Studies in Asian Geolinguistics, Monograph Series No. 2

Proceedings of the Workshop
“Geolinguistic Method andSoutheast Asian Linguistics”


ILCAA Joint Research Project 2015 - 2017 “Studies in Asian Geolinguistics”
Research Institute for Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa
Tokyo University of Foreign Studies

Studies in Asian Geolinguistics, Monograph Series No. 2

Proceedings of the Workshop “Geolinguistic Method andSoutheast Asian Linguistics”
11–13 May 2017
Padang, West Sumatra, Indonesia
First published 2017
Edited by Hiroyuki Suzuki & Mitsuaki Endo
Copyright © 2017 Individual Contributors

ISBN 987-4-86337-268-9
This is an electronic publication in PDF format.
This publication is offered under Creative Commons International License
Attribution–NonCommercial–NoDerivatives 4.0.
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
Published by
Research Institute for
Languages and Cultures ofAsia and Africa (ILCAA)
Tokyo University of Foreign Studies
3-11-1, Asahi-cho, Fuchu-shi,
183-8534, Tokyo, JAPANhttps://publication.aa-ken.jp/   







       

Introduction    Asian geolinguistics: So far, and beyond 
  !"!#$%   
Methods and principles of geolinguistics&  !" '    A manual for drawing geolinguistic maps with ArcGIS Online(Case studies# #$%) %  
A geolinguistic approach to Tibeto-Burman vocabulary:
A case study of ‘sun’ and a future perspective*+  #$%%'!, "  The distribution of diphthongs in Vietnamese dialects-" .% #   
Mapping the Yi characters– an attempt to explore a route of their historical change and origin –-/
Appendix$0#!'!"%
How a geolinguistic approach can contribute to a study of Tibetic languages:
Examining the cases of ‘wind’ and ‘rice’(1

















2  3   4     5     4       6     4
# 7#86  0  !" '   0&8

Workshop Abstract and ProgrammeWorkshop "Geolinguistic Method and Southeast Asian Linguistics"
The Twenty-Seventh Meeting of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society (SEALS 27)
11-13 May 2017
Padang, West Sumatra, Indonesia
This workshop aims at applying the geolinguistic method to the study of Southeast Asian languages.
This discipline, which is also called word geography, dialect geography, linguistic geography, or areal
linguistics, has a long tradition of over hundred years in European and Japanese dialectology.
There are two sessions: Introduction and case studies. Firstly, we will overview previous
geolinguistic studies on Asian languages, and survey future tasks. Next, geolinguistic methods andprinciples will be outlined based on the tradition of European and Japanese dialect geography. Further,
how to draw dialect maps using concrete language data will be discussed. This practical part leads
participants to draw maps by themselves according to the manual which will be distributed.
The second half will consist of case studies, dealing with vocabulary, phonology, as well as script.
The first presentation will deal with Tibeto-Burman vocabulary using the geolinguistic approach. The
second will be a case study on phonology based on field investigations of Vietnamese dialects. Lastly,
the geolinguistic method will be applied to the study of the Yi script, which is known to show great
diversity in terms of geographical distribution.
Date: 11 May 2017
Venue: Kyriad Hotel Bumiminang, Padang, West Sumatra, Indonesia
1. Introduction
13:30-15:15
1.1. Theoretical part
Asian geolinguistics: So far, and beyond, Mitsuaki ENDO (Aoyama Gakuin U.)
Methods and principles of geolinguistics, Chitsuko FUKUSHIMA (U. of Niigata Prefecture)
1.2. Practical partA manual for drawing geolinguistic maps with ArcGIS Online, Mika FUKAZAWA (Chiba U.)
2. Case studies
15:45-17:30
2.1. A geolinguistic approach to Tibeto-Burman vocabulary, Satoko SHIRAI (Tsukuba U.)
2.2. The distribution of diphthongs in Vietnamese dialects, Masaaki SHIMIZU (Osaka U.) & Mika
KONDO (Kyoto U.)
2.3. Mapping the Yi characters – an attempt to explore a route of their historical change and origin –,Kazue IWASA (Kyoto U.)
References
Endo, Mitsuaki. ed. (2016). Studies in Asian Geolinguistics I, II, III. ILCAA ELECTRONIC
PUBLICATIONS. Tokyo: Research Institute for Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa,
Tokyo University of Foreign Studies. https://publication.aa-ken.jp/
Endo, Mitsuaki. ed. (2016). Papers from the Third International Conference on Asian Geolinguistics.
ILCAA ELECTRONIC PUBLICATIONS. Tokyo: Research Institute for Languages and Culturesof Asia and Africa, Tokyo University of Foreign Studies. https://publication.aa-ken.jp/
Kondo, Mika. (2013). Vietnamese Dialect Maps on Vocabulary. Asian Geolinguistic Society of Japan,
Monograph Series No.1. https://agsj.jimdo.com/monograph/1Asi a n g e oli n g uisti cs: S o f a r, a n d b e y o n d
Mits u a ki E n d o
F a c ult y of E c o n o mi cs, A o y a m a G a k ui n U ni v ersit y

A bst r a ct
T his arti cl e d es cri b es t h e o utli n e of t h e J oi nt R es e ar c h Pr oj e ct “ St u di es i n Asi a n G e oli n g uisti cs ”
at t h e A A I nstit ut e, J a p a n 2 0 1 5- 2 0 1 8. It c o nsists of ( 1) O utli n e of t h e pr oj e ct, ( 2) G o als of t h e
pr oj e ct, ( 3) C ol o uri n g: R es ol uti o n f or m a p pi n g t h e ar e a w h er e m a n y l a n g u a g e f a mili es o v erl a p,
( 4) S y nt h eti c m a p i n E ast a n d S o ut h e ast Asi a: T h e s u n, a n d ( 5) F ut ur e a cti viti es.

1

O utli n e of t h e p r oj e ct

T h e J oi nt R es e ar c h Pr oj e ct “ St u di es i n Asi a n G e oli n g uisti cs ” h as b e e n i n pr o gr ess si n c e A pril 2 0 1 5 at
T h e R es e ar c h I nstit ut e f or L a n g u a g es a n d C ult ur es of Asi a a n d Afri c a, T o k y o U ni v ersit y of F or ei g n
St u di es (s e e htt p:// w w w. a a.t ufs. a c.j p/ e n/ pr oj e cts/jr p/jr p 2 1 0 ).
T h e g o al of t his pr oj e ct is d uri n g t h e a c a d e mi c y e ar 2 0 1 8 t o h o p ef ull y c o m pl et e c o m pil ati o n of T h e
Li n g uisti c Atl as of Asi a , V ol. 1, w hi c h is t o c o v er all l a n g u a g e gr o u ps t hr o u g h o ut Asi a. It will b e
c o m pris e d of 8 it e ms wit h li n g uisti c m a ps c o v eri n g o v er 1, 0 0 0 l o c ati o ns f or v o c a b ul ar y (s u n, ri c e pl a nt,
mil k, wi n d, ir o n), p h o n ol o g y (t o n e
a n d a c c e nt), a n d s y nt a x ( h o w t o c o u nt
n o u ns, “it r ai ns ”).
T h e r es ults of t h e first y e ar 2 0 1 5
ar e alr e a d y o p e n t o t h e p u bli c i n p df
fil es at t h e sit e of t h e A A I nstit ut e:
htt ps:// p u bli c ati o n. a a- k e n.j p/
Mits u a ki E n d o ( e d.), St u di es i n Asi a n
G e oli n g uisti cs I ( S u n), II ( Ri c e pl a nt),
III ( Mil k), a n d
Mits u a ki E n d o( e d.),P a p ers
fr o mt he
T hir dI nt er n ati o n al C o nf er e n c e o n Asi a n
G e oli n g uisti cs .

l e k wit h hi g h er t o n el e k wit h l o w er t o n e
k hj a kk h ətt hi:t
ti:t
va2
fa2
g o:i
maa

M a p 1 Ir o n i n T ai- K a d ai ( E n d o, f ort h c o mi n g)2

2

G o als of t h e p r oj e ct

2. 1

Fi rst g o al: O rt h o d o x di al e ct g e o g r a p h y i nsi d e a li n g uisti c f a mil y

O ur first g o al is dr a wi n g cl assi c m o d el m a ps a n d gi vi n g di a c hr o ni c i nt er pr et ati o ns f or t h e m a c c or di n g t o
t h e pri n ci pl es a n d tr a diti o ns of t h e ort h o d o x di al e ct g e o gr a p h y.
M a p 1 is a s a m pl e m a p w hi c h s h o ws t h e g e o gr a p hi c al distri b uti o n of "ir o n" i n T ai- K a d ai ( E n d o,f ort h c o mi n g). I n t h e m a p, t h e arr o w s y m b ols d e n ot e t h e t y p e l e k ( A- 1, 2) as s e e n i n Si a m es e. T h es et y p es s pr e a d i n t h e S o ut h- W est er n a n d C e ntr al T ai ar e a, a n d c orr es p o n d t o t h e Ol d C hi n es e f or m. I n t h ew est er n Z h u a n g, t h er e ar e t hi:t t y p es ( D- 1, 2) w hi c h r efl e ct t h e Mi d dl e C hi n es e f or m, or ar e e v e n
p ossi bl y b orr o w e d fr o m Y u e, H a k k a, or Pi n g h u a i n t h at r e gi o n at a r el ati v el y r e c e nt ti m e. I n t h e B u yi
l a n g u a g e, v a or f a t y p es ( E- 1, 2) ar e f o u n d. F or f urt h er dis c ussi o n, pl e as e s e e E n d o (f ort h c o mi n g).
2. 2

S e c o n d g o al: C h asi n g p h e n o m e n a b r o u g ht a b o ut b y l a n g u a g e c o nt a cts
M a p 2 is cit e d fr o m S u z u ki ( 2 0 1 6). T h e
bl u e s q u ar e d e n ot es k u
i n S o ut h w est er n
M a n d ari n of C hi n es e, t h e r e d st ar d e n ot es
Ti b et o- B ur m a n * k u k . T his r el ati o ns hi p
w as alr e a d y p oi nt e d o ut i n S T E D T. T his
f a ct i m pli es t h at k u
ha d a c o da – k w he nt his w or d w as b orr o w e d i n T B. O urs e c o n d g o al is c h asi n g s u c h p h e n o m e n a
br o u g ht a b o ut b y l a n g u a g e c o nt a cts
b e y o n d l a n g u a g e f a mili es.
M or e o v er, t h er e ar e ot h er g o als, f ore x a m pl e, e xtr a cti n g u ni v ers al r ul es of
di a c hr o ni c c h a n g es fr o m Asi a n l a n g u a g es,
usi n g m a ps t o e x a mi n e t h e r el ati o ns hi pb et w e e n li n g uisti c pr o p erti es a n d t h ee xt er n al w orl d, a n d s o o n.

M a p 2 Ri c e pl a nt i n Y u n n a n pr o vi n c e: T B a n d Si niti c

3

C ol o u ri n g: R es ol uti o n f o r m a p pi n g t h e a r e a w h e r e m a n y l a n g u a g e f a mili es o v e rl a p

T h er e ar e t hr e e ar e as w h er e m a n y l a n g u a g e f a mili es o v erl a p i n Asi a, e. g. N ort h e ast er n Si b eri a, I n di a,a n d m ai nl a n d S o ut h e ast Asi a. I n or d er t o r es ol v e t h e t e c h ni c al pr o bl e m t o disti n g uis h t h es e l a n g u a g e
f a mili es o n o n e a n d t h e s a m e m a p, diff er e nt c ol o urs ar e us e d f or e a c h l a n g u a g e f a mil y. H er e w e s e e ac o n cr et e e x a m pl e i n Y u n n a n.
3. 1

C hi n es e

M a p 3 s h o ws t h e n as al c o d a t y p es a m o n g C hi n es e di al e cts i n Y u n n a n. T y p e A is t h e t hr e e-f ol dc o ntr ast of n as al c o d as - m/- n/- n g. As a m att er of f a ct, t his di al e ct is a v ari et y of t h e Y u e di al e ct. T h eir
a n c est ors mi gr at e d fr o m G u a n g d o n g Pr o vi n c e i n t h e e arl y 2 0t h C e nt ur y i n or d er t o c o nstr u ct t h e r ail w a yb et w e e n Y u n n a n a n d Vi et n a m. T y p es B 1 t o B 5 ar e t h e t w o-f ol d c o ntr ast t y p es. T h es e t y p es s pr e a d3

a cr oss t w o t hir ds of Y u n n a n Pr o vi n c e. T y p es C 3, C 4, a n d D h a v e n o c o ntr ast of n as al c o d a, b ut t h e y still
h a v e n as al el e m e nts. T h es e t y p es o c c u p y t h e w est er n p art of Y u n n a n. T h e c hr o n ol o gi c al or d er of c h a n g e
is fr o m a m/ a n/ a n g , t hr o u g h a n/ a n g , t o ã .
a m/ a n/ a n g
a n/ a n g
ã n/ ɑ ̃n g
ã/ ɑ ̃n g
ã/ ɑ ̃
a/ a n gɑ ̃n gãnã

M a p 3 N as al c o d a t y p es a m o n g C hi n es e di al e cts i n Y u n n a n
3. 2

Ti b et o- B u r m a n
a m/ a n/ a n g
ã n/ ɑ ̃n gãa

T his is t h e sit u ati o n i n Ti b et o- B ur m a n
i n Y u n n a n. T y p e E r efl e cts t h e m ost
a d v a n c e d s o u n d s h a p e wit h o ut n as alel e m e nts. T his t y p e is d o mi n a nt allo v er t h e ar e a.

M a p 4 N as al c o d a s yst e ms aft er - a v o w el i n Ti b et o- B ur m a n

4

3.3

Overlapped map of Sinitic and Tibeto-Burman
A parallelism between both languages
is observed in the Lijiang-Dali area.
However, TB is more advanced thanSinitic in the other area.

Map 5 Overlapped map of Sinitic and Tibeto-Burman
3.4

Tai-Kadai
am/an/ang
an/angangã
As for Tai-Kadai, Dai and Zhuang are
spoken in Yunnan. The majority keep
the three-fold distinction. However,there are some minor dialects whichchanged into two- or one-folddistinction types.

Map 6 Nasal coda types in Tai-Kadai in Yunnan

5

3.5

Austroasiatic
Wa is spoken in Yunnan. These three
dialects belong to the three-fold type.

Map 7 Nasal coda types in Austroasiatic in Yunnan
3.6

Hmong-Mien
am/an/ang
an/angang

Hmong-Mien is also spoken in
Yunnan. There are three types.

Map 8 Nasal coda types in Hmong-Mien in Yunnan

6

3.7

Synthetic map of Yunnan

Map 9 Synthetic map of Yunnan
This is the synthetic map of all language families in Yunnan.

7

4Synthetic map in East and Southeast Asia: The sun

Here is a sample of the synthetic map of a wider area, showing the case of "the sun" (see Studies in Asian
Geolinguistics, I and II).

Map 10 Synthetic map in East and Southeast Asia: The sun

Map 11 Enlarged view of SE Asia

8

5

Future activities

5.1

International Conference on Asian Geolinguistics

A common place for scholars in this area is the International Conference on Asian Geolinguistics. The
first meeting was held in Japan in 2012, the second in Thailand in 2014, and the third in Cambodia in
2016. The next meeting, the 4th conference, will be held in Indonesia in 2018. We warmly welcome theparticipation of many scholars. Those who are interested in this conference, please contact Mitsuaki
Endo. As for the previous conferences, see https://agsj.jimdo.com/.
5.2

Two meetings of the project “Studies in Asian Geolinguistics” at the AA Institute in Tokyoin 2017

Moreover, two meetings of the project “Studies in Asian Geolinguistics” will be held at the AA Institutein Tokyo in 2017. The first meeting will be held on 5-6 August 2017. The theme will be “Tone andAccent in Asia and Africa”. This date was fixed for the convenience of the participants of the SixteenthInternational Conference on Methods in Dialectology, which will be held on 7-11 August at the National
Institute for Japanese Language and Linguistics in Tokyo. See http://pj.ninjal.ac.jp/Methodsxvi/.
The second meeting will be held in November or December 2017; the theme will be “It rains”.
Both meetings will be open to the public. For those who are interested in participating, please checkthe site of the AA Institute: http://www.aa.tufs.ac.jp/en/projects, or directly contact Mitsuaki Endo.

Acknowledgements
This work was supported by KAKENHI 15K02525. I appreciate Dr. Donna Erickson for checking myEnglish.

References
Endo, M. forthcoming. Iron in Tai-Kadai, Studies in Asian Geolinguistics, V.
Suzuki, Hiroyuki. 2016. Rice (plant) in Asia, Studies in Asian Geolinguistics, III:1-3.

9              4%   5#  ) 525  6!2 04

4   95   4  55 6   2 5  045  %   6    06  6   5     2  5  #     5 :0 5  444 5  6 50;20   5    5 .  5    

95 <5  0=  4  55 6   2 5  0 4 5   <# /(/3= >  5     6!#6?    %   6  06 6   5   2 5  #     5 

    

95     . 0 ;   2 5 6  4;;  5   0 Deutscher Sprachatlas9@4 ;;   5181 
25   Sprachatlas des deutschen Reichs  206A   4 
5  5   0  24  5 ;6  5 > 5 ;   5206 5450 5; 5  5 5    5  >
5 ; 5.      5  ;   55DiWA (The Digital Wenker Atlas=<$&&8=> Atlas linguistic de la France</&B/&= 0?5955C> 5 ;  20 0 2;6 ;4;   5 5   955C
  ;        04;4  7 $ 9 5   04 5  06;   55 ; 5 0  <9 5&&8= D    4 5        Atlas Linguarum Europae,  50
European Linguistic Atlas6     5 <E5 %6 4  6 3 E  96 /1*6 
455; 25=*   D   ;       5  ; 2 ;5 > F  55%  6 0   ; 2  5 5 5 +#20  ; 5 
     >4 5 ;?   ; 5   5/&- /&(3Phonetic Dialect
Atlas  Grammatical Dialect Atlas < &&8=  2 B   5              55  0 5 5 2  > 5B   
;  5   0  ;   5    5 6; 5 ;   4  5 6 ?  5 




3GG;;;G; 46) 57   3GG 5  G
 3GG;;; 5  0
*Atlas Linguarum Europae
3GG;;;52 5  0F B# 5.
+ 0; 2 2   5 504 %   5# 04 5 50 95 <#%9=4

10

7  455U B 5 5 "H       4 5 5; I 5J6
  45 5 5   :   6   ;;  4   4   0     5 ;    6      $ 04
5         B 55; 2 0%    H     4 9   5  5
4  5 %%6 :5  5  655 9 6   4  B 05< 4 550 =5  ? %  06> #  
204Linguistic Atlas of Japan <7 ?=</((B/8+=   F 4  57  ) %   <7)%=<   %? 7=  5 20%  ; ; 9 6  > ; 6  H   > 5  206     5 5  0 %  ; 6   0
 
 25 ;   20  55 5    65  < ;    54  =6  204 55    5 #;     5Methods in Linguistic Geography</(/=      5    
5  <  &=$ 52  5     ; 5 5045   @   >   44 65 ?     2/8&6 4204
44  .  2      ?  < &(=    5  B;
5  5 6Grammar Atlas of Japanese Dialects<9 ?=;   5/1/B&&(6 New
Linguistic Atlas ofJapan<7?=<   ?20=;   5&(        !"#$  > 5    5  55  ;         A  56   5  4 24  4     D  >;; 206;  455;  3. 5 4   <;5 066 4 6  06   06  =6     4 4   < 6 6  =6 5 5  < 55 5     6 5 5   D 5  6  =6   2 < 4  6 2 5
4  64   0   56 =64 0 4 <2 5 06 506 5060 A64556 =6 4 55 < 2;6  5206 B
2 6 5    6 =  $  #   $% >; 04   50   5  ; 20       550  5     5$;26; 2   5  4
5 /1&;    5.    
45>
  4 ;   ; 5   50 06 5       0 34A  5697 #6# 7-6976 ; ? >6 5      6 A56    %55   ;  4  B ; ;  9%#< 4 0 =4 ; 6    6 9%#6#%#6  2 5 5% 9%#0 6 5  G5 4  ;  5     459%#45        44      ;    2   05  ; 5;;  0   5 4  ;55   2       54      50.   3 4 A  56  9 ?  ?     5  ? 
5 (

&



     -)47 9 0<# 7;5 =(

5 4  <9 ?  ?=3GG;;; F GK G5G
3GG;;;F 5 F GG G LA 5

11 *65  5  ; 45   @   >; ;            5   M >;      5 ;   0 #</(/=   I   5 4 F      J    0  ; 2 06 5     4  ;5 < ; 2  ;   ;   =>64;4 6 6     F  5 5  6:6   2506  5 54 4    N NN N O  NN 6 N N6 NN 6
N N     I   5 4     J
7        4    4      5 5  >6 4 ; 4 6 6       F   5 5  6 :6     250  :   4   6  5 54 4       N     5   6    5 4 ; ;  F      4  5 5          45 5     %
  6 5      5; 0    5     56 ; 5 A  4         5     5 5  ;    5  4  
:    56  5 5   4      #  4I J> 6  6? <#  5/88=> 4 5 5       >5 544   4       maju N mjau N njau    
5    4        55   
I J7 ' (    #    $ 

5 4> 0   5  6  550
 4 9%#0 6  0   6 6  5  H 
444   
'         (  0   5    4  5 
206 0   4 5      > 
A 5  0   5    A  5  
5 5     5 5    
; 5         2      0  5 5 0    B
5 50 >   5      6 5A 5     2 0  
45 0     5   A  565   0    4  
 6  5      5  ; 0     >    A  5  %    6 0      5      ;    5    4  5   #    *6   4  ;  %. 5  203    5 5  5A 5 >  
5 ;  2  4 5-au4  ;; # 725  0   <  &&=

12%   5 5 *%  5A 5 H     4;4;    5 4   5 5 06   5  ;  55      5 5 0  +    4D0 4    4 D B 5 5 4-gan<   => ;  ;;  9%#4 #%#+P B 5  5 4Bgan'  )(      ( H  5  444 20   5  >   
   5        4  ;   5       5  4  ? 
5  >;  520 45504  69 ?  ?; ;   
4    0 55   6 # Q55 #  R <   &(=  #  -6 (  8
I  J>5  49 ?;   4suke  2   >  4 ?
; 4;;kke si>;  4# ;   4  ;;
4>4kke 4suke6 si  5 54;  4;  5 > ; ;; #%#! 54 3 -I  J9 ?
!  3 (I  J ?
74 3 8I  J#




13








'  !(       ( H      4 4 9%#4 ;    5  H  50
4    <   = 0   <   &(=  #  1 I  J     49 ?6 ? #>   4;  5  4 kota4 
20    > ;  ;; #%#1I  J    49 ?6 ? #>     5  444 5       5 0  6; ;252  4TheLinguistic Atlas of Asia<&(=8>A  4 5  <5  4 50=  5   9%#51> 54 5  <5  4 50=64;50    
56   4    2Linguistic Atlas of Asia  0H 5 ;0  A    0   . ;  *)  

55; 5   45 6; 2 ;  The Linguistic Atlas ofAsia >       5          0 5 6      6   25   4 50 :0    5    4 44 
5  6 ; 5 4  4 5         ;  5   
4A   A  54 5D A  56   4 #6A 5  I 04 0J;  05   4  
  % 6  % <  &( =  5A 56 5 56    5  50 ;20   5    5 .  5 4 F  + %(



>
    4    4  55  2   F  I 5B)  F  4
 50.   4?  5 J6      5%   4? 
7    7  <%? 7=6   9 ?  ?    5 0 %? 7  2 
 5.> 0;    0?##9  BB 4# 4) < =*+&+ <=("&(11%45 45     >  5 ) %   47  5 4    4 6>0!2 04 # 444   4%7 ? ) F 3#   95 


8

 95 

1

9%#5 

3GG FF

3GG;;; GG

14

,  

6     &(  9 5 4  F  I#     95 J &-B&8 Studies in Asian
Geolinguitics%3B+ 6   &&  :  0 Q$; 0       MR %3 '!; < 2=6Nihongokenkyuu no 12 shoo[Twelve Chapters on Japanese Linguistics]3*-B+8F#6>06?  6 &   5 5 3> #Dialectologia61<&=38-B1 6 &( >  5   5    0 5  %3 B$C5ST C6)". ? <=, The future of dialects: Selected papers
from Methods in Dialectology XV:*(*B*8(7  #6:569 0 6 &( #  Studies in Asian Geolinguitics%%3B 6    %   $                  Q 5 52    4 2;  4    4 5 5   R
Hoogen no kenkyuu [Studies in Dialects]*
9 56 $   &&8   5  03 >  5 D 6    5  56   
5 < 50 ;  A  5  ; 4  U 5  7 D  5   @6 /&B/&=  %3 Geolinguistics
around the World: Proceedings of the 14th NIJL International Symposium3(-B8+%? 76>06? $6 ?   &&8  5 50 B  5  %   23 >  5  5  B   %3
Geolinguistics around the World: Proceedings of the 14th NIJL International Symposium3/B*+%? 76>06? 
7  ) <=/&-On’in bunpu-zu[Phonetic Dialect Atlas]>06?



7  ) R<=/&(Kogo-ho bunpu-zu [Grammatical Dialect Atlas]>06?

  57  ) %   <=/((B/8+Nihon gengo chizu [Linguistic Atlas of Japan].(E5  5 : 6>06?   5 7   )  %    <=  /1/B&&(  Hoogen bumpoo zenkoku chizu [Grammar Atlas ofJapanese Dialects].(E5  5 : 6>06?   5%   4? 7  <%? 7=<=&&8Geolinguistics around the World: Proceedingsof the 14th NIJL International Symposium  5%   4? 7  6>06? 6> &&8 ?  5 %3Geolinguistics around the World: Proceedings of the
14th NIJL International Symposium3B(%? 76>06? 6> &($ 0Q5HVHDUFK7UHQGV?
Hoogen no kenkyuu [Studies in Dialects]31*B/8

95 R

6> <=&(Shin nihon gengo chizu[New Linguistic Atlas of Japan]   # 6>06
? 
#
?
#

6> /(/Gengo chirigaku no hoohoo[Methods in Linguistic Geography]. # 6>066>   5/88Amami Tokunoshima no kotoba: bumpu kara rekishi e [Language in Tokunoshima,
Amami: from Distributions to History] 0  # 6>06? H   6"/*&Kagyuukoo [On the Lexicon of Snails].>#>06?


15



A M a n u al f o r D r a wi n g G e oli n g uisti c M a ps
wit h A r c GI S O nli n e
Mi k a F u k a z a w a
S a p p or o G a k ui n U ni v ersit y, J S P S p ost d o ct or al r es e ar c h f ell o w

A bst r a ct
T his is a m a n u al of Ar c GI S O nli n e, h ost e d b y Esri, f or dr a wi n g g e oli n g uisti c m a ps f or ag e oli n g uisti c st u d y. I n t his p a p er, I att e m pt e d t o pr o vi d e a si m pl e e x pl a n ati o n of h o w t o m a k e a
m a p s p e cifi c all y f or g e oli n g uisti cs. S e cti o ns 2, 3 a n d 4 ar e t h e b asi c m a n u al, r ef erri n g t o t h e“ Ar c GI S O nli n e H el p ” p a g e a n d E n d o ’s ( 2 0 1 6) “ Ar c GI S O nli n e
β1. 0 [ H o w t o m a k e g e oli n g uisti c al m a ps usi n g Ar c GI S O nli n e] , β v er. 1. 0.” I n
S e cti o n 5, I ill ustr at e d t w o g e oli n g uisti c m a ps of t h e w or ds f or “ ir o n” i n Ai n u a n d J a p a n es e,
w hi c h I m a d e wit h Ar c GI S O nli n e.

1

I nt r o d u cti o n

Ar c GI S O nli n e is " a s c al a bl e a n d s e c ur e s oft w ar e- as- a-s er vi c e " h ost e d b y Esri. Y o u c a n a c c ess it fr o mt h e a d dr ess htt ps:// w w w. ar c gis. c o m/ h o m e/i n d e x. ht ml. S e cti o n 2 s h o ws h o w t o cr e at e a n Ar c GI S p u bli c
a c c o u nt, a n d S e cti o n 3 d es cri b es h o w t o m a k e a m a p wit h Ar c GI S O nli n e. I n S e cti o n 4, I pr o vi d e s o m eti ps f or m a ki n g a b e a utif ul a n d t e c h ni c al m a p. S e cti o n 5 i n cl u d es t w o g e oli n g uisti c m a ps of t h e w or ds
f or “ ir o n” i n Ai n u a n d J a p a n es e, m a d e b y Ar c GI S O nli n e. T h es e m a ps ar e als o us e d f or t h e pi ct ur es i nt his m a n u al.

2

C r e at e a n A r c GI S P u bli c A c c o u nt a n d Si g n i n 1
1.

First of all, y o u n e e d t o cr e at e y o ur p u bli c a c c o u nt o n Ar c GI S o nli n e. Ar c GI S p u bli c a c c o u nts
ar e a v ail a bl e f or i n di vi d u als. Cli c k “ Si g n u p n o w . ”( htt ps:// w w w. ar c gis. c o m/ h o m e/i n d e x. ht ml)
S e cti o n 2 is b as e d o n t h e “ Cr e at e a P u bli c A c c o u nt ” p a g e
htt p:// d o c. ar c gis. c o m/ e n/ ar c gis- o nli n e/r ef er e n c e/ cr e at e- a c c o u nt. ht m ( a c c ess e d 2 0 1 7- 5- 3)

1

16

2. Then, click “Create a Public Account.”(https://www.arcgis.com/home/signin.html)
3. To create a public account, you can use your Facebook or Google credentials. Otherwise, click“Enter Your Information” at the bottom.

4. Enter a username, 2 password3 and so on, and finally, click “Create My Account.”

2 Your username has to contain 6 to 128 alphanumeric characters, and the following special characters can also be

used: . (dot), _ (underscore), and @ (at sign).
3 Your password cannot be the same as your username. Use at least 8 characters, including at least 1 letter and 1

number.

17

5. If you check the box “Keep Me Signed in” on the “Sign in” page, you can be automaticallysigned in to ArcGIS Online.

(https://www.arcgis.com/home/signin.html)

3
3.1

Make a Map
Choose a Basemap4
1. After you are signed in, click “Make a Map.”

2. Pan and zoom the map to the area you want to display. You can also focus on the area byentering the place name or address in the search box.

Search box

Zoom in

Zoom out
4 Section 3.1 is based on the “Choose Basemap” page

http://doc.arcgis.com/en/arcgis-online/create-maps/choose-basemap.htm (accessed 2017-5-3)

18

3. When you click “Basemap,” ten thumbnails of basemaps are shown. The “World Topographic
Map” and “World Light Gray Canvas Base” basemaps would be useful for geolinguistic maps.
Select your favorite basemap, and click it.

1

2

World Topographic Map
World Light Gray Canvas Base
4. The first time you save your new map, click “Save” and “Save.” Then, the “Save Map” pageopens. Enter the title, tags and summary, and select a folder. Finally, click “Save Map.”

1
2

3

19

5.

T h e m a p h as n o w b e e n a d d e d t o t h e “ C o nt e nt ” f ol d er. T h e n e xt ti m e, cli c k “ C o nt e nt, ” a n d
c h o os e “ All M y C o nt e nt ” or t h e f ol d er n a m e w hi c h y o u s a v e d t h e m a p i n.
1

2

3

6.

S el e ct t h e m a p y o u w a nt t o o p e n, a n d t h e n cli c k t h e i c o n “
t h e m a p will dir e ctl y o p e n.

” a n d “ O p e n i n M a p Vi e w er. ” T h e n,

1

2

3. 2
Pr e p ar e t h e G e o gr a p hi c al D at a
Pr e p ar e t h e g e o gr a p hi c al d at a f or m a ki n g a m a p. A n E x c el w or ks h e et or s pr e a ds h e et is e as y t o us e f ort h e g e o gr a p hi c al d at a f or Ar c GI S.

20

1. Type the entries in the cells of the first row, as shown in Table 1:

Table 1: Entries of Data in an Excel Worksheet
2. Enter the latitude, longitude, place (name), address, and word forms in columns A to E. The data
must contain the location information, using the latitude-longitude data from the World
Geodetic System (WGS). You can acquire it from Google Maps (https://maps.google.com/),
ArcGIS and so on.
¾ Google Maps: Right-click on the map of the place for which you want to acquire data,
and then click “What’s here?”
1 (Right-click)2

Google Maps (https://maps.google.com/)¾ ArcGIS: Click “Measure” and the “Location” icon. Search the map for place you want
to investigate, and then click on it.

1

2

3
3. If one place has two word forms, insert a row for the second word. Copy and paste the location
information of the place (latitude, longitude, place, address), and type the second word form in
the cell of the inserted row.

21

4. Enter the cells in column F; for example, the words for “iron” in Japanese are classified into two
types: T (tetsu type) and K (kane type). In that case, T or K would be entered into the cells, as in
Table 2. When the words are classified by several criteria, insert columns for the classifications,as with columns G and H in Table 2.


Table 2: Classification of Words into Types
5. Save the workbook in the Excel file format for preservation and in the Unicode text file format(.txt) for ArcGIS.
3.3 Add Layers5
After choosing your basemap, you can display your text file of the geographical data, which was made in
Section 3.2. In ArcGIS, the contents of a map are called “Layers.”
1. Click “Add” and “Add Layer from File.”
2. Choose your geographical data file from your computer, then click “Import Layer.”

1

2

3

4
5 Section 3.3 is based on the “Add Layers” page

http://doc.arcgis.com/en/arcgis-online/create-maps/add-layers.htm (accessed 2017-5-3)

22

3.4

Change Style6
1. After you click “Import Layer,” the page for changing style opens directly. Alternatively, click“Details,” “Content” and the icon in the list of contents of the layer you want to change.

1
2

3

2. In the drop-down menu, choose the attribute you want to display in your layer.
3. Select a drawing style, and click “Select.” Then, the check mark appears on the upper right ofthe style you selected. Click “Options.” Here, I recommend the style “Types (Unique symbols).”

1

3
2

6 Section 3.4 is based on the “Change Style” page

http://doc.arcgis.com/en/arcgis-online/create-maps/change-style.htm (accessed 2017-5-3)

23

4. Click the symbol to edit. On the editorial page, you can change the shape, color and size of thesymbol you selected. Choose them and click “OK” and “Done.”

1

2

3

4

5

6

24

5. To save the layer, click “Details” and “Content.” In the icons of the layer you want to save, click
the “More Options” ( ) button and “Save Layer.”
6. If you are saving the layer for the first time, type the title, tags and summary, then choose a folder
and click “Create Item.” The next time, this page will be skipped.
1
2

3

4

5

7. Finally, click “Save” and “Save” to save the styling changes to the map (see also 3.1). If you
copy the original map, click “Save As.” Modify the title, etc., and click “Save Map.”
1
2

25

4
4.1

Other Tips
Using ArcGIS after the first time
1. After the first time you use ArcGIS, sign in and click “Content.” Then, you can go directly to the“Content” page.
2. If you click the name of the map or layer, you can get the information about it.
3. When you want to jump to the map or layer, click “Open in Map Viewer.”

1

2

3

26

4.2

Edit Features7
1. Click the feature on the map that you want to edit. The pop-up window will open. Click“Edit.”
1

2

2. The next pop-up window will open. Change the information of the feature you made in the
Excel worksheet previously: latitude-longitude, place, address, word and types. Click“Close.” If you want to delete the feature, click “Delete.”

7 Sections 4.2 and 4.3 are based on the “Edit Features” page

http://doc.arcgis.com/en/arcgis-online/create-maps/edit-features.htm (accessed 2017-5-3)

27

4.3

Add Features8
1. Click “Edit” and the symbol of the feature you want to add to the map.

1

2

2. Click the location where you want to add the feature to the map. Its pop-up will open. Typethe information and click “Close.”
1

2
3. Do not forget to save the layer and the map (see Section 3).
4.4

Superpose layers
1. You can superpose several layers on a map. Add some layers, change the styles and savethem, as we saw in Section 3.
2. Then, click “Details” and “Content,” and put a check mark on the layers you want todisplay.
3. Click “Save” to save the map.

8 Section 4.2 is based on the “Edit Features” page

http://doc.arcgis.com/en/arcgis-online/create-maps/edit-features.htm (accessed 2017-5-3)

28

1
2

3

4. 5

Ti ps f or Visi bilit y
1. If t h er e ar e t w o or t hr e e f or ms i n o n e pl a c e, i m pr o v e t h e s y m b ols ( e. g.,
or | ,
a n d ●).

29

a n d ●,

a n d ●,

2. It is b ett er t o m ar k s y m b ols i n diff er e nt l a n g u a g es b y diff er e nt c ol ors. F or e x a m pl e, bl u e is
us e d f or Ai n u, b ut r e d a n d bl a c k ar e us e d f or J a p a n es e.
3. Assi g n t h e s a m e s y m b ols t o t h e s a m e f or ms, c at e g ori es a n d l o a n w or ds. H er e, t h e m a p
s h o ws ● f or K ( k a ni a n d k a n e ) t y p e, f or K 2 (k a ni a n d k a n e ( c o m p o u n d n o u n)) t y p e a n df or T (t e ci a n d t ets u) t y p e.
4. If t h e s y m b ols ar e n ot visi bl e, c h a n g e t h e b as e m a p (s e e S e cti o n 3. 1).
5. T h e l e g e n d s h o ws t h e c orr es p o n d e n c e b et w e e n t h e s y m b ols a n d t y p es ( c at e g ori es) y o uassi g n e d. Cli c k “ D et ails ” a n d “ L e g e n d. ”
1
2

1

E x a m pl e: T h e M a p of I r o n ( M et al) i n J a p a n es e a n d Ai n u

M a p 1: Ir o n ( M et al) i n Ai n u a n d J a p a n es e

30

N o w, t a k e a l o o k at t h e e x a m pl es of t h e g e oli n g uisti c m a ps m a d e b y Ar c GI S. M a p 1 s h o ws t h e w or ds f or
ir o n ( m et al) i n Ai n u9 a n d J a p a n es e. F u k a z a w a ( 2 0 1 7) s u g g est e d t h e m a p of t h e w or ds f or “ ir o n” i n Ai n u,
as w ell as its d es cri pti o n. H er e, I a d d e d t h e l a y er of J a p a n es e t o t h e o n e of Ai n u a n d m o difi e d t h e
s y m b ols of t h e ori gi n al f e at ur es of Ai n u.
I n Ai n u, t h e w or ds f or “ ir o n” ar e cl assifi e d i nt o t h e f oll o wi n g t hr e e t y p es ( H att ori e d. 1 9 6 4):
K a ni t y p e:k á ni, k á n e, k a ni, k a a ni
K a ni ( c o m p o u n d n o u n) t y p e:y ay
’a n k a a ni, y a y á n k á ni, y a y á n k a ní a n d y a y á n k á n e f or “ g e n er al m et al ” ;sí n o k a n e
f or “ r e al m et al” ;sir ár k a ni
f or “ r o c k m et al”
T e ci t y p e:t e cí
I n J a p a n es e, t h e w or ds f or “ ir o n” ar e c at e g ori z e d i nt o t h e f oll o wi n g t hr e e t y p es:
K a n e t y p e:
k a ne, k a n e, k a ni, h a ni
K a n e ( c o m p o u n d n o u n) t y p e:
k a n a m o n o, k a n a m o ŋ, k a n e k e n o m o n o f or “ m et alli c t hi n g ” ;k a n akef or “ m et al c o nt ai n e d i n w at er ” ;ff uk a ni, ff u k a ni, k ɯr o ŋ a n e f or “ bl a c k m et al ” ;t ets
ɯ̈g a n e f or “ ir o n m et al”
T ets u t y p e:t ets

ɯ , t edzï, t e dz ɯ̈, t ets u, t etsï, t e T, tïtsï, et c.

T h e k a ni t y p e i n Ai n u lit er all y m e a ns “ m et al, ” a n d it w as b orr o w e d fr o m t h e J a p a n es e k a n e ,f or“ m et al, ” a n d wit h it t h e w or ds f or c ert ai n ki n ds of m et als, s u c h as g ol d, sil v er, a n d s o o n, w er e cr e at e d.
F u k a z a w a ( 2 0 1 7) als o m e nti o n e d, “ Ar o u n d t h e 9t h or 1 0t h c e nt ur y, w h e n H o k k ai d o w as di vi d e d i nt o t h e
O k h ots k c ult ur e a n d t h e S ats u m o n c ult ur e, p e o pl e w er e r efi ni n g ir o n, w hi c h w as t a k e n fr o m a tr a d e wit h
J a p a n es e. Alt h o u g h S a k h ali n Ai n u h a d t h e s kill of s mit h er y, H o k k ai d o Ai n u l ost it b e c a us e J a p a n es e
ir o n pr o d u cts w er e i m p ort e d, M a mi y a ( 1 8 1 0) r e p ort e d.”
I n t h e k a ni t y p e i n Ai n u, t h e w or ds f or “ m et al ” ar e a p pli e d t o t h e m e a ni n g of “ ir o n.” T h e v o w els / e/a n d /i/ i n t h e s e c o n d s yll a bl e of k a n e a n d k a ni w o ul d b e i nfl u e n c e d b y t h e T o h o k u di al e cts i nn ort h e ast er n m ai nl a n d J a p a n; t h e w or d k a n e͎ e xists i n t h e A o m ori, A kit a a n d F u k us hi m a di al e cts( Hir a y a m a 1 9 9 3: 3 3 7 6). Ai n u h as a fi v e- v o w el s yst e m /i, e, a, o, u/, w hi c h is t h e s a m e as t h e m ost
J a p a n es e di al e cts. H o w e v er, O ki n a w a di al e cts i n J a p a n als o us e t h e f or m k a ni ( Hir a y a m a 1 9 9 3: 3 3 7 7)b e c a us e t h e y h a v e a t hr e e- v o w el s yst e m /i, a, u/.
T h e t e ci [t etɕ i] t y p e is t h e l o a n w or d fr o m t h e J a p a n es e t et u[t ets u]. Ai n u d o es n ot p oss ess t h e
s o u n d [ts u], a n d, m or e o v er, t h e H o k k ai d o a n d T o h o k u di al e cts i n J a p a n es e h a v e t h e s o u n d f or m [t e͎d zï]
f or ir o n, usi n g a cl os e c e ntr al u nr o u n d e d v o w el [ï]. J a p a n es e t u [ts u] w as us u all y b orr o w e d i n Ai n u ci[tɕ i]: t h e w or d f or “ c a b b a g e, ” k á y p e ci [ k aj p eɕ i], w as b orr o w e d fr o m k ai b et u [ k ai b ets u] i n t h e H o k k ai d o
a n d A kit a di al e cts of J a p a n es e, a n d t h e w or d f or “ N e w Y e ar, ” s ó n k a ci [s o n k aɕ i], c a m e fr o m s y o o g at u[ʃ oː ɡ ats u] i n J a p a n es e.
M a p 2 b el o w s h o ws diff er e n c es i n a c c e nt a m o n g t h e di al e cts i n Ai n u a n d J a p a n es e. I n m ost of t h e
di al e cts i n Ai n u, t h e w or ds f or “ m et al ” ar e a c c e nt e d o n t h e first s yll a bl e, i. e., k á ni , k á n e, a n d k a a ni 1 0 .
910

Ai n u is a n i n di g e n o us l a n g u a g e i n H o k k ai d o, s o ut h er n S a k h ali n Isl a n d a n d t h e K uril Isl a n ds.
“ T h e w or d k a a ni of t h e S a k h ali n di al e cts w o ul d b e b orr o w e d fr o m t h e w or d k á ni of t h e H o k k ai d o di al e cts,

31

A c c or di n g t o t h e b asi c a c c e nt i n t h e H o k k ai d o Ai n u di al e cts, a hi g h pit c h f alls o n t h e s e c o n d s yll a bl e,
C V C V ́. Als o, i n t h e A o m ori a n d Hir os a ki di al e cts (J a p a n es e) of n ort h e ast er n J a p a n, t h e w or d f or
“ m et al ” h as a hi g h pit c h o n t h e s e c o n d s yll a bl e, [ k a n e] L H 1 1 . H o w e v er, as s u g g est e d i n F u k a z a w a ( 2 0 1 7),t h e w or d a c c e nt e d o n t h e s e c o n d s yll a bl e, i. e., k a ní , w as n ot i nfl u e n c e d b y t h es e di al e cts. O nl y t h e b asi c
a c c e nt r ul e w as a d o pt e d i n t h e H o k k ai d o Ai n u di al e cts. T h er ef or e, it w o ul d b e n e w er t h a n t h e o n es
a c c e nt e d o n t h e first s yll a bl e. O n M a p 2, t h e L H t y p e s h o ws l o c al distri b uti o n. V o vi n ( 1 9 9 3: 7 3- 7 4, 9 8)
r e c o nstr u ct e d t h e pr ot o- Ai n u f or m *k a a ni H H H “ m et al, ” w hi c h c o m es fr o m t h e Ol d J a p a n es e w or d k a n e
H H “ m et al. I n t h e K y ot o di al e ct of J a p a n es e, t h e a c c e nt-l ess k a n e H H m a y b e b orr o w e d i n Ai n u wit hk á ni H L ( C hiri 1 9 5 6[ 2 0 0 4]: 1 5 6, F u k a z a w a 2 0 1 7). I n Ai n u, t h e u n a c c e nt e d f or m is o nl y distri b ut e d i n
t h e u n a c c e nt e d di al e cts, b ut i n J a p a n es e, it is distri b ut e d als o i n t h e T o h o k u a n d O ki n a w a di al e cts, w hi c hh a v e a n a c c e nt s yst e m.
M a p 2, i n t er ms of t h e a c c e nt u al p att er ns of ir o n ( m et al) i n Ai n u a n d J a p a n es e, pr es e nts m or ediff er e n c es a m o n g t h e t y p es of k a ni a n d k a n e i n Ai n u a n d J a p a n es e. All of t h e m ar e dis pl a y e d ason
M a p 1. Li k e t h es e m a ps, w e c a n dr a w s e v er al m a ps wit h t h e s a m e d at a. I n or d er t o m a k e a b e a utif ul m a p
a n d gi v e hist ori c al i nt er pr et ati o n t o t h e m a p, y o u n e e d t o c h a n g e t h e crit eri a b y w hi c h t h e w or d f or ms(s o u n d f or ms) ar e cl assifi e d.

M a p 2: A c c e nt u al P att er ns of Ir o n ( M et al) i n Ai n u a n d J a p a n es ef oll o wi n g t h e c orr el ati o n b et w e e n a l o n g v o w el a a i n S a k h ali n a n d a hi g h pit c h á i n H o k k ai d o. ” ( F u k a z a w a 2 0 1 7)
1 1 O ki n a w a a n d H at o m a di al e cts i n s o ut h w e st er n J a p a n als o h a v e a L H a c c e nt i n t h e w or ds f or “ir o n ( m et al), ” h a ni
a n d k a ni .

32

A c k n o wl e d g e m e nts
I w o ul d li k e t o off er m y s p e ci al t h a n ks t o Pr of. Mits u a ki E n d o, w h o s h o w e d m e his J a p a n es e m a n u al of
Ar c GI S ( E n d o 2 0 1 6). It w as a gr e at c o ntri b uti o n t o m y dr aft of t his p a p er. T his w or k w as s u p p ort e d b y
J S P S K A K E N HI Gr a nt N u m b er 1 6J 0 1 0 5 5.
R ef e r e n c es
C hiri, M a s hi h o. 1 9 5 6 [ 2 0 0 4].
Pr oj e ct C e nt er.

T h e Ai n u L a n g u a g e Pri m er (). S a p p or o: H o k k ai d o P u bli c ati o n

E n d o, Mits u a ki. 2 0 1 6 . H o w t o m a k e G e oli n g uisti c al m a ps usi n g Ar c GI S O nli n e, β v er. 1. 0 ( Ar c GI S O nli n e
β1. 0). pri v at e e diti o n.
F u k a z a w a, Mi k a. 2 0 1 7 [t o b e s u b mitt e d]. “ Ir o n” i n Ai n u, E n d o, Mits u a ki ( e d.) St u di es i n Asi a n G e oli n g uisti cs , 5.
T o k y o: R es e ar c h I nstit ut e f or L a n g u a g es a n d C ult ur e s of Asi a a n d Afri c a (I L C A A), T o k y o U ni v ersit y of
F or ei g n St u di e s.
H att ori, S hir ô ( e d.). 1 9 6 4. Ai n u Di al e ct Di cti o n ar y (), T o k y o: I w a n a mi S h ot e n.

Hir a y a m a, T er u o. 1 9 9 3. Di cti o n ar y of J a p a n es e Di al e cts (M a mi y a, Ri n z ô a n d M ur a k a mi, T eis u k e. 1 8 1 0. H o k ui b u n k ai y o w a (N ati o n al
Ar c hi v e sof
J a p a n ( N ati o n al
Ar c hi v e sof
htt ps:// w w w. di git al. ar c hi v es. g o.j p/).
N a k a g a w a, Hir os hi. 1 9 9 5.
S of u k a n.

), 4. T o k y o: M eiji S h oi n.
Ja pa n), 6, I n t h e S af e k e e pi n g ofDi git al
Ar c hi v e:
U R L:

T h e Ai n u- J a p a n es e Di cti o n ar y: C hit os e Di al e ct (). T o k yo:

N a k a g a w a, Hir os hi. ( e d.). 2 0 1 4. T h e J a p a n es e- Ai n u Di cti o n ar y: M u k a w a Di al e ct (). C hi b a: C hi b a U ni v ersit y. ( A v ail a bl e o nli n e at htt p:// c a s- c hi b a. n et/ Ai n u- ar c hi v es/.)O k u d a, Os a mi 1 9 9 9. Ai n u S hiz u n ai Di al e ct L e xi c o n i n C o nt e xt ( wit h C D- R O M) (C D- R O M). E b ets u: S a p p or o G a k ui n U ni v ersit y.
S a w ai, H ar u mi. 2 0 0 6. Ms. T o m e n o S a w ai's B asi c V o c a b ul ar y of t h e T o k a c hi Di al e ct of Ai n u (). S a p p or o: T h e H o k k ai d o Ai n u C ult ur e R es e ar c h C e nt er.
T a m ur a, S u z u k o.
S of u k a n.

1 9 9 6.

T h e Ai n u- J a p a n es e Di cti o n ar y: S ar u Di al e ct (V o vi n, Al e x a n d er V.. 1 9 9 3. A R e c o nstr u cti o n of Pr ot o- Ai n u . L ei d e n: E. J. Brill.
[ We bsit e]
Ar c GI S O nli n e: htt ps:// w w w. ar c gis. c o m/ h o m e/i n d e x. ht ml
G o o gl e M a ps: htt ps:// m a ps. g o o gl e. c o m/

33). T o k y o:A geolinguistic approach to Tibeto-Burman vocabulary:A case study of ‘sun’ and a future perspective
Satoko Shirai
Japan Society for the Promotion of Science/University of Tsukuba

Abstract
In this paper, I will introduce a geolinguistic investigation into Tibeto-Burman vocabulary,which was conducted as part of the Asian Geolinguistic Project. After surveying the background,I will examine the distribution of words for ‘sun’ in Tibeto-Burman from the geolinguistic
perspective. I will also review our past attempt at the project and propose a cross-cutting analysis
and perspectives for future research.

1

Introduction

This paper provides a case study of the geolinguistic investigation into Tibeto-Burman (TB 1 )vocabulary that was conducted as part of the Asian Geolinguistic Project at the Research Institute for
Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa. During this project, we found that many different roots areused for each item in contemporary TB varieties. Consequently, our research mainly focuses on the
distribution and relative time-depth of different roots—not on the phonetic variety of one or a few roots.
Section 2 will survey the background to the geolinguistic approach to TB vocabulary, including ourrole within the Asian Geolinguistic Project. In Section 3, I will re-examine TB words for ‘sun’ from thegeolinguistic perspective with additional data. Section 4 will discuss the results of our works on TB
vocabularies, includeing ‘rice plant,’ ‘milk,’ ‘wind,’ and ‘iron.’ Section 5 will summarize the study.

2

Background to the study

Based on previous research on the TB language family, the importance of the geolinguistic viewpoint
has been emphasized repeatedly; for example, Matisoff (1990: 113) proposed the notion of the‘Sinosphere’ and ‘Indosphere’ to clarify the linguistic/cultural influence in Southeast Asia. He
introduced these terms as significant notions in the historical research of TB (Matisoff 1991: 485-486).
Dryer (2008, 2017) also employs a geolinguistic viewpoint to investigate TB word order. However, as
far as I know, the Asian Geolinguistic Project is the first attempt at creating a comprehensive language
map with which to conduct a geolinguistic investigation of TB vocabulary.
The TB project team began with five scholars: Shiho Ebihara, Kazue Iwasa, Keita Kurabe, Hiroyuki
Suzuki, and myself, and we were later joined by Ikuko Matsuse. We have been compiling and analyzing
data from hundreds of TB varieties. For word forms of ‘sun,’ Shirai et al. (2016) compiled data from 354
varieties 2; for ‘rice plant,’ Suzuki et al. (2016) compiled 426 varieties; for ‘milk,’ Ebihara et al. (2016)
compiled 533; for ‘wind,’ Iwasa et al. (forthcoming) compiled 560, for ‘iron,’ Kurabe et al.
(forthcoming-a) compiled 516, and for ways to count nouns, Kurabe et al. (forthcoming-b) compiled
491. However, varieties from some important language groups and areas such as Tamangish, Kiranti,
North Assam, and Northern Naga are missing from four of our lists: ‘sun,’ ‘rice plant,’ ‘milk,’ and‘wind.’

1 Abbreviations: OC - Old Chinese; PLB - Proto Lolo-Burmese; PTB - Proto Tibeto-Burman; STEDT Sino-Tibetan Etymological Dictionary and Thesaurus (database); TB - Tibeto-Burman.
2 The number includes the multiple forms found in a certain variety of a language/dialect.

34

3‘Sun’ in TB: revisited

In this section, I will re-examine the geographic distribution of TB words for ‘sun.’ Shirai et al. (2016)
were the first to attempt this theme; however, they lack data from some areas and groups—especiallyfrom Nepal, Bhutan, North Assam, and Northern Naga. This paper is based on enlarged data: 373
varieties of TB, including the abovementioned areas. 3
3.1

Classification of word forms

The TB languages in our list show a variety of word forms for ‘sun.’ They consist of a single stem, astem plus an affix/affixes, two or more compounded stems, or compounded stems plus an affix. First, I
classify them into stem types and compound types. Affixes are ignored in the classification, althoughsome forms do contain an affix/affixes. For example, the Xunhua Tibetan ȵəma and Tshobdun
rGyalrong ta'ŋi contain a suffix (-ma) and prefix (ta-) respectively, but both are classified into one of thestem types (the *nəy type).
3.1.1 Stem types
In this paper, I classify the stem types into eight types: [1] *nəy, [2] B-, [3] M-, [4] *gnam, [5] GI-, [6] J-,[7] TS-, and [8] *riŋ. 4[1] The *nəy type is the most widely found. The etymology is PTB *(s-)nəy ‘sun / day / dwell’(Matisoff 2003, STEDT #85). This root is recognized as cognate with the Chinese 日 (OC ńi̯ ĕt)(Matisoff 2003: 201, 464), and Coblin (1986) provides the Proto-Sino-Tibetan root *nyiʔ. Word formsof this type contain an initial nasal (n/ȵ/ŋ). Examples of such forms are ne, ní, ȵɔ35, 5 naŋ, niŋ, nyim, ȵã,ȵəma, ȵima, ȵɛ55mi53, kəȵi, ta'ŋi, etc.
[2] The B- type is the second-most common among the eight stem types. Forms with initial bilabialstops (p/b) are tentatively classified as this type. Burling (1967) provides a Proto-Burmish form *pwei1a‘sun’ and Matisoff (1978) PLB *mba3 ‘shine.’ However, the etymology of other groups is not clear. A
possible etymology is PTB *(p/b/h)(w/y)a(ː)(r/l/n/t) ‘fire / burn / shine / bright / light / white’ (STEDT#6713). In this paper, I do not further examine the detailed etymology. Examples of such forms are buí,pêi, pu55, ɣbə, ʁbɣi53, ʁmbɣi, ɦə22 ɦbə44, etc.
[3] The M- type tentatively involves words with initial m. Their common etymology is unclear,though we can determine the etymologies of two groups: Proto-Loloish *mo2 ‘sun’ (Bradley 1979) andProto-Karen *mɨB ‘sun’ (STEDT). A possible common etymology is PTB *r-məw > PLB *məw2 ‘sky /heavens / clouds’ (STEDT #2473). Examples of such forms are miɔ31, mun, ma̤ɯ̤ŋ, mɯ̄mé, ɑ55 m̩21 ɣɯ55,
etc.
[4] The *gnam type of stems are characterized by both initial n- and final -m. 6 The etymology is PTB*g-nam ‘sun / sky’ (STEDT #2484). Opgenort (2011: 268) provides the Proto-Kiranti form *ʔnam ‘sun.’
Examples of such forms are: nam31, nɛm31, nəm53, nɯm53, ngam, nɑm53nəm53, etc.
[5] The GI- type of stems has initial g/tʂ/dʑ/tɕ followed by a [+front] vowel. Shirai et al. (2016)concluded that the older form of this type had initial g-, because of the Written Northern Yi form: gɯ33.
The etymology is unclear, but one related proto-form may be PTB *g(l)(i/u)m > PLB gim1 ‘set (of the

3 The data of Newar varieties were added by Ikuko Matsuse. The Meche item was provided by Kazuyuki Kiryu

and inputted by I. Matsuse. The other addition was made by me.

4 They corresponds to the classification in Shirai et al. (2016) as follows: [1] A-1, [2] B, [3] C, [4] A-2, [5] E, [6] a

new classification (ramified from D) and [7] D. [8] was not mentioned in Shirai et al. (2016).
5 The numbers in italics that appear as superscripts to examples indicate tones, as do the alphanumericalsuperscripts such as those next to the word pwei1a.
6 Some varieties of the rGyalrongic group have a disyllabic form kV n/ȵ/ŋ- (e.g., Situ rGyalrong kəȵi) or initialcluster ɣn- (e.g. Khroskyabs/Lavrung ɣnə55). It is difficult to ascertain whether they are formed of a *nəy-type stemwith a prefix or a *gnam-type stem that has become disyllabic. In this paper, I follow the analysis of STEDT that
supports the former possibility.

35sun)’ (STEDT #6212, Matisoff 2003). It may have undergone the semantic change throughcompounding (see Section 3.2). Examples of such forms are gi33, gɯ33, dʑiə21, tɕi22, and dʑi33 mo21.
[6] The J- type stems have the initial approximant j-. The etymology is unclear. Jacques (2008:
45-46) mentions that the original meaning of the root jám in Situ rGyalrong is “to be sunny.” In thispaper, I separated the J- type, which is classified together with the TS- type in Shirai et al. (2016),
because it is highly doubtful whether the two types can be traced back to the same etymology. Examples
of such forms are 'kəjam, 'kə'jam, kə22jaʔm55, and kɜjam.
[7] TS- type stems have an initial fricative or affricate (s/ts/tsh/dʑ/tɕ) followed by a [-front] vowel.
The most possible etymology is PTB *tsyar ‘sunshine’ (Matisoff 2013). It is well-known that Burling(1983: 2, 20) proposes the Sal group that shares the common root *sal for ‘sun,’ and points out that *sal
is derived from PTB *tsyar ‘sunshine.’ Examples of such forms are san, jan, ɑ33 tshu55, and A55 tshu21.
[8] The *riŋ type is traced back to PTB *r(i/u)ŋ ‘sun / sunshine’ (STEDT #6225). The distribution isso limited that our list has only one example of the *riŋ stem type from Darang: ɹɯn53.
Besides the stems above, Matisoff (2003: 281) provides another PTB root for ‘sun’: *(m-)ka(-n)‘heavens / sky / sun’ (STEDT #697). However, according to STEDT, the words derived from*(m-)ka(-n) rarely mean ‘sun,’ but do mean ‘heaven’ or ‘sky’ in most modern varieties. STEDT
provides a compound in Magar nam-khan (*gnam + *(m-)ka(-n)) that means ‘sun.’ This suggests that its
primary meaning is ‘heavens / sky,’ rather than ‘sun.’
3.1.2 Compound types
There are a variety of compounds that consist of the stems discussed in Section 3.1.1. Moreover, there
are several stems found only in compounds: [9] L-, [10] HW-, and others (‘god/deity,’ ‘eye,’ etc.) 7.
[9] The L- type stem is found in several types of compound, but its etymology is unclear. Possible
etymologies are PTB *s-la(m/p) ‘dry (by fire / sun)’ (STEDT #3515) and PTB *s-li > PLB *ʔ-li1 ‘old (ofthings)’ (STEDT #7183). Examples of such forms are nɑm31loŋ55, lo21gɯ33, lumū, li55tɕi11, etc.
[10] The HW- type stem includes ho / xo in some Loloish varieties and stems with initial w / v. The
etymology is unclear, but a possible etymon is PTB *hwaŋ ‘shine / bright / yellow’ (STEDT #5518). It isconsidered a related form (allofam) of PTB *(p/b/h)(w/y)a(ː)(r/l/n/t) ‘fire / burn / shine / bright / light /white’ (STEDT #6713)—that is, the same root as a possible etymology of the B- type. Examples of suchforms are ho33bu33, xo21dʑi21mo21, nji55vɔ33, nju55wɛ33, etc.
Morphemes that mean ‘god/deity’ are found in the second syllable of some Tibetic varieties (e.g.,ɦnɔ̃l̥a, which literally means ‘sky-deity’) and the third syllable of some Newar varieties (e.g., nibhaa:
dya:, which literally means ‘sunlight-deity’).
Morphemes that mean ‘eye’ are found in the second syllable of some Luish (Asakian) varieties (e.g.,cəmíʔ, which literally means ‘sun(light)-eye’).
3.2

Geographical distribution and interpretation

In this section, I re-examine the geographical distribution of the types of the word ‘sun’ in TB and revise
some of the conclusions that we made in Shirai et al. (2016), such as the time-depth of the *TS- type, Jtype (both of which are classified into the D type in Shirai et al. 2016) and the *gnam type.
Map 1 shows the geographical distribution of the types of the word ‘sun’ throughout the TB area
based on the data from 373 varieties. All data sources apart from the field data provided by the membersof the TB team are listed at the end of this paper. Since the spots are heavily concentrated in the centralarea, an enlarged map of the area is provided as Map 2.

7 In this paper, I made the following changes from Shirai et al. (2016): (i) excluded the second syllable with initial

m- in Luish (Asakian) varieties from [3], which means ‘eye’ (Matisoff 2013), and (ii) excluded the second syllable
with initial voiceless lateral in Tibetic from [9], which means ‘god/deity’ (Suzuki 2016).

36

*nəy and its compounds

Other stem types

Other compound types

Map 1: ‘Sun’ in Tibeto-Burman: The whole area

37

Map 2: ‘Sun’ in Tibeto-Burman: The central area enlarged
3.2.1 *nəy
See Map 3. The *nəy type is the most widespread beyond the branches of TB. The *nəy-stem type isfound in the Tibetic, rGyalrongic, and Qiangic groups that are located in the northern and western partsof the TB area, and in Burmic and Loloish in the southern part. Moreover, compound types with*nəy-type morpheme are also widespread. The main types of *nəy-compounds are shown in Table 1.
Compound Type*nəy + GI*nəy + MM- + *nəy*nəy + HW*nəy + B-

Table 1: Compound types with a *nəy-type morpheme
Language Group
Area in TB
ExampleYi varieties
East
ne21ge21 (Naso Yi)
Loloish varieties
Southeastnɯ55ma33 (Hani)
Loloish varieties
Center and South mùŋ hnɯŋ (Bisu)
Loloish varieties
Southeast
ɲi6wo4(Mpi)
Newar varieties
Westnibaar(Dolakha Newar)

The *nəy-stem type and *nəy-compound type cover the whole TB area. However, interestingly, they are
not found in the south-central area. Consequently, we can conclude that the *nəy type is the oldest interms of time-depth (Shirai et al. 2016).

38

Map 3: Distribution of *nəy
3.2.2 B-, M-, and GI-: Relative time-depth of stem types and compounds
Map 4 shows the distribution of the types B-, M-, GI-, and their compounds. The other types including
the *nəy stem type are indicated with small dots.
Newar dialects (of eastern Nepal) that are newly added to our present list have compounds with a
B-type stem: *nəy + B- (+ ‘deity’). For example, Kathmandu Newar nibhaa:-dya: and Dolakha Newar
nibaar. Geographically, they are quite remote from other B- types, as indicated in Map 5. Moreover,compound types involving B- are relatively rare (Shirai et al. 2016). I now examine the distribution of*nəy + X (stems other than *nəy) and the X-stem type.
See Map 6. When we focus on the distribution of the M- + *nəy compounds and the M-stem typewithin the Loloish varieties (from southwestern China to the China-Myanmar-Laos-Vietnam borderarea), they show a significant distribution: the compound types are found around the spots of the M-stem
type 8. Thus, we can propose a hypothesis that the M-stem type is newer than M- + *nəy type compounds,
at least in the Loloish group.

8 In geolinguistics, such distribution is called ‘ABA distribution.’ This means that spots with character A are

located on both sides (or around) of spots with character B. It may mean that character B rose after character A
spread through the area, if character A is not likely to rise independently in different areas. Thus, ABA distribution
goes to show that A is older than B.

39

Map 4: Types B-, M-, GI-, and their compounds

Map 5: Type B- and its compounds

40Map 6: Type M- and its compounds in southwestern China

Map 7: Type GI- and its compounds
See map 7. As we have pointed out in Shirai et al. (2016), the GI-stem type and *nəy + GIcompound type show a similar distribution: the compound type is more widespread and the stem type isfound sporadically among them. Consequently, we hypothesized that GI- was first used as part of acompound (especially the *nəy + GI- type compound), and later became an independent word meaning‘sun.’

41

Compounding may trigger a semantic shift and may generate a new stem that means the same as thecompound. We have now found a parallel case in the M- type and GI- type. Thus, the *nəy-compoundtypes may be older than other stems. Moreover, *nəy itself means ‘sun.’ It may also have derived
compounds that mean ‘sun’ individually in several TB varieties. Thus, we tentatively conclude that the*nəy + B- (+ ‘deity’) type compound in Newar is formed individually from the B-stem type in the central
area. 93.2.3 TS- and JSee maps 8 and 9. Although the number of varieties that have the TS- type for ‘sun’ is rather small, theirlocation is considerably widespread: Varieties of Bodo-Garo, Jingpho-Luish, and Northern Naga havethe cognate form of *tsyar (STEDT). Moreover, some varieties of the Loloish and Qiangic group have asimilar form, although the etymology is unclear. Besides, we have found scarcely any examples ofcompounds of *nəy and TS-. 10 The TS- compounds typically consist of a stem with a different meaningfrom ‘sun,’ e.g., gSerpo Tibetan nɑ xtsa (*gnam ‘sky’ + TS-) and Cak cəmíʔ (TS- + ‘eye’). This suggeststhat the TS- type has appeared as a word for ‘sun’ independently of the *nəy type. Consequently, we canconclude that the TS-stem type is not older than its compounds. Therefore, it might be possible to makea tentative conclusion that the TS- type is not newer than the types B-, M-, and GI-, although the issue of
their relative time-depth awaits further investigation.
The J- type is found only in rGyalrongic varieties of the Tangut-Qiang group (northwestern Sichuan).
I can conclude that the J- type is a relatively new form for ‘sun.’

Map 8: Types TS-, J-, *gnam, *riŋ, and their compounds

9 If the B-type morphemes in Newar (west of the TB area), Loloish (center) and Qiangic (north) can be traced backto one etymology, the B- type is considerably old. However, this is not yet certain. The time-depth of type B- is asubject for future investigation.
10 The only exception is sTau nətso'kətsosi.

42

Map 9: The TS- type

Map 10: The *gnam type and *ring type43

3.2.4 *gnam and *riŋSee Maps 8 and 10. The *gnam type is found along the China-Myanmar border area (spots of Nungic
and Tibetic varieties), eastern Nepal (Kiranti varieties) and eastern Bhutan (Tsangla varieties). 11 The*gnam compounds include Yangthang Tibetan ɦnɔ̃ l̥ a (*gnam ‘sky’ 12 + ‘deity’), gSerpo Tibetan nɑ xtsa(*gnam ‘sky’ + TS-), and Trung nɑm31loŋ55 (*gnam + L-). It is difficult to determine whether the stem
type or compound type was the first to mean ‘sun.’The *gnam type of ‘sun’ in the China-Myanmar border area is a good example of an areal feature:
the same type is shared by both the Nungic and Tibetic varieties. Moreover, the other Tibetic varieties do
not have this type for ‘sun.’
The spots of the *gnam type in the China-Myanmar border area are apparently separated from theother spots in Bhutan and Nepal. However, we can find the *riŋ type (as well as some *nəy-compoundtypes) between them. The *riŋ type shows the most limited distribution among the eight stem-types. The*riŋ-stem type is found in the North Assam group, and a *riŋ-compound type that consists of *riŋ + TS(Tangsa rong shar) is found in the Northern Naga group. Both are located in the China-Myanmar borderarea. The fact that the *gnam type is located separately on both sides of the *riŋ type suggests that the*riŋ type is newer than the *gnam type.

4

A cross-study of the items: review of our past studies

In this section, I provide a brief review of our project on TB vocabulary conducted so far and re-interpretthe data from a cross-cutting perspective.
4.1

Types with wide distribution

Table 2 shows the most widespread types both geographically and genetically; that is, the types that are
expected to be the ‘oldest’ from the geolinguistic point of view. Such forms are represented as the formof the shared etyma in the ‘PTB’ column.
Item
‘sun’
‘rice plant’‘milk’‘wind’‘iron’

Table 2: Most widespread types from the geolinguistic point of view
PTB
Area*nəy ‘sun / day / dwell’Everywhere except for south-central(*b-ras ‘rice / fruit / bear fruit / round object’) North/West*s-nəw ‘breast / milk / suck’
North/South/East*g-ləy ‘wind’
North/South/East*syam ‘iron’Center/North/South/Eastor *l-tsyak ‘iron’
North/South/West

They are not chosen simply according to their geographic distribution because the Tibetic varieties
are extremely widespread in the TB area and retain considerable coherence in language features.
Consequently, though a feature that is found only in Tibetic (and around it as a Tibetan loan) is
considerably widespread in terms of geography, it may be newer than another feature that is found in a
number of other genetic groups. For example, ‘milk’ in TB involves the type derived from the Written
Tibetan ’oma, which is most widely distributed in terms of geography. However, Ebihara et al. (2016)concluded that the type derived from PTB *s-nəw in Table 2 is older than the ’oma type, because the*s-nəw type appears in at least six genetic groups and is geographically the second-most widespread. In
addition, the same etymon is shared by varieties of Tamangish, Kiranti, and Tsangla (STEDT), which
our map in Ebihara et al. (2016) lacks. This supports Ebihara et al.’s (2016) conclusion that the *s-nəw
type is the oldest among the types of word for ‘milk’ in TB.
11 Shirai et al. (2016) lacks data on Kiranti and Tsangla and concludes that the *gnam type is geographicallylimited and historically new. However, we now know that this is incorrect.
12 In fact, in many of the modern Tibetan dialects, the morpheme derived from *gnam means ‘sky.’ Note that*gnam is attested as Written Tibetan gnam ‘sky’ and many of the modern varieties reflect this.

44

The PTB root *nəy for ‘sun’ shows the widest distribution both geographically and genetically(3.2.1).
In contrast, the chronological order of the words for ‘rice plant’ is difficult to ascertain; thus, one of
the etyma is shown within parentheses in Table 2. *b-ras is geographically the most widespread, but it isshared only by Tibetic varieties and several other languages that have probably borrowed it from
Tibetan (Suzuki et al. 2016). Other roots are also distributed among limited genetic groups; thus, it
seems that almost every cultural group has a unique root for ‘rice plant.’ 13
Our first attempts at studying the distribution of the words for ‘wind’ (Iwasa et al., forthcoming) and‘iron’ (Kurabe et al., forthcoming) do not provide conclusive information on the chronological order.
Here, I choose PTB *g-ləy for ‘wind,’ and propose two candidates for ‘iron’: PTB *syam and PTB*l-tsyak.
The words derived from PTB *g-ləy ‘wind’ show striking diversity in their forms. We found all
patterns of initial lateral, velar, and both (disyllabic forms) (Iwasa et al. forthcoming).
The chronological order of the two roots for ‘iron’ is difficult to ascertain. In the eastern area, the*syam-type is predominant, but in the northern and western areas, the *l-tsyak-type is predominant with
Tibetan residents. In the southern area, both are found. Interestingly, sTau dialects (rGyalrongic), which
are located between the areas of the two roots, have mixed forms of the two types (Kurabe et al.
forthcoming).
4.2

Areas with unique types

Contrary to the ‘old’ types, we have also found some types with limited distribution for each item. Whena number of such types are piled up, they show an interesting distribution. I exclude the obvious
loanwords from other language families (e.g., Chinese) from the discussion here.
Examining the five geolinguistic maps of TB vocabulary, some areas appear to be significant withunique types that are not found in other areas. See Map 11.
Northwestern Sichuan of China is one such area. For example, rGyalrongic varieties in this area
share a unique root for ‘sun’ that is characterized by the initial palatal approximant (Section 3.2.3).
Moreover, many of the Tangut-Qiang branch varieties, which involve the rGyalrongic and Qiangic
groups, have a word for ‘milk’ that is derived from Proto-Tangut-Qiangic *s-lu ‘milk’ (STEDT #1786)(Ebihara et al. 2016). Moreover, the *s-lu type of words for ‘milk’ is attested only in this branch. STEDT
provides a PTB root *s-lwaŋ for ‘breast’ (STEDT #3458) but clearly mentions that *s-lwaŋ ‘always
means BREAST, not MILK.’14
Another significant area is found at the China-Myanmar-India border area. The Northern Nagagroup is known as an ‘areal’ group of this area. The words for ‘sun’ that are derived from PTB *r(i/u)ŋ
are found concentrated only in this area, and not only the Northern Naga group, but also the North
Assam group in this area have the *riŋ type of words for ‘sun’ (Section 3.2.4).
Each root for ‘iron’ that can be traced back to a PTB etymon shows considerably wide distribution.
Among them, the words derived from PTB *syaːl ⪤ *syiːr ‘iron’ are distibuted in a relatively narrow
area. They are concentrated in western Myanmar, northeastern India, and eastern Nepal (Kurabe
forthcoming). Thus, the eastern area of the distribution of PTB *syaːl ⪤ *syiːr ‘iron’ overlaps with the
distribution of PTB *r(i/u)ŋ ‘sun.’The distribution of words for ‘wind’ that are derived from PTB *buŋ ‘wind’ is noteworthy. It isconcentrated around this area, with interruption in the middle of the area. As is mentioned in Iwasa et al.
(forthcoming), Nungic and Jingpho languages (of the China-Myanmar border area) have the *buŋ type.
13 Our first attempt at studying the distribution of words for ‘rice plant,’ which appears as Suzuki et al. (2016),

lacks information about the languages of Tamangish, Kiranti, and Tsangla. Here, I briefly survey these varieties
using the information from the STEDT database, although the distribution is scattered and it is difficult to find theoldest type. Words for ‘sun’ in Tsangla can be traced back to PTB *kuk and this etymon is shared with Bai andseveral Lolo-Burmese languages. Words for ‘sun’ in Kiranti can be mainly traced back to PTB *m-dz(y)a-k/n/t/s,
which is shared only with Nusu. Words for ‘sun’ in Tamangish languages mainly have voiceless fricative initials.
They are similar to the ‘S-‘ type in Suzuki et al. (2016), which is found in the southeastern area.
14 http://stedt.berkeley.edu/~stedt-cgi/rootcanal.pl/etymon/1786 , accessed on April 23, 2017.

45

In addition, in the western side of the Myanmar-India border area, the Central Naga group has the *bung
type of words for ‘wind,’ for example, Chungli Ao mu2puŋ2 (STEDT). However, the Northern Nagagroup, who resides in the middle of the area, do not have the *buŋ type words for sun, but do have the*g-ləy type, that is, the most widespread type of ‘wind’ (Table 2). 15 This suggests that the *g-ləy type isthe newer in this area. Consequently, the *g-ləy type has only lately been brought into this area either
through borrowing or migration.
The isoglosses in Map 11 suggest that the language groups in these areas diverged from the other TB
groups at an early stage and underwent an individual process of language change. We should
concentrate on the historical process of their formation in future research.

Map 11: Areas with unique types

5

Conclusion

First, this paper has introduced the geolinguistic approach to TB vocabulary conducted as part of the
Asian Geolinguistic Project. I have pointed out that some of our past research lacked information on
several groups of the TB language family, which should be covered in later revisions.
Next, I re-examined the distribution of the words for ‘sun’ in TB with additional data. The data
supported our conclusion on the *nəy type: it is expected to be the oldest type from the geolinguistic
perspective. I also revised our earlier conclusion, especially on the time-depth of the M- + *nəy type,
15 This is a clear ABA distribution (See Note 8).

46TS- type, and *gnam type. The M- + *nəy types of compound are expected to be older than the M- stem
type at least in the Loloish group (Southwestern China), while the *nəy + GI- types are expected to beolder than the GI- stem type. The TS- type and *gnam type are geographically widespread and expected
to be considerably old. Moreover, I analyzed three new types of morphemes: the J- type, *riŋ type, andHW type. The J- type and *riŋ type are found as stem types, but their limited distribution suggests thatthey are relatively new forms for ‘sun’.
Finally, I reviewed our past attempt at researching TB vocabulary. I listed the widespread types, andsimultaneously pointed out the difficulty in deciding such types. Moreover, I picked up two significant
areas with unique vocabulary: western Sichuan and the China-Myanmar-India border.
We can expect that the continuous investigation into more items of vocabulary could clarify the time
depth of the divergence of language groups in TB: this is one of our goals. Another expected goal is toclarify the process of formation of the linguistic areas. To achieve this, we need to compile more data
(especially with regard to varieties of all groups) and learn more about the history of each word, eacharea, and each people.

Acknowledgments
This work is supported by the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science Kakenhi #16H03414. I would
like to thank Prof. Mitsuaki Endo and the members of the TB team of the Asian Geolinguistic Project for
their advice and support in this work. I also would like to thank Editage (www.editage.jp) for English
language editing, and Esri (www.esri.com) for the ArcGIS Online service for drawing maps.
References
Bradley, David. 1979. Proto-Loloish. London: Curzon Press.
Burling, Robbins. 1967. Proto-Lolo-Burmese. The Hague: Mouton.
Burling, Robbins. 1983. The sal languages. Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area 7(2):1-32.
Coblin, Weldon South. 1986. A sinologist's handlist of Sino-Tibetan lexical comparisons. (Monumenta Serica
Monograph Series, 18). Nettetal: Steyler Verlag.
Dryer, Mathew S. 2008. Word order in Tibeto-Burman languages. Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area. 31(1):1-83.
Dryer, Mathew S. 2017. Word order in Sino-Tibetan languages from a typological and geographical perspective.
Graham Thurgood and Randy J. LaPolla (eds.) The Sino-Tibetan Languages. 2nd ed. pp. 70-82. London/New
York: Routledge.
Ebihara, Shiho, K. Iwasa, K. Kurabe, S. Shirai, H. Suzuki and I. Matsuse. 2016. Milk: Tibeto-Burman. M. Endo(ed.) Studies in Asian Geolinguistics III. Fuchu: ILCAA, Tokyo University of Foreign Studies.
Iwasa, Kazue, H. Suzuki, K. Kurabe, S. Ebihara, S. Shirai and I. Matsuse. forthcoming. Wind: Tibeto-Burman. M.
Endo (ed.) Studies in Asian Geolinguistics IV. Fuchu: ILCAA, Tokyo University of Foreign Studies.
Jacques, Guillaume [向柏霖]. 2008. A Study of rGyalrong [嘉絨語研究]. 中国新發現語言研究叢書. Beijing:
Minzu Chubanshe [民族出版社].
Kurabe, Keita, H. Suzuki, K. Iwasa, S. Ebihara, S. Shirai and I. Matsuse. forthcoming. Iron in Tibeto-Burman. M.
Endo (ed.) Studies in Asian Geolinguistics V. Fuchu: ILCAA, Tokyo University of Foreign Studies.
Matisoff, James A. 1990. On Megalocomparison. Language 66(1): 106-120.
Matisoff, James A. 1991. Sino-Tibetan Linguistics: Present State and Future Prospects. Annual Review of
Anthropology 20: 469-504.
Matisoff, James A. 1978. Mpi and Lolo-Burmese microlinguistics. (Monumenta Serindica 4). Fuchu: ILCAA,
Tokyo University of Foreign Studies.
Matisoff, James A. 2003. Handbook of Proto-Tibeto-Burman: System and philosophy of Sino-Tibetan
reconstruction. Berkeley / Los Angeles / London: University of California Press.

47

Matisoff, James A. 2013. Re-examining the genetic position of Jingpho: Putting flesh on the bones of the
Jingpho/Luish relationship. Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area 36.2: 15-95.
Opgenort, Jean Robert. 2011. A note on Tilung and its position within Kiranti. Himalayan Linguistics 10.1:
253-271. [http://escholarship.org/uc/himalayanlinguistics]
Shirai, Satoko, K. Kurabe, K. Iwasa, H. Suzuki and S. Ebihara. 2016. Sun: Tibeto-Burman. In: Endo (ed.) Studies
in Asian Geolinguistics I, pp. 14-17. Fuchu: ILCAA, Tokyo University of Foreign Studies.
STEDT. The Sino-Tibetan Etymological Dictionary and Thesaurus. (http://stedt.berkeley.edu/, accessed on
2017-04-24).
Suzuki, Hiroyuki. 2016. A geolinguistic description of terms for ‘sun’ in Tibetic languages of the eastern
Tibetosphere. In: Endo (ed.) Studies in Asian Geolinguistics I, pp. 79-85. Fuchu: ILCAA, Tokyo University ofForeign Studies.
Suzuki, Hiroyuki, S. Shirai, K. Kurabe, K. Iwasa, S. Ebihara and I. Matsuse. 2016. Rice plant: Tibeto-Burman. In:
M. Endo (ed.) Studies in Asian Geolinguistics II. Fuchu: ILCAA, pp. 11-14. Tokyo University of Foreign
Studies.

Data Sources (except for those in the references listed above and the field data provided by themembers of the TB team: H. Suzuki, S. Ebihara, K. Kurabe, K. Iwasa, I. Matsuse, and S. Shirai.)
Bielmeier, Roland (ed.) unpublished. Comparative Dictionary of Tibetan Dialects (CDTD) Nouns. Bern.
Chen Kang [陳康]. 2010. A Study on the Yi Dialects. [彝語方言研究.] Beijing: Zhongyang Minzu Daxue
Chubanshe [中央民族大学出版社].
Duo'erji [多爾吉]. 1998. A Study of Geshizha sTau [道孚語格什扎話研究]. Beijing: Zhongguo Zangxue
Chubanshe [中國藏學出版社].
Ebihara, Shiho. 2010. Amdo-Tibetan Pronunciation and Conversation [アムド・チベット語の発音と会話].
Tokyo: ILCAA.
Ebihara, Shiho. 2008. A Descriptive Study on the Amdo Dialect of Tibetan Spoken in Gonghe County, Qinghai
Province [青海省共和県のチベット語アムド方言]. PhD dissertation. Tokyo: The University of Tokyo.
Genetti, Carol. 2007. A Grammar of Dolakha Newar. Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter.
Haller, Felix. 2000. Dialekt und Erzählungen von ShigatseWissenschaftsverlag. Bonn: VGH.
Haller, Felix. 2004. Dialekt und Erzählungen von Themchen: Sprachwissenschaftliche Beschreibung eines
Nomadendialektes aus Nord-Amdo. Bonn: VGH Wissenschaftsverlag.
Hanson, Ola. 1906. A Dictionary of the Kachin Language. Rangoon: Baptist Mission Press.
Hansson, Inga-Lill. 1989. A comparison of Akha, Hani, Khatu, and Pijo. Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area
12.1: 1-91.
Henderson, Eugénie J. A. 1997. Bwe Karen Dictionary, with Texts and English-Karen word list. London: Schoolof Oriental and African Studies, University of London.
Herrmann, Silke. 1989. Dialekt und Erzählungen von Diṅri. Bonn: VGH Wissenschaftsverlag.
Hoshi, Michiyo. 1978. Zangskar Vocabulary. Beijing: 中国社会科学出版社.
Hoshi, Michiyo. 1987. A Sharchok Vocabulary. Tokyo: ILCAA.
Hoshi, Michiyo & Hoshi, Izumi. 1995. Tibetan Vocabulary [チベット語語彙集]. Tokyo: ILCAA.
Hua, Kan [華侃]. 2002. Vocabularies of Amdo Dialect of Tibetan [藏語安多方言詞匯]. Gansu: Gansu Minzu
Chubanshe [甘肅民族出版社].
Huang, Bufan [黄布凡]. 2007. A Study of Lavrung [拉烏絨語研究]. 中国新發現語言研究叢書. Beijing: Minzu
Chubanshe [民族出版社].

48

Huang, Bufan ed. [黄布凡主編]. 1992. A Tibeto-Burman Lexicon [藏緬語族語言詞匯]. Beijing: Zhongyang
Minzuxueyuan Chubanshe [中央民族学院出版社].
Huang, Chenglong. 2007. A Study of Puxi Qiang [浦溪羌語研究]. 中国少数民族語言方言研究叢書. Beijing:
Minzu Chubanshe [民族出版社].
Huziwara, Keisuke [藤原敬介]. 2008. A descriptive linguistic study of the Cak language [チャック語の記述言
語学的研究] PhD Dissertation. Kyoto Univesity.
Huziwara, Keisuke [藤原敬介]. 2012. Towards a reconstruction of Proto-Luish [ルイ祖語の再構にむけて].
Kyoto University Linguistic Research [京都大学言語学研究] 31: 25-131.
Iwasa, Kazue. 2003. A Wordlist of the Ma Ndzi Language. In: Descriptive and Theoretical Studies in Minority
Languages of East and Southeast Asia [論集：東・東南アジアの少数言語の現地調査] 3.A3-16: 69-76.
Kyoto: Faculty of Informatics, Osaka Gakuin University [大阪学院大学情報学部].
Iwasa, Kazue. 2004. Axi and Azha - Descriptive, Comparative and Sociolinguistic Analyses of Two Lolo Dialects
of China. PhD Dissertation. Kobe: Kobe City University of Foreign Studies.
Jiang, Li. 2015. A Grammar of Guiqiong: A Language of Sichuan. Leiden/Boston: Brill.
Kato, Atsuhiko. 2008. Basic data on the Geba language [ゲーバー語基礎資料]. Asian and African Languages
and Linguistics 3: 169-219.
Kato, Atsuhiko. 2009. A basic vocabulary of Htoklibang Pwo Karen with Hpa-an, Kyonbyaw, and Proto-Pwo
Karen forms. Asian and African Languages and Linguistics 4: 169-218.
Kato, Atsuhiko and Khin Pale. 2012. The Myeik (Beik) dialect of Burmese. Journal of Asian and African Studies
83: 117-160.
Kato, Takashi. 2008. Linguistic Survey of Tibeto-Burman Languages in Lao P.D.R. Fuchu: ILCAA, Tokyo
University of Foreign Studies.
Kiryu, Kazuyuki. Meche. (ms).
LaPolla, Randy J. 2003. Rawang glossary. (ms.)
LaPolla, Randy with Huang Chenglong. 2003. A Gramar of Qiang. Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter.
Liu, Guangkun [劉光坤]. 1998. A Study of Mawo Qiang [麻窩羌語研究]. 中国少数民族語言方言研究叢書.
Chengdu: Sichuan Minzu Chubanshe [四川民族出版社].
Matisoff, James A. 2006. English-Lahu Lexicon. California: University of California Press.
Nagano, Yasuhiko and Marielle Prins. 2013. rGyalrongic Languages Database. (http://htq.minpaku.ac.jp/
databases/rGyalrong/).
Nishida, Tatsuo [西田龍雄]. 1966. A Preliminary Study on the Bisu Language: A Language of Northern Thailand,
Recently Discovered by Us [ビス語の研究 : タイ国北部におけるビス族の言語の予備的研究]. Southeast
Asian Studies [東南アジア研究] 4.1: 65-87.
Norman, Rebecca. 2001. Getting Started in Ladakhi: A Phrasebook for Learning Ladakhi (Revised and Expanded
Edition) Leh: Melong Publications.
Ohno, Toru [大野徹]. 2000. A Burmese (Myanmar) - Japanese Dictionary [ビルマ語（ミャンマー語）辞典] . 東
京: 大学書林.
Otsuka, Kosei [大塚行誠]. 2014. A basic vocabulary of the Palaw dialect of Burmese [ビルマ語パロー方言基礎語彙]. Asian and African Languages and Linguistics [アジア・アフリカの言語と言語学] 8: 163-200.
Fuchu: ILCAA, Tokyo University of Foreign Studies.
Qin Liying. unpublished. Trung Vocabulary. (ms.)
Qu, Aitang and KerangTan [瞿靄堂、譚克讓] 1983. Ngari Tibetan [阿里藏語]. Beijing: Chinese Academy ofSocial Sciences Press [中国社会科学出版社].

49

Sawada, Hideo [澤田英夫]. 2004. A tentative etymological word-list of Lhaovo (Maru) language. Approaches toEurasian Linguistic Areas, pp. 61-122. Kobe: Kobe City College of Nursing.
Shintani, Tadahiko L.A. 2009. The Pyen (or Phen) language: Its classified lexicon. Fuchu: ILCAA, Tokyo
University of Foreign Studies.
Shintani, Tadahiko L.A. 2014. The Zayein Language. Fuchu: ILCAA, Tokyo University of Foreign Studies.
Solnit, David. 1997. Eastern Kayah Li: Grammar, Texts, Glossary. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
Sprigg, Richard Keith. 2002. Balti-English English-Balti dictionary. Richmond: Routledge Curzon.
Srinuan Duanghom. 1976. An Mpi Dictionary. Bangkok: Indigenous Languages of Thailand Research Project,
Central Institute of English Language.
Sun, Hongkai, Katia Chirkova and Guangkun Liu [孫宏開、齊卡佳、劉光坤]. 2007. A Study of Baima [白馬語研究]. 中国新發現語言研究叢書. Beijing: Minzu Chubanshe [民族出版社].
Sun, Hongkai & Guangkun Liu [孫宏開、劉光坤]. 2009. A Grammar of Anong: Language Death under Intense
Contact. Leiden: Brill.
Sun, Hongkai, Dan Xu, Guangkun Liu and Lurongduoding [孫宏開、徐丹、劉光坤、魯絨多丁]. 2014. A Studyof Shihing [史興語研究]. 中國新發現語言研究叢書. Beijing: Minzu Chubanshe [民族出版社].
Taylor, L. F. 1921. The dialects of Burmese (I). The Journal of the Burma Research Society 11: 89-97.
van Driem, George. 1992. The Grammar of Dzongkha. Bhutan: RGoB, Dzongkha Development Commission.
VanBik, Kenneth. 2009. Proto-Kuki-Chin: a Reconstructed Ancestor of the Kuki-Chin Languages. Berkeley:
University of California.
Wannemacher, Mark and Zau Mo. 2000. A Preliminary Zaiwa - English Lexicon with English - Zaiwa Glossary.
Chiang Mai: Payap University.
Xu Xianming, Bai Bibo et al. [許鮮明， 白碧波 等]. 2013. Studies on the Hlersu Language [山蘇彝語研究].
Beijing: Minzu Chubanshe [民族出版社].
Yabu, Shiro [藪司郎]. 1980. Linguistic data of the Yaw dialect of the Burmese language [ビルマ語ヨー方言の資料]. Journal of Asian and African Studies [アジア・アフリカ言語文化研究] 19: 164-182. Fuchu: ILCAA,
Tokyo University of Foreign Studies.
Yabu, Shiro [藪司郎]. 1981. Linguistic data of the Taung'yo dialect of the Burmese language [ビルマ語タウン
ヨウ方言の資料]. Journal of Asian and African Studies [アジア・アフリカ言語文化研究] 21: 154-187.
Fuchu: ILCAA, Tokyo University of Foreign Studies.
Yabu, Shiro [藪司郎]. 1988. A preliminary report on the study of the Maru, Lashi and Atsi languages of Burma.
Historical and cultural studies in Burma, pp. 65-132. Tokyo: Sophia University.
Yuan, Jiahua [袁家驊]. 1953. Folksongs and Language of Axi [阿細民歌及其語言]. Beijing: Zhongguo Kexue
Chubanshe [中国科学院出版]
Yunnansheng Lunan Yizu zizhixian Wenshi Yanjiushi (ed.) [云南省路南彝族自治縣文史研究室編]. 1982. A
Concise Yi-Chinese Dictionary [彝漢簡明詞典]. Kunming: Yunnan Minzu Chubanshe [云南民族出版社].
Zangmianyu Yuyin he Cihui Bianxiezu [《藏緬語語音和詞匯》編写組]. 1991. Tibeto-Burman Phonology andLexicon [藏緬語語音和詞匯]. Beijing: Zhongguo Shehuikexue Chubanshe [中国社会科学出版社].
Zhongyangminyuan Yizu Lishi Wenxian Bianyishi, Zhongyangminyuan Yizu Lishiwenxianban [中央民院彝族
歷史文献編譯室，中央民院彝族歷史文献班]. 1984. Yunnan-Sichuan-Guizhou-Guangxi: A Comparative
Yi-Chinese Dictionary of Basic Vocaburaly [滇川黔桂 彝漢基本詞匯對照詞典]. (Mimeographed version[油印本]).
Zhou mao cao [周毛草]. 2003. A Study on rMachu Tibetan [瑪曲藏語研究]. Beijing: Minzu Chubanshe [民族出
版社].

50

The distribution of diphthongs in Vietnamese dialectsa

Masaaki Shimizu and Mika KondobaGraduate School of Language and Culture, Osaka University,b

Joint Researcher, ILCAA, Tokyo University of Foreign Studies

Abstract
This study aims to show the geographical distribution of diphthongs in Vietnamese dialects forthe purpose of rethinking their status in the syllable structure of each dialect and pointing out thechanges that occur in the Southern dialect. The focus of the analysis are the certain diphthongs in
the Northern and Southern dialects and the monophthongs that tend to be diphthongized in theSouthern dialect.

1

Introduction

3 diphthongs in the vowel system of the Northern dialect (NV) and Southern dialect (SV) of Vietnamese(see (1)), also called contour vowels in the recent literature (Emerich 2012), are quite problematic in that,
especially in the Southern dialect, they tend to be monophthongized when they occur in the closed
syllables (i.e., they merge with some monophthongs in the phoneme inventory) while they stay
diphthongs when they occur in the open syllables. The vowel inventory of these two dialects is given in
(1).
(1)

ie
i
e
ɜ
a

ɯɤ
ɯ
ɤ
ʌ
ɐ

uo
u
o
ɔ

iǝ
i
e
ɜ
a

NV (HN16)

ɯǝ
ɨ/ɯ
ɤ
ʌ
ɐ

uǝ
u
o
ɔ

SV (SG05)

Some examples of the NV diphthongs and their correspondence in SV are shown in (2), where the casesthat are monophthongized are labeled as (a) and those that are not are labeled as (b).
(2)(a)

Orthography
tiêm
tươm
buồm
tiền
lươn
cuốn
tiếng
thươnguống(b) tia
tưa
tua

NV
tiem1
tɯɤm1
buom2
tien2
lɯɤn1
kuon5
tieŋ5
tʰɯɤŋ1
ʔuoŋ5

SV
tim1
tɯm1
bɯm2
tiŋ2
lɯŋ1
kuŋ5
tiŋ5
tʰɯŋ1
ʔuŋ5

‘to inject’‘to emit’‘sail’‘money’‘eel’‘to roll’‘voice’‘injured’‘to drink’

tie1
tɯɤ1
tuo1

tiǝ1
tɯǝ1
tuǝ1

‘ray’
‘fur’
‘fringe’51

Fig.2 tia (tiǝ1:‫۔‬, ti1: ‫)ی‬Fig.1 tiêm (tiem1:‫۔‬, tim1:◆)The distribution of (a) and (b) in the dialects is shown in Fig.1―the case with final m― and Fig.2. It isquite obvious that an isogloss can be recognized at the location of Hải Vân Pass which lies between Huế
and Đà Nẵng City.
The question here is why the difference between (a) and (b) occurs in SV. We will think of otherphenomena observed in SV below to explain this difference.

2

Diphthongization

Another problem concerning the vowels in SV is the intrusive sound clearly recognized between theinitials and the high vowels /i ɯ u/ in the open syllables. Their actual value is as follows:(3)

Orthography
ti
tư
tu

NV
[tiː˦][tɯː˦][tuː˦]

SV[tɤ̆iˑ˦][tɤ̆ɯˑ˦][tɔ̆uˑ˦]‘service’‘private’‘to practice’

Furthermore, it is noteworthy that the distribution of the SV forms in (3) is exactly same as that of SV
forms in (2) (see Fig.3~5.).
Another kind of vowel change can be found in the case of lower vowels /e ɤ o/ in the open syllables,
but their geographical distribution is different from that of (3). Their actual value is follows:(4)

Orthography
tê
tơ
tô

NV
[teː˦][tɤː˦][toː˦]

SV[teˑɪ̆ ˦][tɤˑʊ̆˦][toˑŭ˦]‘numbed’‘silk’‘bowl’

52

Fig.3. ti([tiː˦]:‫ی‬, [tɤ̆iˑ˦]:‫)۔‬Fig.4. tư([tɯː˦]:‫ی‬, [tɤ̆ɯˑ˦]:‫)۔‬Fig.5. tu([tuː˦]:‫ی‬, [tɔ̆uˑ˦]:‫)۔‬Fig.6. tê([teː˦]:‫ی‬, [teˑɪ̆]:‫)۔‬Fig.7. tơ([tɤː˦]:‫ی‬, [tɤˑʊ̆]:‫)۔‬Fig.8. tô([toː˦]:‫ی‬, [toˑŭ]:‫)۔‬

Both (3) and (4) can be regarded as kinds of diphthongization, in which the sprouting short vowels are
not phonemic.
Considering the phenomena in (2), (3), and (4), we can think of two isoglosses as follows:(5)

Isoglosses
phonological evidences (Shinizu 2016)(2), (3)ձ Hải Vân Passv [w/j~]ղ Ninh Thuận-Bình Thuận (4)The isogloss between Ninh Thuận and Bình Thuận is also the border between [v] and [v/w/j] for the
initial v (Shimizu 2016).

53

3

Vowel shift

The next phenomena that are concerned with the vowels in SV can be taken as a vowel shift to avoid thephonemic merger. The cases are those forms containing the rhymes ây/âu, ay/au, and ai/ao inorthography. Their realization in each dialect is as follows:(6)

Orthography
cây
cay
cái
cầu
sáu
sao

NV
kʌj1
kɐj1
kaj5
kʌw2
sɐw5
saw1

SV
kɐj1
kaj1
kaj5
kɐw2
ʂaw5
ʂaw1

Quảng Nam
kɐj1
ka1
kɘa5
kɐw2
ʂa5
ʂo1

‘tree’‘hot’‘female’‘bridge’‘six’‘star’

Fig.9. cây(kʌj1: , kɐj1:ʕ)Fig.10. cay(kɐj1:ʕ, kaj1:‫ە‬, ka1:‫)ۻ‬Fig.11. cái(kaj5:‫ە‬, kɘa5:‫)ۻ‬Fig.12. cầu(kʌw2: , kɐw2:ʕ)Fig.13. sáu(sɐw5:ʕ, ʂaw5:‫ە‬, ʂa5:‫)ۻ‬Fig.14. sao(saw1, ʂaw1:‫ە‬, ʂo1:‫)ۻ‬54

Their geographical distribution is shown in Fig.9~14.
Fig.9 and Fig.10 show that the distribution of kʌj1/kɐj1 and kɐj1/kaj1 is quite similar, and this is also
the case for kʌw2/kɐw2 and sɐw5/ʂaw5 (Fig.12, 13). This means, when ʌj > ɐj and ʌw > ɐw occurred, ɐj> aj and ɐw > aw also occurred at the same time so as to avoid the phonemic merger. As a result, it wasinevitable to cause the merger between ay/ai and au/ao in the same regions (see Fig.10/11, 13/14).

4

Interpretation

So far those processes that occurred in SV vowels have been introduced. Here we try to find thecorrelation among those processes which can be summarized as follows:(7)

Monophthongization
Diphthongization I
Diphthongization II
Vowel shift: ʌ > ɐ > a / _{j, w}

(2a)
(3)
(4)
(6)

We suppose that (2a) and (3) are highly correlated in that they are concerned with the characteristics ofthe syllable structure of SV. Based on the moraic theory, each syllable may have two moras at most, andSV has the tendency of ‘one mora = one simple element’ (simple: [i], [ɯ], [u], etc.), while that of NV
may contain the internal contour ([ie], [ɯɤ], [uo]) within one mora (Emerich 2012).
(8)

σ

[t]

σ

μ

μ

[ie]

[m]

[t]

NV ‘to inject’

μ

μ

[i]

[m]

SV ‘to inject’

In SV, according to the principle ‘one mora = one simple element,’ two elements of the NV diphthongs
in the open syllables may have been reanalyzed as in (9), and the values of diphthongs remained as they
are.
(9)

σ

σ

μ
[t]

μ
[ie]

[t]

NV ‘ray’

μ

μ

[i]

[ǝ]

SV ‘ray’

Concerning Diphthongization I, SV still has the tendency of ‘one mora = one simple element’ and fills
one of the mora with an intrusive vowel.
(10)

σ

σ

μ
[t]

μ
[i]

[t]

NV ‘service’

μ

μ

[ɤ̆]

[i]

SV ‘service’55

The geographical range adapting Diphthongization II is more limited than Diphthongization I, whichmight be concerned with the sonority of vowels.
Once Diphthongization I has occurred, it is highly possible that the syllables with rhymes -i and –u
may have auditory similarity with those of –ây and –âu, just as in the case of (11), which might havebeen the trigger for the changes in (6): ʌj > ɐj, ʌw > ɐw.
(11)
σ

[t]

σ

μ

μ

[ʌ]

[j]

[t]

NV ‘west’

5

μ

μ

[ɤ̆]

[i]

SV ‘service’

Conclusion

This study has attempted to determine why not all of the NV diphthongs had undertaken the process ofmonophthongization in SV. It also supposes a characteristic of the syllable structure in SV, which can besummarized as: ‘one mora = one simple element.’
References
Emerich, G.H. 2012. The Vietnamese Vowel System. A Dissertation in Linguistics Presented to the Faculties of the
University of Pennsylvania, University of Pennsylvania, USA.
Hoàng, T.C. 2004. Phương Ngữ Học Tiếng Việt (Vietnamese dialectology). Nxb. Đại học Quốc gia Hà Nội: HàNội.
Martinet, A. 1952. Function, structure, and sound change. Word, vol.8, no.1, pp.1-32.
Shimizu, M. 2014. The Distribution of Final Palatals in Vietnamese Dialects. Papers from the 2nd International
Conference on Asian Geolinguistics, Bangkok, Thailand, 24-25 May, 2014.
Shimizu, M. 2016. A Phonological Basis for Rethinking Vietnamese Isoglosses. Papers from the 3rd International
Conference on Asian Geolinguistics, Royal University of Phnom Penh (RUPP), 23-24 May, 2016.
Thompson, L.C. 1959. Saigon Phonemics. Language, vol.35, no.3, pp.454-476.

56

No.
HN-01
HN-09
HN-15
HN-06
HN-08
HN-19
HN-05
HN-20
HN-13
HN-03
HN-11
HN-18
HN-17
HN-10
HN-02
HN-07
HN-04
HN-16
HN-30
HN-14
HN-28
HN-27
HN-24
HN-33
HN-29
HN-32
HN-22
HN-25
HN-31
HN-12
HU-03
HN-21
HU-01
HU-02
HU-07
HU-17
HU-13
HU-12
HU-16
HU-09
HU-06
HU-15
HU-11
HU-05
HU-19
HU-20
HU-21
SG-11
SG-04
SG-06
SG-07
SG-05
SG-03
SG-10
SG-12
SG-01
SG-15
SG-02
SG-16
SG-08

ProvinceThái Nguyên
Vıñ h PhúcBắ c GiangBắ c NinhHải Dương
Hải Dương
Hưng Yên
Hải Dương
Hưng Yên
Hà Tây
Hải Phòng
Hải Dương
Hải Dương
Hà Tây
Hưng Yên
Hà NamHà NamNam ĐinḥThanh Hoá
Nam ĐinḥThanh Hoá
Thanh Hoá
Thanh HoáNghê ̣ AnNghê ̣ AnNghê ̣ AnNghê ̣ AnNghê ̣ AnNghê ̣ An
Hà Tıñ h
Quảng Bı̀nh
Quảng Bı̀nh
Quảng Tri ̣HuếĐà NẵngĐà NẵngĐà Nẵng
Hô ̣i AnHô ̣i AnQuảng Nam
Quảng Nam
Quảng Nam
Quảng Nam
Quảng Ngãi
Bı̀nh ĐinḥPhú Yên
Ninh Thuâ ̣nLong An
Bı̀nh Thuâ ̣ntp HCMLong AnTiề n Giang
tp HCMBR-VT
An GiangBế n TreBế n TreBế n Tre
Vıñ h Phúc
Sóc Trăng

Birth Placeucky
ducbacquenhambacninhnamsachngocchau
vinhkhuctrungkhanh
thuanhunghatay
dongphuong
tucuonghungthai
unghoaantaolynhanthanhliemdaithang
thanhthonghiahunghunglocthhoangkhanhhaulocquyhopdienthap
phuthanhvandienhunglocvinh
buixa
lytrachhaidinhvinhkimquangdienthoquangdanang1
camle1cudai
hoian
daihoaduyhoatamgiang
tammydongtunghia
quynhontuyhoaphuocsonmyhanhbac
thuanquybinhthanh1
tphcm2
tphcm1binhchanhxuyenmoc
kienanp3bentreluongquoi
phuochieptambinhtanlong

tia
tiːə1
tiːə1
tia1
tiːə1
tiːə1
tiə1
tiə1
tiə1
tiːə1
tiːɜ1
tiːə1
tiə1
tiə1
tiːɐ1
tiːə1
tiːə1
tiːə1
tiːa1
tiə1
tiːa1
tia1
d˳iːɐ1
tiːə1
tiə1
tiə1
tiə1
tiːə1
tiːɐ1
tia1
tiːə1
tiɤ1
tiə1
tiɤ1
tiːɤ1
tiɐ1
tiːɤ1
tiɤ1
tiˑǝ1
tiːǝ1
tiˑɤ1
tiˑǝ1
tiːǝ1
tiˑǝ1
tiǝ1
tiɤ1
tiɤ1
tiː1
tiːɜ1
tiːɤ1
tiˑǝ1
tiˑǝ1
tiːɤ1
tiˑǝ1
tiˑǝ1
tiːɘ1
tiːǝ1
tiːǝ1
tiːǝ1
tiːɐ1
tiˑǝ1

ti
tiː1
tiː1
tiː1
tiː1
tiː1
tiː1
tiː1
tiː1
tiː1
tiː1
tiː1
tiː1
tiː1
tiː1
tiː1
tiː1
tiː1
tiː1
tiː1
tiː1
tiː1
d˳iː1
tiː1
tiː1
tiː1
tiː1
tiː1
tiː1
tiː1
tiː1
tiː1
tiː1
tiː1
tiː1
tiː1
tɤiː1
tɤiː1
tɤiː1
tëiː1
tɤiː1
tɤiˑ1
tëiː1
tɤiː1
tᶦiː1
tɤiː1
tɤiː1
tɤiː1
teɪː1
tɤiː1
tɤiː1
tiː1
tɤiː1
tiː1
tiː1
teɪː1
tᶦiː1
teiː1
tᶦiː1
tëɪː1
tiː1

tê
teː1
tëː1
teː1
tëː1
tëː1
teː1
teː1
teː1
teː1
teː1
teː1
teː1
teː1
tëː1
teː1
tëː1
tëː1
teː1
teː1
teː1
teː1
tëː1
tëː1
teː1
teː1
teː1
tëː1
tëː1
teː1
teː1
teː1
tëː1
teː1
teː1
teː1
teː1
teː1
teː1
tëː1
teː1
teː1
tëː1
teː1
teː1
teː1
teː1
teː1
teːɪ1
teː1
teː1
teːi1
teː1
teːi1
teːi1
teːɪ1
teːᶦ1
teːɪ1
teːᶦ1
tëːɪ1
teːi1

te
tɛæ1
tɛː1
tɛː1
tɛːæ1
tɛa1
tɛa1
tɛː1
tɛa1
tɛː1
tɛːa1
tɛːa1
tɛa1
tɛːa1
tɛːa1
tɛː1
tæː1
tɛːa1
tɛːa1
tɛːa1
tɛː1
tɛː1
tɛːa1
tɛːa1
tɛː1
tɛː1
tɛː1
tɛː1
tæː1
tɛː1
tɛː1
tɛː1
tɛː1
tɛː1
tɛː1
tɛː1
tɛː1
tɛː1
tɛː1
tɜː1
tɛː1
tɛː1
tɛː1
tɛː1
tɛː1
tɛː1
te̘ ː1
tɛː1
tæː1
tɛː1
tɛː1
tɛː1
tɛː1
tɛːa1
tɛː1
tɛː1
tɛːa1
tɛːa1
tɛːa1
tæːa1
tɛːa1

tưa
tɨːə1
tɨːə1
tɯːa1
tɨːə1
tɨɜ1
tɯə1
tɨə1
tɯˑə1
tɯːə1
tɨːɜ1
tɯːə1
tɯə1
tɯə1
tɨːə1
tɨːə1
tɨːə1
tɨːə1
tɯːa1
tɯə1
tɯːa1
tɯa1
tɨːɜ1
tɨːə1
tɯə1
tɯə1
tɯə1
tɨːə1
tɨːɐ1
tɯa1
tɨːə1
tɯɤ1
tɨə1
tɯǝ1
tɯːɤ1
tɨɐ1
tɨːɤ1
tɨɤ1
tɯˑǝ1
tɨːǝ1
tɨˑǝ1
tɯˑǝ1
tɨːɐ1
tɯˑǝ1
tɯǝ1
tɯɤ1
tɯɤ1
tɯː1
tɨːǝ1
tɯːɤ1
tɯˑǝ1
tɯːǝ1
tɯːɤ1
tɯˑǝ1
tɯˑǝ1
tɨːǝ1
tɯːǝ1
tɨːǝ1
tɯːǝ1
tɨːɐ1
tɯˑǝ1

57

tư
tɨː1
tɨː1
tɯː1
tɨː1
tɨː1
tɯː1
tɨː1
tɯː1
tɯː1
tɨː1
tɯː1
tɯː1
tɯː1
tɨː1
tɨː1
tɨː1
tɨː1
tɯː1
tɯː1
tɯː1
tɯː1
tɨː1
tɨː1
tɯː1
tɯː1
tɯː1
tɨː1
tɨː1
tɯː1
tɨː1
tɯː1
tɯː1
tɯː1
tɯː1
tɨː1
tɤɨː1
tɨː1
tɤɯː1
tʊɯː1
tɤɨː1
tɤɯˑ1
tɨː1
tɤɯː1
tɘɯː1
tɤɯː1
tɤɯː1
tɤɯː1
tɨːʊ1
tɤɯː1
tɤɯː1
tɤɯː1
tɯː1
tǝɯː1
tɯː1
tɯːʊ1
tᶷɯː1
tɯɨː1
tᶷɯː1
tɯɨː1
tɯː1

tơ
təː1
təː1
tɤː1
tɤː1
tɤː1
tɤː1
tɤː1
tɤː1
tɤː1
tɤː1
tɤː1
tɤː1
tɤː1
təː1
tɤː1
tɤː1
tɤː1
tɤː1
tɤː1
tɤː1
tɤː1
təː1
təː1
tɤː1
tɤːʊ1
tɤː1
təː1
təː1
tɤː1
tɤː1
tɤː1
tɤː1
tɤː1
tɤː1
tɤː1
tɤː1
tɤː1
tɤː1
tǝː1
tɤː1
tɤː1
tǝː1
tɤː1
tɤː1
tɤː1
tɤː1
tɤː1
tɤːʊ1
tɤː1
tɤː1
tɤː1
tɤː1
tɤːᶷ1
tɤː1
tɤː1
tɤːᶷ1
tɤːʊ1
tɤːᶷ1
tɤːʊ1
tɤː1

ta
taː1
taː1
taː1
taː1
taː1
taː1
taː1
taː1
taː1
taː1
taː1
taː1
taː1
taː1
taː1
taː1
taː1
taː1
taː1
taː1
taː1
taː1
taː1
taː1
taː1
taː1
taː1
taː1
taː1
taː1
taː1
taː1
taː1
taː1
taː1
taː1
taː1
taː1
taː1
tɔaː1
tɔaː1
taː1
tɔaː1
taː1
taː1
taː1
taː1
taː1
taː1
taː1
taː1
taː1
taː1
taː1
taː1
taː1
taː1
taː1
taː1
taː1

tua
tuɤ1
tuːɤ1
tuˑɑ1
tuːə1
tuɤ1
tuə1
tuə1
tuˑə1
tuːə1
tuɜ1
tuːə1
tuə1
tuˑə1
tuːɑ1
tuːɤ1
tuːə1
tuə1
tuːɑ1
tuə1
tuːɑ1
tuɑ1
tuːʌ1
tuːə1
tuə1
tuə1
tuə1
tuːɤ1
tuːɐ1
tuə1
tuːə1
tuɤ1
tuɤ1
tuɤ1
tuːɤ1
tuɐ1
tuːɤ1
tuɤ1
tuˑǝ1
tuːǝ1
tuːɤ1
tuˑǝ1
tuːɑ1
tuˑǝ1
tuǝ1
tuɤ1
tuɤ1
tuː1
tʊːɤ1
tuːo1
tuˑɔ1
tuːǝ1
tuːɤ1
tuˑǝ1
tuˑǝ1
tuːɤ1
tuːǝ1
tuːɤ1
tuːǝ1
tuːʌ1
tuˑǝ1

tu
tuː1
tuː1
tuː1
tuː1
tuː1
tuː1
tuː1
tuː1
tuː1
tuː1
tuː1
tuː1
tuː1
tuː1
tuː1
tuː1
tuː1
tuː1
tuː1
tuː1
tuː1
tuː1
tʊu1
tuː1
tuː1
tuː1
tuː1
tuː1
tuː1
tuː1
tuː1
tuː1
tuː1
tuː1
touː1
tɤuː1
tɤuː1
tɔuː1
tʊuː1
touː1
tɔuˑ1
tʊː1
tɔuˑ1
tǝuː1
tɤuː1
tɤuː1
tɤuː1
tʊuː1
tɤuː1
tɔuː1
tɔuː1
tuː1
tuː1
tuː1
tʊuː1
touː1
tʊuː1
tᶷuː1
tʊuː1
tuː1

tô
toː1
toː1
toː1
toː1
toː1
toː1
toː1
toː1
toː1
toː1
toː1
toː1
toː1
toː1
toː1
toː1
toː1
toː1
toː1
toː1
toː1
toː1
toʊ1
toː1
toː1
toː1
toː1
toː1
toː1
toː1
toː1
toː1
toː1
toː1
toː1
toː1
toː1
toː1
toː1
toː1
toː1
toː1
toː1
toː1
toː1
toː1
toː1
toːʊ1
toː1
toː1
toːu1
toː1
toːu1
toː1
tʊuː1
toːu1
toːʊ1
toːu1
toːʊ1
toːu1

to
tɔː1
tɔː1
tɔː1
tɔː1
tɔːɑ1
tɔː1
tɔː1
tɔː1
tɔː1
tɔː1
tɔː1
tɔː1
tɔˑɑ1
tɔː1
tɔː1
tɔː1
tɔː1
tɔː1
tɔː1
tɔː1
tɔː1
tɔː1
tɔː1
tɔː1
tɔː1
tɔː1
tɔː1
tɔː1
tɔː1
tɔː1
tɔː1
tɔː1
tɔː1
tɔː1
tɔː1
tɔː1
tɔː1
tɔː1
tɔː1
tɔː1
tɔː1
tɔː1
tɔː1
tɔː1
tɔː1
tɔː1
tɔː1
tɔː1
tɔː1
tɔː1
tɔː1
tɔː1
tɔː1
tɔː1
tɔː1
tɔː1
tɔː1
tɔːɑ1
tɔː1
tɔː1

tiêm
tiɘm1
tiëm1
tiem1
tiëm1
tiəm1
tiem1
tiëm1
tiem1
tiem1
tiɐm1
tiem1
tiem1
tiem1
tiëm1
tiɘm1
tiem1
tiəm1
tiːe˘m1
tiem1
tiem1
tiəm1
tiëm1
tiëm1
tiəm1
tiem1
tiem1
tiem1
tiem1
tiəm1
tiem1
tiɤm1
tiëm1
tiem1
tiɤm1
tiɤm1
tiːm1
tiːm1
tiːm1
tiːm1
tiːm1
tiːm1
tiːm1
tim1
tiːm1
tiːm1
tiːm1
tiːm1
tiːm1
tiːm1
tiːm1
tiːm1
tiːm1
tiːm1
tiːm1
tiːm1
tiːm1
tiːm1
tiːm1
tiːm1
tiːm1

No.
HN-01
HN-09
HN-15
HN-06
HN-08
HN-19
HN-05
HN-20
HN-13
HN-03
HN-11
HN-18
HN-17
HN-10
HN-02
HN-07
HN-04
HN-16
HN-30
HN-14
HN-28
HN-27
HN-24
HN-33
HN-29
HN-32
HN-22
HN-25
HN-31
HN-12
HU-03
HN-21
HU-01
HU-02
HU-07
HU-17
HU-13
HU-12
HU-16
HU-09
HU-06
HU-15
HU-11
HU-05
HU-19
HU-20
HU-21
SG-11
SG-04
SG-06
SG-07
SG-05
SG-03
SG-10
SG-12
SG-01
SG-15
SG-02
SG-16
SG-08

tươm
tɨəm1
tɨəm1
tɯɤm1
tɨəm1
tɨəm1
tɯɤm1
tɨəm1
tɯəm1
tɯɤm1
tɨɐm1
tɯɤm1
tɯɤm1
tɯɤm1
tɨəm1
tɨəm1
tɨəm1
tɨəm1
tɯːɤm1
tɯɤm1
tɯɤm1
tɯɤm1
tɨəm1
tɨəm1
tɯɤm1
tɯɤm1
tɯɤm1
tɨəm1
tɨəm1
tɯɤm1
tɨɤm1
tɯɤm1
tɨəm1
tɯɤm1
tɯɤm1
tɨːm1
tɨːm1
tɨːm1
tɯːm1
tɨːm1
tɨːm1
tɯːm1
tɨːm1
tɯm1
tɯːm1
tɯːm1
tɯːm1
tɯːm1
tɯːm1
tɯːɤm1
tɯːm1
tɯːm1
tɯːm1
tɯːm1
tɯːm1
tɨǝm1
tɯːm1
tɨːm1
tɯːm1
tɤːm1
tɯːm1

buồ m
ɓuɤm2
ɓuɑm2
ɓuəm2
ɓuom2
ɓuɑm2
ɓuəm2
ɓuɑm2
ɓuəm2
ɓuəm2
ɓuɑm2
ɓuɑm2
ɓuəm2
ɓuəm2
ɓuom2
ɓuʌm2
ɓuom2
ɓuɑm2
ɓuɑm2
ɓuəm2
ɓuəm2
ɓuəm2
ɓuɑm2
ɓuɑm2
ɓuəm2
ɓuəm2
ɓuəm2
ɓuɑm2
ɓuɤm2
ɓuəm2
ɓuom2
ɓuom2
ɓuom2
ɓuom2
ɓuɤm2
ɓɔːm2
ɓum2
ɓum2
ɓɔːm2
ɓoːm2
ɓɔːm2
ɓɔːm2
ɓoːm2
ɓɔm2
ɓɔːm2
ɓʊːm2
ɓuːm2
ɓɨːm2
ɓɤːm2
ɓɯːm2
ɓɯːm2
ɓɯːm2
ɓɤːm2
bɔːm2
ɓɯːm2
ɓɯːm2
bʊːm2
ɓɤːm2
bɔːm2
ɓɤːm2
ɓɔːm2

tiền
tiɘn2
tiën2
tien2
tiën2
tiǝn2
tien2
tiën2
tiǝn2
tien2
tiɜn2
tiǝn2
tien2
tien2
tiën2
tiɘn2
tiën2
tiǝn2
tiĕn2
tien2
tien2
tien2
tiën2
tiën2
tien2
tien2
tien2
tiën2
tiën2
tiǝn2
tien2
tien2
tiën2
tien2
tieŋ2
tiːɤŋ2tiːɤŋ2
tiːŋ2
tiːŋ2
tiːŋ2
tiːeŋ2
tiǝŋ2
tiëŋ2
tieŋ2
tiːŋ2
tiːŋ2
tieŋ2
tiːŋ2
tɪːŋ2
tiːŋ2
tiːŋ2
tiːŋ2
tiːŋ2
tiːŋ2
tiːŋ2
tɪːŋ2
tiːeŋ2
tiːŋ2
tiːŋ2
tiːŋ2
tiːŋ2

lươn
lɨǝn1
lɨǝn1
lɯɤn1
lɨǝn1
nɨǝn1
lɯɤn1
lɨǝn1
nɯɤn1
nɯɤn1
lɨɜn1
lɨǝn1
nɯɤn1
lɯɤn1
lɨǝn1
lɨǝn1
lɨǝn1
lɨǝn1
lːɯɤn1
lɯɤn1
lɯɤn1
lɯɤn1
lɨǝn1
lɨǝn1
lɯɤn1
lɯɤn1
lɯɤn1
lɨǝn1
lɨɐn1
lɯɤn1
lɨɤn1
lɯɤn1
lɨǝn1
lɯɤn1
lɯɤŋ1
lɨːɤŋ1
lɨːŋ1
lɨːŋ1
lɯːŋ1
lɨən1
lɨːŋ1
lɯːŋ1
lɨəŋ1
lɯːŋ1
lɯːŋ1
lɯːŋ1
lɯːŋ1
lɯːŋ1
lɯɤŋ1
lɯːŋ1
lɯːŋ1
lɯːŋ1
lɯːŋ1
lɯːn1
lɯːŋ1
lɨːəŋ1lɯːŋ1lɨːəŋ1
lɯːŋ1
lɨːŋ1
lɯːŋ1

cuốn
kuɤn5
kuɑn5
kuǝn5
kuon5
kuɑn5
kuǝn5
kuon5
kuǝn5
kuǝn5
kuɑn5
kuǝn5
kuǝn5
kuǝn5
kuɑn5
kuʌn5
kuʌn5
kuɑn5
kuon5
kuǝn5
kuǝn5
kuǝn5
kuɤn5
kuɑn5
kuǝn5
kuǝn5
kuǝn5
kuɑn5
kuon5
kuǝn5
kuon5
kṵo̰n5kuon5
kuon5
kṵo̰ŋ5
kuːŋ5
kuːŋ5
kuŋ5
kʊŋ5
kʊːn5
kuŋ5
kʊŋ5
kuʌn5
kuːŋ5
kʊːuŋ5
kuoŋ5
kuːŋ5
kuːŋ5
kʊːŋ5
kuːŋ5
kuːŋ5
kuːŋ5
kuːŋ5
kuǝŋ5
kuːŋ5
kuːŋ5
kuːŋ5
kuːŋ5
kʊːŋ5
kuːŋ5
kuːŋ5

tiếng
tiǝŋ5
tiëŋ5
tieŋ5
tiəŋ5
tiǝŋ5
tieŋ5
tiəŋ5
tiǝŋ5
tieŋ5
tiɐŋ5
tiǝŋ5
tiǝŋ5
tiǝŋ5
tiëŋ5
tiǝŋ5
tiëŋ5
tiəŋ5
tiǝŋ5
tieŋ5
tieŋ5
tiǝŋ5
tiːɨŋ5
tiëŋ5
tiǝŋ5
tiǝŋ5
tieŋ5
tiǝŋ5
tiǝŋ5
tiǝŋ5
tieŋ5
tḭḛŋ5
tiǝŋ5
tieŋ5
tḭḛŋ5
tiːŋ5
tiːeŋ5
tiːŋ5
tiːŋ5
tiːŋ5
tiːeŋ5
tieŋ5
tieŋ5
tieŋ5
tiːŋ5
tiːŋ5
tieŋ5
tiːŋ5
tiːŋ5
tiːŋ5
tiːŋ5
tiːŋ5
tiːŋ5
tiːŋ5
tiːŋ5
tiːŋ5
tiːŋ5
tiːŋ5
tiːŋ5
tiːŋ5
tiːŋ5

thươngtʰɨǝŋ1tʰɨǝŋ1tʰɯɤŋ1tʰɨǝŋ1tʰɨǝŋ1tʰɯɤŋ1tʰɨǝŋ1tʰɯɤŋ1tʰɯɤŋ1tʰɨɤŋ1tʰɯɤŋ1tʰɯɤŋ1tʰɯɤŋ1tʰɨǝŋ1tʰɨǝŋ1tʰɨǝŋ1tʰɨəŋ1tʰɯɤŋ1tʰɯɤŋ1tʰɯɤŋ1tʰɯɤŋ1tʰɨǝŋ1tʰɨǝŋ1tʰɯɤŋ1tʰɯɤŋ1tʰɯɤŋ1tʰɨǝŋ1tʰɨǝŋ1tʰɯɤŋ1tʰɨɤŋ1tʰɯɤŋ1tʰɨǝŋ1tʰɯɤŋ1tʰɯɤŋ1tʰɨːŋ1tʰɨːŋ1tʰɨːŋ1tʰɯˑɤŋ1tʰɨəŋ1tʰɨːɤŋ1tʰɯːŋ1tʰɨəŋ1tʰɯːŋ1tʰɯːŋ1tʰɯːŋ1tʰɯːŋ1tʰɯːŋ1tʰɯɤŋ1tʰɯːŋ1tʰɯːŋ1tʰɯːŋ1tʰɯːŋ1tʰɯːŋ1tʰɯːŋ1tʰɨəŋ1tʰɯːŋ1tʰɨəŋ1tʰɯːŋ1tʰɯːŋ1tʰɯːŋ1

58

uống
ʔuɤŋ5
ʔuɑŋ5
ʔuǝŋ5
ʔuoŋ5
ʔuɑŋ5
ʔuǝŋ5
ʔuoŋ5
ʔuǝŋ5
ʔuǝŋ5
ʔuɑŋ5
ʔuoŋ5
ʔuǝŋ5
ʔuǝŋ5
ʔuoŋ5
ʔuʌŋ5
ʔuoŋ5
ʔuoŋ5
ʔuoŋ5
ʔuoŋ5
ʔuǝŋ5
ʔuəŋ5
ʔʊːŋ5
ʔuoŋ5
ʔuəŋ5
ʔuəŋ5
ʔuəŋ5
ʔuoŋ5
ʔuoŋ5
ʔuəŋ5
ʔuoŋ5
ʔṵo̰ŋ5ʔuoŋ5ʔuoŋ5ʔṵo̰ŋ5ʔuːoŋ5
ʔuːŋ5
ʔuᶷŋ5
ʔʊŋ5
ʔʊːŋ5
ʔuŋ5
ʔʊuŋ5
ʔuoŋ5
ʔuǝŋ5
ʔuːoŋ5
ʔuoŋ5
ʔuːŋ5
ʔuːŋ5
ʔuːŋ5
ʔuːŋ5
ʔuːŋ5
ʔuːŋ5
ʔuːŋ5
ʔuːŋ5
ʔuːŋ5
ʔʊːŋ5
ʔuːŋ5
ʔuːʊŋ5
ʔʊːŋ5
ʔʊːŋ5
ʔuːŋ5

cầ u
kʌu2
kʌʊ2
kʌu2
kʌu2
kʌu2
kʌu2
kʌu2
kʌu2
kʌu2
kʌu2
kʌu2
kʌu2
kʌuˑ2
kʌu2
kʌu2
kʌu2
kʌu2
kʌu2
kʌu2
kʌu2
kʌu2
kʌʊ2
kʌʊ2
kʌu2
kʌu2
kʌu2
kʌʊ2
kʌʊ2
kʌu2
kʌu2
kʌu2
kʌʊ2
kʌu2
kʌu2
kʌu2
kʌu2
kʌu2
kau2
kaːʊ2
kɑːu2
kau2
kɐu2
kau2
kau2
kʌu2
kʌu2
kʌu2
kɑu2
kʌu2
kʌu2
kʌu2
kʌu2
kʌu2
kʌu2
kau2
kau2
kɑʊ2
kau2
kaʊː2
kʌu2

sao
saːo1
saːo1
saːu1
saːo1
saːo1
ʂaːu1
saːo1
ʂaːu1
saːu1
saːo1
saːu1
saːu1
ʂaːu1
saːo1
saːo1
saːo1
saːo1
ʃaːu1
saːu1
saːu1
saːu1
saːo1
saːo1
saːu1
ʂaːu1
ʂaːu1
ʃaːo1
saːo1
saːu1
ʂaːu1
ʂaːu1
ʂaːo1
saːu1
saːu1
ʂaːu1
saːu1
saːu1
ʂoː1
ʂaːo1
ʃoː1
soː1
ʂaːo1
ʂoːu1
sɔuː1
saːu1
saːu1
saːu1
saːo1
saːu1
ʂaːu1
ʂaːu1
ʂaːu1
ʂaːu1
saːu1
saːo1
saːu1
ʂaːʊ1
ʃaːu1
ʃaːʊ1
saːu1

sáu
saoː5
saʊː5
sau5
saoː5
saoː5
ʂau5
saoː5
ʂau5
sau5
sauː5
sɑu5
sau5
ʂaˑuˑ1
saʊː5
saoː5
saoː5
saoː5
ʃau5
sau5
sau5
sau5
saʊ5
saoː5
sau5
ʂau5
ʂaːu5
ʃaoː5
saoː5
sau5
ʂau5
ʂa̰u5
ʂaʊ5
ʂau5
sa̰u5
ʂau5
saːu5
saːu5
ʂaː5
ʂaoː5
ʃaː5
saː5
ʂao5
ʂaː5
saː5
sau5
sau5
sau5
saːo5
saːu5
ʂau5
ʂaːu5
ʂaːu5
ʂaːu5
sa(ː)u5
saːo5
saːu5
saːʊ5
saːu5
ʃaːʊ5
saːu5

cây
kʌɪ1
kʌɪ1
kʌi1
kʌɪ1
kʌɪ1
kʌi1
kʌɪ1
kʌi1
kæi1
kʌɪ1
kʌi1
kʌi1
kʌi1
kʌɪ1
kʌɪ1
kʌɪ1
kʌɪ1
kʌi1
kʌi1
kæi1
kʌi1
kʌɪ1
kʌɪ1
kɘi1
kʌi1
kʌi1
kʌɪ1
kʌɪ1
kæi1
kʌi1
kʌi1
kʌɪ1
kæi1
kʌi1
kʌi1
kʌi1
kʌi1
kaːi1
kɐɪ1
kaːi1
kaːi1
kɐɪ1
kaːi1
kai1
kʌi1
kʌi1
kʌi1
kɑɪ1
kai1
kæi1
kæi1
kʌi1
kʌi1
kʌi1
kaɪ1
kai1
kaɪ1
kʌi1
kaɪ1
kæi1

cái
kaːɪ5
kaːɪ5
kaːi5
kaːɪ5
kaːɪ5
kaːi5
kaːɪ5
kaːi5
kaːi5
kaːɪ5
kaːi5
kaːi5
kaːi5
kaːɪ5
kaːɪ5
kaːɪ5
kaːɪ5
kaːi5
kaːi5
kaːi5
kaːi5
kaːɪ5
kaːɪ5
kaːi5
kaːi5
kaːi5
kaːɪ5
kaːɪ5
kaːi5
kaːi5
ka̰ːi5kaːɪ5kaːi5ka̰ːi5
kaːi5
kaːi5
kaːi5
kɘa5
kaːɪ5
kɘːɐ5
kɘɤ5
kaːɪ5
kɘa5
kɘː5
kaːi5
kaːi5
kaːi5
kaːɪ5
kaːi5
kaːi5
kaːi5
kaːi5
kaːi5
kaːi5
kaːɪ5
kaːi5
kaːɪ5
kaːi5
kaːɪ5
kaːi5

cay
kaɪ1
kaɪ1
kai1
kaɪ1
kaɪ1
kai1
kaɪ1
kai1
kai1
kaɪ1
kai1
kai1
kai1
kaɪ1
kaɪ1
kaɪ1
kaɪ1
kai1
kai1
kai1
kai1
kaɪ1
kaɪ1
kai1
kai1
kai1
kaɪ1
kaɪ1
kai1
kai1
kai1
kaɪ1
kai1
kai1
kai1
kaːi1
kaːi1
kaːi1 / kaː1
kaːɪ1
kɑː1
kaː1
kaːɪ1
kaːi1
kaːi1
kai1
kai1
kai1
kaːɪ1
kai1
kæi1
kæi1
kaːi1
kai1
kæi1
kaɪ1
kaːi1
kaɪ1
kaːi1
kaːɪ1
kaːi1

  7   8  (  9         8" .%; )  55;4 ?

# 04  4#6%   4) $  6"0 !2 0  >  4 50  ;        5  4  5   0 A 5 0H   2 5   6 50    5   4      5   ; ;5  2    H     5506   5 4    24  0;55 

   

>H     H  52 6 5   -  0H0<ᖍ䈝=6ġ 5     5 0  6 5  75B:5   4 >  B: 5  4 50   44 55 4  6UH0@2 
A 5 3 6  6# 6#   6    5>4 5 4     H       ;  0 
 >H    U:@B   H B6  4   ; 20:@5 >    5 0    5   4  2 ; :      ;       5   5 0#H    A5250  :      A 50    205:6D 506H   ;2 04255   255 6 504 :  : 7     H  552 # ;   4 66# 69.6H  9 A'  )6 6   4E   7 A 4 5  6      4E   7 4   > 5 ;  ;      ; 5;3 ;  
44 55 4  
5 4  0: 50<&&= ; ;   <=  < =# <=#   <# 6 . =   5 75  575


#.&+3* 5; & &-

59  $  ;   ;  H   5 55 4   H      550 55055 >4 5 250 5     
%    H   ;5 2   H 0  06  0  5 
5 4 0Liushu <‫ޝ‬Җ=6A 44   %4  64 6Jiajie <‫ٷ‬
ُ=,    5   20      4        0  H     055 4    55   *64   : 
*> H 694 H;<㿴㤳ᖍ᮷=6 5 50055 60

 +    0  D 450>   5 4 0   5;  :  5 5         55  5  H  5  $6       5 ; A5250 0 5  5 D 506  4
H   A 50   :      56 20 5  5   50   4   46;:    0   5% ;6 ; 0       56 H   4  50  0
206   4    2   ;    0-    4 5506    50
 5       52D2 550  44 2     5 4
2 5  4    20:@5        4 6  50445    0H  62  ; 50 4     :H        20 5 A   A  56 :    0;5         550
2;  ;;; 0 A 65  :5  5   5      >   ;0 0   5 0      50   0   55     0 5       ( 7      H    6       6   6 #   #    5   4DianChuanQianGui Yihan Jiben Cihui Duizhao cidian <Ǎ⓷ᐍ唄Ṳᖍ≹สᵜ䇽≷ሩ➗䇽ިǎ=6  4 #  5   54   3Diannan Yiwen
Zidian<Ǎ⓷ইᖍ᮷ᆇިǎ=6Guyiwen Changyong Zidian <Ǎਔᖍ᮷ᑨ⭘ᆇިǎ=6Yunnan Guifan Yiwen
Yihan Cidian <ǍӁই㿴㤳ᖍ᮷ᖍ≹䇽ިǎ=( 2 5       455;3  37     3  <7D =6#A< 4 =6 <=6#< A =6 9 A<75= #   3  <7 = # 3  <#    # =    6 20 H      ;  ;      2 5  % 8     55 6 0  5;  
 > 204 5   504H   > 54 ;  A 5   5  0;  ;5 2  6  5 40; 4  5 ;5 2   44
 > 6 55     > 5506-(; 2     50

+6    ; 205  2 5
:   0 0    @ A    (#)44 
8      5
 2  6  2 54   5 50;50; 6  6  5 40262 5  5 4         A  56 5Q¨R Q©R ;  QªR   55  5  06 0 D A      05  5 0-%   

61



:    ( ( A  55  2  4  :   6  5 <‫=ُٷ‬6   5     G5A 5   6         ; 5    5    4    5;  HB B44    ;   )  > 55   :    2 2





$ 

      <=      % (  (    #
> 










62

 

%  54  2650     A 44 4 % 50  5   
5   4   5 >   2;5075 44    
4A U @6   5506  54  0     >9  ( <     %   ((        "



 









 











 












63



$ 645 A ;      4U @6   5  47D <  6:5 
H=  5G«BG62044 4     ; 55; 2  54 2
 #>>16  04 ;;    54 2>:¬s/g-la<G
>$=6;5  47D 5 
$;26  4   446     47D  55   
4   %        6 6 550 6     D   50 ; 54  2 507D 
:6  ; :    6;   5   ;#   75
4    %  4U @6   5   4  7   # 6 5      > 04QA­®®R7   6   6  4;    7:¬s-ya < %#$= /%4          6 5A 5 ;5 2 7  6;         5;5 2   50  > ;5   ;0    
 554A U4@7  
>;  A  5  5  44 4  $  %






0B5 645 
9 ¬ ¯° F 2%6   4    5 6 ;4U0B5 @° F 2% H
5  6   ;4   3**4±--  65 0   6     4 67D 6#  6#  7 6;
F 2°%   5  0   5A  5 0     %  ; 0    A     5# 

1
/

3GG   50GK  BG   5 5GM ¯ < + ?50&8=
3GG   50GK  BG   5 5GM ¯4< + ?50&8=

64$;26  4U9 @6     550
      2  

 &               









) 


H  % 55   26      25047        # 
      5   56 5  A 5   44>    4  ;  ; 544  46  4 
 5  0&
&

 4U@6 A  ;4 7D ;  0 5 6   04    >: ¬s/g-la<G>$=67:¬s/-la³<G>$=  57¬b la³<=>46 4 055 56

65



&

)

  >7  H     2 2  : ;5 ; ;        %     5   H     4    ;5      4  6   6 #   H 6  A     4; A  5 ; ;   4   5 H          54HB   B44  67   # >      ;   5 5 2505  0      A  6 5   5 4     ;6204;   
5  :    $;26 5  6      5 0   05   4       '5F<ᤷ䐟㓿=6# 4; ; 06    A  4 
H      4'  <᫛㏻= # 6H 69. 9 A*%4 5;   54   A  6   5;7   #     2      ;   ;55     4  5 6 4   F0 4 
5 6'  
  6 55   2  4  5  5% 20 4 6%    4 5    2  0 5    5 2 5 0 5506         506     50    5      H   6;     A 5 4    5 >
2 5  4  50 2        H  5 50  50 + %($6 % A  0       4    6 ;       45 4
95   50 44   0 2 5 5   5  %4        4  6%5  2       50  0,  : 506  2  &&  >    4 >  B:   %    % :;  <=6 Medieval
Tibeto-Burman languages: proceedings of a symposium held in Leiden, June 26, 2000, at the 9th Seminar of
the International Association of Tibetan Studies. Brill's Tibetan studies library. :5538*²
6#5  5䱸༛᷇Ԇ㪇/1-Ǎᖍ䈝ㆰᘇǎ≁᯿ࠪ⡸⽮6୎ᳺᑑ//*Ǎᙤᩥ幉ǎᅄᕝẸ᪘ฟ∧♫6³5›⿰哇&&ǋ୰ᅜᙤ᪘ᣦ㊰⤒࡟࠾ࡅࡿ㏦㟋࣭ᣍ㨦♽ඛ⛣ఫ⤒㊰ゝㄝ࡟㛵ࡍࡿ◊✲Ẹ᪘࢔࢖ࢹࣥࢸ࢕ࢸ࢕ᙧᡂ࡜ࡢ㛵㐃࡟ࡘ࠸࡚ࠖ ᅜ㝿༠ຊ◊✲ㄅ1B  ᗈᓥ኱Ꮫ኱Ꮫ㝔ᅜ㝿༠ຊ◊✲⛉⦅3(8B/&
QAR#  Q´µ¶·R7  6  
%  4U) @6  05 6;26  5  0 2   55    4  4UH @6  04 55 A  5  >:¬(k/)uk<:G)"G)>!)G: "GH )=  U @6  04 55    >:¬sya-n< 7#$G >G9  % 7= 5; &- 5; &-3*8
* &&6 59F 7//*

66

9F࣭ 67 A ᷌ਹ࣭ᆱ૸ዝ⾿⾕//*Ǎᙤᩥࠓᣦ㊰㓿ࠔ䈁㞟ǎѝཞ≁᯿ᆖ䲒ࠪ⡸⽮$ 6? 㯤ᘓ᫂//*Ǎᙤ᪘ྂ⡠ᩥ⊩ᴫせǎப༡Ẹ᪘ฟ∧♫%;  6" .&&-  0²75  (<= 5  04 5  ¸ @A ¹B 6   %    % :;  <=6 Medieval Tibeto-Burman Languages II: proceedings of the 10th
Seminar of the IATS.:553-*B(/%;  6 " .  &&1  550 4  ³ B' B  5 0  50     4  75  6$%H%(Q$%1&R : 5 SD% 2 7  5 B%  %:; <=6 Medieval Tibeto-Burman Languages III: proceedings of the 11th Seminarof the IATS3B+1"6³ DᏍ⚈ཀ&&-Ǎᙤᩥⓗ※ὶǎẸ᪘ฟ∧♫#.6>ΎỈா&+ࠕ㏆௦࠿ࡽ⌧௦࡟࠾ࡅࡿᙤ᪘♫఍ࡢኚ໬࡜ᩥ໬ኚᐜ࡟࠾ࡅࡿ⥲ྜⓗ◊✲ᾴᒣᙤ᪘ࢆ୰ᚰ࡜ࡋ࡚ࠖ!2 06 
 5; $ 5 &  04>   5H 2 4#! )  5
 # 4 H%  $55<=6Medieval Tibeto-Burman Languages IV:553++8B+1& 5; $ 5 &-)  5  4 H ²   04 H Rocznik
Orientalistyczny, &-3-B+'6A ᵡጷ‫ݸ‬//+Ǎᖍ᯿ި㉽᮷ॆǎѝཞ≁᯿བྷᆖࠪ⡸⽮'6A ᵡጷ‫ݸ‬//(Ǎᖍ᯿ި㉽᮷ॆ⹄ウǎѝཞ≁᯿བྷᆖࠪ⡸⽮  3ᵾ໎ॾѫ㕆&+Ǎਔᖍ᮷ᑨ⭘ᆇިǎӁই≁᯿ࠪ⡸⽮Პẵѭᕐ䖹Პẵㅁ㕆㪇&+ǍӁই㿴㤳ᖍ᮷ᖍ≹䇽ިǎӁই≁᯿ࠪ⡸⽮Პ⪻ᔰㅹ㕆㪇&&-Ǎ⓷ইᖍ᮷ᆇިǎӁই≁᯿ࠪ⡸⽮↖㠚・㓚హਁ㕆㪇&Ǎ≹ᖍㆰ᰾䇽ިǎഋᐍ≁᯿ࠪ⡸⽮Ӂইⴱ䐟ইᖍ᯿㠚⋫৯᮷ਢ⹄ウᇔ㕆/1+Ǎᖍ≹ㆰ᰾䇽ިǎӁই≁᯿ࠪ⡸⽮ѝཞ≁䲒ᖍ᯿শਢ᮷⥞⨝㕆/1+Ǎ⓷ᐍ唄Ṳᖍ≹สᵜ䇽≷ሩ➗䇽ިǎѝཞ≁䲒ᖍ᯿শਢ᮷⥞㕆䈁ᇔ

67

?%      )   ! #   >  <9(   )   @B E @, E




a

$0#.
a%"#6!2 045G  54 50  >  5    4    5  0 >  5  6
4   >   <H 6# 6 9 =  *& 5 
4   >  5  6   5;4 2 
2  6   ;  U;@ U@     >  5     A 5 6  6% 6 56: 6 
0  < =>0   5      >  B: 5    ; 4    5 2 0<1    5  6> &+> ,#.4 O =6 5A 5    4 50 5 
  ?  </1*3++=6    8& º 4 ;  2  5A 5   ;  >  <4 >=655>  <4 >=
73 #¯#   O ¯   O ¯  O ¯  5O #¯# O ¯ O#¯# ; O¯ ; 
3    2 04>  5  < > ,#.4 =


55  5   5 2 ;  9%#5  >  466 55 4;  >   6  4 ;55  #4  42 5 5%      A 4 25A 54  50  ; ; 4 >   >46    4;
4  >     >  5   2one

5  68  0   5  2 06  5A 5 2    5 2 O  5506  
2     552 >  5  $;265   2F   
4 >   5   2    50  54   5 0    
" 5B . @90B," 5B . :0 B <&&= ? <&&=O    ; 5 2  ;      5    >  5A  ;   5A 54 3U;@ U6@;  4   >   > ;;  44 4 4  O 4; 
; 5          04>  5  >0 2 
 #. <&8 =  #. <&( =   2506     4   5 5    
>    5  4 ;5>        F Studies in Asian Geolinguistics6;   %;    5<&8= #.  5<&(= >     4    4     >    50 5 4 B    5
55  0   4&&* &8: 4 6 ;55   4      4     6      D 550   ;    6    
 5045      >5  45 B 55U5 6@6 5 ;  544#5 6; 50A  2  6   5 ;    5@B E 5        44 4 ; 4 <>  0  4
5  A   4%;    5<&8=455;3*

5 5= 4  >  737¯>rlungO$¯>lhags paO#¯>bser buO¯>’urO)¯ 
3   4;44U;@4>  5  
>   ;   4  >0  76 ;   2 4 > rlung $;26   4 444 ;466 44 50   055    5 44A6 ;55    0$6    A  44; >0 7
>  44  ;rlung lhags pa 5  05  ;  ;  3  45 4  4;>>;rlung 5 U 6@U  @
*>

4 ; B ; 5;  54

69

;55 U 5 <4 45  ;5=@6    ;  lhags pa
U .@$;26     50 4; 52  ; 55     4  044 5A 54
7    >   6; 4    4   426  
2   5 50
          4 6 >0  )  F      7 ?0 .  5 H <//-=   0;     5506%
 2   4   >  0  0 2  050 0  >46 % ;55     
455;  0    4     >   6   5 0    3 < = >rlungB 0 O<:=>lhags paB 0 O <=>bser buB 0 >5   50   G »G6
   4 ;   ; >%   50     4   0     56 % 2    2 5    A  5  
455;3+
B 0 <>0 7 = 3055 4 >rlungQ¼5½¾R6Q¼5¿R6QÀ5¿R6Q¼5Á¾R6Q;5¿R6Q5ÂR6Q¼5ÃÄÅR6Q¼F½R¾ 6Q¼FÂR6  3055 45 255  5  5G5Æ GQ5Æ ½R¾   3055 4< =  >rlung dmar
Q¼5½¾ ±3R6Q;5½¾ ±3R6QFÂ»Å3R6  3055 4< =  >rlung maQ¼5ÇR6Q;5 R6 3055 4< =5  >rlung dmar
Q¼5½¾ ÈR6Q¼5½¾  ÈR6Q¼5½3 ÈR6Q¼F½¾ FR6Q¼F½¾ FÈR6 *3055 4  >rlung kha
Q¼5Â R6QÀ5¿ R6 +3  0 
Q¼5;R6Q5Æ ¿¼.»R
:B 0 3 4  >lhags pa <>0 $ =QÉ»R6QÊ¼»R6QÊË R6Q¼ÊË R6Q¼  R6 
B 0 3  505  > bser bu <>0 # = Q »R6Q±5Ì3R6        44 4   5 <G5G  GFG=6     ;5 0  4  
   ; 2   >>5 55 3G5GNGFG6;26 45  5 4  2>25   4   5G5Æ G<  6   4+=    2     5 4   > rlung dmar  550  U 0;@<' /1-38*1=%  5 5 5    4  >
rlung dmar4  >rlung ma A  56 9. 5 <)  " =G¼5­¾ ÈG6;5 >rlung dmar  >a   055 5  5  550  GG  >0 : 5; 0    4U °44Apa@>;4  444 4
>0  6; 4 ; 0   54-* 2 55   4;44U;@   >     
5 4    2
+   5 450    504;   56
'<&&= #.<&(=-> 2 5 5 4)  ; 50 4  >lhags pa4U4 @6 
U;@>  5 0    1  06   Muping Yiyu64 
A ; BXifan Yiyu <#.&&8=

70





73# 5 4  2*32 55   4;44U;@   >   
 * 5 06>0  < ;5>rlung4=;     >   >:  0         B    4 >0  2  ; 5  5505 4 U  # @<> &+6> , #. 4 = #   4  2           4    4;    5 >      4 >     <H  &&/3/+B/-O #B   B >B&3*8B*1=

71   42     5>  < =6 4>0 : 27  $;26>0 : >      5 5;6  ;4  2   2     5>  ;      #    5506 2 5 2       #  5  >0   >    O6   0    2  D 0 454
5  < 50 =%7  0>  64  6  >0  <rlung= >0 :<lhags pa= 
6 U;@ U .@  2502   6 A 4  U  :@
0  U: @ 0    4;2  $;26 44 45       4     4  3 5  
 " 6 50H 2 +   5  4   73# 5 4  2+3   4;44U;@    "   >0  2 2    56 ;4  < 6 6 *6 +=   5 <  6  O  6   =4 2  6     50 4 ; >4 4  5 6F     "   >
2          4 5   #B0B05 6 6

72

5B
6  B?5  6  6    5           4 ;$;26   ;    5505     >4 5505   ;>466rlung dmarU ;6 @ rlung ma
U;@> 2       ;$;26  4 A  6 0 5 ;   %# 6%    5   6   F    
#      2 > 4 6   50  5    
4    ; 5    4  2     4  5 506         2 5 5     550 4  4    6 6 2 5
2  4)  "  2 2   H 4      5065     4  6  6  H > 4   0    < +=%4   A  54  : B   6  4      $;26 0       4 6;
4           B; 4     6       5050 4   5 ? F )2<:  5 O#B0B05 " = 5  4 4B?5"    ;    ;   44  %4;    2 6 5    ;     ;55  
0D 7      5 7  F )26;         55  : B   #      6     4    4%4 ;4   55044  5    6   5   ;55    4 rlung ma   rlung dmar  4
44   <#.&= 50   24  54  2    50  055 56   4
4;   
  >    06   5    5  ? F  )2   D  44    > 5    5    H5   6 ;     6  
5  >5  550  2   550     5 6;  5 4 4 5r>>4  2        > 4 5 r6 ;         5 4 6    ; 
45   2;5>46      50  A 4 ;44 ; 4 *   50 4   0  )    6  5 4  5   #2  40 )  "  *6 2  4  5 >
A 4 *5 2  40 )  " 6;    06  2  0 5 5  5 A <#  &*6#.,#  
&-= +65 ;A  54Q¼5;R Q5Æ ¿ ¼.»R6    : . 5 < 50>  =  );  5 < " =6  250>4 ;
4 555   > 5      ; 4 U;6@ ;             5 A 45A 5  ;55 2 ;4 >   25  4;45     5 6 2 4 ;  >  5  6    ;0 0A      5   2 5; 5A 52  A  5  @, E>5 U@  50;4 0  5  O;5 40;
 4 U@   #.   5 <&(= A  ;  4 U@  2 ;  >  B: 5  $;26  F 04 >    4 B5 2  6 02  4 >  5       
  > F 04>  5   424>’bras4 044U@< 5  6 6=2 56   ; 5 044  4 73

 F 0    6%   5     444> 0 4 >  
5  A   4#.  5<&(=455;3(73 ¯>’brasO ¯ ; <>’bras drus ma=O:¯>drus maO +¯4 -3   4;44U@4>  5  
 -;6 >  5   50  > 0’bras> F 0
4 >     5  B5 2    >’bras    4 ;   >   5   #. , #    <&(=     ; ’bras ; A 20; >     5 
$;262 5 5    B    4 >   6;   B;   4H 2 ;55 : 6; 44   >5  
4 4U@>5 4 4  50 : ; <#. 
5&(=>4  2  ; 0  455;3
< =   04U@<:= ;   4U@>0    50  5     56 ;  >0  :   U  <556 56 =@4U 5  @U 5 @ 4@ 044 
E  4   5 66  54 5 4 O;26;   5  0 4    ;  > 4  5      5  4 5   44>’brasU@;  2#.<&=>5 4      5 455;3
B 0 
B3; 5  4>’brasQ«Í±3R6QÍ3R6QÎÏ3R6QÐÑ3R6Q ±Ò3R6Q ±ÓÔR6Q ±3R6 
B3; 5  4’bras«Q Í­¼­R6Q¿­3R6Q¿3R6 
B*3 4>drus ma U 5 @QÕ R6QÕ3 R
:B 0 

(50  44 4  0     >   5 

74

 45     A  4 44A  2 

:B3’brasU 5 4@ drus maU @;  5  
QÐÑ3R°QÕ3 R6QÐÑ3R°QÕ3 R6QÐÑ3R°QÕ»¿ÊR6Q ±Ò3R°QÕ»ÒÇR6 :B3’brasU 5 4@ drus maU @;  5  
Q¼3R°QÕ»3 R6

73# 5 4  2(32 55   4;44U@   >   
( 5 0 2 55   4 ;44U6@45   44
;55    5 6  6    5 4    24    %   5 0    2    >0           F 0 4    >   ;  2 A 4H 6; >0 :  >  
4 >0  : 5    5 2  5 6  >    5 5    >46    4>0 :505   5  5 6; 5 4 4U 5  @U @  2 $;26  #.  5<&(=6  
; 0  4 >      5     4B;6  2      4 ;> 5      ;   75

5  5;  5   5    5    >4’bras    B>  B:  <>:= *b-ras U)% G )!%> G : ) )!%> G )!:?>@ <#>>8=6      550 >   5      50  >:  0 4 U@ >  B: 5  
73# 5 4  283   4;44U@    " 18 5 24    "   6; ;44U@ 5    >   > 4 5 4  26;  B6
B*6:B6 :B6   50 90 5   5    90 5  BH   
5    F     4  ? F  )2 # 2     5  7  F )2  F )2 5 2   *: 0    506    >0 : 2    5 2 5 65
F6 >6  ³  ;   ;55  >  >; < 5   ? F   0 =6H     ; < 5  7  F   0 =6
3GG   50GK  BG   5 5G 0G&86 +  5&8
506       550   0 9%#    45   4   5 5 2
H 24# 2>   555 4    O  6; >;  5 # 6;5 ; H 

8

1!4 76

:.5 :   ; < 5F =     5 55   2   5 20    2  5 #B0B05  B?5   #506 ; 5 5 0         4  B* 0 6 ;   5    >drus ma6;50   2      ;  5  5 2 5    5     4
 5 6 ;       2    50    >0  : 0   5   4  >’bras;   5  4>drus ma 55; 6  5   >0 :    ;44  5     2$;26 5A 52  4 U@  50   0    2      5 5   #. <&+=     : 5 <  5 F =  0  4255  5 
7  F 6 ; ;255 6H 5 >6       5 5   > 4U@     4 : 5   5   4 >6 4   5  ;   B* 0       5      ; > 5    >0 :  50  B 0 O;26   5   
5 4   4 > 5 >0 :  5
2#.<&8 =   5506;5   B :B 0 6  4;     0 5 
  4 > ’bras > 0   2  GG       56 ;    5 4$;26 25 GG   44U@  55  GÏG GÑG #.<&- 6&( =:    46GG  5 ; GÏG6 ; GÑG>   425  #.<&( =  6GÏG  2 2 GÑG  2 2>90 5   5 6 A  54
 B 0 6 550  GÑG  54 >’br  5 GÐÑ½ÈG4>’brugU @6;5  4 4 U@  G¿­ÔG6 ;       A  >6 ;  
90 5   5   25   5  U@M 8    44U@;  GG  5  2  4    90 5  BH    5 > 4A  0 5    4 A4 -  1    #.<&- =6       > rB5 5  2  45 0  A 4          -  0O  A 4 ;44U@  5   A@54 90 5        /%  6U@ 550  4 4
 54  4 5  6 5 2      90 5  BH   
5 >A 5    5  5  4 :B 0    5 ? F >4   U  @4  A5  5    >      
5  A >   5552   &
 >;44U@ >  5     >    50  
>’bras6    5    50 2 2   5  
5 2   O;262   2   4%   50   
45  56;  0 4::>U@   4 546   4>  6   4 5  <#.,#  &(= % >   H 6;26  5 0   #2 5 5  
 5 2 5  U @4U 5  @ 044  >
5  4>’bras 5H 6;    4  A     > 4 : 5 6  5 F 6  5   
2  ; >0 :  5 ? F : >0 :   5    >   5  6    445       2   ;  >0  : 25   50  2 5 5  >    0 4  : >   5   ; 2  >0 :  

/# <//-=4 55$;26 2    ;45 0 A   5  5  4 #B0B05  6  4     5@0    25  #
5#.<&*=
&#<&&/=4 77  >5   ;4U6@; 4A ;   4   5 2;   2   ; 4  D  2 2   ;5>    25  45A 5 5    56  56 5  54 6  0    ; 4 > ; 4 4 U@ 55   A  4         52  ;  >  5  )  >  5   ;   5   504U;@ U@ >  
5    2;  45A 546U;@ 2  6; U@   F 0;  > 4 ;5>   <  -=; 4445A 5
2 06;26      >    5 > 2    550
 4 444 04   O; 4 5A 52     4
>   455;  445 $;26  5 4     4 
4   >    04  5   4     45   ;55    + %(%55 A 0   0>  4;5       5 ; 4 049  BB 4# 4) 4 ? # 0
4  4#Q?##R3I7 #   >  J<  0H   6(&&&=6I 5 5 5# 04 >   07   >  5  5     # J <  0     =6 I%   5 5 #20 4  90 5
7  J<  0H   6-&&8=6 I# 0  5 525  4>  # H 6 6   4 7 2 0J<  0    6-88&(8=6 ;55    2 4  5  4>  #  
4H  50    0³?  >  5 5   4 5 4 
9  BB  4 # 4 )  4 ?## I%2   4 !  7      >     95 ) J<  0     68$&+88+=,  %;  6"6$#.6"" 6#   6## 6 % &83>  B: Studies in
Asian Geolinguistics IV —Wind—< =? 6&&Zangyu Yuyinshi Yanjiu. 
?6/1*Zangyu Jianzhi. 
" 5B . @90B," 5B . :0 B &&Zangyu Fangyan Gailun. #    &* Lhagang Monastery in Myth, History and Contemporary Society 5 >6!2   5
#B  B >B&Bod-kyi yul-skad rnam-bshad'' A 
#.6 $ &&8 P    >   D  ' 0 4 0  Kangding Minzu Shifan Gaodeng
Zhuanke Xuexiao Xuebao *3B- Q 5 4 3 $ #.6 Dongfang Zangqu Zhuyuyan Yanjiu6 **B+6# . 6&-R#.6 $ & '  0    .   0 A      0 0BBBH  D
H A 9. ' 0.5Kyoto University Linguistic Research *&3*-B+/#.6 $ & Ö     U.@    5@0  S     5 5 #B0B05    C  " Revue d’études tibétaines *3&8B-#.6$ &*H A ' 0  F0 00 0   BBB?   I J 0 IFJ .F   ADongfang Yuyanxue*3&B*-

78

#.6 $ &+ " B>   :.5 Q:R     Asian and African
Languages and Linguistics (AALL)/3-*B/*#.6$&- ?  ' 0  0 FF00Yunnan Zangxue Yanjiu31+B/8#.6$&- Lijiang Yongshengxian Daan Zangyu de laili chutan: tongguo Naxizu de jiechu ruhe yanbian7 2 # ; !2 04  5 <=Q 22  5Zangxue
Xuekan83-&B(*6&(R#.6$&(  5  4 4U@>  5  4   >   
Studies in Asian Geolinguistics II — Rice—6-B-/53 3GG  5  BF G LL&( 46+ &8#.6$&( GÏG   BBB" B>  ³ 55           Journal of Kijutsuken, Descriptive Linguistics Study Group 13/B&* 53
 3GG F G+G&&&&&1/1G6 (?50&8#.6$&(%44  5 5B4 2 0 53 ;  >   5 50
Researches in Asian Languages &3//B-#.6$&8 95   504U;@>  5     >   Studies in
Asian Geolinguistics IV —Wind—< =
#.6 $ &8  $  5 25   4 : >   <9 6 H =3   5   2Studies in Asian Geolinguistics VI —Means to count nouns—< =
#.6$ #  &-P5D D5 D5  C 7  6×5@ 
C4CC
5: 2 Ø
Revued’étudestibétaines*3-*B8-53
 3GG 5 0     G55 GF 5G G 4G L*L&- 46 + 5&8#.6$ #  &(5  5 A 4 A 4 >  ;’bras U@    >   %  <=Papers from the Third International Conference on Asian
Geolinguistics6 8B8/6 )  %    4 7    5  4    4  53 3GG  5  BF G L*%L  L5 L&( 46 (?50&8#.6$6## 6"" 6"%;  6#   6 % &() 5  3>  B: Studies in
Asian Geolinguistics II — Rice—6B+53 3GG  5  BF G LL&( 46 
+ &8> 6  &+ > >   5     5 4  % > ;B#  ,   $55 <=
Trans-Himalayan Linguistics: Historical and Descriptive Linguistics of the Himalayan Area6&-B/ 5 
90 > 6 $#.4 The Tibetic Languages: An Introduction to the Family of Languages
Derived from Old Tibetan <; 55  4"90  ³:= 6$//-Diqing Zangzu Shehuishi'' A 
69&&/Diqing Xianggelila Lüyou Fengwuzhi — Yanzhe Diming de XiansuoH ) 
H 6#//-Yi he liang jiang liuyu Zangyu fangyan huiyao9 . 
H 6#&&/Anmuduo Dongbu Zangzu Lishi Wenhua Yanjiu. ' 6H/1-Bod rgya tshig mdzod chen mo. 
'6³&&Yuyinxue# ;H 79

C o nt ri b ut o rs
Mits u a ki E N D O, A o y a m a G a k ui n U ni v ersit y
C hits u k o F U K U S HI M A, U ni v ersit y of Nii g at a Pr ef e ct ur e
Mi k a F U K A Z A W A, T h e F o u n d ati o n f or

R es e ar c h a n d Pr o m oti o n of Ai n u C ult ur e

S at o k o S HI R AI, J S P S / U ni v ersit y of Ts u k u b a
M as a a ki S HI MI Z U, Os a k a U ni v ersit y
Mi k a K O N D O, J oi nt R es e ar c h er, I L C A A, T o k y o U ni v ersit y of F or ei g n St u di es
K a z u e I W A S A, J S P S / K y ot o U ni v ersit y
Hir o y u ki S U Z U KI, U ni v ersit y of

Osl o / N ati o n al M us e u m of Et h n olo g y

A c k n o wl e d g e m e nts
T his v ol u m e is a p art of t h e r es ults of t h e pr oj e ct o n St u di es i n Asi a n G e oli n g uisti cs
2 0 1 7 at t h e I L C A A, T U F S. T h e arti cl es w er e p arti all y s u p p ort e d b y J S P S Gr a nts-i n- Ai d f or
S ci e ntifi c R es e ar c h ( K A K E N HI) 1 5 K 0 2 5 2 5, 1 6J 0 1 0 5 5, 1 7J 4 0 0 8 7, r es p e cti v el y.

2015 -