Commissioned by Japan's Agency for Cultural Affairs
Manga, Animation, Games, and Media Art Information Bureau

Japanese Animation Guide:The History of Robot Anime

Compiled by Mori Building Co., Ltd.
2013

Addition to the Release of this Report
This report on robot anime was prepared based on information available through 2012, and at thattime, with the exception of a handful of long-running series (Gundam, Macross, Evangelion, etc.) andsome kiddie fare, no original new robot anime shows debuted at all. But as of today that situation
has changed, and so I feel the need to add two points to this document.
At the start of the anime season in April of 2013, three all-new robot anime series debuted. These
were Production I.G.'s “Gargantia on the Verdurous Planet," Sunrise's “Valvrave the Liberator," andDogakobo and Orange's “Majestic Prince of the Galactic Fleet." Each was broadcast in a late-nighttimeslot and succeeded in building fanbases.
The second new development is the debut of the director Guillermo Del Toro's film “Pacific Rim,"
which was released in Japan on August 9, 2013. The plot involves humanity using giant robots
controlled by human pilots to defend Earth’s cities from gigantic “kaiju.” At the end of the credits, thedirector dedicates the film to the memory of “monster masters” Ishiro Honda (who oversaw many of
the “Godzilla” films) and Ray Harryhausen (who pioneered stop-motion animation techniques.) The
film clearly took a great deal of inspiration from Japanese robot anime shows.
The separate “Survey and Report on Japanese Tokusatsu,” which was prepared in parallel withthis report, explained the deep connection between “monster-versus-hero" (tokusatsu) productions
and robot anime shows. Seeing a major Hollywood production give this unexpected show of respect
proves that tokusatsu and robot anime culture are far from being a closed book.
All of this serves to remind us of the relevance of the themes explored in this report as they
continue to develop, not only domestically but in the form of international cultural exchanges. This
report was prepared with a sense of crisis as to the current lack of scholarship, methodology, andappreciation of Japanese robot anime culture in its home country, and it is my sincere hope those
who share this interest and concern will not hesitate to share their opinions and comments.
Ryusuke Hikawa
Editor in Chief
July 25, 2013

Table of Contents[Table of Contents]
Preface

Beginnings [Ryusuke Hikawa]…………………………………………………….. 1

1.1. Background ...………………………………………………………………………………...1
1.2. Why Robot Anime Matters………………………………………………………………… 2
Chapter 2

A Cultural History of Robot Anime [Ryusuke Hikawa]…………………. ...52.1. What is Robot Anime? ………………………………………………………………………52.2. The 1960s: Robot Anime in the Age of Science ………………………………………… 6
2.3. The 1970s: The Rise of Robot Anime as a Genre………………………………………122.4. The 1980s: The Co-Evolution of Robot Anime Storytelling and Visuals…………...23
2.5. The 1990s and Beyond: Return and Refinement………………………………………39
2.6. The 2000s: Fiction Meets Reality ………………………………………………………..41(Chapter 3 is not translated.)
Chapter4

List of Key Robot Anime …………………………………………………………44

4.1. Chronology of Robot Anime Productions ……………………………………………… 44
4.2. Related Series ………………………………………………………………………………51[Contributors]*
In order to analyze the multifacteted developments and changes of Japanese robot
anime culture, the project team centered on an anime critic and a member of a firm
engaged in producing robot anime.
Ryusuke Hikawa

Anime Critic

Koichi Inoue

Sunrise, Head of Cultural Promotions Office

Daisuke Sawaki

WriterMatt Alt, AltJapan Co., Ltd.

Translator* Their titles are as of February 2014.

Preface

Preface[Ryusuke Hikawa]1.1. Background
The origins of postwar Japanese animation (anime) can be traced to the robot series“Tetsuwan Atom” (Astro Boy), which aired on the then-new medium of television in
Japan’s high growth period of the 1960s. Its appearance marked the spread of
popularity of televised anime, much of it based on science fiction novels and films
inspired by American culture. This was an era of dramatic change for Japanese culture,industry, and society. Science and technology promised to fuel economic growth; theemergence of nuclear families transformed social structures. Mirroring this cultural
upheval, anime experienced a period of rapid growth that led to the creation of
innovative new visual and narrative techniques.
Originally, domestically produced anime was intended mainly for children. But
starting in the mid-1970s, the industry dramatically expanded, thanks to growing
acceptance among an older demographic of junior and senior high schoolers that proved
fertile ground for lucrative merchandising campaigns. By the mid-1990s, increasing
foreign attention led to widespread international appreciation of Japanese anime.
Today in 2013, and thanks in large part to the power of the internet, anime is widely
recognized as a distinctive medium, and the word “anime” has even been adopted bymany languages around the world.
However, even in Japan very little attention has been paid to the societal trends thatso deeply influenced the rise of Japanese anime as a culture, and as a result anime
works have spread and developed fan bases abroad in a highly independent, haphazard
manner. Anime lacks a coherent narrative (or if you prefer, an “autobiography” or“resume”) that explains its value from the standpoint of its unique characteristics andtheir cultural significance, forcing foreign fans to construct their own analyses andconclusions. Even within Japan, with its fifty-plus years of anime history since thedebut of Tetsuwan Atom, a large “literacy gap” has developed between the older
demographic who has followed anime for decades, and the younger demographic whoseknowledge is gathered near exclusively from the internet. This makes it very difficult
for both sides to establish common ground for discussion.
As a result, even when creators and productions achieve a measure of success,consumers and critics lack the analytical tools needed to properly evaluate andunderstand them in the context of Japanese anime culture as a whole. Complicating thesituation further, often exaggerated mass media reports of anime’s popularity abroad
continue to inform export strategies, in spite of the fact that the key “hows and whys” of1Preface

Japanese anime’s inherent advantages remain almost totally uncataloged. Because ofthis, the current state of affairs is that most organizations justify taking action withhollow explanations that inevitably distill down to “because we heard it’s popularabroad.”The time has come for Japan to take the initiative and paint a proper portrait ofanime culture that can be shared with the world. Clarifying the gap that exists between
domestic and foreign viewpoints will enhance international communication, further
acceptance and promotion of Japanese culture, and undoubtedly reveal new insights
along the way.
In order to create this portrait, it is necessary to develop a methodology that canproperly convey the current state of anime culture considering ever-changing
socio-cultural and industy trends. One tool for doing this is to create a roadmap
encompassing past, present, and potential future developments. Systematicallyorganizing this information represents a terrific opportunity to reinvigorate the dialog
domestically and abroad and chart a course for the future.
As such this report aims to focus on a highly representative sample of domestic
Japanese anime culture: robot anime. Robot anime provides a quintessential example
that we believe will allow us to achieve our stated aims of deeper cultural investigationand identifying unique characteristics of domestic animation.
Our aim is to develop this metholodogical foothold here so that it can be applied foruse in investigating other subgenres (such as “magical girl anime”) in the future,
eventually illuminating the characteristics of anime culture as a unified whole. We
strongly believe that this will give us the tools needed to convey the richness ofJapanese anime culture to future generations.
1.2. Why Robot Anime Matters
This report treats “robot anime” and “giant robot anime” as largely equivalent terms.
It traces the development of the genre, centered on shows such as "Mazinger Z" and"Gundam," from its inception to the present day. The term “robot anime” also
encompasses productions featuring human-sized robots as well, but there are notenough of these series to constitute a standalone genre, so they are lumped into therobot anime genre out of necessity.
Japanese anime can be subdivided into a wide variety of genres, including sports andcomedy. Robot anime is one of these genres. However, it is unique for several reasons..
Its development closely paralleled the rise of Japan’s middle class during the process ofJapan’s transformation into a technological powerhouse and manufacturing center after2Preface

World War II. And it evolved together in concert with with tokusatsu (live-action sci-fi
filmmaking). For these reasons, robot anime represents an important nexus of Japanese
anime culture.
As such, investigating robot anime allows one to illuminate the development of not
only other neighboring genres, but the development of television culture in general. Its
deep relationship to its era and times reveals perspectives that make it a valuable
subject for research.
Another large reason for prioritizing robot anime for study is that it represents agenre that has generated both a large amount of original content and genre-dedicatedcreators such as directors Yoshiyuki Tomino, Ryosuke Takahashi, Anno Hideaki, andShoji Kawamori. This makes it the ideal genre for digging into the nuts and bolts ofwhat makes Japanese storytelling unique.
Another major reason for the selection is its track record in producing content thathas gained wide popularity abroad. From a standpoint of cultural influence, robot
anime has played an outsized role in the anime export industry. For example,“Goldorake,” the French-language version of the robot anime “UFO Robo Grendizer,”
achieved a near 100% viewer share among its target demographic when aired in France
in the 1970s, and continues to enjoy great popularity there today. This makes it animportant example of cross-cultural bridge building. Another example can be found in“The Transformers,” a 1980s American television series developed from a Japanese toyline. It proved so successful that the anime and toys were eventually reverse-imported
back into Japan, making it a key example of a long-running two-way cultural exchange.
In the early 21st century, the series was “rebooted” to tremendous success as a
CG-animated film series, cementing giant robots’ position as an internationallysuccessful and lucrative genre.
Another example of this can be seen in the “Power Rangers,” the American remake ofToei’s televised live-action “Super Sentai Series,” which brought a great many
Japanese-made transforming robot toys into the international markeplace. Their
success further expanded the cultural and business opportunities for Japanese robot
anime and undoubtedly influenced foreign live-action robot films such as “Real Steel”(dir: Shawn Levy, 2011) and “Pacific Rim” (dir: Guillermo Del Toro, 2013).
Robot anime’s influence on visual creators around the world today vaults it to what
could be called the top class of Japanese pop culture. This alone makes tracing the rootsof its development as “made in Japan” content all the more significant and critical.
Many Japanese scientists and engineers trace their fascination with mechanical3

Prefaceenginnering directly back to robot anime, toys, and models. This trend is particularly
pronounced among the “First Gundam” generation, currently in their 40s. As such therobot anime genre has exerted a great influence on the real world, inspiring its fans tostudy space technologies, or to enter the automotive industry to bring their designs tolife, or to even create actual bipedal robots.
Robot anime enjoys widespread recognition and has played a vital role in shaping
Japanese culture and industry. Yet even today there are many who remain unaware of
its “made in Japan” roots. That a history has not yet been written by the Japanese who
created the genre should be a cause for concern.
Widely watched domestically and abroad, across eras, a perfect symbol for the countryof Japan itself, and highly influential on industry and trade; robot anime represents an
extremely valuable and versatile test-case for research.
This report is being prepared with future expansions and revisions in mind. It is abirds-eye view of the “big picture” of the genre and is not intended as a comprehensive“be-all, end-all” on the topic.

4Ch. 2: A Cultural History of Robot Anime

Chapter 2: A Cultural History of Robot Anime[Ryusuke Hikawa]This report was created to chronicle the “rise and fall” of robot anime and its impact
on anime culture as a whole. It chronicles the process by which it originated andlaunched a large number of original and auteur-driven stories, leading to its rapid
decline in the mid-1980s.
Developments thereafter and up to the present day are covered only briefly andrepresent a subject for potential future research.
2.1.

What is Robot Anime?

Robot anime represents a unique form of popular culture developed in Japan. From a
global standpoint, Japan's development of humanoid robotics technologies andanimation techniques stands out as unique. Robot anime represents the threadconnecting these two fields, and influenced their developments over the course of ahalf-century.
Robot anime has had a great impact abroad as well, transcending the framework ofexported kids' culture and toys to influence international film culture, including
large-scale Hollywood productions.
Robots can be subdivided into a variety of forms. There are human-sized and giant
robots; friendly robots, heroic robots, and robots that are vehicles; and sentient andnon-sentient robots. This variety is precisely what gives robots their multifaceted
charm.
A key characteristic of Japanese robots is that they are viewed not simply as
inorganic machines but as characters. This report specifically focuses on giant robots.
From the standpoints of sheer number of productions and overall duration of popularinterest, giant robots represent the Japanese animation industry's single largest genre.
How did it develop and grow? We aim to answer this question by creating a timelineof robot anime and viewing it in relation to its era and neighboring genres so as to build
an overview of how changes in Japanese society, technology and media affected it
specifically and animation culture generally. We believe the reasons underlying the
popularity of Japanese robot anime around the world and among a broad demographicof viewers can be clarified at least in part by tracing the genre’s relationship to changes
in Japanese cultural trends at large.
It is important to note as "pre-history" that there was a great deal of popular interestin robots in Japan even before World War II, which created a firm foundation for theacceptance of robot content afterwards. During and immediately after the war, robots
5Ch. 2: A Cultural History of Robot Anime

were subjects for illustrated stories, kami-shibai plays, and comic books, so Japaneserobot culture cannot be said to have developed exclusively out of animation.
That said, the history of robots in other media is beyond the scope of this report,
which focuses exclusively on robot anime culture.

2.2.

The 1960s: Robot Anime in the Age of Science

At this point the genre of (giant) robot anime did not yet exist, but this time period
includes an important step in the process of its formation: the rise of televised
animation.
By the 1960s, Japan had largely recovered from the destruction of World War II sometwenty years earlier and entered a period of rapid economic growth. One aspect of this
newfound prosperity was the spread of a then cutting edge media technology among the
population: television.
January 1, 1963 marks the birth of serialized TV anime in Japan. That is the day
when the first thirty-minute episode of Osamu Tezuka's "Tetsuwan Atom" (literally"Mighty Atom," aka "Astro Boy") was broadcast. An instant hit, it kicked off the era ofmass-produced televised animation in Japan, with a great many production companies
both new and old jumping into the fray. At this point, shows generally centered onhuman-sized heroes that were actually more like hybrids of man and machine than true
robots. This trend came to play a major role in shaping the development of Japanese
anime culture. The success of "Atom" ushered in a great many shows featuring robotic
protagonists, including "Tetsujin 28-gō" (literally "Iron Man No. 28," broadcast in the
US as "Gigantor") and "8 Man" ("Tobor the 8th Man"). In other words, robots helped
build Japan's reputation as an anime superpower.
The TV series "Tetsujin 28-gō," based on a comic by Mitsuteru Yokoyama, starred ayoung protagonist who piloted a robot by remote control. It is the ancestor of all giant
robot anime shows. Both "Atom" and "Tetsujin" had already ruled as top titles in
Kobunsha's weekly comic magazine "Shonen" for ten years running, making thecreation of animated series a virtual necessity.
The 1960s also marked the international space race kicking into high gear. The public
embraced scientific technology as a path to prosperity and happiness, ushering in an eraof rapid industrial development. Although today we see the effluent from factory
smokestacks as a public health hazard, at the time citizens celebrated it as a symbol ofprosperity in popular films such as "Kemuri no Ōsama" ("The King of Smoke") (dir:Hajime Tsuburaya).
6

Ch. 2: A Cultural History of Robot Anime

In 1964, the year after Atom's debut, the Olympic Games convened in Tokyo. This
demanded a rapid investment in infrastructure. The pace of life increased exponentiallyas highways were built and the Tokaido Shinkansen (Bullet Train) opened for service.
Tokyo's skyline changed monthly as new roadways were laid and buildings went up at afevered pitch. As traditional wooden dwellings were pulled down and gravel roads were
surfaced with asphalt, Tokyo transformed into a metropolis of concrete.
In this era of seemingly infinite advancement, humanoid robots emerged as symbols
of scientific progress. The city of Tokyo itself was transforming at what could be called arobotically breakneck pace. Animators designed robot characters with sleek, gleaming
bodies, evoking the clean new roadways, the speeding bullet trains, and shining
skyscrapers that were rising up all around them.
Early robot shows were deeply influenced by a "modern-day folklore" of limitlessscientific potential. The televised anime of this era was a perfect fit for this moment inJapanese history, portraying a future where science would make life better for everyone.
Unlike manga, printed in black and white on rough paper, anime was painted on plastic
sheets called cels, giving it a bright luster. When projected on the sheet of glass used as
the display for a cathode-ray tube, it accentuated the robotic gleam of the characters all
the more.
For the largely still impoverished children of Japan, this "clean look" glimmered likean arrow pointing to the future. Among the generation who grew up watching the showsin realtime, the first thing that inevitably comes to mind isn't the actual storylines but
rather the merchandise. Specifically, the "magic" rub-off transfers packaged with
Marble Chocolates. The shiny, smooth transfers perfectly mimicked the texture of theimages on the television screen, and their "robotic" appeal kicked off a fad amongchildren. In other words, among children of the era, these broader qualities in and ofthemselves were perceived as "robotic," and connected to the changes in the cityscapearound them.
Early anime for TV was fueled by a huge amount of content originating in children's
weekly and monthly magazines, ushering in a "honeymoon phase" of mutual
cooperation and prosperity. But this doesn't mean that robot anime took off. Tetsujin
28-gō remained the giant robot genre's solo hit and there was no sign of a successor on
the horizon.
However, in the late Sixties, a paradigm shift emerged that would that would
paradoxically breathe true life into the robot anime genre while representing the firsttrue challenge to the anime industry's success as a whole: the debut of live-action
7Ch. 2: A Cultural History of Robot Anime

special effects shows centering on giant heroes, kaiju monsters, and space-age vehicles.
Known as "tokusatsu" (shorthand for "tokushū satsuei," or "special effects") shows inJapanese, they began capturing mindshare from anime heroes in the hearts of Japanesechildren.
The emergence of these heroes, kaiju, and vehicles as objects of children's (andspecifically boys') desire came to form the foundation for the later success of robot anime
as a business in the 1970s.
In the early stages of the TV anime business, the anime and manga were treated as
primary material, with products festooned with the characters or logo from a given
show playing a secondary role. However, the "kaiju-hero-vehicle" paradigm shattered
this simple primary-secondary business model.
The first stirrings of interest in kaiju monsters emerged in a made-for-TV movie
called "Ultra Q." Created by Tsuburaya Productions, the brainchild of special-effects
legend Eiji Tsuburaya, it remains the genre's cornerstone. Before "Ultra Q," movie
theaters represented the sole domain of monster movies. Now they were available inliving rooms across Japan.
In July of 1966, Tsuburaya followed up with a visually improved successor called"Ultraman," in which a giant-sized hero rid Japan of giant kaiju using his trademark
Specium Ray. Like fuel on a smoldering fire, "Ultraman" had the effect of igniting afull-fledged kaiju craze among Japanese children.
Each show featured the same general pattern. A new giant monster would appear,
the hero and his support vehicles would confront it, and the hero would eventually
defeat it with a special move. This routine solidified into the de-facto standard for heroprogramming in Japan; it remains widely used today, even in girls' programming suchas "Pretty Cure." It represents a uniquely Japanese style of storytelling.
The post-Tetsuwan Atom era had been the golden age of kid-sized sci-fi heroes. The
majority of productions centered on kids using superpowers or super-weapons to
overcome challenges, solve crimes, and thwart bad guys (often gangs). These shows
represented updates of classic fare such as "Kaijin Nijū Mensō" (The Fiend With Twenty
Faces) and "Gekkō Kamen" (Moonlight Mask) re-worked with boy adventurers anddetectives. But the sudden appearance of Ultraman rendered them obsolete almost
overnight.
In the TV series, Ultraman was an alien from the Nebula M-78. His body featured red
stripes on a silver background. The silver can be seen as a metaphor for the spacerockets that were cutting edge scientific tools of the day; the red, for blood. In otherwords, Ultraman was a hybrid of advanced science and humanity. His pupil-less eyes
8Ch. 2: A Cultural History of Robot Anime

glowed to accentuate his alien nature. The overall design was somewhat robotic, but theidea was that of an alien whose technology far surpassed that of Earth.
His "finishing move" was a "Specium Ray" created using optical special effects rather
than the traditional guns or swords carried by human-sized heroes. Creatively it was aquantum leap ahead of other sci-fi productions of the day, and sucessfully changed theentire image of the sci-fi hero. The resulting paradigm shift essentially put a stop tohuman-sized robot anime in the Tetsuwan Atom mold, and would have a tremendous
impact on the character design and action choreography of 1970s giant robot anime.
Ultraman represents the starting point for giant heroes in anime and tokusatsu, atrend that has continued unabated for 47 years as of 2013. The reason this reportfocuses on giant robot anime is to explore and analyze this enduring popularity.
At the same time, a pivotal "mecha" (vehicle)-centric TV production debuted as well:"Thunderbirds." NHK began broadcasting localized episodes of the British sci-fi series
in 1966, and it represents another powerful influence on Japanese robot anime. The
characters were portrayed using marionettes (string puppets), but their high-tech
vehicles were portrayed with special effects based on extraordinarily detailed
minatures.
The 20-year anniversary of the end of the war in the Pacific ushered in a worldwide
boom for war dramas. A great number of war films were being produced both
domestically and abroad, and Japanese kids' magazines teemed with special featuresand dramatic illustrations of wartime vehicles. Plastic model kits of the Zero Fighterand the battleship Yamato flew off store shelves.
Models of military tanks, aircraft, and ships, each featuring the distinctive design
sense of their respective nations, came to function as communication tools for adults
and their children. The nationality, year of production, and model number for eachmilitary vehicle stimulated the natural categorizing and collecting instincts of young
boys. And the "mechanics" of the Zero fighter, with its retractable landing gear, sliding
canopy, folding wings and landing lights, greatly appealed to kids and would eventuallyinspire the gimmicks incorporated into later robot designs.
Children born during this first generation of TV anime (around the early 1960s) were
not only raised by parents who had experienced World War II themselves as elementaryand junior high school students, but grew up in an atmosphere of fascination forweaponry stoked by kids' magazines of the day. Yoshiyuki Tomino and the othercreators of "Mobile Suit Gundam" certainly fit this mold; the use of model numbers to
distinguish the robots as weapons was inspired by memories of the World War II fadfrom their youth. In other words, the worldwide boom for war dramas represents
9Ch. 2: A Cultural History of Robot Anime

another one of the roots of robot anime.
That said, World War II weaponry represented classic, antiquated designs, and camewith the moral issues inherent in that they were used to kill and maim during war.
"Thunderbirds" upended this paradigm by re-casting these weapons as "rescue vehicles"
endowed with tremendous power. They stimulated imaginations not as war machines,
but rather as examples of cutting edge scientific progress.
Thunderbirds featured vehicles numbered one through five, each optimized for adifferent mission and with distinctive silhouettes. Thunderbird 1 was a hypersonicrocket plane with a swing-wing mechanism, an early "transformation" system.
Thunderbird 2 was a heavy transport carrier aircraft equipped with detachable
containers, representing an early "combining" system. These "transforming/combining"elements represent the roots of similar gimmicks that would be used to great effect inlater Japanese robot anime shows.
Thunderbird 1 served as a mobile command center for rescue operations;Thunderbird 2 for transporting rescue equipment; Thunderbird 3 for space rescues;
Thunderbird

4

forunderwater

operations;andThunderbird

5

as

an

intelligence-gathering satellite in Earth orbit. Children instantly grasped the logic of
their functions. One of the show's secondary vehicles, a drill-equipped tunnelingmachine called "Jet Mogura" (The Mole) particularly captivated Japanese children andtouched off a plastic model boom far eclipsing that of the historic military models.
"Thunderbirds" was revolutionary from a visual performance standpoint as well. The
rescue machines were built by a wealthy philanthropist and hidden away on a remoteisland. The pilots boarded their vehicles using elaborate mechanized paths secretly
connecting to their private quarters. The extensive launch sequences from the secretbase gave the vehicles center stage. Appearing in every episode and often taking a solid
minute or more, these scenes portrayed the fantastic machines launching from longrunways lined with palm trees or emerging from hatches concealed beneath pools or
cliff faces. In spite of the fact that these launch sequences were recycled stock footage,
they proved captivating and would be extensively incorporated into the Japanese robot
anime genre as well.
"Thunderbirds" greatly influenced the sequel to the 1967 show "Ultraman," called"Ultraseven." In "Ultraseven," the Science Patrol's base was constructed deep in themountains and housed three vehicles, Ultra Hawk 1, 2, and 3, whose launches visuallyechoed those of the Thunderbirds machines – and blazed another path for Japaneserobot anime as well.
Shows of this era, including anime, tokusatsu, and marionette shows, came to be10

Ch. 2: A Cultural History of Robot Anime

collectively called "TV manga" in Japan. The monsters-and-machines element thatmade tokusatsu shows so successful represented an Achilles heel for the anime
technology of the era. Tokusatsu felt "real," but animation celwork had a shiny, plastic
feel. In anime, detail was simplified to heighten imagination and drama, but at theexpense of physicality, realism, and presence.
The surfaces of kaiju monsters were irregular and complex, with steely eyes, horns
and fangs, and even hair, giving them a sense of organic reality. The Thunderbirds
machines featured realistic hardware such as working engines and retracting landing
gear; they also featured realistic signage, markings and weathering from exposure to
the elements.
It all came down to "texture." Kids demanded it in their entertainment. And this is
key to understanding the 1970s giant robot anime boom.
In the 1960s, the animated "Tetsujin 28-go" and the live-action "Giant Robo," bothcreations of the manga artist Mitsuteru Yokoyama, represented the entirety of the robot
genre. They featured giant robots that were piloted by young boys using a remotecontrol system. And both featured human-like eyes with distinct pupils. These two key
features of Sixties robot entertainment would be entirely abandoned by Seventies robot
shows.
In order to analyze the giant robot anime boom of the early 1970s, one must firstunderstand several key social trends of the late 1960s, which I will summarize here.
The early 1970s ushered in another paradigm shift for the world. The publication of
the Club of Rome's scathing report "The Limits to Growth" cast grave doubt on thebright future promised by science.
In 1969, the Apollo program, designed to build national prestige for the USA during
the cold war, successfully landed a man on the moon. The following year marked theopening of Japan's first large-scale international exposition in Osaka. Convened under
the theme "Peace and Prosperity for Humankind," huge lines formed as visitors queued
to see a sample of moon rock. Yet this moment would represent the end of the age ofunbridled scientific promise.
In contrast to the newfound prosperity of Japan, the threat of worldwide nuclear
conflict between Eastern and Western superpowers only deepened, and America founditself increasingly bogged down in the war in Vietnam. In Japan as well, theamendment of the US-Japan Security Treaty sparked fierce political conflict and social
strife, as the children of the postwar baby boom launched an antiwar protest movement.
The large industries that had supported Japan's rapid economic growth were now
11Ch. 2: A Cultural History of Robot Anime

condemned as polluters and environmental destroyers.
The turmoil welling up in society had an inevitable impact on children's programming
as well. "Weekly Shonen Magazine" had been created to appeal to baby boomers aschildren. Following its readers as they aged, in the late Sixties it shifted course towards
content for an older, teenage audience. One of the results was the emergence of"gekiga," dramatic works similar to what Americans refer to as "graphic novels." Artists
whose popularity had flagged when children "graduated" from kashibon (rental comics)
to television began creating stories filled with dark social satire. The vibrantly roughlinework and storylines of gekiga captivated young men of the day.
Gekiga had an impact on anime art and production methods as well. Animators had
struggled to replicate the realism of tokusatsu filmmaking, but the introduction of adevice called the trace machine revolutionized the industry. It used a thermal
carbon-copy system to transfer all the nuance and delicacy of pencil lines directly to cels,allowing animators to capture a "gekiga touch" in their work.
After trace machines debuted, the percentage of sports, yokai, and gekiga-based
anime began increasing as well. The rough feel of gekiga was a perfect reflection for theatmosphere of the day, with its skies and rivers darkened by pollution.
Anime with gekiga-inspired linework appeared one after the other, many becoming
hits. 1969's "Tiger Mask" (Ikki Kajiwara / Naoki Tsuji) is a perfect example. (The rootsof the Seventies most popular live action hero, "Kamen Rider," can be found in thismasked, belt-wearing wrestler character.)In this way the dramatic societal changes of the 1960s combined with the rapid
development of television culture set the stage for the paradigm shift of the 1970s.

2.3.

The 1970s: The Rise of Robot Anime as a Genre

The giant kaiju monsters, heroes, and machines that rose to popularity with
mid-1960s tokusatsu shows formed the "soil" from which robot anime would bloom sovibrantly in the 1970s. Robot anime did not develop in a vacuum as an independent,
isolated creation of the animation industry. This is difficult, if not impossible, toappreciate simply by looking at a year-by-year chronology of anime releases. Culturalresearch in the media arts requires cross-referencing the subject with adjacent genres.
At first, anime suffered in comparison to tokusatsu productions, but overcame
near-defeat by incorporating the weapons of its "enemy" into its own industry. This"synchronization" is one of the reasons for the independent vitality of domestic anime
culture. It is important to view these competing genres in how they interacted and
12Ch. 2: A Cultural History of Robot Anime

influenced one another.
The early 1970s marked another stage in the evolution of robot animation. The
turning point came in 1972, with the broadcast of the television series "Mazinger Z"(based on a comic by Go Nagai).
The show marked the dawn of the robot anime era. The robot characters of theseshows differed from their Sixties counterparts in three main ways. 1970s robot anime
characters are defined by:
1) Their giant size2) The fact they were piloted rather than controlled externally3) Their ability to transform and/or combine
These characteristics led to a new development: the shows acting as vehicles for toy
sales. It also occurred in parallel with the trend of "motorization" – the spread of
personal car and motorbike ownership in Japan. This image of robots as drive-able
vehicles proved irresistible to a new generation of young viewers.
The robot anime genre, which includes long-running hits such as "Mobile Suit
Gundam," boasts the longest success and the most original productions of any genre in
the anime industry. The success of this business model can be traced directly back to
1972. In order to understand this sea change, one needs to understand the importanceof "TV manga" in the early Seventies.
1971 marked a continuing fad for sports manga and what is now known as the"second kaiju boom." This latter trend centered on popular shows showcasing giant
heroes, such as "Spectreman" and "Ultraman Returns," but the real star of the era wasa human-sized morphing hero called "Kamen Rider" (Masked Rider), created by Shotaro
Ishimori. The show of the same name is responsible for kicking off a "henshin(morphing) boom" that would become the mainstream of "TV manga" pop-culture.
In Kamen Rider can be found a key symbol of the 1970s zeitgeist: the appearance of amysterious organization called "Shocker" as the show's antagonist. Shocker can be seen
as a metaphor of the evils perpetuated by industries during Japan's high growth phase.
In fact, in the original comic series that was used as the basis for the show, Shocker isactually described as being a shadow branch of the Japanese government.
Big business had been treated with great deference in the 1960s, but by the 1970s
had come to be perceived as the culprits for all that was wrong with society. Thesechanging societal values began affecting the TV business as well. 1960s children’s
shows, anime included, were generally supported by single national sponsors such as
13

Ch. 2: A Cultural History of Robot Anime

food, candy, or beverage companies. However, this sole-sponsor system dramaticallylimited their content.
Mainstays of 1960s TV programming, such as variety shows and quiz programs
offering prizes like new household appliances or a year's supply of a given product,
quickly began falling out of favor in the 1970s. The nation had by this point emerged
from postwar poverty into a widespread middle class mentality; the concept of consumer
products as an unreachable dream (a dream reinforced by their appearance as covetedprizes on game shows) had given way to consumption as a fact of daily life.
These changes in society rocked the anime production business model to its core; thedisappearance of national sponsors for anime series had dire implications for thesurvival of the anime business. Robot anime emerged from this growing sense of crisis.
1972's Kamen Rider deeply influenced the animation industry. Its format – in whichan evil organization dispatched new minions that were in turn defeated by the heroweek after week – quickly became the anime industry standard formula as well.
The first anime show to employ the formula didn't actually feature any robots at all: a1972 TV series based on Go Nagai's manga "Devilman." That November, another famed
anime series featuring the format debuted as well: "Kagaku Ninjatai Gatchaman"(Science Ninja Squad Gatchaman), a fusion of Japanese ninja legend and sci-fi chic.
Inspired by an early-Sixties live-action series called "Ninja Butai Gekko" (aired abroadas "Phantom Agents"), Gatchaman featured a team of five teenagers who morphed into
superheroes to fight giant robot monsters. Its success inspired legions of imitators bothin the anime and the tokusatsu industry, eventually giving rise to the "Super Sentai"(Power Rangers) series of shows. Gatchaman represents one of Japanese pop culture's
single most pivotal and influential series.
Another hallmark of the Seventies is the widespread adoption of color television. The
last black and white anime series, "Chingo Muchabe," aired in 1971. By 1972, every
anime series was being produced in full color.
Anime studio Tatsunoko Productions was especially successful at creating content
suitable for this new all-color era, starting with its World War II "Animentari
Ketsudan" ("Ani-documentary: The Decision") the year before. In addition to tracemachines, the studio introduced a number of "special effects" to its cel animation,
including the use of sponge- and brushwork to give scenes a rougher texture andairbrushes for color gradations. This allowed them to give weapons a realistic metal
sheen, enhance explosions for dramatic effect, and even portray tracer bullets streaking
from machine guns. The effect simply blew old-fashioned flat-plane animation out of the14

Ch. 2: A Cultural History of Robot Anime

water. "Gatchaman" represented the first science-fiction series to which Tatsunoko
applied their cutting-edge techniques.
This marked the beginning of the golden era for animation, as the quality, realism
and sheer presence of animated heroes and their gadgets surpassed that of tokusatsu
for the first time.
These advances didn't occur in a vacuum. The rapid change was sparked by a host offactors including tokusatsu shows such as "Ultraman" and "Thunderbirds," changes inchildren's weekly magazines and other mass media, and growing turbulence in society
at large, and dramatically fueled by the demands of an increasingly competitive
business.
This evolution of both anime and tokusatsu entertainment proceeded in step with themental and physical development of what were called "TV kids," the first generation ofJapanese raised from infancy with television in their lives. The changes inentertainment were driven to a large extent by the changes in this demographic as itaged. The vast majority of Japan's current crop of top creators, now in their 40s and 50s,
undoubtedly experienced this evolution themselves, in real time.
The above trends converged in a series called "Mazinger Z," which established aprocess that would produce a great many new robot anime shows.
The predecessor of "Mazinger Z," "Tetsujin 28-gō," established the concept of a series
centered on a giant robot hero. But "Mazinger Z" added two unique new marketing
points to the paradigm established by its ancestor.
The first was the union of man and machine, by placing the pilot inside the robot
itself. The second was dropping the black pupils that suggested humanity in previous
robot designs.
The combination of these two new elements represented the transformation of the
giant robot into a "morphing" hero. And the lack of pupils placed them squarely within
the design trend of popular live action heroes such as Ultraman and Kamen Rider.
In fact, looking back, these two elements clearly illustrate the reason why robot
anime transformed into the strongest genre the Japanese anime industry had ever seen.
To use the metaphor of a relay race, anime and tokusatsu shot out of the gate together
in the early days of postwar entertainment, handing off the baton to their respective
successors as the field grew. Robot anime emerged as the "anchor" of the anime
industry.
Mazinger Z represented the first "total package" of hit elements that would come todefine sci-fi entertainment for kids.
15

Ch. 2: A Cultural History of Robot Anime

His arsenal included beam weapons in addition to punching and slicing attacks. It
also included weapons with a certain degree of scientific believability, such as the "Rust
Hurricane," a fierce, highly acidic wind that dissolved enemy armor. The scenes of thebase's pool opening to launch the pilot's "Hover Pilder," and its docking with theMazinger Z robot itself, had a decidedly "Thunderbirds" flair. And the enemy side
incorporated otherworldly, yokai-like (monster-like) designs, such as humans who had
been rebuilt into new forms or fused with animals.
This trend of integrating "hit elements" would only increase as robot shows began todominate the airwaves, promoting the growth of the genre as a whole.
One particular "Mazinger Z" product represented a groundbreaking development in
the anime business: zinc alloy diecast toys. Sold under the brand name of "Chogokin" by
Popy (later merged with its parent company Bandai), Mazinger Z products quickly
racked up record-breaking sales, forming a cornerstone of the robot anime success story.
In the storyline of the anime, Mazinger Z was described as being made of a fictional"super-alloy" called "Chogokin Z." Forged from "Japanium" ore, it generated "photonic
energy" that made Mazinger Z far more powerful than the monstrous robots of theenemy side. The reason the enemy continued its attacks on the protagonist's Photonic
Energy Research Institute was to steal this unfathomably powerful material.
Popy manufactured its groundbreaking Mazinger Z figurine out of diecast alloy,
perfectly echoing the fictional character's sense of metallic sheen and weight. By
conflating the real-world and fictional Chogokin material into their product, Popy had
hit on a marketing hook that made their figure an incredibly coveted item. In otherwords, once again it all came back to the fetishization of "texture."
For the first time, a single consistent element, in this case Chogokin, permeated theentire experience, from the storyline to the visuals to the toys sold to the viewers. Thisis both why the show became such a hit and how it came to represent a pillar of the new
anime business strategy. It represented a series whose abstract appealing elements had
been collected into a single overarching story. In essence a system had been created
where the viewer's identification with the protagonist directly fed into passion for the
products.
This system remains the dominant model for the anime business to this day, andMazinger Z represents the first time all of its pieces truly came together.
The backdrop for this new development was a dramatic shift in Japanese society
called "middle class-ification," which meant the average Japanese finally had thefinancial wherewithal to buy toys for their children.
16Ch. 2: A Cultural History of Robot Anime

In another example of this trend, the educational branch of Ricoh joined as one of thesponsors for Mazinger Z's sequel "Great Mazinger." In the immediate postwar era,
protecting children from starvation or disease had taken precedence over schooling, butby the 1970s Japanese had grown wealthy enough to prioritize education.
It is in this way that, beginning in the 1970s, anime series came to be supported bymultiple sponsors, generally centering on a toy company. As these groups begancommissioning original content rather than relying on pre-existing comic book series,
they fostered another revolution in the anime industry; the upending of theaforementioned "primary/secondary" paradigm.
Before the 1970s, the animation itself represented the primary product, with toys andother character merchandise representing secondary products. In this system, thecreators of the original content - comic book artists - represented the core of the businessmodel.
Only so much could be expected from the food and medicine companies that
represented the main sponsors of the era. But toys represented a much more directmeans of linking a sponsor company's product to its consumers. It allowed toy company
sponsors to produce what amounted to 30-minute toy commercials, and sparked therevelation that comic book creators weren't truly essential to the process after all.
The 1960s represented the dawn of multimedia merchandising. In spite of the factthat televised anime clearly represented the more popular medium, the original comicbook was treated as the primary work. However, the 1970s ushered in a totally new
business philosophy. Neither the comic book nor the animation represented the primary
product. The toys did. If toys represented the primary business endeavor, the anime
show represented a secondary marketing campaign for them. This realization is whatmade the Chogokin toys from "Mazinger Z" such a success.
This ushered in an era of original robot anime series created expressly for the
purpose of selling toys. The first debuted in April of 1975. It was called "Yūsha Raideen"(Brave Raideen).
The anime was produced by Tohoku Shinsha, who held the rights to "Thunderbirds,"
and the merchandise was produced by Popy as part of their Chogokin brand. Soeisha
Sunrise Studio (the forerunner of modern-day Sunrise) handled the animation, with
Yoshiyuki Tomino directing and Yoshikazu Yasuhiko handling character design. The
series is also significant as the first robot series to be made by the team that would later
go on to create "Mobile Suit Gundam" in 1979. The story was credited to Yoshitake
Suzuki, an anime scriptwriter who had founded the "literature department" of Mushi
17

Ch. 2: A Cultural History of Robot Anime

Productions. This team is a major reason why Raideen is considered the anime world's
first truly original series.
Raideen established several key concepts that would turn into archetypes forlate-Seventies robot anime. The first was the consideration of merchandising potentialfrom the very beginning of the process, creating a hero robot character with "play value"
as a product. This required thinking up a central "gimmick" that would give the robot a
valuable sales hook when sold as a toy.
This isn't to say that earlier robots such as "Mazinger Z" lacked play value as toys.
The Mazinger Z Chogokin featured a spring-loaded "rocket punch" gimmick, forexample. However, the character's core feature – the pilot docking a hovercraft-like"Hover Pilder" in Mazinger's head – wasn't clearly understood in terms of play value.
Another version of the character, a sixty-centimeter (two foot) tall "Jumbo Machinder
Mazinger Z," also became a major hit. Its main play value involved the ability to swap
its arms out for various weaponry, a feature that didn't appear in the anime show at all.
The appearance of this original gimmick introduced by the toy manufacturer represents
their dawning realization of the importance of being involved in developing thecharacters themselves.
In spring of 1974, the first of the "gattai" (combining) robot characters debuted.
Called "Getter Robo," it was created by Go Nagai, the same man who had createdMazinger Z. It featured three spacecraft called "Gett Machines" that could combine inthree different ways to create three different giant robots: Getter 1, 2, and 3. Its visuals
were extremely cutting edge for the time, and it represents the ancestor of all combining
robot designs. However, the combination was only possible via the "magic" of animation,
more of a metamorphosis than a mechanical docking sequence. This made it virtually
impossible to replicate as a three-dimensional object. The best Popy's engineers could
manage was a toy of the Gett Machine "Eagle" that transformed into a facsimile ofGetter 1 's head. This led to toy manufacturers pushing to close the gap between theon-screen portrayal and the merchandise.
Katsushi Murakami was the man behind many of the Popy (Bandai) Chogokinsuccess stories. Trained as an industrial designer, he began his career at "Terebi
Manga" (TV Manga) magzine. One of his earliest designs was the "Raijin-gō," a flying
car driven by the hero of the tokusatsu TV series "Inazuman." He would come to play acentral role in the Raideen production as well. He oversaw its design, ensuring that ahumanoid robot (Raideen) could actually transform into a flying mode ("God Bird"), sothat the accuracy of the toy as compared to its on-screen counterpart could be used as a18

Ch. 2: A Cultural History of Robot Animemarketing hook. This was a first in the world of robot anime.
Raideen's design is officially co-credited to Katsushi Murakami, Studio Nue(Kazutaka Miyatake and Naoyuki Katoh), and Yasuhiko Yoshikazu. In other words, it
represents the collaboration among an industrial designer, a pair of sci-fi visualists, anda character designer. This system would rise to great prominence during the robot
anime era.
Raideen represented a situation where an all-original concept was "filtered" throughthe particular expertise of each of the development team members. This resulted in a"trifecta" of a design with play value, set in a unique world, that was in turn easy tocontrol. This added value not only made the series a hit, but also represented awatershed moment for the genre. From this point forward, the business model for
creating televised anime productions would center on toy companies.
A revolution was brewing in the demographics of anime viewers at this time as well.
Until this point, anime had been designed for elementary schoolers; once they reachedjunior high they were expected to grow out of the viewership. This new generation ofchildren, however, appeared to be flouting these expectations, choosing instead tocontinue watching anime as junior and even senior high schoolers. They represented ageneration that had experienced 1963's "Tetsuwan Atom" at a very young age, and their
evolving interests would come to have a large impact on the development of robot anime
as well.
1974 also represents the debut of the anime TV series "Space Cruiser Yamato." A
theatrical version would be released in 1977, sparking a fad among teenagers that was
widely reported in the mass media of the time. This phenomenon formed the soil fromwhich Japan's first dedicated anime magazine would emerge in 1978. It was the dawn ofJapan's "anime boom."
The success of Raideen established a pipeline for original robot anime productions not
only from a business standpoint but from a storytelling one. Director Tadao Nagahama,
who joined the series for its second half, was a veteran who had directed episodes of thesmash-hit sports anime "Kyojin no Hoshi" (Star of the Giants.) While maintaining thebasic self-contained "hero robot defeats monster robot" arc of each episode, heintroduced larger themes such as the world's mythology and the drama of the hero's
reunion with his mother. Raideen's dramatic style laid the groundwork for later
narrative-driven fare such as "Gundam."
Many in the anime industry derided these shows as vulgar "30 minute toycommercials," but an undeniable vitality and creative freedom began to emerge in the19

Ch. 2: A Cultural History of Robot Anime

genre as well. So long as robots were given center stage, nearly any content was fairgame. Even highly original, unpredictable dramas. This freedom served to stimulate theshows' creators all the more.
This magnaminity on the part of the toy sponsors essentially made them patrons of
the artists. Following Raideen, ”Chodenji Robo Combattler V (Supermagnetic Robo
Combattler V) debuted in 1976 with virtually the same staff, including Tadao
Nagahama at the helm and Yoshikazu Yasuhiko handling character design. Combattler
centered on five vehicles that combined into a giant robot, with the idea being that thetoys would replicate the combination just as it appeared onscreen. The resulting
animation ended up taking some stylistic liberties that were hard to match in reality,
but the sequel, "Supermagnetic Robo Voltes V," marked the first time the toys andonscreen portrayal of a robot character truly matched.
Director Nagahama turned "Combattler V" into a grand morality play, focusing on
the antagonist General Garuda's tragic circumstances to the point where they
practically overshadowed the drama of the heroes. The use of "beautiful boy" character
designs proved extremely popular among female fans. Nagahama turned this up
another notch in the sequel, "Voltes V." He portrayed a brother-against-brothermelodrama in which noble villain "Prince Heinel" (known as "Prince Zardoz" in foreignversions) was played up to near-mythological status in a metaphor for the legendary
Japanese hero Yamato Takeru.
In this way, robot shows blazed a new path for dramatic storytelling in anime. In the"post-Yamato" era, fans demanded original series with new plot twists, allowing
screenwriters to inject unheard-of levels of drama into the robot shows. It had been
established that the middle-to-late teen demographic demanded dramatic situations
that they could empathize with, set in a believable world. Perhaps nowhere did thistrend crystallize so purely as in 1979's "Mobile Suit Gundam."On the one hand, in the 1970s robot anime was generally poorly received by society atlarge. Established sci-fi authors derided it as "robot pro-wrestling." Even shows withwell-executed sci-fi elements took criticism for what were considered formulaic,cookie-cutter storylines. Even many modern critics tend to lump pre-Gundam shows
together as simple "good triumphs over evil" stories.
The fact is, however, each of these productions injected its own unique creative
elements into the "bloodstream" of the anime medium. In real-life pro wrestling,
wrestlers can't fire off their fists or fly through the air. But robot anime battle scenes
required more imagination, and gave choreographers a great deal of creative freedom
20Ch. 2: A Cultural History of Robot Animefor the visuals. And a variety of dramatic techniques were introduced from a story
standpoint as well, such as making the protagonist of the same bloodline or race of theenemy to heighten the tension. A detailed exploration of each of these elements is asubject for future researchers. But just as the theory of evolution is survival via thereproduction of those best adapted to ever-changing environments, it is this report's
stance that no anime trend developed spontaneously without influence by its
predecessors.
Still, there's no denying that the robot anime series of this era generally played out
according to a set formula. A heroic pilot would board his robot to fight a different
enemy robot or monster every week. The archetype of launching from the base,struggling against the enemy, and finally conquering it with some new secret weapon
indeed formed the backbone of many robot shows. The formula established by Ultraman
and Kamen Rider proved quite difficult for robot anime to escape – one might even callit a "curse."
The reason for this is that, unlike their remote-controlled and autonomous Sixties
predecessors, the piloted robots of the Seventies represented a fusion of human and hero.
They were an animated metaphor for the elements of "henshin" (morphing) and ofgrowing to titanic size established by tokusatsu series. Even that hallmark of Seventies
robot designs, the lack of pupils in the robots' eyes, can be traced back throughmorphing tokusatsu heroes all the way back to the 1950s live-action TV drama "Gekkō
Kamen" (Moonlight Mask).
America's most famous superhero, "Superman," fought without a mask. But in Japan,masks have always been key to a hero's identity, even as far back as the 1930s hit"Kaiketsu Kurozukin" (The Black Mask). The concept of a hero who concealed his true
identity to fight under another deeply appealed to Japanese audiences, as can be seenby the long-running success of shows such as "Mito Kōmon." The pupil-less design of
giant robots' eyes is a clear link to the lineage of these masked heroes.
However the mixing of pre-existing "hit elements" can sometimes result in a chemical
reaction that creates new things. In the giant robot context, the heroes represented a
metaphor for strength. There was nothing new about this in and of itself, but the mixing
in of "rideability" – the idea that humans piloted the robots – elevated the morphing
concept from pure fantasy into something approaching reality. This sense of reality is
why animated robots came to overtake their tokusatsu counterparts.
The peak of robot anime as a pillar of kids' TV programming came in 1976. Seven
new giant robot series debuted this year: "Daikūmaryu Gaiking," "Gowappa 5 Gōdamu,""UFO Senshi Daiapolon," "Chōdenji Robo Combattler V," "Groizer X," "Blocker Gundan21

Ch. 2: A Cultural History of Robot Anime

IV Machine Blaster," and "Magne-Robo GaKeen."
The success of "Mazinger Z" spawned a 1974 sequel called "Great Mazinger," and athird show in the series, "UFO Robo Grendizer," debuted in 1975 and continued to air
through 1976. In other words, a grand total of eight shows featuring giant robots were
airing simultaneously.
This period was marked by both a comparatively high number of anime-original
productions and the appearance of groups of interrelated series. "Play value" took
center stage as toy manufacturers devised new marketing hooks to differentiate their
toys in an increasingly competitive marketplace. Combattler V had been designed by
Popy around the gimmick of combination. Gaiking, another Popy creation, was a robot
formed from a transforming dragon's head. The live-action "Daibaron" featured several
vehicles that combined into a giant robot; it was marketed by toy company Bullmark
using the word "Gasshin," a portmanteau of the Japanese words "henshin" (morph) and"gattai" (combination). And GaKeen, the brainchild of a toy company called Takara,
featured a unique "Magnemo" system of magnetic ball-joints.
1977 marked the debut of six new robot series: "Wakusei Robo Dangard A," "Gasshin
Sentai Mekanda Robo," "Chōmajutsu Gattai Robo Gingaizer," "Chōdenji Machine Voltes
V," "Chōjin Sentai Baratak," and "Muteki Chōjin Zanbot 3." It also marked thebankruptcy of toy manufacturer Bullmark. But in 1978, this dropped to just three newseries: "Tōshō Daimos," "Muteki Kōjin Daitarn 3," and "Uchū Majin Daikengo." Thetrend continued in 1979, with just three new shows. By this time, Toei Dōga (now Toei
Animation) – who had originated the robot genre with "Mazinger Z" – began to cut its
ties as well, choosing instead to air a series called "SF Saiyūki Starzinger," a sci-fi
retelling of the Chinese classic "Journey to the West."
It is at this time that children's ever-wandering eyes began to move from animatedcreations to the real-life luxury sports cars known as "supercars" in Japan. Toycompanies began shifting sponsorship from robot series to those featuring cars instead.
But this fad for supercars would be short-lived.
In 1977, the theatrical version of the anime series "Space Cruiser Yamato" became asmash hit, followed in 1978 by the Japanese release of "Star Wars," the live-action sci-fi
film that had swept America the year before. The massive success of these two
productions kicked off a "sci-fi boom" in Japan. By this point the popularity of robot
anime was declining from an industry standpoint, but Sunrise bucked the trend, going
independent from its parent company Tohoku Shinsha and reorganizing under thename Nippon Sunrise. Joining forces with a toy manufacturer named Clover, Nippon
Sunrise debuted their first independent original anime production in fall of 1977:
22

Ch. 2: A Cultural History of Robot Anime"Muteki Chōjin Zanbot 3" (Super Machine Zanbot 3).
Zanbot 3 featured a giant robot formed from three smaller vehicles. Threecomononents, rather than the then-standard five as had been used in Combattler V andVoltes V, were believed to be a sounder investment from a business standpoint. But theshow is perhaps best known for director Yoshiyuki Tomino's drive to make it as realistic
as possible. Tomino's portrayal of the fallout of warfare – the fallen soldiers, the civilian
casualties, the refugees - sent a shockwave through teenaged anime fans who had
grown tired of stagey melodramas centering on beautiful young characters. For this anda variety of reasons, not least of which because it featured character designs by
Yoshikazu Yasuhiko, Zanbot 3 represents the direct ancestor of 1979's "Mobile Suit
Gundam."At the same time, a handful of shows centering on human-sized robotic protagonists
were on the air as well. These included "Robokko Beeton," a 1976 Sunrise co-production
featuring Yasuhiko's handiwork; the sister title to "Tetsuwan Atom," 1977's "Jetter
Mars"; and a remake of "Tetsuwan Atom" itself in 1980.
But the hands-down winner in this subgenre was Fujiko F. Fujio's "Doraemon," thesecond series of which became a smash hit in 1979. The first run of the show in 1973
had been a little ahead of its time, but its creators reworked and refined the "boy andhis robot" concept to great success in 1979. In this way, the 1970s marked the evolutionof the robot into a vehicle or a friend, pushing the boundaries of anime culture.
2.4.

The 1980s: The Co-Evolution of Robot Anime Storytelling and Visuals

Today, 1979's Mobile Suit Gundam represents robot anime's biggest hit, a success tothe point where it has become a genre unto its own. Although it debuted in 1979, it
wasn't until the following year that the plastic models based on the series became hits,
or until the release of the three-part theatrical edition in 1981 that the series itself
achieved truly massive success. For this reason, this report treats Gundam as an
Eighties phenomenon.
The consecutive hits of the mecha-heavy films Star Wars and Space Cruiser Yamato
established a marketplace for original anime aimed at the "middle teen" (middle/highschool student age) demographic, but Gundam represents the true origin of the trend,
and the establishment in 1978 of Tokuma Shoten's "Monthy Animage" magazine its
maturation.
This signaled the end of the era in which anime, tokusatsu, and puppet-based series
were simply lumped together as "terebi manga" (televised comics) and ushered in wascame to be known as the "anime boom." The debut of "Animage" embodied this shift.
23Ch. 2: A Cultural History of Robot Anime

The reason being that its parent company, Tokuma Shoten, also published a magazine
called "Terebirando" ("TV Land") that covered "terebi manga." The independence of"anime" from "terebi manga" as a genre and market can be seen in the difference
between these two magazines.
The establishment of anime magazines and "mooks" (a publication unique to theJapanese marketplace that combined features of magazines and books) provided thelanguage for categorizing, organizing, and researching animation, fostering its
widespread acceptance as a distinct culture rather than simply another medium. Thisin turn contributed greatly to the recognition of anime shows and films as distinctive
artistic works created by specific creators.
Prior to the establishment of mass-market anime publications that evaluated the
medium in a unified way, there had been very little recognition of anime as an artform.
The transformation was nothing short of miraculous. Only a short time earlier anime
had been dismissed as kids' stuff or commercials for merchandise; now it was regarded
as a new artform that was captivating the youth of Japan. And within this artform, therobot anime TV shows, with their originality and distinctive directorial signatures,
played an outsized role.
Put another way, a major reason that the efforts of creators during the early years of
the robot anime boom were unfairly dismissed as kids' stuff is because they debuted
before anime magazines existed to contextualize them. The negative attitude towards
all but a handful of well-regarded works can only be explained as a form of bias.
Prior to the creation of anime magazines, the anime industry placed more of anemphasis on characterization than it did on a series' content as a whole. In the era
before the establishment of marketing schemes based on profiting from character
merchandise (the secondary product), audiences tended to view productions in this way
as well. Even in the robot anime medium, the use of expressions such as "hero mecha"
or "hero robot" show just how seriously they were taken as characters in and ofthemselves.
However, the emergence of the anime as the primary product in and of itself allowed
companies to target the youth of Japan (and their disposable income) directly, initiating
fundamental changes that would transform the anime business.
Space Cruiser Yamato, whose popularity played a key role in the founding of anime
magazines, had failed to find its audience on television, but achieved stunning successwhen re-cut into a theatrical film. This symbolizes the paradigm shift that occurred in
the industry, upending the merchandising-driven business model for one in which the24Ch. 2: A Cultural History of Robot Anime

desires of the audience began playing a key role. Television series required
deep-pocketed sponsors to purchase airtime for the shows, meaning that themerchandise – the secondary product - always came first. But theatrical productions, on
the other hand, were driven by ticket sales, giving audiences a direct say and allowing
the films themselves to compete on their own merits, as primary products.
1979's Mobile Suit Gundam followed in the path of Yamato's success, pointing theway to the future. Its deliberate and deft appeal to the mid-late teen audience makes it
the first production from the new era to come. The man at its center was
creator/director Yoshiyuki Tomino.
One of Tomino's key contributions to the genre was his deliberate rejection of theterm "robot" as a relic of the previous era of shows. He dubbed the giant machines in
Gundam "mobile suits," a phrase inspired by the "powered suits" that played a central
role in Robert Heinlein's 1959 sci-fi novel "Starship Troopers."
He then took this a step further by portraying the protagonist's mobile suit not as ahero but as a weapon in an all-out war between space colonists and the EarthFederation. And the enemy mobile suits, called "Zaku," were mass-produced industrial
products like aircraft or tanks. In this way Tomino successfully forged a new path awayfrom the traditional "hero robots vs. monster robots" plots of early robot anime
productions.
Gundam shattered the routine into which the robot anime genre had fallen,
re-evaluating the unnatural, theatrical formula of its predecessors and ushering in a
new era in which "realism" would reign supreme. This is why Gundam is called the very
first entry in what would soon be known as the "real robot" genre.
The main sponsor for the original Mobile Suit Gundam television series was a toy
company named Clover, whose participation was contingent on their selling a quantityof toys based on the show. As such they dictated the "play value" of the designs. Each of
the show's three main mobile suits – Gundam, Guncannon, and Guntank – incorporated
a "Core Fighter," a small aircraft that transformed into a "Core Block" that connected
the robots' upper and lower torsos. This allowed them to be combined in any of ninedifferent patterns, giving Clover a marketing hook for its products.
However, this feature didn't appear in the television show at all. This highlights agrowing friction between the toy company, which wanted specific performances from therobots to promote toy sales, and the creators of the show, who wanted a higher degree of
realism for their the story. As a result toy sales suffered, leading Clover to withdraw its
sponsorship 43 episodes into what was supposed to be a 52 episode series. Even still, theoperatic arc of the show, with its deep historical drama and vivid battle scenes,25Ch. 2: A Cultural History of Robot Anime

combined with the realistic portrayal of the mobile suits to blaze a new trail for robot
anime.
An artist named Kunio Okawara oversaw the series' mechanical designs. He
struggled under the requirements to incorporate the toy sponsor's requested play value
into the heroes' designs, but was given free reign to flesh out Director Tomino's concept
for to the enemy Zaku. Yoshikazu Yasuhiko served as both character designer andanimation director, making sure that a single theme unified the characters and themecha. Under his supervision, Gundam moved in a beautiful and lively way, while aheavier touch was used for the Zaku units to emphasize their power as enemy weapons.
The cathartic nature of Gundam's appearance in each episode places the series along
the continuum of its super robot predecessors. But it also incorporates aspects of later"real robot" shows, making it a singularity that links "super" and "real" robot anime
eras. The importance of the series would be made clear after it ended its broadcast run
in 1980.
The Gundam TV series had suffered from low ratings and sluggish toy sales, but
proved popular in the anime magazines, and its "high target" merchandise such asrecords sold briskly. It was the first series whose popularity began to match its value asa production.
In July of 1980, almost six months after the show had ended, toy company Bandai
announced the release of a series of "plamodels" (plastic model kits) based on the Mobile
Suits from the series. The appearance of merchandise from a "failed" show so long after
its end, and by a company that hadn't even been a sponsor in the first place, was almost
completely unprecedented.
For its part, Bandai's experience with its successful Space Cruiser Yamato model
series led it to believe that the "White Base" and "Musai" space battleships from
Gundam would be top sellers. But in reality, the 300 yen kit of Gundam itself proved so
popular that stores could barely keep them or its rival Zaku on their shelves, resulting
in continued shortages.
There are a variety of reasons why these kits proved so popular. The use of themilitary-style 1/144 scale gave the fantastic designs a sense of reality that had neverbeen seen in the Japanese sci-fi world before. The epic war of independence portrayed in
Gundam echoed real-life military conflicts and proved popular among the same
demographic who built scale models of World War II vehicles. These consumers had
already been "scratch-building" their own Gundam models, and even after the official
model kits debuted, would customize them with weapons and other gear cobbled fromreal-world military kits. Before long, model-making magazines began featuring
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Ch. 2: A Cultural History of Robot Anime

examples of mobile suits re-envisioned with more realistic military color schemes,featuring "battle damage" and weathered with rust and dirt to accentuate their sense ofrealism.
The series' portrayal of the "evolution of humanity" combined with the precision of
the plastic model kits and the viewers' ability to freely customize them to spark anationwide Gundam fad.
When the Gundam series re-debuted in 1981 as a trio of theatrical movies, it
resonated with the already popular model kits to create a record-breaking hit ofunprecedented proportions. The films omitted several mechanical concepts that had
been imposed on the TV series in an attempt to raise flagging toy sales. This removal of
any unnecessary merchandising elements illustrates how dedicated the creative teamwas to making their film the definitive, most realistic portrayal of the world they had
created.
The resounding success of the movies had the effect of luring in elementary schoolers
who hadn't paid much attention to the diecast toys from the show when it first aired.
Huge lines snaked out of toy stores as kids queued to purchase the model kits. The
participatory, interactive nature of customizing the series' robots to their own personal
specifications proved irresistible to Japanese consumers. It represented an entirely new
way of enjoying robot anime.
The huge success of synchronizing anime production and merchandising had theeffect of energizing the entire anime industry. The anime boom that had been touched
off by the "Space Cruiser Yamato" movies kicked into high gear. Thanks to Gundam's
success, the number of anime magazines skyrocketed, as did sales of related
merchandise such as record albums. A variety of new anime productions centered on
Gundam-styled plastic models emerged as well, expanding the genre into new territory.
The mutual relationship between robot anime of this time period and tokusatsu
productions merits further exploration here.
Toei's 1979 TV series "Battle Fever J" was as much of a milestone for the tokusatsu
industry as Mobile Suit Gundam had been for anime. It aired in the TV timeslot justbefore the anime show Daimos, and it represented the first tokusatsu production to add
giant robots to the colorful heroes of the "Super Sentai" series – the predecessor of what
would later find great success abroad as the "Power Rangers" series.
In this same year, Toei debuted "Spiderman," s live-action series based on the famous
American superhero. Although licensed from Marvel Comics, it incorporated an all-new
plotline and story elements, including a giant robot called "Leopardon." The Chogokin27

Ch. 2: A Cultural History of Robot Anime

toys produced by Bandai of the robot racked up record-breaking sales, leading the
producers to apply the same formula to the Super Sentai series. The show immediately
following Spiderman was the animated "Mirai Robo Daltanias" (Future Robo Daltanias),
this established a precedent of airing anime and tokusatsu broadcasts interchangeably.
The Super Sentai series continued in an unbroken line for the following 34 years,
each prominently featuring a giant robot. This use of giant robots to appeal to thepreschoolers that represented the Super Sentai series' main audience represents
cross-pollination from the anime world. Coming full circle, tokusatsu also represents
the last bastion of giant robot productions in Japan today, amidst a declining birth ratethat has reduced the audience for robots to the point where only a handful of new shows
now debut every year.
In another example of cross-pollination, "Daltanias" pioneered the incorporation of alion-shaped robot into its combination scheme, an innovation that would deeply
influence the Super Sentai series. So far as toymakers were concerned, it didn't matter
if a robot originated in anime or tokusatsu; just as the "terebi manga" moniker had
encompassed both live-action and animated shows, robots represented a singular typeof merchandise. In this way, the evolution of giant robots continued to unfold on two
separate but related "stages" of anime and tokusatsu.
1980 marked a year of remakes, including Sixties favorites such as "Tetsuwan Atom"(Astro Boy) and an updated version of the classic boxing anime, "Ashita no Joe 2"(Tomorrow's Joe 2). Among them was a remake of the forefather of all giant robot shows,"Tetsujin 28-gō." Another series based on a concept by its creator, Mitsuteru Yokoyama,
would debut the following year: "Rokushin Gattai God Marz" (Six Gods Combined:
GodMarz).
The early 1980s represented an era in which the toymakers who sponsored robot
anime shows for young boys fiercely competed to establish new play value for theirproducts. 1979's "Tōshi Gordian" (The Gordian Warrior) featured a pilot who "nested"
into progressively larger robots, like a Russian Matryoshka doll. 1981's "Gold Lightan"
was based on the idea that children were fascinated with the lighters that adults used,and centered on a robot that transformed into a (non-functional) lighter. The toy evenfeatured a gleaming faceted surface evocative of high-end lighters.
The successors to Mobile Suit Gundam represented a return to a younger maleaudience as well. Many hinged on "what-if?" propositions. The creators of 1980's"Muteki Robo Tryder G-7" (Invincible Robo Tryder G-7) asked "what if a schoolboy-aged
company president piloted a robot?" Meanwhile, 1981's "Saikyō Robo Daioja" (Strongest
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Ch. 2: A Cultural History of Robot Anime

Robo Daioja) asked "what if the popular samurai drama 'Mito Kōmon' was set in the
future and featured giant robots?" These sitcom-style "what-ifs" expanded thepossibilities of the genre by incorporating popular elements into the robot anime
formula.
1980 marked the rise of auteur driven robot anime productions. "Densetsu Kyojin
Ideon" (Space Runaway Ideon), another series by Gundam director Yoshiyuki Tomino,
fused the idea of a robot combined from a military tank, a tractor-trailer, and aschoolbus with that of a giant statue left behind by a long-gone alien civilization,
resulting in a robot hero of unbelievable size. Its "Ide" energy source sparks an epic
conflict between humans and aliens that unfolds on a massive scale never equaled inanime history. This represented all-new territory for the medium, heralding an era inwhich the director would reign supreme.
Director Kazuyuki Hirokawa's "Uchū Senshi Baldios" (Space Warrior Baldios),
which also debuted in 1980, is another robot anime that utilized a "hard" sci-fi setting.
The "alien" invaders turn out to be humans from the far future, driven to the brink ofextinction and forced to travel back in time as a last-ditch survival measure, whichturns out to be the cause of their downfall in the first place. The producers' confidence inincorporating a classic hard sci-fi time paradox into their storyline illustrates how
expectations had grown for robot anime productions and their directors.
But both of these series suffered extremely lackluster toy sales, resulting in theircancellations before the full stories could play out. They had obviously been ahead of
their time. Both eventually saw their finales shown not on TV, but as theatricalfeatures. They represent the first and the last of the robot shows that sacrificed"merchandisability" for "content."
In October of 1981, director Ryosuke Takahashi launched his newest production for
Sunrise, "Taiyō no Kiba Dougram" (Fang of the Sun: Dougram). This was the first series
deliberately conceived as a Gundam-style "real robot" series.
The plot centered on a young man fighting for the independence of a colony world.
Both sides fought using giant robots optimized for close combat, just like Gundam. The
series heavily focused on the strategy and logistics of warfare, hauling its robots (called"combat armors") into battle with giant military helicopters and trailers. This
hyperfocus on realism was so obviously patterned on lessons learned from Gundam thatit could be dubbed the "Gundam Method."
The robots and vehicles were designed in a "lineup" that could easily be merchandised
as plastic model kits. The central robot, "Dougram," was sold both as a model and a toy.
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Ch. 2: A Cultural History of Robot Anime

The toy featured a diecast metal frame covered with plastic armor, a hybrid concept
called a "Dual Model" that broke new ground for diecast toys.
The attention lavished on realism, both for the production and its merchandise,blazed a clear trail for the emerging subgenre of "real robot" shows.
In 1979, the year of Gundam's debut, only three competing robot anime series were on
the air. In 1980, this rose to five titles and in 1981 to seven. 1982's slight drop off to six
titles seemed to indicate the "Real Robot" phenomenon would follow the patternestablished during the "Super Robot" era, which had peaked with eight shows in 1976
and then dropped off. But 1983 saw no less than ten new robot anime series, followed byanother nine in 1984, handily trumping its predecessor. The period from 1982 to 1984 is
widely regarded as the "golden era" of real robot shows and the peak of the anime boom.
But 1982 represents a singular year in the history of robot anime.
1982, three years after the initial TV broadcast of Mobile Suit Gundam, was a truly
extraordinary year. The output of the star director of the real robot movement,
Yoshiyuki Tomino, is illustration enough of this fact. In February he launched his new
anime television series "Sentō Meka Xabungle" (Walker Machine Xabungle); in March
the third and final installment in the Gundam theatrical series, "Mobile Suit Gundam
III: Meguriai Sora Hen" (Encounters in Space).
And in July of the same year, the theatrical versions of Ideon debuted as well. The TV
series had been cut short, and Tomino took the opportunity to create a pair of films thatallowed him to finish the story he wanted to tell. Called "Densetsu Kyojin Ideon:
Sesshoku Hen / Hatsudo Hen" ("Space Runaway Ideon: Contact" and "Be Invoked"), thetwo films opened in an unprecedented same-day dual release that July. Tomino had
successfully launched not one but three historic productions in the space of just six
months. The fad was blowing up into a bubble.
The popularity of the Gundam plastic models that underpinning the real robot boom
had grown into such a phenomenon that they were now simply known as "Gunpla." As
the fad exploded into a full blown fever, a darker side emerged; some stores forced
customers to "piggyback" purchase less popular kits to get the ones they wanted, and in
an incident widely reported by newspapers at the time, several children were trampled
and injured in the rush to purchase Gunpla at a department store.
Still the number of productions continued to increase. One in particular stands out as
the jewel of the golden age of real robot anime: the TV series "Chōjikū Yōsai Macross"(Superdimensional Fortress Macross). It is an instrumental series for many reasons,
including its incredible popularity among young Japanese and the fact that it has
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Ch. 2: A Cultural History of Robot Anime

continued in various forms to this very day.
It debuted in October of 1982. Ichiro Itano, the animator most responsible for theshow's robot action scenes, had also worked on Gundam III and Ideon as well. Macross
set a precedent where a handful of talented creators came together to create something
groundbreaking and new. In addition to Itano, series director Noboru Ishiguro had
previously worked on Space Cruiser Yamato, and the storyboards and mechanicaldesign were handled by Studio Nue (in conjunction with Artland), a design collective ofartists with extensive backgrounds in creating sci-fi visuals.
In Macross can be seen the maturation of real robot anime as an artform. Its central
robot, the "Valkyrie" variable fighter, boasted proportions similar to those of a real-life
F-14 Tomcat fighter aircraft. It could seamlessly transform into both a giant robot andan ostrich-legged intermediate mode called "Gerwalk." The design was beautifully
rendered in the form of toys (produced by Takatoku) and plastic model kits (produced bythree companies: Imai, Arii, and Nitto.)
Shoji Kawamori, design lead for the Valkyrie, was, like Ichiro Itano, still in his earlytwenties. Inspired by the likes of Yamato and Gundam, he had gone straight fromanime fan to anime pro, joining a production company and racking up experience as an
animator and designer. His generation had been raised with televised anime as part oftheir lives since preschool age. In essence their own growth and development had
occurred in synch with the growth and development of anime and tokusatsu culture.
This first generation of TV anime fans had quietly formed the core of the Eighties
anime creator corps, and Macross represented the first time their sensitivities were
given full and free reign.
It represented a confluence of several subcultural fads occurring among anime fans of
the time, namely the "lolicon boom" and the "pretty girl boom." Macross' signature
combination of robots and pretty girls, centering on a light-hearted love story between a
Valkyrie pilot and a female idol singer, tapped into this zeitgeist and gave it near
universal appeal among fans. It dominated anime magazines of the day, becoming thestandard to which all other robot shows were compared.
The series is also notable for its protagonist's use of the word "otaku." The word,
actually just an extremely polite way of saying "you" in Japanese, had been adopted as apejorative for anime "maniacs" who took their fandom too far. This new wave of anime
creators would later come to be called the "first generation of otaku."
Shoji Kawamori was just 24 years old when he directed the 1984 theatrical version of
the series, "Macross: Ai Obotete Imasu ka" (Macross: Do You Remember Love?). Thatsuch a young man could attain such a position so quickly in his career shows how
31Ch. 2: A Cultural History of Robot Animeenergetic and free the genre had become. Robot shows had turned anime into a blankcanvas where anything was possible so long as the robots kept selling.
So the word "otaku," which like "anime" has become a popular word in foreign
languages as well, actually got a boost from robot anime.
The "Golden era" of 1982 – 1984 didn't include a sequel to Gundam, but the series
was kept relevant by the introduction of new Mobile Suit designs via an original "MSV:
Mobile Suit Variation" model kit series. These included more realistically envisioned
portrayals of the Zaku and other robots, expanding the potential for the series beyond
the anime storyline. In a feedback loop of sorts, these original model designs and story
ideas would then go on to influence later Gundam anime series.
The serialization of robot anime shows had now became a given. For example, thesuccess of 1981's "Ginga Senpū Bryger" (Galactic Cyclone Bryger) led it to become thefirst installment in what came to be called the "J9 Series," including "Ginga Reppū
Baxinger" (Galactic Gale Baxinger) and "Ginga Senpū Sasuraiger" (Galactic Whirlwind
Sasuraiger). Macross expanded into the "Superdimensional Series," which included"Chōjikū Seiki Orguss" (Superdimensional Century Orguss) and "Chōjikū Kidan
Southern Cross" (Superdimensional Cavalry Southern Cross).
Shows were serialized for financial reasons, of course, but the practice also had theeffect of giving popular directors the chance to develop their own personal oeuvres overthe course of consecutive seasons.
For his part Tomino launched one original series after another. He released theWestern-themed Xabungle, followed by a swords-and-sorcery styled robot fantasy called"Seisenshi Dunbine" (Aura Battler Dunbine.) He then teamed with the young creator
Mamoru Nagano to create "Jūsenki L-Gaim" (Heavy Metal L-Gaim.)
Ryosuke Takahashi announced the debut of "Sōkō Kihei Votoms" (Armored Trooper
Votoms), his follow-up to Dougram. The demand for reality in robot anime had reached
the point where the name of the hero's robot didn't even appear in the show's title. The"armored troopers" of Votoms, being piloted by low-ranking foot soldiers, didn't evenhave individual names. Following Votoms, Takahashi unveiled "Kikōkai Gallient"(Panzer World Gallient), a classic boy's adventure set in a traditional fantasy world.
The boundary-pushing nature of each these series thrilled viewers of the day. It was a"honeymoon period" for the robot anime genre, where anything seemed possible.
The success of this business model, in which auteur-driven shows were supported by
the merchandisability of robot toys and models, had a far-reaching effect throughout theindustry. For example, "Yattodetaman," the 1981 release in the long-running "Time32Ch. 2: A Cultural History of Robot Anime

Bokan" sci-fi comedy series, featured the series' first giant robot, Daikyojin. The trend
would continue in the following year's sequel "Gyakuten Ippatsuman."
However, "maturation" inevitably leads to "decline." The honeymoon period wouldn't
last long. Over the course of 1983 and 1984, the genre would start showing signs ofstress.
Understanding this paradigm shift requires knowing three products so iconic theycame to symbolize the 1980s: the Walkman, the home video recorder, and the home
video game console. They represented the three status symbols of their era.
The personalization of content consumption had a two-pronged effect of fostering therise of "indoor kids" – i.e., "otaku" – and fundamentally altering the meaning of
television broadcasts. The advent of the video deck meant that a fan no longer needed tostation themselves in front of the TV to catch their favorite shows; now the videotaped
recordings of the show became objects of fan desire. An "otaku worldview" took root as
fans were able to collect and hyper-focus on the content they liked without ever leaving
the solitude and safety of their own personal spaces.
Faced with these changes, the anime business found itself needing to switch to a"package-based" format of selling videos instead. The "robots and girls" elements
pioneered by the smash-hit Macross played a major part in establishing the value ofanime as a packaged product.
This gave rise to the concept of anime distributed without needing an actual
broadcast. Eventually, it took the form of a subgenre of direct-to-video productions
called "OVA," short for Original Video Animation. They allowed the value of anime
productions to be established through direct financial transactions with customers. Thisobviated the need for secondary products. Anime productions were now competing head
to head as primary products in and of themselves. This represented nothing short of arevolution for the anime business.
Bandai released the very first (non-adult) OVA at the end of 1983: "Dallos,"co-directed by Mamoru Oshii and Hisayuki Toriumi. It was very much a product of therobot anime era – unsurprising, as anime fans had been among the earliest adopters ofthe video decks that supported the OVA era.
1983 also marked the debut of another revolutionary home electronic device:
Nintendo's "Family Computer," a.k.a. the "Famicom" (released several years later in the
US as the "Nintendo Entertainment System.") Video games promised a degree ofinteractivity that simply couldn't be matched by watching anime or building model kits.
"TV Games," as they were called in Japan, first took off among elementary schoolers
33Ch. 2: A Cultural History of Robot Animeand quickly overtook anime as their primary source of entertainment.
As the Famicom thrived, a series of misfortunes befell the anime industry. In Augustof 1983, the toymaker Clover, which had sponsored shows from Zanbot 3 to Dunbine,
declared bankruptcy. And in May of 1984, the toy company that should have profited sohandsomely from Macross, Takatoku Toys, halted business operations – just months
before the debut of the theatrical anime.
OVAs represented the transition of anime from television into a medium in and of
itself. But now home video games were dominating television screens across Japan, andthe sponsors who had given animators such freedom with their productions were goingbankrupt or withdrawing from the business. The effect was to force animators toabandon original productions aimed at a mainstream audience in favor of niche
productions aimed at die-hard fans willing to pay high prices for the content.
These two faces of the historical events of the era can be understood by exploring a
different facet of the rise and fall of robot anime.
There are several reasons for describing 1984 as the peak of the robot anime
phenomenon. It marks the period when major animation studios began prioritizing
revenues by assigning top creators to co-productions with foreign studios. This
"co-production boom" would continue through 1987-88, when the yen rapidly
strengthened; it notably included a robot anime feature that Toei Doga had been hired
to create, the 1986 "The Transformers: The Movie." And veteran director Osamu Dezaki
bewildered domestic fans by choosing to work on the 1986 TV series "Mighty Orbots" forthe American Saturday-morning cartoon market.
1985 marks the American debut of "Robotech," a series created by combining thethree completely unrelated anime shows "Macross," "Southern Cross," and "Mospeda"
into a single storyline. The series became a big hit, with merchandise produced by the
major American toymaker Matchbox. The same year, "Voltron," a series created by
combining the unrelated "Hyakujūō Golion" and "Kikōkantai Dairugger XV," also
debuted to great success. Both were later remade abroad in the 1990s and 2000s
without any input from Japanese creators.
This is why it is impossible to decipher the bigger picture simply by looking at the listof domestic Japanese anime shows. Attention also needs to be paid to productions
prepared for foreign export that ("The Transformers" excepted) were never reverse
imported back into Japan because of copyright issues.
The fact that there is very little information available in Japanese about theseco-productions, even online, leads many young anime researchers to miss them. But
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Ch. 2: A Cultural History of Robot Anime

they had a huge impact on anime culture and represent a key turning point in anime
history. They are particularly important because they occurred in parallel with majorsocietal events such as the strengthening of the yen and the rise of the bubble economy.
Even within the field of robot anime culture alone, one can see a deep relationshipbetween the genre's rapid loss of steam domestically and its diffusing abroad into
foreign markets. This study of robot anime in Japan aims to address this shortcoming.
A great deal of evidence points to roughly 1985 as the turning point into decline forrobot anime.
Most symbolic was the activity of the creators of the Gundam series. Yoshihiko
Yoshikazu announced "Giant Gorg," an original series written, designed, animated, anddirected entirely by him. However, its sponsor felt it didn't offer much in the way ofmerchandising potential and bumped its broadcast debut from the original
pre-Christmas season airdate to spring of 1984. Since the production progressed aheadof schedule, this allowed the "videograms" (VHS tapes) of the series to be sold at thesame time the show broadcast on TV, a first in the anime world.
Meanwhile, director Yoshiyuki Tomino's "Kidō Senshi Z Gundam" (Mobile Suit Zeta
Gundam) debuted in April of 1985 to great controversy, as he had previously announced
that he would never make a sequel to the original Gundam TV series and films. "Space
Cruiser Yamato" entranced audiences by killing off its main characters and destroying
the ship itself in the epic second film in the series, "Saraba Uchū Senkan Yamato: Ai no
Senshi Tachi" (Farewell to Space Battleship Yamato). But the producers' churning outof "parallel universe" sequels with the very same characters that had previously died off(culminating in 1983's "Final Yamato") provoked a backlash from the fans.
If there had been more, and more talented, creators with the drive to create originalcontent, there wouldn't have been any need to rely on sequels and brand value from thepast. This is why the Gundam sequel represents the end of an era. Putting aside thecritical response, or the merits of continuing the series, there is no question that thisGundam sequel represents a boundary between eras.
In addition to Zeta Gundam, a total of five robot shows debuted in 1985: "Tatakae!
Chō Robotto Seimeitai Transformers" (The Transformers), "Chōjukishin Dangougar"(Super Beast Machine Dancougar), "Aoki Ryusei SPT Layzner" (Blue Comet SPT
Layzner), and "Ninja Senshi Tobikage" (Ninja Robot Tobikage) – just half the number ofthe year before.
"The Transformers" was a reverse-import from abroad. A series of transforming robot
toys developed by the Japanese toymaker Takara had been gathered up by an American
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Ch. 2: A Cultural History of Robot Anime

company, given a new storyline, and animated into a television series. It is a textbook
example of the previously mentioned co-production boom. Although originally developedand sold as transforming vehicles piloted by humans, the American makeover
re-envisioned the robots as sentient beings from another planet. This approach of
characterizing giant robots as "lifeforms," with individual personalities that spoke inthe manner of American comic-book heroes, represents a fundamental difference inrobot anime culture between the two countries.
The broadcast runs of both Dancougar and Layzner were cut short by sponsors due topoor sales of toy and model merchandise. The "cut off" episodes were finished, butrather than being shown in theaters as Ideon's had been, were released as
direct-to-video OVAs. While this allowed fans to continue watching the shows they
enjoyed, it was as a solitary experience rather than a shared one in a movie theater.
This is yet another development that symbolizes the change wrought by video media on
the anime fan scene.
A pall fell over the anime world in the second half of 1986. At its peak, sevenmagazines existed to feed fans' hunger for information about the multitude of new
productions proliferating during the Gundam and real robot booms. Now threesimultaneously announced that they would be shutting down operations.
There are many reasons for this decision, but one looms above the rest. The majorityof the first generation of TV anime fans (a.k.a. the first generation of otaku) had grown
up and began spending their disposable income on things other than anime.
And so the curtain fell on this particular era of animated entertainment.
1986 marked the beginning of what could be called the twilight of robot anime. Zeta
Gundam led to a second sequel, "Kido Senshi ZZ Gundam" (Mobile Suit Double Zeta
Gundam), redundant in name and in content. It and two other productions, "Tatakae!
Chō Robotto Seimeitai Transformers 2010" (The Transformers 2010) and "Machine
Robo: Chronos no Daigyakushu" (Machine Robo: The Revenge of Chronos) represented
the only new robot anime to come out in 1986. Transformers was a sequel; Machine
Robo was a hurriedly produced original anime based on a line of transforming toys
developed by Bandai using designs and concepts recycled from other series, including
the Super Sentai shows and Gordian. Similar to the Transformers, the rights had beenacquired for sale abroad, given a new storyline and animated by Hanna Barbera
productions for foreign audiences, but the style wasn't a good fit for Japanese tastes andthe show was never reverse imported.
1987 marked the broadcast of sequels to The Transformers and Machine Robo. The
sole new and original production aired this year was Sunrise's "Kikō Senki Dragonar"36

Ch. 2: A Cultural History of Robot Anime("Metal Armor Dragonar"), directed by Takeyuki Kanda, a series cast in the real robot
mold of "Gundam." It aired in the timeslot that the Nagoya Broadcasting Network had
dedicated to robot shows, originally used for "Zanbot 3," but the following year, they
replaced it with "Yoroiden Samurai Troopers," a non-robot series inspired by the successof the kids-in-armor anime "Saint Seiya." This effectively marked the end of the line fortraditional robot anime shows.
At the same time, Sunrise marked a return to kids' robot anime with "Machine Hero
Wataru," a series with a role-playing game flair, featuring robots with comicallysquashed proportions and oversized heads – a style known as "SD" (Super Deformed) inJapan. The only other robot production was Toei Doga's "Transformers Chōjin
Masterforce," which was being produced exclusively for the domestic marketplace.
Japanese robot anime had come to feature talking, thinking, sentient robots
exclusively. Piloted robots in auteur-driven series with dramatic stories aimed at a
middle-teen and older audience had completely vanished from the television airwaves.

But every ending also signals a new beginning. Robot anime may have disappeared
from broadcast television, but it lived on in OVAs and theatrical releases. This trend
also directly links to the rise of late-night anime broadcasts, which represent one of themost successful venues for anime as of this writing in 2013.
One of the factors in the decline of robot anime in the mid-1980s was the emergenceof "megahit" anime based on manga series from Shueisha's "Weekly Shonen Jump"
magazine, such as "Dragonball." While OVAs represented the concept of content asmerchandise, and gave creators a chance to compete based purely on their own artistic
merits, things were never quite as simple as the ideal promised. In fact there was afundamental paradox between the aim and the production method of OVAs.
Televised anime required involving an outside agency as a middleman to gather thenecessary support from television stations and sponsors so as to achieve distribution to
the widest possible number of people. These agencies and sponsors were often portrayedas the "bad guys" in the relationship, but compromising to meet their demands didn't
necessarily equal surrender to the enemy. The arrangement made it possible for
productions to reach the masses, and the skirmishes between the parties represented anecessary step in ensuring the broader appeal of a production to the public at large.
The sponsors of televised robot anime had taken a patron-like approach in giving total
creative freedom so long as a few key elements were incorporated; by all rights theyshould have been seen as allies, in the same boat as the anime creators themselves. But
37

Ch. 2: A Cultural History of Robot Anime

the OVA model allowed creators to completely sidestep the conflict inherent in dealing
with external parties. This in turn allowed them to make things that appealed purely tothemselves, which naturally narrowed the appeal of their productions. Creators began
consciously choosing fanbases that were on the same wavelength as themselves. As theychose to focus on their own interests to the point of distraction, even core fans began
getting left behind, and sales dwindled.
Aware of this paradox, director Mamoru Oshii essentially "rebooted" OVAs with "Kidō
Keisatsu Patlabor" (Mobile Police Patlabor), which was released in 1988, at the lowest
ebb of the robot anime phenomenon.
In spite of the absence of a toy sponsor, it featured a giant robot called an "Ingram."
Rather than being produced for the usual blockbuster OVA budget of 48 million yen, it
was serialized in six 30-minute episodes (roughly half a TV season) to keep production
costs down. And in another innovation, the first edition of each tape also included
commercials, making it as close to a TV anime as an OVA could possibly get.
The OVA series achieved enormous success, including a comic serialization by
Masami Yuki in Shogakukan's "Weekly Shonen Sunday" magazine. In 1989, the BandaiGroup made the bold decision to skip producing a TV series in favor of green-lighting atheatrical movie, also to be helmed by Oshii. In a trailblazing reversal of the status quo,
where successful TV series were expected to lead to movies, the success of the 1989
Patlabor film led to a 1990 TV series. In other words, OVAs had allowed robots toregroup and storm back on to the airwaves.
The TV series directed by Naoyuki Yoshinaga,was a success even without Oshii's
distinctive creative mind behind it. In other words so long as the content was popular,
the "container" of its media could be whatever the situation required. Patlabor proved
the concept that true power resided with the production side of the equation.
1988 also saw the release of another distinctive OVA, Gainax's "Aim for the Top!,"
directed by Hideaki Anno. It took the idea of "content for the fans" to the extreme. It
began in a high school for budding robot pilots, focusing on the seemingly haplessprotagonist's struggle to improve her skills and eventually emerge as the top gun ofthem all. In a unique fusion of super and real-robot genres, it featured both legions of
mid-sized robot weapons and a singular giant combining robot formed from two "Buster
Machines."
Featuring character designs by Haruhiko Mikimoto of "Macross" fame, "Aim for theTop" leveraged the fan-favorite "robots and girls" theme to the maximum. It represented
the directorial debut of Hideaki Anno, who went full throttle to satisfy fans with intense
battle scenes. He topped it all off with a twist that managed to transform a classic hard38

Ch. 2: A Cultural History of Robot Animescience fiction conceit into a tear-jerker. Although the approach was quite different fromthat of "Patlabor," it represents another robot anime title created to compete purely on
its own merits.
These productions came to represent what a successful OVA was expected to be,essentially creating a new "package" based business that adapted well to changes inmedia formats, such as the transition from Laserdisc to DVD. Most recently, the format
has been reincarnated for the medium of late-night TV, where it remains popular today.
That robot anime has continued to grow over the years is fundamentally thanks to its"culture" of valuing originality. Its storylines and visuals improved dramatically over a
very short timeframe, allowing the genre to evolve into something enjoyed by adults aswell as its original audience of children. Its "creative DNA" fosters originality throughincorporating interesting aspects of the world around it.
The sense of exploration and vitality inherent to the medium of robot anime is areflection of the Japanese psyche. Preserving and expanding this vitality is precisely
why further research into the field is so urgently needed.

2.5.

The 1990s and Beyond: Return and Refinement

By the 1990s, the first generation of robot anime fans had grown to the age of parents
themselves, and a new wave of robot anime emerged for their children, who represented
the second generation of robot anime fans.
The most famous of this new wave of 1990s robot shows is Sunrise's "Yūsha Series"(Brave Series), which, in the style of "The Transformers," featured talking giant robots
with personalities. The first entry in the franchise was 1990's "Yūsha Exkaizer" (Brave
Exkaizer), and the last was the seventh, 1997's "Yūsha Gaogaigar" (Brave Gaogaigar.)
The end of the Brave series drew the curtain on the Nagoya Broadcasting Company's
robot anime timeslot, a development newsworthy enough to warrant an article on thefront page of the Asahi Shinbun's Nagoya edition.
Aiming to return to childrens' animation, Sunrise launched the three-part "Eldran
Series" with toymaker Tomy's sponsorship, starting with 1991's " Zettai Muteki
Raijin-Ō" (Matchless Raijin-Oh), directed by Toshifumi Kawase. Raijin-Oh was based
firmly in the "what-if?" school of robot anime, based around the question of "what if anormal-looking school was actually a secret base?" It represented a return to the wish
fulfillment of Tryder G7, which had featured an elementary schooler robot pilot /company

president.

Raijin-Oh'slaunchsequencesfeaturedThunderbirds-esqe

performances. The eponymous robot squared off against ferocious monsters, defeating
39

Ch. 2: A Cultural History of Robot Anime

them with a cathartic "finishing move" at the end of every episode.
The protagonists, an entire class of 18 fifth-graders, were portrayed with deftcharacterization, giving the show a charming ensemble cast. The know-how refinedfrom real robot shows, "Vifam" in particular, had paid off. As a result the show became asmash hit not only among its intended target audience of grade schoolers, but also
among adults as well, establishing another example of the dual-demographic
phenomenon.
Productions aimed at a higher target demographic of high schoolers and older would
make a return in the middle of the decade. In 1995, Gainax released director Hideaki
Anno's "Neon Genesis Evangelion," which took a quasi-mystical approach todeciphering the mysteries of the human heart. Its fresh story and visuals took Japan bystorm, exploding into a full-blown fad. And the biotechnological aspects of the EVA units
reflected concerns over the issue in society of the day.
Director Mamoru Oshii's "Ghost in the Shell," released in the same year, racked up
impressive sales in North America. Director Katsuhiro Otomo's "Akira" had wowed
arthouse audiences with the technical virtuosity of its visuals, but Ghost in the Shell
instantly elevated anime to a mainstream worldwide stage. Although not a robot animein the strictest sense of the word, Ghost in the Shell's cyborg protagonist is ahuman-machine hybrid who struggles with her identity, a theme that can be traced
directly back in an unbroken line to "Tetsuwan Atom" (Astro Boy).
The end of the 1990s saw a research and development trend in which Japanesecompanies announced one after another real-world bipedal robot projects. The engineers
professed to have been inspired by Japanese robot anime, and chose robots as theirplatform for showcasing Japanese technology to the world. This represented yet anotherphase in the maturation of the robot anime genre.
1993 marked the thirtieth anniversary of Tetsuwan Atom. As an aside, a generation istypically defined as a 20 year period, but given the increasingly late age at which
Japanese are getting married in the modern day, a thirty year generational cycle may be
more appropriate for Japan.
The 1990s also ushered in what could be called the "quality revolution." As the releaseof TV series on video became the norm, the idea of anime fans as "users" rather thansimple consumers took root, and the quality of a production's visuals became thestandard by which it was judged. Originally, quality had only been a production side
concern, while the consumers only really paid attention to the story and characters, but
no longer. Their revolution in thinking was driven by the comparatively high resolution40Ch. 2: A Cultural History of Robot Animeof the Laserdisc format.
Robot anime played a key role in this increasing demand for higher quality. An
example of this can be seen in 1991's "Mobile Suit Gundam 0083: Stardust Memory,"
which filled in a story gap between the first Gundam series and its sequel Zeta Gundam.
Its mobile suit battle scenes incorporated the special techniques and high detailpreviously reserved only for the glossy promotional illustrations that appeared on
posters, in magazines, and on video packaging, giving the animation an enhanced visualquality that was on par or even higher than that of a theatrical release. The production
staff simply intended to create an OVA that could be watched over and over again as aservice to the fans, but once they had shown it could be done, it set a new industry
standard.
It also inaugurated a new era of high-quality televised anime. For example, a focus on
quality had played no small part in Evangelion's success. OVAs had long been perceived
as higher quality than televised anime, but lower quality than theatrical anime. This
sparked the realization that if TV anime had the visuals of an OVA, it might justincrease its value as a product. A new bar for competition had been set.
Televised anime, with its 26-episode seasons, promised almost four times thepotential sales as compared to an OVA, whose six-episode format had been establishedby the success of Patlabor. That meant the potential profits from a TV hit were huge. It's
precisely this thinking that led to the adoption and standardization of the "production
committee" business model, in which a consortium of investors aimed to recoup theirmoney through video sales. Today, the production committee represents standard
operating procedure for both anime and live-action filmmaking in Japan.
This represents the ultimate form of the "animation as primary product" concept. It is
worthy of note that a robot anime, Evangelion, established that catering to fan desires
with top-quality storytelling, visuals, characters, and mechanical design represented a"total package" from which it was possible to profit handsomely.
2.6.

The 2000s: Fiction Meets Reality

The digitalization of domestic Japanese animation has had a great impact on robot
anime as well, and represents a worthy subject for future research in and of itself.
The early 21st century saw a slew of sequels and remakes of classic Japanese robot
content, including Tetsuwan Atom, Tetsujin 28-gō, Mazinger Z, Gundam, Evangelion,
and more. And the "Super Robot Wars" video game series, which debuted in the 1990s,
continues to enjoy a great deal of success, playing an important role in maintaining thevalue of Japanese robot culture and in linking fans old and new. Giving robots from41

Ch. 2: A Cultural History of Robot Anime

classic series a single stage on which to meet and battle alongside one other not only
promotes a spirit of comradery but also provides new ways to talk about these series
that go beyond generational lines.
The development of cell phones and their latest incarnation, smartphones, theever-increasing capabilities of notebook computers, the portability of gaming devices,and the growing "intelligence" of consumer electronics means that we are all effectively
surrounded by minature robots.
This metamorphosis in the world around us has been exploited by the robot anime
genre, notably in 2011's "Danbōru Senki" series (released abroad as "Little Battlers
eXperience"), which stars tabletop-sized robots that are remotely controlled by cell
phones. Another example of how robot anime continues to evolve and adapt to modern
situations can be seen in 2012's "Chōsoku Henkei Gyrozetter," a series developed intandem with an automaker that showcases a variety of real-world car models.
Robot anime was born out of a sense of excitement at the potential of the (then)
far-flung 21st century, and today it has spilled from the frame of television and movie
screens to increasingly fuse with real life.
The second and third generations of parents and children continue to enjoy robots
both in anime and in real life. The potential of the genre will only continue to grow inthe century ahead. As fiction increasingly mixes with reality, a new generation of
dreamers will undoubtedly spark new advances in robot anime culture along the way.

42

(Chapter 3)*Chapter 3 is not translated.

43

Chapter 4 List of Key Robot Anime

Chapter 4: Robot Anime List
The robot anime titles discussed in Chapters 2 and 3 above have been arranged chronologically below.
NOTE: This list was complied by the project team. Once this report has been released publicly, we plan to refine it based on comments from industry professionals and fans.
English titles in parentheses indicate shows or films for which there is no official English title, and are transliterations of the Japanese titles.
4.1. Chronology of Robot Anime Productions
Title (Japanese)No.

Title (Transliterated)

MediumBroadcast, Release, or Sale

EpisodesNotes (Selected Highlights)

English Title
鉄人 28 号
1 Tetsujin Nijū hachi gō
Tetsujin 28-gō
アストロガンガー
2 Asutorogangā
Astroganger
マジンガーZ
3 Majingā Zetto

TV

1963 -1966

97

A black and white anime series based on the hit manga of the same name. Although radio and live-action
versions existed before, this was the first animated version. It is the forerunner of all giant robot anime.
An English-language edition, re-titled "Gigantor," aired in the USA in the 1960s.

TV1972 -1973

26

A hero of mixed alien and human blood "fuses" with a sentient robot, making the premise different fromlater shows in which the robot was "controlled."TV

1972 - 1974

92

Movie

1974

TV

1974 - 1975

51

TV

1974 - 1975

56

TV

1975 - 1977

74

TV

1975 - 1976

50

TV

1975 - 1976

46

TV

1975 - 1977

38

Mazinger Z
マジンガーZ 対暗黒大将軍
4 Majingā Zetto Tai Ankoku Daishougun(Mazinger Z vs. the Dark General)
ゲッターロボ
5 Gettā Robo
1960s 1970s

Getter Robo
グレートマジンガー
6 Gurēto MajingāGreat Mazinger
UFO ロボ グレンダイザー
7 Yū Fō Robo Grendaizā
UFO Robo Grendizer
勇者ライディーン
8 Yūsha Raidīn
Brave Raideen
鋼鉄ジーグ
9 Kōtetsu Jīgu
Steel Jeeg
ブロッカー軍団 IV マシーンブラスター
10 Burokkā Gundan Fō Mashīn Brasutā(Blocker Army IV Machine Blaster)

44

Groundbreaking in its portrayal of a robot controlled by a pilot inside, rather than by external verbal
commands or remote control. Towards the middle of the series, it established the now-familiar patternof introducing new weapons for the hero to battle increasingly more powerful enemies. An edited version
was aired in the United States in the 1980s as "Tranzor Z."
A feature film produced to bridge the end of the broadcast of the Mazinger Z series and the start of its
sequel, Great Mazinger. Released to great fanfare, playing up the fact that it featured multiple superrobots fighting alongside each other.
A robot show featuring three high-tech aircraft that could combine into one of three different robot
forms. The teamwork of the three pilots working together to control each of the robot's unique forms
represented a new development in the robot anime genre. An English version of the sequel Getter Robo
G aired as part of the "Force Five" series in the United States under the name “Starvengers.”
A continuation of the Mazinger series. Featuring even more powerful enemies, the show continued thetrend of continually enhancing the powers of the hero's robot. Episodes of it were combined with theoriginal series and aired in the United States as "Tranzor Z."
Upending the paradigm of giant robots created by human scientists, this show introduced a super robot
created by aliens, used to defend Earth from extraterrestrial invaders. A foreign-language version, called"Goldorake," aired in France and other countries to great success. It was also aired in the United Statesin the 1980s as part of the "Force Five" series of shows.
The first transforming robot. The hero's special moves, his handsome and charming enemy rival, and thetoys that replicated the robot's transformation all combined to make this series a great success. Also
known for its narrative storyline, which gave the series a grandly operatic feel. It appeared in America as
one of the robots in the "Shogun Warriors" comic book and toy series.
A robot character created in concert by a toy company, a publisher, a manga studio, and an anime
studio. The toys featured unique magnetic ball-joints, replicating the title character just as he appeared
onscreen. Although the show didn't air in the United States, the toy was incorporated into the"Micronauts" toy and comic book series as the characters “Baron Karza” and “Force Commander.”Introduced the concept of multiple hero robots in the same show. It emphasized teamwork andcooperation in its action scenes.

Chapter 4 List of Key Robot Anime

グレンダイザー ゲッターロボ G グレート
マジンガー 決戦! 大海獣
Gurendaizā / Gettā Robo Jī / Grēto
11
Majingā Kessen! Daikaijū(Grendizer, Getter Robo G, and Great
Mazinger Fight the Great Sea Monster!)
UFO 戦士ダイアポロン
12 Yū Fō Senshi Daiaporon(UFO Warrior Diapolon)
超電磁ロボ コン・バトラーV
13 Chōdenji Robo Konbatorā Bui(Super Electromagnetic Robo Combattler
V)
大空魔竜ガイキング
14 Daikūmaryū Gaikingu

Movie

1976

TV

1976

TV

The third in a series of films featuring characters from multiple series. The pilots of three giant robots
join forces, contributing their unique abilities to defeat a massive enemy. The concept is a clear
inspiration for the later "Super Robot Wars" series of video games.

1976 - 1977

26

Introduced the concept of three humanoid robots that can combine into one of three distinct forms. The
human pilots physically grew in size and fused with their robots, emphasizing the union of man andmachine. The designs were inspired by the gear of American football players.

54

A robot formed from five separate machines, including a jet and a tank. The toys incorporated the same
gimmick to great effect. Great use of the motifs of teamwork and strategy makes this a perfect exampleof the combining robot show. It appeared in America as one of the robots in the "Shogun Warriors"
comic book and toy series.

TV

1976 - 1977

44

TV

1976 - 1977

39

TV

1977 - 1978

56

TV

1977 - 1978

40

TV

1977 - 1979

108

TV

1977

23

TV

1979 - 1980

43

TV

1979 - 1981

73

(Great Flying Dragon Gaiking)1960s 1970s

マグネロボ ガ・キーン
15 Magune-Robo GaKīn(Magnetic Robo GaKeen)
惑星ロボ ダンガード A
16 Wakusei Robo Dangādo Ēsu(Planetary Robo Danguard Ace)
超電磁マシーン ボルテス V
17 Chōdenji Mashīn Borutesu Faibu(Super Electromagnetic Machine Voltes V)
タイムボカンシリーズ ヤッターマン
18 Taimu Bokan shirīzu Yattāman(Time Bokan Series: Yatterman)
無敵超人ザンボット 3
19 Muteki Chōjin Zanbotto Surī
Super Machine Zanbot 3
機動戦士ガンダム
20 Kidō Senshi Gandamu
Mobile Suit Gundam
闘士ゴーディアン
21 Tōshi Gōdian
(Gordian the Fighter)
無敵ロボ トライダーG7
22 Muteki Robo Traidā Jī Sebun

1980s

Invincible Robo Tryder G-7
伝説巨神イデオン
23 Densetsu Kyojin Ideon
Space Runaway Ideon

TV

TV

1980 - 1981

1980 - 198145

A show set inside a giant flying fortress in the shape of a dragon, whose head could detach to form thegiant robot Gaiking. Introduced the concept of a carrier for a giant robot. A pioneer in portraying thedrama unfolding inside the fortress as well as on the battlefield. It aired in America as part of the “ForceFive” series, while the toys were released as part of the "Shogun Warriors" toy series.
A Toei original production, featuring a male and female pilot who combined to form a robot with adistinctively curved, ball-jointed silhouette. Remembered for the amount of hardware, weapons, and"power-ups" used in the battle scenes.
Essentially a sports drama in the vein of the classic baseball series "Kyojin no Hoshi" (Star of theGiants) recast in a sci-fi setting. Unique in its focus on the human element, it featured extensive training
sequences for its hero; his robot didn't even make its first appearance until episode 12. It appeared in
America as one of the robots in the "Shogun Warriors" comic book and toy series.
" Grounded in the framework of the combining robot genre, it featured a hero and enemy who werebrothers, and an operatic storyline centering on a long-oppressed populace rallying to revolution. In
1984, the toy was sold in the USA under the "Godaikin" brand name.
"Bokan" translates into “mothership,” and is also onomatopoeia for an explosion. A comedy featuring a
giant robot dog called Yatter Wan, filled with various support robots dispensed as needed to defeat theenemy's latest wacky plot.
A combining robot series that portrayed the impact of war on civilian life, featuring a band of refugee
heroes driven from their home. In a genre first, the hero's robot was armed with a gun. It is considered an
influence on later "real robot" series, particularly Gundam.
This groundbreaking series portrayed giant robots as mass-produced weapons rather than heroes.
Elements such as calling them "mobile suits" instead of robots, a dramatic conflict between humanfactions, and a strong ensemble cast established a new "real robot" genre and set the tone for many
subsequent productions to follow.
Featured a unique "nesting doll" design in which the hero's human-sized robot suit combined with
progressively larger ones to form a giant robot. Its storyline was a fusion of sci-fi and cowboy Western.
The toy was sold in the USA under the "Godaikin" brand name.

50

A sitcom-style show about an elementary schooler running a robot company. It was set in an old-timey
Tokyo neighborhood for a homey, local feel; the giant robot's hangar was even housed under a city park
playground. Notable for the seven different transformations of the giant robot.

39

The literal translation of the title is “Legendary Giant Ideon.” A dramatic series featuring a massive,
hundred-meter high robot capable of slicing planets in two with its sword. Remembered for theabsolutely epic scale of its storyline, as the human race faced annihilation in an interplanetary war.

Chapter 4 List of Key Robot Anime

鉄人２８号（太陽の使者）
24 Tetsujin Nijū hachi gō (Taiyō no Shisha)TV

1980 - 1981

51

TV

1981 - 1982

52

TV

1981- 1982

50

27 Rokushin Gattai Goddo MāzuTV

1981- 1982

64

(Six Gods Combined: God Marz)
銀河旋風ブライガー
28 Ginga Senpū Buraigā
Galactic Gale Baxinger
太陽の牙ダグラムTV

1981- 1982

39

29 Taiyō no Kiba DaguramuTV

1981- 1983

75

TV

1982- 1983

36

TV

1982 - 1983

50

TV

1983 - 1984

25

TV

1983 - 1984

46

TV

1983 - 1984

52

TV

1983 - 1984

49

Pioneered the fusion of swords-and-sorcery fantasy with the robot genre. In a world reminiscent of
medieval Europe, wars are waged using biomechanical "Aura Machines" built using giant living creatures.
The concept of pilots’ psychic "aura power" powering the giant machines was a new twist as well.

TV

1984

23

Sci-fi military action centered on a female protagonist. The heroes wear armored suits that double as
the pilot suits for their giant robots. Incorporated into the Robotech omnibus of shows abroad.

(Tetsujin 28: Follower of the Sun)
百獣王ゴライオン
25 Hyaku Jūō Goraion(King of the Beasts: Golion)
最強ロボ ダイオージャ
26 Saikyō Robo Daiōja(Robot King Daioja)
六神合体ゴッドマーズ

Fang of the Sun Dougram
超時空要塞マクロス
1980s"Tetsujin 28: Follower of the Sun." A 1980s remake of the classic '50s series, updated for modern
audiences with all new action and designs. The remake maintained the steely appearance and physicalcombat of the original, and included old rivals such as "Black Ox." The toy was sold in the USA underthe "Godaikin" brand name
A fantasy-heavy storyline involving five robotic lions that combined into a humanoid robot. Re-packaged
with the unrelated TV shows "Dairugger XV" and "Arbegas" and re-titled "Voltron," it aired to great
success in America in the mid-1980s. It remains popular abroad today.
At this point, robot anime had become a household staple, and creators started turning to pop culture
for new inspiration. In this case it was the long-running period TV drama "Mito Kōmon," re-cast fromthe era of Shoguns into a sci-fi setting. The premise centers on three smaller robots that combine intoa giant robot.

30 Chōjikū Yōsai Makurosu
Super Dimensional Fortress Macross
戦闘メカ ザブングル
31 Sentō Meka Zabunguru
Walker Machine Xabungle
機甲創世記モスピーダ
32 Kikō Sōseiki Mosupīda
Genesis Climber Mospeda
銀河漂流バイファム
33 Ginga Hyōryū Baifamu
Round Vernian Vifam
装甲騎兵ボトムズ
34 Sōkō Kihei Botomuzu
Armored Trooper Votoms
聖戦士ダンバイン
35 Seisenshi Danbain
Aura Battler Dunbine
超時空騎団サザンクロス
Chōjikū Kidan Sazan Kurosu
36Super Dimensional Cavalry Southern
Cross

46

Based on a comic by Mitsuteru Yokoyama, the creator of Tetsujin 28-gō, heavily "remixed" for TV withthe author's consent. A morality play that exploited dramatic twists to the extreme. After the show
ended, fans (particularly female ones) successfully petitioned to get a theatrical version made.
A dramatic space opera loosely patterned on a popular period TV drama series called "Hissatsu
Shigotonin." The show's robot transforms from car to spaceship to robot form, growing in size along theway.
Took the "robot as faceless weapon" concept to a literal extreme, featuring robot designs withglass-canopied cockpits instead of heads. The story centered on hard political drama extending over thecourse of a long year and a half broadcast run. Although never broadcast in the USA, toys from theseries were a common sight on US store shelves in the late 1980s.
A groundbreaking fusion of sci-fi and idol music. Its three pillars of aircraft that transform into robots,
pop music as part of the drama, and a love triangle involving the main characters continue to be used in
the series to this very day. In the mid-1980s, it was translated and heavy reworked into the hit American
series "Robotech."
A futuristic Western-inspired setting with robots reminiscent of construction equipment. The slapstick
antics of the protagonist gave it a cartoony charm. Pioneered the trend of swapping out the hero's robot
for a totally different one midway through the series.
"Genesis Climber Mospeda." A journey across a post-apocalyptic Earth landscape using motorcycles
that can transform into powered armor for their riders. The transforming toys from the show were a hit
with fans. Combined with "Macross" and "Southern Cross" as part of the Robotech omnibus of showsin America.
A drama in the vein of "Gundam," taking inspiration from Jules Verne’s novel Two Years’ Vacation. Was
popular enough to generate several spin-off stories and direct-to-video productions after the TV series
ended.
A rare case of a robot anime not named for its main robot character, this is an allegorical tale in which
the machines are standardized weapons for foot soldiers rather than heroes. . The gritty portrayal of its
robots incorporated features such as segmented armor for mobility, tires on their feet for rapid motion,
hydraulic arm punches, and other realistically engineered features.

Chapter 4 List of Key Robot Anime

37

38

39

40

41

超時空要塞マクロス 愛・おぼえていますかChōjikū Yōsai Makurosu Ai Oboete
Imasuka
Macross: Do You Remember Love?
巨神ゴーグ
Jaianto Gōgu
Giant Gorg
機甲界ガリアン
Kikōkai Garian
Panzer World Gallient
重戦機エルガイム
Jūsenki Eru Gaimu
Heavy Metal L-Gaim
マイティオーボッツ
Maitī Ōbottsu
Mighty Orbots
メガゾーン 2342 Megazōn Tsū Surī

"Macross: Do You Remember Love?" A retelling of the TV series, featuring all-new animation and arevised storyline. The unprecedented attention to detail set the bar for animation quality for many years
after its release. A heavily edited English-language version called "Clash of the Bionoids" was released
direct to video abroad.

Movie

1984

TV

1984

26

TV

1984 - 1985

25

TV

1984 - 1985

54

TV

1984 (USA)

13

OVA

1985

TV

1985 - 1986

Megazone 23
機動戦士 Z ガンダム43 Kidō Senshi Zēta Gandamu
Mobile Suit Gundam Zeta
1980s

56

超獣機神ダンクーガ
44 Chōjū Kishin Dankūga

TV

1985

47 Mashin Robo: Kuronosu no Daigyakushū

38

TV

1985 - 1986

63

An American show based on robot toys created by a Japanese company. The animation was created inJapan based on American scripts. A worldwide smash hit, the series continues in various forms to this
day.

TV

1985 - 1986

38

The SPT stands for "Super Powered Tracer." A "buddy show" that introduced the concept of a pilot
working together with the sentient AI of his giant robot. The high-speed “special moves” and aerial
combat scenes breathed fresh air into the genre.

47

Based on a series of transforming toys made by now defunct toy company Popy. Introduced a newstoryline that portrayed the robots as sentient heroes. The quality of the Japanese production may
surprise Americans, who knew the toys as "Gobots," which were marketed to young children.
An omnibus-style production that featured short films by eight noted animators who used robots as acanvas for their unique creative visions. The opening and closing segments were directed by "Akira"creator Katsuhiro Otomo.
Featured uniquely squashed, large-headed designs in what was called a "super deformed" style. Createdduring the boom of popularity surrounding the "Famicom" (Nintendo Entertainment System), its world
resembled that of a video game RPG. The video game made it to American shores as "Keith Courage inAlpha Zones" for the TurboGrafx-16 console.
Released when direct-to-video OVA sales were seriously slumping, this series breathed new life into therobot anime genre. Introduced the "half-season" format of six-episode OVAs, which became industry
standard afterwards.

TV

1986 - 1987

Machine Robo: Revenge of Chronos
ロボットカーニバル
48 Robotto Kānibaru
Robot Carnival
魔神英雄伝ワタル

OVA

1987

49 Mashin Eiyūden Wataru

TV

1988 - 1989

45

OVA

1988 - 1989

7

Machine Hero Wataru
機動警察パトレイバー
50 Kidō Keisatsu Patoreibā
Mobile Police Patlabor

Another fusion of swords-and-sorcery fantasy and sci-fi elements set in a medieval world of clashingstates. Although many of the enemy robots utilized ornately knight-like or dragon style motifs, theprotagonist's robot Gallient was of an orthodox design.
"Heavy Metal L-Gaim." Introduced a new style of giant robot design, pioneered by Mamoru Nagano. His
idea of hanging external armor on a skeleton-like internal frame set a new standard for robot designs
that is still used to this day. The show went on to inspire Nagano's later "Five Star Stories."
A Bandai production helmed by director Osamu Dezaki and animated by TMS Entertainment (formerly
Tokyo Movie Shinsha), designed for American Saturday morning television. Featured a giant hero robot
formed from five smaller "cyborgs."
A coming-of-age drama that envisioned Tokyo as a virtual reality construct inside a giant spaceship.
Widely circulated abroad on bootleg tapes in the 1980s, it went a long way towards establishing the cool
factor of "Japanimation" abroad. Although never officially acknowledged as such, it's an obvious
inspiration for the "Matrix" films. It made excellent use of motorbikes that transformed into giant robots.
The first sequel in the Gundam series. Notable in that multiple mechanical designers contributed to theshow, giving its robot designs a great deal of variety. In response to the growing popularity of theTransformers, it introduced the series' first transforming Mobile Suit designs.
Starring a disaffected soldier, it featured one of the most complex robots ever designed: a series ofaircraft and tanks that could both independently transform into a variety of animal forms, robots, andthen combine into a larger robot. An OVA and theatrical version followed the end of the series. Althoughnever broadcast in the USA, the toys were released as part of the Godaikin series.

(Super Beast-Machine Dancougar)
戦え!超ロボット生命体トランスフォーマー
Tatakae! Chō Robotto Seimeitai
45
Toransufōmā
The Transfomers
蒼き流星 SPT レイズナー
46 Aoki Ryūsei Esu Pī Tī ReizunāBlue Comet SPT Lazner
マシンロボ クロノスの大逆襲

An original story by Gundam's Yoshikazu Yasuhiko, who singlehandedly wrote, storyboarded, directed,
and designed the characters and robots. One of robot anime's classic "auteur" productions.

47

Chapter 4 List of Key Robot Anime

1980s

1990s

冥王計画ゼオライマー
51 Purojekuto Zeoraimā
Hades Project Zeorymer
トップをねらえ!
52 Toppu wo Nerae!
Aim for the Top!
獣神ライガー
53 Jūshin Raigā
Bio Armor Ryger
ファイブスター物語
54 Faibu Sutā Stōrīzu
The Five Star Stories
機動警察パトレイバー the Movie
55 Kidō Keisatsu Patoreibā za Mūbī
Mobile Police Patlabor the Movie
勇者エクスカイザー
56 Yūsha EkusukaizāBrave Fighter Exkiser
NG 騎士ラムネ＆４０
57 Enu Jī Naito Ramune ando Fōtī
NG Knight Lamune & 40
絶対無敵ライジンオー
58 Zettai Muteki Raijinō
Matchless Raijin-Oh
ゲッターロボ號
59 Gettā Robo Gō
Venger Robo
超電動ロボ 鉄人 28 号 FX
Chōdendō Robo Tetsujin Nijū hachi gō Efu
60
EkkusuChōdendō Robo Tetsujin 28-gō FX
ジャイアントロボ THE ANIMATION
地球が静止する日
Jaianto Robo Ji Animēsyon
61
Chikyū ga Seishi Suru Hi
Giant Robo THE ANIMATIONThe Day the Earth Stood Still
機動武闘伝 G ガンダム

OVA

1988 - 1990

4

A deep, dark OVA centered on the protagonist's search for identity. Featured a variety of robot designs
and borrowed heavily from the tokusatsu genre to dramatize their size and performances.

OVA

1988

6

Added a sports theme to the tried and true "girls and robots" genre. An homage to classic robot andtokusatsu series, infused with hard sci-fi elements and a serious storyline. It was the directorial debut of
Hideaki Anno, who would go on to create "Evangelion."TV

1989 - 1990

43

A biomechanical robot with an organic design. Created a sensation through its real-time collaboration
with a pro wrestler, who changed his mask and techniques in keeping with the anime storyline.

Movie

1989

Movie

1989

TV

1990 - 1991

48

TV

1990 - 1991

38

TV

1991 - 1992

51

TV

1991 - 1992

50

The theatrical version of a comic book created by "L-Gaim" designer Mamoru Nagano. The film focusedon a single tiny opening episode of the comic book's grand space opera.
A unique case of an OVA series inspiring a theatrical film. Its realistic portrayal of computer crimes andurban problems against the backdrop of Japan's economic bubble expanded the frontiers of the robot
anime genre.
The textbook example of the 1990's trend to make robot anime for kids again. Unique in its portrayal ofthe various transforming robots and human characters as friends and partners. Launched what came tobe known as the "Brave Series.”
A comedic "super deformed" (cute and stylized) robot anime. Centered on the keyword of "passion."
The protagonists have eight robots, each with its own transformation gimmick.
Featured a school that transforms into a giant robot fortress. The fun premise of a school being a secretbase and the adventures of the ensemble elementary school cast made it popular far beyond its original
young target audience.
A modern version of Getter Robo, featuring the same "three vehicles into three robots" concept. By
this point manufacturing technology had advanced to the point where the design could be realized in toy
form. Created as an homage to the glory of Seventies robot shows.

TV

1992 - 1993

47

Created as a modernized sequel to the 1960s show. It featured a grown-up Shotaro Kaneda and his sonfighting crime together. Remembered for its "team-up" scenes featuring the modernized Tetsujin 28-gō
FX alongside its Sixties predecessor.

OVA

1992- 1998

7

A thoroughly modernized and remixed version of the classic 1960's comic series and tokusatsu show.
Incorporated an all-star cast of characters from creator Mitsuteru Yokoyama's oevure. A visually,
dramatically rich production created by and for giant robot anime connoisseurs.

62 Kidōbutōden Jī GandamuTV1994 - 1995

49

Mobile Fighter G Gundam
ヤマトタケル
63 Yamato Takeru

Gundam-vs-Gundam battle royale, set in an alternate universe where conflicts are settled with combat
games instead of war. Expanded the scope of the Gundam series with over the top characters and theiruniquely individualized Mobile Suits, such as a Gundam that transformed into a temple bell.

TV

1994

37

Simultaneous live-action and anime productions. The anime featured robot and character designs with auniquely Japanese flavor. The robot transformed by “shedding its skin.”

26

Directed by Hideaki Anno. Anime would never be the same after this groundbreaking production. Its
totally unique robot designs, wildly popular characters, and byzantine plotline pushed the boundaries ofwhat a giant robot anime could be about. It sparked a nationwide social phenomenon when released, andremains deeply influential to this day.

新世紀エヴァンゲリオン
64 Shinseiki EvangerionTV

1995 - 1996

Neon Genesis Evangelion48

Chapter 4 List of Key Robot Anime

レイアース
65 Reiāsu
Magic Knight Rayearth
勇者王ガオガイガー
66 Yūshaō Gaogaigā
The King of Braves Gaogaigar
ガサラキ
67 Gasaraki
1990s

2000s

真ゲッターロボ 世界最後の日
68 Shin Gettā Robo Sekai Saigo no Hi
Getter Robo Armageddon
ゾイド -ZOIDS69 Zoido
ZOIDS
THE ビッグオー
70 Za Biggu Ō
The Big O
サクラ大戦
71 Sakura Taisen
Sakura Wars
機巧奇傳ヒヲウ戦記
72 Karakuri Kiden Hiō Senki
Hiwou War Chronicles
フルメタル・パニック!
73 Furumetaru Panikku!
Fullmetal Panic!
ラーゼフォン
74 Rāzefon
RahXephon
OVERMAN キングゲイナー
75 Ōbāman Kingu Geinā
Overman King Gainer
ほしのこえ
76 Hoshi no Koe
Voices of a Distant Star
機動戦士ガンダム SEED
77 Kidō Senshi Gundam Shīdo
Mobile Suit Gundam SEED
SD ガンダムフォース
78 Esu Dī Gandamu Fōsu
Superior Defender Gundam Force
機動戦士ガンダム MS IGLOO
一年戦争秘録Kidō Senshi Gandamu Emu Esu Igurū
79
Ichinen Sensō Hiroku
Mobile Suit Gundam MS IGLOO:
The Hidden One Year War

Based on the same manga as its televised predecessor, but shifted the spotlight to the story’s giant
robots.

OVA

1997

TV

1997 - 1998

49

TV

1998 - 1999

25

OVA

1998 -1999

13TV

1999- 2000

67

The finale of the "Brave Series" of shows. Took a harder sci-fi tack than its predecessors, with evenmore action and detail lavished on the robot designs. Incorporated a variety of digital animation
techniques as well.
Featuring designs and action inspired by actual military technology, its incorporated uniquely Japanesemotifs, such as robot designs based on oni (demons.) The rich historical and cross-cultural narratives
made it a hit among older audiences.
Produced in response to a perceived need to re-introduce a classic robot anime to a generation of fans
who only knew the Super Robot Wars games. Represented an opportunity for a new generation of
production talent, who turned to the original manga, rather than the 1970s anime, for inspiration.
An anime based on the 1980s toy series of the same name. Utilized CG animation to animate thecomplex designs of the series' trademark dinosaur-shaped robots exactly as they appeared in toy form.
A stylish production inspired in equal parts by American film noir and comic books. Utilized techniques
inspired by live-action films to accentuate the size and weight of the robots. Cancelled after a halfseason in Japan, it took off abroad and was finished using American funding.
An animated series based on the hit 1996 video game of the same title. A "steampunk" production set in
an imaginary re-envisioning of Japan's Taisho era (1920s). It featured armored-suit style robots thatwere powered by steam.
An original production set at the end of the Shogun era. The giant clockwork robots, powered bywound-up springs and capable of transforming, pushed Japanese-style robot designs into interesting
new territory.

TV

1999- 2000

26

TV

2000

25

TV

2000 - 2001

26

TV

2002

24

TV

2002

26

TV

2002 - 2003

26

Movie

2002

TV

2002 - 2003

50

TV

2004

52

Created for foreign audiences, it utilized motion-capture and 3D CG animation technology while
maintaining a traditional cel animation appearance. Parodied many aspects of the Gundam universe.

3

A side-story rendered in full 3D CG animation. Created in association with a line of plastic model kits.
Brought a new sense of realism while remaining faithful to the Gundam universe. Broadcast on the web
and also screened at a special event.

Movie

2004

49

One of the earliest anime produced from a "light novel." Although mainly a romantic comedy centeredon an elite soldier assigned to guard a high school girl, weaponized robots play a key part in the story.
Created by famed mechanical designer Yutaka Izubuchi. Its themes of mystery and beauty attracted
artists and creators from a variety of fields. Incorporated the unique concept of a robot hero whose
brainwaves could "tune the world."
Created by Gundam's Yoshiyuki Tomino. Utilized a unique approach to its biomechanical robots, whichwere powered by “muscle engines” and wore armor-like “overcoats.” The battles were high-speed
affairs incorporating paranormal mind-reading powers.
A self-produced film singlehandedly created by Makoto Shinkai, it centered on a long-distance lovestory between a young female soldier deployed in space and her boyfriend back on Earth. Noted for its
beautiful backgrounds and the CG-animated robot combat scenes.
Created as a "First Gundam for the 21st century." The young pair of protagonists, the distinctive posesof the robots, and the high-speed action made it a hit among middle school audiences. Several
side-stories and sequels were also produced.

Chapter 4 List of Key Robot Anime

26

Inspired by the fact that the manga was set at roughly the time when the Tokyo Tower was underconstruction. This remake of the classic series was influenced by the success of other nostalgic dramas
set in the postwar era, particularly the hit live-action film "Always: Sunset on Third Street (Always:
3-Chome no Yuhi)." Its portrayal of a bygone era had a pleasantly retro feel

鉄人 28 号
80 Tetsujin Nijū hachi gō

TV

2004

Tetsujin 28-gō

81

82

83

84

85
2000s
86

87

88

89

90

91

92

機動戦士 Z ガンダムA New Translation
Kidō Senshi Zēta Gandamu
A Nyū Toransurēsyon
Mobile Suit Z Gundam:
A New Translation
創聖のアクエリオン
Sōsei no Akuerion
Genesis of Aquarion
スーパーロボット大戦 ORIGINALGENERATION THE ANIMATION
Sūpā Robotto Taisen Orijinaru Jenerēsyon
Ji Animeisyon
Super Robot Taisen Original Generation
The Animation
IGPX Immortal Grand Prix
Ai Jī Pī Ettukusu Inmōtaru Guranpuri
IGPX Immortal Grand Prix
ゼーガペイン
Zēgapein
Zegapain
機神大戦 ギガンティック・フォーミュラ
Kishin Taisen Gigantikku Fōmyura
War Gods Battle: Gigantic Formulaヱヴァンゲリヲン新劇場版シリーズ
Evangerion Shingekijouban Shirīzu
Evangelion Theatrical Movies
マクロス F（フロンティア）
Makurosu Furontia
Macross F (Frontier)
鉄のラインバレル
Kurogane no Rainbareru
Linebarrels of Iron
RIDEBACK
Raidobakku
RIDEBACK
機動戦士ガンダム UC
Kidō Senshi Gandamu Yunikōn
Mobile Suit Gundam Unicorn
輪廻のラグランジェ
Rinne no Raguranje
Lagrange: The Flower of Rin-ne
花の詩女 ゴティックメード

93 Hana no Utame Gottikkumēdo

Movie

2005 - 2006

3

A series of three films created to commemorate the 20th anniversary of the TV series. The subtitle
refers not to language but storytelling, as director Yoshiyuki Tomino re-fashioned the original story andcharacters to appeal to a modern audience.

TV

2005

26

It utilized 3D CG animation to portray the heroes' three fighters that could combine into three different
forms. Played up the combination / teamwork elements for some surprising twists involving the threepilots.

OVA

2005

3

An animated series based around several original robots and characters that appeared in the "Super
Robot Wars" series of video games. Later spun off into two television series.

TV

2005 - 2006

26

A racing robot anime with a motorsports theme. The high-speed action was rendered in full 3D CG
animation. Introduced the concept of humanoid robots racing and joining forces in battle.

TV

2006

26

TV

2007

26

Movie

2007 - present

4 (planned)TV2008 - 2009

25

TV

2008 - 2009

26

TV

2009

12

OVA

2010 - present

TV

2012

Movie

2012

7 (planned)

24

Made the most of 3D CG animation techniques to render things that would have been almost impossible
with traditional cel animation: transparent robots and weaponry. The story featured a unique looping
structure.
14 mechanical designers contributed to this series, giving each robot a totally distinctive feel. It shone a
spotlight on the artists who long toiled behind the scenes of anime shows; one could even call it a sort of"Super Robot Designer Wars."
A revised and remixed version of the television series, spread over four separate films (three of whichhave been released to date as of January 2014.) Creator Hideaki Anno used the latest CG animation torefine and expand his creative vision. An undeniable artistic high point for the robot genre.
Directed by Shoji Kawamori, it added private military companies and school drama to the series'
trademark triad of transforming aircraft, idol singing, and love triangles. CG was utilized to the fullest in
rendering the high speed action of the variable fighters and the hulking size of the spaceships.
Based on a manga series of the same name that was heavily inspired by post-90's robot anime. The
robots and action scenes were modeled in full CG, allowing for dramatic performances that would havebeen difficult to create with traditional cel animation.
Based on a manga of the same title. A fusion of CG (to portray the motorcycle-like robots) andtraditional animation techniques (for their riders.) The tiny, compact "Ridebacks" represent extreme
examples of what could be considered a "rideable" robots.
Based on a novel by Harutoshi Fukui that filled in a "missing link" in the Universal Century timeline.
Noted for its highly refined, seamless fusion of CG and traditional animation techniques, allowing the
Gundam universe to be rendered in exquisite detail.
Noted for having designers from automaker Nissan design the three main robots in the show. As theytransform into aircraft as well, a great deal of attention was paid to aerodynamics, resulting in unique,gracefully curving designs.
Director Mamoru Nagano almost singlehandedly produced this film, including design, script,
storyboarding, layout, and key animation. It represents a crystallization of the creator's concept of robot
action, down to the robots' structures and even the sound they make as they move.

The Songmaiden Gothicmade

50

Chapter 4 List of Key Robot Anime

超速変形ジャイロゼッター
Chōsoku Henkei Jairozettā
94
Super High Speed Transforming
Gyrozetter

2000s

TV

2012- present

On air

A tie-up with several automakers, it incorporates actual cars into the storyline as transforming robots. A
fusion of road racing and robot action genres, this unique collaboration aims to make cars cool among
young people again.

4.2. Related Series
4.2.1. Although the following series did not feature giant robots, they featured robot protagonists and represent highly popular and influential productions.
Title (Japanese)
Title (Transliterated)No

MediumBroadcast, Release, or Sale

EpisodesNotes (Selected Highlights)

English Title
鉄腕アトム
1 Tetsuwan Atomu

TV

1963 - 1966

193

“Mighty Atom.” The titular protagonist is a robot boy with human emotions. An iconic, groundbreaking,genre-forging hit that had (and continues to have) a tremendous impact on real-world robotics
engineering in Japan. It was broadcast in the United States as “Astro Boy.”TV

1963 - 1964

56

Featured new type of robotic protagonist: a human whose memories have been downloaded into arobotic body. An interesting fusion of the traditional “morphing hero” concept with a more realisticscience-fictional element. More accurately, the hero is a “cyborg” rather than a robot.

Astro Boy
エイトマン
2 Eitoman
8 Man
キューティーハニー
3 Kyūtī HanīTV

1973 - 1974

25

A perfectly human-looking android stars in this sci-fi series that launched the “fighting heroine” genre.
It was also a great influence on the “magical girl” genre of shows as well. There are a variety of direct
to video and theatrical versions as well, including a 2004 live-action remake directed by none other than
“Evangelion” creator Hideaki Anno.

TV

1979 - 2005

1,787

Featured a robot cat from the future who helps his owner by producing all sorts of gadgets from a “4D
pocket.” Established the concept of robots as friends instead of warriors. A long running success,Doraemon arguably represents Japan’s single most popular animated character.

TV1983 - 198437

A show centered on robot combat as a sport or hobby; the protagonists built their own robots, then hadthem square off against one another to test their strength and technique. A clear inspiration formodern-day robot fighting competitions such as “ROBO-ONE.”

Cutie Honeyドラえもん
4 Doraemon

プラレス３四郎
5 Puraresu Sanshirō
Sanshiro, the Plastic Wrestler

51

Chapter 4 List of Key Robot Anime

4.2.2. Other Influential Giant Robot Productions
Title (Japanese)
Title (Transliterated)No

MediumRelease Date

EpisodesNotes (Selected Highlights)

English Title
やぶにらみの暴君
1

Yabunirami no Boukun
Le Roi et l'Oiseau

Movie

1952

This French masterpiece includes the very first appearance of a piloted robot in an animated film. Its
ball-jointed structure and searchlight eyes make it an ancestor of “real robot” designs. The film wasoriginally released in an incomplete form; it was finally finished and re-released under a different name in
1980.

Movie

1969

The scenes featuring the giant robot attack were done by a then-unknown Hayao Miyazaki. The sense of
size and the performance of the robot were a great influence on later productions.

The King and the Bird
空とぶゆうれい船
2 Soratobu Yūreisen
The Flying Ghost Ship

4.2.3. Influential “Tokusatsu” (Live Action) Productions
Title (Japanese)No

Title (Transliterated)

MediumBroadcast, Release, or Sale

EpisodesNotes (Selected Highlights)

English Title
地球防衛軍
1 Chikyū Bōeigun

Movie

1957

TV

1960

26

TV

1966 - 1967

52

TV

1967 - 1968

26

TV

1966

32

TV

1966 - 1967

39

TV

1967 - 1968

49

The Mysterians
怪獣マリンコング
2 Kaijū Marinkongu
Marine Kong
マグマ大使
3 Maguma Taishi
Ambassador Magma
ジャイアントロボ
4 Jaianto Robo
Giant Robo
サンダーバード
5 Sandābādo
Thunderbirds
ウルトラマン
6 Urutoraman
Ultraman
ウルトラセブン
7 Urutorasebun
Ultraseven

52

Featured the very first appearance of a giant robot in a Japanese film: the alien invaders’ towering
mechanical monster “Mogera.” The appearance of a second one hinted that Mogera was but one of amass-produced series of giant robots, another influential point. Special effects by the legendary Eiji
Tsuburaya.
A live-action TV series featuring an evil robot monster. Although he appeared to be a living creature,
Marine Kong was actually a remote-controlled robot. A second version appeared during the series as
well.
“Ambassador Magma.” Based on the Osamu Tezuka manga of the same name. The hero was a cyborg
designed by a being called “Earth,” the creator of our planet. Although impossible to portray in toy
form, the hero’s ability to morph into a rocket represents an early transforming concept. Broadcast in
the USA as “Space Giants.”
Another creation of Tetsujin 28-gō creator Mitsuteru Yokoyama. This time, the titular giant robot fought
giant monsters. Besides being live action, the series differentiated itself from its predecessor with awristwatch remote controller and missile-firing fingers. Broadcast in the USA as “Johnny Socko and his
Flying Robot.”
British sci-fi “Supermarionation” TV series featuring the exploits of an international rescue team. The
launch sequences of the various Thunderbird vehicles were a deep influence on Japanese animators, aswere the concepts of the “transforming” Thunderbird 1 and “combining” Thunderbird 2.
A live action series featuring a giant hero squaring off against giant monsters. The appearance ofdifferent monsters every week, the teamwork of his human comrades, and the catharsis of the herousing his “finishing move” to defeat the monster of the week were big influences on Japanese robot
anime.
The sequel to Ultraman. Aimed at an older demographic, it featured a more militaristic team and deeper
sci-fi elements. The robot invader “King Joe,” which could split into four components, is a direct
ancestor of combining robot designs.

Chapter 4 List of Key Robot Anime

キングコングの逆襲
8 Kimgu Komgu no Gyakushū
King Kong Escapes
スーパーロボット レッドバロン
9 Sūpā Robotto Reddo Baron
Super Robot Red Baron
ジャンボーグ A
10 Janbōgu Ēsu
Jumborg Ace
スパイダーマン
11 Supaｉdāman
Spiderman

The second in Toho’s King Kong series. It featured “Mechanikong,” a robot copy of the legendary giant
gorilla. The concept of a robotic doppelganger inspired the later “Mechagodzilla.”

Movie

1967

TV

1973 - 1974

39

TV

1973

50

TV

1978 - 1979

41

TV

1979 - 1980

52

TV

1980 - 1981

25

Movie

1989

A robot production harnessing the talents of animation titan Sunrise and special-effects titan Toho.
Many animation professionals contributed to the visuals. A life-sized, six-meter prop of the robot
character was unveiled to great fanfare as PR for the film.

Movie

1990

An American live-action giant robot film, based on a script by sci-fi author Joe Haldeman. A production
deeply influenced by giant robot anime. The action was filmed entirely using models.

Movie

2007 - 2011

The wildly successful live-action version of the animated Transformers series. CG allows the robots tobe rendered in exquisite detail and motion as they transform. A great merchandising success as well.

Movie

2013

A live-action film featuring giant robots from various countries fighting kaiju monsters. Conceptually andvisually, a great homage to Japanese robot anime and tokusatsu productions.

バトルフィーバーJ
12 Batoru Fībā Jei
Battle Fever J
X ボンバー
13 Ekkusu BonbāX Bomber
ガンヘッド
14 Ganheddo
Gunhedロボジョックス
15 Robo Jokkusu
Robot Jox
トランスフォーマーシリーズ
16 Toransufōmā Shirīzu“Transformers” Series
パシフィック・リム
17 Pashifikku Rimu
Pacific Rim

53

Utilized live-action special effects to surpass the quality and realism of cel animation. A steelmaking
company was enlisted to produce the Fiberglas costume for the hero character. As a piloted giant robot,
it competed head-to-head with the then wildly popular animated series “Mazinger Z.”
Utilized rotoscoping animation, a forerunner of modern motion-capture techniques. The piloted giant
robot was replaced mid-way through the series by “Jumborg 9,” the first appearance of a “Unit 2”
robot in Japanese sci-fi.
Toei licensed the famous Marvel Comics character to create this domestic version of the hero.
Spiderman is about the only recognizable vestige of the original storyline; in the Toei version, he wasgiven his powers by aliens from the Planet Spider and pilots a giant robot called Leopardon.
Produced under license from Marvel Comics, it was inspired in parts by “Captain America” and his
little-known female counterpart “Miss America.” It successfully introduced a giant robot to the“Sentai” (five-man team) concept, launching the “Super Sentai” series. Later entries gave rise to the“Power Rangers.” Giant robots and carrier ships appear in many of the series, which encompasses 37
titles and counting today.
A Japanese-produced puppet sci-fi show. This space opera featured three spacecraft that could
combine into the towering robot “Big Dai X.” Renamed “Star Fleet,” it was broadcast in England as
well.l.

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