SPORT FOR ALL WORLDWIDE: A CROSS-NATIONAL AND COMPARATIVERESEARCH

Lamartine DaCosta & Ana Miragaya
Universidade Gama Filho
2002
Introduction to book Worldwide Experiences and Trends in Sport for All
Published by Meyer und Meyer

The purpose of this research report is to present the development and theconclusions of an investigation with 36 countries from five continents in the theme ofSport for All (SFA). The database of this investigation comprises the chapterspreviously found in this book. They represent study cases of countries that adhered to
the research project that took place during 1999 and 2000. The comparative method
was the basis for data gathering, planning, implementation, analytical procedures andinferences of this study.

PROBLEM AND AIMS
The aim of the present study is to provide a body of knowledge able to give aid
in the selection process of more adequate ways and means to develop SFA practices
worldwide. Scientifically speaking, there seems to be a gap between practice andtheory regarding SFA development as it has been openly argued since 1991 (Oja &Telama, 1991), which constitutes a problem subjected to investigation. At this point it
is necessary to include the current claim for common conceptions of SFA in different
cultures in view of a larger and updated scope of social needs and scientific knowledge.
The introductory chapter of this book displays a theoretical review of SFA bothas a sport practice and as a cross-cultural phenomenon. It also presents the abovementioned problem and outlines a methodological strategy for the investigation. In
terms of international comparative method, the objective of this research is valid aslong as SFA is considered a universal phenomenon and at the same time different interms of cross-cultural and cross-national focus and substance. Thus, a comparative
study on the 36 adherent countries from five continents may illuminate the suitabilityof SFA alternatives in each cultural setting, either in rich or in poor geographic areas.
Concerns related to local appropriateness may also provide more global significance to
SFA.

1

HYPOTHESIS, RELEVANCE AND PREPARATION
Despite the impact of physical activities on the quality of life of an importantpart of the world's population, the hypothesis behind the central problem related tothis study refers to SFA as lacking a theoretical construct of scientific validity. This
need would account for the growing responsibility of SFA interventions that take placeby means of health, leisure and sport developments in a variety of countries.
Therefore, the methodological process of decision for the implementation of thisresearch considered experience and trends as central elements to gather the data for
the inquiry. Consequently, a standard pre-set framework for the production of the casestudies of 36 countries was elaborated in order to describe and analyze those elements
provided the need of developing theory from practice (DaCosta, 1998).

METHODOLOGY AND REFERENCE SOURCES
In addition to the fundamental requirements for comparative procedures, themethodological strategy was developed on account of traditional and recent sources
related to comparative studies. Overall, the framework categories guided the selectedauthors of each case study in their description and analysis of national context in termsof SFA.
The proposed categories for this initial task were submitted to validation andthen listed in the following order: 1. History; 2. Institutions; 3. Marketing; 4. Culture;
5. Sponsorship and Finance; 6. Target Groups and Activities; 7. Settings and Activities;
8. Strategy and Activities; 9. Social changes and 10. Conclusions. Table 1 exhibits thestrategic choices of the research in a sequential order of procedures as referred tobasic sources of comparative literature. In the next sections detailed and adapted
definitions of the procedures of Table 1 are presented and discussed.

METHODOLOGICAL DISCUSSION AND VALIDITY
The adaptation and correspondent discussion of the existing knowledge of thecomparative method to the presuppositions of this research are settled in the
introductory remarks of this book. In this context, special attention was given toformer experiences in similar studies of the sport area in order to avoid repetition of
biased procedures and interpretations. As reported previously by DaCosta (1998,
pp.14-23), a validity test of the data-gathering framework took place at the end of
1998, before the beginning of the investigation process. Its purpose was to guarantee

2reliability for the procedures of the research. Another test took place in 2000 to verify
the feasibility of the secondary comparative analysis as proposed by the relationships
in Table 1. The result of this experience was discussed in a seminar promoted by theInternational Society for the History of Physical Education and Sport in 2000. The fullreport will be published elsewhere (DaCosta, 2000).

Table 1METHODOLOGICAL STRATEGY OF INTERNATIONAL SFA RESEARCHSEQUENTIAL PROCEDURES FOR COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS
STEPS

TASKS

BASIS

First

Interpreta

database

Historical,

Identification oftion (a)in words

social, culturalvariables (b)/numbers

etc areas of(b)knowledge (a)Second

FOCUS

OUTCOMES

Juxtapositi Variables

Similarities and Longitudinalon

Differences (a)(b)

analysis ofvariables(c)Analysis(a)
Third

Simultane

Variables

Primary

General trends

ous

(b)

comparative(c)Compariso

analysis (d)n – 36
countries(a)
FourthPoint-

GeneralSecondary

Trends in

specific

Trends -comparative

context -compariso

fiveanalysis (d)specificns bycontinent

relationships

selecteds(c)countries(c)and/orcategories

3

(c)Reference sources: (a) Bereday (1964); (b) Haag (1998); (c) ICSE (1999); (d)Lindquist (1997).

SETTING HISTORICAL PERIODS
Taking into account the framework for data gathering, the descriptions andanalysis made by authors were restricted to the period of three decades (1970s 1990s). But, item no. 1 of the framework, "History", as dealt by authors, had
forwarded descriptions before this period that had resulted in historical compositions
with meaningful chronological units, related to centuries. In this respect, the editors,
working as researchers, followed the change of historical perspectives wherevernecessary for developing interpretations. Thus, in the final conclusions of thiscomparative investigation, general trends are historically identified according tofrequency criterion in the analysis of countries and continents; therefore, trends incontext are dated according to the subject of particular demarcation.

EXPERIENCES AND TRENDS
Each country pertaining to this comparative investigation is a case study on
SFA, presenting descriptions that constitute a singular experience. Moreover, several
descriptions provided by continents are the input for comparative analysis in order todefine general trends. Therefore, these described experiences must be set inaccumulative reviews as far as they become meaningful in juxtaposition arrangements.
In turn, a single or a limited group of descriptions may be submitted to analysis in
search of interrelationships, then producing contextual trends. This distinction has also
become a guideline in the construction of the format of the conclusions.

MACRO AND MICRO INTERPRETATIONS
The previous assumptions require operational definitions for the implementationof the comparative analysis and for the elaboration of the respective conclusions.
According to Oyen (1992, p.10), a key definition for comparative procedures is related
to the linkages between macro-level and micro-level in order to make interpretations
from database. "Macro" necessarily implies "micro": both depend on where one stands(Teune, 1992, pp. 39-40). Also, both levels of analysis can be treated as contexts:
from a macro perspective, the context may be identified by the universality of its
interpretative statements; from a micro perspective, the context is specified by a set of4variables. Therefore, the purpose of macro-level comparison is first to find similarities
and then differences, and vice-versa when the micro-level is the focus of the context(Scheuch, 1992, p.31). Table 2 is intended to facilitate the understanding of therelationships between levels of interpretation and corresponding comparative tasks. As
such, this exhibition complements Table 1 in terms of levels of interpretation. Moreprecisely, macro-level comparisons under historical, social and cultural focuses makeinterpretation of variables find universals. In SFA international research, continents areat the macro level from which a description of major similarities in contrast withdifferences comes out as general trends.

Table 2
MACRO AND MICRO APPROACHES TO INTERNATIONAL SFA RESEARCHRELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN LEVELS OF INTERPRETATIONSLEVELS
•

MACRO

TASKS
•

OUTCOMESINTERPRETATION

•

FOCUS

ANALYSIS OF•VARIABLES•CONTINENTS•DESCRIPTION•GENERALHISTORY, SOCIETY,
CULTURE etc.

•

TRENDSSIMILARITIES DIFFERENCES

•

MICRO

•

INTERPRETATION•VARIABLES•SINGLE COUNTRY•

COUNTRIES•DESCRIPTION•TRENDS IN•

DIFFERENCES -CONTEXT

Micro-levelcomparisonsarereferred

toone

SIMILARITIES

singlecountry

from

which

interpretation of the context reveals meaningful composition of variables. Thus,
description of contrasting differences in the face of major similarities yields trends
in context. In summary, similarities and differences for the SFA comparative
research are respectively (i) the most frequent variables detected in thedescription of countries with similar meanings (ii) the most frequent variables
which contrast to similarities detected among countries.

5

From the point of view of level of analysis it is also pertinent to define variables, which
are classified as structural-relational in the case of this research for focusing on theposition of a fact in relation to other circumstances described in a national case. Thiskind of variables is here primarily defined and assessed for outlining general trends of
SFA within longitudinal scopes of continents. When variables are referred to contextual
changes in a particular country or group of countries, they indicate trends in context.
In the case of a group of countries, comparative analyses seek point-specificrelationships with the support of specialized areas of knowledge. For the purposes ofthis SFA investigation, the variables in both macro and micro levels are identified andassessed by frequency criteria as referred to descriptions and interpretations.

INTERPRETATION OF VARIABLES
According to Ragin (1987), the variable-oriented approach may be bridged tocase-oriented approach in comparative studies. However, Oyen (1992, p.14) stresses
the "causal complexity" underlying this possibility but she welcomes "empiricallyextensive" analysis

in

which

selected

data

turn

into meaningful comparativeinterpretation. In sport research area, Olafson (1991) presented a similar argument,
proposing a "triangulation" that could incorporate selected data derived from bothquantitative and qualitative methods. This author in addition recommends "the use of avariety of methods to improve the accuracy of the researcher's judgment of aparticular phenomenon" since it "is essential to increase the degree of agreement
among comparative researchers". In this concern, Lane (1992) also favors multiple
approaches and methods as a characteristic of the new international comparative
methodology emerged at the end of the 1970s. To this researcher, the so-called"empirically extensive" (large number of countries) and the "empirically intensive" (fewcases as possible) may be combined in different ways.
The methodological strategy of this research, in effect, traces the developmentssuggested by Lane (1992), who is likely to represent an updated review of thecomparative inquire internationally. As yet, the following definitions embody recent
advances of comparative analysis and give appropriate content to Table 1 components:

Primary comparative analysis is a longitudinal interpretation of experiences in thesame sample at various points in time, presented by means of assessment of mostfrequent facts and their average influence across a variety of countries. Interpretationis reached through interplay between past and present comprehensive approaches of a6particular fact as referred to areas of knowledge that directly focus on the experience
under scrutiny. These areas for SFA interest are history, sport sciences, management
theory, sociology and political sciences.

Secondary comparative analysis is a cross-sectional interpretation of data for only one
point in time, presented by localized, but intensive observations. Interpretation aims toyield insights into the contexts on which SFA takes place in one country or a group ofcountries, as well as to identify links between specific factors and general trends of SFA
activities worldwide. Another expected result of the secondary analysis of the SFA
international investigation is to describe further exploration of specific questions andconsequent clues for research developments.

ASSESSMENT OF VARIABLES
Assessment of a variable as part of its interpretation is raised by Ferrari (1992) as
to attribute meaning to it by different entries for international comparisons. Verticaland horizontal assessments are significant examples of this procedure, as the former
concerns social contexts showing different levels of economic development and thelatter focuses on social contexts sharing a relatively similar level by the sameevaluative approach. By using these two approaches, there may be a problem sincesimilar levels of economic development do not often represent similar political regimes,
social conditions and other relevant characteristics. But, putting apart the difficulties,
vertical and horizontal assessments are valid to disclose similarities at different pointsof time.
With similar reasoning, Teune (1992, pp.44-45) legitimates different entries forthe appreciation of variables, exemplified by a particular year or to particular timeintervals, which have different meanings for different countries and activities.
Summarizing, countries do not have to be necessarily compared at the same point intime with a particular variable just because this variable can be the same in different
historical periods. In SFA grounds, for instance, the campaign style for active living
promotion predominated in each country in different epochs, despite having similar
proposals and organization rationales worldwide. In the interest of Table 1 definitionsof components and presentation of variables of the next sections, more specific andoperational definitions are now forwarded:

Accumulative experience refers in the present research to the description of facts
and eventually their influences, with a typical meaning, as detected in different

7periods of time or in its continuity overtime. This assessment is based on theoccurrence itself, not on its importance because comparative facts have different
degrees of relevance according to time, space and human relationships in national
context. Thus, accumulative experiences are more meaningful when comparisons
are made in a group of countries or between continents.

Frequency of variables is a number referred to the occurrence of a specific fact in apoint or period of time in a particular country. For SFA concerns, frequency may
have zero, one or more than one accounts within a defined period of time once avariable may appear and disappear consecutively or simply does not occur. Thus,
frequency in this case is surely accumulative and so far here it represents theexperience of a particular country. In consequence of this kind of quantification,
frequency may have a total number superior to the number of countries in acomparative procedure. Moreover, this use of frequency is not appropriate in thiscase to combine with percentages and other quantitative referential values. Trends
are mapped out in this criterion by bigger or smaller amounts in frequency
numbers.

Database for comparative analysis is data coded in words and/or numbers in orderto provide semantic meaning to descriptions and interpretations. This definition
prevails over the distinction between qualitative and quantitative research. In
terms of the comparative study here presented, the database has been
constructedaccordingto aframeworkof

categories

specially

adaptedtointernational understanding of SFA.

Juxtaposition analysis is a preliminary confrontation of data from different
countries with a criterion of comparability upon which a valid comparison can be
made. Similarities and differences are usually the format adopted by this criterion.
From these contrasts, inferences are provisionally assumed to explain observed
facts and eventually their influences. The results of this investigation are initiallypresented under the heading of "juxtaposition analysis" appropriately connected tothe categories of the data-gathering framework. As the categories of History andCulture were described by means of equivalent variables, they appear together
when juxtaposition analysis and conclusions are initially displayed.

8Simultaneous comparisons are the final procedure of the comparative method
when all countries together, according to their continental areas, are submitted tothe assessment of variables by means of frequencies. This methodological stage
stands as the accumulative experience of SFA in continental perspective.
Therefore, trends are the analytical description of the variations of frequency.
From these mapping procedures, conclusions are the expected outcome. In thecase of the present research work, the conclusions are presented as general trends
and as trends in context.

EQUIVALENCE OF VARIABLES
The problem of delimitation of comparative research is mostly referred toequivalence between facts and variables to be compared. This difficulty is
described by Etzioni-Halevy (1992) as variables "may be of different magnitude in
the various settings, so that disparities in size or quantity may be translated not
only into differences in quality, but into differences in meaning as well". From thesame source, it is here acknowledged that there is not a perfect solution for theequivalence problem. Actually, Etzioni-Halevy suggests that the variables to becompared must have contexts surroundings as similar as possible. Teune (1992,p.54), reviewing the same topic of equivalence admits "a great deal ofobservational flexibility must be used to get into the systems so that comparisons
can be made". Finally, this latter author proposes a strategy of assessing
equivalence "pragmatically flexible, adapting to context".
Moreover, Teune (ibid., pp. 54-55) continues his recommendations emphasizingthat " one way to reduce the equivalence problem is to compare relationships andchange over time within and across systems (...) And in fact, many comparisonsamong countries are now of relationships within them, such as wealth and healthwithin local governmental units. This partially solves the problem of establishingequivalence".
In terms of SFA comparative inquiry, the equivalence lies in the data-gathering
framework that was proposed to provide identification and analysis of variables
over time across and within SFA international initiatives. This methodologicalarrangement was equally based in the often recognized fact that within-variation
may sometimes be greater than between-variation in cross-national comparisons(Oyen, 1992, p.7). As an improvement for the longitudinal assessment ofvariables, the international SFA framework for comparisons of this research9encompasses the category of "History" in order to give meanings to variations, if
any.

APPROPRIATE GROUPING OF COUNTRIES
An appropriate grouping of countries also minimizes the problem of equivalencein a comparative international research. As far as this grouping procedure is related to
relevant similarities in language, culture, economic development level etc., there areappropriate conditions for comparisons (Teune, 1992, pp. 50-51).
Another criterion to assess equivalence is the so-called "high unit order", which
implies in taking into consideration global trends of nowadays society, such as
economic and political blocks, environmental protection, cross-cultural activities(popular music, sport, Internet etc.), environmental protection and so forth (Scheuch,
1992, p.31; Teune, 1992, p.59; Oyen, 1992, p. 12). For the present investigation on
SFA worldwide, the high unit order is the continent facing the presupposed
globalization of sport in its different manifestations. Conversely, the relevant similarityof a group of countries is here presupposed to outline comparative tasks related tostep fourth of Table 1.

TABLE 3
INTERNATIONAL SFA RESEARCHADHERENT COUNTRIES BY CONTINENT (N) AND BY POPULATION (%)
CONTINENTSNUMBER OF

PERCENTAGE OF
CONTINENT’S

COUNTRIESPOPULATION

ASIA

8

40,60

AFRICA

2

7,72

EUROPE

1778,57

L. AMERICA

7

75,39

N. AMERICA

2

99,95

TOTAL

36

47,00

10

Table 3 exhibits the number of adherent countries of the present research and the
proportion of each continent's population, which refers to those participating units inthe comparison. Data used in the elaboration of this table were collected from “World
Population Prospects”, United Nations - UN, 1999. The previous chapters display thecontributions of the different countries already identified. In the introductory chapter ofthis book, the participation of these countries was analyzed and considered appropriate
despite Africa's low adherence. In view of the necessary appreciation of grouping
conditions taking into account equivalence in terms of comparisons between countries
and continents, supportive arguments for consolidation of those previous assumptions
are displayed below:•

Despite the proportion of the distribution of population in the continents shown in
Table 3, it does not represent SFA status. There is a preeminent participation ofcountries in all continents with the exception of Africa. In fact, Africa in this case isa problem of quantitative significance but it is also a solution for cross-country
comparisons in terms of globalization meanings. Andorka (1992) confirms thisinterpretation: "By comparing research findings from countries belonging todifferent types it would be possible to ascertain the influence of the level ofdevelopment, of cultural background and of the political and economic system onsocial phenomena and process".

•

According to a review made by Sithole (1999), the penetration of SFA in Africa isminimum in comparison with other continents. Nevertheless, a recent survey doneby the International Military Sports Council - CISM on the existing SFA activities
with local military involvement had answers from 10 African countries in a total of
39 respondents. And the findings of this investigation show evidences of the highimportance attributed by African military institutions to leisure time sport programsand to SFA activities (Neisberger, 1996). The experience of the authors of thisresearch confirms the African institutional interest on SFA traced by CISM in the
military area. In effect, the main editor of this book had contacted prospective
writers from 8 African countries direct or indirectly connected with local SFA
initiatives. However, in only two cases the requirements of participation in the
project were met. In all, the inclusion of Africa in the interpretations of next
sections is mainly admitted as support not only to future studies on SFA
interventions in that continent's conditions but also to a better understanding of
SFA idiosyncrasies worldwide.

11

•

Yet in grouping countries for the comparative analysis, a final change in the
aforementioned United Nations (UN) convention for populations and countries wasmade to replace Australia and Israel, including them in Asia. Respecting the higher
unit order and globalization criteria adopted by this inquiry, those countries weremoved from the geographic classification in reason of their voluntary affiliation to
Asiania Sport for All Association - ASFA. Latin America replaced South and Central
America from UN standards in order to avoid the isolation of Mexico in thecontinental grouping of countries this research. Again, in the latter adaptation, theglobal cultural meaning of Latin America prevailed over segmentation of America's
continental area.

PRESENTATION OF RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

A . History and Culture

Juxtaposition Analysis – 36 Countries – 19th/20th Centuries

SIMILARITIES• SFA begins from World War II – 1945
onwards• SFA as leisure or/and health

DIFFERENCES• SFA begins from Trim Movement 1970s
onwards• SFA as development of sport practices

development• SFA is historically rooted in traditional
games and popular sports developments• SFA has multiple aims anddenominations• SFA is conducted by national and local
management (focus on mass and/or• SFA is influenced by Trim Movement andEuropean Charter• SFA is influenced by Fitness and/or
Active Living Movements• SFA is conducted by business
management (focus on market)

community)• SFA has cross-national influence(globalization)• SFA has national sport traditions
influence

12

Simultaneous Comparisons – 36 Countries - Accumulative Experiences

Table A.1. – The Beginnings  1900/2000
Variable occurrences per country = 0, 1 or >1
Frequency = (total of occurrences of variables in all countries of the continent)
CONTINENTS/

BEFORE 1945

AFTER 1945

VARIABLES

1970s-TRIM

EUROPEAN CHARTER

MOVEMENT– 1970s

ASIA

(6)

(7)

(3)

(0)

AFRICA

(0)

(1)

(1)

(1)

EUROPE

(9)

(9)

(6)

(11)

L. AMERICA

(4)

(5)

(3)

(2)

N. AMERICA

(2)

(1)

(1)

(0)

TOTAL

21

23

14

14

Table A.2. – The Developments  1900/2000
Variable occurrences per country = 0, 1 or >1
Frequency = (total of occurrences of variables in all countries of the continent)
CONTINENTS /ACCESS TO

VARIABLESSPORTLEISUREHEALTHLEISURE &HEALTH

ASIA

(6)

(7)

(7)

(7)

AFRICA

(0)

(1)

(1)

(2)

EUROPE

(9)

(8)

(6)

(14)

L. AMERICA

(4)

(5)

(4)

(4)

13

N. AMERICA

(1)

(2)

(2)

(2)

TOTAL

22

23

20

29

Table A.3. – Roots and Influences  1900 /2000
Variable occurrences per country = 0, 1 or >1
Frequency = (total of occurrences of variables in all countries of the continent)
CONTINENTS /TRADITIONAL

NATIONALISTICINFLUENCES

ADOPTION OF

VARIABLESGAMESINFLUENCES

FROM FITNESSCAMPAIGN& ACTIVE

FORMAT

INFLUENCE

LIVING
ASIA

(6)

(4)

(6)

(3)

AFRICA

(2)

(0)

(1)

(1)

EUROPE

(9)

(6)

(10)

(6)

L. AMERICA

(6)

(0)

(4)

(5)

N. AMERICA

(0)

(0)

(2)

(2)

TOTAL

23

10

23

17

Table A.4. – Aims and Denominations  1900/2000
Variable occurrences per country = 0, 1 or >1
Frequency = (total of occurrences of variables in all countries of the continent)
CONTINENTS /MULTIPLE AIMS

SOCIALPOLITICALSPORTVARIABLESDENOMINATIONSINCLUSION

MOBILIZATIONCULTUREDEVELOPMENT

ASIA

(7)

(5)

(3)

(6)

AFRICA

(2)

(2)

(2)

(0)

EUROPE

(11)

(7)

(9)

(3)

14

L. AMERICA

(7)

(6)

(2)

(0)

N. AMERICA

(2)

(2)

(0)

(2)

TOTAL

29

22

16

11

Table A.5. – Management  1970/2000
Variable occurrences per country = 0, 1 or >1
Frequency = (total of occurrences of variables in all countries of the continent)
CONTINENTS

GOVERNMENT/ VARIABLESLOCALVOLUNTEERSPRIVATE

BUSINESSCOMMUNITIES

ASIA

(7)

(6)

(5)

(5)

(3)

AFRICA

(2)

(1)

(1)

(2)

(0)

EUROPE

(12)

(7)

(5)

(6)

(6)

L. AMERICA

(7)

(3)

(1)

(2)

(1)

N. AMERICA

(2)

(2)

(2)

(2)

(2)

TOTAL

28

19

14

15

12

Table A.6. – Local versus Global  1970/2000
Variable occurrences per country = 0, 1 or >1
Frequency = (total of occurrences of variables in all countries of the continent)
CONTINENTS /INTERNATIONAL

OLYMPIC MOVEMENTLOCAL SPORTVARIABLESINFLUENCE

INFLUENCE

TRADITIONSINFLUENCE

ASIA

(6)

(4)

(6)

AFRICA

(2)

(1)

(2)

15

EUROPE

(15)

(6)

(9)

L. AMERICA

(5)

(4)

(4)

N. AMERICA

(1)

(0)

(2)

TOTAL

29

15

23

General Trends - Continents•

Historically,

thepioneer

initiatives

of

SFA

in

their

variousversions

anddenominations have not excluded one another. They sprang up in all continents,
except for Africa, before World War II (Table A.1). After 1945 these experimental
versions were expanded. It was during the 1970s that the TRIM Movement
produced the most widespread format of SFA. Finally, the European Charter
consolidated the expression Sport for All - SFA also in the early 1970s. Until today
this Charter has had great influence in the continent where it originated.
•

All of the variables of Table A. 2 (access to sport practice, leisure, health andleisure & health), which have made SFA meaningful in its different versions
between 1900 and 2000, are still active. They have generated a synthesis that isrepresented by the association of leisure & health with access to sport. Within thiscontext, it is important to point out that Asia has a high profile in all variables, in
relation to other continents. Europe has concentrated more on leisure & health,always keeping the tradition of providing better access to sport practices. Finally,
while Latin America tends more to promote leisure as a basis for SFA, North
America tends to focus more on health.

•The influence of Traditional Sports and Games has the same level of the influenceof fitness & active living on Table A.3 in relation to past and present data. However,in terms of continents, it is possible to observe that Latin America tends to follow
the first variable (Traditional Sports and Games), while North America tends to go
more for the second(fitness & active living). However, the nationalist meaning

sometimes identified with Traditional Sports and Games is still present in Asia andsprinkled in Europe.

The adoption of the campaign format that identified SFA

initiatives in the 1970s and 1980s is still present in Latin America and North
America but it became residual in other continents.

16

•

Looking at Table A.4, it is possible to observe that SFA has had several
denominations and objectives in all continents and that the purpose of social
inclusion has become common, with more emphasis in Africa, Latin America andNorth America. On the one hand the popular mobilization with political objectives
has had historical continuity on account of the one-century delimitation for SFA
accumulative experiences, but with less effort in North America and Latin America.
On the other hand, the objective to develop a culture of movement through SFA
has had more comprehension and engagement in Asia.

•

SFA basically depends on government in all countries. However, it is possible tonotice that the private initiative has been increasing its participation in SFA (Table
A.5). Then, if the private initiative is examined together with business, it comes toplay a very important role in North America, Asia and Europe. Nevertheless, it isexactly in these continents where associations of local communities with volunteers
have become a frequent practice.

At the same time, this indicates not only ageneral tendency but also the fact that there is some articulation between a macro
perspective(government

andbusiness)

and

a

micro

perspective(localmanagement and volunteers). Taken this articulation as a feature of analysis, it isthen possible to say that Asia is ahead of the other continents.
•

Another type of association that shows up on Table A.6 is that of the globalizationof SFA with the tradition of the local practice of physical activity and sport. Since
the 1970s, SFA has developed through influences between countries, especially inEurope. This tendency has existed side-by-side with local managements, which ismore evident in North America, Asia and Africa. The Olympic Movement has been
included as some kind of reinforcement to the globalization of SFA, but with smaller
influence in North America and in Europe.

Trends in Context - Country or Group of Countries
A. Asia:•

After 1945, there have been SFA initiatives in seven countries of Asia, three of
which have adopted influences from the Trim movement since the early 1970s. In
terms of Korea, it is possible to say that once the SFA movement shows up as aphase in the construction of the culture of movement, it can be inferred that its
successive re-inventions came through the fusion of various concepts and theadoption of new denominations.

•

In Singapore, the meaning of leisure & health is translated by the expression fun &fit, which makes up the communication basis of the national movement “Sports for17

Life”, launched in 1996. The use of the expression “life” as a synthesis of the
combination leisure & health was also adopted in Australia by the campaign “Life.
Be in It” of the 1970s.
•

In Israel, the influence of Traditional Sports and Games (TSG) in the development
of SFA is inserted in a wider perspective on which a culture of movement isconstructed. The same was observed in Korea. This specific culture is based onvalues, which come from change and which reach sports in general and physicaleducation. In Singapore, the TSG are understood as cultural expressions that give
identity to the different ethnic groups of the country. In Australia, the TSG havebeen rediscovered by SFA. As a result, they have generated an additional role ofcultural movement to enrich SFA.

•

The cultural identity obtained through SFA in Singapore is also understood as ameans of harmony among ethnic groups. The same happens in Malaysia and, out of
Asia, in South Africa. Such use of SFA is related not only to social inclusion but also
to politics.

•

The international relations for the development of SFA are a means cultivated bysix countries in Asia. The event Challenge Day (competition between cities ofsimilar population numbers, taken place on one only day, totaling participants) is
one of the symbols of this cooperation. This way, one of the favorite strategies of
SFA in Asia is the promotion of large-scale events, adopted by six countries (Table
G-2).

•

Australia, Korea and Singapore are countries in which different versions of SFA had
fast development because of the realization of big international competition(Olympic Games, Asian Games, World Championships). This relationship has also
been identified in Latin American countries, which may suggest it could be a meansof popular mobilization for physical practices.

A. Africa:•

In Africa, South Africa had SFA initiatives before the 1970s, and in this case theprograms aimed at the white minority. After that, there were initiatives inspired in
the Trim Movement, which also aimed at the white minority. The Sengala
Movement became then a second phase of SFA within the context of South Africa,
when open programs to all ethnic groups started as a consequence of the end of
the apartheid regime in 1994. Mozambique started mass sport following socialist
regimes of the 1970s, but it progressively adopted parts of the European SFA
Charter.

A. Europe:18•Within the European context, nine countries had experienced different versions of
SFA before 1945, including, five in the east, having mass sport as the basis.
However, these five nations have adopted the European Charter in different stages
to make the necessary adjustments and to legitimate the practices. This type of
adoption of the Charter and of the principles of the Trim Movement has come up inthese countries. That meant consolidation of previous experiences.

•

The current models of SFA historical evolution (see chapter on Belgium-Flanders)
are not completely confirmed by interpretation from European countries as found inpreceding chapters. Thus, the often suggested phase of democratization of sport ofthe 1960s had similar approaches in eleven countries(three from the easternregion) out of a total of 17. Seven countries went through the phase of emphasison the role played by the government and on the active lifestyle of the 1970s. But
only two countries have recognized the commercialization phase of the 1980s andhave confirmed the emphasis on individualization of the 1990s.
•

In England, since the 1970s the idea of a historical continuum has prevailed,connecting SFA with top sport and attributing to both mutual influences andadvantages.

•

In Finland, the long-time tradition of sport for cultural affirmation as well as forrecreation had a shift towards health promotion during the 1980s by influence of
the UKK Institute.

•

In Europe, there have been popular movements that have given basis to SFA suchas (i) the summer camp movement in Greece, Italy and Poland, (ii) the movementof the workers in Finland, Austria, Italy, Portugal, Bulgaria and Poland, and (iii) the
women’s movement in Finland.

•

Tourism has also supported SFA in different historic periods in Austria, Spain,
Poland, Bulgaria and Italy.

•

The movement ‘back to nature’ is one of the causes of SFA growth in Germany,
Austria, Finland, Italy, Romania and Bulgaria.

•

The movement that motivates recreation, which had come up in the United Statesat the beginning of the 20th century, had later repercussions in both Germany and
Greece at different times.

•

Football, in particular, and top sport, in general, have been acting as constraints to
SFA in Hungary.

19•

There has been some expansion of volunteerism during the 1990s in SFA in Poland
and Bulgaria, clearly showing the adoption of means of mobilization of participants
inspired in Western Europe.

•

Among the six European countries influenced by the Olympic Movement, Finlandcame first adopting the following motto even before World War II: “Olympic
winners = healthy citizens”.

•

There is a sense of re-invention of SFA in different historic periods. One exampleof that is Finland, which had an event similar to today’s Challenge Day back in
1941. This made it compete against Sweden in a walking competition withapproximately 1.5 million participants in Finland against 0.9 millions in Sweden.

•

Although there have been long-term sports traditions that go back to an ancient
past in both Greece and Romania, it is worth noticing that there is a mentality
against physical activities in different segments of their population.

A. Latin America•

In Latin America, four countries had shown experiences of SFA-type activities
before 1945, produced by local conceptions. Within the contexts of Brazil andArgentina, there were fascist style manifestations of mass sport during the 1930s
and 1940s. It is possible to detect on these occasions the introduction of external
influences. The European Charter played a minor role in the continent, except for
Uruguay, where Brazil had some influence. This also suggests the existence ofcross-national exchange within the SFA movement.

•

In Brazil it is possible to observe that the institutional instability of the governmentis also reflected in SFA initiatives. Nevertheless, large-scale events have hadhistorical continuity supported and/or directed by different institutions.

•

The sequence of approaches of SFA that concentrated primarily on recreation andleisure, and then on health, have been very clear in Brazil and in Colombia.

•

The interpretation of top sport as a barrier against the development of SFA
happens only in Chile, within a continental perspective.

•

The movement of recreation generated in the United States at the beginning of the20th century had consequences in Uruguay and in Brazil in the following decades.

•

The international influence that has motivated SFA in all continents took place inVenezuela under the form of an agreement formally established with institutions in
Canada.

20

•A mentality that goes against sports practice in certain population groups has been
identified in Colombia and in Venezuela.

•

Uruguay had offered technical consulting in relation to programs of public
recreation in urban areas during the 1950s and the 1960s before the interchange
between Latin American countries that have adopted the SFA in the 1970s.

•

In

Uruguay,

Colombia,

Chile,

Venezuela

andMexico,international

sportscompetitions have been pointed out as stimuli to the practices of SFA.
A. North America
In North America, variations of SFA, locally developed, had come up before 1945. The
Trim Movement exercised some influence on Canada, which influenced SFA on its turn,confirming one more time the cross-national sense of the development of SFA.

B. Institutions
Juxtaposition Analysis – 36 Countries – 1970s/1990s
DIFFERENCESSIMILARITIES•The State is the major institutional•

Non-Governmental institutions promotesupport of SFA by means of Sport,

or/and implement independent SFA

Education, Health, Tourism, Youth etc.

initiatives

bodies•Sport System’s institutions manage•

For profit organizations act in SFA area•

Insertion of SFA in the multi-layered

SFA activities••

Non specialized and private institutions
act in SFA area

sport system of the country

There are institutional discontinuity and •There is an SFA roof organization withchange in SFA management

continuity in management

21

Simultaneous Comparisons – 36 countries - Accumulative Experiences

Table B.1. – Institutional Typology and Management  1945/2000
Variable occurrences per country = 0, 1 or >1
Frequency = (total of occurrences of variables in all countries of the continent)
CONTINENTS

STATE

NON-GOV’T/ VARIABLES (*)

SPORTFOR - PROFITSYSTEM’S

ORGANIZATIOINSTITUTIONAL

BODIESNDISCONTINUITY(**)

AND CHANGE
(3)

ASIA

(7)

(6)

(5)

AFRICA

(2)

(1)

(2)

(0)

(2)

EUROPE

(14)

(14)

(14)

(6)

(12)

L. AMERICA

(7)

(3)

(4)

(1)

(7)

N. AMERICA

(2)

(2)

(0)

(2)

(2)

TOTAL

32

28

25

12

28

(*)

(5)

The variable "state" embodies more institutions than "government" from Table

A.5.
(**) Data from Table A.5 (variable "business") for the effect of comparison.

Table B.2. – Institutional Insertion  1945/2000
Variable occurrences per country = 0, 1 or >1
Frequency = (total of occurrences of variables in all countries of the continent)
CONTINENTS /MULTI-LAYREDLEISURE AND

SFA ROOF

NON

VARIABLES

SPORT SYSTEM

RECREATIONORGANIZATIONSPECIALIZEDINSTITUTIONSSINSTITUTIONS

ASIA

(5)

(4 )

(3)

(7)

AFRICA

(2)

(1)

(2)

(2)

22

EUROPE

(14)

(7)

(9)

(17)

L. AMERICA

(7)

(3)

(2)

(7)

N. AMERICA

(2)

(0)

(0)

(2)

TOTAL

30

15

16

35

General Trends - Continents•

The three most important types of institutions that have managed SFA since 1945are:(1st) the State, (2nd) non-governmental organizations and (3rd) institutions

from national sport system (Table B.1). This hierarchy seems to be balanced in allcontinents, except for North America, where SFA does not have relation to thesport system (federations, associations, Olympic Committee etc.) and for Latin
America, which is in some intermediate position because it has fewer links thanthose found in Europe, Asia and Africa. Although the for-profit organizations havebeen less committed to SFA than the other institutions that attend to SFA needs,
especially in Africa and in Latin America, they are leveled to the others in the case
of

North

America.

Althoughsomehierarchy

has

been

installed

betweenorganizations that manage SFA, the incidence of discontinuity and change has been
kept the same in these institutions, in general, in all continents, which suggeststhat SFA is more of a secondary or marginal option than a public or private
institutional specialization.
•

Table B.2 confirms the institutional instability of SFA in all continents.

The

organizations that have managed SFA in each country were not specialized in mostof the countries. However, whenever the different types of institutions that havehoused SFA are taken into consideration, it is possible to observe that the one thathas been more successful is exactly the institution related to the national sportsystem. In general, this institution is organized by multi-layered levels ofmanagement considering either the horizontal level (the regions of each country,
for example) or the vertical level (specialized practices managed by hierarchicalinstitutions). The insertion in organizations specialized in leisure and recreation has
been an option that is less common than those referred to sport systems, but thishappens less frequently in Asia and Africa. The SFA roof organizations, which
presuppose a better institutional focus, did not reach any importance in any of thecontinents. It did not have any examples in North America. However, it is23

important to mention that there was some participation in the case of Europe.
Finally, whenever present, the SFA roof organizations have not been developed assolutions to the institutional instability of SFA.
Trends in Context - Country or Group of Countries
B. Asia:•

The transfer of SFA management to another governmental institution or to anotherprivate institution in a successive mode has been happening in Korea, Israel,
Australia, Japan and China.

•

In Australia, it is possible to observe a trend towards unorganized, informal sport
activities, which seems to emphasize local practices and community services.

B. Africa:•

SFA in South Africa before 1994 was uncoordinated and fragmentary as it has beenin the United States and in Brazil when putting the focus in other continental areas.

B. Europe:•

The three most common institutional bases linked to SFA, the state, the society
and the market, seem to be in equilibrium in 14 countries but only in terms ofgovernment and society, except in Finland, Belgium-Flandres, Austria, France andGermany, where the market link also plays an important role.

B. Latin America:•

In Argentina, the SFA roof organizations are federations legally registered as any
sports federation: one linked to the National Olympic Committee and the other one,
more specialized and independent.

B. North America:•

The campaigns for the incentive of physical practices have existed in the UnitedStates since the end of the 19th century. The YMCA, in particular, played a very
important role in this type of promotion, which comes before the development of
SFA in the 20th century in a world scale. There is written record of the influence of
the YMCA in Korea, Greece and Uruguay. In the 1950s and 1960s there were
campaigns such as the New Games or the fitness tests for school children.

24

When the proposed historical model of SFA development (see the Belgium-Flanders•

chapter) is compared with circumstances registered in the United States andCanada, it is possible to observe that the phase of democratization of sport thattook place in the 1970s also shows some signs in Canada. Besides that, the UnitedStates and Canada have been following the phase of the active lifestyle of the
1970s, but the presupposed phase of consumption of the 1980s had already takenplace in the 1960s. The phase of individualism and health of the 1990s seems to becloser to American events. The interpretation of ethnic harmony through SFA has
happened in the United States just as similarly identified in some Asian countries (Malaysia, Singapore and Australia).

C.

MarketingJuxtaposition Analysis – 36 Countries – 1970s/1990s

SIMILARITIES•DIFFERENCES

SFA activities use communication tools•

instead of Marketing approaches•

There is a partial use of marketing
principles in SFA activities

There is discontinuity in marketing•

approaches of SFA initiatives

There is a marketing strategy
implementation in SFA initiatives

Simultaneous Comparisons – 36 countries - Accumulative Experiences

Table C.1. – Marketing Interventions  1970 / 2000
Variable occurrences per country = 0, 1 or >1
Frequency = (total of occurrences of variables in all countries of the continent)

CONTINENTSCOMMUNICATIONPARCIAL USE

DISCONTINUITY

MARKETING/ VARIABLES

INSTEAD OFOF

IN MARKETINGSTRATEGY

25

MARKETING

MARKETING

APPROACHESIMPLEMENTATION

PRINCIPLES

ASIA

(4)

(6)

(4)

(1)

AFRICA

(1)

(1)

(1)

(1)

EUROPE

(13)

(14)

(7)

(6)

L. AMERICA

(7)

(3)

(2)

(1)

N. AMERICA

(0)

(2)

(2)

(1)

TOTAL

25

26

16

10

General Trends- Continents•

The interventions that have been using marketing as a tool for mobilization andfixation of participants have been discontinued several times much very similarly towhat happened to the institutions that have dealt with SFA since 1970 (influence of
the Trim Campaign and other initiatives which focused on the awareness of theeffects of physical exercise). That is why Table C.1 includes variables that haveworked as complementary in all continents. This way, the discontinuity in themarketing of SFA has played a coherent role in the continents where marketing
principles have been partially used and where communication tools have been used
to mobilize participants. It is possible then to conclude that the implementation ofmarketing strategies in SFA has offered few examples in all continents, but more
importantly in North America and in Europe.

Trends in Context - Country or Group of Countries
C. Asia:•

The indirect promotion of SFA by commercial providers is identified in Korea andAustralia.

26•The use of Internet for communication and marketing related to SFA development
is found in present days in Israel and Australia.

C. Africa:•

The objective of marketing in South Africa for SFA interventions is being defined insocial re-engineering terms (empowerment, social inclusion, accessibility etc).

C. Europe:•Marketing is becoming today a tool for SFA initiatives in Romania, but thisbeginning is mostly related to a new law to patronize sport activities, notspecialized institutions in sport.

•

In the early stages of SFA in Austria, the idea of sport as a commodity that has tobe sold facing competition with many leisure opportunities and offers has
successfully influenced SFA marketing principles and strategy.

C. Latin America:•

The marketing research in Colombia is mostly referred to public opinion polls.

•

The Internet is broadly used by the three national-regional SFA programs in Brazil.

B. North America:•

In Canada, there has been evidence that people who have joined fitness programs
tend to be more educated and to belong to higher social economic classes. In all,motivation

andparticipation

in

SFA

grounds

seem

to

be

reinforcedbyunderstanding the process of building up active lifestyle.

D. SPONSORSHIP AND FINANCING
Juxtaposition Analysis  36 countries  1970s/1990s

SIMILARITIESDIFFERENCES

27

• SFA is financed by multiple sources led
by governmental institutions• Non-governmental bodies complement
SFA investments in addition toparticipants themselves in their leisureconsumption• Local governments are the leading• Sponsorship is still insufficient support toinvestors of SFA in terms of institutions

SFA even in developed countries

Simultaneous Comparisons – 36 countries - Accumulative Experiences
Table D.1. – Financing  1970s /1990s
Variable occurrences per country = 0,1 or >1
Frequency = (total of occurrences of variables in all countries of the continent)
CONTINENTS /MULTIPLE

NON-GOV’T

LOCAL GOV’T

SPONSORSHIPVARIABLES

SOURCESSUPPORTINVESTMENTS

SUPPORT

ASIA

(6)

(5)

(6)

(4)

AFRICA

(1)

(1)

(1)

(1)

EUROPE

(15)

(16)

(9)

(10)

L. AMERICA

(6)

(3)

(2)

(3)

N. AMERICA

(2)

(2)

(2)

(2)

TOTAL

30

27

20

20

General Trends - Continents•

Although the state has controlled the direction and, sometimes, the managementof

SFA in all continents, the financing of these activities has been done throughvarioussources,

includingtheimportantparticipationof

non-governmental

institutions. In both North America and Europe the financial commitments of nongovernmental institutions have been practically the same to the ones that come28

from multiple sources. However, the financial support to SFA at the local level –generally governmental – is becoming more like that of the other alternatives oreven taking up the most part in the cases of North America and of Asia. The
participation of sponsors in the activities of SFA in the period that goes from the1970s to the 1990s was registered in all continents as being equivalent to thosedone at the local level, except for Latin America, which mobilized more resourcesfrom sponsors and for Asia, which used fewer sponsors. The appreciation of thevariables of Table D.1 all together reinforces the hypothesis that most of theexpenditures of SFA are covered by the participants of the activities once only thevariable that refers to local government investments is explicitly committed to theState.
Trends in Context - Country or Group of Countries
D. Asia:•

The SFA funding by local governments is mostly used to build facilities in Korea,
Japan and Australia.

•

The countries where Sport Lottery provides financial support to SFA are Israel eJapan.

D. Africa:•

In South Africa SFA is partly funded by Sport Lottery.

D. Europe:•

In Belgium-Flanders there seems to be no adequate studies about the financing
process of SFA. This problem is locally interpreted as an international common
occurrence. However, it is possible to observe that SFA participants spend as muchas the government when it comes to finance physical practices.

•

In Poland, the expenditures with SFA are only estimates because the facilities for
sports practice are the same ones of top sports.

E. TARGET GROUPS
Juxtaposition Analysis  36 Countries – 1970s/1990s

29

SIMILARITIESDIFFERENCES• Focus on Targeting• Focus on free access to participation• Research to identify targeting profiles• Target groups chosen in local level or by
specific programs• Focus on inactive people and• Targeting on elderly, children, youth,
women, families, workers, poor people

participation expansion (all groups)

etc.

Simultaneous Comparisons –36 countries - Accumulative Experiences

Table E.1. – Target Groups – Main Focus – 1970s/1990s
Variable occurrences per country = 0,1 or >1
Frequency = (total of occurrences of variables in all countries of the continent)
CONTINENTUSE OFRESEARCH

FOCUS ON

FOCUS ON

FOCUS ONS/

TARGETINGFORFREE ACCESSPARTICIPATIINACTIVE

VARIABLESCHOICESTARGETIN

PARTICIPATIOON INCREASEPEOPLE

G

N

ASIA

(8)

(5)

(5)

(8)

(7)

AFRICA

(1)

(0)

(2)

(1)

(1)

EUROPE

(16)

(9)

(14)

(14)

(15)

L. AMERICA

(6)

(3)

(4)

(4)

(4)

N. AMERICA

(2)

(2)

(2)

(2)

(2)

TOTAL

33

19

27

29

29

30

Table E.2. – Target Groups – Preferred Options – 1970s/1990s
Variable occurrences per country = 0,1 or >1
Frequency = (total of occurrences of variables in all countries of the continent)

CONTINENTS ELDERLY

CHILDRE/ VARIABLESFAMILYN&WOMENPEOPLE

WORKER

POOR

(*)

WITH

S

PEOPLEYOUTH

SPECIAL
NEEDS

ASIA

(8)

(4)

(4)

(6)

(4)

(5)

(2)

AFRICA

(1)

(2)

(1)

(1)

(1)

(2)

(2)

EUROPE

(15)

(13)

(4)

(12)

(11)

(11)

(1)

L. AMERICA

(6)

(6)

(3)

(0)

(3)

(2)

(5)

N.AMERICA

(2)

(1)

(2)

(1)

(1)

(1)

(1)

TOTAL

32

26

14

20

20

21

11

(*) Three Latin American countries have programs for adults but not explicitly for
women.
General Trends - Continents•

Targeting is an improvement of SFA, which is today also deeply involved in pastreferences for interventions such as increase in participation and priority forinactive people (Table E.1). Thus, all continents have been using targeting
procedures in addition to free access to participation as found in mass promotions.
Researches for appropriate targeting have been more used in North America , Asia
and Europe; but they are still insufficient in Latin America and Africa.

•

Taking into account all continents together, preferred options of targeting are (1st)the elderly, (2nd) children & youth and (3rd) workers. By continents, additional
emphasis has been placed on families (Asia and Africa), women (Asia and Europe),
people with special needs (Europe, Asia and N. America) and poor people (Africa
and L. America).

Trends in Context - Country or Group of Countries

31

E. Asia:•In Taiwan, the target group ‘women’ coincides with that of ‘family’ because bothare considered interdependent.

•

In Israel, the target groups are arranged on a priority basis according to social
necessities: first come the elderly, second the workers and in third, women.

•

There are target groups in Australia that represent social development needs ofthat country such as “ethnic communities” and “aboriginals”. By the same token,
the unemployed made up a target group developed in Korea.

•

Social priorities in Japan have indicated as targets: children, the elderly andhandicapped people.

•

In China, the elderly are the most important target group for SFA.

E. Europe:•

In Denmark the definition of target groups has been produced according to thespecialization of the institution that promotes SFA. Targeting has also been madeadequate with availability of settings for the practices.

•

In Hungary, there seem to be questions about the democratic interpretation of SFA
since the right of citizens to not participate in activities is often not respected.

E. Latin America:•

In all Latin American countries, women as a specific target group are not yet clearly
acknowledged by SFA initiatives.

F. SETTINGS
Juxtaposition Analysis  36 Countries – 1970s/1990s

SIMILARITIES•

Settings for SFA activities according

DIFFERENCES

•

Focus

on

to programs or local choices andfacilities,

opportunities(beach,specialsettings

schools,

workplace,forestsetc),parks,

assport
naturestreets,32

clubs etc.

Simultaneous Comparisons – 36 countries - Accumulative Experiences
Table F.1. – Settings – Preferred Options – 1970s/1990s
Variable occurrences per country = 0, 1 or >1
Frequency = (total of occurrences of variables in all countries of the continent)

CONTINENTS CHOICES

SPORT

SCHOO

WORKP

NATURE &/ VARIABLESOF

FACILITI

LS

LACE

PARKS

ROADS

PROGRAES

STREET & CLUBSMS ANDOPPORTU
NITIES

ASIA

(5)

(4)

(4)

(5)

(4)

(0)

(1)

AFRICA

(1)

(1)

(2)

(2)

(0)

(2)

(0)

EUROPE

(13)

(16)

(8)

(7)

(6)

(2)

(13)

L. AMERICA

(4)

(1)

(3)

(1)

(4)

(3)

(0)

N.AMERICA

(2)

(2)

(2)

(2)

(2)

(0)

(0)

TOTAL

25

24

19

17

16

7

14

General Trends - Continents•

The selection of settings for SFA activities has been related not only toopportunities of local choice but also to the interests of intervention programs sincethe 1970s. Besides that, it is also possible to observe the appearance of SFA
initiatives that are related to settings because of mutual influence due to theoffered activities. In these circumstances, the preferred settings by the continents
as a whole are the ones that follow, especially the continents where these
preferences are located in their most part: (1st) sport facilities (North America e
Europe); (2nd) schools (North America and Africa); (3rd) workplace (North America ,Asia and Africa); ( 4th) nature & parks (North America and Latin America ); (5th)clubs ( Europe ) and ( 6th) street & roads (Africa and Latin America).

33

Trends in Context - Country or Group of Countries
F. Asia:•

In Malasia the government has developed and financially maintained clubs for poor
people to practice SFA activities.

•

In Singapore, SFA has been planned for participants not to spend more than 5
minutes of walking distance to reach the appropriate facilities.

F. Europe:•

In Bulgaria, there has been some instability in the lending of facilities by companies
that have settings for the practices of SFA. The same has been happening in othercontinents in terms of programs for workers (Canada, U.S.A. and Brazil).

•

There is a tendency to place SFA activities in areas close to where participants livein Bulgaria and in France.

•

Combinations of settings and targets according to availabilities or interests of SFA
interventions have been common in Denmark, Austria, Belgium-Flanders, Spain,
Finland, England, and Greece.

•

In Bulgaria, Belgium-Flanders and Russia, the target groups of SFA that dealt with
beginning level participants offered the most access to the practices. Later on,other groups that needed physical practices more were better exposed to practices.

G. STRATEGY
Juxtaposition Analysis  36 Countries – 1970s/1990s

SIMILARITIESDIFFERENCES• Existence of strategic guidelines for short • Explicit lack of strategy for SFA
or long-term periods

development• Long-term programs• Large-scale events• Mass Media Promotions• Training program for leaders anddelivery of information• Focus on interventions for Social• Focus on the increase of participation

34

Inclusion• Development of awareness and /or• Fitness condition tests

awards for motivation

Simultaneous Comparisons – Accumulative Experiences

Table G.1. Strategy – Preferred Focus – 1970s/1990s
Variable occurrences per country = 0,1 or >1
Frequency = (total of occurrences of variables in all countries of the continent)

CONTINENTS /ADOPTION OF

FOCUS ON SOCIAL

FOCUS ON

VARIABLESSTRATEGIESINCLUSIONPARTICIPATION
INCREASE

ASIA

(8)

(6)

(8)

AFRICA

(1)

(2)

(2)

EUROPE

(14)

(12)

(15)

L. AMERICA

(2)

(4)

(4)

N. AMERICA

(1)

(2)

(2)

TOTAL

26

26

31

Table G.2 – Strategy – Preferred Guidelines – 1970s/1990s
Frequency = (total of occurrences of variables in all countries of the continent)
CONTINENTSLONG-LARGE-MASS

TRAINING

AWARENE/ VARIABLES

TERM

SCALE

MEDIA

OF LEADERSSS &PROGRA

EVENTSPROMOTIO&

AWARDSN

INFORMATIOMS

FITNESS
TESTS

N
ASIA

(7)

(7)

(5)

(3)

(5)

(2)

AFRICA

(1)

(1)

(1)

(2)

(1)

(0)

EUROPE

(10)

(7)

(5)

(7)

(6)

(3)

L. AMERICA

(5)

(3)

(1)

(3)

(3)

(0)

35

N. AMERICA

(2)

(1)

(1)

(0)

(2)

(2)

TOTAL

25

19

13

15

17

7

General Trends - Continents•

The strategy that has been historically defined for SFA is increase in participation,
which has been combined with the focus on social inclusion (Table G.1). This
combination has been taking place in all continents, especially in Asia and Europe.
Latin America, in particular, shows the least interest in relation to the adoption ofstrategies. Moreover, North America does not have the same level of commitmentthat Asia and Europe have towards the establishment of strategies.

•

The strategic options preferred by the continents, especially those that involve
major commitments (Table G.2), have been: (1st) long-term programs (North
America, Asia and Latin America); (2nd) large-scale events (Asia); (3rd) awareness& awards (North America and Asia); (4th) training of leaders & information (Africa,
Latin America and Europe); (5th) mass media promotion (North America) and (6th)fitness tests ( North America and Asia).

Trends in Context - Country or Group of Countries
G. Asia:•

In China during the 1990s, the strategy of SFA was inserted in the development ofsport in general and in the whole country. The same happened in Korea, within thesame period, with the incorporation of SFA in the five-year plans of thedevelopment of sport in general.

G. Europe:•

In Poland, it has been observed that there has never been any clear strategy forthe development of SFA.

•

In Greece, strategies reach target groups according to their priority in SFA local
choices. The same has happened in Latin America, in the case of Argentina.

•

In Finland, there is a conception of SFA in which marketing is the core of thestrategy of combination involving target groups, settings and activities. In BelgiumFlanders there is a version of this definition of SFA strategy that places marketingin a pivotal position.

36

G. Latin America:•

The experience of Brazil with its multiple strategic options confirms that the best
way to build a SFA movement is from the bottom up, contaminating the wholesociety step-by -step.

G. North America:•

Although there are no strategies of SFA in the U.S. that have national validity, atthe end of the 1990s it is possible to observe some effort in the whole country inorder to tackle the problem of overweight children because of its epidemic
characteristic.

H. SOCIAL CHANGES
Juxtaposition Analysis  36 Countries – 2000

SIMILARITIESDIFFERENCES• There are changes in the profile of thesocial groups participation in SFA• The overall participation increase in SFA
activities• Growing Concern with healthy life

• Widening Diversity in SFA practices• Penetration and Diffusion of SFA in• SFA development held by social

society

constraints• Increase of positive attitudes towards• Risk of social control by means of SFA

SFA

Simultaneous Comparisons – Accumulative Experiences
Table H.1. Social Changes – Positive Perceived Repercussions from SFA – 2000
Variable occurrences per country = 0,1 or >1
Frequency = (total of occurrences of variables in all countries of the continent)
CONTINENTS /CHANGES IN

MORE CONCERNPOSITIVEPENETRATIONVARIABLESPARTICIPATIONWITH HEALTHY

ATTITUDES

AND DIFFUSION

37

PROFILE

LIFE

TOWARDS SFAOF SFA

ASIA

(5)

(7)

(6)

(4)

AFRICA

(0)

(0)

(1)

(0)

EUROPE

(10)

(8)

(7)

(7)

L. AMERICA

(3)

(2)

(2)

(5)

N. AMERICA

(2)

(2)

(1)

(2)

TOTAL (n=36)

20

19

17

18

Table H.2. Social Changes – Contrasting Perceived Repercussions of SFA – 2000
Variable occurrences per country = 0,1 or >1
Frequency = (total of occurrences of variables in all countries of the continent)

CONTINENTS /PARTICIPATIONWIDENING

RISK OF SOCIALSFA HELD BY

VARIABLES

INCREASE

DIVERSITY

CONTROL

SOCIALCONSTRAINTS

ASIA

(6)

(5)

(0)

(2)

AFRICA

(2)

(0)

(2)

(2)

EUROPE

(9)

(9)

(2)

(1)

L. AMERICA

(4)

(2)

(3)

(5)

N. AMERICA

(1)

(2)

(0)

(0)

TOTAL

22

18

7

10

General Trends - Continents•

The social changes related to SFA and perceived as positive have had special
attention whenever more improvement in the segmentation of SFA interventions
came up. Although this tendency has been recent among the continents, mainly inNorth America and Asia, it seems to be the most important one in the year 2000.
However, in Africa it was not possible to detect this qualitative approach of SFA(Table H.1). The closest variable to that of more concern with a healthy life islocated next to participation profile, especially in North America and Asia.

The

variable penetration and diffusion of SFA also has values close to those of previous
variables, especially in North America and Latin America.

The variable positive38

attitude towards SFA can be observed to have more importance than others in allcontinents, especially in Asia.
•

Positive social changes belong to SFA whenever it refers to search for quality ininterventions. However, in the year 2000, this search faces either obstacles ordelays as it can be observed on Table H.2.

This way SFA is still bound toquantitative approaches as it can be observed in the variable participation increase,which is important in all continents, especially in Africa and Asia. The variablewidening diversity also has influence for the delimitation of SFA because it isimportant in North America, Asia and Europe. However, the social constraints,
which are supposed to limit the social changes produced by SFA are typified in
Africa and Latin America. In these very continents of weaker social order, thevariable risk of social control is more relevant, which contrasts against the almost
absence of any register in North America and Asia.
Trends in Context - Country or Group of Countries

H. Asia:•

In Korea, SFA has been working as a means of social intervention, with its focus
directed to the awareness of an active lifestyle. With this orientation, SFA has beenpart of the modernization of the country.

•

A proof that SFA has had oscillatory effects in society is found in Korea, where
there was an increase in the practices between 1994 and 1997. However, there had
been a decrease in 1991. Both increase and decrease had explanations elaborated
outside the sports world.

•

SFA in the year 2000 was operating in China with two priorities: (i) the
improvement of life in the urban centers and (ii) the social development of thecountryside.

•

In Israel, military service has been working as an incentive to SFA.

•

In Australia, there has been little increase in the numbers of the active populationin relation to SFA initiatives that have been developed. In 1985, the participants
were 54% of the total population and in 1998 they were 59%. The number ofpeople affiliated to top sport has also decreased 20% between 1980 and 2000.

•

In Singapore participation in SFA went down at the beginning of the 1990s, which
created a gap in the continuous growth of the number of participants.

39•

In Australia, the stability level of participation in sport practices has indicated thatthe there seems to be a decrease in the number of young people taking part inphysical activities as opposed to the increase in participation in relation to the othergroups.

•

The concept that most of the adults engage in physical activity because they had
developed the habit as kids is emphasized in Israel. It is recommended, then, tosee how important it is for school programs to adhere to SFA to look into the
future.

•In Australia, uncomplicated and fun activities have been considered as the key tolifelong participation in SFA.

H. Europe:•

In Austria, the proportion of female participants in SFA physical activities in relation
to the male participants went from 7:1 in 1969 to 1:3 in the 1990s.

•

In Finland, the programs of intervention in SFA of the 1990s have been interpreted
as having already reached the limit of effectiveness.

•

In Portugal the number of senior participants has been growing up while thenumber of young people participating in physical activities has been going down, inconditions similar to those of Australia.

•

In Italy, still in the year 2000, there was some manipulation of SFA by the Catholic
Church and political parties, confirming that the variable “risk of social control” still
exists in the interpretation of SFA and in its resulting social changes.

H. North America:•

In Canada, it has been observed that there has been a group of very active
participants in SFA activities. However, at the same time, it is also possible to pointout a group of inactive individuals who do not seem to give in to this new change inbehavior. In Europe this same pattern has shown up in Portugal.

•

In the USA, participation in sport is directly correlated to the financial possibility of
individuals as also detected in Asia, in the case of Australia. Another finding fromthe U.S.A. is that participation is referred to race and ethnicity even afterparticipants have been determined by social class. The cultural background of theindividuals seems to establish directions for the participants.

40

I. NATIONAL CONCLUSIONS
Juxtaposition Analysis – 36 countries – 2000
SIMILARITIES•DIFFERENCES

SFA management is adapted to

SFA management needs to be•

traditional sport institutions•

improved

SFA was successful in its results

Government oscillates in assuming SFA•

as public interest•

SFA is one of the great social changes

SFA is increasingly focusing on•

stof the 21 century•

demands of individuals and groups

SFA is positively affected by

SFA management and interventions are•international relationships andincreasingly defined at local level

cooperation•

The future focus of SFA will be on the

SFA is changing from the focus on•social groups not yet reached by pastmass to the focus on group and on theand present interventionsindividual; from leisure to health; fromquantity to quality and to specificfocuses

Simultaneous Comparisons – Accumulative Experiences
Table I.1. – National Conclusions – Facts & Prospects – 2000
Variable occurrences per country = 0,1 or >1
Frequency = (total of occurrences of variables in all countries of the continent)
CONTINENTSFA ADAPTEDSUCCESSFGREAT

DEMANDSCHANGESS/TO SPORTULCHANGES IN

INSTEAD OFFROM

SUPPLY

GENERAL

VARIABLES

BODIESRESULTS

21ST

CENTURY

OF SFATO
SPECIFIC

ASIA

(6)

(8)

(4)

(3)

(6)

41

AFRICA

(0)

(1)

(0)

(0)

(1)

EUROPE

(13)

(12)

(5)

(7)

(8)

L. AMERICA

(6)

(3)

(0)

(1)

(5)

N. AMERICA

(0)

(2)

(2)

(1)

(2)

TOTAL

25

26

11

12

22

Table I.2. National Conclusions – Specific Trends – 2000
Variable occurrences per country = 0,1 or >1
Frequency = (total of occurrences of variables in all countries of the continent)
CONTINENT

NEED OF MGT

GOV’T

SFA ISS/

IMPROVEMENT OSCILLATIO AFFECTED BY

VARIABLESN

SFA MGT IN
LOCAL LEVELCHALLENGE

INT.

: GROUPSRELATIONSNOTREACHED
YET

ASIA

(5)

(0)

(3)

(3)

(4)

AFRICA

(2)

(2)

(0)

(1)

(0)

EUROPE

(10)

(6)

(7)

(7)

(3)

L. AMERICA

(6)

(7)

(5)

(4)

(1)

N. AMERICA

(2)

(2)

(2)

(0)

(2)

TOTAL

25

17

17

15

10

General Trends - Continents•

Although SFA requires management compatible with its specificity, it seems to begenerally adapted to sport institutions in the year 2000, except for North Americaand Africa (Table I.1). Even so, the social and cultural results of SFA have been
considered successful in the different countries, especially in those of Asia and of42North America. The same cannot be said of Latin America and Africa. In North
America, Asia and Europe these positive results have been mentioned together withthe greatest changes of the 21stcentury. From an SFA perspective, a tendency
seems to be taking form in Europe and in Asia: from the offer (supply) of physicalactivities to the demand for these same activities.
•

Changes inside SFA have showed up more clearly that there has been someevolution from generic to specific interventions, such as that of national to local,from mass to individual, from leisure to health and from target groups to noncompliers.

•

In more specific terms, but with less incidence in the various continents, thefollowing conclusions have been reached (Table I.2): (a) SFA needs to develop
procedures in terms of having its own management, as North America, Latin
America and Africa have demonstrated; (b) the government has hesitated inassuming SFA as a public policy, especially in North America, Latin America andAfrica; (c) there are national advantages coming from the synergy gotten throughthe international relations of SFA itself, basically in North America and Latin
America; (d) the positive value of the exchange with other nations has not reduced
the tendency of local management of SFA, as it is recognized in Latin America andin Europe; (e) except for Africa, there seems to be a final challenge looming up in
all continents: to reach all social groups that have been kept apart from physicalexercise and SFA.

Trends in Context - Country or Group of Countries

I.

Asia:

•

In Japan, at the beginning of the 21st century, there was a " Sport for All society"in progress according to SFA local leaders.

•

In Singapore, there is a clear-cut and successful way of having a “sporting nation”
through national plans that happen every five years. One of the objectives of theseplans is to make facilities available for sports practices within a maximum distanceof 3km from any place of residence.

43

I.

Europe:•In Belgium-Flandres a controversial interpretation of SFA has been proposed: onthe one hand SFA has had good results but on the other hand it has showed low
participation in the practice of physical exercises by the population.

•

In Germany, the experience of SFA has revealed that there are results that havenot been anticipated by program leaders.

•

In Finland, models of intervention for groups of inactive people who happen to behighly resistant to changes have not been followed. Still in this country there havebeen concerns in relation to pressures that might be generated on these inactive
individuals, especially when they come to their own limits.

FINAL REMARKS

From previous general trends detected, the following synthetic conclusions may
be forwarded:

A. Sport for All is a mode of intervention in society by means of motivating the
population as a whole or in segments to the practice of physical activities aiming at
the inclusion of participants in leisure, health and sport developments. As such,since the mid-20th century, Sport for All has been typified by competing
denominations and aims, reflecting the emphasis on local sport development andon the globalization of sport in the context of active living culture. Today,
preferential focus on either leisure or health, or even on sport development, in the
SFA context, reflects more professional biased opinion than scientific evidences.

B. Sport for All has been implemented by the State and by non-governmental
institutions as an additional option to their primary functions. Nevertheless, notorganized (bottom-up processing) activities are a characteristic feature of SFA in
any country. Moreover, for-profit organizations have become influential but theyreflect market opportunities on an occasional basis. In all, SFA is currently inserted
and adapted to multi-layered sport systems but remains uncoordinated and lacking
in continuity of programs, events and other means of intervention.

44

C. According to 1970s SFA proposals, marketing should have raised the publicawareness about active living advantages but this aim has not yet been reached inmost countries. Communication tools for people to participate in events have morecommon usage in SFA initiatives than in marketing. Moreover, communication in
SFA is reinforced by marketing principles and rationales.

D. As a result of the lack of specialization of SFA institutions, financial resources of
SFA activities often overlap other investments. So far, SFA funding has been madeby multiple sources led by governmental institutions, especially of local level.
Besides the participants themselves, private institutions also share SFA costs as
leisure consumption. In this context, sponsorship in SFA concerns is more an
exception than a common option even in developed countries.

E. Targeting is an improvement in the increase of participation but focuses on freeaccess to participation and on inactive people has still been taking up as a priority
by SFA programs. Research to identify target groups needs is insufficient in allcontinents; therefore, the selection of social segments for activities has beenmostly arbitrary or referred to intervention needs of different areas of sport, healthor leisure.

F. Fixed and special settings for different offers and diverse decisions made byparticipants suggest an improvement in SFA throughout its evolution. But the
choice of settings according to the offer of specific programs and/or of local
opportunities remains dominant.

G. Strategies for SFA development are mostly related to government institutions

that

adopt long-term programs and focus on the increase of participation. The
improvement of the participation rationale is usually referred to social inclusion.
Preferred strategic guidelines are long-term programs and large-scale events,
although the use of mass media, has been diminishing since the beginning of
pioneer SFA initiatives.

H. The expansion of SFA continues at the end of the 1990-decade in addition tochanges in participation profile (from the population as a whole to segments)suggesting that the qualitative focus is now equivalent to the quantitative approachto SFA as defined in its origin. Also a growing concern with healthy lifestyle seems45

to be dominant in many countries despite the widening diversity of SFA supply anddemand. Again, there is an increase of positive attitudes towards SFA, which isapparently associated to the penetration and diffusion of this proposal in society.
However, the historical link of SFA with social control still remains while a new
relationship emerged as referred to social constraints (social violence, economiccrisis etc) as holding SFA development.

I.

SFA is one dimension of sport activities but it needs improvement in management
because it requires specific attentions. In spite of the instability of governmental
bodies in relation to the development of SFA in some countries, the results of SFA
social interventions have been successfully reached according to their original
purposes. Also, there have been frequent connections of this success with thesynergetic effect of both the international exchange in sport and the ongoing greatsocial changes of the 21st century. In addition, these changes are becoming more
specific in the different components of interventions (national to local, mass toindividuals, leisure to health and target groups to non-compliers).

Following these conclusions, a final assessment of SFA is appropriate in view of its
presupposed impact in today's global society: the SFA worldwide participation in
relation to total population. Again, the working assumption that SFA is a global
phenomenon can be matched with the conception that SFA yields great differences interms of cross-cultural and cross-national focus and substance. In fact, participation isan end product of SFA but it is interwoven with many other social and cultural causes,
as seen throughout this study. The lack of an international standard definition ofparticipation in physical activity or in sport also contributes to make available data
unreliable for comparisons (ISI, 1995).
Despite these difficulties, 27 participant countries of the present comparative
research (75% from the total) have forwarded their sports participation statistics or
estimated

quantitative

statuseither

in

terms

of

activepopulationor

sportsparticipation measures. Within the limited scope and reliability of these data, an overall
approach to SFA participation index is valid in order to establish a point of departurefor future assessments. A support to this option is found inter alia in Wicklin (1995), towhom sport statistics has been an ongoing process of improvement as depending on
more appropriate definitions of performance and participation.

46

Table 4
SFA PARTICIPATION INDEX BY CONTINENT
ACTIVE POPULATION / TOTAL POPULATION IN PERCENTAGE(Number of respondent countries) N= 27
CONTINENTLESS THAN

S / INDEX

10%

10 -30 %1

EUROPE50 - 60 %MORE THAN
60 %ASIA (6)
AFRICA (2)30 - 50 %

4

1

1

4

2

2

3

2

3

1

(11)
L. AMERICA

1(6)
N. AMERICA

2

(2)
TOTAL

2

7

9

5

4

47

Table 5
MINIMUM SFA PARTICIPATION BY CONTINENTS
ACTIVE POPULATION OF RESPONDENT COUNTRIES(N = 27)
CONTINENTS /MINIMUM

POPULATIONMAXIMUM

CONTINENT'S

PARTICIPATIOPARTICIPATIONRESPONDENTPARTICIPATIONMINIMUMN

IN PERCENTAGE COUNTRIES IN IN PERCENTAGE

PARTICIPATIONMILLIONIN MILLION

ASIA

33,2 (CHI)

1490

65,7 ( JAP )494,6

AFRICA2,0 ( MOZ)

50

28,5 ( SFA )1,0

EUROPE

21,4 ( ROM)

572

83,5 ( HUN )122,4

L. AMERICA

7,0 ( COL)

385

35,0 ( CHL )

19,2

307

65,0 ( CAN )184,2

N. AMERICA

60,0 ( USA )

TOTAL

2815

821,4

Thus, in Table 4, the majority of respondent countries to the issue of SFA
participation are concentrated on the 10 - 50 % indexes. In this concern, Asia andNorth America reveal more homogeneous patterns of participation than othercontinental areas. However, Europe and North America present the best outcomesfrom participation improvement as measured by higher indexes of their active
population. Additionally, from Table 5 data is also knowledgeable that the bottom line
for SFA future developments in this group of 27 respondent countries is approximately
820 million participants.

By the size of the sample used to reach the estimated minimum participation in
today's SFA international circumstances, the proposed bottom line of 14 % ofparticipation seems to be representative in a global perspective. After all, only two
countries of the sample had below 10% of participation. The reference figure moreoversuggests that the SFA international bottom line is important in absolute value (nearly48

one among six inhabitants of the world), but it is insufficient in relative terms on
account of the 80% level of participation already obtained by a few European
countries, here admitted as the maximum participation as referred to practicalexperience.

In summary, SFA may be considered a cultural fact of today's globalization by its
extensively worldwide reach and its variety locally determined. But, there is still a long
way to go in order to find its ideal position to become the consolidated basis of healthpromotion in addition to leisure and sport development in international perspective.
And in this perspective, the promotion and implementation of inquires focusing on
regional and thematic contexts are a natural and adequate option for future actions of
SFA leaders and researchers. Again, another statement of Pierre de Coubertin's as
published in 1935 is still inspirational when compared with updated interpretations ofeither the recent experiences and trends of Sport for All worldwide or its proposed
future :"... Not all young men are destined to become athletes. Later, no doubt, throughenhanced public and private hygiene and through astute measures intended to improve
the race, it will be possible greatly to increase the number of individuals capable ofhandling intense athletic education. It is unlike that we will ever reach more than about
half, certainly no more than two thirds, of each generation. Currently we are far fromthat figure in all countries. Yet even such a result were to be achieved, it would notnecessarily follow that all these young athletes would be "Olympians", i.e. men capableof contesting world records. I have presented this idea before, in an axiom (nowtranslated into various languages) unconsciously accepted by nearly everyone: ' For
every hundred who engage in physical culture, fifty must engage in sports. For every fifty
who engaged in sports, twenty must specialize. For every twenty who specialize, five
must be capable of astonishing feats' ".

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51