group prior to and after immersing in the technology-based tasks (Z=-4.814, p=0.000. The
probabilities of 0.000 is lesser than the level of significance which is 0.05. Therefore, the null hypothesismust be rejected. The oral communication performance of the students significantly improved after
accomplishing the technology-based tasks.
Table 3: Difference in the oral communication performance of the control group prior to and after
accomplishing the traditional speaking tasks
N
PostAveE
PreAveEx- Negative
7a
Ranks
Positive Ranks 10b
Ties
13c
Total
30

Mean RankZ

p-value

Interpretation

8.00-1.807.071

Not significant

11.78

Table 3 indicates that there is no significant difference in the oral communication performance of the control
group prior to and after accomplishing the traditional speaking tasks (Z=-1.807, p=0.071. The probabilities
of 0.071 is greater than the level of significance which is 0.05. Therefore, the null hypothesis must not berejected. The oral communication performance of the students did not improve significantly after
completing the traditional speaking tasks.
Table 4: Difference between the mean gain of the experimental group and the control group

Mean Gain

Group

N

Experimental
Control
Total

30
30
60

Mean
Rank
37.95
23.05

U

p-value

Interpretation

226.500.001

Significant

Table 4 shows that there is significant difference between the mean gain of the experimental group and thecontrol group (U=226.500, P=0.001). The probabilities of 0.001 is lesser than the level of significancewhich is 0.05. Therefore, the null hypothesis must be rejected. The mean gain between the experimentalgroup and the control group prior to and after accomplishing the speaking tasks significantly varies in favor
to the experimental group.
Table 5: Descriptive values on the areas of oral communication performance prior to after completing thetechnology-based tasks (experimental group)

Area

Pretest Mean

Descriptive
Equivalent

Posttest Mean

Descriptive
Equivalent

Mean Gain

Fluency

1.72

2.48

0.76

Clarity

1.58

2.27

0.69

Sensitivity

2.60

2.78

0.18

Overall Performance
Score
5.90
Very Good
7.53
Excellent
0-1.8 - Poor 1.81- 3.6- Fair 3.61 – 5.4- Good 5.41 – 7.2- Very Good 7.21 -9 – Excellent

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Table 5 shows that fluency has the highest mean gain of 0.76 among other areas (0.69, 0.18). Hence, thearea of oral communication performance that responds most to the completion of the technology-basedtasks is fluency.
DISCUSSIONSFirst, a meaningful improvement was observed in the students’ oral communication performance in thetarget language after they immersed in technology-based speaking tasks. This coincides to the few similar
studies done in the recent years. On the investigation of Lord (2008) for instance, a collaborative podcasting
project on a foreign language was created by undergraduate students and it was identified that both attitude
and pronunciation improved compared to their performance before the project. One benefit seen is thecompletion of such instructional activity which allowed the students to create speech recordings in which
students can review them for monitoring and thus apply corrections for improvement repeatedly until they
think certain competencies such as correct intonations and pronunciations are achieved. On the other hand,in a study of Elmiana (2019) on the use of radio talk show program as an intervention to improve thespeaking skills, it was found out the mean scores of the learners from the first to the third phase rosesignificantly. However, their skills in grammar, vocabulary, accent have slight difference rather than
fluency and comprehension that inclined significantly. Such integration of technology to the tasks as a
strategy to aid the oral communication practice can be traced back to a combination of early theories on
language learning and educational psychology such as the second language acquisition, experiential
learning, discovery learning, social constructivism and humanistic education until Hughes’ (2000) wereable to establish a model on how to effectively integrate technology to the pedagogy and its assessment if
the integration is successful or not.
Second, this study revealed that unlike the former group, no significant improvement was observed in theoral communication performance of those students who completed the traditional speaking tasks. In fact,
only very few of them had their performance improved during the posttest and many either showed nochanges or got lower scores. Despite the similar results seen in in the investigation done by Kallinikou &Nicolaidou (2019), traditional speaking tasks such as drill on exchanging dialogues, memorized speech,
and character impersonation are still considered meaningful and are identified to give students avenues toenhance aspects of verbal delivery such as pronunciation, intonation, and voice modulation. This strategyof language skills development is a part of the audio-lingual method of teaching and is based on the conceptsof the behavioral theory where oral language improvement is done through imitation and practice (Hulit etal., 2011).
Third, it was observed that the oral communication performance of the experimental group varies
significantly compared to the control group, that is, a notable improvement was seen in the mean gain of
the former than the latter. Similar studies agree that many considerations have to be looked into as to whysome students are adept in communicating and others are not. According to Pangket (2019), the teachingstrategies used especially during the student’s formative years can affect their performance in oral language.
The significant improvement identified in the experimental group can be linked to the role of technology
in learning. Corpuz and Lucido (2015) explained that technology integration is the use of technology tointroduce, reinforce, supplement, and extend skills. In language skills enhancement for instance, technology
integration can be used as an instructional strategy by allowing the learners to accomplish instructionaltasks that require them to practice the target skills while applying their creativity and pre-existingknowledge on manipulating the multimedia tools. During the completion of the tasks, they are able toreconstruct their knowledge as they learn new things on their own especially during the preparation andpractice stages. Furthermore, Thao (2003) in his study, claimed that technology integration in the speaking
practice is one of the changes on how languages are taught in schools which centers on the use of language
communication rather than just passing the examination. Similarly, Dikilitas and Duvenci (2009) agreed
that educators have tended to resort to the multimedia materials as an agent for activating the oral skills that
SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research211may be inactive in mind because of the limited topics to be talked about and the discovery of other student
potentials for holistic development such as creativity and innovativeness. For instance, Kallinikou &Nicolaidou (2019) used digital storytelling as an avenue to let students practice their speaking skills andresults show that higher scores were noted on the post-intervention of the experimental group than of thecontrol group though the latter also improved but not as high as the former. Positive attitudes were also
documented from the experimental group and may be attributed to the activities targeted to practicing theiroral speech and the learning experience that was personalized and self-directed.
Lastly, a closer look on this study reveals that fluency has the biggest improvement or is the most responsive
to the completion of the technology-based tasks among all other areas. Fluency, a subskill in oral
communication, encompasses the use of clear and engaging language (grammar and vocabulary) andsmooth delivery (verbal and nonverbal) of the message. Clarity, meanwhile refers to the accurate and easetransmission and reception of the idea being communicated. It comprises an understanding of thecommunication purpose and a presentation of a clearly organized set of ideas. Sensitivity, on the other handis the awareness of the target audience’s background manifested through the inclusion of appropriate ethicalcommunication strategies. The assessment of the oral communication performance in terms of these areas
is based on Holbrook’s (1983) criteria on oral language competence. According to him, oral language
competence is fundamentally acquired through a natural process but the development of the subskills
depends on the exposure to the target language with the guidance of an expert.
With this comes the instructional activities that can elicit such exposure to the target language. Technologybased speaking activities are basically the answers to the demand to make the communication experience
more meaningful and relevant especially that communication and technology are highly demanded skills in
the 21st century. With the technology-based tasks as used in this study, students can talk freely about
relevant topics and because of human creativity, the art of vlogging for example, keeps innovating as it canfeature games, personal life dramas, pranks, social experiments, and travel experiences or could be
informational or educational too like cooking sessions and do-it-yourself tutorials. An advantage of suchactivities if adapted to the classroom is the richness of expressing their ideas by using varied nonverbal cues
along with oral production. They can be in their true self when explaining things without referring to notecards and this lessens their attempt to memorize lines. This might explain why fluency is noted to have thebiggest improvement compared to clarity since the nature of vlog making has less emphasis on manuscript.
According to Nurviyani & Rahayu (2018), vlogging gives students opportunity to develop more their verbal
and nonverbal skills in expressing their personal ideas or even in storytelling using the target language. On
the other hand, video podcast activity likewise serves an opportunity for the students to immerse in a realworld communication situation where they can showcase their skills in asking and responding to questions,vocabulary, and verbal (intonations, pronunciations, etc.) and nonverbal (posture, facial expressions, etc.)
delivery. Several scholars like Rosell-Aguilar (2007), Chan et al. (2011), and Jain and Hashmi (2013)
pointed out that podcast activity for secondary language learning is highly interactive and collaborative
among students. Additionally, this type of task favors the development of their social function as it raises
self-representation, information exchange, and social networking. As another learning activity on the other
hand, a recorded talk show also enables the students to become fluent in oral production but it is more on
combining skills in listening, speaking, reading, writing, and role-playing, a good task to promote holistic
development. Participants get to write and read collaboratively the cues during the preparation stage; listen
and talk a lot with consciousness on comprehension and delivery components as they feed one another a
lot of questions, facts, and opinions; participate evenly according to their portrayed roles; and be interested
in speaking especially if the topic is relatable, and therefore, there would be an urge for contribution.
Accordingly, this would allow students to enhance their organization skills and awareness to the topics
being discussed. Another benefit of administering this task is to help students impart their insights orperspectives to certain societal issues like in the environment, health, education, economics, governance,and law, thus, raising their awareness and sensitivity to these matters. This way the teacher can help thestudents understand their cultural roles and functions as part of the society (Nafisya, 2017). This could be
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a basis for the improvement seen on sensitivity as an area of the oral communication performance in which
students were able to tackle the topics with the inclusion of appropriate ethical verbal and nonverbal
strategies in consideration to the sensitive issues and the background of the audience.
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The following are the conclusions drawn from the study:1) Oral communication is undeniably a life skill set and is deemed essential to cope with the fastchanging world. For this reason, education and language scholars have become so emphatic on thenecessity of developing the oral skills and since communication and technology goes together andboth are undeniably the highly demanded skills in the 21st century, attempts were made to modify
the learning experience that involve the application of both skills.
2) As an example of technology integration in the classroom, technology-based speaking tasks could
be used not only as a replacement to the usual activities done in the classroom but as atransformative tool that would allow the learners to have relevant opportunities for oral
communication practice while learning new things along the way, thus, modifying or correcting
their existing knowledge as they complete the tasks with the guidance of the teacher.
3) Technology-based tasks such as vlog, video podcast, and talk show help improve the oral
communication performance of the learners.
4) Fluency is identified to have the biggest improvement among the other subskills or areas (clarity
and sensitivity) after the learners immersed in the technology-based tasks.
5) Though traditional speaking tasks is seen to elicit less improvement on the oral communication
performance compare to the technology-based activities, it is regarded to be still relevant for thedevelopment of other areas such as voice projection, intonation, and pronunciation.
The following are the recommendations of the researchers:
1) Language teachers need to put emphasis on communication since it is an essential skill set during
this time of the Information Age. This is to be done by determining gaps first through conducting
speaking tests on the learners and also personal interviews or surveys on the potential factors that
can affect their oral language proficiency. They are suggested as well to re-examine the teachingstrategies they are using and try exploring the use of technology-based activities since technology
is now a part of the 21st century culture. Such tasks favor the experience on real communication
contexts while being inclusive despite the social and cultural diversities and encourages selfinvolvement on the relevant societal issues. Furthermore, it would likewise help if the teachers will
also take time to conduct further literature review on the integration of technology to language
teaching and learning for a consideration of other strategies and techniques to better assist thestudents in addressing their communication deficiencies.
2) School administrators are highly recommended to recheck the facilities of the classrooms, andspeech and computer laboratories which also include the equipment necessary for language
instruction and communication skills practice. They should consider likewise conducting
performance evaluations on language teachers and organize trainings and workshops on the use oftechnology and its integration in the language classrooms.
3) Language curriculum writers may regard this study as one of the bases to assess the current
language curriculum and evaluate materials such as textbooks, study guides, and modules.
4) Since learning extends beyond the four walls of the classroom, as the “second teacher”, parents aresuggested to provide a safe and conducive environment for learning at home and support their childby providing, if possible, some tools and resources such as computer or mobile device, Internet
access, headset, and microphone to better assist oral language learning and skills practice.

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The Development of Problem Solving and Creative Skills of Science
Education Graduate Students using STEM Education Approachin Flooding Warning Unit
Chain Chuanchom1 and Chitraporn Boonthanom1
1

Faculty of Education, Ramkhamhaeng University, Bangkok, Thailand

ABSTRACTThe purpose of this research was to enhance the problem-solving promote and promote the creative skillsof science education graduate program students. Practical action research was conducted with 10
participants who were science education graduate students and teachers in schools. The research followeda spiral procedure consisting of four steps: planning, acting, observing, and reflecting. The research
instruments used in this study included a STEM education lesson plan on the topic of flooding, a selfevaluation form for problem-solving and creative skills, and an assessment form for problem-solving andcreative skills specifically related to the creation of flood warning systems. the Index of Content Validity
for the lesson plan, a self-evaluation form for problem-solving and creative skills and an assessment form
for problem-solving and creative skills specifically related to the creation of flood warning systems,
validating that it surpasses the threshold of 0.60. Both qualitative and quantitative data collection methods
were employed. The results, the participants' self -assessment shown they uncertainty regarding theirproblem-solving skills suggests that they were not confident in their abilities to effectively tackle problemsolving tasks and unsure about their confidence in creating a flood warning system model. They relied ona manual or other external resources for guidance during the development. Flood warning system creation
model for problem solving and creativity skills assessment after class, they had the potential to foster highly
conceptual and meaningful learning experiences for developing Flood warning system creation model.
Additionally, they successfully applied the STEM education approach to other situations, such as
earthquake and storm warning.
KEYWORDS: STEM education, Problem solving and Creative skills

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INTRODUCTION
Thailand has long had a commitment to promote the development of its science, technology, engineering,and mathematics (STEM) education sector as a fundamental element of national economic development
strategies. STEM education in Thailand has been adopted in the schools since 2013. (Suriyabutr andWilliams, 2021) The Ministry of Education launched a comprehensive STEM curriculum in 2016 to ensurethat all students, from primary school through to university, receive an adequate education in science,technology, engineering, and mathematics. The Thai government is investing heavily in STEM educationin order to equip teachers with the necessary capabilities to equip their students with the necessary skills to
prepare them for the future. (Office of the Education Council in Thailand, 2017) It has developed acomprehensive curriculum that covers the core concepts of science, technology, engineering, and math
(STEM). However, Thai teachers are often not adequately prepared to teach STEM. Teaching science,technology, engineering, and math requires a deep understanding of the infrastructure, methodology, andconcepts involved. Most teachers are largely unfamiliar with the content, lack the resources to effectively
teach it, and may have difficulty engaging students in the topics. Furthermore, the curriculum is often notproperly aligned with society's economic needs, which limits the effectiveness of STEM learning.
Additionally, many teachers may not have the technical knowledge needed to teach STEM topics, as wellas the interpersonal skills needed to build meaningful collaborations between students and instructors. As
a result, they may not be confident in their abilities to teach the topics and be limited in their knowledge
about contemporary advancements in STEM. Additionally, there is a need for more professional
development opportunities and training. Therefore, we should prepare teachers for teaching STEM. Thiscan be done by providing them with the knowledge and skills needed to teach all aspects of STEM so thatthey can create interest and enthusiasm in the topics and develop their students’ skills. Teachers should also
be able to use technology, such as simulations, online materials, and interactive activities, to help students
better understand and apply STEM principles. Furthermore, teachers should be able to help their students
collaborate and work in teams to solve complex problems, as well as think creatively and innovatively. By
doing this, in-service teachers can help create an environment in which their students can develop thenecessary skills to prepare them for the future.
Enhancing students' problem-solving skills and critical thinking while tackling real-life problems remains
a critical aspect of problem-based STEM education. (Topsakal, et. al. 2022). Topsakal Yalcin and Cakir(2022) investigated the impact of problem-based STEM activities on the development of critical thinking
tendencies and problem-solving skill perceptions among middle school students in Turkey and theirfindings indicated that the problem-based STEM activities yielded a favorable impact on the perceptions
concerning their problem-solving skills.
KidBright is a tool used to teach and promote STEM education in the classroom. It is an open source, blockbased coding platform used to teach kids about STEM in a fun and interactive environment. It is a visual
coding language, allowing students to create their own projects. Additionally, with its great educational
content, it can help kids understand more complex coding concepts and develop problem solving skills.
KidBright is also designed for multiple grade levels, from elementary school up to high school, whichmakes it a great tool to teach coding in a variety of settings. Furthermore, it can be used to bridge the gap
between coding and real-world applications, such as flooding warnings, which can help students understandthe importance of coding in our society. For example, students can program a weather station to sound an
alarm whenever a flooding alert is issued. Additionally, students can use KidBright to program a robotic
water level monitor to measure changes in water levels and display information about these changes in realtime. By utilizing projects like this, students can learn coding concepts while also understanding the role ofdata and technology in flooding warnings.
From the above reason, we developed the STEM Education Approach in Flooding Warning Unit activities
to enhance students' problem-solving skills and creativity skills in flooding prevention.
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OBJECTIVES
1. To compare pre and post the problem-solving skills of science education graduate program students
in Flooding Warning Unit activities.
2. To promote the creative skills of science education graduate program students in Flooding Warning
Unit activities.
RESEARCH METHOD AND INSTRUMENT
Research method
The purposive sampling used in this practical action research. 10 participants who were in-service scienceteachers and science education graduate students. All participants were in the study with their consent. The
procedure was a spiral following four steps 1) planning 2) acting 3) observing and 4) reflecting:Figure 1: a spiral action research of this study
1) Planning stage- Identify and limiting the topic.
• Define the scope: Clearly define the specific aspect of flooding content.
• Set learning objectives: Determine the educational goals of flooding lesson plan.
• Determine content depth: Decide on the depth of flooding content and flooding
warning system for designing the lesson plan.
- Developing flooding warning lesson plans, a self-evaluation form for problem-solving
and creative skills and a Flood warning system creation model assessment form
The researchers were responsible for developing the lesson plan, problem-solving and creativity evaluation
form. The expertise of faculty members specializing in science education and computing science (2 scienceeducators and 1 computing science) teachers was utilized to ensure the content validity. They conductedassessments of the Index of Content Validity for the lesson plan, a self-evaluation form for problem-solving
and creative skills and a flood warning system creation model assessment form, validating that it surpasses
the threshold of 0.60.

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Flooding Warning Unit activities Lesson Plan
SessionActivities

STEM discipline

Session 1: Pre-test and Introduction(60 minutes)- 20 minutes for pre-test- Flooding situation and statistic in
Thailand*Inquiry (Exploring flooding
situation)*Discussion- Definition of Flooding- Type of Flooding- The factors that contribute toflooding*Winding application forforecasting- The effect of flooding on theenvironment and human life
*Critical review of daily life
- How to use KidBright*Demonstration and practice- A virtual flood warning system
by KidBright*Demonstration and practiceScience: Flooding problems
Technology: Using internet to
explore flooding situation andstatistic.
Math: Information organization

Session 2: Flooding(120 minutes)

Session 3: Flooding warning(180 minutes)

Session 4: Post-test(120 minutes)- Flood warning system creation
problem solving and creative skills
assessment

Science: Flooding information
Technology: Using winding
application for forecasting
Math: Evaluation

Science: Scientific method
Technology: Using KidBright and
KidBright application, Lineapplication
Math: Calculation
Engineering: Designing andbuilding A virtual flood warning
systemScience: Flooding information andScientific method
Technology: Using KidBright and
KidBright application
Math: Calculation
Engineering: Designing andbuilding A virtual flood warning
system- Preparing the equipment for a class (Windy application, KidBright and sensor monitoring).

Figure 2: Preparing the equipment for a class

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research2192) Acting stage
The acting stage involves implementing planned interventions or actions based on the insights
gained from the previous stages. During this stage, researchers actively apply the proposed strategies orchanges to address the identified problem or improve the situation. We monitor the effects of participant
actions in problem-solving and creative thinking, gather data, and assess the outcomes to inform further
iterations of the action research process. This stage emphasizes taking proactive steps to bring about desiredchanges and evaluating the effectiveness of the implemented actions.

Figure 3 – 4: Implementation
3) Observing stage
The observing stage of action research entails actively gathering data and systematically observing
the phenomena or processes under investigation. It involves careful and objective observation of events,
behaviors, or occurrences related to the research question or problem.

Figure 5: Observation
4) Reflecting stage
The reflecting stage of action research involves reviewing and analyzing the data collected, as well
as reflecting on the outcomes and experiences of the research process.

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research220

Instruments
1) Flooding warning lesson plans2) A self-evaluation form for problem-solving and creative skills3) Flood warning system creation model assessment form
RESULTSThe 9 participants (one of our initial 10 participants has decided to withdraw from this study). 8 participants
were female and 1 participant was male. They were in-service science teachers but they not familiar with
KidBright or any coding program, which hindered their ability to create a flood warning system model prior
to the class.
Table 1: Problem-solving skills self-assessment

Indicators
1. Refining the ability to define and comprehend the problem iscrucial to develop flood warning system model
2. The capacity to establish clear and achievable goals to develop
flood warning system model
3. The Capacity to generating a variety of potential solutions todevelop flood warning system model
4. Action planning to develop flood warning system model
5. Implement and monitoring for flood warning system model
6. Reflection for flood warning system model

5 points Rating scale
BeforeAfteractivities
activities
Mean
SD
Mean
SD
2.11
1.27
3.56
0.88
2.00

1.32

3.56

0.88

1.56

1.24

3.44

0.73

1.22
1.22
1.11

1.09
1.09
1.05

2.00
2.00
2.00

0.87
0.87
0.87

The results indicated that the participants' uncertainty regarding their problem-solving skills suggests thatthey were not confident in their abilities to effectively tackle problem-solving tasks. They thought that theirability to define and comprehend problems to develop a flood warning system model after the class (mean= 3.56, SD = 0.88) was higher than before the class (mean = 2.11, SD = 1.27). The capacity to establish
clear and achievable goals to develop flood warning system model after the class (mean = 3.56, SD = 0.88)
was higher than before the class (mean = 2.00, SD = 1.32). And the Capacity to generating a variety ofpotential solutions to develop flood warning system model after the class (mean = 3.44, SD = 0.73) was
higher than before the class (mean = 1.56, SD = 1.24).
Table 2: Creativity skills self-assessment

Indicators
1. Originality
2. Fluency
3. Flexibility
4. Elaboration
5. Transformation
6. Collaboration and adaptability

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research

5 points Rating scale
BeforeAfteractivities
activities
Mean
SD
Mean
SD
0.33
0.71
3.33
0.71
0.22
0.67
3.22
0.67
0.22
0.67
3.22
0.67
0.11
0.33
3.11
0.93
0.00
0.00
3.00
1.22
0.00
0.00
3.00
1.22

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The results shown that participants were unsure about their confidence in creating a flood warning systemmodel. They relied on a manual or other external resources for guidance during the development.
Table 3: Flood warning system creation model for problem solving assessment after class.
Indicators
1. Refining the ability to define
and comprehend the problem iscrucial

Total 5 scores
Mean
SD
4.11
0.60

2. The capacity to establish clear
and achievable goals

4.17

0.56

3. The Capacity to generating avariety of potential solutions.
4. Action planning

4.11

0.55

3.83

0.66

5. Implement and monitoring

3.83

0.71

6. Reflection

3.67

0.50

DefineThe proficiency of participants indefining and comprehending the
problem is critical for achieving ahigh level of effectiveness.
Participants possesses thecapacity to establish clear andattainable goals at a high level.
Participants possesses a diverse
range of solutions for planning.
They are capable of executing
certain actions throughmemorization or by following
instructions provided byinstructors.
They were able to develop a flood
warning system model; however,they relied on a manual or otherexternal resources for guidance
during the process.
4 participants were able to reflect
on their mistakes but someone
may not know the reasons behind
their mistakes. Someone may
struggle with self-reflection andthe ability to analyze their own
mistakes.

Table 4: Flood warning system creation model for creativity skills assessment after class.

1. Originality

Total 5 scores
Mean
SD
4.17
0.71

2. Fluency

4.22

0.62

3. Flexibility

4.17

0.50

4. Elaboration

3.94

0.53

Indicators

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research

DefineThey were capable of generating
innovative ideas and solutions
during the planning phase.
They demonstrated fluency intheir creative thinking skills whiledeveloping the model.
They exhibited flexibility in theirapproach to developing themodel.
They showcased elaboration in
their thinking skills whiledeveloping the model,
222

Indicators

Total 5 scores
MeanSD

5. Transformation

3.89

0.60

6. Collaboration and adaptability

3.78

0.67

Definedemonstrating the ability to
expand and refine their ideas.
They were able to apply theirknowledge and skills (Identify
problem, identify objective andplanning) to develop a flood
warning system creation model.
however, they relied on a manual(coding keys).
4 participants adopted thismethod and demonstrated theability to plan for their classes. 2
participants decided to directly
use this method in their classwithout making any
modifications. On the other hand,
three participants chose tointegrate this method into othertopics for their classes.

CONCLUSION
It was concluded that difference between pre and post-test of problem-solving skills. They have the ability
to identify problems and conduct research for problem-solving. They can plan for flood prevention using
KIDBRIGHT and have shown progress in coding with KIDBRIGHT. They used sensor devices to
Kidbright and operated them successfully. They have tested simulated flooding scenarios to observe theoutcomes of code writing and the connection of sensor devices with Kidbright. However, they still lackconfidence in developing methods that differ from what teachers instructed, especially in terms ofconnecting devices. Therefore, they were proficient in following instructions well but shown relatively low
creativity in independent creation.
DISCUSSION
Since 2013, STEM education has been introduced and promoted in Thai schools with the goal of fosteringinterest among young people in STEM disciplines and encouraging further studies in these areas. However,
the implementation of integrated STEM education in Thailand has encountered challenges, particularly
with regards to teachers who face difficulties in effectively teaching integrated STEM concepts.
(Suriyabutr, & Williams, 2021)
The main reason Thai teachers struggle with integrating STEM concepts into their classes is their lack oftechnology skills. Participants were in-service teachers who were unable to use KidBright or any othercoding program, thus resulting in their inability to integrate it into their lessons. Methods of contextual
learning and problem-solving have the potential to foster highly conceptual and meaningful learning
experiences that center around real-world problems. (Shahbazloo, & Abdullah Mirzaie, 2021). 4
Participants have planning to expand the application of the STEM education approach to other situations,
including earthquake and storm warning. Moreover, the emphasis is on STEM education to develop
students into real-life problem solvers by creating a student-centered environment. However, when it comesto adapting these methods to develop original projects, certain challenges may arise. In the case of our
SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research

223

participants, they may still rely on repeating the same lesson, such as adjusting the water level for a warning,rather than independently applying the concepts taught to them.
REFERENCE
Office of the Education Council in Thailand. (2017). Education in Thailand. Prigwan Graphic Co., Ltd:
Bangkok.
Sarnita, F., Fitriani, A., Anhar, Utama, J. Suwarma, I and Widia. (2021). Application of STEM-based
online learning to train creative skills of students in covid-19 pandemic periods. Journal of
Physics: Conference Series. 1-5. doi:10.1088/1742-6596/1806/1/012039
Shahbazloo, F., & Abdullah Mirzaie, R. (2021). The Effectiveness of Science, Technology, Engineering,and Mathematics based Education in Solar Energy Context on Attitude and Academic
Achievement of Female Students. Journal of Research in Educational Science, 15(54), 137-151.
Suriyabutr, A., & Williams, J. (2021). Integrated STEM education in the thai secondary schools:
Challenge and addressing of challenges. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 1957(1)doi:https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1957/1/012025
Topsakal, İ., Yalçın, S. and Çakır, Z. (2022). The Effect of Problem-based STEM Education on theStudents’ Critical Thinking Tendencies and Their Perceptions for Problem Solving Skills.
Science Education International, 3(2), 136-145
Wang, J., Wang, T. (2023). Learning effectiveness of energy education in junior high schools:
Implementation of action research and the predict-observe-explain model to STEM course.
Heliyon. 2023 Feb 26;9(3):e14058. doi: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e14058. PMID: 36915494;
PMCID: PMC10006632.

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research224

English Teachers’ Out-of-Field Teaching in Higher Education Institutions:
Practices and Initiatives
Stella S. Cantor, EdD
John B. Lacson Foundation Maritime University, Molo, Inc., Philippines(stellacantor1010@gmail.com)

ABSTRACTThis study aimed to determine the out-of-field teaching practices among English language teachers in selectHigher Education Institutions (HEIs) of Iloilo City as perceived by the administrators, teachers, andstudents along the following dimensions, namely: (1) organization; (2) content knowledge and relevance;(3) presentation; (4) instructor-student interaction; (5) teaching strategies; and (6) assessment. Further, it
explored how these participants regarded out-of-field teaching and what initiatives they had undertaken in
the out-of-field teaching context. Participants were chosen using convenience and purposive sampling. Data
were gathered using a validated modified—adopted questionnaire and interview protocols. This study usedappropriate statistical tools to determine the teaching practices of out-of-field English language teachers.
At the same time, inductive thematic analysis was employed to explore and generate themes from theinterview. Results showed that the teaching practices were “highly practiced” in five dimensions, except
for teaching strategies perceived by the administrators as “moderately practiced.” From the interview,
different themes emerged from how the participants regard out-of-field teaching and from the initiatives
undertaken by the participants of this study. Out of the results and findings, this study created a monographas an educational resource that would serve as a reference for researchers and educators interested instudying the context of out-of-field teaching.
KEYWORDS: Out-of-field teaching, English teachers, Practices and initiatives, Administrators, Students

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225

THE RATIONALE OF THE STUDY
Teaching in one's field entails expertise. It means a person can think and handle problems more effectively.
Glaser and Chi (1988) describe expertise as ownership of an orderly form of theoretical and practicalknowledge that can be readily remembered and used with advanced metacognitive ability. Likewise, byperceiving teachers as experts in the advancement of learning, it would be realistic that they are expected
to have expertise in other areas and have acquired broader and integrated knowledge that reflects profoundunderstanding and allows an easier recovery of relevant information (Bransford et al., 2000). Expertise thus
requires relevant knowledge, skills, and attitudes.
Along with constant educational reforms and changes in subject areas, teachers are obliged to teach subjects
without necessary qualifications or subject mastery (Du Plessis, 2017). One of the most affected is the
English language teachers. For some reason, they are teaching out-of-field subjects where expertise can bea big question, especially a vast number of kinds of literature conducted on the global educational system's
dilemma.
Out-of-field teaching is not delimited to selected subjects and is not eventually considered a deviation. For
instance, the STEM-subject areas of Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics impact all subject
areas and year levels (Du Plessis, 2017). Because they are not qualified, these teachers might need more
subject matter mastery and teaching skills (Kola & Sunday, 2015).
In the Philippines, out-of-field teaching is significant but the long unrecognized situation in schools andeducation in general. This phenomenon adversely affects their quest for quality education and could be
primarily attributed to the significant number of skilled or specialized teachers. Several teachers are
employed to teach, not their field of expertise (Caylao, 2015).
Nevertheless, it is vital to note that this study was conducted among English language teachers in Higher
Education Institutions (HEIs). Related literature and studies collected in HEIs were minimal since moststudies on out-of-field were mainly conducted among primary and secondary schools.
Thus, this study intended to explore the out-of-field teaching practices among English language teachers inthe selected Higher Education Institutions of Iloilo City. These teachers are given loads outside theirexpertise due to the limited number of English subjects offered. Some of them are teaching, Panfil, Artappreciation, ICT, Understanding the Self, Psychology, Professional Education, and other subjects
mismatched with their specialization. Further, this study determined how the participants regarded out-offield teaching and their initiatives in this phenomenon.
THEORETICAL-CONCEPTUAL BACKGROUNDThis study was anchored on the social-constructivist theory of Vygotsky (1978) to discuss the developmentof complex learning and teaching environment due to out-of-field teaching. This theory emphasizes theimpact of "more knowledgeable others" (MKO) in the classroom and how a knowledgeable adult can leadand instruct knowledge building. This knowledgeable adult successfully links previous and new ideas
known as the "zone of proximal development" (ZPD). Based on this theory, this study seeks answers toqueries about the learning impact among out-of-field teachers. Moreover, it recognizes the importance ofunderstanding out-of-field teaching practices as teachers are expected to be the "more knowledgeable other"in the classroom.
Vygotsky's theory highlighted the expert teacher's role, guiding students through new knowledge
construction, prior and new knowledge scaffolding, and internalizing new and unfamiliar knowledge.
Vygotsky's theory emphasizes the significance and needs to comprehend the effects of unknowledgeable
SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research

226and unskilled teachers in providing delicate and skillful assistance (Du Plessis, 2013). Likewise, this theory
gives this study devices in fulfilling the crucial need to enhance comprehensive knowledge in out-of-fieldteaching in the process of learning.

Figure 1: A Schematic Presentation of the Theoretical and Conceptual Framework of the Study

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
The study aimed to explore the out-of-field teaching practices among English language teachers in selected
Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) of Iloilo City.
Specifically, this study sought answers to the following questions:
1. As perceived by the administrators, teachers, and students, what are the teaching practices along
the following dimensions:
1.1 organization;
1.2 content knowledge and relevance;
1.3 presentation;
1.4 instructor-student interaction;
1.5 teaching strategies; and1.6 assessment?
2. How do the administrators, teachers, and students regard out-of-field teaching?
3. What initiatives have been undertaken by them?
4. What educational resource may be created?
METHODOLOGY
Research Design
This investigation utilized the mixed method research design that determined and described the out-of-fieldteaching practices among English language teachers in Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) of Iloilo City.
Further, this research explored how the participants regard out-of-field teaching and their initiatives on thisphenomenon.

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227

Research Environment
In this study, there were four institutions, two (2) public and two (2) private Higher Education Institutions(HEIs) of Iloilo City, served as the venues for this study. The selected Higher Education Institutions, theCollege of Education from the two public schools and the College of Business and College of Maritime
Education, and the College of Liberal Arts and Sciences from the private schools were the specific colleges
this study was conducted.

Research Participants
In this study, participants were purposively selected from the two public and two private Higher Educational
Institutions (HEIs) of Iloilo City. The participants of this study were further categorized as administrators,
teachers, and students. The table below shows the participants’ distribution.
Table 1: Distribution of Participants

Variable
Respondent

SchoolCategories
Student
Teacher
Head
PrivatePublicTotal

Frequency
253
8
4
151
114
265

%
95.47
3.02
1.51
56.98
43.02
100.00Data-gathering Procedure
Upon securing permission from the Research Ethics Committee (REC) at Cebu Normal University, thisstudy also secured permission from the selected Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) to administer thequestionnaire among the study participants. After securing the consent among the presidents andadministrators of the institutions, questionnaires were distributed using an online Google form. Results
were then tabulated and analyzed using appropriate statistical tools.
Data Analysis
This study processed obtained data for interpretation utilizing Statistical Package for Social Sciences(SPSS) software. Frequency count was used to determine the distribution of the participants. In this study,administrators, teachers, and students were classified according to the type of school, whether public or
private Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) served as the study participants. Mean was used to obtain outof-field English language teachers' teaching practices regarding their organization, content knowledge andrelevance, presentation, instructor-student interaction, teaching strategies, and assessment. Rank was used
to determine the sequence of teaching practice dimensions and their corresponding indicators: highly
practiced, moderately practiced, less practiced, and not practiced.
Thematic analysis was used for qualitative data analysis. The thematic analysis identifies, analyzes, andwrites the patterned themes extracted from the data (Braun & Clarke, 2006).
Ethical Considerations
This study ensured that ethical standards and considerations were adequately observed, such as (1) Informed
Consent and Voluntary Participation, (2) Assent and Vulnerability, (3) Recruitment, (4) Ethical Approvaland Access to Participants, (5) Risks and Benefits, and (6) Incentives or Compensation.

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228

Research Instrument
For quantitative data, an adapted modified classroom observation evaluation from John B. Lacson
Foundation Maritime University-Molo, Inc. was used as the questionnaire for this study. This research
instrument underwent reliability testing and was conducted among the group of participants of this study.
Moreover, a Likert-type survey used was used for this study with the following scale and description:
Scale
Description
3.25 - 4.00
Highly Practiced
2.50 – 3.24
Moderately Practiced
1.75 – 2.49
Less Practiced
1.00 – 1.74
Not Practiced at All
For qualitative data, interview protocols were used in the study. The interview guide includes open-ended
questions to capture the participants' responses. Interview guides were used to achieve optimum time andprovide meaningful intentions in investigating the number of participants in a more organized andcomprehensive approach while maintaining the interview's focus on its desired goals (DiCicco-Bloom B,
Crabtree, 2006).
RESULTS FROM QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS
Perceptions of the Administrators, Teachers, and Students Towards Out-of-Field English Language
Teachers’ Teaching Practices in Various Dimensions
Table 2: Teaching Practices as Perceived by the Administrators
WEIGHTED
MEAN

INTERPRETATIONRANK

I. Organization
The instructor …
1. makes clear the learning outcomes the students
must demonstrate at the end of the lesson.
2. reviews prior class lessons and related them to thecurrent lesson.
3. aligns the ILOs with the Teaching Learning
Activities (TLAs).
4. aligns the ILOs with the Assessment Tasks (ATS).
5. discusses again the ILOs at the end of the class.
6. summarizes important points at the end of the class.
7. asks students to demonstrate the outcomes.

3.50

Highly Practiced

2

3.50

Highly Practiced

3.00

Moderately Practiced

3.75

Highly Practiced

3.75
3.50
3.50
3.50

Highly Practiced
Highly Practiced
Highly Practiced
Highly Practiced

1
1
3
3
3

II. Content Knowledge and Relevance
The instructor …
1. presents the contents of the lesson very clearly.
2. presents materials relevant to the content of thelesson.
3. relates the current lesson with prior knowledge.
4. demonstrates mastery of the subject matter.
5. selects examples relevant to students' experiences
and course content.
6. makes the course content relevant with references
to 'real world' applications.
7. explains difficult terms, concepts, or problems in

3.50

Highly Practiced

2

3.50

Highly Practiced

2

3.50
3.25
3.50

Highly Practiced
Highly Practiced
Highly Practiced

2
6
2

3.50

Highly Practiced

2

3.25
4.0

Highly Practiced
Highly Practiced

6
1

TEACHING PRACTICESSEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research

3
7

229

TEACHING PRACTICESWEIGHTED
MEAN

INTERPRETATION

RANK

3.50

Highly Practiced

2

3.75

Highly Practiced

1

3.50
3.50
3.50

Highly Practiced
Highly Practiced
Highly Practiced

3
3
3

3.50

Highly Practiced

3

3.75

Highly Practiced

1

3.25
3.25

Highly Practiced
Highly Practiced

7
5

3.25

Highly Practiced

3

3.25
3.25

Highly Practiced
Highly Practiced

3
3

3.50

Highly Practiced

1

3.50
3.00

Highly Practiced
Moderately Practiced

1
6

3.00
3.07

Moderately Practiced
Moderately Practiced

6
6

3.00
3.25

Moderately Practiced
Highly Practiced

4
1

3.00

Moderately Practiced

4

3.25

Highly Practiced

1

3.25

Highly Practiced

1

2.75

Moderately Practiced

7

3.00
3.63

Moderately Practiced
Highly Practiced

4
1

3.25

Highly Practiced

6

more than one way.
III. Presentation
The instructor…
1. presents teaching and learning activities (TLAs)
relevant to the ILOs of the course.
2. establishes and maintained eye contact withstudents.
3. presents examples to clarify points.
4. relates new ideas to familiar concepts.
5. uses varied explanations for complex and difficult
concepts.
6. selects teaching methods appropriate for thecontent.
7. communicates a sense of enthusiasm andexcitement toward the content.
IV. Instructor-Student Interactions
The instructor …
1. motivates learners in order to achieve highstandards of performance.
2. encourages students to engage in discussion andinteraction.
3. asks questions to monitor students' progress.
4. encourages students to answer higher-orderquestions by providing cues.
5. asks probing questions when the student's answer isincomplete.
6. provides corrective feedback when needed.
7. promotes cooperation and teamwork among
students.
V. Teaching Strategies
The instructor …
1. demonstrates effective teaching strategies for the
given content.
2. aligns the TLAs with ILOs.
3. uses a variety of classroom activities directed
towards achievement of the desired outcomes.
4. uses "wait-time" when asking higher-order thinking
questions to class.
5. provides demonstration/examples of the given
content,
information, theories, or issues.
6. connects content to the previous and upcomingclass session.
7. designs activities, assignments, materials, andgroupings of students to support challenging
instructional outcomes.
V. Assessment
The instructor…
1. prepares assessments aligned with instructional
materials.
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230

TEACHING PRACTICES
2. prepares variety of performance opportunities forstudents.
3. modifies assessments available for individual
students as needed.
4. discusses clearly the rubrics to be used with eachcorresponding descriptor.
5. involves students in establishing the assessment
criteria and provide high-quality feedback from avariety of sources.
6. informs students regularly regarding their progress
and achievements.
Overall Weighted Mean

WEIGHTED
MEAN

INTERPRETATION

RANK

3.75

Highly Practiced

2

3.50

Highly Practiced

4

4.00

Highly Practiced

1

3.50

Highly Practiced

4

3.75
3.41

Highly Practiced
Highly Practiced

2

Table 2 shows the results of administrators' perceptions of the teaching practices of out-of-field English
language teachers on the six dimensions. Results showed that the administrators perceived five dimensions
as "highly practiced" teaching practices of the out-of-English language teachers, namely: 1) Organization;2) Content Knowledge and Relevance; 3) Presentation; 4) Instructor-Student Interaction; and 5) Assessment
were "highly practiced." In this case, the Teaching Strategies dimension was only perceived as "moderately
practiced."
Table 3: Teaching Practices as Perceived by the Teachers
Teaching Practices
I. Content Knowledge and Relevance
The instructor…
1. presents the contents of the lesson very clearly.
2. presents materials relevant to the content of the lesson.
3. relates the current lesson with prior knowledge.
4. demonstrates mastery of the subject matter.
5. selects examples relevant to students' experiences and course
content.
6. makes the course content relevant with references to 'real world'
applications.
7. explains difficult terms, concepts, or problems in more than oneway.
II. Presentation
The instructor…
1. presents teaching and learning activities (TLAs) relevant to the
ILOs of the course.
2. establishes and maintained eye contact with students.
3. presents examples to clarify points.
4. relates new ideas to familiar concepts.
5. uses varied explanations for complex and difficult concepts.
6. selects teaching methods appropriate for the content.
7. communicates a sense of enthusiasm and excitement toward thecontent.
SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research

Weighted
Means

Interpretation

RANK

3.54

Highly Practiced

5

3.50
3.63
3.38
3.38

Highly Practiced
Highly Practiced
Highly Practiced
Highly Practiced

4
2
6
6

3.50

Highly Practiced

4

3.63

Highly Practiced

2

3.75
3.66

Highly Practiced
Highly Practiced

1
2

3.50
3.63
3.63
3.50
3.75
4.00

Highly Practiced
Highly Practiced
Highly Practiced
Highly Practiced
Highly Practiced
Highly Practiced

6
3
3
6
2
1

3.63

Highly Practiced

3
231

Teaching Practices
III. Instructor-Student Interactions
The instructor…
1. motivates learners in order to achieve high standards ofperformance.
2. encourages students to engage in discussion and interaction.
3. asks questions to monitor students' progress.
4. encourages students to answer higher-order questions by providingcues.
5. asks probing questions when the student’s answer is incomplete.
6. provides corrective feedback when needed.
7. promotes cooperation and teamwork among students.
IV. Teaching Strategies
The instructor…
1. demonstrates effective teaching strategies for the given content.
2. aligns the TLAs with ILOs.
3. uses a variety of classroom activities directed towards achievementof the desired outcomes.
4. uses "wait-time" when asking higher-order thinking questions toclass.
5. provides demonstration/examples of given content, information,
theories or issues.
6. connects content to previous and upcoming class sessions.
7. designs activities, assignments, materials, and groupings ofstudents to support challenging instructional outcomes.
V. Assessment
The instructor…
1. prepares assessments aligned with instructional materials.
2. prepares a variety of performance opportunities for students.
3. modifies assessments available for individual students as needed.
4. discusses clearly the rubrics to be used with each corresponding
descriptor.
5. involves students in establishing the assessment criteria andprovide high-quality feedback from a variety of sources.
6. informs students regularly regarding their progress andachievements.
Overall Weighted Mean

Weighted
Means

Interpretation

RANK

3.63

Highly Practiced

4

3.63
3.50
3.75

Highly Practiced
Highly Practiced
Highly Practiced

3
6
2

3.88
3.63
3.63
3.38
3.64

Highly Practiced
Highly Practiced
Highly Practiced
Highly Practiced
Highly Practiced

1
3
3
7
3

3.38
3.63

Highly Practiced
Highly Practiced

7
5

3.75

Highly Practiced

1

3.75

Highly Practiced

1

3.75
3.50

Highly Practiced
Highly Practiced

1
6

3.75
3.76

Highly Practiced
Highly Practiced

1
1

3.63
3.88
3.88

Highly Practiced
Highly Practiced
Highly Practiced

4
1
1

3.63

Highly Practiced

4

3.63

Highly Practiced

4

3.88
3.65

Highly Practiced
Highly Practiced

1

Table 3 presents the perceptions of English language teachers teaching out-of-field subjects in fiveidentified dimensions. Based on the results, the perceptions of English language teachers teaching out-offield subjects in five dimensions, namely: 1) Content Knowledge and Relevance; 2) Presentation; 3)
Instructor-Student Interaction; 4) Teaching Strategies, and 5) Assessment along with their respective
indicators were "highly practiced."
Table 4: Teaching Practices as Perceived by the Students

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TEACHING PRACTICES
I. Content Knowledge and Relevance
1. The instructor presents the contents of the lesson very clearly.
2. The instructor presents materials relevant to the content of thelesson.
3. The instructor relates the current lesson with prior knowledge.
4. The instructor demonstrates mastery of the subject matter.
5. The instructor selects examples relevant to students' experiences
and course content.
6. The instructor makes the course content relevant with references
to 'real world' applications.
7. The instructor explains difficult terms, concepts, or problems in
more than one way.
II. Presentation
1. The instructor establishes and maintains eye contact withstudents.
2. The instructor presents examples to clarify points.
3. The instructor relates new ideas to familiar concepts.
4. The instructor uses varied explanations for complex and difficult
concepts.
5. The instructor communicates a sense of enthusiasm andexcitement toward the content.
III. Instructor-Student Interactions
1. The instructor motivates learners in order to achieve highstandards of performance.
2. The instructor encourages students to engage in discussion andinteraction.
3. The instructor asks questions to monitor students' progress.
4. The instructor encourages students to answer higher-orderquestions by providing cues.
5. The instructor asks probing questions when students’ answer isincomplete.
6. The instructor provides corrective feedback when needed.
7. The instructor promotes cooperation and teamwork among
students.
Overall Weighted Mean

WEIGHTED
MEANS
3.43
3.45

INTERPRETATIONRANKHighly Practiced
Highly Practiced

1

3.43
3.44
3.41

Highly Practiced
Highly Practiced
Highly Practiced

4
2
6

3.43

Highly Practiced

4

3.42

Highly Practiced

5

3.41
3.38

Highly Practiced
Highly Practiced

6
3

3.31
3.47
3.37

Highly Practiced
Highly Practiced
Highly Practiced

5
1
3

3.35

Highly Practiced

4

3.39
3.42

Highly Practiced
Highly Practiced

2
2

3.37

Highly Practiced

5

3.45
3.46

Highly Practiced
Highly Practiced

3
2

3.37

Highly Practiced

5

3.37
3.42

Highly Practiced
Highly Practiced

5
4

3.49
3.41

Highly Practiced
Highly Practiced

1

1

Table 4 shows students' perceptions towards the teaching practices of their out-of-field English language
teachers and Content-knowledge and Relevance; Presentation; and Instructor-Student Interactions, together
with all the teaching practices indicators, were "highly practiced."
Table 5: Summary of Teaching Practices as Perceived by the Administrators, Teachers, and Students
Weighted Mean (Overall)Interpretation

DIMENSION
Administrators

Teachers

Students

Rank

Average

I. Organization(3.50)

Highly Practiced

II. Content Knowledge andRelevance
III. Presentation

3.50

3.54

3.43

3.49

Highly Practiced

2

3.50

3.66

3.38

3.51

Highly Practiced

1

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Weighted Mean (Overall)
DIMENSION
IV. Instructor-Student
Interactions
V. Teaching Strategies

Administrators
3.25

Teachers
3.63(3.07)(3.64)

Students
3.42

Average
3.43

Interpretation

Rank

Highly Practiced

3

Moderately Practiced
Highly Practiced

VI. Assessment(3.63)(3.76)Overall Weighted Mean

3.42

3.61

Highly Practiced
3.41

3.48

Highly Practiced

Table 5 summarizes the teaching practices the administrators, teachers, and students perceive according to
the identified dimensions applicable to specific participants. For the administrators, overall dimensions
were perceived as "highly practiced." However, the "teaching strategies" dimension was moderately
practiced with a weighted mean of 3.07. The rest of the dimensions were perceived as "highly practiced."
This means that the administrators have observed areas to consider for improvement in the teachingpractices of out-of-field English language teachers.
The out-of-field English language teachers claimed that they performed excellently based on the results ofthis study. All the dimensions were perceived as "highly practiced," with an overall weighted mean of 3.61.
Independently, each dimension showed "highly practiced" teaching practices, and assessment ranked thehighest with a mean score of 3.76, and content knowledge and relevance had the least mean score of 3.54.
RESULTS FROM QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS
For the administrators, out-of-field teaching can be 1) An Existing Phenomenon, 2) A Challenge to
Embrace, and 3) Multidisciplinary Teaching in the New Era. Administrators regarded out-of-field teachingas an existing occurrence that has been practiced until now. Though it is a challenge, especially on the partof the teachers, it should be something to accept and embrace. They also believed that out-of-field teachingis seen as a multidisciplinary kind of teaching in the new era wherein teachers are capable of handlingdifferent subjects simultaneously regardless of whether the subjects handled are out-of-field or not. The
multidisciplinary method represents the most productive way of managing knowledge allowing the practiceand evaluation of students' technical and non-technical skills (Tramonti et al., 2019).
There are central themes on the initiatives done by the heads of Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) toaddress out-of-field teaching practices, and these are: (1) Let's Talk It Over discusses the initiatives ofadministrators through consultation;(2) Teach Me, and I Will Learn presents other ways done by theadministrator through team teaching 3) Active Support Works discusses the ways on how theseadministrators show support to their out-of-field English language teachers.
From teachers, themes extracted are (1) Truly A Challenge; 2) You Cannot Give What You Do Not Have;
3) Left with No Other Choice; 4) Open Doors for Opportunity; and 5) Something to Look Into. Out-of-field
English language teachers regarded it as an enormous challenge on their part to double an exerted effort tolearn and deliver the out-of-field subjects. Most have found difficulty in the same manner. They knew how
struggling subjects they had not been in intensive training nor specialized in those subjects. However, withthe educational transformation, just like the implementation of the K-12 curriculum and for othercircumstances to consider, they were left with no choice but to accept the loads. Out-of-field was not allabout negativity when teachers claimed this challenge was an opportunity to learn something new.
Nevertheless, the institutions should consider this phenomenon that teachers still need professional
development and administrative support for better teaching. Effective teachers produce better-performing
students (Akiri, 2013).
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Teachers also have the initiative to cope with subjects outside of their specialization. The themes deduced
from their responses are: : (1) Learn to Master Your Subject describes the efforts exerted and initiatives ofthe out-of-field English language teachers to be prepared and master the subjects; (2) Engage Students into
Varied Activities enumerates the different teaching strategies used by English language teachers in her outof-field subjects, and (3) Seek Help from the Experts describes how teachers collaborate with other teachers
who are expert in the fields. This conforms to the investigative results of Tickle et al. (2015), which revealed
the role of administrative support as the teachers' job satisfaction's most significant predictor contributing
to excellent teaching experience.
Finally, from the students' responses, out-of-field teaching is regarded as the following: a) It is About My
Teacher; b) What A Meaningful Experience; and c) It is Fine, Not a Big Deal at All. For students, they
regarded out-of-field teaching based on their English language teachers' attitude, and they described themas passionate and dedicated teachers who are doing their best to deliver their lessons in their classroom
effectively. Likewise, students had meaningful experiences with their out-of-field English language
teachers, so being out-of-field was not a big deal or problem. They did not have unpleasant issues withthese teachers. As long as teachers could deliver their lessons well, it was okay for them. This conforms to
the study conducted by Cruz et al. (2017) that findings revealed satisfactory evaluation of most students
towards their teachers' science strategies and lectures despite teaching outside of their expertise. Having an
out-of-field teacher is not a problem. Teachers' teaching skills matter more than how they deliver andelaborate their lessons well.
Two (2) significant themes are noted from the students' initiatives. These are: (1) Right Study
Habits presents students' initiatives in maintaining their academic performance despite having out-of-field
English language teachers, and (2) I Do It Myself discusses the self-learning techniques of students to copewith their lessons.
Since gathered data revealed that the participants perceived out-of-field teaching practices of English
language teachers as "highly practiced," a monograph for this study was created as an educational resourcethat will serve as a reference for researchers and educators interested in studying the context of out-of-fieldteaching. This, however, shows the less impact of out-of-field teaching among the participants, contrary to
the massive amount of literature on out-of-field teaching's detrimental effects.
CONCLUSION
From the quantitative results, this study shows that the teaching profession always has room for
improvement for better delivery and quality teaching, especially the Teaching Strategies perceived as"moderately practiced" among dimensions. However, most dimensions such as Presentation, Content
Knowledge and Relevance, and Instructor-Student Interaction can be attributed to the teachers' excellent
performances in the classroom, as observed by the participants of this study that despite teaching out-offield subjects, do not hinder them from delivering their lessons among their students confidently.
On the other hand, the qualitative results of this study show both the advantages and disadvantages of outof-field teaching to the study participants. As mentioned in the previous chapter, many research literatureand studies claimed undesirable effects of out-of-field teaching. However, contrary to previous literaturethat revealed undesirable impacts among teachers and students in elementary and secondary, this situation
may be different nowadays based on the present study's findings conducted among college students in
Higher Education Institutions (HEIs).
IMPLICATION ON ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING (ELT)English language teachers become multidisciplinary educators who have surpassed the challenges in the
educational reforms. Considering that they are given out-of-field subjects, these teachers have shown
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passion and determination to be competent in other areas. They likewise keep the spirit of excellence andopen-mindedness along with the changes in the educational system. This investigation shows the significant
role of English language teachers in the classroom. It shows that out-of-field English language teachers candemonstrate their teaching practices excellently despite having out-of-field subjects. These teachers caneventually acquire a master's in out-of-field subjects with proper training and support from the institutions.
Thus, policies on the teaching development of these teachers can significantly help them in mastering theirsubjects.
Moreover, English language teachers widen their opportunities by teaching other fields. They can
distinguish their strengths and weaknesses as out-of-field teachers beneficial to English language teachingas a continuous learning process. From the English language teaching, they can also apply their practices
and initiatives to other subjects yet achieve the same goal: to make students learn and even excel in theirsubjects.
A monograph is created as an educational resource for this study to serve as one of the many references ortools for both educators and researchers who are into research and interested in conducting studies alignedwith the context of out-of-field teaching. Furthermore, this work will serve as a humble contribution to thefield of research that seeks eternal truth through accurate and scientific investigation.
RECOMMENDATIONSThis study's selected Higher Educational Institutions (HEIs) may sustain the highly practiced teachingpractices of out-of-field English language teachers who are highly commendable for exceeding students'
expectations and with a strong competency level. Moreover, by knowing the challenges posed by thisphenomenon, the school administration may investigate other effective ways to address the sentiments andchallenges encountered by some participants. Lastly, researchers and educators may also use the monographcreated as an educational resource for this study which will serve as a reference for future studies, especiallywhen it concerns the context of out-of-field teaching.
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Inquiry Based Teaching of Fraction Division:
A Case Study of Primary School Mathematics Teachers
Salmiah Md. Salleh1, Suzieleez Syrene Abdul Rahim, PhD2, Edy Hafizan Mohd Shahali, PhD3,
Nur Aisyah Chuah Jia Ni4
1

salmiah.salleh@ipgm.edu.my
1,2,3
Universiti Malaya
4
Institute of Teacher Education Malaysia

ABSTRACTThis study aims to explore the inquiry-based teaching of fraction division among primary mathematics
teachers and to understand the reasoning behind their teaching methods. This paper presents a case studyof an experienced teacher, Mr. Ali (pseudonym) who teaches standard six students and employs inquirybased teaching when teaching fraction division. This study applies a case study design, and the teacher waschosen using the purposive sampling method. Research data was collected through lesson observation,interviews, and document analysis to answer the research questions. The collected data was thenqualitatively interpreted and analyzed. The study reveals that the teacher used an inquiry-based method inteaching division of fractions which is anchored on stimulation, hands-on activities, and making
conclusions. This approach is heavily influenced by Mr. Ali’s understanding and beliefs in inquiry-basedteaching. He believed that hands-on activities and learning by doing promote fun learning and enhance
students’ memorization of procedure for fraction division. Additionally, the teacher also believed thatinquiry-based teaching is appropriate to be used in teaching the concept of fraction division because it
develops higher-order thinking skills among students. Based on these findings, it is recommended that
future studies explore the use of inquiry-based teaching of other concepts of fractions to gain a morecomprehensive understanding of its application in teaching mathematics.
KEYWORDS: Inquiry-Based Teaching, Division of Fractions, Fractions, Case Study.

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INTRODUCTION
Fractions has been widely used in everyday lives and is regarded as one of the important topics inmathematics’ curriculum. A deep understanding of the concept of fractions may help students to solve
problems in daily activities. In the primary school mathematics curriculum (KSSR), the basic concept offractions is introduced since Standard One. In Standard Six, students are required to learn fraction division,
which is often considered as a challenging topic to learn. Although the procedure for dividing fractions is
simple, this topic is conceptually complex and can be challenging for students (Lamon, 2020). They
demonstrate a poor grasp of fraction division, and it is still difficult for math teachers to assist that
understanding (Ervin, 2017).
Traditionally, fraction division has been taught using algorithm methods such as inverse multiplication tosolve fraction division (Ervin, 2017). Students have been taught to solve fraction division without knowing
the meaning and the reason behind the inverse multiplication method. Nevertheless, difficulty arises when
they are faced with word problems in which fraction division is put into a context to be solved. In such asituation, understanding the meaning behind the concept of fraction division can accelerate students’ ability
to solve the given problems. It is reflected here that an inappropriate pedagogical teaching method makes
it difficult for students to learn and understand the concept of fraction divisions (Lortie-Forgues, Tian, &Siegler, 2015). Rather, teachers should balance teaching algorithmic procedure with engaging their students
in the meaning behind the mathematical concept, because they cannot assist students learn mathematics
meaningfully if they do not completely grasp the core concepts (Siegler & Lortie-Forgues, 2015). Teachers
also must employ an effective pedagogical approach that can actively engage students in building theirconceptual grasp of mathematics and mathematical thinking to meet the demands of the current learnerfocused views in mathematics education. Accordingly, in the mathematics classroom, opportunities toaccomplish this are provided by inquiry-based teaching (Charalambous, 2015). An inquiry-based teachingemphasizes understanding the meaning of a concept, learning through hands-on activities and active
learning by doing. Manipulatives tools and representations are also used widely in learning activities.
Inquiry-based teaching has also been known by past researchers to be successful in enhancing students’performance in fractions and increases their overall interest in learning mathematics. Through thisapproach, students are also expected to solve and make sense of a properly scaffolded series ofmathematical tasks given by teachers in groups or individually, which is a type of active learning (Ernst,
Hodge & Yoshinobu, 2017). However, teachers may find it challenging to apply inquiry-based teaching inmathematics lessons, due to several challenges it presents for them as it is different from the traditional
approach widely used and normalized by mathematics teachers (Maass & Engeln, 2018). Past research has
also shown that there is a lack of knowledge on how it been conducted in a real classroom setting (Gutierez,2015). The insights from a real classroom setting and the implementation of the inquiry-based teaching of
fraction division can help teachers to understand how it can be done in classroom. Hence, this study isconducted to explore the teaching of fraction division using inquiry-based teaching method in a realclassroom setting of a primary school mathematics teacher, to see whether the approach can facilitate
meaningful teaching opportunities.
The objectives of this study are to explore the inquiry-based teaching of fraction division among primaryschool mathematics teachers and to explore the reasons behind the way they teach fraction division.
Specifically, the research questions of this study are (a) “How do primary school mathematics teachers
conduct inquiry-based teaching of fraction division?”, and (b) “Why do the teachers teach the way they
do?”. Answers to the above research questions will give insights in understanding the implementation of
inquiry-based teaching of fraction division in a real classroom setting.
Fraction Division

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Fraction division is a challenging topic for both students and teachers (Getenet & Callingham, 2021). Often,
fraction division is conceptualised mathematically as an algorithmic process that can be simply taught andlearned as "invert and multiply." Nevertheless, this topic is theoretically complex and challenging since its
significance necessitates an explanation using links to other areas of mathematics, different representations,or situations from the actual world. Teachers thus play a key role in facilitating students’ understanding of
fraction division. How the content is set up and the students’ learning environment can have big impacts on
the students’ understanding of this topic. As such, it has been suggested that mathematics teachers need tohave a relational grasp of fraction division and must be able to create learning environments with activities
that foster the students' relational comprehension of the subject (Wahyu et.al., 2020).
Prior studies also support the notion that students often face difficulties in learning fraction division. Thiscan be caused by the nature and the complexity of the topic (Lamon, 2020), the teachers’ mastery ofconceptual understanding of fraction division (Copur-Gencturk, 2021) and the teachers’ pedagogicalaspects (Getenet & Callingham, 2021). Most of the past studies are focused on the teachers’ understandingof fraction division, and very few studies focused on how fraction division should be taught to help thestudents to understand it better. As such there is a need to conduct more studies in the latter.
Inquiry-Based Teaching of Mathematics
According to Dorier and Maass (2020), inquiry-based mathematics education is a student-centered approachthat encourages students to observe a phenomenon or a situation, seek out mathematical solutions, draw
diagrams, find patterns and relationship, make generalization, and communicate effectively to explain theirsolutions or findings. Some of the common terms frequently used to describe inquiry-based teaching arelearner-focused, investigation or research, question-driven, communication, reflection, and collaboration(Chapman, 2011). For the past decade, there have been growing numbers of researchers and research
focusing on inquiry-based teaching of mathematics. They discovered that inquiry-based teaching activities
can be used in the mathematics classroom and are able to provide useful ways and resources for teachingalgorithms. (Laudano, Tortoriello, & Vincenzi, 2020). Inquiry-based teaching imparts positive impacts on
students’ learning of mathematics.
Research by Karademir and Akman (2019) demonstrates that preschoolers’ numerical and operations skills
have improved and last longer because of the inquiry-based teaching activities. Furthermore, inquiry-basedteaching has also been identified to facilitate a more fun and active learning environment, thus increasing
students’ motivation in learning mathematics (Karademir & Akman, 2021). In addition, the approach also
helps to develop higher order and critical thinking skills among students (Kandil, & Işıksal-Bostan, 2019;
Rooney, 2009). Many past studies on inquiry-based teaching of mathematics have focused on theeffectiveness and impacts of the approach to students’ learning (Divrik, Pilten, & Tas, 2020; Hastuti et.al,2020). However, very few research focused on how it can be implemented in a real classroom setting, andspecifically in the teaching of fraction division. Hence, this research is carried out to explore the inquirybased teaching of fraction division among primary school mathematics teachers with the goal of outlining
the specific methods it can be implemented.
METHODOLOGYThis study employs a case study design, and the participants consist of five primary school mathematics
teachers who were purposively sampled based on predetermined criteria to obtain quality andcomprehensive data. Specifically, the selection criteria required that the teachers must have at least five
years of experience in teaching primary school mathematics. This is because the teachers will alreadypossess well-developed knowledge and skills in teaching (Hiebert & Carpenter, 1992). Additionally, theteachers must have attended professional development courses in inquiry-based teaching of mathematics
organized by the Ministry of Education Malaysia and frequently apply inquiry-based teaching of
SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research240mathematics. This paper only focuses on one participant, representative of one case study. The mostsignificant limitation of this study is that findings from a single participant cannot be generalized to a larger
population. The case study represents only one unique individual, and their experiences, behaviours, oroutcomes may not be representative of others with similar characteristics or conditions. The research data
was subsequently collected through lesson observations, interviews, and document analysis. The qualitative
data was analyzed using qualitative content analysis method that consist of four stages; i) data transcribed,(ii) coding and identifying the categories, (iii) construct case study, and (iv) cross case analysis.
RESULTSThe result of this study provides answers to the research questions; i) “How do primary school mathematics
teachers conduct inquiry-based teaching of fraction division?”, and ii) “Why do the teachers teach the way
they do?”. This paper presents one case study of an experienced mathematics teacher, Mr. Ali, who teaches
fraction division for a class of 40 students, Standard 6 Cempaka.
Mr. Ali (Pseudonym)
Mr. Ali is an experienced mathematics teacher and has been teaching primary school mathematics for 25
years. He is one of the writers for modules on inquiry-based teaching of mathematics published by the
Ministry of Education Malaysia (MOE) and is also recognised by MOE as a master trainer in inquiry-basedteaching of mathematics for teachers nationwide. He also practices inquiry-based teaching in hismathematics classroom including in the teaching of fraction division. How he teaches fraction divisionusing inquiry-based teaching and why he teaches the way he does is presented below.
(a) How does the teacher teach fraction division using inquiry-based teaching?
Mr. Ali’s approach in using inquiry-based teaching of fraction division is discussed in three themes thatemerged from the data analysis. The themes are (i) stimulation, (ii) hands-on activities, and (iii) making
conclusions.
(i) Stimulation
The stimulation phase highlights the importance of using real-life situations, visual aids, and questioning toengage students' curiosity and interest in the topic.
Mr. Ali used a problem related to a real-life situation as the focus in this phase and wrote the problem on
the whiteboard. An example of the problem is provided below:“Fatimah had ¾ cake left from a birthday party. She wanted to divide the cake into halfand give one half to Suzy. What is the fraction of the cake that Suzy gets?”
Mr. Ali used a visual aid (Figure 1), a piece of paper that had been sketched to represent ¾ cake and thenhe proceeded to show it in front of the class.
Figure 1: Picture of ¾ of a ‘cake’

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He read the problem out loud and asked the students, “what is the fraction of the cake that Suzy got?”. The
students remained silent. He continued asking, “how can we solve this problem?” The students appeared tohave no idea on how to solve the problem and told My Ali “We don’t know teacher”. Then, Mr. Ali tried
to guide the students by prompting them on how to start solving the problem. “Okay, normally what do we
do when we want to solve word problems? We try to write mathematics sentences for the problem. Write
down your answer on your mini whiteboard.”

The students then wrote their answers on their mini whiteboards and Mr. Ali walked around the class toobserve the students’ answers. Mr. Ali had enabled the students to visualize their thinking using their mini
whiteboards. It was observed that most of the students wrote down a mathematic sentence as shown below:

Next, Mr. Ali asked the students “Why did you write division symbol?”, in which the students answered,“because we have to divide the cake, so it’s division”. Mr. Ali agreed with the students’ answer and thenhe continued, “Okay, let’s explore how to divide fraction with fraction”.
During this stimulation phase, Mr. Ali did not target students to obtain the right answer to the given problem,
instead he used the problem itself as a tool to engage the students and relate it back to the lesson. The lesson
then continued with the next phase, which is themed as hands-on activities.
(ii) Hands-on activities
The hands-on activities observed in this study consisted of sketching and drawing diagrams for the students
to explore the meaning of fraction division and solving fraction division using diagrams. The students weresitting in groups, and they were encouraged to discuss among their group members as they attempted tosolve the problems in the worksheet given. They had to solve five fraction division questions in theworksheet. Each question had an empty diagram for the students to sketch. An example of one of thequestions in the worksheet is shown in Figure 2.

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Figure 2: Question 1 in the worksheet

For the first question in the worksheet, Mr. Ali guided the students by drawing diagrams on the white board
in front of the class. The steps for sketching and drawing diagrams are shown in Figure 3. Mr. Ali started
with asking the question “how many is 1/5 inside of 1/2?” Then he sketched diagrams on the whiteboard toillustrate the problem, as shown in Figure 4. An example of a student’s answer is provided in Figure 5.
1

1

Figure 4: Steps for drawing and sketching diagrams for solving 5 ÷ 2.
Teacher’s question: How many is
1

𝟏
𝟏
in ?
𝟓
𝟐

1

a) Sketch 5 and 2 in different boxes.

1b) Equalize the number5of parts in each box.

1
2

1

For the box showing , draw one
5horizontal line to make it like the1
box showing
2

1

For the box showing 2, draw fivevertical lines like make is like thebox showing 1/51c) Count the number of shaded regions in diagram 5 = 2 shaded regions
1d) Count the number of shaded regions in diagram 2 = 5 shaded regionse) There are 2 parts from 5 parts of the shaded regionsf) Answer:

1
5

1

2

÷ 2 =5SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research243

Figure 5: Example of student’s answer for question 1(iii) Making conclusion.
Making conclusion emphasizes the students’ ability to state the procedure for dividing fractions from theanswers they obtained during the hands-on activities. They listed down all the answers for all questions asshown in Figure 6. Then, they had to identify the pattern on how to get the solutions.
Figure 6: List of answers

Mr. Ali used the following questions to prompt the students to come up with a conclusion for fraction
division problems.
a. Can you see a pattern in finding the answers for the questions given?
b. Are you able to understand the steps to obtain the answers for all the questions we did justnow?
c. Are there other ways to get the answers to the questions we did apart from drawing
diagrams?
Subsequently, there are students who answered, “we can cross multiply, teacher!”. To this, the teacher asked
one of the students to come forward and illustrate their answer. The student explained that for fraction
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divisions, cross multiplication can also be used, whereby the numerator of the first fraction is multipliedwith the denominator of the second fraction and vice versa (Figure 7). There are also students who answeredthat the division symbol can be substituted with the multiplication symbol, and then completing themultiplication by multiplying the numerator of the first fraction with the numerator of the second fraction,
followed by the denominator of the first fraction with the denominator of the second fraction (Figure 7).
Other students suggested using the division symbol. As a result, the students made the following
conclusions shown in Figure 7, for solving fraction divisions.
Figure 7: Three examples of students’ answers on fraction division procedure

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research245

(b) Why do the teachers teach the way they do?
From the interviews, it is found that the teachers’ approach to teaching fraction division using inquiry-based
was influenced by their knowledge and beliefs on the effectiveness of this approach. The teachers believethat inquiry-based teaching is beneficial for promoting conceptual understanding, developing thinking
skills, and making learning fun for students.
Mr. Ali has preferred to teach fraction division using inquiry-based teaching method ever since he wastrained in the method. He believes that inquiry-based teaching should be used to teach fraction division
since this method is effective in promoting conceptual understanding among the students, develops criticalthinking skills among the students and makes learning fun. Mr. Ali confirmed this during the interviews as
exemplified by the following interview excerpt:“Since I’ve been introduced to this method, I have used it to teach fraction division andI think my students are showing great interest in learning mathematics specificallyfraction division since it promotes conceptual understanding, can make my students think
and the students actively engaged in the learning process...”Mr. Ali believes that to start the lesson, the teacher must be able to get the students’ attention and thesimulation phase will provide the students with initial ideas on what they will learn during the lesson. This
increases students’ interest in learning and engages them throughout the lesson. Mr. Ali confirmed thisduring interviews as shown by the following interview excerpt:“For the induction set, we must get the students’ attention before the real lesson starts.
We can give students problematic situations related to dividing fractions so that students
can get an initial idea of what topic they will learn today.”
Mr. Ali believes that the hands-on activity provides the students with an opportunity to build knowledge
from their own experience, generating ideas and providing answers to the problems given and creating funlearning.
“Hands-on activity is important in inquiry-based teaching to trigger students’ curiosity.
Students will build knowledge from their experience in that activity, encouraging them togenerate information and ideas translated into solutions and answers. Without hands-on
activity, it’s like we transmit the information one-way to the students, without any
engagement on their part. Students will enjoy the learning process more when they arehands-on in the learning process.”
Mr. Ali also believes that groupwork is an effective way to encourage critical thinking and problem-solving
skills in the classroom. It will encourage students to work together as a team to solve problems related to
fraction division and helps them to develop their communication and teamwork skills, which are important
thinking skills. The interview excerpt is shown as below:"This inquiry makes the students think. When we do hands-on activity in groups, thestudents will discuss and try to solve the problem among themselves. Through thediscussion, students will develop communication skills and also thinking skills because
there will be clash of ideas and so on."DISCUSSION AND SUMMARY OF THE STUDY
The inquiry-based teaching of fraction division by primary school mathematics teachers was explored byusing case study and data were collected through lesson observations, interviews, and document analysis toanswer the research questions. The three themes that emerged from the data are stimulation, hands-on
SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research

246activities, and making conclusions. These are consistent with the principles of inquiry-based teaching whichemphasize active learning, exploration, and reflection.
The first theme, stimulation, highlights the importance of using real-life examples, visual aids, and thoughtprovoking questions to engage students' interest and curiosity in the topic. This helps students see therelevance of the topic to their own real-life experience, thus promoting their motivation to learn. This themealigns with research by Bahar and Johnstone (2017), which finds that the use of real-life examples, visual
aids, and thought-provoking questions enhance students' interest in the topic, making the learning
experience more stimulating and relevant.
The second theme, hands-on activities, emphasizes the importance of providing students with concrete andtangible experience on the concept of fraction division. Hands-on activities in math education have beenshown to promote students' problem-solving skills, reasoning skills, and conceptual understanding ofmathematics. In the learning fraction division, providing students with this helps them to develop much
deeper understanding and more meaningful engagement with the learning material (Chappell, 2013).
Finally, the third theme, making conclusions, emphasizes the importance of allowing students to reflect onwhat they have learned and draw connections between different concepts. According to Wu and Huang(2019), making conclusions is a critical aspect of inquiry-based learning, as it promotes students'
metacognitive skills and their ability to transfer knowledge to new situations. By reflecting on what they
have learned and drawing connections between different concepts, students can better understand therelevance of the topic to their lives and apply their learning in real-world contexts.
However, according to Bailey and Heritage (2020), although inquiry-based learning can be effective inpromoting student learning outcomes, it is not a one-size-fits-all approach. Some students may not be highly
motivated by real-life examples or hands-on activities and may prefer more traditional forms of instruction
when learning mathematics. Hence, it is important for teachers to recognize and accommodate to theirstudents’ different learning preferences and styles when implementing inquiry-based teaching.
This research also finds that the teachers’ approach to teaching fraction division using inquiry-basedteaching is influenced by their knowledge and beliefs about the effectiveness of this approach. The teachers
believe that inquiry-based teaching is beneficial for promoting conceptual understanding, developing
thinking skills, and making learning fun for students. This aligns with previous research that has shown thebenefits of inquiry-based teaching in promoting student engagement, motivation, and understanding ofmathematical concepts. For example, a study by Hodge and Willis (2018) finds that inquiry-based teaching
can improve student engagement and understanding of mathematical concepts in fractions. Similarly, a
study by Gagnon and Cormier (2018) stipulates that inquiry-based teaching can promote critical thinking
and problem-solving skills in students.
Overall, the findings of this study highlight the importance of using inquiry-based teaching to promote
conceptual understanding and thinking skills in mathematics education, specifically in the teaching of
fraction divisions. Nevertheless, it remains important for teachers to consider the individual needs ofstudents and contextual factors when deciding on an instructional approach.
In summary, this study concludes that the teachers’ approach to teaching fraction division using inquirybased teaching is influenced by their knowledge and beliefs about the effectiveness of this approach. The
themes of stimulation, hands-on activities, and making conclusions emerged from the data and emphasize
the importance of active learning, exploration, and reflection in promoting student engagement andunderstanding. These findings are consistent with previous research and highlight the importance ofconsidering individual needs and contextual factors in instructional decision-making.

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Adu-Gyamfi, K., Schwartz, C. S., Sinicrope, R., & Bossé, M. J. (2019). Making sense of fraction division:
domain and representation knowledge of preservice elementary teachers on a fraction divisiontask. Mathematics Education Research Journal, 31(4), 507-528.
Alqahtani, M., Powell, A., Webster, V., & Tirnovan, D. (2022). How a Measuring Perspective Influences
Pre-service Teachers’ Reasoning about Fractions with Discrete and Continuous
Models. International Electronic Journal of Elementary Education, 14(3), 441-458.
Baek, J. M., Wickstrom, M. H., Tobias, J. M., Miller, A. L., Safak, E., Wessman-Enzinger, N., & Kirwan,
J. V. (2017). Preservice teachers’ pictorial strategies for a multistep multiplicative fraction
problem. The Journal of Mathematical Behavior, 45, 1-14.
Bahar, M., & Johnstone, A. H. (2017). The effectiveness of inquiry-based learning in enhancing students’interest, engagement, and achievement in mathematics education. International Journal of
Science and Mathematics Education, 15(7), 1271-1299.
Bailey, M., & Heritage, M. (2020). Inquiry-based learning in higher education: Challenges andopportunities. Innovations in Education and Teaching International, 57(2), 123-132.
Copur-Gencturk, Y. (2021). Teachers’ conceptual understanding of fraction operations: results from anational sample of elementary school teachers. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 107(3), 525545.
Chappell, M. F. (2013). Hands-on Activities in Mathematics Education. Procedia-Social and Behavioral
Sciences, 93, 976-980.
Charalambous, C. Y. (2015). Working at the intersection of teacher knowledge, teacher beliefs, andteaching practice: A multiple-case study. Journal of Mathematics Teacher Education, 18, 427445.
Chapman, O. (2011). Elementary school teachers’ growth in inquiry-based teaching ofmathematics. ZDM, 43(6), 951-963.
Divrik, R., Pilten, P., & Tas, A. M. (2020). Effect of Inquiry-Based Learning Method Supported by
Metacognitive Strategies on Fourth-Grade Students' Problem-Solving and Problem-Posing Skills:
A Mixed Methods Research. International Electronic Journal of Elementary Education, 13(2),287-308.
Dorier, J-L. & Maass K. (2020) Inquiry Based Mathematics Education. In S. Lerman (ed.) Encyclopediaof Mathematics Education, pp. 384-388. Dordrecht: Springer. https:// doi.org/10.1007/978-3-03015789-0
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Ervin, H. K. (2017). Fraction Multiplication and Division Models: A Practitioner Reference
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Getenet, S., & Callingham, R. (2019). Teaching interrelated concepts of fraction for understanding andteacher’s pedagogical content knowledge. Mathematics Education Research Journal, 33(2), 201221.
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Karademir, A., & Akman, B. (2019). Effect of Inquiry-Based Mathematics Activities on Preschoolers'
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inquiry-based learning. International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science andTechnology, 51(3), 344-353.
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problem. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 96(3), 327-348
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Analyze the Gaps in the Curriculum Improvement Process
According to the Criteria Set by
The ASEAN University Network-Quality Assurance (AUN-QA)
Staporn Tavornativat1, Pattaraporn Kitchainukoon 2, and Namfon Sangarun3
1

Chandrakasem Rajabhat University, Thailand (stap35@hotmail.com)
2
Thailand (yingphatt@hotmail.com)
3
Phetchaburi Rajabhat University (Numfon.san@mail.pbru.ac.th)

ABSTRACTThe purpose of this research is threefold: A) to analyze the gaps between curriculum improvement basedon The ASEAN University Network-Quality Assurance (AUN-QA) criteria, B) to study the strengths andweaknesses of adapting AUN-QA criteria for curriculum improvement, and C) to provide recommendations
and guidelines for enhancing the curriculum improvement process. The study collected data throughinterviews with curriculum improvement stakeholders, university administrators, and educational quality
assurance units, totaling 16 participants. Content analysis was employed for data analysis. The findings
revealed that: A) the gaps in curriculum improvement stemmed from an incomplete analysis of industry
needs and a lack of benchmarking with other universities, resulting in incremental curriculum adjustmentsfrom the original version; moreover, support systems for teaching and learning did not yet align with
instructors' capacity for curriculum enhancement; B) the strengths of adopting AUN-QA criteria included
the opportunity to produce graduates meeting future workforce needs, fostering exchanges between
instructors and industry regarding future labor market requirements; however, the weaknesses arose fromthe multitude of assessment indicators within AUN-QA, which were not fully comprehended by instructors
and administrators, leading to a slower curriculum improvement process due to insufficient consensus
across parties; C) recommendations included developing central personnel to possess requisite knowledge,
enabling support for instructors to meet AUN-QA criteria. Administrators should comprehend criteria andprovide guidance while establishing a quality assurance network for enhancing exchanges among
universities.
KEYWORDS: ASEAN University, Quality assurance, Gap analysis

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INTRODUCTION
Quality Assurance System (QA) has become an increasingly important regulatory tool in the managementof the global university sector. from one estimate Nearly half of countries around the world have quality
assurance systems or QA regulators for university education (Darryl, 2014). There may be many common
cultural characteristics. But there are large gaps in the development of the higher education system. andlarge differences in other subsystems such as economic and political conditions. Consequently, the extent
to which borrowing of frameworks and forms has a profound effect on university education systems(Hamish and Mahsood, 2017) is the mechanism used by universities to assess quality assurance.
Implementation of curriculum development Curriculum improvements quality supervision To create
quality and be accepted (Siriphokaew et al., 2022)
The ASEAN University Network-Quality Assurance (AUN-QA) is a partnership of universities in the
Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN) member countries. Founded on In November 1995, a
total of 13 universities were established and later expanded to 27 universities in accordance with theresolution of the 4th ASEAN Summit, aiming to build an ASEAN identity and develop human resources
through strengthening the university network. which will play an important role in helping to achieve resultsin the establishment of the ASEAN Community The purpose of establishing AUN (ASEAN university
network, 2020) is
1. Promote cooperation among scholars and scientists in the region.
2. Develop academic and professional human resources in the region
3. Promote the dissemination of information among ASEAN academic communities.
With the need to develop a quality assurance system at the university level in the same direction by quality
assurance system AUN-QA consists of 3 dimensions:
1. Strategic is a university education quality assurance.
2. Systemic It is an internal quality assurance system quality assurance.
3. Tactical It is quality assurance at the program level or at the program level.
AUN QA will use a rating system based on a full score of 7 in the form of a Rating Scale consisting of 8
criteria, each criterion also consists of sub-criteria for further consideration. The main criteria for quality
assessment in the area of Expected Learning Outcomes, Program Structure and Content, Teaching and
Learning Approach, Student Assessment, Academic Staff, Student Support Services, Facilities andInfrastructure, Output and Outcomes (Asean university network, 2020)
For Thailand, criteria, and guidelines for internal quality assurance at the university level have beenannounced. Require universities to provide internal educational quality assurance at the program level. anduniversity with a quality assessment system Council of the University Presidents of Thailand Quality
Assurance: CUPT QA that has been developed to cover all 3 levels and has principles that focus oncontinuous quality improvement to excellence and international competitiveness. At the curriculum level,
the CUPT QA quality assurance system requires ASEAN University Network Quality Assurance, AUNQA is primarily because it was developed in collaboration with many parties at an international level, and
AUN-QA has already been implemented in Member States. Including Thailand where some universities
have already begun operations. And in order to prepare the teaching and learning curriculum to be ready tosupport such quality assurance. Thailand, therefore, has prepared for universities to aim for educational
management. Outcome-Based Education (OBE) is the outcome that occurs to learners through the learning
process gained from education and training. or experiences that arise from actual practice or learning at
work during the course of study. or actual learning during on-the-job training. To help support quality
assurance in accordance with the criteria of The ASEAN University Network-Quality Assurance (AUNQA) (Asean university network, 2020).

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research251As mentioned above, the change in quality assurance criteria from the old system to The ASEAN University
Network-Quality Assurance (AUN-QA) fills gaps in curriculum development to meet the criteria. including
the availability of equipment for teaching and learning knowledge and understanding of teachers about thecriteria The said change has a period of not more than 2 years that all actions must be completed. Therefore,causing concern in the administration of the university that will not meet the specified criteria. and affectthe credibility of
OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The purposes of the study are to:
1. Analyze the gap between curriculum improvement according to the learning style. Outcome-Based
Education (OBE) to comply with The ASEAN University Network-Quality Assurance (AUN-QA)
criteria.
2. Studying the strengths and weaknesses of applying the AUN-QA criteria to improve the curriculum
3. Suggestions for improving the curriculum improvement process
METHODOLOGY
1.Research Methodology
this researchIt is a qualitative work that conducts interviews with administrators, professors andresponsible quality assurance units. about the gap between curriculum improvements based on learnings t y l e s Outcome-Based Education (OBE) to comply with The ASEAN University Network-Quality
Assurance (AUN-QA) criteria and conduct a focus group discussion with the person in charge.
2.Population
2.1 Responsible executive 1 person
2.2 Instructors who need to improve the curriculum 12 people
2.3 Officers in the quality assurance department, 3 people
3. Instrument
The instrument in this study can be divided into two types as follows:
3.1 An interview about the gap between curriculum improvements based on learning styles.
Outcome-Based Education (OBE) to comply with the criteria of The ASEAN University Network-Quality
Assurance (AUN-QA) in all 8 areas as follows
1) Expected Learning Outcomes2)Program Structure and Content
3)Teaching and Learning Approach4)Student Assessment
5)Academic Staff
6)Student Support Services
7)Facilities and Infrastructure8)Output and Outcomes
3.2 Group chat Inquire about strengths, weaknesses, and ways to improve the curriculum inorder to comply with the criteria ofThe ASEAN University Network-Quality Assurance (AUN-QA)
4. Data collection
In this study, the data were collected as follows:
4.1 Coordinate for interviews with school administrators, teachers, and staff responsible for
quality assurance.
4.2 Take the results from the interview to analyze the gap between curriculum improvement
according to learning styles. Outcome-Based Education (OBE) to comply with the criteria of The ASEANSEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research

252

University Network-Quality Assurance (AUN-QA) with stakeholders.
4.3 Organizing group discussions with administrators, teachers, and staff responsible for quality
assurance to analyze strengths, weaknesses and ways to improve together
4.4 Summary and preparation of reports
5. Data Analysis
The researcher conducted an interview. and translate information from received documents By analyzing
the data as narrative data obtained from interviews, notes and document analysis. Then conduct content
analysis categorize according to the issues that have been created and interpret the connection of theinformation. Check the accuracy of each person's information. Is it complete enough? Then compile thecontent. To find conclusions from the data collected and analysis by classification of data types is toclassify data into types. according to the issues that have been identified Then check the received data.
Triangulation Method is 1) Verify data from human resources. by doing interviews on the same topic but
different people 2) checking information from sources and places and 3) checking the data from timesources by conducting interviews on the same topic but at different times. To confirm the data of the indepth interview and then analyze the data.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
1) Gap analysis of curriculum improvement
Curriculum Improvement Gap Analysisaccording to the criteria ofThe ASEAN University NetworkQuality Assurance (AUN-QA) according to the assessment criteria are as follows:
Table 1 : Gap analysis of curriculum improvement based on criteriaAUN-QA
Assessment Criteria
Expected Learning
Outcomes

Program Structure andContent

Teaching and Learning
ApproachStudent Assessment

Academic Staff

Student Support Services

Facilities and Infrastructure

operation gap
1.Learning outcomes that do not cover stakeholder needs due tolimitations on inviting few stakeholders, needs survey results do notcover the outcomes. Learning of the course solves problems byinviting stakeholders to complete all aspects.
2. The structure and content of the course are inconsistent with thelearning outcomes focus of the program. The focus is unbalanced.
Most of them are improved from the traditional curriculum. thatuses traditional quality assessment
3. Guidelines for teaching and learning, teachers use traditional
teaching methods. both general education subjects and majors of the
program did not come back to look at the revised curriculum,
therefore, there should be a meeting to clarify the improvement ofteaching and learning Focusing on student outcomes
4. Assessment of learners has a variety of assessments, but may not
be consistent with the learning outcomes of the subjects being taught
due to Teachers improve their own personalized assessments.
5. Academic personnel are in line with the central personnel
development plan. But the evaluation did not reach as planned,
depending on the duration of further education and development of
the personnel.
6. Services and student assistance are in accordance with the central
plan according to the budget. Some branches do not have support
personnel as required by the branches.
7. Facilities and infrastructure are in accordance with the central

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Assessment Criteria

Output and Outcomes

operation gap
development plan. Some branches may be ready, but some branches
still lack necessary facilities according to the needs of the curriculum
and therefore do not meet the plan.
8. Productivity and outcomes Students who enter are often not
qualified for the branch due to the small number of students. Lackof comparison with other university courses at the same level fordevelopment. Most of the comparable courses have different
contexts. Employment after graduation does not match the learning
outcomes of a given field depending on labor demand.

2) Strength-weakness analysis
2.1) Strengths
Strengths in curriculum improvement according to learning stylesOutcome-Based Education(OBE) is an internationally recognized benchmark. This causes a process to compare similar courses toimprove teaching and learning according to the desired learning outcomes. This is considered to be a
curriculum improvement that mainly focuses on the expected learning outcomes and if it can be developed
according to the criteria, it can be considered that the development is holistic at the program branch level.
and university In the evaluation criteria, there is a reflection on the needs of stakeholders such as enterprises,
parents and graduates. It causes an exchange of learning between teachers, learners, stakeholders, academic
experts in curriculum development to achieve the expected learning outcomes. If the criteria can be
implemented, it will result in graduates having characteristics that are in line with the needs of stakeholders
and the labor market. If the criteria can be implemented2.2) Weakness
Weaknesses of the criteria ofThe ASEAN University Network-Quality Assurance (AUN-QA)
has a total of 53 indicators, which increases the burden on teachers. This caused most teachers to reactagainst the new criteria for syllabus assessment. And most of the administrators lack knowledge of thecriteria for assessing the quality of education in the new system. In addition, the infrastructure of some
programs is insufficient for development to meet the criteria. and support personnel to help are inadequate
Including science and social science teachers lack knowledge and understanding in the process ofcurriculum improvement, measurement, and evaluation. Despite the improvement of the curriculum
focusing on the learning outcomes of the learners, most of the teaching methods are still taught by traditional
teachers. Reasons due to inviting academic stakeholders may not cover course requirements. Causing
teaching and learning management to remain the same, Anuwong et al., (2022) discussed the weaknessesof the teachers, namely Most instructors still do not understand the principles or methods of benchmarking.
which should develop knowledge Understanding of principles and methods of educational management
according to the guidelines Outcome-Based Education for teachers
3.Recommendations for improving the curriculum improvement process
Curriculum improvement process must be carried out accordingly.Outcome-Based Education (OBE) in
conjunction with the central AUN-QA criteria of universities should implement policies to improvecurriculum based on criteria. Emphasize learning outcomes in line with the university's philosophy.
Develop personnel development plans and learning support to be ready and consistent with the needs of thecurriculum. A process for supervising and monitoring curriculum assessment has been developed to bringsuggestions to make improvement plans and operate in accordance with the assessment system. Knowledge
is provided from the level of executives, teachers, and quality assurance officers. to understand, including
assisting in curriculum development And develop cooperation with universities with similar standards
SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research254including student employment to bring benchmark results to improve learning outcomes. M u h a m m a d .
(2018) mentioned the involvement of personnel with criteria. AUN-QAThe institute should organize
training and seminars both externally and internally. to personnel of all departments at all levels to haveknowledge and understanding continually and encourage personnel to realize the importance of
educational quality assurance (AUN-QA) and emphasizing the participation of personnel in the institution
together, planning, implementation, inspection and improvement. In conducting more educational quality
assurance work, it will result in the development of educational quality assurance operations to be more
efficient and effective.
REFERENCESASEAN University Network, (2020). The Guide to AUN-QA Assessment at Program Level Version 4.0.
Retrieved from https://qa.ku.ac.th/web2016/pdf/aun2020%20V4.pdf
Darryl, J. (2014) Regulating higher education: Quality assurance and neo-liberal managerialism in higher
education—A critical introduction, Policy and Society, 33(3) Pp 155-166.
Hamish, C., & Mahsood, S, (2017). The Rise of Quality Assurance in Asian Higher Education.
https://doi.org/10.1016/
Anuwong, K., Supasuteekul, A., Yoonaisil,W., Suppakarn N., Damnui, P., & Sawatwipachai, B. (2022).
The understanding of internal quality assessors towards asean university network quality
assurance (aun-qa) at a program level. Srinakharinwirot University Journal (Science andTechnology), 14(28), 28-34.
Muhammad, S. (2018). Perceptions and participation of support personnel in case study quality
assurance. office of the president National Institute of Development Administration. National
Institute of Development Administration: Bangkok
Siriphokaew, W., Senarat, S., & Drakamonkan, T. (2022). A Comparison of Internal Assurance Criteria
to ASEAN University Network Quality Assurance Criteria. Journal of Modern Learning
Development. 7(7), 487.

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Reframing Gender and Development Programs of Higher Education
Institutions in Legazpi City for Inclusive and Equitable Tertiary Education
Susana C. Cabredo1 and Flor A. Jenkin2
1

University of Santo Tomas-Legazpi, Philippines (graduateschool@ust-legazpu.edu.ph)2
Divine Word College of Legazpi, Philippines <dwclresearchoffice@gmail.com>

ABSTRACTThis two-phase study consists of a research-based description of the enrollment and graduation trends inthree Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) in Legazpi City to validate the claim of gender reversal in tertiary
education admission and exit of students from what used to be a male’s domain to what now appears as
becoming a female’s domain. The study 1) established the enrollment and graduation trends in the HEIs’
advanced and baccalaureate course programs; 2) determined the completion rates among the female andmale students in various course programs; 3) determined gender differences in enrollment and graduationin the hard and soft sciences; and 4) proposed a reframed Gender and Development (GAD) plan promoting
inclusive and equitable tertiary education responsive to females’ and males’ educational needs alike.
Results of the analysis of the quantitative data drawn from documents and qualitative data collected throughin-depth interviews, confirmed the observations that: there is indeed a disproportionate number of maleand female enrollees in tertiary education in favor of female; there are more females who complete theirdegree programs earlier compared to their male counterparts; male’s enrollment is more prevalent in thehard sciences and female’s in the soft sciences; and that these observations are continual over the fiveyear period covered by the study. The observed gender differences in enrollment and graduation in theadvanced and baccalaureate degree levels and in the hard and soft sciences informed the reframing of theexisting GAD programs in the three HEIs studied, aligning them with the 2030 Sustainable Development
Goals (SDGs) towards the promotion of more gender inclusive and equitable educational programs at thetertiary level.
KEYWORDS: Gender differences in higher education institutions, Gender equality and equity, Equitableeducation, Inclusive education, Sex ratio

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INTRODUCTION
Half of humanity consists of women and the other half, men. Human development is inclusive of both onequal footing. No woman, no man must be left behind in all spheres of human development. The social
reality, however, is still far from the ideal. Gender bias persists in some societies, despite worldwide efforts
invested in promoting gender equality. In many parts of the world, there are still fields disadvantaging
women. For instance, there is still underrepresentation of women in top-tier institutions in science andengineering fields, in politics and governance, in military and maritime industries, and blatantly, in
ecclesiastical leadership. These are arenas where women still trail men; where women may not keep pacewith men for generations to come.
In September 2015, the United Nations framed the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development listing 17
goals, the fourth of which pertains to inclusive and equitable quality education and promotion of lifelong
learning opportunities for all (SGD4). The fifth goal (SDG5) pertains to achievement of gender equality
and empowerment of all women and girls which reads in part, “… The achievement of full human potential
and of sustainable development is not possible if one half of humanity continues to be denied its full humanrights and opportunities. Women and girls must enjoy equal access to quality education, economic
resources, and political participation as well as equal opportunities with men and boys for employment,
leadership, and decision-making at all levels…” (UN, A/RES/70/1).
The challenge highlighted in this paper is how to ensure inclusive and equitable quality education andpromote lifelong learning opportunities for all (SDG4) and achieve gender equality and empower all womenand girls (SDF 5) without prejudice to men. Gender equality is an important goal by itself and a means forachieving development. Hence, development policies and institutions must ensure that all segments ofsociety – both women and men – have a voice in decision making, either directly or through institutions
that legitimately represent their interests and needs (World Bank, 2016).
For decades, the Philippine government has continuously undertaken steps toward attaining the vision ofbringing about a future that is peaceful and just, unmarked by gender and other biases, respectful of humanrights and democratic processes. Gender concerns had already been addressed as early as 1989 when thePhilippine Development Plan for Women (PDPW) was approved. Since then, the PDPW has guided theefforts of the state’s National Commission on the Role of Filipino Women (NCRFW) and provided thebases for subsequent initiatives on Gender and Development (GAD). Among the landmark GAD
achievements in the Philippines to date include: 1) establishment of sex-disaggregated data-base ingovernment agencies and programs; conduct of gender-training and advocacy activities in mostdepartments and attached offices; legislations mandating gender advocacy including the annual legislationof the General Appropriation Act (GAA) which instructs government agencies to set aside a portion of theirbudgets for women/gender and development activities. Moreover, as mandated, focal points have been
formed in various government offices to address gender concerns. The Philippine Plan for GenderResponsive Development (PPGD) 1995-2025, approved and adopted through Executive Order No. 273, s.
1995 is still in force. But a general observation of the country’s GAD program is that most of the programs,
projects, and activities (P/P/As) proposed, funded, and implemented in public and private institutions are
directed at women, favoring their interest and welfare. Addressing the welfare of men is scantily mentioned
in existing policies. Consequently, men are beginning to feel disadvantaged, and are clamoring for abalanced GAD treatment, that is, the planned P/P/As must address men’s and women’s welfare equally,
given that sustainable development is development of humankind – women and men alike. UNESCO
enjoins countries to integrate gender awareness and competence into mainstream development andemphasize the need to apply appropriate gender planning to ensure that the resulting condition and results
are equitable to women and men (UNESCO in Sumadsad and Tuazon, 2016).

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RATIONALE
The observed imbalance in the treatment of men and women in the GAD programs in favor of women canlead to gender equality in the reverse. This emerging phenomenon is manifest in the education sector. One
indicator of the seeming gender imbalance in the reverse is the observation that men are outpaced by womenin education. Pekkarinen (2011) reported the rapid increase in female educational attainment in the past twoor three decades where women are in clear majority among secondary school graduates; among students
enrolled in tertiary education; and among tertiary graduates. Further, he projected that the gender gap in
educational attainment will keep on widening in favor of women in future. This confirms Buchanan’s(2009) report that, “In terms of high school graduation, college entry, and persistence to earning a college
degree, young women now consistently outperform their male peers. Arne Hoel (2016) wrote that women
now represent more than half the world’s university students.
Concerned agencies in the Philippines are not oblivious to gender issues concerning boys or men. No lessthan the Philippine Commission on Women (PCW) admitted the existence of such issues in Philippine
education. Pertinent to this study are the observations that: 1) boys are underperforming in key education
indicators compared to girls; 2) higher education degrees manifest marked gender-segregation; and that 3)
gender biases and stereotypes, are still embedded in the curricula, instructional methods, materials andlearning media (DepEd Order No. 32, s. 2017). However, there is a dearth of conclusive data that canaffirm these observations at the local level.
The growing gender disparity in education in the local setting can only be deduced from the literacy ratereport of the province of Albay (2018), where simple literacy rate of 10 years old and over was reported tobe slightly higher in female (97.1) than in male (96.1) and the functional literary rate of 10 to 64 years old
was markedly higher in female (83.8) than in male (76.2). It is likely that these observed differences inliteracy will be perpetuated in tertiary education as more and more basic senior high school graduates seek
admission in college. There is therefore a need to conduct studies exploring the reported rising female
advantage in tertiary education. The paucity of research on the realms where women outpace men, namely
college enrolment and completion, constitutes a major gap in the literature. Some local studies mentioning
gender differences in college course enrolment were done to profile the study participants (Barberan, 2020;
Nacion, 2018). The extent of gender gap in education in the locality, if indeed there is, needs to beestablished and this study aimed to provide hard data on the state of gender differences in tertiary education,
particularly on enrollment and degree completion. The social and economic costs related to enrollment anddegree completion and the consequences of gender inequality and inequity in access to course programs intertiary education institutions are high. While this concern is outside the scope of this study, the data
generated by this study would be a valuable starting point in reviewing and reframing the GAD programsof higher education institutions (HEIs).
The development envisioned in the PPGD 1995-2025 is people-centered, sensitive to the needs andconcerns of women and men alike. It is designed “to promote gender equity and equality and to help womenand men actualize their potentials….” If the menfolk feel disadvantaged, as many of them openly
expressed, then the vision of promoting gender equity and equality is compromised. Thus, the results ofthis tracer-cum-policy study would be useful in crafting gender inclusive education. Inclusion as an
educational philosophy recognizes that all students are learners who benefit from a meaningful, challenging,
and appropriate curriculum delivered within the general education classroom, and from differentiatedinstruction techniques that address their unique strengths and challenges (Idol, 2006; Voltz, Sims, Nelson,& Bivens, 2005, in Salend, 2008). Inclusion seeks to provide all students with fairness by establishingcollaborative, supportive, and nurturing communities of learners that are based on giving all students theservices and accommodations they need to succeed. In this study, inclusive education explored how theGAD programs could be used to foster the success of the HEIs’ inclusion programs in terms of provisionof strategies, resources, and supports to be accessed equitably by all – females, males alike. Equity means
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being fair and impartial. Clearly, there is a need for educational policies and GAD programs in tertiary
education institutions to promote a balanced treatment of women and men as audiences/beneficiaries oftrainings, advocacies, and research activities.
RESEARCH OBJECTIVESThis study was conducted with four objectives – i.e. using the sex-disaggregated data from the threeselected HEIs, (1) to establish the enrollment and graduation trends in the HEIs’ advanced and baccalaureate
course programs; (2) to determine the completion rates among the female and male students enrolled in
the various course programs; (3) to determine gender differences in the hard and soft science courses; and(4) to propose a reframed GAD Plan that would promote inclusive and equitable tertiary education
responsive to the females’ and males’ educational needs alike.
FRAMEWORK OF THE STUDY
The variables of interest in this study are identified and illustrated in Figure 1. Collecting the data for thisstudy was very straightforward requiring but counting and transforming the counts (frequencies) into
percentages or rates. Gender differences in enrolment at the three levels of tertiary education:baccalaureate, master’s and doctoral levels were determined from the AY 2013-2014 cohort whose
attendance in school until completion was tracked to determine the completion and attrition rates by gender.
TERTIARY EDUCATIONGENDER-DISAGGREGATED DATA ON
ENROLLMENT & GRADUATION IN▪ Advanced (Graduate)- Doctoral and- Master’s programs▪ Baccalaureate programs

Patterns of gender differences in▪
course choices of college
students▪
course program completionor attrition

Enrolment insoft sciences▪
hard sciences▪

Gender-related
Issues and Problems

Policy directions and Gender andDevelopment (GAD) program to be
pursuedFigure 1. Conceptual Framework
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HYPOTHESES
Based on the conceptual framework in Figure 1, the following hypotheses, stated in the null were raised:
H01 – There is equal proportion of women and men enrolled in the various curricular programs inthe HEIs in Legazpi City.
H02 – Women’s and men’s baccalaureate degree program choices do not differ.
H03 – The completion rates among women and men from SY 2013 - 2014 enrollees acrosscolleges and baccalaureate degree programs are the same.
H04 – There are as many women as men enrolled in the hard and soft sciences.
H05 – No gender differences exist in the graduation rates of women and men across colleges andbaccalaureate degree programs.
Most of the fields of study offered as degree programs by the three HEIs covered by the study are
multidisciplinary. For clarity, fields of study whose major courses are based on the disciplines - biology,
chemistry, computer science, engineering, mathematics, physics, astronomy, geology, meteorology,
oceanography, and medicine were categorized as hard sciences. Hard sciences are fields that are perceived
to be more rigorous and objective than soft sciences, described as scientific fields that are perceived to beless rigorous and objective than hard sciences. The fields of study categorized under soft sciences, are those
focused on human behavior and social interaction and are based mainly on the disciplines - anthropology,
communication, economics, education, geography, history, law, linguistics, philosophy, political science,
psychology, and sociology (Thesaurus dictrionary.com, Through Co, Peck, 2020).
METHODSThis two-stage study applied a mixed methods research (APA, https://apastyle,apa.org, Fraenkel, Jack R.,
Wallen, Normal E. & Hyun, Helen H., 2013). Stage 1 consisted of quantitative data analysis drawing
enrollment and graduation data from the HEI Admissions and Registrar’s Offices. Results of thequantitative data analysis were used as bases of the institution-specific interview schedule used with the
key informants (KIs) - the vice presidents for academic affairs (VPAAs) and the deans and key faculty
members of the three HEIs cased in this study. Stage 2 of the study consisted of qualitative analysis of data
gathered through in-depth interviews of the KIs to get their views on the policy directions and GAD
program plans that were developed by the researcher in response to the issues and problems illuminated by
the quantitative data analysis in Stage 1. Documents analysis of existing HEIs’ GAD programs was also
undertaken in Stage 2.
Methods and Sources of Data
The selection of HEIs for casing was limited to three – Bicol University (BU), University of Santo TomasLegazpi (UST-L) and Divine Word College of Legazpi (DWCL) because these are the only HEIs in Legazpi
City that provide graduate and undergraduate programs. Approval sought for the conduct of the study was
duly granted by the Presidents of the HEIs. Institution-specific interview protocol was prepared informedby the results of the secondary data analysis made for each HEI for the VPAAs and deans to react upon andgive their insights to. Data from the HEI Offices of Admissions and Registrar were processed using
descriptive statistics. The state’s Data Privacy Law limited the data collection. Only numbers were provided
by the concerned offices which were used by the researcher in tracking the flow of cohorts of students inbaccalaureate and advanced education levels from their entry (SY 2013 -2014) to their exit.
Procedures
Since the data requirements of the study came from the documents on file in the HEIs, permission to collectthe data was sought from the three Presidents of the HEIs and upon approval, letters to the heads of the
SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research260concerned offices with the Presidents’ approval attached, were personally handed by the researcher. The
Presidents’ permission facilitated the researcher’s access to the needed data. To confirm the statisticalresults and analysis, the researcher presented the data back to the sources for correction. Based on the
results of the data analysis, interview schedules, one for each of the VPAAs, was constructed and conductedby the researcher personally. The questionnaire for the other KIs -- deans and senior faculty members
were hand – delivered with the request to return the questionnaire by email. Those who did not send backthe completed questionnaires were followed up personally. Responses to the interview schedules andquestionnaires were content analyzed and used as bases for developing the proposed GAD framework
intended as resource material for reframing the GAD development plan of the HEIs.
Data Analysis
For the quantitative analysis, the HEI enrollment and graduation data were analyzed using descriptive
statistics. Since the total population of a cohort of students was covered, inferential statistics was notnecessary. Descriptive statistics such as frequency count, ratio, and percentages, mean, and standard
deviation were used for data analysis. Sex ratio, defined as the number of males for every 100 females(Philippine Statistics Authority, 2018) was the principal statistical tool used to describe the sex differencesin enrollment and graduation in various course programs. The 7- point scale presented below was used todescribe the “genderedness” of enrolment and graduation data. The term genderedness was coined in thisstudy to refer not to a person’s maleness or femaleness but to the extent of male- or female-orientedness ofthe course programs indicated by the predominance of male or female in the enrollment or graduation data.
The researcher determined the association of the variables genderedness of courses and the students’ sex
attributes (female-male). Yule’s Q (John D Cook Consulting, 2021) was used for this purpose. An arbitraryscale was built by the researcher for the purpose of this study and was used in the data interpretation.
Percentages and means were used to describe the enrollment and graduation (or completion or attrition)
trends of a given cohort of students.
Range
24 and under
25 - 74
75 – 99

Description
Highly female-oriented
Moderately female-oriented
Slightly female-oriented

Range
100 -- Gender-neutral
101 - 124
125 – 174
175 and overDescription
Slightly male-oriented
Moderately male-oriented
Highly male-oriented

To validate the hypotheses, two non-parametric measures of association were employed – percent point
difference and Q Coefficient or Yule’s Q. The percentage difference is easy to compute and has a clear
conceptual meaning. Its value goes from 0 percent when there is no association, to 100 percent when there
is complete association between the variables under study. The Yule’s Q, also known as Yule coefficient𝑎𝑑−𝑏𝑐
of association (John D Cook Consulting, 2021) is defined by the formula: 𝑄 = 𝑎𝑑+𝑏𝑐
Qualitative data analysis made use of content analysis of the responses of the relevant HEI officials to theunstructured interview protocol. The write up of the qualitative analysis was shown to the VPAAs for theircomments and remarks. The analytic process used was iterative consistent with what is required ofqualitative data collection.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
This study is laden with sex-disaggregated quantitative data indicating the year-by- year trend in enrollment
and graduation by institution. Table 1 reflects the summary of sex disaggregated enrollment and graduation
data in undergraduate and graduate levels showing a consistent lower number of male enrollees comparedwith female enrollees in all three HEIs – BU, UST-L and DWCL.

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Table 1. Sex-Disaggregated Enrolment and Graduation Data in Undergraduate and Graduate
Levels: SY 2015-’16 to SY 2019-‘20

HEI
BU
UST-L
DWCL(2)
Total

Level
Undergraduate
Graduate
Undergraduate
Graduate
Undergraduate
Graduate
Undergraduate
Graduate

Enrollment
Male
Female25,43642,051
934
2,055
4,465
5,046
245
351
395
432
70
135
30,29647,529
1,249
2,541

Total
67,487
2,989
9,511
596
827
205
77,825
3,790

Graduation
Male
Female9,317
16,023
373
632
350
473
59(1)
88(1)
157
351
10
41
9,824
16,847
442
761

Total
25,3401,005
832
149(1)
508
51
26,671
1,203

1 Graduation data for two school years only.
2 Represents the sex-disaggregated data for SY 2013-2014 and the graduation data of the same cohort in SY 2018-2019 analyzed

to lend support to the data collected from the two big universities.

The data matrix in Table 2 reflects the summary of the trend in enrollment, graduation, in the hard and soft
sciences separately for the HEIs covered by the study. The consolidated data represents the 5-year averagefor each institution. Only the summarized data averaged for the five-year period could be presented given
the page-limit set for the research report. The trend is reported in sex ratio. No averaging was done acrossinstitutions because of the huge disparity in the number of enrollees and graduates in the three HEIs.
Besides, there were also differences in the data for school years made available to the researcher. This is
one methodological weakness of the study.
The tracking of a cohort of students enrolled in SY 2013-2014 revealed that not all of them graduated within
the four-year or five-year time frame prescribed for their courses. There is a substantial difference in thenumber of enrollees and graduates. Generally, the number of graduates is fewer than that of the enrollees.
The magnitude of the difference between enrollment and graduation drawn from the aggregated data per
course program is substantial enough to say, although not conclusively, that the non-completion rates
among women and men from the SY 2013-2014 are not the same across course programs. There was anobserved difference in the females’ and males’ graduation rates. This gender gap in course completionshould be studied thoroughly for appropriate intervention. Questions raised in some literature –e.g. Do
males achieve less well than their female peers in specific courses? Are females more persistent than males
in completing college? Are males more likely to drop out of school that girls? – are interesting research
topics to pursue. The differences observed in some programs imply the need for a thorough tracking of thestudents, their whereabout and the reasons for their non-completion of their respective courses.
Table 2 clearly shows that in both enrollment and graduation in the advanced and undergraduate levels, inall the three HEIs, the females outpaced the males except in the enrollment and graduation data in the hardsciences which is male dominated. Figures fewer than 100 means female-dominated courses e.g., 44 inadvanced education in BU means 44 males per 100 females; figures greater more than 100 means maledominated courses, e.g., 111 in the hard sciences in BU means 111 male- per 100 female- enrollees.
Enrollment data showed more presence of women than men in both advanced and baccalaureate educationlevels except in engineering, computer and IT and industrial technology. This finding is true to all the three
HEIs --BU, UST-L and DWCL, although the gender difference was more pronounced in BU than in eitherof the two private HEIs. Women’s and men’s course choices differed, as evidenced by women enrolled in
more number of course programs than men, thus rejecting the hypothesis of no difference in women’s andmen’s course choices.

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Table 2: General Enrollment and Graduation Trend in the Soft and Hard Sciences in BU, UST-L
and DWCL Expressed in Sex Ratio
Trend
Enrolment
Advanced Education
Undergraduate
Graduation
Advanced Education
Undergraduate
Enrollment in theHard Sciences
Soft Sciences
Graduation in theHard Sciences
Soft Sciences

BU

UST-L

DWCL

441
601

683
884

576
916

551
581

673
744

246
626

1112
362

2435
655

3407
657

1032
342

135
505

647
457

1Average for enrolment data (for SY 2015-2016 to SY 2019-2020)
2Enrolment data (for SY 2013-2014 student cohort) vis-à-vis graduation data (SY 2016-2017 for 4-year

and SY 2017-2018 (for5-year course programs) Soft and Hard Sciences
3Average for enrollment data (for SY 2015-2016 to SY 2019-2020)
4Average graduation data (for SY 2016-2017 to 2017-2018)
5Enrolment data (for SY 2013-2014 student cohort) vis-à-vis graduation data (SY 2016-2017 for 4-year and SY 2017-2018 (for5-year course programs) Soft and Hard Sciences
6 Average for 3 enrollment years (for SY 2013-2014, SY 2018-2019, and SY 1019-2020)
7 Enrolment data (for SY 2013-2014 student cohort) vis-à-vis graduation data (for SY 2016-2017 for
4-year and SY 2017-2018 (for year course programs) Soft and Hard Sciences

Another hypothesis negated by the findings of the study is that there are as many women as men enrolled
in the hard or soft sciences. The study found that the presence of females is more pronounced in the soft
sciences, particular in course programs related to education and communication, health, and business, while
the presence of men is perceived more in engineering, computer, and technology-related course programs.
Gender Differences in Tertiary Education and GAD Program Implication
The results of this study revealed that virtually all course programs are gendered at varying degrees – highly,
moderately, or slightly. The hard sciences are male gender-oriented while the soft sciences are female
gender-oriented. It appears that no HEI has made any special effort to overcome the stereotype that females
are less well suited to the hard sciences as affirmed by the KIs interviewed.
.
Data reveal that there is underrepresentation of females in the hard sciences -- engineering, computer andIT sciences and industrial technology course programs. This is a consistent observation in the three HEIs.
The interview responses of the deans/directors and the VPAAs put this genderedness of courses to cultural
influence, that is, that engineering, and technology best fit the males and education and nursing fit thefemales. This stereotypical view persists in the students’ and the parents’ minds. Culturally, parents arestill the major influencers of students’ career choices. Seemingly, stereotypes in the larger social culture
impinge on the students’ and parents’ choices of courses for their children and result in limited opportunities
for them.
Proportionately, more females than males complete the courses within the four- or five- year time frame.
There is no single explanation why students fail to graduate on time. Subject failure could be one.
According to one recent study, more than half of the student population (59.6%) in the course programs in
one college had to take special classes on cost recovery because of failure in some subjects (Morales, 2021).
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Whether the failures are incurred more by females than males or vice versa would be an interesting area toexplore. Adoption of retention policy where students are required to meet a grade point average (GPA) tobe retained in a program could also be another explanation. This reduces the number of graduates from agiven student cohort. Perhaps there is a need to rethink this exclusionary policy and adopt interventions to
help students complete their courses successfully. Are students properly placed in courses they are likely
to succeed? Movements of students across courses cause them to become irregular students unable tograduate on time. Failing to graduate within the time frame incurs a tremendous cost to parents, the school,
and the state, as in the case of Bicol University, which is a state university. Of all the three HEIs cased inthis study, Bicol University, being a state university, registers the highest number of enrollees and graduatesfrom diverse background, so the data coming from this institution could better over the years .
Data from the Bicol University (BU) Admission’s Office show that in the two recent enrolment periods,
females still grossly outnumbered the males with sex ratio of 59 for SY 2019-2020 and 64 for SY 20202021, lower than the sex ratio of 65 for the SY 2013-2014 student cohort, confirming the observation thatfemale domination of enrollment in college will persist. Could there indeed be an achievement gap between
the male and female seeking college admission? Could this be a reason why there are roughly only 4 males
out of 10 who qualify in the BU Entrance Examination and admitted to the University. Answer to thisquestion needs a thorough study. What academic intervention may be put in place informed by research?
Indeed, there is a need to explore the barriers that limit the males’ equitable access to tertiary education.
Underrepresentation of males in tertiary education can reinforce existing societal inequities. In both
graduate and undergraduate education levels, females outnumbered their male peers. There is a strong
likelihood that females will hold top level positions while males can become over-represented in lowpaying and low-status occupations (e.g., in construction, security, driving, or other petty jobs) that offer
fewer benefits and job security. Without adequate and appropriate tertiary education, males will have few
places in today’s highly competitive knowledge-driven workplace. In a culture where the male is regarded
as head and breadwinner of the family, the situation where the female spouse brings in more cash than themale spouse can have a devastating effect in the latter’s psyche. When the economic power within thehousehold tilts towards the female, this can engender domestic problems as many literatures portray. This
psychosocial implication of imbalance power in households will not be elaborated here as it is outside thebounds of this study. Suffice it to say that if GAD programs promote women’s empowerment so must they
promote men’s empowerment equally. Currently, however, as shown by the result of this study, the malestudents’ unique and specialized needs seemed to be often overlooked.
A result of an equitable gender development program must be an educational program that is inclusive, onethat looks after the welfare of both male and female students; that no males, no females are left behind intheir academic journey. Asked if the GAD funds could be used for educational programs that address
males’ needs as much as females’ needs, all KIs replied in the affirmative, hence the proposal on reframing
the HEIs, GAD program.
Reframing the HEIs’ Gender and Development Framework
Results of the enrollment and graduation data analysis, the documents analysis, and the interview responseof the KIs all confirmed the observation that males lag behind their female counterparts in tertiary educationachievements. The gender imbalance poses a challenge to policy makers of HEIs. One of the vehicles
through which the imbalance may be addressed is through a comprehensive GAD Plan. The P/P/As for
GAD guaranteed by a five percent institutional budget allocation can make a dent in ensuring inclusive andequitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all (SDG 4) and achieve genderequality for women and girls (SDG 5) alongside men and boys.
The proposed framework is designed for all male and female members of the academic community, without
SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research264prejudice to any gender. The details of the proposed framework consist of rationale, recommendation foraction and operationalization of 13 programs intended as a resource from which, HEIs may draw possible
ideas for integration in their GAD plan along the HEIs three-fold function of instruction, research, andextension. [Note: the reframed framework consists of 22 pages in the original paper, too bulky to be
included here even as appendix].
The 13 reframed programs recommended for consideration include: 1) Formulation/Reformulation of the
HEI Manual of Operation to reflect inclusivity and equitability in their respective GAD Plan; 2)
Formulation of a medium term GAD Plan complete with monitoring and evaluation guidelines aligned withthe 2030 SDG and the institutions’ vision, mission, and goals; 3) Development of projectized organization
structure (Ferraro, 2012); 4) Formulation of clear policies and procedures on managing projects frominitiation to closure; 5) Planning and implementation of strategic organization change projects to address
the learning needs of students, the working environment of the administration, faculty and the staff that
support them; 6) Launching of academic interventions for college students lagging behind in their academic
work, those at risk for failing, or for dropping out of school; 7) Rethinking of the curricular programs
offered in HEIs within the context of the present education set-up and the needs of the times; 8) Increasing
the entry of males in advanced and baccalaureate levels and sustaining their stay through to degreecompletion through responsive guidance program; 9) Strengthening of graduate faculty’s thesis/dissertation
writing supervision; 10) Formulation of policy of attraction for students to enroll in undersubscribed course
programs that are being promoted by the national government, e.g. baccalaureate degree programs inagriculture and fisheries; 11) Formulation of 5-Year Research and Development Agenda in support ofplanned strategic organization change; 12) Widening and keeping the doors open to all members of thecommunity who want to pursue more education – e.g. out-of-school-youth, mature students; and 13)
Redefining the role of the two universities (BU and UST-L) with respect to the community colleges,
emphasizing the complementarity of their respective roles.
Some of the recommendations may be worked out by HEIs individually. Others may best be carried out
collaboratively by HEIs. The latter is currently being spearheaded by the principal researcher who is now
in the process of brokering the idea of collaborative GAD undertakings of the three HEIs – BU, UST-L andDWCL.
CONCLUSION
The enrollment and graduation trends in the three HEIs in Legazpi City in the advanced and baccalaureate
course programs bear a remarkable resemblance to those found in other countries – i.e., a gender reversal
in tertiary education trend from what used to be a male’s domain a century or so ago, to what appears now
as a female’s domain. Findings of the study negate the hypothesis that there is equal proportion of womenand men enrolled in the various curricular programs in the HEIs in Legazpi City. Women’s and men’scourse choices differed, as evidenced by women enrolled in more number of course programs than men,thus rejecting the hypothesis of no difference in women’s and men’s course choices. Another hypothesis
negated by the findings of the study is that there are as many women as men enrolled in the hard or soft
sciences. The study found that the presence of females is more pronounced in the soft sciences, particularin course programs related to education and communication, health, and business, while the presence ofmen is perceived more in engineering, computer, and technology-related course programs.
The tracking of a cohort of students enrolled in SY 2013-2014 revealed that not all of them graduated within
the four-year or five-year time frame prescribed for their courses. There is a substantial difference in thenumber of enrollees and graduates. Generally, the number of graduates is fewer than that of the enrollees.
The magnitude of the difference between enrollment and graduation drawn from the aggregated data per
course program is substantial enough to say, although not conclusively, that the non-completion rates
among women and men from the SY 2013-2014 are not the same across course programs.
SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research265With the SUCs’ and community colleges’ free higher education guaranteed by R.A. 10831, private HEIs
cannot compete in attracting enrollment even with the government’s Tertiary Education Subsidy (TES).
But with the private HEIs’ vast resources, they can help, especially the community colleges in the provisionof quality higher education. Partnership between well-established private HEIs like UST-L and DWCL
and the community colleges can be forged. Many possibilities can be explored, like the proposed Transfer
Program, Faculty Development Program for the community colleges delivered by the private HEIs throughlearning modes convenient to the faculty.
Public and private HEIs are bound by a common goal – ensure inclusive and equitable quality educationand promote lifelong learning (SDG 4). One of the underlying principles of SDG 4 is that gender is
inextricably linked to the right to education for all; and that achieving gender equality requires a rightsbased approach that ensures that girls and boys, women and men not only gain access to and complete
education cycles, but are empowered equally and through education (UNESCO, 2015). Much can beachieved in promoting SDG 4 if private HEIs, SUCs and community colleges can collaborate, mediated by
CHED and participated in by government agencies like TESDA and DEPEd, to find a common ground forhelping women and men reach their full potentials as human beings, the HEIs’ reason for being.
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Sumadsad, Concepcion B. and Tuazon, Ariel F. (2016). Gender and development awareness in a higher
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Batas Pambansa Blg. 232 – An Act Providing for the Establishment and Maintenance of an Integrated
General Appropriations Act (GAA), FY 2021.
Dep Ed Order No 32, s. 2017. Gender-Responsive Education Policy. Executive Order No. 273 General
Appropriation Act, FY 2021
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PLAN Framework of the Philippine Plan for Gender-Responsive Development 1995 – 2025
United Nations. A/RES/70/1. Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 25 September 2025 70/1.
Transforming our world; the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.
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goal 4 Education 2030.
World Bank. (2016). Gender and development. Key issues on gender and development.
http://world bank.org.

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research

267

The Relationship between Personal Factors and the Implementation Levelof Project-Based Learning among Physics Teacher
Lokman Hakim Muhammed1,2 and Mohd Nor Syahrir Abdullah1∗
1

Department of Mathematics & Science Education, Faculty of Education, Universiti Malaya(mnsyahrir@um.edu.my)2
Department of Mathematics, IPG Kampus Pendidikan Teknik (lokmanhakimmuhammed@gmail.com)

ABSTRACTThis study examines the level of knowledge, self-efficacy, attitude, and implementation of Project-Based
Learning (PBL) among physics teachers in Malaysia. It aims to determine if personal factors such as
knowledge, self-efficacy, and attitude are related to the implementation of PBL in the classroom. The study
adopts a descriptive approach to assess the level of knowledge, self-efficacy, attitude, and implementationof PBL. Pearson's correlation is used to explore the relationship between these factors and PBL
implementation. The findings reveal that physics teachers have a moderate level of knowledge regarding
PBL, while their self-efficacy, attitude, and implementation of PBL in the classroom are high. Although nosignificant relationship is found between knowledge and implementation, a moderately significant
relationship exists between self-efficacy and implementation, and a highly significant relationship isobserved between attitude and implementation. The study suggests collaboration between the Ministry of
Education and universities to better prepare future teachers for PBL implementation and the use ofstandardized PBL modules to save time. Encouraging physics teachers to attend PBL-related courses isalso suggested.
KEYWORDS: Project Based Learning, Physics teachers, Physics teaching and learning

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INTRODUCTION
The education practices of the 21st century emphasize four key skills: critical thinking, creativity,
collaboration, and communication (MOE, 2015). One suitable teaching approach that meets the criteria of
21st-century educational practices is Project-Based Learning (PBL) because the pedagogical design of the
PBL approach is highly suitable for replacing traditional methods (Hawari & Noor, 2020). Past studies on
the PBL approach in physics education have yielded positive findings, including its compatibility with otherapproaches (Baran et al., 2018; Widyaningsih & Yusuf, 2020) its greater effectiveness compared to teachercentered methods (Balemen & Özer Keskin, 2018; Santyasa et al., 2020), and its ability to enhance
motivation in solving physics problems (Ale Ebrahim et al., 2020; Lestari & Sumarti, 2018; Mahasneh &Alwan, 2018). Despite the positive impact of the PBL approach on students, there are still issues regarding
its implementation by physics teachers in the classroom. One of the issues is related to the teaching practicesof teachers who still adhere to teacher-centered approaches in the classroom (Harun & Hadi Yaacob, 2021).
This raises questions about the level of PBL implementation and the factors contributing to its
implementation.
The factors identified as contributing to the implementation of the PBL approach in the classroom areknowledge, self-efficacy, and teachers' attitudes toward the PBL approach (Du & Chaaban, 2020). Thesefindings are supported by several previous studies, such as Moore (2019), who found that teachers do not
implement the PBL approach due to a lack of knowledge about it, and a meta-analysis study by Zee & andKoomen (2016), which found that teachers with high self-efficacy tend to teach using recommended new
approaches. Previous studies also found that teachers recognize the importance of implementing the PBL
approach but lack confidence in doing so (Aksela & Haatainen, 2019; Cintang et al., 2018).
The implication is that these factors contribute to the implementation of the PBL approach. However,previous studies have not focused on physics teachers as respondents; instead, most studies have focusedon students as respondents to assess the effectiveness of PBL (Balemen & Özer Keskin, 2018; Chen &Yang, 2019). Therefore, several suggestions have been proposed by previous researchers to address thisissue. For example, Abd Aziz et al. (2020) suggested conducting studies on teachers' knowledge levels of
PBL so that the Ministry of Education can work together to enhance PBL as a teaching strategy. Similarly,
Ale Ebrahim et al. (2020) found that research on self-efficacy related to the PBL approach in STEM subjects
is still lacking and they also suggested conducting studies on the PBL approach and STEM subjects insecondary schools.
Hence, it is important to conduct studies on personal factors such as the level of knowledge, self-efficacy,
and attitudes of physics teachers toward PBL to examine their relationship with implementation in theclassroom.
LITERATURE REVIEWIn line with curriculum changes, studies involving the Project-Based Learning (PBL) approach are
increasing. Past studies have found that the PBL approach enhances students' achievements at every leveland proves to be an effective method for science subjects such as physics, chemistry, and biology (Balemen& Özer Keskin, 2018). Based on researchers' observations, most conducted studies on the PBL approach
can be categorized into three main aspects: teachers' perceptions of the PBL approach, the effectiveness of
PBL compared to teacher-centered approaches, and meta-analysis studies involving PBL.
Teachers' Perceptions of the PBL Approach
In a study involving teachers' perceptions of PBL conducted by Habók and Nagy (2016) with 109 teachers,
it was found that PBL is not the preferred choice for implementation in the classroom. The study revealed
that teachers still tend to adopt teacher-centered approaches. This is because teachers are concerned about
SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research269

losing control over students during PBL sessions (Le Fevre, 2014). In this study, most respondents agreed
that their main task as facilitators in implementing the PBL approach is to provide motivation to students
in completing assignments. Regarding the question of effective learning characteristics, most respondents
felt that learning involving student activities is the most suitable approach to be implemented in theclassroom.
In another study conducted by Viro et al. (2020) , they found that most respondents believed the main
purpose of the PBL approach is to enhance 21st-century skills in students. The study also found that 55
percent of the respondents agreed that PBL is only suitable for review purposes after students have beentaught using traditional teacher-centered methods. These findings align with Habók and Nagy (2016), whichindicates that teachers still have less confidence in using the PBL approach in the classroom. Based on bothstudies, it can be concluded that teachers are aware of the importance of the PBL approach but still have alack of confidence in its implementation. One of the reasons for teachers' lack of confidence in
implementing the PBL approach is their lack of proficiency in planning and uncertainty about how PBL
assessment is conducted (Moore, 2019).
The Constraints in Implementing Project-Based Learning Approaches.
The implementation of the Project-Based Learning (PBL) approach faces various constraints. Aldabbus(2018) found that many teachers in Bahrain were not ready to implement PBL due to time constraints,
assessment difficulties, content selection challenges, and lack of facilities. Similar constraints wereobserved in studies by Aksela and Haatainen (2019) and Cintang et al. (2018), highlighting insufficienttime, planning challenges, and teacher-related factors as obstacles. However, these studies suggest thattraining and guidance can help overcome these constraints.
Teachers' readiness to implement PBL is crucial, and their knowledge, attitude, and self-efficacy playsignificant roles (Bliss & Wanless, 2018; Norliza, 2012). While Norliza's study showed a positive
correlation between knowledge, skills, and attitude towards PBL, Du and Chaban's study in Qatar revealed
low levels of knowledge, attitude, and self-efficacy. These varying findings may be attributed to locationand study design. Nonetheless, teachers' knowledge, attitudes, and self-efficacy are key factors influencing
PBL implementation.
Meta-Analysis Study Involving the PBL
In addition to previous studies, meta-analyses have explored the effectiveness of the PBL approach.
Balemen and Özer Keskin's (2018) meta-analysis found that the PBL approach is significantly more
effective than teacher-centered approaches, particularly in secondary schools. Chen and Yang (2019)conducted a meta-analysis on student achievement and obtained similar results, emphasizing theeffectiveness of the PBL approach in science and mathematics subjects. However, most previous studies
focused on students rather than the implementation of PBL by teachers, particularly science teachers.
Therefore, further studies should investigate the implementation of the PBL approach among scienceteachers specifically.
TheoryTheory serves as the foundation for any study. In this particular study, there are two theories and one model
being used, namely the Theory of Adaptive Control Thinking (Anderson, 1983), the Teacher Self-Efficacy
Model (Tschannen-Moran, Hoy & Hoy, 1998), and the ABC Attitude Theory (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993).
The Adaptive Control of Thought (ACT) (Anderson,1983)
The Adaptive Control of Thought (ACT) theory (Anderson, 1983) supports teachers' knowledge of the
Problem-Based Learning (PBL) approach. It emphasizes the importance of aligning knowledge with thecurriculum and the design of teaching and assessment. Declarative knowledge, conscious and controllable,
forms the foundation, while procedural knowledge represents the ability to apply knowledge in practice(Evertson et al., 1980). Physics teachers' knowledge of the PBL approach is assessed based on declarative
SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research270knowledge (definition, theory, and characteristics) and procedural knowledge (ability to solve problems
and implement teaching approaches) (Khashan, 2014). Implementing PBL requires following specificsteps, such as posing a problem, planning a project, scheduling, monitoring, assessing, and reflecting (MOE,2017). Assessing teachers' knowledge regarding PBL implementation provides valuable insights into theirdeclarative and procedural knowledge levels. Overall, the ACT theory highlights the interconnectedness ofdeclarative and procedural knowledge and guides the assessment of physics teachers' knowledge in
implementing the PBL approach.
Teacher Self-Efficacy Model ((Tschannen-Moran, Hoy & Hoy,1998)
Self-efficacy, as described by Bandura (1995), refers to a person's belief in their ability to effectively carryout activities and handle different situations. In the context of teaching, teacher self-efficacy refers to ateacher's belief in their ability to organize and perform teaching tasks. High levels of self-efficacy are
essential for effective teaching and learning sessions. The Teacher's Sense of Efficacy Scale (TSES) divides
self-efficacy into three categories: student engagement, classroom management, and instructional strategy.
Active student involvement and effective classroom management are crucial aspects of the student-centeredapproach, which requires teachers to facilitate and encourage student participation. Mastery of instructional
strategies, such as time management and using current technology, also contributes to effective
implementation of the student-centered approach. Classroom management skills are learned throughpractice and experience. Teacher self-efficacy has a significant impact on teacher performance and may
influence the implementation of specific teaching approaches, as demonstrated in previous studies. Overall,teacher self-efficacy plays a vital role in implementing the student-centered approach, as it influences
student engagement, classroom management, and the effective use of instructional strategies.
The ABC Attitude Theory (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993)
Attitude, as defined by Sarnoff (1970), Soetarno (1994), and Eagly and Chaiken (2007), refers to a person's
tendency to react and respond to a particular object or situation with either positive or negative feelings andevaluations. In this study, the ABC Attitude Theory by Eagly and Chaiken (1993) is utilized to assessteachers' attitudes towards the student-centered approach. The theory emphasizes the affective, behavioral,
and cognitive aspects of attitudes, which must align to form a strong attitude. The affective aspect involves
feelings and emotions towards the stimulus material, the behavioral aspect relates to the tendency to act andrespond, and the cognitive aspect pertains to knowledge and perceptions acquired through direct
experiences and information sources. Attitudes are formed, changed, and reinforced based on beliefs andevaluations of the stimulus material. This study examines physics teachers' attitudes towards the studentcentered approach using the ABC Attitude Theory as a framework, considering the affective, behavioral,
and cognitive aspects through a questionnaire adapted from previous studies.
In summary, this study investigates the attitudes of physics teachers towards the student-centered approach,taking into account their affective, behavioral, and cognitive responses. The ABC Attitude Theory provides
a foundation for understanding the formation and evaluation of attitudes, and a questionnaire is used as atool to measure these attitudes among teachers
METHOD
This study is a descriptive study involving a survey and correlation analysis with physics teachers in
Malaysia as the study sample. The survey was conducted to assess the level of knowledge about the PBL
approach, self-efficacy, attitudes toward the PBL approach, and the implementation level of the PBL
approach by physics teachers. The survey is suitable to be conducted as the sample size used in this study
is large, and the study results can be accurately and effectively generalized to the population (Chua, 2006).
The correlation analysis was conducted to examine the relationship between knowledge about PBL, selfefficacy toward PBL, attitudes toward PBL, and the implementation of PBL in the classroom by physics
SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research271

teachers. According to Mohd Najib (1999), correlation analysis aims to examine the relationship or
influence between two factors. Therefore, Pearson correlation coefficients were used to assess the presenceof relationships between two variables.
For the survey, the overall minimum values for each variable were analyzed to determine the level ofknowledge about PBL, attitudes toward PBL, self-efficacy toward PBL, and the implementation level of
PBL in the classroom. For the correlation analysis, which aims to examine the relationship between two
variables, Pearson correlation was used as the data obtained were normally distributed and in interval form.
Both studies were analyzed using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences version 26 (SPSS 26).
SampleA sample study is a group of respondents selected from a population for the purpose of a survey (Salant &Dillman, 1994). This study utilizes cluster sampling method, where the selected respondents consist ofphysics teachers in Malaysia. Referring to data from the Ministry of Education (MOE), the population ofphysics teachers in Malaysia in 2021 is 3,509. Based on the sample size determination table by Krejcie andMorgan (1970), the number of respondents to be taken as a sample for this study is 346 teachers. However,researchers rounded the number of samples to 350 individuals in order to have an equal sample size taken
in each zone.
This study employs cluster sampling method, where the population of physics teachers is divided into fivezones, namely the northern zone, southern zone, eastern zone, central zone, western zone, and East Malaysia
zone. Sample size taken from each zone is calculated using the following formula, and then the sample isselected using simple random sampling within each zone.
sample = (population size)/(number of zones)= (346 teachers)/(5) = 69.2
= 70 teachers
Instrument
This study utilizes a questionnaire as a research instrument, where a set of survey forms were distributed tothe study sample. These forms were used to assess the level of implementation of the Project-Based
Learning (PBL) approach, the physics teachers' knowledge of PBL, the self-efficacy of physics teachers
towards PBL, and the attitudes of physics teachers in handling PBL in the classroom.
Knowledge level instrument
The knowledge level instrument consists of a test comprising 15 questions, divided into two constructs:
declarative knowledge and procedural knowledge. The test questions were adapted from a research
instrument by Jekri dan Han (2019) in their study on the construction and validation of instruments
measuring the knowledge, affective, and motivational aspects of science teachers towards STEM teaching
and learning. Additionally, the instrument was also adapted from the knowledge variable instrument usedin the study by Mohamed Hata dan Mahmud (2020). The instruments from both studies were suitable foradaptation because they focused on STEM knowledge and had high Cronbach's alpha values, 0.84 and
0.936. The adapted questions were also ensured to be aligned with the PAK 21 Kit provided by the Ministryof Education for the use and reference of teachers in implementing 21st Century Skills.
Self efficacy level instrument
Teacher self-efficacy is assessed using the Teacher Self-Efficacy Scale (TSES) developed by TschannenMoran and Hoy (2001). The adapted instrument contains 12 items and is divided into three constructs:
teaching strategies, classroom management, and student engagement. The TSES instrument was chosen foradaptation because it is commonly used in studies involving self-efficacy and is easily adaptable.
Additionally, this instrument has high reliability with a coefficient alpha of 0.86 for teaching strategies,
0.86 for classroom management, and 0.81 for student engagement.
SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research272

Attitude level instrument
The attitude instrument towards the PBL approach consists of ten items divided into three constructs:
cognitive, affective, and behavioral aspects of physics teachers in implementing PBL, in line with Eagly
and Chaiken's theory (1993). The research questions were adapted from Mohamed Hata and Mahmud(2020), Jekri and K Han (2019), and Abdul Rahim and Abdullah (2016) because the items used in theirstudies align with the current study. All three studies examined teachers' attitudes towards STEM educationand had high reliability, exceeding 0.7 (Hinton et al., 2004), making them suitable for adaptation.
Data Collection Procedure
The survey questionnaire was distributed to physics teachers in Malaysia using a cluster sampling method,where respondents were selected based on zones. Prior to distributing the questionnaire, the researcher
obtained permission from the Education Policy and Research Division (EPRD) to conduct the study. The
data collection process took three months and involved 350 physics teachers in Malaysia.
The data collection process was conducted by distributing the questionnaire in the form of a Google Form.
Google Form was used to facilitate the quick and widespread distribution of the questionnaire. A total of
83 physics teachers in the northern zone, 97 in the eastern zone, 77 in the central zone, 75 in the westernzone, and 71 in the East Malaysia zone were contacted via the Telegram application to answer thequestionnaire. However, the distribution of the questionnaire was stopped when the number of willing
physics teachers to answer the questionnaire reached 70 respondents per zone. This decision was made dueto the required sample size of 350 physics teachers, equivalent to 70 teachers per region. Physics teachers
who agreed to participate in the study were required to complete the received questionnaire within 30
minutes to avoid respondents seeking information or answers to test-like questions. Overall, the datacollection process spanned 3 months to gather responses from all the participants.
Table 1: The issue of the study and method of analysis
Issues of the study

Method of analysis

1. What is the implementation stage fo physics teachers inside the classroom?

Descriptive

2. What is the level of knowledge of physics teachers regarding the PBL
approach in physics teaching and learning?

Descriptive

3. What is the level of self-efficaccy of physics teacher towards PBL

Descriptive

4. What is the attitude of physics teachers towards of PBL approach inphysics teaching and learning?

Descriptive

5. What is the between the level of knowledge, self efficacy and attitude ofphysics teacher towards the implementation of the PBL approach inphysics teaching and learning

Correlation

RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Descriptive analysis is used to obtain the mean values and standard deviations to describe the distributionof data more clearly. The descriptive analysis in this study aims to answer the first to fourth researchquestions. The survey data was analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences version 26(SPSS 26) software. The data analysis process involved descriptive statistical methods, including minimumscores, standard deviations, percentages, and frequencies. Table 2 below presents the interpretation of thelevels used in Jamil's study (2002). The interpretation of levels is divided into three categories: low,
moderate, and high. However, this level interpretation table is only suitable for instruments with a fivepoint scale, such as the level of PBP implementation, self-efficacy level towards PBP, and the attitude of
SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research273

physics teachers towards PBP.
Table 2: The Level of Interpretation Based on Jamil (2002)
1.00 - 2.33
LowFor
2.34 - 3.66
Moderate
3.67 - 5.00
Highknowledge assessment instruments that utilize only a three-point scale, the interpretation of levels is basedon Table 3. The calculation method for each interval is also provided below. According to the calculation,
the size of each interval is 0.67.
Table 3 : The Level of Interpretation for 3 level Scale
Skor minInterprestasi
1.00 - 1.66
Low
1.67 - 2.34
Moderate
2.35 - 3.00
Highcalculation of intervalℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 − 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒
3−1=== 0.67𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝
3
The level of implementation of PBL
Table 4 : The mean values and standard deviations for the implementation level of the PBL
Construct
Readiness to implement
Challengers
Improvement
Overall

MeanStandard deviation

Level

4.14
3.76
3.98
3.98

.430
.502
.522
.424

High
High
High
High

(Low=1.00-2.33, Moderate = 2.34 – 3.66, High= 3.67 – 5.00)

Table 4 shows the mean values and standard deviations for the implementation level of the PBL approachbased on three constructs: readiness to implement, challenges, and improvement. Based on Table 4, theoverall mean value for the implementation level is high, specifically 3.98. This indicates that theimplementation level of the PBL approach among physics teachers is high. This finding is contributed by
the high mean values for each construct. The readiness to implement construct has the highest mean valueof 4.14, while the challenges construct has the lowest mean value of 3.76. However, overall, all the meanvalues for each construct exceed 3.67, indicating a high level of implementation as per the datainterpretation table by Jamil (2002)
The level of knowledge towards PBL
Table 5 shows the mean value and standard deviation of physics teachers' knowledge level towards PBL
based on two constructs, namely declarative and procedural.

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research274

Table 5: the mean value and standard deviation of physics teachers' knowledge level towards PBL
Construct
Declarative
Procedural
Overall

MeanStandard deviation

Level

2.39
2.17
2.31

.590
.490
.493

High
Moderate
Moderate(Tahap : Low = 1.00-1.67, Moderate = 1.68 - 2.35, high= 2.36 -3.00)

Overall, the knowledge level of physics teachers towards the PBL approach is at a moderate level. This iscontributed by the declarative knowledge construct, which provides a high minimum value of 2.39,
followed by the procedural knowledge construct with a minimum value of 2.17 at a moderate level. Basedon this table, it can also be observed that the teachers' knowledge in the declarative aspect is higher
compared to their procedural knowledge.
The level of self-efficacy of physics teachers towards PBL
Table 6 shows the mean value and standard deviation for self-efficacy towards PBL based on threeconstructs: teaching strategies, classroom management, and student engagement.
Table 6: Mean score and standard deviation for self-efficacy towards PBL
Construct
Teaching strategies
Classroom management
Student engagement
Overall

MeanStandard deviation

Level

3.85
3.97
3.86
3.89

.687
.712
.681
.666

High
High
High
High

(Level: Low=1.00 – 2.33, Moderate = 2.34 – 3.66, High= 3.67 – 5.00)

The assessment conducted found that the mean score for the level of self-efficacy of physics teachers
regarding the implementation of the PBL approach in the classroom is high, at 3.89. This is supported by
the mean scores from the constructs of teaching strategies, classroom management, and student
engagement, which have provided high minimum scores of 3.85, 3.97, and 3.86 respectively. These highmean scores indicate that physics teachers in Malaysia have a high level of self-efficacy in implementing
the PBL approach, particularly in terms of classroom management.
The Level of Physics Teachers' Attitude Towards PBL
Table 7 shows the mean values and standard deviations for the level of physics teachers' attitude towards
the PBL approach based on three constructs, namely cognitive, affective, and behavioral.
Table 7: Mean score and standard deviation for self-efficacy towards PBL
Construct
Cognitive
Affective
Behavioral
Overall

MeanStandard deviation

Level

4.19
4.10
4.23
4.17

.448
.535
.425
.430

High
High
High
High

(Level: Low=1.00 - 2.33, Moderate = 2.34 – 3.66, High= 3.67 – 5.00)

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research275

Table 7 shows that the mean value for the overall attitude aspect is very high at 4.17. This indicates thatphysics teachers in Malaysia have a positive attitude towards the implementation of the PBL approach inthe classroom, whether in terms of cognitive, affective, or behavioral aspects. Among the three statedconstructs, the behavioral construct exhibits a significantly high mean value of 4.23 compared to the
cognitive construct at 4.19 and affective construct at 4.11. However, it is important to note that all meanvalues for the stated constructs are high as they exceed 3.67, as stated in the interpretation table by Jamil(2002).
Pearson correlation analysis
The purpose of this analysis is to answer the fifth research question, which is to identify the relationshipbetween the level of knowledge, self-efficacy, and attitudes of physics teachers towards the PBL approach,as well as the implementation of the PBL approach in the physics subject. It also evaluates the following
hypotheses.
i. There is no significant relationship between the level of teachers' knowledge of PBL and theimplementation of PBL in physics instruction.
ii. There is no significant relationship between the level of teachers' self-efficacy in PBL and theimplementation of PBL in physics instruction.
iii. There is no significant relationship between the level of teachers' attitudes towards PBL and theimplementation of PBL in physics instruction.
The relationship between the level of teachers' knowledge of PBL and the implementation of PBL in
physics instruction.
Table 8: Analyzing the correlation between the knowledge stage and the PBL approach and theimplementation stage of the PBL approach in Physics TnL

Correlation
Implementation
tailed)N**p < 0.05

sig.

Knowledge
0.048
0.366

(2

350

Table 8 shows the analysis of the correlation between the teacher's knowledge level and the PBL approach,as well as the implementation level of the PBL approach in Physics TnL. The correlation coefficient valueof r = 0.048 indicates a weak relationship between the two variables, but it is not statistically significant (p> 0.05). This means that the study fails to reject the null hypothesis (H0), suggesting that there is no
significant relationship between the teacher's knowledge level in physics and the PBL approach, as well as
the implementation level of the PBL approach in the classroom.
The relationship between the teacher's self-efficacy level towards PBL and the implementation level ofthe PBL approach in Physics TnL
Table 9: An analysis of the correlation between the level of self-efficacy and the PBL approach, as well as
the implementation stage of the PBL approach in Physics TnL
Correlation
Implementation sig. (2 tailed)N

Self-efficacy
0.43
.000
350

**p < 0.05
SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research276Based on Table 9, it can be observed that there is a moderate positive correlation (r = 0.43; p < 0.05) thatis statistically significant between self-efficacy and the implementation stage of the PBL approach. Thismeans that the null hypothesis (H0) is rejected, indicating that self-efficacy scores have a moderateassociation with the implementation of the PBL approach. The results indicate that there is a relationshipbetween the level of self-efficacy and the PBL approach, as well as the implementation stage of the PBL
approach in the classroom, but only at a moderate level. The value of r2 = 0.187 indicates that 18.7% of thevariance in self-efficacy of physics teachers towards PBL is associated with the variance in theimplementation stage of PBL in the classroom.
The relationship between the teacher's attitude level and the implementation stage of the PBL approachin Physics TnL
Table 10: An analysis of the correlation between the attitude level towards the PBL approach and theimplementation stage of the PBL approach in Physics TnL
Correlation
Implementation sig. (2 tailed)N

Attitude
0.75
.000
350

**p < 0.05

Based on Table 10, it can be observed that there is a strong positive correlation (r = 0.75; p < 0.05) that is
statistically significant between the attitude level and the implementation level of the PBL approach. Thismeans that the null hypothesis (H0) is rejected, indicating that attitude scores have a strong association with
the implementation of the PBL approach. These findings suggest that the attitude towards PBL is a key
factor contributing to the implementation of the PBL approach in the classroom among physics teachers.
The coefficient value of r2 = 0.56 indicates that 56% of the variance in the attitude level of physics teachers
towards PBL is associated with the variance in the implementation level of the PBL approach in theclassroom.
DISCUSSION
Level of implementation
Physics teachers in Malaysia display a high level of readiness and enthusiasm for implementing ProjectBased Learning (PBL) in their classrooms. This is in contrast to previous research, which suggested a lackof preparedness among teachers (Du & Chaaban, 2020). The Ministry of Education's support, including
topic suggestions in physics textbooks, has contributed to their preparedness (MOE, 2020). Additionally,
these teachers actively engage in discussions with their colleagues and actively seek professional
development opportunities to enhance their teaching methods (Baran et al., 2018; Widyaningsih & Yusuf,
2020). These findings underscore the proactive and dedicated approach of physics teachers in Malaysia
towards embracing PBL.
The commitment of physics teachers in Malaysia to implement PBL is further evident in their proactive
efforts to enhance their instructional practices. They actively engage in knowledge-sharing discussions withcolleagues and demonstrate a strong interest in professional development courses (Baran et al., 2018;
Widyaningsih & Yusuf, 2020). These initiatives reflect their determination to continuously improve theirteaching strategies and effectively integrate PBL into their classrooms. Overall, the study highlights thereadiness and proactive mindset of physics teachers in Malaysia, indicating a positive outlook towards the
successful implementation of PBL.

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Level of knowledge
Liu and Sun (2020) emphasized the importance of pedagogical and TnL knowledge for effective teachingby physics teachers. The study divided knowledge into declarative and procedural categories, consistent
with Guerriero (2013). Findings revealed moderate knowledge levels among physics teachers regarding the
PBL approach, which is concerning as previous studies by Du and Chaaban (2020) and Moore (2019)indicated difficulties in implementation due to low knowledge. However, these studies did not involve
physics teachers as respondents and were not conducted in Malaysia. The current study showed highdeclarative knowledge among physics teachers, indicating awareness of their role as facilitators and thebenefits of the PBL approach. Nevertheless, confusion persisted regarding identifying the final product of
PBL activities. Procedural knowledge was found to be moderate, with a lack of understanding on assessing
PBL activities. Enhancing teachers' knowledge in assessment and implementation methods is necessary forsmooth adoption of the PBL approach. The ACT theory (Anderson, 1983) emphasizes the interrelation ofdeclarative and procedural knowledge, highlighting the need for mastery in both areas to prevent disruptionsin the learning process. Taking steps to address moderate procedural knowledge will enable physics
teachers to effectively implement the PBL approach and prevent student setbacks.
Level of self-efficacy
The study results indicate that Malaysian physics teachers exhibit a high level of self-efficacy when
implementing Project-Based Learning (PBL), as evidenced by their confident utilization of the approach(Norsimah & Mohd Mahadzir, 2020). This self-efficacy positively impacts job performance and job
satisfaction, consistent with prior research linking self-efficacy to these outcomes (Caprara, 2003). The
study also reveals that Malaysian physics teachers demonstrate readiness and confidence in PBL
implementation, as reflected in their high minimum scores for instructional strategies, student engagement,
and classroom management. This counters challenges identified in previous studies (Aldabbus, 2018;
Aksela & Haatainen, 2019) and highlights teachers' belief in overcoming obstacles. Furthermore, teachers'
high self-efficacy in PBL positively influences students' learning outcomes (Capraro et al., 2016; Enroglu& Unlu, 2015), ensuring quality education and fostering 21st-century skills in physics students.
Level of attitude
The study findings reveal that physics teachers in Malaysia hold a highly positive attitude towards ProjectBased Learning (PBL). They believe that PBL contributes to improved student achievement and fosters a
conducive learning environment. The teachers appreciate the active involvement of students in PBL
activities and recognize the alignment of PBL with the development of 21st-century skills (Viro et al.,2020).
The study also highlights that physics teachers have a strong understanding of the benefits of implementing
PBL. They actively seek knowledge and engage in discussions with colleagues, demonstrating theirproactive approach to enhancing their teaching practices. Additionally, these teachers consistently
encourage active student participation during PBL activities, fulfilling their role as facilitators in guiding
the approach (Dole et al., 2015; Le Fevre, 2014). The findings collectively reflect the positive attitude ofphysics teachers towards PBL, aligning with previous studies and indicating their commitment to successful
PBL implementation (Mohamed Hata & Mahmud, 2020).
Relationship between the level of knowledge and the level of implementation PBL
Based on the findings from correlation table 6, it can be concluded that there is no significant correlation
between teachers' knowledge of PBL and its implementation in the classroom. This study indicates thateven though teachers possess only moderate procedural knowledge, they still actively implement the PBL
approach in their teaching practices. This finding contradicts previous studies by Aldabbus (2018), Cintang
et al. (2018), and Aksela and Haatainen (2019), which emphasized the lack of knowledge as a constraint in
PBL implementation. However, it is worth noting that the teachers in this study demonstrate a positive
approach by implementing PBL while simultaneously seeking to improve their knowledge.
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The study suggests considering additional measures to enhance teachers' understanding of the PBL
approach. For instance, workshops and courses, as proposed by Siew (2015), could be valuable inaugmenting teachers' knowledge and implementation of PBL. These interventions would provide
opportunities for professional development and collaborative discussions among educators, ultimately
contributing to a more effective implementation of the PBL approach in the classroom.
Relationship between the level of self-efficacy and the level of implementation
The relationship between physics teachers' self-efficacy and the implementation of the PBL approach inthe classroom is moderately strong. It indicates that self-efficacy is not the sole determining factor for
successful PBL implementation. Surprisingly, both self-efficacy levels and PBL implementation levels arehigh. However, other factors contribute to this relationship.
Teaching strategies play a role, as some physics teachers lack confidence in effectively implementing the
PBL approach due to inadequate instructional planning. Although textbooks are commonly used as a guide,
this study found that some teachers deviate from using them. Similarly, in terms of student involvement,
physics teachers are reluctant to assist parents in supporting PBL tasks at home, despite the importance ofcollaboration between teachers and parents.
In summary, while there is a moderate relationship between physics teachers' self-efficacy and PBL
implementation, it is influenced by factors such as teaching strategies and student involvement. This
indicates that self-efficacy alone does not determine the success of PBL implementation.
Relationship between the level of attitude towards PBL and the level of implementation of PBL
The study findings highlight the strong connection between physics teachers' attitudes and theimplementation of the PBL approach in their classrooms. Positive attitudes, such as enthusiasm and aproactive mindset, significantly contribute to successful implementation. Teachers who create an active
learning environment and show genuine commitment are more likely to effectively adopt and execute the
PBL approach. The study also reveals that affective attitudes are closely linked to readiness, as teachers
who enjoy implementing the PBL approach are more prepared to provide opportunities for active student
participation and monitor student progress.
However, effective implementation of the PBL approach requires careful planning and preparation. While
teachers may initially lack confidence, the study demonstrates that physics teachers can overcome
implementation challenges by emphasizing pre-planning activities and achieving instructional objectives.
The findings underscore the importance of positive attitudes and ongoing professional development inpromoting effective PBL implementation. By fostering positive attitudes and embracing strategies forplanning and growth, physics teachers can create engaging and impactful learning experiences for theirstudents.
IMPLICATIONS OF THE STUDY
Overall, the study found that teachers' knowledge about the PBL approach is moderate, but their confidence,
attitude, and implementation of PBL are high. The study also revealed a connection between teachers' selfconfidence and their attitude toward using PBL. It suggests that physics teachers are capable of
implementing PBL in the classroom. Some recommendations were made to improve teachers' knowledge
and skills in PBL.
Based on the study, it is important for the Ministry of Education to enhance teachers' knowledge of PBL,
both in terms of theory and practice. They can include PBL in university curricula for future teachers andcollaborate with organizations like the National Science Center to support teacher training. The findings
also show that teachers' confidence and positive attitude are strong motivators for them to seek further
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knowledge in PBL. Schools can provide opportunities for teachers to attend relevant courses and develop
PBL modules that align with their needs.
In terms of theory, the study found that the current theory used to support teachers' knowledge of PBL
doesn't fully match the findings. It suggests that more practical exposure is needed for teachers to effectively
implement PBL. Therefore, it is recommended to provide teachers with practical training and support toimprove their procedural knowledge.
LIMITATION AND SUGGESTIONS TO FURTHER STUDY
In this study, a survey and correlation method were employed to explore the connection between personal
factors and the execution of the Project-Based Learning (PBP) approach in classrooms. Although limited
to survey data, the study offers valuable insights into factors influencing PBP implementation among
physics educators.
The study focused on knowledge, self-efficacy, and attitudes towards PBP. While other factors may play arole, these three were deemed sufficient for evaluating the extent of PBP strategy adoption among teachers.
This aligns with Bryant's educational model, adapted to incorporate self-efficacy in place of skills, as seenin Yoon et al.'s (2012) research highlighting its influence on teaching practices.
While STEM subjects warrant various teaching strategies, the study exclusively spotlights PBP due to its
21st-century relevance (Anaelka, 2018) and endorsement by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation
and Development (OECD). PBP not only fosters teamwork and research skills but also cultivates lifelong
learning attributes among students (KPM, 2018).
Based on the implications of the study, several recommendations have been proposed. One of them is toexpand this research to include other subjects so that specific programs can be designed based on theknowledge level, self-efficacy, and attitudes of subject teachers towards the PBL approach. The researcher
also suggests expanding the study by incorporating demographic factors such as gender and teachingexperience as variables in the research. Additionally, this study also recommends conducting research
related to knowledge about the PBL approach using different theories and constructs.
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The Selection Factors of STEM Major Among B40 Matriculation Graduates
at University Malaya
Nurnasuha Binti Hashim1 and Rose Amnah Abd Rauf2
1,2University Malaya (s2156110@siswa.em.edu.my)

ABSTRACTIn Malaysia, the number of students that chose STEM major in higher education institutions showed asignificant decrease including the enrolment of matriculation graduates in the local university. This trend
is seen to negatively impact not only the success of the Malaysian Education Development Plan, but also
the economic sector, where the decline in participation in STEM will prevent national aspirations toimprove the socioeconomic status of B40 household. Guided by Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT),
the purpose of this research is to: (1) study student perceptions related to outcome expectation, self-efficacy,environmental factors and perceptions of STEM careers in the selection of STEM majors in university
among B40 matriculation graduates; (2) to investigate the relationship between factors (outcome
expectation, self-efficacy, environment factors and perceptions of STEM careers) with the selection of
STEM majors in university. The participants consisted of 30 matriculation graduates who are currently
taking STEM majors at Universiti Malaya. All respondents were chosen through random sampling. The
data presented were from pilot test study. The correlational research design is in the form of a survey where
quantitative data is collected. Data was collected through an online questionnaire and analyzed using
Pearson's correlation analysis. The findings showed that: (1) in general, students positively perceived
between outcome expectation, self-efficacy, environmental factors and perception of STEM career asfactors when choosing STEM fields in the university ; (2) there was a significant positive relationshipbetween outcome expectation, self-efficacy, environmental factors and perception of STEM career, whichis in line with the SCCT model.
KEYWORDS: B40, Environmental factors, Outcome expectation, Perception of STEM careers, Selfefficacy, STEMSEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research282

INTRODUCTION
The demand for STEM workforce is increasing not only in Malaysia but globally, along with the rapidly
growing technology industry (Badhrulhisham et al., 2019). A career in the STEM field makes an important
contribution to improving the standard of living and economic growth of the country (Sidin et al., 2020).
Malaysians are categorized into three different income groups; Top 20% (T20), Middle 40% (M40) andBottom 40% (B40). Majority of Malaysians are in B40 household income (DOSM,2021). According toThe
Malaysian Ministry of Education through the Matriculation Division (BMKPM) has a vision and mission
to develop the potential of Bumiputera students in the fields of science, technology and professionallythrough quality pre-university education. The Ministry of Education (MOE) through the Cabinet Meeting
dated 29 May 2019 has agreed to give students from B40 households the opportunity to enroll into theMatriculation Program in line with the government's desire to empower the B40 group (Abd Mutalib, 2019).
The government has allocated a quota of 60% of Matriculation Program placement to B40 students while
40% is for M40 and T20 students. The purpose of this policy is to balance educational opportunities while
helping B40 students in a targeted manner (Abd Mutalib, 2019). Apart from that, the main objective for
BMKPM is to produce students who meet the needs of higher education institutions in the fields of science,technology, and professionals. Therefore, BMKPM strongly encourages matriculation program students toventure into the field of STEM at university and further make STEM a career capable of improving thecountry's socioeconomics (Termize et al., 2021).
Based on statistics from the Department of Statistics Malaysia, majority of households in Malaysia are in
the B40 income category. This makes most students in the national education system came from B40
families (Hasan et al., 2021). According to the highlights of previous studies, B40 students, especially those
who come from extremely poor families, have a high motivation to succeed in academics to change the fateof the family for the better (Xiao & Song, 2022). However, there are studies that give different views on
the relationship between socioeconomic status and student motivation. For example, poor students tend toenter the field of employment instead of achieving success in the academic field (Allang et al., 2019).
This study focuses on several variables that were outlined in the Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT)
model. SCCT explains that the development of an individual's career starts from interest in the academic
field up to the work field (Zola et al., 2022). SCCT also explains that the selection of certain fields is
influenced by individual input such as gender and family background. The contextual factors include
interest, self-efficacy, environment and perception of the field and career (Brown & Lent, 2013). This study
focuses on four blocks that build up the SCCT model, which includes outcome expectations, self-efficacy,environmental factors, and perception of STEM career.

Figure 1 The choice model of social cognitive career theory (adapted from Lent et al., 2013)

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In general, the SCCT model is divided into two areas. The first one, which focuses on the left side of themodel relates to generate interest or educational goal. Based on this study, students recognize their abilities,
skills and potential (i.e., person inputs) and at the same time, influenced by the environment (i.e.,background contextual affordances). For example, B40 students may see the impact that their parents’socioeconomic background has on their choices about education or work and may decide to change thesituation by investing in education through learning experience or vice versa.
The second area on the right side of SCCT model explains the behavioral and action required to achieve
the goal, which is the focus of this study. Interest itself is not generated alone by learning experience butby the combination of few variables that leads to the goal attainment. For instance, if students’ self-efficacy
beliefs are positive, this will lead to positive outcome expectations and generate interest in goals. There arethree models that made the SCCT framework, namely interest model, choice model and performance model(Lent & Brown, 2019). Since this study focuses on the STEM major choices among Matriculation students,
the choice model is the most suitable model to be applied.
Matriculation program graduates tend to choose STEM fields at university because they already have
STEM education background. However, the choice of this field may change if there is an influence of theproximal environment (contextual influences proximal to choose behaviour), that is, support and obstacles
when making a choice (Brown & Lent, 2013). Students who come from B40 households tend to engage inwork and are less interested in trying to obtain excellent results in academics (Hasan et al., 2021).
Alternatively, students can make life changing choices if they receive support from other individual, family
and positive social environment.
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Outcome Expectation
Outcome expectations is defined as one’s belief on the consequences of his or her behaviour. For example,
belief about extrinsic reinforcement (rewards for positive performances) and intrinsic reinforcement(choosing STEM field because it is fun rather than choosing it to get a high paid job) (Lent & Brown, 2019).
Outcome expectations can be positive or negative. Albert Bandura suggested several different classes ofoutcomes expectations, such as the expectation of physical, social and self-evaluative outcomes that may
affect students’ decision on pursuing degree in the STEM field (Lent & Brown, 2019).
According to SCCT choice model, people develop goals to continue studying at higher level courses thatare in line with their self-efficacy and interest. Interest has a big impact on how motivated students are atschool. In a study conducted by Zainuddin and Kutty (2021), it was explained that high motivation has apositive impact on student academic achievement. There are other studies that also showed the same
findings, namely that there is a significant relationship between motivation and student academic
achievement (Yusof & Nawi, 2021). The justification is that even though the STEM curriculum is seen asvery heavy and burdensome for students, if students have a high determination to succeed, in other words,
have positive motivation, then students may obtain excellent academic achievements and then choose
STEM majors at the next level of their study.
Meanwhile, a different study conducted by Luo et al. (2021) emphasized the relationship between outcome
expectations and students’ view of STEM careers, in other words, stereotypes. STEM stereotypes or labels
significantly predicted their STEM self-efficacy, which in turn predicted their choice goals. For example,
a student who is interested in the medical field but held negative stereotypes of surgeons will have negative
outcome expectations of being a surgeon. Consequently, this will affect their choice and goals.
2.2 Self-Efficacy
Self-efficacy is defined as belief on how individuals act to achieve a goal (Lent & Brown, 2019; Mau et al.,SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research284

2020; Mohtar et al., 2019). The basic principle of self-efficacy theory is that an individual's motivation andachievement are influenced by their confidence and belief in themselves (Lent & Brown, 2019). In thecontext of this study, self-efficacy is students' beliefs about their ability to perform tasks and skills related
to STEM subjects.
High self-efficacy is closely related to student achievement (Mukhid, 2009). In other words, self-efficacy
means self-perception of the ability to do something such as generate excellent academic achievements(Yanuardianto, 2019). Excellent academic achievement in STEM subjects leads to the selection of the
STEM major at university because students are said to be more confident and capable of mastering the
subject they have studied before.
Studies conducted on student self-efficacy have focused on school students who are interested in entering
the STEM major as opposed to focusing on students who are currently entering the STEM field, especially
students who have graduated from matriculation programs. Therefore, it is very important for studies related
to self-efficacy among matriculation program graduates to be conducted so that this factor can be explained
comprehensively, and not focused on one group of students only.
In the context of the SCCT theory, which is the basis of this study, it states that the choice of STEM major
depends on the interaction between the individual and the environment which includes demographics andenvironmental factors (such as support and encouragement from parents, friends, friends as well as support
and obstacles at school and at home) (Sahin & Waxman, 2020). Environmental factors are a parameter indetermining the direction of STEM major selection. Students who have positive interactions with theenvironment are said to be more positive towards their learning, beliefs, and academic achievements(Ahmad & Lajium, 2020).
Learning takes place in a social context. For example, learning will occur when they see and observe thedesired example, provided it is compatible with their abilities (Yanuardianto, 2019). There are many studies
that have been conducted related to the factors that influence the selection of students to pursue science
subjects in upper secondary schools or in institutions of higher learning (Muda & Azmi, 2017). Amongthem are factors such as past learning, their perception of science subjects, socioeconomics, differences insubject selection according to gender and the popularity of the chosen subject (Palmer et al., 2017).
The influence of the family, especially the parents, cannot be denied as a factor that determines the decisionof students to make a choice (Xiao & Song, 2022). However, how family influence students’ decision isstill not explained in detail (Kao & Shimizu, 2019). In a study conducted by Termize et al. (2021), it was
explained that students have high motivation and actively engage in learning if there is environmental
support. Support and encouragement from parents, teachers and peers is often associated with student
motivation, where students are more motivated when they receive positive support. Even so, the relationshipbetween parents, teachers and peers regarding student motivation needs to be explained morecomprehensively, especially motivation towards STEM majors from the perspective of SCCT.
Low-income families directly or indirectly affect children's development (Arshat et al., 2018). The
opportunity to get a better job for this group is low due to having limited financial resources and low
education (Arshat et al., 2018). A comfortable learning environment, coupled with the support of social
influence increases student engagement in academics (Termize et al., 2021). Excellent academic
achievement leads to the selection of majors of interest, and in the context of this study, STEM majors. The
selection of a major and career is a dynamic process including the involvement of several parties (Luo etal., 2021). The same study also suggested that the role of family, educators, friends, and school be studiedin more depth by involving students of various ages because social interactions differ according to age.
Learning experience is a learning process through past experiences (Mohtar et al., 2019). According to
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several studies, fun, interest, and self-efficacy when learning science major are the main reasons why most
students are interested in studying this subject at school (Kaleva et al., 2019). Since students spend moretime at school, teachers, and the school environment play an important role in fostering students' interest
and motivation to learn (Yusof & Nawi, 2021).
According to SCCT model, learning experience is affected by person input such as gender, race, personality
and predispositions, background contextual affordances such as social class and lastly, performancedomains and attainments such as academic performances and awards received. A positive learning
experience will encourage students to choose a major of interest and vice versa. Family financial factors
also play an important role in the selection of students choosing majors at university. SCCT explains thatstudents tend to choose majors they are interested in from school to university level. However, if there are
obstacles in the proximal environment such as financial and health constraints, the choice of major willchange according to the appropriateness at that time.
Media refers to communication and knowledge channels such as the internet, newspapers, magazines,
books, films, and television programs. Media channels can influence students' interest in STEM majors andcareers involving STEM (Halim et al., 2018). In addition to being visual, information can also be delivered
more quickly through media channels and at the same time making STEM exploration more meaningful(Halim et al., 2018).
There are previous studies conducted on using social media as a medium to promote STEM education to amore diverse population (He et al., 2016). The same study also stated the importance of conducting researchon college students because at this age level, students can make their own decisions. This coincides withthis study which involves pre-university graduates, i.e., graduates of matriculation programs, to study theirperception of the media's influence on the selection of STEM majors at university.
2.4 Perception towards STEM career
The development of Industrial Revolution 4.0 causes a high demand for the need to venture into STEM
majors and subsequently choose a career that matches the field studied (Kamsi et al., 2019). However, itcannot be denied that students have a negative impression or perception towards science and mathematics
subjects at the school up to the university level (Sukri & Nachiappan, 2021). As a result, students consider
the subject difficult to learn and decide not to choose that stream (Sukri & Nachiappan, 2021).
Interest, perception, and a positive attitude towards STEM majors lead to the choice of a STEM career(Zhang et al., 2022). Previous studies have reported a lot about high school students' perceptions of STEM
subjects and careers, but mostly from the perspective of students in western countries (Zhang et al., 2022).
Therefore, this study examines the perception of students graduating from matriculation programs in
Malaysia towards STEM careers to provide guidance to other researchers about the trends that are
happening in Malaysia.
This study is intended to contribute toward filling a current gap in the literature through the developmentof understanding the perception of B40 matriculation graduates when choosing STEM field in theuniversity. Therefore, this study is motivated by the following research questions:
What is the overall perception of matriculation graduates regarding outcome expectation, environment,
self-efficacy, and perception of STEM careers in the selection of STEM majors?
What is the relationship between the following factors (outcome expectation, self-efficacy, environmental
factors, and perceptions of STEM careers) in the selection of STEM majors?

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3.0 METHODOLOGY
3.1 Research Design and Instrument
A survey research design was chosen to allow the researcher to examine the relationship between thedependent variable and the independent variable without manipulating the independent variable (Chua,
2020). The questionnaire was made bilingually, namely Malay and English. There are 5 categories ofquestions asked: (a) student demographics, (b) outcome expectation (c) self-efficacy, (d) environmental
factors, and (e) perceptions of STEM careers. Refer to Appendix 1.
3.2 ParticipantsThis study is quantitative, and the study sample is selected through random sampling technique. This
sampling technique allows each member of the population to have the same opportunity and probability to
be selected as a respondent (Chua, 2020). The sample selected as respondents is thirty B40 students who
have graduated from the matriculation program and are studying for a bachelor's degree in the STEM major.
The respondents consisted of 24 (80%) female and 6 (20%) male students at University Malaya. 22 (73.3%)
respondents were Malay, followed by 3 (10%) Indian and 3 (10%) Others and 2 (6.7%) Chinese.
This study focuses on 4 faculties that offer various STEM majors to students. The faculties in question are(1) 6.7% Faculty of Medicine (including pharmacy and dentistry); (2) 3.3% Faculty of Engineering; (3)66.7% Faculty of Science; and (4) 13.3% Faculty of Computer Science / Technology and (5) 10% other
STEM courses. The selected sample is students from Year 1 to Year 4 who are majoring in STEM at oneof the faculties mentioned.
3.3 Validity and Reliability
Table 1: The Cronbach’s Alpha value for each variable
No
1
2
3
4

Variables
Outcome expectation
Self-efficacy
Environment
Perception towards STEM career

Item
10
10
25
10

Alpha Cronbach
0.875
0.942
0.960
0.857

To measure consistency in a construct, the Cronbach Alpha value is used as a reference. The data from thepilot study obtained was collected and the level of reliability was measured using the Cronbach Alphastatistical test in the Statistical Packages for Social Science (SPSS) version 29 software. Cronbach's Alphavalues range from 0 to 1, where if the value is close to 1 it indicates very high reliability (Chua, 2020). The
Cronbach's Alpha value table for each construct provides Cronbach's Alpha value information for eachvariable, ranging from 0.857 (Perception of STEM careers), 0.876 (Outcome expectation), 0.942 (Selfefficacy) to 0.960 (Environmental factors). In general, this value shows that the constructed instrument isgood (because the value exceeds 0.65) and can be used to measure the respondents' opinion about the issue.
3.4 Data Collection Method
This study uses an online questionnaire that contains 55 items. This questionnaire was given to students
majoring in STEM from year 1 to year 4 at University Malaya. This questionnaire was conducted to obtain
feedback from matriculation graduates in relation to the factors that influence the selection of STEM majors
at the university. The questionnaire, titled " The Selection Factors of STEM Major Among B40
Matriculation Graduates at University Malaya" was conducted online and built using Google Form (Refer
to Appendix 1). The Google Form link was given to respondents via the Telegram platform and was open
for two days to obtain enough respondents for this study.
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There are 5 categories of questions asked: (a) student demographics, (b) motivation, (c) self-efficacy, (d)environmental factors, and (e) perceptions of STEM careers. The construction of items for each constructinvolves two steps. The first step is for the researcher to adapt some appropriate items from the existing
instruments related to the selection factors of STEM majors. This research instrument has been adapted tosuit the scale that was developed and validated (Halim et al., 2018; Sahin & Waxman, 2020). Some items
were modified to suit the objectives of the study (Cresswell, 2008). This study uses the construct related to
STEM career selection factors in the study conducted by Halim et al., (2018) and adapts it into this study
which focuses on STEM major selection factors.
4.0 RESULT AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Students’ perception regarding outcome expectation, environment, self-efficacy, and perceptionof STEM careers in the selection of STEM majors
Table 2 above shows the summary of mean and standard deviation for each variable. A small standard
deviation means that the values in a statistical data set are close to the mean of the data set and tightly
clustered (Chua, 2020). By referring to Table 2, all variables have small standard deviation, which meansthat the data were very close in value to mean. However, parent, which is the sub variable for environment
has moderate standard deviation. This means that the data points are moderately spread out, which suggeststhat respondents have mixed view related to this sub-variable. This finding is interesting because many paststudies emphasize that family is the foundation of student academic success (Xiao & Song, 2022).
Table 2: Mean score, standard deviation and interpretation of each variable
Variable

Mean

Outcome expectation
Self-efficacy
Environment
ParentFriendLecturer
Media
Past learning experience
Perception of STEM career

4.30
4.31
4.27
3.99
4.38
4.31
4.29
4.41
4.72

Standard
Deviation (SD)
.46
.55
.55
.85
.58
.59
.59
.61
.59

Interpretation
Low
Low
Low
Moderate
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low

4.2 Outcome expectation when selecting STEM majors
Figure 2 shows a summary of students’ outcome expectations when selecting STEM majors. The findings
indicated that most students 96.6 % students agreed and strongly agreed that they were interested inoperating the machines in the workshop and intended to apply the learned skills in their future career.

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Figure 2: Students’ outcome expectation when selecting STEM majors
In addition, the findings also indicated that most students (93.3%) agreed and strongly agreed that they get
excited each time they conduct activities related to STEM (B2) and they enjoy being able to handle
apparatus/ equipment/ software in the laboratory/workshop (B8). These two statements are examples ofself-evaluative outcomes, in which students made their honest opinions on their performances. The findingsof this study concurred with previous studies in which positive outcome expectation will nurture students’interest in choosing certain field they desired, which in this study, refers to STEM field (Lent & Brown,2013).
4.3 Students’ perceptions on the self-efficacy
Self-efficacy refers to belief in one’s abilities to handle various situations. In the context of this study, selfefficacy refers to students’ belief and ability to choose a STEM major at university. Overall, respondents
gave positive feedback for all 10 items for this construct (Figure 2). The findings indicate that 96.7% agreeand strongly agree that they are confident that they can record data accurately (C8). Recording data is partof the skill needed for STEM field. STEM self-efficacy has been shown to influence student decision tochoose STEM major in university.
According to SCCT, students are more likely to pursue majors in which they are confident of theircapabilities the most (Halim et. Al, 2018). In this case, students choose STEM major in university because
they are confident with their skills that include recording data, operating machines, equipments, apparatus,
as well as able to memorize concepts, principles, formulae and equations easily.

Figure 3: Students’ self-efficacy

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4.4 Students’ perceptions on the environment factors
According to SCCT which is the basis of this study, the choice of STEM major depends on the interaction
between the individual and the environment which includes demographics and environmental factors (suchas support and encouragement from parents, friends, friends as well as support and obstacles at school andat home) (Sahin & Waxman, 2020). Environmental factors are a parameter in determining the direction of
STEM major selection. Students who have positive interactions with the environment are said to be morepositive towards their learning, beliefs and academic achievements (Ahmad & Lajium, 2020).
Referring to Figure 3, for social influence involving parents, even though more than half respondents agreeand strongly agreed that parents influenced their decision for choosing STEM field. However, a aresignificant number of students (23.3%) are not sure whether their parents always have discussions related
to their study with them (D3) and whether they want to follow family members’ footsteps in majoring in
the STEM field at the university (D4).
Secondly, for social influence involving matriculation lecturers, 96.7% agree and strongly agreed that theirlecturer encouraged them to score in mathematics or science subjects while studying at matriculationcollege (D6). In addition, 96.7% also agreed and strongly agreed that their matriculation lecturer is acreative and innovative teacher (D10). Thirdly, for social influence involving friends, 96.6% agreed andstrongly agreed that their friends helped them to improve the academic results (D13).

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Figure 4: Environment factors
Overall, the findings of this study concurred with previous studies conducted by Termize, Mohd and Zamri(2021) which explained that students have high motivation and actively engage in learning if there isenvironmental support. Support and encouragement from parents, teachers and peers is often associatedwith student motivation, where students are more motivated when they receive positive support.
Next, for media influence, 93.4% agreed and strongly agreed that they like to watch STEM programs on
the television (D18). The findings of this study were also consistent with previous study (Halim et al., 2018)
which found that the use of interesting illustrations and presentations through media plays a vital role inattracting students’ interest in choosing STEM field. Lastly, for past learning influence, 93.4% agreed andstrongly agreed that the notes provided by the matriculation lecturers are easy to understand and the teachingcontents delivered by the matriculation lecturers are easy to understand (D22).
4.5 Students’ perceptions of the STEM career in the selection of STEM majors
In this study, perception of STEM refers to the perception of job prospects in STEM fields and the skills
needed by workers in STEM fields. Previous studies have reported numerously about high school students’
perceptions of STEM subjects and careers, but mostly from the perspective of students in western countries(Zhang et al., 2022). Therefore, this study examines the perception of students graduating frommatriculation programs in Malaysia towards STEM careers to provide guidance to other researchers about
the trends that are happening in Malaysia. Overall, by referring to Figure 4, most respondents (96.6%)
agreed and strongly agreed that working in STEM field require creative problem-solving skills andinvolving repairing goods/ products (E9).
However, 16.7% respondents stated that they are not sure whether the income in STEM fields are high or
not (E3). There are also 16.7% respondents are not sure whether workers in STEM fields can help lives ofthe others (E8). In addition, 26.7% respondents stated that they are not sure whether those in STEM fields
can get job easily even though they are currently studying in the STEM field (E4). In today’s era, where
information is available at their fingertips, students may obtain information related to career prospects in
STEM fields and the skills required in these fields through internet or social media. Additionally, students
are indecisive regarding certain items might be due to lack of information about STEM career (Halim etal., 2019). Thus, there is a need to build better understanding of STEM career through appropriate
programmes, activities or interventions that help students gain better in-depth understanding about STEM
career.

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Figure 5: Students’ perception of the STEM career
4.6 Relationship between variables
Pearson correlation analysis is used to test the relationship between four quantitative variables: outcome
expectation, self-efficacy, environment factors and perception on STEM career. As discussed previously,
individual's career development can be explained in detail using Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT)(Ahmad & Lajium, 2020; Rasdi & Ahrari, 2020; Sahin & Waxman, 2020). According to SCCT theory,interest in a career is influenced by four main domains, namely self-efficacy, expected outcomes, interest
and environment (Mohtar et al., 2019).
The result displayed in Table 3 indicates that there was a significant positive relationship between outcome
expectation and perception of STEM career. This shows that positive students’ expectations lead to positive
perception on STEM career which then became one of the factors why students choose STEM field. In
addition, there are also positive correlations between self-efficacy and environment factors with perceptionof STEM field. The findings of this study are in line with previous studies which stated that in SCCT theory,
perception of certain career field depends on self-efficacy and past learning experiences (Lent & Brown,2019).
Table 3: Correlations between outcome expectation, self-efficacy, environment factors and perception on
STEM career
OutcomeSelf-efficacy
Environment
Perceptionofexpectation
factors
STEM career
Outcome0.757**
0.744**
0.900**
expectation
Self-efficacy
0.720**
0.818**
Environment
0.798**
factors
Perception
on
STEM career**Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)*Correlation is significant at the 0.00 level (2-tailed)
5.0 CONCLUSION
In this study, it was found that outcome expectation, self-efficacy, environmental factors, and perception
towards STEM careers significantly correlate with one another. Based on the literature review and the
SCCT model, interaction of all factors mentioned influence students’ choice. This proves that positive
outcome expectation, self-efficacy, environmental factors, and perception of STEM careers play a vital part
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in motivating students’ decision in choosing fields of study.
For future research, additional studies on students in other STEM fields such as agriculture, sport scienceand home economics should be conducted so that interest towards STEM field can be explained widely.
Secondly, a mixed-methods methodology should be used to examine in more detail on reasons students areinterested in STEM field. Next, the participation of students from different year of study should be the sameso that social interaction between different classes of age can be explored because according to SCCT,
students make more mature choices as they age.
Apart from that, further research could involve interviews with workers in the STEM fields that might help
to divulge on how and why students make the decision to choose STEM fields and careers. Halim et al.
(2019) in their report stated that passion for science and curiosity about how world works are the importantfactors that influence students’ decision on choosing certain path. Thus, in the future, researching into otherfactors (apart from the one mentioned in SCCT) that contribute to students’ decision choosing STEM may
be able to provide better understanding of how students interact with their experiences and choose STEM
field.
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Ahmad, N., & Lajium, D. (2020). Persekitaran Pembelajaran dan Minat Dalam Kerjaya STEM.
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Ismail, M. H., Fadzil, H. M., Saat, R. M., & Salleh, M. F. M. (2022). A Needs Analysis Study for the
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Learning of B40 Students in Rural Schools) (Vol. 3, Issue 1).
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7.0 APPENDICES
Item and description for outcome expectations
Item
Description
B1
I will get a high salary if I choose STEM major
B2
I get excited each time I conduct activities related to STEM
B3
My parents are happy if I choose a STEM major at university
B4
There are many career options if I choose STEM major
B5
I learned a lot of things related to technology/engineering which can help me to get a job
B6
I intend to apply the learned skills in my future career
B7
I am interested in operating the machines in the workshop
B8
I enjoy being able to handle apparatus/ equipment/ software in the laboratory/workshop
B9
I want to be praised by my family for getting a degree in STEM major
B10
I will get promoted to higher rank when I work in the future
Item and description for self-efficacy
Item
Description
C1
There are many career options in the future
C2
I am confident in my abilities
C3
I obtained excellent results in one of the STEM subjects
C4
I can solve problems related to science or math concepts wellC5
I can identify problems in everyday life and use STEM to design ways to solve problems
C6
I am confident that I can finish my studies within the given time
C7
I already planned my life for 5 years ahead
C8
I am confident that I can record the data accurately
C9
I can operate machines / technological equipment / apparatus easily
C10
I can memorize concepts, principles, formulas, or equations in STEM subjects easily
Item and description for environmental factors
Item
Description
D1
My parents encouraged me to choose a STEM major
D2
My parents encouraged me to join activities that related to STEM while studying at
matriculation
D3
Parents always have discussions with me related to my study
D4
I want to follow my family members’ footsteps who majored in STEM at the university
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Item
D5
D6
D7
D8
D9
D10
D11
D12
D13
D14
D15
D16
D17
D18
D19
D20
D21
D22
D23
D24
D25

Description
Parents played an active role in helping me choosing STEM major
My lecturer encouraged me to score in mathematics or science subjects while studying at
matriculation
My matriculation lecturer encouraged me to choose a STEM major
My matriculation lecturer provided a lot of information that related to STEM majors
My matriculation lecturer applied an interesting learning approach during lectures while
studying at matriculation/foundation programme
My matriculation lecturer is a creative and innovative
My friends influenced me to choose a STEM major
Many of my friends chose STEM majors at the university
My friends help me to improve my academic results
My friends always give support to me
My friends and I have the same goal
I like to read books that related to STEM
I love to listen about STEM on the radio
I like to watch STEM programs on the television
I like to surf the internet to get information that related to STEM
Trending on the social media
The notes provided by the matriculation lecturers are easy to understandThe teaching contents delivered by the matriculation lecturers are easy to understandMy matriculation lecturers help me throughout the teaching and learning process
The syllabus of STEM subjects in matriculation and foundation are suitable for students
My matriculation lecturers always diversified the teaching methods

Item and description for perception towards STEM career
Item
Description
E1
I will feel satisfied if I can work in a STEM related field
E2
Careers in STEM are prestigious
E3
The income of workers from STEM fields are highE4People who majored in STEM can get the job easily
E5
The STEM fields can provide more job opportunities
E6
Those in STEM fields can get jobs easily
E7
Workers in STEM fields have enough time with their families
E8Workers in STEM fields can help the lives of others
E9
Jobs in STEM fields involve repairing goods/products
E10
Working in STEM fields require creative problem-solving skills

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Use of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in University of Santo Tomas - Legazpi:
Issues and Prospects
Ma. Christine R. Boduan1, Susana C. Cabredo2, and Sylva Elena B. Payonga3
University of Sto. Tomas – Legazpi, Philippines (machristine.boduan@ust-legazpi.edu.ph)2
University of Sto. Tomas – Legazpi, Philippines (susana.cabredo@ust-legazpi.edu.ph)3
University of Sto. Tomas – Legazpi, Philippines (sylvaelena.payonga @ust-legazpi.edu.ph)1

ABSTRACTThe emergence of the Fourth Industrial Revolution has brought about significant societal and educationalchanges leading to the development of Education 4.0, which underscores personalized and adaptive learning
experiences. To achieve these goals, AI tools have become indispensable for enhancing traditional teaching
methods, creating personalized learning environments, and streamlining administrative tasks. However, theuse AI tools in higher education institutions presents challenges and issues. This study aimed to examine
the extent of AI tools usage at the University of Sto. Tomas – Legazpi (UST-L) by faculty and students andidentify the associated issues in delivering learning content. The study aimed to guide the responsible useof AI tools in classrooms to maximize their pedagogical potential. The study employed the Technological
Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) Framework, the Self-Determination Theory, and Technology
Acceptance Model (TAM) to ensure a comprehensive understanding of using AI tools in higher education.
A quantitative research method was used to gather data. The results indicated that AI tools were used to amoderate extent across different dimensions, highlighting their potential benefits. In conclusion, the study
provides insights into the current utilization of these tools in education. It emphasizes the importance ofaligning these technologies with pedagogical practices, promoting ethical use, and continuously evaluating
and improving them to enhance teaching and learning experiences. By recognizing the transformative
potential of AI tools, educators, policymakers, and researchers can make well-informed decisions toleverage these tools effectively in higher education institutions.
KEYWORDS: AI Education, AI Tools UST – Legazpi, Issues, Prospects

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INTRODUCTION
The Fourth Industrial Revolution pertains to the continuous digital revolution that has transpired since themid-20th century. The revolution is characterized by the convergence of technologies that is causing a
blending of the boundaries between the realms of the tangible, virtual, and organic. The Fourth Industrial
Revolution significantly impacted education, giving rise to Education 4.0 -- a shift towards learner-centric
approaches and personalized and adaptive learning experiences. The current educational paradigm
represents a crucial change in disseminating, acquiring, and utilizing knowledge, emphasizing on analyticalreasoning, innovation, teamwork, and flexibility. This facilitates the ability of individuals to excel in asociety heavily influenced by technology.
AI tools are a critical enabler and catalyst of Education 4.0. AI is a technological innovation that empowers
machines to simulate a range of intricate human abilities (Sheikh, Prins, & Schrijvers, 2023). It can enhance
and augment traditional teaching methodologies, create personalized learning experiences and streamline
administrative tasks. These tools gained prominence for their potential to revolutionize teaching andlearning experiences. Furthermore, exploring the pedagogical prospects of AI tools in higher education
institutions is crucial to understanding their impact on teaching and learning practices. That said, there are
essential issues associated with their use.
This research paper focuses on the use of AI tools in a higher education institution, specifically the
University of Sto. Tomas – Legazpi (UST-L) Graduate School, where learners engage in advanced
academic pursuits and research. By examining the extent of the use of these tools in the learning andteaching process, this study aims to provide educators, policymakers, and researchers with valuable insights
into their transformative potential.
RESEARCH OBJECTIVESThe study determined the use of AI tools in UST – Legazpi Graduate School. Specifically, it sought answers
to the following:(1) Examine the extent of the use of AI tools(2) Determine the issues attendant to their use, and(3) Determine the pedagogical prospects for the use of AI tools
FRAMEWORK OF THE STUDYThis study draws on three theories and concepts to examine the use of AI tools in higher education
institutions: The Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) Framework, Self–
Determination Theory, and the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM).
Punya Mishra and Matthew J. Koehler believe the TPACK framework integrates technology, pedagogy,
and content knowledge (Technology Integrate Framework, n.d.). This supports the researchers in evaluating
how AI tools align with pedagogical practices and specific content areas, assessing their effectiveness inenhancing teaching and learning experiences. The framework ensures that adopting AI tools ispedagogically sound and supports the goals of instruction.
On the other hand, the self-determination theory developed by Edward Deci & Richard Ryan, focuses on
individuals’ intrinsic motivation, autonomy, and competence (Lopez-Garrido, 2021). This enables theresearchers to examine the impact of these tools on students’ motivation and sense of control, assessing
whether these tools empower students, facilitate self–directed learning, and enhance motivation.

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Davis's Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) is widely recognized for understanding users' acceptanceand adoption of technology. It posits that the utilization of technology depends on an individual's
behavioural intention, which determines the acceptance of the technology (Lai, 2017). TAM provides avaluable framework for exploring members of the faculty and students' acceptance of AI tools. Researchers
examined the usefulness and ease of use of AI tools and their impact on teaching and learning experiences,addressing factors influencing their acceptance and adoption, such as faculty and student readiness, training,and support.
Integrating these three frameworks provides a comprehensive approach to studying the use of AI tools in
UST- Legazpi Graduate School. The TPACK framework ensures technology integration with pedagogy
and content knowledge, self–determination theory focuses on learners’ motivation and autonomy, and theTAM focuses on user acceptance and adoption factors. This combined approach enables the researchers toevaluate the extent of AI tool usage, identify potential issues, and explore the prospects for leveraging AI
tools to enhance teaching and learning. The conceptual framework is illustrated in Figure 1.

TPACK Framework

Self – Determination
TheoryQuantitative
AnalysisUse of AI Tools in USTLegazpi

Technology Acceptance
Model

Extent of Use

IssuesEnhanced Instructional
Strategies

Prospects

Improved student
achievements & engagement

Figure 1: Conceptual Framework

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The study utilized a quantitative method of research. The data was collected through a questionnaireadministered to 147 students and 18 faculty members of the Graduate School of UST – Legazpi using
Google Forms and printouts. The retrieval rate for students was 95.23 % or 140 out of 147 and 83.33% or
15 out of 18 for members of the faculty. Interviews and personal observations were implemented asverification devices to support and clarify the results obtained from the survey.
The researchers utilized three theories to explore the utilization of AI tools in UST-Legazpi. The TPACK
framework facilitated an assessment of how AI tools align with teaching practices, while the SelfDetermination Theory helped in understanding the impact of these tools on students' motivation and senseof control. The TAM model assisted in examining attitudes toward AI tools. The researchers employed theSEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research299

variables usefulness, ease of use, social good, and confidence, and these were incorporated by gathering
respondents' opinions on attitudes, confidence, and perceptions of social benefits through a questionnaire.
This comprehensive approach allowed the researchers to evaluate the extent of usage, identify issues, andexplore the potential of AI tools to enhance teaching and learning.
The TAM Theory addresses the importance of usefulness and ease of use as critical factors influencing theacceptance of AI tools among faculty and students. Moreover, the Self-Determination Theory, which
revolves around intrinsic motivation and autonomy, extends its scope to embrace the concept of social goodby highlighting how AI tools have the potential to contribute to educational advancement.
The research tool was a self-made questionnaire based on several studies and literature. The questionnaire
underwent validation via pilot testing, wherein feedback and recommendations gathered during the process
were considered in the instrument's finalization.
The research utilized the statistical methods of frequency and weighted mean to evaluate the extent of theuse of AI tools. The mean responses were interpreted using the scale as follows:
Table 1: Interpretation Rating
RatingInterpretation
4
To a great extent
3

To a moderate extent

2

To a less extent

1

Not at all

Adjectival Description
AI tools are used heavily or to aconsiderable degree
AI tools are used not extremely orexcessively
AI tools are used barely or to a limited
extentAI tools are not used

Range Scale
3.51 – 4.00
2.51 – 3.50
1.51 – 2.50
1.00 – 1.50

Furthermore, frequency and percentage were applied to identify the issues associated with the use of AI
tools.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The study revealed the following results:
1. The extent of use of AI tools revealed that the respondents rated usefulness (3.29), ease of use (3.28),
and social good (3.30) “to a moderate extent. These findings suggest AI tools have the potential for further
development and improvement, but user education and awareness of their capabilities and benefits areneeded to enhance user experience. The technology Acceptance Model (TAM) theory posits that usefulness
significantly determines individuals’ technology acceptance and usage. This notion is reinforced by Garos’s
research, which underscores the critical importance of usefulness in adopting technologies (Garos, 2020).
Students respondents provided feedback such as “Great tool in aiding students learning,” “AI drives digitaltransformation; AI revolutionizes education and promotes flexibility; AI may affect human creativity andexpertise,” “Personally using AI tools for grammar check and additional information for studies,” and“Good learning experience.” Some student respondents said they utilize AI generative tools such as
ChatGPT, Quillbot, Grammarly, and Midjourney. Students use AI-powered writing tools for translation,spelling, rewriting, paraphrasing, and summarizing (Burkhard, 2022). It indicates that the respondents
recognize AI tools’ advantages and benefits in learning and teaching. Hence, positive perception andacceptance of using AI tools.
Additionally, the respondents expressed a moderate level of attitude (3.22) and confidence (3.16) in using
AI tools. This suggests that there is a need to establish a sense of trust and assurance among users withSEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research

300

respect to the application of these tools. To achieve this, developers and organizations should emphasize
such technologies' dependability, accuracy, and safety, provide additional support and guidance, and refinethem based on user feedback and preferences. According to Garos, trust-related factors and behavioural
uncertainty are predictors of AI Acceptance (Garos, 2020). Higher levels of technological trust and lower
levels of behavioural uncertainty are more likely to result in the acceptance of AI tools. In contrast, lower
levels of technological trust and higher levels of behavioural uncertainty may lead to resistance.
Some of the feedback provided by the respondents includes statements such as“Students may rely on AI
software and don't have time to work hard like reading some materials, “The AI tools are very useful but
must be used with due care and due diligence, “ “Encourage laziness,” “It helps students to some extent,
but it should not be abused so as not to sacrifice the ability of the student to learn on her own and have hisor her own style, especially in technical writing,” “AI tools can provide answers to problems, but they may
not teach critical thinking skills, which are essential for everyday problem-solving.” This feedback
highlights the importance of exercising prudence and carefulness in the use of AI tools to ensure a balanced
use and maintain academic integrity. Educating users about these technologies' proper utilization andconstraints can facilitate their ability to make informed judgments.
Additionally, considering the widespread availability of AI-powered writing and AI-generative tools on theinternet, it may be necessary to explore innovative approaches for integrating them into the academic
curriculum, taking into account potential violations of established regulations by students. This would help
mitigate the limitations of these tools and optimize their advantages.
In general, the respondents rated the extent of use of AI tools (3.25) as “to a moderate extent”, indicating arecognition of the potential benefits of AI tools in UST – Legazpi Graduate Schools. However, adopting
these tools may be challenging, including ethical implications and a lack of familiarity and comfort with
AI technology. Furthermore, there is room for further integration of AI tools into pedagogical practices,with a focus on aligning them with educational objectives and complementing traditional teaching methods
rather than replacing them. Continuous evaluation and improvement of AI tools are crucial, as developers
and researchers should actively seek feedback from faculty members and students to understand their needs,
challenges, and suggestions. Table 2 presents the result on the extent of the use of AI tools.
Table 2: Results on the Extent of Use of AI Tools
Variables

Students Faculty

Usefulness
Ease of Use
Social Good
Attitudes Towards Using AI Tools
Confidence in Using AI Tools

3.22
3.24
3.20
3.23
3.15

3.37
3.32
3.39
3.20
3.17
Grand
Mean

Mean
Score
3.29
3.28
3.30
3.22
3.16
3.25

Interpretation
To a moderate extent
To a moderate extent
To a moderate extent
To a moderate extent
To a moderate extent
To a moderate extent

2. The survey identified several issues regarding the use of AI tools, as perceived by the students:
a. Promotes over–reliance on technology (94%). Results suggest that students may become
excessively dependent on AI tools, potentially neglecting critical thinking and problem-solving
skills essential for their development.
b. Students developing ways for cheating on exams & bypassing plagiarism checks (86%). The survey
highlights concern about students utilizing AI tools to cheat or bypass plagiarism detection systems.
c. Use of automatic text summaries or math solvers to complete homework (76%). Students perceive
using AI tools for generating summaries or solving math problems automatically as problematic.
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These perceptions by students are supported by the study that examined the negative impact of AI on
academic integrity and cheating (Hussain, et al., 2022). Malekos emphasizes that while AI can revolutionize
how students learn by providing personalized, engaging, and accessible education, it cannot replace humaninteraction, as doing so may result in social detachment (Malekos, 2023). Dr. Palegeorgiou further
emphasizes the need to acknowledge the potential disadvantages, such as information overload, fake news,
and a lack of critical thinking skills (Malekos, 2023). Another study conducted by Ma, et al., suggests that
AI writing assistants, like ChatGPT, may contribute to plagiarism and academic misconduct. In addition, It
is crucial to recognize that AI-generated scientific text lacks valuable insights and external consistency (Ma,et al., 2023). Therefore, AI-generated texts should be used as tools rather than authoritative sources.
Faculty members must exhibit awareness of these concerns and prioritize the responsible use of AI tools,
fostering a perception among students that these tools are supplementary rather than sole reliance.
Additionally, the research results underscore the necessity of implementing academic integrity policies andsafeguards to mitigate the possible abuse of AI tools. Faculty members should actively promote ethicalpractices and educate students on appropriately utilizing these tools, emphasizing the importance of
maintaining originality and integrity in their academic work. Table 3 illustrates the issues attendant to theuse of AI tools as perceived by students.
Table 3: Issues Attendant to the Use of AI Tools Perceived by Students
Indicators

Frequency

Percentage

1. Promotes over-reliance on technology.
2. Students/users develop ways for cheating on
exams & bypassing plagiarism checks.

131
121

94%
86%

3. Use of automatic text summaries or mathsolvers to complete homework.

107

76%

4. Replace sources with AI-generated content
summaries or study materials.

103

74%

5. Copyrighted educational resources are
redistributed without permission.

82

59%

6. AI tools are used to generate text or content tomanipulate perceptions.

56

40%

7. AI-generated content, tools, or technologies
encourage the falsification of academic records
or credentials.

53

38%

8. AI-powered voice and video manipulation toconceal identity.

51

425%

9. The application of AI-generated text creationor chatbots to imitate teachers or schoolmates indigital communication has becomecommonplace.

50

36%

10. Exploitation of vulnerabilities of AI-powered
educational applications or assessment tools is areality.

42

30%

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Indicators
11. Text can be rewritten with a push of abutton.

Frequency
40

Percentage
29%

12. Promote digital peer pressure and social
harm.

37

26%

13. Peers or faculty members are impersonatedin virtual class sessions.

33

24%

14. AI technologies facilitate breaches of theschool’s data security system.
15. Breach of school data security system.

32

23%

19

14%

Table 4 presents the perceived issues attendant to the use of AI tools, as reported by the faculty respondents.
These include:
1. AI tools cannot correctly evaluate text structure, content logic and coherence (67%)
2. AI algorithms must be more reliable to provide teachers with useful information (60%).
3. AI tools promote over-reliance on technology (60%); and4. Technological knowledge is needed for AI–based teaching (54%).
These results highlight the importance of maintaining human intervention in educational assessments.
While AI tools can provide valuable insights, it is crucial for faculty members to acknowledge the necessityof human judgment when evaluating complex skills such as critical thinking, creativity, and effective
communication.
Table 4: Issues Attendant to the Use of AI Tools Perceived by Faculty
Indicators
1. AI tools cannot correctly evaluate text structure, content
logic and coherence.
2. AI algorithms must be more reliable to provide teacherswith useful information.
3. AI tools promote over-reliance on technology.
4. Technological knowledge is needed for AI-basedteaching.
5. AI tools provide comprehensive adaptive &personalized feedback.
6. AI tools do not have enough capability to process
specific features.
7. AI feedback may take longer than expected.
8. Technical infrastructure in schools is limited for AIbased teaching.
9. AI systems cannot operate in multiple learning
strategies.

Frequency
10

Percentage
67%

9

60%

9
8

60%
53%

7

47%

6

40%

6
5

40%
33%

4

27%

Additionally, recognizing the need for technological knowledge in AI-based teaching highlights theimportance of providing professional development and training for faculty members. Faculty respondents
expressed concerns such as, “Older professors are less adaptive to AI tools, thus finding it hard to use it to
the fullest,” and “There may be a steeper learning curve for instructors who have yet to adapt to the rapid
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development in technology.” Educational Institutions must ensure faculty members have the necessary
knowledge and skills to integrate AI tools into their teaching practices effectively. The TPACK framework
supports this perspective by highlighting the significance of understanding how to incorporate technologicaltools into instructions. Institutions should offer opportunities for professional development, workshops, andresources to assist faculty members in developing the competencies required to maximize the benefits of
AI tools in the classroom.
Furthermore, additional input from faculty respondents was that “Internet and power interruption tends tohamper the effectivity of AI tools.” According to Mercader & Gairin, identifying and considering existing
obstacles can help teachers focus on developing necessary skills and familiarizing themselves withfacilitating factors and strategies to overcome obstacles and achieve full integration of digital technology(Gairin & Mercader, 2020). The use of AI tools relies on stable internet connectivity and an uninterrupted
power supply. To effectively utilize AI tools in teaching, learning, and other processes, organizations andeducational institutions need to prioritize robust infrastructure and contingency planning. This ensures
seamless operation and optimization of benefits.
3. Based on the student’s perceptions of the issues related to the use of AI tools, the following prospects
were identified:a. Promoting Balanced Technology Integration: The perception that AI tools promote over-relianceon technology suggests the prospect of encouraging a balanced approach to their use. Faculty
members can promote digital literacy, critical thinking, and problem-solving skills to help students
understand the limitations of AI tools and use technology as a supportive tool rather than solely on
it. This prospect aims to foster a healthy balance between human intellect and technologicalassistance.
b. Strengthening Academic Integrity: The finding that students use AI tools to cheat on exams andbypass plagiarism checks highlights the importance of addressing academic integrity concerns.
Institutions can implement robust policies, educate students about ethical practices, and enhanceplagiarism detection systems to ensure AI tools' responsible and ethical use. Promoting a culture ofacademic honesty can improve academic integrity.
c. Encouraging Critical Thinking and Skill Development: The reliance on these tools to complete
homework tasks, such as math problem-solving or text summarization, indicates the need todevelop students’ critical thinking and problem-solving abilities. The prospect lies in designingassignments and activities that require higher-order thinking skills, analysis and creativity. Faculty
members can guide students to use these tools as aids for learning rather than relying solely on
them, fostering the development of essential cognitive skills.
These issues present prospects for faculty members and higher educational institutions to address thechallenges associated with using AI tools among students. By promoting balanced technology integration,
strengthening academic integrity, and encouraging critical thinking, educational stakeholders can guidestudents to maximize the benefits of AI tools while developing essential skills necessary for lifelong
learning. These prospects contribute to creating a learning environment that leverages AI tools responsiblyand ensures the holistic development of students.
Based on the faculty members’ perceptions of the issues related to the use of AI tools, the following
prospects were identified:a. Improving AI Evaluation: The finding that AI tools struggle to evaluate text structure, content logic,
and coherence accurately indicates the need for improvement in AI algorithms. Continued researchand development can lead to advancements in natural language processing, enabling these tools toprovide better feedback on the quality and coherence of written work. This prospect holds thepotential for a more accurate and practical evaluation of student assignments.

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b. Enhanced Reliability of AI Algorithms: The perception that AI algorithms should be more reliable
to provide teachers with useful information suggests prospects of refining and strengthening thealgorithms used in AI tools. Ongoing research and advancements aim to ensure that the outputs andrecommendations generated by these tools are trustworthy and dependable. Addressing algorithmic
bias, error rates, and transparency issues can improve the reliability of AI tools.
c. Balancing Technology Reliance: Recognition that AI tools can promote over-reliance ontechnology calls for a balanced approach to their implementation. The prospect lies in creating
strategies that encourage a healthy integration of AI tools while emphasizing students' continued
development of critical thinking, problem-solving, and human interaction skills. By promoting thebalanced use of AI tools as complementary aids rather than complete replacements, faculty
members can ensure that students gain the necessary skills while leveraging the benefits of AI
technology.
d. Building Technological Knowledge: The perception that technological knowledge is needed for AIbased teaching highlights the prospects for enhancing faculty members' digital literacy andtechnological competencies. Providing professional development opportunities, training programs,
and resources can support faculty members in developing the skills required to effectively
incorporate AI tools into their teaching practices. Equipping faculty members with the knowledge
and skills for AI-based teaching can leverage these tools to enhance pedagogy and student learning
outcomes.
The research findings offer prospects for improvement and advancement in the use of AI tools in education.
By addressing the identified issues and focusing on enhancing AI evaluation, reliability, technology
reliance, and technological knowledge, education stakeholders can harness AI tools' full potential toenhance teaching, learning, and assessment processes.
CONCLUSIONS
Based on the findings of the study, the following conclusions were drawn:
1. There is a significant potential for adopting and integrating AI tools in UST – Legazpi Graduate School.
The respondents recognized AI tools to be highly useful, easy to use, and have the potential for social
good. Therefore, AI tools are seen as valuable assets that can enhance the learning and teaching process.
2. AI tools bring numerous benefits to education; however, it is crucial to address the associated issues.
By addressing these issues, we ensure the responsible use of these tools, enhance the learning
experience, and prepare students for the challenges and opportunities of the digital age.
3. Embracing the prospects of balanced technology integration, strengthened academic integrity, andencouraged critical thinking can enable educational stakeholders to harness the benefits of AI tools
while guiding students toward holistic development. These efforts contribute to creating an educational
environment that maximizes the potential of AI tools, fosters student growth, and prepares them for
future endeavours.
RECOMMENDATIONS
1. Provide faculty training and professional development programs focused on integrating AI tools
effectively into pedagogical practices. These programs should equip faculty members with thenecessary technological knowledge and skills to leverage AI tools in the classroom. Providing
workshops, seminars, and resources will enable faculty to incorporate AI tools and enhanceteaching and learning experiences confidently.
2. Reinforce academic integrity policies and implement rigorous plagiarism detection systems toaddress concerns related to students using AI tools for cheating and bypassing plagiarism checks.
3. Foster a balanced approach to the use of AI tools by emphasizing their role as supplementary aids
rather than complete replacements for traditional teaching methods. Faculty members can guide
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students to develop critical thinking and problem-solving skills while utilizing AI tools as
supportive resources. Emphasizing the importance of human intellect and creativity in conjunction
with AI technology will promote a well-rounded education.
4. Implement educational programs that raise students' awareness about the limitations and potentials
of AI tools. By educating students about the benefits and challenges of AI technology, they canmake informed decisions when utilizing these tools and avoid over-reliance on technology.
Encouraging students to develop essential cognitive skills and critical thinking abilities will preparethem for lifelong learning.
5. Provide robust infrastructure, stable internet connectivity, and an uninterrupted power supply tosupport the effective use of AI tools. Implementing contingency plans for technology-related
disruptions will ensure seamless operation and optimize the benefits of AI tools in teaching andlearning processes.
6. Foster collaboration among faculty members, students, administrators, and researchers tocontinuously evaluate and improve the integration of AI tools in the educational environment. By
creating a collaborative space for exchanging ideas, sharing best practices, and addressing
challenges, the Institution can make well-informed decisions to enhance the responsible use of AI
tools.
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Technology Integrate Framework. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://teachingcommons.stanford.edu/teachingguides/foundations-course-design/theory-practice/technology-integrationframework#:~:text=The%20TPACK%20framework%20was%20first,Content%20Knowledge%20(CK)The fourth Industrial Revolution: What it means and how to respond. (2016, January 14). Retrieved fromWorld Economic Forum: https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2016/01/the-fourth-industrialrevolution-what-it-means-and-how-to-respond/

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Online and Offline Assessments:
A comparison study in Engineering Education
Yit Yan Koh1 and Yaw Long Chua212Newcastle Australia Institute of Higher Education Pte Ltd, University of Newcastle, Singapore
Institue of Sustainable Energy, Universiti Tenaga Nasional, 43000 Kajang Selangor, Malaysia

ABSTRACTThe COVID-19 came to an end in 2023. Such an ending marks a high time for Higher Education Institutions
to review the conduct of courses during the Pandemic and its effect towards students' learning. Some studies
have shown that the conversion from face-to-face to online assessment has brought positive results.
Nonetheless, three is a need to understand if the reverse is possible under the "New Normal" condition.
This paper researches the comparison of students' performance of assessments conducted before, during
and after the Pandemic to determine if the hypothesis "students’ academic performance is irrelevant of themode of assessment” is valid. The study is conducted for the Engineering Thermofluids module for Higher
Institutions in Singapore. The results show that students' performance is consistent before, during and after
the Pandemic, showing that regardless of the mode of assessment, the performance is consistent among thestudents.
KEYWORDS: Online Assessment, Face-to-Face Assessment, Engineering Education

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INTRODUCTION
Engineering education has undergone a remarkable transformation in recent years, with technology playing
an important role in shaping the learning experience. The COVID-19 Pandemic has also caused teaching,learning and assessment into a different ball game. As part of this digital revolution, traditional assessment
methods have also evolved, where online assessments are also accepted as a viable alternative to traditional
offline assessments.
Online assessments take advantage of the power of digital platforms, enabling students to engage withcourse materials, complete assignments, and take exams remotely. These assessments often encompass avariety of formats, including multiple-choice questions, structured questions, programming, andsimulations. By harnessing the capabilities of technology, online assessments offer several advantages, suchas increased flexibility in scheduling, immediate feedback, and the ability to track performance metrics.
On the other hand, offline assessments, conducted in a physical and controlled environment, have been the
traditional approach to evaluating students' knowledge and skills. These assessments typically involve
written exams, practical demonstrations, and hands-on projects. Offline assessments provide a tangible
experience, allowing students to engage with physical materials and demonstrate their understanding
through practical applications.
The Online learning mode was introduced in the 2000s when web-based blended learning was introduced
to enhance students’ learning using Information and communication technology (ICT) (Pappas, 2015).
Online learning was incorporated into traditional face-to-face learning through online videos, forums,
discussion groups, or even case studies and debates. These activities make learning more interesting andfun and improve students’ academic performance.
Online assessment has become the primary mode of assessment during the COVID-19 outbreak, where
Institutes of Higher Education (IHL), in line with online teaching, implemented online assessments. Various
online assessments that have been used and proved to be useful are essays, written assessments,
examinations/quizzes, online discussions, case studies, reflection, presentations, fieldwork, portfolio, andpeer evaluation (Kearns, 2012). Most of these assessments are conducted through the Learning
Management System (LMS), where most of the LMS is completed with an assessment module to set thedifferent types of assessments. Furthermore, as the assessment is completed in the LMS, the performanceand results can be captured quickly, and analyses could be performed to compare students' performance.
As COVID-19 Pandemic turned face-to-face teaching into online teaching, the assessments for the courses
had also converted into online assessments. Such conversion has turned conventional face-to-faceexaminations into online ones too. (Sabrina, Azad, Sohail, & Thakur, 2012) reported some common online
examinations for university courses, which include human-proctored tests/examinations, technology-based
proctored tests/examinations, non-proctored online tests/examinations, and real-time online quiz-based
tests. The authors highlighted that the closed-book examination is not feasible since such an assessment isresource intensive and less flexible. Hence, most of the examination has converted into an open-book or
take-home examination, allowing students to use various resources to answer the question.
Ensuring the authenticity of students and maintaining academic integrity during online assessments has
emerged as a persistent area of concern among scholars and educators. The transition to online assessment
platforms has brought forth unique challenges and vulnerabilities that demand careful attention and robust
measures to uphold the principles of academic honesty. Questions surrounding identity verification,cheating prevention, and safeguarding assessment outcomes' integrity have become focal points ofscholarly inquiry in online education. Consequently, addressing these concerns has become imperative toestablish the credibility and validity of online assessment practices within the academic community.
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The students’ identity authentication is always an important issue and needs to be carefully handled by IHE
to avoid potential academic misconduct. Teclehaimanot, You, Franz, Xiao, & Hochberg (2018) also
highlighted the legal requirement of conducting online examinations, where IHE must verify the identityof students enrolled in the course with at least one of the following ways: a secure login and password,
proctored examinations and any other technology and methods that can effectively verify students’ identity.
(Okada, Whitelock, Holmes, & Edwards, 2019) also highlighted that IHL would need to address several
concerns regarding the e-authentication of students’ identity during the online examinations, including
software upgrading, legal safeguards, quality assurance, and consent form to ensure both IHL and students
are benefited from the online assessments.
IHL has always been relying on various software to ensure academic integrity among students. One
example is using Turnitin to compare the similarities in students’ essays against the database. Such softwareis helpful for essay-based assignments. When it comes to online examinations, Turnitin may not be as
useful, especially the examination for science courses. (Ngyuen, Keuseman, & Humston, 2020) suggested
some assessment strategies in the chemistry examinations that would help to reduce the potential academic
misconduct among students. The competency and programmatic assessments use Higher-order thinking,multiple choice and short-answer questions. Critical thinking is crucial in this method to ensure students
demonstrate higher-order learning skills in answering the questions. The study conducted by (Woit &Mason, 2003) on the online assessment of Computing Science courses reveals that, for online assessment
to be efficient, the online components must be integrated throughout the course evaluations. In line withthis argument, (Ngyuen, Keuseman, & Humston, 2020) suggested increasing the assessment frequency toensure consistent student performance. Despite authors reporting the benefits of frequent assessment incombating students’ academic dishonesty (Grams, 2011) (Foderaro, 2009), the frequency increase is timeand cost-consuming to both IHL and students.
Online Examination for Engineering Education
Engineering education, one of the science courses, has difficulty converting from face-to-face to online
examination during the Pandemic. Although the engineering education assessment could be conducted interms of reports (laboratory works and project-based works), online multiple-choice or short-answer
quizzes (for courses that require questioning technique in Bloom’s Taxonomy), many engineering coursesthat require calculations or technical drawing were traditionally conducted in a face-to-face mode. The
sudden conversion to an online examination was a big challenge to the IHL, not only to abide by the strictlaws imposed by the government to contain the COVID-19 virus but also to deal with potential
authentication and integrity issues arising from the online examination.
To deal with such a problem, IHL opted to transform all examinations into Open-Book Examinations.
Additionally, a Scan and Upload method was employed for these assessments. Under this approach,students were required to answer the examination questions on paper, as many tasks necessitated complex
calculations that were not feasible to complete online. Upon completing the examination, students would
scan their solutions and upload them to the Learning Management System (LMS). During the examination,
students were mandated to activate their cameras to enhance the observation of academic integrity.
Furthermore, an oral examination was conducted after the written examination to ensure academic integrity
further. A random selection of students participated in 5-minute oral examinations, during which academics
posed questions about their solutions to assess their understanding of the approach. Students unable toprovide satisfactory answers were categorized as having "academic misconduct allegations" and werereferred to the Student Academic Conduct Officer for further investigation.

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With such procedures in place, it was expected that students would be given the same quality of education
despite the learning environment changes. The results of such conversion should yield similar academic
performance. Hence, in the analyses of the student's results, the following hypothesis was declared:
H01: there is no significant difference in academic performance for face-to-face and online
assessment students.
METHODOLOGY
A course, Thermodynamics, was considered to demonstrate the hypothesis's validity. As such, student
performance from 2019 to 2022 was compared.
The courses were chosen based on the condition that they are taught in a face-to-face manner in 2019, an
online manner in 2020 and 2021, and a face-to-face in 2022. In addition, there is no change in the assessment
components and lecturers teaching in the course to eliminate potential variables in the analyses. Hence, it
is assumed that all content and assessments were identical, with only the delivery and learning modechanged from face-to-face to online. All assessments were conducted online, including class tests and final
examinations in 2020 and 2021.
Table 1: Enrolment number for Thermodynamics for years 2019, 2020, 2021 and 2022
Year
2019
2020
2021
2022

Number of Students
40
36
28
31

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The analyses begin with the observation of the results. Figure 1 shows the comparison of the academic
performance of students from 2019 to 2021. By comparing results, the distribution of students' performanceis consistent, and no abnormal distribution was observed. The number of students is said to perform
similarly for all grade ranges, and no obvious out-of-range patterns were reported when comparing online
and offline examinations.

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45

Student Distribution %

40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0 - 4950 - 64

65 - 79

80 - 100

Marks range
2019

2020

2021

2022

Figure 1: The comparison of students’ performance for face-to-face teaching (2019, 2022) and online
teaching (2020, 2021).
In order to have a valid null hypothesis H01, there should not be differences reported when comparing
students’ average scores. Table 2 shows the mean and standard deviation for the marks obtained by students
from 2019 to 2022. The detailed standard deviation of marks is shown in the mean obtained by the cohortthat went through online learning is similar to those who went through face-to-face learning.
Table 2: The mean and standard deviation for the marks obtained by students for face-to-face teaching(2019, 222) and online teaching (2020, 2021).
Year
2019
2020
2021
2022

Mean
61.72
64.90
63.49
59.84

Standard Deviation
18.07
15.79
19.10
22.66

Table 3: The mean and standard deviation for the marks obtained by students for face-to-face teaching(2019, 222) and online teaching (2020, 2021) based on the mark range
Mark Range
0 - 4950 - 64
65 - 79
80 - 100

2019
Mean
32.81
54.44
71.98
84.51

S. D.
16.93
4.59
4.67
2.99

2020
Mean
32.84
57.45
72.17
84.56

S. D.
7.17
4.83
3.86
4.01

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2021
Mean
19.88
56.40
69.98
85.44

S. D.
15.18
4.48
5.16
1.97

2022
Mean
25.23
57.44
69.85
86.07

S. D.
14.05
4.12
5.39
3.67

312

Analysis of the results obtained is performed to determine the null hypothesis for this research, where theface-to-face assessment (2019) and online assessment (2020) were performed through the two-sample tTest assuming unequal variances at the 95% confidence level. To test the reverse, the exact two-sample tTest assuming unequal variances at the 95% confidence level was completed for online assessment (2021)
and face-to-face assessment (2022). Tables 4 and 5 show the t-Test scores for face-face teaching and online
teaching for the conversion from face-to-face to online assessment and from online assessment to face-toface assessment. Both results show no significant difference between the scores of the two tests (p > 0.05);
hence, H01 is accepted.
Table 4: t-Test scores for face-to-face assessment (2019) and online assessment (2020).

Mean
Variance
Observations
t StatP(T<=t) two-tailt Critical two-tail2019
61.7218335.069640-0.80643
0.42258
1.992543

2020
64.89636
256.3134
36

Table 5: t-Test scores for online assessment (2021) and face-to-face assessment (2022).

Mean
Variance
Observations
t StatP(T<=t) two-tailt Critical two-tail2021
63.48849
378.2002
28
0.660075
0.511864
2.002465

2022
59.83613
530.3991
31

The null hypothesis H01 proposed that there is no significant difference in academic performance between
students who undergo face-to-face assessments and those who undergo online assessments.
Academic performance encompasses various indicators such as grades, test scores, completion rates, or
qualitative assessments of knowledge and skills. Depending on the specific assessment methods employed,
the outcomes may vary in their ability to capture the true academic abilities of students. One assumption of
the null hypothesis is that the face-to-face or online assessment mode does not influence the assessment
process's fairness, validity, or reliability. However, it is essential to acknowledge that the mode ofassessment can introduce differences in the testing environment, access to resources, or the ability todemonstrate knowledge or skills. These factors may affect the comparability of results between the two
assessment modalities.
Furthermore, the null hypothesis assumes that the two groups of students, those undergoing face-to-faceassessments and those undergoing online assessments, are equivalent in terms of their demographics, prioracademic performance, motivation, and engagement levels. Any disparities in these factors between thegroups could confound the results and impact the validity of the comparison.
Another critical consideration is the context in which the assessments take place. Online assessments often
rely on digital platforms, which may introduce technical challenges like internet connectivity issues orcomputer literacy barriers. These challenges could potentially impact students' performance during online
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assessments, leading to differences in outcomes compared to face-to-face assessments.
Moreover, the null hypothesis assumes that the design and implementation of the online assessments arecomparable in rigour and quality to the face-to-face assessments, where the online assessment adopts the
open-book examination. In contrast, the face-to-face assessment uses the restricted open-book examination.
Ensuring that online assessments adequately measure the intended learning outcomes and provide anunbiased evaluation for all students is crucial. Issues such as test security, cheating prevention, and theauthenticity of students' work must be carefully addressed to maintain the integrity of online assessments.
Despite the results demonstrating no differences between the online and face-to-face assessments,
academics and students still prefer face-to-face examinations, mainly for ease of conduct. Students do notneed additional time to scan and upload the solutions to the LMS, which is less stressful during theexamination period. Academics, on the other hand, would prefer to mark the paper on hard copies, as soft
copy of the submission sometimes can be hard to read, and marking on the pdf is not as smooth as marking
on paper, especially when the academic prefers the marking by questions instead marking by students.
The findings of this study suggest that the mode of assessment, whether face-to-face or online, does not
significantly impact students' academic performance. Therefore, educational institutions and instructors canconfidently incorporate online assessment methods without compromising the quality and rigour of theevaluation process. This implies that online assessments can be considered viable alternatives to face-toface assessments, offering flexibility and convenience while maintaining academic standards. However,based on the preference of students and academics, the final examination or assessments that require heavy
calculations are best to be performed in a face-to-face manner to reduce potential operational costs.
CONCLUSION
The research was carried out to confirm no differences between the online and face-to-face assessments forengineering education. The analyses of the result from 2019 to 2022, where two online and two face-toface assessments were carried out, reveals that the null hypothesis H01, “There is no significant differencein academic performance for students who do a face-to-face assessment and online assessment”, wasaccepted.
While both online and offline assessments have their respective strengths and limitations, the study suggeststhat a balanced approach incorporating elements from both modalities can benefit engineering education.
Integrating online assessments for knowledge-based assessments and offline assessments for practical anddesign-oriented evaluations can provide engineering students with a comprehensive and well-rounded
assessment experience.
Educational institutions and instructors need to consider the specific learning objectives, the nature of theengineering discipline, and the needs of the students when selecting and implementing assessment methods.
The findings of this research contribute to the broader conversation on effective assessment practices inengineering education and guide educators and policymakers in designing assessment strategies that alignwith the demands of the field and promote meaningful learning outcomes.
REFERENCES
Foderaro, L. (2009, May 8). Psst! Need the answer to no.7 on the physics exam? Click here. New YorkTimes, A15 (L).
Grams, M. (2011). Friend or Foe? Physics Teaching, 49, 225-227.
Hewson, C. (2012). Can online course-based assessment methods be fair and equitable? Relationships
between students’ preferences and performance within online and offline assessments: Equity of
SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research314online course-based assessment. ournal of Computer Assisted Learning, 28(5), 488-498.
doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2729.2011.00473.x
Kearns, L. (2012). Student assessment in online learning: Challenges and effective practices. Journal of
Online Learning and Teaching, 8(3), 198.
Ngyuen, J., Keuseman, K., & Humston, J. (2020). Minimize Online Cheating for Online Assessments
During COVID-19 Pandemic. Journal of Chemistry Education, 97(9), 3429−3435. doi:https://doiorg.ezproxy.newcastle.edu.au/10.1021/acs.jchemed.0c00790
Okada, A., Whitelock, D., Holmes, W., & Edwards, C. (2019). e‐Authentication for online assessment: A
mixed‐method study. British Journal of Educational Technology, 50(2), 867-875.
doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.12608
Pappas, C. (2015, October 8). Retrieved from The History Of Blended Learning:https://elearningindustry.com/history-of-blended-learning
Sabrina, F., Azad, S., Sohail, S., & Thakur, S. (2012). Ensuring academic integrity in online assessments:
A literature review and recommendations. International Journal of Information and Education
Technology, 12(1), 60-70. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.18178/ijiet.2022.12.1.1587
Teclehaimanot, B., You, J., Franz, D., Xiao, M., & Hochberg, S. (2018). Ensuring academic integrity inonline courses: A case analysis in three testing environments. Quarterly Review of Distance
Education, 19(1), 47-52.
Woit, D., & Mason, D. (2003). Effectiveness of online assessment. SIGCSE bulletin, 35(1), 137-141.

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A Comparative Study of Online and Offline Learning among
Students in STEM in Malaysia:
Student Learning Experiences in Computing
Yit Yan Koh1 and Chi Wee Tan2
1

Newcastle Australia Institute of Higher Education, Singapore (yityan.koh@newcastle.edu.au)
Tunku Abdul Rahman University of Management and Technology, Malaysia (chiwee@tarc.edu.my)2

ABSTRACTThis comparative study explores the effectiveness and acceptance of online and offline learning methods
among students in STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) education, particularly theTechnology Domain. The study adopts the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) to investigate students'
perceptions, attitudes, intentions, and usage of online and offline learning platforms. Data were collected
through a survey administered to a sample of students, and the differences and relationships between the
two learning modalities were examined. The findings reveal that students perceive online learning as more
useful and easier for Technology education than offline learning. Moreover, students exhibit a more positive
attitude toward online learning and express a higher intention to use online platforms for their Technology
education. These findings highlight the potential benefits of online learning in STEM education and suggest
the need to integrate online platforms into educational practices.
KEYWORDS: Online Learning, Offline Learning, Technology Acceptance Model

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INTRODUCTION
The Online learning mode was started as early as the 2000s when web-based blended learning wasintroduced to enhance students' learning using Information and communication technology (ICT) (Pappas,
2015) The combination of face-to-face teaching using online videos, forums, and discussion groups thatprovide flexible learning to students had provided great additional support and variety to the conventional
face-to-face teaching. It was seen that such a blended mode was welcomed by Medicine and Psychology
students (Grabe & Christopherson, 2008), (Beale, Tarwater, & Lee, 2014), but not among Engineering
students (Chan & Koh, 2008).
Online and Offline Learning
Since its first development, various online learning modes have been developed to cater to different
teaching and learning needs. Online learning can be understood in two major categories: concurrency of
conduct and teaching and learning activities.
Concurrency of Conduct
The first category, concurrency of conduct, describes the mode of the lecture, whether the online and faceto-face lectures are conducted simultaneously. Martínez, Aguilar, & Ortiz (2020) outlined a similar idea
through the term "asynchronous" (lecture capture) and "synchronous" (on-campus or live broadcasted
lecture). The former was a recorded lecture where students could easily access the lecture recordings. Thisis helpful for students who wish to revise the lecture content and wish to relisten or rewatch the lectures.
Podcasted lectures, one example of the asynchronous lecture practised in the early days, were influential inteaching nursing courses (Abate, 2013). The latter type, synchronous lecture, is conducted with the helpof ICT facilities, such as broadcast software, Zoom, Microsoft Teams, Webex, or even Google Meet
(TeachThought, 2023). This type of teaching provides great mobility flexibility to students to attend thelecture anywhere convenient while maintaining the original benefits of face-to-face teaching in theclassroom.
During the Pandemic, when people's movements were greatly restricted to contain the virus successfully,
89.4% of the world's learners were forced to use a primary mode of online learning (Marinoni, van’t Land,& Jensen, 2020). Such an online mode is also categorised as synchronous teaching, where the lecturer andstudents access the same space from various locations, and the lecture is conducted.
It should be noted that to date, there is no clear delimitation towards the use of “hybrid”, “blended”, and“hyflex”, where researchers are using them interchangeably (McGee & Reis, 2012). Hence, the main idea
one should have when coming to online or face-to-face teaching is that “hybrid”, “blended”, and “hyflex”
could be the combination of both online and face-to-face teaching. In some cases, additional activities are
introduced to enhance students’ learning experience.
Types of Teaching and Learning Activities
The teaching and learning activities types can be further divided into three sub-categories: face-to-face,
online and supported offline. Face-to-face is the conventional teaching and learning activities conducted in
the class, which have been well-researched and practised by academics. Various activities to make learning
happen among students (Sim, 2021) outlined a few tips for designing special class activities that help
students learn better: activities to reinforce learning, engaging the imagination, difficulty and challenge,
and satisfaction and shock. Designing classroom learning activities based on these principles would create
a fun yet practical learning experience among students.

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The broadcast or Zoom video conferencing (for example) lecture was not the only teaching activity in
Blended learning. To further demonstrate the idea of asynchronous learning mentioned earlier, students canaccess online activities at any time and anywhere. Activities such as online discussions, self-assessments,
blogs, case studies, virtual visits, and experiments are some examples that are commonly used in online
teaching and learning environments (Hoic-Bozic, Mornar, & Boticki, 2009). These activities can beembedded in the university’s Learning Management System (LMS) or linked to external resources.
Supported offline learning mode gained popularity between the 1970s and 1980s when companies b
Learners used video or television to learn at home and address their questions through mails. Such a modeof learning was then popularised through the creation of CDs and DVDs in the next decade, where the LMS
was invented to engage learners at home further to obtain resources from a central management system.
Online Teaching and Learning in STEM
As mentioned earlier, blended learning was initiated mainly in the Science Domain: Medicine, Nursing andPsychology areas, where its effectiveness was shown, and the university welcomed the mode of learning.
One observation that was reported by (Suwannaphisit, Anusitviwat, Tuntarattanapong, &Chuaychoosakoon, 2021) was that students significantly matured students, or those with different sleeping
patterns, had better management of their time to make sure that they learned most effectively. (Makhdoom,
Khoshhal, Algaidi, Heissam, & Zolaly, 2013) reported that students’ engagement was increased throughblended learning, and their perception of the education environment was improved. The researchers alsosuggested that a cultural change in the learning practice might not be easy for everyone, as their results also
showed decreased social perception among the students.
Like medicine studies, (Sáiz-Manzanares, Escolar-Llamazares, & Arnaiz González, 2020) reported thesuccess of blended learning in nursing studies. In addition to the flexibility, the excellent design of the LMS
was also an essential issue towards the success of blended learning. As LMS was the source for students toaccess when there was no lecture or face-to-face interaction available, the excellent design of LMS
facilitated the personalisation of students’ learning and motivated them in their study.
The Technology Domain speaks a slightly different language than the Science Domain. In their article,(Monk, Guidry, Pusecker, & Ilvento, 2020), suggested that replacing more than one-third of the traditional
face-to-face class time with online activities would affect the final grade outcomes of the students’assessments. In other words, blended learning would help enhance students’ learning, but face-to-facelectures must still be the primary mode of conduct. One study (Wenceslao & Felisa, 2021) reported that
65% of students believed online learning was less effective than traditional face-to-face classroom
interaction. The study also reported that 60% of the academics preferred blended learning while 65% of
students preferred traditional classroom teaching. Students who preferred classroom teaching mainly
suffered from technological difficulties, assessment issues, limited social interaction and personal
challenges.
Understanding Technology and Engineering is not feasible to be entirely online taught, and this researchseeks to understand, from students’ perspective, if they enjoy online learning and would appreciate its
benefits. This paper presents the outcome of the Technology Domain, and the outcome of analyses
performed in the Engineering Domain is not presented in this paper. The result of the study contributes tothe developing body of knowledge about the Pandemic on engineering and technology education.

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RESEARCH FRAMEWORKThe research is designed and analysed through the Technology Acceptance Model TAM developed by(Davis, 1989). TAM outlined two factors determining whether a computer system will be accepted by its
potential users in terms of perceived usefulness and ease of use. The key feature of this model is its emphasison the perceptions of the potential user. This means that the technology product or service designers may
believe that the product or service is useful and user-friendly, and this will only be true when the users sharethe same opinions. Figure 1 shows the earliest Technology Acceptance Model developed by (Davis, 1989).

Perceived
Usefulness

Intention to
Use

Usage
Behaviour

Perceived
Ease of Use
Figure 1: The earliest Technology Acceptance Model developed by (Davis, 1989).
The TAM framework is widely used to understand individuals' acceptance and usage of technology, and it
can be adapted to investigate the effectiveness and acceptance of online learning platforms compared to
traditional offline learning methods in the context of STEM education.
The following hypotheses and variables in measurements are described based on the TAM.
• Perceived Usefulnesso Hypothesis: Students perceive online learning as more beneficial for STEM education thanoffline learning.
o Variables to measure: Students' perceptions of the usefulness of online and offline learning
for STEM education.
• Perceived Ease of Use:o Hypothesis: Students perceive online learning as more straightforward for STEM
education than offline learning.
o Variables to measure: Students' perceptions of the ease of use of online learning and offline
learning for STEM education• Intentions to Use:o Hypothesis: Students are more likely to choose online learning over offline learning for
STEM education based on their perceived usefulness, ease of use, and attitudes.
o Variables to measure: Students' intentions to use online or offline learning for STEM
education.
• Actual Usage and Performance:o Hypothesis: Students who use online learning for STEM education will have comparable
or better performance outcomes than those using offline learning.
o Variables to measure: Students' actual online and offline learning usage for STEM
education and their academic performance outcomes.

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METHODOLOGY
The research is conducted in Malaysia, where the responses from a Private Institute of Higher Education(IHE) are collected. The sampling technique employed was stratified random sampling. The target
population consisted of undergraduate students enrolled in the IHE during the survey period. Stratification
was based on the STEM Domain (e.g., Computing, Technology, and Engineering), allowing for a
proportional representation of different student categories. The survey instrument consisted of aquestionnaire comprising Likert scale questions. Likert scales are commonly used in social science research
to measure attitudes, opinions, and perceptions. The Likert scale utilised in this survey consisted of a sixpoint scale ranging from "Strongly Disagree" to "Strongly Agree”. To avoid a neutral response as much as
possible, the usual neutral midpoint labelled "Neither Agree nor Disagree" is replaced by “somewhat agree”
and “somewhat disagree” to indicate respondents’ behavioural tendencies.
Data collection was completed through Microsoft Form, an online survey platform. Such collection was toensure convenience and easy access by the respondents. The survey was administered to the selected sample
of students with a clear explanation of the research objectives, confidentiality of responses, and voluntary
participation. Respondents were given a specific period to complete the survey, and reminders were sent to
the respondents to maximise the response rate. Upon completion of the data collection, the responses were
exported for analyses using descriptive statistics such as frequencies and statistical tests.
It is essential to acknowledge some limitations of the study. Firstly, the survey relied on self-reported data,
which may be subject to response biases. Additionally, the survey was conducted among students from a
specific institution, limiting the generalizability of the findings to other populations or contexts. Finally,
the study's cross-sectional design does not allow for causal inferences or the examination of changes overtime.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
A total of 46 valid responses were collected. The respondents were undergraduates aged 18 – 24, studying
technology-related courses at the university. The male-to-female respondent ratio was reported to be 22:24,
representing a gender balance among the respondents. 70% of the respondents use computers for more than
4 hours daily, with 25% using as high as 6 to 8 hours a day.
When asked about the overall online learning experience, on a scale of 1 to 10 (10 being excellent), an
average score of 7.30 was obtained, with 74% of respondents scoring 7 and above. 19% answers 5 andbelow. The results show that students' experience with online learning is still good.
Figure 2 shows the results on the Perceived Usefulness. Positive feedback was obtained from therespondents on the usefulness of online learning, and they felt that the learning environment was peaceful.
The questionnaire was also designed to receive “strongly disagree” as supporting statements to theperceived usefulness: "Online learning was stressful”. As predicted, more disagree statements wereobtained for this item, showing that respondents could manage online learning without stressing themselves
out. Hence, the hypothesis that “Students perceive online learning as more useful for STEM education thanoffline learning” is confirmed.

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320Figure 2: Responses collected based on the TAM “Perceived Usefulness” Domain
Figure 3 shows the responses collected using the TAM “Perceived Ease of Use” Domain. Technology andsoftware were always the first problem faced by learners, and the survey result shows that respondent did
not face too many problems in using technology to support learning. Worth mentioning that lecturers andtutors helped guide the sessions, making students’ learning effective. Again, one negative-response question
was posted in this group, where the result obtained was also as expected. With the ease of internet
connection, there was not much issue for students to connect to the internet for online learning. Hence, thehypothesis “Students perceive online learning as easier to use for STEM education than offline learning”
was confirmed.

Figure 3: Responses collected based on the TAM “Perceived Ease of Use” Domain
Perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness capture the expectations of positive behavioural outcomes
and the belief that behaviour will not be labour-consuming (Davis, 1989). Hence, with positive responses
obtained for the first two domains, the respondents are expected to be more likely to choose online learning.
To answer the question of intention of use, the researcher asked the respondent a “yes” or “no” question tocapture a straighter forward response. The question “Do you think the school learning should be available
in the online format?” were posted to the respondent, and 59.26% of the respondents felt that the online
format was acceptable. The hypothesis “Students are more likely to choose online learning over offline
learning for STEM education based on their perceived usefulness, ease of use, and attitudes” were
SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research321confirmed through the responses.
Do you think the school learning should be available
in the online format?

40.74%
59.26%

yesnoFigure 4: Responds obtained when asked if the school learning should be available online.
The results are said in line with the literature reported by (Monk, Guidry, Pusecker, & Ilvento, 2020) and(Wenceslao & Felisa, 2021), where a small portion of the online learning environment helps the learning
process, but in the dominating state. As presented in Figure 5, only just over half the number agreed withthe statement when asked if respondents learned better in online learning. The other half does not seem toagree with the statements and would still prefer offline or face-to-face learning to occur in their learningjourney.
Do you think online learning is better than offline
learning?

48.15%
51.85%

yesnoFigure 5: Response to the question, “Do you think online learning is better than offline learning?”
They were testing on the last domain, where students would perform better in online learning than in offline
learning. The respondents were asked if they have benefited from online learning, and Figure 6 shows the
response to this question. More than three-quarters of students responded that they benefited from online
learning. When further asking the respondent to rate the effectiveness of online learning, an average scoreof 7.11 (10 being excellent) was obtained from the respondents. Hence the hypothesis “Students who use
online learning for STEM education will have comparable or better performance outcomes than those using
offline learning” was confirmed.

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Have you benefited from online learning?

22.22%

77.78%

yesnoFigure 6: Response to the question, “Have you benefited from online learning?”
The study found that students perceived online learning as more beneficial for Technology Education thanoffline learning. This result suggests that students recognise the benefits of online learning, such as
flexibility, access to diverse resources, and interactive tools that enhance their understanding. The findings
also revealed that students perceived online learning as easier for Technology Education than offline
learning. The convenience of accessing learning materials online, the ability to learn at one's own pace, andthe intuitive interfaces of online platforms likely contributed to this perception. In contrast, time
management is a challenge among students to cope with completing materials, completing, and submitting
assessments.
The results demonstrated that students held a more positive attitude toward online learning for Technology
Education than offline learning. The flexibility and convenience offered by online platforms likely
contributed to this positive perception. Moreover, the interactive and multimedia elements provided byonline learning might have increased students' interest and motivation. The study observed that students
who used online learning for Technology Education achieved comparable or better performance outcomesthan those using offline learning. This finding indicates that online learning platforms can effectively
support students' learning and may provide additional resources and opportunities for skill development.
The study's finding has implications for educational institutions, instructors, and policymakers. In line withthe earlier literature, to continue incorporating online learning in education but not dominating the learning
process, students still enjoy face-to-face learning in the university. More dialogues with students should be
conducted to find the correct number of online educational elements for the best learning experience andperformance.
Training and supports are to be provided to the students and academics to ensure that both parties can handle
the online learning environment well. For academics, more training would also be needed in the assessment
item setting to ensure that online assessment would measure students’ achievement of learning outcomes
effectively.
CONCLUSION
This study explored the effectiveness and acceptance of online and offline learning methods among STEM
education – Technology Domain students. The study was conducted based on the Technology Acceptance
Model (TAM) to investigate students' perceptions, attitudes, intentions, and usage of online and offline
learning platforms. The result of the study reveals that students perceived online learning as more valuable
and more accessible compared to offline learning. Furthermore, students showed a more positive attitude
SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research323

toward online learning and expressed a higher intention to use online platforms for learning. In line withthe literature presented, online learning in STEM education can be an excellent avenue to support
conventional face-to-face teaching but not take over as the primary teaching method, as students still findface-to-face teaching more engaging and interactive.
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Enhancing the Quality of Higher Education Through AI-Assisted Formative
Assessment: A Prototype Leveraging NLP Techniques
Chi Wee Tan1*, Wei Chung Yap2, Kelvin Kai Jie Sing3, and Cecilia Xin Ru Kong4
1

Faculty of Computing and Information Technology, Tunku Abdul Rahman University of Management andTechnology, 53300 Setapak, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia (chiwee@tarc.edu.my)2
Faculty of Computing and Information Technology, Tunku Abdul Rahman University of Management andTechnology, 53300 Setapak, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia (yapwc-wm20@student.tarc.edu.my)3
Faculty of Computing and Information Technology, Tunku Abdul Rahman University of Management andTechnology, 53300 Setapak, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia (kelvinskj-wm20@student.tarc.edu.my)
4
Faculty of Computing and Information Technology, Tunku Abdul Rahman University of Management andTechnology, 53300 Setapak, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia (ceciliakxr-wm20@student.tarc.edu.my)

ABSTRACTArtificial intelligence (AI) has been studied in various subject areas especially in science, technology,
engineering, and mathematics (STEM). Artificial intelligence (AI) has been extensively studied in thesesubjects; however, there remains a disparity in depth and overall quality between AI-generated and humanwritten scientific content. To bridge this gap, the proposed prototype utilizes Natural Language Processing(NLP) techniques, such as semantic analysis and a large language model (LLM), to generate assessment
questions and evaluate student answers. Formative assessment, an integral part of the learning process,plays a crucial role in providing students with feedback and identifying areas for improvement. By
employing the conceptual framework of formative assessment, the prototype offers a user-friendly andscalable solution for educators in higher education. It enables the generation of differentiated assessments
tailored to individual students' needs, accommodating their varying capabilities and facilitating
performance analysis across different levels. Through rigorous evaluation and benchmarking, leveraging
semantic analysis, the prototype ensures that the assessment questions and sample answers meet thestandards set by the HLP (High-Level Performance). This integration of AI and NLP techniques represents
a transformative advancement in STEM education. The AI-assisted formative assessment system presented
in this study effectively provides accurate and timely feedback, enhancing the efficiency and efficacy offormative assessment practices. As further advancements are made, this system holds significant potential
for significantly improving the quality of STEM education by delivering scalable and personalized
formative assessment experiences. By leveraging AI and NLP, educators can access a range of assessment
options tailored to meet students' individual needs, thus enhancing their learning outcomes and overall
educational experience.
KEYWORDS: AI-Assisted Formative Assessment, Natural Language Processing (NLP), Higher
Education, Large Language Model (LLM), Formative Assessment

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research326

INTRODUCTION
Formative assessment is a process of providing feedback to students on their progress in learning. It is an
essential component of effective teaching and learning in STEM fields, as it allows students to identify
areas where they need additional support and to make adjustments to their learning accordingly.
Traditionally, formative assessment has been conducted by teachers through a variety of methods, such as
quizzes, tests, and class discussions. However, these methods can be time-consuming and labour-intensive,
and they can be difficult to scale to large classes. Artificial intelligence (AI) has the potential torevolutionize formative assessment in STEM fields by providing a more efficient and scalable way toprovide feedback to students. AI-assisted formative assessment systems can automatically grade student
work, identify areas where students need additional support, and provide personalized feedback to help
students improve their learning. In this paper, we present a prototype AI-assisted formative assessment
system that leverages natural language processing (NLP) techniques. Our system is designed to be used in
STEM courses, and it can be used to grade short-answer questions, essays, and other types of student work.
We evaluated our system with a group of lecturers involved in STEM education. The results of ourevaluation showed that our system was able to provide accurate and timely feedback to students, and it
helped students to improve their learning outcomes. We believe that our system has the potential to improve
the quality of STEM education by providing a more efficient and scalable way to provide formative
assessment to students. We are currently working on developing our system further, and we plan to makeit available to a wider audience in the future.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Digital Formative Assessment
Digital formative assessment is an integral part of modern education, enabling teachers to gather real-time
feedback and monitor student progress in an efficient and effective manner (Irons & Elkington, 2021) . This
literature review aims to explore the concept of digital formative assessment and highlight the various tools
and technologies available to facilitate its implementation in educational settings. Formative assessment
involves gathering information about students' learning progress to provide timely feedback and adjust
instructional strategies accordingly. Digital formative assessment takes advantage of technology to enhance
this process, providing opportunities for interactive, personalized, and immediate feedback. Researchsuggests several benefits of implementing digital formative assessment in classrooms (Kaya-Capocci et al.,2022). Firstly, it promotes active student engagement by incorporating interactive elements such as quizzes,
polls, and discussions. Secondly, it enables teachers to monitor individual student progress and identify
areas of improvement more efficiently. Thirdly, digital formative assessment supports differentiatedinstruction, allowing educators to tailor their teaching to meet the specific needs of each student. Lastly, it
provides students with timely and constructive feedback, fostering a growth mindset and enhancing theirlearning experience. In the pursuit of enhancing support for the development of adaptive learning
environments, learning science has garnered the interest of computer scientists for over a decade.
Researchers from the fields of education and computer science have been striving to optimize the intricate
and time-consuming design of adaptive learning environments through the utilization of advanced data
mining, machine learning, and deep learning techniques. Their objective is to provide Intelligent Tutoring
Systems (ITS) with enhanced capabilities to assist students more effectively. Numerous endeavours havebeen witnessed in the development of ITS for various subjects such as mathematics (Koedinger &Anderson, 1998; Razzaq et al., 2005), programming (Figueiredo & García-Peñalvo, 2020; Mitrovic, 2003;
Sykes & Franek, 2004; Weragama & Reye, 2013), languages (Evens et al., 2001; Ferreira & Atkinson,
2009; Slavuj et al., 2015; Swartz & Yazdani, 1992) and more. Efficiently and effectively guiding students
in their learning process remains a recurring topic in educational research of the 21st century.

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Tools for Digital Formative Assessment• Learning Management Systems (LMS): LMS platforms like Moodle, Canvas, and Schoology
offer features for creating online assessments, tracking student performance, and providing
feedback. These systems often include built-in grading tools, discussion boards, and analytics,
enabling teachers to monitor student progress comprehensively (Salah & Thabet, 2021; Zhang etal., 2020).
• Quiz and Polling Tools: Tools like Kahoot, Quizizz, and Mentimeter facilitate the creation ofinteractive quizzes and polls. These tools engage students in a gamified learning experience,
encouraging participation and enabling instant feedback (Raju et al., 2021).
• Online Survey Tools: Survey tools such as Google Forms and Microsoft Forms provide educatorswith the means to collect data from students, gauge their understanding, and assess their learning
progress. These tools offer a variety of question types and data analysis features (Mansor, 2012).
• Digital Whiteboarding Tools: Whiteboarding tools like Jamboard, Miro, and Explain Everythingenable collaborative and interactive formative assessment. Teachers can create visual presentations,interactive exercises, and virtual whiteboards to facilitate student engagement and feedback (Ng,2022).
• Video Assessment Tools: Video assessment tools, such as Flipgrid and Edpuzzle, allow students
to record their responses, presentations, or explanations. Teachers can review and provide feedbackon these videos, promoting self-reflection and communication skills (Ipek & Ustunbas, 2021a,
2021b; Manipatruni & Kumar, 2022).
Artificial Intelligence as a tool for formative assessment
There has been a growing interest in the use of AI for formative assessment in recent years. Several researchstudies have been conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of AI-assisted formative assessment systems(Lloyd et al., 2022; Sein Minn, 2022). The results of these studies have been mixed, but overall, they suggestthat AI-assisted formative assessment systems can be effective in improving student learning outcomes.
One of the challenges of using AI for formative assessment is that it can be difficult to develop systems thatare accurate and reliable. Another challenge is that AI-assisted formative assessment systems can be
expensive to develop and deploy. Despite these challenges, the potential benefits of AI for formative
assessment are significant. AI-assisted formative assessment systems have the potential to improve theefficiency and scalability of formative assessment, and they can provide personalized feedback to students
that can help them improve their learning. The use of AI for formative assessment is still in its early stages,
but it has the potential to revolutionize the way that students are assessed. This could lead to significant
improvements in student learning outcomes. Here are some examples of how AI is being used for formative
assessment:• Grading student work: AI-assisted formative assessment systems can automatically grade student
work, such as essays and short-answer questions. This can free up teachers' time so they can focus
on providing feedback to students.
• Identifying areas of need: AI-assisted formative assessment systems can identify areas wherestudents need additional support. This information can be used to provide targeted interventions to
help students improve their learning.
• Providing personalized feedback: AI-assisted formative assessment systems can provide
personalized feedback to students. This feedback can help students to identify their strengths andweaknesses, and to develop strategies for improving their learning.
Large language models (LLMs)
Large language models (LLMs) are large neural networks trained on enormous amounts of text data,sometimes at the petabyte scale. They could generate text that’s far more fluent and coherent than previous
language models, and they can also be used as a strong foundation for other NLP tasks. LLMs represent a
major advancement in AI, with the promise of transforming domains through learned knowledge (Bender
SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research328

et al., 2021). A bibliometric review of LLMs research has shown that LLMs are a class of language models
that have demonstrated outstanding performance across a range of natural language processing (NLP) tasks
and have become a highly sought-after research area, because of their ability to generate human-likelanguage and their potential to revolutionize science (Fan et al., 2023). Large Language Models (LLMs)
are advanced software systems, like GPT-3 and GPT-4, trained on massive word datasets. They grasp word
relationships, generating human-like text. Examples include LLaMA, PaLM2, and BERT. GPT-3 covers
95+ languages, BERT 104, BLOOM 46+13, and NeMo 530 billion parameters. LLMs fuel chatbots,
translation, question answering, and more.In this context, is believe that LLMs can be used in assistingeducators in formative assessment by providing feedback to students and modifying their teaching basedon the information derived from assessments (Schildkamp et al., 2020).
Table 1: Comparison of Different Large Language Models.
Model (YearFounded)MarianMT (2017)

Type oflicenseOpen
SourceSupportedfeatures
Languagetranslation

BERT (2018)

Open
SourceLanguage
understanding,text classification

MegatronLM(2019)

Open
SourceRoBERTa (2019)

Open
SourceText generation,
languagetranslation, Q&A,
chatbots
Language
understanding,text classification

CTRL (2019)

Open
SourceT5 (2020)

Open
SourceGPT-2 (2019)

Proprietary

Turing-NLG(2021)

Open
SourceGPT-Neo (2021)

Open
SourceGPT-3 (2020)

Proprietary

Text generation,
languagetranslation, Q&A,
chatbots
Text generation,
languagetranslation, Q&A,
chatbots
Text generation,
languagetranslation, Q&A,
chatbots
Text generation,
languagetranslation, Q&A,
chatbots
Text generation,
languagetranslation, Q&A,
chatbots
Text generation,
languagetranslation, Q&A,
chatbots

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research

Commonapplications
Translation
services,
multilingual
applications
Natural language
processing,sentiment
analysis
Research,training largescale models
Natural language
processing,sentiment
analysisContent creation,customer service

Content creation,
research,
language
understanding
Content creation,customer service,researchContent creation,customer service,research

Limitations

Advantages

Limited support
for other NLP
tasks

Free and open
sourceMay require large
amounts oflabelled training
data
Requiressignificant
computational
resources
Limited support
for fine-grained
text generation

Strongperformance invarious NLP
tasks
Optimized fortraining largescale models

Less optimized
for large-scalelanguage tasks
Less emphasis on
model
customizationand fine-tuning
Limited finegrained control
over model
behaviour
Limitedavailability andsupport

Pretrained onlarge corpus for
improved
accuracy
Fine-tuned forcontent
creation andchatbots
Unifiedarchitecture fordiverselanguage tasks
Strong text
generation
capabilities
Innovativemodel
architecture

Content creation,
researchLess optimized
for commercial
deployment

Open-source
alternative to
GPT models

Content creation,customer service,research

Limited finegrained control
over model
behaviour

State-of-the-art
performance invarious tasks

329

Model (YearFounded)GPT-4 (2022)

Type oflicense
Proprietary

OPT (OpenAI)(2022)

Proprietary

Supportedfeatures
Text generation,
languagetranslation, Q&A,
chatbots
Text generation,
languagetranslation, Q&A,
chatbots

Commonapplications
Content creation,customer service,researchContent creation,customer service,research

Limitations

Advantages

Limited finegrained control
over model
behaviour
Limited finegrained control
over model
behaviour

Improved
performanceand capabilities
Latest modelwith enhanced
features andquality

METHODOLOGY
In this section, we will provide a detailed explanation of the methodology employed in developing the AIassisted prototype, which utilizes NLP techniques to enhance educators' capabilities in the context offormative assessment (as illustrated in Figure 1). The proposed solution incorporates the utilization of the
OpenAI API key. The OpenAI API is an Application Programming Interface (API) that provides access toadvanced AI models developed by OpenAI. It empowers our proposed system to comprehend natural
language and generate responses that closely resemble human-like outputs (Odunayo, 2023).

Figure 1: Proposed solution architecture.
OpenAI offers a wide range of models with varying degrees of power, suitable for different applications.
Additionally, it provides the flexibility to customize unique models tailored to our solution's needs. This
API is particularly valuable for applications requiring the generation of text with a high degree of accuracy,
leveraging authoritative sources of information such as firm paperwork and knowledge bases. Regarding
preprocessing and additional features, our solution incorporates NLTK (Natural Language Toolkit), a
powerful Python library for natural language processing tasks. NLTK provides various functionalities toprocess human language effectively and efficiently. In addition, we use the Twinword Text Similarity API
to compare learner answers to correct answers. This API is a semantic keyword research tool that ranks
keywords based on their relevance to a user-specified topic. It can be used to compute the similarity between
two pieces of text, such as learner-provided answers and corrected answers generated by OpenAI GPT-3.
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330

This can be used for automated grading of open-ended questions, as the system can compare the learner's
answer to the correct answer and assign a score based on their similarity. This can save time for educators,
provide immediate feedback to learners, and provide a more objective evaluation of learner performance.
Table 2 shows the development setup for this proposed solution.
Table 2: Experiment setup for proposed solution.
Experimental Setup
Version/Specification
Software
Python3.9
Tkinter
8.6
OpenAI API
2.0
Operating System
Windows 11
HardwareCPU
12th Gen Intel(R) Core(TM) i7
Memory40 GB
Storage
1 TB
This software development environment was chosen because it is well-suited for developing small-tomedium-sized software projects. Python is a powerful and versatile programming language that is easy tolearn and use. Tkinter is a simple and easy-to-use GUI library for Python. The OpenAI API is a powerfultool for generating text, including questions and answers. Git is a reliable and efficient version control
system. This software development environment allowed the project to be developed quickly andefficiently. The use of Python and Tkinter made it easy for the developers to create a user-friendly interface.
The OpenAI API allowed the developers to generate questions and answers quickly and easily.
RESULT
Assessment Question Generation
The graphical user interface (GUI) was developed utilizing the Tkinter Python library. The interface offersa range of functionalities centred around 10 distinct subjects, as visually represented in Figure 2(a). Eachsubject is accompanied by a dedicated radio button option, enabling educators to make a selection based on
the desired teaching material. For certain subjects, an additional GUI window will be triggered, granting
educators the ability to specify subtopics, as exemplified in Figure 2(b). This feature enhances the AIAssisted system's capacity to generate targeted questions and answers that align with the educational
syllabus.

(a)(b)
Figure 2: Educator’s input to generate assessment question. (a) Input subject; (b) Select Subtopic
As shown in Figure 3, educators are required to choose the desired difficulty level after selecting a subject.
The available difficulty levels include Easy, Moderate, Hard, and Extreme Hard, which determine theallocated time for the set of questions (explained in Table 4). These levels cater to students' varying levelsof learning and ability, promoting differential learning. Students who find the material easy can be presented
SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research331with more challenging questions to maintain their engagement and motivation. Conversely, students who
struggle with the material can be given easier questions to bolster their confidence and facilitate learning attheir own pace.

Figure 3: Different difficult levels of the assessment to promote differential learning.
Educators also have the option to specify the number of questions they wish to generate (Figure 4). A
spinbox with a range of values from 1 to 10 allows educators to tailor the quiz or test according to theirstudents' specific needs.

Figure 4: Number of questions to be generated by AI and the confirmation screen.
Once all selections have been made, a confirmation message will be displayed through a Tkinter-basedgraphical user interface (GUI). This ensures that the educators' choices are validated and accurate. If all
three options have been selected, a message box will appear to confirm the selections. Clicking "Yes" willclose the main window and continue to generate the assessment question. After confirming their selections,the system proceeds to generate the questions and corresponding answers based on the chosen criteria. A
confirmation message is essential in human-computer interaction as it serves multiple purposes inenhancing user experience and ensuring accuracy. It aligns with several principles and theories in the fieldof human-computer interaction, such as the theories of feedback and confirmation (Ashlock et al., 2003;
Constantine et al., 2003; Constantine & Lockwood, 1999; Herring, 2010; Karner & Drosehl, 2002; Knight,2017). Confirmation messages in user-computer interaction serve as feedback, validating users' selections
and informing them that their actions have been acknowledged. They reduce errors, increase user
confidence, and provide a checkpoint to review and correct any unintended choices before irreversible
actions are taken (Long et al., 2022). By fostering trust, satisfaction, and error prevention, confirmation
messages enhance the overall user experience (MacDonald et al., 2022).
Table 3: Sample output 1 (user selection: two questions).

1

Assessment
Question
What is an algebraic
expression?

Sample Marking Scheme
An algebraic expression is a combination of numbers, variables andoperations that are written out in a mathematical statement.

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332

2

3

Assessment
Question
What is the difference
between an equationand expression?

Sample Marking Scheme

How do you solve an
algebraic equation?

To solve an algebraic equation, isolate the variable on one side of theequation then use inverse operations to get the variable alone on the on
the other side of the equation. Once the variable is isolated, substitutethe value for the variable into the equation.

An equation is a statement that two expressions are qual, while anexpression is composed of numbers and symbols that represents amathematical statement.

Speech-to-Text (STT) is an integral component of an assessment system designed to facilitate learners'
spoken responses to assessment questions, which are then transcribed into written text. Through the use ofspeech recognition technology and algorithms, the system captures and converts spoken answers, enabling
analysis and evaluation of learners' responses. This feature, with its focus on accessibility and inclusivity,
particularly benefits individuals who face typing challenges or prefer verbal communication. By
incorporating the STT function, the assessment system provides a flexible and user-friendly experience thataligns with the principles of education engineering, accommodating diverse learner abilities and preferences
while leveraging automated evaluation capabilities (Lewis et al., 2014). To present the questions tostudents, a GUI window is employed, featuring text fields for each question. This format enables students
to answer all the questions provided. In the case of the "English" subject selection, the system generates acomprehension paragraph as a case study, with questions tailored to the specific topic covered in that casestudy. Upon completing the assessment and reviewing their answers, students can press the "Submit"
button, allowing teachers to evaluate their performance.

Figure 4: Sample output 2 (Case study generated using “English” as the subject).

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Table 4: Total time granted for each level of difficulties.
Subject
All subject(^excluding
English)EnglishDifficulty Level
Easy
Moderate
Hard
Extreme Hard
Easy
Moderate
Hard
Extreme Hard

Time Given (sec)
30
45
60
90
30 + 180
45 + 180
60 + 180
90 + 180

Total Time Limit
Number of
Question * Time
Given
Number of
Question * Time
Given + 180 sec (3mins)

Assessment Scoring
The assessment system calculates student scores by comparing submitted answers to system-generated
correct ones using Twinword's similarity feature. Predefined thresholds gauge accuracy. This aids educatorsin tracking progress, evaluating teaching methods, and pinpointing areas needing support. It motivates
students by showing improvement and encouraging ongoing learning.

Figure 4: Automated assessment marking.
DISCUSSION & BENCHMARKING
Evaluation and benchmarking of the assessment system can be conducted by comparing its automatedgrading system, which utilizes AI and Natural Language Processing (NLP) with the Twinword semantic
similarity feature, against the standard of Human Level Performance (HLP). HLP (as shown in Table 5)serves as a reference point, representing the level of grading accuracy and understanding achieved by humanassessors. Through this evaluation, the system's performance can be assessed by comparing its grading
results with those of human assessors.
Table 5: Benchmarking with HLP.

Level
Easy

Mathemati
cs

Subje
ct

Test Plan
Question Generated

Suggested Answer

Q1. What is Algebra?

A1. Algebra is a branch of mathematics thatuses symbols and equations to represent
numbers, relationships, and objects.
A2. Variables are letters or symbols that standfor a particular number in an equation.

Q2. What arevariables in Algebra?

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Performance
HLP on
HLP on
Question
Answer
Generated Generated
Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes
334

Extreme Hard

Hard

Moderate

Q1. What is a Linear
Equation?

Q2. How do you solvea System of Linear
Equations?
Q1. Solve for x in theequation: 3x - 6 = 12Q2. Divide thepolynomial 4x^3 +27x^2 - 73x + 60 by
2x + 5
Q1. Prove that the
product of two odd
numbers is always an
odd number.

Q2. Prove that (2x^2 5x + 3) is a prime
number for any
integer value of x.

Extreme Hard

Hard

Physics

Moderate

Easy

Q1. What is the speedof sound?
Q2. What isfrequency?
Q1. What is the speedof sound?
Q2. What is thefrequency of sound?
Q1. How can sound bedescribed in terms of awave?
Q2. What is thefrequency range ofhuman audible sound?
Q1. What is the effectof temperature on
sound velocity?

A1. A linear equation is an equation of astraight line, written in the form ax + b = 0;
where 'a' and 'b' are constants and 'x' is avariable.
A2. A system of linear equations can be solved
using various methods such as Substitution
Method, Elimination Method, and Gaussian
Elimination.
A1. x = 8

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

A2. 4x^2 + 17x - 43

A1. Let a and b be two odd numbers. Thismeans a = 2n + 1 and b = 2m + 1, where n andm are integers. Thus, their product a*b =(2n+1)*(2m+1) = 4nm + 2(n+m) + 1. Since n
and m are both integers, the whole expression isan integer plus one - thus it is always an odd
number.
A2. Let x be any integer. Then, 2x^2 - 5x + 3
can be written as (2x -3)(x + 1). Since at least
one of the factors is always a non-zero integer,
the expression 2x^2 - 5x + 3 is not prime forany integer value of x.
A1. The speed of sound is approximately 343
meters per second (1,125 feet per second) in dry
air at sea level and 0 degrees Celsius.
A2. Frequency is the number of complete wave
cycles passing a fixed point per second
measured in hertz (Hz).
A1. The speed of sound is approximately 340
m/s in dry air at 20°C (68°F).
A2. The frequency of sound is the number ofcomplete sound waves or cycles in one second,measured in hertz (Hz).
A1. Sound can be described in terms of a wave
with displacement, frequency and wavelength
being the parameters used to describe it.
A2. Human audible sound is typicallyconsidered to be in the range of 20 Hz to 20
kHz.
A1. The speed of sound is affected by thetemperature of the medium from which thesound is traveling. As temperature increases, thespeed of sound increases, while as thetemperature decreases, the speed of sounddecreases.

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research335

Q2. What are theproperties of astanding wave?

Q2. What is thedifference between
moral and ethicalbehavior?

Extreme Hard

Q1. How do we
examine the moralityof an action?

Q2. What are thelimitations of ethicalframeworks in helping
us determine moral
decisions?

A2. The properties of standing waves include
nodes, antinodes, wavelength, and frequency.
Nodes are the points at which the string isneither vibrating nor moving, antinodes are thepoints at which the string is vibrating at its
fullest, the wavelength is the distance between
two successive nodes or antinodes, and thefrequency is the number of vibrations per
second.
A2. The difference between moral and ethicalbehavior is that moral behavior is how one acts
in accordance with cultural norms, while ethicalbehavior is how one acts in accordance withaccepted principles of right and wrong.
A1. The morality of an action can be examinedby determining whether it satisfies certain
ethical principles. These principles are based onvalues such as the promotion of happiness, theavoidance of harm, and respect for autonomy.
Ultimately, the decision of a moral action
depends on the particular values of the actor andthe societal context in which the action takes
place.
A2. Ethical frameworks provide general guiding
principles, however may not always be able toprovide definitive answers when faced with aparticular moral dilemma. Additionally, ethicalframeworks may not always be relevant to allcontexts, so local customs and legal
requirements must be taken into account when
making a moral decision.

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

The AI and NLP algorithms are suggested for evaluating student responses via the Twinword semantic
similarity feature, gauging correspondence with correct answers. Comparing against HLP establishes thesystem's automated grading precision. This approach assesses the system's comprehension and accurate
appraisal akin to human assessors, spotlighting strengths, and areas for improvement. Such AI/NLP-guided
evaluation empowers educators and developers to refine the system, aligning it with human-level grading
while utilizing AI and NLP's potential. Notably, the proposed solution successfully meets HLP evaluation
criteria and attains grading accuracy comparable to human assessors, affirming its reliability andeffectiveness in delivering high-quality automated assessments.
CONCLUSION
In summary, the integration of artificial intelligence (AI) into formative assessment is pivotal for enhancing
STEM education. Traditional methods like quizzes and tests have limitations in scalability and efficiency.
The proposed AI-assisted formative assessment system, showcased in this study, utilizes natural language
processing (NLP) techniques and large language models (LLMs) to offer transformative feedback tostudents. Through rigorous evaluation involving STEM educators, the system has exhibited its prowess indelivering precise and timely feedback. This aids in improving learning outcomes by identifying areas
requiring attention and providing personalized assistance. By automating grading, the system optimizes
efficiency, while integration with technologies like the Twinword Text Similarity API enhances objectivity
in scoring. Despite challenges like development costs, the system's potential benefits in scalability andpersonalization are profound. It empowers educators with comprehensive insights and students withSEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research

336

immediate feedback. As the system evolves, ongoing refinement and wider accessibility are focal points.
Leveraging AI and NLP, the system can continually align with human-level grading standards, enriching
formative assessment practices, and yielding improved STEM education outcomes. In conclusion, theamalgamation of AI and NLP techniques marks a paradigm shift in formative assessment within STEM
education. The AI-assisted formative assessment system, presented as a trailblazing example, holds promise
in revolutionizing the quality, scalability, and personalization of STEM education through its impactful
feedback mechanisms.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to express our heartfelt gratitude to Tunku Abdul Rahman University of Management andTechnology for their invaluable financial support and provision of resources that enabled us to carry out
this project successfully.
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Design, Development, and Evaluation of Video Lesson
in Adverb for Grade IV English
Cozette C. Gregorios1, Donna A. Columbres2, Clarita Sarilla3&
Ma. Socorro G. Leong-on4, PhD
1Academic Supervisor, BLIS, University of San Agustin, Iloilo City (cgregorios@usa.edu.ph)2Teacher II, Rizal Elementary School, donna.columbres@deped.gov.ph3
Director, Christian Vincentian Formation(CVF), Colegio de San Jose, csarilla@usa.edu.ph4
Full Professor, University of San Agustin, Iloilo City, socorroleongon@gmail.com

ABSTRACT
Adverb for English IV among pupils in a district of a public school in Iloilo City is one of the least masteredtopics that resulted to the low score of pupils in the formative and summative test during the pandemic.
This descriptive and action research study aimed to describe the design, development, and evaluation of thevideo lesson in adverb in English for Grade IV. The designing of the video lesson involves selection of themodel to be used. The development of the video lesson involved making of the activities under the 7Esmodel. During the evaluation, the English teachers from grades IV to VI evaluated the video lesson using
the Rating Sheet for Non-Print materials from the Department of Education. The design of the video lesson
allowed the 7Es (engage, elicit, explore, explain, elaborate, evaluation, extend (enrichment) model and thedevelopment of the video lesson contained what the pupils did in the 7Es. Based on the evaluation, thevideo lesson on adverb was rated excellent in all areas (content quality, technical quality, instructional
quality and other findings). This video lesson can be used by the English teachers as instructional learningmaterial for Grade IV pupils on adverb topic when implemented to the pupils.
KEYWORDS: Adverb, Video Lesson, 7Es, Constructivism, Iloilo CitySEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research

340

INTRODUCTION
The Coronavirus (Covid-19) pandemic has caused a dramatic disruption in the delivery of education andhealth services (Cho et al., 2021). This leads to the near-total closure of schools. Our government decided
to temporarily close schools to reduce or stop the spread of virus. Millions of children are at risk of logging
behind due to this school closure. But then, learning must continue. Our government through the
Department of Education issued a DepEd Order No 018 series 2020, Policy Guidelines for the Provision of
Learning Resources in the Implementation of the Basic Learning Continuity Plan (DepEd, 2020).
According to UNICEF (2020) more than 1 billion children are at risk of falling behind due to school closure
aimed at containing the spread of covid-19. Because of this, the government find ways so that educationmust continue despite this threat.
Moreover, due to this pandemic, different learning modalities were created to cater the needs of bothteachers and learners to continue the learning process of our educational system. One of which is theblended learning. Blended learning refers to a learning delivery that combines fact-to-face or a mix of,modular distance learning, online distance learning, and television /radio-based instructions. This is wherevideo lessons were developed and used for supplementary purposes (Llego, 2021).
The call for the design, development and evaluation of the video lesson is created because the grade IV
English teacher found out that the scores of the pupils were low during the conduct of formative andsummative tests on the adverb. Identifying the adverbs and its kind as well as using them in a sentence are
one of the least learned skills encountered by the grade IV learners in English IV. Therefore, to help thegrade IV pupils master these skills, a developed video lesson in adverb was designed and developed using
the Inquiry Based Learning specifically 7Es model.
RESEARCH OBJECTIVE
This study aimed to describe the design, development, and evaluation of the video lesson in adverb in
English for Grade IV.
7Es Model
The design of the developed video lesson followed the 7Es (elicit, engage, explore, explain, elaborate,evaluate and extend) model.
It is a constructivist design because the students need to connect their new knowledge to their previous
experiences (Dewey, 2011).
Sadeq (2003) defined the 7Es Learning Cycle as an educational pattern consist of seven teaching andlearning steps, used by the teacher with his students inside the classroom, aiming, at enabling the student
to build his scientific knowledge acquisition by himself. Also, it aims at developing a lot of other scientificconcepts and skills, depending on motivation, reconnoitering, curiosity, explanation, exploration, andexpansion, connecting concepts together and amending some student’s wrong concepts.
The 7Es Learning Cycle pays more attention to the students’ previous knowledge and experiences, and it
is interested in selecting and organizing the content skills, by which it made it easy for the learners to absorb
and process the learning material in his cognitive structures, beside forming new cognitive structures(Khashan, 2016).

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341

The knowledge to be learned is structured into subjects, tasks, and performance objectives in the designphase are written in part. The design also specifies what the learners will be able do as a result of the
instruction (Heaster-Ekholm et al.,2020).
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
The results may be beneficial to the following:
Teachers. The results of this study will be the basis for recommendation for use of the video lesson inadverbs for teachers and the grade four (4) pupils.
Pupils. it may serve as a tool to help learners in gaining deeper understanding of the content of adverb andmaster the least learned skill.
Future Researchers. This study will be of help to those who would like to undertake similar research.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Research Design
This descriptive and action research study described the design, development and evaluation of the video
lesson on adverb for grade IV English. The researchers used but modified evaluation rating sheet for nonprint materials from the Department of Education, Philippines. The primary aim of this questionnaire is toevaluate the content quality, instructional quality, technical quality, and others of the video lesson on adverb
for grade IV English using 7Es model.
The design of the developed video lesson followed the 7Es (elicit, engage, explore, explain, elaborate,evaluate and extend) model. The evaluators viewed and evaluated the video lesson on adverb for grade IV
English for 20 minutes using the Rating Sheet for Non-Print materials from the Department of Educationand followed up with a one-on-one interview to substantiate the data derived from the rating sheet. Theircomments and suggestions were also taken into consideration. The statistics that were used are mean andstandard deviation in the evaluation of video lesson on adverb for grade IV English.
It has to be noted however, that in this study, some parameters were not considered in the final analysis due
to several factors beyond the control of the researchers.
Research Participants
The evaluators were the three teachers ages 42, 43 ,52, regular and tenured teachers handling English
subject in grades IV to VI in a public elementary school in Iloilo City, Philippines, school year 2021-2022.
RESULTS
1. Designing of the video lesson
The design of the video lesson was based on the lesson plan using 7Es instructional model of constructivism.
This instructional model was developed by Elsenkraft (2003) as an expansion of the 5Es Model. The 7Es
stands for elicit, engage, explore, explain, elaboration, evaluation and extend (enrichment activity).
2. Development
During the development, all aspect of 7Es were written.
In the elicit part of the lesson, a word drill exercise was given for the pupils for them to be familiarizedwith the common words used in the entire video lesson. Words were flashed in the video, then pupils read
the words after the teacher.

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research342

In engage part, a guessing game was given to engage the pupils’ interest and curiosity of the topic. A blurred
picture of an angel was flashed on the screen then pupils were asked to guess the image formed in the
picture. Three (3) differentiated activities were provided to the pupils
In the explore part of the video lesson. Filling in the gaps with the correct adverb to complete the sentences,
constructing sentences based on the pictures given were the activities provided to the pupils. Pupils wereasked to choose only one (1) activity which was suited to their capability. A rubric was used to evaluate thework of the pupils.
During the elaboration, Covid 19- is integrated in the lesson. Pupils were asked to elaborate healthprotocols to be observed in times of pandemic using the different kinds of adverbs they have learned in thelesson. A paper and pencil test in the evaluation part were given to measure if the objective of the lesson
was attained or not.
At the end of the lesson, enrichment activity for pupils was given wherein they
are asked to write sentences using the different kinds of adverb base on the given picture
3. Evaluation
The English teachers were asked to evaluate the developed video lesson using the Rating Sheet for NonPrint materials from the Department of Education. They will also write their comments and suggestions.
RESULTS OF EVALUATION
Based on the evaluation validated by three teachers teaching English the developed video lesson in adverb
for Grade 4 English. All the areas of evaluation were rated excellent according to the Rating Sheet for
Non-Print materials from the Department of Education.
M=95.9% , SD=1.59
Note: Passing percentage is 75%. The means were interpreted as follows: 90-100= excellent; 8589=good; 80-84=average; 75-79 = fair;74 and below = poor
Area of Evaluation

Mean Score

SD

Percent Score

Description

A. Content (40)
B. Instructional Quality(40)
C. Technical Quality
(52)

38

2.89

95%

excellent

39

1.73

97.5%

excellent

50

1.15

96.15

excellent

D. Other Findings (16)

15

0.58

93.75

excellent

DISCUSSIONS
DesignThe design of the developed video lesson followed the 7Es (elicit, engage, explore, explain, elaborate,evaluate and extend) model.
It is a constructivist design because the students need to connect their new knowledge to their previous
experiences (Dewey, 2011).
SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research343

Sadeq (2003) defined the 7Es Learning Cycle as an educational pattern consist of seven teaching andlearning steps, used by the teacher with his students inside the classroom, aiming, at enabling the student
to build his scientific knowledge acquisition by himself. Also, it aims at developing a lot of other scientificconcepts and skills, depending on motivation, reconnoitering, curiosity, explanation, exploration, andexpansion, connecting concepts together and amending some student’s wrong concepts. The 7Es Learning
Cycle pays more attention to the students’ previous knowledge and experiences, and it is interested inselecting and organizing the content skills, by which it made it easy for the learners to absorb and process
the learning material in his cognitive structures, beside forming new cognitive structures (Khashan, 2016).
The knowledge to be learned is structured into subjects, tasks, and performance objectives in the designphase are written in part. The design also specifies what the learners will be able do as a result of the
instruction (Heaster-Ekholm et al.,2020).
Development
In the development of the developed video lesson in adverb that followed the 7E's format. The first stageof the 7E's model elicit part. The pupils were asked to read the words after the teacher. The elicit stage isclosely followed by the engage stage, the main goal of which in either 5E's or 7E's model, is to capture thestudents' attention (Eisenkraft, 2003).
In the engage part, the pupils were asked to guess the blurred image shown to them. They were asked also
to identify the pictures of an angel. They were asked if the they believe that each of us has an angel or not.
In the explore part, pupils were asked to listened to a story. They were also asked to answer questions tocheck their comprehension. In this part also, pupils were asked on what they will do if they saw someone
slept in the pavement. They were asked also on what to do if someone breaks its leg.
In the explain part, the pupils learned on the concept of adverb through teacher's discussion in the video
lesson. The 7E's model affords students opportunities to design and plan experiment s, record data, anddevelop hypothesis during then explore stage (Eisenkraft, 2003).
In the explore part of the video lesson, the pupils were given three differentiated activities to perform. They
were asked to choose only one activity that suits their capacity. They were also asked to work collaborate
with their parents on their chosen activity. The submission of the output was via grade level group chat or
it was sent directly to the English teacher. A rubric was used to evaluate their outputs.
"Elaboration" is the phase during which students apply their understanding to other situations (Bybee,2014).
In the elaborate part, the pupils find practical application of concepts and skills in daily living. In this partconcepts about covid-19 are integrated. The pupils were asked to identify health protocols to be observedin this pandemic time.
In this part also, generalization took place wherein pupils were asked to elaborate the concepts they havelearned in the video lesson. “Evaluation” allows for summative assessment by the teacher while
encouraging students’ self-assessment of their understanding and abilities (Bybee, 2014).
In the evaluate part, the paper and pencil test was given. Pupils were asked to write one sentence for eachgiven adverb. There were five adverbs given by the teacher. They were asked to submit the test via
messenger.
In the extend (enrichment) part, pupils were asked to write five sentences using adverb based on the picture
given. The development of the developed video lesson in adverb followed the lesson plan in English 4 using
7E’s model.
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Evaluation
The results showed that the developed video lesson was generally excellent (mean=95.9%, sd=159) (Table
1). As to the content quality, the evaluators found that the video lesson was excellent. It means that they
were generally very satisfied with the content with topics/skills found in the DepED Learning Competencies
for the subject and grade/year level it was intended; concepts developed contribute to enrichment,
reinforcement, or mastery of the identified learning objectives; content is accurate; content is up-to-date;content is logically developed and organized; content is free from cultural, gender, racial, or bias; content
stimulates and promotes critical thinking; content is relevant to real-life situations; language (including
vocabulary) is appropriate to the target user level; and content promotes positive values that support
formative growth.
In the area of instructional quality, the evaluators rated the video lesson excellent. It means that they werevery satisfied with purpose of the material is well defined; material achieves its defined purpose; learning
objectives are clearly stated and measurable; level of difficulty is appropriate for the intended target user;graphics / colors / sounds are used for appropriate instructional reasons; material is enjoyable, stimulating,challenging, and engaging; material effectively stimulates creativity of target user; feedback on target user’s
responses is effectively employed; target user can control the rate and sequence of presentation and review;
and instruction is integrated with target user’s previous experience.
In terms of technical quality, the evaluators rated the video lesson excellent. It means that they weregenerally very satisfies with audio enhances understanding of the concept; speech and narration (correct
pacing, intonation and pronunciation) is clear and can be easily understood; there is complete
synchronization of audio with the visuals, if any; music and sound effects are appropriate and effective for
instructional purposes; screen displays (text) are uncluttered, easy to read and aesthetically pleasing; visualpresentations (non-text) are clear and easy to interpret; visuals sustain interest and do not distract user’s
attention; visuals provide accurate representation of the concept discussed; the user support materials (ifany) are effective; the design allows the target user to navigate freely through the material; the material
can easily and independently be used; the material will run using minimum system requirements; and theprogram is free from technical problems.
In the area of other findings, the evaluators also rated the video lesson excellent. It simply shows that they
were very satisfied with the conceptual errors; factual errors; grammatical and/or typographical errors; andother errors (i.e., computational errors, obsolete information, errors in the visuals, etc.).
Therefore, the evaluators found the content quality, instructional quality, technical quality and otherfindings to be excellent according to the Rating Sheet for Non-Print materials from the Department of
Education.
LIMITATION OF THE STUDY
The result of the study was limited only when 7E’s model was used in developing the video lesson, English
teachers from grades VI to VI in a public school were the evaluators.
IMPLICATION TO PRACTICE
The production of the developed video lesson can be used by the English teachers as instructional learningmaterial for Grade IV pupils on adverb topic when implemented to the pupils. This video lesson on adverb
will enhance the learning experience of the pupils and empower English teachers in a public school.
SUMMARY
The design of the video lesson followed the 7Es model.
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The development of the video lesson contained what the pupils did during the 7Es model. The developed
video lesson started with a word drill as the elicit part where in pupils were asked to read the words flashedin the screen after the teacher. Pupils participated in the guessing game in the engage part of the video
lesson. In the explain part, the pupils learned on the concept of adverb through teacher's discussion in thevideo lesson. In the explore part, the pupils were given the freedom to choose among the given activities
that suits their capability. In the elaborate part, the pupils find practical application of concepts and skills
in daily living by asking them the different health protocols observed in the pandemic time. In this part also,
generalization took place wherein pupils were asked to elaborate the concepts they have learned in the video
lesson. In the evaluate part, pupils were asked to write one sentence for each given adverb. In the extend(enrichment) part, pupils were asked to write five sentences using adverb based on the picture given.
The English teachers evaluated the video lesson excellent in all areas.
CONCLUSIONSThe study produced the 7Es designed and developed video lesson on adverb for Grade IV English lesson.
With excellent rating in all areas in terms content quality, technical quality, instructional quality and otherfindings. This can be use as supplementary instructional materials for adverb among teachers and pupils in
grade subject for implementation.
RECOMMENDATIONS
1. The teachers may use the developed video lesson to improve the mastery skills of pupils in adverb.
2. Pupils can use this video lesson subject for pre-test and post-test.
3. Curriculum planners may consider the design video lesson as additional source of instructional
learning materials for English IV.
4. School heads may recommend to other public school the use of video lesson after implementation.
REFERENCES
Bybee, R W. (2014). The BSCS 5E instructional model: Personal reflection and Contemporary
implications. Science and children, 51(8), 10-13.
Eisenkraft, A. (2003). Expanding the 5E model. Science Teacher, 70(6), 56-59.
Khashan, K, (2016). The effectiveness of using the 7E's Learning Cycle Strategy on the Immediate andDelayed Mathematics Achievement and the Longitudinal Impact of Learning among PreparedYear Students at King Said University (KSU), Journal of education and practice, vol. 7, No. 36,
2016.
Leong-on, M.S. (2020). Implementation and Evaluation of 7Es Scientific Inquiry through Plant Assay
Guide Manual among Grade 9 Science, Technology, and Engineering (STE) Junior High SchoolStudents. Universal Journal of Educational Research, 8(8), 3496-3501. DOI:
10.13189/ujer.2020.080824
Sadeq, M. (2003). Effectiveness of using 7Es constructive model in teaching science on the developmentof achievement and other science processes skills among 2nd preparatory class student, Scientific
Education Journal 6 (3), 145-190. https://www.teacherph.com/deped-learning-deliverymodalities/2021________. Evaluation Rating Sheet for Non-Print Materials from the Department of Education.
Philippines. https://depedpines.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/6.6-Evaluation-Rating-Sheetfor-Non-Print.pdf

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Developing and Evaluating Little Periodic for Enhancing Conceptual
Understanding of Chemical Representations in the Periodic Table of Elements
Using the ADDIE Model
Yip Chin Chin1 and Chua Kah Heng2
1

Faculty of Education, University of Malaya (yipchinchin22@gmail.com)
2
Faculty of Education, University of Malaya (chuakh@um.edu.my)

ABSTRACT
Learning the periodic table of elements can pose a challenge for students due to the complex organization
and relationships between the different elements. Game-based interventions have been shown in paststudies to be one of the feasible ways to overcome this challenge. In this research, a tabletop game, called"Little Periodic," was developed to improve students' chemical representation and conceptual
understanding. The ADDIE model involves five phases (Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation,
and Evaluation) was applied. The study first analyzed the needs of students and identified key concepts thatstudents needed to master. Three teachers were interviewed to see the appropriate content that will be
included in the tabletop game based on the Dokumen Standard Kurikulum dan Pentaksiran(DSKP). A
tabletop game was designed and developed that could be used in physical learning environments. To
evaluate the effectiveness of the developed tabletop game, validation forms and questionnaires wereadministered to three validator experts. The results indicated that the tabletop game was valid and effective,
with high scores for content suitability, potential effectiveness, and overall satisfaction. The feedback
received from chemistry teachers indicated a significant level of satisfaction with the tabletop game. The
developed tabletop games can be employed in various learning situations, including in-person learning andthe effectiveness of tabletop games need to further to be investigated, to ensure and enhance students toachieve deeper learning outcomes.
KEYWORDS: game-based learning, tabletop games, periodic table of elements, little periodic, chemistryeducation

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1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Chemistry is the scientific field concerned with the study of substances and their interactions. It
encompasses a broad range of topics, from the composition and structure of matter to the properties,changes, energy, and dynamics of chemical reactions. Chemistry, at its core, revolves aroundcomprehending the behavior of atoms and molecules and gaining insight into how they interact with eachother, leading to the creation of novel substances with unique properties(Fahlman, 2023; Napes & Sharif,2022). This knowledge forms the foundation of numerous scientific fields and plays a vital role in advancing
our understanding of the natural world (Sun et al., 2022).
One of the key features of chemistry is its use of chemical representation to help explain chemical
phenomena. This representation can be divided into three levels: macroscopic, symbolic, and microscopic(Rahmawati et al., 2022). The macroscopic level deals with observable phenomena that can be seen with
the naked eye through experiments. The symbolic level uses diagrams, pictures, and formulas to represent
chemical phenomena, while the microscopic level deals with the observation of particles, including theirinteractions, chemical bonding, and movements, which are too small to be seen without the aid of
specialized tools.
The periodic table of elements is an essential tool in the study of chemistry, serving as a visual
representation of the connections between the three levels of representation: macroscopic, microscopic, andsymbolic(Camara Olim et al., 2023). This chart organizes all known elements in ascending order of their
atomic numbers and electron configurations, providing chemists with a predictive framework forunderstanding the chemical behavior of elements and their compounds. The periodic table's significance tothe scientific community cannot be overstated, as it serves as the foundation for the classification,
prediction, and exploration of matter at the atomic level, leading to numerous technological advances andgroundbreaking discoveries in various scientific fields (Bylikin et al., 2023).
The periodic table also provides a macroscopic representation of elements, as it shows their physicalproperties such as melting and boiling points, densities, and atomic radii. These properties can be observed
and measured through experiments (Eichler, 2019). The periodic table also provides a symbolic
representation of the elements through their atomic symbols and a microscopic view of the elements throughtheir electronic structures and bonding (Eichler, 2019). However, the integration of these levels ofrepresentation can pose a challenge for both students and teachers of chemistry. Students may findchemistry challenging due to the complex interplay of these levels, while teachers need to fully grasp andcommunicate the concepts to their students (Narod & Narrainsawmy, 2022).
To identify challenges in chemistry education, a preliminary study was conducted interview exclusively
with experienced chemistry teachers, followed by a needs analysis. The findings stemming from thisinvestigation unveiled that students frequently grapple with mastering the subject due to inherent
complexities tied to comprehending chemical representations. Teachers have also faced difficulties in
effectively visualizing and explaining representations of the periodic table during their teaching sessions.
The complex relationships and patterns between the various elements can be challenging to convey tostudents in a way that is both clear and engaging.
The findings supported by past study which hinder students' ability to develop a deep conceptual
understanding of the periodic table and its importance in chemistry (Bierenstiel & Snow, 2019). The main
issue identified was the confusion caused by the complexity of chemical representations, which hindered
students' understanding of the chemistry subject. While the macroscopic properties of the elements, suchas their physical states, melting points, boiling points, and densities, are often easier for students to grasp
as they can be observed and measured directly, it can still be challenging for students to understand how
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these properties relate to the organization of the periodic table (Narod & Narrainsawmy, 2022; Tóthová etal., 2021; Traver et al., 2021).
On the other hand, the microscopic properties of the elements, such as their electron configurations andchemical reactivity, can be more difficult for students to visualize and understand. This is because theyrequire an understanding of the interaction and behavior of atoms and molecules, which is not always
intuitive. Therefore, students may struggle to understand how the organization of the periodic table relates
to these microscopic properties. In addition to this, the symbolic notation used to represent the elements
and their properties, such as atomic symbols, electron configurations, and valence electron counts, can bechallenging for students to learn and memorize. This can make it difficult for students to connect thesymbols to the macroscopic and microscopic properties of the elements and to understand the organizationof the periodic table (Bierenstiel & Snow, 2019; Salame et al., 2011).
Based on the identified challenges in learning the periodic table of elements, it can be concluded that thedifficulties in understanding chemical representations arise from the limitations on learning materials. There
are several suggested approaches to learning the periodic table of elements, ranging from traditional
teaching styles to more modern and interactive methods. The traditional approach often involves
memorization of the elements' names, symbols, atomic numbers, and other properties, which can bechallenging and tedious for some learners (Rahmawati et al., 2022)). These materials often fail to cover the
essential concepts of chemical representation and lack interactive and engaging features that can help
students to master the subject. However, the use of 3D modeling and visualization tools can help make theelements more tangible and easier to understand (Selco, 2020; Selco et al., 2012). Another approach is toadopt parallel metaphors, such as storyline telling (Collins, 2021) or analogies, to help students relate theelements to familiar concepts (Collins, 2021; Üce & Ceyhan, 2019). Inquiry-based learning, which involves
asking questions and exploring topics in-depth, can also be effective, especially when using a periodicuniverse teaching model that highlights the connections and patterns between the elements (Gholam, 2019;Li, 2021). Finally, problem-based learning can be used to engage students in real-world applications of theperiodic table, challenging them to use their knowledge to solve problems and make connections (Virtue &Hinnant-Crawford, 2019).
Educators and researchers are turning to Game-Based Learning (GBL) as a means of enhancing the teaching
and learning of science subjects in creative and engaging ways(Cardinot & Fairfield, 2022; Napes & Sharif,2022). The popularity of using games in the classroom has grown, as studies have demonstrated theirpotential to facilitate learning and bring about positive changes to the school curriculum . Furthermore,
GBL has been found to be effective in promoting social development and teamwork skills in students,
further adding to its appeal as a teaching tool (Jonathan & Recard, 2021; Li & He, 2022; Saleem et al.,2022; Tsai et al., 2020)
As the popularity of games continues to grow, educators and researchers are becoming more convinced of
their potential as effective teaching tools. By incorporating games into the classroom, students are able toengage with subject material in an interactive and dynamic way, which has been shown to improve learning
outcomes. Furthermore, GBL has been found to have a positive impact on social development andteamwork skills, which are valuable in both academic and real-world settings.
2.0 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
Given the challenges highlighted in the preceding discussion, the aim of this study is to design and develop
tabletop games that are both valid and effective in enhancing students' understanding of chemical
representations in the periodic table of elements.

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3.0 RESEARCH QUESTION
How can the design and development of tabletop games be optimized to ensure both validity andeffectiveness in enhancing students' understanding of chemical representations in the periodic table ofelements?
4.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
4.1 Research design
The current study employed the Research and Development (R&D) approach, utilizing the ADDIE Modelas a procedural guide. According to Bond & Dirkin (2020), the ADDIE model is a widely used model inthe field of instructional design, serving as a framework for creating effective designs. The ADDIE model
consists of five phases, namely Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, and Evaluation. Each
phase plays a crucial role in the overall success of the instructional design process (Bond & Dirkin, 2020).
The initial phase of the study involved conducting interviews exclusively with chemistry teachers to
identify existing issues in chemistry learning. The goal was to analyze their needs and provide solutions tothese problems. The appropriate content for development was identified through the use of content analysis
based on the Dokumen Standard Kurikulum Dan Pentaksiran (DSKP). The interviews revealed that theteachers had a need for learning resources in the form of tabletop games that could be used in face-to-facesettings. This finding highlights the potential of tabletop games as an effective learning tool in the chemistryclassroom.
4.2 Interview
In the context of this interview, the dialogue delved into the realm of chemistry education through theperspectives of three expert validators. The interview commenced by acquainting the readers with theidentities and roles of these experts in the field. Their collective experiences encompassed a multifaceted
engagement within chemistry education, from both instructional and learning standpoints. The example ofthe interview question is “Can you please introduce yourself and your role in the field of chemistryeducation?” and “Could you share your experience with learning and teaching chemistry concepts?”
The dialogue evolved to encapsulate the experts' perceptions of challenges in comprehending chemical
representations in the periodic table. A comprehensive analysis surfaces, highlighting obstacles thatstudents commonly confront, including the abstraction of atomic structures and the visualization of periodic
trends. Additionally, the experts offer personal reflections on specific aspects of the periodic table orchemical concepts that intrigue or pose challenges to their own understanding. The example of interview
question is “In your opinion, what are some challenges or difficulties that students commonly face whenlearning about chemical representations in the periodic table?”
Exploring pedagogical methodologies, the experts discuss their preferred learning methods that are known
to foster effective engagement. These approaches encompass a synergy of interactive techniques, visual
aids, and participatory discussions, which are well-established in educational contexts. The validators
further extended their insights into the potential integration of educational games for learning, despite theirlack of direct exposure to such games. They speculate on how these interactive methods might impact
students' learning experiences. Sample interview questions include, "What methods of learning andengagement do you find most effective and enjoyable in traditional educational settings?" and "Given yourexpertise, how do you think the introduction of educational games could potentially enhance learning
experiences, even if you haven't personally used them for learning?"
The interview explored the realm of tabletop games, delving into their potential for both educational andrecreational purposes. The participants, though not previously familiar with tabletop games, share their
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perspectives on the attributes that might underpin effective learning and engagement within such games.
They discuss elements such as interactivity, collaborative problem-solving, and decision-making,speculating on how these aspects could contribute to a dynamic learning experience. Furthermore, theexperts express their preferences regarding game mechanics, formats, and interactivity in the context of
educational games. The example interview questions include, "What are your initial impressions or
expectations of tabletop games, whether for educational or recreational use?" and "Based on yourunderstanding, what aspects of tabletop games do you think could potentially contribute to effective
learning and engagement?"
The interview concluded by examining the potential benefits of tabletop games in enhancing theunderstanding of chemical representations within the periodic table. The experts collectively concur thatthese games possess the capacity to tangibly transform abstract concepts, facilitating deeper
comprehension. They contemplate the aspects of tabletop games that could amplify the learning experience,such as competitive elements, thematic coherence, and immersive interactivity. Example of interview
outlines “In your opinion, how could tabletop games potentially help in improving your understanding ofchemical representations?”
In conclusion, this comprehensive interview had shed light on the multifaceted landscape of chemistryeducation, particularly within the context of the periodic table. Through the insights and perspectives ofthree expert validators, valuable understanding into the challenges, methodologies, and potential
innovations that shape effective learning and engagement in this field had gained.
4.3 Game-Based Learning
Game-Based Learning is a suitable model of learning for teaching chemistry, and a fun and engaging way
to promote active, constructive learning (Napes & Sharif, 2022; Nkadimeng & Ankiewicz, 2022).
Designing a tabletop game centered on the periodic table of elements provides an opportunity for students
to engage with the subject matter in an educational environment. Derived from the inventive concepts
introduced by John Coveyou in his game 'A Game of Elements,' Little Periodic integrates his visionary
approach into its design. This adaptation is meticulously crafted to offer players an engaging and enjoyable
method of comprehending fundamental concepts. With a focus on atomic radius, atomic number,fluctuations in atomic mass, and shifts in ionization energy, Little Periodic provides an interactive andentertaining learning experience with the modification that suits the Malaysian Chemistry Curiculum. The
modification was made by adding the term “nucleon number” beside the term “atomic mass”, “proton
number” with “atomic number”, then switch “the shift of ionization energy” as the final periodic trend tobe activated as this concept was not in Form 4 Chemistry syllabus.
The periodic trends in the Little Periodic refer to patterns that are observed in the properties of elements on
the periodic table. By understanding these trends, players can better understand how the elements behave
and interact with one another. In the game, players activate one of the five periodic trends. Players canchoose to either spend energy tokens to activate multiple trends at once or gain energy tokens by activating
only one trend. This adds a strategic element to the game, as players must carefully manage their energy
tokens and decide when to activate multiple trends for a big move and activate only one trend. For example,
if a player activates the increase of atomic radius trend, they may be required to move their game piece inbetween 1 to 5 steps to a space on the board that corresponds to an element with a larger atomic radius thanthe one they are currently on. By doing so, players can learn about how atomic radius changes as they moveacross a period or down a group on the periodic table. The game likely includes multiple stages, each ofwhich challenges players to activate a different periodic trend. By progressing through the stages andmastering the periodic trends, players can become more familiar with the elements and their properties.
The design phase for the proposed Little Periodic tabletop game involves several key steps. First, thelearning objectives of the tabletop which are mastering chemical representation and conceptual
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understanding must be identified and translated into game mechanics that will effectively achieve thoseobjectives. Little Periodic was designed to help players understand key concepts related to the periodic
table, such as atomic structure, periodic trends, and atomic mass. Once the learning objectives have been
identified, the rules and mechanics of the Little Periodic were established. This includes defining the actions
that players can take, the types of challenges they will face, and the victory conditions for the game. Gamemechanics were designed in a way that effectively tests the skills and knowledge that are central to thelearning objectives. For example, the game involves activating different trends such as atomic radius, andionization energy in order to obtain more Goal Cards. Players must strategically use their energy tokens toactivate trends and collect goal cards to win the game. Additionally, the game involves the use of Agenda
Cards and Awards Tiles, which allow players to perform actions and add an element of strategy andunpredictability to the game, making it more engaging and challenging for players.
The implementation phase of Little Periodic involved a thorough process of validating the game's
effectiveness in achieving the identified learning objectives. The three expert validators, who were the samechemistry teachers involved in the previous needs analysis, were engaged to provide input on the game's
design and evaluate its effectiveness in promoting chemical representation and conceptual understanding.
The first validator expert reviewed the game's learning objectives and provided feedback on the game'salignment with key concepts in the chemistry curriculum. The expert completed a validation form assessing
the suitability of the game's content in achieving the identified learning objectives. The expert also provided
feedback on the game's accuracy in representing chemical concepts.
The second validator expert with a background marking SPM Chemistry Paper, evaluated the gamemechanics and provided suggestions on how to improve the gameplay experience while maintaining the
educational content. The expert completed a validation form assessing the potential effectiveness of thegame mechanics in promoting the identified learning objectives. The expert also provided feedback on the
game's overall engagement and replayability.
The third validator expert more than 15 years of teaching experience evaluated the game's effectiveness inpromoting chemical representation and conceptual understanding. The expert observed gameplay sessions
and collected data on players' learning outcomes. The expert completed a validation form assessing theiroverall satisfaction with the game's effectiveness in achieving the identified learning objectives. The expert
also provided feedback on the clarity and accuracy of the game's chemical representations. Based on the
feedback from the validator experts and the completion of the validation forms, the game mechanics,
components, and educational content were further refined to optimize the game's effectiveness in promoting
chemical representation and conceptual understanding.
The study employed purposive sampling, which is a non-probability sampling technique that involves theselection of participants based on specific criteria chosen by the researcher. The participants in this study
were validator experts who were selected based on their willingness to provide feedback on a tabletop game.
The data obtained from the participants were analyzed using a percentage calculation to derive thevalidation score. The percentage result was compared to the validation score, which is presented in Table
1.

Percentage
75.00 – 100
50.00 – 74.99
25.00 – 49.99
0.00 – 24.99

Table 1. Validation of criteria
The validity criteria
Valid
Quite Valid
Less valid
Invalid

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To evaluate the feedback of the validator experts, they were given an opportunity to play and review thetabletop game then to evaluate its effectiveness. The result was obtained in percentage and compared to thecriteria response of users as shown in Table 2.

Percentage
75.00 – 100
50.00 – 74.99
25.00 – 49.99
0.00 – 24.99

Table 2. Criteria response of users
The Validity Criteria
Very good
Good
Less Good
Not Good

4.4 Little Periodic
After conducting preliminary research and analysis, it was clear that there is a requirement for a tabletop
game that can support the development of students' conceptual understanding of chemistry and is suitablefor in-person learning. Little Periodic, a tabletop game adapted from PERIODIC: A Game of The Elements
by John Coveyou, was designed to meet this need with six lessons, each tailored for face-to-face learning.
Little Periodic includes engaging activities designed to foster students' conceptual understanding of theperiodic table of elements through gameplay. As players move across the periodic table to collect elements,
they learn about its structure and function, as well as some of the fundamental principles of chemistry.
Figure 1(a) shows the gameboard used in this study.

Figure 1(a). The Game Board of Little Periodic
Little Periodic will be using periodic trends to move across the periodic table to score points by researchingcertain elements. The periodic table is the centrepiece of the game board. Table 3 shows the explanation ofchemical representation in Little Periodic.

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Table 3. The explanation of chemical representations in the Little periodic
Chemical
Activities
representation
Macroscopic
The periodic table has several families (columns), blocks (sets ofcolumns) and other classifications that unite certain elements according
to their similar properties. One element of the game is the “Element
Group Track”. At the beginning of the game, each player places a
microscope on the appropriate “Element Group Cards”. By ending theturn with any flask on any of the elements within your next element
group, the player advances on the “Element Group Track” and earnpoints.
Microscopic

The organisation of the periodic table inspired groups and classificationof elements that are listed on the “Element Group Cards”. It also helps
explain the periodic trends such as atomic number, atomic mass, atomic
radius and ionisation energy which are the trends the player will use to
move around the game board.

Symbol representation

In Little Periodic, players research elements by landing on a specificelement at the end the movement. Players will see which elements areavailable for research because they’re shown on face-up Goal cards.
Each Goal card has a collection of elements related by some use or otherfact.

Little Periodic is a tabletop game in which players navigate the Periodic Table by utilizing periodic trends
to gain advantages and score points by researching elements. The objective of the game is to research
specific elements listed on Goal Cards to earn points, and the player with the highest score at the end of thegame wins. The gameplay can be enhanced by utilizing Agenda Cards and Award Tiles. Figure 2(a) showsthe example of Goal cards with 5 points and Figure 2(b) shows the example of Goal Cards with 7 points.

Figure 2(a). Goal cards with 5 points.

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Figure 2(b). Goal cards with 7 points.
In Little Periodic, players not only research elements to score points but also compete with each other toend their turn within specific families of elements to earn Academic Points. Additionally, players have theopportunity to earn additional points by achieving a unique combination of objectives listed on the Agenda
Cards. These objectives do not have to be completed together, and players can earn points for either or bothof the objectives listed on the card. Figure 3 displays a list of the different unique combinations of objectives
that can be achieved.

Figure 3. Agenda Cards
As players progress through the game and successfully complete Goal Cards, they are rewarded with Award
Tiles which grant them one-time bonus abilities that can be used during their turn. The player can use as
many of their earned Award Tiles as they wish to gain these bonuses. Figure 4 illustrates the four different
types of Award Tiles available in the game.

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Figure 4 Different Award Tiles.
The periodic trends are patterns that emerge in the properties of elements as player moves across theperiodic table. For example, elements on the left side of the periodic table are typically more reactive thanthose on the right side, and elements at the top of a column tend to have similar properties. By incorporating
periodic trends into gameplay, the game provides an interactive and engaging way for players to learn about
the periodic table and the properties of elements. In the game, players also collect Goal Cards by collecting
sets of elements that match specific criteria, such as elements with similar properties or elements from
specific groups or periods on the periodic table. This adds a set collection element to the game, providing
players with additional opportunities to learn about the properties and characteristics of different elements.
The game's design and mechanics make it suitable for use in a classroom setting, as it can be used to teachstudents about the periodic table and chemistry concepts. The game can be used as a teaching tool to
supplement lectures and textbook readings, or it can be used as a fun and engaging way to reinforce concepts
learned in class. On the other hand, it provides an accurate and educational game that covers elements,groups, periodic trends, and vocabulary that are commonly taught in chemistry classes. The accuracy of thegame's content makes it a valuable teaching tool for science teachers, as it provides an interactive andengaging way for students to learn and reinforce their understanding of chemistry concepts. In addition,
Little Periodic can be played by multiple players, which requires them to collaborate and communicate
effectively with each other to achieve their goals. This can help players develop their teamwork andinterpersonal skills, as well as their ability to communicate complex ideas and information clearly andeffectively (Johnson et al., 1994)
5.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
5.1 Validity
The aim of this study was to develop tabletop games as an intervention to enhance teachers' ability tosupport students' knowledge of chemical representation and conceptual understanding in the Periodic tableof elements. According to Jamal. S.N.B (2019), to ensure that the developed tabletop games are appropriate
and easy to comprehend for players, it is crucial to assess their validity (Jamal et al., 2019). In this study,
the validity of the tabletop games was evaluated based on their content suitability, potential effectiveness,and overall satisfaction. When developing tabletop games for educational purposes, content validity isessential as it ensures that the content of the games is accurate (Ramli, A. et al., 2017). The validity result
for the content aspect is presented in Table 4.

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Table 4. The result of the suitability of content aspect validity of the tabletop game
Suitability of Content Aspect
Average of percentage
Validity Criteria
Itemsfrom validators’
Assessment
1.The composition of the learning
91.7
Valid
objectives in the tabletop game isclear
2.The composition of the objectives
83.3
Valid
of the tabletop game can beachieved based on the teachingactivities used.
3.The composition of the objectives
100.0
Valid
of the tabletop game can beachieved based on the strategies
used.
4.Learning objectives are defined
83.3
Valid
for each activity according to the
gameplay suggested
5.Teaching objectives can achieve
91.7
Valid
tabletop game objectives
6.Teaching objectives are expressed
83.3
Valid
in measurable behaviour.
7. Teaching objectives that are
91.7
Valid
stated to lead to the achievement oflearning outcomes
8.Tabletop games content can meet
100
Valid
the stated learning objectives.
9. The tabletop games content is
83.3
Valid
complete in terms of evaluation.

Based on Table 4, it can be concluded that Little Periodic is valid in terms of content. For instance,
validators have judged that the composition of the objectives of the tabletop game can be achieved basedon the strategies used, and the tabletop game's content can meet the stated learning objectives with a 100.0%
consensus rate. Additionally, the validators assessed that the composition of the learning objectives in thetabletop game is clear, teaching objectives can achieve tabletop game objectives, and teaching objectives
stated to lead to the achievement of learning outcomes with a 91.7% consensus rate.
Other components such as the composition of the objectives of the tabletop game can be achieved based on
the teaching activities used, learning objectives defined for each activity according to the suggested
gameplay, and teaching objectives expressed in measurable behavior, as well as the tabletop game's content
being complete in terms of evaluation, were also found to be valid with a consensus rate of 83.3%.
Therefore, it can be concluded that all components of the tabletop game are valid in terms of content.
Potential effectiveness. Table 5 shows the result of potential effectiveness aspect validity of Little Periodic

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Table 5. The result of the potential effectiveness aspect validity of Little Periodic
Potential Effectiveness Aspect Items
1. The learning strategy in eachactivity is in line with the students’level of thinking.
2. The techniques used in tabletop
games can be applied effectively.
3.The teaching strategy applied is inaccordance with the syntax inGame-Based Learning.
4.The learning model applied to thetabletop game challenges students
to think.
5. Activities proposed to use
appropriate techniques to stimulate
student activity in participating in
Chemistry classes.
6.The scope of topics in the tabletop
game corresponds to thedevelopmental needs of students
7.The order of topics in the tabletop
game corresponds to thedevelopmental needs of students
8. The proposed activities are in linewith the material presented.
9.The content presented in thetabletop games can be used by allparties in teaching chemistry.
10.The tabletop games content issuitable for use in different contexts
such as at home.
11.The tabletop games content issuitable for use in different contexts
such as at school.
12. The tabletop games content issuitable for use in different contexts
such as cafes.
13. The learning media provided arein accordance with the learning
objectives in the lesson plan.

Average percentage fromvalidators’ Assessment
83.3

Validity Criteria

83.3

Valid

91.7

Valid

91.7

Valid

83.3

Valid

83.3

Valid

75.0

Valid

83.3

Valid

91.7

Valid

100.0

Valid

100.0

Valid

100.0

Valid

91.7

Valid

Valid

Based on Table 5, the result of the validators' assessment of the tabletop game was valid in terms of its
form, strategy, and techniques used. Specifically, the gameplay mechanics and learning strategies in Little
Periodic were found to be appropriate for students' level of thinking (83.3%), the techniques used in thegame can be effectively applied (83.3%), and the teaching strategy applied is in line with the syntax ofgame-based learning (91.7%). The game mechanics also challenged students to think critically (91.7%) andproposed appropriate techniques to stimulate student participation in chemistry classes (83.3%).
Additionally, the topics in the game corresponded to the developmental needs of students (75.0%) and theSEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research358

proposed activities were aligned with the content presented (83.3%). The game's content was also deemedsuitable for use by all parties in teaching chemistry (91.7%) and suitable for use in different contexts suchas at home (100.0%), school(100.0%), and cafes (100.0%). On the other hand, the tabletop game provided
is in accordance with the learning objectives in the lesson plan.
All the results of the game assessment based on potential effectiveness are in line with previous studies thatemphasized the importance of considering students' needs, suitable strategies and students' participation.
The game also takes into account students' potential, knowledge transfer, and skills from context to reality.
Overall satisfaction. the overall satisfaction of the tabletop’s validation can be seen through Table 6.
Table 6. The result of overall satisfaction aspect validity of tabletop game
Overall Satisfaction Aspect Validity
Average percentage from
Validity
validators’ Assessment
Criteria
1. Activities in the tabletop games support
91.7
Valid
students’ knowledge in learning Chemistry
2. The tabletop games provide multiple
83.3
Valid
representations (microscopic, symbolic andmacroscopic) in learning chemistry clearly.
3. Tabletop games make students directly
91.7
Valid
involved in learning.
4. The activities presented in the tabletop
91.7
Valid
games are in accordance with thecharacteristics of Game-based learning.
5. The tabletop game can help teachers to
83.7
Valid
guide multiple representations of chemistry
among students.
The result of validators’ assessment shows that activities in the tabletop support students’ knowledge inlearning chemistry (91.7%), the tabletop games provides multiple representations (microscopic, symbolic,and macroscopic) in learning Chemistry clearly (83.3%), Tabletop games makes students directly involvedin learning (91.7%), the activities presented in the tabletop games are in accordance with the characteristics
of Game-Based Learning (91.7%), and overall, the tabletop game can help teachers to guide multiple
representations of chemistry among students (83.7%). Therefore, this tabletop game can be an alternative
to teachers in guiding chemical representation in learning the periodic table of elements. The summary of
the results of tabletop game validity can be seen in Table 7 and Figure 4.

Validator 1
Validator 2
Validator 3
Average

Table 7. The summary of result of tabletop game validity
Percentage of Aspects
Content
Potential
Overall
Effectiveness
Satisfaction
100
94.2
100.0
86.1
88.5
85.0
88. 9
84.6
85.0
91.7
89.1
90.0

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Validity
Criteria
Valid
Valid
Valid
Valid

359

Average of Validation
92

91.7

91.5

Percentage

91
90.5

90

90
89.5

89.1

89
88.5
88
87.5
Content

Potential EffectivenessOverall Satisfaction

Aspect of validation

Figure 5. Bar chart of average of validation
5.2 Teacher’s Responses
The valid tabletop game- Little Periodic was given to chemistry teachers to investigate their response.
Table 8 shows the result of chemistry teacher’s response to Little Periodic.
Table 8. The summary of Teacher’s Response
Items of Teachers’ Response
Average of percentage from
Criteria Response ofvalidators’ Assessment
Users
1. The tabletop games can help mystudents to understand the Periodic
table of elements clearly.
2. Tabletop games can improve mystudents’ conceptual understanding.
3. The tabletop games can encourage
my students to know the chemical
representation.
4. The tabletop games can make myteaching and learning be studentscenter
Average

91.67

Very Good

100.0

Very good

91.67

Very good

100.0

Very good

95.8

Very good

Based on Table 8, the findings exclusively emanate from assessments conducted on the three expert
validators, who had previously participated in the preceding studies. These validators expressed positive
responses to the tabletop game. In detail, Little Periodic can help the students to understand the Periodic
Table of Elements clearly with a success rate of 91.67%. The tabletop game was also found to improve thestudents' conceptual understanding 100%. Tabletop game encourages the students to learn chemical
representation (91.67%) and can make teaching and learning more student-centered (100%). When thepercentage of teachers' positive responses falls between 75.00% to 100%, it is considered to be a very good
response. In this study, the average percentage of positive responses from expert validators was 95.8%,
indicating that the tabletop game received a very positive response. Therefore, this tabletop game isrecommended for use in teaching and learning chemistry as it follows a student-centered approach,
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encouraging students to learn by doing and providing new experiences (Ramli et al., 2017). Moreover, it
can be used as an alternative to help teachers who face challenges in preparing lesson plans, as stated by
Ramli et al. in their research (2017). Thus, Little Periodic is a intervention tool for teachers to improveteaching and learning outcomes.
6.0 RECOMMENDATION, LIMITATION AND FUTURE STUDIES
6.1 Recommendation
Based on the positive validation outcomes and the overarching aim of designing effective tabletop games
to enhance students' comprehension of chemical representations in the periodic table of elements, several
targeted recommendations emerge. First, meticulous attention should be dedicated to ensuring the accuracy
and inclusiveness of content representation. Second, the integration of interactive elements, supported by
the high potential effectiveness scores across validators, can further amplify the impact of the tabletop
games.
Additionally, customizing the complexity and difficulty levels of the games to cater to varying learninglevels and prior knowledge, along with introducing in-game feedback mechanisms, can enhance thelearning experience and make it more adaptable. Furthermore, the potential for interdisciplinary integration,by incorporating elements from other scientific disciplines like physics or biology, could provide a more
holistic understanding of the intersections between chemical representations and broader scientificconcepts.
In line with enhancing utilization, providing comprehensive training and resources for educators toeffectively integrate the tabletop games into their teaching methodologies is crucial. Lastly, establishing amechanism for continuous improvement, fueled by ongoing feedback from students, educators, andvalidators, can ensure that the tabletop games remain relevant and aligned with evolving educational needs.
6.2 Limitation
While this study offers valuable insights into tabletop game design, several limitations deserve
consideration. The use of a limited pool of expert validators, predominantly chemistry teachers, may restrict
diverse perspectives. Additionally, the validation process's controlled settings and the short-term
assessment timeframe might not fully mirror real-world classroom dynamics or capture the potential longterm impact of the games on students' learning outcomes. The narrow focus on enhancing understanding ofchemical representations, coupled with the reliance on expert validators, might limit the broader
applicability and generalizability of the findings.
6.3 Future studies
Undoubtedly, the current findings offer a launching pad for an array of promising avenues in future researchendeavors. Firstly, the application of comparative analyses to diverse game designs holds the potential todissect and pinpoint the paramount elements that significantly bolster students' cognitive grasp.
Longitudinal investigations, spanning extended periods, could unveil the enduring impact of tabletop gameintegration on sustained learning outcomes and knowledge retention. Moreover, delving into students'
perceptions, preferences, and engagement levels provides a compass for iteratively refining game designprinciples. The fusion of emerging technologies like augmented and virtual reality within tabletop games
could potentially enhance interactivity and immersion.
7.0 CONCLUSION
This research aimed to develop a tabletop game called "Little Periodic" that addresses the issues
encountered in learning chemistry, specifically on the topic of the periodic table of elements. Little
Periodic utilized game-based learning and integrated chemical representation and conceptual
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understanding to facilitate learning. Validity testing showed that the game has a content suitability scoreof 91.7%, potential effectiveness of 89.1%, and an overall satisfaction rate of 90%, indicating its potential
as a learning tool.
However, it is worth noting that this study focused only on the periodic table of elements topic and there
is a need for further research to develop tabletop games for other chemistry topics. By exploring otherforms of game-based learning, future research can innovate and address issues encountered in learningchemistry across various topics, bridging the gap between traditional teaching methods and modern
learning techniques.
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The Status and Prospects of UST Legazpi Case
Integration of Instruction, Research, and Extension, 2016-2021
Alvin Aguilar Sario
University of Santo Tomas – Legazpi, Legazpi City, Philippines
alvin.sario@ust-legazpi.edu.ph

ABSTRACTThe study intends to provide the current state of the integration of instruction, research, and extension in
the College of Arts, Sciences, and Education in UST Legazpi. The study is qualitative type of research
geared towards articulating the academic culture in the College of Arts, Sciences, and Education in UST
Legazpi. The research employs documentary analysis and secondary data analysis as the main data
gathering tools and techniques. This endeavor describes the status and prospects to be generated throughthe lens of organizational theory and a current model of academic culture in universities. In terms ofdynamics between instruction and research, there are 24 (83%) researches where the results are utilized in
instruction (Practice 3) and the remaining five (17%) researches are made given or after the instruction (is)delivered/performed (Practice 1). Practices 2, 4, 5, and 6 are not observed in the College for five consecutive
years. There are some factors contributory to the lack of IRE Integration in UST Legazpi CASE Integration.
These are: a. lack of capacity on the part of faculty to do the integration; b. lack of time required to do theintegration; c. lack of IRE Integration Program that would actually address the specificities and otherconcerns for doing the integration; d. lack of policy on IRE Integration in the University level; e. lack ofbudget to be allotted for the IRE Integration; and f. lack of incentives attached to the integration efforts. In
order to address the challenges mentioned, we need to have a clear and distinct IRE Integration Program in
the College anchored on a university policy for such integration backed up by intensive and extensive
capacity-building activities, inclusion of research units in the faculty load, and provision of faculty
incentives.
KEYWORDS: Integration Practices, Integration Models, IRE Integration Program, UST Legazpi

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INTRODUCTION
Rationale
The integration within the trifocal function in University ensures that there is dynamic interaction between
and among instruction, research, and extension. This integration perspective makes higher education
responsive in academic practice. The integration guarantees that the curriculum and its implementation isresearch-based and leads to community development. As much as possible, the programs, projects, andactivities implemented are informed by research and the community involvement projects and activities
confirm that both faculty and students are part of the extension leading to holistic development for students
and faculty training and development as effective. This then clearly demonstrates university impact. It is
crucial then to gauge the nature and level of integration. How instruction, research, and extension as threemajor areas of concern in higher education create impact to social development is the key to measuring
impact of higher education institutions.
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
The study intends to provide the current state of the integration of instruction, research, and extension in
the College of Arts, Sciences, and Education in UST Legazpi. To realize such main objective, the following
specific objectives are raised: 1. To determine the status of the integration of instruction, research, andextension from 2016 to 2021 through the use of Appreciative Inquiry and SWOT Analysis; 2. To describe
the challenges experienced in the integration through the use of the Problem Tree and Root Cause Analysis;
3. To determine the prospects in the integration through the use of KII.
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Figure 1. Conceptual Framework Model
The study is anchored on the integration practices and models utilized by the College of Arts, Sciences, and
Education of UST Legazpi. It uses appreciative inquiry and SWOT analysis to establish the status of theintegration and provide a description of the challenges. This leads to the articulation of the prospects of theintegration by designing a plan of action leading to better academic services in the University.

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365

METHODOLOGY
The study is qualitative type of research geared towards articulating the academic culture in the College ofArts, Sciences, and Education in UST Legazpi. The research employs documentary analysis and secondary
data analysis as the main data gathering tools and techniques. This endeavor describes the status andprospects. To facilitate the analysis on the dynamics of the trifocal function of the university, typology ismade to describe the integration. Given the dynamics of instruction, research, and extension in the academe,
there are six practices identified and 6 integration models to describe the IRE Integration.
The six practices are:
PRACTICES
Practice 1
Practice 2
Practice 3
Practice 4
Practice 5
Practice 6

SEQUENCE
Instruction-ResearchInstruction-Extension
Research-Instruction
Research-Extension
Extension-Instruction
Extension-Research

DESCRIPTION
Given the contents in instruction, a research is conducted.
Given the contents in instruction, an extension is participated.
A research is made, the results are incorporated in instruction.
A research is made, the results are incorporated in extension.
Extension is realized, the experience is utilized in instruction.
Extension is realized, a research is made.

These practices are pathways that would lead the way to possible integration. These practices showcase theinteraction of two higher education areas given the trifocal function. Each interaction shows us the clear
role and interplay instruction and research, research and extension, and instruction and extension. The
identified six practices describe such interaction. There are three sets: Practices 1 and 3, Practices 2 and 5,
and Practices 4 and 6.
The six integration models are:INTEGRATION
Model 1SEQUENCE
Instruction-Research-Extension

Model 2

Instruction-Extension-Research

Model 3

Research-Instruction-Extension

Model 4

Research-Extension-Instruction

Model 5Extension-Instruction-Research

Model 6

Extension-Research-Instruction

DESCRIPTION
Given the contents in instruction, a research is
conducted, the results are applied to extension.
Given the contents in instruction, an extension isparticipated, the experience is made into research.
A research is made, the results are incorporated in
instruction, translated to extension.
A research is made, the results are incorporated inextension, the experience is utilized in instruction.
Extension is realized, the experience is utilized in
instruction, a research is made.
Extension is realized, a research is made, the results
are utilized in instruction.

To facilitate the integration of trifocal function of higher education institution, the designed practices andmodels are taken as tools to describe the dynamic interaction, integration in that sense, between and among
instruction, research, and extension. These practices and models can now be used to provide the status of
the integration in UST Legazpi CASE. There are six identified models to describe the integration of
instruction, research, and extension. Each integration model demonstrates clear interaction of the threeareas. Models 1 and 2 are Instruction-led, Models 3 and 4 are research-led, and Models 5 and 6 areextension-led. Models 4 and 6 are instruction-driven, Models 2 and 5 are research-driven, and Modules 1
and 3 are extension-driven.

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DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS
1. Status of CASE IRE Integration
There are 29 researches produced by UST Legazpi CASE from AY 2016-17 to AY 2020-21. Of this total
number, ten (35%) are on philosophy, nine (31%) on social sciences, eight (28%) are on education, one(3%) on natural sciences, and one (3%) on literature. Philosophy Program and the Social Sciences, together
comprising 66% of the total number, got the highest because the research leadership in the university is
actually a philosophy and social sciences professor and naturally the colleagues in the discipline are highly
mentored leading to the production of researches by all philosophy faculty. Based on the record of the
Office of Research, from 2008 to 2021 the philosophy faculty produced philosophy, social sciences, andeducation researches consistently. Education having 28% shares can be justified by the fact that majorityof the faculty in the college are licensed professional teachers and they are always inclined to conduct
researches on teaching and learning especially in the entire period of the COVID-19 pandemic where theuniversity implemented the Flexible Dominican Education (F-DomE) to respond appropriately to thecontext thereby delivering still and effectively the essential competencies for every discipline in all
programs in the university. With two years of its implementation, teachers in the college intend to evaluate
the implementation, describe the practices, recognize the best features, identify opportunities for
improvement, and modify if necessary some aspects of F-DomE. Philosophy, Social Sciences, and
Education constitute 94% of the all the researches produced in the college. The college has no reported
research work along Communication, Chemistry, and Psychology programs.

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Table 1. Academic Researches Completed in UST Legazpi CASE, 2016-22
YEAR
2020-21, (9)2019-20, (2)2018-19, (4)2017-18, (10)2016-17, (4)ACADEMIC RESEARCH
Philippine Governance in the time of COVID-19 Pandemic: A Social Critical Analysis (PH)Philippine Higher Education in the time of COVID-19 Pandemic towards a Framework on Flexible
Learning (PH)Assessment of Flexible Learning in UST-L CASE (ED)
Challenges encountered by 2nd Year Students of UST Legazpi in the New Normal (ED)Proficiency Level of 1st Year Students in Preliminary Term Competencies of Mathematics in theModern World through Flexible Dominican Education (ED)Examining Prospective Teachers’ Knowledge on Assessment of Student Learning: Basis for the
Preparation for the LET (ED)
Human Rights in the Philippines amidst the COVID-19 Pandemic (SS)
Coping Strategies of 1st Year College Students to Distance Learning at UST Legazpi (ED)Assessment of Blended Learning of Physical Education in UST Legazpi (ED)On Constants and Context Towards Reconstructing Filipino Religious Education (SS)
Moral Acceptability on Leading Moral Issues of College Students in UST Legazpi (SS)A Feminist Reading of Simone de Beauvoir’s ‘The Woman Destroyed’ (LT)
Towards a Sustainable (Healthy) Society: Justice as Fairness in Health Care Policy-Making (PH)A Revaluation of Rawls’s and Habermas’ Justice and Reason (PH)The Psychosocial Nature of Hyperreality as seen in Television Soap Operas (PH)The Phenomenology of Sayos (SS)The Ritual bath of Santo Entierro (SS)An Basyaw (SS)An Nagtagdo (SS)The Senior High School PE Curriculum: Students’ Perspective (ED)
Biosynthesis of Metallic Nanoparticles using Representative Bikolano Plants (NS)Maogmang Lugar: Happiness Index of Naga City (SS)
Sagugurang Asin Pagtubod: A Catalyst or Inhibitor of Growth? (SS)An Exegesis of Rawls’ Idea of Justice (PH)The Role of Religion in the Public Sphere based on Marx’s ‘On The Jewish Question’ towards
Human Rights-Based Emancipation (PH)Workplace-Oriented Instruction: A Constructivist Teaching Model for Business Communication
Course (ED)
Rawls’ Idea of Justice as Fairness (PH)Towards a Metaethic of Supererogation (PH)On Postmodernism, Culture, and Faith Relationship and Possibilities (PH)

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368

NATURE OF INTGRATION
Research-Instruction
Research-Instruction
Instruction-ResearchInstruction-ResearchInstruction-Research
Research-Instruction
Research-Instruction
Instruction-ResearchInstruction-Research

Research-Instruction
Research-Instruction
Research-Instruction
Research-Instruction
Research-Instruction
Research-Instruction
Research-Instruction
Research-Instruction
Research-Instruction
Research-Instruction
Research-Instruction
Research-Instruction
Research-Instruction
Research-Instruction
Research-Instruction
Research-Instruction
Research-Instruction
Research-Instruction
Research-Instruction
Research-Instruction

In terms of dynamics between instruction and research, there are 24 (83%) researches where the results are
utilized in instruction (Practice 3) and the remaining five (17%) researches are made given or after the
instruction (is) delivered/performed (Practice 1). Practices 2, 4, 5, and 6 are not observed in the College forfive consecutive years. This is understandable because since almost all researches conducted (83%) the
results of which are utilized in instruction vis-à-vis used by teachers in the implementation of the modules
and/or taken up in the actual teaching and learning. The remaining 17% can be explained by the fact that
instruction is the source or basis of the objectives or problem/s in the research. Given the typology in thepractices, only Practices 3 and 1 are implemented. The college did not conduct researches using thePractices 2, 4, 5, and 6. It is more likely that the teachers need to be reminded to explore other functions as
higher education institution especially in the relation of instruction and research to extension.
Based on the data, none of the 29 researches is able to realize any of the six integration models. In the spanof five consecutive years, no IRE Integration is conducted in the College. As a university, one crucial
feature we should have is the integration in the trifocal function: instruction, research, and extension. Thisis a difficult task. There is a lack in the planning of researches in the university neglecting the IRE
Integration and in effect the lack of the strategy in the university level to achieve such integration. Various
academic departments also tend to forget the integration mandate.
2. Challenges in the CASE IRE Integration
There are some factors contributory to the lack of IRE Integration in UST Legazpi CASE Integration. These
are: a. lack of capacity on the part of faculty to do the integration; b. lack of time required to do theintegration; c. lack of IRE Integration Program that would actually address the specificities and otherconcerns for doing the integration; d. lack of policy on IRE Integration in the University level; e. lack ofbudget to be allotted for the IRE Integration; and f. lack of incentives attached to the integration efforts.
The faculty in the college are not trained to conduct IRE Integration in any of the six integration models.
Their perspective of research is only in the periphery of instruction; that is, either instruction to research or
research to instruction. Though they have to fulfill their contributions to the trifocal function, they are
performed but not within the frame of the IRE Integration. Corollary to the fact of the lack of faculty training
for IRE Integration is the lack of time to conduct a research along IRE Integration. In the present context,
the 44-hour policy in the university provides four hours of unmonitored work weekly to be devoted toresearch. At the end of the academic year, the faculty is expected to finish a research. The usual researchcompleted by faculty are publishable papers that are fundamentally basic research, academic research, andaction research. It is not designed for IRE Integration. There is a lack of policy that would clearly anddistinctly designate a project on IRE Integration. To realize this, it could either be part of the 21-unit loadin a form of at least a minimum of six research units or it is above the workload from Monday to Friday butwith a monetary compensation for the IRE Integration project/s. but of course, in order to realize it, there
should be a well-defined IRE Integration Program providing the scope and limitations, responsibilities andobligations, and the expected dynamics and interactions of those who will be directly involved, which isactually such Program is missing for five years not actually in the college but actually true in the entire
university. But a good IRE Integration Program even supported by a university policy is actually useless if
we do not have the budget required for the IRE Integration. Office of Research, Office of the University
Controller, and the Office of Academic Affairs should have solid coordination in ensuring the success ofthe project/s that start on the project/s budget. When all these are present, we should not forget the incentivesof the researchers as much as possible in every aspect of the project/s.
3. Prospects in the CASE IRE Integration
In order to address the challenges mentioned, we need to have a clear and distinct IRE Integration Programin the College anchored on a university policy for such integration backed up by intensive and extensive
SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research369

capacity-building activities, inclusion of research units in the faculty load, and provision of faculty
incentives. Full Professors and Associate Professors should be given research fund to lead the IRE
Integration with the academic support of the Assistant Professors and research assistantships of theInstructors and the academic department staff. There should be at least one IRE Integration project in theCollege annually.
The university-wide IRE Integration Program should ensure that the six practices and the six integration
models are in place; that is, integration projects are identified and distributed appropriately to various
academic departments. With this strategy, all practices and models are realized in the university level.
Priorities have to be set of every academic head what practices and models can be realized in their respective
offices for certain periods. There is a need to document all practices in all academic departments, streamline
all researches in the university level, create research capsules for IRE Integration done out of workshops ofacademic departments spearheaded and organized by the Office of Research, and prioritize these integration
project/s based on budget of the university, capacity of faculty as researchers, and determination of theacademic department to meet the key performance indicators in the IRE Integration Program.
This IRE Integration Program should be a major part in the University Research Program under Researchand Development section. There has to be right and proper channels to realize all the projects. Monitoringand evaluation is the key to secure the success of the integration project/s. We need to identify the researchchampions in every academic department and tap them to organize the people in their respective areas.
These integration project/s should not be alien to the functions and dynamics of our faculty in the university.
If they are involved because of their disciplinal expertise and professional experience, they will be
motivated to do the project or work.
CONCLUSION
All higher education institutions have the mandate to realize the trifocal function: instruction, research, andextension. All members of the academe have to provide teaching and learning given concepts and principles
in different area of studies and disciplines, conduct researches that would lead to knowledge generation andmanagement to monitoring and evaluation, and accomplish extension activities to improve communities
with the intervention of the school’s programs, projects, and activities. One crucial way to fulfill this duty
is to secure practices and integration along each elements in the trifocal function given the nature andprocesses of these practices and ways of integration. To realize these things, there is a necessity for Policy,
Program, and Partnership. There should be a policy where all integration activities are anchored, programthat would cover all these integration activities systematically, and partnership among colleagues, interdisciplinary, multi-disciplinary, and cross-disciplinary harnessing collaboration and teamwork.
RECOMMENDATIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

For UST Legazpi to have the integration program a policy for all academic departments.
For the CASE to be consistent in implementing the Integration Plan both along the integration
practices and integration models.
For the CASE to effectively monitor and evaluate the implementation of the integration of
instruction, research, and extension as instruction-led, research-led, or extension-led.
For academic programs to explore implementing all models integrating instruction, research, andextension given schedule of activities in the higher education institution.
For the faculty to actively support and engage in integration efforts as researchers, implementers,
evaluators, and/or writers.
For the students to proactively contribute in the integration activities by engaging both co-curricularand extra-curricular activities as take-off point for the instruction-led, research-led, or extension-led
integration.

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research

370

REFERENCES
A.M. Winkler, “Explaining what professors do with their time”. The Chronicle of Higher Education, 38(July 15 issue). p. B1 – B2, 1992.
Arrow, Kenneth. 1962. "Economic Welfare and the Allocation of Resources for Invention." In the Rateand Direction of Inventive Activity, edited by Richard R. Nelson, 609- 625. Princeton, NJ:
Princeton University Press.
UST-L CASE. CASE Appreciative Inquiry. (Unpublished)
UST-L CASE. Root Cause Analysis. (Unpublished)
UST-L CASE. SWOT Analysis. (Unpublished)
Griliches, Zvi. 1979. "Issues in Assessing the Contribution of R&D to Productivity Growth." Bell Journalof Economics 10: 92-116.
Hall, Bronwyn H. 2002. “The Financing of Research and Development.” Oxford Review of Economic
Policy 18 (1): 35-51.
M. Jacob & T. Hellström, “Organising the academy: New organisational forms and the future of theuniversity”, Higher Education Quarterly, 57(1): 48-66, 2003.
Schumpeter, Joseph. 1976 (1942). Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy. New York, NY: Harper andRow.
Vinesh, “Role of Training & Development in an Organizational Development”. International Journal Of
Management and International Business Studies. ISSN 2277-3177 4 (2): 217. 2014

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research371

A Research Framework Model Based on Undergraduate PhilosophicalResearches in UST Legazpi, 2000 – 2017
Alvin Aguilar Sario
University of Santo Tomas – Legazpi, Legazpi City, Philippines

ABSTRACTThe study intends to provide a research framework model on philosophical researches generated in theundergraduate level to describe the research culture established in the Philosophy Program in the University
from 2000 to 2017. The philosophy theses in the university for 18 years actually show that there is a highlevel in the utilization of higher order of research approaches in philosophy which are synthesis,reconstruction, and post-structuralist approaches. The research outputs are truly contributory in providing
interpretation, perspective, framework, and appropriation given various themes. The papers are strong oncontemporary and western philosophical frames especially on hermeneutics, phenomenology, andpostmodernism leading to critiquing, challenging, and creating new, different, or alternative perspectives
given the varying schools of thought in philosophy. With 18 years of tradition of doing philosophy in theuniversity for knowledge generation, it is great to note that the UST Legazpi Philosophy Program isconstantly able to hold philosophical fora, present researches in different conferences, and publish papers
in different publications, in different levels. The philosophical researches in UST Legazpi from 2000-2017
have not explored extensively postcolonial philosophical studies and contextual philosophies such as
indigenous thoughts and worldviews, Filipino philosophizing and doing Filipino philosophy, comparative
studies of East and West philosophical frames, and concepts and principles on science/technology, health,sex/sexuality, culture/norm/humanity/civilization, and god/religion. Postcolonial philosophy, criticaltheory, indigenous philosophies, and Neo-Thomism/Post-Thomism are schools of thought actively offering
also new or alternative philosophical reflections and insights. The WISE Project has to lead the entire UST
Legazpi Philosophy Program to current and relevant philosophical researches. The Program has to continue
harnessing and developing new and/or alternative interpretations, perspectives, framework, and application
as its research output/outcome. The researches have to evolve on contextual, indigenous, postcolonial,
and/or pragmatic areas or application in/of philosophy.
KEYWORDS: Research Framework, Philosophical Research, Undergraduate Theses, UST Legazpi

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research372

INTRODUCTION
There is a need to characterize the research tradition created in an institution. The University of Santo
Tomas – Legazpi, formerly Aquinas University, is the first university in the region to offer philosophy as aprogram. With Aristotelian-Thomistic Tradition in the light of Scholastic Philosophy, the university is able
to deliver philosophy education to seminarians, the religious, priests, academicians, and lovers of wisdom.
Seeing philosophy as a take-off point and a catalyst for further education and lifelong learning, thephilosophy program thrives and endures and is seen as one strong pillar in the university history. It is but
wise to ascertain the philosophical tradition of Aquinas University which is now University of Santo Tomas- Legazpi.
The study intends to provide a research framework model on philosophical researches generated in theundergraduate level to describe the research culture established in the Philosophy Program in the University
from 2000 to 2017. To realize such main objective, the following specific objectives are raised: 1. To
describe the nature of philosophical researches in terms of the research titles, nature of key concepts used,language used in the paper, research approaches used, philosophers utilized in the paper, area of philosophy,
historical relevance, realization of the objective/s as seen in the output of the paper, and the philosophicalframe worked out by Philosophy students in the span of 18 years; 2. To identify strengths and weaknessesof these philosophical researches; and 3. To create a research framework model based on the outcomes in
the first two objectives. The study is qualitative type of research geared towards articulating the research
culture in the Philosophy Program. The research utilized documentary analysis and secondary data analysis
as the main data gathering tools and techniques. This research brings forth a model to describe thephilosophy tradition in the university and therefore may serve as basis for planning, directing, andorganizing the future of philosophy program itself in the university.
DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS
1. Status of Undergraduate Philosophical Researches
In terms of the nature of philosophical concepts utilized, 38 papers (59%) are on social analysis, eight (13%)
on personal philosophy, seven (11%) are on cultural reflections, six (9%) on ethical issues, two (3%) on
religious sense, two (3%) on epistemological aspect, and one (2%) on aesthetic perspective. Given thementorship and influence of philosophy professors in the university who are all trained to social andpolitical philosophy, the students are actually motivated, guided, and reinforced with the trends and issues
on socio-political realms as situated in varying contexts in our contemporary society. The philosophy
students are more introduced to themes and principles in social and political philosophy as shown in the
Table 1, Social and Political Philosophy is ranked one in the aspect of area of philosophy with 59% (38/64).
This is followed by Ethics with 22% (14/64, and Philosophy of Culture with 11% (7/64). The common
themes the philosophy students usually focused on are Justice, Labor, Law, Dialogue, and Metaethics. Thisis also corollary to the results on philosophers chosen by the philosophy students to anchor on theirphilosophical thoughts as reflected in their respective theses. As seen in the Table, there are 35/64 (55%)
theses that are centered on contemporary philosophers, 18/64 (28%) theses are concept-based, 7/64 (11%)
theses employed modern thinkers, 2/64 (3%) theses are on medieval thinkers, and 2/64 (3%) from ancient
Chinese thinkers. This is even strengthened by the findings in terms of historical relevance that there are
55/64 (86%) undergraduate philosophical researches that are contextualized on contemporary history ofphilosophy, 5/64 (8%) are on modern history of philosophy, 2/64 (3%) are on a combination of ancient andmodern philosophy, 1/64 or (1.5%) on medieval philosophy, and 1/64 or (1.5%) also on ancient eastern
philosophy.
The philosophy theses in the university for 18 years actually show that there is a high level in the utilizationof higher order of research approaches in philosophy which are synthesis, reconstruction, and postSEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research373

structuralist approaches. Along the research approach employed in the philosophical papers, 41% (26/64)
used reconstruction, 33% (21/64) are synthesis papers, 20% (13/64) are on appropriation, 5% (3/64) utilized
phenomenology, and 2% (1/64) on deconstruction. This is in consonance with the findings on the aspectsof philosophy. These approaches are actually used in social and political philosophy by the contemporary
thinkers. Given these approaches, the findings are correct in presenting the common outputs of theseundergraduate philosophical theses, which are interpretation (18/64 or 28%), perspective (16/64 or 25%),
framework (15/64 or 23%), and application (15/64 or 23%). It is highly expected that when philosophicalresearches are on social and political contemporary philosophy, philosophy students will be pushed to write
their papers on providing interpretation, creating a perspective, presenting a framework, and putting into
application the central philosophical concepts in their respective theses. It is to be noted that since theorientation of the philosophy students in the university are on European Continental Philosophy and AngloAmerican Analytic Philosophy, majority of the philosophical theses employed Western philosophicalframes. Based on the Table, there are 85.9% (55/64) of the papers used Western philosophical frames, 7.8%
(5/64) utilized Asian philosophical frames, 4.8% (3/64) employed Filipino philosophical frames, and only
1.5% (1/64) opted for a combination of Eastern/Western philosophical frames. Almost all major courses in
the philosophy curriculum in different periods from 2000 to 2017 are actually concentrated on the Western
Tradition of philosophy. Asian perspectives and post-colonial philosophical papers are not completely
explored by the philosophy theses given the period. There are 60/64 (94%) papers written in English andonly 4/64 (6%) are in Filipino. Philosophy students are not fully encouraged to write in Filipino or Bikol.
2.1 Strengths of Philosophical Researches
The philosophical researches in UST Legazpi from 2000-2017 are on the right track in terms of currency
and relevance and on a par with the development of researches with other research agenda in universities
offering philosophy programs around the world. Based on the results, the focus of UST Legazpi Philosophy
Program is on social analysis with emphasis on the concepts and principles in modern and contemporarysocial and philosophy offered by Kant, Machiavelli, Marx, Nietzsche, Nozick, Habermas, Rawls,
Heidegger, Gadamer, Baudrillard, Ricoeur, and Derrida centered on contemporary views and perspectives
such as but not limited to themes of justice, law, dialogue, labor, and metaethics. What should be given due
recognition is the extensive use of higher order nature of philosophical researches which are interpretive,
perspectival, framing, and appropriative. The research outputs are truly contributory in providing
interpretation, perspective, framework, and appropriation given various themes. The papers are strong oncontemporary and western philosophical frames especially on hermeneutics, phenomenology, andpostmodernism leading to critiquing, challenging, and creating new, different, or alternative perspectives
given the varying schools of thought in philosophy. With 18 years of tradition of doing philosophy in theuniversity for knowledge generation, it is great to note that the UST Legazpi Philosophy Program isconstantly able to hold philosophical fora, present researches in different conferences, and publish papers
in different publications, in different levels.
2.2 Weaknesses of Philosophical Researches
The philosophical researches in UST Legazpi from 2000-2017 have not explored extensively postcolonial
philosophical studies and contextual philosophies such as indigenous thoughts and worldviews, Filipino
philosophizing and doing Filipino philosophy, comparative studies of East and West philosophical frames,
and concepts and principles on science/technology, health, sex/sexuality, culture/norm/humanity/
civilization, and God/religion. The researches done on these themes are limited. The Program has notconsidered other areas of philosophy such as but not limited to philosophy of the mind, philosophy oflanguage, philosophy of logic, philosophy of education, and philosophy of future. Postcolonial philosophy,
critical theory, indigenous philosophies, and Neo-Thomism/Post-Thomism are schools of thought actively
offering also new or alternative philosophical reflections and insights. Almost all are written in English;
local language is highly encouraged to be used in philosophical researches to actually present the depth and
SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research374

breadth of indigenous or cultural concepts and principles. The Program has not considered film, music,
theatre, and other humanities for its philosophical research agenda. New and emerging trends in politics,
environment, society, technology, law and jurisprudence, education, business/management, privacy/
security, technology/ethics, axiology/criteriology, and contemporary forms of human struggles andchallenges still need to be explored both by the faculty and students of philosophy in the university.
3. A Research Framework Model
The Philosophy Program remains committed to the full realization of a transformative education, a learning
process that truly forms and readily transforms students as they continuously re-construct and de-constructtheir selves to become better members of society. To make such education become more visible, theProgram is centered on harnessing and developing reasoning and inquiry, concept formation, and meaning
making, which are the components of philosophical thought, to optimize their knowledge, skills, andattitudes. In sum, to make our students true lovers of wisdom. After four years of studies in Philosophy, our
graduates should have: 1. Confronted philosophical questions, problems, and issues based on significant
human experience of self, others, world, and God; 2. Practiced critical thinking given the framework ofphilosophical methodology and scholarship; 3. Read, critiqued, reconstructed, and/or synthesized the works
and ideas of great philosophers and/or various schools of thought; and 4. Formulated his own philosophyof life or worldview. With these educational objectives, the Philosophy Program launches the WISEPROJECT.
YEAR
LEVEL
1

PROGRAMCOMPETENCIES
Well-guided reasoning and inquiry

PHILOSOPHICALVALUES
Art of Questioning

2

Independent Thinking and openmindedness
Synthesis and creation of ideas

Critical Thinking

3
4

Enlightened practice of concepts andprinciples

Concept Formation
Educational Praxis

PROGRAM
FOCUS
building and developing
arguments
writing publishable research
paperspublishable research papers,
public paper presentation
practicum, thesis,
comprehensive examinations
in philosophy

This Project captures all the competencies students should develop as they are trained and mentored bycompetent professors and experts in the field. Every major course is geared towards the acquisition andfulfillment of knowledge, skills, and attitudes as each course contributes to the full realization of all target
competencies from one level to the next for four years. The professors and experts shall focus on teaching
and mentoring students in building and developing arguments, completing the thesis, writing, presenting,and publishing research papers, and fostering professional practicum development. The Program
continuously promotes the values of questioning, critical thinking, and praxis. The Program serves as a preLaw course, a preparatory course for graduate studies, Philosophy teaching, academic preparation forpriestly ministry and religious life, training for research, and other professions that demand highly forcritical thinking, creative thought, and innovative imagination. The UST Legazpi Philosophy Program
begins and ends in the concept of ‘Truth in Action.’

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research375

Figure 1. A Research Framework Model for UST Legazpi Philosophy Program
The WISE Project has to lead the entire UST Legazpi Philosophy Program to current and relevant
philosophical researches. The take-off point of these researches has to be the foundation of doing
philosophy itself: philosophical discussion, critiquing/challenging/creating role of philosophy, and concept
formation and meaning making. This can be done by giving emphasis on research focus and research output
that the Program has to articulate, ensure, and fulfill. For research focus, the Program has to highlight socialand political contemporary philosophy as the locus of concepts and principles. The themes have to be on
justice and law, work and labor, dialogue, and metaethics. Through these categories, we will be able to havemore new, explorative, and/or alternative themes and perspectives. With these, the research output has torevolve on reconstruction, synthesis, and appropriation to guarantee educational praxis in philosophy. The
Program has to continue harnessing and developing new and/or alternative interpretations, perspectives,
framework, and application as its research output/outcome. The researches have to evolve on contextual,indigenous, postcolonial, and/or pragmatic areas or application in/of philosophy.
CONCLUSION
The research framework model, given its simplicity and brevity, captures the vision and mission of UST
Legazpi Philosophy Program for its research component. Fundamentally, all philosophical researches haveto demonstrate educational praxis, which is the end-point of philosophy teaching and learning; that is,ensuring the application of concepts and principles learned in the classroom that would actually contributeto the realization of a transformative philosophical teaching and learning. With the right focus and desired
output for philosophical research, the UST Legazpi Program would remain committed in the understandingof UST Legazpi VMGO in four levels of philosophy education. All these would result to our ultimate end
which is to live in a life of truth and love out of gratitude; that is, truth in action. In the end, full recognitionof educational praxis, which is a reinforcement to a transformative education towards culturaltransformation.

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376

REFERENCES
Cameron, K. (2008). A process for changing organizational culture. In T. G. Cummings, (Ed.), Handbookof organization development (pp. 429-446). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Clark, B. R. (1987). The academic life: Small worlds, different worlds. Princeton, NJ: The Carnegie
Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching.
Dundar, H., & Lewis, D. R. (1998). Determinants of research productivity in higher education. Researchin Higher Education, 39(6), 607-630.
Martin, J., & Meyerson, D. (1988). Organizational cultures and the denial, channeling, andacknowledgement of ambiguity. In L. Pondy, R. Boland, & H. Thomas (Eds.), Managing
ambiguity and change (pp. 93-125). New York, NY: Wiley.
Meek, V. L., & Davies, D. (2009). Policy dynamics in higher education and research: Concepts andobservations. In L. Meek, U. Teichler, & M. Kearney (Eds.), Higher education research andinnovation (pp. 41-82). Paris, FR: UNESCO.
Quimbo, M. A. T., & Sulabo, E. C. (2014). Research productivity and its policy implications in higher
education institutions. Studies in Higher Education, 39(10), 1955-1971.
https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2013.818639
Salazar-Clemeña, R. M., & Almonte-Acosta S. A. (2007). Developing research culture in Philippine
Higher education institutions: Perspectives of university faculty. Paper presented at the Regional Seminar“Competition, Cooperation, and Change in the Academic Profession: Shaping Higher Education’sContribution to Knowledge and Research,” Hangzhou, China. Paris, FR: UNESCO Forum. Retrieved
from http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0015/001578/157869e.pdf

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Table 1. Undergraduate Philosophical Researches in UST Legazpi from 2000 To 2017
RESEARCH TITLERESEARCHERYEARLANGUAGE

NATURE OF
CONCEPT

Isang Pananaw: Ang
Katunayang Sosyalbase sa Holistikong
Loob
A Paradigm on Man
from William James
Humanistic Pragmatism
Intersubjective
Transcendent Dialogue
towards Common
Understanding in Text
Interpretation
A Paradigm on
Dialogue based on
Buberian and Filipino
Dialogical Frameworks
A Metalinguistic
Hermeneutical Value of
Orag

Reynancia, C.

2000

Filipino

Personal (Loob)

Basco, A.

2000

EnglishPersonal (Man)Villareal, J

2001

EnglishAlmazan, E.P.

2001

Benasa, B.

An Assessment ofFilipino Working Man
based on Marx's
Concept of Work
Appropriation of
Husserlian
Phenomenology to the
Napaoeños Celebrationof Semana Santa
Appropriation of Erich
Fromm's Concept ofTechnological Socialon Labor in thePhilippine Setting
The Supremacy of Law
Over Conscience as the
Ultimate Standard of
Morality based on
Martian Morality

RESEARCHOUTPUTRESEARCH
APPROACH

Perspective on Loob

Reconstruction

William James(Contemporary)

Perspective on Man

Reconstruction

Social (Dialogue)

Hans-Georg
Gadamer(Contemporary)

Perspective on
Intersubjective
Transcendent Dialogue

Synthesis

EnglishSocial (Dialogue)

Martin Buber(Contemporary)

Perspective on
Dialogue

2002

EnglishEthical (Orag)

Ireso, R.J.

2003

EnglishSocial(Work/Labor)

Karl Marx(Contemporary)

Barcoma, L.J.

2003

EnglishReligious(Semana Santa)

Galicia, A.

2003

EnglishSocial (Labor)

Hilotin, R.

2003

EnglishSocial (Law andConscience)

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research

PHILOSOPHERS

AREA OFPHILOSOPHY,RELEVANCE
Filipino
Philosophy,
Contemporary

FRAME
Filipino

Philosophy of
Human Person,
Contemporary
Hermeneutics,
Contemporary

Western

Synthesis

Existentialism,
Contemporary

Western

Interpretation on
Metalinguistic
Hermeneutical Value of
Orag
Application of Marx’s
Labor to Filipino
WorkerReconstruction

Filipino

Edmund Husserl(Contemporary)

Application of
Husserl’s Thoughts on
Semana Santa in
Napao, Sorsogon

Appropriation

Hermeneutics
Indigenous
Philosophies,
Contemporary
Philosophy ofthe Human
Person,Contemporary
Phenomenology,
Contemporary

Erich Fromm(Contemporary)

Application of
Husserl’s Thoughts toFilipino Labor

Appropriation

Philosophy ofthe Human
Person,Contemporary

Western

Perspective on
Supremacy of Law
over Conscience

Reconstruction

Ethics,Contemporary

Western

378

Appropriation

Western

Western

Western

RESEARCH TITLERESEARCHERYEARLANGUAGE

NATURE OF
CONCEPTRESEARCHOUTPUTRESEARCH
APPROACH

The Integral
Experiences of the
PhenomenologicalThought of Love in the
Husserlian and
Heideggerian Context
An Attempt to an
Existential Meaning of
AURORADe Castro, P.

2003

EnglishPersonal (Love)

Perspective on Love

Phenomenology

Guzman, G.

2003

EnglishCultural (Aurora)

Interpretation on
Existential Meaning of
AuroraPhenomenology

An Assessment on
Student's
Demonstrations basedon Paolo Freire's
Concept of Education
The Concept of JeanPaul Sartre of Action as
Basis for Social JusticeCabase Jr., E.

2003

EnglishCultural(Students’
Demonstrations)

Paolo Freire(Contemporary)

Application of Freire’s
ideas on Students’
Demonstrations

Appropriation

Cereno, D.

2004

EnglishSocial (Action)

Jean-Paul Sartre(Modern)

Perspective on Action

Reconstruction

A Perspective on Art
based on Friedrich
Wilhelm Joseph Von
Schelling's Aesthetics
Jose Ma. Sison's
Political Economic
Development as
Culmination of KarlMarx's Social Reform
TheoryNatural Agreement:
The New Concept ofCivil Law as the Basisof Human Relation
Human Consciousness
as Man's Cause ofHappiness andSuffering
A Concept of Ahimsa
based on EDSA I and
ESDA II

Palajos Jr., P.

2004

EnglishAesthetic (Art)

Perspective on Art

Reconstruction

2004

EnglishSocial (Political
Economic
Development)

Friedrich Wilhelm
Joseph vonSchelling(Modern)
Jose Ma. Sison
Karl Marx(Contemporary)

Barcellano, H.

Perspective on Social
ReformCabria, A.

2004

EnglishSocial (Civil
Law)

Abogado, C.

2004

EnglishVargas, R.A.

2004

EnglishPHILOSOPHERS
Edmund Husserl
Martin Heidegger(Contemporary)

AREA OFPHILOSOPHY,RELEVANCE
Phenomenology,
Contemporary

Existentialism
Philosophy ofFilipino Culture
and Values,
Contemporary
Philosophy of
Education,
Contemporary

FRAME
Western

Filipino

Western

Social andPolitical
Philosophy,
ModernPhilosophy ofArt, Modern

Western

Reconstruction

Marxism,Contemporary

Western

Perspective on Civil
Law

Reconstruction

Western

Personal (Human
Consciousness)

Interpretation on the
Cause of Happinessand Suffering

Reconstruction

Social andPolitical
Philosophy,
Contemporary
Ethics,Contemporary

Social (Ahimsa)

Application of Ahimsa
to EDSA I and IIAppropriation

IndianPhilosophy
Philosophy of

Asian

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research379

Western

Western

RESEARCH TITLERESEARCHERYEARLANGUAGE

NATURE OF
CONCEPT

Nietzschean Concept of
Political Power as Usedin the Filipino Politics
by the Politician

Lachica, M.

2004

EnglishSocial (Power)

The Possibility ofReconciliation of theEastern and Western
Catholicism in theLight of Gabriel
Marcel's Philosophy ofCommunion
The Fulfillment of the
Prince of Niccolo
Machiavelli through the
Idea of Ubermensch ofFriedrich Wilhelm
Nietzsche
Basic Rational Criteria
for a Political
Conception of Justicebased on Marxist
Tradition
Horizontverschmelzung
as a Political Conflict
Resolution

Boholano, V.

2004

EnglishDuroy Jr., D.

2004

Sarmiento, E.R.

AREA OFPHILOSOPHY,RELEVANCE
Filipino Culture
and Values,
Contemporary
Social andPolitical
Philosophy
Philosophy ofFilipino Culture
and Values,
Contemporary
Philosophy of
Religion,Contemporary

RESEARCHOUTPUTRESEARCH
APPROACH

Friedrich Nietzsche(Contemporary)

Application ofNietzsche’s Political
Power to Filipino
Politics

Appropriation

Social(Communion)

Gabriel Marcel(Contemporary)

Perspective on
Catholicism

Synthesis

EnglishSocial(Leadership:
Prince andUbernesch)Niccolo
Machiavelli
Friedrich Wilhelm
Nietzsche(Contemporary)

Interpretation of
Political Leadership

Reconstruction

Social andPolitical
Philosophy,
Contemporary

Western

2004

EnglishSocial (Justice)Karl Marx(Contemporary)

Perspective on Basic
Rational Criteria

Reconstruction

Western

Tayam, R.G.

2004

EnglishSocial (Fusion of
Horizons)

Hans-Georg
Gadamer(Contemporary)

Interpretation of
Horizontverschmelzung

Reconstruction

Defining History basedon the Idea of Force

Alegre, A.

2005

EnglishSocial (History,
Force)

Interpretation ofHistory

Synthesis

Paul Ricoeur’s Political
Philosophy: An
Attempt to Legitimize
Death Penalty
St. Thomas Aquinas'

Yuson, M.A.

2005

EnglishSocial (Death
Penalty)Paul Ricouer(Contemporary)Appropriation

Candolea, B.

2005

EnglishSocialThomas Aquinas

Application of
Ricouer’s Thoughts to
Death Penalty
Legitimacy
Application ofSocial andPolitical
Philosophy
Marxism,Contemporary
Hermeneutics
Social andPolitical
Philosophy,
Contemporary
Philosophy ofHistory,
Contemporary
Social andPolitical
Philosophy,
Contemporary
Social and

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research

PHILOSOPHERS380

Appropriation

FRAME

Western

Western

Western

Western

Western

Western

RESEARCH TITLE
Political Philosophy inan Attempt toReorganize theOrganization of
Fraternities in Aquinas
University of Legazpi
Uniting the Three
Branches of thePhilippine Government
through Han Fei Zi's
Philosophy on
Legalism
John Rawls’ Political
Liberalism: A Possible
Solution to
Huntington's Clash of
Civilizations
A Reconstruction of theMetaphysical Dualistic
Idea of Rene Descartes
in the Contemporary
PeriodHumanist Principles as
Guidelines for a
Commensurable
Doctrine on Religion
A Moral Standard fromKant's and Mill's
Ethical Theories
Frameworks of Hegel
and Gadamer towards a
View on Metaethics
Reevaluating the
Bikolano Idea of
Oragon throughNietzschean
Ubermensch
Phenomenology ofLove as Hobbes'
Ethical Egoism

RESEARCHER

YEAR

NATURE OF
CONCEPTLANGUAGE

PHILOSOPHERSRESEARCHOUTPUT(Organization of
Fraternities)(Medieval)

Aquinas’ Idea to
Fraternities
organization

RESEARCH
APPROACH

AREA OFPHILOSOPHY,RELEVANCE
Political
Philosophy,
Medieval

FRAME

Grivialde, R.

2005

EnglishSocial(Legalism)

Han Fei Zi(Ancient)

Application of Han Fei
Zi’s Legalism to thethree branches ofgovernment

Appropriation

ChinesePhilosophy,
Ancient Eastern

Eastern

Bombon, A.D.

2005

EnglishSocial (Justice)John Rawls
Samuel Huntington(Contemporary)

Application of Rawls’
Ideas to Huntington’s
clash of civilizations

Appropriation

Social andPolitical
Philosophy,
Contemporary

Western

Florin, A.

2008

EnglishEpistemological(Metaphysical
Dualism)

Rene Descartes(Modern)

Interpretation of
Cartesian Metaphysical
DualismReconstruction

CartesianPhilosophy,
ModernWesternFujimoto, G.

2008

EnglishSocial (Religion)

Framework on
Humanist Principles

Synthesis

Philosophy of
Religion,Contemporary

Western

Cabredo, A.

2008

EnglishEthical(Metaethics)

Moral Framework

Synthesis

Ethics,Contemporary

Western

Relente, L.A.

2008

EnglishEthical(Metaethics)

Moral Framework

Synthesis

Ethics,Contemporary

Western

Belbes, Y.

2008

EnglishCultural (Oragon
and Ubermensch)

Immanuel Kant
John Stuart Mill(Contemporary)
GWF HegelHans-Georg
Gadamer(Contemporary)Friedrich Nietzsche(Contemporary)

Interpretation on A Reevaluation of Orag

Reconstruction

Indigenous
Philosophies,
Contemporary

Western

Cervantes, A.

2009

EnglishEthical (Love)

Thomas Hobbes(Modern)

Interpretation of Love

Reconstruction

Philosophy ofthe Human
Person, Modern

Western

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381

NATURE OF
CONCEPT

PHILOSOPHERS

EnglishEpistemological(Knowledge andTruth)

Immanuel Kant
William James(Contemporary)2009

Filipino

Huelva III, J.

2009

Husain, T.A.

RESEARCH TITLERESEARCHERYEARLANGUAGE

An Alternative
Epistemology based on
Reconstruction ofKant's Theory ofKnowledge using
James' Theory of Truth
Utang na Loob bilang
Pantayong Pananaw sa
Katunayang Sosyal

Siapno, C.

2009

Robrigado, J.F.

Tendency and SelfReference ofPhilosophical Theories(An Introduction to a
Future Systematic
Bikolano Philosophy)
Identity as Equilibrium
of Freedom and Law
Based on Aquinas' andKant's Notion of Law
and Sartre's andMarcel's Notion of
Freedom
Strategic Mechanisms
as Bases for
Restructuring Social
Justice from Rawls’
Political Conception of
Justice and Walzer's
Complex Equality
Semana Santa as
Dialectical
Hermeneutics

Thomism and Richard
Rorty's Philosophy
towards NeoPragmatism
Society in the Light ofFreedom and Will:RESEARCHOUTPUTRESEARCH
APPROACH

AREA OFPHILOSOPHY,RELEVANCE
Epistemology,
Contemporary

FRAME

Epistemological
Framework

Synthesis

Cultural (Utang
na Loob)

Perspective on Utang
na Loob

Reconstruction

EnglishCultural(Bikolano
Philosophy)

Framework for a futuresystematic Bikolano
philosophy

Synthesis

2009

EnglishPersonal(Identity)

Thomas Aquinas
Immanuel Kant
(Modern)

Framework on Identity

Synthesis

Ethics,Contemporary

Western

Fernandez, J.L.

2009

EnglishSocial (Justice)John Rawls
Michael Walzer(Contemporary)

Framework on
Strategic Mechanisms

Synthesis

Social andPolitical
Philosophy,
Contemporary

Western

Adornado, J.E.

2009

EnglishCultural (Semana
Santa)

Hans-Georg
Gadamer(Contemporary)

Interpretation of
Semana Santa

Reconstruction

Western

Magalona, J.

2010

EnglishSocial (NeoPragmatism)

Richard Rorty
Thomas Aquinas(Contemporary)

Perspective on NeoPragmatism

Synthesis

Hermeneutics
Philosophy ofFilipino Culture
and Values,
Contemporary
Pragmatism,Contemporary

Arcilla, Jr., R.

2010

EnglishSocial (SelfDiscipline)

Interpretation of
Human Society

Reconstruction

Social andPolitical

Western

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research

382

Philosophy ofFilipino Culture
and Values,
Contemporary
Philosophy ofFilipino Culture
and Values,
Contemporary

Western

Filipino

Western

Western

RESEARCH TITLE
Implications on theRole of Self-Discipline
towards Emancipation
A View on NeoMarxism Based on the
Political Thoughts ofHabermas and Nozick
Rawls’ Political
Liberalism andNozick’s Anarchy,
State, and Utopia
Isang Pananaw: Ang
Konsepto ng Libog
bilang Estetika sa
Katunayang Sosyal
Impossibility ofInterreligious Dialogue
The Possibility of the
Impossibility of
Reaching Social
Consensus
Kahulugan ng Tao
Patungo sa mga Hayop
sa Tomistikong
Pananaw
A Synthesis on thePhilippine Tertiary
Education Practicebased on Whitehead’s‘Aims of Education’
A Phenomenology of
Smoking
Plato’s andMachiavelli’s Conceptsof Justice towards an
Ideal Social: Netopia
The Analects ofConfucius and thePrince of Niccolo
Machiavelli towards a

YEAR

LANGUAGE

NATURE OF
CONCEPT

Fuentes, R.R.

2010

EnglishSocial (Justice)

Jurgen Habermas
Robert Nozick(Contemporary)

Framework on NeoMarxism

Synthesis

Marxism,Contemporary

Western

Barrameda, J.

2011

EnglishSocial (Justice)John Rawls
Robert Nozick(Contemporary)

Framework on Justicebased on Rawls’ andNozick’s JusticeSynthesis

Western

Vargas, J.E.

2011

Filipino

Cultural (Libog)

Interpretation of Libog
as aesthetics

Reconstruction

Lumberio, P.M.

2011

EnglishReligious(Dialogue)

Interpretation ofInterreligious Dialogue

Reconstruction

Banares, P.C.

2012

EnglishSocial (Social
Consensus)

Interpretation of Social
Consensus

Reconstruction

Magdaong

2013

Filipino

Personal(Identity)

Thomas Aquinas(Medieval)Interpretation of
Human Value relative
to animals

Reconstruction

Social andPolitical
Philosophy,
Contemporary
Philosophy ofFilipino Culture
and Values,
Contemporary
Philosophy of
Religion,Contemporary
Social andPolitical
Philosophy,
Contemporary
Thomism,Contemporary

Fresnido, R.

2013

EnglishSocial (Practice)

Alfred North
Whitehead(Contemporary)

Application ofWhitehead’s ideas to
PH tertiary education

Appropriation

Philosophy of
Education,
Contemporary

Western

Bertillo, G.

2013

EnglishEnglishBarja, M.

2013

EnglishFramework on
Leadership

Synthesis

Phenomenology,
Contemporary
Social andPolitical
Philosophy,
Ancient/Modern
Social andPolitical
Philosophy,
Ancient/Modern

Western2013

Perspective on
Smoking
Framework on Ideal
Society

Phenomenology

Bamba, A.

Personal(Smoking)
Social (Justice)Social (Political
Leadership)

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research

PHILOSOPHERS

Plato
Niccolo
Machiavelli(Modern)
Confucius
Niccolo
Machiavelli(Modern)

RESEARCHOUTPUT

383

RESEARCH
APPROACH

AREA OFPHILOSOPHY,RELEVANCE
Philosophy,
Contemporary

RESEARCHER

Synthesis

FRAME

Filipino

Western

Western

Western

Western

Eastern/Western

PHILOSOPHERS

EnglishSocial(Hyperreality)

Jean Baudrillard(Contemporary)

Perspective on
Hyperreality

Reconstruction

Postmodernism,Contemporary

Western

2013

EnglishSocial (Money)

Karl Marx(Contemporary)

Framework on Money

Reconstruction

Marxism,Contemporary

Western

Babasoro, A.

2014

EnglishPersonal (Man)Ayn RandJohn Rawls(Contemporary)

Interpretation of Ayn
Rand’s Man thru
Rawls’ ideas

Reconstruction

Philosophy ofthe Human
Person,Contemporary

Western

Arispe, J.

2015

EnglishSocial (Family)

Jacques Derrida(Contemporary)

Interpretation of Family

Deconstruction

Western

Sabao, D.C.

2015

EnglishEthical(Seduction)

Jean Baudrillard(Contemporary)

Ethical Framework on
Seduction

Synthesis

Philosophy ofFilipino Culture
and Values,
Contemporary
Postmodernism,Contemporary

Beringuela, R.

2015

EnglishSocial (Jen)

Confucius(Ancient)

Application of Jen to
Philippine Politics

Appropriation

Asian

Approaching Global
Poverty through Rawls’
Principles of Justice

Badillo, L.

2016

EnglishSocial (Global
Poverty)

John Rawls(Contemporary)

Application of Rawls’
Justice to Global
Poverty

Appropriation

The Pornography ofViolence
The Deconstruction of
the Phallus

Peralta, J.V.

2016

EnglishSocial (Violence)

2016

EnglishSocial (Phallus)

Framework on
Violence
Framework on
Feminism

Synthesis

Rellon, A.P.

Albert Camus(Contemporary)
Jacques Derrida(Contemporary)

Llacer, J.

2017

EnglishSocialMartin Heidegger

Interpretation ofReconstruction

ChinesePhilosophy
Philosophy ofFilipino Culture
and Values,
Contemporary
Social andPolitical
Philosophy,
Contemporary
Ethics,Contemporary
Social andPolitical
Philosophy,
Contemporary
Philosophy ofModel of Political
Leadership
Hyper-Reality inReality Shows towards
Pragmatism of
Simulation
A Critique of Money
Based on Karl Marx’s‘Capital, Volume 1’
The Rationalistic
Egoistic Man of Ayn
Rand in the Political
Liberalism of John
Rawls
Deconstructing theFilipino Conception of
FamilyA Postmodernist
Reading of Seduction
Using Jean
Baudrillard’s Simulacra
towards a Conceptionof (New) Ethics
Appropriating the
Confucian Jen toContemporary
Philippine PoliticalContext

The Salvific Power of

RESEARCHERYEARLANGUAGE

Munoz, R.

2013

Barcebal, G.I.

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research

RESEARCHOUTPUT

384

RESEARCH
APPROACH

AREA OFPHILOSOPHY,RELEVANCENATURE OF
CONCEPTRESEARCH TITLE

Synthesis

FRAME

Western

Western

Western
Western

Western

RESEARCH TITLE
Technology based on
Heidegger’s ‘A
Question Concerning
Technology’ and‘Memorial Address’
A Post-Human
Perspective based on
Technocentrism
A Critique ofNormative Ethics
Towards a Metaethic ofSupererogation

RESEARCHER

YEAR

NATURE OF
CONCEPT

PHILOSOPHERS(Technology)(Contemporary)LANGUAGERESEARCHOUTPUTRESEARCH
APPROACH

Technology

dela Cruz, W.

2017

EnglishSocial(Technocentrism)

Framework on
Posthumanism

Synthesis

Clerigo, J.

2017

EnglishEthical(Supererogation)

Framework on
Supererogation

Synthesis

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research

385

AREA OFPHILOSOPHY,RELEVANCE
Science andTechnology,
Contemporary

Philosophy of
Human Person,
Contemporary
Ethics,Contemporary

FRAME

Western

WesternTeaching Chinese as a Foreign Language:
A Cross-Cultural Study of Animal Signs in Chinese and Thai
Tanutchaporn Namwat
Faculty of Education, Ramkhamhaeng University, Thailand 10310(zhengtianman@hotmail.com)

ABSTRACT
Numerous animal-related words exist in both Chinese and Thai. Numerous animals have fixed visualcharacteristics that have been assigned human-related meanings. The semantic distinctions between “鼠Shǔ(h̄nū) Rat”; “牛niú (wạw) Ox”; “虎hǔ (s̄ eụ̄x) Tiger”; “兔tù (krat̀āy) Rabbit”; “龙lóng (mạngkr) Dragon”;“蛇shé (ngū) Snake”; “马mǎ (m̂ā) Horse”; “羊yáng (kæa) Sheep”; “猴hóu (ling) Monkey”; “鸡jī (kị̀)
Chicken”; “狗gǒu (s̄ unạk̄h) Dog”; “猪zhū (h̄mū) Pig” were determined by comparing the picture qualities
of Chinese zodiac animals using idioms in Chinese and Thai. Based on the findings of previous research,
this study employs a comparison of Chinese zodiac idioms to demonstrate that the two countries are
physically and culturally similar. Consequently, both the content and language of the idioms are extremely
similar. Moreover, because the two countries have distinct national and cultural characteristics, the idioms
contain a variety of phrases. The researcher believes comparing the Chinese and Thai zodiacs will aid inunderstanding the cultural structures of both nations. However, cultural differences between Chinese andThai provide these twelve animals with diverse cultural connotations, which may make teaching the twelve
zodiac animals more difficult. As a result, when teaching Chinese Zodiac culture, teachers should
continuously enhance their teaching strategies and develop relevant and effective lesson plans. It is hopedthat by the end of this study, people will have a better idea of how this study affects culture.
KEYWORDS: Zodiac; Cross-Cultural; Teaching Chinese as a Foreign Language

SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research386

INTRODUCTION
When people describe the natural characteristics of animals, they usually imbue them with uniqueconnotations, so that certain animals acquire fixed characteristics of the image and become the image
symbols of specific individuals. There are numerous animal-related idioms in both Chinese and Thai.
However, due to the difference in historical and cultural background, geographical environments, and living
patterns between China and Thailand, different cultures' perceptions of these animals vary. They have asignificant link with others. Li, Z. (2008)A nation's language symbolizes its culture and spiritualenvironment. As a fundamental component of language, colloquialism reflects not only a culture and wayof life but also its emotions and cognitive processes. We can also learn about a country's culture, traditions,and way of life through its idioms. Wen-Hong, W. U.(2005). Understanding the differences between
cultures is crucial for effective linguistic communication. Culture plays a significant role in shaping how
people communicate, interpret messages, and respond to various forms of expression. Analyzing the
Chinese and Thai idioms that make up a significant portion of the important zodiac animal idioms, thisresearch aims to clarify how the cultures of China and Thailand are both similar and different. Additionally,
the paper could analyze how the Chinese zodiac animal system and associated idioms are used to teach
Chinese language learners.
LITERATURE REVIEWThe study of the symbolic significance of animals in Chinese language pedagogy primarily entails acomparative analysis between the Chinese language and foreign languages. The comparative analysis of
the meanings associated with the twelve zodiac animals in the Chinese language in relation to otherlanguages represents a pivotal and distinctive facet that teachers must underscore and meticulously
incorporate into their instructional design. This emphasis typically garners more attention within theframework of Chinese cultural studies, encompassing an analysis and comparison of the nuanced variations
inherent in the symbolism of the twelve zodiac animals within Chinese culture and the cultural contexts ofother languages. This approach particularly accentuates the introduction of the symbolic meanings of thetwelve zodiac animals to international students.
Several researchers have undertaken studies on the significance of symbolic animals in both Chinese andThai languages, as follows:Ma (2011) and Liu (2014) explored the origins of the twelve zodiac animals andcompared the cultural meanings and implicit meanings of idioms in Chinese and Thai. Li (2014) Zhu(2015)delved into the structural content and symbolic meanings of idioms in Chinese and Thai, discussed
the relationship between the twelve zodiac animals and Chinese language education, analyzing theadvantages and disadvantages of teaching design between Chinese and Thai educators. Xu (2021)
elucidated the cultural differences of the twelve zodiac animals in the Chinese-Thai context and analyzed
the cultural misinterpretations of the zodiac animals, along with classroom activity design.
From the aforementioned documents and related research works, numerous researchers have conductedcomparative studies and explored idioms and images that reflect cultural meanings. The insights derived
from these studies are employed as guidance for further exploration and as a basis for designing culturallyaligned teaching activities in the future.
RESEARCH INSTRUMENT
The process of data selection concerning animal-related idiomatic expressions in Chinese and Thai
languages was delimited as follows:
Content Delimitation (Scope of Content):
The idiomatic expressions involving animals in Chinese and Thai languages were examined through theanalysis of two specific reference materials:
SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research387

1. "现代汉语词典" (Modern Chinese Dictionary): This modern Chinese language dictionary, which
has undergone multiple official revisions since its first publication in 1978, was consulted toinvestigate idiomatic expressions associated with all twelve types of animals, as specified.
2. "พจนุกรมฉบับราชบัณฑิตยสถาน ฉบับ พ.ศ.2554" (Royal Institute Dictionary, 2011): This specific edition of theRoyal Institute Dictionary was consulted to examine idiomatic expressions involving animals,
encompassing all twelve types, along with their respective lexical and contextual meanings.
The Chinese corpus utilized in this study is drawn mostly from the “Chinese Dictionary”, while the Thai
corpus is drawn primarily from the “Royal Thai Dictionary” and “Thai Sayings”. Specifics are as
follows:“鼠Shǔ (h̄nū) Rat”; “ 牛niú (wạw) Ox”; “虎hǔ (s̄ eụ̄x) Tiger”; “兔tù (krat̀āy) Rabbit”; “龙lóng(mạngkr) Dragon”; “蛇shé (ngū) Snake”; “马mǎ (m̂ā) Horse”; “羊yáng (kæa) Sheep”; “猴hóu (ling)
Monkey”; “鸡jī (kị̀) Chicken”; “狗gǒu (s̄ unạk̄h) Dog”; “猪zhū (h̄mū) Pig”.
Table 1: Chinese and Thai zodiac animal idioms
鼠
rat

牛
ox

虎
tiger

兔
rabbit龙
dragon

蛇
snake

马
horse

羊
sheep

猴
monkey鸡chicken

狗
dog

猪
pig

Total

141

196

389

68

391

105

535

106

22

184

175

14

2326

6.06%

8.43%

16.72%

2.92%

16.81%

4.51%

23.00%

4.56%

0.95%

7.91%

7.52%

0.60%

100%

7

28

36

12

1

23

8

5

10

29

37

23

219

3.20%

12.79%

16.44%

5.48%

0.46%

10.50%

3.65%

2.28%

4.57%

13.24%

16.89%

10.50%

100%

ChineseThai

Source: “Chinese Dictionary” and “Royal Thai Dictionary”
Based on the analysis of 2326 Chinese zodiac animal idioms and 219 Thai zodiac animal idioms, it is clear that Chinese and Thai
have a significant number of different idioms and have many similarities. However, it includes a number of idioms that are
impacted by geography and culture.

A comparison of the cultural connotations of the Chinese and Thai zodiac signs
1. “鼠Shǔ (h̄nū) Rat”: Since the rat is the first sign of the Chinese zodiac, it is termed “子鼠(Zi shǔ)”.It isa negative and pejorative emblem of cowardice, avarice, cunning, and wretchedness. In China, "rat" hasbeen a symbol of humility, inferiority, cunning, and deceit since antiquity. “贼眉鼠眼(Zéiméishǔyǎn)”refers to short-sightedness and lack of foresight in Chinese. “鼠目寸光(Shǔmùcùnguāng)” have been used
to describe miserable and intolerable people. The little people are referred to as“鼠辈(Shǔbèi)”; items thatare stolen from unknown sources are referred to as“老鼠货(Lǎoshǔ huò)”; the small talents used to carve
insects are referred to as“鼠技(Shǔ jì)”; and corrupt officials are referred to as“硕鼠(Shuò shǔ)”;and traitors
are referred to as “社鼠(Shè shǔ)”, etc.
In Thailand, “Rats(h̄nū)” have a negative reputation. People who surreptitiously injure others are referred
to as “Rats(h̄nū)” in Thai, and their crafty character is compared to that of a mouse, which is a metaphor
for“家贼(Jiāzéi)”. Notably, the rat is also revered in Thailand as the god of wealth, the messenger of theGreat Black Sky, who is responsible for the protection of the family and the prosperity of the harvest.
Therefore, in certain regions, the rat rice cake is reserved for the first month, and the manner in which the
rat consumes the rice cake is used to determine whether or not one will have good fortune. According toThai legend, the mouse is the hero who aided the great power.
2. “ 牛niú (wạw) Ox”: “Ox” is the second sign of the Chinese zodiac and is described as“丑牛(Chǒu niú
In China, the "cow" symbolizes the gods. In ancient Chinese traditions, Shennong《神农》 andChiyou《战神》, the god of war, are both cow-headed and human.
。《列异传》:“老子西游，关令尹喜望见其有紫气浮关，而老子果乘青牛而过（When Laozi went
SEAAIR 2023: Empowering Education Through Research388

west, Yin Xiwang observed a purple air floating pass, and Laoziguo encountered a green bull）”. It is clearthat “ox” is associated with “spirit” or “immortal.” “Cow” signifies large and numerous, as in“牛劲(niújìn),” “牛饮(niúyǐn),” “牛喉(niú hóu),” “牛毛(niúmáo),” “牛刀小试(niúdāoxiǎoshì),”“牛鼎烹鸡(niú dǐng pēng jī),” etc. In idioms such as “牛马(niúmǎ)” and “做牛做马(zuò niú zuò mǎ),”“cow” also refers to poverty and humility. Moreover, the ox symbolizes humility and diligence.
“老黄牛(Lǎo huángniú)” is a metaphor for a person who is industrious, regardless of compensation, andworks tirelessly without grumbling. Due to their stubbornness, bulls are often referred to as bulls. For
instance, the seventeenth chapter of “《红楼梦》A Dream of Red Mansions” states,“众人见宝玉牛心),都怕他讨了没趣(Everyone sees Baoyu's ox heart, and they fear he will be dull).” In
China, the “cow” was renowned for its tenacity and strength. People often use the phrase “老黄牛(Lǎohuángniú)” to refer to qualities like persistence and hard work.
But in Thailand, “ox (wạw )” is a symbol of sloth, chatter, and procrastination. This may have something
to do with the fact that cows rarely work in the fields; eat and sleep; sleep and eat; and have perpetuallydrooling mouth corners. “(วั ว หายล้ อ มคอก)” signifies that something has occurred and is then considered. It
should be emphasized that although "cow" has a bad connotation in Thailand, there are still several beliefs
and practices associated with cattle in Thailand such as “รั ก วั ว ให้ ผู ก รั ก ลู ก ให้ ตี ”(If you love a child, you shouldwear a tie.); “วัว แก่ กิ น หญ้า อ่ อ น”(an aged ox feeds on grass); “อยู่ บ้า นท่ า นอย่ า นิ่ ง ดู ด าย ปั้ นวัว ปั้ นควายให้ ลู ก ท่ า นเล่ น ”(Stay athome and make noise. For your youngster, make an ox and a buffalo).
3. “虎hǔ (s̄ eụ̄x) Tiger”: “Tiger” ranks third in the Chinese zodiac, so it is called “寅虎(Yín hǔ).” In theminds of the two peoples, the tiger is a symbol of mighty power, ferocity, daring, and danger. In Chinese,“虎贲(Hǔbēn)” refers to brave warriors, “虎臣(Hǔ chén)” refers to brave ministers, and “虎将(Hǔjiàng)”refers to fierce generals. “虎头虎脑(Hǔtóuhǔnǎo)”, “虎背熊腰(Hǔbèixióngyāo)”, and “虎虎有生气(Hǔhǔ yǒu shēngqì)” describe a person who is strong and energetic; “虎视眈眈(Hǔshìdāndān)” describes
someone coveting something; and other words “龙潭虎穴(óngtánhǔxué)”“老虎屁股摸不得(lǎohǔ pìgumō bùdé)”“前门拒虎，后门进狼(qiánmén jù hǔ, hòumén jìn láng)”mean that the tiger is ferocious andterrifying. In Chinese, "tigress“母老虎”" is also used to describe a fierce wife, and "autumn tiger“秋老虎”"
is used to refer to the sweltering heat after the beginning of autumn.
Tiger-related Thai idioms and idiomatic expressions For instance, "the tiger knows"“เสื อรู ้” alludes to a cleveror intelligent individual. Also, in Thai, "the old tiger“เสื อเก่ า ” " is used to describe someone with a lot ofexperience and "tiger sleeps and eats “เสื อนอนกิน”" is used to describe someone who gets things for free.
4. “兔tù (krat̀āy) Rabbit”: “Rabbit” is the fourth sign of the Chinese zodiac and is known as the“卯兔(Mǎo tù)” .Rabbits are emblems of intelligence, agility, and cuteness, and the people of the twocountries have a great deal of affection for them. Ancient Chinese poetry contains the phrase“静如处子，动若脱兔(Jìng rú chǔzǐ, dòng ruò tuōtù).” There are, of course, pejorative phrases in Chinese,such as “狡兔三窟(Jiǎotùsānkū)” which implies that the rabbit is "cunning."
When it comes to rabbits, the people of the two countries frequently think of the moon and Chang'e, but theThais also believe that the moon's shadows are jade rabbits preparing rice cakes. The Thai word for “หู(ear)”refers to those who are sharp-eared, inquisitive, and obnoxious in their pursuit of information and intellect.
In addition, in Thai, rabbit signifies cowardly, yet in Chinese, “胆小如鼠(Dǎn xiǎo rú shǔ)” is used todescribe a cowardly individual.
5. “龙lóng (mạngkr) Dragon”: “Dragon” is the fifth sign of the Chinese zodiac and is known as
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“辰龙Chenlong.” As an illusionary creature, the dragon can ascend to the heavens, enter the ocean, andsummon wind and precipitation. In China, the dragon is highly esteemed and holds a prominent position.
In ancient times, it signified the emperor and represented nobles, such as “龙颜(Lóng yán)”“龙袍(lóngpáo)”“龙子(lóng zi)”“龙孙(lóng sūn)”.In addition, “龙凤呈祥(lóngfèng chéng xiáng)” represents good
fortune; “龙争虎斗(lóngzhēnghǔdòu)”, “龙腾虎跃(lóngténghǔyuè)”, and “生龙活虎(shēnglónghuóhǔ)”indicate a warm and spirited environment.
Some Thai scholars consider the dragon to be one of the greatest works of art, sacred animals, and spiritualentities produced by the Chinese. Even though there are dragons in India and the West, the Chinese sacreddragon is the most beautiful and detailed.”
In Thailand, “Dragon(mạngkr)” is blended with so many folk beliefs and venerated as the god of sea, water,
and wind, among other things. The symbol of the Thai dragon is essentially unchanged from Chinese myths,
legends, Buddhist religious texts, etc.
6. “蛇shé (ngū) Snake”: “Snake” is the sixth sign of the Chinese zodiac and is named “巳蛇(Sì shé).”
Both cultures believe that snakes are nasty, hateful, and obstinate. Chinese words using the word “snake”
nearly always convey that snakes are repulsive, such as “蛇蝎心肠(Shéxiē xīncháng)”,“杯弓蛇影(Bēigōngshéyǐng),” “美女蛇(Měinǚ shé)” “蛇鼠一 窝(Shé shǔ yī wō)”“强龙斗不过地头蛇(Qiáng lóng dòu bùguò dìtóushé)” etc.
There are also other Thai words that imply that snakes are frightening, wicked, and stubborn, such as “ชาวนากั บ งู เ ห่ า（农夫和眼镜蛇）”, which is used to characterize people who are stubborn and quick to retain
grudges.
On the one hand, “snake” is unpleasant and frightening, while on the other hand, it is respected. The Chineseconsider snakes to be “小龙(Xiǎolóng)” and believe that they are connected to dragons. Additionally, they
believe that large snakes can turn into dragons and ascend to heaven. In addition, Thailand venerates snakes
as water deities and gods. There are folktales in China about people marrying snakes, such as The Legendof the White Snake, and legends in Thailand such as “งู เลื้ อยเข้า บ้า น（蛇入家）” (snake entering the house).”The snake is a sign of wealth and the patron saint of the family in Thailand. Thais continue to carrysnakeskin in their wallets as a means of amassing wealth. In China, the serpent continues to represent greed.
For instance, the expression “人心不足蛇吞象the human heart is too little and the snake eats the elephant”
is used to illustrate someone's avarice.
7. “马mǎ (m̂ā) Horse”: "Horse" is the seventh sign of the Chinese zodiac, which is known as the“午马(noon horse)”. It represents versatility, strength, speed, and agility. There is a “快马加鞭(quick horseto whip)” in Chinese, and a “ม้าเร็ ว（快马）”in Thai (fast horse). Additionally, “horse” refers to individuals
in both nations. In Chinese, for example, there are “千里马(Qianli Ma),” “驽马(Zhu Ma),” and“驸马(Consort Ma),” among others. “ม้ า ใช้ （马奴）” signifies servants and the like in Thai. The Chinese
word for a human face is “马脸horse face,” and the Thai word for face is "“หน้า（面）” (face).
The difference is that "horse" also represents ladies in China. Several poems in the book of songs《诗经》
refer to "horses," which typically refer to or are associated with ladies. In the Tang dynasty's
Yougan《有感》, which was written by Bai Juyi: The horse in "Don't raise a skinny pony, don't teach aprostitute" refers to a prostitute. Such as “犬马(dog and horse),” “马前卒(pawn),” and “犬马之龄(dog andhorse age),” etc., these terms refer to human enslavement. In Thai, “horse” refers to the mount of the gods,
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which is revered and admired by the populace. When ancient aristocrats worshipped the gods or fulfilled
their vows, they frequently presented live horses, or trojans, to temples and shrines. Later, they
progressively evolved into horse paintings.
8. “羊yáng (kæa) Sheep”: “Sheep” is one of the six ancient Chinese animals. The eighth sign of theChinese zodiac is named “未羊(Wèi yáng).” The archaic term “sheep” means “祥(Xiáng).” It represents
subservience, meekness, purity, attractiveness, and good fortune. Sheep are frequently the victims of
vicious animals, so the word has also evolved to represent frailty and compassion. In Chinese, the phrases“一虎十羊、势无全羊(one tiger and ten sheep, no whole sheep)” and “羊落虎口(the sheep fall into thetiger's jaws)” are used to depict the vulnerability of sheep, but the phrase “三羊开泰(Three sheep bringhappiness)” is used to describe good fortune.
In spite of the fact that Thais rarely consume mutton and do not consider sheep to be livestock, “sheep
grazing” is a symbol of honesty, frailty, and compassion in Thai culture. The term “แพะรั บ บาป（替罪羊）”in Thai refers to the slaughtering of sheep to atone for human transgressions. Later, it becomes a metaphor
for an individual who has been accepted by others.
9. “猴hóu (ling) Monkey”: “Monkey” ranks ninth in the Chinese zodiac and is referred to as “申猴(Shenmonkey).” People in both nations believe that monkeys are agile, intelligent, and good imitators. Since“猴(monkey)” in Chinese is synonymous with “侯(marquis)” in feudal society, monkeys are considered
fortunate. However, the Chinese idioms associated with “猴(monkey)” sometimes have pejorative
connotations, such as “猴急(monkey is in a rush),” “朝三暮四(day and night),” “心猿意马(thinking of ahorse),” “沐猴而冠(bathe in monkeys and crows),” “山中无老虎,猴子称大王(there is no tiger in themountains, and monkeys are named King),” etc.
Thais consider “the monkey” to be a cunning and imitative animal. Similar to Chinese, typical Thai idioms
are almost disparaging, with the exception of “ฉลาดเป็ นลิง（聪明像猴子）(clever as a monkey)”, Moreover,they are nearly pejorative，such as “ลิ ง ห ล อ ก เ จ้ า ( monkey deceives the leader)” means that an adult is
unknowingly swindled by a liar. “ลิ ง ได้ แ ก้ ว ( monkey gets a cup)”means that he does not know a thing is ofhigh value to himself and finally ignorantly abandons it. “ลิ ง ล้ า ง ก้ น ( monkey washes buttocks) means
something done casually, but not neatly" etc.In addition, "monkey" can be used as an expletive to express
swift action and work, as in “มือไวเป็ นลิง（手快像猴子） (hands as fast as monkeys)".
10. “鸡jī (kị̀) Chicken”: “Chicken” refers to the tenth animal in the Chinese zodiac, the chicken. As thebird of the morning, the chicken dispels darkness, subdues evil, and repays goodness. These and otherthemes are popular in both countries, as is the historic tradition of “斗鸡(cock fighting).”
According to Chinese philosophy, “chicken” possesses “五德(five virtues).” “《韩诗外传》(Han Shi Wai
Zhuan)” wrote: “She is literary who wears the crown on her husband's head.Those who battle with theirfeet are considered martial. Whoever dares to battle against the enemy is courageous. If you are nourished,
you will be charitable. If you do not lose track of time at night, you will be loyal. ”Due to the identicalpronunciation of “chicken” and “ji” in ancient Chinese, both words have the same meaning: prosperity. But“chicken” are also stigmatized as being weak and insignificant. For example, “杀鸡儆猴(kill the chicken
to warn the monkey),” “鸡肋(chicken ribs)”, and “落汤鸡(dump the soup chicken)”. etc.
In ancient Thailand, “chicken” as “ไก่(kị̀)” was considered a mystical bird capable of driving away the night.
Due to the fact that its crow signals the end of the spring night for both men and women, the chicken
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frequently appears as a taboo bird in waka. In addition to “ไก่ อ่ อ น (chicken)” in Thailand, it is simple to be
misled by experience without firsthand knowledge. The phrase “ไ ก่ เ ห็ น ตี น งู งู เ ห็ น น มไก่ （鸡看见脚蛇，蛇看见奶鸡）(The foot snake, the snake sees the milk chicken)” is a chicken-related
idiom that suggests they both know each other's secrets.
11. “狗gǒu (s̄ unạk̄h) Dog”: “狗” means “Dog”, which is the eleventh sign of the Chinese zodiac. In all
nations, dogs possess the qualities of loyalty, dependability, and gratitude, as well as the ancestry of slaves
who intimidate others. Although there are Chinese idioms demonstrating the loyalty of dogs, such as“不嫌母丑,狗不嫌家贫(don't dislike the ugly mother; the dog doesn't dislike the poor family)” and“狗恋主人(the dog loves its master)”, there are more scolding words composed of the word “dog”, such as“恶狗(vicious dog)”, “疯狗(mad dog)”, “野狗(wild dog)”, “癩皮(mangy dog)”, “落水(drowning dog)”,“丧家犬(bereaved dog)”, “走狗(running dog)”, “哈巴狗(pug)”, and “狗腿子(dog leg)”.
In the opinion of Thais, “dog(s̄ unạk̄h)” also represents fidelity and dependability. The Thai language
contains “สุ นขั รับใช้（忠犬）(Loyal Dog)”, a heartwarming narrative about the loyalty of a dog to its owner.
Although “หมาลอบกัด（狗咬）(dog bite)”, “หมาขี้เรื้ อน（流浪狗）(stray dog)”, “หมาหวงก้าง
（狗不想给东西）(dog doesn't want to give things)” and other negative idioms also exist, there are morederogatory expressions, such as "agility" and "bravery." In addition, Thailand refers to obedient servantsas "dogs."
12. “猪zhū (h̄mū) Pig”: “Pig” is the last sign of the zodiac, hence it is called “亥猪(Hai pig)”. Pigs
represent obesity, gluttony, ignorance, and dirt. The Chinese term “猪圈(pigsty)” and the Thai character“เล้าหมู” both refer to an unclean chamber. People in both nations use pigs to reprimand others. The Chinese
mostly utilize the cultural semantics of "stupid, fat," but the Thai “หมูอว้ น肥猪(fat pig)” primarily scolds fat,gluttonous."
In addition to the preceding imagery, pigs in China also represent good fortune. For instance, the "fat pig
arch" signifies a prosperous New Year and a bountiful crop at the Spring Festival. “Zhu Ti Jin Bang” ishomophonic with "imperial examinations devour pig's feet.
"春节的“肥猪拱门”寓意新年吉庆、丰收。考科举吃猪蹄，谐音“朱题金榜”. Such as: "ZhouyiNvhou
Gua《周易·女后卦》"有攸往,见凶,羸豕孚踯躅” his father's words, "you go there, observe ferocious,
lei, fu, and squat." "“羸豕”Lei hog" translates to "Lou pig" and refers to a sow in estrus, which is a metaphor
for a woman with intense sexual desire. Ugly, vulgar. The term "pig head dog face" is used to describe aperson's unattractive appearance.
Thai also consider "pig," although they do not dislike it. Instead, they believe it to be robust. There are
numerous expressions in Thai, including “ห มู ใ น อ ว ย （猪在锅）(pig in the pot)”, “กิ น อ ย่ า ง ห มู อ ยู่ อ ย่ า งหม า（吃像猪住像狗）(feed like a pig and live like a dog)”, and others. Keep in mind that cultural perceptions
and symbolic meanings can vary widely across different societies, and the interpretation of these
expressions might also depend on the context in which they are used. In some cultures, pigs might
symbolize positive qualities like abundance and prosperity, while in others, they might be associated withnegative traits.
Overall, analysis seems to have unveiled a rich tapestry of idiomatic expressions in both Chinese and Thai
cultures. The differences and similarities between these idioms provide insights into the uniqueness andinterconnectedness of these two societies. Further exploration could delve into specific examples of idioms
and their origins, as well as the cultural contexts that led to their creation.
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Teaching Chinese as a foreign language
In recent years, numerous academics have explored and investigated the zodiac culture and its associatedcultural teachings. On the basis of prior study, such as: Lu (2006), Liu (2012), Zhang (2013), etc., This
paper studies and analyzes the culture of the Chinese zodiac based on the teaching design and methods ofearlier Chinese zodiac animal terms. The relationship between connotation and the teaching of Chinese asa foreign language is researched further, along with the teaching methods and instructional design that arecompatible with the cultural connotation of the zodiac.
3.1The cultural significance of the Chinese zodiac and the cultural instruction of Chinese as a second
language
Zhao (2008) Culture is mirrored in language. To really master a language, cultural instruction in thelanguage is important. As a well-known Chinese zodiac, its rich cultural meanings are strongly tied topeople's lives, and it provides overseas students with a vivid window through which to explore andcomprehend Chinese culture. The cultural teaching of the zodiac and the cultural teaching of Chinese as aforeign language are interrelated and mutually reinforcing in the cultural teaching of Chinese as a foreign
language.
The cultural significance of the zodiac not only assists Chinese students in learning Chinese culture but also
increases their enthusiasm for cultural study. During our examination of the "dog" in the Chinese zodiac,
we discovered that, in addition to the positive connotation of "loyalty" the dog also has the negative
connotations of "pug", "door dog" and "running dog." In addition, we can learn more about China's longstanding cultural connotations, such as why Chinese culture often uses "Chillima" to describe visionary andcapable people; "Suomu" to describe greedy and exploitative rulers; and "flattery" to describe flattering
people; learn and master the cultural connotation of the zodiac; and If they use it right in their daily lives,
they can not only learn more about other cultures but also better communicate with people from othercultures.
3.2 Teaching Design of the Zodiac
This instructional strategy uses the Chinese zodiac as its teaching subject and is intended for foreign
students who have attained an intermediate or advanced level of Chinese and who can read some TV, news,
and other daily media. The primary instructional content sources are Gu (2008) and Mao Zong’s translation(2017).
Each class hour in this instructional plan is 45 minutes in length. In the first class, we primarily understandthe animal image characteristics of the 12 zodiac signs; the appearance and order of the 12 zodiac animals
as well as their zodiac signs; in the second class, we explain the rat, ox, and tiger; rabbit, dragon, and snake.
draw and cartoons, as well as engage in some enjoyable classroom activities such as zodiac guessing
competitions. Prepare the necessary teaching aids, including images, videos, PowerPoint courseware, etc.,
prior to instruction.
This instructional strategy begins with images of the zodiac, assists students in understanding the traits,
names, and sequence of each animal, and explores in depth the cultural significance of the zodiac. This
Zodiac culture education course can increase students' enthusiasm for learning Chinese culture, foster
students' self-learning abilities to acquire and comprehend Chinese traditional culture, and enhance
students' language communication skills and cross-cultural communication abilities.
3.2.1 Teaching objectives(1) Comprehend the physical qualities of the animals of the Chinese zodiac and master the names of theanimals.
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(2) understand the relevant knowledge of the Chinese zodiac, as well as the appearance and order of theanimals of the Chinese zodiac.
(3) understand the cultural meaning of the Chinese zodiac and experience the rich Chinese traditional
Zodiac culture.
3.2.2 Teaching content(1) The animal image characteristics of the Chinese zodiac, including the real image, cartoon image, papercut image, etc.
(2) The appearance and sequence of the twelve zodiac animals, and their zodiac signs.
(3) The numerous cultural connotations of the Chinese zodiac and its application in communication.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
A comparison between Chinese and Thai cultures through the lens of the zodiac. The passage discusses
how the idioms related to the Chinese zodiac demonstrate the geographical proximity and extensive culturalinteractions between the two countries. The commonalities in idiom content and expression are attributed
to these interactions. Additionally, the passage suggests that the unique national and cultural characteristics
of both countries lead to a wide range of idiomatic expressions. Furthermore, the passage emphasizes thepotential of comparing the Chinese and Thai zodiacs to gain insights into the cultural structure of the twonations. However, it acknowledges that differences between the two cultures can lead to varied culturalconnotations for the twelve zodiac animals, posing challenges when teaching the Chinese zodiac. Effective
teaching methods and adaptable lesson plans are deemed essential for conveying the cultural significanceof the Chinese zodiac accurately.
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Gu, X., & Liu, F. (2006). A Comparison of Chinese and Western Cultures: A Detailed Explanation of
Zodiac Signs. Culture. National Defense Industry Press.
Li, Z. (2014). Comparative analysis of Chinese and Thai animal idioms and their cultural differences.
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Liu, Y. (2012). A Comparative Study on the Imagery of Chinese Zodiac Animal Words in English andChinese Idioms. Anhui Literature Monthly, 4(2), 131-132.
Lu, H. (2006). Taking the Chinese Zodiac as an Example to Compare Chinese and English Animal
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Lu, X. (2023). A comparative analysis of Indonesian and Chinese zodiac animal idioms. Doctoral
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Ma, R. (2011). A comparative study of the cultural connotations of Chinese and Thai zodiac idioms.
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Royal Thai. (2011). Dictionary of Royal Thai, Royal Thai.
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Wen-Hong, W. U. . (2005). The symbolic meaning of animal in chinese and russian culture. Journal of
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