2018 April

Volume 4

ISSN 2189-0463

ELF

The Center for English
as a Lingua Franca
JournalThe Younger the Better:
A Study under more Sensitive Conditions
Cultivation of Learner-Centered Intrinsic Motivation in theJapanese ELF Classroom
Voices of Language Learners in Improvisations
Extensive Listening in the ELF Classroom with ELLLO
Neurobiology in SLA, Benjamin K. Bergen’s Louder thanwords: The new science of how the mind makes meaning(Book Review)
CELF FD & Research Report

CONTENTS

玉 川大学

The Center for ELF Journal
Issue Editors: Travis Cote, Brett Milliner and Blagoja Dimoski
Translation: Mitsuko Imai
Reviewers:
Ethel Ogane
Mitsuko Imai
Tricia Okada
Rasami Chaikul
Paul McBride
Yuri Jody Yujobo
Yoji Kudo
Satomi Kuroshima
Andrew Leichsenring
Simeon Flowers
Blagoja DimoskiAngelo Magasic

The Center for ELF Journal: Call for Articles
The Center for ELF Journal is a refereed journal that seeks to promote criticalreflection among English language teaching professionals from a wide range ofprofessional contexts. Manuscripts are subject to blind reviews by two or morereviewers after initial screening by the editorial committee.
Aims of Journal:▪ To encourage critical awareness among language teaching professionals▪ To encourage reflexive thinking among language teaching professionals▪ To encourage a praxis of action and reflection among language teaching▪
▪
▪

professionals
To encourage language teaching professionals to empower themselves and in
so doing empower their students
To encourage sharing of teaching techniques among the CELF teachers
To serve and support the professional development needs of the CELF teachers

Types of Articles:

Research article (1000 ~ 3000 words)
Teaching article (1000 ~ 3000 words)
Forum article (1000 words)
Center for English as a lingua franca reports (1000 words)
Book reviews (1000 words)
ELF classroom practices (1000 words)
Guidelines for Contributors:

Article contributions may include, but are not limited to, one or more of the following
areas:English as a Lingua Franca
Curriculum design and development
Teaching methods, materials and techniques
Classroom centered research
Testing and evaluation
Teacher training and professional development
Language learning and acquisition
Culture, identity and power in language education
Application of technology in the language classroom
Research articles: Research articles should come with a description of the researchcontext and research questions, issues pertaining to the research context, relevant
theories, qualitative or quantitative research data, detaileddescriptions of research method including clear demonstration of attention to research
ethics and commentary.
Teaching articles: Teaching articles should provide a description of the teachingcontext, relevant issues related to the teaching context, teaching theories andapproaches appropriate to the context as well as comments reflecting pedagogicalpraxis.
Forum articles: From time to time, the editor may call for forum articles focusing

on a particular theme or issue. Readers are also welcome to propose themes or
issues for the forum in consultation with the editor. Contributors will be given theopportunity to engage with current issues from a given standpoint as well as witheach other’s opinions on the issue.

Center for English as a lingua franca reports: From time to time, the Center for

English as a lingua franca will request a report from full-time faculty. The reports
can focus on a variety of features or services within the ELF program. For example,
student use of the tutor service, research projects, and faculty development.

Book reviews: Writers of book (textbook or other) reviews should first contact theeditors with suggested titles before proceeding with the book review.

ELF classroom practices: Articles should be brief “take-away” descriptions of any

activity, project, strategy or useful tool employed with varying degrees of success inthe ELF classroom (i.e.,“teacher’s toolbox”).
How to submit your manuscript:

Please email your submissions to the editors with the title, “The Center for ELF
Journal Submission”.
email: celfjournal@gmail.com

Issue 4.0 Foreword:
Since its establishment in 2014, The Center for English as a Lingua Franca has aimed
to provide our students with a solid ELF-aware program. In order to maintain its
quality, each of us constantly reflects on our practices while developing ourselves byengaging in various research projects. This journal is intended to present the readerswith our research, while also encouraging our teachers, especially those who haverecently joined the profession, to develop as teacher-researchers by providing anoutlet for their achievements.
This issue contains four refereed articles and a book review written by our teaching
staff at different stages of their career, in addition to our annual FD & Research
report by the editors.
I would like to thank our editors Brett Milliner, Travis Cote and Blagoja Dimoski for
their superb editorial job as well as coordinating referees. Thanks also goes to theauthors of chapters as well as the referees who have spent much time in reviewing,commenting, and making suggestions.
March 2018
Masaki Oda Ph.D.
Director, CELF

Contents
The Younger the Better:
A Study under more Sensitive Conditions

1

Sirin Doymaz
Cultivation of Learner-Centered Intrinsic Motivation in theJapanese ELF Classroom

16

Richard Marsh

Voices of Language Learners in Improvisations
Tricia Okada

Extensive Listening in the ELF Classroom with ELLLO
Brett Milliner & Rasami Chaikul
Neurobiology in SLA, Benjamin K. Bergen’s Louder thanwords: The new science of how the mind makes meaning(Book Review)

26

36

51

Jeffrey Schultz
CELF FD & Research Report
Brett Milliner & Blagoja Dimoski

56

The Younger the Better:
A Study under more Sensitive Conditions
周囲のノイズに対する影響とヒアリング能力の年齢差に関する研究
Sirin Doymaz, ドユマズ・シリン

Tamagawa University, The Center for English as a Lingua Franca, Japansirin2015@lab.tamagawa.ac.jp
ABSTRACT

Many aspects of linguistic competence may be used as criteria to evaluate the age
factor on language learning. Among those aspects, phonological perception andproduction may be the most important, due to its essential role in verbal communication.
The purpose of this study is to investigate the age factor in phonetic perception andproduction. The present study is focused on three important implementations:
1. to take a closer look at the relationship between age and phonologicalcompetence under sensitive conditions;
2. to evaluate a wider range between age groups instead of age groups close
together (e.g., pre-pubescent & post-pubescent students)
3. to control for the inﬂuence of background knowledge by using a language
unknown to the subjects.
At the educational/practical level, in this study the researcher hopes to determine
whether age affects auditory competence in distinguishing and producing minimal
pairs at three age levels, under three different listening conditions. The age levels
are 19-20 years old, the post-puberty period; 13-14 years old, the puberty period;and 4 years old, the pre-puberty period. The experiments were held (a) under normal
conditions, (b) in a telephone situation, and (c) with background noise. To minimize
the inﬂuence of background knowledge, the language used in materials was Turkish.
All of the subjects heard Turkish for the first time. Results showed that even if nodifference can be seen under normal conditions, the age groups’ competence might
differ under more sensitive conditions. In the telephone situation, age became asignificantly effective predictor of phonological production.
KEYWORDS: Age-factor, Phonological perception, Language learning,
Phonological production
11. INTRODUCTION

An early start for language learning is believed to be better. However, is it really
better? Many researchers have investigated the & effects in second language learning(e.g., Burstall, 1985; Lenneberg, 1967; Snow & Hoefnagel-Hohle, 1978). Somestudies suggested that late starters could catch up with earlier starters. If this is thecase it might be wiser for policy makers in language education to postpone second
language teaching up to the point when students’ first language is more mature andstable enough to avoid the interference of the second language.
2. BACKGROUND

In 1967, Lenneberg suggested the Critical Period Hypothesis. He claimed that
there is a critical period for language learning. He explains that the human brain
loses its plasticity after puberty and loses its function of acquiring a new language(lateralization). Since then, however, a number of studies suggested that adults are
better than children at learning a second language (L2); or older children are better
than younger ones. For example, Snow and Hoefnagel-Hohle (1978) reported thatolder second language learners performed significantly better than younger learners.
Burstall’s contrastive survey (1985) of English speakers who started learning
French at the age of eight and eleven showed that older learners are consistently
superior to younger learners. He found that the only exception was in the field oflistening because the younger learners’ scores for the listening test were higher.
Cochrane (1980) evaluated the ability of Japanese children and adults to differentiate/r/ and /l/ sounds. He reported that, in terms of pronunciation, children have an
advantage over adults. Higuchi et al. (1986, 1987, 1988, 1989) and Higuchi et al.
(1990, 1991, 1992, 1993) found that Japanese students who started earlier were
better in all four language skills: reading, writing, listening, and speaking.
Age also appears to be the most important predictor of degree of foreign
accent (Flege, Yeni-Komshian & Liu, 1999; Piske, MacKay & Flege, 2001). Drawing
conclusions from a comprehensive review of the literature, Long (1990) proposedthat a native-like accent would be impossible unless first exposure was before six
years of age, and that any individual who began learning a second language after theage of 12 would not be able to attain a native-like accent.
Some other researchers (Baker, Trofimovich, Mack & Flege, 2002; Munro,
Flege & MacKay, 1996) have shown that early learners produce L2 vowels moreaccurately than most late learners. Thomas and Sénéchal (1998) investigated threeyear-old children in their phoneme awareness of /r/ sound and its articulation.
They suggested that the accuracy of the pronunciation is related to the quality ofthe phoneme awareness in young children. This shows that the accuracy of the L2
perception results in the accuracy of the L2 production.
Strange’s study (1995) on phonological learning and development has shown
that, without special training (in some cases even with special training), adults areoften unable to discriminate differences in speech sounds that are not phonemic in2their native language.
Conversely, some researchers reported on the superiority of older children in
the case of phonological perception. In these studies, subjects are all elementary school
students and there is not much age difference. Nishio (1998) carried out a research
on Japanese elementary school students’ discrimination of English phonemes. As aresult, 3rd/4th graders and 5th/6th graders scored significantly higher than 1st/2nd
graders. Similarly, Nagai’s review (2001) of Japanese elementary school students’ability to discriminate English phonemic contrasts reported that older students
performed better.
In addition to the studies above, Mayo, Florentine and Buss (1997), and Lin,
Cheng and Cheung (2004) tested the auditory perception of English minimal pairs
with background noise. Both studies showed that age effects were salient under thiscondition. Without the interference of background noise, most subjects appeared toperform well enough to overcome any potential differences.
3. PURPOSE OF THIS STUDY

The purpose of this study is to investigate the age factor in phonetic perception andproduction. To be more specific, the present study has three important features:
The researcher would like to take a closer look at the relationship between age andphonological competence under sensitive conditions; the researcher would like toinclude a wider range of age groups: a post-pubescent group, a pubescent group, anda group of prepubescent subjects; the researcher would like to control for backgroundknowledge by using a language the subjects do not know at all.
A number of studies reported that there was no significant difference between
the age groups and phonetic perception and production. If no difference can be seen
under normal conditions, what if the conditions were more sensitive? As it is statedabove, some research was carried out using background noise to make the conditions
more sensitive. Also, there are some situations that are especially hard for foreign
language learners. For example, it is very difficult for foreign language learners tohear and differentiate foreign words, especially in noisy situations and while listening
on a telephone. To this end, this paper reports on the testing of subjects under normal
conditions, in a telephone situation and with background noise. As was reported
above, in many previous studies the age groups compared were very close to eachother, and they did not compare young children with young adults. Moreover, very
few studies have examined perception of non-native contrasts by young children.
4. SUBJECTS

There were three different age groups participating in this study - 20 preschoolers(4 years old ), 37 junior high school students (13-14 years old), and 19 university
students (19-20 years old). All subjects were Japanese and all reported never having
studied or having listened to Turkish before.
35. MATERIALS

Turkish is the researcher’s first language, and very few people in Japan know it. It wasused instead of English to control for the previous language learning experience of
subjects. Turkish has a variety of phonemes in its phonetic system, and the researcher
has two years of experience teaching Turkish to Japanese learners and understands
the phonetic characteristics of Turkish that Japanese learners generally have difficultywith (See the word pairs in Appendix A).
Questions were read by the researcher in the first and the third experiment.
For the second test, questions were recorded with a high amplitude voice recorderand played with a tape player. For the third test, white noise was recorded with a highamplitude recorder and played with a tape player. All the tests were recorded with avideo camera.
Listen and Differentiate test: As illustrated in Figure 1 below, the test’s answer
sheet for university students consisted of 10 questions with two choices,
1) 同じ (same) 2) 違う (different).
Q1

同じ

違う

Figure 1. Example of the answer format for the Listen and Differentiate test

The subjects were supposed to circle 同じ (same), if the word pairs they heard
were the same; 違う (different), if the pairs were different.
A special answer sheet was given to the preschoolers. As they cannot read, thiskind of written test is inappropriate. Thus, the preschoolers answered the questions
verbally, and they circled the cartoon characters (see Figure 2 below). Prior to thetest, the researcher explained how to take the test, and the subjects completed a seriesof practice questions. The preschoolers were told that this is a game, and if they
manage it, they would get stickers afterwards.

Same

Different

Figure 2. Example of the answer format for preschoolers taking the Listen and Differentiate
test

4

6. PROCEDURES AND EVALUATION
6.1 Experiment I: Listening Under Normal Conditions

The researcher read each of the words and the subjects could see the researcher’smouth and tongue movement while completing the following two tasks:(1) Listen and Differentiate test: Subjects listened to Turkish minimal pairs.
The subjects were supposed to find out if the word pairs were the same ordifferent. They were supposed to circle 同じ (same) if the pairs are the same, 違う(different) if the pairs are different. Preschoolers circled the cartoon charactersas was mentioned above.
This test aimed to find out if age is an effective factor in differentiating foreign
language phonological contrasts. Since none of the subjects had Turkish learning
experience before, the previous learning experience was zero for all. One point wasgiven when the subject could answer a question correctly. Full marks for Listen and
Differentiate tests was 10 points.
(2) Listen and Repeat test: The subjects listened to word pairs and they wereasked to repeat what they heard. Each Listen and Repeat test was staged
independently between the subject and researcher.
All the Listen and Repeat tests were recorded with a video camera, whichallowed the external evaluators both to hear the utterance and observe the subject’s
mouth and tongue movement.
The subjects were asked to repeat the utterances they heard. Each word wasread twice and the subjects had to repeat the word twice. This format was decided
to help the raters make a more informed assessment of speech skills. The recorded
utterances were evaluated by the researcher and two external raters. All raters were
Turkish teachers teaching Turkish to Japanese students at the Turkish Culture Center.
Each rater’s evaluation was conducted independently while watching the video
recording of the test. The raters had a short practice evaluation session beforehand
to conduct a more unified approach to evaluation. Each utterance was measured
on a five-point scale: five points for native-like pronunciation, and one for poor
pronunciation. Thus, the maximum score for a test item was five points. The averageof the three raters’ scores was then calculated to estimate the phonological abilitiesof each participant. This process of data analysis was repeated for each experimentseparately.
6.2 Experiment II: In the Telephone Situation

This time, subjects performed the same tasks as Experiment I, but they listened toa tape player. Subjects listened without seeing the mouth and tongue movements ofthe speaker.
56.3 Experiment III: Background Noise Situation

For this test, artificial background noise, white noise was played with a tape player
while the researcher read the words to the subjects. The same procedures were taken
as in Experiment I and II for this third test.
7. DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS
7.1 Listen and Differentiate TestFirst, the researcher examined whether there was a significant difference for the
Listen and Differentiate test scores between the three groups under normal conditions,
telephone situation and background voice situation one by one. All results were notsignificantly different among the three groups.
Then, the researcher compared Listen and Differentiate scores of the groups
under all three conditions: normal conditions, on the telephone and under backgroundnoise.
Table 1
Descriptive statistics of the Listen and Differentiate test scores under all three conditions

Normal Condition

Telephone Situation

Noise Condition

Level

Mean

1
2
3
Total
1
2
3
Total
1
2
3
Total

7.30
7.46
7.68
7.47
6.60
6.92
6.68
6.78
7.10
7.16
7.21
7.16

Std.
Deviation
1.525
1.145
1.529
1.341
1.095
1.479
1.336
1.343
1.334
1.191
1.475
1.286

N
20
37
19
76
20
37
19
76
20
37
19
76

Note: * Level 1: Preschool
Level 2: Junior High School
Level 3: University students

Since Mauchly’s Test of Sphericity was suitable, the researcher conducted a Twoway ANOVA. The following table (Table 2) presents the results.

6

Table 2
Two-way ANOVA Listen and Repeat test scores under all three conditions
df

Mean
SquareFSig.

23.77123.77123.77123.771

2
1.948
2.000
1.000

11.88512.20311.88523.771103.291103.291103.291103.291

.000
.000
.000
.000

Sphericity Assumed

3.920

4

.980

8.516

.000

Greenhouse-Geisser
Huynh-Feldt
Lower-bound

3.920
3.920
3.920

3.896
4.000
2.000

1.006
.980
1.960

8.516
8.516
8.516

.000
.000
.000

Sphericity Assumed

16.800

146.115

Greenhouse-Geisser
Huynh-Feldt
Lower-bound16.80016.80016.800142.196146.000
73.000

.118
.115
.230

SourceConditions

Conditions *
level

Error
(conditions)Type III
Sum
of
Squares

Sphericity Assumed
Greenhouse-Geisser
Huynh-Feldt
Lower-bound

The following are the results of the Two-way ANOVA:
1. A significant main effect of conditions was observed. The second condition(telephone situation) was much stronger than the other two conditions as allgroups scored lowest in this section.
2. The Two-way ANOVA failed to produce a significant interaction between
conditions and age level. (p=.814)

7

Figure 3. Listen and Differentiate test scores of the groups under all three conditions

7.2 Listen and Repeat Test

Next, the researcher examined the Listen and Repeat scores of the groups under all
three conditions. Table 3 (below) reports on the descriptive statistics.
Table 3
Descriptive statistics of the Listen and Repeat test scores under all three conditions
Normal listen repeat

Telephone listen repeat

Background noise listen repeat

8

Level

Mean

Std. Deviation

Total

3.555

.6056

1
2
3
Total
1
2
3
Total
1
2
3

4.010
3.703
4.074
3.876
3.555
2.976
2.800
3.084
3.930
3.314
3.632

.4930
.4687
.1790
.4519
.4559
.4816
.2809
.5180
.8498
.4768
.1701

N

20
37
19
76
20
37
19
76
20
37
19

76

Note: * Level 1: Preschool
Level 2: Junior High School
Level 3: University students

Similar to the Listen and Differentiate analysis above, a Two-way ANOVA
was was used to test for a relationship between age-group and test scores. Table 4(below) presents the results.
Table 4
Two-way ANOVA Listen and Repeat test scores under all three conditions
df

Mean
SquareFSig.

23.77123.77123.77123.771

2
1.948
2.000
1.000

11.88512.20311.88523.771103.291103.291103.291103.291

.000
.000
.000
.000

Sphericity Assumed

3.920

4

.980

8.516

.000

Greenhouse-Geisser
Huynh-Feldt
Lower-bound

3.920
3.920
3.920

3.896
4.000
2.000

1.006
.980
1.960

8.516
8.516
8.516

.000
.000
.000

Sphericity Assumed

16.800

146.115

Greenhouse-Geisser
Huynh-Feldt
Lower-bound16.80016.80016.800142.196146.000
73.000

.118
.115
.230

SourceConditions

Conditions *
level

Error
(conditions)Type III
Sum
of
Squares

Sphericity Assumed
Greenhouse-Geisser
Huynh-Feldt
Lower-boundThe statistical analysis showed:
1. A significant main effect of conditions.
2. There was a significant interaction between conditions and age levels.

9

Figure 4. Listen and Repeat test scores of the groups under all three conditions

As observed in the Listen and Differentiate test above, all three groups scoredtheir lowest scores in the second condition (telephone situation) for the the Listen
and Repeat test. All three groups’ performances can be ranked in the following orderfor both tests (from best to worst):(1) normal condition(2) background noise condition(3) telephone condition
This is the result of the significant main effect of conditions. The purpose ofthis study was to establish whether, under more sensitive conditions, a differencein performance among the three age groups could be observed. The results for preschool students did not change much according to the three conditions, while thejunior high and university students scored quite differently. The junior high students
scored 1 point lower for telephone situation and 0.5 less in the background noise test.
The university students scored 1.2 points lower in the telephone test and 0.8 points
less in the background noise test.
8. CONCLUSION

The purpose of this study was to investigate whether the age factor is effective inphonetic perception and production. The study started with the assumption that “Evenif any difference cannot be seen under normal conditions, age groups’ competence
may differ when the conditions become more sensitive.” Listening experiments
were held under normal conditions, a telephone situation and under background10

noise. Another important feature of this present study was the age groups that were
measured. The researcher carried out the study with three age groups: post-puberty
group, puberty group and a pre-puberty group. The third important aspect of thisstudy was the equality of the background knowledge about the language. All subjects
heard Turkish for the first time. This way, the researcher avoided the effect of previous
experience.
Based on the results observed, the thesis “Even if any difference cannot beseen under normal conditions, the age groups’ competence may differ when theconditions get more sensitive” has been confirmed. No statistically significant age
effect was observed under normal conditions (both Listen and Differentiate and Listen
and Repeat tests). Under telephone conditions, a drop off in overall performance forall three groups was observed in both tests. The poorer results are a reflection thatsuch listening conditions were much harder than the first situation in which they
were able to see the researcher’s mouth and tongue movements. Nevertheless, thisstudy found that preschoolers were more likely to produce the correct sounds underthese more challenging conditions.
In the telephone situation, starting age became a significantly effective predictorof phonological production in the test.
In this study, where white noise was superimposed upon the test setting withoutchanging any material, background noise made a difference, but it did not have as
much of an adverse influence on test performance as expected. Even if subjects could
not perceive the sounds properly, they had a chance to imitate the researcher’s tongue
and mouth movement. The results of the background noise situation for each group
was between normal situation and telephone situation for all groups.
9. PEDAGOGICAL IMPLICATIONS & SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHERRESEARCH

Some researchers stated that it is not simply age but other factors are importantin language learning too. It is true that many factors affect foreign language
pronunciation over a period of time such as the quality of experience, continuity
over time, methods, environment and so on.
But still, we can claim that, if we talk about an ideal starting age for second
language acquisition, the younger the better. As in this study all groups were exposed
to Turkish language for the first time, and the preschoolers scored significantly higher
than the junior high school and university students in the telephone situation andsignificantly better than the junior high school students in the background noise test.
It is hard to expect favorable results with a limited amount of experience andinadequate teaching supplies. Still, for the places and schools with adequate supplies
and materials, we can suggest that younger students may have stronger phonologicalabilities. With appropriate teaching and a sufficient amount of time, second language
teachers may be able to bring young learners’ intuitive phonological acquisition
capacities into play.
As for the future study, several points can be suggested. The aim, at the11beginning of the study was to collect data from 40 university students, 40 juniorhigh school students and 40 preschool students. However, the researcher was only
able to collect data from 19 university students, 37 junior high school students and
20 preschool students. More conclusive results may have been observed if the sameamount of subjects from each age group was measured. It is also reasonable tosuggest that the reliability of the results would be enhanced if a larger sample wastested. Moreover, the research might be broadened if more age ranges participate.
In this study, clear differences between group performance were only seen in
the telephone situation. The test of background noise situation suggested a difference
among the groups but the difference was not as clear as expected. The researcher
believes that this difference will be clearer if the study is conducted under different
and more sensitive conditions.
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「早期英語学習経験者の追跡調査-第Ⅱ報」『日本児童英語教育学会 研究紀要』，第６号，pp. 3-22.
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「早期英語学習経験者の追跡調査-第Ⅲ報」『日本児童英語教育学会 研究紀要』，第7号，pp. 43-64.
樋口忠彦・北村豊太郎・守屋雅博・三浦一朗・中山兼芳・.國方太司. (1989).
「早期英語学習経験者の追跡調査-第Ⅳ報」『日本児童英語教育学会 研究紀要』，第8号，pp. 3-14.
樋口忠彦・守屋雅博・國方太司・三浦一朗・北村豊太郎・中本幹子・北村友美
子. (1990).「学習開始年齢が言語習得に及ぼす影響-第Ⅰ報」『日本児童英語教育学会 研究紀要』, 第9号，pp. 3-19.
13

樋口忠彦・守屋雅博・國方太司・三浦一朗・北村豊太郎・中本幹子・北村友美
子. (1991).「学習開始年齢が言語習得に及ぼす影響-第Ⅱ報」『日本児童英語教育学会 研究紀要』，第10号，pp. 16-35.
樋口忠彦・守屋雅博・國方太司・三浦一朗・北村豊太郎・中本幹子・北村友美
子. (1992).「学習開始年齢が言語習得に及ぼす影響-第Ⅲ報」『日本児童英語教育学会 研究紀要』，第11号，pp. 3-20.
樋口忠彦・守屋雅博・國方太司・三浦一朗・北村豊太郎・中本幹子・北村友美
子. (1993).「学習開始年齢が言語習得に及ぼす影響-第Ⅳ報」『日本児童英語教育学会 研究紀要』，第12号，pp. 27-38.
西尾由里．(1998).「音素の聞き取りと年齢要因−公立小学校を対象として」『中部地区英語教育学会紀要』，第28号，pp.75-80

14

APPENDIX A

15

Cultivation of Learner-Centered Intrinsic Motivationin the Japanese ELF Classroom
内発的動機付けの構築
Richard Marsh, マーシュ・リチャード
Tamagawa University, Center for English as a Lingua Franca, Japanr.marsh@lab.tamagawa.ac.jp

ABSTRACTThis paper will explore learner motivation, particularly with regards to thedevelopment of intrinsic motivation, the integrative aspect of motivation andbuilding a broader vision as a language learner. It will explore some ways which may
potentially be fruitful for the development of these motivational goals before offeringsome conclusions and directions for good practice in the Japanese ELF (English as a
Lingua Franca) university classroom. The goal of this paper is to provide a platform
upon which to base further research and empirical inquiry which can be used todevelop the existing body of literature and improve classroom practice.
KEYWORDS: Motivation, ELF, Intrinsic, Integrative, Vision
1. INTRODUCTION

In my own personal opinion when learners are motivated and have a genuine andproactive desire to be in the classroom and engage with the material, the learning
experience is enhanced and catalysed for all concerned. I feel the teacher-learner
relationship is also improved and there can be more harmony between the two parties
which can result in increased opportunities and desire for learner autonomy and input
into the lessons themselves. I feel this also gives more room and curiosity to explore
ad hoc learning opportunities during lessons. This article will discuss how intrinsic
motivation on the learner’s behalf can make the class more engaging and fun. In thispaper I will explore learner motivation, particularly with regards to the developmentof intrinsic motivation, the integrative aspect of motivation and building a broader
vision as a language learner. I will explore some ways which may potentially be fruitfulfor the development of these motivational goals before offering some conclusions
and directions for good practice in the Japanese ELF university classroom. The main
aim of this article is to form a foundation upon which to base further research andempirical inquiry which can be used to enhance the existing body of literature andimprove classroom practice.
16

2. MOTIVATIONIn this article I want to guard against the idea that motivation ‘is an easy catchwordthat gives teachers a simple answer to the mysteries of language learning’ (Brown,
2007, p. 84). As Dörnyei (1998) points out, motivation is a, ‘multifaceted rather thana uniform factor and no available theory has yet managed to represent it in its total
complexity’ (p. 131). There are many types of motivation (which will be covered in
more detail later in the paper) and, based on the quotation in the previous sentence,
it is a concept which is often elusive, with regard to empirical investigation, andfluctuating and even fleeting within the confines of the classroom. However, it is a
crucial element of English Language Teaching (ELT) which warrants our attention.
As Dörnyei makes clear, ‘motivation has been widely accepted by both teachers andresearchers as one of the key factors that influence the rate and success of second/
foreign language (L2) learning’ (1998, p. 117).
2.1 Intrinsic Motivation

There are two main forms of motivation, intrinsic and extrinsic, however, it must be
made clear that they do not exist in isolation to each other, but each action taken willcontain some influence from the two forms. Extrinsic motivation is where the driving
factor is external reward, achievement, praise or material gain, punishment avoidance
also includes actions taken to avoid punishment (Brown, 2007). For example, studying
hard to obtain a higher TOEIC score to participate in a study abroad program or
working quickly on an in-class task to be the first to secure a reward or the prideof finishing first. Intrinsic motivation is considered to be where the rewards are notexternal, such as money or prestige, but where the pursuit in itself is the goal, often withan additional sense of competence or self-determination (Brown, 2007). For example,
studying new vocabulary or actively maintaining a vocabulary book both inside andoutside of class for the self-fulfilment of one’s Second Language Acquisition (SLA)
goals, not necessarily because you have been explicitly instructed to by your teacher
or because they will help you score more highly on a specific test. It is the latter formof motivation with which this paper is principally concerned, as, I think it is fair to say,having accrued a fair amount of experience in the tertiary education sector in Japan,
this form of motivation is often sorely lacking. It is often the case that some learners
do not only resist my advice to maintain a vocabulary book, but occasionally neglecteven to bring paper when they attend class. Also, despite having attended English
class for many years (between 6-9 years for a typical Japanese first year university
student), many learners’ language and motivation levels are not what they could be.
An explicit focus on the cultivation of intrinsic motivation and specific class time
and tasks with this in mind will help strengthen the learners intrinsic motivation andhelp encourage an internalized desire to succeed. As Mitchell, Myles and Marsden
point out, “over the years consistent relationships have been demonstrated between
language attitudes, motivation and L2 achievement, with the strongest relationships
obtaining between motivation and achievement” (2013, p. 23).
17

2.2 The Integrative Aspect of Motivation
Gardner’s research on motivation has led SLA academics to explore the integrative

aspect of his theory (Gardner, 1985, 2001). In his socio-educational model heidentified two kinds of motivation, the integrative and the instrumental (Gardner,
1985). He placed a great emphasis on the former and highlighted the learners’
desire to communicate with or even integrate or assimilate with members of thetarget language. As Dörnyei clarifies, ‘in broad terms, an ‘‘integrative’’ motivational
orientation concerns a positive interpersonal/affective disposition toward the L2
group and the desire to interact with and even become similar to valued membersof that community’ (Dörnyei, 2003, p. 5). Gardener’s research took place in Canada
where English and French speakers lived side-by-side and the interpretation of
his theory by the academic community, was at least initially, quite literal. Dörnyei
perceptively develops the idea and states that, “in the absence of a salient L2 groupin the learners’ environment...the identification [with the L2 language/culture] canbe generalised to the cultural and intellectual values associated with the language, as
well as to the actual L2 itself” (2003, p. 5). As Ellis (1985) makes clear, “learners whoare interested in the social and cultural customs of native speakers of the language
they are learning are likely to be successful” (p. 11). From my experience I feel
Dörnyei’s more malleable and ideologically driven conception of integrativeness ismore powerful. I feel that the ‘ideal self’ one imagines becoming, whether that is totravel the world for business or pleasure, to engage with others through social media
or simply to enjoy English-speaking films and television and never actually travellingor conversing with the people directly, is a powerful motivator. As Mitchell et al.
elucidate, “integrativeness...in combination with motivation has consistently shown
itself to be a powerful predictor of L2 learning success” (2013, p. 23). I feel Dörnyei
is right when he asserts that,while an L2 is a learnable school subject in that discrete elements of thecommunication code (e.g., grammatical rules and lexical items) can betaught explicitly, it is also socially and culturally bound, which makes
language learning a deeply social event that requires the incorporation ofa wide range of elements of the L2 culture. (2003, p. 4)
He and Csizer are also right when they include familiarising learners with thetarget language culture as part of their ‘ten commandments of motivation’ (1998).
Once learners have been given the chance to explore the culture behind the language,
this can act as a powerful driver for self-study, more personal investment may be
applied to learning about the language and culture, the teachers job will be madeeasier and the learner’s experience will be more enjoyable. I feel this can only havepositive consequences for SLA.
18

2.3 Vision

It is also very important to acknowledge fluctuating motivation and how the conceptof vision is a crucial factor in sustaining a broader, more persistent drive, which
will lead to a higher chance of successful language attainment. It is important tounderstand that motivation does not remain constant, from day-to-day or even throughthe duration of one class, a learner’s enthusiasm and commitment can wax and wane
(Dörnyei & Skehan, 2003). Learners are influenced by a plethora of factors and they
may not only be immediate concerns such as wanting to go home or being tired but
also deeper psychological concerns. Dörnyei and Kubanyiova (2014) introduce thevital concept of vision which they define as the person the learner wants to become
which will sustain them through troughs of inspiration and moments of self-doubt.
Through my experience I have found it is so important to have a broader vision
and a deeper, more personal commitment to language learning, or indeed any kindof learning, to be successful, as Dörnyei and Kubanyiova state, ‘where there is avision, there is a way’ (2014, p. 2). A key responsibility of the teacher is the kindlingof this vision. Whether it be through the schematic insight of learning about theculture of the L2, the eureka moment of imparting a consciousness-raising piece ofknowledge or simply the passion and enthusiasm shown on a daily basis, the teacher
has a responsibility to not just teach the class, but encourage a broader vision tostimulate self-learning and a desire to learn.
3. IDEAS TO CULTIVATE MOTIVATION IN THE JAPANESE ELF CLASSROOM

Having established the above aspects of motivation, intrinsic motivation, theintegrative aspect of motivation and the development of a broader vision, the paper
will now continue to introduce some potentially fruitful ways they can be introducedin the Japanese ELF university classroom.
3.1 The ‘English Problem’ in Japan and Steps to Overcome It

By the time Japanese learners enter university, they will have experienced a great
deal of time in English language class (between 6-9 years for a typical Japanese
first year university student), and spent many hours preparing for examinations.
Perhaps for some learners, this time will have been fruitful and encouraged agenuine and proactive desire to learn and embrace English language education.
However, for some, this process may have tainted their love of English and, while
they will be acutely aware of how important their English and TOEIC score isto securing acceptance at a favourable university or full-time employment upon
graduating, little time may have been spent in explicitly addressing how, or even if,
English may be valuable in the outside world and throughout their life as a whole.
As such, it could be said that, “classroom practices and examination pressuresleave many students with an aversion to English, and the generally poor English
communication skills among the Japanese have raised serious concern ” (Sullivan &Schatz, 2009, p. 487). This has led experienced ELT professionals to question why
this communicative ‘English problem’ exists in Japan, as Ng and Dodge remark,19

“[F]ew students find it necessary to speak English well but rather, they need English
to obtain good scores in standardized examinations” (2015, p. 53). As ELF teachers

it must be our responsibility to arrest this and reinvigorate a more practical, relevant
and accessible English. It is not our day-to-day job to dwell on the past or criticize
or deconstruct why learners have not progressed in English class as perhaps theymight, but to be positive, inspiring and look to foster a type of English education
which will motivate them and be a part of their future. This must start with theimportant acceptance and acknowledgment that a university class is composed ofadults who have the independence to choose to be there. I feel there is much tobe said for explicitly acknowledging this simple fact and respecting this as thefoundation of the class. This means not speaking down to learners or presupposing
our role as teachers gives us an a priori power over them. Also, not simply stressing
the virtues of the task in itself, for example, revising lexis to build their vocabulary
or studying TOEIC at home to increase their score, etc. I feel it is important tostrive to connect each lesson and activity with the learners’ lives and experiences
and make it relevant and resonate. We must engage with the learners and attempt
to see the class from their eyes if we are to communicate effectively, for if wemerely extol the external virtues of passing the course, or learning English as a
virtue in itself we risk keeping these ‘objective’ goals extrinsic and they may not
be internalized or ‘taken to heart’ by the learners. A continual effort must also bemade to strive to unearth and develop individual intrinsic motivation and cultivatea broader vision and desire for learning English.
While there is limited space in this paper to cover the many practicalclassroom tasks which may elicit such a goal, a key example would be the useof authentic role-play based tasks which are grounded in real-life scenarios thelearners may encounter in their future. For example, these could include orderingin a restaurant, checking into a hotel or attending a job interview. It is also essentialthat relevant and accessible cultural and schematic information is provided andelicited before and during the tasks. For example, with regards to the restaurantrole play, it is not enough to consider native or inner-circle countries, cities or
cuisines as examples, but to make it clear that English in an ELF context will open
a great many possibilities throughout the world. Making it explicit that having theconfidence to order food, a task often done multiple times a day, will give rise to thepossibility for learners to broaden their travel and employment horizons, empower
them with the knowledge that their language is sufficient to do such a task andpotentially unearth and strengthen the three types of motivation mentioned earlier
in this paper. I also make them aware that this is not a task easily achieved by me
in a second language, especially in Japanese during my day-to-day life living inTokyo. The goal here is to raise their consciousness and boost their confidence intheir existing English skills. Job interview role plays are also an excellent way toillustrate how the potential of living and working abroad could be a reality. I alsouse myself as an example and how I have travelled extensively and taken part in
the working holiday programme to live and work in five different countries. This
concretizes how these are not merely in-class activities, but a potential reality. It is
20

vital we make English accessible and real and attempt to connect it to our learners’
own lives to try to ensure it permeates outside of the classroom and integrates into
their life and future as a whole. I feel the tasks and examples briefly described inthis paper are a rich source for future empirical enquiry and I hope to use this as thefoundation for further research.
3.2 Steps Towards a Learner-centred English as a Lingua Franca

It is important for learners to be confident in their own English and to feel empoweredby it rather than being continuously corrected and reminded of a ‘Japanese English’
deficiency. Being exposed to native speaker models and measured against these,
usually North American, schematic and linguistic norms, has its merits, for example,
if the learner wishes to live or work in that native speaker society or engage withmedia originating there. However, I feel, it is not enough to continuously expect
learners to reach for this native-speaker goal without occasionally meeting them inthe middle or acknowledging their own worth. As Ng and Dodge clarify, “American
English is so prevalent in the Japanese educational context that a majority of ourstudents tended to perceive English spoken only by Americans, and thus felt their own‘Japanese English’ has no communicative viability” (2015, p. 54). It is important for
us as ELF professionals to denounce this myth and encourage and breathe confidence
into a learner-centred form of English which places communication and intelligibility
at its heart. Japanese learners often have a great, and potentially untapped, existing
English repertoire in their own ‘Japanese English’ (sometimes referred to as ‘loan
words’ or ‘borrowed words’). For example, hanbāgu/hamburger, erebētā/elevator,
hurai-pan (furaipan)/frying pan, etc. (for a great many other examples see: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_gairaigo_and_wasei-eigo_terms). I feel making thisexplicit during class raises the consciousness of learners to gain an increased senseof control over their own linguistic knowledge and how it relates to the wider world.
To not view the different pronunciations as a mistake, or that one is superior while
another inferior, but to teach that by altering their pronunciation a whole host of otherwords emerge at their disposal. This takes time, repetition and reassurance during
the class, but exploring these, often ad hoc, learning opportunities gives a sense of
empowerment and increases the relevance and learner-centred content of the class.
It can also boost intrinsic motivation and the learners’ desire to communicate andintegrate with members of the ELF community when they realize that a great many
words in their existing vocabulary share a similar etymology.
Another example of this is the promotion of simple, easy-to-understandlanguage. In a recent class of mine, the learners were working in groups to describe
their favourite movie (the characters/storyline, etc.) in a bid to have their groupmembers guess the title. When eliciting examples from the class, a recent description
springs to mind. A student, who was describing the movie ‘Titanic’, described it
as a ‘luxury liner’. This caused a breakdown in intelligibility, as not only was the
majority of the class unfamiliar with the term, but the pronunciation was hesitant andit became clear the student had searched for it in their dictionary. While, otherwise an
excellent example, with rich use of description and humour, I made an explicit point21

to elicit the much more rudimentary term ‘big boat’. While commending the learneron ‘luxury liner’ and recommending they add it to their vocabulary book, it wasdemonstrably not as effective as ‘big boat’ when it came to conveying their message
to the class. It is important to raise the learners awareness of their audience and ofbeing comfortable and confident in their ‘own English’. It is not always necessary,or even helpful, to seek a more complicated or seemingly ‘native-like’ form ofcommunication and it is important for learners not to automatically view this as
something ‘higher’ or ‘superior’ to their, albeit linguistically limited, communication.
I try to use many examples from an ELF environment in the class in a bid to makethe language accessible and practical. For example, using this isolated example, I
connected this to the potential, and recommended, real-life example of traveling in
Vietnam and asking a local for directions to their cruise ship going to Hạ Long Bay,a link to a previous class we did about travel. The example of ‘big boat’ over ‘luxury
liner’ would almost certainly be more appropriate in this context, having travelled
there myself. This was a rich learning opportunity to introduce vocabulary such as‘wonders of the world’ and convey my love of traveling in a bid to develop an interest
in other cultures and explore the development of a vision that connects how English
may practically enhance their worldview and travel possibilities in the future. It also
shows the value of what they already know and, while learning new vocabulary andexperimenting with new words and phrases is an important skill, they should also be
proud and confident of their existing vocabulary and linguistic talents.
It is important to make an explicit connection between my suggested teachingpractices and the three types of motivation I have discussed in this paper. As such,
I will briefly explain the restaurant role play touched upon earlier in the paper toillustrate how developing a learner-centred ELF can aid learner motivation. However,
it would form the body of a whole separate paper if I were to explain the appropriate
execution of this task in its entirety, and, as stated previously, the goal of this paper
is to provide the platform and imperative upon which to base further research andempirical inquiry, not to focus solely on a specific teaching method or technique.
During the pre-task phase of the restaurant role-play it is crucial to elicit ideas fromthe class and to encourage authentic ELF examples. For example, to have learners
work in groups to brainstorm and decide on a location, setting and types of food
together, e.g. , a tapas bar in Madrid, Pho restaurant in Ho Chi Minh City, curry housein Delhi, etc. It is then important that learners play a lead role in bolstering the task byeliciting natural, real-world language and logically anticipating the structure before I
confirm it. It is important to structure the task with a concrete goal, i.e., the accurate
recording on a meal order and acceptance of payment. To be effectively achieved,
this needs to be built up gradually and allow for sufficient time for each student in agroup to perform the task in the role of the waitress/waiter. By the end, it is satisfying
to see a student standing over a table of three or four others, notepad and pencil in
hand, take the order of multiple three course meals including drinks, repeat eachorder back to the diner for confirmation and then attempt to estimate the total cost of
the order in their head before processing the payment. If they have never previously
worked in the service sector, this provides a real insight into the short-term memory
22

skills and mental dexterity required for taking an order for a large group of people.
This is, of course, made all the more challenging as it is done in their L2.
Whether a learner’s vision includes using English merely to order a nice mealin various different countries around the world, or actually spend time living, working
and assimilating abroad while studying or embarking on a working holiday, this task
can impress the realities of these situations, and hopefully broaden horizons andopen eyes to future possibilities. This is a clear example of how I use in-class tasks topromote global cultural awareness in a bid to boost learners’ desire to communicate
and hopefully integrate with members of ELF L2 community. Through tasks suchas this, I feel it is crucial to not only teach the target language, but include authentic,
and hopefully inspirational, insight into the great spectrum of ELF cultures lived
throughout the world. By utilizing tasks such as this on a regular and consistent basis,
it is my goal to place the learner at the centre of the ELF classroom. By granting thelearner increased independence and creativity throughout their course, the goal is
to stimulate intrinsic motivation which will remain and continue to empower theirlearner autonomy once the course has ended. The use of tasks which are based inauthentic and learner-centred ELF environments act as a constant reminder of thereal-world applicability of the class and, through teacher stimulus and peer-support,
help to drive a broader vision to self-motivate students, not only throughout theirtime in university, but long into the future.
4. CONCLUSION

Motivation is a complex and inherently subjective concept which differs fromperson to person, fluctuates over the course of a semester, or even the duration of asingle class, and can wax and wane over a longer period of time and one’s life as awhole. This should be viewed as a positive and uplifting message for teachers andlearners alike. For if motivation is not based on certain fixed definable variables,
then, as Mitchell et al. neatly clarify, ‘L2 motivation is dynamic and alterable andhas a close relationship with learner identity’ (2013, p. 23). This paper has explored
three crucial aspects of motivation and elucidated some practical steps to how they
can be unearthed and encouraged in the Japanese ELF university classroom. As
Hatano points out, “the purpose of learning English in Japan has been positioned
in the abstract concept of ‘globalization’, and students are given no opportunities toconsider specific purposes for learning the language in relation to their life” (2012,p. 128-129). As ELF teachers we must go further than this. We must constantly seek
to connect classroom practice with real-world applicability and adapt our approachand tasks to the classroom realities of our learners. As Kubota explains, “foreign
language education that aims to foster cross-cultural understanding among global
citizens must explore ways to expose the politics of cultural difference and seek non
essentialist understandings of culture” (2003, p. 85). To this end, I try to use many realexamples and tasks, give learners a lot of freedom to choose writing and presentation
topics and allow them to vote on class activities and, consequently, prefered learning
styles often multiple times during the course of a class in a bid to increase their
23

criticality, consciousness and learner autonomy. The more we can take responsibility
for learners’ motivation, appreciate everyone is motivated in different ways and that
this can alter from lesson to lesson, the more fruitful, empowering and enjoyable
the language learning experience will be. As such, I hope this paper will form thebasis for further practical and empirical investigation in a bid to shed light on future
research and improve teaching practice. It is not for research to identify cause-effectrelationships, but to focus on change rather than variables (Dörnyei, 2009). It is ourjob to motivate and inspire this change and encourage a form of English which isaccessible, practical and plays a proactive part in our learners’ futures.
REFERENCES

Brown, D. H. (2007). Teaching by principles: An interactive approach to language
pedagogy (3rd Edition). New York: Longman.
Csizer, K., & Dörnyei, Z. (1998). Ten commandments for motivating language
learners: Results of an empirical study. Language Teaching Research, 2(3),203-229.
Dörnyei, Z. (1998). Motivation in second and foreign language learning. Language
Teaching, 31(3), 117-135.
Dörnyei, Z. (2003). Attitudes, orientations, and motivation in language learning:
Advances in theory, research and applications. Language Learning, 53(1),3-32.
Dörnyei, Z., & Skehan, P. (2003). Individual differences in second language
learning. In C. J. Doughty, & M. H. Long (Eds.), The Handbook of Second
Language Acquisition (pp. 589-630). Oxford: Blackwell.
Dörnyei, Z. (2009). Individual differences: Interplay of learner characteristics andlearning environment. Language Learning, 59 (Suppl. 1), 230-248.
Dörnyei, Z., & Kubanyiova, M. (2014). Motivating learners, motivating teachers:
Building vision in the language classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Ellis, R. (1985). Understanding second language acquisition. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Gardner, R. C. (1985). Social psychology and second language learning: The roleof attitudes and motivation. London: Arnold.

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Gardner, R. C. (2001). Integrative motivation and second language acquisition. In
Z. Dörnyei, & R. Schmidt (Eds.), Motivation and Second Language Learning(pp. 1–20). Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press.
Hatano, K. (2012). Daisaku Ikeda’s educational philosophy in the context ofEnglish education policy in Japan. Critical Inquiry in Language Studies,9(1-2), 118-131.
Kubota, R. (2003). Critical teaching of Japanese culture. Japanese Language andLiterature, 37(1), 67-87. doi: 10.2307/3594876
Mitchell, R. Myles, F., & Marsden, E. (2013). Second language learning theories(3rd Edition). New York & London: Routledge.
Ng, P., & Dodge, P. (2015). Situating English as a lingua franca in context:
Narratives from Japanese and Chinese classrooms. Intercultural
Communication Studies XXIV, 3, 50-63.
Sullivan, N., & Schatz, R, T. (2009). Effects of Japanese national identification
on attitudes toward learning English and self-assessed English proficiency.
International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 33(6), 486–497. doi:
10.1016/j.ijintrexl.2009.03.001

25

Voices of Language Learners in Improvisations
教室内におけるインプロヴィゼーション考察
Tricia Okada, 岡田・トリシャ
Tamagawa University, Center for English a Lingua Franca, Japan
tokada@lit.tamagawa.ac.jp

ABSTRACTThis paper aims to describe how three improvisations developed by theater
practitioners can be suitable for English language learners. Improvisation, which isconsidered a tool for actor’s training, is a live performance without preparation. As
Maley and Duff (2005, p. 1) stated “drama integrates language in a natural way,”
I posit that incorporating improvisation activities in an ELF class can encourage
language learners to naturally express themselves by training them to respondto situations or scenes spontaneously. As this is a pilot study, a theater workshop
introducing the improvisations was implemented both as part of my teaching method
and research design. Survey results show that the three improvisations had significancein creating a communicative and collaborative ELF class. Students’ response also
conveyed how language learner’s motivation is nurtured and sustained particularly
in classroom dynamics where the teacher’s role is transferred to the student. At thesame time, the learners’ creativity, listening, and speaking skills are enhanced in theprocess of improvisation that is an engaging way to practice ﬂuency.
KEYWORDS: Improvisation, Drama, Language learning, Theater
1. INTRODUCTION

Overcoming shyness and increasing motivation among Japanese students are some of
the challenges that English teachers have to deal with. Various pair and group activities
such as interviews, presentations, and role-plays are considered to be incorporated
in class activities that might help address these issues. English teachers with many
years of teaching experience in Japan can already notice Japanese students’ behavior
patterns in their passive learning. As Fred Anderson (1993) observed in his researchon Western language teachers in Japan, students rarely asked for clarification, seldom
initiated discussion, avoided bringing up new topics and avoided challenging the
instructor. These behavior patterns manifested Japanese students’ shyness (Doyon,
2000) that troubled most English teachers. However, active learning exercises(Bonwell & Eison, 1991) that involve collaboration such as role-playing could be an26

approach to overcome this shyness.
Role-playing is related to improvisation that was developed by Viola Spolin,
the inventor of Theater Games. Using the concept of play to tap into individual
creativity and self-expression, Viola Spolin conceptualized theater games which
focused on stimulating creativity (Spolin, 2017; Wilson, 2016). Her work greatly
contributed to the popularity of improvisation as a tool for theater training in the
US in the late 1950s. Then in the 1970s, the influence of theater improvisations anddrama techniques was strongly practiced in language teaching.
Maley and Duff (2005) introduced drama techniques as communication
activities for language teachers. Some of their reasons for using drama in language
teaching were (1) to draw upon cognitive and affective domains, thus restoring theimportance of thinking as well as feeling; (2) to bring the classroom to life throughfocus on meaning by contextualising the language; and (3) to foster self-awareness(and awareness of others), self-esteem, and confidence through which motivation
thrives. Thus, they seem to believe that drama techniques and theater improvisations
may be effective to overcome shyness and increase motivation even among lowlevel language learners.
In Abigail Paul’s (2015) interactive workshop on performative techniques in
the language classroom, she outlined exercises that promote learners of non-native
languages to be experimental in creating an opportunity for authentic dialogue,
regardless of language level. The activities in the workshop give emphasis on grouplearning experience, rather than the individual to foster mindfulness and awarenessof others. She affirms that collaboration, spontaneity, and humour are necessary toprovide a comfortable space where language learners are encouraged to take risks
and less likely to suffer if they fail in the exercises.
Theater improvisation supports a learning style where creativity and selfexpression are initiated and expanded upon. This in a way, “promotes risk-taking,which is an essential element in effective language learning” (Maley & Duff, 2005,
p. 2). Connecting improvisations to English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) does not limit
the users to conform to the conventions of English as a Native Language (ENL)
grammar and usage, but rather makes use of the actual English they are alreadyaware of. As Seidlhofer posits:
the creativity lies in the manner in which they draw on the abstract
virtual rules underlying these actualizations to regulate theirperformance in real time, actualizations that often go well beyond what
they have been presented with as the English that they should emulate.
(2015, p. 120)

27

The positive effect of drama techniques also seem to be effective among
ELF students in Japan. Yasuko Shiozawa (2017) of Bunkyo University reported on
an experimental class entitled “English and Media” where she utilized a variety ofdrama techniques to explore social issues. Based on responses to pre-and-post surveys
given to participants, she reported that drama techniques are not only encouraging
her students to exhibit creativity but also helping them to express insights regarding
social issues. A similar study was also conducted by Michael I. Dailey, an English
educator with an experience working as a professional theater actor, who held asemester of drama class for English language learners. Despite the small-scale
survey results of his thirteen students, it revealed a unanimous positive impact ofdrama activities as “emphasizing meaningful language, interactive communication,and cooperation that stimulate participation and speaking practice” (2009, p.11).
Although there have been numerous studies on the effectiveness of drama
techniques in language learning, research on improvisations particularly in ELF is
scarce. This led me to my research question: how effective and suitable improvisations
are as supplementary activities for ELF learners. In this paper, I will introduce
three improvisation activities adapted from, developed by Ana Lim (2009) andSpolin (2017), but more importantly, modified based on my experience as a theater
practitioner and ELF teacher to suit a class of low-level learners of ELF.
2. METHODOLOGY

Before the workshop commenced, I asked my students if they had heard of or werefamiliar with theater improvisation in language learning. Since most participants werefirst-year students and have never been involved in theater, they did not seem to havean idea of improvisation. I, therefore, explained an overview of drama techniquesand demonstrated how theater improvisation could be effective for language learnersof English.
The main component of the study was a workshop of a 100-minute class or two
sessions of a 50-minute class. The participants were ELF 201/202 students majoringin Agriculture and Media Design who have TOEIC scores that range from 341 to
449. They were randomly divided into groups and performed three improvisations
with the same group. The goal was not only to learn English but also to emphasise
creativity and collaboration in producing authentic language via drama techniques.
My colleague, who is a professional Philippine theater director, was invited tofacilitate the workshops for two consecutive years in 2015 and 2016. It was also an
opportunity for the students to interact with the director to use and experience ELF.
Moreover, having a guest or an unfamiliar person facilitating the workshop appeared
to break the class routine and create a refreshing atmosphere. While I assisted the
director, I did participant-observation to examine how the students responded to theactivities. The purpose of this observation was to supplement data in the survey
conducted after the workshop.
Survey responses were collected from sixty-one Agriculture major students
and seven Media Design students. The last part of the survey was an open question28

to let the students freely write their comments and suggestions. After the workshop
and collection of surveys, I initiated an open discussion to reflect on and confirm
what they answered in the survey. The survey and discussion were used in measuring
the opinions and attitudes of the students towards their participation in the workshop.
3. THE IMPROVISATIONS

The following improvisation games and activities were learned, passed on, andcustomized for this research study. I had participated in or facilitated these activities
as an actor and drama teacher, but not as a language learner. As I am aware of theeffectiveness of improvisation in promoting the production of natural speech, this has
led me to initiate these exercises as supplementary activities for my ELF students tobreak the daily teaching routine, to let them overcome their shyness, and to increase
their motivation.
Little preparation is necessary and no special equipment required. It is only
important to have sufficient space for students to move and form in small groups. The
three improvisations are all group activities that provide opportunities for English
language use already learned. Participants are allowed limited use of Japanese but
are strongly encouraged to use more English.
Although a professional theater director held the workshop in this study,
teachers do not necessarily need to have a theater background to teach improvisations
but to exude confidence in a firm yet friendly tone is an advantage. Teachers areencouraged to give helpful feedback and should not stop the students when they
make mistakes so as to sustain an open and relaxed atmosphere for the participants
to experience the ‘flow’ of theater improvisation (Maley & Duff, 2005, p. 4).
3.1 This is a/an (object)

Listening, concentration, and accuracy are the key features of this activity. Students
should have any small object and make sure that no objects are the same in the group.
They form a circle. If the number of students is too big, it can be divided into groupsof six.
All the chants and movements are done simultaneously. First, all students
hold their objects in both hands. They face the person on their left and say, “this is a(name of the object),” as they pass their objects to the next person on the left. Next,
they respond, “Uh what?” to the person on their right. This chant is done twice. After
which, they get the objects being passed to them and say, “oh, a/an (name of theobject)!” The chant goes on until they get their object.
Student 1: This is a/an (object). (Look at the student on the left as she/he passes theobject.)Student 2: Uh what? (Look at the student on the right as she/he passes the object.)
Student 1: A/an (object). (Look at the student on the left as she/he passes theobject.)29

Student 2: Uh what? (Look at the student on the right as she/he passes the object.)
Student 1: A/an (object). (Look at the student on the left as she/he passes theobject.)Student 2: Oh a/an (object)! (Look at the student on the right as she/he passes theobject.)
3.2 One Brain

Listening, fluency, timing, precision, and cooperation are necessary to implement thisactivity successfully. A group of students answers simultaneously and spontaneously
when asked a question by other students in the audience. Six is the maximum numberof students in the group. No one can lead the group so they have to listen carefully
to what kind of sounds are being produced by everyone to be able to answer in full
sentences as a group. They respond as if they are embodied as one personal identity.
As the group provides information about “herself or himself,” the individual’s
personality is gradually being revealed.
Student audience member: One brain, what is your name?
One brain: My name is Hiromi.
Student audience member: How old are you?
One brain: I am 19 years old.
3.3 One-word Story

Listening, fluency, creativity, and critical thinking skills are honed in this collaborative
activity. A group of eight to ten members is formed. Each student provides a word tocreate a story that has a beginning, middle, and an end. The story can be any theme aslong as it has coherence and grammar is in use. This activity was also recommended
by Bob Kuhlan (2017) for implementing improvisation in business.
Student 1: One
Student 2: nightStudent 3: aStudent 4: woman
Student 5: named…

30

4. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

A questionnaire of nine likert-style items was given to the participants to measure
their understanding of theater improvisation in language learning, to evaluate theeffectiveness of the facilitator’s instructions, and to gauge their impressions of theworkshop and its efficacy in learning English. Moreover, the questions were written
both in Japanese and English. The five-point Likert items were categorised into fivecategories: strongly agree, agree, neutral, disagree and strongly disagree. The Likertitem survey seemed suitable to collect data because it provided the respondents moretime to reflect and answer the questions.
In analyzing the results of the Likert-item survey, it is suggested that we should
not rely too heavily on interpreting single items because single items are relatively
unreliable (Brown 2011, p. 13). Instead the findings should be interpreted as a whole
to answer the main question: how effective and suitable are the three improvisation
activities as supplementary activities for an ELF class?
Table 1
Actual student response to items on theater improvisation workshop (n=68)
Item

SD

D

N

A

SA

1. I know what “Theater Improvisation in Language
Learning” is.

6

11

19

22

10

2. I think the workshop activities using theatre
improvisation are effective in learning English.

1

2

11

23

31

3. I understood the facilitator’s instructions.

0

1

9

36

22

4. I think the workshop activities can help improve myEnglish language skills in a natural way.

0

6

15

35

12

5. I feel more confident in using English after theworkshop.

1

5

2

25

9

6. I want to do more of theater improvisations to learn
English.

0

4

14

23

27

7. I think today’s workshop activities were difficult.

2

14

26

19

7

8. I think today’s workshop was interesting.

0

2

4

27

35

Note: SD=Strongly Disagree, D=Disagree, N=Neither Disagree nor Agree, A= Agree, SA=
Strongly Agree.

Survey results in Table 1 summarize the impressions of participants as English
language learners in the workshop. More than half of the participants did notunderstand or were unsure of theater improvisation in language learning eventhough the workshop facilitator provided an overview before the workshop. Theater
improvisation should be explained further so the participants can fully grasp the
purpose of the activities. Although some participants did not fully comprehend the31aim of the workshop, interestingly, almost eighty percent responded that they thought
the workshop activities were effective ways to develop their English language (item2). In addition, almost all respondents agreed that the workshop activities could
help improve their English language skills in a natural way (item 4). In this way,
half of participants were led to believe that they gained more confidence (item 5),
although twenty-eight (41%) responded neutrally to this question. This suggeststhat confidence cannot be easily built after participating in theater improvisations
activities done only once, but confidence can perhaps be gradually gained throughfrequent use of such activities. Students generally thought theater improvisations
were difficult but nearly all yearned to be engaged in such activities because theyfound them interesting to learn English.
A majority of the participants understood the workshop facilitators’
instructions. Inviting a professional theater artist whose first language is not English
but speaks English as an official language in his home country provided an ELF
atmosphere during the workshop. Students were shy at the beginning of the workshop,
but later on appeared to have gained motivation and engaged with the activities in avisibly enthusiastic manner.
Table 2Student evaluation of the enjoyment of individual activities (n=68)
Theater improvisation activities

Total student response

One-word Story

25

One Brain

23

Other Activities*

18

This is a...

2

*Note: Other activities are improvisations that are not discussed in this paper.

Table 2 shows that One-word Story and One Brain appeared to be the mostenjoyable activities. Both listening and fluency activities entail collaboration toachieve a positive outcome. A couple of students commented particularly on One
Brain as a difficult activity because participants have different response to thequestions they are supposed to answer simultaneously as a group. However, theyadded that it was interesting and that they would be willing to repeat the activity.
The last part of the survey was an open question for comments or suggestions.
Forty-nine students generally wrote that they enjoyed and were interested in theactivities. Furthermore, some students revealed that the workshop was difficult
but that it was an effective way to learn speaking English naturally and that thecooperativeness in such activities made them appropriate to an ELF learning
environment. Below are samples of the students’ comments in details that express
their positive feedback. However, one student wrote that he or she thought theater
improvisations had a connection with English learning but later on realized there wasno meaning to it. Perhaps, if the facilitator had explained more clearly the purpose of32

each activity, the student would find more meaning in executing the activities more
effectively.
It was very difficult. My head gets caught up, but as soon as I repeat it, I will
have the power to think (in) English instantly.															----Student 1
I realized that (I) was talking in my English in my own words.
												It was fun speaking English naturally.																----Student 2
		----Student 3

It was very difficult to match the words that we wanted to say but it was a lot of
fun to cooperate.
									----Student 4

Based on the learners’ comments on the questionnaire, it appears that theirinsights can be summarized and interpreted into three main points. The first notable
point is the requirement for spontaneous verbal expression that is fundamental to mostof the activities, so that careful listening is a distinctive attribute to improvisation
activities. This sentiment is found in Maley and Duff’s (2005) commentary on
drama in the language classroom. Moreover, self-expression reveals a part of theirpersonality in each activity. Even though shy and quiet students are not actively
involved, they can still benefit just by enjoying what they see or hear. The second
notable point discovered in participant’s responses is that they are prompted torespond immediately because improvisational theater requires a collaborative
effort which makes them thrive on the responsibility of what happens during theactivities. The teachers or facilitators, therefore, do not always have to lead and give
instructions (Wilson, 2016). The third notable point is that overcoming the challengeof the activities becomes the fun of the activity, so motivation is imbibed in thelearning process.
Based on my observation, the students, at first, were shy when the theater
director started giving instructions. They appeared to listen carefully as they tried
to be familiar with his way of speaking and to reply only in English as they knewthat the director could not understand any Japanese word. That moment was an ELF
experience for them. Laughter between the audience and performers common in all
the activities created a relaxed atmosphere during the workshop. And, whenever a
student made a mistake or struggled with words, the other group members voluntarily
showed encouragement and support.

33

5. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

By introducing three improvisation activities and analyzing the survey results, it
is evident that ELF students benefit from theater improvisations because of thefollowing reasons: (1) they feel that the activities have improved their confidence andfluency; (2) improvisations are suitable for ELF because they do not limit the users
to conform to the ENL conventions of grammar and usage but rather make use of theactual English they are aware of; (3) theater improvisations increase their motivation
since they find the activities enjoyable and interesting; (4) the collaborative activities
encourage the learner to say something to someone, then she or he has to accept thesituation and add to it.
Teachers can adapt and use theater improvisations as extra English activities
in an ELF class. The improvisations that can be customized to the learners’
proficiency level can be designed so as not to make the the students feel their lack ofcommunicative ability. Furthermore, the activities reveal the participants’ creativity
and English proficiency through their spontaneous expressions of feelings andopinions. Constructive feedback from teachers and students is necessary to foster
creativity and develop self-awareness and awareness of others in language use.
Since this is a pilot study, the data gathering method can be made moreaccurate, particularly the survey. In future iterations, perhaps neutrality should not
be allowed in the Likert scale so respondents have to choose either a positive or anegative answer. Survey results have been shown to be more accurate if an evennumber of choices are provided such as strongly agree, agree, slightly agree, slightly
disagree, disagree and strongly disagree (Brown, 2011). Furthermore, in order toprovide a richer and more diverse data set for analysis, focus group discussions
can be conducted on the nature of drama activities with English learners of a highproficiency level. Only three improvisations as supplementary activities prove to beeffective and suitable for ELF learners in this study but introducing more activities
could be explored for future research.
REFERENCES

Anderson, F. (1993). The enigma of the college classroom: Nails that don’t stickup. In P. Wadden (Ed.) A handbook for teaching English at Japanesecollege and universities (pp. 101-110). New York: Oxford University Press.
Bonwell, C. C., & Eison, J. A. (1991). Active learning: Creating excitement in theclassroom. 1991 ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Reports. Washington, DC:
Eric Clearinghouse on Higher Education, George Washington University.
Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED336049
Brown, J. D. (2011). Likert Items and scales of measurement? Shiken: JALT
Testing & Evaluation SIG Newsletter, 15(1), 10-14. Retrieved from http://
hosted.jalt.org/test/bro_34.htm
34

Dailey, M. (2009). Acting out: A one-year drama class to increase participation. The
Language Teacher, 33(12), 7-11.
Doyon, P. (2000). Shyness in the Japanese EFL classroom: Why is it a problem,
what it is, what causes it, and what to do about it. The Language Teacher,24(1), 11-16.
Kuhlan, B. (2017). Getting to “Yes And”: The art of business improv. Stanford, CA:
Stanford Business Books.
Lim, A. (2009). Evolutionary theater. Quezon City: Great Books Publishing.
Maley, A., & Duff, A. (2005). Drama techniques: A resource book ofcommunication activities for language teachers (3rd ed.). Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Paul, A. (2015). Incorporating theater techniques in the language classroom.
Scenario, 9(2), 115-124. Retrieved from http://research.ucc.ie/
scenario/2015/02/Paul/08/en
Seidlhofer, B. (2015). Understanding English as a lingua franca. UK: Oxford
University Press.
Shiozawa, Y. (2017, August). Exploring social issues via drama techniques. Paper
presented at the JACET 56th International Conventions Theme: English in a
Globalized World: Exploring Lingua Franca Research and Pedagogy (2017),
Aoyama Gakuin University, Tokyo.
Spolin, V. (2017). Improvisation for the theater: A handbook of teaching anddirecting techniques. Eastford, CT: Martino Fine Books.
Wilson, K. (2016). Drama and improvisation. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

35Extensive Listening in the ELF Classroom with
ELLLO
ELFプログラムにおける多聴の試み：ELLLOを用いたリスニング研究
Brett Milliner, ミリナー・ブレット
Tamagawa University, The Center for English as a Lingua Franca, Japan
milliner@lit.tamagawa.ac.jp

Rasami Chaikul, チャイクル・ラサミ
Tamagawa University, The Center for English as a Lingua Franca, Japanrasami.chaikul@lab.tamagawa.ac.jp

ABSTRACTThis teaching article introduces an extensive listening homework component
designed around the website, ELLLO <elllo.org>, a listening training repository
featuring non-native English speakers. Students were asked to self-select listening
texts from the ELLLO website and complete a short listening log entry for homework.
In-class listening activities also featured ELLLO texts. Along with promoting thiswebsite for developing ELF students' listening skills, the authors hope this article
will prompt teachers to consider introducing non-native speaker listening texts intheir ELF classrooms to promote listening ﬂuency and more effectively illustrate
English use in international settings.
KEYWORDS: Extensive listening, ELF, ELLLO, ELF listening, ELF classroom activities
1. INTRODUCTIONFor English as a Lingua Franca students (hereafter ELF students) living in a morehomogenous society like Japan, there are few opportunities to encounter English
input outside of the classroom. To bridge this gap, teachers are introducing online
media and incorporating tasks such as extensive reading into their syllabi. In an
earlier volume of this journal, Magasic (2016) argued that online videos (webclips)
are a welcome addition to an ELF classroom as they compliment ELF tenets andrepresent entertaining, stimulating and educational classroom tasks. Following on
the work of Magasic, and the promotion of extensive watching by Saunders (2017)as well as Saunders and Ishimaki (2016), this teaching article also advocates theinclusion of audiovisual content in the ELF class syllabus. More specifically, the36authors will introduce a website (ELLLO) for developing ELF students' listening
skills and ELF awareness. After introducing extensive listening (EL) and its value
to language learners, an EL component and classroom activities utilizing the freelistening website, ELLLO will be described.
1.1 Extensive Listening

Similar to extensive reading, extensive listening involves students listening to large
quantities of self-selected texts at, or slightly below their linguistic level. The
theoretical foundation for EL is drawn from Krashen’s input hypothesis (1994) thatargues language learners have to consume large quantities of comprehensible language
input for the language to be acquired effectively. In EL, three core components
are highlighted: (a) student selection of listening texts, which according to Lynch(2009) encourages student motivation to practice and continue practicing in theirown time; (b) listening to large quantities and varieties of discourse, such as dialogic
speech and different English accents (Gilliland, 2015; Renandya & Farrell, 2011;
Walker, 2010); and (c) the level of the text needs to be at or below students’ readinglevel. Following the theoretical foundation of this approach, the level of text must
be prioritised, especially when the focus is listening. For many language learners,
listening is significantly harder than reading as literacy training most likely preceded
listening instruction. Moreover, as Waring (2010) highlighted, most students canonly start to recognise specific linguistic features such as collocations and nuances ofgrammar and pronunciation when almost all of the words in the text are understood.
1.2 Use of Listening Logs in English Classrooms

A popular approach for incorporating EL into a class syllabus has been listening
diaries or listening log components. Listening logs were defined by Gilliland (2015,
p. 13) as “an ongoing assignment where students document their participation in outof-class activities and reflect on how this involvement helped them improve theirlistening abilities.” In her book chapter promoting the use of listening logs as a way
to encourage students to engage in English study outside the classroom, Gilliland(2015) reported on intermediate and advanced English as a second language (ESL)
students’ perceptions of EL logs. Surveys of students who completed listening logs
for several semesters revealed that the experience had encouraged them to seek out
new genres of listening content. Students also reported that they were able to learn
more deeply about the local culture (America) as well as improve their listening andcritical thinking skills. Hubbard (2015) also reported on an online EL component
he created for ESL students. Along with developing listening skills, the component
aimed to promote vocabulary knowledge and the development of personal learning
strategies. After EL, Hubbard observed improvements in his students’ listening
comprehension, reflective learning skills and a more motivated stance towards EL.
Focusing on Taiwanese university students listening to English content online,
Chen (2016) reported on her students maintaining an EL diary. Reflecting on the
program, Chen wrote that her students perceived the EL diary component positively,
citing: gaining of new knowledge; improved listening skills; the promotion of37

future study planning; and, increased self-confidence as benefits. In her conclusion,
Chen noted that if the EL component is going to encourage independent learning
after the course, teachers need to: establish reliable scaffolding, train students on
how to use the technology, and carefully monitor students’ self-selection of online
texts.
1.3 Listening and the ELF Classroom

Rather than reproducing native speaker models, a number of experts in the field of
ELF advocate exposing students to a broad range of English speakers and connecting
them with practical activities focusing on the exchange of meaning (e.g., Björkman,
2013; Magasic, 2016; McBride, 2016; Walker, 2010; Yamada, 2015). In her book,
English as a Lingua Franca, Beyza Björkman (2013, p.192) presented “the inclusionof non-native speaker accents in listening comprehension material” as the first item
to prioritize when teaching an ELF informed English class. She went on to explainthat non-native audio material provides practical examples of what students need to
do when using English in international settings.
Exposure to listening texts featuring a range of accents has also been citedas having a positive impact on students’ pronunciation skills. When teaching in amonolingual ELF context (e.g., Japan), where students have the same first language,
Walker (2010) argued that communicative tasks may, in fact, be undermining
students’ pronunciation skills. To overcome this concern, one recommendation hegave was to expose students to a range of English accents as it encourages learners
to accept variations and become better at comprehending different accents.
While experts advocate utilizing texts featuring non-native speakers, they
fail to recognize the difficulty of finding appropriate texts online. Also, they do not
introduce a list of specific websites for finding useful content. One suggestion was
The Speech Accent Archive <http://accent.gmu.edu/> created by George Mason
University (McBride, 2016; Walker, 2010). Saunders (2017) reviewed the major
online video platforms over a range of measures, including ELF utility, and his reportprovides some assistance to teachers for finding more interesting, level-appropriate
text during their busy, day-to-day teaching schedule. Similarly, if teachers opt to
ask their students to select texts online, most language learners appear ill-prepared
to undertake this task by themselves (Hubbard, 2015; Milliner, 2017). This issue
can be observed clearly in the Japanese university context specifically, where it has
been reported that students have limited digital literacies (Cote & Milliner, 2017;
Gobel & Kano, 2014; Lockley & Promnitz-Hayashi, 2012; Murray & Blyth, 2011;
OECD, 2015) and a lack of preparedness to study independently (Sakai & Takagi,2009).
It was these challenges that led the authors to the language learning website,
ELLLO <www.elllo.org>. In the following section, ELLLO is introduced followed
by a description of how the authors incorporated ELLLO into their ELF class.

38

1.4 ELLLOEnglish Language Listening Library Online (ELLLO) is a website which provides
free English listening activities. The website, created by Todd Beuckens, an English
teacher based in southern Japan, contains over 2,000 listening texts. One feature that
distinguishes ELLLO from other native-speaker listening resources is that the former
contains video or audio featuring speakers from not only the inner-circle countries
where English is spoken as a primary language by native speakers but also speakers
from the outer, former British colonies, and expanding circles (Kachru, 1985). As aconsequence, ELLLO provides a rich volume of authentic listening materials thatenable students to experience the usage of English as a Lingua Franca.
Illustrated in Figure 1 below, along with the audiovisual content, the website
presents additional listening activities. One of the biggest advantages of this site isthat students or teachers can select content graded for different levels. Within thesite, users can search for texts and apply filters for a theme, topic, country (accent)or activity. Texts are either audio or audio-visual and texts come in a range of
discourse styles (e.g., monological and dialogical texts). Users can stream listening
texts directly from the website, within the ELLLO mobile application or throughthe music streaming website/applications SoundCloud and the elllofriends YouTube
channel. Evidenced in Figure 2, ELLLO users can simultaneously read-whilelistening to a text, take a post-listening quiz (which is corrected by the website) andlearn key terms or interesting language found within a text. All supplementary tools
and activities are freely available as online-activities and users can download PDF
worksheets connected to a specific ELLLO text.

39

Figure 1. ELLLO landing page

Figure 2. Example of an audiovisual text with Indonesian and Sri Lankan speakers in
ELLLO
40

2. ELF CLASSROOM APPLICATIONS WITH ELLLO
2.1 Listening Logs
In the authors’ ELF course, students were asked to select audio or video texts

from ELLLO and complete an online post-listening questionnaire. Students wereencouraged to complete one listening log entry a day throughout the 15-day intensive
course. The listening and logging tasks would take students approximately six to ten
minutes on average to complete. At the end of the course, each student’s log data
was reviewed to establish an EL grade (10% of overall grade).
To facilitate the log keeping process, the authors created a post-listening
questionnaire in Google Forms (see Figure 3 and Appendix A). The questionnaire
included ten questions relating to the listening experience. All responses were
funneled into an online spreadsheet (Google Sheets) which could be accessed by
the teacher and students to track progress and share interesting listening content.
Even though students were free to choose whichever text they wanted to listen to, atthe beginning of the course, the instructors provided training on how to (a) use thewebsite and log effectively on a PC and smartphone, and (b) how to navigate the
ELLLO site (e.g., how to find appropriate level and dialogic texts, how to search fordifferent accents, and how to evaluate listening comprehension).

Figure 3. Example of the listening log used in this course

412.2 In-class Activities
2.2.1 Technical Training

In the classroom, at the beginning of the course, the teachers first introduced
the ELLLO website using a PC. The procedure lasted approximately 10-15 minutes.
To accommodate students’ understanding of how to navigate the website, a worksheet
was provided. Students were also trained on using the website and EL log on theirsmartphones so students could complete their homework more efficiently. For
example, students were instructed on how to create links on their smartphone’s home
screen to the ELLLO mobile application and online listening log (Figure 4).

Figure 4. ELLLO and listening log links found on a student’s phone’s home screen

422.2.2 ELLLO Worksheets

In addition to the listening log component, a number of ELLLO’s downloadable
worksheets featuring non-native English speakers were utilized in the classroom.
Observed in Figure 5 below, ELLLO provides free, downloadable worksheets for aselection of listening texts that teachers or students can utilize for listening training.
Activities include cloze exercises, speaking drills, vocabulary quizzes and vocabularydefinitions. A useful addition to each worksheet is a QR code so students can quickly
connect to listening texts with their smartphones.

Figure 5. Example of an ELLLO worksheet
43

2.2.3 Other Classroom Activities

During the ELF course, some other listening tasks were incorporated by theauthors using ELLLO texts. These included:● Shadowing● Students re-creating ad-hoc versions of the text as a speaking task.
● Bottom-up listening activities. Two warm-up type activities included asking

students to listen and mark changes of intonation and making a sentence oran utterance from the text and asking students to count the number of words.
(Teachers interested in bottom-up approaches should see Siegel and Siegel [2015]
for a detailed explanation of bottom-up listening activities).
● Role-play
While this list reports on how the authors incorporated ELLLO in their
ELF course, teachers ought to consider some of the other listening tasks for ELF
students suggested by McBride (2016, p. 91) as well as Walker (2010, p. 95-96)
who focuses on using listening tasks to improve pronunciation skills.
3. DISCUSSION

Correlatively to the implementation of ELLLO into the ELF classroom, Björkman(2013), mentioned her suggestions for inclusion of ELF principles within theclassroom as important for “providing the learner with modern and broad-based
descriptions of language” (p. 191). After implementing ELLLO in their ELF class,the authors observed that the students were motivated to listen due to the variety of
topics and themes. Moreover, students appeared to enjoy the challenge of trying tocomprehend different accents. According to the listening log data, a large number ofstudents mentioned that the listening texts in ELLLO were interesting.
The listening log component described in this paper also allowed the teachers
to indirectly train students to become better independent language learners. This wasachieved by introducing how to use technology and online resources for language
learning purposes. ELLLO allows students to practice and fulfill a variety of different
tasks such as watching a video clip, listening to an interview, reading the transcript,
studying vocabulary, reviewing keywords and taking quizzes. As was introduced
by Kruk (2013), digital resources introduced in this way can generate a more
contextualized setting than a traditional classroom environment (p. 253). Moreover,as students are only accustomed to using digital devices in limited capacities, adding
ELLLO into an English lesson creates chances for students to utilize their digitalskills for language learning. Moreover, as students could access ELLLO via PC or
smartphone, they could study anytime anywhere, which promotes greater autonomous
learning.
Magasic (2016), in addition, noted Björkman’s (2013) recommendations fora more ELF informed classroom which involved the use of materials with a varietyof accents to make an English course relevant to the ELF paradigm. ELLLO presents
44

a variety of Englishes shown in a wide range of communicative situations which
can help raise students’ ELF awareness. Having foreknowledge of the speakers’
countries of origin while utilizing authentic listening materials in ELLLO prepares
students to understand communication in ELF contexts where speakers have different
mother tongues. Exposure to ELF communication helps learners understand that itis acceptable to speak with an intelligible accent and that encourages students tobroaden their view of English as a Lingua Franca.
4. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE PLANS

Extensive listening for the ELF classroom with ELLLO represents an effort by theauthors to incorporate one ELF feature into their classroom. In its current form, thiswas a pilot study conducted with a small class. A study involving a much larger
number of students is being undertaken to observe the effectiveness of the content
on ELLLO for promoting listening skills and ELF awareness. The logs considered
students’ listening difficulties, and hopefully, this data can be utilized to enhanceteaching methods and the selection of materials which effectively foster students
listening fluency for ELF contexts. Also, in a future study, students’ listening abilities
will be measured before and after the treatment.
We hope our paper has presented a practical solution for listening instructionin ELF classrooms and that it encourages ELF teachers to consider how they canmore effectively train students to become confident users of English as a Lingua
Franca.
REFERENCES

Björkman, B. (2013). English as an academic Lingua Franca: An investigation ofform and communicative effectiveness. Boston: Walter de Gruyter.
Chen, C. W. (2016). Listening diary in the digital age: Students’ material selection,
listening problems, and perceived usefulness. The JALT CALL Journal, 12(2),83-101.
Cote, T., & Milliner, B. (2017). Preparing Japanese students’ digital literacy forstudy abroad: Is more training needed? The JALT CALL Journal, 13(3), 187197. Retrieved from http://journal.jaltcall.org/
Gilliland, B. (2015). Listening logs for extensive listening practice. In D. Nunan &J. C. Richards (Eds.), Language learning beyond the classroom (pp. 13-22).
New York: Routledge.

45Gobel, P., & Kano, M. (2014). Mobile natives, Japanese University Students’Use of Digital Technology. In J. B. Son (Ed.), Computer-Assisted Language
Learning: Learners, Teachers and Tools (pp. 21-46). Newcastle upon Tyne:
Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
Hubbard, P. (2015). Training learners for self-directed listening tasks. In J.
Colpaert, A. Aerts, M. Oberhofer, M. Gutiérez-Colón Plana (Eds.), Task
Design and CALL Proceedings (pp. 289-296). Belgium: The University of
Antwerp.
Kachru, B. (1985). Standards, codification, and sociolinguistic realism: The
English language in the outer circle. In R. Quirk & H. Widdowson (Eds.),
English in the world: Teaching and Learning of Language and Literatures,(pp. 11-30). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Krashen, S. (1994). The input hypothesis and its rivals. In N. Ellis (Ed.) Implicit
and explicit learning of languages (pp. 45-77). London: Academic Press.
Kruk, M. (2013). English second conditional with internet resources and virtualworlds. The JALT CALL Journal, 9(3), 241-257.
Lockley, T., & Promnitz-Hayashi, L. (2012). Japanese university students’ CALL
attitudes, aspirations, motivations. CALL-EJ, 13(1), 1-16.
Lynch, T. (2009). Teaching second language listening. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
Magasic, A. (2016). Becoming ‘YouTubers’: Using webclips in the ELF classroom.
The Center for ELF Journal, 2(1), 18-25.
McBride, P. (2016). An overview perspective on teaching ELF: Principles andpractices. Waseda Working Papers in ELF, 5, 186-197.
Milliner, B. (2017). Using online extensive listening to promote language input inan EFL setting. In J. Colpaert, A. Aerts, R. Kern & M. Kaiser (Eds.), CALL in
Context Proceedings (pp. 575-581). Berkeley: University of California.
Murray, A., & Blyth, A. (2011). A survey of Japanese university students’ computer
literacy levels. The JALT CALL Journal, 7(3), 307-318.
OECD. (2015), Graph 2.5. Youth who lack basic ICT skills: Percentage of youth(16-29), 2012, in OECD Skills Outlook 2015, OECD Publishing, Paris.
doi: 10.1787/9789264234178-graph10-en
46

Renandya, W. A., & Farrell, T. S. C. (2011). ‘Teacher the tape is too fast!’
Extensive listening in ELT. ELT Journal, 65(1), 52-59. doi: 10.1093/elt/
ccq015
Sakai. S., & Takagi, A. (2009). Relationship between learner autonomy and English
language Proficiency of Japanese learners. The Journal of Asia TEFL, 6(3),297-325.
Saunders, T., & Ishimaki, K. (2016). Learner attitudes of L2-engaged extensive
watching versus extensive reading. The Center for ELF Journal, 2(2), 1-14.
Saunders, T. (2017). A brief catalogue and review of key online video resources andplatforms. The Center for ELF Journal, 3(1), 27-37.
Siegel, J., & Siegel, A. (2015). Getting to the bottom of L2 listening instruction:
Making the case for bottom up strategies. Studies in Second Language
Learning and Teaching, 5(4), 637-662. Retrieved from http://yadda.icm.edu.
pl/yadda/element/bwmeta1.element.desklight-4204fe5b-b752-4dea-8d8d41955b31b6d3/c/SSLLT_5_4__637-662_Siegel__Siegel.pdf
Walker, R. (2010). Teaching the pronunciation of English as a Lingua Franca.
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Waring, R. (2010, 3 November). Extensive listening. Rob Waring’s Websites.
Personal website. Retrieved from http://www.robwaring.org/el/
Yamada, M. (2015). The role of English teaching in modern Japan: Diversity andmulticulturalism through English language education in a globalized era.
New York: Routledge.

47

APPENDIX A
Listening Log

48

49

50

Book Review
書評“Louder than words: The new science of how themind makes meaning”
Bergen, B. K., Basic Books (2012)
Jeﬀrey Schultz, ショールツ・ジェフリー
Tamagawa University, Center for English as a Lingua Franca, Japan
Jeffreys@lab.tamagawa.ac.jp

ABSTRACTThis paper examines Benjamin K. Bergen’s book, “Louder than words: The newscience of how the mind makes meaning.” Using cognitive linguistic experiments andneuropsychology, Bergen explains the action-sentence compatibility effect paradigm,
that is, how the brain uses the areas that control movement to process language andcreate meaning. In so doing, he gives good examples of research into how the brain
creates language and how this research is supported by neurobiology.
KEYWORDS: Book review, Cognitive linguistics, Neurolinguistics,
ELF practices
1. STARTING POINT

Bergen (2012) states that philosophers have contemplated the interaction of thinking
and language for hundreds of years. Bergen starts his book by questioning a paradigm
that had been held by many philosophers for hundreds of years until the 1970’s. Until
that time, theorists had held that people thought using a mental language referred toas mentalese. In the 1970’s, the idea that the meaning of words might be based inexperiences began to gain approval. Put in simple terms, a word is defined by all thephysical experiences a person has with the thing the word represents. For example,
one might define pizza by the way it looks, tastes, smells, how it feels in one’s handor mouth, who one eats it with, when they eat it, and where they eat it. However,there were two logical flaws with this. Bergen (2012) researches where the symbols
for experience come from and what creates them.

51

2. ACTION-SENTENCE COMPATIBILITY EFFECT

Bergen (2012) presents the reader with the action-sentence compatibility effectparadigm and location-sentence compatibility effect paradigm. He puts forward
the notion that the brain compares memories with the verb and location words of asentence and creates a mental simulation that is compatible with those aspects of thesentence.
3. METHOD

How can you observe the mind creating meaning? According to Bergen (2012), you
use high-speed cameras, buttons, knobs, a “gripasaurus” to record reactions andreaction time using computers, data analysis software and then back up your findings
with functional magnetic resonance imaging. In cognitive linguistics, researchers
sometimes start with an existing theory and add to it or think of a new one based onan old one, then they create experiments to test the theory using the above equipment,
and then turn to neurobiology theories to interpret the results (Schumann, 2004).
This is what Bergen does in his experiments.
Bergen starts by explaining both cognitive theory and the primary motor
cortex. Second, he explains his and other researcher’s experiments that measure theactions of the primary motor cortex by looking at reaction times using computers.
Third, he analyzes the results, backs them up with mental imaging, and, finally, heinterprets the results.
The brain uses grammar in real time to assemble and reassemble simulations
as new lexical information is encountered. According to Bergen (2012), this is botha top down and bottom up process with both happening simultaneously and thenthe results are compared with world knowledge. People start incrementally with thefirst couple of words of a sentence but quickly create large simulations that may
need to be changed as they get more information and near the end of a sentence. For
one example he gives evidence that the same sentence in English and Japanese isprocessed differently due to the grammar of the two languages using the sentences“Nana put the egg in the fridge,” and “Nana put the egg in the pan,” and in Japanese“nana-ga reezooko-nonakani tamago-o ireta” and “Nana-ga furaipan-nonakani
tamago-o ireta” (Nana fridge-inside egg put, and Nana pan-inside egg put).
4. BERGEN’S CRITICISMS

Like any scientific endeavor, Bergen’s (2012) theories and experiments are open
to criticism. Toward the end of his book, he puts forward these possible criticisms:
What is simulation good for? Is it peripheral to thought or does it just happen
without any connection to the thought process and therefore has no effect on creating
language? Could the results of the experiments be due to fatigue or memory delay?
These criticisms, if proved to be true, could make his conclusions irrelevant. In his
rebuttal, Bergen presents these criticisms as obvious problems with the research.
52

While he does discuss interesting ways they have been tested, he says the results
are inconclusive because the variables cannot be separated. He then turns to workwith head trauma victims and momentarily induced brain lesions using Transcranial
Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) in an effort to give further evidence of the connection
between meaning and simulation (Shergill et al., 2002). He relates research in whichareas of the brain associated with location are impaired using TMS, which uses amild magnetic pulse to momentarily knock out neurons. As a result, participants lostthe ability to use prepositions of location correctly (Aziz-Zaden et al., 2005). While
this is a nice addition to the action-sentence effect, the location-sentence effect, heseems to side step around the criticisms by giving more evidence in support of theaction-sentence effect.
5. BERGEN’S CONCLUSIONSBergen (2012) argues that simulation in language comprehension helps people toidentify words and the sense in which they are being used. He hypothesizes thatthe evolutionarily newer parts of the brain that are responsible for creating andunderstanding language draw on the resources of older parts of the brain and use
them in a new way to create simulations. Bergen believes that the work being done
by himself and other researchers has gone a long way to explain the cognitive processthat underlie comprehension. However, about the research into how the mind creates
meaning in general, Bergen states:
We’ve only just arrived at the foot of the mountain. We still don’t know
exactly what embodied simulations are doing, functionally, for meaning.
We still don’t know exactly how meaning differs when simulationdiffers. And, we still don’t know whether we can make meaning without
simulating. We don’t know the answers, but we do know that these aregood questions. (p. 248)
Bergen puts his research into perspective with a common caveat in neurology
based research, that is, researchers do not know exactly what is happening in thebrain, but he has provided a step towards that understanding and proposed importantavenues of inquiry to gain a better understanding of how the mind creates meaning.
6. APPLICATION TO LANGUAGE TEACHING IN THE ELF CLASSROOMThis reviewer would put forward that teachers can use the information fromBergen’s book to choose teaching methods, better understand students, and to help
the students make connections with new material. According to Bergen (2012), there53

is a lot of neural variation among learners. Schumann (2004) says that this is evenmore so among language learners past the critical period of language acquisition.
Wittrock (1992) believes that the key to learning a language for students is how
they generate meaning and relate new information to experiences. And, Wittrock
suggests that students be taught how to do this, be given opportunities to practice,and encouragement to do it on their own. It has long been held that having students
relate new lexical items to their interests and experiences generates more learningand more durable retention (Nation, 2001; Vansteenkiste, Lens & Deci, 2006;
Wittrock, 1991). Looking at how individuals use experiences and simulations tocreate meaning, Bergen offers a neurobiological reason for this long held pedagogicalpractice.
Cultural norms and discourse structures may be different to some degree
in different communities around the world and this can limit understanding. In
the English as a Lingua Franca classroom it is important to encourage students toimagine the situations they encounter in readings, listening exercises and whencommunicating in English. This not only helps students to activate schemata, but,
based on Bergen’s book, may help their comprehension. While imagination is
generally an internal process, task-based projects can be used to promote students’imagination practice and provide the teacher with some evidence that the students
are in fact exercising their powers of imagination. Students could write stories to fit
a dialogue, or act out dialogues or texts. Simpler exercises to scaffold up to bigger
projects could be information gap activities such as pairing dialogues or texts witha scenario, scene or description of an event. These could be made even simpler forthe students by using activity sheets where students make choices or fill in blanks
based on a given dialogue or scene. In many ways these activities are similar toreading comprehension activities. However, as opposed to the goal of increasing
comprehension, the goals are sharpening and displaying imagination, which mightlater lead to greater comprehension.
7. CONCLUSION

In this review, Bergen`s starting point for his research, his view of the brain, his
research methods, his initial experiments, his future research, criticisms and his
conclusions, all from his book, have been introduced. Also, possible ways teachers
in the ELF classroom may benefit from Bergen`s neurobiological research were
offered. This review gives only a superficial view of Bergen’s book. While Bergenfirmly places his and other researcher’s theories and work in current neurobiologicaland neurolinguistics research, he does not provide much in the way of the historicaldevelopment of this area of study. Schumann’s (2004) “The neurobiology oflearning” was turned to for a better understanding of its progression. How Bergen’s
work corresponds to other research using aspects of neurolinguistics would also be
welcomed. Bergen does provide detailed explanations of his theories and researchthat are as informative as they are interesting.
54

REFERENCES

Aziz-Zaden, L., Cattaneo, L., Rochat, M., & Rizzolatti, G. (2005). Covert speecharrest induced by rTMS over both motor and nonmotor left hemispherefrontal sites. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience. 17(6), 928-938.
doi: 10.1162/0898929054021157
Bergen, B. K. (2012). Louder than words: The new science of how the mind makes
meaning. New York: Basic Books.
Nation, I. S. P. (2001). Learning vocabulary in another language. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Schumann, J. H. (2004). The neurobiology of learning. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Shergill, S., Brammer, M., Fukuda, R. Bullmore, E., Amaro, E. Murray, R.,& McGuire, P. (2002). Modulation of activity in temporal cortex during
generation of inner speech. Human Brain Mapping, 16(4), 219-27. doi:
10.1002/hbm.10046
Vansteenkiste, M., Lens, W., & Deci, E. L. (2006). Intrinsic versus extrinsic goal
contents in self-determination theory: Another look at the quality of academic
motivation. Educational Psychologist, 41(1), 19-31.
doi: 10.1207/s15326985ep4101_4
Wittrock, M. C. (1991). Generative teaching of comprehension. The Elementary
School Journal, 92(2), 169-184. doi: 10.1086/46186
Wittrock, M. C. (1992). Generative learning processes of the brain. Educational
Psychology, 27(4), 531-541. doi:10.1207/s15326985ep2704_8

55

A report on faculty development and research at
the Center for English as a Lingua Franca
ELF センタ−2017 FDと研究活動レポート
Brett Milliner, ミリナー・ブレット
Tamagawa University, Center for English as a Lingua Franca, Japan
milliner@lit.tamagawa.ac.jp

Blagoja Dimoski, ディモスキ・ブラゴヤ
Tamagawa University, Center for English as a Lingua Franca, Japanbdimoski@lit.tamagawa.ac.jp

ABSTRACTIn this report, the authors will describe the different faculty training and development
initiatives aimed at promoting effective instruction in our ELF classes. This will befollowed by a detailed report on the center’s research achievements in the 2017
academic year.
KEYWORDS: ELF, Faculty development, ELF teacher training, ELF research
1. INTRODUCTION

A unique feature of the Center for English as a Lingua Franca (CELF) is our hiring
policy whereby teachers need not be native English speakers. As a result, a very
diverse group of 52 teachers was assembled to teach ELF classes in this campuswide program. This diversity represents a valuable resource for faculty development
as all teachers bring different cultural, educational, and first language backgrounds(e.g., Ukraine, Brazil, Korea, The Philippines, China, and Turkey). A core objective
for the different faculty development lectures and workshops staged throughout the2017 academic year was to provide a platform for CELF teachers to share ideas andimprove the work they do in the ELF classroom. This paper reports on such faculty
development initiatives and the academic achievements of the CELF in 2017.
2. THE 2017 CELF-ELTAMA FORUM FOR ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING

On August 22nd, the 2017 CELF-ELTama Forum for English Language Teaching
was held at the ELF Study Hall 2015. This joint-event attracted approximately 70
56attendees with a total of fifteen talks (i.e., a plenary talk, presentations, reports, and acolloquium) (see Table 1) appearing in the CELF-section of the program.
Table 1
Summary of CELF-related talks at the 2017 CELF-ELTama Forum for English Language
Teaching.
Type of Talk & Title

Plenary 1 (In English)
My transformation as an ELF practitioner: Insights from an OuterCircle teacher
Poster presentation (CELF Research Reports 1)
Teacher identity in ELF: Filipino English language teachers inJapan
Poster presentation (CELF Research Reports 1)
Online testing for learner feedback and development
Poster presentation (CELF Research Reports 1)
A structured approach to develop strategic competence in ELF
learning
Presentation (CELF Research Reports 2)
Recasting the rift between ELF and ELT
Presentation (CELF Research Reports 2)
Evidencing the intersubjective experience of seeing: A case of medical
reasoning in surgical operations
CELF Colloquium (Follow-up of the 10th Anniversary Conferenceof English as a Lingua Franca in Helsinki, Finland)
CELF colloquium on ELF communication strategies
Presentation (CELF Concurrent Sessions)Managing classroom activities with Quizlet
Presentation (CELF Concurrent Sessions)
Report on the CELF Tutor Service
Presentation (CELF Concurrent Sessions)
Using on-line games and cartoon videos to introduce spelling andgrammarPresentation (CELF Concurrent Sessions)
English skills and national power: Japanese students’ perspectives
on linguistic imperialism
Presentation (CELF Concurrent Sessions)
The benefits of using a ‘Leader-Led Discussion’ task and how it canbe implemented in the ELF classroom
Presentation (CELF Concurrent Sessions)M-Reader in the Center for English as a Lingua Franca

Author(s)Dr. Patrick NG(University of Niigata
Prefecture)
Tricia Okada
Blair Barr &Brett Milliner
Blagoja Dimoski
Jesse Hsu &Paul McBride
Satomi Kuroshima
Yuri Jody Yujobo,
Tricia Okada, Mitsuko
Imai, Blagoja Dimoski,
Ethel Ogane, (CELF,
Tamagawa University)& Takanori Sato
(Sophia University)
Blair Barr
Travis Cote & Andrew
Leichsenring
Yu-Ling Chen (Kato)(K-12 IB Programme)
Shigeko Shimazu
Richard John Marsh
Brett Milliner &Kensaku Ishimaki
57

Presentation (Report)
CELF Report

Paul McBride,
Brett Milliner, &Blagoja Dimoski

The 2017 CELF-ELTama Forum for English Language Teaching was madepossible through the collaborative efforts of the CELF and ELTama, a group of current
students (i.e., prospective English teachers) and alumni (i.e., former graduates who
are now English teachers) from the Graduate School of Humanities at Tamagawa
University.

Figure 1. Plenary speaker Dr Patrick NG, from the University of Niigata Prefecture, atthe 2017 CELF-ELTama Forum for English Language Teaching. Retrieved from http://
www.tamagawa.ac.jp/celf/news/detail_002.html

By combining the CELF Forum and ELTama, our aim was to attract andenable a diverse group of language teaching professionals to share and discuss awide spectrum of contemporary research and classroom practices relating to ELF
and English language teaching at large.

58

Figure 2. Blair Barr’s presentation during the CELF Concurrent Sessions. Retrieved
from http://www.tamagawa.ac.jp/celf/news/detail_002.html

The event also provided a valuable opportunity for CELF faculty to showcase
their various research achievements and discuss future directions with fellow
researchers and members from the general public.

Figure 3. CELF faculty giving the CELF Report in the Tamago Lounge. Retrieved fromhttp://www.tamagawa.ac.jp/celf/news/detail_002.html
59

3. LOCAL ELF WORKSHOPS & TRAINING FOR CELF TEACHERS

Throughout the academic year, the CELF staged a number of informal training andworkshop events for teachers. Most events were held at the end of the work day
between 17:00 and 19:00. A short report for each event is provided below.
3.1 ELF Teacher Orientation

Two weeks prior to the commencement of 2017 classes, an ELF faculty orientation
was staged on March 27th. An orientation session for new ELF faculty was staged
in the morning (10:00~12:00) before a general briefing about class management andoperations for all ELF teachers in the afternoon (13:00~14:30). After the general
briefing, all teachers participated in a series of parallel discussions. These sessions,led by full-time faculty focused on:● Blackboard, UNITAMA & e-learning● Research activities● Extensive reading● Teaching & textbooks● Evaluation & assessment
After the meeting, teachers toured the ELF Study Hall 2015 and other areasof interest on the university campus.

Figure 4. Professor and Center Chair, Dr Masaki Oda welcomes teachers during the
CELF teacher orientation

3.2 Blackboard CMS Training

As all teaching resources and administrative information for CELF classes are60hosted on the university’s Blackboard course management system (CMS), the CELF
focussed on training faculty to actively utilize this learning portal. The CELF staged
two workshops at the start of spring semester (April 17th and 18th) and fall semester(October 9th and 10th), which focussed on managing classroom assignments,
student assessment, and blended learning. Milliner and Cote (2018) published theirevaluation of CELF teachers’ adoption and perceptions of the Blackboard system.
Their report revealed that although most teachers had a positive perception of
the Blackboard system and that they were willingly using it in their ELF classes,
usage log data highlighted that teachers tended to use the system in limited or
unsophisticated capacities. To be more specific, teachers only used Blackboard forbasic administrative functions (e.g., accessing textbook materials and creating classannouncements) rather than practical applications that could promote student’s useof English outside of the classroom (e.g., online quizzes, blogs, vlogs, embedded
media, and online discussions). Moving forward, Blackboard trainings need topromote more sophisticated approaches to using the CMS and provide practicalexamples of how Blackboard can be used to augment instruction in ELF courses.
3.3 ELF Pedagogy Workshops
Continuing the center’s work raising awareness and understanding of ELF-informed

pedagogy, a variety of ELF-informed pedagogy workshops were staged in 2017.
3.3.1 ELF Assessment Workshop - May 29th and 30th, 2017

Paul McBride, Blagoja Dimoski and Brett Milliner led a lecture and discussion
event concerning assessment for ELF classes. Issues covered in these sessions
included overall assessment in ELF classes, how to conduct speaking assessments,and how to better use the ELF Center’s speaking and writing assessment rubrics.

Figure 5. Discussions during the ELF assessment workshop in May 2017. Retrieved
from http://www.tamagawa.ac.jp/celf/news/detail_002.html

61

3.3.2 Informal Discussion for CELF Teachers - December 6th and 8th, 2017

Paul McBride and Brett Milliner led informal discussion sessions focussed on the
sharing of teaching ideas and any issues relating to the the ELF classroom. Someof the issues discussed included dealing with less motivated students, designs for
effective group work, and the creative use of textbooks.

Figure 6. Participants at the informal discussion for CELF teachers on December 8th,2017. Retrieved from http://www.tamagawa.ac.jp/celf/news/detail_002.html

3.3.3 Campus-wide University FD/SD Training Day - February 22nd, 2018

Tricia Okada facilitated a two-hour workshop for full-time faculty andvisitors entitled Introduction to Gender in Japanese Society. Participants learned avariety of terms relating to gender, such as queer and LGBTQ, and they developed
an understanding of some contemporary issues relating to gender in Japan.

62

Figure 7. Tricia Okada leading the campus-wide faculty development workshop on
February 22nd, 2018

3.4 Guest Speakers and Visiting Scholars

The center welcomed a couple of prominent scholars in the field of language educationin 2017.
3.4.1 Dr Stefanie Pillai, University of Malaya - Reconciling the local features ofEnglish pronunciation in the classroom- November 15, 2017
Dr Stefanie Pillai led an invited lecture in which she shared her research inteaching pronunciation and her experiences leading a number of English programsfor the school and university sectors in Malaysia. In light of the changing face ofEnglish teaching and assessment approaches in Japan, Dr Pillai’s first-hand reporton the Malaysian context proved to be an important point for discussion between
participants following her talk.

63

Figure 8. Dr Stefanie Pillai presents at the CELF on November 15th, 2017

Figure 9. Dr Stefanie Pillai with CELF faculty on November 15th, 2017

3.4.2 Charles Robertson (Aoyama Gakuin University) - L2 Writing in an ELF
context- September 25th, 2017
Following up on his Center for ELF Journal article (Robertson, 2017), Charles
Robertson, L2 writing specialist and leader of Aoyama Gakuin University’s writing
support service, shared some of his experience leading L2 writing programs. Writing
evaluation, the utilization of the CELF’s tutor service for writing support, and ideas
for level-appropriate writing tasks made up the focus of this workshop.

64

Figure 10. Charles Robertson leads a writing workshop with CELF teachers on September
25, 2017. Retrieved from http://www.tamagawa.ac.jp/celf/news/detail_002.html

3.4.3 Professional Development Visit to the CELF by Colleagues from Aichi
University - October 20, 2017
Three scholars from Aichi University observed ELF classes and met with
our staff for discussions about ELF-related teaching and learning practices. Their
visit marked an exciting opportunity to engage in professional conversations withcolleagues from the teaching profession, and the CELF looks forward to having
more informative exchanges in the future.

Figure 11. Simon Sanada, Laura Kusaka, and Daniel Devolin (Aichi University) visit
the CELF on October 20, 2017. Retrieved from http://www.tamagawa.ac.jp/celf/news/
detail_003.html
65

3.4.3 Dr. Satomi Kuroshima, Tamagawa University University - An introduction toconversation analysis (CA)- November 20 & 21, 2017

After describing a short history of CA, Dr Kuroshima led the group throughan analysis of conversation scripts. The talk concluded with a discussion on how
CA could be applied in the ELF classroom and how CA could contribute to researchin ELF.

Figure 12. Dr Satomi Kuroshima leading her workshop on November 20, 2017.
Retrieved from http://www.tamagawa.ac.jp/celf/news/detail_002.html

4. CELF RESEARCH ACHIEVEMENTS

CELF faculty were active researchers who contributed extensively to the ongoing
expansion of academic knowledge and classroom pedagogy in 2017. In this section,
details which illustrate the breadth and scope of their achievements in academic
research, both domestically and abroad, are described below.
4.1 Academic Presentations

In the 2017 academic year, faculty of the CELF presented their research on thedomestic and international academic stage on fifty-two separate occasions, covering
a multitude of themes at events that are highly respected in academia. Further
information pertaining to these presentations is given in the following sections.
4.1.1 Domestic Presentations

In all, thirty domestic presentations consisting of an invited talk, several
symposiums (including one plenary), numerous paper presentations, a poster
presentation, workshop, forum, colloquium, and panel discussion were made by66

faculty members of the CELF at national and local conferences and chapters aswell as other similar-type events (see Table 2). Of particular note, Dr Masaki Oda
was both an invited speaker and participant of a plenary symposium at the JACET
56th International Convention in Tokyo. Additionally, Paul McBride was chair andpanelist for a symposium, also at the JACET 56th International Convention, while
Brett Milliner was a discussion panelist at JALT CALL 2017 in Matsuyama.
The CELF also values collaborative research, not only amongst colleagues
with the same affiliation but also with non-affiliated researchers. This is evidenced
by CELF faculty’s extensive involvement in collaborative research projects withscholars from outside of Tamagawa University. These included collaborations withresearchers affiliated with the following esteemed institutions: Bunkyo University,
Kanda University of International Studies, Kansai Gaidai College, Kansai Gaidai
University, Keio University, National Institute for Advanced Industrial Scienceand Technology, Rikkyo University, Seitoku University, Sophia University, Tokai
University, Tokyo Medical University, and Toyo University.
Table 2
Summary of CELF faculty’s domestic presentations (n＝30)
Location

Type, Title, & Event

Author(s)NagoyaPresentation
Paradigm Shifting in Asian Englishes: Promoting an
ELF Mindset in Japan
JALT Toyohashi

Tricia Okada

Tokyo

Presentation
Pedagogical implications of ELF for EAP writing
instruction
The Ninth Symposium on Writing Centers in Asia

Charlie Robertson &Paul McBrideTokyo

Presentation
An ELF-oriented approach to EAP writing instruction
JACET Kanto ESP SIG Meeting

Paul McBride &Charlie Robertson

Tokyo

Presentation
A Post-EFL approach to the management of English
language programs
JACET ELF SIG

Masaki Oda

Presentation
Reading-while-listening to graded reader audiobooks on
Matsuyama
mobile devices
JALT CALL 2017

Brett Milliner

Panel Discussion
Matsuyama Computer-assisted language testing
JALT CALL 2017

Brett Milliner

67

68

Invited talkMasaki Oda

Fukuoka

多文化組織としての大学英語教育プログラム

Tokyo

Presentation
Researching learning and teaching modalities and its
impact on active language learning
Global Active Learning Summit

Yuri Jody Yujobo &Rasami Chaikul

Tokyo

Presentation
The effects of reading while listening to graded reader
audiobooks: An experimental study
ER World Congress

Brett MillinerTokyo

Presentation
Lessons from Cambodia: Initiatives for implementing
service-learning in ELF teaching and learning
JACET 56th International Convention

Blagoja Dimoski,
Yuri Jody Yujobo,
Tricia Okada, &Ethel Ogane

Tokyo

Presentation
Japanese university students and ICT skills: preparing
for study abroad
JACET 56th International Convention

Brett Milliner &Travis CoteTokyo

Presentation
Valid and feasible rating scales for integrated-skills
diagnostic assessment
JACET 56th International Convention

Rasami Chaikul, Kei
Miyazaki(Tokai University),
Kahoko Matsumoto(Tokai University), &Yasuko Ito(Kanda University ofInternational Studies)Tokyo

Symposium
Ideological Inhibitors of ELF pedagogy. In Bringing
ELF into the classroom: Pedagogical and ideologicalconsiderations
JACET 56th International Convention

Paul McBrideTokyo

Presentation
Assisting ELF students to become self-regulating
learners
JACET 56th International Convention

Mitsuko ImaiTokyo

Symposium
English language programs in Japanese higher
education: Towards the development of ELF-aware
programs
JACET 56th International Convention

Masaki Oda, Ayako
Suzuki (Tamagawa
University),
Nobuyuki Hino
(Osaka University),
James D’Angelo(Chukyo University)

JACET Kyushu・Okinawa Branch Meeting

TokyoPlenary Symposium
ELF as a stepping stone for Intercultural Understanding:What can institutions do?
JACET 56th International Convention

Masaki Oda,
Phyllis Chew
(National Instituteof Education,
Singapore),
Joo-Kyung Park
(Hannam University,
Korea）

SapporoPresentation
Preservice teachers’ development of a sense of
professional identity & belonging in a school community
International Conference on Education, Psychology, andLearning

Andrew
Leichsenring

Osaka

Presentation
The influence of parenthood and mature-age on
preservice teachers’ professional identity development
and relationships
International Conference on Psychology, Language andTeaching

Andrew
Leichsenring

Osaka

Presentation
The development of preservice teachers’ philosophy ofteaching through a school-based immersion pathway
International Conference on Education and Social
ScienceAndrew
Leichsenring

Tokyo

Nakamura Yuji
(Keio University),
Matsumoto Kahoko(Tokai University),
Miyazaki Kei(Tokai University),
Tsuchihira Taiko
Teachers’ Training Workshop(Seitoku University),
The 10th Summer Workshop on Testing and Assessment:
Ito Yasuko (Kanda
Integrated-skills Teaching and Assessment
University of
JACET Testing SIG
International
Studies), Tomoyasu
Akiyama (Bunkyo
University), Kimura
Kazumi(Keio University) &Rasami Chaikul

69

OsakaPresentation
The use of connectives in Japanese-English bilingual
children’s elicited narratives
The Japan Association of Sociolinguistic Science

Yuri Jody Yujobo,
Satomi Mori
(Rikkyo University),&
Yuki Nagai (Rikkyo
University)

Tsukuba

Poster Presentation
Paradox: Globalized learning and non-global minds
JALT National

Yuri Jody Yujobo

TsukubaPresentation
Extensive listening with graded reader audiobooks
JALT National

Brett Milliner

Tsukuba

Forum
Training language learners for extensive listening online
JALT National

TsukubaPresentation
Bilingual education by Japanese parents
JALT National

Tokyo

Yokohama

Tokyo

70

Colloquium
CELF colloquium on ELF communication strategies
2017 CELF-ELTama Forum for English Language
Teaching
Presentation
DIY listening tests with Google apps
Yokohama JALT Myshare 2017
Presentation
Inferred emotions: Representing perspectives in a groupmeeting
90th Annual Meeting, The Japanese Sociological Society(JSS)

Brett Milliner,
Paul Raine (Keio
University), Steven
Brooks(Toyo University), &Josh Wilson(Kansai Gaidai
University)
Mitsuko Imai
Yuri Jody Yujobo,
Tricia Okada,
Mitsuko Imai,
Blagoja Dimoski,
Ethel Ogane, &Takanori Sato
(Sophia University)
Brett Milliner

Satomi Kuroshima

Nagoya

Satomi Kuroshima,
Michie Kawashima(Kansai Gaidai
Presentation
College), Ikushi Yoda
Medical professional - civil volunteer communication for (National Institute forthe disaster medical relief
Advanced Industrial
22nd Japanese Association for Disaster Medicine Annual
Science andMeeting（第22回日本集団災害医学会総会・学術集会）
Technology), &Shoichi Ohta
(Tokyo Medical
University)

Hokkaido

Presentation
English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) awareness: Learning
English from a Thai English teacher
Universal Academic Cluster International WinterConference in Hokkaido

Rasami Chaikul

4.1.2 International Presentations

During the 2017 academic year, faculty of the CELF presented their individualand collaborative research projects to international audiences in numerous locations
around the world, including in Europe, Asia, Oceania, and North America. In total,
twenty-two international presentations were made during this period (see Table 3).
Among them, Dr Masaki Oda appeared as featured speaker, keynote speaker, andinvited lecturer on several occasions in Asian countries. Additionally, two othermembers of CELF faculty presented their grant-funded research projects; namely,
Dr Satomi Kuroshima at the Intersubjectivity in Action Conference 2017 in Finland,
and Yuri Jody Yujobo at the International Symposium on Bilingualism in Ireland as
well as the Second Language Research Forum (SLRF) and the 42nd Annual Boston
University Conference on Language Development (BUCLD), with the latter two
both being in the United States of America.

71

Table 3
Summary of CELF faculty’s international presentations (n＝22)
Location

Type, Title, & Event

Author(s)Presentation
Evidencing the intersubjective experience of seeing: A
case of medical reasoning in surgical operations
Intersubjectivity in Action Conference 2017

Satomi Kuroshima& Yukio Oshiro(Tsukuba University)

Helsinki,
FinlandPresentation
Communication strategies in collaborative interactions:an ELF-informed analysis of elementary-level learnerdiscourse
10th International Conference of English as a Lingua
FrancaTakanori Sato
(Sophia University),
Tricia Okada ,Yuri Jody Yujobo, &Ethel Ogane

Limerick,
Ireland

Poster session
Referential topic management in the two languages inJapanese-English bilingual children: Cross-linguistic
influence in narratives (Kakenhi)
ISB11 (International Symposium on Bilingualism)

Yuri Jody Yujobo,
Satomi Mori
(Rikkyo University),&
Yuki Nagai(Rikkyo University)

Limerick,
Ireland

Poster session
Bilingual education by Japanese parents
ISB11 (International Symposium on Bilingualism)

Mitsuko Imai

Helsinki,
FinlandPresentation
Recasting the rift between ELF and ELT
10th International Conference of English as a Lingua
FrancaJesse Hsu &Paul McBride

Helsinki,
Finland

Poster Presentation
A structured approach to develop strategic competencein ELF learning
10th International Conference of English as a Lingua
FrancaBlagoja Dimoski

Helsinki,
Finland

Featured Speaker
Look what they are doing!: Legitimating language
Seoul, Korea
policy in education
KATE2017 International Conference

Westerville,
Ohio, USA72

Masaki Oda

Invited Panel
Satomi Kuroshima,
Six years after the Fukushima nuclear disaster- practices
Natsuho Iwata
for informing and receiving internal exposure test
(National Graduate
results: Normalization of inferable results
Institute for Policy
13th Conference of the International Institute forStudies), &Ethnomethodology and Conversation Analysis
Masafumi Sunaga(IIEMCA)(Rikkyo University)

Presentation
San Francisco, Digital literacies in the Japanese university context:
USA
Preparing for a study abroad program
The XVIIIth International CALL Research Conference

Travis Cote &Brett Milliner

Presentation
San Francisco, Using online extensive listening to promote language
USA
input in an EFL context
The XVIIIth International CALL Research Conference

Brett Milliner

Yogyakarta,
Indonesia

Presentation
When ELF meets BELF: The development of business
communication and deeper learning into ELF-informed
curriculum
Asia TEFL/TEFLIN

Presentation
Remaking non-places: Representations of nature strip
Wollongong,
gardens in Australian news media
Australia
International Systemic Functional Linguistics Congress
2017

Yuri Jody Yujobo

Jesse Hsu

Symposium
ELF-informed writing pedagogy. In M. Oda (Chair)
ELF-informed writing pedagogy: Innovative or
inappropriate?
Asia TEFL/TEFLINPaul McBride

Presentation
After the curtain call: The migration experience ofSeoul, Korea transpinay entertainers in Japan
Inter-Asia Cultural Studies Society International
Conference 2017

Tricia Okada

Yogyakarta,
Indonesia

Montreal,
CanadaPresentation
Explaining test results: Practices for demonstrating theinterpretation of measurement data
112th Annual Meeting, American Sociological
Association (ASA)

Satomi Kuroshima

Surabaya,Indonesia

Keynote Speaker
English language programs in post-native speakerism
era
ICONELT 2017

Masaki Oda

Surabaya,Indonesia

Invited Lecture
Designing a research project: A beginner’s guide
Invited Lecture at UIN Sunan Ampel

Masaki Oda

73Gresik,
Indonesia

Keynote Speaker
English for what?: Teaching and learning English at
Japanese schools
ELT Seminar: Creativity and Innovation in Classroom
English Teaching

Masaki Oda

Surabaya,Indonesia

Invited Lecture
Native speakerism in ELT and the role of mass media
Invited Lecture at Nahdatul Ulama University ofSurabaya (UNUSA)

Masaki Oda

Presentation
Referential expressions in the narratives of JapaneseEnglish school-age simultaneous bilinguals
Second Language Research Forum (SLRF)

Yuri Jody Yujobo,
Satomi Mori
(Rikkyo University),&
Yuki Nagai(Rikkyo University)

Columbus,
Ohio, USA

Poster presentation
Cross-linguistic influence in the use of referring
Boston, MA, expressions in school-age Japanese-English
simultaneous bilinguals
USA
42nd Annual Boston University Conference on
Language Development (BUCLD)
Dissertation Workshop
San Francisco, The gender performance in the mobility of transpinay
CA, USA entertainers in Japan
Gender and Sexuality in Japan

4.2 Academic Publications

Yuri Jody Yujobo,
Satomi Mori
(Rikkyo University),&
Yuki Nagai(Rikkyo University)
Tricia Okada

There was a major increase in the number of publications by CELF faculty in the2017 academic year (see Table 4). More specifically, there were over twice as many
publications (i.e., n=29) in 2017 compared to the previous year (i.e., n=14; see Milliner& Dimoski, 2017). As has always been the case, the majority of publications were
peer-reviewed, appearing in books (as chapters), journals, conference proceedings,
and in other forms. The CELF wishes to highlight Dr Masaki Oda’s article (Chapter)entitled Collaboration and Collaborative Practices and congratulate him on its
publication in the prestigious The TESOL Encyclopedia of English Language
Teaching. As with academic presentations, many other publications were the resultof CELF faculty working in collaboration with colleagues from both within andoutside of Tamagawa University.
This year, our list also includes a doctoral thesis by Dr Andrew Leichsenring
entitled The development of preservice teachers’ professional practice and identity
through immersion in a school community, which he completed through Queensland
University of Technology in Brisbane, Australia. We offer our sincere congratulations
to Andrew on this momentous achievement.
74

Table 4
Summary of publications by CELF faculty (n=29)
Type (○=Peer-reviewed) & Reference

Author(s)Article (○)
Leichsenring, A. (2017). Japanese learner preferences for varieties
of English and oral assessment, Journal of Asia TEFL, 14(1), 179188. doi.org/10.18823/asiatefl.2017.14.1.13.179

Andrew Leichsenring

Article (○)
Leichsenring, A. (2017). Classroom-based strategies on improving
speaking and listening skills through the voices of Japaneselearners. The Center for ELF Journal, 3, 11-20. Retrieved fromhttp://www.tamagawa.ac.jp/celf/research/pdf/celf_journal_final3.
pdf

Andrew Leichsenring

Article (○)
Milliner, B., & Barr, B. (2017). Computer-assisted language tests
for the English classroom: Blackboard® tests and Google Forms.
The Center for English as a Lingua Franca Journal, 3, 67-79.
Retrieved from http://www.tamagawa.ac.jp/celf/research/pdf/
celf_journal_final3.pdf

Brett Milliner &Blair Barr

ArticleIshimaki, K., & Milliner, B. (2017). M-Reader in the Center for
English as a Lingua Franca. The Center for English as a Lingua
Franca Journal, 3, 87-92. Retrieved from http://www.tamagawa.
ac.jp/celf/research/pdf/celf_journal_final3.pdf

Brett Milliner &Ken Ishimaki

ArticleCote, T., Dimoski, B., & Leichsenring, A. (2017). Report of theCenter for English as a Lingua Franca tutor service. The Center for
English as a Lingua Franca Journal, 3, 93-97. Retrieved from http://
www.tamagawa.ac.jp/celf/research/pdf/celf_journal_final3.pdf

Travis Cote,
Blagoja Dimoski &Andrew Leichsenring

ArticleYujobo, Y. J., Hsu, J., Chaikul, R., & Leichsenring, A. (2017). New
learning and teaching modalities: The reinvented learning spaces
at ELF Study Hall 2015, Tamagawa University. The Center for
English as a Lingua Franca Journal, 3, 80-86. Retrieved fromhttp://www.tamagawa.ac.jp/celf/research/pdf/celf_journal_final3.
pdf

Yuri Jody Yujobo, Jesse
Hsu, Rasami Chaikul &Andrew Leichsenring

ArticleMilliner, B., & Dimoski, B. (2017). A report on faculty
development and research at the Center for English as a Lingua
Franca. The Center for English as a Lingua Franca Journal, 3, 98115. Retrieved from http://www.tamagawa.ac.jp/celf/research/pdf/
celf_journal_final3.pdf

Brett Milliner &Blagoja Dimoski

75

76

Article (○)
Oda, M. (2017). CELF reflection: A journey to the establishmentof a university ELF program. JACET ELF SIG Journal, 1, 3-17.
Retrieved from https://www.academia.edu/32219207/CELF_
Reflection_A_Journey_to_the_Establishment_of_a_University_
ELF_Program_1

Masaki Oda

Article (Chapter) (○)
Oda, M. (2017). Native speakerism and the roles of mass media in
ELT. In J. Matinez Agudo (Ed.), Native and Non-Native Teachers
in English Language Classrooms. Professional Challenges andTeacher Education (pp. 99-116). Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter
Mouton. Retrieved from https://www.degruyter.com/viewbooktoc/
product/468790

Masaki Oda

Article (○)
Milliner, B. (2017). One year of extensive reading on smartphones:
A report. The JALT CALL Journal, 13(1), 49-58. Retrieved fromhttp://journal.jaltcall.org/articles/13_1_Milliner.pdf

Brett Milliner

ArticleCote, T., & Milliner, B. (2017). Digital literacies in the Japanese
university context: preparing for a study abroad program. In J.
Colpaert, A. Aerts, R. Kern & M. Kaiser (Eds.), CALL in Context
Proceedings (pp. 183-190). Berkeley: University of California.

Travis Cote &Brett Milliner

ArticleMilliner, B. (2017). Using online extensive listening to promote
language input in an EFL setting. In J. Colpaert, A. Aerts, R. Kern
& M. Kaiser (Eds.), CALL in Context Proceedings (pp. 575-581).
Berkeley: University of California.

Brett Milliner

Article (Chapter) (○)
Milliner, B., & Cote, T. (2018). Faculty adoption, application andperceptions of a CMS in a university English language program.
In B. Zou and M. Thomas (Eds.), Integrating Technology Into
Contemporary Language Learning and Teaching (pp.161-175).
Hershey PA: IGI Global.

Brett Milliner &Travis Cote

ArticleDimoski, B., & Leichsenring, A. (2017). Learner perceptions ofgood teacher attributes: Japan and other Asian contexts. In: IAFOR
Dubai 2017, Educating for Change, East Meets West: Innovation
and Discovery. [online] Nagoya: The International Academic
Forum, pp.23-42. Retrieved from http://papers.iafor.org/wpcontent/uploads/conference-proceedings/IICLL/IICLLDubai2017_
proceedings.pdf

Blagoja Dimoski &Andrew LeichsenringArticle (○)
Zheng, D., Schmidt, M., Hu, Y., Liu, M., & Hsu, J. (2017). Ecodialogical learning and translanguaging in open-ended 3D virtual
learning environments: Where place, time, and objects matter.
Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 33(5), 107-122.
doi.org/10.14742/ajet.2909

DP Zheng (Universityof Hawaii), M Schmidt(University of Cincinnati),
Y Hu (Universityof Vermont), M Liu(University of Hawaii), &Jesse Hsu

Article (○)
Leichsenring, A. (2017). Positive teacher attributes through theeyes of the learner: In Japan and a wider Asian context. In The
Asian Conference on Education and International Development(Official Conference Proceedings), Kobe, 327-344. Retrieved fromhttp://papers.iafor.org/wp-content/uploads/conference-proceedings/
ACEID/ACEID2017_proceedings.pdf

Andrew Leichsenring

Doctoral Thesis (○)
Leichsenring, Andrew R. (2017). The development of preservice
teachers’ professional practice and identity through immersion
in a school community. PhD thesis, Queensland University ofTechnology. Retrieved from https://eprints.qut.edu.au/109489/

Andrew Leichsenring

Article (○)
Leichsenring, A., & Dimoski. B. (2017). Japanese learnerperceptions on the making of a good teacher. In W. Feng, P. Lin &D. Tay (Eds.), Rethinking ELT in higher education: Proceedings ofthe 11th international symposium on teaching at tertiary level (pp.
254-271). Hong Kong: The Hong Kong Polytechnic University.

Andrew Leichsenring &Blagoja Dimoski

Article (○)
Leichsenring, A. (2017). The influence of parenthood and matureage on preservice teachers’ professional identity development andrelationships. International Journal of Management and Applied
Science, 3(11), 51-54. Retrieved from http://www.iraj.in/journal/
journal_file/journal_pdf/14-424-151738099751-54.pdf

Andrew Leichsenring

Article (○)
Leichsenring, A. (2017). The development of preservice teachers’
philosophy of teaching through a school-based immersion pathway.
International Journal of Management and Applied Science, 3(11),37-42. Retrieved from http://www.iraj.in/journal/journal_file/journal_pdf/14-424-151688077237-42.pdf

Andrew Leichsenring

Article (○)
Mishina-Mori, S., Nagai, Y., & Yujobo, Y.J. (2017). The use ofconnectives in Japanese-English bilingual children’s elicited
narratives. The 40th Japanese Association of Sociolinguistic
Sciences Conference Proceedings. International Academic
Publishing Co, 134-137.

Satomi Mishina-Mori(Rikkyo University),
Yuki Nagai (Rikkyo
University), &Yuri Jody Yujobo

77

78

Article (○)
Mishina-Mori, S., Nagai, Y., & Yujobo, Y.J. (2018). Referent
introduction and maintenance in the English narratives ofmonolingual and bilingual children. Intercultural Communication
Review, 16, 5-16.

Satomi Mishina-Mori(Rikkyo University),
Yuki Nagai (Rikkyo
University), &Yuri Jody Yujobo

Foreword
Milliner, B., & Cote, T. (2017). Foreword to special issue Tech@
Tamagawa. Accents Asia, 9(2), i-ii. Retrieved from http://www.
issues.accentsasia.org/issues/9-2/Milliner_and_Cote.pdf

Brett Milliner &Travis Cote

Article (○)
Milliner, B. (2017). Five online resources for extensive listening in
the Japanese EFL classroom. Accents Asia, 9(2), 1-10. Retrieved
from http://www.issues.accentsasia.org/issues/9-2/Milliner_and_Cote.pdf

Brett Milliner

Article (○)
Cote, T., & Milliner, B. (2017). Preparing Japanese students’ digital
literacy for study abroad: Is more training needed? The JALT CALL
Journal, 13(3), 187-197. Retrieved from http://journal.jaltcall.org/
articles/13_3_Cote.pdf

Travis Cote &Brett Milliner

Article (○)
Milliner, B. (2017). Love your part-time teachers: Five supportive
steps full-time faculty could take. OnCUE Journal, 10(3), 172-177.
Retrieved from http://jaltcue.org/current_issue

Brett Milliner

ArticleSunaga, M., & Kuroshima, S. (2017). Practices for explaining thetest results of internal exposure to radioactive materials,『社会学研究科年報』24号，pp. 7-18.

Masafumi Sunaga(St. Paul University) &Satomi Kuroshima

Article (○)
Kawashima, M., Yoda, I., Kuroshima, S., Ota, S., & Yukioka, T.,(2017). Interdisciplinary study for effective triage using Sociology
and Engineering. Japanese Journal of Disaster Medicine, 22, 189198.

Michie Kawashima(Kansai Gaidai College),
Ikushi Yoda (National
Institute of Advanced
Industrial Science &Technology), Satomi
Kuroshima, Shoichi Ota(Keisen Clinic), & Tetsuo
Yukioka (Tokyo Medical
University)

Article (Chapter) (○)
Oda, M (2018). Collaboration and collaborative practices. In John
I. Liontas (Ed.), The TESOL Encyclopedia of English Language
Teaching, First Edition, (pp.1-6). doi:10.1002/9781118784235.
eelt0011

Masaki Oda

4.3 Contributions to Academic Societies

There was also a modest increase in the number of contributions CELF faculty
made to academic societies throughout the 2017 academic year. Faculty membersof the CELF held twenty-four voluntary positions (compare to nineteen in 2016; seeMilliner & Dimoski, 2017) in various, both domestic and international, academic
societies and their affiliates, making contributions in a variety of roles and capacities
including board member, committee member, director, editor, reviewer, treasurer,
vice president, and many more (see Table 5).
Table 5
Summary of contributions by CELF faculty to academic societies (n=24)
Society

Position

Name

Asia TEFL
JACET
Journal of Language and Identity in
Education
Critical Inquiry of Language Studies
Asian Englishes
AILA Language Policy Research
Network
TEFLIN Journal
Lingua Pedagogia (Universitas
Negeri Yogyakarta)
JACET Kanto Journal
JACET ELF SIG
JACET Kanto Journal

Vice President for Membership
Director of Academic Affairs

Masaki Oda
Masaki Oda

Editorial Board Member

Masaki Oda

Reviewer
Reviewer

Masaki Oda
Masaki Oda

Advisory Committee Member

Masaki Oda

Reviewer

Masaki Oda

Editorial Board Member

Masaki Oda

Journal Editor
Contributor to SIG Website
Journal Editor

JALT Post Conference Publication

Copy Editor

JALT The Language Teacher

Copy Editor

The IAFOR Journal of Education

Reviewer

Publications Co-Chair
Special Issue Co-Editor
Treasurer
Treasurer
Reviewer
Publications Co-Chair
Special Issue Co-Editor
Copy Editor

Paul McBride
Paul McBride
Mitsuko Imai
Andrew
Leichsenring
Andrew
Leichsenring
Andrew
Leichsenring
Andrew
Leichsenring
Travis Cote
Travis Cote
Brett Milliner
Brett Milliner
Brett Milliner
Brett Milliner
Brett Milliner
Brett Milliner

Scientific Committee Member

Satomi Kuroshima

Cambridge University Press
JALT Yokohama
Accents Asia Journal
JALT Yokohama
JALT CALL
JALT Journal
JALT Yokohama
Accents Asia Journal
The Journal of Extensive Reading
Intersubjectivity in Action
Conference 2017

Textbook Advisory Panel Member

794.4 Research Grants Received by CELF Faculty

Currently, two members of CELF faculty are involved separately, as co-investigators,
in a total of three research projects funded by Grants-in-Aid for Scientific Research(types A & C) through the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) (seeTable 6). Yuri Jody Yujobo is involved in an ongoing project on researching crosslinguistic influences on Japanese-English bilingual narratives. Dr Satomi Kuroshima,on the other hand, is involved in two ongoing projects, one on the practical reasoning
by returning residents after the disastrous accident at Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear
power plant, and the other on the public corpus building of naturally-occurringinteractions in various contexts.
Table 6
Summary of research grants received by CELF faculty
Grant

Type

LengthProject

Recipient

JSPS
KakenhiGrants-in Aid
for Scientific
Research (C)04-042016~03-312019

同時バイリンガルナラテ
ィヴにおける言語間相互作用のYuri Jody Yujobo(Co-Investigator)

JSPS
KakenhiGrant-in-Aid
for Scientific
Research (C)04-012017~03-312020

原発避難からの帰還地域
における希望と不安の社
会論理

Satomi Kuroshima(Co-investigator)

Grant-in-Aid
for Scientific
Research (A)04-012017~03-312021

日常場面と特定場面の日
本語会話コーパスの構築と言語・相互行為研究の
新展開

JSPS
KakenhiSatomi Kuroshima(Co-investigator)

5. CONCLUDING REMARKS AND PLANS FOR 2018

In this report, we have described the different faculty development lectures andworkshops staged throughout the 2017 academic year. We hope that these initiatives
have helped our diverse faculty share ideas and grow as teaching professionals. The
CELF is also very proud of the many academic achievements in 2017. In particular
the increase of published research is a clear illustration that the center is nurturing avery energetic group of researchers.
In 2018, we are planning to merge the ELF curriculum more closely with
ELF-informed practices and research. We are also looking forward to welcoming
more distinguished scholars and working hard to raise the center’s research profile
further.

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REFERENCES

Milliner, B., & Cote, T. (2018). Faculty adoption, application and perceptions ofa CMS in a university English language program. In B. Zou and M. Thomas(Eds.) Integrating Technology Into Contemporary Language Learning andTeaching (pp.161-175). Hershey PA: IGI Global.
Milliner, B., & Dimoski, B. (2017). A report on faculty development and researchat the Center for English as a Lingua Franca. The Center for English as a
Lingua Franca Journal, 3, 98-115. Retrieved from http://www.tamagawa.
ac.jp/celf/research/pdf/celf_journal_final3.pdf
Robertson, C. (2017). Pedagogical concerns and approaches to EAP
writing instruction within an ELF Program. The Center for ELF
Journal, 3, 21-26. Retrieved from http://libds.tamagawa.ac.jp/dspace/
bitstream/11078/470/1/3-1-3.pdf

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