Primo Toys
Beginning computer programmingfor kids:

Beginning computer
programmingfor kids
An introductory guide tocomputational thinking and coding
for kids aged 3-6 years old.

An
guide
to forcomputational
Plusintroductory
programming
ideas
thinking
for kids aged 3-6
kids, andandthe coding
best programming
years
old. for kids.
languages
Plus programming ideas for kids, andthe best programming languages forkids.

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Table of Contents
Hello

3

Why a book and why now?

5

Who is this book for?

6

How does this book work?

7

Who will find each secion most useful?

8Part One

9What do we mean by introducing computer programming for kids?

10

Why should kids learn coding and computational thinking at all?

13

A brief history of coding education for kids

19

Part Two23

The use of age groups in the eBook

24

Section i) Three to Four Years Old

25

Section ii) Five to Six Years Old

57

Part Three73

What Next?

74

Glossary

80

Bibligraphy83HelloHello, we are Primo Toys. We’re a team of technologists, designers
and educators who make toys that help children learn with technology.
You may already know our first toy, Cubetto – a playful wooden robotthat helps young children aged 3+ learn the basics of computer
programming through hands-on play, without a screen.
We started building it back in 2013, and we made a bit of a splash last year
when we launched Cubetto 2.0 on the crowdfunding platform Kickstarter.
We raised $1.6m, becoming Kickstarter’s most-funded educational
technology project ever. At the time there were just five of us in the team.
Now we are 17 and, after another Kickstarter campaign we look like this:www.primotoys.com

3

We created Cubetto because, like an increasing number of academics
and experts, we believe that coding for kids is a new kind of literacy
for the 21st century. We think that for girls and boys, all over the world, learning toprogram will be as important as their ABCs and 123sw in helping
them understand the world around them. We believe that
introducing children to a world of algorithms, bugs and queues also
develops their problem-solving skills, encourages collaboration andnurtures children’s creativity.
Like Maria Montessori, the Italian educationalist acclaimed for her
method that builds on the way children naturally learn, we thinkthat children learn best through play. We also know that they’re
motivated by challenges; and that at very young ages, abstraction(the ability to think about a solution to a problem without trying it
out first), is difficult.

Coding is a new kindof literacy for the 21st
century.
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44Our aim is to help create a new global standard for coding educationthat incorporates this and other approaches to the way children learn
best, both at home and in the classroom. We want to help a newgeneration to realise their full creative potential in a world of rapidly
increasing technological progress. This ebook is part of that mission.

Why a book and why now?
In the four years since we started, learning software programmingfor kids – once a niche and nerdy enterprise – has elbowed its way
politely into the mainstream. Well-publicised and well-funded
private and public campaigns (often helped along by very wellknown entrepreneurs and stars – Mark Zuckerberg, Bill Gates,
will.i.am…) have helped make this possible. A growing number ofinnovative designers, researchers, and – of course – crowdfunding
platforms, have also helped propel coding toys and programming
games to new heights. Children as young as three or four can now
use block-based, tangible coding languages like our own or Kibo or
Google’s Project Bloks; while older children can build and program
their own robot kits including Lego Mindstorms and LittleBits. And
then there’s a growing number of programming languages for kids,
like MIT’s ScratchJr designed for five to seven-year-olds.
Meanwhile, in some countries including the UK, programming isalready part of the curriculum, and there are a huge number of schoolsthat teach coding around the world. So there’s never been more
information for parents and teachers dedicated to helping to get kids
coding. If you Google ‘kids’ coding ebook’ you’ll find plenty of engaging
publications that offer a step-by-step initiation to a variety of coding
languages, all aimed at beginning computer programming for kids.

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5The problem is that many of these have been written to complement
formal schooling, which typically starts in most countries around ages
five or six, and have been written for teachers rather than parents. So
we decided to produce something that could also help children aged
three to six. An introductory guide that brings together all those vital
hands-on learning techniques and imaginative tips and tricks we’ve
learned and developed over the years.

Who is this book for?
This book is primarily for parents who are keen to find out more
about what computer programming is, and how they can introduce
easy programming for kids in a fun and engaging way.
We also hope that teachers, particularly those less familiar withcoding and its key concepts,will find it useful both as an introduction
and a tool for their lessons.

6How does this book work?
In Part One:
‘Introducing coding for kids’, we dip into some of the key terminologythat we’ll use throughout the book that typically causes confusion.
We’ll also ask: ‘Why learn to code in the first place?’
In addition, there’s a brief but important history of educational
coding, which introduces some of the bright minds and stunninginnovations that got us to where we are today – it sets the scene forthe rest of the book, so please don’t skip it!

In Part Two:
We look at two different age groups:
Section i. Three to four years old.
Section ii. Five to six years old.
For both age groups we investigate:• How children learn.
• Which computational and programming concepts should be
introduced at each age.
• What games and exercises (some that use technology, and others
that don’t) we can use to teach these concepts in fun, authentic andcreative ways, as well as programming ideas for kids, and the best
programming languages for kids.

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In Part Three:‘What next?’, we take a quick look at the options available to parents
and educators who want to introduce their children to programming
beyond tangible devices.

Who will find each section most useful?
While we hope that you’ll find each part of this book helpful, Part
Two, Section i, on three- to four-year-olds has been written especiallywith parents in mind. Part Two, Section ii, for five- to six-year-olds has
been written with both parents and teachers in mind.
We hope you enjoy using this book as much as we enjoyed writing it.

8Part One
What do we mean by introducing
computer programming for kids?
Why should kids learn coding andcomputational thinking at all?
A brief history of coding education
for kids9

What do we mean by: ‘Introducing
Computer Programming for Kids?’
Computing terminology can be tricky. ‘Coding’, ‘programming’,‘computational thinking’ and ‘computer science’ are often usedinterchangeably to mean the same thing. To avoid confusion, let’s
start out by getting them straight.
Computer science is the study of what computers can actually do –it’s essentially the theory side of things. Computer scientists test andstudy what is possible using hardware (the physical components ofa computer, like the hard drive and motherboard), and software (theprograms and data that run on and that live in a computer’s hardware).
Examples, given by Oxford University, of the kinds of things thatconcern computer scientists include whether computers can help us
to model and investigate hugely complex systems like the human body,financial systems or the Earth’s climate.
Computational thinking is the thinking tool that computer scientists
use for the kinds of investigations given above.
The BBC puts it most succinctly: Computational thinking ‘allows
us to take a complex problem, understand what the problem is anddevelop possible solutions. We can then present these solutions ina way that a computer, a human, or both, can understand.’Computer programming, on the other hand, is the practice ofmaking a computer do things, normally through lines of code thathave been written to create an intended outcome: ‘If I write ABC thecomputer will do XYZ.’

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10© iStock/RichVintage

Coding, even though it’s often used as a catch-all for all three terms
above, is just another slightly more contemporary way of saying‘computer programming’: ie the act of writing code, normally ona screen, to make a computer do something you want it to do.
In this book, for reasons we’ll outline later, we’ll focus predominantly
on introducing computational thinking approaches to children inyounger age groups (three to four and five to six), tying in some of
the basic elements of programming.
For a glossary of all the terms we use in the book, please skip to theback!

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11Why should kids learn coding
and computational thinking?
1) Coding nurtures
creative expression</>

2) Programmingdemystiﬁes tech3) It teaches problem
solving and persistence4) Children learn bythinking about doing5) But children also learn
to think about thinking
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12Why should kids learn coding andcomputational thinking at all?
There’s a common assumption, not always helped by the techindustry itself, that kids need to learn coding because we needmore computer scientists. More software engineers, the argument
goes, would help shape our digital world for the better and, youknow, it wouldn’t be so bad for the economy either. (The term
‘workforce-ready’ comes to mind).
To which the obvious response for a parent or educator is: ‘But what
if my child or student doesn’t want to be a computer scientist?’
While it’s true that the big tech firms – Google, Facebook, Apple,
Tesla – are snapping up whizzkid engineers, there are far more
exciting and compelling arguments for why children should learn tocode, beyond: ‘Because it’s great for GDP.’ Here are five of them:

1. Coding nurtures creative expression
Coding for kids is a fundamentally creative process.  Just likepainting or cooking, with coding a child benefits from the satisfaction– even the exhilaration – that comes from starting with nothing andfinishing with something.
And it goes further. In the real world, creative acts are often limitedby the materials we have at our disposal – like ingredients when we
cook, or the canvas when we paint. But with programming, where thevirtual world is infinite, the only restriction is the child’s imagination.

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Coding for kids is afundamentally creative
process; starting withnothing and finishingwith something.

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14© iStock/romrodinka2. Programming demystifies tech
The University of Oxford forecasts that in the next 20 years as manyas 47 per cent of jobs in the United States will become completely
automated. Meanwhile, predictions on the number of connected
devices that will be in use by 2020 as part of the Internet of Things varyfrom 20 billion to 75 billion.
Because of this proliferation of devices and computers, there’s agrowing anxiety about the increasing role of artificial intelligenceand computers, in particular whether machines will make workers
obsolete. Understanding what computers can and can’t do isfundamental in addressing these anxieties. If we can teach children
how to remodel the technological world around them, we can help
them become creators rather than just consumers of technology.

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15© iStock/weerapatkiatdumrong

In the next 20 years
as many as 47% ofjobs in the USA will
become completely
automated.

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3. Teaching kids programming requires
persistence and problem-solving
Anyone who’s played with code, from beginners to professionals, will tell
you that writing programs can get quite challenging quite quickly. Or
put more simply: coding can be frustrating. Really, really frustrating.
This, says computer scientist and educator Sheena Vaidyanathan, isunreservedly a good thing: children ‘learn that something doesn’t workout but you can quickly fix it and try it again in different ways.’
With an introduction to programming, children learn to think laterally
when faced with a problem in coding: ‘If A + B didn’t work, thenmaybe A + C will.’ Coding also equips kids with the ability to stick witha problem and work on finding a solution.

4. Children learn by thinking about doing
The grandfather of coding education, Seymour Papert (more on him inbit), was a huge advocate of teaching by using programmable robots
for kids. He was also a huge advocate of the principle that we learn by
doing. As he saw it, the two worked hand in hand: ‘Programming therobot to do something helps a child to think about “doing”.’
However, to this he added an interesting qualification: ‘You learn by
doing but you learn better by thinking about what you are doing. I
think this is what is most important.’
In essence, thinking about what you want to do, one step at a time,
before you do it, enhances the learning process.

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17With programming,children learn to thinklaterally when facedwith a problem.

5. But children also learn to think
about thinking
Papert (him again) also spoke of the discovery and the senseof wonder that children experience when first introduced toprogramming. ‘In teaching the computer how to think, children
embark on an exploration about how they themselves think. The
experience can be heady: Thinking about thinking turns the child into
an epistemologist,  an experience not even shared by most adults.’
For us, this is the argument that is the most exciting. More thananything, computational thinking is an unbelievably valuable thinking
tool – perhaps the thinking tool of the 21st century – and one that canbe applied throughout our lives to incredible effect.

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A very brief history of coding
education for kids
Coding education as we know it today started 60 years ago with aturtle and a four-letter word that sounds like, but definitely isn’t, Lego.
First though, let’s rewind a little further to the work of Jean Piaget(1896-1980). A Swiss clinical psychologist regarded today as giantof educational thinking, in the first half of the twentieth century
Piaget devised a theory called Constructivism, which looks at howlearning happens.
Rather than acquiring knowledge, he argued, humans construct it
based on past experience and their understanding of the world.
Children make sense of their surroundings not as ‘miniature adults’or as empty vessels, but ‘as active agents interacting with the worldand building ever-evolving theories.’ Part of this theory included theidea of ‘discovery thinking’, which asserts that children learn best
through doing and exploring.
Years later, these ideas found a home, if slightly tweaked, in the workof Piaget’s protege – a brilliant South African computer scientist,
mathematician and educator called Seymour Papert (1928-2016).
In the 1960s while working at MIT, Papert created an ingenious
programming language called Logo.
With Logo programming, the child writes on a keyboard commands that
produce line graphics, either on screen or in the real world, with a small
robot – a ‘floor turtle’ armed with a pen. With Logo Turtle, for the first time,kids could play with and learn complex programming by producing ascreenless, creative outcome via a physical object (in this case a robot).

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19Children learn best
through doing andexploring.

© iStock/Sasiistock

Logo Turtle programming applies Papert’s own educational theoryof Constructionism and its four key pillars:
1) Children learn by doing.
2) Tangible objects support concrete ways of thinking.
3) Powerful ideas can empower the individual.
4) Self-reflection helps children clarify their own thinking andconnection to the environment around them.
The key principles behind Piaget’s Constructivism and Papert’sConstructionism were fundamental to further tangible (that is tosay ‘hands-on’) coding technologies, which evolved from the 1970s
onwards. These included Tortis, another floor turtle released in
1974; MIT’s tangible programming bricks launched in the 1990s;

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LOGO PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE

Seymour Papert(1928-2016)

CONSTRUCTIVISM

Jean Piaget(1896-1980)

TORTIS

1974

MIT’S TANGIBLE
PROGRAMMING BRICKSLEGO MINDSTORMS

1990

1998

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21and of course Lego Mindstorms – the school kits that let kids build andprogram robots (the third and most recent generation was launched in2013). The blocks of our own coding toy, Cubetto, can be considered
an extreme simplification of Logo Turtle programming language.
We can also see the influence of two other educational greats
throughout this period: Friedrich Froebel (1782-1952) and Maria
Montessori (1870-1952). Both these figures and their timelesswooden block-based learning materials promoted hands-on, openended play in which the child could learn about the properties of thematerials with which they played (colour, size, weight), but also about
themselves and the world around them.
As I’ve already mentioned, there is an ever-growing number of toys
designed to help get kids coding – ready for a world of robots and
AI in which ones and zeros are the way we communicate. It’s hardto overstate the importance that the work of Papert, Piaget, Froebel
and Montessori still has on the most effective ways of teaching
children the basics of computer programming. We will refer to eachthroughout the book.

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Part Two
The use of age groups in this ebook
Section i) Three to Four Years Old
Section ii) Five to Six Years Old

23

The use of age groups in this ebook
First, a qualification. As any educator, researcher or parent will tellyou, children don’t develop in unison. At any age there’s a wide
variation of abilities and skillsets between children of the sameage. While some three-year-olds know the alphabet and its sounds
back to front, there are others who find the representation of aletter totally alien. The same applies to teaching children to code.
Nonetheless, age groups remain a useful heuristic to help guide us,
however roughly, to how children learn best at a certain points intheir development. Additionally, for most children around the world,
formal education doesn’t start until the age of five, which is why wehave divided this book into a section for three- to four-year-olds andanother for five- to six-year-olds.
As the parent or educator, you have a better understanding of where
your child or children are developmentally than we ever will, so
please approach the following sections as a flexible guide that canbe bent, stretched and twisted to their needs.

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24Section i) Three to Four Years Old
How do children at this age learn?
There’s a good reason you hear so many parents talking about
threenagers. Children at this age have bundles of energy, tons ofself-belief, and don’t suffer fools gladly. It helps to play the way theytell you to.
More than anything, three-year-olds just want to do stuff. And eventhough they may pick up something and then put it down again at
dizzying speeds, their interest in the world around them is thrillingand constant. As their speech is still developing, they often find
it difficult to articulate what they’re trying to do. Which can bechallenging for a parent.
So what kinds of cognitive, social and emotional developmental
changes are children going through at this age, and what kind of things
do we need to consider when teaching them the basics of coding?
Because the research on how we can use technology to teachchildren is still in its relative infancy, answering this question can betricky. Fortunately, we were able to speak with and take guidancefrom the leading academics in the field: Ilene Berson, Professor of
Early Childhood, and her husband Michael Berson, Professor ofSocial Science Education, both at the University of South Florida.

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25Children don’t segment their learningor play
The increasing momentum behind the STEM (Science, Technology,
Engineering and Mathematics) and STEAM (which adds Arts to themix) movements in education, is in part down to a growing belief thatthe best teaching is interdisciplinary. The argument, as outlined by
DT Max in the New Yorker, is that ‘similar patterns of thinking underlie
many subjects and integrating them makes students smarter. Taking
a sculpting class can help researchers understand protein folding;a course in storytelling can aid doctors in communicating withpatients. A STEM class in English might use computer algorithms
to explore literary style.’  Can we apply the same approach toteaching coding education? Absolutely.

A STEM class in English
might use computer
algorithms to explore
literary style.
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26

1+1=2‘Children don’t segment their brains into “Now I’m going to be ascientist and now I’m going to be a mathematician.” They weave inand out of literacies and activities seamlessly,’ says Ilene.
While two children are playing a block-sorting game with roundand square blocks, they might be building their spatial awareness,honing their social-emotional skills, and also developing their ability
to problem-solve. This has interesting implications for teachingcomputational thinking, suggesting that a more blended approach toteaching the subject, where skills are learnt in combination with otherseemingly non-related topics and knowledge, is more beneficial thana prescribed ‘coding session’.

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Causality is starting to develop‘They’re beginning to understand that “if” I do this, “then” this will
happen.’ says Michael Berson. These lessons are being learnt all thetime, often in the rough and tumble of playtime: “If I hit my friend,
then they will push me back”.’
The aim of the adult is to nurture the exploration of causal thinking,while at the same time helping to prevent any negative outcomes,
like, say, a fight with another child. How to do this? Using tangible
coding toys is a low-risk method of encouraging this type of thinking.
‘It creates a safety net,’ says Michael. Children think: ‘If this happens
and I don’t like it, no big deal, I can just change it.’Hands-on learning trumps screens
Why is hands-on learning, or kinaesthetic learning, so beneficial atthis age? It’s not just about removing the distractions of screens.
Ilene highlights the sensorial qualities of hand-held items. ‘When you
have a two-dimensional representation of something, like on a bookor a screen, your sensory interaction with that thing is limited to sight.’
Something that can be held, on the other hand – let’s say a wooden
block or a piece of tangible code – can also be touched, tasted (if thechild decides to bite it), smelt (compare wood to plastic, say), and heard(if the child decides to bash one item with another). Consequently,
handheld items provide richer sensory information to the child.

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Very young children use
a lot of physicality intheir learning process.

The nature of hands-on learning experiences also benefits the child. For
Dr Sarah Gerson, an academic at the University of Cardiff’s Psychology
Department, the pros of hands-on learning over screen learning are
that: ‘The social and interactive nature of hands-on experiences
makes them more engaging and richer sources of information.’ 
There’s more. Ilene says that: ‘Very young children in particular
use a lot of physicality in their learning process.  Throughmovement they are embodying knowledge. You can see that when
young children engage with tangible technologies, they become
an extension of the technology itself.’ We see this with three- to fiveyear-olds when they’re programming robots, like our own Cubetto,
when they’ll often act out what they want to do first before writing the
program. So in effect, when children turn, spin, jump and bump they
become a code-learning resource in themselves.

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The social andinteractive nature ofhands-on experiences
makes them moreengaging than screen
learning.

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30© iStock/skynesher

It’s better to let kids
negotiate their own way
through an activity.

Play is great, but open-ended play
is better.
‘There’s a tendency with adults to step in and get in the way, which caninhibit the child,’ says Ilene. She adds that from a developmental pointof view it’s better to let children negotiate their own way through anactivity,  especially when that negotiation involves other children.
There’s no question that this can be can be a messy process. The
child, for example, won’t always follow linear steps. Rather than going
down the usual A-B-C route, they may try to go from A-C and then theyrealise that they needed to go via B in the first place. But when they
have to figure things out together, they see a more enhanced skill set,www.primotoys.com

31says Ilene. Rather than directing the child, the role of the parent shouldbe that of a facilitator, asking good questions to help the child along.
In her research for Tortis (that stands for Toddler’s Own Recursive Turtle
Interpreter System – an early floor turtle that children could control byuse of a buttons on a control panel), published in 1974, Radia Perlman(another star of educational coding and design), lamented how
overbearing parents could be during her sessions with children:‘Parents were especially bad since they were anxious for their childto appear smart and consequently nagged at the children to go onto
new things and yelled at them for giggling. Parents were a help when
they had the right attitude, however, suggesting projects, laughingwith the kids, playing, with them, etc.’

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32© theoldrobots.com

Moreover, by being overly prescriptive, says Professor Marina
Umaschi Bers (one of tangible coding’s leading thinkers), parents
risk sheltering the child from what the renowned computer scientist
Alan Kay calls ‘hard fun’ – something that is both enjoyable andchallenging. By working on their own and setting themselves
challenges, children manage their frustration and also develop‘confidence in one’s ability to learn.’

Indulge their sense of agency‘People talk about the terrible twos, but three- to four-year-olds,’
smiles Ilene, ‘typically have the sense of a great deal of agency
too. Normally by four to five years old we see children becomingsocialised so that this agency is lost.’
The benefits of this self-belief as Ilene sees them are clear: lessinhibited creative thinking, and a willingness to try things out andmake mistakes.
‘Part of the challenge for adults is to nurture that agency without
things becoming too chaotic,' she says. A more child-centred
approach to learning (as outlined in the point above), with lighttouches from the parent or teacher, can help this.

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Abstraction is difficult‘The ability to abstract – making symbolic representations of things– is more challenging the younger children are,’ says Ilene. ‘This isbecause their language skills and and their experience are so much
more limited.’ A typical three-year-old, for example, has only half thelife experience of a typical six-year-old. Children at this age rely on
concrete examples of things to inform how they see the world anddraw conclusions. Because abstract thinking is removed from the‘here and now’, children naturally struggle.

What should we be teaching children
at age three to four?
It’s a good question. In 2014 the Economist ran a story on coding
education that highlighted the problem of where to start with coding
for kids: ‘Even basic matters, such as striking the right balance
between conceptual exercises like the sorting game and actually
writing programs, are still not settled.’
Given everything we’ve addressed above – the benefits of tangible
play and interdisciplinary learning, the willfulness of ‘threenagers’ andtheir difficulties with abstraction – it’s unlikely that most very young
children will benefit from jumping headfirst into early lessons on
Python, JavaScript, Scratch or any other on-screen coding language.
Like most things, it helps to start at the beginning when learning
computer programming, and that means computational thinking.

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What do we mean by computational
thinking?
At the beginning of the book we defined computational thinking as
a way of thinking that lets us break down big, complex problems into
smaller ones. These problems can then, say, be divided between ateam of individuals (such as children in a playroom), according totheir different skills and abilities.
But in reality there’s no formal definition of what computational thinking
is. In fact, most definitions are, necessarily, pretty broad and encompass
a range of different concepts. There’s also no consensus on which
concepts should be counted as part of computational thinking andwhich shouldn’t. If you have a moment, check out the differences
between the Google, Harvard and Barefoot Computing (content
accessible to registered teachers) interpretations, which are significant.
Each outline serves a different purpose for a different audience.
For this book, we’ve borrowed most from the language and modelof computational thinking devised by Barefoot Computing – a fantastic
online resource set up to help UK primary school teachers (who teachfour- to 11-year-olds), with computer science, and has also informed
our thinking for a large part of this section – albeit with our own tweaks
here and there.
So without further ado, here are the concepts and ideas that we think
are most developmentally appropriate for children aged three to four.

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Algorithms
First off, algorithms.
An algorithm is a set of rules that define a sequence of operations.
Often when we think of algorithms we think of them in terms ofcomputers, ie a series of instructions that tell a computer what todo. Famous algorithms that dominate our everyday lives include
Google Search, Facebook’s News Feed and the ‘You may also like’suggestions on Amazon.
However, algorithms aren’t restricted to computers. They can also
be written for humans and everyday activities, for example getting
dressed in the morning or making a cup of tea.  The steps andrules that we follow for these processes determine whether weachieve success or failure. Of course, in order to work effectively, therules or instructions on which an algorithm runs must be clear andunambiguous. If they are not, the algorithm malfunctions or breaks.

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Algorithms aren’t justrestricted to computers;
they can be written
for humans in simple,
everyday processes too!

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LogicLogic is also something we can start introducing to this age
group. Logical reasoning is a way for us to understand and explain
why things happen the way they do.
For example: If I’m at A and I want to reach C, do I have go via B or
can I skip it entirely? Logic is important because, unlike people –who change their mood throughout the day, along with how theywork – machines are predictable. Logical reasoning allows us tounderstand how machines work, and in turn what we can do withthem. Alongside these concepts, we can also start to introduce certain
different approaches to computational thinking.

Tinkering
Tinkering is all about trying things out and learning by trial andimprovement. Young children naturally want to explore andexperiment. This approach nurtures that instinct.

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What we should teachchildren at age 3-4
Algorithms

Logic

Tinkering

Debugging

What we should teachchildren at age 5-6
Abstraction

Prediction

Programming

Sequencing

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Debugging
Then there’s debugging, a technical term that describes a processof literally getting rid of the ‘bugs’ (or mistakes) within an algorithm.
Debugging is a process that we use to varying degrees of success all
the time in real life – it’s a way to find out why, for example, a new toasterkeeps burning the bread, and once we know, how to set it right.
Barefoot Computing have this handy debugging recipe:• Predict what should happen.
• Find out exactly what happens.
• Work out where something has gone wrong.
• Fix it.

40

Activities for teaching these concepts
So, what activities are best to introduce these concepts andapproaches to children aged three and four? In this section werecommend a few of our favourites.

Unplugged activities
Because computational thinking is a way of thinking – a process bywhich we can understand a complex problem, and in turn understandthe different ways that that problem can be solved – it doesn’t require
using computers or screens at all.  Instead, we can use a variety of
playful ‘offline’ or ‘unplugged’ games and activities. (For the record,
the notion of ‘unplugged’ activities was popularised by the teamat CS Unplugged, whose website is a repository of fantastic of freelearning activities that take place, of course, off-screen).

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Because computational
thinking is a way of
thinking, it doesn’t
require using computersor screens at all.

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421) Leaving the house routine
Why
Real-life routines are a simple and engaging way to introduce
algorithms. Leaving the house, because it’s basic and regularly
repeated, is a good place to start.

The activity
Begin by familiarising the child with the steps we take when we leave
home, along with the terminology for those steps. You can do this byvocalising the process every time you go out.

For example:
First I pick up my keys
Then I pick up my [wallet / purse / rucksack]
Then we walk to the front door
I open the door
You [the child] can walk through the gap
Then I walk through the gap
I close the door behind me
Finally I lock the door

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43

1 - Pick up my keys

3 - Walk to the front door

2 - Pick up my rucksack

4 - Open the door

5 - Walk through the gap

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44

Continue to say these steps aloud until the child knows them. Thentry to encourage them to begin saying them at the same time as you.
Once they’re doing this comfortably, ask them to begin vocalising
the process on their own.
At this point, it’s fun to start start asking them questions: ‘Why do
we do the process in this order? Can we change any of the steps
and still have the same effect?’ Test their hypotheses (eg ‘You canpick up your wallet before your keys’ or ‘You can walk through the door
without opening it’). They’ll soon see which parts of the process –or algorithm – they can adapt and change, and which they can’t.
Remember, it’s good to keep a constant dialogue going so that thechild is explaining their thinking throughout.
You can also make the algorithm more detailed as the child becomes
more confident and familiar with the process. For example: ‘I put myhand on the doorknob; I twist the doorknob; I pull the door towards me.’Other ideas
More everyday opportunities to explore algorithms include:• Getting out of bed• Getting dressed• Going to the shops
In fact, any routine that has a clear order of steps that are repeatedregularly (daily) can work well.

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452) Programmable Parent
WhyThis neat exercise, like the one above, can also be applied to avariety of real-life scenarios. Alongside algorithms, children also geta chance to see action causality (if I do this, then that will happen)with satisfying immediacy. They also put logic into practice, as wellas tinkering and debugging.

The activity
Tell your child that they’re going to help you make jam on toast. Showthem a piece you’ve made earlier and tell them the aim of the game is
to make it look exactly the same.
Tell the child to imagine that you are a robot and that they have togive you instructions (or write the computer program) on how tomake the jam on toast. (This could be a neat, creative opportunity
to really bring the activity to life – and drive home your new robotic
alter-ego – by making props with the child, such as a robot head outof papier maché for you to wear, or a ‘control button’ that the childhas to press every time they want you to complete a separate stepin the process.)
Using your best robot voice, begin by having a conversation withyour child about what you need to make the dish. Elicit from them
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46

toaster, bread board). Ask how you make toast, to the level ofencouraging them to show you where in the kitchen the toaster isand demonstrating how it works.
Once they have the fundamentals ask them to tell you what to do:‘Please give me your instructions, master!’, or something similarly
robot-like.
Most likely they’ll make early mistakes like asking you to put jam
on before you make the toast, or putting jam on before the butter.
Exaggerate these mistakes, while also making it playful and fun, sothat the child becomes aware that it’s difficult to do one thing before
another. It’s up to them to debug the process on their own. Meanwhile,throughout the exercise it’s up to the parent to gently coax the child

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toward clear, unambiguous instructions of, say, three to four words.
Remember to keep this informal – a conversational approach is best.
Logic is also important here. For example, ‘Can I cut the toast on
a plate rather than a chopping board and still get the same effect,
while saving a bit of time and washing up?’
Designing an algorithm like this is likely to take a few attempts, andquite a lot of tinkering, to get right. Possible outcomes include the childgetting frustrated or angry, or conversely not caring at all. The point isthat if it’s made to be fun over a number of attempts the child will cometo see that clear instructions can set up a positive and creative outcome.
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48

Other ideas
The programmable parent can be adapted to fit a variety of situations:• Making cereal in the morning• Turning on a story CD• Buying food in the supermarket, and so on.
For a larger, more creative version of this activity, theprogrammable parent can play a part within a treasure hunt. Work
with the child or children to design a treasure map of their own,being as imaginative as possible. It’s up to them to direct you
around the garden. Just as with making toast, there are plenty ofopportunities to encourage them to think logically and engage
in real-time debugging,  with the added benefit of rooting theirunderstanding of these procedures in other areas of knowledge
such as nature and storytelling.

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A treasure huntencourages kids tothink logically andengage in real-time
debugging.

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50© iStock/GlimSimon SaysWhy?
If you grew up with Simon Says, you’ll know what a simple game
this is. But its simplicity is deceptive, because it’s a terrific way tosmuggle in some key computational thinking ideas and principles.

What?
In case you’ve never played it before, Simon Says is a game for aminimum of two players. One player (in this case the adult) takes therole of Simon, who issues instructions to the other player or players.
These are often active, silly, fun or all three at once, for instance:‘jump up and down’, ‘touch the floor’, ‘make a funny face.’ However,these instructions should only be followed by the child if they’reprefaced with the words: ‘Simon Says.’ In larger groups, if a childexecutes an instruction that doesn’t start with ‘Simon Says,’ they’reout.
What is learned when we include an activity is that the instructions
have to be unambiguous, just like in an algorithm. So unless there isa ‘Simon Says’ before the actual instruction, then the algorithm or the‘code’ itself is broken because it stops being logical. In addition, theadult has a verbal tool that allows him or her to insert false data intoalgorithm, either by not including the ‘Simon Says’ command, or byusing a muddled command like ‘Says Simon’ or ‘Stephen Says.’
Consequently the child needs to engage in debugging throughout.

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Other ideas
Simon-Says-style commands can give added zest and complexity to
the Programmable Parent and Leaving the House games. In addition,
the child can also take on the role of Simon, which gives him or her
the opportunity to experiment with unambiguous commands, aswell as trialling what it feels like to consciously create a program or
algorithm with bugs in it. 

Plugged in activities
The benefits of ‘unplugged’ activities are obvious. They are easy to
set up, quick to play and, of course, free. However, as a company
that makes a wooden robot designed to teach kids the basics ofprogramming, it would be remiss of us if we didn’t say that certain
tech-based (let’s say ‘plugged in’) activities are greatly beneficial too.
We are followers of Seymour Papert’s Logo turtle after all.

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If you are using a tangible programming toy, the child needs to firstbe introduced to the product and how it works. In the case of Cubetto,
introduce the Control Board as a sort of remote control that children
can use to send instructions to the wooden robot after blocks areinserted to make a sequence of commands.
Without the board, there is no way of sending Cubetto his instructions.
Meanwhile, in the case of, say, Kibo, the child must understand thatthey need to scan the barcode of each instruction block using thebarcode scanner on the robot.
We mention this because it is important for children to understandthat each device is only able to move with a human’s command. This
is not only empowering, but also key to understanding computing
and computer programming.

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534) Left, right, forward, backward
Why?
The language of direction is fundamental to our lives, but it’s also
fundamental to various tangible coding languages for kids thatuse a robot – Cubetto included. By introducing these terms (left,right, forward, backward) we can help the child understand thisterminology, while also introducing them to sequencing using
precise, unambiguous instructions.

The activity
The terms ‘left’, ‘right’, ‘forward’ and ‘backward’ are introduced
to the child by the adult. This can be pre-taught in earlier offline
activities mentioned above. Indeed, the adult could help the childmake them more precise, like ‘a quarter turn right’, ‘a quarter turnleft’ or ‘backwards one step’.
When the children are familiar with these instructions, Kibo,
Cubetto or another robot powered by tangible code can be
introduced. The corresponding directions for the buttons or (inCubetto’s case) blocks are pointed out to the child. Then, using amap, the teacher sets a square as an end goal or a ‘home’ – the aim
is to reach this square.
Next, it’s up to the child to narrate what they’re programming therobot to do, as they do it. There is of course no right or wrong way forthe child to move the robot to get home, that’s up to them. The rolewww.primotoys.com

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of the adult is to guide the learner and help them with the correct
terminology as they’re narrating which way the robot is moving.
This activity comes with a variety of challenges. The child mustfirst understand that the robot needs to be guided to a destination
using a program. It can’t simply be picked up and put there. In
addition, it’s likely that ‘up’ and ‘down’ may be used by the child tomean ‘backwards’ and ‘forwards’. The child may also struggle tounderstand initially that the way Cubetto is facing requires different
instructions to the way the child is facing (just as they might find in
earlier Programmable Parent games).
However, the real challenge is for the adult to avoid interfering too
much when the child is programming the robot. In particular theparent should avoid worrying about the sophistication of the child’salgorithms. Even for many five-year-olds, programs limited to twoor three steps (or blocks) are perfectly normal. This should inform
where the ‘home’ square on the map is set.

Other resources
It’s important to emphasise that these should not be seen ascomprehensive guide or curriculum, but rather examples of the kindsof activities that we’ve found are most beneficial.
Here is a selection of online hubs (including our own) where you canfind more great activities and ideas for teaching children to code,
focused on ages three to four.
Primo Toys - A wealth of Cubetto-themed stories, activities and video
tutorials that parents and teachers alike will find handy.

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55Barefoot Computing - Mainly focused on educators, including
more on Barefoot’s breakdown of computational thinking andprogramming, along with activities to support them.
CS Unplugged - Also teacher-focused, but shouldn’t be missedby any parent looking for off-screen games and puzzles to teachcomputer science.
Kibo - More on Kibo, the research behind it, and a selection of stepby-step tutorials on how to use it.

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56Section ii) Five to Six Years Old
How do children at this age learn?
Between the ages of five and six, from a learning point of view, muchof what we discussed in the previous chapter still applies. Multiple
literacies are still developing in tandem; interdisciplinary learning
based on lived experiences still works best; and open-ended, handson play remains beneficial.
Typically, however, we see three important changes: two cognitive,
one environmental.

1) Children are beginning to learn how
to abstract
It’s around this time that a child can begin to think symbolically,
which is essential in order to teach kids to code. A younger child,says Early Childhood Professor Ilene Berson, may want to throw awooden block against a wall because they really have no idea howthat block will behave when it hits the wall until they try it out. Will it
explode on impact, bounce back or fly straight through the wall? By
the time a child is five or six, they know that the block will ricochet off
the wall or shatter, making a noise and – in the process – probably
putting any adult nearby on edge.
In general, children in this age group have more lived experience attheir disposal – they have a clearer idea of how the world works because

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57they’ve seen more of it. Consequently, they can begin to make senseof the world using their imaginations, to plot mental routes and to
extrapolate ideas without necessarily needing to enact it first in the realworld (not that physical reenactment can’t still be useful).
As an interesting side note, the notion that children can abstract
at this age runs contrary to psychologist Jean Piaget’s stages ofcognitive development, which for decades were a mainstay of
thinking among educators. For Piaget, it was only once a child hadreached the age of 11 (the so-called formal operational stage),that they could think in logical terms using symbols. There is
now evidence to suggest that we’ve underestimated children’scapabilities drastically. A 2016 study found that children as young
as three to four were able to grasp algebraic concepts.  Thisis significant because, of course, algebraic thinking is all about
symbolic representation.

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Recent researchshows that children as
young as three to four
were able to grasp
algebraic concepts.

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592) Growing patience and persistence
A child’s approach to activities and problem-solving in this time alsochanges. Following on from the willfulness of the terrible twos, says Ilene, ataround three and four years old children begin to develop an intentionality
when they play – they identify a goal and work towards that goal. Of course,
in open-ended play, the goals can shift and transform quite quickly, butthey’re still there. This behaviour lends itself directly to beginning computer
programming for kids.
In the earlier years of schooling at around ages five and six, children
begin to direct their intent towards reaching a goal using solution-driven
processes: ‘How am I going to get this done?’. At the same time theattention that they can devote to a particular task (before frustration sets in)grows too, and so does their perseverance and ability to collaborate withother children. Like a big bag of tricks, says Ilene, these social-emotionaland cognitive strategies can be used for coping with problems and otherpeople.

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60© iStock/vladansWith open-ended
play, children develop
resilience andperseverance.

3) Children are enrolled in formal
education
The move from the informality of the home to the more formal settingof the classroom is one of the most significant moments in a child’slife. Think of the changes: a new pedagogical environment outside thehome or preschool; extended and routine learning and playtime withpeers in the form of the school day; and a new person – the teacher –who takes on most of the responsibility of the child’s learning.
Of course, within a school setting, we also start to see a more formalised
approach to learning, and in many cases a movement away from thekind of open-ended play that children may have enjoyed previously athome and in preschool.

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61‘Among the benefits of open-ended play are that children startdeveloping a sense of resilience and perseverance,’  says Ilene. ‘Ifsomething doesn’t go the way they intended, they can say: ‘“Oh well,that didn’t work,” then go back and try it again differently. But what
happens as they move up the year groups or as they get older is that
we often see a movement towards a more prescriptive way of learning,
specifically one where there’s a right and and a wrong answer.’
The problem with socialising learners around a ‘2 + 2 = 4’ or ‘right answer,
wrong answer’ approach from such a young age, says Social Science
Professor Michael Berson, is that it it detracts from their willingness
to experiment. A wrong answer is a piece of negative feedback, andat this age when children still have so much to learn there are often
more wrong answers than right. The greater the amount of negative
feedback a child receives, the less likely they are to ‘give it a go.’What should we be teaching them atage five to six?
Building on the computing concepts that children have alreadylearned as three- to four-year olds (logic, algorithms and so on, as we
describe Section i), remains fundamental. In this respect, it’s helpful
to think about teaching computational thinking as a little like teachingmathematics. You begin with addition, then you learn repeated addition(or multiplication), and then repeated multiplication (or indices). In eachcase we’re adding complexity to that early base knowledge.
Part of this is just naming the concepts with which they’re alreadyfamiliar. It can be as simple as sounding out the words ‘al-gor-ithm’or ‘lo-gic’ when an algorithm is being built or we’re using logicalwww.primotoys.com

62thinking. Or if the aim of a particular part of a class is to debug aprogram, we need to make clear that this is ‘debugging’ and so on.
The aim is to familiarise children with the language of programmingso that it starts to inform their thinking.
There are, however, a few new coding concepts that we can introduce
to children at the ages of five and six to help them further understandcomputer programming.

Abstraction
What is abstraction exactly? In the words of Jeannette M Wing, therenowned computer scientist, abstraction is a process that allows us
to identify which ‘details we need to highlight and which details we
can ignore.’ It’s a way of filtering out patterns and specific details to
get to the bare essentials of something, so that we can then create a
representation of that thing.
Let’s clarify this a little further. Say we want to create a representationof a dog that is true for all dogs. We begin by looking at what makes
a dog dog-like. Dogs have common characteristics, like four legs,
two eyes, two ears, a tail that wags and the ability to bark. They also
have characteristics that are specific to each individual dog, like furcolour, length of fur, colour and size of eyes; some dogs may yap
and others bark, while some may almost never bark at all. To create abasic abstraction – or representation – that is true of dogs in general,
we need to group together these common characteristics anddisregard those characteristics that are specific to each dog. (To see
this example but with cats, check out the BBC’s Bitesize page).

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63© iStock/Nadezhda1906

We intuitively make and use abstractions to make sense of the world– take for example a TV guide or a metro map. In the case of the TV
guide we need to know which programmes are being shown andwhen, but we don’t need to know the name of every actor who stars init or every step of the storyline. For the metro map, we need to know
the order of stations on a particular line, and even where different lines
cross, but we don’t need to know the distance between each stationor whether the carriages are old or new. In both cases information is
stripped out to clarify understanding.
Abstraction is important because it helps us to solve problems.
Without it, we may arrive at the wrong conclusion. Take our dog– if we base our abstraction on specific, non-common characteristics,
we may end up thinking that all dogs are made up of shapelessmounds of dark brown, shaggy hair, that emit loud barking sounds.

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64Prediction
Prediction, which fits under the banner of abstraction, also becomes
important at this age. Can a child look at the piece of physical code, oreven hold a series of commands in their head, and have an idea of where
the programmable robot (or human) will end up? If they can, they are able
to solve multiple problems in their head where previously they would
have used more time to enact their solution in real life, in real time.

Programming
Excitingly, at around this time we can also begin to introduce
programming to kids. Put simply, programming is the expressionof the ideas of computational thinking (algorithms, decomposition,
logical reasoning), in written form (coding). Of course, this code
doesn’t have to be on the screen but can be in the form of tangible
code too, using a coding toy.

Sequencing
One of the key ideas within programming is sequencing. Whenbroken down, a program is a collection of sequential instructions.
These instructions must be clear and unambiguous otherwise theprogram won’t work.

Repetition
Repetition, in which the execution of an instruction or instructions withina program is repeated, is also important. Most programs will haverepetition built in, both as a means for saving time (it beats assembling
the same line of code over and over again), and making it easier to read.

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65Activities to teach these concepts
Depending on the level of the class, the teacher may choose to kickoff with a few lessons that bring children up to speed, for whichthose activities outlined in Section i would do well. Of course, thesecan be tweaked accordingly. We’ve always liked the idea of a kindof aerobics class where, rather than exercises, the teacher callsout directions as a means to revisit left and right and forwards andbackwards commands. Again, these activities can pave the way for
tangible coding activities down the line. Once the children are happy
with two or three block sequences using their coding toys, try thefollowing activities.

1) Find home
Why?
Alongside an opportunity to play around with prediction andabstraction, three different learning styles are catered for in thissimple activity.

What?
A large grid is drawn on the classroom floor or playground in chalk.
A home square is chosen by the child and confirmed with theteacher (or if it’s at home, the parent). In Round 1, the child is invited
to act out the code they’d need to use to arrive at the home square.

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In Round 2, the same child is then asked to listen to a set of instructions
given by another child or a teacher, and asked to identify on the map
where this will take them.
In Round 3, the child is asked to visualise a path to the home squareusing home-made instruction cards (ie square cards with arrows
and commands), before programming another child. (Alternatively
the child could also program a robot like Kibo or Cubetto. For Kibo
the child simply needs to arrange a program of wooden instruction
cubes, scanning the barcodes of each, and pressing the button
when they want Kibo to execute a line of code. For Cubetto, the childassembles the relevant coloured instruction blocks within the Control
Board. When they are satisfied that this combination is correct, they
just hit the Go button to watch the wooden robot move to the rightsquare – hopefully! – on the map).

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67Not only does this exercise encourage the use of unambiguous
instructions and then debugging if the sequence of instructions isincorrect, but abstraction and prediction is introduced by asking thechild to visualise the route in Rounds 2 and 3. Moreover, it’s also an
opportunity for the teacher or parent to see which of several learning
styles might suit a child most: visual, auditory or kinaesthetic. Round
1 is kinaesthetic, allowing the child to walk around and interpret thecode themselves; Round 2 is auditory, where the child has to make a
prediction by listening; and Round 3 is, naturally, visual.

Other ideas
Of course, rather than programming another child in Round 2, thechild could instead program a robot. Once the children are happy with
programming the robot for a route of, say, four blocks, the teacher orparent can also add in another level of complexity by restricting thenumber of instruction blocks or steps the child can use. In order tocomplete the route, the child is forced to use repetition (in the case of
our coding toy, Cubetto, this means using the function line, while withanother robot like Kibo it requires the use of repeat blocks).
The parent or teacher can also do exactly the opposite, and provide
an overly long piece of code to get to the home square. It’s then up
to the child to make it more efficient.

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682) Coding and Storytelling - a robot
adventure
Why?
Storytelling provides a vivid and engaging framework to introduce,
explore or practice programming principles with children.
Conversely, we can also explore the composition of stories using acomputational mind-set.

The activity
This activity uses Cubetto or Kibo or any other robot powered by atangible coding language. It also makes use of Cubetto’s gridded,
themed maps (which come as part of the the playset), although
homemade maps will also work well.
The teacher opens by telling a well-known story, for example The
Tortoise and the Hare. The teacher then invites the children to
discuss how we come up with stories and who writes them – theanswer to aim at is ‘an author.’ The teacher then tells the children thattoday, they’re going to be authors too and that they’re going to write
a story using coding to help. The teacher sets Cubetto down andinvites the class to give directions.

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69For every new map square that Cubetto lands on, the students have to
dream up and write down a new part of the story. So, the final journeyof Cubetto – let’s say from the mountains to the sea – is literally basedon the route Cubetto took using the code written by the class.
There are several elements of this activity that commend it. Children
get to create their own stories while simultaneously writing the codefor the robot itself – one feeds the other. In addition, children are able
to learn something about the topics they might discover en route, forexample how a mountain is formed, where rivers and streams comefrom, or the benefits of freshwater over saltwater for humans. It’s
another example of a creative and holistic approach to coding.

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70Other ideas
There’s plenty of room to extend the reach of this particular activity.
Teachers could, for example, encourage their coder-storyteller
students to tell their stories to children in different classes of thesame age, or even learners in the year below.  This way, they share
their stories and a new learning framework that can extend around theschool or even at home: ‘I wrote this story for you with my Cubetto.’

Other resources
Just as with the previous section, these activities shouldn’t be seen
as exhaustive. Here we outline a selection of online resources formore computer programming and computational thinking activities,
games and ideas for kids.
Primo Toys - A selection of Cubetto-themed stories, activities andvideo tutorials that parents will find handy too.
Barefoot Computing - Aimed at educators, this has the full
outline of their signature breakdown of computational thinking
and programming, plus activities to support them.
CS Unplugged - Teacher-focused, but shouldn’t be missed by any
parent looking for fun and enlightening off-screen games andpuzzles to teach computer science.
Kibo - More on Kibo, the research behind it, and a selection of stepby-step tutorials on how to use it.

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71BBC Bitesize - This colourful and engaging revision guide for the
UK’s Key Stage 1 and Key Stage 2 levels of the computing curriculum
could be invaluable if you’re a teacher in Britain. However, its clear
language and summaries will benefit any international educator,
along with parents too.
Code.org - For US teachers, Code.org’s K-5 curriculum is jam-packed
with developmentally appropriate lesson plans.

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Part Three
What next?

73

What next?
Over the previous pages we’ve outlined a particular approach to
introducing very young children to coding. One that starts withcomputational thinking and its core concepts; that favours hands-on
learning, open-ended play and child-centred activities; and that takes
kids away from the screen to fit the pedagogy of educational greats like
Maria Montessori, Friedrich Froebel, Jean Piaget and Seymour Papert.
This book has been very much an introduction, and a concise one at that.
As a parent or teacher, you may be thinking: ‘How can I build on what
the child has learnt over the course of this book? How can they explore
coding and computational thinking from the ages of seven upwards?’
Well, there are different routes for different styles of learning. We talkthrough some of the options below:

1) Continue learning with tangible
codingWhen children hit seven years old, tangible coding doesn’t suddenly
become redundant – there is still very much a space for tangible
code in the classroom and at home. Cubetto’s instruction board, forexample, has trillions of combinations, and a variety of fiendishly
difficult (and enjoyable) puzzles can be created with its instruction
blocks.  At a recent workshop we held at Google’s London offices,even adults struggled when we removed Cubetto’s forward instruction
blocks. The tech firm’s employees had to use brain-busting levels of
abstraction to solve a coding challenge we set them.

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Storytelling also comes into its own at this age. Children can begin
to draw their own new and larger maps with details of their own
choosing. They can craft new props (think jet packs or back packs)
for their robot coding friend. They can even use colouring pens
to expand the world of Cubetto for new adventures. This has two
handy effects: firstly, it provides more creative and cross-curricular
opportunities to root programming in art, geography, history, scienceand so on. Secondly, by building and growing the world of theirrobotic friend, children can really own the story they’ve created, andin turn their own learning process. It’s a neat way of personalisingcoding education for the child, by the child.

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Cubetto can be used
to devise fiendishly
difficult (andenjoyable) puzzles.

2) Start to think about on-screen coding
When children are around the ages of six or seven, you may also
want to start thinking about introducing junior screen-based coding
languages. Scratch, a free programming language designed by
MIT for eight- to 12-year-olds, and its younger sibling ScratchJr,
designed for five- to seven-year-olds, have both become popular
in recent years. In both cases, the emphasis is on creativity andlearning through coding, within which the child can make their own
interactive games and stories. If the young learners are especiallytalented and motivated, even starting them out on popular everyday
programming languages like Python shouldn’t be overlooked.

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76Programming
languages such as
Scratch and Python
can provide a great
introduction to
on-screen coding.

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773) Make robots
Sometimes, when we talk to parents about the kinds of learning thatkids can do from seven years old and onwards, we hear them createa (false) dichotomy between tangible and on-screen coding. There’s
a tendency to see it as one or the other. But actually, there’s noreason why we can’t combine an on- and off-screen approach just as
Logo Turtle did 60 years ago. We’re talking, of course, about robotics.
By building with and programming robots, children gain anunderstanding of both hardware and software as well as STEM
subjects. They can create in the digital world, and still benefit fromthe real-world interactions and skills that come from robotics projects– negotiation, problem-solving, engineering, collaboration, patienceand persistence. For these reasons, we believe that robotics kitswww.primotoys.com

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like Lego Mindstorms become especially effective and engaging
educational resources towards the end of early childhood.
The DIY process at the heart of robotics also eventually opens
the door to an entire community of fellow makers of all ages,
cultures and countries. Maker Faires around the world are rich with
opportunities to collaborate on new projects and make friends withpeople you may never have met otherwise.
We speak from personal experience. We grew out of the maker
community, and over several years and many iterations, we designed
a robot that is now used in more than 20,000 schools and homesaround the world. We’ve found that even in adult life there are few
things more challenging, more exciting or more rewarding thanmaking and programming your own robot.
Of course, you will know your child or children best, so it’s up to you
to work with them to find out which direction they want to go. Our
hope is that this book gives you and them a running start.

Happy programming!

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Glossary
Abstraction - Using abstract representations (things that don’t
exist in the real world), to formulate ideas, solve problems andcome to conclusions.
Algorithm - A set of unambiguous instructions that perform a
specific task.
Causality - The understanding that an action will produce an effect.
Coding - A contemporary term for computer programming.
Computer programming - The practice of making a computer dothings through a sequence of instructions, which are often written
in code.
Computational thinking - A fundamental skill that anyone can learn,
which helps to identify and break down complex problems so thatthey can be solved, either by a computer or a human.
Computer science - The study of what computers are actuallycapable of doing.
Concrete thinking - A way of thinking bound to facts and the here andnow (for example by way of physical objects that can be held and seen).

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80Constructionism - A learning theory developed by Seymour Papert,
which sprang from constructivist principles but also argues thatlearning is most effective when people construct tangible objects orartefacts in the real world.
Constructivism - A 20th-century learning theory, closely associatedwith Jean Piaget, which proposes that humans construct knowledge
based on their experiences, rather than acquiring it.
Hands-on play - A style of play that advocates the use of physical, handheld objects and often, but not always, avoids the use of screens.
Kinaesthetic learning - An approach to learning which advocateslearning through physical activities rather than, for example, throughbooks and lectures.
Logic - A method of reasoning that helps us understand why
something behaves in a certain way.
Logo - An educational programming language developed by
Seymour Papert, Cynthia Solomon and Wally Feurzeig at MIT in 1967.
Montessori - An educational approach developed by the Italianeducator Maria Montessori, which places emphasis on hands-on
play and child-centred learning.
Open-ended play - A style of play in which children can express
themselves and explore freely without being restricted by preset
limitations from adults, or games with a predetermined conclusion.
Programming - See ‘computer programming’.

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STEM - An acronym that refers to the academic disciplines of
Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics. The STEM
movement promotes more effective integration of these disciplines
in the classroom.
STEAM - As with STEM but with the inclusion of Art and design too.
Tinkering - An approach to making and problem-solving throughtrial and error.

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Bibliography
Books and eBooks• Tim Bell, Ian H Witten and Mike Fellows, Adapted forclassroom use by Robyn Adams and Jane McKenzie,‘CS Unplugged’ (2015)• Jason R Briggs, ‘Python for Kids - A Playful Introduction to
Programming’ (No Starch Press, 2013)• Helen Caldwell and Neil Smith,‘Teaching Computing Unplugged in Primary Schools’ (2016)• Seymour Papert, ‘Mindstorms’, (Harvester Press, 1980)

Journals and research• Carl Benedikt Frey and Michael A. Osborne,‘The Future of Employment’ (Oxford Martin School, 2013)• Marina Umaschi Bers and Elizabeth R. Kazakoff, ‘Put
your robot in, put your robot out: sequencing throughprogramming robots in early childhood’,
J Educational Computing Research Vol.50 (2014)• Marina Umashi Bers, ‘The TangibleK Robotics Program:
Applied Computational Thinking for Young Children, ECRP
v.12 no.2, (2010)www.primotoys.com

83• Marina Umaschi Bers, Louise Flannery, Elizabeth R. Kazakoffand Amanda Sullivan, ‘Computational thinking and tinkering:
Exploration of an early childhood robotics curriculum’
Computers and Education (Elsevier, 2013)• Paulo Blikstein, Arnan Sipitakiat, Jayme Goldstein, JoãoWilbert, Maggie Johnson, Steve Vranakis, Zebedee Pedersen,Will Carey, ‘Project Bloks: designing a development platform
for tangible programming for children’ (2013)• Anthony Ginn, ‘Interview with Seymour Papert’, Practical
Robotics (1984) Extract here
• Michael Horn and Robert J.K. Jacob, ‘Tangible Programmingin the Classroom with Tern’ (ACM Press, 2007)• Steven Kurutz, ‘One Big Workbench’, New York Times (2013)• Seymour Papert and Cynthia Solomon, ‘Twenty things to dowith a computer’, Educational Technology Magazine(Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1972)• Radia Perlman, ‘TORTIS - Toddler’s Own Recursive Turtle
Interpreter System’ MIT AI Memo No. 311/Logo MemoNo. 9 (MIT AI Lab, Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
Cambridge, MA, USA, 1974)• H. Raffle, A. Parkes, and H. Ishii, ‘Topobo: a constructive
assembly system with kinetic memory. In Human Factors in
Computing’ (ACM, 2004)• Jeanette M. Wing, ‘Computational thinking and thinking
about computing’ Royal Society (2008)

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84News articles and blogs• ‘21st Century Literacy: New Initiative Makes the Case that
Learning to Code is for Everyone,’ Berkman Klein Center forInternet and Society at Harvard University (2014)• ‘Gartner Says 6.4 Billion Connected “Things” Will Be in Use
in 2016, Up 30 Percent From 2015,’ Gartner (2015)• ‘A is for Algorithm’, The Economist (2014)• Paulo Blikstein, ‘Seymour Papert’s Legacy: Thinking About
Learning, and Learning About Thinking’ Transformative
Learning Technologies Lab Standford Univeristy• Dan Crow, ‘Why Every Child Should Learn to Code’,
The Guardian (2014)• Tony Danova, ‘Morgan Stanley: 75 Billion Devices
Will Be Connected To The Internet Of Things By 2020’
Business Insider (2013)• George Dvorsky, ‘The 10 Algorithms That Dominate
Our World’, iO9, (2014)• Anya Kamenetz, ‘Coding Class, Then Naptime: Computer
Science For The Kindergarten Set’ NPR (2015)• DT Max, ‘A Whole New Ball Game’, New Yorker (2016)• Saul McLeod, ‘Jean Piaget’, Simply Psychology (2009)• Dave Munger, ‘A Simple Toy, And What It Says About How
We Learn To Mentally Rotate Objects’, Science Blogs (2008)• Derek Thompson, ‘A World Without Work’, The Atlantic (2015)• Sheena Vaidyanathan, ‘Computer Science
Goes Beyond Coding’, EdSurge (2015)• Jeanette M Wing, ‘Computational Thinking:What and Why?’, The Link (2011)• Mark Ylvisaker, ‘Concrete vs. Abstract Thinking’LEARNnet (2008)

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85Videos• ‘Code: The New Literacy’ (2013) YouTube• ‘Introducing Project Bloks’ (2016) YouTube• ‘Program Your Teacher to Make a Jam Sandwich(Sandwich Bot) Junior Computer Science’, 2012) YouTube• ‘Young Programmers Think Playgrounds, Not Playpens| Marina Bers | TEDxJackson’ (2015) YouTube

Websites and online resources• Barefoot Computing• BBC Bitesize (KS1 Computing)• CODE.org• Computational Thinking with Google• Computing at School• Concept to Classroom• Dr Techniko• Gov.uk, National curriculum in England:
computing programmes of study’• Kinder Labs
• Scratched• University of Sydney• Wikipedia, ‘Kinaesthetic learning’• Wikipedia, ‘STEM’• Wikipedia, ‘STEAM’• Wikipedia, ‘LOGO’• Wikipedia, ‘Constructivism’• Wikipedia, ‘Jean Piaget’

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