-s1vt fj[ta:·:::HtJ.>0)--c·j;_,n,!', t -s01vJ!:JJfH_,t:i:,tn,Jt:i:Gt:i: '-'''t nt't, ~IF.r-0)EI,is:A,::t-:i-ct±1tt'jjljj~,;1:12<JJ
1J-c~t:i:'-'',-f-n~JR5.J
IJT;.,
1::,if',Hfb'.l{ili_,ff'Jl:tt:i:v'ev'"J.::t-cT
o Li.PL, ;J':;-:iL-?-:i-Cv,J.,.::t,iJ:(1'1.~f"C~iTo-f-nt, j,'L~lltt:i:.::t~"8b--1±'-C<t.:·~v'
o -5'ctit•·O):::·'l'tr"~"C,~ttj,'

L1n,t:t:i:-:i-C
1.,,t::..::.t
7J{j;_,f'Ji
Lt::.o 'f .1l:::7.1'0):j=Jl:.:z.nl:,iv'0
v'0t:i:v«Jv7J{j;_,-:,
t::.t.\~t-JO)"CT?J\.::.::--c·U-/::-'J,~J=1t,:k:U
i?J'v'-r 1T- JvO)~i;J':;iW
L '-''t::.t:_ t::.v' o U wil:W:~ ~11l.ili:f-\'.:~:j;j:fjg?J{ti"f4'.
~ff 0)~ 1//i
O)Jilkn~ ( 1ti't'l~IT-f,lljff-0)7'a{:7,JJ~, 199l if-)!fflif L t::.1F.r-l:::kW2m~1 Lt::.o ;J':;-f-G<~WriU.tt:Jf&-:it::.
v1/ x.O)fhcid.:-:it::.t.'~,'-''1 T7J\?'?!:-t:/ 7 o-.t-O)ftlij\g~/:&"CTo ti1:'l~rI ?J{- ~f'l!:.f/i-f-O)ftlij\gH!~t~"C~L -Ct/liv,-c1.,,J.,O)"C·T
o -f-"Jv'"J'f .1l:::7-.t-O)f'Jc,fl,1:ML-Cff:1!17J'v,ffi~ti£i:ev'-J7J',
11/-!tllev'"J?J',
7-711vO)~t:i:J.>~At?J,-c,;1:Jt1-ntGnt:i:1,,,,f'l"*t L -C,it'-Jf: 7J'135J-O)tO)f:Lt::. 1t,t v'"Jffi!WJO)
r,,~Jm7J{j;_,J.,.::/::
X.t:i:<-C,;1:V,f ttj: t,,O)--c·,j:tj: It '7J'CV' "J'A7J{L1 To fkO)je~O) i:p"[·,j,' L~il!hi Lt::. 7J{,fJ Ell'F::':f/fltil!:fJ'/ 0), -f-n.::.-f--t-.1 7- 1-0)fH'b:t-

t:l~ L -C1.,,1.,ti,t--C·T
o t:l~Cv'"JT7D--f--f-O)t0),;J:, ~b.lO-C77:,,:;;7 "C'To -'J1 f')-{:7".::-7;'.t-0) o/E;f.,i0) J:"Jt:i:,j;_,J.,1,,,,;1:-t 7".::;( .t-0)W-£
O)J:")7j:'f.11:::7.1-0)f'Jc,fl,f:ML-C,~b.lO-C77 :,,:;;7;,'j::ie-tv,"Jnit--c·ili:-:J<ev\")O),;t,Jl -c1,,,-cW2t:i:m.ll;t?J{TJ.,O)"CT7J{,
L7J'L, -f-"Jv'"JlVM:5t7J'Gtj:v,fillr!fV
JH 'F*t::.-s,i:J;f-:i-Clt,f::_O)f:_, t \t'").::.c~~,if'Jli'&Wc!.
L -c;I':;<£-~?J{ili_,J.i0) t:_tv, "J'A7J{L1 To
i'i'l~ (,±) : t··"Jt j;_,f'J7J{/::"J.::"~-·1.,,
1 L t::.o 7 PJ:fJO)~f$fl::-'J1,,,-c0) El,Is:

1fllj0)~~¥t v'"J, .::tt.7J'GO)r,,~Jmt'ti@t~66-C,.::O);ill"C.::0)-l:::;;
1/3 ;,,:t,f.fbf'Jt::.v'c.~,1,,,fTo

192

H@f!B>b"Jll;'jFa%¥!lL·n,i-tO)"t", 1P:iIB"t"Til',
At B, ~'-B 0)-c:;.,:,,3:;,,,i-ffil'J:i/z;-:i--C
Jj.f:.v'c.~v'iT
o ~tJJO)~ID.lJfR-l'!ri-~
ifg~lvil'~n
iLt:. o f-.::."t''fi, /'( :;,,,-y:;,,,O)ffi;j.j~~f:
8& ~nt:._t "t'-,B '/i\'i'Jgf:;f-!i:4
ll'"l ;J--:J-t J.,O)""('/;i~\,,\
1fl~Jc v'"J~~ll', ~[EjO)~'lH:.+~· x_J.,~~
f:~J-:/J"t''li v, il'ev' "J1H:~il'~ n i L t:.o f-O);t-<1:;,,,Hi, ~;f:ill~ 7-j--o :)-""('f;i~ 1,,,~?.r.t001*cv'"J.::.ci-~ ;t~<--Cf;i1,,,17~1,,,0)""('f;i~\,,\
ii', C\t'"J.::.c"t'·Lt:.
o f§ljx_f;f,l~~0)~1Jev,"JiiO)i-iffi~Lt:.1JEf~O)~Jc v' "JJ:"J~§mil,l±l--C~--Cv'
iLt:.il\ -::>il'J~l::t 1J:)-f- Jvc:::ii::O)J:'7~ 001*"t'·~<--c,-t-.11:::·7,
1' ll''f- .:i. 1:::·;7.
1' "O)J:"J~l>O)"
c L --C:Jlf~n --c1,,,<, f-O)"O)J: "J~l>O)"0)1l~'t:i, ~1J'l'itil'~'i:kv.l"t"fi~v'il'cv'"JJ111~B9~7v-1'i-~JE~ht:.:bl:J'"t"T

o f-nl:t-tL--C, i±ffx:9:.~lvii', v 1Jn1v1:1;tf-"Jv'"J~ff."1!1tii
1lJ~~t!0"Jil\ 3:l!.~1:fif-"J"t"fi~<--c,r/il.::.
"Jil!IJii,-::>il'J3- •:;.,1{fffiJi,&U:
L --C"O)J:"J~l>O)"O)~i;-"t"fi~il'-:it:.O)i/'Cv'"JJ: '7 Bil.sil'01'Ji Lt:. o f-"Jt!c-tO)"ll'G1l~O)" O)J:"J~l,O)"".O)fl~c

J.>c,:m~O)"O)J: "J~l>v'"J11ift~7°• -t 7,j{il@.::_-:,--cv,t:. O)f! ;s "JC,f-"Jv, "JfrJtH:"t"
4t-t:;.,::,,3:;,,,il'~Eli-:it:. bit "t''To-Co/1/3;/, • ;f-<1)7- / ~ 7

T 1/ 3T 1) _;;( 1'Jc v'"J:71 ~Jv"t"Lt:.il\ .::..::.
"t"fi.li-t/i&;J<IJm~lv,:,,i:;,,, • 71 (i-l\ct~~) ~Iv, 1/3:;,,,· :77-:7~/v0)3AO)n 41: #:£ci-L --Cv,t:.t!~ iLt:. o .li-t/i&~lvfi 193Oif{i':O)B ,jq:;t:,it J.,-t-.1l:::';7.1'0)~'fftlficv'"J.::.c1:;f:Jb--C,::lp'/i\'I=
il'H:lll~1)-tr--f-

1:~-::11,,,t:.Je£i=i- L --Cv' t:. t!

.

i L t:.o 7 Jv7 v:;.,F · ;{-j, fJI.~Lt:.

1-t-.1l::'.:7.1'c :Jl!J~*,t,l\rJc v' '7, =..1-3-:7 i5:1i';*f,t,jjg(MoMA ) "t''00ll'
ift[t:J-7""17B!iL--C193Oif:1-t:I:
B 2js:l:f-B1l'~h,f-hil'c'O)J:"JI=L --C,-t-.1l::::7.1'
i-16<"J.,71 :7.::I- :7.O)~firix:1=
Wc:1ti&ti'Lt:.
ll'Cv''7#:£i="t"Lt:. o ~1:;f;:cL--C~[EJO)::,,:;,,,;t<:)':'71'"t''fi,c"O)J:'71:L--c-t-.1l::'.A A ll'{~x_ Gnt:.O)i,,c \,,\'Jr.,UJH:".:)1,,,--cO)i)HjjJHi?P-<fi~il'-:it:.
nt:.~~~il\O)"t'--til', :Jt:tic'O)~tflii/,G0).::·'€1{r.,~1=
ii- S:B~;t;.,.::.c1=~1.>c.\l;I,v, iTll', *['t,;/-T 17 O)f;t:'il!il'-?fil'J::lp'/i\'1:]f~t! 0 t:..::.cll'11l~~nt:.O)

193

Ii, .:.oni:-t~~/v0)9G~onN: 00)$:5fU.:-::it.:c.\it
1,,,i:T o f-nW.:$'H:t, J\.O)ftwJJ,
91-l!IA~~mO)r.,,JmfJ:t··1,,,7;,1,,,7;,tj:-l}J~• j{iliJ~i:-tj{, -t-n
GI: 01,,,-cfi!tn~nJo~n:::r72'cL-CB~t--Cv'i:TO)'t", tLJ:Jtn!i'$ft~L -c<t.:~v' o-c, :,,x:,, · :71 1v1:1i,g:il!JO)-t.11!7-2'0).to~i- L -c v' t.: t.:e-i: L
t.:o _t#ij:i-g:i{,1:Lt.: g:il!JO)ifr{-\::~;/,lirjH}Jl:.toit
J.>-t.:i ~- 7-2'c v'-:i-r'TZ"· /-'f-e,_tj,-::i-CM.:r.,,Jmfiv' 0 v' 00~ i: T j{, V'c0/i,_t#ij:,**'
1n \,,\"7;,( 1'mJ{ 1J7,0):l:;, ]-'7-:7--c-'To .:.n,ift4j{.:_;h,;t--c-'Jl!.:il§L"(

1,

31U.:,ibJ.>HiT~f:Jl!, -c.:_tj:j,-::it.:r.,,Jm't"T
o 0;!;~, '€0$ MJ'ct v'-:i0)/i, B:2fs:~ f,!ij5eO)g:i'"(-'{ir}c00)1,>7-:,,cL-C11i
1l.L "(t,,J.>bltl"T7,)\-t-nii::k1tO)t~-g-, **t1,

J, iliJJ.>1,,,1iB:2fs:tmitv,-:i1$,W.J:i-O)g:i1't"~ x.Gn-Ce-i:Lt.:o *:J?-0)193Oi:J=-{-\::I:
g:il!l~:ml!Jj,G~<O)@*j'*-Cv, -C,f-0) g=i-c-~4fJ:-t-.11::'.
7-1' (~ '?i'!Ot-:@i$0)ili:{-\'.~ t,r,f) O)lj:'!(I-7,J',ts.:.-::i-Cv'l.>o ibJ.>Hi, 1, 1; 1:W$ Lt.:71/70)@*t.:i:,j{l</Jffi'fJtJH:
l<ll
t-5t1:.i: '1§1-::i-c1,,,t.:~T 1->
o f--:iv, -:itJl~0)3<'.:iJlEO)~Ji~
j\ i:t.:i: t.:e-i:>lvt~~~n"(1,,,tj:1,,,tv,-:i~t,j{Li:T o f-0):W:P;t:--c-',f-O)J:-:itj:~~j!'l9fJ:
J\.O)x~ttv,-:i.:.t j{, ;,(1-0# 1J7-ev'-:ir.,,Jm,:ElHix.1.i.:.u:J:-::i-cJlx.-c<J.>t.:7:>-:itv'"J~7,)'Li:T of-;h_j,G, 1/3 :,,-:77-:7~/v!i, ;,(>70)"§'mO)r.,,Jmi-~F'ltl:ffoL<B~t1J-i-:Ji'Uj~~n -c, 171/T J C7,/' I-'f--11!
Gni:Lt.: o }!11§ O):;/J7::r'
7-2.,J fJ:c'O)~:,fs:f19tj:ffi~lH:
01,,,-c, f-nH~BU~'/::f,it47,J'{t-::i-CL
i:-:i.:.cO))E:"J~Cv'"J.:.cHl'i'tiii~n, f-;h_j>G~G1:::ro.::7 JJ,,tj:;
l:ki£1:01,,,-c{i,fXE-c·fi fJ:<-C~4 fJ:11 "J°j,iliJJ.>t1,,,-:i.:.t i-:m:~L -C1,,,t.:t.: e-i: L t.:o~Gf: it.:, 1endogenous(j;/;]Jeilti)Jtv,-:i"§'~Htt>ni:Lt.:j',T'/'70)-t-.:i 1!7-2'E19fJ:11Fif• HHR-t J.>0)/:,1!9i$0)-t.:i 1!7-2'i'c'-:iWc:'4I-~-tU.:7,)'C1,,,-:i.:.u.:it-r-,itj:<,b-::ico-:;/J Jvtj:::J /'T:7 7-H:£-:it,,"(Tlj'1/:
x.J.>£-~j,iliJJ.>ctl'i'tiii~ni:Lt.:o f p;i9€!'19
J fJ:7"t1-l:7-i'Jl!.:il§L-ClifJ:
GfJ:v'c, ::niH~El9fJ:~P;t:--c-'O)/jJ'li-~,!,s~nt.:t.~, 1,,,i:T o :f.li:4
O)J:-:itj:~;/,lir
5ei-~-::i-cv'l.>1§'/i,c'-:iL-Cb-'f:/j,G7-1-1'

Lt.: 1,,,tv,-:iW:~1,)'0~i:-t0)-c-, -t-nt::k~-r--t7,)', t-:i- ::n1:01.>·Y1;1,::r- ,A rn·mi0)r.,,Jmi-,~,i~:'5n -ClifJ:GfJ:1,,,tv'-:i.:.'tl'i'tiii-c•Lt.:o-l::;,:,,3 :,,n'·fHfili-iiJR::llli{~~:ki£
J c v'-:i-r-7--c-', 1/ 2' · 7-1,:,,iJ :;,1'~Iv, ;,]- 1):;,:7•D.7D-v7-~lv,

194

77x'r'· x' 1/-\'T1~/v0)3J\.1:Je~i-L --Cv•t,J:~iLt.: o ;t_;{;.,tJ:;,r~/v0)~3'Hi:77-:7~1v1.1,t'f::,l@~ht.:r"~Mt~1.1q,O)-z'•T1.1\§°mO)r.,~Ml:-::>1,,,--cO)i,O)-CLt.:o td±, :77:7~1v1.1-~1=1t1:§f;l; eg;,j:±IH:~ij nt.:0)1:t-t L --c,;r_1{;., tJ:;,t- 1v,i, 1 ;.,F;z,:,,7 fil,J:;{f0):::1;.,j-:7 7-H:tHt 7.,, 1tJ:7"-j-;.,Je1t•-J;f!!,{:%f:-::>1,,,--C.B/Ri~L --Cv•td±~ iLt.: o 1 ;.,F;r,:,,70)~t,ltr9:1_0)
i:p-c,i, -t-.11::·;r_A0)1t;~,i±f:1{;.,F9;., , 7-:7-JvO) At.:-sl:J:-:i--C~66GtLl.ibft-CT
1.1\-fn,i,,r-;r_t-:::rCT-=7 Jv;,j:§°mO)i:p-c,i,Jmi-'tB91-r':tCT:f'-"O)*

vtt:.ev'-Jb-J,:ttttlJ ~;11,1.,.::t
1.1'~v'o L 1.1'
L -f n,i -SJ:-:ic:Ji-JO)'"C,ilj:1t•1.1·t1t•-J0)1.1';t_1{;., iJ:;,r~/vO)~,¢.iJ±-:it.:0)-z'·,i;,j:1t•1.1•t,~,1,,,iTo -::>ifJ,17-r Je1t•-Jl§i$1J(J;,j:~t,ltr;f!!1:%~-fO)ii1lb--C~filliL--CL
i-J.:'.:cO)J\1J§ttt1.1,-f.::,:,iili.>-:i--c,tr L0 1n1·t-;., Jt v•-J:::1;.,-t'J"t-Hlit
1/.TtL(i', lJrL 1,,,Jl1J,!j!;,j:1rl: L --CJ:IJl.~l.i 1§ i-'t*fft-C,i;,j:1t'Jl:n1.1'1iTil~
1:;,j:7.,0)-C,i;,j:v'1.I',C\t'-JBitt±-:i t.: t,t~,1t,iT o1{t-1J:;,:7, o, 7CT-v ;r_~/v0)~3'Hi, 71 1J1!;.,0))iilM1.1•Gl1\lG:/:Gi:1:1.1,ft--C0)-'f-:i 1::·
7-AO)~i='itl:itiliM•-::>~tt;,j:1'm'~,:-::>
1t,--c.B/Ri~~ni Lt.:o.:'.:.:'.:-z'·Ji.P*i*
1,,,r"~fili1.l'v'<-::>t/±1--C~--C,-J''17' iJ:;,1/3 ;.,{,:;JcH:~f)_t1.1,
fJiLt.: o 194oif{-t1.1·Gsoif{-tl:1.1•ft--C,~~-'\'%-{I::/§',~G,:,Ul'-/Ji!.::/§'-'\'7-7AO){i~~*~T l.it.:66(:-t-:i t:'7-AB(J;,j:
7-Y-1Jv1.1'1~bhl.ibft'Z'T1.I',,fO)f~, t¥(:? Jv::J7'1*ffl1J.l;},pifo,H~<:ii-:it.:1~bn:n~~;/1,7.,J:"Jl:;,j:7.,
0 "?T /"T7 Cv''J TI!IT*'if-O)jg/jl.¥.Hrt
fJ-z'·1imLt.:J:-J?j:A -c
T1.1\-'\'1.1'--C?t-;.,-it7,iOO~TI!IT*tL--C,
1~1lJ'J-t-:it:';r_AJe1t•-J1*~\

HIH~L --c1iffllJffliJ0)17':tCT:f'-Hz~~T l.i:!l/fil!IT,-f-Jv'-Jl>O)~fF-l.iJ:-J,: ;,j:-:,--c1,,,~i To .::-Jv•-J1~ffl/:/:;O)~ii!~1tft--Cr"~Ml: ;,j:-:,t.:O),i, l&
15891-J'':tCT;f'-c-t- :i t:'7-AO)fl/il{J,:!lifjj!jjc
lt•-J;/-T.17, -'f-ff- :i{tev•-JJ:-J;,j:.:'.:c-z'•Lt.:o it.:, 71 1) 1!;.,f±ft1.1,~!=1tl:~ftl:-t-.1t:'7-AB(J;,j:{,0)1.1,~1:.~~L --c,L1.1•tlf6~;/JH¥-::>ev•-JfJl:$1H1g;,j:~:ki£(:;,j:-:i--C
1,,,--c,-f nl:-::>1t•--Ctt!Hiili1.1'ili.>fJiLt.:o"::.,-v-r·1~1vO)~*'i, ::.,;.,tJ";f-'-JH:.Bttl.imi-tiJFcO).::t r&fJ..t.i:f
Gn i L t.:o -f O)ill!iJJ,ii:pOO*~ ~O) TI!IT*t.: -s 1.1ri:p,C.,,:;,j:-:,--C,l@.:'.:
L --c
1t•<O)-CT1.1',
lJrLv•-=E:f".::.;{
AO)§°t-lH:9"000){idvi:1:MT
7.,v77 t,,;.,
A7-JV

7-~~ :;,:77-~-tt;,j:1.1,G,
r,17· 1):;, F?j:ff.~TI!ITH'F-fJ/±IT~-~~ Lt.:o f-O)f~O)~tiili-z'•,i,ili.>
ifJffilfJTf:fl.i.:'.:c1.1'-z'·~;,j:1.1•-:it.:0)1.1':Y~:%-CT1.1',
7' 177-;f-7 ~:ki5c
1.1'5I~,!@.::
T1*AO)/ft:Xc 1t''Jr"~fili1.1'¥~

n i L t.:o -::>i195

~, ~.B;\--C-;b7.i;>j,G-:'.:-f-,
7tYffilEl~J7'i'b(7)i-!H:::.--=>ft
1.i- :1J,ibti::::.L--CM::.X.
1tBt71 Y'/T1 T 11:-=:t!b7.it v•-JJ:-J~5-}~tki£i?'ib~,-f-0)-:'.:tHx<16--cfi'fH?JL--Cs<"ZE<-C·L:J:1,,';>j,t}~,v• i L t::.o i?'--C1¥Ii$iJRO)
At::. t:,0) 7-71 Jvf;:J:,
195O:¥1-tl:1/'/f.f':f-- Jv(7)5~
1[ j)U}Jtt 'bl:t±~.:t~Jg 1J
7 1J;1-;·1.,,
i?'1JH~--c<1.,t, -f-0)-::i...,,,T 7 Ar (7)i:J=t--c-tMIJ:r h7.iv 1t1:--t1) '/ • 1\ 771 (f;j; cj!:7( ) t I,,• "J@%i?' /:l:l-f-(7)11#1:,--CEl--C,'f- .:Ll:::'7-].,,Efg
A70

11v:rtc!};!.=t~i'.lt~ .:tm1:m 1,,,1.,-=:t-c-,jj!jf1'f(7)tifjjiJiL:r-t
7.ifJrt::.~jg:r:tlfi'L~Lt::.-=:tHl§'tilli~h--Cv• i L t::.o-f-L--C2 B § (7)-",'B, --t-;;1/ 3 '/ 3ti, 1!f{,f;:/ :J .x.'/ 7"- / ~;fj / ~jifljJ tv•-Jj--7(7)--c-;;:'.,;3'/-C·Lt::.o -:'.:-:'.:--C-fi-'E--r'v-7-i';fJli<lbGht::.tl;¢;:~

mtL --c.¥.~~hi L

lvi?'i& :m1:,1neutrality ( i:p.:i'.l:tt ) J !::.v•-J-:'.:tHQ~
t::.o --::>
i ~'f- :i 1:::·7-1.,,tv•")O)fit' -::1:'b)i.li;

1,,•J:"J~-=-:i - r 7 Jv~'tO)--C-ib
7.ii?·G,:iU!I:v•<G--C-MiJ:lfiff
fi~tt i-t.f0 --c1,,•7.,(7)--C-fi
1,,,i?', !::.v'"J-=:tHHJJf:~ut~ht::.bft--C-'t o(:\'-t- · 3 /T ) ~/vO)jiifJJO)fUl-C·f;:J:,
BJ:rffU,Jfl~.l.ffGhiL

t::.o :;k~~ n~att!0t::.O)t;:J:, f}lffe._'.fo)j!!t~1-Jj\
ff00(7)*/j*(7);b~]J(7)~~1:
sv•--C, ;}p')tl::;kE<~ti~Bt~1 '/ 1,7 rH ,bt::.i::.v•-JS~t--c--to fJlffe..'.t1ii1<{ti---C-(;:J:,:12(7),ptf,%/j*O)~ffillx!::.v•0t::.•f9ij;>j{-~1:±~;t, *IJ*{f-f-0)
1t(7)1::;kE<~~~i?'€-:'.:7.io -f"O)i:j=t--C-,-ffJ:r{f;>j,:;J;:Ji:1:{'f-Gh--C,-f--Jv'-Jifrlh(7)i:J=t
1:'f- :i 1:::·7-AO)~~'h~E< :i6i h --c1,,•7.it v•-J-:'.:tHl§'tfl/i~hi
L t::.o ~Gf:-tc•J'1:jiljj*t::.
i:':,(7)-:'.:tl:'hf!!l!hGhi Lt::.o 71 1) J! '_/(7);:j\j- ·-it-=¥'-;vt i?', 7 -=-7·77"-Jt1-it 1 =;ls-ibl.i v•fiffl'filO)H~~ (1{ 7 • v
l::3/ )

u,, "tc'tijiljj*t::.i:':,(;:J:]Zr''O)-t(tl:1:-,i~<--c'uL7:>%'1!1JJl:WJL
u-tcttt::.t:,:r.:tmf:L--c:t/liv•--Cv•7.io -::-::1:1;:J:,~ti~ti:EIT'"'El ~ ~i?'ibl.i0)--C-ti~1,,,;7j,/::_i,,,-Ji,~t1:-ib
0 t::.t}~,1,,,;J':'to -:'.:h'h,-Pi&lilll?JL--cs<'"'E<-=:t;>j,t,i~,
1,,,i To
HJi:J=tiEZ~/vO)Je~-C-ti, 7P1 r(7)7.x.T11/7-:·1.,,1:11,i'l-t
7.i~llfiii'r
ffl 1,,,--C,f. N, A--wt i?', T 3'J-1! '/ (fw.iilY1'rl~t\ 7 :>tJJv~t a'-::>--CJ:

v•-tc'ti{t, --=>
i ~71-::i-=--;;7-C·;>j,--=>--c1,,,7.,_::
t:,Gi-iEffii?'GJH,\H7.iJ:"J~"tc'ti{t:rinJ:;./fJ1ti?·ht::.bft1:·-t;>j\
JJI:, W(~O)xtj-~--C-ib~~i?'G [,,)
0;¥1:*~7f$.'B IE<€-:'.:-t J:-J~jjljf~Ef91;,<-:JtL --C]lnJ:;.lfJ,f.<i::.v•V.:ft
1:-~<,t@:.B;\:lt!!1t~::ki£(7)
i:p1:-, t~11_&1'f(7)1l!IJ
i?'v' ;>j,f:L --C.:E1:,f,:'ti
Ht{i-t7.ii?·t v' -Ji!ilH'f-(7):ffl.J:il:s ft 1.i.:t1;fi:1ti<lb<"7.ir.~<ti-1:
1b!Ml:i!!·::::
ift--C/fJHR

196

~tLiLt..: o -=:.nLHl='/tl:ff,C.,139tj1&:~U:L-Ctflff!tLiLt..:o ili:,cO)~Ji!ii"t'LiJHiitH:\ iLt..:i.l\ 83J:P~/v0)9e;~"t'-,i701rl'i!iiilt, £,f'Lt 71/70):'f--11::·,7,M:t:M1.i~·l1:1fT«--Cl:*-c'H1.i- M5t!iitL-C1./Uf;~nt..:t, ft "t'''i tj<, "•<"'.)i./•O)t"f
JEO)fj:cJ'i'tf:"'.)"\ -c0)/li''Hiit.=-::it..:-=.
t ,i, c5c&'>
-CTit!2
L -c.:l3<£,~i.)tiJ;;,1.,t-~,v• i To

3A l=f0)96~,i;"-r·7'7 ='f-~/v0)9E~t83q:i~/v0)9E~u1=-m-1:illi
t1.it-:.;i,i.)t~<, 3- o-;; ;{960):'f--11:-:·,7,Ai.)\71/70)@%t..:-l::,l:jjuj~139,:5tltlf:x.GtLt..:-=:.t1:"'.)v•-C~tt~.IU~~tLiLt..: o "'.)f~, - J5"t''7:fJ7"'2.
-;;7tj@i$0)7,7" 1 Jvl:M
L -C,f-1-z',i;/jv•, f-tLH~:1$¾T
1.iJ:1tjA7°1 JvtL -C,/1Jit1ilU~tL-C5tft.!l::.&'>Gnt..:tv•1-::.ti./{ili:,7.,0)"t'·,itj
v·il· o L i.l·L !PlIr.fl:, f-n,i-?,i ~®
i$~iJ,!l\-z'ili:,7.,0)"'('·,,f't(O)iJ,!l\JRI:lJ;/j-::it..:0)-z''i tj v•il· o f-1 v•'Jjjuj~·117.,0)/:,1possession OJH!J)Jtv,1r: n~J'l9tjttlil~ 1tbtL -Cv•i Lt..:o ;fi,.0)7,7'1 JvtjO)i./•,11!1.~0),7,7'
1 JvtjO)i./•,f-1v•1rJr~O)i,~"fi-O)m
1~1:tj-::,-c",1.,tv,1-::.t i.l{:f-1--1:-;;
1/ 3

r t.=-::it..:t.~,"•i To30)ili:,cO)~l~"t'-,i, 7 o- v 7,~Iv ii\ 1translatability (fi:JHRO)UJ/itti) Jtv, 1-::.t~ 13b n -cv• iLt..: o 701 rl'i!ii0)1UfH: ll)JT1.i~!tt.=-::it..:0)-z'Ti.)t,-'cO)c"O)ttVil'-i.lt1ffi:J;Jl\RnJi~J
tjO)i./•, 1WitltfU
1:1t10)-z',i tj< -c7 o 1 rf- O)lJO)~tn1:1-T J: 1tj~~"t'-1t 1t ", 1-=.t i.l{!it~"t'·,itj v·il·ev• 'Jt§''!~-z'L t..:o f-0)-/4'-JJ:,i, 7 o 1 r l'i~iii.1{
19ilbr-2.B'J;/j
7··1v1/370)%llJ€tiii'm~'E ·J"'Jvl: L -c/±\-cM..:/liUtt.=t v•1-::.t i.)tiJ;;,~i

To f-n~71/70)%llJ€ti/i'mO) q:if: 1,,1.,~•111:.f.m§tjL "t'*-C ,i&1>-C
J: "•O)i./•,f- !vtj r.,,~t~&1>-c,:'f--11::·,7,Aev•1A 111v t.=it"t:',itj< -c,

l'i!iiO)ffitjj\RO)
nJt~·l1:tv•')-=-t Hl!lff·l:,A;/1,-c~;z.tjft n,i'Httj l_,\O)"t',i tj v, il·t v' 1.:l3!;s"t'·L t..:o-'cnil·G--1:-;;1/ 3 /' 4 -z'Ti.l{,-:.n,H T7T 1'7"/ t$!i5/;'jHIXJtv•'J~F,m-,:::k§tj11 r Jv0)--c-;;1/ 3 "t'·L t..:o it~ !vi.l{JlHm: Fdl'ti0) r"rnH:~!l!tLG;/1,tji.){G,:'f--11::·,7,.1,,i.){pg§L-cv•t..:!f&.l~-lHiO)i~tEB'J;/jnJt~·l1:~
1§'1~~tLiLt..: o !Pl~,:='f--11::·,7,.1,,,;t,~v•~ Mi.l·G,-=:.ti:-ito• :'f--1

1:-:·,7,AO)ml:ill"t',iU~c5c:1fi:.~,fJ\c'&'t¥H:b-::i-Cv•t..:t v•1-::.t H§'1~~n -c':fJi:40)jj!i'/t0):'f- -11::'A Al'i~¥i.l·Gt1M~i:, -c",1.,r.,,~i.){f--::.1:ili:,1.,0)-z',itj v•il•, -'cL -cf-n,i!f&.li!•liti*<ll)J
t,7.,0)"t'-,itj v•il·ev•17 v-

A'7-7 HJi!:5f-~nt..:bft"t'-To197

-cni:£--:Jv,·c f:itfl,fi!U!BL~!v,-fhi.PG:.iJv;,,•::iJv·Y• ~/v, ~Iii'fg~/v0)3}.._0)9e*-l,f;bl] i:L.J.:o 1i+~~/v0)9e*!±, 'f ..1~·,7_.b.
1.l{/j:-tfOOi'Jlil*O)%nxJl:JH:J:<
ithh -c L1.l'MVJt!tiO)ibQff&iTI!IH:ithh
Q.::.c1.l{~1.l'0f.:0)1.l'Cv'"Jr"U!fill'.~1.l'G~ili:l'Ji:Lt.:o -cL-c -t-..1~·,7_.b.O)f.r0~tJl..'~J/li'X§'.,
lf!r!tit, -fh~fl}tl/tnx:-tQJ:"J/j:1J/11.l{~mt!~*:JJI.T
Q.::.U::;(f;i:11t-.:0t.:O)-C·1±tj:v'1.l'Cv'"Jiocm~:t[!:1:l:l~hi Lt.:o L1.l'
U.i"J- JJ-C-,ffM/:lO){~ffil'j:t\ }Ri$0){~~cO)~,ttxWct v'"J71/7~:l'l%°'0)~v1t!*:JJ/.cO)IUJ~UJ/.!l!H:J...n-c~x.tj:itnLfv,1ttj:v,, t v'"JF"i~
1Ji!:~~~hi:Lt.: o iolll{H::t-7"·1.I.;,, ,7,0)r"i~i:t~!t!hGhi:Lt.: o 1;,,f :l ::,,70),7_1/3 3 .1Hm:l±l~h -c,i!Bi$0)Wb't~1.l'G, lJrLv'00.13:;!:
f/i:Jlt-Ct\'i<O)t-.:cv'"JEl~~JU{9€~Lt.:.::.c0)£~tiH~:tiNi~ht.:O)f;!:r:n~ss-c·Lt.: o:tJv::J )VT• ~/vO)ffi1i1±,
1i1J,~~/vO)i; ft,J;c't"Ji: <~1,)'Q'&[l5H{

ibl'Ji:Lt.:o 0;!::l],'{-..1~·,7_.b,O)"l§ft!,)(~Cv'")'tO);()'~tJ/.,~, ~lkHai~
J±½:f~L"'(~ fJBS/j:~?/Jt!H'F-l'J
l±lT .::.t1.l{-C\~Q, 1compress (JHfa ) Jc v'"J"l§'i\:€~ithh -cv,t.:c.~v'i:T1.l', -fhH~:tiNi~hiLt.: o -cfl1.l','%1±~jjlj[0) J:"J/j:JI 7"'171:i±£~t-.:0 t.:0)-C·t±tj:v'1.l'o ,f O)J±½:[~0)-=f./tl±,
Jl-t-::,,::i1t,:ii/i"O)i:pt'£~/j:15ttlJ~*t.:
L t.:~jjlj[O)i:p!:,-t5'";,, t 7°v · -tf·;,, t v'"Jiliii:Ui:{i;JJ_
fiI O){~~H:1tir-t QJ:"J/j:X{tss~~Hlli~ 1:1:lT.::.t 1lJtiEI:L t.:t v'"JBffi1i-C·
Lt.:oIii~!v1.l{,'%!±-t-..:r.
l:::_7_.b.f±~mt!H~9€
QJ:"J/j:
T 1lJilE
ti~if:(E~-ttt.:~rn:t-.:0t.:O)t'f±tj:v'1.l'Cv'"J.::.t~:rntiNi~hi:Lt.: o L
1.l''i.i- ffelf,Vt-:i6/vt',
71/71:t;it Qit£IJJH..1~·,7_.b.O)J:"J/j:~5:tf±,
3• '.! 1~0)-'f-..:r.
I::'.
,7,L,.1:t;itQ77--1='.! r-C·f±tj:<,tr Li::>~£0) v 1 -\'-t L-ci;ttr,...z~-c-,±tj:v'1.l'C
o -cfl1.l''"?Jv-r 17° Jvtj:lll,Hai~u-c00)ff&i@O)
i:pi:*~ T Q.::.t 1lJti~I:L -cv, Q~rn:1:/j:--:,-cv' QO)--Z:f±tj:v'1.l'Cv'"J
iocmHlff-~hi:Lt.: o -f"Jv'"JtJ/.,~1.l'G.Ji!.il'[-ttL:C~<0)71/70)-'f- ..:r.
I::'.
Ar t.:i:, ;()\ :t Jv71 x· A('.1,)'17'0 · 'f ..:r.
~-AAff£1±1-c·-t-..:r.
~·;1..L,.1::/UJH:
tli'~!t!Lt.:tv,"J.::.t,±,£~/j:7775'-t
L -ci-'¥-1.l'<'..f__t1,){0-c<QO)--z:,±tj:-fh~st:it-c~v'1.l'Cv'"J.::.t~ff-PJg~ni:L t.:o--to/ 1/3;,,40)71 ,7,:.IJ
o/::,, 3 ;,,1:0 v'-Ci±, tr:ti:MJrLv'.::.c--z:-t"L~ilb-Ctil'J~l]i:-tt Iv 1.l\4 0 0)--lzo/ 1/ 3 1±::k{t-fO)J:"77j:*i--z::tffi~
Lf.:O)-c·
f;!:7j:V'1.l'C}~,V' i To

19 8

r'rsl{Jtl:
itcl6tli5JIJ 1:, ;fl,El:!ir"f.1v1 >1-t L --c.:.0)7"• :J x.7 H:
b -:it.=~1t\ T, :1,,L1tlt1JD;t ~-1±"--C
v' t.=t!M.= v•t .I[\;',"·iT o ii\ £:,fs:139/j:.:.cO)flflit
llr.t v•-:>:W:P*-Z.\.:.0)17:J70).:f .11::'7--hJt v•-:>!l:1H~i.J,
J!oi, :;ry;v, 1/;,,:tf;f--Jv0)00 1l.3il'iO)~[PJ7"o:Jx.71--tL--c~3Jl.~nt.=tv•-:>.:.tct, ~lifJ1r'itl: !1;Jl;ji:O)i!i)J.i.:.tt!t.l[\;',"' iTO)"'('\ ~'-- }3t.:.

.:.-r:·tl
iHiliiL--csM.= v•t.m v•iT o .:.0)1/;,,,¥:./? -h'ii-f-:>-z"Ti.J',
11:~f;;
i.J,ljl.1:3fil'iTifil@JTJ.itv•-:>t-:it-r:·:;ttj:<--c,
1\ffil1EMt@'ii
T «---C~r,,J-r:-~fJiLt.: o .:f.1v1 >1- · T--hi.J,:J(/iJriifl:tj:fJ,
tj!f:'=tL --C}(W,:tj:£'~5Hili>fJiL t.=i.J\T «---C0)7--:r-;;7"/:;,e;,,1{-i.J,3::1;ti'l(Jf:::i~-;;1--L, llt~TJt;p.
1.i.:.ti.J'-z"§i L t.=o ,f O).:.cti, EH:~;tlj: v•ll'fl5t'ii-e;cl6--C:}(§
tj: ltJi!EI:/j:-:it.:J:-:>1:.1[\;',v•iTo it.:, .:,O)~O;f-:Jr;,.hf:'ii,7PJtJ, :t-7-1--'71)7,-fL --C7~.i'7~00i.J•G.:./vtj:t:'ii?P-<O),liJfo/i:~i.J,~1JDL--C<t!~-:i--C,- 11/il'
i.J·'bLhi-1±"!vi.I\ 1--'7;,,;,_• -t :,13-j- Jv/j:j;j'ffi50)~raiT1lfJ-1.kfJ.i.:.ti.J,-z"§iLt.= o ilHJJl:t'l'J@Lt.:r,m@H:~fJiTi.J\.:.ni.J•G0)~1'f.r9:!.T~;t--cv•<-1.-z",-t :,13-j- Jvlj:t.tk:11Jt-T
El~O)llfitl'::tL --ci!lv-z"v•-:i--C
J:v•O)i.J•

t v•-:>.:.tT~ ;t i]IT .&Hif;;1:1j:-:it.:c.l[\;',"' iT o.:.-:>v•-:>~;JH&Ht--cv•<.:.tt:J:-:i --c,'ii-:>:l,'LJlli-:>~9:!.0)~
rait "'-:>
i.J·,~9:!.T!.!!iiT J.it.:cl60)~ rait v•-:>O)i.J,1[-1:,_ti.J,-:i--C<1.it.m"' i T ot!i.J•G.:.-f, .:.-:>v•0:t:DJHl®'cL--Cv•<.:.ti.J,-r:·§J.ii.J•t'0i.J·,-fni.J,~t;J:fJ.m:~t!t.l[\;',v•iT o t.=t!, 'AT-:::>ltlj:<--c,iHttj:1,,,0),;J:,.:.O)J:0/j:7Jv
T7l )VT .17 1);:{.hT § rnTitJJJtv•00),;J:, ~%f.rt:
L --C'ii,{f~f: L --C'b,iJilfH:L--C'ii,
Jt11::i'!(Jtj:"!J~l:-:::>v•--C'Hl::J!ixi'l(J~fJ~T"'o -fnt;t _m:~lj:O)"'(:'Ti.J\-fni.J,, lj:lvt "§-:>i.J·,~001'191:"§v•~tL--C~G;/1.,J.iO)"'(:'
I;t:W:
P*i.J'tj: " •o Jt 11::00-r:·0)mfJJi.J,,
11!!.
0)00-r:·-f 0)J:-:>
tj:iE lJJ0)-:'.Jz
ii 0)11'.
:f:lll.cl6t
L --Ci:tb ;/1.,lj:
1,,,J:-:>f:Llj:itn,Jlj: Glj: "' o t.=L i.J·,T-;; -Jt· .:i:- 1) .
7-= iftt* Iv i.J,,1::i7-;,<T 1 -;;7 · 7 JvT tJ JvT .17 1) ;J:.
'.h (:!
Czi'JM/~•O)?P>C
1l:.=tif'i!J
J 1:~'a1.i.:.tHt:!1:L lj:ltntJtj: Gtj:v•t "• 0.:.t T S-:i L '(>-:i--C"'
iLt.= o J~,Ji.J•fJO)Jt11::
3hTE.-z"li/j:<--C,.:..:.-r:-~ll~Lt.:r"~fil!T,:fli:40)
B 'it It j,50)q:q:'r-f-:i--C
1wGtj:IJn,Jv• It lj: v•t v•0~ t i.J,Li To-f n -r:·,;t,iiRitH.-r:·Lt.: i.J,,.:.hT-lifdt:O) it cl6tL --c,~"@I 0) 1/;,,,¥:Jr;,.h0)~5 I§t ~-1±"--Cv•t.=t!§iTo
(T l

199

200

Keynote Speech"Why Cubism?"TacehacaAkira

Keynote Speech

Why Cubism?
Tatehata Akira[Director, The Natio nal Museum of Art, Osaka]

The introduction

and transformationof Western modernism in Asia is atheme that has been discussed in a wide range of contexts , including art .
The "Asian Modernism " exhibition organized by the Japan Foundation in
1995 was groundbreaking

in that it was able to survey the history of. modern art in three Southeast Asian countries (Indonesia , the Phi lippines , Thailand ) across the borders. This symposium , which coincides
with the "Cubism in Asia" exhibition now on show at The National
Museum of Modern Art , Tokyo was planned co expand on the previous
discussions , and co move from a general survey to an empirical examination on specific issues.
Why Cubism? Fauvism or Surrealism might be suggested as the bestplace co start . In a sense, this view is correct; in the context of Asia, aconsideration of these other styles might be expected co be the mostfruitful approach . It is undeniable chat Cubism had a more limited
influence than the other styles. Fauvism and Surrealism eventually put
down deep roots in Asia. From a certain point of view, it might be said
that the characteristics of these styles resonated to some extent with theart traditions of various Asian regions . Cubism was a culminating

pointof Western modernism , defined by an extreme analytic rationality
stripped of all lyrical feeling , so ic was difficult to accept straightforwardly
in the Asian milieu. This is the general opinion, and it is not likely that ic
will be changed much , even after our discussion at this symposium.
Paradoxicall y, the fact that Cubist influence was so limited was oneof the motivations for caking chis as our theme . Cubism , however,
belonged exclusively to another culture, so it went through many twists
and turns and misunderstandings

in entering Asia. As a result, it did not

become well established. Its transitory nature , however , does not make it aminor issue in the study of Asian modernism. Because there were no
Asian traditions that corresponded conceptually or scyliscically co Cubism ,it can be instructive in forming a clearer understandingof how modernise

art was received and transformed in Asia. This symposium shall be an
opportunity where we highlight the intrinsic qualities of Asian modernism through a particular case stud y on Cubism. As I will mention later,
this could eventually influence the way in which we understand meaningof Cubism in Paris, France .
A basic premise for this exhibition is the existence , however elusive,

202

TatehataAkira

of Cubist paintings in Asia. Although it was a limited trend , as I havementioned , it reached all che major cities of Ease Asia, Southeast Asia, andSouth Asia at different times , showing an unexpectedly broad geographic
expansion. Jc was not taken up only by minor anises but formed an
important episode in the history of modern arc in each country. For somereason, however, there has been relatively little interest in investigatingchis trend from a comprehensive point of view.
We might expect an objection ro the theme of Asian Cubism fromthe position of posccolonialism. le is hard co avoid suspecting chatcolonialist concepts can be found within the word itself. The thought of
Cubism in Asia is something like chat of "a Christian found in the depthsof Africa." If cultural productivity is conditioned on the effective transformation of influences from another culture without misunderstandingor

distorted understanding , Cubism would not seem co be a productive
influence because it suggests faith in the universality of a completely alienculture. Another objection chat might be raised is chat an importantelement of Cubism is derived from Picasso's primitivism (caking inspiration from the tribal art of parts of Africa that were French colonies ), so
the Cubism developed in Paris is a form of shameless exploitation ofcolonial people.
Answering these objections should be the exciting aspect of chis
symposium. Of course, these suspicious attitudes are not groundless , sothey cannot be easily dismissed. The organizers set out co plan the
exhibition from a basically postcolonialisc point of view, and in theprocess we gained a new awareness of our own "inner colonialism ;'something chat is impossible co eradicate entirely. An attempt co take apositive view of an imperfect form of Cubism inevitably leads co an
ambiguous view of any hierarchical relationship between the West andAsia. We attempted co prevent this by giving more weight co difference
than resemblance. Such a position makes it necessary co continually
measure the distance of the periphery from the center .

*If Cubism is the Ocher in Asia, it is necessary co address the questions ofwhen and how it was brought co Asia and what was absorbed in Asia in
the name of Cubism.
It is relatively easy co answer "when" and "how.' If Cubism isconsidered as a style of painting, we can pinpoint the times when it first
appeared in Asia. A detailed explanation of the circumstances in separate
countries is given elsewhere in the catalogue. Roughly speaking , however ,we can say that it came coJapan in the teens of the 20th century, to China
in the 1920s, co Korea, India , and Sri Lanka in the 1930s, and to Southeast
Asia between the 1940s and 1950s, that is, around the time chat these203

countries became independent from colonial powers.
The earliest example is Japan. The influence of Cubism can be seenin the angular divided color areas in Yorozu Tetsugoro 's expressionistic
Self-Portraitwith Red Eyes ( 1912-13,fig.1 ) Then in 1917, he produced

Leaning Woman (fig.2 ), a typical example of Japanese Cubism. At about
the same time , Togo Seiji was creating paintings that combined elementsof Cubism and Futurism. Although these artists only saw reproductionsof Cubist paintings in print media, they accepted this style as a synchronous avant-garde art form of expression. A similar statement can be madeabout the avant-garde activities of the "The Storm Society " founded in1931 by Pang Xunqin, who studied in Paris a little later, in the late 1920s,
and the work of Fang Gan min , also Paris-trained , in the 1930s. A Cubist_style can be seen alongside the influence of German Expressionism in the
New Woodcut Movement of Lu Xun , which was intended to protest
colonialism and advocate revolution. This movement demonstrated thefig. I: Yorozu Tetsugoro.
Self Portraitwith Red Eyes,1912-13,
oil on canvas

active presence in Shanghai at that time of an avant-garde spirit that
equated political and artistic revolution.
Of course , it is impossible to put this early adoption of Cubism into
the same category as the Cubist influence that appeared for the first timein some Asian regions in the 1950s, a generation later. The Cubist styles of
Srihadi Soedarsono and Ahmad Sadali , who studied at The Bandung
Institute of Technology (1TB) in Indonesia, were influenced by theirtraining under the formalist Dutch teacher, Ries Mulder. Their Cubism
was not an avant-garde experiment but an adaptation of an established ,standard style of Western modernism. Even in Thailand , which did notexperience colonialism , when Cubism was adopted in the 1940s and1950s it was as a formal artistic language.
However , the belated adoption of Cubism in Southeast Asia was notnecessarily opposed to ethnic nationalism or traditionalism or lacking ina spirit of social and political criticism. In the period just after independence had been achieved in Indonesia , Cubism represented a rejection of
the orientalist view of Asia, which had contributed to the colonialist
oppression of Indonesians, and contributed to the formation of a newnational identity. This newly imported artistic language, even if it did not
retain an avant-garde purpose , was employed to destroy exotic cliched
images oflndonesia and was effective in providing a new vision of local
customs and cultural traditions.

*
The question of what was received in the name of Cubism cannot beanswered simply. It was brought in at different times and in different ways
in different regions. Also, the character of Cubist influence was notclearly defined in each case. Simply stated , Asian Cubism was "something204

fig.2: Yorozu Tetsugoro, leaning
Woman, 19 17, oil on canvas[color
plate I]

like" but not the same as the original. In fact, the organizers of thisexhibition had difficulty in establishing a clear standard to determine
which works to include , and there were many times when we unable toagree. Ultimately, it was necessary to make intuitive judgments on thebasis of the artist's background and the overall "look " of a painting. This is
not an objection to the theme of Asian Cubism. Rather, it might be said
that this difficulty made our work more challenging and meaningful.
The fact that Asian Cubism did not go beyond being "somethinglike" its model indicates the limitations of cultural transfer. As will be
discussed later, this characteristic may also point to problems inherent in
the original concept. From a certain point of view, the Cubism originating in Paris, which Asian artists attempted to digest, was not itself clearly
defined in art history. The vagueness of the margins of the category of
Cubism reflects an ambiguity that also exists at the center.
If we look at the largest common denominator, it is possible todescribe the Asian Cubism generally as a way of structuring a painting
with the use of divided color areas like the facets in cut glass, but there are
exceptions even to this. Some of the other major characteristics of Picasso
and Braque's experiments, such as the multiple viewpoints in early
Cubism and the fading of color in Analytical Cubism , are seldom seen in
Asia. The facets in Asian paintings are often employed to create rich ,composite structures of color, and in some examples, such as Reflection(fig.3 ) by George Keyt of Sri Lanka, the facets are divided by arabesquecurves rather than straight lines.
The reason for th ese differences is that even in the earliest phases ,the Cubist influences that reached Asia reflected Salon Cubism and theOrphism of Robert Delauney more than the early Cubism of Picasso andBraque. Some Asian painters were first exposed to a form of Cubism thatwas combined with Futurism or Expressionism. Some of those who weretrained in Paris studied under Andre Lhote and Fernand Leger. In cases oflate arrival, Cubism was combined with semi-figurative depiction andconstructivist tendencies. More generally speaking, it was inevitable that
Asian Cubism would be only "something like" European Cubism because
it was easier for painters to adopt the style somewhat superficially without
fig.3: George Keyt, Reflection,1947, oilo n board

und erstanding the dialectical process that originally went into producing
its monochrome

facets.

The word Cubism functions effectively as a sign of the West. Even if
it is only "something like Cubism;' it has a clearly alien quality as a signthat does not correspond to any of the traditional formal languages ofAsia. The fact that intuition was employed in selecting the works in thisexhibition might be justified by saying that it was necessary to identif ysubtle "signs of difference ~*205However , this Western sign had to be applied to motifs from the culturalenvironment where the artists lived. They used it to paint Asian women ,cities and villages , still lifes, and narratives . In the process , the style of
Cubism, while retaining its Otherness , became transformed.
This diverse development is covered in detail by other writers , buthere I would like to suggest several of the most outstanding features
shared by different regions that did not interact directly with each other.
One stylistic feature unique to Asian Cubism is a vertically divided
pictorial structure . Vicente Manansala of the Philippines made still life
paintings collaged from pieces of wooden board that had been cut into
extremely thin strips and reassembled , such as Collage (fig.4 ). A verticalstructure was frequently employed in paintings with varied subject
matter , for example , Tanaman by Popo lskandar of Indonesia , the figuregroups in the Brothel,Series fl of Rabin Monda! of India, Plantscape by Tay
Hooi Keat of Malaysia , and Boat by Moch tar A pin of Indonesia.
The fact that this particular adaptation of the analytic method
appeared in many different regions does not seem accidental. One might
speculate that direct vertical divisions were required to release local genre
scenes and ethnic motifs from cliched expression. It is also possible that it
was incorporated as a method of producing "something like facets" using
a method of simple fragmentation

without the original motivation that

produced Cubist facets reflecting multiple viewpoints.
Fundamentally , however , we should see these variations as the appearanceof "alien" elements , which are inevitable in the translation of cultures as
described by Walter Benjamin. The metaphors of fruit and skin thatappear in Benjamin's discussion of translation are highly suggestive in thiscase. According to Benjamin ,While content and language form a certain unity in theoriginal, like a fruit and its skin , the language of thetranslation envelops its content like a royal robe with
ample folds. For it signifies a more exalted language thanits own and thus remains unsuited to its content , overpowering and alien. [Walter Benjamin , The Taskof the Translator,
Section 6, translated by Harry Zohn ].
The Vertical Fragmentation seen in Asian Cubism might be likened to"folds " in the skin of the fruit. At times , these variations on Cubist facets
are quite differ ent from the original model (there may be some objection
to using the word Cubism for the physical cutting and reconstructionin

Manansala's work mentioned above ), bur this "overpowering and alien"
language should be seen as something essential that is unavoidably
revealed through the task of translation rather than a lack of ability in

206

fig.4: Vicente Manansa la, OJI/age.
1969, o il on canvas strips attached o nplywood [color plate 3)

translating another culture.
If Picasso's primitivism is seen as a violent translation of originalprimitive arc, the same violence occurs when translating Cubist facets asvertical folds. This may be a somewhat simplified way of stating the case,but I believe the analogy basicall y holds.

*
In speaking of primitive arc, it is necessary to touch on its mutual
relationship with Cubism. Since European Cubism was inspired , among
other things , by African tribal arc, one might say, speaking ironically , that
Asian Cubism took Cubism once more away from the center and back to
the periphery, in a sense bringing it full circle.
The influence of primitivism is only visible in Picasso's early
Cubism. It is difficult to see it directly in Analytical Cubism or Salon
Cubism. But when these tendencies flowed away from the center to theperiphery once again , it became possible to tell a story of residual factors
being simulated by the peripheral environment , paradoxically restoring
primitivism to Cubism. The fact that animistic elements can sometimes
be found in Asian Cubism would support this scenario.
Of course , the periphery I am referring to is Asia, and Asian cities , so
it is impossible to say that Cubism circled back to its place of origin. Sucha view is undeniably risks being tinged with colonialism. After treating
the reception and transformationof Cubism in the framework of culturaltranslation, it is necessary to engage with the complex issues related toprimitivism.
The translation of culture is a task of freeing the culture of othersfrom the dogmas surrounding them and at the same time a process ofrelativizing things that are thought to be one's own tradition. A painterinvolved in such a process stands at a passage between two cultures , what
Homi K. Bhabha described in one of his writings as the "the stairwell as
liminal space; where
the hither and thither of the stairwell, the temporal
movement and passage that it allows , prevents identities ateither end of it from settling into primordial polarities.
[Homi K. Bhabha , The Location of Culture (New York,
London: Routledge , 1994 )]From this point of view, "primitive " elements in arc neither guarantee adefinite identity nor necessarily indicate unilateral exploitation. Mutualinteraction and transformation

are possible, just as with the model of

Cubism.
Of course , this assertion does not deny the violence of the task of207

translation pointed out by Benjamin. Certainly, the "original life" ofprimitive elements , or of the Cubist style, is damaged by translation.
However,
No translation would be possible if in its ultimate essence
it strove for likeness to the original. For in its afterlifewhich could not be called that if it were not a transformation and a renewal of something living-theoriginal

undergoes a change. (Benjamin, ibid., Section 5. )If translation succeeds , as Benjamin emphasizes, it is not due to
Ahnlichkeit (resemblance ).
The kinship (Verwandtschaft ) of languages is brought out
by a translation far more profoundly and clearly than in
the superficial and indefinable similarity of two works ofliterature. (Benjamin, ibid. )This sort of translation , which in a sense is mistranslation , is not justproductive in and of itself. By subverting the concept of the original
through transformation, it destabilizes its previous position in art history.
''Asian primitivism" may be a paradoxical phrase, but a reverse flowof art styles from the West, although it might be regarded as a double
mistranslation, can be productive. Such an idea need not be rejected if itmeans avoiding the myth of identity on both ends of the "stairwell as
liminal space'.'*Naturally, what Benjamin calls kinship is not clearly revealed in alltranslations. To go back to the previous discussion, we must admit that alarge part of Asian Cubism is "something like Cubism" and stops at asuperficial "resemblance'.' This is demonstrated by the fact that most of
Asian Cubism didn't become well established or attain real maturity(Nachreife ). In general, it was short-lived. However , if a translation of
Cubism on the periphery could take on the meaning of advancement
toward an afterlife , separate from its original life, it was a Cubism thatattained productive transformation

rather than a "superficial andindefinable similarity. " Its value must not be judged by whether it
contributed or did not contribute something basic to the central
definition.
Whether the timing of the translation is early or late does not makeit better or worst. There is an "original" truth of translation in every age.
208

From a different perspective , the meaning of central Cubism was always
fluid , and therefore, the past is placed in front of us in an incomplete
condition. Asian painters have received the influence of Cubism,
sometimes as a contemporary avant-garde expression, sometimes as aformal artistic language, and sometimes as a method of breaking out of asuffocating local situation. None of these versions is more correct thanany ocher. If the painters ' confrontation with Cubism is honest, theirtranslation /adaptation can be regarded as a productive mistranslation.
Even if we fully recognize the fact that Cubism did not take root in
Asia, we can say that it functioned effectively by serving as a productive
mistranslation at the rime it appeared and th en di sappear ing without
repeating itself. Even though it was a transitory phenomenon , thesignificance of Asian Cubism should not be underrated. We should
remember that Picasso and Braque 's experiments with Analytical Cubism
only lasted a short time. At a certain moment , Picasso suddenly abandoned Cubism and never went back to it in the same way, but this does
not detract at all from the significance of the achievement of Cubism. We
might say the same of the best of Asian Cubism.
(Translated by Stanley N. Anderson )

209

210

Session 1"Metropolis/ Transnational ism"
What were the routes by which Cubism arrived incountries
and how did it spread? In order to explain the mechanism by which
Cubism was disseminated across national boundaries ."the discussion
in this session will focus on the role played by international hub cities
like Tokyo, Shanghai, Hong Kong, Singapore, and Santiniketan. (:ities
are sites of education and encounter. They are points of transit andplaces where many kinds of power intersect , and they provide
nourishment for new art movements. Subjects of discussion will be
proposed from various points of view, based on concrete case studies,in order to explore a vision of an art history that involOfr
movLew~:
ement::i_,,.,,.,and interaction , transcending the conventional art history based on ·national histories .
Moderator: Mizusawa Tsutomu
Presentation I

Presentation 2
Presentation 3

The Reputation of Cubism inModernism, Academism , and America
Omuka Toshiharu
Cubism in the Paris of the East
Shen Kuiyi
The Discursive Space of"Asian Cubism"
John Clark

Discussion (Q & A)

Session 1- Presentation 1

The Reputation of Cubism in 1930s Japan:
Modernism, Academism, and America
Omuka Toshiharu[Professor. Graduate Schoo l of Co mprehensive Human Sciences, University ofT sukuba)

Just after the "Cubism and Abstract Art " show was presented at theMuseum of Modern Art , New York, Sanami Hajime wrote a series ofarticles entitled "Two Directions in Avant-Garde Painting " in the Japanese
art magazine Bij"utsufrom July to September of 1936. At the beginning of
the first article , subtitled "From Cubism to Abstraction ; he called
attention to the parallel phenomena of increasing interest in new avantgarde painting and "renewed awareness of classical painting (so-called
Japanist painting ):' Around 1935, the reorganization of the Imperial Art
Exhibition , which upset the basic hierarchy of th e art world , formed theground upon which the figures of a return to classical art and theemergence of the avant-garde became the most obvious trends in the

Omuka Toshiharu

Japanese art world.
Was there some relation between the emergence of the avant-garde ,in the form of groups promoting abstraction and Surrealism , and the
movement to restore classical art? Some light might be shed on thisquestion by investigating how Cubism entered Japan in the 1930s.
The "Cubism and Abstract Art" exhibition was held in March andApril of 1936, and the exhibition catalogue was introduced in Japan soon
thereafter (fig.l ). It was described as a "vital study reference" in the July
issue of the monthly magazine Gakuto, which was published by Maruzen,a major importer of Western books, and the article was illustrated with a--reproduction ofNaum Gabo 's Projectfar a Monumentfor an Airport:
It is a comprehensive study of Cubism and other nonrepresentational forms of art , an illustrated historical study
that shows the path of progress from the pioneers of theninete enth century up to today. It does not stop withpainting and sculpture but extends to a number of fields ,including photography, architecture, constructions,industrial art, theater, films , posters, and typography. Bychronicling the entir e range of activities influenced bymodern artistic thought , it provides , at the very least, a vital
study referenc e for peopl e interest ed in abstract art.
It is not easy to determine exactly when this catalogue appeared instores , but it is probably safe to say that it was on the shelves of Maruzen

212

fig.I: "Cubismand AbstractArt~
exhibition catalogue,The Museumof
ModernArt,New York,March-April.
1936

in July.Just the same, some time was needed before this exhibition
catalogue, edited by Alfred Barr, began to exert an influence in Japan.
More than anything, th ere was a need for artists and critics who were able
to appreciate its content. Sanami's article, for example , did not deal withthe content of"Cubism and Abstract Art." His discu ssion was taken
mainly from La Peinture Moderne by Ozenfant and Jeanneret (Paris, 1924),
and the illustrations were also taken from this previous book .
It was not until the following year that "Cubism and Abstract Art "began to have a real impact in Japan. To illustrat e thi s, I would like toexamine three major artists who were seriously involved with the mostcontroversial art movements of thi s period - Surrealism , Abstraction,and neo-Classicism - and offered interpr etation s of"Cubism and
Abstract Art" from their own points of view. The three are Fukuzawa
Ichiro , Hasegawa Saburo , and !hara Usaburo. In one way or another, theyused this catalogue as a source to supplement their own ideas. Theirapproaches show that th ey regarded Cubism as a historical phenomenon
and an academic concept that functioned as a sort of normative model.
Their individual arguments about the latest art movements may haveconfused readers, but it should be remembered that their theories
resonated with the search for order and ordering that characterized thereturn to classical art taking place at the same time.
Fukuzawa admitted that he owed a great deal to "C ubism and
Abstract Art " at the end of an article, "Abstract Art;' which he wrote for
the March 1937 issue of Mizue. And as a matter of fact, the content of thearticle tends to paraphrase the original. Fukuzawa wrote , "A great deal of
Surrealist art is Non-Geometric Abstract Art~ His argument deals with
abstract artistic expression from th e point of view of Surrealism. Th ebasic structure of his ideas was provided by Barr's famous flow-chart of art
history, which might be described as an ultimate formulation of modernism .

1'20

GEOMUklCAl>.IS11ACTMl

lt H

fig.2: Flow chart of art history by Fukuzawa
lchiro in ~chus ho Geijutu (Abstract Art)~ Mizue,

March 1937

213

In this diagram, new trends of art emerging around 1935 are
divided into two main groups , Geometrical and Non-Geometrical
Abstract Art (fig.2 ). Three arrows indicate that Non-Geometrical
Abstraction is derived from (Abstract ) Munich Expressionism, (Abstract )Surrealism , and Brancusi. In this chart, Surrealism , even though it ismodified by the word "abstract~ flows into the category of "NonGeometrical Abstract Art~ Thus, this diagram produced by the Museumof Modern Art , New York had the effect of restricting the topography ofart in the early 20th century.
Hasegawa Saburo was a theorist of Abstract Art who was representative of his time. His views on Abstract Art were largely taken from
Herbert Read 's Art and Industry:The Principlesof IndustrialDesign (1934 ).
In the notes to an article , "Abstract An ;' which focused on design and waswritten for the April 1936 issue of Mizue, he proclaimed, "Eventually , I
would like to make a new translation of Read 's book~ In October of thefollowing year, he published a book that was also entitled AbstractArt. In
the preface , he referred to Barr 's writings and affirmed their importance.
The overall structure of Hasegawa 's Abstract Art, however, is quite
different from that of"Cubism and Abstract An ;' and this was clearly
intentional. In the preface , he declares , "This book presents my views as an
artist. Although I intend to provide an overview of theories from foreigncountries , I do not necessarily subscribe to them~ Naturally, Hasegawa 's
viewpoint differed greatly from that of Fukuzawa. This may have been
because Fukuzawa presented his ideas in a general cultural context while
Hasegawa wrote from the vantage point of an artist. Hasegawa published abook that stated his "views as an artist " because he was personally involvedin the production of Abstract art and took pride in his role as an artist.
Because Fukazawa was engaged with Surrealism in his work and thought,
he relied greatly on objective, accurate translations of foreign writings.

Cubism (July 1937 ) by !hara Usaburo (fig.3 ) was also a declaration

tlDEE

ET

DE

history of art from Courbet to the period just prior to Cubism. lhara's

CUBISMEdiscussion of Cubism is based on writings published around 1912 andL' JI.RTLESPRITof the position of a practicing artist. A fourth of the book outlines the

MODERN£

ijf¾~iif.j1913. His own style of painting at the time was close to Picasso's neo-

l=/s!;B~

Classicism, and he had little experience of the Cubist style outside of~-=¥some reproductions of Picasso's work he had seen in Europe.Just thesame, as suggested by Egawa Yoshihide , !hara believed that "Picasso's neoClassical painting was based on rational and mathematical thinking andlegitimately connected to classical painting and Synthetic Cubism"

LH

iDITIDlll••r1:L11a•l!11,I.

-7~ •1:2:
fll
fl-(" !hara Usaburo" exhibition catalogue , 1994). !hara reproduced Barr's

fig.3: Cover of [ham Usaburo's
Cubism In KindaiBij11tsu
Shicbodiagram , just as it originally appeared in his catalogue, at the end of his

Kow {Current Tho ught), volume 3,
Atelier Co.. Ltd.,July 1937.

book. He stated that Cubism would continue to have an "organic
relationship " to the present even if it receded from the art scene , and in
introducing the chart , he said , "For each of the isms mentioned below, I214would like to call special attention to the clear necessity of their emergence and definite reasons for existence of good art."
In addition to these interpretations by practicing artists, an abridgedtranslation of the "Cubism and Abstract Art" catalogue appeared in a
special section on "The Study and Criticism of Avant-Garde Painting" inthe magazine Atelier in June 1937 (fig.4 ). It was prepared by the painterTerada Takeo, who had created a mural for the San Francisco Public
Library while in the United States and returned to Japan in 1935. The
flow-chart of modern art history appeared in its original form,
untranslated. None of the sections were omitted, and the overall structure,from preface to comments on new artists , was the same as the original.
The chronologies at the head of each section were faithfully translated
into Japanese. This translated version of the "Cubism and Abstract Art"
catalogue undoubtedly helped many general readers to get a good idea of
the information it contained.
fig.4: Cover of Atelier.June1937.

A somewhat different viewpoint was provided by Takiguchi Shuzo, areputable art critic and advocate of Surrealism. The first section of hisbook,Modern Art, published in September 1938, was devoted to Cubism.
It was divided into the categories of Analytic Cubism and Synthetic
Cubism, the major divisions suggested by Barr, but Takiguchi 's concept of
Cubism remained closer to the viewpoint of Apollinaire. He described
the age of Synthetic Cubism after World War I in negative terms as the"fugue of Cubism." In the chapter on the "Theory of Abstract An;' heintroduced Barr's concept of the two major trends of Abstract Art butemphasized separate developments in different countries rather thanfollowing a similar timeline and focusing on historical correlations. In
other words, Takiguchi kept his distance from Barr 's flowchart.
Still , even though his own position differed from that expressed in"Cubism and Abstract Art~ he did mention the catalogue, eloquently
demonstrating

its position as a model of modern art history during thisperiod.
Another phenomenon

that should not be overlooked in this context

was the change in Japanese views of American art. There were more thana few Japanese artists living and working in America , but a certain
number followed an unspoken plan of using America as a stepping stone
on their way to Paris. This lack of interest in American art was overcomein the 1930s when Japanese artists who had achieved a certain reputationin the American art world returned to Japan.
The temporary homecoming of Kuniyoshi Yasuo (1931) and Noda
Hideo (1934) was very influential. Fujita Tsuguharu had experienced
America when he held his first solo exhibition in New York in 1930. On
this occasion, he met Kuniyoshi , and afterward he wrote about him to
Arishima lkuma in a letter which was "not a perfunctory introduction ~Noda took up his pen to explain the current situation of American art

2 15

and introduced th e "Fantastic Art , Dada , Surrealism" exhibition organizedby the Mus eum of Modern Art , New York.
There is no doubt that the understanding of Cubism in Japan was
greatly en hanced by the cata logu e to "C ubi sm and Abstract Art" in th e
1930s. Seen in a larger context, how ever, this cata logue also en larged
Japanese knowl edge of mod erni sm , academic co ncept s of art, and th eAmerican art world.
(Translated by Stan ley N. Anderson )• This rexr includes pares of my arricle,"1930 nendai nihon ni okeru kyubizumu ron - Nyu Yoku Kindai
Bijutsukan shu sai 'kyubizumu ro chusho bijucsu' ten no yoha" (Theories of Cubism in 1930s Japan Aftereffects of rhe"Cubism and Abstract Art" Exhibition Held by the Museum of Modern Art, New York),

Hidaka Shoji and Omuka Toshiharu, eds.,Kaigaishinko bijutm ron soshoshi11bu11, zasshi hen (Library of
Writings on New Overseas Art, Magazines and Newspapers ), vol. 10, 2005.

216

Session I- Presentation 2

Cubism in the Paris of the East
Shen Kuiyi[Assoc iate Professor, Department of Visual Arts. University of Californ ia, San D iego ]The destin y of Cubism , like chat of all modernist art in China , was tied invery direct ways co the social, political , and cultural events chat both link
and differentiate its history from those of ocher Asian countries.
The metropolis of Shanghai may have been unique in the late 1920s
and '30s. Both physically and conceptually , it was located at inters ectionof China 's indigenous moderni zation and treaty port culture. The end of
the prolonged civil war, which had lasted from 1912 to 1927, produced
optimism that a period of peaceful development lay ahead , as though
there was still time for Shanghai co catch up with the excitement of theroaring twenties. Meanwhile , the world-wide economic and politicalsituation led to extraordinarily rapid growth in Shanghai 's economy ,Shen Kulyi

which was thus capable of supporting the cultural and artistic boom chatappeared. In chat period, it was said chat anything fashionable in Pariswould appear in Shanghai two months later. The most rapid transmissionof styles and trends occurred in commercial art, graphic design , andfashion, which did not noticeably lag behind chose of New York, Paris, orTokyo. This cosmopolitan

material culture, in turn , yielded an assumption

chat the fine arts should be similarly up-to-dace. That modernist movements briefly flourished in the years before the war is not surprising.
Western style painting began to enter the mainstream of Chinese art
in the 1910s, but the styles that prevailed were Academic Realism ,Impressionism , and post-Impressionism. Examples include two influential
Japan-trained artists Li Shucong (:$ ,W.liiJ, 1880-1942 ), whose graduation
portrait from the Tokyo School of Fine Arcs in 1910 was in the Pointillist
style , and Jiang Xin (ff i i, 1894-1939 ), whose 1917 graduation self-portrait
was in a post-Impressionist

manner. During his brief but effective

reaching career, the charismatic Li Shucong inspired many young artists,
while Jiang Xin became dean of the Shanghai Art College (J::ifif~ Wr.W:H* 1-x) after his return co China. Pose-Impressionism chus dominatedtheShanghai Art College.
Cubism seems first co have been introduced to China in July, 1917,
in an article by Lii Qingzhong (/s~ftfl ) in Dongfangzazhi (J;f[nll! Ut )entitled "Xinhuapai liieshuo (fJiTI!ITi/RIH't'dl51.:
Concise Introduction

co New

Art Schools ). The author states as the purpose of his articl e that in Japanthe modern art styles and theories of pose-Impressionism , Pointillism,
Futurism , and Cubism have been current for a decade , but , because in217

China no one knows about them , he will provide a brief introduction.

1

In 1921, Lii Cheng (/sf':&, 1896-1989 ), in his lecture notes"Western Art
Histor y,' also introduced modernist schools of painting , including French
post-Impressionism , Cubism, Neo-Romanticism,

Symbolism , andExpressionism , Italian Futurism , and German Expressionism. ' In the same
year, Yu Ji fan ( fll<
~ JL, 1891-1968 ), who had studied in Japan , began to
publish a series of article s in Dongfan
g zazhi introducing schools ofmodernist art. Even Chen Shizeng (!Wfijjj~, 1876-1923 ), in his article "TheValue of Literati Painting (::i(Ajilij z fflf@:); compares the abstract andsubjective qualities of Chinese scholar painting to current Westernschools of art , particularly Futurism and Cubism. Chen, perhaps the mosteffective defender of th e tradition of Chinese ink painting during the1920s, had also studied at Tokyo Higher Normal School.
Although the Chine se art world started to know about Cubism in
the late 1910s , the practice of Cubist painting did not appear in China
until the 1920s, when a group of artists returned from studying abroad.
The group of artists who taught at the National Hangzhou Art Academy(OO.ll.ffcJ-l·l~ tif.
f-W¥1-"J':t<'.) were particularly important for introducing
Cubism to China. They were obviously led in this respect by the school's
founding director , Lin Fengmian(f*Jfil\llR, 1900-1991 ). Lin Fengmian went

first to Europe as part of a Chinese work-study program following FirstWorld War that sent many young people to France in 1919. In February of
the following year he entered the Dijon Art College to study oil painting.
In September 1920, he went to Paris where he enrolled at the Ecole desBeaux-Ans in the studio of Ferdinand Cormand. In 1923, he completed
his studies at the Ecole des Beaux Ans and went to Germany for further
study . He returned to France in 1924, where he organized the Chinese Art
Students Exhibition that opened on May 21. In 1925, he was summonedby Cai Yuanpei (~:ic l%, 1868-1940 ), on behalf of the Ministry of Education , to return to China to serve as director of the Beijing National Art
School. Lin Fengmian worked in Beijing for slightly less than two years
before resigning in frustration in the face of the conservative art world in
Beijing. He was recruited by Minister of Education, Cai Yuanpei, to moveto the new Nationalist capital in Nanjing , where he assumed a positionon the newly established Ministry of Education(:;k"J':l>ic: Daxueyuan ) Art

Education Committee. He was the most influential advocate of modern
French styles of art in the 1920s.
The following year, based upon the proposal of Cai Yuanpei , theNational West Lake Art Academy (jJ_Efii\JH~fffl>ic;
later named00.ll.fi'U-l-l~ tif.f.Wt~·"J':t<'.:Th e National Hangzhou Art Academy ) was established , with
Lin Fengmian appointed as director. Lin Fengmian 's personal commitment to modernist art affected the Hangzhou Academy for the subsequent two decad es, in contrast to the French academic orientation of thepainting program directed by Xu Beihong (f#iflf.im, 1895-1953 ) at National
2 18

Central University (OO
J'.UP:9c:;/I.:"¥:)in Nanjing , or the Impressionist andpost-Impressionist tendencies of the Shanghai Arr College. Some of his
own paintings of the period , such as Compositionof 1934 (fig.1 ), give us asense of his early personal style. An undated nude from the 1930s is
similar in its hybrid modernist aspirations.
Some of his faculty memb ers, such as Wu Dayu (Jlc\:j ;)J~ ) and Fang
Ganmin (JJ¥¥R ), worked in quasi-Cubist styles. Wu Dayu (1903-1988 )began his study of painting with Zhang Yuguang (~ ~:Yt , 1885-1968 ),then director of the Shanghai Art College , when he was about fourteen. 3
Wu Dayu was hired as arr editor for the newspaper Shenbao ( El3fflffrll:fl) in
1920. In 1922, he went to Paris, and in the fall entered the Ecole desBeaux Arts. In spring of 1924, he and Lin Fengmian , along with Lin
fig .I : Lin Fengmi an,Compositio11,
1934, oi l on canvas [color plate 6]

Wenzheng(#X i'f, 1903-?) and Li Jinfa ($1it #:, 1976), established theOverseas Art Movement Society (i/i]Jj.~ ,f~jjlj[!lr)Jt±). He returned to China
in 1927 and taught at Shanghai 's Xinhua Art School (ffr~~ 1if.f-W:H"¥:fl<'.),
where his former teacher , Zhang Yuguang , had become the vice director.
In 1928, he and Lin Wenzheng assisted Lin Fengmian in establishing the
National West Lake Art Academy. He was then appointed chair of theWestern Painting Department. His early work survives only in reproduction , but shows that his painting style of the time was, as was that of Lin
Fengmian , strongly affected by Cubism and Constructivism .
Fang Ganmin (1906-1984 ) went to Paris in 1925 and studied with
Jean-Paul Laurens at the Ecole des Beaux Arts. He returned to China in
1929 and subsequently taught at the Xinhua Art School, the NationalHangzhou Art School , and the Shanghai Art College. His painting of theearly 1930s was strongly influenced by post-Impressionist and Cubist art.
The forms were simple and powerful , with strong contrasts of light , but
subtle in color. WhiteDoves(1931) and Singingin Autumn (1933, fig.2 )may be the best examples of his style of this period.
Cai Weilian (~&x!!llt,1907-1940 ), the daughter of Cai Yuanpei , alsostudied in Dijon , Lyon, and Paris in the 1920s . She later returned toHangzhou and taught at the newl y establish ed the National West Lake
Art Academy . Her 1930s painting Little Girl exemplifies a hybrid modernism with strong Cubist influence .
Another approach to Cubism appeared in Shanghai and was
encouraged to some degree by the Shanghai Art College , which employed
a number of foreign graduate s as instructors. Possibly the most notable ofthese was the Parisian-trained Pang Xunqin (/f,l!
J:iUt~'. , 1906-1985 ), who wasa co-founder of the modernist Storm Society. Born in Changshu,Jiangsu
fig.2 : Fang Gan mi n, Soundof Autumn,
1933, oil on canvas [color plate 7],

as a young man Pang Xunqin studied medicine at the French-language
Aurora (~!:!. : Zhendan ) University in Shanghai. In 1924, he decided toquit medical school and study arr. The following year, he went to Parisand enrolled in the Academie Julian , which provided plaster models andstudio space. This school was very loosely structured, as the teachers only219

came about once a week, and the students worked primarily on theirown. During that period , Pang Xunqin got to know a future member of
the Storm Society, Zhang Xuan (5~;t!i:1901-1936) and also Chang Yu (orSanyu; 1,,~::E,
1901-1966 ). In 1927, he left the Academiejulian

and movedwith Chang Yu to another studio, the Grande Chaumiere at
Montparnasse, where Paris school and academy artists alike gathered atcafes. ln Paris, Pang Xunqin did not attend any forma l art school , but
spent his time in studios, art exhibitions, galleries, and museums. This
gave him a chance to gain wide knowledge of the different schools ofmodernism then practiced in Paris, including Cubism, Constructivism,
and Art Deco (fig.3 ).
In early 1930 he returned from France to his hometown to work as
an elementary school art teacher. In September of that year, he moved to
Shanghai , and with the introductionof Shanghai Art College director Liu

Haisu (i~Jiif:,W,1896-1994 ), came to know Wang Jiyuan (:Eil'iiiit,18931975), an oil painting professor and vice-director of the college. This
relationship would later be very important to Pang. At that time, Pang
joined a left-wing art society called the Taimeng huahui (s~@i~), but in

December this society was shut down and several members arrested. Pang
Xunqin left Shanghai briefly as a resu lt, but in 1931, he was hired as an oil
painting instructor at the Shanghai Art College and returned to the city.
He taught at the same time at the Changming Art School (~ aJl1(;:-Wjt~W
I·"ttx:),and opened a private studio with Wangjiyuan. He began designing
advertisements and book covers during this period , and produced works
influenced by Parisian trends of Cubism, Art Deco , and Constructivism.
Examp les include Such 1sPans and Such is Shanghai.
In 1932 his colleague at Shanghai Art College, Ni Yide (15lJ!Eif2),
began to discuss organizing a modernist painting society to try to
promote in China the up-to-date art movements practiced in Paris. The
core members of this society, the Storm Society (i:k:i~H±), were facu lty andstudents of Shanghai Art College.4 The strong language of the Society's
manifesto shows the eagerness of its organizers to change what they
considered to be the uninspired and derivative nature of painting in
China. The text , which was published in the journal Yishuxunkan (!'£-Wf'HJfiJ) in the fall of that year, challenges the art wor ld in these terms:
Look around and you see that true art has all but disappeared from our art scene. On all sides are nothing but theplain and vulgar creations from the hands of thoseartistically impotent and superficial. ..
Exactly where have our masters of old gone? What
has become of our golden age of Chinese art? Almost our
entire generation of artists has fallen with the country into
decline and disease ...

220

figJ: PangXunqin, 71Jree
Girls.1934,oi l on canvas

Bue we will never compromise with chis situation ...
And we will never turn our backs and lee Chinese arc
suffer like chis.
So lee us rise above che situation! Wit our passion
tempered by reason, lee us create our own world of color,line, and form!
Our arc is certainly not the mere imitation of nature ,nor the scale repetition of one form after another. So we
muse work with all our might co reveal the spirit andtemper of arc!
Painting is certainly not the slave of religion , nor che
mere illustration of literature. We seek co freely and wholly
create an entire world of pure form.
We detest all repetitive established, old-fashioned
forms and co lors as well as any arc which depends on plain
technique. We seek co use new techniques co represent thespirit of our new age .
In twentieth-century

Europe, the arc scene witnessed

the emergence of art istic innovations, including thepassionate voice of Fauviscs, the distorted forms of Cubists,
the shock of Dadaists , and the dreamscapes of Surrealists.
In twentieth-century

China, the arc scene should

likewi se give birch co new arc movements.
Again , lee us rise above the situation! With our
passion tempered with reason, lee us create our own worldof co lor, line , and form! 5
The artists of the Storm Society obvious ly sought, in chis period , co devote
more attent ion to "arc for arc's sake~ Their concern was color, lin e, form,
the beauty of rhythm, not the meaning or social contents of the subject.
The Storm Society was one of only two modernise oil painting societies
established in China during chat period, and the only organized group co
openly promote Cubist arc. Although not the only style practiced by its
members , Cubism, or in some cases a hybrid style incorporating Cubist
elements was evident in their exhibitions.
Although most of the Cubist artists in China were returned
students from France, some of chem , such as Ni Yide and Guan Liang (IJ/,lfi ), acquired their interest in Japan. Ni Yide (1901-1970 ), a native ofHangzhou , studied at che Shanghai Arc College from 1919 co 1922. After
graduation he remained at the school as an oil painting professor. In 1927
he went co Japan , where he studied at the Kawabata Arc School (Jll}):Mlfilisj!:ti: ) with Fujishima Takeji (HiL'hil':= ). During his time in Japan heorganized the Chinese Students in Japan Arc Society. In 1928, he returned
co China, where he first caught at the Guangzhou Arc School and lacer at221the Wuchang Art School (W::l§:lrnf-W'f1r"¥'tx:). In 1931, he returned to
Shanghai Art College as a professor and participated in organizing theStorm Society and the Muse Society (L;H±). He was also the editor for theMuse Society's journal , Yishu xunkan. 6 His 1932 painting Summer istypical of his Cubist-influenced

painting of the time. Along with Pang

Xunqin, he became one of the most important advocates of modernist art.
Another artist who went to Japan to study, although in 1917, a
decade earlier, was Guan Liang (1900-1986). He first enrolled at the
Kawabata Art School and then transferred to the Pacific Art School (f.;:IJZ

i$iifil~TiJfo/U!/r)to study oil painting with Nakamura Fusetsu ( i:j:l:ft::ftfr),
graduating in 1922. 7 After returning to China, he successively taught at
Shanghai Art College , Guangzhou Art School (J~J-H"rn.ll.* f~f"¥'tx:),
Shanghai University of Arts (J:ifit:llftif.f::k"¥'), and Zhonghua Institute ofArts (q:,'/i!':llft,f,fJ;'Hi
r$tl: ). His early work, from th e 1920s and '30s, showssome Cubist influence , which he most likely encountered during his
studies in Japan . A still-life from the 1920s is clearly influenced by theworks of Cubists such as Braque or Picasso.
Another wave of Chinese artists went to Japan to study modernist
art in the early 1930s. Following their Japanese teachers and colleagues,
their art was most involved with Cubism, Futurism , Dadaism ,Constructivism, and Surrealism. As students in Tokyo the y organized
several exhibitions. In 1934, one particularly active group established theChinese Independent Art Association (q:,'/i!'*t,f,f}!ll.ll.thh~) which was
directl y inspired by the Independent

Art Association (}!ll.ll.* 1l~thh~) that

had been founded in Tokyo four years earlier by their teachers andclassmates. ' Th e works of one of the founders of the Chinese society,Zhao Shou (or Zhao Weixiong; il'l&, 6 . 1912), which may be the only
ones that survive from this group , exemplify the interests of the young
artists. Zhao Shou studied at Guangzhou Art School under Ni Yide andthen moved to Shanghai College of Arts (J: i/it:llft~f.WH"¥'tl: ), where hemet members of the Storm Society. From there , he went to Tokyo in 1933,
where he studied at the Kawabata Painting School and Nihon University( El::4s:::k$) . ln 1934, the group held its inaugural exhibition at Tokyodo in
Kanda. In 1935, most of the artists returned to China, and reorganized thegroup in Guangzhou. They held two exhibitions in that year, one in
Guangzhou and one in Shanghai. 9
During that period, we also find many examples of design , including advertising and book design that are influenced by Cubism.
Usually when we talk about Cubist art we think first of oil painting ,but in China , as you have seen , the number of artists who worked in a
Cubist style were comparatively few. Moreover , virtually all of themodernist works produced in the 1920s and '30s have been destro yed andsurvives only in publications of the period. However , we have foundsome very interesting examples of Cubist work in another medium -

222

th e

woodblock print.
Among the Chinese printmakers who emerged in the 1930s, Li Hua(* 'lli, 1907-1994 ) provides the best example of modernist experimentation, including a very direct involvement with Cubism. One surviving
anthology of his polychromatic prints , Li Hua seshuamuke shizhen (*f!f~jjllj*~IJ-t1PJ'l), is entirely Cubist in style. Picasso or Braque-like composi-tions are easily recognizable among them. Li Hua graduated from
Guangzhou Art School in 1927, where he studied with Ni Yide. He
worked at a radio station for several years to save money to go to Japan,
and in 1930 he and his classmate (and fiancee ) Liang Yijian (~MH\~) had
saved enough money to apply to the Guangdong Provincial Education
Department for permission to go to Japan as self.supported students.
When they arrived in Tokyo, Li Hua went to Kawabata Art School andLiang Yijian enrolled at Tokyo Women's Art School. 10 In October 1931,
they returned to China. Li Hua first returned to work at the radio station ,but in 1933, quit to join the faculty of Guangzhou Art School, his almamater , as a drawing instructor in the Western painting department. In
1934, he began making woodblock prints, and soon after organized his
students to make prints as well. In June of 1934, he held his first print
exhibition in Guangzhou and established the Modern Creative Woodcut
Association with his students as fellow members. During this time heedited WoodcutWeekly(*~1Jtrjf1J) for the Shimin ribao(rn II; 13¥1¼:
Citizen's
Daily ) in Guangzhou and also published the first issue of the series

Xiandai banhua (JJHt)J&jjllj) for the woodcut society. 11 His early woodcuts
seem strongly influenced by Western modernist art , especially
Cubism (fig.4 ). At the time, some of his students also created woodblock
prints under the influence of Cubism. However, the experimentation
with modernist styles in woodblock prints soon ended with the increasing awareness of Soviet printmaking and a switch away from purely self.
expressive or formal concerns to themes of social or political commentary.
Writing many years later, Li Hua was explicit in his abandonmentofformalism and adoption of the "revolutionary path ; i.e. Realism. His early
history as a modernist /Cubist , which he himself had rejected, wasrediscovered rather accidentally , through the comprehensive publication
fig.4: Li Hua, Li Hua'sJOSbeetsof
ColorWoodcutPrints,1934, woodc ut
print [color plate 8]of prints in the Lu Xun (%ill ) collection in 1991. 12
Cubism in China is quite different from the situation in Japan or
Korea. It started very late in China , brought back by young artists who
had studied in Europe or Japan. By this time , its most influential period
had already passed in Europe. Moreover , Cubism , practiced by a small
group of artists, lasted in China for only a few years. Its possible future
development , like that of other modernist art forms , was interrupted by
the Second World War. Most art schools stopped their regular teachingand suffered in an unsettled , refugee status for many years. The dream of acosmopolitan

modernist art world was shattered and most artists turned

223