ARITHMETIC DEFORMATION THEORY VIA
ARITHMETIC FUNDAMENTAL GROUPS AND NONARCHIMEDEAN THETA-FUNCTIONS,NOTES ON THE WORK OF SHINICHI MOCHIZUKIIVAN FESENKOA BSTRACT. These notes survey the main ideas, concepts and objects of the work by Shinichi Mochizuki on interuniversal Teichmüller theory [31], which might also be called arithmetic deformation theory, and its application
to diophantine geometry. They provide an external perspective which complements the review texts [32] and[33]. Some important developments which preceded [31] are presented in the first section. Several key aspectsof arithmetic deformation theory are discussed in the second section. Its main theorem gives an inequality–boundon the size of volume deformation associated to a certain log-theta-lattice. The application to several fundamental
conjectures in number theory follows from a further direct computation of the right hand side of the inequality. The
third section considers additional related topics, including practical hints on how to study the theory.
This text was published in Europ. J. Math. (2015) 1:405–440.

C ONTENTS
Foreword
1. The origins
1.1. From class field theory to reconstructing number fields to coverings of P1 minus three points
1.2. A development in diophantine geometry
1.3. Conjectural inequalities for the same property
1.4. A question posed to a student by his thesis advisor
1.5. On anabelian geometry
2. On arithmetic deformation theory
2.1. Texts related to IUT
2.2. Initial data
2.3. A brief outline of the proof and a list of some of the main concepts
2.4. Mono-anabelian geometry and multiradiality
2.5. Nonarchimedean theta-functions
2.6. Generalised Kummer theory
2.7. The theta-link and two types of symmetry
2.8. Nonarchimedean logarithm, log-link, log-theta-lattice, log-shell
2.9. Rigidities and indeterminacies
2.10. The role of global data
2.11. The main theorem of IUT
2.12. The application of IUT
2.13. More theorems, objects and concepts of IUT
2.14. Analogies and relations between IUT and other theories
3. Studying IUT and related aspects
3.1. On the verification of IUT (updated in July 2017)
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3.2. Entrances to the study of IUT (updated in July 2017)
3.3. The work of Shinichi Mochizuki
3.4. Related issues
References

25
26
26
27

Foreword. The aim of these notes is to present, in a relatively simple and general form, the key ideas, concepts
and objects of the work of Shinichi Mochizuki on inter-universal Teichmüller theory (IUT), to as many potential
readers as possible. The presentation is based on my ongoing experience in studying IUT. This text is expected
to help its readers to gain a general overview of the theory and a certain orientation in it, as well as to see
various links between it and existing theories.
Reading these notes cannot replace or substitute a serious study of IUT. There are probably two main options
available at the time of writing of this text to learn about the essence of IUT. The first is to dedicate a significant
amount of time to studying the theory patiently and gradually reaching its main parts. I refer to section 3 formy recommendation on how to study the original texts of arithmetic deformation theory, which is another name(due to the author of the present text) for the theory. The second option is to read the review texts [32] and [33]and introductions of papers, etc. My experience and the experience of several other mathematicians show thatthe early review texts that were written by the author of the theory prior to 2015 could be hard to follow, andreading them before a serious study of IUT may be not the best way, while reading them after some preliminary
study or in the middle of it can be more useful.
In view of the declared aim of this text and the natural limitation on its size, it is inevitable that several
important mathematical objects and notions in section 2 are introduced in a vague form. One of such objects isa so-called theta-link: a very large part of [31]-I-III defines the theta-link and develops its enhanced versions.1
1. T HE ORIGINS
1.1. From class field theory to reconstructing number fields to coverings of P1 minus three points.
Abelian class field theory for one-dimensional global and local fields, in particular for number fields and theircompletions, has played a central role in number theory and stimulated many further developments. Inverse
Galois theory, several versions of the Langlands programme, anabelian geometry, (abelian) higher class field
theory and higher adelic geometry and analysis, and, to some extent, the arithmetic of abelian varieties overglobal fields and their completions are among them.
Inverse Galois theory studies how to realise finite or infinite compact topological groups as Galois groups ofvarious fields including extensions of number fields and their completions, see e.g. [21]. For abelian groups
and local and global fields, the answer follows from class field theory. A theorem of Shafarevich states thatevery soluble group can be realised as a Galois group over a global field, see e.g. §6 Ch.IX of [40].
Let K alg be an algebraic closure of a number field K. The Galois group GK = G(K alg /K) is called theabsolute Galois group of K.
The Neukirch–Ikeda–Uchida theorem (proved by the end of 1970s; the proof used global class field theory)
asserts, see e.g. §2 Ch.XII of [40], the following:
1 An appreciation of the general qualitative aspects of the theta-link may be obtained by studying the simplest version of the theta-

link. This version is discussed in §I1 of [31]-I, while technical details concerning the construction of this version may be found in
approximately 30 pages of §3 of [31]-I.

NOTES ON THE WORK OF SHINICHI MOCHIZUKI ON ARITHMETIC DEFORMATION THEORY

3∼ GK there−
For two number fields K1 , K2 and any isomorphism of topological groups ψ : GK1 →2
alg ∼ alg
is a unique field isomorphism σ : K2 →− K1 such that σ (K2 ) = K1 and ψ(g)(a) = σ −1 (gσ (a))
alg
for all a ∈ K2 , g ∈ GK1 . In particular, the homomorphism GQ → Aut(GQ ), g 7→ (h 7→ ghg−1 ),is an isomorphism and every automorphism of GQ is inner.
The next theorem was included as Th. 4 in [3] in 1980, as part of Belyi’s study of aspects of inverse Galois
theory:An irreducible smooth projective algebraic curve C defined over a field of characteristic zerocan be defined over an algebraic closure Qalg of the field of rational numbers Q if and only ifthere is a covering C −→ P1 which ramifies over no more than three points of P1 .
This theorem2 plays a key role in the study of Galois groups, including algebraic and geometric fundamentalgroups of curves over number fields and local fields.3 Coverings of the type which appears in this theorem
are often called Belyi maps. Various versions of Belyi maps are used in arithmetic deformation theory and its
application to diophantine geometry.
1.2. A development in diophantine geometry. In 1983 Faltings proved the Mordell conjecture, a fundamental finiteness property in diophantine geometry [8], [2]. The Faltings–Mordell theorem asserts that
A curve C of genus > 1 defined over an algebraic number field K has only finitely many rational
points over K.
Several other proofs followed.4 Vojta found interesting links with Nevanlinna theory in complex analysis
which led to one of his proofs. For textbook expositions of simplified proofs see [15] and [6].
The same year Grothendieck wrote a letter [13] to Faltings, which proposed elements of anabelian geometry.
With hindsight, one of the issues raised in it was a generalisation of the Neukirch–Ikeda–Uchida theorem5 toanabelian geometric objects such as hyperbolic curves over number fields and possible applications of anabeliangeometry to provide new proofs and stronger versions, as well as a better understanding, of such results indiophantine geometry as the Faltings–Mordell theorem, cf. 1.5.
2 The first version of [3] and Belyi’s seminar talk in Moscow dealt with an elliptic curve, which was enough for its subsequent

application, see 1.5. After reading the first version of [3], Bogomolov noticed that the original proof of the theorem in it works forarbitrary curves. He told Belyi how important this extended version is and urged him to include the extended version in the paper. Belyi
was reluctant to include the extended version, on the grounds that over finite fields every irreducible smooth projective algebraic curve
may be exhibited as a covering of the projective line with at most one ramification point. Bogomolov then talked with Shafarevich, who
immediately appreciated the value of the extended version and insisted that the author include it in [3]. Bogomolov further developed
the theory of Belyi maps, in particular, in relation to the use of coloured Riemann surfaces and delivered numerous talks on these further
developments. Several years later this theory appeared, independently, in Grothendieck’s text [12].
3 Grothendieck wrote about the “only if” part: “never, without a doubt, was such a deep and disconcerting result proved in so few
lines!”[12].
4 Here we are in the best possible situation when a conjecture stated over an arbitrary algebraic number field and is establishedover an arbitrary algebraic number field, and the methods of the proofs do not depend on the specific features of the number field underconsideration. This is not so in the case of the arithmetic Langlands correspondence, even for elliptic curves over number fields. In thehistory of class field theory, the initial period of developing special theories that work only over small number fields was followed bya phase of general functorial class field theory over arbitrary global and local fields. The general theory was eventually clarified andsimplified, see [39], and it became easier than those initial theories. We are yet to witness a similar phase which involves a generalfunctorial theory that works over arbitrary number fields in the case of the Langlands programme and hence, in particular, yields anotherproof of the Wiles–Fermat theorem via the automorphic properties of elliptic curves over any number field.
5 it appears that Grothendieck was not aware of this theorem

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1.3. Conjectural inequalities for the same property. There are several closely related conjectures, proposedin the period from 1978 to 1987, which extend further the property stated in the Mordell conjecture:(a) the effective Mordell conjecture — a conjectural extension of the Faltings–Mordell theorem which involves
an effective bound on the height of rational points of the curve C over the number field K in the Faltings theorem
in terms of data associated to C and K,(b) the Szpiro conjecture, see below,(c) the Masser–Oesterlé conjecture, a.k.a. the abc conjecture (whose statement over Q is well known6, andwhich has an extension to arbitrary algebraic number fields, see Conj. 14.4.12 of [6]),(d) the Frey conjecture, see Conj. F.3.2(b) of [15],(e) the Vojta conjecture on hyperbolic curves, see below,(f) arithmetic Bogomolov–Miyaoka–Yau conjectures (there are several versions).
The Szpiro conjecture was stated several years before7 the work of Faltings, who learned much about the
subject related to his proof from Szpiro. Using the Frey curve8, it is not difficult to show that (c) and (d) areequivalent and that they imply (b), see e.g. see sect. F3 of [15] and references therein. Using Belyi maps as in
1.1, one can show the equivalence of (c) and (a). For the equivalence of (c) and (e) see e.g. Th. 14.4.16 of [6]and [47]. For implications (e) ⇒ (f) see [48].
Over the complex numbers the property analogous to the Szpiro conjecture is very interesting. For a smoothprojective surface equipped with a structure of non-split minimal elliptic surface fibred over a smooth projective
connected complex curve of genus g, such that the fibration admits a global section, and, moreover, every
singular fibre of the fibration is of type In , i.e. its components are projective lines which intersect transversallyand form an n-gon, this property states that the sum of the number of components of singular fibres does
not exceed 6 times the sum of the number of singular fibres and of 2g − 2. The property has several proofs,of which the first was given by Szpiro. Shioda deduced the statement in two pages of computations fromarguments already known to Kodaira. These two proofs of the geometric version of the inequality use thecotangent bundle and the Kodaira–Spencer map. A (full) arithmetic version of the Kodaira–Spencer map could
be quite useful for giving a proof of the arithmetic Szpiro conjecture. However, such an arithmetic version of
the Kodaira–Spencer map is not yet known.
Among several other proofs of this property, a proof by Bogomolov uses monodromy actions and the hyperbolic geometry of the upper half-plane and does not use the cotangent bundle, see sect. 5.3 of [1]. His
proof makes essential use of the fact that the n-gons determined by the singular fibres may be equipped with acommon orientation, like windmills revolving in synchrony in the presence of wind. Synchronisation of data
plays an important role in arithmetic deformation theory as well, cf. 2.10. To develop an arithmetic analogueof the geometric proof of Bogomolov to apply to proving the arithmetic Szpiro conjecture, one needs a kind ofarithmetic analogue of the hyperbolic geometry of the upper half-plane, and this is in some sense achieved by
IUT, see 2.10.
The conjectural (arithmetic) Szpiro inequality states in particular that if K is a number field, then for every
ε > 0 there is a real c (depending on K and ε) such that for every elliptic curve EK over the number field K
6 For every ε > 0 there is a constant such that for all non-zero integers a, b, c such that (a, b, c) = 1 the equality a + b + c = 0 implies

max(log |a|, log |b|, log |c|) 6 constant + (1 + ε) ∑ p|abc log p where p runs through all positive primes dividing abc. While the statementof the abc conjecture does not reveal immediately any underlying geometric structure, the other conjectures are more geometrical. For
an entertaining presentation of aspects of the abc conjecture and related properties, see e.g. [49].
7
In 1978 Szpiro talked about it with several mathematicians. He made the conjecture public at a meeting of the German Math.
Society (DMV) in 1982 where Frey, Oesterlé and Masser were present.
8 2
y = x(x + a)(x − b) where a, b, a + b are non-zero coprime integers

NOTES ON THE WORK OF SHINICHI MOCHIZUKI ON ARITHMETIC DEFORMATION THEORY

5

with split multiplicative reduction at every bad reduction valuation, so all singular fibres of its minimal regularproper model E −→ Spec OK are of type In , the weighted sum of the numbers nv of components of singularfibres satisfies∑ nv log |k(v)| 6 c + (6 + ε) ∑ log |k(v)|,where v runs through the nonarchimedean valuations9 of K corresponding to singular fibres, and k(v) denotes
the finite residue field of K at v.10 For the curve EK as above, the quantity exp(∑ nv log |k(v)|) coincides with theabsolute norm N(DiscEK ) of the so-called minimal discriminant of EK , and exp(∑ log |k(v)|) coincides with theabsolute norm N(CondEK ) of the conductor of EK .11 Using these notational conventions, the Szpiro conjecturestates that if K is a number field, then for every ε > 0 there is a real c0 > 0 (depending on K and ε) such that forevery elliptic curve EK over K the inequality
N(DiscEK ) 6 c0 N(CondEK )6+ε
holds, see e.g. 10.6 of Ch.IV of [44].12
The Vojta conjecture, as discussed in this text, deals with a smooth proper geometrically connected curve C
over a number field K and a reduced effective divisor D on C such that the line bundle ω C (D), associated withthe sum of the divisor D and a canonical divisor of C, is of positive degree (i.e. C \ D is a hyperbolic curve,see 1.5). It asserts the following: for every positive integer n and positive real number ε there is a constant c(depending on C, D, n, ε but not on K) such that the inequality
htω C (D) (x) 6 c + (1 + ε)(log-diffC (x) + log-condD (x))
holds for all x ∈ (C \ D)(K 0 ), for all number fields K 0 of degree 6 n. To define the terms, let C be a regularproper model of C over Spec(OK ). For a point x ∈ C(Qalg ) denote by F a minimal subfield of Qalg over which
x is defined. Let sx : Spec(OF ) −→ C be the section uniquely determined by x. Then the height of x associatedto a line bundle B on C can be explicitly defined in several equivalent ways (up to a bounded function on
C(Qalg )), for instance, by using the canonical height on some projective space into which C is embedded, oras deg(s∗x B), where B is an extension to C of B viewed as an arithmetic line bundle on C, cf. sect. 1 of
[29] or part B of [15]. Define log-condD (x) = deg((s∗x D)red ), where D denotes the closure in C of D, and red
stands for the reduced part. Define the log-different (also called the normalised log-absolute-discriminant) as
log-diffC (x) = deg(δF/Q ) = |F : Q|−1 deg(DF/Q ) where δF/Q and DF/Q are the different and discriminant of
F/Q, and the normalised degree deg is defined in 2.2.13 This conjecture is equivalent to Conj. 2.3 for curves in[47] or Conj. 14.4.10 in [6].
Using the Belyi map, one reduces the Vojta conjecture for C, D, K as above to the case of C = P1 over Q and
D = [0] + [1] + [∞].14
9 by abuse of some of the established terminology, valuations in this text include nonarchimedean and archimedean ones
10 the notation |J| stands for the cardinality of the set J
11 there are two different objects in this text (and in this subsection) whose names involve the word “discriminant”: the minimal

discriminant DiscEK of an elliptic curve EK over a number field K and the (absolute) discriminant DK/Q of a number field K
12 Szpiro proved that over Q this inequality implies the abc conjecture over Q with constant 6/5 instead of constant 1 in it, see e.g.
p.498 of [15].
13 for a field extension R/S the notation |R : S| stands for its degree
14 Viewing P1 as the λ -line in the Legendre representation y2 = x(x−1)(x−λ ) of an elliptic curve E yields a classifying morphism
λfrom P1 \ {0, 1, ∞} to the natural compactification Mell ⊗ Q of the moduli stack of elliptic curves over Z tensored with Q. The heighthtω C (D) (λ ) on the LHS of the Vojta conjecture for C = P1 and D = [0] + [1] + [∞], is closely related to 16 times the LHS of the inequalityof the Szpiro conjecture for Eλ , since the degree of the pull-back to P1 of the divisor at infinity of the natural compactification ofMell ⊗ Q is 6 times 1 = the degree of ω C (D), see [29].

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Note the difference between the Vojta conjecture and the Szpiro conjecture in relation to allowing the algebraic number field to vary; this partially explains the occurrence of the term involving log-diffC on the RHS of
the inequality of the former conjecture. One can formulate a stronger version of the Szpiro conjecture in which
K varies.15 The Frey conjecture, the Szpiro conjecture and the stronger Szpiro conjecture are problems in arithmetic of elliptic curves over number fields. There are three basic methods to work on fundamental problems inarithmetic of elliptic curves: (i) the more traditional use of Galois groups generated by certain torsion points ofthe elliptic curve EK and associated Galois representations, in particular, this is how the Wiles–Fermat theorem
was proved, (ii) the method of IUT which involves the arithmetic fundamental group of hyperbolic curves overnumber fields related to the elliptic curve EK , among several ingredients, (iii) higher adelic method uses theabelian part of the absolute Galois group of the function field of the elliptic curve EK , two-dimensional classfield theory, higher adeles and higher zeta integrals, [9] and 2.14.
There are also so-called explicit stronger versions of the abc conjecture, which easily imply the Wiles–Fermat
theorem, see e.g. [49], and which are not dealt with in [31]. For a discussion of the relationship between [31]and solutions to the Fermat equation see the final paragraph of 2.12.
1.4. A question posed to a student by his thesis advisor. In January 1991 Shinichi Mochizuki, at that time athird year PhD student in Princeton, 21 years old, was asked by Faltings (his thesis advisor) to try to prove theeffective form of the Mordell conjecture.16
Not surprisingly, he was not able to prove it during his PhD years. As we know, he took the request of his
supervisor very seriously. In hindsight, it is astounding that almost all his papers are related to the ultimate goalof establishing the conjectures of 1.3. These efforts over the long term culminated twenty years later in [31]-IV,
where (a), (c), (d), (e) and hence (b) and (f) of 1.3 are established as one application of his inter-universal
Teichmüller theory [31]-I-III.17
His earlier Hodge–Arakelov theory [23], where a certain weak arithmetic version of the Kodaira–Spencer
map is studied, was already an innovative step forward. That work shows that Galois groups may in some sensebe regarded as arithmetic tangent bundles.
1.5. On anabelian geometry. Algebraic (or étale) fundamental groups in general and anabelian geometry
in particular are less familiar to number theorists than class field theory or parts of diophantine geometry.
On the other hand, geometers may feel more at home in this context. For an introduction to many relevant
issues starting with algebraic fundamental groups and leading to discussions of several key results in anabeliangeometry see Ch.4 of [45]. See also [42] for a survey of several directions in anabelian geometry before 2010,
including discussions of some results by Mochizuki which are prerequisites for arithmetic deformation theory.
The fact that the author of this text is not directly working in anabelian geometry can be encouraging formany readers of this text who would typically share this quality.
For any geometrically integral (quasi-compact) scheme X over a perfect field K, the following exact sequenceis fundamental
geom
1 → π1 (X) → π1 (X) → π1 (Spec(K)) = GK → 1.
15 For every ε > 0 there is a constant c0 such that the following inequality holds N(Disc06+ε |D6+ε for all
EK ) 6 c N(CondEK )K/Q |elliptic curves EK over number fields K. This stronger version is equivalent to the Vojta conjecture, as we shall see when we meet it in
2.12, and it shows up in Abstract, the final sentence of §1 and Corollary 4.2 of [33], and on p.17 of [32].
16 Neither the word “anabelian” nor the Grothendieck letter [13] was mentioned. The author of IUT heard about anabelian geometry
for the first time from Takayuki Oda in Kyoto in the summer of 1992.
17 The four parts of [31] were ready by August 2011 and put on hold for one year. They were posted on the author’s webpage inAugust 2012 and submitted to a mathematical journal.

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geom

Here π1 (X) is the algebraic fundamental group of X, π1 (X) = π1 (X ×K K alg ), K alg is an algebraic closure ofK, see e.g. Prop.5.6.1 of [45]. Suppressed dependence of the fundamental groups on basepoints actually meansthat objects are often well-defined only up to conjugation by elements of π1 (X). Algebraic fundamental groupsof schemes over number fields (or fields closely related to number fields, such as local fields or finite fields) arealso called arithmetic fundamental groups.
If C is a complex irreducible smooth projective curve minus a finite collection of its points, then π1 (C) is
isomorphic to the profinite completion of the topological fundamental group of the Riemann surface associatedto C.
If C is the result of base-changing a curve over a field K to the field of complex numbers, then the analogue
for such a curve over K of the displayed sequence (associated to X) discussed in the previous paragraph induces
geom
geom
a homomorphism from GK to the quotient group Out(π1 (C)) of the automorphism group of π1 (C) by its
normal subgroup of inner automorphisms. Belyi proved, using the theorem discussed in 1.1 for elliptic curves,that this map gives an embedding of the absolute Galois group GQ of Q into the Out group of the pro-finite
completion of a free group with two generators [3]. For readers with background outside number theory I recall
that, unlike the case with absolute Galois groups of local fields, we still know relatively little about GQ ; hence
the Belyi result is of great value.
Recall that a hyperbolic curve C over a field K of characteristic zero is a smooth projective geometricallyconnected curve of genus g minus r points such that the Euler characteristic 2 − 2g − r is negative. Examples
include a projective line minus three points or an elliptic curve minus one point. The algebraic fundamentalgroup of a hyperbolic curve is nonabelian.
Anabelian geometry “yoga” for so-called anabelian schemes of finite type over a ground field K (such as anumber field, a field finitely generated over its prime subfield, etc.) states that an anabelian scheme X can be recovered from the topological group π1 (X) and the surjective homomorphism of topological groups π1 (X) → GK
(up to purely inseparable covers and Frobenius twists in positive characteristic). Thus, the algebraic fundamental groups of anabelian schemes are rigid.18
In [13], Grothendieck proposed the following questions:(a) Are hyperbolic curves over number fields or finitely generated fields anabelian?
(b) A point x in X(K), i.e. a morphism Spec(K) −→ X, determines, in a functorial way, a continuous section GK → π1 (X) (well-defined up to composition with an inner automorphism) of
the surjective map π1 (X) → GK . The section conjecture asks if, for a geometrically connectedsmooth projective curve X over K, of genus > 1, the map from rational points X(K) to the setof conjugacy classes of sections is surjective (injectivity was already known). There is also thequestion of whether or not the section conjecture could be of use in deriving finiteness resultsin diophantine geometry.
The Neukirch–Ikeda–Uchida theorem is a birational version of (a) in the lowest dimension. A similar recovery property for fields finitely generated over Q was proved by Pop. Later Mochizuki proved a similar recovery
property for a subfield of a field finitely generated over Q p . Many more results are known over other types ofground fields, for a survey see e.g. [42].
18 Compare with the following strong rigidity theorem (Mostow–Prasad–Gromov rigidity theorem) for hyperbolic manifolds: theisometry class of a finite-volume hyperbolic manifold of dimension > 3 is determined by its topological fundamental group, see e.g.
[11]. Recall that in étale topology open subschemes of spectra of rings of integers of number fields are, up to 2-torsion, of (l-adic)
cohomological dimension 3, see e.g. Th. 3.1 Ch. II of [22].

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With respect to (a), important contributions were made by Nakamura and Tamagawa. Then Mochizuki
proved that hyperbolic curves over finitely generated fields of characteristic zero are indeed anabelian. Moreover, using nonarchimedean Hodge–Tate theory (also called p-adic Hodge theory), Mochizuki proved that a
hyperbolic curve X over a subfield K of a field finitely generated over Q p can be recovered functorially fromthe canonical projection π1 (X) → GK .
The section conjecture in part (b) has not been established. A geometric pro-p-version of the section conjecture fails, see [16] and its introduction for more results. A combinatorial version of the section conjecture isestablished in [18]. It is unclear to what extent the section conjecture may be useful in diophantine geometry,but [19] proposes a method which may lead to such applications of the section conjecture.
Arithmetic deformation theory, though related to the results in anabelian geometry reviewed above, uses andapplies a different set of concepts: mono-anabelian geometry, the nonarchimedean theta-function, categories
related to monoid-theoretic structures, deconstruction and reconstruction of ring structures.
2. O N ARITHMETIC DEFORMATION THEORY
The task of presenting arithmetic deformation theory on several pages or in several hours is an interesting
challenge.19
In these notes I attempt to simplify as much as is sensible and to use as little new terminology as is feasible(and to indicate relations with the original terminology of IUT when I use different terminology). As explainedin the foreword, I will have to be vague when talking about some of the central concepts and objects of thetheory. Some more technical sentences have been moved to the footnotes.
2.1. Texts related to IUT. Inter-universal Teichmüller theory20 has many prerequisites and offers many innovations.
∗ Absolute mono-anabelian geometry, developed in [30], is an entralling new theory in its own right. It
enhances anabelian geometry and brings it to a new level. It plays a pivotal role in IUT.
∗ The theory of the nonarchimedean theta-function, cf. [28] and a review in §1 of [31]-II, is of similarcentral importance in IUT.
∗ Categorical geometry papers discuss the theory of categories associated to monoid-theoretic structures21, such as frobenioids22 [27], as well as the theory of anabelioids [24], [26].23∗ [31]-I-III introduce and study several versions of the theta-link. The key main theorem of the first threeparts of IUT is stated in Cor. 3.12 of [31]-III.
19 In view of the overwhelming novelty of the theory, it is hardly possible to give an efficacious presentation during a standard talk.
20 The reason for this name is well explained in the Introduction of [31]-I, as well as in the review papers [32] and [33].
21 The term “monoid-theoretic” in this text corresponds to the term “frobenius-like” in [31]. In IUT, the underlying abstract

topological groups associated to étale fundamental groups are often referred to as étale-like structures, see [27]-I, [30]-III. Étale-likestructures are functorial, rigid and invariant with respect to the links in IUT, while frobenius-like structures are used to construct thelinks. The situation which serves as a sort of fundamental model for the terms frobenius-like and étale-like is the invariance of the étale
site with respect to the Frobenius morphism in positive characteristic, see Example 3.6 of [31]-IV. Relations between these two types ofstructures are crucial. Such relations are presented further in these notes without using the terminology of frobenius-like and étale-like.
22 The theory of frobenioids is motivated by the need to develop a geometry built up solely from Galois theory and monoid-theoretic
structures in which a kind of Frobenius morphism on number fields, which does not exist in the usual sense, can be constructed. The
availability of such Frobenius morphisms in the theory of frobenioids leads to various analogies between IUT and p-adic Teichmüller
theory. For two examples of frobenioids see 2.10.
23
These papers contain much more material than is necessary for the purposes of IUT. If one understands the philosophy that
underlies these papers, it is possible to skip long technical proofs.

NOTES ON THE WORK OF SHINICHI MOCHIZUKI ON ARITHMETIC DEFORMATION THEORY

9∗ Strengthened versions of notion of a Belyi map obtained in [25] are applied in [29] to prove a newinteresting equivalent form of the Vojta conjecture, which is studied in [31]-IV.
∗ A straightforward computation of the objects that appear in the main theorem of [31]-I-III is summarised in Th. 1.10 of [31]-IV. In Cor. 2.2 of [31]-IV, one makes a choice of a certain prime number lwhich appears in this computation. This leads to the application to the new form of the Vojta conjectureand hence to the conjectures in 1.3 over any number field.
See 3.2 for a suggestion of possible entries into the theory.
2.2. Initial data. There are several equivalent ways to define a normalised degree deg. I will use adeles.
Recall that there is a canonical surjective homomorphism from the group A×
k of ideles of a number field k to
the group Divk of complete (i.e. involving archimedean data) divisors associated to k. This group Divk may
be described as the direct sum of value groups associated to the nonarchimedean and archimedean valuationsof k. Thus, such a value group is isomorphic to Z if the valuation is nonarchimedean and to R if the valuationis archimedean. Similarly, there are canonical surjective homomorphisms from A×
k to the group of complete
divisor classes associated to k, to the group of isomorphism classes of complete line bundles on Spec(Ok ) andto the group Ik of fractional ideals of k. For a number field k and an idele α ∈ A×
k define its (non-normalised)degree degk as − log |α|, where |α| is the canonical module associated to the adelic ring as a locally compact
ring by the standard formula |α| = µ(αA)/µ(A), and A is any measurable subset of Ak of non-zero measurewith respect to any nontrivial translation invariant measure µ on the underlying additive group of Ak . Thendegk (α) = degQ (Nk/Q α), and the degree of the diagonal image of an element of k× in A×
k is 0.
Due to the minus sign in the definition of degk , it is minus the non-normalised degree which can be viewed
as the log-volume of αA, where A is, say, the product of the closed balls of radius 1 with centre at 0 for allcompletions of k, and µ is normalised to give A log-volume 0.
Write lim A×for the inductive limit, with respect to the inclusions induced by field embeddings, of the−→ kgroups of ideles of all finite extensions k of Q in a fixed algebraic closure Qalg . For β ∈ lim A×, define its−→ k−1
normalised degree deg(β ) as |k : Q| degk (β ), where k is any algebraic number field such that β corresponds
to an element of A×
k . One verifies immediately that this definition does not depend on k. Finally, for an element−1nγ of the perfection of lim A×k define its normalised degree deg(γ) as n deg(γ ), where n > 1 is any integer−→
such that γ n ∈ lim A×. Given a fractional ideal in Ik , a complete divisor in Divk , a complete divisor class, or a−→ kline bundle, the normalised degree of any of its lifts to the group of ideles does not depend on the choice of lift(since the local components of such lifts are completely determined up to unit multiples). Denote this degreeby the same notation deg.
Let EF be an elliptic curve over a number field F with split multiplicative reduction. If v is a bad reduction
valuation and Fv is the completion of F with respect to v, then the Tate curve Fv× /hqv i, where qv is the qparameter of EF at v and hqv i is the cyclic group generated by qv , is isomorphic to EF (Fv ), hqv i 7→ the origin of
EF , see Ch.V of [44] and §5 Ch.II of [43].
Assume further that the 6-torsion points of EF are rational over F, and F contains a 4th primitive root i ofunity.
One works with the hyperbolic curve XF = EF \ {0} over F and the hyperbolic orbicurve CF = XF /±1 overF obtained by forming the stack-theoretic quotient of XF by the unique F-involution −1 of XF .
If k is a field extension of F, then denote Ek = EF ×F k, Xk = XF ×F k, Ck = CF ×F k.24
24 For bad reduction valuations one also works with an infinite Z-(tempered) covering Y of a model X of X which correspondsv
Fv
Fv

to the kernel of the natural surjection from the tempered fundamental group to Z associated to the universal graph-covering of the dualgraph of the special fibre of XFv . The special fibre of Yv is an infinite chain of copies of P1 joined at 0 and ∞.

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IVAN FESENKO

Define an idele qEF ∈ lim A×: its components at archimedean and good reduction valuations are taken to−→ k
be 1. Its components at places where EF has split multiplicative reduction are taken to be qv , where qv is theq-parameter of the Tate elliptic curve EF (Fv ) = Fv× /hqv i. The number nv of components of the reduction of
EF at such v is exactly the value of the surjective discrete valuation v : Fv× → Z at qv . Thus, for elliptic curves
with stable reduction degF (qEF ) is the LHS of the inequality of the Szpiro conjecture in 1.3. In general, for
an arbitrary elliptic curve E over F in order to define the v-component of qEF at a bad reduction place v one
goes locally to a finite extension L of the completion Fv of F such that the curve E ×Fv L over L has split
multiplicative reduction, computes the local component as above and takes a root (not canonically defined ingeneral) of degree |L : Fv | of it.
The ultimate goal of the theory is to give a suitable bound from above on deg(qEF ).
2.3. A brief outline of the proof and a list of some of the main concepts. Conventional scheme-theoretic
geometry is insufficient for the purposes of arithmetic deformation theory. This is one of the reasons why it
was not developed earlier. IUT goes beyond standard arithmetic geometry. Still, it remains quite geometricand categorical. In its application to the conjectures of 1.3 it does not need to use more from analytic number
theory than the prime number theorem.
Fix a prime integer l > 3 which is relatively prime to the bad reduction valuations of EF , as well as to thevalue nv of the local surjective discrete valuation of the q-parameter qv for each bad reduction valuation v.
In 2.12, l will be chosen to be relatively large, so in IUT one often views Z/lZ as a kind of approximation
to Z, see §1.3 of [23] for more on this.25
Assume that the extension K of F generated by the l-torsion points of EF has Galois group over F isomorphic
to a subgroup of GL2 (Z/lZ) which contains SL2 (Z/lZ).26
Due to various reasons motivated by Hodge–Arakelov theory, cf. §1 of [32], §1 of [33], it makes a lot ofsense to look at the monoid-theoretic maps defined, for bad reduction valuations v, on the submonoid of themultiplicative group Fv× generated by units and qv as follows:2

qv 7−→ qvm ,u 7−→ ufor all u ∈ O×Fv ,where OFv is the ring of integers of Fv , m is a fixed integer such that 1 6 m 6 (l − 1)/2.
2
The element qvm will be viewed as a special value of a certain nonarchimedean theta-function.
Choose a 2lth root q of q. We are now led to the study of a monoid-theoretic map which forms part of aso-called theta-link, and which at bad reduction valuations can be viewed as the assignment p
2q 7−→ Θ −q m = q m 16m6(l−1)/2 .
This map is not scheme-theoretic. Its application may be viewed as a deconstruction of the ring structure.27 To
reconstruct the ring structure, one uses generalised Kummer theory (cf. 2.6), two types of symmetry (cf. 2.7),
rigidities (cf. 2.9) and splittings (cf. 2.7), all of which are closely related to the theta-link (cf. 2.7).
In order to reconstruct portions of the ring structure related to the theta-link, it is necessary to make use of(archimedean and nonarchimedean) logarithms, in the form of a so-called log-link, cf. 2.8. The theory of the
25 When the prime number l is chosen in Cor. 2.2 of [31]-IV, some of these conditions on l may be slightly weakened, by treating

certain bad reduction valuations of EF as if they are good reduction valuations.
26 One also assumes that C is a terminal object in the category whose objects are generically scheme-like algebraic stacks Z that
K
admit a finite étale morphism to CK , and whose morphisms are finite étale morphisms of stacks Z1 −→ Z2 defined over K (that do notnecessarily lie over CK ), this assumption implies that CF has a unique model over the field Fmod defined in 2.6, c.f. Rk 3.1.7(i) of [31]-I.
27 This map will be discussed further in 2.7.

NOTES ON THE WORK OF SHINICHI MOCHIZUKI ON ARITHMETIC DEFORMATION THEORY

11

log-link also involves the mono-anabelian geometry, cf. 2.4, developed in [30]-III. Moreover, one must makeuse of infinitely many log-links.
Various copies of the theta-link will form horizontal arrows between two vertical lines formed by the loglinks of a log-theta-lattice.
The main theorem of IUT is a bound on log-volumes of the form
− deg(qE ) 6 − deg(ΘE ),which is subject to the condition that the term on the RHS, which by definition is the log-volume of the unionof possible images of theta-data after applying the theta-link, subject to certain indeterminacies, is not equal
to +∞. This bound has a lot of meaning from the point of view of IUT: it is a bound on deformation size oftheta-data with respect to the indeterminacies associated to the theta- and log-links. Such a bound is obtainedin the final portion of the first three parts of [31] as the main theorem of IUT in [31]-III. Note the minus signon the LHS of this bound in comparison to the goal stated at the end of the previous subsection.
A further relatively straightforward computation in [31]-IV of the RHS of this inequality, which follows
essentially from its definition in [31]-III, will show that− deg(ΘE ) 6 a(l) − b(l) deg(qE )with real numbers a(l), b(l) > 1 depending on l > 3. Hence, combining this with the previous bound, one
obtains a bound deg(qE ) 6 a(l)(b(l) − 1)−1 , see 2.12.
Then a suitable choice of the prime number l will lead to a bound on deg(qE ) of the right form which, after
a bit more work, implies the diophantine inequalities (a)–(e) of 1.3.
The notation − deg( ) in this text corresponds to the notation −| log( )| in [31]-III-IV.
Thus, the following list of some of the main concepts and methods of IUT which will be discussed in thefollowing subsections comes very naturally. For a continuation of the list see 2.13.
 Mono-anabelian geometry uses hyperbolic curves, which in IUT will always be related to a fixed, given
elliptic curve, to recover the ring structure of number fields and their completions, [30]-III. Monoanabelian geometry plays an important role in the construction of multiradial algorithms in [31]-II-III.
 One chooses a prime number l and works with the ring Z/lZ, which can also be viewed as an approximation to the ring Z, and with the l-torsion points of the elliptic curve. There are two types of symmetry
associated to the choice of l, which play a key role in IUT, cf. [31]-I-III.
 The nonarchimedean theta-function and its values at torsion points, generalised Kummer (and logKummer) theory and the two types of symmetry are used in the construction of the central object of
IUT, the theta-link, and closely related to associated rigidities and synchronisations, cf. [28], [31]-I-III.
 One has to involve the nonarchimedean logarithm map as well, in the form of the log-link, cf. [31]-III.
 Application of the theta-link and log-link deconstructs the ring structures, in the sense that it treats
the underlying additive and multiplicative structures of the rings involved as separate monoid-theoretic
structures. The ring structures are reconstructed via a series of algorithms by using deep results fromanabelian geometry and generalised Kummer theory and working with the log-theta-lattice, cf. [30]-III
and [31]-I-III.
 Bounding the size of the deformation arising from the theta-link by taking into account three associatedindeterminacies, and then making a further (easier) computation of the RHS of the bound, which isultimately applied for a suitable choice of the prime number l, leads to a bound of the type needed forthe conjectured inequalities in diophantine geometry.

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IVAN FESENKO

2.4. Mono-anabelian geometry and multiradiality. A more powerful version of anabelian geometry is developed in [30]. It is called absolute mono-anabelian geometry. The classical approach to anabelian geometry
centers around a comparison between two geometric anabelian objects via their algebraic fundamental groups.
Mono-anabelian geometry centers around the task of establishing topological group-theoretic algorithms which
require only the following input datum: a topological group which just happens to be isomorphic to the algebraic fundamental group of a scheme (satisfying certain conditions). Mono-anabelian geometry algorithmically
recovers the ring structure of an object or a priori scheme-theoretic construction, operation, property from the
topological group structure of a group of symmetries such as the Galois group or algebraic fundamental group.
For example, compare the statement of the Neukirch–Ikeda–Uchida theorem in 1.1 with the theorem proved
by Mochizuki, cf. Th. 1.9 of [30]-III,
The number field F can be reconstructed via an algorithmic procedure from the arithmetic
fundamental group π1 (XF ) (which surjects onto the absolute Galois group GF ).
Unlike the case with the Neukirch–Ikeda–Uchida theorem, the mono-anabelian algorithms of Th. 1.9 of [30]III are functorial with respect to change of the base field and compatible with localisation.28 These propertiesare crucial for applications in IUT.
Working with hyperbolic curves over number fields adds a geometric dimension. Certain aspects of IUT
relate the two ring-theoretic dimensions of the function field of such a hyperbolic curve (one of which is arithmetic, the other geometric) to the two combinatorial dimensions (constituted by the additive and multiplicative
structures) of a ring.29
In IUT, one works with hyperbolic (orbi)curves such as Xk , Ck , as well as related objects, see 2.2, overnumber fields k and their completions. The arithmetic fundamental groups of such geometric objects are used
to reconstruct the ring structure of the base field, by applying the theory of [30]-III. 30
When working with fundamental groups, the issue of basepoints has to be carefully addressed. The existenceof different basepoints in the domain and range of the theta-link and log-link implies that one must consider
two different universes associated to two distinct ring theories which in general cannot be related by means of aring homomorphism, cf. §I3 of [31]-I. This inter-universal aspect gives rise to the name of IUT. The main typeof mathematical object which makes sense simultaneously in both the universes is a topological group.
IUT applies mono-anabelian reconstruction algorithms to arithmetic fundamental groups that appear in one
universe in order to obtain descriptions of objects constructed from such arithmetic fundamental groups thatmake sense in another universe. [31] uses the terminology of a wheel and spokes.
One can think of reconstruction algorithms as functorial algorithms from a radial category to the centre(core) category, say, as a wheel with a centre (core) and spokes, that satisfies the property that descriptions ofobjects which arise on one spoke make sense from the point of view of another spoke. The principal exampleof this sort of situation arises by considering the data in the domain and codomain of the theta-link. Using thesame analogy, an algorithm is called multiradial if it expresses objects constructed from a given spoke in terms
28 for more on mono-anabelian reconstruction for number fields see a recent preprint [17]29 see Rk 2.3.3 (ii) of [31]-III for more details
30 In this context, observe that for local fields, unlike number fields, there is a description of the associated absolute Galois group (inodd residue characteristic) given by the Yakovlev–Jannsen–Wingberg theorem, see e.g. §5 Ch.VII of [40]. However, unlike the number
field case, to recover an isomorphism of local fields from an isomorphism of topological groups between the respective absolute Galois
groups without using hyperbolic curves, one needs to know in addition that this isomorphism is compatible with the respective upper
ramification group filtrations. This is a theorem proved independently by Mochizuki and Abrashkin, see e.g. 8.3 of Ch.IV of [10] andthe references therein. The proof by Mochizuki is very short and uses p-adic Hodge theory. For more details see §3 of [30]-I.

NOTES ON THE WORK OF SHINICHI MOCHIZUKI ON ARITHMETIC DEFORMATION THEORY

13

of objects that make sense from the point of view of other spokes. Multiradial algorithms are compatible withsimultaneous execution at multiple spokes, which is important for IUT.
To obtain multiradial algorithms, it is sometimes necessary to allow for some sort of indeterminacy in thedescriptions that appear in the algorithms of the objects constructed from the given spoke. See 2.9 for threeindeterminacies which play a key role in the computation of volume deformation, and whose effects result inthe ε term in the conjectures of 1.3.
For more examples of multiradiality see §2 of [33] and the Introduction and Examples 1.8-1.9 of [31]-II.
2.5. Nonarchimedean theta-functions. Let L be a local field of characteristic zero with finite residue field.
Denote by CL the completion of an algebraic closure of L. A holomorphic function on C×
L defined over L isa function C×
→
C
which
is
representedbyaneverywhereconvergent
elementof
L((X)).
A meromorphic
LL×function on CL defined over L is an element of the field of fractions of the ring of holomorphic functions on
C×
L defined over L.
Let q ∈ L be a non-zero element of the maximal ideal of the ring of integers of L (this q will eventually betaken to be the q-parameter qv of the Tate curve EF (Fv ) ' Fv× /hqv i, where L = Fv , for bad reduction primes v ofE, see Ch.5 of [44]). An elliptic function with period q on L is a meromorphic function on C×
L defined over L
and invariant with respect to the map u 7→ qu, so it yields a function on C×/hqi.
Atheta-function
on C×L
L defined××m
over L, of type au , a ∈ CL , m ∈ Z, is a holomorphic function on CL defined over L which satisfies a functional
equation f (u) = aum f (qu). Every elliptic function can be written as the quotient of two theta-functions of thesame type, see pp.14-15 of [46].
The following choice of nonarchimedean theta-function of type −u is convenient, p.15 of [46], in view ofthe location of its zeros and polesθ (u) = ∑ (−1)n qn(n−1)/2 un = (1 − u) ∏ (1 − qn )(1 − qn u)(1 − qn u−1 ) ,u ∈ C×
L,

n>1

n∈Z

where the last equality follows from the Jacobi triple product formula.
It is easy to see that if aν ∈ L× , mν ∈ Z and ∑nν=1 mν = 0, then the function ∏nν=1 θ (aν u)mν is of typemn
∏ν=1 aν ν ∈ L× . This property, which is used in Tate’s formula for the local height pairing (cf. p. 338 of [2]),yields an interesting relationship between the multiplicative properties of the nonarchimedean theta-function
and the underlying multiplicative structure of a local field. In this sense, it is reminiscent of the theta-link,
which plays a central role in IUT.
Just as in the classical complex theory, elliptic functions on L with period q can be expressed in terms of θ , aproperty which highlights the central role of nonarchimedean theta-functions in the theory of functions on the
Tate curve. For more information see §2 Ch.I and §5 Ch.II of [43] and p. 306-307 of [38].
The nonarchimedean theta-function is of course related to the complex theta-functionθ (z, τ) = ∑ exp(πin2 τ + 2πinz),z, τ ∈ C,ℑm(τ) > 0,n∈Z2which is equal to ∑n∈Z q n /2 un = θ (−q1/2 u), u ∈ C, via the change of variables q = exp(2πiτ), u = exp(2πiz).
The theta-functionΘ̈(u) = −u−1 θ (u2 ) = ∑ (−1)n qn(n+1)/2 u2n+1
n∈Z

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IVAN FESENKO

in Prop. 1.4 of [28] where u equals Ü defined there and q equals qX defined there, is of type q2 u4 . MoreoverΘ̈(q1/2 u) = −q−1/2 u−2 Θ̈(u). The function Θ̈(u) extends to a meromorphic function31 and satisfies the following unusual property among meromorphic functions: its divisor of poles is contained in the special fibre, while
its divisor of zeroes does not contain any irreducible component of the special fibre.
We still assume that l > 3 as in 2.3 and F contains i as in 2.2. Example 3.2 (ii) of [31]-I introduces a function
1/lΘ(u) = Θv (u) = Θ̈(i)/Θ̈(u),which is well-defined up to multiplication by roots of unity of order dividing 2l (with q equal to qv defined
there).
One further assumes that the residue characteristic of the local field L is odd. The functional equation for θ
implies thatp 2q m /2 Θ̈ i q m = Θ̈(i).
Choose a 2lth root q of q. Then2

qm = Θ

p
−q m

up to multiplication by roots of unity of order dividing 2l.
These special values of the theta-function for 1 6 m 6 (l − 1)/2, i.e. the values at points separated by periods
m/2qfrom the point ±i, are very distinguished from several points of view.32 They are of central importancefor IUT.
2.6. Generalised Kummer theory. For an open subgroup H of a Galois or arithmetic fundamental groupacting on an abelian group M, Kummer theory deals with the natural homomorphism
M H −→ H 1 (H, Hom(Q/Z, M))
obtained by considering the divisibility of elements of the abelian group M. Injectivity of the Kummer map,
when available, is very useful.
Kummer theory (more precisely, truncated Kummer theory) of the line bundles associated to nonarchimedean
theta-functions is developed in [28]. Note that the naive theory of theta functions is not sufficient for the
purposes of IUT, for more details and interesting discussions of aspects of the étale theta function see recently
added Rk 2.3.4 of [31]-III.
Kummer theory provides a bridge between monoid-theoretic structures and arithmetic fundamental groupstructures associated to the theta-function and theta-values (see [28], Fig. I.1 of [31]-II), as well as to a number
field and its completions (see Example 5.1 of [31]-I, where the mono-anabelian geometry of [30]-III is applied
to reconstruct a number field and its completions from the arithmetic fundamental groups of hyperbolic orbicurves that arise as finite étale coverings of CF ).33 One important aspect of the Kummer theory applied in IUT is
the issue of cyclotomic rigidity, i.e. of establishing algorithms for reconstructing natural isomorphisms between
cyclotomes that arise from the geometric fundamental group and cyclotomes that arise from monoid-theoretic
data (see Def. 1.1 (ii) of [31]-II in the theta-function case, Example 5.1 of [31]-I in the number field case).
Denote by Fmod the field of moduli of the curve EF . Assume that F is Galois over Fmod . Choose subsets
VF ,VK of valuations of F, K such that the inclusion of fields Fmod ⊂ F ⊂ K induces a bijection between VK ,VF ,31 on a certain finite covering Y¨ of the covering Y discussed in footnote 24vv
32 see Rk 2.5.1 of [31]-II and Rk 2.2.2 of [31]-III for more on this33 Using the terminology of IUT, Kummer theory relates certain étale-like structures with certain frobenius-like structures, see alsofootnote 21.

NOTES ON THE WORK OF SHINICHI MOCHIZUKI ON ARITHMETIC DEFORMATION THEORY

15

and the set Vmod of all valuations of Fmod .34 For a valuation v of Fmod denote by Kv the completion of K withrespect to the element of VK corresponding to v.
This data determines, up to K-isomorphism, a finite étale covering CK −→ CK of degree l which satisfies thefollowing property: the natural covering EK −→ EK determined by multiplication by l factors as a composite
EK −→ E K −→ EK , where the covering E K −→ EK is the covering determined by the base-changed covering
X K := CK ×CF XF −→ XK and corresponds to a quotient isomorphic to Z/lZ of the l-torsion submodule ofEK (K) that restricts at bad reduction valuations of VK of odd residue degree to the quotient arising from coverings of the dual graph of the special fibre. In addition, at bad reduction valuations v ∈ VK of odd residue
degree one considers a natural finite étale covering X v −→ X K ×K Kv of degree l by extracting lth roots of thetheta-function. These coverings play an important role in the generalised Kummer theory employed in IUT.
2.7. The theta-link and two types of symmetry. The setting up of several versions of the theta-link is technical, and a large part of the three papers [31]-I-III is dedicated to it, see also the foreword.35 In the following,
I discuss aspects of IUT that are related to various versions of the theta-link.
At bad reduction valuations of EF of odd residue characteristic, a simplified version of the theta-link, cf.
[31]-I, uses the theta-function and revolves around a certain morphism of local monoid-theoretic structuresq 7−→ Θ,while the main version of the theta-link dealt with in this text, cf. [31]-II-III, uses the theta-values and revolves
around a certain morphism of local monoid-theoretic structures p
2
q 7−→ Θ −q m = q m 16m6(l−1)/2 .
with the identity map on units (in an algebraic closure of Fv ) or units modulo roots of unity, acted upon by theabsolute Galois group of Fv . One then extends these local theta-links to other valuations (actually valuations inthe set VK , see 2.6), in such a way as to satisfy the product formula.
For bad reduction valuations of odd residue characteristic, the latter version of the theta-link amounts to anarithmetic deformation of the local structure of the local field associated to the valuation, sending units of the2ring of integers via the identity map to the units and sending q n to q m n , n > 1, where the integer m runs between
1 and (l − 1)/2. This monoid-theoretic morphism is not compatible with the ring structure, i.e. the theta-link is
not scheme-theoretic.
The monoid-theoretic structures that appear in this theta-link consist of two local structures×◦ units modulo torsion O×) and
L /Tor(O√ m  L m2
◦ theta-values such as Θ −q = q , which are well-defined up to multiplication by roots of orderdividing 2l,

and one global structure, namely,◦ the global realified frobenioid36 associated to the number field in the product of all the local data.
Monoid-theoretic structures are of essential importance in IUT, since they allow one to construct various
gluing isomorphisms. The use of Galois and arithmetic fundamental groups gives rise to canonical splittings of
34 It is assumed that the set of bad reduction valuations in V of odd residue degree is nonempty. There are further technicalK

conditions that must be imposed on VK ; these conditions are discussed in detail in Def. 3.1 of [31]-I (where VK corresponds to V).
35 Each theta-link consists of the collection of all isomorphisms between certain data associated to the respective theatres of type 1
in the domain and codomain of the theta-link, see footnote 37. The main distinctive feature of each of the two types of theta-link
discussed in this subsection is represented by the monoid-theoretic map in the corresponding display.
36 see footnote 22

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IVAN FESENKO

objects arising from such gluing isomorphisms by applying various tautological Galois-equivariance properties
of such gluing isomorphisms.
The computation of the theta-link can be viewed as a sort of passage from monoid-theoretic data to suchcanonical splittings involving arithmetic fundamental groups, by applying generalised Kummer theory, together
with various multiradial algorithms which make essential use of mono-anabelian geometry.
Two types of symmetry are closely related to the setting up of the theta-link and, very importantly, of acentral object in IUT not discussed in these notes, namely, a (theta-number field-Hodge-) theatre.37 They are×denoted Fo±= Fl o {±1} and F>ll = Fl /{±1} where Fl ' Z/lZ arises from the l-torsion points of E, cf.
>[31]-I-III. Elements of of Fl (in the case of Flo± ) or F>l (in the case of Fl ) are called labels.
geom

The Fo±and is closely related to the Kummer theory surrounding
l -symmetry arises from the action of π1∼ Fo± , cf. Def. 6.1(v) of [31]-I.
−
the theta-values. There is a natural isomorphism AutK (X K ) →lThis symmetry is◦ of an essentially geometric nature, i.e. corresponds to the geometric portion of the arithmetic fundamental groups involved◦ additive z 7→ ±z + a, a ∈ Fl
◦ compatible with and applied to establish conjugate synchronisation (i.e. permuting copies of local
absolute Galois groups associated to distinct labels without inducing conjugacy indeterminacies)◦ compatible with the nonarchimedean logarithm and the (closely related) construction of the log-shell◦ of a somewhat non-multiradial nature38.
The F>
l -symmetry arises from the action of the absolute Galois group of certain number fields and is closely
related to the Kummer theory surrounding these number fields. The group F>
l is isomorphic to a subquotientof Aut(CK ) induced via the natural inclusion Aut(CK ) ,→ Aut(K) (cf. Rk 2.6.1 of [28]) by a subquotient ofGal(K/F), see also Example 4.3 of [31]-I.
This symmetry is◦ of an essentially arithmetic nature, i.e. it corresponds to the global arithmetic portion of the arithmetic
fundamental groups involved◦ multiplicative (by definition)◦ used in label bookkeeping to separate the label 0 from the nonzero labels◦ closely related to the operation of descending from K to the field of definition Fmod of EF (cf. Rk 6.12.6(iii), (iv) of [31]-I).
◦ of an essentially multiradial nature.
Each type of symmetry includes a global portion.39
37 There is a theatre of type 1, denoted H T Θ±ell NF in [31]-I, which is a certain system of categories obtained by gluing together

various types of frobenioids (cf. [27] and see also footnote 22 and 2.10), taking into account theta-data and number field-data. To±ellevery theatre of type 1 one associates a theatre of type 2, denoted H T D-Θ NF in [31]-I, which is a certain system of categories
obtained by gluing together various types of of base categories. Many of these base categories are isomorphic to full subcategories offinite étale covers of appropriate hyperbolic curves. Each theatre consists of two portions, corresponding to the two types of symmetry
discussed in this subsection; these two portions are glued together in a fashion that is compatible with the gluing of labels discussed
in this subsection. For complete definitions see §3-§6 of [31]-I. Each lattice point of the log-theta-lattice discussed in the following
subsection denotes a theatre of type 1.
38 This additive symmetry is, unlike the multiplicative symmetry, non-multiradial at an a priori level. On the other hand, ultimately
it is nevertheless used in various multiradial algorithms, cf. the discussion of Rk 3.11.2 (ii) in [31]-III.
39 The global Fo± -symmetry of X only extends to a ±1-symmetry of the local coverings X , while the global F> -symmetry ofKllv
CK only extends to the identity-symmetry of the local coverings X v defined in 2.6.

NOTES ON THE WORK OF SHINICHI MOCHIZUKI ON ARITHMETIC DEFORMATION THEORY

17

The various labels associated to the two types of symmetry are glued together in the following way: ±a ∈{−(l − 1)/2, . . . , −1, 0, 1, . . . , (l − 1)/2} is identified with a ∈ {1, . . . , (l − 1)/2}.40
The issue of basepoints of fundamental groups is closely related to the importance of synchronising conjugacy indeterminacies of local Galois groups. Conjugate synchronisation is a specific system of isomorphisms,
free from conjugacy indeterminacies, between local absolute Galois groups (as topological groups) at the ltorsion points of the elliptic curve where the values of the nonarchimedean theta-function are computed.
Once one has established conjugate synchronisation, Kummer theory is applied to a collection of several
special values of the theta-function, by considering the action of a single Galois group that acts simultaneouslyon the Nth roots of all of them in a fashion compatible with the Kummer theory of the ground field.
In IUT it is necessary to isolate the two types of symmetry from each other in order to establish conjugate
synchronisation using the Fo±l -symmetry (note that conjugation by elements of absolute Galois groups ofnumber fields is incompatible with this objective), and in order to work with global base fields from an anabelian
point of view using the F>l -symmetry.
Conjugate synchronisation yields isomorphisms of monoids associated to different labels in Fl , diagonal submonoids inside the product of the monoids associated to the various labels in Fl and in F>l and an isomorphism
between the monoid associated to the label 0 ∈ Fl and the diagonal submonoid in the latter product.
2.8. Nonarchimedean logarithm, log-link, log-theta-lattice, log-shell. The nonarchimedean logarithm map
log : O×
L −→ L
is defined on units of the ring of integers of a local field L as the map which sends 1 − α 7→ − ∑n>1 α n /n for α
in the maximal ideal of OL , and which sends multiplicative representatives of the finite residue field in OL to 0.
The logarithm is compatible with arbitrary automorphisms, such as Galois automorphisms, of the topologicalfield L.
The theta-link requires the use of logarithms, since the logarithm transforms multiplication into addition(and thus allows one to reconstruct certain additive structures from certain multiplicative structures). In otherwords, there is no natural action of the theta-values on the multiplicative monoid of units modulo torsion, butthere is a natural action of the theta-values on the logarithmic image of this multiplicative monoid.
The multiplicative structures on either side of the theta-link are related by means of the value group portions;the additive structures on either side of the theta-link are related by means of the unit group portions, shifted
once via the log-link, in order to transform the multiplicative structure of these unit group portions into an
additive structure.
Locally the log-link can be thought of as associating to the multiplicative monoid O \ {0} of non-zero elements of the ring of integers O of CL (see 2.5) acted upon by an arithmetic fundamental group the copy of thismultiplicative monoid that arises from the copy of the ring O whose underlying additive module is a submoduleof log(O× ) ⊗ Q.
Thus, one obtains a two-dimensional lattice, which is referred to as the log-theta-lattice, each of whose
upward-pointing vertical arrows corresponds to an application of the log-link, and each of whose rightwardpointing horizontal arrows (n, m) → (n + 1, m) corresponds to an application of a certain theta-link whose
construction depends, in an essential way, on the log-link (n, m − 1) → (n, m). The main results of IUT require
the use of just two infinite neighbouring vertical lines of arrows of the lattice, i.e. corresponding to the lattice
points (n, m), where n equals 0 or 1, together with the horizontal arrow between the lattice points (0, 0) and(1, 0).
40 for more on this see Rk 3.11.2 (ii) of [31]-III

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IVAN FESENKO

One of the main aims of [31] is the study of mathematical structures associated with the log-theta-lattice.
The theta-link involves two distinct ring/scheme theories, two theatres (see footnote 37) in the domain
and codomain of the theta-link, with their multiplicative structures related via nonarchimedean theta values(monoids that appear in the domain of the theta-link and in its codomain are subject to quite different Kummer
theories). The task to understand how much their additive structures differ from each other is accomplished
via the use of Kummer correspondence and mono-anabelian reconstruction algorithms. It is a highly interesting question if the concept of the theta-link and its realisation may have more applications, with appropriate
modifications, elsewhere in arithmetic geometry.
The log-link does not commute with the theta-link. This non-commutativity difficulty is resolved in IUT via
the use of log-shells and applications of the log-Kummer correspondence. A log-shell is a very useful common
structure for the log-links in one vertical line. Its nonarchimedean part is a slightly adjusted form of the imageof the local units via the nonarchimedean logarithm. Namely, by definition it is the compact subgroup(p∗ )−1 log(O×L)
where p∗ = p if p is odd and 2∗ = 4, see [30]-III, [31]-III for more details. The log-shell associated to a complex
archimedean field is the closed ball of radius π.
Relevant Kummer isomorphisms are not compatible with the log-link at the level of elements; however, thelog-shell contains the images of the Kummer isomorphisms associated to both the domain and the codomain of
the log-link, cf. [30]-III, [31]-III.
2.9. Rigidities and indeterminacies. [28] establishes several rigidity properties of the theta-function, which
can be interpreted as multiradiality properties in the context of IUT. The following rigidities, which may beformulated in terms of suitable algorithms, are very useful in IUT:b
◦ (discrete rigidity) one can work with Z-powers instead of Z-powersof q;×◦ (constant multiple rigidity) the monoid generated by OL and non-negative powers of Θ has a canonicalsplitting (up to multiplication by 2lth roots of unity) via evaluation at a 2-torsion point;b endowed with Galois actions, one of◦ (cyclotomic rigidity) an isomorphism between two copies of Z
which arises from the roots of unity of the base field, the other of which is a certain subquotient of afundamental group.
Note that in IUT, the copies of Ẑ (or quotients of Ẑ) which appear in discussions of cyclotomic rigidity arereferred to as cyclotomes. For more see the Introduction of [31]-II and Rks 2.1.1, 2.3.3 of [31]-III.
When relating monoid-theoretic structures with Galois structures via generalised Kummer maps and the useof the theta-function, one must contend with three associated indeterminacies which can be viewed as effects
of arithmetic deformation:◦ (Ind1) is closely related to the action of Aut(GL ) and arises from the requirement of compatibility withthe permutation symmetries of the Galois and arithmetic fundamental groups associated with verticallines of the log-theta-lattice;b × , on log(O× ) and◦ (Ind2) is closely related to the action of a certain compact group41, which includes Z
Larises from the requirement of compatibility with the horizontal theta-link;
41 the group of G -isometries of the units of the ring of integers of an algebraic closure of L modulo roots of unity
LNOTES ON THE WORK OF SHINICHI MOCHIZUKI ON ARITHMETIC DEFORMATION THEORY

19◦ (Ind3) arises from a certain (upper semi-)compatibility of the Kummer isomorphism with the log-links
associated to a single vertical line of the log-theta-lattice.42
2.10. The role of global data. Global data is used
◦ for synchronizing ±-indeterminacies associated to special fibres43◦ in the product formula for monoids◦ to conclude that global elements integral everywhere are roots of unity, hence belong to the kernel oflog◦ when one applies the prime number theorem in [31]-IV◦ when one reconstructs, via mono-anabelian algorithms applied to the arithmetic fundamental groups of
hyperbolic curves over number fields, the global and local ring structures and the ring homomorphismfrom the ring of global elements to the adelic ring.
Compare the first item with the Bogomolov proof 44 of the Szpiro inequality over C discussed in 1.3.45
It is a good time to give two examples of categories related to structures used in IUT. These two examples
may be thought of as isomorphic monoid-theoretic structures (which, nevertheless, are defined slightly differently) arising from the number field Fmod (together with the set of valuations VK discussed above) that areassociated to the collection of complete arithmetic line bundles or, alternatively, to the ideles, equipped withthe action of the non-zero global elements. These categories are defined as follows (see Example 3.6 of [31]-III
for more details):
×(i) rational function torsion version: an object of this category is an Fmod
-torsor T equipped with a collectionof trivialisations tv , for each v ∈ VK , of the torsor Tv associated to T by changing the structure group via the×
0 0
natural map Fmod−→ Kv× /O×Kv determined by v; an elementary morphism between {T,tv } and {T ,tv } is an×
isomorphism T −→ T 0 of Fmod -torsors which maps the trivialisation tv to an element of the OKv \ {0}-orbit of
tv0 ; a morphism is given by an integer n > 0 and an elementary morphism from the nth tensor power of the firstobject to the second object;(ii) local fractional ideal version: an object of this category is a collection of closed balls centred at 0 in thecompletions of K at the valuations of VK such that all but finitely many of these closed balls coincide with therespective local rings of integers; an elementary morphism between two such objects is given by multiplication×by an element of Fmod
which maps the local closed balls of the first object into the local closed balls of thesecond object; a morphism is an integer n > 0 and an elementary morphism from the nth tensor power of thefirst object to the second object.
These two categories are examples of frobenioids [27], see also footnotes 22 and 37. They are quite different
from each other from the point of view of multiradiality issues. It is the second category which is subject todistortion when Kummer theory is applied in the context of the log-links. This distortion is closely related tothe upper semi-compatibility mentioned in (Ind3) above, as well as to the fact that the second category, unlike
the first, is well suited to making explicit estimates.
42 This compatibility may be thought of as a weakened version of the usual notion of commutativity of a diagram of morphisms:

instead of considering compatibility at the level of individual elements of objects of the diagram, one considers compatibility ofinclusions of certain subsets of these objects.
43 see Rk 6.12.4 (iii) of [31]-I
44 Relative to the analogy with p-adic Teichmuller theory, see 2.14 and the references therein, IUT corresponds to considering thederivative of the canonical Frobenius lifting, which, in turn, corresponds, relative to the analogy with the classical complex case, to thehyperbolic geometry of the upper half-plane used in the Bogomolov proof. See also Rk 2.3.4 of [31]-IV and [36] for more on this.
45 When working on IUT, its author was not familiar with the Bogomolov proof.

20

IVAN FESENKO

A natural isomorphism between the two monoid-theoretic structures is applied to relate◦ the multiplicative structure of Fmod to the additive structure of Fmod ,◦ the multiplicative structure of Fmod to the quotient monoid O× /(roots of unity) equipped with the actionof the local absolute Galois group,2◦ the monoid generated by the formal collection { qm }16m6(l−1)/2 of theta-values to the quotient monoid
O× /(roots of unity) equipped with the action of the local absolute Galois group.
2.11. The main theorem of IUT. Define an idele qE ∈ lim A×: its components at the nonarchimedean ele−→ k46ments of VF of odd residue characteristic where EF has bad reduction are equal to qEF defined in 2.2; its
components at the other valuations of F are taken to be 1.
Consider any idele condE ∈ AF whose components at the nonarchimedean elements of VF of odd residue
characteristic where EF has bad reduction are (arbitrary) prime elements of the completion of F at v, and whose
components at the other valuations of F are equal to 1. The degree deg(condE ) is well-defined and does notdepend on the choice of prime elements. Compare degF (condE ) with log of N(CondEF ) discussed in 1.3.
The main theorem47 for a certain sufficiently large class of elliptic curves E over F with stable reduction isstated in Cor. 3.12 of [31]-III:− deg(qE ) 6 − deg(ΘE ),if the RHS is not +∞. Here − deg(ΘE ) is by definition the maximum log-volume of deformations for the thetadata, i.e. the maximum of log-volumes of all images with respect to the indeterminacies (Ind1), (Ind2), (Ind3),
where one takes the average over m ranging from 1 to (l − 1)/2 as a consequence of the F>l -symmetry.
The log-volume on the LHS, i.e., the negative degree − deg(qE ), is computed in two equivalent ways, using
the log-theta-lattice and its data at (1, 0) and (0, 0), see Fig.I.8 of [31]-III. This is achieved in steps (x), (xi) of
the proof of Cor. 3.12 of [31]-III, the second of which takes into account the indeterminacies (Ind1), (Ind2),(Ind3) and produces the bound.
One can view this bound as a consequence of a certain hyperbolicity of a number field equipped with anelliptic curve.
One of the main themes of [31] is the issue of deconstructing and reconstructing the two underlying dimensions of a number field. Examples of deconstructing include◦ splittings of various local monoids into unit and value group portions, see §I3 of [30]-III◦ separating the Z/lZ arising from the l-torsion points of the elliptic curve into the additive Fo±l >symmetry and the multiplicative Fl -symmetry, cf. 2.7◦ separating the ring structures of global number fields into their respective underlying additive structures,
which may be related directly to log-shells, and their respective underlying multiplicative structures,
which may be related directly to monoid-theoretic structures.
The reconstruction procedure uses multiradial algorithms involving log-shells and exhibits the extent to which
the two dismantled combinatorial dimensions cannot be separated from one another by describing the intertwining structure between the two dimensions prior to their separation. This procedure allows one to estimate
the value group portions of various monoids of arithmetic interest in terms of their unit group portions andunderlies the proof of the inequality in the main theorem.48
46 the main reason for this restriction comes from the use of theta-functions, see Rk 1.10.6 of [31]-IV
47 − deg(q ) equals −2l| log(q)|, while − deg(Θ ) equals −2l| log(Θ)| in [31]-IIIE

E

48 for more on this one can read Rk 3.12.2 of [31]-IIINOTES ON THE WORK OF SHINICHI MOCHIZUKI ON ARITHMETIC DEFORMATION THEORY

21

While local class field theory is used in IUT, global class field theory is not. It is crucial for IUT to use thefull Galois and arithmetic fundamental groups.49
2.12. The application of IUT. In [31]-IV a further (rather straightforward) computation of − deg(ΘE ) is madein Th. 1.10 of [31]-IV (assuming, in addition, that the 15-torsion points of EF are defined over F). It shows that− deg(ΘE ) 6 a(l) − b(l) deg(qE )where a(l) > 1 depends on l, |Fmod : Q|, deg(condE ) + deg(δF/Q ), while b(l) > 1 is a function of l which does
not depend on EF and F.50
In the proof one uses the previous theory and the important fact that all the indeterminacies (Ind1), (Ind2),(Ind3) have their range inside the log-shell. Modulo this, the computation of − deg(ΘE ) in Th. 1.10 of [31]-IV
is essentially completely local, and the local computations are only nontrivial at the nonarchimedean places;
the only global aspect of the computation consists of a certain density computation involving the prime number
theorem.
Thus, together with the main theorem of IUT, this gives the bound deg(qE ) 6 a(l)(b(l) − 1)−1 . In precise
terms,

1
24 5|Fmod : Q|deg(qE ) 6 1 +deg(condE ) + deg(δF/Q ) + 214 33 52 |Fmod : Q|l + c◦ ,6lwhere c◦ > 0 comes from the prime number theorem (over Q) and does not depend on E and F, δF/Q is the(absolute) different of F.
These computations in the proof of Th. 1.10 of [31]-IV were already essentially known to Mochizuki aroundthe year 2000, and an appropriate framework to justify them is provided by IUT, cf. Rk 1.10.1 of [31]-IV.
Cor. 2.2 of [31]-IV deals with elliptic curves E over any number field F using Th. 1.10 of [31]-IV. The
Legendre equation gives the natural classifying morphism from UX = the projective line of the algebraic closureof Q minus 0, 1, ∞ to the moduli space of elliptic curves over number fields. For certain compactly bounded
subsets K of UX containing the place "2" it proves that for every ε ∈ (0, 1] there is a positive real number Cεsuch that for all elliptic curves over a number field F coming from points of K outside a certain finite subset
the inequality1deg(qEF ) 6 (1 + ε) deg(condE ) + deg(δF/Q ) +Cε .
6holds. The proof
1.10 and choosing the prime l above inp involves apreduction to specific elliptic curves of Th.
13
the interval ( deg(qE ), 5c∗ deg(qE ) log(c∗ deg(qE ))) where c∗ = 2 33 5|Fmod : Q|. Note that here the ε-termin the Szpiro inequality is given an essentially non-archimedean interpretation, modulo various global data andan application of the archimedean estimate given by the prime number theorem.
Using a generalisation of the Belyi map obtained in [25], the Vojta conjecture in 1.3 over any number field
is proved in [29] to be equivalent to the Vojta conjecture on compactly bounded subsets of P1 (Qalg ) for P1 over
49 Compare with the situation in Bogomolov’s birational anabelian geometry program for higher dimensional varieties over analgebraic closure of finite field where the use of G/[G, [G, G]] is enough, cf. [5].
50 Cor. 3.12 of [31]-III supplies the double inequality − deg(q ) 6 − deg(Θ ) 6 C deg(q ), provided − deg(Θ ) is finite. The
E
E
E
E
Θ
constant CΘ is explicitly computed in Th. 1.10 of [31]-IV. Substituting its value gives the displayed inequality.

22

IVAN FESENKO

Q minus three points 0, 1, ∞.51 The use of noncritical Belyi maps in §2 of [31]-IV involves, via the applicationof [29], the product formula.
Using all this, finally, one deduces the Vojta conjecture (e) of 1.3 (and therefore the conjectures (a), (b), (c)(d) of 1.3 as well), which correspond to Cor. 2.3 of [31]-IV, from Cor. 2.2 of [31]-IV.
Among potential developments and further applications of IUT I will mention one which is asked about bymany mathematicians. It is well known that the abc inequality implies that there exists a positive integer n0such that the Fermat equation with exponent n does not have positive integer solutions for any n > n0 . In orderto make n0 explicit and hence ideally derive a very different alternative proof of the Wiles–Fermat theorem, one
needs to make explicit the constants in the proof of Cor. 2.2 of [31]-IV and to explicitly compute the noncritical
Belyi maps which show up in [29]. The latter is currently out of reach. Alternatively, one can try to workwith the Frey curve and the Szpiro inequality. Here the main problem is that over Q one needs bounds on thenumbers nv (see 2.2) associated to all the valuations v of the number field Q except at most one (so that one
can apply the product formula). However, at the present time, the bounds on these numbers nv that one obtains
from IUT (i.e., from Th. 1.10 of [31]-IV) are not available for two valuations of Q, namely, the prime 2 and thearchimedean valuation.
2.13. More theorems, objects and concepts of IUT. Some mathematicians are interested in seeing statementsof a large number of theorems in survey texts. As far as IUT and these notes are concerned, this wish is difficult
to satisfy, since many central theorems of IUT are of an algorithmic nature, and their statements occupy a lotof space. For example, statements of key theorems in the introductions of IUT papers, i.e. Th. A in [31]-I, Th.
A and B in [31]-II and Th. A in [31]-III, occupy 60 lines on average.
My recommendation to readers of these notes who are interested in seeing more theorems is to read theintroductions of [28], [30]-III, [31]-I-III, which contain detailed statements of the main theorems and related
definitions.
The description of IUT in the previous subsections is a quite simplified one. In particular, I have not writtenmuch about the categorical geometric framework developed in IUT and related papers, which underlies theproof of the main theorem of IUT.
Further concepts and methods used in IUT and not discussed above include
 the concept and theory of frobenioids, cf. [27] I-II (see footnotes 22 and 37, and the examples in 2.10)
 the concept of arithmetical holomorphy immune to the logarithm, cf. [30]-III
 the concept of a global multiplicative subspace, cf. [31]-I Θ±ell NF-Hodge-theatres, cf. [31]-I (see footnote 37)
 profinite conjugacy and tempered conjugacy, cf. [26], [31]-I
 Belyi cuspidalisation, elliptic cuspidalisation, cf. [30].
2.14. Analogies and relations between IUT and other theories. There are many analogies between IUT andp-adic Teichmüller theory (and some analogies with complex Teichmüller theory) which are well described in[32], [33] and in §I4 of [31]-I.
51 See also footnote 14. This reduction allows one to care relatively less about the archimedean data. I think that one can say,to some extent, that in IUT, instead of dealing with the archimedean data aspects of the Szpiro conjectured inequality, by using, say,analytic number theory, which is typically non-scheme-theoretic, one, in effect, moves the centre of activity to the nonarchimedeandata, by applying the product formula; the resulting theory is necessarily non-scheme-theoretic.

NOTES ON THE WORK OF SHINICHI MOCHIZUKI ON ARITHMETIC DEFORMATION THEORY

23

There are certain analogies between IUT and p-adic Hodge theory (which is applied in the proofs of monoanabelian geometry). For example, the local and global functoriality of absolute anabelian algorithms corresponds to some degree to compatible local isomorphisms between Galois cohomology modules in p-adic
Hodge theory, see e.g. Fig.4.2 of [33]. The main ingredients of a frobenioid [27] are reminiscent of the theoryof the ring Bcrys in p-adic Hodge theory.
Hodge–Arakelov theory [23] is not formally used in [31], but some of its ideas and expectations motivate key
concepts and objects of [31]; for more on this see [32], [33]. IUT can be viewed as a mathematical justification
and background for the realisation of a key idea from [23] concerning a possible approach to establishing the
Vojta conjecture, see 2.12.
A number of aspects of the theory of [8] can be viewed as abelian ancestors of certain aspects of IUT, see
Rk 2.3.3 of [31]-IV.
Relations with class field theory, inverse Galois theory and anabelian geometry have already been discussed.
The following relations and analogies between IUT and other theories are not used in [31].
IUT works with elliptic curves and related hyperbolic curves over number fields, and it is crucial that they
are treated as two-dimensional objects. Of course, elliptic curves over number fields can be studied by manymethods. In particular, two-dimensional class field theory and adelic geometry and analysis also treat themas two-dimensional objects, cf. [9]. The latter theory studies the zeta function of a surface, geometric orarithmetic. It provides an efficient tool to study three fundamental problems concerning elliptic curves overnumber fields, which are different from the arithmetic conjectures addressed by IUT. While IUT works withthe full Galois and arithmetic fundamental groups, [9] is a commutative theory that is closely connected toabelian Galois groups of two-dimensional fields. Similarly to the two types of symmetry in IUT, geometricadditive and arithmetic-multiplicative, see 2.7, there are two types of symmetry, one additive for geometrictwo-dimensional adeles and another symmetry is used for a computation of a two-dimensional zeta integral
on multiplicative analytic two-dimensional adeles on surfaces. These two types of adelic symmetry play afundamental role in [9]. The analytic adelic structure is highly non-scheme-theoretical. In fact, a version if
the morphism of local monoid-theoretic structures mentioned at the beginning of 2.7 already showed up in first
papers of two-dimensional adelic analysis in 2001.
There are other analogies between Hodge–Arakelov theory of [23] and [9] which led me in May 2012 to
the study of the former. The nonarchimedean theta-functions are related to the complex theta-function θ (z, τ),as mentioned in 2.5. The Green function for a proper regular model E of an elliptic curve over a number
field is closely related with − log |θ (z, τ)|. On the other hand, the real variable function θ (0, ix) in x has anadelic interpretation as the integral over Q of the eigenfunction ⊗ char Z p (x) ⊗ exp(−x2 /2) of an adelic Fouriertransform with eigenvalue 1 (char is the characteristic function); while the Fourier transform, which in this caseis called the Mellin transform, of θ (0, ix) − 1 is the completed zeta function. Generalisations of these properties
play a crucial role in two-dimensional adelic analysis and geometry on E ; there is a two-dimensional analogueof char Z p on each singular fibre that takes into account the number of components in the singular fibre, andthe zeta integral computation gives a two-dimensional formula for the norm of the minimal discriminant andconductor of the elliptic curve, [9]. The texts [32], [33], [53] and papers of IUT present certain analogies
between IUT and the computation of the classical Gaussian integral, and similar analogies exist also between
the computation of the Gaussian integral and the computation of the zeta integral in the Iwasawa–Tate theory,
the Langlands program and in two-dimensional adelic analysis and geometry [9].
At the moment we know little about relations between IUT and nonabelian representation-theoretic aspectsof the Langlands programme. I expect that more links between the two theories will eventually be found, and,

24

IVAN FESENKO

in particular, that the two-dimensional adelic theory of [9] and its nonabelian extensions can serve as a bridge
between them.
The algorithmic feature of many theorems of IUT is an interesting aspect. See also 3.2 for the need for a
new language to possibly better describe the objects, concepts and results of IUT.
Section 3 of [31]-IV deals with the language of species, naturally associated to IUT. The material of thissection has a certain affinity with model theory; for a textbook on the latter see e.g. [41]. In applicationsof model theory one observes or establishes the same model-theoretic-geometric pattern, typically for stable
theories, between a theory T and a distinct theory T 0 ; this common type thus allows one to verify difficult
results concerning T 0 by means of some relatively easy verification concerning T , i.e., to transfer aspects of
T to T 0 . The existing applications of model theory, at least when one deals with formal (first-order) theories,
do not involve situations where T = T 0 .52 IUT studies the case where T = T 0 ; this corresponds to the two
equivalent ways for computing − deg(qE ) mentioned in 2.11, see also Fig. I.8 of [31]-III. In this respect, IUT
is an interesting object of study from the point of view of model theory.
The use of Galois groups and arithmetic fundamental groups makes IUT very distinct from any other ongoingwork on such fundamental issues in mathematics as geometry over F1 , a nontrivial product with itself of anenhanced version of Spec(Z), analytic geometry over Z, etc., and the possible applications of such notions to
the deepest open problems. For two analogies between aspects of IUT and geometry over F1 , see Rk 5.10.2(iii) of [30]-III and Rk 3.12.4 (iii) of [31]-III. Even though it is too early to say, it is natural to expect many
connections between IUT and such ongoing work.
There are several well known conjectural approaches to deep properties of arithmetic objects where one
wishes to have an arithmetic analogue of a theory which works well in the geometric setting. IUT provides
such an arithmetic analogue in the special circumstances related to the arithmetic conjectures of 1.3. A very
interesting question is whether some of the mechanisms of IUT could be generalised and extended in order tohelp to produce new instances of such arithmetic analogues of geometric theories.
One may ask about possible illustrations for arithmetic deformation theory. In my personal opinion, this
one53 is interesting from the point of view of depicting such important aspects of IUT as symmetry, synchronisation, discrete approximation and the role of the number 6.54 You can also watch the animation illustrating
IUT, a link to it is included at pages of two IUT workshops.
3. S TUDYING IUT AND RELATED ASPECTS
3.1. On the verification of IUT (updated in July 2017). Updated versions and the history of changes of
papers related to IUT are available on Sh. Mochizuki’s homepage. Some of the changes apply available
resources of IUT in a stronger form, in particular addressing analytic number theory remarks made in theautumn of 2012 by Dimitrov and Venkatesh.
52 More generally, in some applications of model theory, e.g. to generalised integration theories, one proves that the same patternholds for fields of any characteristic
53 The illustration of https://www.maths.nottingham.ac.uk/personal/ibf/graphene-lattice.pptx was presented
during a talk of L. Eaves at the Opening Event of the new Molecular Beam Epitaxy Facility for the growth of graphene and boron
nitride layers, University of Nottingham, January 2015.
54
In IUT, the two combinatorial dimensions of a ring, which are often related to two ring-theoretic dimensions (one of which isgeometric, the other arithmetic), play a central role. These two dimensions are reminiscent of the two parameters (one of which isrelated to electricity, the other to magnetism) which are employed in a subtle fashion in the study of graphene to establish a certain
important synchronisation for hexagonal lattices.

NOTES ON THE WORK OF SHINICHI MOCHIZUKI ON ARITHMETIC DEFORMATION THEORY

25

During the period July 2005 – March 2011 Sh. Mochizuki and F. Kato had a RIMS seminar on IUT. Thechanges in the papers of IUT and the prerequisites take also into account earlier hundreds of comments fromG. Yamashita, over a hundred comments from M. Saïdi and several dozens of comments from Yu. Hoshi.55 See[34] and [35] for more details on the early stage of the study of IUT. Since December 2014, further comments
arrived from the author of this text, E. Lepage, F. Tan and some of participants of workshops on IUT. None of
the changes in IUT has been of a major character.
There are two issues. One is an issue of verification of absence of logical problems in the texts of IUT. As of
the time of writing of this text, [31]-I-III and the prerequisites have been checked by mathematicians different
from the author 12 times, and [31]-IV has been checked 7 times.56 By July 2017 the number of verifications of
the IUT papers has perhaps reached 30 times or more. Two reports on the verification of IUT, [34] and [35],present vast efforts on the early stage of verification of IUT and include many more details. The second issue
is of digestion of the theory, its potential simplification and its further developments. This will take more time,since IUT goes substantially outside the realm of conventional arithmetic geometry.
Numerous activities have been organised at RIMS and elsewhere; participants of cycles of lectures included
many mathematicians. A two week workshop on IUT and its developments was held at RIMS in March 2015.
A CMI workshop on IUT was held in December 2015 in Oxford, and an international conference on IUT and
further developments was organised at RIMS in Kyoto in July 2016, [52], [54].
As with every genuinely breakthrough theory, whatever is the previous experience of a mathematician, sheor he is a student with regard to IUT, and the only way to gain a knowledge of it is to work with its texts. See theforeword of this paper, and the next subsection for some advice on how to study and an estimate of associatedtime investment.
3.2. Entrances to the study of IUT (updated in July 2017). The number of pages to read and the complexityof this fascinating theory are vast. This may be partially related to the absence of a new language best suited todescribing the novel mathematics of IUT.
Initially I found even the review papers [32] and [33] and introductions of IUT papers difficult to understand.
The situation improved after a list of the main ideas and methods of IUT revealed the central place of [30]-III
and [28]. Reading [30]-III was very useful for my study. Following this single paper helped me to gradually
see and appreciate the need for approximately half of the new mathematical concepts and structures in IUT.
Prior to the RIMS workshop on IUT, a very readable survey by the author of the theory was released [53].
I will describe possible entries to the theory.
For classical anabelian geometry, if needed, first read Ch.4 of [45] and [13] and also have a look at [42].
The following papers and theories can be read prior to the study of IUT:
55

Three months prior to my planned visit to RIMS in September 2012, I arranged a meeting with Sh. Mochizuki on September 15
to discuss his theory [23]. After learning about the IUT papers from A. Tamagawa on August 30, I informed various mathematicians
about it, their list included G. Yamashita (one of postdocs in Nottingham in 2008–2010) who asked me to tell him about IUT after myscheduled meeting with Sh. Mochizuki. The next day after receiving my email he contacted Sh. Mochizuki to express his interest to
study IUT. After my meeting on September 15 with the author of IUT I told about its content to G. Yamashita and supported his interest
to study the theory.
56
Recall these famous words of G. Hardy: “I have myself always thought of a mathematician as in the first instance an observer, aman who gazes at a distant range of mountains and notes down his observations ... If he wishes someone else to see it, he points to it ...
When his pupil also sees it, the proof is finished”, p. 598 of vol. 7 of [14].

26

IVAN FESENKO◦ the Bogomolov proof of the geometric version of the Szpiro inequality (see 1.3 and footnote 44), which
involves geometric considerations that are substantially reminiscent of the geometry that underlies the
Hodge theatres of [31]-I, cf. sect. 5.3 of [1], [4], [50], see also footnote 44◦ the classical theory of the functional equation of the theta-function, as discussed, for instance in §1.7.5of [7], which was one important motivation for the development of the theory of [31]-II-III, see also[37] for more on the archimedean theta-function◦ the classical theory of moduli of ordinary elliptic curves in positive characteristic and the related structure of the Hecke correspondence (i.e. Tp ) in positive characteristic, which is also substantially reminiscent of the geometry that underlies the Hodge theatres of [31]-I.
For IUT: first read §1–2 of [30]-III (and any previous relevant papers) and [28], and then the papers of [31],consulting [27] when necessary, as well as [25] and [29], which are used in [31]-IV.
Category theorists and algebraists may prefer to start with a reading of [27] and [24].
Online materials of the Oxford and RIMS workshops on IUT, [52], [54], and the forthcoming volume ofproceedings of the latter are other useful sources for the study of IUT. If you can read Japanese, there are twosurveys of IUT by Yu. Hoshi, [51]. For a very elementary and general presentation of IUT and its place see[55].
3.3. The work of Shinichi Mochizuki. The mathematical vision and perseverance of the author of IUT during
20 years of work on it is most admirable and is a sample to follow.
A valuable addition to this is his investment of time and effort in answering questions about his work andexplaining and discussing its parts, via email communication or skype talks and during numerous meetings andseminars at RIMS.
This theory is so radically different from anything that came before it that it is natural to ask whether itwill induce a paradigm shift, and also how it may change the way one can approach mathematical research.
The reconstruction algorithm-theoretic approach of [31]-I-III, as well as of [30]-III, [28], contains elementsthat are radically different from the usual approach to proving theorems, and hence from the usual approach towriting mathematical papers. To some degree, IUT may be thought of as a sort of meta-structure which acts on
appropriate parts of conventional scheme-theoretic arithmetic geometry. In doing so, it allows one to explicate,with relative ease, phenomena (such as the Vojta conjecture) that seemed inaccessible via existing mathematicaltheories.
Knowing what one can achieve if one works persistently on a long-term goal provides one with an optimistic
hope that other difficult challenges might be solved as the result of long-term resolute innovative work.
3.4. Related issues. It is clear how crucial long-term work is for real breakthroughs in mathematics. Questions
arise such as how to increase the number of researchers able to work for a long time on fundamental problems
so sedulously and successfully and what should be the amount of support to this strategically important type of
research work.
An opinion of R. Langlands on current trends about supporting long-term fundamental research work can beheard during the 52nd minute of his video lecture [20].
Some roots of the decline of support to long-term fundamental work, such as the shortsighted race to higher
number of publications and higher citation index, which often results in pressure to produce short-term workthat consists essentially of minor improvements to known results, originate from causes external to the mathematical community. To do well in their academic career, young researchers are very often pushed to go along
this path which typically implies a very narrow specialisation. The latter leads to the emphasis on technicalNOTES ON THE WORK OF SHINICHI MOCHIZUKI ON ARITHMETIC DEFORMATION THEORY

27

perfection as opposite to innovation and on presentation rather than substance of work. Following this patheventually makes it more difficult to think in broader terms, to learn new concepts, to develop in new directions. Lack of inventiveness, more widely spread imitation, very pragmatic attitudes to what and when to study
in mathematics, lack of genuine enthusiasm to study new theories, fear to stand alone in scientific endeavour,
fear to look too far away are associated issues. Some roots, such as the unnecessarily strong emphasis on
concrete applications57, originate from within the mathematical community.
There is an issue about attitudes of number theorists towards the study of IUT and their unusually sluggish
response. Reasons for this are related to the topics discussed in the third paragraph of 3.3 and in the previous
paragraph. It seems that the number theory community is suffering from the problems listed there even morethan other mathematical communities.
Acknowledgements. I am most grateful to Shinichi Mochizuki for many interesting and often fascinating discussions and for his answers to my numerous questions, as well as for his valuable comments and remarks on
preliminary drafts of this text. I am thankful to Akio Tamagawa for supporting my visits to RIMS in September
2012 and December 2014. I am thankful to Go Yamashita for answering my questions on IUT prior to mysecond visit to RIMS, as well as to him and Yuichiro Hoshi for answering my specialised questions during myvisit. I am very grateful to Fedor Bogomolov for highly interesting discussions on his related work. Work on
this text was partially supported by University of Nottingham and EPSRC programme grant EP/M024830.
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